TOXOPLASMOSIS A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R E FERENCES
J AMES N. P ARKER , M.D. AND P HILIP M. P ARKER , P H .D., E DITORS
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ICON Health Publications ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, 4th Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Copyright 2004 by ICON Group International, Inc. Copyright 2004 by ICON Group International, Inc. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1
Publisher, Health Care: Philip Parker, Ph.D. Editor(s): James Parker, M.D., Philip Parker, Ph.D. Publisher's note: The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained in this book are not intended for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. As new medical or scientific information becomes available from academic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies may undergo changes. The authors, editors, and publisher have attempted to make the information in this book up to date and accurate in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of this book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised to always check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dosage and contraindications before prescribing any drug or pharmacological product. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs, herbal remedies, vitamins and supplements, alternative therapies, complementary therapies and medicines, and integrative medical treatments. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parker, James N., 1961Parker, Philip M., 1960Toxoplasmosis: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References / James N. Parker and Philip M. Parker, editors p. cm. Includes bibliographical references, glossary, and index. ISBN: 0-597-84101-2 1. Toxoplasmosis-Popular works. I. Title.
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Disclaimer This publication is not intended to be used for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not engaging in the rendering of medical, psychological, financial, legal, or other professional services. References to any entity, product, service, or source of information that may be contained in this publication should not be considered an endorsement, either direct or implied, by the publisher, editors, or authors. ICON Group International, Inc., the editors, and the authors are not responsible for the content of any Web pages or publications referenced in this publication.
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Acknowledgements The collective knowledge generated from academic and applied research summarized in various references has been critical in the creation of this book which is best viewed as a comprehensive compilation and collection of information prepared by various official agencies which produce publications on toxoplasmosis. Books in this series draw from various agencies and institutions associated with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and in particular, the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), the Administration on Aging (AOA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Healthcare Financing Administration (HCFA), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Indian Health Service (IHS), the institutions of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Program Support Center (PSC), and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In addition to these sources, information gathered from the National Library of Medicine, the United States Patent Office, the European Union, and their related organizations has been invaluable in the creation of this book. Some of the work represented was financially supported by the Research and Development Committee at INSEAD. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, special thanks are owed to Tiffany Freeman for her excellent editorial support.
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About the Editors James N. Parker, M.D. Dr. James N. Parker received his Bachelor of Science degree in Psychobiology from the University of California, Riverside and his M.D. from the University of California, San Diego. In addition to authoring numerous research publications, he has lectured at various academic institutions. Dr. Parker is the medical editor for health books by ICON Health Publications. Philip M. Parker, Ph.D. Philip M. Parker is the Eli Lilly Chair Professor of Innovation, Business and Society at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France and Singapore). Dr. Parker has also been Professor at the University of California, San Diego and has taught courses at Harvard University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and UCLA. Dr. Parker is the associate editor for ICON Health Publications.
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About ICON Health Publications To discover more about ICON Health Publications, simply check with your preferred online booksellers, including Barnes&Noble.com and Amazon.com which currently carry all of our titles. Or, feel free to contact us directly for bulk purchases or institutional discounts: ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, Fourth Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Fax: 858-546-4341 Web site: www.icongrouponline.com/health
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Table of Contents FORWARD .......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON TOXOPLASMOSIS ....................................................................................... 3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 3 The Combined Health Information Database................................................................................. 3 Federally Funded Research on Toxoplasmosis ............................................................................... 6 E-Journals: PubMed Central ....................................................................................................... 37 The National Library of Medicine: PubMed ................................................................................ 43 CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND TOXOPLASMOSIS ............................................................................. 89 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 89 Finding Nutrition Studies on Toxoplasmosis.............................................................................. 89 Federal Resources on Nutrition ................................................................................................... 93 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 94 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND TOXOPLASMOSIS ....................................................... 95 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 95 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.................................................. 95 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 98 General References ....................................................................................................................... 99 CHAPTER 4. CLINICAL TRIALS AND TOXOPLASMOSIS.................................................................. 101 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 101 Recent Trials on Toxoplasmosis................................................................................................. 101 Keeping Current on Clinical Trials ........................................................................................... 105 CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON TOXOPLASMOSIS .................................................................................. 107 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 107 Patents on Toxoplasmosis .......................................................................................................... 107 Patent Applications on Toxoplasmosis ...................................................................................... 120 Keeping Current ........................................................................................................................ 123 CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON TOXOPLASMOSIS ..................................................................................... 125 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 125 Book Summaries: Federal Agencies............................................................................................ 125 Book Summaries: Online Booksellers......................................................................................... 126 The National Library of Medicine Book Index ........................................................................... 127 Chapters on Toxoplasmosis........................................................................................................ 128 CHAPTER 7. MULTIMEDIA ON TOXOPLASMOSIS........................................................................... 135 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 135 Video Recordings ....................................................................................................................... 135 Audio Recordings....................................................................................................................... 136 Bibliography: Multimedia on Toxoplasmosis............................................................................. 137 CHAPTER 8. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON TOXOPLASMOSIS........................................................ 139 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 139 News Services and Press Releases.............................................................................................. 139 Newsletter Articles .................................................................................................................... 142 Academic Periodicals covering Toxoplasmosis .......................................................................... 142 CHAPTER 9. RESEARCHING MEDICATIONS .................................................................................. 143 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 143 U.S. Pharmacopeia..................................................................................................................... 143 Commercial Databases ............................................................................................................... 144 Researching Orphan Drugs ....................................................................................................... 145 APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES .......................................................................................... 149 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 149 NIH Guidelines.......................................................................................................................... 149 NIH Databases........................................................................................................................... 151
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Other Commercial Databases..................................................................................................... 154 APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES ............................................................................................... 155 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 155 Patient Guideline Sources.......................................................................................................... 155 Finding Associations.................................................................................................................. 158 APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES ................................................................................ 161 Overview.................................................................................................................................... 161 Preparation................................................................................................................................. 161 Finding a Local Medical Library................................................................................................ 161 Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada ................................................................................. 161 ONLINE GLOSSARIES................................................................................................................ 167 Online Dictionary Directories ................................................................................................... 171 TOXOPLASMOSIS DICTIONARY ........................................................................................... 173 INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 243
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FORWARD In March 2001, the National Institutes of Health issued the following warning: "The number of Web sites offering health-related resources grows every day. Many sites provide valuable information, while others may have information that is unreliable or misleading."1 Furthermore, because of the rapid increase in Internet-based information, many hours can be wasted searching, selecting, and printing. Since only the smallest fraction of information dealing with toxoplasmosis is indexed in search engines, such as www.google.com or others, a non-systematic approach to Internet research can be not only time consuming, but also incomplete. This book was created for medical professionals, students, and members of the general public who want to know as much as possible about toxoplasmosis, using the most advanced research tools available and spending the least amount of time doing so. In addition to offering a structured and comprehensive bibliography, the pages that follow will tell you where and how to find reliable information covering virtually all topics related to toxoplasmosis, from the essentials to the most advanced areas of research. Public, academic, government, and peer-reviewed research studies are emphasized. Various abstracts are reproduced to give you some of the latest official information available to date on toxoplasmosis. Abundant guidance is given on how to obtain free-of-charge primary research results via the Internet. While this book focuses on the field of medicine, when some sources provide access to non-medical information relating to toxoplasmosis, these are noted in the text. E-book and electronic versions of this book are fully interactive with each of the Internet sites mentioned (clicking on a hyperlink automatically opens your browser to the site indicated). If you are using the hard copy version of this book, you can access a cited Web site by typing the provided Web address directly into your Internet browser. You may find it useful to refer to synonyms or related terms when accessing these Internet databases. NOTE: At the time of publication, the Web addresses were functional. However, some links may fail due to URL address changes, which is a common occurrence on the Internet. For readers unfamiliar with the Internet, detailed instructions are offered on how to access electronic resources. For readers unfamiliar with medical terminology, a comprehensive glossary is provided. For readers without access to Internet resources, a directory of medical libraries, that have or can locate references cited here, is given. We hope these resources will prove useful to the widest possible audience seeking information on toxoplasmosis. The Editors
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From the NIH, National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ten-things-to-know.
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CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON TOXOPLASMOSIS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to locate peer-reviewed references and studies on toxoplasmosis.
The Combined Health Information Database The Combined Health Information Database summarizes studies across numerous federal agencies. To limit your investigation to research studies and toxoplasmosis, you will need to use the advanced search options. First, go to http://chid.nih.gov/index.html. From there, select the “Detailed Search” option (or go directly to that page with the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html). The trick in extracting studies is found in the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Journal Article.” At the top of the search form, select the number of records you would like to see (we recommend 100) and check the box to display “whole records.” We recommend that you type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. Consider using the option “anywhere in record” to make your search as broad as possible. If you want to limit the search to only a particular field, such as the title of the journal, then select this option in the “Search in these fields” drop box. The following is what you can expect from this type of search: •
Teratogenic Hearing Loss Source: Journal of the American Academy of Audiology. 6(1): 28-38. January 1995. Summary: In this article, the authors introduce the subject of teratology and discuss the ototoxic teratogenic agents that have potentially deleterious effects on the human auditory system. Topics covered include embryologic considerations; the study of environmental teratogenesis; infectious agents, including viral infections in general, rubella, cytomegalovirus, bacterial infections, syphilis, and toxoplasmosis; nonprescription drugs, including thalidomide, and ethyl alcohol and fetal alcohol syndrome; prescription drugs, including aminoglycosides, and chloroquine; physical agents; maternal metabolic and genetic factors; and general considerations regarding teratogenic hearing loss. 4 tables. 59 references.
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Etiology of Hearing Loss in Children: Nongenetic Causes Source: Pediatric Clinics of North America. 46(1): 49-64. February 1999. Contact: Available from W.B. Saunders. Periodicals Fulfillment, 6277 Sea Harbor Drive, Orlando, FL 32887-4800. (800) 654-2452. Website: www.wbsaunders.com. Summary: In this article, the many nongenetic causes of hearing loss are discussed. The author focuses on the most common causes of nongenetic hearing loss in children and places them in the context of the changes in the major causes of hearing loss over the past few decades. The author first discusses children who are 'graduates' of neonatal intensive care units (NICU), covering hypoxia, persistence pulmonary hypertension and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, hyperbilirubinemia, and ototoxic medications. The author then discusses meningitis; congenital infections, including cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex infection, congenital rubella, congenital syphilis, congenital toxoplasmosis, and prenatal toxic syndrome; otitis media, hearing loss, and developmental sequelae; ototoxic medications and substances; noise induced hearing loss (NIHL); head trauma; and other causes of hearing loss, including mumps and hypothyroidism. The author concludes by reiterating that the identification of a cause of the hearing loss is important for planning a habilitation plan, for knowing the prognosis, for medical monitoring of associated disorders, and for family planning. 78 references.
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Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Urology Source: Current Opinion in Urology. 7(1): 52-56. January 1997. Contact: Available from Rapid Science Publishers. 400 Market Street, Suite 750, Philadelphia, PA 19106. (800) 552-5866 or (215) 574-2210. Fax (215) 574-3533. Summary: Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) damages an individual's cell-mediated immunity, predisposing him or her to opportunistic infections, malignancies, and metabolic disturbances. This review article concentrates on recent literature addressing the more common related illnesses requiring urologic attention, notably genitourinary infections, malignancies, and voiding dysfunction, in patients with HIV infection. Urinary infections are more common in HIV patients, particularly those with AIDS. Toxoplasmosis, the most common cause of focal central nervous system lesions in AIDS patients, can rarely infect the bladder. HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN) is a syndrome of rapidly progressive, irreversible renal failure that may occur in up to 25 to 35 percent of patients with AIDS; it is more common among the black population. Other kidney diseases associated with HIV include renal cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, Aspergillus renal infection, and renal abscess. Prostatitis and prostate abscess are also problems seen in HIV patients. Voiding problems among HIV-infected patients are common. Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is the most common opportunistic malignancy in patients with AIDS; genital KS occurs most commonly on the glans penis. Local complications from KS or therapy may include obstruction, urethrocutaneous fistula or rectourethral fistula. Testicular tumors are the third most common AIDS-linked malignancy following KS and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Microscopic hematuria is common among HIV-infected patients. The author concludes with a reminder to readers of the importance of the use of universal precautions when working with all patients. 2 tables. 50 references (8 annotated). (AAM).
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Foodborne Protozoal Infection Source: Lancet. 336(8728): 1427-1432. December 8, 1990.
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Summary: This article considers foodborne protozoal infection. This type of infection is uncommon because the protozoa involved are obligate parasites and cannot multiply in food; yet it is becoming more recognized as outbreaks are reported. The author discusses the natural history of the protozoa, foodborne enteric infection, foodborne systemic infection, and control of infection. Specific infections considered include giardiasis, amoebiasis, cryptosporidiosis, and toxoplasmosis. 2 figures. 1 table. 33 references. •
Preventing Illness: Peace of Mind Through Prophylaxis Source: Positively Aware; Fall 1993. Contact: Test Positive Aware Network, 5537 N Broadway, Chicago, IL, 60640, (773) 9899400, http://www.tpan.com. Summary: This article discusses prophylaxis and HIV-related illnesses, beginning with an explanation of CD4 lymphocytes and how the CD4 cell count determines when prophylactic treatment should begin. The prophylactic drugs examined include Septra or Bactrim for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), with Dapsone as an alternative. Septra is also indicated for toxoplasmosis, while Mycobutin is used for Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC); Fluconazole, for candidiasis; and Izoniazid, for tuberculosis (TB). In each case, the infections themselves are discussed as well as possible side effects from the treatments. Also, routine vaccinations are also recommended for HIV-positive persons. Prophylactic treatments do not mean infections will not occur.
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Sensorineural Hearing Loss in Children Source: Pediatric Clinics in North America. 43(6): 1195-1216. December 1996. Summary: This article reviews the epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) in children. The article begins with a brief discussion of the social and educational impact of an undetected hearing loss in infants and young children, then reviews the goals of universal screening and hearing loss detection. The author notes that an optimal protocol for universal screening would permit infants with normal hearing to be accurately segregated from those with true positive results who need expensive follow up and would help identify neonates with transient conducive hearing losses, sparing them the necessity of follow-ups. The article goes on to discuss the causes of SNHL, the use of a multidisciplinary team evaluation, the measurement of hearing (using evoked otacoustic emissions, or OAE, and other methods), and the advances in understanding the genetics of hearing loss. The remainder of the article considers the nongenetic causes of hearing loss, including congenital cytomegalovirus infection, congenital toxoplasmosis, congenital syphilis, rubella, measles and mumps, herpes simplex encephalitis, bacterial meningitis, toxic drugs and chemicals, hypoxia and anoxia, hyperbilirubinemia, recurrent otitis media, neonatal intensive care, ear or temporal bone trauma, perilymph fistula, and noise-induced hearing loss. 3 tables. 79 references. (AA-M).
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Infant Hearing Screening Program: High-Risk Factors for Hearing Loss Source: Seminars in Hearing. 17(2): 165-170. May 1996. Summary: This article stresses the importance of identifying early risk factors for hearing loss. Early identification provides significant advantages for hearing improvement; later identification of hearing impairment carries serious consequences for language development. Various screening techniques have been developed and
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these are important for the direction of future research in the diagnosis and management of hearing impairment in infants and children. The authors report on their experiences in a hospital neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and note that there is approximately a 1 to 3 percent incidence of significant hearing impairment that can be diagnosed in the NICU setting. Routine use of the high risk registry (following guidelines established by an NIH Consensus Conference) only results in a detection rate of 50 percent. Presently, the average age of diagnosing significant hearing loss in children is two and one-half years. Children with cranial facial abnormalities are at high risk for having sensorineural hearing impairment. Hearing impairment can be associated with low agar scores and low birth weight. Children who have intrauterine exposure to toxoplasmosis, syphilis, rubella, cytomegalovirus, and herpes (TORCH) are at high risk for hearing impairment in the neonatal period. The article concludes with a brief discussion of the impact of ear infections on hearing in children and a discussion of the cost-effectiveness of hearing screening. 11 references. (AA-M). •
HIV Care for Inmates and Former Inmates Source: HIV Frontline; Issue no. 31. Contact: World Health Communications Incorporated, 41 Madison Ave 40th Fl, New York, NY, 10010, (212) 679-6200, http://www.whci.com. Summary: This is a newsletter for clinicians who counsel people with HIV/AIDS. This issue of the newsletter examines challenges and strategies for counselors working with incarcerated people with HIV. The barriers to state-of-the-art health care delivery in the prison system are delineated and include lack of access to combination antiretroviral therapies, increased exposure to tuberculosis and other illnesses, discrimination and stigmatization within the prison system, and limited control over daily activities and schedules. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the prison setting is discussed, and issues that challenge adherence to current regimens are considered. This issue also presents an overview of toxoplasmosis, announces upcoming conferences and meetings, and summarizes research findings.
Federally Funded Research on Toxoplasmosis The U.S. Government supports a variety of research studies relating to toxoplasmosis. These studies are tracked by the Office of Extramural Research at the National Institutes of Health.2 CRISP (Computerized Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects) is a searchable database of federally funded biomedical research projects conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. Search the CRISP Web site at http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen. You will have the option to perform targeted searches by various criteria, including geography, date, and topics related to toxoplasmosis. For most of the studies, the agencies reporting into CRISP provide summaries or abstracts. As opposed to clinical trial research using patients, many federally funded studies use
2 Healthcare projects are funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Office of Assistant Secretary of Health (OASH).
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animals or simulated models to explore toxoplasmosis. The following is typical of the type of information found when searching the CRISP database for toxoplasmosis: •
Project Title: 7TH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON TOXOPLASMOSIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Kim, Kami; Associate Professor; Medicine; Yeshiva University 500 W 185Th St New York, Ny 10033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-MAY-2003; Project End 30-APR-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): The Seventh International Congress on Toxoplasmosis will be held in May 2003 at the Dolce-Tarrytown Conference Center. The Toxoplasma meeting is an international meeting that has occurred every other year since 1990 and lasts four to five days. This meeting alternates between the United States and Europe and will be organized by Kami Kim and Louis Weiss in 2003. Toxoplasma gondii is a major cause of opportunistic infections in AIDS patients as well as birth defects in infants exposed in utero. In addition to its clinical importance, Toxoplasma gondii has emerged as a model organism for studies on all of the Apicomplexa as was highlighted in a recent review on development of antimalarials by Robert Ridley (Nature 2002 Feb 7;415(6872):686-93). The Apicomplexa include most of the major protozoan pathogens of humans and animals, such as Plasmodia (malaria), Babesia, Theileria, Cryptosporidia, Cyclospora, Neospora, Eimeria, and Isospora. This meeting is important in that it gathers all of the laboratories working on T. gondii and allows for the exchange of new ideas and approaches both on a formal and informal level. Participants come from throughout the world (Europe, US, South America, Australia, Japan). The goals of the meeting are to disseminate new advances in the field, highlight the importance of T. gondii as a model system, foster collaboration and field-wide initiatives, and to introduce new or younger investigators to the leaders in the field. This meeting has fostered an environment of cooperation and collaboration in work on T. gondii that is not seen in other parasitology disciplines and has facilitated rapid and sustained progress in research on this pathogen. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: A1 INFLAMMATION
REGULATED
LEUKOCYTE
APOPTOSIS
DURING
Principal Investigator & Institution: Prystowsky, Michael B.; Professor; Pathology; Yeshiva University 500 W 185Th St New York, Ny 10033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUN-1998; Project End 30-APR-2002 Summary: (Adapted from the Investigator's abstract): Apoptosis of inflammatory leukocytes is widely thought to be crucial for the regulation of inflammatory responses. The direct investigation of this idea has been hampered by the inability to demonstrate regulatory molecules specific to these cells that might permit experimental manipulation of the apoptotic response. We have isolated and described such a candidate molecule, a Bcl-2 related anti-apoptotic protein named A1. A1 is rapidly induced in macrophages by pro-inflammatory mediators, and is strongly up-regulated during acute pathogenic inflammation in mice. The objective of this project is to clarify the functional roles of A1 in the regulation of cell death processes during the progress and resolution of inflammatory responses. The application proposes a model for apoptotic regulation in the acute response to a pathogen is divided into two stages. In stage one, the innate immune response generates effector molecules such as nitric oxide that are vital for host defense but are also pro-apoptotic for macrophages. At this stage, A1 expression protects the macrophage and permits the inflammatory response to continue. In stage
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two, pathogen has been largely cleared, and inflammatory macrophages are now removed by a second wave of pro-apoptotic stimuli. This second wave, which may be derived from activated T-cells, is able to override the protective effects of A1. The Specific Aims will test and refine this idea will focus on the following three hypotheses: (1) Mediators of host defense include both 'A1-sensitive' and 'A1-resistant' apoptotic stimuli. (2) During the acute response to T. gondii infection, a shift occurs in the inflammatory environment from A1-mediated protection of macrophages to A1resistant macrophage apoptosis. (3) Protection of macrophages during inflammation is mediated by A1 and is vital for host defense. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: ACIDOCALCISOMES AND TOXOPLASMA GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Moreno, Silvia N.; Assistant Professor of Pathobiology; Animal Sciences; University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Henry Administration Bldg Champaign, Il 61820 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAY-1999; Project End 30-APR-2004 Summary: Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite that is responsible for a wide spectrum of disease affecting humans and many animals. In immunoincompetent host, disease could be very severe. T. gondii is now a major cause of opportunistic infection in people with AIDS. There is an urgent need for alternative drugs for the treatment of human toxoplasmosis. Studies of the basic biochemistry of T. gondii could lead to the rational design of new and more effective drugs. We have identified an acidic organelle rich in calcium possibly involved in the regulation of Ca2+ and pH homeostasis in T. gondii that we named the acidocalcisome. We also found that a pyrophosphate is apparently associated with these organelles. Inorganic pyrophosphate occurs in these parasites at concentrations higher than ATP. In addition, we found a "plant-like" enzymatic activity possibly associated with the same organelle in T. gondii: a H+-translocating pyrophosphatase. These results could have important implications because the novel metabolic pathways identified in Toxoplasma could be targets for chemotherapeutic intervention. We intend to focus on studying the acidocalcisomes with the following specific aims: specific aim 1: identification and characterization of the pyrophosphate present in acidocalcisomes; specific aim 2: characterization of T. gondii H+-pyrophosphatase; specific aim 3: investigation of the role of acidocalcisomes in intracellular Ca2+ and pH homeostasis. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: ADENOSINE KINASE TARGET FOR CHEMOTHERAPY IN TGONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: El Kouni, Mahmoud H.; Associate Professor; Pharmacology and Toxicology; University of Alabama at Birmingham Uab Station Birmingham, Al 35294 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 30-SEP-1997; Project End 31-AUG-2003 Summary: (Adapted from the Applicant's Abstract): One feature of the metabolic pathway of T. gondii which distinguishes it form its human host is its inability to synthesize purine nucleotides de novo. Therefore, these organisms rely on the purine salvage pathways for their supply of purine nucleotides. There are unique features of purine metabolism in T. gondii which render the purine salvage pathways suitable targets for chemotherapy. T. gondii, unlike their mammalian hosts, predominantly salvage their purine precursors via adenosine kinase. On the basis of Dr. el Kouni's detailed structure-activity relationship studies on T. gondii adenosine kinase activity, he
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has identified a group of compounds, the 6-substituted 9-beta-D-ribofuranosylpurines, as potentially good substrates for this enzyme. One of these compounds, NBMPR, is phosphorylated by the parasite adenosine kinase and are also toxic against T. gondii. Furthermore, in collaboration with Dr. David Roos, the T. gondii adenosine kinase gene was successfully cloned to provide a potentially stable source of this enzyme for further studies. The overall goal of these studies is to exploit the differences between host and parasite adenosine kinases for the development of chemotherapeutic agents against toxoplasmosis. There are three specific aims in this proposal: (1) Overexpress a construct o the recently cloned T. gondii adenosine kinase gene to provide a stable source of this enzyme and to purify and characterize the cloned enzyme for drug screening and design; (2) determine the mechanism of selective toxicity of the 6substituted-9-beta-D ribofuranosylpurines in T. gondii; (3) evaluate active compounds as potential antitoxoplasmosis agents in vitro and in vivo. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: AIDS OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS DRUG DESIGN Principal Investigator & Institution: Borhani, David W.; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) is the leading killer of patients with AIDS. Similarly, Toxomplasma gondii, a pervasive parasitic protozoan, causes significant morbidity and mortality among AIDS patients. Current treatment regimens for both P. carinii and T. gondii infections often produce severe side effects, leading to the cessation of therapy. It is widely recognized that new drugs having novel mechanisms of action are urgently needed for the treatment of PCP and toxoplasmosis. Building upon prior medicinal chemistry research, we have initiated two structurebased drug design programs to make improved inhibitors of T. gondii hypoxanthineguanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT), T. gondii dihydrofolate reductasethymidylate synthase (DHFR-TS) and P. carinii DHFR. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: ANTIBODIES TRANSMISSION
AND
CONGENITAL
NEOSPORA
CANINUM
Principal Investigator & Institution: Gary, Haldorson J.; Vet Microbiology and Pathology; Washington State University 423 Neill Hall Pullman, Wa 99164 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 20-JAN-2002; Project End 31-DEC-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant) Transplacental transmission of neospora caninum results in abortions, stillbirths, and congenital infection in cattle and dogs. This apicomplexan parasite is similar to Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium sp., both of which cause abortions and congenital infections in humans. Previous work in our laboratory indicates a role for maternal immunity in protection against abortions caused by Neospora caninum, but the mechanisms of that protection are poorly understood. The goal of this study is to identify the role of antibodies in protection against congenital transmission. During the parasitemic phase, prior to initial infection of placental or fetal tissues, antibodies could have access to this otherwise intracellular parasite. Other work from our laboratory indicates that immunization with whole tachyzoite antigens induces a harmful response. Therefore, specific antigens that induce a protective response must be identified. Parasite surface antigens are crucial to host cell invasion of apicomplexan protozoa and are a logical target site for antibody to neutralize parasites
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in vivo. This study will investigate SAG1, a major surface protein in N. caninum whose counterpart in Toxoplasma gondii has been shown to be involved with attachment and invasion of host cells. Antibodies to SAG1 have been shown to block invasion of host cells in vitro and both Neospora and Toxoplasma. This proposal will test the hypothesis that epitopes on Neospora caninum SAG1 stimulate neutralizing antibodies that are protective against congenital transmission in mice and correlate with protection against abortion in cattle with the following specific aims: Specific Aim 1: Determine if transfer of serum IgG containing antibodies to SAG1 protests against congenital parasite transmission in mice. Specific Aim 2: Identifying neutralizing activity and SAG1 topographical epitope specificity of IgG in immune serum that protects against N. caninum congential transmission. Specific Aim 3: Determine if serum antibodies to neutralization sensitive epitopes correlate with protection against Neospora caninum abortion in cattle. Successful completion of this proposal would be the first study to define the role of antibodies in the protection against intracellular protozoan Neospora caninum. It would also directly address immune protection against transplacental transmission of the parasite, a mechanism that may be common to other apicomplexan protozoa. The proposal would also identify antibodies and epitopes will prove invaluable in the development of a protective vaccine, which is currently the most important direction of any research involving Neospora caninum. In addition, the proposal studies prevention of initial infection of trophoblasts, a biologic mechanism critical to apicomplexan protozoan infections such as toxoplasmosis and plasmodium. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: B CELL DEPENDENT IMMUNITY TO TOXOPLASMA GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Johnson, Lawrence L.; Trudeau Institute, Inc. Saranac Lake, Ny 12983 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-2000; Project End 31-MAR-2005 Summary: The proposed research will analyze the role of B cells and their products in resistance to Toxoplasma gondii infection in mice. Toxoplasmosis is a significant cause of morbidity/mortality in AIDS patients and congenitally infected individuals, and is also an important reasearch tool with which to analyze innate and acquired immunological mechanisms of host resistance to pathogenic microbes. Infection of B cell-deficient muMT mice has revealed that B cells are needed in order for mice to resist chronic primary T. gondii infection and to survive challenge with highly virulent parasites if previously vaccinated. Two hypotheses are proposed to explain the role of B cells in resistance to T. gondii. The proposed experiments will examine whether B cells are needed for the production of protective antibodies or for the regulation of T. gondiiinduced T cells and cytokines having the potential to cause immunopathology. Experimental goals will be addressed by analysis of host cell and cytokine responses and histopathology in infected muMT and control B cell-sufficient mice. The ability of immune serum, together with immune T cells, to confer protection against a challenge infection with virulent tachyzoites will be addressed in adoptive immunization experiments. The resistance of vaccinated mice with mutated Fc receptor genes or C3, C4, or C5 complement genes will be examined in relation to the hypothesis that antibodies are essential to protection in this model. The potential for B cells to regulate cytokine production and the generation of T. gondii-specific T cells will be studied. Also, the role of B cells in protection against congenital T. gondii infection and the influence of Toxoplasma-specific antibodies on the resistance of mice infected as neonates will be analyzed. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: CHEMOKINES IN CTL FUNCTION AND TRAFFICKING IN HIV Principal Investigator & Institution: Luster, Andrew D.; Chief, Director, and Associate Professor; Massachusetts General Hospital 55 Fruit St Boston, Ma 02114 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-FEB-2000; Project End 31-JAN-2005 Summary: Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) play a critical role in host defense against viral infections, including HIV-1. Chemokines play an important role in several aspects of CTL function as CTL both produce and respond to chemokines. Chemokine receptors on CD8+ T lymphocyte have recently been implicated in their cytolytic function and survival. In addition, it is becoming increasing clear that chemokines play a critical role in regulating T cell trafficking and it is likely that chemokines also control the trafficking of CTL. In order to effectively control viral replication CTL need to be recruited into tissue compartments where there is active replication and this is an important consideration for vaccine development. Little is known about what controls CTL trafficking in vivo and it is likely that chemokines and their receptors play an important role in this process. In preliminary studies, we have seen that the CXCR3 chemokine receptor is highly upregulated on HIV-1-specific CTL activated in vitro and is highly expressed on CTL found in tissue compartments of patients with ongoing HIV replication. In addition, CXCR3 was found on HLA-A2 Gag tetramer positive CD8+ lymphocytes found in peripheral blood of a non-progressor but not on peripheral blood CTL of patients with progressive disease. Our central hypothesis is that chemokines control the trafficking and regulate the function of CTL in HIV disease and, in particular, CXCR3 and its ligand, IP-10, play an important role in recruiting CTL into HIV-1 infected tissue. Specifically we propose: 1) To determine the expression and function chemokine receptors on tetramer positive activated bulk CD8+ T cells and CTL clones. Functional analysis will include chemotaxis, calcium flux, target cell lysis, inhibition of p24 production, and cytokine release. The role of chemokines and their receptors in regulating CTL apoptosis will also be determined; 2) To determine the expression of chemokine receptors on CTL in the blood and tissues of patients with HIV-1 infection with varied disease progressions. In addition, to more comprehensively study the kinetics of chemokine receptor expression over time in vivo, we will use the SIV macaque model of AIDS to study tetramer positive CD8+ lymphocytes in the blood and tissue compartments in SIV-1 infected macaques over time; and 3) To determine the role of IP-10 in CTL trafficking in vivo in the murine models of Toxoplasma gondii and LCMV infection using genetically modified mice deficient in IP-10 and neutralizing mAbs to murine IP-10. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: CONTROL OF DNA REPLICATION IN AIDS PATHOGEN T. GONDII. Principal Investigator & Institution: White, Michael W.; Associate Professor; Veterinary Molecular Biology; Montana State University (Bozeman) Bozeman, Mt 59717 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAY-2001; Project End 30-APR-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): Toxoplasma gondii parasites enter human populations by avenues such as the food and water supply where they cause serious pathology in individuals whose immune system is underdeveloped, diseased, or suppressed. Once exposed, Toxoplasma infections are permanent due to features of the lifecycle that allow the parasites to cycle indefinitely and escape or avoid immune countermeasures. Thus, damage to the immune system at any time during life brings an immediate risk of toxoplasmosis. Repeated switching between the lytic tachyzoite cycle,
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which is responsible for pathogenesis, and the dormant bradyzoite stage leads to progressive tissue destruction that accumulates until overt symptoms are evident. In AIDS patients, damage to the brain results in severe central nervous system complications that are implicated in the deaths of these patients. Recently, studies from our and other laboratories have established a link between the mechanism controlling bradyzoite switching and those which regulate the rate of tachyzoite growth. Defining the molecular elements of this process, therefore, has significant implications to understanding the underlying mechanisms responsible for chronic toxoplasmosis. This project seeks to dissect the most important biosynthetic pathway of the tachyzoite cell cycle, namely DNA replication, and its intersection with control of the developmental cycle. Specifically, this proposal aims: (1) to study the relationship between cell cycle and parasite development by characterizing a novel G2 population that arises during differentiation, (2) we will investigate T. gondii cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinase in order to better understand the control of this parasite's unusual cell cycle, and (3) we will explore the intersection between development and the chromosome cycle through studies of key DNA synthetic factors. Given the unusual nature of the cell cycle of these parasites, the proteins and regulatory pathways we intend to study here, provide a new direction for drug development in these important human and animal pathogens. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: CONTROL OF HISTONE FUNCTION IN YEAST Principal Investigator & Institution: Grunstein, Michael; Professor; Biological Chemistry; University of California Los Angeles 10920 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1200 Los Angeles, Ca 90024 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JAN-1977; Project End 30-APR-2003 Summary: The histone H3 and H4 termini help regulate cell cycle progression, gene activity and nucleosome assembly. These functions are likely to be mediated by acetylation and deacetylation of these N terminal tails which may not only affect their interactions with underlying DNA but with other proteins. We have recently discovered the family of five histone deacetylases in yeast which have different and overlapping roles in H3 and H4 acetylation, cell cycle progression and gene activity. Our goal now is to define these roles at a molecular level. We proposed to identify catalytic and regulatory non-catalytic subunits of each of these complexes since these factors may determine deacetylase specificity to different sites in histones, different genes and different stages of the cell cycle. We wish to know the extent to which deacetylase regulates un-induced and induced gene activity and whether this occurs through effects on nucleosome positioning, DNA topology or chromosomal condensation. Since nucleosome structure is disrupted at promoters by activators even before transcription and since histone acetylation provides a logical mechanism for nucleosome disruption, we propose to determine whether a known acetyltransferase (TAF130), that is part of the transcription machinery, disrupts nucleosome at promoters. Finally, we will determine which sites of acetylation in H3 and H4 are important for nucleosome assembly. Understanding gene activity and the cell cycle is central to our knowledge of human disease processes. Chromatin modifications affect both. Moreover, disruption of a histone deacetylase by a drug has been identified as a means of selectively inactivating parasites involved in diseases such as malaria and toxoplasmosis. The molecular characterization of the multiple histone deacetylases in yeast will allow the design of rational approaches to combat these disease states. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: CORE--MICROBIOLOGY Principal Investigator & Institution: Bowden, Raleigh A.; Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center Box 19024, 1100 Fairview Ave N Seattle, Wa 98109 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: The Diagnostic Infectious disease laboratory is integral to the success of many of the clinical research projects in this grant that have the occurrence or prevention if infection as primary or secondary endpoints. These laboratories also provide the critical data required for virtually all o f the infectious disease related research activity in Project 7. These laboratories provide routine infectious disease diagnostic (e.g. 1. Bacterial, fungal and viral cultures, 2. Gram, calcofluo, and viral specific monoclonal antibody stains, 3. Viral and toxoplasmosis serologies) as well as specialized testing, including specialized cultures and stains as well as PCR assays as dictated by research protocol. The majority of viral and mycologic isolates are banked for future investigation. All data are computerized in the Infectious Disease Database which contains results of diagnostic evaluation, information on clinical parameters such as fever and radiographic findings, as well as clinical outcome data. This core assures that these data are accurate and immediately available to all research projects of this Program Project Grant. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: DESIGN OF C. PARVUM AND T. GONDII DHFR-TS INHIBITORS Principal Investigator & Institution: Anderson, Amy C.; Chemistry; Dartmouth College 11 Rope Ferry Rd. #6210 Hanover, Nh 03755 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 01-MAY-2003; Project End 31-MAR-2008 Summary: (provided by applicant): Opportunistic infections caused by Cryptosporidium parvum and Toxoplasma gondii represent life threatening diseases for immuno-compromised patients, children and the elderly. There are currently no effective treatments available for cryptosporidiosis and treatments for toxoplasmosis require the coadministration of sulfadioxine, a compound to which many patients have severe adverse reactions. The development of novel therapeutics that are highly potent and highly selective for the pathogen is of immediate importance. Crystal structures of the validated drug target, dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase (DHFR-TS), a bifunctional enzyme in protozoa, from C. parvum and T. gondii, provide essential evidence for structure-based drug design against these targets. In the first Aim of this proposal, we will design trimethoprim analogs to interact favorably with speciesselective elements of the C. parvum DHFRTS structure. Species-selective elements will be determined by comparing crystal structures of pathogenic DHFR-TS and human DHFR. New inhibitors will be modeled into the structure of the enzyme, while accounting for ligand-induced conformational changes, and binding modes predicted. Crystal structures of trimethoprim analogs will guide future design in an iterative cycle. In the second Aim, we will improve the potency and selectivity of a promising T. gondii DHFR-TS inhibitor, using information from crystal structures of T. gondii DHFR-TS bound to lipophilic inhibitors. Designs for the improvement of T. gondii DHFR-TS inhibitors will take advantage of species-selective elements. In the third Aim, we will elucidate the structural basis of pyrimethamine resistance in DHFR and design potency and selectivity into a novel inhibitor of pyrimethamine-resistant T. gondii DHFR-TS. DHFR resistance to pyrimethamine and other antimicrobials is a threatening problem and novel therapeutics capable of inhibiting the resistant enzymes are desperately needed. We will solve a crystal structure of pyrimethamine-resistant DHFR-TS bound to
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a novel and exciting inhibitor that shows an inhibition constant of 350 nM against the resistant enzyme in preliminary studies. Using the structural information we will elucidate the structural basis of resistance and modify the novel inhibitor for greater potency and selectivity. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: FIV/HIV IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS--A CASE FOR THE CD8+ CELL Principal Investigator & Institution: Tompkins, Wayne A.; Professor of Immunology; Population Health and Pathobiology; North Carolina State University Raleigh 2230 Stinson Drive Raleigh, Nc 27695 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1998; Project End 31-JUL-2003 Summary: Elevation in the number of CD8+ cells is a consistent feature of HIV and FIV infections. In the case of HIV, this abnormal homeostasis is marked by a progressive loss of L-selectin (LS) positive naive CD8+ cells and a concomitant expansion of LS negative CD8+ effector cells, such that the CD8+ LSneg cells may represent 80-90 percent of the total circulating CD8+ cells in the late asymptomatic stage infection. FIV infection induces the progressive expansion of a CD8+ subset characterized by a marked reduction of the beta chain. This CD8+ betalo phenotype may comprise as much as 90 percent of total blood CD8+ cells at late-stage asymptomatic infection. We have taken advantage of beta chain down-regulation to FACStar sort highly enriched CD8+ betalo and CD8+ betahi phenotypes, and have shown that the CD8+ betalo phenotype synthesizes high levels of IL10 and IFNgamma mRNA, and has potent anti- FIV activity. In addition, we have shown by 2- and 3-color FACS that the CD8+ betalo cells is an effector phenotype (CD8+ betaloLSneg CD44hi) and the CD8+ betahi is a naive phenotype (CD8+ betahiLSneg CD44hi). This proposal will test the hypothesis that FIV induces a chronic expansion of a CD8+betaloLSneg CD44hi effector phenotype that not only has potent antiviral activity but exhibits abnormal tissue trafficking and immunosuppressive responses to secondary infections. Experiments will be designed to further characterize the phenotype of this CD8+betaloLSneg subset and its distribution in lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues at different stages of FIV infection. Fluorescent dye labeling will be done to assess the trafficking potential of CD8+ betaloLSneg cells between blood and LN, and between blood and the lung in response to T. gondii infection. RT-qcPCR studies will be designed to determine if the CD8+betaloLSneg phenotype is regulated at the level of gene transcription and if it is related to virus load. Purified subsets of CD8+betaloLSneg (effector) and CD8+betahiLSpos (naive) will be assayed by RT-qcPCR assays for cytokine and chemokine mRNA to address the hypothesis that the CD8+ betaloLSneg has the cytokine/chemokine profile of a CTL and/or T suppressor cell. In vitro experiments will determine if CD8+ betaloSneg cells are CTL's or virus suppressor cells and whether they suppress mitogen and antigenspecific recall responses by PBMC. Studies will also address the hypothesis that CD8+betaloLSneg cells exert immunosuppressive effects on lung macrophages resulting in decreased cytokine responses and uncontrolled replication of T. gondii tachyzoites. These experiments will collectively test the hypothesis that FIV induces the chronic expansion of a novel CD8+betaloLSneg T- suppressor-like activation phenotype that not only mediates immunity to FIV, but because of its altered tissue trafficking (loss of Lselectin) and cytokine expression profile (e.g. IL10) is selectively recruited into inflammatory sites and suppresses immune responses to secondary pathogens. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: FUNCTIONAL TETRAHYMENA
ANALYSIS
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CALCIUM
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Principal Investigator & Institution: Turkewitz, Aaron P.; Associate Professor; Molecular Genetics & Cell Biol; University of Chicago 5801 S Ellis Ave Chicago, Il 60637 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-FEB-2000; Project End 31-JAN-2004 Summary: Exocytosis of secretory dense-core vesicles in many cell types is triggered by a transient elevation of cytosolic calcium that is mobilized from intracellular reservoirs. The best characterized calcium reservoirs are the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and specialized ER-like organelles. Both the structure of reservoirs as well as the organization of the proteins within them are likely to contribute to the efficiency and specificity of signaling. One indication of this is that calcium is not uniformly distributed throughout the ER, implying that sub-regions may differ in signaling potential. Calcium-rich domains may be generated by the non-random distribution of specific proteins with the membrane and lumen of these reservoirs. This has not been tested, nor are the bases for such sub-regions known. Our aim is to develop further a system in which individual proteins can be identified and analyzed both in vitro and in vivo, to address these issues. The ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila offers a host of experimental advantages for studying such mechanisms. In this proposal, we focus on an ER-like network in ciliated protists, called the alveoli, that has evolved to facilitate signaling at the cell surface. Alveolar calcium is released when cells undergo stimulation with secretagogues, and the increase in cytosolic calcium triggers exocytosis of regulated secretory vesicles. In Tetrahymena, all such vesicles are tethered at the plasma membrane and undergo synchronous membrane fusion. From the experimental perspective, this provides an ideal read-out of alveolar signaling activity. We propose to study the function of individual alveolar proteins in exocytic signaling in Tetrahymena, taking advantage of homologous recombination for in vivo analysis. To begin, we have developed a cell-free alveolar preparation that is active in calcium transport. Our first aim is to isolate biochemically the calcium buffer proteins (homologs of vertebrate calsequestrins) that reside in the alveolar lumen, and clone the corresponding genes. This will be a starting point for mutational analysis of in vivo function, using gene replacement. Other proteins that modulate calcium flux in alveoli will be identified based on direct or indirect genetic screens. The long-term aim of this work is to develop an understanding of how proteins in intracellular reservoirs contribute to calcium signaling and homeostasis. Such questions are medically important for at least two reasons. First, defects in calcium homeostasis may be a direct cause of muscle necrosis in muscular dystrophy, in which prolonged high cytosolic levels can trigger apoptosis. Secondly, a detailed understanding of alveoli in particular might be a basis for intervention against parasites belonging to the Alveolate lineage, including the organisms responsible for malaria, cryptosporodiosis, and toxoplasmosis. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: GENERATION/MAINTENANCE OF TYPE 1 IMMUNITY TO TOXOPLASMA Principal Investigator & Institution: Yap, George S.; Assistant Professor; Molecular Microbiol and Immun; Brown University Providence, Ri 02912 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUN-2002; Project End 31-MAY-2007 Summary: (provided by the applicant): Worldwide, toxoplasmosis and other infections caused by obligate intracellular parasitic agents remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality in humans and in livestock. A central mediator of host defense against these
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agents is IFN-gamma, a cytokine produced by Type 1 lymphocytes and NK cells. Toxoplasma gondii infection in the mouse represents a well-characterized model to study the differentiation of type 1 cells and a highly stringent test to assess IFN-gamma function in vivo. This proposal will systematically define the intercellular and intracellular signals that govern the prompt initiation, maintenance and successful functioning of IFN-gamma-mediated responses critical for host survival. The experimental methods rely on in vivo infection and genetic studies of normal and defective mouse strains aided by ex vivo cellular and molecular analyses of lymphocyte function. The first aim will critically assess the lymphocyte cell lineage and transcription factor requirements for IL-12 induced, IFN-gamma mediated host resistance to T. gondii infection. The second aim evaluates the role of Tbet, a novel Thi -specific transcription factor in sustaining long term IFN-gamma effector function and thus immune protection. A final third aim will provide detailed phenotypic and genetic analyses of a newly discovered defect in early IL-12 induced IFN-gamma responses resulting in acute susceptibility to T. gondii infection. The influence of this genetically dictated, partial lL12 unresponsiveness on signal transduction and transcription factor(s) pathways critical for IFN-gamma production will be evaluated. The proposed experiments should provide novel information on cellular and molecular regulatory determinant(s) affecting the generation, maintenance and appropriate functioning of IFN-gamma producing type 1 lymphocytes during a successful and balanced immune response. Since many infectious and autoimmune pathologies result from Type 1 effector dysfunction, the insights provided by the proposed studies should eventually result in improved management of such disease states. This grant should also provide insights for designing immunization strategies to induce sustained type 1 responses. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: GENETIC ANALYSIS OF BRADYZOITE DEVELOPMENT IN TOXOPLASMA Principal Investigator & Institution: Blader, Ira J.; Microbiology and Immunology; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-FEB-2001 Summary: The parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) causes devastating disease in individuals who are immune-compromised as a result of cancer, organ transplant, or AIDS. The life cycle of the parasite consists of sexual and asexual components with the asexual portion having two distinct interconvertible stages: the rapidly growing tachyzoite and the more slowly growing bradyzoite. Bradyzoites develop within cysts and lie dormant in the host undetected by the host immune system. In immunecompromised individuals, bradyzoites can become activated and revert to tachyzoites that grow uninhibited. Thus, it is important to understand how bradyzoites develop in order to analyze how they evade the immune system and also to develop treatments against T. gondii to augment cancer and AIDS therapies. Presently, the molecular mechanisms that regulate the interconversion between tachyzoites and bradyzoites are unknown. To identify genes required for bradyzoite development, DNA microarrays will be generated from normalized bradyzoite cDNA libraries. The microarrays will be probed with mRNA isolated from parasites induced to differentiate into bradyzoites with the addition of either high pH, high temperature, IFN-gamma, or atovaquone. Genes that are upregulated by all of these treatments will be considered candidate early bradyzoite genes and those that are amongst the earliest upregulated and display homology to either transcription factors or signaling molecule will be further examined. To assess the role of these genes in bradyzoite development, individual deletion mutant
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strains will be generated and assessed for effects on bradyzoite development in vitro and in vivo. In addition, these genes will be constitutively expressed in T. gondii to examine whether they are sufficient to stimulate bradyzoite development. In summary, these studies will identify genes whose products are critical in the conversion of tachyzoites to bradyzoites. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: GENETIC AND MOLECULAR STUDY OF TOXOPLASMA EGRESS Principal Investigator & Institution: Arrizabalaga, Gustavo A.; Microbiology and Immunology; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-FEB-2001 Summary: The infectious agent Toxoplasma gondii is a member of the phylum Apicomplexa, which includes the organisms responsible for malaria and coccidiosis. Although most T. gondii infections are asymptomatic, they can lead to severe disease and even death in utero and in individuals immunocompromised by AIDS or cancer. The devastating effects of a Toxoplasma infection are a direct consequence of its lytic cycle, which consists of attachment to the host cell invasion, intracellular replication and egress. Both invasion and egress involve fluctuation in intracellular [Ca], morphological changes and secretion from various organelles. The process of egress is often lethal to the cell but little is known about this process at the genetic or molecular lever. The goal of this proposal is to identify and characterize genes that play critical roles during egress. Mutations that affect egress can be isolated since this process can be induced by calcium ionophore and affecting genes involved in ionophore-induced egress (HE might not necessarily be lethal to the parasite. Two distinct genetic screens will be performed to isolate TIE mutants. The study of these mutants and the genes affected will help us characterize the steps involved in ionophore-induced and normal egress and identify the signals that induct the parasite to exit the host cell. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: GENETIC DISSECTION OF TOXOPLASMA GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Roos, David S.; Professor; Biology; University of Pennsylvania 3451 Walnut Street Philadelphia, Pa 19104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUL-1989; Project End 31-AUG-2003 Summary: (Adapted from Applicant's Abstract): This project seeks to exploit recently developed molecular genetic tools to identify genes associated with bradyzoite differentiation in Toxoplasma gondii, a prominent opportunistic pathogen associated with AIDS. Approximately 30% of the US population is chronically infected with T. gondii, and reemergence of parasites from latent bradyzoite tissue cysts is thought to be the primary source of toxoplasmic encephalitis and other pathologies. Effective chemotherapy is available for acute infection, but immunocompromised individuals require life-long prophylaxis to guard against cyst reemergence, and chronic treatment is associated with a high frequency of adverse reactions. Treatments that target the latent bradyzoite cyst form-eliminating infection in HIV-positive individuals- would therefore be highly desirable. Previous research conducted under the auspices of this grant resulted in characterization of the bifunctional DHFR-TS enzyme of T. gondii- the primary target for chemotherapeutic management of acute toxoplasmosis- and evaluation of its role in drug resistance. Sequences derived from the DHFR-TS gene have also been employed to develop tools for molecular genetic analysis, including strategies for high frequency parasite transformation, gene cloning by complementation,
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production of gene "knock-outs" via targeted homologous recombination, saturation mutagenesis of the parasite genome using insertional mutagenesis vectors, and cloning of the tagged loci by plasmid rescue. These techniques have been exploited to identify several potential drug targets involved in nucleoside metabolism, including genes encoding UPRT, HXGPRT, AK, and the parasite's major adenosine transporter.Targeted deletion of the UPRT locus produces crippled parasites that permit highly efficient bradyzoite differentiation in vitro, while the HXGPRT gene has been developed as a combined positive-negative selectable marker. Using a promoter- deficient HXGPRT for insertional mutagenesis permits trapping of bradyzoite-specific promoters. This strategy will be expanded beyond the pilot studies carried out to date, to identify new genes that may identify metabolic functions to be targeted in cyst-specific chemotherapy. Bradyzoite specific genes identified by insertional mutagenesis, differential display PCR, and informatics-based approaches will be cloned and characterized, and their expression analyzed by Rnase protection, competitive RT-PCR, and as fusions with reporter genes. Additional cycles of mutagenesis will be carried out using parasites expressing HXGPRT and/or GFP selectable markers under the control of bradyzoitespecific promoters, thereby walking upstream in the genetic regulatory cascade that controls parasite differentiation. This approach should identify genes that are essential for tachyzoite differentiation into bradyzoites, cyst maintenance, and de-differentiation as bradyzoites reemerge to yield acutely infectious tachyzoites. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: GNRH IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION OF CATS Principal Investigator & Institution: Levy, Julie K.; Small Animal Clinical Sciences; University of Florida Gainesville, Fl 32611 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-APR-1997; Project End 14-OCT-2003 Summary: (Adapted from the applicant's abstract): Animal models, such as FIV, are critical to understanding the mechanism of HIV-induced immunodeficiency. The model can be used to dissect the molecular basis of lentivirus-associated immunodeficiency. Preliminary work by the candidate has shown that FIV, like HIV, induces an early and profound deficiency in IL-12 expression, which is associated with susceptibility to T. gondii. What is not yet known is whether this deficiency results from a direct effect of FIV, or whether the virus suppresses critical IL-12 priming cytokines such as TNF(alpha) or IFN(gamma). This application proposes to identify the sequence of protective Type one cytokine suppression. The candidate will also test the hypothesis that exogenous IL12 administration will reconstitute the cell-mediated immune response, and protect FIVinfected cats from T. gondii challenge. As a veterinary internist and immunologist, Dr. Levy is committed to a career as a clinical investigator in an academic institution. The Co-sponsors of this candidate are authorities in feline retroviral research. The laboratories in which the candidate is engaged are capable of providing the space, equipment, animal facilities, and support staff required for successful completion of the application. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: HEPARAN SULFATE IN T.GONDII ATTACHMENT AND INVASION Principal Investigator & Institution: Bishop, Joseph R.; Cellular & Molecular Medicine; University of California San Diego 9500 Gilman Dr, Dept. 0934 La Jolla, Ca 92093 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-SEP-2002
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Summary: (provided by applicant): Toxoplasma gondii is a wide-spread intracellular parasite infecting humans and animals. The amazing ability of Toxoplasma to infect almost every mammalian has led to the hypothesis that it recognizes heparan sulfate, a surface glyconjugate found on a wide variety of cells. To address this hypothesis, we propose a set of studies to addresses the role of heparan sulfate in Toxoplasma attachment to endothelium. In Aim 1, we propose to examine T gondii attachment to mutant and siRNA gene silenced CHO cells in HS biosynthesis under conditions that mimic blood flow as compared to static conditions. Further, we will utilize heparin derivatives as potential therapeutic agents to blockattachment of these parasites. Toxoplasma can cause disease in humans is by crossing the blood brain barrier. Thus, Aim 2 will examine the role of HS in endothelial cell lines and bi-layersystems that mimic the blood brain barrier. The goal of this aim is to establish a role for HS in Toxoplasma attachment to endothelial cell tissues. We will utilize Cre-loxP recombinant systems to create endothelial cell knockout mice in HS biosynthesis, which can be tested for Toxoplasma tissue dissemintion. Further, these tissues can be removed and assayed for T gondii attachment ex vivo. The results of this study could lead to therapeutic strategies for treating not only Toxoplasmosis, hut a wide variety of parasitemias and other infections that utilize heparan sulfate for entry into mammalian cells. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: HOW DO YOU BUILD A PARASITE? Principal Investigator & Institution: Murray, John M.; Associate Professor; Anatomy; University of Pennsylvania 3451 Walnut Street Philadelphia, Pa 19104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-FEB-2001; Project End 31-JAN-2004 Summary: (Provided by applicant): Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous pathogen infecting an estimated one-third of the US population and 10-90 percent of individuals worldwide (depending on the country, various sociological and behavioral factors, etc). This parasite replicates intracellularly in a wide range of cell types and can persist for years in latent (tissue) cyst form. In addition to Toxoplasma, the protozoan phylum Apicomplexa includes many other parasites of clinical and/or veterinary importance. Although the diseases caused by these organisms differ greatly in nature (compare malaria, for example, with toxoplasmosis, or coccidiosis), the pathogenic impact of all apicomplexan parasites is ultimately attributable to proliferation, which makes understanding parasite replication an important goal. All Apicomplexana replicate by a distinctive process in which multiple daughters assemble simultaneously within the mother cell (termed 'schizogony'). This application proposes to explore the dynamics of parasite assembly in Toxoplasma, because (1) T. gondii normally forms only two parasites at a time, making studies on the morphology of replication much more tractable than in Plasmodium or Eimeria species, and (2) a wide range of cell biological and molecular genetic tools are now available for T. gondii. In particular, fluorescent protein reporters now permit virtually all known subcellular structures to be visualized in living parasites, and the efficiency of transient transfection permits rapid assessment of recombinant plasmid function (even for lethal transgenes). Imaging techniques permit the analysis of relationships between various subcellular organelles over time, using quantitative time-lapse video microscopy and image deconvolution, laser scanning confocal microscopy, fluorescence photobleaching and recovery, and laser ablation. Molecular genetic approaches permit the mutation of essentially any parasite gene by either random or targeted methods, and identification of the lesions responsible. We aim to deterrnine the chronological order of critical events in T. gondii replication,
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the cause and effect relationships associated with these processes, and the molecular mechamsms involved. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: LEUKOCYTE TRAFFICKING IN SIV INFECTED RHESUS MONKEYS Principal Investigator & Institution: Sasseville, Vito G.; Harvard University (Medical School) Medical School Campus Boston, Ma 02115 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: In terminal SIV infection in macaques, lentivirus-infected leukocytes are numerous in SIV-specific infiltrates yet are rarely detected at inflammatory sites associated with opportunistic infections such as mycobacteriosis, SV40, and toxoplasmosis or in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced skin granulomas This refutes the theory that opportunistic infections during HIV/SIV infection serve as a stimulus for the recruitment of lentivirus-infected cells However, during acute SIVinfection we have observed occasional animals with SIV-positive leukocytes associated with Pneumonyssus- and CFA-induced granulomas We have also described viruspositive cells in the cellular infiltrates associated with pulmonary granulomas induced by tetrathyridia of Mesocestoides in a pigtailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) during acute SIV infection Our hypothesis is that SIV-infected leukocytes are able to traffic to inflammatory sites early in infection, but lose this ability late in dise ase Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: LONG TERM IMMUNITY AGAINST TOXOPLASMOSIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Khan, Imtiaz A.; Associate Professor; Microbiol/Immunolgy/Parasitlgy; Louisiana State Univ Hsc New Orleans New Orleans, La 70112 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUL-1992; Project End 14-DEC-2002 Summary: (adapted from the Abstract): Infection with T. gondii remains a serious cause of mortality in those individuals who are immunosuppressed. The cellular immune response is the principal mediator of host protection against infection. Cytolytic CD8+ T cells are an essential component of this immune response. The overall goal of the proposed research is to evaluate the long-term immune response against T. gondii. An improved understanding of the mechanisms that prevent reactivation of infection in the normal and immunocompromised host may provide for the development of novel therapeutic approaches. The Specific Aim #1 is to evaluate the CD8+ T cell mediated cytolytic (CTL) response in normal and immunocompromised hosts to murine-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (MAIDS). Normal and MAIDS-infected mice will be vaccinated with live, attenuated, or parasite lysate plus the novel cytokine IL-15 and the CD8+ CTL response will be evaluated. Preliminary studies suggest immunization with either attenuated parasites (ts-4) or parasite lysate plus IL-15 induces a long-term CD8+ CTL response in mice. The avidity of these CD9 cytotoxic cells for infected targets will be assessed and the efficacy of adoptive transfer into infected immunocompromised host will be evaluated. The changes in the host immune system as a result of the adoptive transfer will be studied. Specific Aim #2 is to determine the immune factors that are important for the generation and maintenance of a protective memory CTL response in normal and MAIDS infected mice. The necessity of persistent parasite antigen exposure, CD4+ T cells, and the requirement for ILL-12 in maintaining the memory immune response will be determined. The ability of other cytokines, in particular IL-12 and IL-15, to prolong or increase the memory CTL response in the
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normal hosts will be studied. In the preliminary observations, loss of Toxoplasmaspecific CD8+ CTL response in MAIDS-infected mice was observed. The restoration of the CTL response by in vitro culture of CD8+ T cells with cytokines will be evaluated. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: MECHANISM-BASED NUCLEOTIDE SA
DRUG
SELECTION
AND
DESIGN:
Principal Investigator & Institution: Ullman, Buddy; Professor; Biochem and Molecular Biology; Oregon Health & Science University Portland, or 972393098 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 30-SEP-1999; Project End 31-AUG-2004 Summary: (adapted from the application): This R01 application was submitted in response to PA AI-98-100, "National Cooperative Drug Discovery Groups-Opportunistic Infections" (NCDDG-OI) by a group of investigators from the Oregon Health Sciences University, the University of Pennsylvania, and the Yale University School of Medicine. It represents the continuation of a long-term formal collaboration among the investigators of these three institutions, supported since 1991 with a grant under the auspices of the National Cooperative Drug Discovery Group (NCDDG). The major scientific objective of the proposed studies is to integrate genetic, biochemical, and structural studies on key transporters and enzymes of the pyrimidine and purine salvage pathways in Toxoplasma gondii and related apicomplexan parasites, including Cryptosporidium, Sarcocystis, and Plasmodium. The long-term goal will be focused on developing better and more efficacious antiparasitic drugs for these parasites particularly opportunistic pathogens associated with AIDS. Interference with pyrimidine synthesis has traditionally provided the most effective tool for management of clinical toxoplasmosis. However, despite the fact that (i) all of these pathogens are purine auxotrophs, (ii) the existing precedent of subversive purines as effective treatment for other parasitic diseases, and (iii) that the availability of antiparasitic lead compounds that target either purine or pyrimidine salvage pathways, the latter two pathways have not been extensively explored as targets for chemotherapeutic treatment of either T. gondii or other apicomplexans. Reagents previously developed through this research collaboration include: (1) a genetic map of nucleotide salvage pathways in Toxoplasma; (2) molecular clones encoding T. gondii UPRT, HGXPRT, AK, NTPase, and the parasite's major adenosine transporter; (3) milligram quantities of each of the above soluble enzymes purified to homogeneity, and heterologous systems for transporter expression; (4) high-resolution crystal structures for UPRT, HGXPRT, and AK; and (5) transgenic parasites harboring mutations in (or altered expression of) each of the above genes. These reagents are expected to permit structure-based discovery of new drug classes that target proteins necessary for parasite survival. Currently available molecular, biochemical, and cellular reagents and data that have become available through these studies include: (i) Molecular clones. Full length genomic and cDNA sequences for T. gondii uracil phosphoribosyl transferase (UPRT), nucleoside triphosphate hydrolyze (NTPase), hypoxanthine-guanine-xanthine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGXPRT), adenosine kinase (AK), and the parasite's major adenosine transporter (AT). (ii) Recombinant proteins. E. coli that overexpresses T. gondii UPRT, HGXPRT, AK, or NTPase and effectively provides unlimited quantities of these proteins purified to homogeneity. Functional expression of recombinant AT in a Xenopus oocyte assay system. (iii) Crystal structures. High-resolution three-dimensional crystal structures for the UPRT, HGXPRT, and AK proteins determined by x-ray crystallography. (iv) Transgenic parasites. UPRT-, HGXPRT-, and AK-knockout transgenics created by homologous gene replacement in otherwise syngeneic wild type
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Toxoplasmosis
parasites. AT and xanthine transporter (XT) transgenics isolated by imertional mutagenesis. NTPase-deficient transgenics in which the endogenous enzyme is downregulated by antisense expression. Specific aims for the proposed studies include: (1) performing a detailed biochemical and structural characterization of T. gondii UPRT and AK enzymes. The resolution of the T. gondii UPRT and AK enzymes will be extended and enzyme-substrate and enzyme-product structures determined in order to provide a full understanding of their catalytic mechanisms, and to facilitate the discovery of novel inhibitors through computational methods (see Specific Aim 2). High-resolution crystal structures of a series of site-directed mutant UPRT and AK proteins will also be carried out to assess the roles of key residues in substrate specificity and catalysis. Mutant enzymes will be purified from E. coli for kinetic appraisal, and crystal structures will be determined by molecular modification or molecular replacement to ascertain structural changes. The phenotypic consequences of mutations of interest will be tested in intact parasites by replacement of either the wild type UPRT or AK allele with an appropriate targeting construct; (2) developing screens for identifying and evaluating novel classes of potential antiparasitic drugs that target either UPRT or AK. Small-molecule structural databases will be screened computationally using the crystallographically determined high-resolution apo- and substrate- and product-bound UPRT and AK structures to identify novel compounds that may interact with the active sites of either enzyme. Compounds that are computationally predicted to target the active site of the T. gondii UPRT or AK enzymes will be evaluated as potential lead compounds against the purified UPRT or AK enzymes; E. coli expressing T. gondii UPRT or AK cDNAs; and wild type, UPRT- or AKT. gondii parasites in culture. The crystal structures will be solved for UPRT or AK cocrystallized with promising lead compounds; (3) functionally characterize, localize, and genetically dissect the T. gondii adenosine transporter (AT). AT ligand specificity and kinetic parameters will be determined in detail by functional expression of the AT cDNA in Xenopus laevis oocytes and/or nucleoside transport (NT)-deficient Leishmania donovani. The applicants also plan to use electrophysiologic approaches in the Xenopus expression system to ascertain whether AT is a proton- or Na(+)-coupled symporter that actively concentrates adenosine. Antibodies against AT will be used to determine the subcellular location of AT by immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy. Finally, forward genetic approaches will be implemented to initiate a structure-function analysis of key amino acids of AT that participate in ligand recognition or that govern substrate specificity; (4) isolation of XT cDNA and characterizing the properties of T. gondii XT. The XT gene will be isolated from insertional mutants by marker rescue and used to obtain full-length cDNA clones. Functional properties of XT will be evaluated after heterologous expression of XT cDNA in Xenopus oocytes, and the transporter will be immunolocalized after generating monospecific antibodies; and (5) to crystallize and solve the x-ray structure of the T. gondii NTPase and determine how enzymatic activity is regulated. The NTPase cDNA has been overexpressed in E. coli providing ample and replenishable quantities of monomeric recombinant protein for initial crystallization trials. In parallel, the production, purification, and crystallization of enzymatically active oligomeric NTPase will be pursued. Ultimately, these crystallization experiments will lead to the x-ray structure determination of the NTPase by multiple isomorphous replacement. Concurrent experiments will determine how NTPase functions in AK HGXPRT-, and AT parasites, identify the protein(s) which regulate NTPase enzymatic activity, and evaluate the impact of abrogating NTPase expression on parasite viability. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: METHYLMERCURY NEUROIMMUNOTOXICITY
AND
TOXOPLASMA
23
GONDII
Principal Investigator & Institution: King, Marquea D.; Biomedical Scis/Pathobiology; Virginia Polytechnic Inst and St Univ 460 Turner Street, Suite 306 Blacksburg, Va 24060 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-2001 Summary: Methylmercury is a known neurotoxicant that has been reported to both increase and increase apoptotic processes in lymphocytes and brain cells. In general, however, studies with this and other neurotoxicants have used primarily neurotoxic assessment and only rarely has the possibility that neurotoxicants could be immunotoxic as well been considered. The studies proposed would look at both endpoints associated with immunotoxicity and with neurotoxicity. These endpoints would include apoptosis in organs of the immune system (spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and bone marrow) and the nervous system (brain) in toxicant exposed mice. Capability to reactivate chronic Toxoplasma gondii (ME49) infection and the subsequent development of active toxoplasmosis would also be examined. This infection causes cyst formation and lesions in the brain (which contributes to the dementia noted in some, but not all AIDS patients) and immunosuppression and neurotoxic environmental chemicals have both been suggested to have a role in this process. Dexamethasone would serve as the positive immunosuppressant for these experiments. Differences in responses (apoptosis in the brain and immune system), T. gondii cyst formation and brain lesions) among mice of different strains with different capabilities for apoptosis will be included among the investigation. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: MICRONEME FUNCTION IN TOXOPLASMA Principal Investigator & Institution: Carruthers, Vernon B.; Molecular Microbiol and Immun; Johns Hopkins University 3400 N Charles St Baltimore, Md 21218 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUN-2000; Project End 31-MAY-2005 Summary: Toxoplasma gondii is a major opportunistic pathogen that causes severe disease (toxoplasmosis) in congenitally infected babies and immunocompromised individuals such as those suffering from AIDS. Because it is an obligate intracellular parasite, T. gondii must invade a host cell to survive and replicate. Furthermore, T. gondii invasion is directly responsible for the pathology of toxoplasmosis, since subsequent intracellular replication and egress destroys the infected host cell. Thus, a better understanding of T. gondii invasion could lead to the development of treatments for toxoplasmosis based on inhibition of invasion. Our recent studies indicate that parasite secretion of organelles called micronemes is essential for T. gondii invasion. Thus, the long-term goal of this proposal is to elucidate the function of micronemal proteins in an effort to identify new potential targets for treating toxoplasmosis. We will begin by focusing on MIC2 because our studies suggest that this micronemal protein likely functions as an important adhesin for T. gondii invasion. Specific Aim I will be to use RNA antisense inhibition to measure the importance of MIC2 for T. gondii invasion of host cells and gliding motility. Specific Aim II will be to use deletion and site-specific mutagenesis to identify the sites on MIC2 that mediate cell adhesion. Specific Aim III will be to identify host cell receptors recognized by MIC2. These studies will directly lead to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying T. gondii invasion of host cells. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: MINORITY PREDOCTORAL FELLOWSHIP PROGRAM Principal Investigator & Institution: Villarino, Alejandro V.; Pathobiology; University of Pennsylvania 3451 Walnut Street Philadelphia, Pa 19104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 30-SEP-2001 Summary: Toxoplasma gondii is an important parasitic infection causing much morbidity and mortality in patients with primary or acquired immunodeficiencies. Because production of IFNg is crucial in both innate and adaptive immunity to toxoplasmosis, understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the induction of this cytokine will be paramount to developing novel treatment strategies. The transcription factor NF-kB has been implicated in the production of IFNg by both NK and T cells; principal mediators of innate and adaptive immunity to toxoplasmosis respectively. Using retroviral gene transfection to selectively inhibit NF-kB signaling, it will be possible to assess the role of this transcription factor in the production of IFNg by NK cells in vitro. In addition, by reconstituting sublethally irradiated RAG -/- mice with these virally transfected cells, the importance of NF-kB signaling in innate immunity to toxoplasmosis can be determined in vivo. Furthermore, by employing a transgenic mouse model in which NF-kB signaling is inhibited in T cells, the role of NFkB activation in T cell mediated resistance to T. gondii infection can be determined. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: MODULATION OF CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE FUNCTION BY OPIATES Principal Investigator & Institution: Peterson, Phillip K.; Professor and Director; Minneapolis Medical Research Fdn, Inc. 600 Hfa Bldg Minneapolis, Mn 55404 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAY-1987; Project End 31-MAR-2003 Summary: Because they impair cell-mediated immunity, opiates have been implicated as a cofactor in the progression of HIV-1 infection in the injection drug use (IDU) population. However, little data are available regarding the impact of opiates on cellular defenses at critical sites of infection in AIDS, e.g., the central nervous system (CNS). In this application, experiments are proposed for testing the hypothesis that opiates modulate the function of microglia and astrocytes (the brain's immune cells) and thus promote the pathogenesis of HIV-1 and Toxoplasma gondii, two of the most important causes of CNS disease in AIDS patients. Because of studies showing that endogenous opioid peptides and cocaine share many of the immunomodulatory activities of morphine, these agents will also be investigated. Two approaches will be taken, one involving in vitro murine brain cell culture models and the other involving murine models of toxoplasmic encephalitis. The aims of the in vitro studies have evolved from preliminary studies demonstrating that morphine alters the production by microglia and astrocytes of two key classes of immune mediators: cytokines and free radicals. Purified neonatal murine microglial cells, purified astrocytes, or cocultures of these glial cells with neuronal cells will be used to characterize: 1) the effects of morphine, endogenous opioid peptides, and cocaine on cytokine release from microglia and astrocytes and on the generation of free radicals by microglia, 2) the influence of morphine, endogenous opioid peptides, and cocaine on microglia- and astrocytemediated neuronal cell injury, 3) the impact of morphine and cocaine on glial cellinduced upregulation of HIV- 1 expression in chronically infected promonocytic cells and the effect of these drugs on HIV-1-induced neurotoxicity, and 4) the effect of morphine on microglial cell defense against T. gondii and the influence of morphine on T. gondii-mediated neurotoxicity. The specific aim of the in vivo studies will be to
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characterize the effect of chronic morphine administration on CNS toxoplasmosis. For the in vitro studies, the immunomodulatory activities of endogenous opioids that are found within the brain will be studied by using opioid receptor agonists and antagonists that are highly selective for delta and kappa sites. The focus of the in vitro and in vivo studies, and the related methodologies, will be those cytokines (tumor necrosis factoralpha, transforming growth factor-beta, interleukin[IL]-1, IL-6) and free radicals (superoxide, nitric oxide) implicated in the neuroimmunopathogenesis of HIV-1 or T. gondii. This research is a logical extension of our earlier work ont he effects of opiates and cocaine on peripheral immune cells to studies of immune cells of the brain, a principal target organ not only for drugs of abuse but also for HIV-1. The studies encompassed in the specific aims will contribute to our long-term objectives of understanding how opiates act as a cofactor in AIDS and of devising ways to interfere with the development of full-blown AIDS in the IDU population. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: MOLECULAR BASIS OF TOXOPLASMOSIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Sibley, L David.; Professor; Molecular Microbiology; Washington University Lindell and Skinker Blvd St. Louis, Mo 63130 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-JUL-1994; Project End 31-MAR-2004 Summary: The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii commonly infects humans and poses an important threat to immunocompromised patients, primarily due to the potential for reactivation of latent infection. Our previous studies have shown that Toxoplasma gondii consists of three wide-spread clonal lineages and that the majority of human cases of toxoplasmosis (greater than 80 percent) are caused by type II strains. These findings imply that the small number of genetic differences between Toxoplasma strains underlie important biological differences, including their capacity to cause disease. The mechanisms of tissue pathology that occur during acute toxoplasmosis or reactivation of latency by different strains of Toxoplasma are poorly understood. To address this deficiency, we will examine the role of the parasite genotype in infection, dissemination, and tissue pathology during toxoplasmosis in the mouse model. We will identify and evaluate specific parasite genes that are responsible for pathology during toxoplasmosis focusing on genes that mediate acute virulence and genes that are associated with elevated levels of chronic infection. A combination of molecular genetic strategies will be used to directly test the role of specific parasite genes in toxoplasmosis in the mouse model. Identification of parasite virulence genes may facilitate future studies designed to combat toxoplasmosis in humans, including AIDS patients suffering from reactivation. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: MOLECULAR TOXOPLASMOSIS
IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS
OF
CEREBRAL
Principal Investigator & Institution: Suzuki, Yasuhiro; Senior Research Associate; Biomedical Scis/Pathobiology; Virginia Polytechnic Inst and St Univ 460 Turner Street, Suite 306 Blacksburg, Va 24060 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 24-SEP-2001; Project End 31-JUL-2006 Summary: (Provided by the applicant): Toxoplasmic encephalitis (TE) is a lifethreatening disease in immunocompromised patients such as those with AIDS. The immunopathogenesis of TE remains to be defined. We have identified three factors to be critical for determining the host resistance to this disease. These are IFN-gamma-
26
Toxoplasmosis
mediated immune response, the genetic background of the host and the strain (antigens) of T. gondii. It appears that the genetic background of the hostand the strain (antigens) of T. gondii affect the IFN-gamma-mediated immune response, thereby contribute to determining the host resistance. Thus, for obtaining understanding of the molecular basis of host resistance to TE, I propose to define the mechanisms how IFN-gammamediated immune response is operated in the brain and how the genetic background of the host and the strain (antigens) of T. gondii affect the immune response. To accomplish this long-term specific aim, I will address three main questions in this proposal. My recent preliminary studies demonstrated that infected athymic nude and SCID mice, which lack T cells, had high levels of IFN-gamma expression in their brains. Another series of preliminary studies using a transfer of immune T cells demonstrated that such IFN-gamma expression by the non-T cell(s) is required for transferred immune T cells to demonstrate their protective activity in the brain to prevent TE. Thus, the first specific aim is to identify the non-T cell(s) which produces IFN-gamma in the brain and to analyze the role and function of T cells in their collaboration with the non-T cell(s) for prevention of TE. The second specific aim is to analyze the mechanism of T cell entry into the brain in infected host. T cells need to enter the brain to exert their protective activity. My preliminary studies suggested an important role for IFN-gamma, in regulating T cell trafficking into the brain of infected mice. Thus, I propose to analyze the role for IFN-gamma, in regulation of expression of adhesion molecules involved in cell trafficking on cerebral vessels and T cells. Under this specific aim, I also propose to analyze the role of IFN-gamma and adhesion molecules on the T cell entry into the brain. The third specific aim to address the effects of host genes on the protective immune response to TE. Since my preliminary studies revealed an importance of Vbeta8-bearing T cells in genetic resistance of BALB/c mice to TE, I propose to analyze the mechanism of the protective activity of this T cell population in their resistance. I also propose to analyze T. gondii antigen(s) which stimulate Vbeta8-bearing T cells. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: PROTEASE INHIBITORS--NOVEL DRUG THERAPY FOR T GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Reed, Sharon L.; Professor; Pathology; University of California San Diego 9500 Gilman Dr, Dept. 0934 La Jolla, Ca 92093 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1998; Project End 31-MAY-2003 Summary: (Adapted from the Applicant's Abstract): The identification of potential new drug targets is important for the treatment of T. gondii. The PI has characterized cystein proteinase activity in tachyzoites of T. gondii, cloned a Toxoplasma cysteine proteinase gene and shown that potent new cystein proteinase inhibitors inhibit intracellular multiplication. The applicant will have access to the newest generation of cystein proteinase inhibitors as well as cores for expression of recombinant proteinases, computer modeling crystallography. They will test the hypothesis that cysteine proteinases play a critical role in the pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis and may be a novel drug target. Their first specific aim is to characterize the cysteine proteinases of T. gondii by expressing the recombinant enzyme comparing the recombinant and native enzymes identifying other potential cysteine proteinase genes and their gene products and producing specific antibody to the proteinase. The second aim is to evaluate the role of the proteinases in the pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis by localizing the proteinase within the parasite, evaluating the release of cystine proteinases and their role in peptide degradation and evaluating the effect of specific cysteine proteinase inhibitors on parasite survival and identify their site of action. The third aim is to determine the effect of blocking cysteine proteinases in vivo in mouse models of toxoplasmosis by blocking
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acute infection in mice with specific inhibitors and comparing the outcome of infection with parasites lacking the cys proteinase gene. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: PYRIMIDINE BIOSYNTHESIS IN TOXOPLASMA GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Zimmermann, Barbara H.; University of Puerto Rico Med Sciences Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, Pr 00936 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: Parasitic protozoa are a heterogeneous group of unicellular organisms causing diseases such as malaria, Chagas diseases, and toxoplasmosis, which affect millions of people world wide. The agent causing toxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma gondii, produces life-threatening infections in immunosuppressed patients and in the fetus (Wong and Remington, 1993; Wong and Remington, 1994). Toxoplasmic encephalitis occurs in 10-32% of HIV-positive patients in the United States (Ammassari et al, 1996). The proposed research focuses on two enzymes of the de novo pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway in T. gondii. The aspartate transcarbamylase (ATCase) will be studied to generate basic information about the structure of the pathway. Sequencing the ATCase will show whether multi- functional or mono-functional proteins catalyze the first three steps. Kinetic analysis will determine whether the step catalyzed by ATCase is regulated. The proposed research would produce the first recombinant ATCase from a protozoan parasite, and would allow crystallization trials to take place. The ubiquinone binding site of the dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODase) will be used as a model to test whether the species specificity for ubiquinones of a given polyprenyl chain length is a feature of such sites. Residues in the sites will be identified using photoreactive ubiquinone analogs. Site-directed mutagenesis will be conferred by making mutations at the site. These studies may shed light on why ubiquinone analogs, such as atovaquone, exhibit species specificity. Atovaquone is currently used as an alternative treatment for HIV-associated toxoplasmosis (Fung and Kirschenbaum, 1996), and is in clinical trials in patients with Plasmodium flaciparum malaria (Lell et al., 1998). Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: REGULATION OF EARLY IMMUNE RESPONSE TO TOXOPLASMA GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Hunter, Christopher A.; Associate Professor; Pathobiology; University of Pennsylvania 3451 Walnut Street Philadelphia, Pa 19104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-DEC-1997; Project End 30-NOV-2001 Summary: The early events after infection with T. gondii result in innate resistance that prevents infection overwhelming the host before development of protective T cell responses. Interleukin-12 (IL-12) is central to both the innate, natural killer (NK) cell mediated, mechanism of resistance and the development of protective T cell responses. These effects of IL-12 are due to its ability to stimulate NK and T cells to produce IFNgamma, the major mediator of resistance to T. gondii. However, the ability of IL-12 to stimulate IFN-gamma is dependent on other cofactors which can enhance or inhibit IL12 mediated events. Understanding how the cellular immune system is regulated during the initiation of an immune response to infection could lead to the development of new approaches to boost the cellular immune response which would be useful in treatment of opportunistic infections, cancer and vaccine design. This proposal has 3 specific aims which focus on the factors that regulate the protective effects of IL-12 during the early immune response to T. gondii. 1. How does the B7-CD28/CTLA-4
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Toxoplasmosis
interaction regulate NK cell responses during infection? Infection of mice with T. gondii leads to the expression of CD28 by NK cells. The interaction of CD28 with B7 molecules (found on macrophages) enhances IL-12-driven NK cell production of IFN-gamma. We aim to identify the stimulus for NK cells to express CD28 during infection and to differentiate the role of B7-1 and B7-2 in the regulation of NK responses during infection. In addition, our demonstration that activated NK cells express CTLA-4 suggest a role for this ligand for B7 in regulation of NK cell activity. Since CTLA-4 is an important inhibitor of CD28-induced T cell responses, we will determine if stimulation through CTLA-4 can inhibit NK cell function in vitro and in mice infected with T. gondii. 2. What is the role of IGIF in the early immune response to T. gondii? IGIF is a newly described cytokine which, when used in combination with IL-12, results in remarkable levels of NK and T cell production of IFN-gamma. Infection of SCID mice with T. gondii results in increased expression of mRNA for IGIF and pre- treatment with IGIF reduces the parasite load in these mice. These data suggest an important role for IGIF in the regulation of NK cell responses to T. gondii. We will determine the basis for the protective effects of IGIF treatment and the role of endogenous IGIF in NK and T cell mediated resistance to T. gondii. 3. How does IL-10 regulate the early immune response during toxoplasmosis? The production of IL-10 (an inhibitor of cell-mediated immunity) in mice infected with T. gondii has been associated with increased susceptibility to this infection. However, challenge of IL-10 deficient mice with T. gondii results in early mortality due to the development of a "shock" reaction, characterized by high levels of IL-12 and the production of remarkable levels of IFN-gamma by CD4+T cells. We will analyze the mechanisms that underlie this pathogenic reaction and identify the T cell subsets involved in this "shock" reaction. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: REGULATION OF MACROPHAGE CELL DEATH BY TOXOPLASMA GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Orlofsky, Amos Z.; Pathology; Yeshiva University 500 W 185Th St New York, Ny 10033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2004; Project Start 15-DEC-2003; Project End 30-NOV-2008 Summary: (provided by applicant): Toxoplasmosis is an important opportunistic infection in AIDS patients. A key feature of T. gondii pathogenesis is the ability of the tachyzoite form of the parasite to use the host cells it invades as incubators for proliferation. Recently an important aspect of this incubation program has emerged for several protozoan pathogens, including T. gondii: the ability of the parasite to promote host cell survival (inhibition of apoptosis). It is unknown how the parasite prevents host cell death. In host macrophages, the problem is compounded by the fact that T. gondii invasion takes place without activation of the anti-apoptotic NF-kB pathway that is normally stimulated by exposure of this cell type to pathogens. Three questions need to be addressed: Is there an in vivo death pathway, generated by host defense, whose initiation or execution is prevented by the intracellular parasite? What is the mechanism by which death is prevented? Finally, how does the parasite benefit from this process? The long-term objectives of this study are to answer these three questions. T. gondiiinhibited apoptosis has been described in vitro using parasitized cell lines and exogenous apoptotic stimuli. Results presented here show in vivo that parasitized macrophages are preferentially spared from apoptosis in a mouse model of acute toxoplasmosis, indicating that the parasite-mediated protection is a naturally occurring pathophysiologic mechanism. This study will develop a convergence between this in vivo model and mechanistic analysis of T. gondii-regulated apoptosis in cultured
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macrophages. Specific components of the host animal inflammatory response will be manipulated using inhibitors and gene-targeted mice to assess the initiating factors for macrophage apoptosis that is susceptible to parasite regulation. Expression and blockade of apoptotic regulators will be studied in vitro and in vivo to determine the mechanism of parasite-mediated protection. Adoptive transfer assays will be used to link the in vitro and in vivo studies. Finally cytotoxic T lymphocytes will be exploited as a tool to distinguish parasite-regulated apoptosis from parasite-regulated death per se with respect to effects on T. gondii expansion in vivo. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: ROLE OF NEUTROPHILS DURING TOXOPLASMOSIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Denkers, Eric Y.; Associate Professor; Microbiology and Immunology; Cornell University Ithaca Office of Sponsored Programs Ithaca, Ny 14853 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 15-JUN-2000; Project End 31-MAY-2004 Summary: The long-term objective of this project is to understand how the host immune system responds to the opportunistic protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, and to define the conditions under which immunity is effective and those under which it fails. This application specifically focuses on the role of neutrophils during T. gondii infection. It has recently been shown in mice that neutrophils are essential to survive acute toxoplasmosis, but the means by which they mediate protection are unclear. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) are well known as one of the first components of the immune system to arrive at a focus of infection. The major function of these cells is conventionally thought to be microbicidal activity, mediated by phagocytosis and release of toxic molecules such as superoxide. However, a newly emerging view is that neutrophils are an important source of several important proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Our hypothesis is that PMN cytokine production accounts for their protective function, and that these cells are a crucial early IL- 12 source which triggers protective immunity to the parasite. There are four specific aims to evaluate this hypothesis. 1, Characterize the spectrum of cytokines and chemokines released by mouse neutrophils in response to T. gondii, and determine how the responses are modulated by exogenous cytokines. This will be accomplished using a combined approach of cytokine microarrays to examine upregulated gene transcription, and ELISA to examine protein expression. 2, Determine whether PMN serve as a source of cytokines, in particular IL-12, during infection initiated by intraperitoneal and oral inoculation. Confocal fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry for intracellular cytokines will be employed to achieve this objective. 3, Determine if parasite-triggered neutrophil cytokines influence type 1 cytokine-based immunity. This aim will be achieved examining the influence of neutrophils and their products on dendritic, T, and NK cell function. 4, Determine if neutrophils display toxoplasmastatic activity, and if such a response is influenced by exogenous cytokines. The ability of these cells to phagocytose tachyzoites will be evaluated using fluorescent endocytosis markers, and effects on parasite replication will be determined by uptake of 3H-UdR, a compound selectively incorporated by proliferating tachyzoites. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Toxoplasmosis
•
Project Title: SECRETION, ORGANELLE ASSOCIATION, & THE T GONDII VACUOLE Principal Investigator & Institution: Joiner, Keith A.; Professor; Internal Medicine; Yale University 47 College Street, Suite 203 New Haven, Ct 065208047 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-AUG-1990; Project End 31-JUL-2002 Summary: Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite which is the leading cause of focal central nervous system infections in patients with AIDS and Causes devastating congenital infections. The parasite resides within cells inside a specialized membrane bound vacuole which does not fuse with host organelles of the endocytic cascade but has tightly opposed mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum from the host cell. The vacuolar space and parasitophorous vacuole membrane surrounding the intracellular parasite are modified by protein secretion from parasite dense granules. It is our hypothesis that parasite viability and replication are absolutely dependent upon both organelle association and dense granule secretion, and that intervening in these processes will block parasite growth. To address the mechanism and consequences of organelle association, interacting proteins in the parasitophorous vacuole and organelle membranes which mediate the association will be identified and characterized. The physiological relevance of the association will be explored by attempting to disrupt the association. To address the process of protein delivery into and secretion from dense granules, the signals which mediate or exclude delivery of proteins into dense granules will investigated, and the machinery which controls dense granule secretion will be identified. Manipulations which block delivery of secretion of dense granule proteins will be tested for their effects on parasite viability. These experiments explore two processes which are certain to be critical for successful infection with T. Gondii, and will provide insight into these novel mechanisms for intracellular parasitism. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
•
Project Title: INFECTIONS
STUDY
OF
PERMISSIVE/NON-PERMISSIVE
T.
GONDII
Principal Investigator & Institution: Radke, Jay R.; Veterinary Molecular Biology; Montana State University (Bozeman) Bozeman, Mt 59717 Timing: Fiscal Year 2003; Project Start 15-JUL-2003; Project End 30-JUN-2005 Summary: (provided by applicant): Toxoplasma gondii infects approximately 1.5 million human subjects annually, and is the third-leading cause of foodborne mortality in the US each year [1]. Infections are most often asymptomatic, yet can be dangerous to the unborn and to patients undergoing chemotherapy or organ transplant, and also to people with AIDS [2-4]. While this organism invades most nucleated host cells in vitro, it remains a paradox that necrotic plaques found in tissues of the brain are the primary pathology associated with severe or fatal encephalitis [1,5-7]. Tachyzoites invade neurons, microglia and astrocytes of the brain [8-11], but we have observed in mixed primary cultures that astrocytes limit parasite replication, when compared with the permissive microglia. These distinct host cell environments likely arise via activation of distinctly different biochemical and metabolic pathways in response to infection. It is evident that multiple host cell mRNAs in human fibroblasts are modulated following parasite infection [12, 41-42]. Here, we propose to characterize global host gene expression profiles using microarray technology, and to identify genes that are differentially expressed in response to parasite infection of the non-permissive astrocytes when compared with the replication-tolerant microglia. The identification of
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host cell-specific genes relevant to immune defense, metabolic, regulatory and signaling pathways modulated in response to tachyzoite infection will allow for focused, hypotheses driven molecular genetic experiments on individual or co-regulated groups of mRNAs defining the molecular correlates of these distinctly different host cell environments, and may provide the basis for potential development of an effective treatment against both acute toxoplasmosis and chronic disease. To this end, we will accomplish the following Specific AIMS: (1) isolate tachyzoite-infected astrocytes and microglia from primary murine brain cell cultures using flow cytometry and a highspeed cell sorter, and 2) compare gene expression in tachyzoite-infected and uninfected murine astrocytes and microglia using DNA microarrays. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: SUPPRESSION INTERFERONS
OF
B-LYMPHOMAS
VIA
INDUCTION
OF
Principal Investigator & Institution: Thomas-Tikhonenko, Andrei; Pathobiology; University of Pennsylvania 3451 Walnut Street Philadelphia, Pa 19104 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-JUL-2002; Project End 30-JUN-2004 Summary: (provided by applicant): The ability of various infections to suppress neoplastic growth is well-documented. We have previously demonstrated that tumor suppression during acute toxoplasmosis does not involve cytotoxic functions of the immune system and readily occurs in immunocompromised mice. Instead, it relies on systemic inhibition of angiogenesis by circulating factors, most likely interferons. To determine whether AIDS-related Burkitt lymphoma would succumb to infectionmediated suppression, we have established a new mouse model for this disease. It is based on overexpression of the c-Myc oncoprotein in p53-null bone marrow progenitors. Using this model, we have found that growth of B-lymphomas during acute toxoplasmosis was completely abolished. In this proposal, we will study mechanisms whereby type I and II interferons suppress lymphomagenesis. We will use STATI-null mice in which both type I and type II interferon pathways are inactivated, and determine whether in these animals angiogenesis during infection is restored. We will also determine whether growth of neoplastic B-cells is directly inhibited by interferons. To this end, we will cross STATI- and p53-null mice and generate B-lymphomas that are deficient in STATI expression. They will be implanted into Toxoplasma gondii-infected STATl -null mice. Since in this system both host and tumor cells are refractory to interferons, we expect that B-lymphomagenesis would be completely restored. This would suggest that interferons play a dual role in lymphoma surveillance during infection: direct and aniogenesis-mediated. We will then determine whether exposure to T.gondii antigens (STAg) would lead to the induction of interferons and suppression of angiogenesis and lymphomagenesis. We will also perform tumor load studies in STAgtreated scid-beige mice, to demonstrate that anti-neoplastic properties of STAg do not rely on cell-mediated cytotoxic immunity. This anticipated result will establish that STAg or similar protozoan or bacterial antigens could be developed into new therapeutic modalities for AIDS-related Burkitt lymphoma. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: SURFACE PROTEINS OF TOXOPLASMA GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Ward, Gary E.; Microbiol & Molecular Genetics; University of Vermont & St Agric College 340 Waterman Building Burlington, Vt 05405 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-FEB-1998; Project End 31-JAN-2003
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Toxoplasmosis
Summary: The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is an important human pathogen. As many as 4000 children are born each year in the USA with congenital toxoplasmosis, the symptoms of which range from impaired vision to hydrocephalus and death. T. gondii has also emerged as a major opportunistic pathogen of immunocompromised persons. Toxoplasmic encephalitis is one of the most common causes of central nervous system pathology in AIDS patients: it has been estimated that 20-47 percent of AIDS patients in the USA develop toxoplasmic encephalitis, which is uniformly fatal if left untreated. There is an urgent need for the development of new therapeutic approaches to treating toxoplasmosis, particularly for AIDS patients. The pathology of toxoplasmosis is the direct result of host cell invasion by the parasite, followed by parasite replication and host cell lysis. Little is known about proteins on the surface of the parasite which mediate host cell invasion. The goal of the proposed work is to fill in this gap in our knowledge, by identifying novel parasite surface proteins and determining their biological function. The identification of surface proteins which play a role in invasion may be an important first step in the development of new chemotherapeutic or vaccine-based approaches to preventing or controlling acute infection. Specific Aims. All of the parasite surface proteins identified to date are anchored to the plasma membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor. None of these proteins appears to play an essential role in invasion. They are abundant and immunogenic, making the detection of other surface proteins difficult. We will take three independent approaches to identifying previously undescribed T. gondii surface proteins: (1) Non-GPI-linked surface proteins will be identified by surface labeling parasites after enzymatic removal of the GPI-linked proteins; (2) Photoaffinity methods will be used to specifically identify transmembrane surface proteins; and (3) A novel hybridoma screening strategy will be used to identify externally exposed parasite proteins which play a role in invasion. Immunochemical, cell biological, and molecular genetic approaches will then be used to (4) Determine the biological function of new parasite surface proteins identified in the course of accomplishing Specific Aims 1-3. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: THE PLASTID OF TOXOPLASMA GONDII Principal Investigator & Institution: Parsons, Marilyn; Professor and Associate Director; Seattle Biomedical Research Institute 4 Nickerson St, Ste 200 Seattle, Wa 98109 Timing: Fiscal Year 2002; Project Start 01-APR-2002; Project End 31-MAR-2007 Summary: (Provided by the applicant): Toxoplasma gondii is an important opportunistic pathogen, causing an episode of toxoplasmic encephalitis in approximately one of every thirteen individuals succumbing to AIDS. Approximately 3 percent of individuals HIV positive initially present with toxoplasmosis. The parasite possesses a unique organelle called the apicoplast, which is genetically and functionally related to plastids such as chloroplasts. Because the human host lacks a similar organelle, the apicoplast is thought to represent an important potential target for the development of anti-parasitic agents. Little is known, however, about the function and biogenesis of the apicoplast. This proposal outlines experiments aimed at characterizing the mechanisms by which proteins are targeted to the apicoplast. We and others have recently shown that proteins destined for the stroma of the T. gondii plastid initially enter the parasite secretory system and then are routed to the plastid. We have generated three models of trafficking to the apicoplast that will be tested in the proposed studies. We will exploit ligand- regulated aggregation to examine the flow of proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum to the apicoplast. We will also identify an apicoplast membrane marker protein and study it at the biochemical and genetic level.
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33
The proposed experiments will provide additional insight into the biogenesis of the apicoplast and its importance to T. gondii and related pathogens. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: TOXOPLASMA STRUCTURE/BIOSYNTHESIS
BRADYZOITE
CYST
WALL
Principal Investigator & Institution: Boothroyd, John C.; Professor; Microbiology and Immunology; Stanford University Stanford, Ca 94305 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1999; Project End 28-FEB-2003 Summary: (Adapted from Applicant's Abstract) Toxoplasma gondii is a significant cause of disease in congenitally infected infants and patients with alterations of the immune system. The disease is perpetuated in nature by encysted forms of the parasite, either as undercooked meat infected with tissue cysts or as oocysts in food or water contaminated with cat excrement. The overall purpose of this proposal is to decipher the molecular events involved in this process, focusing on the structure and function of carbohydrate residues found in the cyst wall. The specific aims of the proposal are directed at a) elucidating structural and biosynthetic aspects of N-acetylglucosameine (GlcNAc) and N-acetylgalactosomaine (GalNAc) containing carbohydrate moieties which have been identified in cyst walls and b) relating these aspects to the biological role of these structures in differentiation of the parasite. The first aim is to determine the structure and linkage of GalNAc and GlcNAc residues in cyst glycoconjugates with the long term objective of studying their biosynthesis and ascertaining whether they serve as precursor moieties for the synthesis of the cell wall which is a key event in differentiation. The second aim is to characterize and purify chitin synthase which is developmentally regulated enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of chitin. These studies will facilitate the long term objective of delineating genetic control for differentiation at the molecular level by identifying cyst specific genes encoding developmentally regulated proteins involved in the biosynthesis of cell wall polysaccharides. The last aim is to relate the findings obtained at the structural and biochemical level to growth and differentiation of the parasite in vitro as well as in vivo in the murine model of toxoplasmosis. The ultimate goal is to design strategies to arrest differentiation, interrupt the life cycle of the parasite, and control spread of disease. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: REGULATION
TOXOPLASMA
ENCEPHALITIS
IN
AIDS:BRADYZOITE
Principal Investigator & Institution: Weiss, Louis M.; Professor; Pathology; Yeshiva University 500 W 185Th St New York, Ny 10033 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1996; Project End 31-DEC-2004 Summary: Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous Apicomplexan protozoan parasite of mammals and birds, which is responsible for several important clinical syndromes in humans. The predilection of this parasite for the central nervous system (CNS) causing behavioral disorders and especially, fatal necrotizing encephalitis constitutes its major threat to patients with WV infection. CNS toxoplasmosis ranks among the ten most commonly occurring opportunistic infections in AIDS patients, and may well be a greater direct cause of morbidity and mortality than other more common opportunistic infections. If acquired during pregnancy infection can result in the syndrome of congenital toxoplasmosis with attendant encephalitis, mental retardation, and chorioretinitis. In both conditions, reactivation of the latent encysted state of the
34
Toxoplasmosis
organism (bradyzoite) to the active replicative form (tachyzoite) is associated with progression of disease and is directly implicated in the pathology that attends this infection. Despite major advances in our understanding of the cell biology of T. gondii as well as our ability to manipulate this parasite in vitro, very little is known about the developmental pathways and control mechanisms in the transition of tachyzoites to bradyzoites. Stress conditions are associated with the induction of bradyzoite development and in the last granting period we identified several beat shock proteins (lisps) associated with this differentiation event. BAG 1, a small heat shock protein (sxnHsp), is induced early during bradyzoite differentiation. This smHsp was cloned and a knockout constructed. The BAG1 knockout formed fewer cysts in vivo; suggesting that BAG1 was associated with the ability of T. gondif to form cysts. In addition, we identified a glycoprotein, CST1, that is also induced early during bradyzoite development. We now plan to focus our studies on the differentiation or developmental biology of T. gondii and define those factors that are involved in the interconversion of the active or acute stage to the latent or chronic stage of this disease. Thus, this proposal will entail the characterization of a unique early bradyzoite antigen CST1, definition of the function(s) of BAG1 (a smHsp) and the characterization of the stress response in T. gondil. Each of these specific aims will fUrther our understanding of the early events in bradyzoite differentiation leading to chronic (latent) toxoplasmosis. Therapeutic modalities aimed at interdicting bradyzoite formation should eradicate this infection in the infected host, thereby eliminating bradyzoite reactivation which is the key element in the development of CNS toxoplasmosis in AIDS. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: TOXOPLASMA GONDII--DIAGNOSIS AND PREVENTION IN AIDS Principal Investigator & Institution: Kasper, Lloyd H.; Professor; Medicine; Dartmouth College 11 Rope Ferry Rd. #6210 Hanover, Nh 03755 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1990; Project End 31-MAY-2003 Summary: (adapted from the Abstract): The overall aim of this competing renewal project is to understand more fully the parasite:host cell interface and, thereby, define key elements that could be used for targets to control toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients. Work in the last funding period has allowed the demonstration that a specific parasite ligand:host cell receptor interaction occurs prior to the process of invasion. The work proposed here is for the identification of this host cell receptor that is unregulated during the S phase of the cell cycle. This gene will be isolated from a cDNA library and compared to other known eukaryotic receptor proteins. The receptor gene will be expressed in insect cells, nonpermissive for T. gondii infection, and the interaction between parasite and receptor studied. In addition, the receptor will be overexpressed or removed from other eukaryotic cells. SAG1 will be expressed in N. caninum to examine the specificity of the host cell receptor for SAG1. The second aim is to explore whether other parasite attachment ligands, in particular the MIC proteins, are important in the process of attachment and activation of human monocytes. Recent observations suggest MIC1 is involved in the interface between parasite attachment and invasion of human monocytes. Studies are proposed to determine whether MIC1 (and perhaps MIC2 and 3) are involved in this process by functional analysis of the MIC protein during the process of invasion and internalization in human monocytic cells. The innate immune response of monocytes stimulated by MIC engagement of the host cell receptor will be evaluated by determining the activation of two signal transduction pathways, induction of cytokines, and the production of a known soluble factor that downregulates host lymphoid proliferation. Strategies directed at interfering with
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35
attachment between parasite ligands and host cell receptor(s) should provide novel targets for the development of new therapeutic agents for treating this opportunistic infection in those afflicted with AIDS. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: TOXOPLASMOSIS--INFECTION AND IMMUNE RESPONSE Principal Investigator & Institution: Remington, Jack S.; Palo Alto Medical Foundation Res Inst 795 El Camino Real Palo Alto, Ca 94301 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-1977; Project End 31-MAR-2002 Summary: We propose to develop more sensitive and specific methods for diagnosis of acute toxoplasmosis in pregnant women, congenitally infected newborns, acute ocular toxoplasmosis and immunocompromised patients. To achieve this, we will attempt to identify antigens/epitopes recognized by Ig subclasses during the acute infection in adults and by those produced in the congenitally infected fetus/newborn. Recombinant antigens and selected synthetic peptides derived from surface and secreted antigens of T.gondii will be studies. To identify genes that encode antigens recognized by antibodies early during infection, tachyzoite cDNA expression libraries will be screened with purified IgM, IgA and IgE antibodies from sera of acutely infected patients and with antibodies raised against the unique acute phase AC antigen. To identify linear and conformational epitopes recognized by acute phase antibodies, we will attempt to identify peptides that mimic epitopes from T.gondii acute phase antigens using a phagedisplay random peptide library. Our observation of unique antigens recognized by the fetus but not by their mothers will be further examined to improve diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. A new model of toxoplasmosis in mice genetically resistant to development of toxoplasmic encephalitis (TE) that more nearly resembles the natural resistance of humans to T. gondii (in humans, life threatening TE only develops when the immune system is severely impaired), will be used to study the role of alpha beta, gamma/delta, CD4+ and CD8+T cells (using adoptive transfer), cytokines and the major surface antigen SAG1 in resistance against and the histopathology of TE. Previous models were in mice genetically susceptible to development of TE> Cytokine production by and cytotoxic activity of gamma/delta and alpha/beta cells from brains of mice will be examined following infection. We will attempt to quantify parasites in the brain using transgenetic tachyzoites that express beta-galactosidase. We recently demonstrated for the first time that a clinical manifestation of toxoplasmosis, (TE in AIDS), may be under genetic regulation. We propose to determine whether toxoplasmic lymphadenopathy is also under genetic regulation since only approximately 10% of acutely infected, immunocompetent individuals develop this clinical manifestation. We propose to continue seeking more active and less toxic therapies for toxoplasmosis. We will identify the most satisfactory in vitro method for this purpose by comparing 3 methods now in use. Drugs will be tested alone or in combination with other drugs and/or cytokines in vitro and in mouse models of acute toxoplasmosis or TE. Drug activity against the cyst form will also be studied. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
•
Project Title: TREATMENT OF CONGENITAL TOXOPLASMOSIS Principal Investigator & Institution: Mcleod, Rima L.; Professor; Ophthalmology and Visual Sci; University of Chicago 5801 S Ellis Ave Chicago, Il 60637 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1994; Project End 30-JUN-2005
36
Toxoplasmosis
Summary: Long=term objectives are to reduce morbidity and mortality due to congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection by improved use of antimicrobial agents and understanding its pathogenesis. Our specific aim is to determine optimal methods to evaluate, treat and provide follow up care for children suffering from congenital toxoplasmosis. Our ongoing, prospective, randomized treatment trial will be continued, as initially planned, to determine early and long term outcome for treated children, including children who have been treated in utero. Cognitive, motor, ocular and audiologic outcome will be determined following treatment with one of two dosages of pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine during the first year of life. Evaluation of the cohort of older, untreated "historical patient" children with retinal disease provides an ideal and well characterized group of patients for a future randomized, placebo-controlled study of effect of antimicrobial agents active against encysted bradyzoites on relapsing chorioretinitis. These studies will contribute to determining how to best provide medical care to children afflicted with congenital toxoplasmosis. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen •
Project Title: TROPICAL DISEASES SYMPOSIUM Principal Investigator & Institution: Hill, George C.; Levi Watkins, Jr. Professor and Associat; Microbiology; Meharry Medical College 1005-D B Todd Blvd Nashville, Tn 37208 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-APR-2001; Project End 31-MAR-2006 Summary: (provided by applicant): This proposal requests five-year support for a symposium entitled "Recent Advances in the Immunology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Tropical Diseases". The first symposium of this series will be held at Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, on Monday and Tuesday, April 2-3, 2001, and will be entitled "Molecular Biology of Tropical Diseases International Health". The goals of these symposia are threefold: 1. To increase the opportunity for interaction among scientists investigating various organisms which cause tropical diseases. Immunologists, biochemists, molecular biologists and cell biologist come together to discuss recent advances in their area and consider future directions of research. 2. To continue to attract minority students from historically black colleges and universities to Meharry Medical College in order to simulate their interest in research in the biomedical sciences as well as in various areas of tropical diseases. 3. To provide a forum for discussion of Tropical Diseases and International Health and the role minority scientists can play in this effort. The symposia will be sponsored by the Division of Sponsored Research, School of Graduate Studies and Research and the Department of Microbiology at Meharry Medical College. As part of this conference, undergraduate and graduate students from historically black colleges and universities will be encouraged to attend and present posters on research that they are undertaking in various laboratories and discuss ongoing research at our institution. The symposium will include six invited lecturers in various areas in tropical diseases covering areas such as African trypanosomiasis, schistosomiasis, malaria, leishmaniasis, leprosy, and Chagas disease. Ample time will be available for discussions. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: UNIVERSITY OF P.R., PEDIATRIC AIDS CLINICAL TRIALS UNIT Principal Investigator & Institution: Febo, Irma L.; Pediatrics; University of Puerto Rico Med Sciences Medical Sciences Campus San Juan, Pr 00936 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-MAR-1992; Project End 28-FEB-2002
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Summary: -This is a new proposal for the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Unit at the University of Puerto Rico, School of Medicine. Our main objective is to comply and collaborate with the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Research Agenda. Through the ACTG Clinical Trials Protocols we enroll pediatric HIV infected patients and HIVinfected pregnant women to perinatal studies, contributing to the research protocols. Our unit follows the design and methods specified by each of the ACTG protocols to comply with each study requirements. In the last 4 years we have enrolled 164 patients to PACTG Protocols with an excellent retention rate. Our unit has been able to maintain a performance in the excellent range through 1995-96. Our Pediatric AIDS Program/PACTU located at the University Pediatric Hospital (UPH) has a multidisciplinary staff to serve the patient population, that consists of physicians, (pediatrics and pediatric infectious diseases), nurses, pharmacists, nutritionist and administrative and data management personnel. We are participants of the Women and Infants Transmission Study since 1989; enrolling over 50 HIV infected pregnant women per year. Our unit receives referrals of HIV infected children throughout public and private agencies and community based organizations to enter clinical trials. We evaluate an average of 58 new pediatric patients per year. We have the capability to enroll over 10 new parents per year to PACTG protocols and over 12 pregnant women to ACTG perinatal protocols. Our unit has the ability to comply with all the goals of the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
E-Journals: PubMed Central3 PubMed Central (PMC) is a digital archive of life sciences journal literature developed and managed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).4 Access to this growing archive of e-journals is free and unrestricted.5 To search, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Pmc, and type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box. This search gives you access to full-text articles. The following is a sample of items found for toxoplasmosis in the PubMed Central database: •
Activity of trovafloxacin in combination with other drugs for treatment of acute murine toxoplasmosis. by Khan AA, Slifer T, Araujo FG, Polzer RJ, Remington JS.; 1997 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=163821
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Antigen-Specific CD8 + T Cells Protect against Lethal Toxoplasmosis in Mice Infected with Neospora caninum. by Kasper LH, Khan IA.; 1998 Apr; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=108088
3 4
Adapted from the National Library of Medicine: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/about/intro.html.
With PubMed Central, NCBI is taking the lead in preservation and maintenance of open access to electronic literature, just as NLM has done for decades with printed biomedical literature. PubMed Central aims to become a world-class library of the digital age. 5 The value of PubMed Central, in addition to its role as an archive, lies in the availability of data from diverse sources stored in a common format in a single repository. Many journals already have online publishing operations, and there is a growing tendency to publish material online only, to the exclusion of print.
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Toxoplasmosis
•
Atovaquone Nanosuspensions Show Excellent Therapeutic Effect in a New Murine Model of Reactivated Toxoplasmosis. by Scholer N, Krause K, Kayser O, Muller RH, Borner K, Hahn H, Liesenfeld O.; 2001 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=90544
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Clarithromycin-minocycline combination as salvage therapy for toxoplasmosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. by Lacassin F, Schaffo D, Perronne C, Longuet P, Leport C, Vilde JL.; 1995 Jan; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=162527
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Clinical Value of Specific Immunoglobulin E Detection by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay in Cases of Acquired and Congenital Toxoplasmosis. by Foudrinier F, Villena I, Jaussaud R, Aubert D, Chemla C, Martinot F, Pinon JM.; 2003 Apr; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=153890
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Comparative Immunoglobulin G Antibody Profiles between Mother and Child (CGMC Test) for Early Diagnosis of Congenital Toxoplasmosis. by Gross U, Luder CG, Hendgen V, Heeg C, Sauer I, Weidner A, Krczal D, Enders G.; 2000 Oct; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=87446
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Comparison of two DNA targets for the diagnosis of Toxoplasmosis by real-time PCR using fluorescence resonance energy transfer hybridization probes. by Reischl U, Bretagne S, Kruger D, Ernault P, Costa JM.; 2003; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=156600
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Congenital toxoplasmosis due to maternal reinfection during pregnancy. by Gavinet MF, Robert F, Firtion G, Delouvrier E, Hennequin C, Maurin JR, Tourte-Schaefer C, Dupouy-Camet J.; 1997 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=232747
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Congenital toxoplasmosis: systematic review of evidence of efficacy of treatment in pregnancy. by Wallon M, Liou C, Garner P, Peyron F.; 1999 Jun 5; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=27891
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Detection of anti-toxoplasma immunoglobulin A antibodies by Platelia-Toxo IgA directed against P30 and by IMx Toxo IgA for diagnosis of acquired and congenital toxoplasmosis. by Decoster A, Gontier P, Dehecq E, Demory JL, Duhamel M.; 1995 Aug; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=228369
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Detection of Specific Immunoglobulin E during Maternal, Fetal, and Congenital Toxoplasmosis. by Villena I, Aubert D, Brodard V, Quereux C, Leroux B, Dupouy D, Remy G, Foudrinier F, Chemla C, Gomez-Marin JE, Pinon JM.; 1999 Nov; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=85675
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Determination of genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii strains isolated from patients with toxoplasmosis. by Howe DK, Honore S, Derouin F, Sibley LD.; 1997 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=229759
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•
Diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis by immunoblotting and relationship with other methods. by Chumpitazi BF, Boussaid A, Pelloux H, Racinet C, Bost M, GoullierFleuret A.; 1995 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=228200
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Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis by joint detection of immunoglobulin A and immunoglobulin M. by Arcavi M, Orfus G, Griemberg G.; 1997 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=229765
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Disseminated Toxoplasmosis, Resulting from Infection of Allograft, after Orthotopic Liver Transplantation: Usefulness of Quantitative PCR. by Botterel F, Ichai P, Feray C, Bouree P, Saliba F, Tur Raspa R, Samuel D, Romand S.; 2002 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=130685
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Early Aqueous Humor Analysis in Patients with Human Ocular Toxoplasmosis. by Garweg JG, Jacquier P, Boehnke M.; 2000 Mar; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=86322
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Early neonatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: value of comparative enzymelinked immunofiltration assay immunological profiles and anti-Toxoplasma gondii immunoglobulin M (IgM) or IgA immunocapture and implications for postnatal therapeutic strategies. by Pinon JM, Chemla C, Villena I, Foudrinier F, Aubert D, Puygauthier-Toubas D, Leroux B, Dupouy D, Quereux C, Talmud M, Trenque T, Potron G, Pluot M, Remy G, Bonhomme A.; 1996 Mar; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=228850
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Effect of roxithromycin on acute toxoplasmosis in mice. by Chang HR, Pechere JC.; 1987 Jul; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=174888
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Effect of Toxoplasma gondii Infection Kinetics on Trophoblast Cell Population in Calomys callosus, a Model of Congenital Toxoplasmosis. by Ferro EA, Silva DA, Bevilacqua E, Mineo JR.; 2002 Dec; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=133059
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Evaluation of a Cyclic GMP-Dependent Protein Kinase Inhibitor in Treatment of Murine Toxoplasmosis: Gamma Interferon Is Required for Efficacy. by Nare B, Allocco JJ, Liberator PA, Donald RG.; 2002 Feb; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=127074
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Evaluation of six commercial kits for detection of human immunoglobulin M antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii. The FDA Toxoplasmosis Ad Hoc Working Group. by Wilson M, Remington JS, Clavet C, Varney G, Press C, Ware D.; 1997 Dec; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=230132
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Fas-FasL Interaction Involved in Pathogenesis of Ocular Toxoplasmosis in Mice. by Hu MS, Schwartzman JD, Yeaman GR, Collins J, Seguin R, Khan IA, Kasper LH.; 1999 Feb; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=96406
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Fractionation of Membrane Components from Tachyzoite Forms of Toxoplasma gondii: Differential Recognition by Immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG Present in
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Sera from Patients with Acute or Chronic Toxoplasmosis. by Giraldo M, Cannizzaro H, Ferguson MA, Almeida IC, Gazzinelli RT.; 2000 Apr; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=86463 •
Genotypic Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii Strains Associated with Human Toxoplasmosis in Spain: Direct Analysis from Clinical Samples. by Fuentes I, Rubio JM, Ramirez C, Alvar J.; 2001 Apr; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=87971
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Immunoglobulin G Avidity in Diagnosis of Toxoplasmic Lymphadenopathy and Ocular Toxoplasmosis. by Paul M.; 1999 Jul; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=95718
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Immunoglobulin M (IgM)-Glycoinositolphospholipid Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay: an Immunoenzymatic Assay for Discrimination between Patients with Acute Toxoplasmosis and Those with Persistent Parasite-Specific IgM Antibodies. by Giraldo M, Portela RW, Snege M, Leser PG, Camargo ME, Mineo JR, Gazzinelli RT.; 2002 Apr; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=140387
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Immunological Studies of Chronic Ocular Toxoplasmosis: Up-Regulation of Major Histocompatibility Complex Class I and Transforming Growth Factor [beta] and a Protective Role for Interleukin-6. by Lyons RE, Anthony JP, Ferguson DJ, Byrne N, Alexander J, Roberts F, Roberts CW.; 2001 Apr; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=98195
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Increased risk of traffic accidents in subjects with latent toxoplasmosis: a retrospective case-control study. by Flegr J, Havlicek J, Kodym P, Maly M, Smahel Z.; 2002; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=117239
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Intravenous Immunoglobulin Therapy: Confounding Effects on Serological Screening for Toxoplasmosis during Pregnancy. by Pelloux H, Fricker-Hidalgo H, Brochier G, Goullier-Fleuret A, Ambroise-Thomas P.; 1999 Oct; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=85593
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Lack of Utility of Specific Immunoglobulin G Antibody Avidity for Serodiagnosis of Reactivated Toxoplasmosis in Immunocompromised Patients. by Mechain B, Garin YJ, Robert-Gangneux F, Dupouy-Camet J, Derouin F.; 2000 Jul; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=95939
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Levels of pyrimethamine in sera and cerebrospinal and ventricular fluids from infants treated for congenital toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasmosis Study Group. by McLeod R, Mack D, Foss R, Boyer K, Withers S, Levin S, Hubbell J.; 1992 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=188832
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Molecular Markers in Acute and Chronic Phases of Human Toxoplasmosis: Determination of Immunoglobulin G Avidity by Western Blotting. by Marcolino PT, Silva DA, Leser PG, Camargo ME, Mineo JR.; 2000 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=95883
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Multiplex PCR for diagnosis of AIDS-related central nervous system lymphoma and toxoplasmosis. by Roberts TC, Storch GA.; 1997 Jan; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=229553
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Paradoxical effect of clindamycin in experimental, acute toxoplasmosis in cats. by Davidson MG, Lappin MR, Rottman JR, Tompkins MB, English RV, Bruce AT, Jayawickrama J.; 1996 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=163330
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PCR for diagnosis and follow-up of two cases of disseminated toxoplasmosis after kidney grafting. by Aubert D, Foudrinier F, Villena I, Pinon JM, Biava MF, Renoult E.; 1996 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=229018
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Plasma pyrimethamine concentrations during long-term treatment for cerebral toxoplasmosis in patients with AIDS. by Klinker H, Langmann P, Richter E.; 1996 Jul; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=163384
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Polyomyositis and myocarditis associated with acquired toxoplasmosis in an immunocompetent girl. by Paspalaki PK, Mihailidou EP, Bitsori M, Tsagkaraki D, Mantzouranis E.; 2001; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=65052
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Preconception Seroconversion and Maternal Seronegativity at Delivery Do Not Rule Out the Risk of Congenital Toxoplasmosis. by Chemla C, Villena I, Aubert D, Hornoy P, Dupouy D, Leroux B, Bory JP, Pinon JM.; 2002 Mar; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=119954
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Protective Effect of Vaccination with a Combination of Recombinant Surface Antigen 1 and Interleukin-12 against Toxoplasmosis in Mice. by Letscher-Bru V, Villard O, Risse B, Zauke M, Klein JP, Kien TT.; 1998 Sep; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=108546
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Protective Immunity against Congenital Toxoplasmosis with Recombinant SAG1 Protein in a Guinea Pig Model. by Haumont M, Delhaye L, Garcia L, Jurado M, Mazzu P, Daminet V, Verlant V, Bollen A, Biemans R, Jacquet A.; 2000 Sep; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=101707
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Quantitative competitive PCR with bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients. by Bretagne S, Costa JM, Fleury-Feith J, Poron F, Dubreuil-Lemaire ML, Vidaud M.; 1995 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=228241
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Roles of gamma interferon and other cytokines in suppression of the spleen cell proliferative response to concanavalin A and toxoplasma antigen during acute toxoplasmosis. by Candolfi E, Hunter CA, Remington JS.; 1995 Mar; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=173066
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Screening for active toxoplasmosis in patients by DNA hybridization with the ABGTg7 probe in blood samples. by Angel SO, Matrajt M, Margarit J, Nigro M, Illescas E, Pszenny V, Amendoeira MR, Guarnera E, Garberi JC.; 1997 Mar; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=229633
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Severe Acquired Toxoplasmosis in Immunocompetent Adult Patients in French Guiana. by Carme B, Bissuel F, Ajzenberg D, Bouyne R, Aznar C, Demar M, Bichat S, Louvel D, Bourbigot AM, Peneau C, Neron P, Darde ML.; 2002 Nov; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=139686
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Severe Toxoplasmosis Caused by a Toxoplasma gondii Strain with a New Isoenzyme Type Acquired in French Guyana. by Darde ML.; 1998 Jan; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=124868
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Strategy for Diagnosis of Congenital Toxoplasmosis: Evaluation of Methods Comparing Mothers and Newborns and Standard Methods for Postnatal Detection of Immunoglobulin G, M, and A Antibodies. by Pinon JM, Dumon H, Chemla C, Franck J, Petersen E, Lebech M, Zufferey J, Bessieres MH, Marty P, Holliman R, Johnson J, Luyasu V, Lecolier B, Guy E, Joynson DH, Decoster A, Enders G, Pelloux H, Candolfi E.; 2001 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=88122
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Study of Abbott Toxo IMx system for detection of immunoglobulin G and immunoglobulin M toxoplasma antibodies: value of confirmatory testing for diagnosis of acute toxoplasmosis. by Liesenfeld O, Press C, Flanders R, Ramirez R, Remington JS.; 1996 Oct; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=229310
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Synergistic activity of azithromycin and gamma interferon in murine toxoplasmosis. by Araujo FG, Remington JS.; 1991 Aug; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=245240
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Synergistic activity of azithromycin and pyrimethamine or sulfadiazine in acute experimental toxoplasmosis. by Derouin F, Almadany R, Chau F, Rouveix B, Pocidalo JJ.; 1992 May; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=188824
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Synergistic activity of clarithromycin and minocycline in an animal model of acute experimental toxoplasmosis. by Derouin F, Caroff B, Chau F, Prokocimer P, Pocidalo JJ.; 1992 Dec; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=245560
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Synergistic Effect of Clindamycin and Atovaquone in Acute Murine Toxoplasmosis. by Djurkovic-Djakovic O, Nikolic T, Robert-Gangneux F, Bobic B, Nikolic A.; 1999 Sep; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=89454
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Treatment of acute experimental toxoplasmosis with investigational poloxamers. by Krahenbuhl JL, Fukutomi Y, Gu L.; 1993 Nov; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/picrender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&action=stream&blobt ype=pdf&artid=192377
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Treatment with interleukin 12 in combination with atovaquone or clindamycin significantly increases survival of mice with acute toxoplasmosis. by Araujo FG, Hunter CA, Remington JS.; 1997 Jan; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=163683
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Urine sample used for congenital toxoplasmosis diagnosis by PCR. by Fuentes I, Rodriguez M, Domingo CJ, del Castillo F, Juncosa T, Alvar J.; 1996 Oct; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=229271
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Value of PCR for Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in Aqueous Humor and Blood Samples from Immunocompetent Patients with Ocular Toxoplasmosis. by Bou G, Figueroa MS, Marti-Belda P, Navas E, Guerrero A.; 1999 Nov; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=85668
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Value of Prenatal Diagnosis and Early Postnatal Diagnosis of Congenital Toxoplasmosis: Retrospective Study of 110 Cases. by Robert-Gangneux F, Gavinet MF, Ancelle T, Raymond J, Tourte-Schaefer C, Dupouy-Camet J.; 1999 Sep; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=85406
The National Library of Medicine: PubMed One of the quickest and most comprehensive ways to find academic studies in both English and other languages is to use PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine.6 The advantage of PubMed over previously mentioned sources is that it covers a greater number of domestic and foreign references. It is also free to use. If the publisher has a Web site that offers full text of its journals, PubMed will provide links to that site, as well as to sites offering other related data. User registration, a subscription fee, or some other type of fee may be required to access the full text of articles in some journals. To generate your own bibliography of studies dealing with toxoplasmosis, simply go to the PubMed Web site at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed. Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” The following is the type of output you can expect from PubMed for toxoplasmosis (hyperlinks lead to article summaries): •
A case of cerebral toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Alappat JP, Mathew CF, Jayakumar K, Suresh IC, Kumar S. Source: Neurology India. 2000 June; 48(2): 185-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10878790&dopt=Abstract
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A controlled trial of dapsone versus pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine for primary prophylaxis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and toxoplasmosis in patients with AIDS. Author(s): Payen MC, De Wit S, Sommereijns B, Clumeck N. Source: Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & Pharmacotherapie. 1997; 51(10): 439-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9863502&dopt=Abstract
6 PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PubMed database was developed in conjunction with publishers of biomedical literature as a search tool for accessing literature citations and linking to full-text journal articles at Web sites of participating publishers. Publishers that participate in PubMed supply NLM with their citations electronically prior to or at the time of publication.
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A maternal screening program for congenital toxoplasmosis in Quindio, Colombia and application of mathematical models to estimate incidences using age-stratified data. Author(s): Gomez-Marin JE, Montoya-de-Londono MT, Castano-Osorio JC. Source: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 1997 August; 57(2): 180-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9288813&dopt=Abstract
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A prospective study of seroprevalence of Toxoplasmosis in general population, and in HIV/AIDS patients in Bombay, India. Author(s): Meisheri YV, Mehta S, Patel U. Source: Journal of Postgraduate Medicine. 1997 October-December; 43(4): 93-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10740734&dopt=Abstract
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A prospective, randomized trial of pyrimethamine and azithromycin vs pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine for the treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Bosch-Driessen LH, Verbraak FD, Suttorp-Schulten MS, van Ruyven RL, Klok AM, Hoyng CB, Rothova A. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002 July; 134(1): 34-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12095805&dopt=Abstract
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A retrospective study of treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients with trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole. Author(s): Torre D, Speranza F, Martegani R, Zeroli C, Banfi M, Airoldi M. Source: The Journal of Infection. 1998 July; 37(1): 15-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9733371&dopt=Abstract
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A seroepidemiological study on toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Luyasu V, Robert A, Lissenko D, Bertrand M, Bohy E, Wacquez M, De Bruyere M. Source: Acta Clin Belg. 1997; 52(1): 3-8. Erratum In: Acta Clin Belg 1997; 52(2): 68. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9085613&dopt=Abstract
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A simple, rapid enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for evaluating immunoglobin G antibody avidity in toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Rossi CL. Source: Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 1998 January; 30(1): 25-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9488827&dopt=Abstract
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A switch towards Th2 during serological rebound in children with congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Kahi S, Cozon GJ, Pinon JM, Greenland T, Wallon M, Al Kurdi M, Ferrandiz J, Peyron F. Source: Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 1999 September; 117(3): 524-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10469057&dopt=Abstract
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A theoretical analysis of the relations between the risk of congenital toxoplasmosis and the annual infection rates with a convincing argument for better public intervention. Author(s): Naoi K, Yano A. Source: Parasitology International. 2002 June; 51(2): 187-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12113757&dopt=Abstract
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Abnormal ACTH-stimulation test in a patient with AIDS: adrenal insufficiency or toxoplasmosis? Author(s): Koch CA, Pacak K. Source: Endocrine Regulations. 2001 June; 35(2): 91-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11563937&dopt=Abstract
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Accidental discovery of congenital toxoplasmosis in a dried blood sample from a 3year-old orphan girl from Moscow. Author(s): Tamara T. Source: Lancet. 1996 September 28; 348(9031): 893. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8826830&dopt=Abstract
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Acquired ocular toxoplasmosis in an elderly patient. Author(s): Sullivan C, Murray PI. Source: Eye (London, England). 2001 December; 15(Pt 6): 791-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11827006&dopt=Abstract
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Acquired ocular toxoplasmosis in pregnancy. Author(s): Ramchandani M, Weaver JB, Joynson DH, Murray PI. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002 August; 86(8): 938-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12140226&dopt=Abstract
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Acquired toxoplasmosis of a submandibular lymph node in a 9-year-old boy diagnosed by fine-needle aspiration cytology. Author(s): Macey-Dare LV, Kocjan G, Goodman JR. Source: International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry / the British Paedodontic Society [and] the International Association of Dentistry for Children. 1996 December; 6(4): 265-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9161195&dopt=Abstract
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Active control of congenital toxoplasmosis in the population. Author(s): Palicka P, Slaba H, Zitek K. Source: Cent Eur J Public Health. 1998 November; 6(4): 265-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9919374&dopt=Abstract
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Acute iridocyclitis in a patient with AIDS diagnosed as toxoplasmosis by PCR. Author(s): Cano-Parra JL, Diaz-LLopis ML, Cordoba JL, Gobernado ML, Navea AL, Menezo JL. Source: Ocular Immunology and Inflammation. 2000 June; 8(2): 127-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10980687&dopt=Abstract
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An investigation into the incidence of toxoplasmosis in pregnancy in New Zealand. Author(s): Moor C, Stone P, Purdie G, Weinstein P. Source: N Z Med J. 2000 February 11; 113(1103): 29-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11482326&dopt=Abstract
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An update on current practices in the management of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Holland GN, Lewis KG. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002 July; 134(1): 102-14. Erratum In: Am J Ophthalmol 2002 December; 134(6): 944. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12095816&dopt=Abstract
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Analysis of Toxoplasma gondii antigens with sera from toxoplasmosis patients. Author(s): Galvan-Ramirez ML, Guillen-Vargas C, Saavedra-Duran R, Islos-Rodriguez A. Source: Revista Da Sociedade Brasileira De Medicina Tropical. 1998 May-June; 31(3): 271-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9612018&dopt=Abstract
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Anergic disseminated toxoplasmosis in a patient with AIDS. Case report. Author(s): Mastroianni A, Coronado O, Scarani P, Manfredi R, Chiodo F. Source: Minerva Med. 1997 March; 88(3): 101-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9105326&dopt=Abstract
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Antenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: evaluation of the biological parameters in a cohort of 286 patients. Author(s): Pratlong F, Boulot P, Villena I, Issert E, Tamby I, Cazenave J, Dedet JP. Source: British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 1996 June; 103(6): 552-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8645648&dopt=Abstract
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Anti-toxoplasmosis drugs. Author(s): Derouin F. Source: Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2001 October; 2(10): 1368-74. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11890349&dopt=Abstract
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Ascending paralysis due to myelitis in a newborn with congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): al Shahwan S, Rossi ML, al Thagafi MA. Source: Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 1996 July; 139(1): 156-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8836988&dopt=Abstract
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Assessment of the role of soluble intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) in the pathogenesis and as a marker of disease severity in different stages of human schistosomiasis and toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Afifi MA, Tawfeek GM, Abdel Aziz SS, Abdel Aaty HA. Source: J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2000 August; 30(2): 537-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10946514&dopt=Abstract
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Association of ocular toxoplasmosis and thymoma. Author(s): Shaikh S, Schwab IR, Morse LS. Source: Retina (Philadelphia, Pa.). 1997; 17(4): 354-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9279956&dopt=Abstract
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Atypical anterior optic neuropathy caused by toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Song A, Scott IU, Davis JL, Lam BL. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002 January; 133(1): 162-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11755864&dopt=Abstract
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Atypical presentations of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Smith JR, Cunningham ET Jr. Source: Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 2002 December; 13(6): 387-92. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12441842&dopt=Abstract
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Azithromycin for ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Rothova A, Bosch-Driessen LE, van Loon NH, Treffers WF. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1998 November; 82(11): 1306-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9924338&dopt=Abstract
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Azithromycin for relapsing cerebral toxoplasmosis in AIDS. Author(s): Nasta P, Chiodera S. Source: Aids (London, England). 1997 July 15; 11(9): 1188. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9233470&dopt=Abstract
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Bilateral neuroretinitis in a 6-year-old boy with acquired toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Perrotta S, Nobili B, Grassia C, Sebastiani A, Parmeggiani F, Costagliola C. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2003 October; 121(10): 1493-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14557195&dopt=Abstract
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B-mode sonographic criteria for differential diagnosis of cervicofacial lymphadenopathy in cat-scratch disease and toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ridder GJ, Boedeker CC, Lee TK, Sander A. Source: Head & Neck. 2003 April; 25(4): 306-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12658735&dopt=Abstract
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Bone marrow involvement by disseminated toxoplasmosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: the value of bone marrow trephine biopsy and immunohistochemistry for the diagnosis. Author(s): Brouland JP, Audouin J, Hofman P, Le Tourneau A, Basset D, Rio B, Zittoun R, Diebold J. Source: Human Pathology. 1996 March; 27(3): 302-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8600047&dopt=Abstract
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Bone marrow transplant and toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Miles AI. Source: Leukemia : Official Journal of the Leukemia Society of America, Leukemia Research Fund, U.K. 1999 May; 13(5): 824. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10374890&dopt=Abstract
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Central nervous system toxoplasmosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: An emerging disease in India. Author(s): Mathew MJ, Chandy MJ. Source: Neurology India. 1999 September; 47(3): 182-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10514576&dopt=Abstract
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Cerebral toxoplasmosis - a late complication of allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Author(s): Zver S, Cernelc P, Mlakar U, Pretnar J. Source: Bone Marrow Transplantation. 1999 December; 24(12): 1363-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10627650&dopt=Abstract
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Cerebral toxoplasmosis after autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Author(s): Lopez-Duarte M, Insunza A, Conde E, Iriondo A, Mazorra F, Zubizarreta A. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 2003 September; 22(9): 548-50. Epub 2003 August 27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12942340&dopt=Abstract
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Cerebral toxoplasmosis after combined liver-pancreas-kidney and liver-pancreas transplantation. Author(s): Hommann M, Schotte U, Voigt R, Glutig H, Grube T, Kupper B, Kornberg A, Richter K, Scheele J. Source: Transplantation Proceedings. 2002 September; 34(6): 2294-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12270404&dopt=Abstract
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Cerebral toxoplasmosis following etanercept treatment for idiophatic pneumonia syndrome after autologous peripheral blood progenitor cell transplantation (PBPCT). Author(s): Gonzalez-Vicent M, Diaz MA, Sevilla J, Madero L. Source: Annals of Hematology. 2003 October; 82(10): 649-53. Epub 2003 August 19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12928753&dopt=Abstract
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Cerebral toxoplasmosis in an AIDS patient. Author(s): Saito T, Takeuchi S, Taguchi H, Miyoshi I. Source: Intern Med. 2003 January; 42(1): 131. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12583637&dopt=Abstract
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Changes of total content of magnesium and zinc status in patients with chronic toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Yazar S, Kilic E, Saraymen R. Source: Biological Trace Element Research. 2003 April; 92(1): 11-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12721400&dopt=Abstract
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Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii-specific T cells recovered from vitreous fluid of patients with ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Feron EJ, Klaren VN, Wierenga EA, Verjans GM, Kijlstra A. Source: Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2001 December; 42(13): 3228-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11726627&dopt=Abstract
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Chorioretinitis in congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Datta S, Banerjee DP. Source: Indian Pediatrics. 2003 August; 40(8): 790-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12951385&dopt=Abstract
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Clinical value of specific immunoglobulin E detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in cases of acquired and congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Foudrinier F, Villena I, Jaussaud R, Aubert D, Chemla C, Martinot F, Pinon JM. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2003 April; 41(4): 1681-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12682160&dopt=Abstract
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Commentary: Efficacy of prenatal treatment for toxoplasmosis: a possibility that cannot be ruled out. Author(s): Thulliez P. Source: International Journal of Epidemiology. 2001 December; 30(6): 1315-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11821337&dopt=Abstract
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Commentary: Little evidence of effective prenatal treatment against congenital toxoplasmosis--the implications for testing in pregnancy. Author(s): Eskild A, Magnus P. Source: International Journal of Epidemiology. 2001 December; 30(6): 1314-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11821336&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative study between elisa IgG, IgM and PCR in diagnosing and studying toxoplasmosis in Qualyobia Governorate, Egypt. Author(s): el Fakahany AF, Abdel-Maboud AI, el-Garhy MF, Eraky MA. Source: J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2002 August; 32(2): 475-86. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12214925&dopt=Abstract
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Computer-generated dot maps as an epidemiologic tool: investigating an outbreak of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Eng SB, Werker DH, King AS, Marion SA, Bell A, Issac-Renton JL, Irwin GS, Bowie WR. Source: Emerging Infectious Diseases. 1999 November-December; 5(6): 815-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10603218&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis in Israel: to screen or not to screen. Author(s): Miron D, Raz R, Luder A. Source: Isr Med Assoc J. 2002 February; 4(2): 119-22. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11875985&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis in the United Kingdom: to screen or not to screen? Author(s): Gilbert RE, Peckham CS. Source: Journal of Medical Screening. 2002; 9(3): 135-41. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12370327&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis in twins: a report of fourteen consecutive cases and a comparison with published data. Author(s): Peyron F, Ateba AB, Wallon M, Kodjikian L, Binquet C, Fleury J, Garweg JG. Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 2003 August; 22(8): 695-701. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12913769&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis infection. Author(s): Popli MB, Popli V. Source: Neurology India. 2003 March; 51(1): 125. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12865549&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis with unusual retinal findings. Author(s): Brady-McCreery KM, Hussein MA, Paysse EA. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2003 August; 121(8): 1200-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12912703&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Olliaro P. Source: Clin Evid. 2002 June; (7): 623-6. Review. No Abstract Available. Update In: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12230689&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Martin S. Source: Neonatal Netw. 2001 June; 20(4): 23-30. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12143899&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Jones J, Lopez A, Wilson M. Source: American Family Physician. 2003 May 15; 67(10): 2131-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12776962&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis: eye manifestations in infants and children. Author(s): Vutova K, Peicheva Z, Popova A, Markova V, Mincheva N, Todorov T. Source: Annals of Tropical Paediatrics. 2002 September; 22(3): 213-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12369484&dopt=Abstract
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Congenital toxoplasmosis: therapeutic strategies. Author(s): Foulon W. Source: Archives De Pediatrie : Organe Officiel De La Societe Francaise De Pediatrie. 2003 February; 10 Suppl 1: 10-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12802954&dopt=Abstract
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Congestive heart failure and myocarditis after seroconversion for toxoplasmosis in two immunocompetent patients. Author(s): Chandenier J, Jarry G, Nassif D, Douadi Y, Paris L, Thulliez P, Bourges-Petit E, Raccurt C. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 2000 May; 19(5): 375-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10898141&dopt=Abstract
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Cotrimoxazole for prenatal treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis? Author(s): Derouin F, Jacqz-Aigrain E, Thulliez P, Couvreur J, Leport C. Source: Parasitology Today (Personal Ed.). 2000 June; 16(6): 254-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10827434&dopt=Abstract
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Current situation regarding toxoplasmosis in Finland. Author(s): Lappalainen M. Source: Archives De Pediatrie : Organe Officiel De La Societe Francaise De Pediatrie. 2003 February; 10 Suppl 1: 19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12802959&dopt=Abstract
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Decrease of psychomotor performance in subjects with latent 'asymptomatic' toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Havlicek J, Gasova ZG, Smith AP, Zvara K, Flegr J. Source: Parasitology. 2001 May; 122(Pt 5): 515-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11393824&dopt=Abstract
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Decreased level of psychobiological factor novelty seeking and lower intelligence in men latently infected with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii Dopamine, a missing link between schizophrenia and toxoplasmosis? Author(s): Flegr J, Preiss M, Klose J, Havlicek J, Vitakova M, Kodym P. Source: Biological Psychology. 2003 July; 63(3): 253-68. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12853170&dopt=Abstract
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Dendritic cells and immunity to leishmaniasis and toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Scott P, Hunter CA. Source: Current Opinion in Immunology. 2002 August; 14(4): 466-70. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12088681&dopt=Abstract
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Detection of specific immunoglobulin E during maternal, fetal, and congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Villena I, Aubert D, Brodard V, Quereux C, Leroux B, Dupouy D, Remy G, Foudrinier F, Chemla C, Gomez-Marin JE, Pinon JM. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1999 November; 37(11): 3487-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10523539&dopt=Abstract
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Detection of Toxoplasma gondii antigens in urine by reverse latex agglutination test during human toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Mahmoud MS. Source: J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2002 August; 32(2): 429-46. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12214921&dopt=Abstract
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Development of a vaccine for toxoplasmosis: current status. Author(s): Bhopale GM. Source: Microbes and Infection / Institut Pasteur. 2003 April; 5(5): 457-62. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12738002&dopt=Abstract
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Diagnosis of an atypical case of ocular toxoplasmosis using the demonstration of intraocular antibody production and the polymerase chain reaction. Author(s): Minihan M, Cleary PE, Cryan B, Holliman R. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 June; 83(6): 753-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10636659&dopt=Abstract
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Diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis in the neonatal period: A multicenter evaluation. Author(s): Naessens A, Jenum PA, Pollak A, Decoster A, Lappalainen M, Villena I, Lebech M, Stray-Pedersen B, Hayde M, Pinon JM, Petersen E, Foulon W. Source: The Journal of Pediatrics. 1999 December; 135(6): 714-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10586174&dopt=Abstract
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Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in bone marrow transplant recipients: comparison of PCR-based results and immunohistochemistry. Author(s): Held TK, Kruger D, Switala AR, Beyer J, Kingreen D, Busemann C, Janitschke K, Siegert W. Source: Bone Marrow Transplantation. 2000 June; 25(12): 1257-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10871730&dopt=Abstract
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Diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in children with malignancy. Author(s): Ramadan NI, Abdel Latif MM, Abdel Aaty HE. Source: J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2000 August; 30(2): 523-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10946513&dopt=Abstract
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Diagnostic testing for congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Boyer KM. Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 2001 January; 20(1): 59-60. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11176568&dopt=Abstract
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Diagnostic value of polymerase chain reaction in blood and aqueous humor in immunocompetent patients with ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Figueroa MS, Bou G, Marti-Belda P, Lopez-Velez R, Guerrero A. Source: Retina (Philadelphia, Pa.). 2000; 20(6): 614-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11131414&dopt=Abstract
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Differentiation of toxoplasmosis and lymphoma in AIDS patients by using apparent diffusion coefficients. Author(s): Camacho DL, Smith JK, Castillo M. Source: Ajnr. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2003 April; 24(4): 633-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12695194&dopt=Abstract
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Discrimination between patients with acquired toxoplasmosis and congenital toxoplasmosis on the basis of the immune response to parasite antigens. Author(s): Yamamoto JH, Vallochi AL, Silveira C, Filho JK, Nussenblatt RB, Cunha-Neto E, Gazzinelli RT, Belfort R Jr, Rizzo LV. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2000 June; 181(6): 2018-22. Epub 2000 June 05. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10837184&dopt=Abstract
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Dissecting the IgM antibody response during the acute and latent phase of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Meek B, van Gool T, Gilis H, Peek R. Source: Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 2001 November; 41(3): 131-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11750166&dopt=Abstract
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Disseminated toxoplasmosis after bone marrow transplantation: report of 9 cases. Author(s): de Medeiros BC, de Medeiros CR, Werner B, Loddo G, Pasquini R, BleggiTorres LF. Source: Transplant Infectious Disease : an Official Journal of the Transplantation Society. 2001 March; 3(1): 24-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11429036&dopt=Abstract
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Disseminated toxoplasmosis after CD34+-selected autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Author(s): Nakane M, Ohashi K, Tominaga J, Akiyama H, Hiruma K, Sakamaki H. Source: Haematologica. 2000 March; 85(3): 334-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10702835&dopt=Abstract
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Disseminated toxoplasmosis after liver transplantation. Author(s): Patel R. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 1999 September; 29(3): 705-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10530486&dopt=Abstract
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Disseminated toxoplasmosis following T cell-depleted related and unrelated bone marrow transplantation. Author(s): Small TN, Leung L, Stiles J, Kiehn TE, Malak SA, O'Reilly RJ, Sepkowitz K. Source: Bone Marrow Transplantation. 2000 May; 25(9): 969-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10800065&dopt=Abstract
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Disseminated toxoplasmosis, resulting from infection of allograft, after orthotopic liver transplantation: usefulness of quantitative PCR. Author(s): Botterel F, Ichai P, Feray C, Bouree P, Saliba F, Tur Raspa R, Samuel D, Romand S. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2002 May; 40(5): 1648-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11980935&dopt=Abstract
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Early aqueous humor analysis in patients with human ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Garweg JG, Jacquier P, Boehnke M. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2000 March; 38(3): 996-1001. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10698986&dopt=Abstract
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Early neonatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: value of comparative enzymelinked immunofiltration assay immunological profiles and anti-Toxoplasma gondii immunoglobulin M (IgM) or IgA immunocapture and implications for postnatal therapeutic strategies. Author(s): Pinon JM, Chemla C, Villena I, Foudrinier F, Aubert D, Puygauthier-Toubas D, Leroux B, Dupouy D, Quereux C, Talmud M, Trenque T, Potron G, Pluot M, Remy G, Bonhomme A. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1996 March; 34(3): 579-83. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8904418&dopt=Abstract
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Ecological comparison of the risks of mother-to-child transmission and clinical manifestations of congenital toxoplasmosis according to prenatal treatment protocol. Author(s): Gilbert R, Dunn D, Wallon M, Hayde M, Prusa A, Lebech M, Kortbeek T, Peyron F, Pollak A, Petersen E. Source: Epidemiology and Infection. 2001 August; 127(1): 113-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11561963&dopt=Abstract
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Effect of prenatal treatment on the risk of intracranial and ocular lesions in children with congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Gras L, Gilbert RE, Ades AE, Dunn DT. Source: International Journal of Epidemiology. 2001 December; 30(6): 1309-13. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11821335&dopt=Abstract
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Effect of Toxoplasma gondii infection kinetics on trophoblast cell population in Calomys callosus, a model of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ferro EA, Silva DA, Bevilacqua E, Mineo JR. Source: Infection and Immunity. 2002 December; 70(12): 7089-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12438390&dopt=Abstract
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Epidemiology of congenital toxoplasmosis identified by population-based newborn screening in Massachusetts. Author(s): Jara M, Hsu HW, Eaton RB, Demaria A Jr. Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 2001 December; 20(12): 1132-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11740319&dopt=Abstract
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Epidemiology of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ho-Yen DO. Source: Archives De Pediatrie : Organe Officiel De La Societe Francaise De Pediatrie. 2003 February; 10 Suppl 1: 3-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12802952&dopt=Abstract
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Establishment of immunoglobulin M(IgM)-immunosorbent agglutination assay (ISAGA) for diagnosis of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Zhang S, Wei M, Zhao H, Shi G. Source: Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Xue Yu Ji Sheng Chong Bing Za Zhi. 1999; 17(4): 2257. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12563770&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of a commercial IgG/IgM Western blot assay for early postnatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Rilling V, Dietz K, Krczal D, Knotek F, Enders G. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 2003 March; 22(3): 174-80. Epub 2003 March 05. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12649715&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of immuno-1 toxoplasma IgG assay in the prenatal screening of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Rao LV, James OA, Mann LM, Mohammad AA, Okorodudu AO, Bissell MG, Petersen JR. Source: Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 1997 January-February; 27(1-2): 13-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9127100&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of serodiagnosis of toxoplasmosis by using the recombinant nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase isoforms expressed in Escherichia coli. Author(s): Nakajima-Nakano K, Makioka A, Yamashita N, Matsuo N, Asai T. Source: Parasitology International. 2000 January; 48(3): 215-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11227761&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of serological markers for the immunodiagnosis of acute acquired toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Suzuki LA, Rocha RJ, Rossi CL. Source: Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2001 January; 50(1): 62-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11192507&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of seven commercially available ELISA kits for serodiagnosis of acute toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Singh S, Singh N, Dwivedi SN. Source: The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 1997 March; 105: 103-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9119414&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of six commercial kits for detection of human immunoglobulin M antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii. The FDA Toxoplasmosis Ad Hoc Working Group. Author(s): Wilson M, Remington JS, Clavet C, Varney G, Press C, Ware D. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1997 December; 35(12): 3112-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9399504&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of soluble adhesion molecules in the diagnosis of amoebiasis, giardiasis and toxoplasmosis. Author(s): el-Shazly AM, Soliman M, el-Kalla MR, Rezk H, el-Nemr H, Handoussa AE, el-Aaty HE, Morsy TA. Source: J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 2001 December; 31(3): 691-700. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11775096&dopt=Abstract
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Evidence for a compartmentalized B cell response as characterized by IgG epitope specificity in human ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Klaren VN, Peek R. Source: Journal of Immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950). 2001 December 1; 167(11): 62639. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11714789&dopt=Abstract
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Extrapyramidal disorder secondary to cytomegalovirus infection and toxoplasmosis after liver transplantation. Author(s): Coelho JC, Wiederkehr JC, Cat R, Carrero JE, de Oliveira ED, Campos AC, Cat I. Source: European Journal of Pediatric Surgery : Official Journal of Austrian Association of Pediatric Surgery. [et Al] = Zeitschrift Fur Kinderchirurgie. 1996 April; 6(2): 110-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8740136&dopt=Abstract
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Eye manifestations of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Mets MB, Holfels E, Boyer KM, Swisher CN, Roizen N, Stein L, Stein M, Hopkins J, Withers S, Mack D, Luciano R, Patel D, Remington JS, Meier P, McLeod R. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1997 January; 123(1): 1-16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9186091&dopt=Abstract
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Eye manifestations of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Mets MB, Holfels E, Boyer KM, Swisher CN, Roizen N, Stein L, Stein M, Hopkins J, Withers S, Mack D, Luciano R, Patel D, Remington JS, Meier P, McLeod R. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1996 September; 122(3): 309-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8794703&dopt=Abstract
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Failure of screening to detect HIV in a foreign laborer who died of toxoplasmosis of the central nervous system. Author(s): Juan CW, Wu FF, Chang WH, Chou CC, Lee TC, Lin JC. Source: J Formos Med Assoc. 1999 September; 98(9): 639-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10560241&dopt=Abstract
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Failure to implement a preventive strategy against congenital toxoplasmosis in Italy. Author(s): Buffolano W. Source: Archives De Pediatrie : Organe Officiel De La Societe Francaise De Pediatrie. 2003 February; 10 Suppl 1: 21-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12802961&dopt=Abstract
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Fatal automobile crash caused by cerebral toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Gyori E, Hyma BA. Source: The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology : Official Publication of the National Association of Medical Examiners. 1998 June; 19(2): 178-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9662117&dopt=Abstract
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Fatal disseminated toxoplasmosis in a toxoplasma seropositive liver transplant recipient. Author(s): Wendum D, Carbonell N, Svrcek M, Chazouilleres O, Flejou JF. Source: Journal of Clinical Pathology. 2002 August; 55(8): 637. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12147667&dopt=Abstract
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Feasibility of neonatal screening for toxoplasma infection in the absence of prenatal treatment. Danish Congenital Toxoplasmosis Study Group. Author(s): Lebech M, Andersen O, Christensen NC, Hertel J, Nielsen HE, Peitersen B, Rechnitzer C, Larsen SO, Norgaard-Pedersen B, Petersen E. Source: Lancet. 1999 May 29; 353(9167): 1834-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10359408&dopt=Abstract
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Feline toxoplasmosis: interpretation of diagnostic test results. Author(s): Lappin MR. Source: Semin Vet Med Surg (Small Anim). 1996 August; 11(3): 154-60. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8942211&dopt=Abstract
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Fetal cataract in congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Pedreira DA, Diniz EM, Schultz R, Faro LB, Zugaib M. Source: Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology : the Official Journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1999 April; 13(4): 266-7. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10341406&dopt=Abstract
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Fetal toxoplasmosis and negative amniocentesis: necessity of an ultrasound followup. Author(s): Gay-Andrieu F, Marty P, Pialat J, Sournies G, Drier de Laforte T, Peyron F. Source: Prenatal Diagnosis. 2003 July; 23(7): 558-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12868082&dopt=Abstract
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Flow cytometric application of the Sabin and Feldman dye test in the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Cozon GJ, Ferrandiz J, Thulliez P, Peyron F. Source: Journal of Microbiological Methods. 1999 October; 38(1-2): 131-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10520593&dopt=Abstract
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Follow-up of infants with congenital toxoplasmosis detected by polymerase chain reaction analysis of amniotic fluid. Author(s): Gratzl R, Hayde M, Kohlhauser C, Hermon M, Burda G, Strobl W, Pollak A. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 1998 December; 17(12): 853-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10052549&dopt=Abstract
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Foodborne outbreaks of human toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Choi WY, Nam HW, Kwak NH, Huh W, Kim YR, Kang MW, Cho SY, Dubey JP. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1997 May; 175(5): 1280-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9129105&dopt=Abstract
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Fractionation of membrane components from tachyzoite forms of Toxoplasma gondii: differential recognition by immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG present in sera from patients with acute or chronic toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Giraldo M, Cannizzaro H, Ferguson MA, Almeida IC, Gazzinelli RT. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2000 April; 38(4): 1453-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10747125&dopt=Abstract
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Frequency of specific anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgM, IgA and IgE in colombian patients with acute and chronic ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Gomez-Marin JE, Montoya-De-Londono MT, Castano-Osorio JC, Heine FA, Duque AM, Chemla C, Aubert D, Bonhomme A, Pinon JM. Source: Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 2000 January-February; 95(1): 89-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10656711&dopt=Abstract
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Frosted branch angiitis with ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ysasaga JE, Davis J. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 1999 September; 117(9): 1260-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10496406&dopt=Abstract
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Fulminant toxoplasmosis in a heart transplant recipient. Author(s): Hermanns B, Brunn A, Schwarz ER, Sachweh JS, Seipelt I, Schroder JM, Vogel U, Schoendube FA, Buettner R. Source: Pathology, Research and Practice. 2001; 197(3): 211-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11314787&dopt=Abstract
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Gastric toxoplasmosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A case report and review of the literature. Author(s): Ganji M, Tan A, Maitar MI, Weldon-Linne CM, Weisenberg E, Rhone DP. Source: Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. 2003 June; 127(6): 732-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12741900&dopt=Abstract
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Gastric toxoplasmosis: case report and review of the literature. Author(s): Kofman E, Khorsandi A, Sarlin J, Adhami K. Source: The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 1996 November; 91(11): 2436-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8931438&dopt=Abstract
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Genotype of 86 Toxoplasma gondii isolates associated with human congenital toxoplasmosis, and correlation with clinical findings. Author(s): Ajzenberg D, Cogne N, Paris L, Bessieres MH, Thulliez P, Filisetti D, Pelloux H, Marty P, Darde ML. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002 September 1; 186(5): 684-9. Epub 2002 August 05. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12195356&dopt=Abstract
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Genotypic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii strains associated with human toxoplasmosis in Spain: direct analysis from clinical samples. Author(s): Fuentes I, Rubio JM, Ramirez C, Alvar J. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2001 April; 39(4): 1566-70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11283088&dopt=Abstract
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Gestational and neonatal toxoplasmosis: regional seroprevalence in the United Arab Emirates. Author(s): Dar FK, Alkarmi T, Uduman S, Abdulrazzaq Y, Grundsell H, Hughes P. Source: European Journal of Epidemiology. 1997 July; 13(5): 567-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9258570&dopt=Abstract
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Glomerulonephritis in a neonate with atypical congenital lupus and toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Lam C, Imundo L, Hirsch D, Yu Z, D'Agati V. Source: Pediatric Nephrology (Berlin, Germany). 1999 November; 13(9): 850-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10603135&dopt=Abstract
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High predictive value of Toxoplasma gondii IgG antibody levels in HIV-infected patients for diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Hellerbrand C, Goebel FD, Disko R. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 1996 November; 15(11): 869-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8997560&dopt=Abstract
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High prevalence of congenital toxoplasmosis in Brazil estimated in a 3-year prospective neonatal screening study. Author(s): Neto EC, Anele E, Rubim R, Brites A, Schulte J, Becker D, Tuuminen T. Source: International Journal of Epidemiology. 2000 October; 29(5): 941-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11034982&dopt=Abstract
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Highly endemic, waterborne toxoplasmosis in north Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. Author(s): Bahia-Oliveira LM, Jones JL, Azevedo-Silva J, Alves CC, Orefice F, Addiss DG. Source: Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2003 January; 9(1): 55-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12533282&dopt=Abstract
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Histopathological features of ocular toxoplasmosis in the fetus and infant. Author(s): Roberts F, Mets MB, Ferguson DJ, O'Grady R, O'Grady C, Thulliez P, Brezin AP, McLeod R. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2001 January; 119(1): 51-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11146726&dopt=Abstract
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HIV-2 infection with cerebral toxoplasmosis and lymphomatoid granulomatosis. Author(s): Issakhanian M, Chang L, Cornford M, Witt M, Speck O, Goldberg M, Ernst T. Source: Journal of Neuroimaging : Official Journal of the American Society of Neuroimaging. 2001 April; 11(2): 212-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11296596&dopt=Abstract
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How pregnant women can prevent toxoplasmosis infection. Author(s): Qureshi B. Source: J R Soc Health. 2000 September; 120(3): 147-8. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11077797&dopt=Abstract
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Human peripheral blood lymphocyte severe combined immunodeficiency (hu-PBL SCID) models of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Beaman MH, Remington JS, Meyer DJ. Source: Immunology and Cell Biology. 2000 December; 78(6): 608-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11114971&dopt=Abstract
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Identification of circulating antigens, including an immunoglobulin binding protein, from Toxoplasma gondii tissue cyst and tachyzoites in murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Villavedra M, Rampoldi C, Carol H, Baz A, Battistoni JJ, Nieto A. Source: International Journal for Parasitology. 2001 January; 31(1): 21-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11165267&dopt=Abstract
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IgG recognizing 21-24 kDa and 30-33 kDa tachyzoite antigens show maximum avidity maturation during natural and accidental human toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Villavedra M, Battistoni J, Nieto A. Source: Revista Do Instituto De Medicina Tropical De Sao Paulo. 1999 SeptemberOctober; 41(5): 297-303. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10602544&dopt=Abstract
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IgM and IgA antibody responses in 12 cases of human acquired toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Takahashi EE, Rossi CL. Source: Revista Do Instituto De Medicina Tropical De Sao Paulo. 1997 NovemberDecember; 39(6): 327-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9674283&dopt=Abstract
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Imaging of an atypical case of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Caksen H, Uzum K, Kurtoglu S, Sungurlu I, Gulec M. Source: Computerized Medical Imaging and Graphics : the Official Journal of the Computerized Medical Imaging Society. 2002 January-February; 26(1): 49-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11734375&dopt=Abstract
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Immunoblotting can help the diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ho-Yen DO, Chapman DJ, Ashburn D. Source: Molecular Pathology : Mp. 2000 June; 53(3): 155-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10897336&dopt=Abstract
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Immunoglobulin G avidity in diagnosis of toxoplasmic lymphadenopathy and ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Paul M. Source: Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 1999 July; 6(4): 514-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10391853&dopt=Abstract
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Immunoglobulin M (IgM)-glycoinositolphospholipid enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay: an immunoenzymatic assay for discrimination between patients with acute toxoplasmosis and those with persistent parasite-specific IgM antibodies. Author(s): Giraldo M, Portela RW, Snege M, Leser PG, Camargo ME, Mineo JR, Gazzinelli RT. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2002 April; 40(4): 1400-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11923364&dopt=Abstract
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Immunopathogenesis of cerebral toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Suzuki Y. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002 December 1; 186 Suppl 2: S234-40. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12424703&dopt=Abstract
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Impact of health education on knowledge and prevention behavior for congenital toxoplasmosis: the experience in Poznan, Poland. Author(s): Pawlowski ZS, Gromadecka-Sutkiewicz M, Skommer J, Paul M, Rokossowski H, Suchocka E, Schantz PM. Source: Health Education Research. 2001 August; 16(4): 493-502. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11525395&dopt=Abstract
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Improved diagnosis of reactivated toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ashburn D, Davidson MM, Joss AW, Pennington TH, Ho-Yen DO. Source: Molecular Pathology : Mp. 1998 April; 51(2): 105-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9713595&dopt=Abstract
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Incidence and risk factors of toxoplasmosis in a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: 1988-1995. HEMOCO and SEROCO Study Groups. Author(s): Belanger F, Derouin F, Grangeot-Keros L, Meyer L. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 1999 March; 28(3): 575-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10194081&dopt=Abstract
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Incidence of congenital toxoplasmosis in southern Brazil: a prospective study. Author(s): Mozzatto L, Procianoy RS. Source: Revista Do Instituto De Medicina Tropical De Sao Paulo. 2003 May-June; 45(3): 147-51. Epub 2003 July 08. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12870064&dopt=Abstract
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Increased risk of traffic accidents in subjects with latent toxoplasmosis: a retrospective case-control study. Author(s): Flegr J, Havlicek J, Kodym P, Maly M, Smahel Z. Source: Bmc Infectious Diseases [electronic Resource]. 2002 July 2; 2(1): 11. Epub 2002 Jul 02. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12095427&dopt=Abstract
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Intention-to-treat vs. on-treatment analyses of clinical trial data: experience from a study of pyrimethamine in the primary prophylaxis of toxoplasmosis in HIV-infected patients. ANRS 005/ACTG 154 Trial Group. Author(s): Chene G, Morlat P, Leport C, Hafner R, Dequae L, Charreau I, Aboulker JP, Luft B, Aubertin J, Vilde JL, Salamon R. Source: Controlled Clinical Trials. 1998 June; 19(3): 233-48. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9620807&dopt=Abstract
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Intraocular anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgA antibody production in patients with ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ronday MJ, Ongkosuwito JV, Rothova A, Kijlstra A. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 March; 127(3): 294-300. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10088739&dopt=Abstract
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Intraocular inflammatory reactions without focal necrotizing retinochoroiditis in patients with acquired systemic toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Holland GN, Muccioli C, Silveira C, Weisz JM, Belfort R Jr, O'Connor GR. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 October; 128(4): 413-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10577581&dopt=Abstract
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Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy: confounding effects on serological screening for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. Author(s): Pelloux H, Fricker-Hidalgo H, Brochier G, Goullier-Fleuret A, AmbroiseThomas P. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1999 October; 37(10): 3423-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10488226&dopt=Abstract
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Is ocular toxoplasmosis caused by prenatal or postnatal infection? Author(s): Gilbert RE, Stanford MR. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 2000 February; 84(2): 224-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10655202&dopt=Abstract
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Is routine antenatal toxoplasmosis screening justified in the United States? Statistical considerations in the application of medical screening tests. Author(s): Mittendorf R, Pryde P, Herschel M, Williams MA. Source: Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1999 March; 42(1): 163-73; Quiz 174-5. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10073309&dopt=Abstract
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Is screening for Toxoplasmosis appropriate in West Africa? Author(s): Watson PA, Zinsstag J. Source: Trop Doct. 2000 January; 30(1): 51-2. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10842533&dopt=Abstract
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Knowledge-based interpretation of toxoplasmosis serology test results including fuzzy temporal concepts--the ToxoNet system. Author(s): Kopecky D, Hayde M, Prusa AR, Adlassnig KP. Source: Medinfo. 2001; 10(Pt 1): 484-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11604787&dopt=Abstract
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Laboratory diagnosis of Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Montoya JG. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002 February 15; 185 Suppl 1: S73-82. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11865443&dopt=Abstract
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Lack of utility of specific immunoglobulin G antibody avidity for serodiagnosis of reactivated toxoplasmosis in immunocompromised patients. Author(s): Mechain B, Garin YJ, Robert-Gangneux F, Dupouy-Camet J, Derouin F. Source: Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 2000 July; 7(4): 703-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10882677&dopt=Abstract
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Lack of value of specific IgA detection in the postnatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Faure AK, Fricker-Hidalgo H, Pelloux H, Bost-Bru C, Goullier-Fleuret A, Ambroise-Thomas P. Source: Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis. 1999; 13(1): 27-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10025734&dopt=Abstract
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Late-onset cerebral toxoplasmosis after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Author(s): Tefferi A, O'Neill BP, Inwards DJ. Source: Bone Marrow Transplantation. 1998 June; 21(12): 1285-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9674867&dopt=Abstract
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Liver toxoplasmosis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Author(s): Mastroianni A, Coronado O, Scarani P, Manfredi R, Chiodo F. Source: Recenti Prog Med. 1996 July-August; 87(7-8): 353-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8831254&dopt=Abstract
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Long-term course and outcome in AIDS patients with cerebral toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Arendt G, von Giesen HJ, Hefter H, Neuen-Jacob E, Roick H, Jablonowski H. Source: Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 1999 September; 100(3): 178-84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10478582&dopt=Abstract
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Long-term follow-up of patients with congenital ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Peyron F, Wallon M, Bernardoux C. Source: The New England Journal of Medicine. 1996 April 11; 334(15): 993-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8596614&dopt=Abstract
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Low risk of congenital toxoplasmosis in children born to women infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Author(s): Dunn D, Newell ML, Gilbert R. Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 1997 January; 16(1): 84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9002113&dopt=Abstract
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Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus chorioretinitis mimicking ocular toxoplasmosis in two otherwise normal children. Author(s): Brezin AP, Thulliez P, Cisneros B, Mets MB, Saron MF. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2000 August; 130(2): 245-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11004308&dopt=Abstract
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Macrophage responses to Toxoplasma antigens in vitro: a possible role in inflammatory lesions in toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Tackey RN, Kassim OO. Source: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 1999 August; 61(2): 272-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10463679&dopt=Abstract
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Magnetic resonance imaging, thallium-201 SPET scanning, and laboratory analyses for discrimination of cerebral lymphoma and toxoplasmosis in AIDS. Author(s): Miller RF, Hall-Craggs MA, Costa DC, Brink NS, Scaravilli F, Lucas SB, Wilkinson ID, Ell PJ, Kendall BE, Harrison MJ. Source: Sexually Transmitted Infections. 1998 August; 74(4): 258-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9924465&dopt=Abstract
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Management of toxoplasmosis in AIDS. Author(s): Trikha I, Wig N. Source: Indian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2001 February; 55(2): 87-98. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11482163&dopt=Abstract
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Mass lesions of the brain in AIDS: the dilemmas of distinguishing toxoplasmosis from primary CNS lymphoma. Author(s): Berger JR. Source: Ajnr. American Journal of Neuroradiology. 2003 April; 24(4): 554-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12695179&dopt=Abstract
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Maternal death due to cerebral toxoplasmosis. Author(s): O'Riordan SE, Farkas AG. Source: British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 1998 May; 105(5): 565-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9637129&dopt=Abstract
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Maternal serologic screening for toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Pinard JA, Leslie NS, Irvine PJ. Source: Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health. 2003 September-October; 48(5): 308-16; Quiz 386. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14526343&dopt=Abstract
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Meeting report: Fifth Toxoplasmosis Conference, Marshall, California, May 1-5, 1999. Author(s): Wilson RJ. Source: Protist. 1999 August; 150(2): 105-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10505410&dopt=Abstract
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Mini review: protective immunity in toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Nagasawa H, Himeno K, Suzuki N. Source: Appl Parasitol. 1996 December; 37(4): 284-92. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9060176&dopt=Abstract
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Molecular cloning of ribosomal P protein in Toxoplasma gondii and the availability to detect antibody against recombinant protein in toxoplasmosis patients. Author(s): Ahn HJ, Kim S, Nam HW. Source: The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 2003 June; 41(2): 89-96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12815319&dopt=Abstract
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Molecular diagnosis of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Bastien P. Source: Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2002 April; 96 Suppl 1: S205-15. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12055840&dopt=Abstract
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Molecular markers in acute and chronic phases of human toxoplasmosis: determination of immunoglobulin G avidity by Western blotting. Author(s): Marcolino PT, Silva DA, Leser PG, Camargo ME, Mineo JR. Source: Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 2000 May; 7(3): 384-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10799450&dopt=Abstract
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Morphology and diagnostics of human toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Rose I. Source: Gen Diagn Pathol. 1997 June; 142(5-6): 257-70. Review. Erratum In: Gen Diagn Pathol 1997 July; 143(1): 84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9228248&dopt=Abstract
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Mother-child pass in Austria and primary toxoplasmosis infections in pregnant women. Author(s): Moese JR, Vander-Moese A. Source: Cent Eur J Public Health. 1998 November; 6(4): 261-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9919373&dopt=Abstract
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Mother-to-child transmission of toxoplasmosis: risk estimates for clinical counselling. Author(s): Dunn D, Wallon M, Peyron F, Petersen E, Peckham C, Gilbert R. Source: Lancet. 1999 May 29; 353(9167): 1829-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10359407&dopt=Abstract
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MRI of intracranial toxoplasmosis after bone marrow transplantation. Author(s): Dietrich U, Maschke M, Dorfler A, Prumbaum M, Forsting M. Source: Neuroradiology. 2000 January; 42(1): 14-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10663463&dopt=Abstract
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Multiple cases of acquired toxoplasmosis retinitis presenting in an outbreak. Author(s): Burnett AJ, Shortt SG, Isaac-Renton J, King A, Werker D, Bowie WR. Source: Ophthalmology. 1998 June; 105(6): 1032-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9627653&dopt=Abstract
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Multiplex PCR for diagnosis of AIDS-related central nervous system lymphoma and toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Roberts TC, Storch GA. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1997 January; 35(1): 268-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8968922&dopt=Abstract
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Myelitis and ascending flaccid paralysis due to congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Campbell AL, Sullivan JE, Marshall GS. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2001 November 15; 33(10): 1778-81. Epub 2001 October 12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11641828&dopt=Abstract
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Neonatal screening for congenital toxoplasmosis in a cohort of 165 women infected during pregnancy and influence of in utero treatment on the results of neonatal tests. Author(s): Bessieres MH, Berrebi A, Rolland M, Bloom MC, Roques C, Cassaing S, Courjault C, Seguela JP. Source: European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology. 2001 January; 94(1): 37-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11134824&dopt=Abstract
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Neonatal screening for congenital toxoplasmosis in the Poznan region of Poland by analysis of Toxoplasma gondii-specific IgM antibodies eluted from filter paper blood spots. Author(s): Paul M, Petersen E, Pawlowski ZS, Szczapa J. Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 2000 January; 19(1): 30-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10643847&dopt=Abstract
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Neurocysticercosis and acquired cerebral toxoplasmosis in children. Author(s): Mitchell WG. Source: Semin Pediatr Neurol. 1999 December; 6(4): 267-77. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10649835&dopt=Abstract
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Neuroimage: Congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Popli MB, Popli V. Source: Neurology India. 1999 March; 47(1): 74. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10339716&dopt=Abstract
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Neuroimaging of AIDS. I. Central nervous system toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ramsey RG, Gean AD. Source: Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1997 May; 7(2): 171-86. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9113684&dopt=Abstract
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Neurologic manifestations of toxoplasmosis in AIDS. Author(s): Cohen BA. Source: Seminars in Neurology. 1999; 19(2): 201-11. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10718541&dopt=Abstract
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Obsessive-compulsive disorder and acquired toxoplasmosis in two children. Author(s): Brynska A, Tomaszewicz-Libudzic E, Wolanczyk T. Source: European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2001 September; 10(3): 200-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11596821&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular involvement in systemic toxoplasmosis: a case report. Author(s): Sasaki MG, Arana J, Leite AG. Source: The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Brazilian Society of Infectious Diseases. 2000 December; 4(6): 301-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11136528&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis after autologous peripheral-blood stem-cell transplantation. Author(s): Yadlapati S, Dorsky D, Remington JS, Edwards RL, Feingold JM, Tutschka PJ, Bilgrami S. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 1997 November; 25(5): 1255-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9402400&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis after the fifth decade. Author(s): Labalette P, Delhaes L, Margaron F, Fortier B, Rouland JF. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2002 April; 133(4): 506-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11931784&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis as the presenting manifestation of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Author(s): Pomeroy C, Noble R, McCormick M, Young B. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 1997 April; 24(4): 745-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9145762&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis in HIV infection. Author(s): Rodgers CA, Harris JR. Source: International Journal of Std & Aids. 1996 August-September; 7(5): 307-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8894817&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis presenting as neuroretinitis: report of two cases. Author(s): Kucukerdonmez C, Akova YA, Yilmaz G. Source: Ocular Immunology and Inflammation. 2002 September; 10(3): 229-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12789599&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Elfervig JL, Elfervig LS. Source: Insight (American Society of Ophthalmic Registered Nurses). 2000 April-June; 25(2): 63-5; Quiz 66-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11907911&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Hovakimyan A, Cunningham ET Jr. Source: Ophthalmology Clinics of North America. 2002 September; 15(3): 327-32. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12434481&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis: a 50th anniversary tribute to the contributions of Helenor Campbell Wilder Foerster. Author(s): Holland GN, Lewis KG, O'Connor GR. Source: Archives of Ophthalmology. 2002 August; 120(8): 1081-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12149063&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis: clinical features and prognosis of 154 patients. Author(s): Bosch-Driessen LE, Berendschot TT, Ongkosuwito JV, Rothova A. Source: Ophthalmology. 2002 May; 109(5): 869-78. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11986090&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis: more than just what meets the eye. Author(s): Vallochi AL, Nakamura MV, Schlesinger D, Martins MC, Silveira C, Belfort R Jr, Rizzo LV. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Immunology. 2002 April; 55(4): 324-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11967112&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis: new directions for clinical investigation. Author(s): Holland GN. Source: Ocular Immunology and Inflammation. 2000 March; 8(1): 1-7. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10896456&dopt=Abstract
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Official recommendations and strategy for prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis in Germany. Author(s): Janitschke K. Source: Archives De Pediatrie : Organe Officiel De La Societe Francaise De Pediatrie. 2003 February; 10 Suppl 1: 15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12802956&dopt=Abstract
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Ophthalmic outcomes after prenatal and postnatal treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Brezin AP, Thulliez P, Couvreur J, Nobre R, Mcleod R, Mets MB. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2003 June; 135(6): 779-84. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12788116&dopt=Abstract
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Ophthalmological findings in children with congenital toxoplasmosis. Report from a Swedish prospective screening study of congenital toxoplasmosis with two years of follow-up. Author(s): Fahnehjelm KT, Malm G, Ygge J, Engman ML, Maly E, Evengard B. Source: Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica. 2000 October; 78(5): 569-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11037917&dopt=Abstract
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Options for the pharmacotherapy of toxoplasmosis during pregnancy. Author(s): Peyron F, Wallon M. Source: Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy. 2001 August; 2(8): 1269-74. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11584994&dopt=Abstract
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Outbreak of toxoplasmosis associated with municipal drinking water. The BC Toxoplasma Investigation Team. Author(s): Bowie WR, King AS, Werker DH, Isaac-Renton JL, Bell A, Eng SB, Marion SA. Source: Lancet. 1997 July 19; 350(9072): 173-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9250185&dopt=Abstract
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Overt chorioretinitis after patient acquired toxoplasmosis in an immunocompetent subject. Author(s): Marx-Chemla C, Villena I, Foudrinier F, Pinon JM, Gotzamanis A, Hamon F, Ducasse A. Source: The British Journal of Ophthalmology. 1998 December; 82(12): 1446-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9930284&dopt=Abstract
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Pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Bhopale GM. Source: Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 2003 July; 26(4): 213-22. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12676122&dopt=Abstract
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PCR for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Author(s): Lewis JS Jr, Khoury H, Storch GA, DiPersio J. Source: Expert Rev Mol Diagn. 2002 November; 2(6): 616-24. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12465457&dopt=Abstract
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Performance of a Western blot assay to compare mother and newborn antiToxoplasma antibodies for the early neonatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Robert-Gangneux F, Commerce V, Tourte-Schaefer C, Dupouy-Camet J. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 1999 September; 18(9): 648-54. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10534187&dopt=Abstract
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Polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis in cerebrospinal fluid in HIV-positive patients. Author(s): Julander I, Martin C, Lappalainen M, Guy E, Isberg B, Evengard B. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2001; 33(7): 538-41. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11515766&dopt=Abstract
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Polymerase chain reaction on sputum for the diagnosis of pulmonary toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients. Author(s): Abraham B, Tamby I, Reynes J, Bastien P. Source: Aids (London, England). 2000 May 5; 14(7): 910-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10839608&dopt=Abstract
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Precocious puberty: an endocrine manifestation in congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Setian N, Andrade RS, Kuperman H, Manna TD, Dichtchekenian V, Damiani D. Source: J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2002 November-December; 15(9): 1487-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12503855&dopt=Abstract
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Preconception seroconversion and maternal seronegativity at delivery do not rule out the risk of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Chemla C, Villena I, Aubert D, Hornoy P, Dupouy D, Leroux B, Bory JP, Pinon JM. Source: Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 2002 March; 9(2): 489-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11874899&dopt=Abstract
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Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis by duplex real-time PCR using fluorescence resonance energy transfer hybridization probes. Author(s): Costa JM, Ernault P, Gautier E, Bretagne S. Source: Prenatal Diagnosis. 2001 February; 21(2): 85-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11241531&dopt=Abstract
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Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Antsaklis A, Daskalakis G, Papantoniou N, Mentis A, Michalas S. Source: Prenatal Diagnosis. 2002 December; 22(12): 1107-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12454967&dopt=Abstract
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Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: a multicenter evaluation of different diagnostic parameters. Author(s): Foulon W, Pinon JM, Stray-Pedersen B, Pollak A, Lappalainen M, Decoster A, Villena I, Jenum PA, Hayde M, Naessens A. Source: American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1999 October; 181(4): 843-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10521739&dopt=Abstract
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Prenatal diagnosis using polymerase chain reaction on amniotic fluid for congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Romand S, Wallon M, Franck J, Thulliez P, Peyron F, Dumon H. Source: Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2001 February; 97(2): 296-300. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11165598&dopt=Abstract
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Prenatal toxoplasmosis diagnosis from amniotic fluid by PCR. Author(s): Vidigal PV, Santos DV, Castro FC, Couto JC, Vitor RW, Brasileiro Filho G. Source: Revista Da Sociedade Brasileira De Medicina Tropical. 2002 January-February; 35(1): 1-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11873253&dopt=Abstract
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Presumed acquired ocular toxoplasmosis in deer hunters. Author(s): Ross RD, Stec LA, Werner JC, Blumenkranz MS, Glazer L, Williams GA. Source: Retina (Philadelphia, Pa.). 2001; 21(3): 226-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11421011&dopt=Abstract
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Presumed congenital ocular toxoplasmosis in two successive siblings. Author(s): Ladas ID, Rallatos CL, Kanaki CS, Damanakis AG, Zafirakis PK, Rallatos G. Source: Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde. 1999; 213(5): 320-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10516521&dopt=Abstract
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Prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis in Austria. Author(s): Aspock H. Source: Archives De Pediatrie : Organe Officiel De La Societe Francaise De Pediatrie. 2003 February; 10 Suppl 1: 16-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12802957&dopt=Abstract
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Prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis in Norway. Author(s): Stray-Pedersen B. Source: Archives De Pediatrie : Organe Officiel De La Societe Francaise De Pediatrie. 2003 February; 10 Suppl 1: 23-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12802962&dopt=Abstract
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Prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis in Slovenia by serological screening of pregnant women. Author(s): Logar J, Petrovec M, Novak-Antolic Z, Premru-Srsen T, Cizman M, Arnez M, Kraut A. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002; 34(3): 201-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12030394&dopt=Abstract
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Prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Foulon W, Naessens A, Ho-Yen D. Source: Journal of Perinatal Medicine. 2000; 28(5): 337-45. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11125923&dopt=Abstract
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Pulmonary toxoplasmosis in bone marrow transplant recipients: report of two cases and review. Author(s): Sing A, Leitritz L, Roggenkamp A, Kolb HJ, Szabados A, Fingerle V, Autenrieth IB, Heesemann J. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 1999 August; 29(2): 429-33. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10476754&dopt=Abstract
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Punctate outer retinal toxoplasmosis in an HIV-positive child. Author(s): Moraes HV Jr. Source: Ocular Immunology and Inflammation. 1999 June; 7(2): 93-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10420204&dopt=Abstract
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QT interval prolongation and risk of life-threatening arrhythmias during toxoplasmosis prophylaxis with spiramycin in neonates. Author(s): Stramba-Badiale M, Nador F, Porta N, Guffanti S, Frediani M, Colnaghi C, Grancini F, Motta G, Carnelli V, Schwartz PJ. Source: American Heart Journal. 1997 January; 133(1): 108-11. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9006298&dopt=Abstract
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Quantitative polymerase chain reaction in diagnosing ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Norose K, Tokushima T, Yano A. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1996 April; 121(4): 441-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8604739&dopt=Abstract
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Questions and answers. I'm trying to become pregnant. Should I avoid my two cats (and their litter box) to lower my risk of toxoplasmosis? Author(s): Kravetz JD. Source: Health News. 2002 December; 8(12): 12. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12523273&dopt=Abstract
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Radiology casebook. Congenital toxoplasmosis: a case report. Author(s): Pan J, Carey BE. Source: Journal of Perinatology : Official Journal of the California Perinatal Association. 1998 November-December; 18(6 Pt 1): 489-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9848769&dopt=Abstract
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Rapid differential diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma by thallium-201 SPECT. Author(s): Lorberboym M, Estok L, Machac J, Germano I, Sacher M, Feldman R, Wallach F, Dorfman D. Source: Journal of Nuclear Medicine : Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 1996 July; 37(7): 1150-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8965186&dopt=Abstract
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Rats, cats, people and parasites: the impact of latent toxoplasmosis on behaviour. Author(s): Webster JP. Source: Microbes and Infection / Institut Pasteur. 2001 October; 3(12): 1037-45. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11580990&dopt=Abstract
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Reactivation of chronic toxoplasmosis: is there a link to strain-specific differences in the parasite? Author(s): Gross U, Kempf MC, Seeber F, Luder CG, Lugert R, Bohne W. Source: Behring Inst Mitt. 1997 March; (99): 97-106. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9303208&dopt=Abstract
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Reactivation of retinal toxoplasmosis despite evidence of immune response to highly active antiretroviral therapy. Author(s): Stout JE, Lai JC, Giner J, Hamilton CD. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2002 August 15; 35(4): E37-9. Epub 2002 July 19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12145740&dopt=Abstract
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Reactivations of ocular toxoplasmosis after cataract extraction. Author(s): Bosch-Driessen LH, Plaisier MB, Stilma JS, Van der Lelij A, Rothova A. Source: Ophthalmology. 2002 January; 109(1): 41-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11772577&dopt=Abstract
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Recent advances in the management of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Asyari F, Redati L. Source: Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2001; 32 Suppl 2: 202-5. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12041590&dopt=Abstract
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Recent trends in research on congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Petersen E, Pollak A, Reiter-Owona I. Source: International Journal for Parasitology. 2001 February; 31(2): 115-44. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11239933&dopt=Abstract
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Recognition and management of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Heitman BB, Irizarry AF. Source: The Nurse Practitioner. 1997 September; 22(9): 75, 79-82, 85-6 Passim. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9314166&dopt=Abstract
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Recognition of tissue cyst-specific antigens in reactivating toxoplasmosis. Author(s): McHugh TD, Bathgate T, Mangan J, Johnson JD, Holliman RE, Butcher PD. Source: Journal of Medical Microbiology. 1997 July; 46(7): 587-95. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9236743&dopt=Abstract
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Recommendation for prenatal screening for congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Munoz C, Izquierdo C, Parra J, Ginovart G, Margall N. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 2000 April; 19(4): 324-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10834827&dopt=Abstract
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Reconsidering the pathogenesis of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Holland GN. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 October; 128(4): 502-5. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10577593&dopt=Abstract
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Recurrence of acute colonic pseudo-obstruction in selective adrenergic dysautonomia associated with infectious toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Polignano FM, Caradonna P, Maiorano E, Ferrarese S. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 1997 January; 32(1): 89-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9018773&dopt=Abstract
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Recurrent ocular disease in postnatally acquired toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Bosch-Driessen EH, Rothova A. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 October; 128(4): 421-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10577582&dopt=Abstract
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Resolution of intracranial calcifications in infants with treated congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Patel DV, Holfels EM, Vogel NP, Boyer KM, Mets MB, Swisher CN, Roizen NJ, Stein LK, Stein MA, Hopkins J, Withers SE, Mack DG, Luciano RA, Meier P, Remington JS, McLeod RL. Source: Radiology. 1996 May; 199(2): 433-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8668790&dopt=Abstract
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Restricted applicability of the polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Garweg J, Boehnke M, Koerner F. Source: Ger J Ophthalmol. 1996 March; 5(2): 104-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8741155&dopt=Abstract
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Retinal detachment in ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Bosch-Driessen LH, Karimi S, Stilma JS, Rothova A. Source: Ophthalmology. 2000 January; 107(1): 36-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10647716&dopt=Abstract
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Retinochoroiditis associated with congenital toxoplasmosis in children: IgG antibody profiles demonstrating the synthesis of local antibodies. Author(s): De Marco R, Ceccarelli R, Frulio R, Palmero C, Vittone P. Source: Eur J Ophthalmol. 2003 January-February; 13(1): 74-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12635678&dopt=Abstract
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Right active retinitis and left focal retinochoroidal scar in a girl with congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Kamiyama M, Yamamoto S, Hayasaka S. Source: Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde. 1997; 211(2): 95-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9097314&dopt=Abstract
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Schizophrenia and serological methods for diagnosis of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Derouin F, Thulliez P, Romand S. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2002 January 1; 34(1): 127-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11731958&dopt=Abstract
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Screening for congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Feingold M. Source: Isr Med Assoc J. 2002 June; 4(6): 473; Author Reply 473. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12073432&dopt=Abstract
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Screening for toxoplasmosis during pregnancy: the situation in Belgium. Author(s): Naessens A. Source: Archives De Pediatrie : Organe Officiel De La Societe Francaise De Pediatrie. 2003 February; 10 Suppl 1: 18. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12802958&dopt=Abstract
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Seroepidemiological study of toxoplasmosis in different sections of population of Union Territory of Chandigarh. Author(s): Mohan B, Dubey ML, Malla N, Kumar R. Source: J Commun Dis. 2002 March; 34(1): 15-22. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12718337&dopt=Abstract
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Seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis among HIV-infected patients and healthy blood donors. Author(s): Nissapatorn V, Kamarulzaman A, Init I, Tan LH, Rohela M, Norliza A, Chan LL, Latt HM, Anuar AK, Quek KF. Source: Med J Malaysia. 2002 September; 57(3): 304-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12440270&dopt=Abstract
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Seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis in amerindians from western Venezuela. Author(s): Chacin-Bonilla L, Sanchez-Chavez Y, Monsalve F, Estevez J. Source: The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2001 August; 65(2): 131-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11508387&dopt=Abstract
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Serologic evaluation of patients with primary and recurrent ocular toxoplasmosis for evidence of recent infection. Author(s): Ongkosuwito JV, Bosch-Driessen EH, Kijlstra A, Rothova A. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 1999 October; 128(4): 407-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10577580&dopt=Abstract
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Serologic rebounds after one-year-long treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Djurkovic-Djakovic O, Romand S, Nobre R, Couvreur J, Thulliez P. Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 2000 January; 19(1): 81-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10643858&dopt=Abstract
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Serological rebound in congenital toxoplasmosis: long-term follow-up of 133 children. Author(s): Wallon M, Cozon G, Ecochard R, Lewin P, Peyron F. Source: European Journal of Pediatrics. 2001 September; 160(9): 534-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11585075&dopt=Abstract
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Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis among AIDS patients in Hospital Kuala Lumpur, 2001. Author(s): Nissapatorn V, Lee CK, Khairul AA. Source: Singapore Med J. 2003 April; 44(4): 194-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12952031&dopt=Abstract
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Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in HIV infected patients in Pondicherry. Author(s): Shivaprakash MR, Parija SC, Sujatha S. Source: J Commun Dis. 2001 September; 33(3): 221-3. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12206044&dopt=Abstract
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Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in the residents of Cheju island, Korea. Author(s): Yang HJ, Jin KN, Park YK, Hong SC, Bae JM, Lee SH, Choi HS, Hwang HS, Chung YB, Lee NS, Nam HW. Source: The Korean Journal of Parasitology. 2000 June; 38(2): 91-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10905070&dopt=Abstract
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Severe acute disseminated toxoplasmosis acquired by an immunocompetent patient in French Guiana. Author(s): Bossi P, Paris L, Caumes E, Katlama C, Danis M, Bricaire F. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002; 34(4): 311-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12064700&dopt=Abstract
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Severe disseminated toxoplasmosis after unrelated bone marrow transplantation: a case report. Author(s): Longoni DV, Fumagalli R, Fumagalli M, Cappellini A, Uderzo C. Source: Haematologica. 2000 July; 85(7): 781-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10897145&dopt=Abstract
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Sources of Toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnancy. Until rates of congenital toxoplasmosis fall, control measures are essential. Author(s): Dubey JP. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 2000 July 15; 321(7254): 127-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10894674&dopt=Abstract
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Sources of toxoplasma infection in pregnant women: European multicentre casecontrol study. European Research Network on Congenital Toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Cook AJ, Gilbert RE, Buffolano W, Zufferey J, Petersen E, Jenum PA, Foulon W, Semprini AE, Dunn DT. Source: Bmj (Clinical Research Ed.). 2000 July 15; 321(7254): 142-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10894691&dopt=Abstract
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Spinal toxoplasmic arachnoiditis associated with osteoid formation: a rare presentation of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Cosan TE, Kabukcuoglu S, Arslantas A, Atasoy MA, Dogan N, Ozgunes I, Kebabci M, Tel E. Source: Spine. 2001 August 1; 26(15): 1726-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11474362&dopt=Abstract
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Submaxillary adenopathy as sole manifestation of toxoplasmosis: case report and literature review. Author(s): Garcia-Pola MJ, Gonzalez-Garcia M, Garcia-Martin JM, Villalain L, De los Heros C. Source: The Journal of Otolaryngology. 2002 April; 31(2): 122-5. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12019742&dopt=Abstract
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Successful toxoplasmosis prophylaxis after orthotopic cardiac transplantation with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Author(s): Baden LR, Katz JT, Franck L, Tsang S, Hall M, Rubin RH, Jarcho J. Source: Transplantation. 2003 February 15; 75(3): 339-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12589155&dopt=Abstract
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Survival of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites in goat milk: potential source of human toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Walsh CP, Hammond SE, Zajac AM, Lindsay DS. Source: The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. 1999 September-October; 46(5): 73S74S. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10519255&dopt=Abstract
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The child with congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): McLeod R, Boyer K, Roizen N, Stein L, Swisher C, Holfels E, Hopkins J, Mack D, Karrison T, Patel D, Pfiffner L, Remington J, Withers S, Meyers S, Aitchison V, Mets M, Rabiah P, Meier P. Source: Curr Clin Top Infect Dis. 2000; 20: 189-208. Review. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10943525&dopt=Abstract
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The molecular basis of sulfonamide resistance in Toxoplasma gondii and implications for the clinical management of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Aspinall TV, Joynson DH, Guy E, Hyde JE, Sims PF. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2002 June 1; 185(11): 1637-43. Epub 2002 May 17. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12023770&dopt=Abstract
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The past and present role of the Sabin-Feldman dye test in the serodiagnosis of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Reiter-Owona I, Petersen E, Joynson D, Aspock H, Darde ML, Disko R, Dreazen O, Dumon H, Grillo R, Gross U, Hayde M, Holliman R, Ho-Yen DO, Janitschke K, Jenum PA, Naser K, Olszewski M, Thulliez P, Seitz HM. Source: Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 1999; 77(11): 929-35. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10612889&dopt=Abstract
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The relationship between nucleoside triphosphate hydrolase (NTPase) isoform and Toxoplasma strain virulence in rat and human toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Johnson M, Broady K, Angelici MC, Johnson A. Source: Microbes and Infection / Institut Pasteur. 2003 July; 5(9): 797-806. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12850206&dopt=Abstract
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The significance of complement fixation test in clinical diagnosis of toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ondriska F, Catar G, Vozarova G. Source: Bratisl Lek Listy. 2003; 104(6): 189-96. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=14594352&dopt=Abstract
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Thrice-weekly sulfadiazine-pyrimethamine for maintenance therapy of toxoplasmic encephalitis in HIV-infected patients. Spanish Toxoplasmosis Study Group. Author(s): Podzamczer D, Miro JM, Ferrer E, Gatell JM, Ramon JM, Ribera E, Sirera G, Cruceta A, Knobel H, Domingo P, Polo R, Leyes M, Cosin J, Farinas MC, Arrizabalaga J, Martinez-Lacasa J, Gudiol F. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 2000 February; 19(2): 8995. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10746493&dopt=Abstract
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TORCH Infections. Toxoplasmosis, Other (syphilis, varicella-zoster, parvovirus B19), Rubella, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Herpes infections. Author(s): Stegmann BJ, Carey JC. Source: Curr Womens Health Rep. 2002 August; 2(4): 253-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12150751&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis after hematopoietic stem transplantation. Report of a 5-year survey from the Infectious Diseases Working Party of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation. Author(s): Martino R, Bretagne S, Rovira M, Ullmann AJ, Maertens J, Held T, Deconinck E, Cordonnier C. Source: Bone Marrow Transplantation. 2000 May; 25(10): 1111-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10828877&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis and habitual abortion. Author(s): Qublan HS, Jumaian N, Abu-Salem A, Hamadelil FY, Mashagbeh M, AbdelGhani F. Source: Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology : the Journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2002 May; 22(3): 296-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12521504&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis and the laboratory: diagnosis and a constant striving for improvement. Author(s): Ferreira AW, Camargo ME. Source: Revista Do Instituto De Medicina Tropical De Sao Paulo. 2002 May-June; 44(3): 119-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12163902&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Author(s): Martino R, Cordonnier C; European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation Infectious Diseases Working Party. Source: Bone Marrow Transplantation. 2003 April; 31(7): 617-8; Author Reply 619. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12692632&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis in bone marrow transplantation: a report of two cases and systematic review of the literature. Author(s): Mele A, Paterson PJ, Prentice HG, Leoni P, Kibbler CC. Source: Bone Marrow Transplantation. 2002 April; 29(8): 691-8. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12180115&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy is still an open subject. Author(s): Greco P, Vimercati A, Angelici MC, Carbonara S, Doria G, Nappi L, Angarano G, Selvaggi L. Source: Journal of Perinatal Medicine. 2003; 31(1): 36-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12661142&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis in rabbits confirmed by strain isolation: a potential risk of infection among agricultural workers. Author(s): Sroka J, Zwolinski J, Dutkiewicz J, Tos-Luty S, Latuszynska J. Source: Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine : Aaem. 2003; 10(1): 125-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12852745&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis in women of child bearing age and infant follow up after in-utero treatment. Author(s): Chakraborty P, Sinha S, Adhya S, Chakraborty G, Bhattacharya P. Source: Indian J Pediatr. 1997 November-December; 64(6): 879-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10771933&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis transmitted to a newborn from the mother infected 20 years earlier. Author(s): Silveira C, Ferreira R, Muccioli C, Nussenblatt R, Belfort R Jr. Source: American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2003 August; 136(2): 370-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12888070&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis transmitted via kidney allograft: case report and review. Author(s): Giordano LF, Lasmar EP, Tavora ER, Lasmar MF. Source: Transplantation Proceedings. 2002 March; 34(2): 498-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12009603&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis, an overview with emphasis on ocular involvement. Author(s): Klaren VN, Kijlstra A. Source: Ocular Immunology and Inflammation. 2002 March; 10(1): 1-26. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12461700&dopt=Abstract
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Treatments for toxoplasmosis in pregnancy. Author(s): Peyron F, Wallon M, Liou C, Garner P. Source: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000; (2): Cd001684. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10796268&dopt=Abstract
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Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole as toxoplasmosis prophylaxis for heart transplant recipients. Author(s): Munoz P, Arencibia J, Rodriguez C, Rivera M, Palomo J, Yanez J, Bouza E. Source: Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2003 April 1; 36(7): 932-3; Author Reply 933. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12652396&dopt=Abstract
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Uncommon cause of severe pancytopenia: toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Beyan C, Ural AU, Cetin T, Omay SB, Doganci L, Yalcin A. Source: American Journal of Hematology. 1997 July; 55(3): 164. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9256298&dopt=Abstract
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Unilateral postural and action tremor resulting from thalamic toxoplasmosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Author(s): Micheli F, Granana N, Scorticati MC, Giannaula RJ, Reboredo G. Source: Movement Disorders : Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society. 1997 November; 12(6): 1096-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9399249&dopt=Abstract
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Unusual abundance of atypical strains associated with human ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Grigg ME, Ganatra J, Boothroyd JC, Margolis TP. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2001 September 1; 184(5): 633-9. Epub 2001 July 24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11474426&dopt=Abstract
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Unusual presentation of cerebral toxoplasmosis after BMT. Author(s): Bleggi-Torres LF, de Medeiros BC, Werner B, Pasquini R, de Medeiros CR. Source: Bone Marrow Transplantation. 1999 April; 23(8): 855-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10231155&dopt=Abstract
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Unusual retinal vasculitis in a patient with protein S deficiency and systemic toxoplasmosis: a case report. Author(s): Raus P, Stalmans P, Demeuter E, Spileers W, Dralands L. Source: Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol. 2001; (279): 7-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11344718&dopt=Abstract
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Upward extension of an atrophic tract of the retinal pigment epithelium associated with congenital macular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Khairallah M, Ladjimi A, Messaoud R, Ben Yahia S, Hmidi K. Source: Eur J Ophthalmol. 1999 January-March; 9(1): 71-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10230598&dopt=Abstract
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Urine sample used for congenital toxoplasmosis diagnosis by PCR. Author(s): Fuentes I, Rodriguez M, Domingo CJ, del Castillo F, Juncosa T, Alvar J. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1996 October; 34(10): 2368-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8880481&dopt=Abstract
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Use of the polymerase chain reaction for diagnosis of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Montoya JG, Parmley S, Liesenfeld O, Jaffe GJ, Remington JS. Source: Ophthalmology. 1999 August; 106(8): 1554-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10442904&dopt=Abstract
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Usefulness of Western blot in serological follow-up of newborns suspected of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Tissot Dupont D, Fricker-Hidalgo H, Brenier-Pinchart MP, Bost-Bru C, Ambroise-Thomas P, Pelloux H. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 2003 February; 22(2): 1225. Epub 2003 February 18. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12627289&dopt=Abstract
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Uveitis: is ocular toxoplasmosis only a clinical diagnosis? Author(s): Bornand JE, de Gottrau P. Source: Ophthalmologica. Journal International D'ophtalmologie. International Journal of Ophthalmology. Zeitschrift Fur Augenheilkunde. 1997; 211(2): 87-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9097311&dopt=Abstract
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Value of cerebrospinal fluid cytochemical examination for the diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis at birth in France. Author(s): Wallon M, Caudie C, Rubio S, Bellini L, Girault V, Gay-Andrieu F, Peyron F. Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 1998 August; 17(8): 705-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9726345&dopt=Abstract
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Value of estimating intraocular antibody production in diagnosis of typical and atypical lesions of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Fawzy M, Mahmoud LA, El Gindy AE, Hegab MA, Bahgat MA. Source: J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 1999; 29(3): 735-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12561914&dopt=Abstract
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Value of lymph node biopsy in the diagnosis of acquired toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Tuzuner N, Dogusoy G, Demirkesen C, Ozkan F, Altas K. Source: The Journal of Laryngology and Otology. 1996 April; 110(4): 348-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8733456&dopt=Abstract
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Value of PCR for detection of Toxoplasma gondii in aqueous humor and blood samples from immunocompetent patients with ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Bou G, Figueroa MS, Marti-Belda P, Navas E, Guerrero A. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1999 November; 37(11): 3465-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10523535&dopt=Abstract
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Value of prenatal diagnosis and early postnatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: retrospective study of 110 cases. Author(s): Robert-Gangneux F, Gavinet MF, Ancelle T, Raymond J, Tourte-Schaefer C, Dupouy-Camet J. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1999 September; 37(9): 2893-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10449471&dopt=Abstract
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Varicella infection and toxoplasmosis in pregnancy. Author(s): Grant A. Source: The Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing. 1996 September; 10(2): 17-29. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8868624&dopt=Abstract
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Vasoproliferative retinal tumors associated with peripheral chorioretinal scars in presumed congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Lafaut BA, Meire FM, Leys AM, Dralands G, De Laey JJ. Source: Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology = Albrecht Von Graefes Archiv Fur Klinische Und Experimentelle Ophthalmologie. 1999 December; 237(12): 1033-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10654174&dopt=Abstract
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CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND TOXOPLASMOSIS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to find studies dedicated specifically to nutrition and toxoplasmosis.
Finding Nutrition Studies on Toxoplasmosis The National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) offers a searchable bibliographic database called the IBIDS (International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements; National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 1B29, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2086, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2086, Tel: 301-435-2920, Fax: 301-480-1845, E-mail:
[email protected]). The IBIDS contains over 460,000 scientific citations and summaries about dietary supplements and nutrition as well as references to published international, scientific literature on dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and botanicals.7 The IBIDS includes references and citations to both human and animal research studies. As a service of the ODS, access to the IBIDS database is available free of charge at the following Web address: http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html. After entering the search area, you have three choices: (1) IBIDS Consumer Database, (2) Full IBIDS Database, or (3) Peer Reviewed Citations Only. Now that you have selected a database, click on the “Advanced” tab. An advanced search allows you to retrieve up to 100 fully explained references in a comprehensive format. Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” To narrow the search, you can also select the “Title” field.
7 Adapted from http://ods.od.nih.gov. IBIDS is produced by the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health to assist the public, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers in locating credible, scientific information on dietary supplements. IBIDS was developed and will be maintained through an interagency partnership with the Food and Nutrition Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
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The following information is typical of that found when using the “Full IBIDS Database” to search for “toxoplasmosis” (or a synonym): •
Aetiology of thyroidal dysfunction in murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Infectious Diseases, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1143 (Japan) Source: Stahl, W. Kaneda, Y. Parasitology (United Kingdom). (1998). volume 117(3) page 223-227.
•
Impaired thyroid function in murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Infectious Diseases, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1143 (Japan) Source: Stahl, W. Kaneda, Y. Parasitology (United Kingdom). (1998). volume 117(3) page 217-222.
Additional physician-oriented references include: •
Antitoxoplasma antibody in clinically suspected cases of human toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Microbiology & Paediatric Surgery, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. Source: Kar, S Sen, M R Gangopadhyay, A N Sen, P C Indian-J-Med-Sci. 1990 April; 44(4): 83-9 0019-5359
•
Assessment of the activity of atovaquone-loaded nanocapsules in the treatment of acute and chronic murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Hopital Saint-Louis, Paris, France. Source: Sordet, F Aumjaud, Y Fessi, H Derouin, F Parasite. 1998 September; 5(3): 223-9 1252-607X
•
Atovaquone nanosuspensions show excellent therapeutic effect in a new murine model of reactivated toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Institute for Infection Medicine, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology of Infection, Benjamin Franklin Medical Center, D-12203 Berlin, Germany. Source: Scholer, N Krause, K Kayser, O Muller, R H Borner, K Hahn, H Liesenfeld, O Antimicrob-Agents-Chemother. 2001 June; 45(6): 1771-9 0066-4804
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Central-nervous-system toxoplasmosis in homosexual men and parenteral drug abusers. Source: Wong, B. Gold, J.W.M. Brown, A.E. Lange, M. Fried, R. Ann-Intern-Med. Philadelphia : American College of Physicians. January 1984 volume 100 (1) page 36-42. 0003-4819
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Cerebellar anomalies in congenital murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Infectious Diseases, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa 259-1193, Japan.
[email protected] Source: Stahl, W Sekiguchi, M Kaneda, Y Parasitol-Res. 2002 June; 88(6): 507-12 09320113
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Cerebral toxoplasmosis - a late complication of allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Author(s): Department of Haematology, University Medical Centre Ljubljana, Slovenija. Source: Zver, S Cernelc, P Mlakar, U Pretnar, J Bone-Marrow-Transplant. 1999 December; 24(12): 1363-5 0268-3369
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Clinical features, outcome and survival from cerebral toxoplasmosis in Edinburgh AIDS patients. Author(s): Regional Infectious Diseases Unit, City Hospital, Edinburgh, UK. Source: Laing, R B Flegg, P J Brettle, R P Leen, C L Burns, S M Int-J-STD-AIDS. 1996 July; 7(4): 258-64 0956-4624
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Congenital toxoplasmosis: prenatal diagnosis, treatment and postnatal outcome. Author(s): Department of Pediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Source: Friedman, S Ford Jones, L E Toi, A Ryan, G Blaser, S Chitayat, D Prenat-Diagn. 1999 April; 19(4): 330-3 0197-3851
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Diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis in the neonatal period: A multicenter evaluation. Author(s): Departments of Microbiology and Obstetrics, Academisch Ziekenhuis, Free University of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium. Source: Naessens, A Jenum, P A Pollak, A Decoster, A Lappalainen, M Villena, I Lebech, M Stray Pedersen, B Hayde, M Pinon, J M Petersen, E Foulon, W J-Pediatr. 1999 Dec; 135(6): 714-9 0022-3476
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Diagnostic value of polymerase chain reaction in blood and aqueous humor in immunocompetent patients with ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Ophthalmology, Hospital Universitario Ramon y Cajal, Madrid, Spain. Source: Figueroa, M S Bou, G Marti Belda, P Lopez Velez, R Guerrero, A Retina. 2000; 20(6): 614-9 0275-004X
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Early aqueous humor analysis in patients with human ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Ophthalmology, University of Bern, Inselspital, CH-3010 Bern, Switzerland.
[email protected] Source: Garweg, J G Jacquier, P Boehnke, M J-Clin-Microbiol. 2000 March; 38(3): 9961001 0095-1137
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Earthworms as paratenic hosts of toxoplasmosis in eastern barred bandicoots in Tasmania. Author(s): Division of Pathology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.
[email protected] Source: Bettiol, S S Obendorf, D L Nowarkowski, M Milstein, T Goldsmith, J M J-WildlDis. 2000 January; 36(1): 145-8 0090-3558
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Effect of immunosuppressive drug regimens on acute and chronic murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Faculte de Medecine, UFR Lariboisiere-Saint Louis, Universite Paris VII, Paris, France. Source: Sumyuen, M H Garin, Y J Derouin, F Parasitol-Res. 1996; 82(8): 681-6 0932-0113
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Effect of prolactin, rIFN-gamma or rTNF-alpha in murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Istituto di Microbiologia, Seconda Universita degli Studi di Napoli, Larghetto Sant' Aniello a Caponapoli 2, Naples, Italy. Source: Benedetto, N Folgore, A Galdiero, M Meli, R Di Carlo, R Pathol-Biol-(Paris). 1995 May; 43(5): 395-400 0369-8114
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Evaluation of the activities of rifabutin combined with atovaquone or low-dose of cotrimoxazole for prevention of pneumocystosis and toxoplasmosis in a dual infection rat model. Author(s): INSERM U 13. Hopital Bichat-Clande Bernard, Paris, France.
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Source: Brun Pascaud, M Chau, F Rajagopalan Levasseur, P Derouin, F Girard, P M JEukaryot-Microbiol. 1996 Sep-October; 43(5): 14S-15S 1066-5234 •
Evaluation of the efficacy of atovaquone alone or in combination with azithromycin against acute murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Parasitology Department, Medical Science Faculty, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, IR, Iran. Source: Moshkani, S K Dalimi, A Vet-Res-Commun. 2000 April; 24(3): 169-77 0165-7380
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Lack of therapeutic effect of colchicine on murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Neuroimmunology Department, National Institute of Neurology, Mexico D.F., Mexico. Source: Aguirre Cruz, L Sotelo, J J-Parasitol. 1998 February; 84(1): 163-4 0022-3395
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Precipitous visual loss secondary to optic nerve toxoplasmosis as an unusual presentation of AIDS. Author(s): Ophthalmology Registrar, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane. Source: Wei, M E Campbell, S H Taylor, C Aust-N-Z-J-Ophthalmol. 1996 February; 24(1): 75-7 0814-9763
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Pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis: follow-up of 78 cases between 1980 and 1997. Reims Toxoplasmosis Group. Author(s): Service de Parasitologie (Team 4 INSERM U.314, EA 2070, IFR 53), CHU, Hopitaux Maison Blanche, Reims, France. Source: Villena, I Aubert, D Leroux, B Dupouy, D Talmud, M Chemla, C Trenque, T Schmit, G Quereux, C Guenounou, M Pluot, M Bonhomme, A Pinon, J M Scand-J-InfectDis. 1998; 30(3): 295-300 0036-5548
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Recurrent ocular toxoplasmosis in patients treated with systemic corticosteroids. Author(s): UCLA Ocular Inflammatory Disease Center, Jules Stein Eye Institute 900957003, USA. Source: Morhun, P J Weisz, J M Elias, S J Holland, G N Retina. 1996; 16(5): 383-7 0275004X
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Relationship between the production of interferon-alpha/beta and interferon-gamma during acute toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Basque Country University, Bilbao, Spain. Source: Diez, B Galdeano, A Nicolas, R Cisterna, R Parasitology. 1989 August; 99 Pt 1115 0031-1820
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Resolution of intracranial calcifications in infants with treated congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Radiology, Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago, IL 60616, USA. Source: Patel, D V Holfels, E M Vogel, N P Boyer, K M Mets, M B Swisher, C N Roizen, N J Stein, L K Stein, M A Hopkins, J Withers, S E Mack, D G Luciano, R A Meier, P Remington, J S McLeod, R L Radiology. 1996 May; 199(2): 433-40 0033-8419
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Review of toxoplasmosis in Malaysia. Author(s): Division of Malaria and Filariasis, Institute for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Source: Yahaya, N Southeast-Asian-J-Trop-Med-Public-Health. 1991 December; 22 Suppl102-6 0038-3619
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Role of clindamycin in the treatment of acute toxoplasmosis of the central nervous system. Author(s): Department of Internal Medicine, Rudolf Virchow University Hospital (Wedding), Freie Universitat Berlin, FRG. Source: Ruf, B Pohle, H D Eur-J-Clin-Microbiol-Infect-Dis. 1991 March; 10(3): 183-6 09349723
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Seroepidemiology of ocular toxoplasmosis-profile of an urban population. Author(s): Department of Microbiology, Safdarjang Hospital. Source: Jain, S D Uppal, B Mehta, D K Indian-J-Pathol-Microbiol. 1998 October; 41(4): 387-90 0377-4929
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Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in Jodhpur, India. Author(s): Department of Microbiolgy, Dr. Sampurnand Medical College, Jodhpur. Source: Joshi, Y R Vyas, S Joshi, K R J-Commun-Dis. 1998 March; 30(1): 32-7 0019-5138
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Short-term effects of the clindamycin-steroid regimen in the treatment of ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Institute for Medical Research, University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Source: Djurkovic Djakovic, O Stanojevic Paovic, A Bobic, B Bergam, J Nikolic, A Paovic, J Vukovic, D J-Chemother. 1995 November; 7 Suppl 4199-201 1120-009X
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Synergistic effect of clindamycin and atovaquone in acute murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Toxoplasmosis Research Laboratory, Institute for Medical Research, Belgrade, Yugoslavia.
[email protected] Source: Djurkovic Djakovic, O Nikolic, T Robert Gangneux, F Bobic, B Nikolic, A Antimicrob-Agents-Chemother. 1999 September; 43(9): 2240-4 0066-4804
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The use of colchicine in treatment of experimental toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Egypt. Source: Aly, M M Ismail, M A J-Egypt-Soc-Parasitol. 2000 April; 30(1): 257-62 0253-5890
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Toxoplasmosis and iodine deficiency in Angora goats. Author(s): Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.
[email protected] Source: Slosarkova, S Literak, I Skrivanek, M Svobodova, V Suchy, P Herzig, I VetParasitol. 1999 February 25; 81(2): 89-97 0304-4017
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Use of ketolides in combination with other drugs to treat experimental toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Research Institute, Palo Alto Medical Foundation, CA, USA. Source: Araujo, F G Khan, A A Bryskier, A Remington, J S J-Antimicrob-Chemother. 1998 November; 42(5): 665-7 0305-7453
Federal Resources on Nutrition In addition to the IBIDS, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provide many sources of information on general nutrition and health. Recommended resources include: •
healthfinder®, HHS’s gateway to health information, including diet and nutrition: http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/SearchContext.asp?topic=238&page=0
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The United States Department of Agriculture’s Web site dedicated to nutrition information: www.nutrition.gov
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The Food and Drug Administration’s Web site for federal food safety information: www.foodsafety.gov
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The National Action Plan on Overweight and Obesity sponsored by the United States Surgeon General: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/
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The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition has an Internet site sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/
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Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov/cnpp/
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Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/
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Food and Nutrition Service sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fns.usda.gov/fns/
Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering food and nutrition. The following is a representative sample: •
AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=174&layer=&from=subcats
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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_nutrition.html
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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Nutrition/
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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/
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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Nutrition/
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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Nutrition/
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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/nutrition
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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html
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CHAPTER 3. TOXOPLASMOSIS
ALTERNATIVE
MEDICINE
AND
Overview In this chapter, we will begin by introducing you to official information sources on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) relating to toxoplasmosis. At the conclusion of this chapter, we will provide additional sources.
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (http://nccam.nih.gov/) has created a link to the National Library of Medicine’s databases to facilitate research for articles that specifically relate to toxoplasmosis and complementary medicine. To search the database, go to the following Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html. Select “CAM on PubMed.” Enter “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box. Click “Go.” The following references provide information on particular aspects of complementary and alternative medicine that are related to toxoplasmosis: •
22. FDG Uptake in Infectious Mononucleosis. Author(s): Tomas MB, Tronco GG, Karayalcin G, Palestro CJ. Source: Clinical Positron Imaging : Official Journal of the Institute for Clinical P.E.T. 2000 July; 3(4): 176. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11150779&dopt=Abstract
•
A case against logic. Author(s): Steimann F. Source: Medinfo. 1995; 8 Pt 2: 989-93. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8591606&dopt=Abstract
•
A morphologic study of opportunistic cerebral toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Ghatak NR, Sawyer DR.
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Source: Acta Neuropathologica. 1978 June 30; 42(3): 217-21. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=676670&dopt=Abstract •
Acquired ocular toxoplasmosis in an elderly patient. Author(s): Sullivan C, Murray PI. Source: Eye (London, England). 2001 December; 15(Pt 6): 791-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11827006&dopt=Abstract
•
Acute toxoplasma infection of mice induces spleen NK cells that are cytotoxic for T. gondii in vitro. Author(s): Hauser WE Jr, Tsai V. Source: Journal of Immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950). 1986 January; 136(1): 313-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3079610&dopt=Abstract
•
AIDS primary central nervous system lymphoma. Author(s): Flinn IW, Ambinder RF. Source: Current Opinion in Oncology. 1996 September; 8(5): 373-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9026061&dopt=Abstract
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Cerebral blood flow in AIDS-related neurotoxoplasmosis: a preliminary 99mTcHMPAO SPECT study. Author(s): Pigorini F, Maini CL, Pau FM, Galgani S, Volpini V, Leonetti C, Narciso P, Rosci MA. Source: Nuklearmedizin. 1991 February; 30(1): 13-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2062672&dopt=Abstract
•
Cerebral toxoplasmosis after autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Author(s): Lopez-Duarte M, Insunza A, Conde E, Iriondo A, Mazorra F, Zubizarreta A. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 2003 September; 22(9): 548-50. Epub 2003 August 27. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12942340&dopt=Abstract
•
Effects of anticoagulants on the dye test for toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Kobayashi A, Kumada M, Tsunematsu Y. Source: Jpn J Med Sci Biol. 1968 February; 21(1): 71-89. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4968367&dopt=Abstract
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Effects of immobilization stress on the pathogenesis of acute murine toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Chao CC, Peterson PK, Filice GA, Pomeroy C, Sharp BM.
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Source: Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 1990 June; 4(2): 162-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2393725&dopt=Abstract •
Hyperperfusion and early technetium-99m-HMPAO SPECT appearance of central nervous system toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Catafau AM, Sola M, Lomena FJ, Guelar A, Miro JM, Setoain J. Source: Journal of Nuclear Medicine : Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 1994 June; 35(6): 1041-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8195866&dopt=Abstract
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Ocular toxoplasmosis. Author(s): O'Connor GR. Source: Trans New Orleans Acad Ophthalmol. 1983; 31: 108-21. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6401146&dopt=Abstract
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Paradoxical effect of clindamycin in experimental, acute toxoplasmosis in cats. Author(s): Davidson MG, Lappin MR, Rottman JR, Tompkins MB, English RV, Bruce AT, Jayawickrama J. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1996 June; 40(6): 1352-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8726000&dopt=Abstract
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Rapid differential diagnosis of cerebral toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma by thallium-201 SPECT. Author(s): Lorberboym M, Estok L, Machac J, Germano I, Sacher M, Feldman R, Wallach F, Dorfman D. Source: Journal of Nuclear Medicine : Official Publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine. 1996 July; 37(7): 1150-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8965186&dopt=Abstract
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Retrovesical squamous cell carcinoma associated with toxoplasmosis: diagnostic images, serum detection of SCC-antigen, and successful treatment by M-VAC regimen. Author(s): Tada K, Takeuchi T, Tanaka T, Iwata H, Kanematsu M, Kuriyama M, Ban Y, Kawada Y. Source: Journal of Surgical Oncology. 1989 January; 40(1): 61-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2642569&dopt=Abstract
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Review of toxoplasmosis in Malaysia. Author(s): Yahaya N. Source: Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1991 December; 22 Suppl: 102-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1822863&dopt=Abstract
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The effectiveness of a prenatal education programme for the prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Carter AO, Gelmon SB, Wells GA, Toepell AP. Source: Epidemiology and Infection. 1989 December; 103(3): 539-45. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2606162&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis. Author(s): Phillips E. Source: Can Fam Physician. 1998 September; 44: 1823-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9789661&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis. Are cats really the source? Author(s): Torda A. Source: Aust Fam Physician. 2001 August; 30(8): 743-7. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11681144&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis: minimizing the risk of pet-associated transmission in persons with HIV disease. Author(s): Lander SM, Reid J. Source: Home Healthcare Nurse. 1991 March-April; 9(2): 33-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2061065&dopt=Abstract
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Toxoplasmosis--an overview. Author(s): Dubey JP. Source: Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1991 December; 22 Suppl: 88-92. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1822945&dopt=Abstract
Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering CAM and related topics. The following is a representative sample: •
Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.: http://www.herbmed.org/
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AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=169&layer=&from=subcats
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Chinese Medicine: http://www.newcenturynutrition.com/
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drkoop.com: http://www.drkoop.com/InteractiveMedicine/IndexC.html
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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_altn.htm
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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Alternative/
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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/
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MedWebPlus: http://medwebplus.com/subject/Alternative_and_Complementary_Medicine
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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/
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HealthGate: http://www.tnp.com/
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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/drugs_and_herbs
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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html
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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Alternative_Medicine/
The following is a specific Web list relating to toxoplasmosis; please note that any particular subject below may indicate either a therapeutic use, or a contraindication (potential danger), and does not reflect an official recommendation: •
General Overview Immune Function Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Uveitis Source: Integrative Medicine Communications; www.drkoop.com
•
Herbs and Supplements Anti-Protozoal Drugs Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com
General References A good place to find general background information on CAM is the National Library of Medicine. It has prepared within the MEDLINEplus system an information topic page dedicated to complementary and alternative medicine. To access this page, go to the MEDLINEplus site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alternativemedicine.html. This Web site provides a general overview of various topics and can lead to a number of general sources.
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CHAPTER 4. CLINICAL TRIALS AND TOXOPLASMOSIS Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to keep informed of the latest clinical trials concerning toxoplasmosis.
Recent Trials on Toxoplasmosis The following is a list of recent trials dedicated to toxoplasmosis.8 Further information on a trial is available at the Web site indicated. •
Pyrimethamine, Sulfadiazine, and Leucovorin in Treating Patients With Congenital Toxoplasmosis Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis Study Status: This study is currently recruiting patients. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); University of Chicago Purpose - Excerpt: RATIONALE: Congenital toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the parasitic organism Toxoplasma gondii, and may be passed from an infected mother to her unborn child. The mother may have mild symptoms or no symptoms; the fetus, however, may experience damage to the eyes, nervous system, skin, and ears. The newborn may have a low birth weight, enlarged liver and spleen, jaundice, anemia, petechiae, and eye damage. Giving the antiparasitic drugs pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine is standard treatment for congenital toxoplasmosis, but it is not yet known which regimen of pyrimethamine is most effective for the disease. PURPOSE: Randomized phase II trial to determine which regimen of pyrimethamine is most effective when combined with sulfadiazine and leucovorin in treating patients who have congenital toxoplasmosis. Phase(s): Phase II Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below
8
These are listed at www.ClinicalTrials.gov.
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Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00004317 •
A Pilot Study of 566C80 for the Salvage Treatment of Toxoplasmic Encephalitis in Patients Infected With the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Who Have Failed or are Intolerant of Pyrimethamine-Sulfadiazine Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; HIV Infections Study Status: This study is completed. Sponsor(s): Glaxo Wellcome Purpose - Excerpt: To evaluate the safety and tolerance of atovaquone (566C80) in AIDS patients with central nervous system (CNS) toxoplasmosis. To evaluate the efficacy of 566C80 in the acute treatment and suppression of CNS toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients who fail or who cannot tolerate conventional therapy. Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00001994
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A Pilot Study of Oral Clindamycin and Pyrimethamine for the Treatment of Toxoplasmic Encephalitis in Patients With AIDS Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; HIV Infections Study Status: This study is completed. Sponsor(s): Upjohn; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); Glaxo Wellcome Purpose - Excerpt: To collect information on the effectiveness and toxicity of clindamycin plus pyrimethamine and leucovorin calcium for the treatment of acute toxoplasmic encephalitis in adult patients with AIDS. Toxoplasmic encephalitis (encephalitis caused by Toxoplasma gondii) is the most frequent cause of focal central nervous system infection in patients with AIDS. If untreated, the encephalitis is fatal. At present, it is standard practice to give a combination of pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine to treat toxoplasmic encephalitis. The high frequency of sulfonamide-induced toxicity in AIDS patients often makes completion of a full course of therapy difficult. There is some information that high doses of parenteral (such as by injection) clindamycin used with pyrimethamine may be as effective as pyrimethamine plus sulfadiazine in the management of the acute phase of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Administration of parenteral clindamycin for prolonged periods of time, however, is costly, requires hospitalization, and is inconvenient for the patient. There is some indication that treatment of AIDS patients with acute toxoplasmic encephalitis with oral clindamycin may be effective. Leucovorin calcium is useful in preventing pyrimethamine-associated bone marrow toxicity. Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00000674
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A Randomized Prospective Study of Pyrimethamine Therapy for Prevention of Toxoplasmic Encephalitis in HIV-Infected Individuals With Serologic Evidence of Latent Toxoplasma gondii Infection Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; HIV Infections Study Status: This study is completed. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Purpose - Excerpt: To evaluate pyrimethamine as a prophylactic agent against toxoplasmic encephalitis in individuals who are coinfected with HIV and latent Toxoplasma gondii. Toxoplasmic encephalitis is a major cause of illness and death in AIDS patients. Standard treatment for toxoplasmic encephalitis is to combine pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine. Continuous treatment is necessary to prevent recurrence of the disease, but constant use of pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine is associated with toxicity. Clindamycin has been shown to be effective in treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in animal studies. This study evaluates pyrimethamine as a preventive treatment against toxoplasmic encephalitis (per 3/26/91 amendment, clindamycin arm was discontinued). Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00000666
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A Study of Azithromycin Plus Pyrimethamine in the Treatment of a Brain Infection in Patients with AIDS Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; HIV Infections Study Status: This study is completed. Sponsor(s): Pfizer; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Purpose - Excerpt: To evaluate the effectiveness and toxicity of oral azithromycin and pyrimethamine as acute therapy for toxoplasmic encephalitis in AIDS patients. To assess the toxicity and effectiveness of azithromycin alone as maintenance therapy. Encephalitis caused by Toxoplasma gondii is the most frequent cause of focal central nervous system infection in patients with AIDS. Untreated, the encephalitis is fatal. Standard treatment for toxoplasmic encephalitis is associated with serious adverse effects. Thus, alternative treatments are needed. Phase(s): Phase I Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00000966
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A Study of Pyrimethamine in the Treatment of Infection by a Certain Parasite in HIVPositive Patients Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; HIV Infections Study Status: This study is completed. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); Glaxo Wellcome
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Purpose - Excerpt: To determine the manner in which pyrimethamine is metabolized and excreted in patients currently receiving zidovudine (AZT). An important goal of this measurement is to establish the optimal dose of pyrimethamine necessary to prevent the development of toxoplasmosis in AIDS patients or delay the subsequent return of toxoplasmic encephalitis. Encephalitis caused by Toxoplasma gondii has emerged as the most frequent cause of focal central nervous system infection in patients with AIDS. Untreated, the encephalitis is fatal. The best treatment for this disease has not been determined. Presently it is standard practice to administer a combination of pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine. Little is known about the pharmacokinetics of pyrimethamine in patients with AIDS receiving AZT. Furthermore, there are reports that patients already exposed to toxoplasmosis may not have uniform absorption of pyrimethamine. Phase(s): Phase I Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00000973 •
Phase II Randomized Open-Label Trial of Atovaquone Plus Pyrimethamine and Atovaquone Plus Sulfadiazine for the Treatment of Acute Toxoplasmic Encephalitis Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; HIV Infections Study Status: This study is completed. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Purpose - Excerpt: To evaluate the efficacy, safety, and tolerance of atovaquone with either pyrimethamine or sulfadiazine in AIDS patients with toxoplasmic encephalitis. AIDS patients with toxoplasmic encephalitis who receive the standard therapy combination of sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine experience a high frequency of severe toxicity. Atovaquone, an antibiotic that has demonstrated efficacy against toxoplasmosis in animal models and in preclinical testing has been well tolerated, is now available as a suspension, which is more readily absorbed than the tablet form of the drug. The efficacy and safety of atovaquone in combination with sulfadiazine or pyrimethamine will be studied. Phase(s): Phase II Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00000794
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Primary Prophylaxis of Cerebral Toxoplasmosis in HIV-Infected Patients Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; HIV Infections Study Status: This study is completed. Sponsor(s): National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Purpose - Excerpt: To evaluate the effectiveness of pyrimethamine (given with leucovorin calcium versus placebo (an inactive substance) for the primary prophylaxis (prevention) of cerebral toxoplasmosis in HIV-infected patients. Cerebral toxoplasmosis is one of the most frequently encountered opportunistic infections in the course of AIDS. The mortality (death) rate is estimated to be greater than 50 percent. Pyrimethamine is a
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drug that appears promising for the primary prevention of cerebral toxoplasmosis in HIV-infected patients. Phase(s): Phase II Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00000643 •
Toxoplasmic Encephalitis in Patients With AIDS. Treatment and Prevention of Relapse Condition(s): Toxoplasmosis, Cerebral; HIV Infections Study Status: This study is completed. Sponsor(s): Palo Alto Medical Foundation Purpose - Excerpt: To compare pyrimethamine and intravenous (IV) clindamycin vs. pyrimethamine and sulfonamides in the treatment of AIDS patients with central nervous system (CNS) Toxoplasma gondii. Study Type: Interventional Contact(s): see Web site below Web Site: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00002064
Keeping Current on Clinical Trials The U.S. National Institutes of Health, through the National Library of Medicine, has developed ClinicalTrials.gov to provide current information about clinical research across the broadest number of diseases and conditions. The site was launched in February 2000 and currently contains approximately 5,700 clinical studies in over 59,000 locations worldwide, with most studies being conducted in the United States. ClinicalTrials.gov receives about 2 million hits per month and hosts approximately 5,400 visitors daily. To access this database, simply go to the Web site at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ and search by “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms). While ClinicalTrials.gov is the most comprehensive listing of NIH-supported clinical trials available, not all trials are in the database. The database is updated regularly, so clinical trials are continually being added. The following is a list of specialty databases affiliated with the National Institutes of Health that offer additional information on trials: •
For clinical studies at the Warren Grant Magnuson Clinical Center located in Bethesda, Maryland, visit their Web site: http://clinicalstudies.info.nih.gov/
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For clinical studies conducted at the Bayview Campus in Baltimore, Maryland, visit their Web site: http://www.jhbmc.jhu.edu/studies/index.html
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For cancer trials, visit the National Cancer Institute: http://cancertrials.nci.nih.gov/
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For eye-related trials, visit and search the Web page of the National Eye Institute: http://www.nei.nih.gov/neitrials/index.htm
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For heart, lung and blood trials, visit the Web page of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/studies/index.htm
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For trials on aging, visit and search the Web site of the National Institute on Aging: http://www.grc.nia.nih.gov/studies/index.htm
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For rare diseases, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the Office of Rare Diseases: http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/resources/rsch_trials.asp
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For alcoholism, visit the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism: http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/intramural/Web_dicbr_hp/particip.htm
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For trials on infectious, immune, and allergic diseases, visit the site of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases: http://www.niaid.nih.gov/clintrials/
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For trials on arthritis, musculoskeletal and skin diseases, visit newly revised site of the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases of the National Institutes of Health: http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/studies/index.htm
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For hearing-related trials, visit the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders: http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/clinical/index.htm
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For trials on diseases of the digestive system and kidneys, and diabetes, visit the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases: http://www.niddk.nih.gov/patient/patient.htm
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For drug abuse trials, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the National Institute on Drug Abuse: http://www.nida.nih.gov/CTN/Index.htm
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For trials on mental disorders, visit and search the Web site of the National Institute of Mental Health: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/studies/index.cfm
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For trials on neurological disorders and stroke, visit and search the Web site sponsored by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke of the NIH: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/funding/funding_opportunities.htm#Clinical_Trials
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CHAPTER 5. PATENTS ON TOXOPLASMOSIS Overview Patents can be physical innovations (e.g. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment) or processes (e.g. treatments or diagnostic procedures). The United States Patent and Trademark Office defines a patent as a grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the Patent and Trademark Office.9 Patents, therefore, are intellectual property. For the United States, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date when the patent application was filed. If the inventor wishes to receive economic benefits, it is likely that the invention will become commercially available within 20 years of the initial filing. It is important to understand, therefore, that an inventor’s patent does not indicate that a product or service is or will be commercially available. The patent implies only that the inventor has “the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling” the invention in the United States. While this relates to U.S. patents, similar rules govern foreign patents. In this chapter, we show you how to locate information on patents and their inventors. If you find a patent that is particularly interesting to you, contact the inventor or the assignee for further information. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical patents that use the generic term “toxoplasmosis” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on toxoplasmosis, we have not necessarily excluded non-medical patents in this bibliography.
Patents on Toxoplasmosis By performing a patent search focusing on toxoplasmosis, you can obtain information such as the title of the invention, the names of the inventor(s), the assignee(s) or the company that owns or controls the patent, a short abstract that summarizes the patent, and a few excerpts from the description of the patent. The abstract of a patent tends to be more technical in nature, while the description is often written for the public. Full patent descriptions contain much more information than is presented here (e.g. claims, references, figures, diagrams, etc.). We will tell you how to obtain this information later in the chapter. The following is an 9Adapted from the United States Patent and Trademark Office: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/whatis.htm.
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example of the type of information that you can expect to obtain from a patent search on toxoplasmosis: •
Antibiotic combination Inventor(s): Kompis; Ivan (Oberwil, CH), Then; Rudolf (Weil am Rhein, DE) Assignee(s): Hoffmann-La Roche Inc. (Nutley, NJ) Patent Number: 5,721,242 Date filed: May 12, 1994 Abstract: Pharmaceutical preparations containing an antibacterially-active synergistic combination of epiroprim and dapsone are useful in the treatment or control of infections caused by mycobacteria, Actinomycetes and toxoplasmosis pathogens. Excerpt(s): The present invention is concerned with an antibiotically-active synergistic combination preparation consisting of 2,4-diamino-5-›3,5-diethoxy-4-(pyrrol-1yl)benzyl!pyrimidine (epiroprim) and 4,4'-diamino-diphenylsulphone (dapsone) or their respective pharmaceutically acceptable salts. The invention is also concerned with the use of epiroprim and dapsone or their respective pharmaceutically acceptable salts as active substances in the treatment or control of infections caused by mycobacteria, Actinomycetes, especially Nocardia sp., and toxoplasmosis pathogens in mammals, both human and non-human, and unit dosage forms containing epiroprim and dapsone to treat or control infections caused by mycobacteria, Acetinomycetes, especially Nocardia sp., and toxoplasmosis pathogens in mammals, both human and non-human. The use of diaminobenzylpyrimidines, including epiroprim, optionally in combination with dapsone or antibacterially-active sulphonamides, against infections with the fungus Pneumocystitis carinii is known from Patent Publication WO 92 08461. It has surprisingly been found that the combination of epiroprim with dapsone is suitable for the treatment of infections in mammals, both human and non-human, caused by mycobacteria, especially M. marinum, M. smegmatis, M. avium and M. leprae; and of toxoplasmosis pathogens, especially Toxoplasma gondii; as well as Actinomycetes, especially Nocardia sp. The active substances, epiroprim and dapsone, can be administered individually or as a combination preparation, and simultaneously or chronologically spaced, with the simultaneous administration being preferred. Of course, the method or methods of administration should be done so long that the antibacterially-active synergistic combination of epiroprim and dapsone is ultimately dosed to the mammal in need of treatment. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05721242__
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Antiprotozoal cyclic tetrapeptides Inventor(s): Bills; Gerald F. (Clark, NJ), Cannova; Christine L. (Toms River, NJ), Darland; Gary K. (Mountainside, NJ), Dombrowski; Anne W. (East Brunswick, NJ), Goetz; Michael A. (Scotch Plains, NJ), Greene; Joyce A. (Clark, NJ), Polishook; Jon (Cranford, NJ), Rattray; Sandra J. (Edison, NJ), Singh; Sheo B. (Edison, NJ) Assignee(s): Merck & Co., Inc. (Rahway, NJ) Patent Number: 5,620,953 Date filed: May 23, 1995
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Abstract: The present invention provides novel cyclic tetrapeptides useful in the treatment or prevention of protozoal diseases; in particular, the novel compounds are active against the causative pathogens in malaria, toxoplasmosis, and coccidiosis. Excerpt(s): Parasitic protozoa are responsible for a wide variety of infections in man and animals. Many of the diseases are life threatening to the host and cause considerable economic loss in animal husbandry. For example, malaria remains a significant health threat to humans despite massive international attempts to eradicate the disease; trypanosomiasis such as Chagas disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and African sleeping sickness caused by T. brucei are not uncommon in Africa and South America; and opportunistic infections in immunocompromised hosts caused by Pneumocystis carinii, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium sp. are becoming increasingly significant in the developed countries. A protozoal infection of great economic importance is coccidiosis, a widespread disease of domesticated animals produced by infections by protozoa of the genus Eimeria. Some of the most significant Eimeria species are those in poultry, namely E. tenella, E. acervulina, E. necatrix, E. brunetti and E. maxima. The disease is responsible for high levels of morbidity and mortality in poultry and can result in extreme economic losses. In some protozoal diseases, such as Chagas disease, there is no satisfactory treatment; in others, drug-resistant strains of the protozoa may develop. Accordingly, there exists a continued need to identify new and effective antiprotozoal drugs. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05620953__ •
Combination of atovaquone with proguanil for the treatment of protozoal infections Inventor(s): Gutteridge; Winston Edward (Beckenham, GB), Hutchinson; David Brian Ashton (Beckenham, GB), Latter; Victoria Susan (Beckenham, GB), Pudney; Mary (Beckenham, GB) Assignee(s): Glaxo Wellcome Inc. (Research Triangle Park, NC) Patent Number: 5,998,449 Date filed: October 31, 1997 Abstract: The invention relates to combinations of atovaquone and proguanil, their use in the treatment and propinylaxis of parasitic infections, such as protozoal parasitic infections, e.g. malaria and toxoplasmosis, and infections caused by P.carinii and their use in the manunfacture of medicaments for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of such infections. The combinations can conveniently be administered in a single pharmaceutical formulation. Preferably, atovaquone and proguanil are administered in a potentiating ratio so that they act in synergy. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to synergistic combinations of 2-[4-(4chlorophenyl) cyclohexyl]-3-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (atovaquone) and proguanil which have anti-parasitic activity. More particularly, the invention is concerned with pharmaceutical compositions containing said combinations, their use in the treatment of protozoal parasitic infections such as malaria and toxoplasmosis and their use in the treatment of infections caused by Pneumocystis carinii. Proguanil is a well-known drug for prophylaxis, but not treatment, of malaria. It is one of the safest antimalarial drugs and may be given to young children and pregnant women. However, resistance of P. falciparum to proguanil has appeared, particularly in South East Asia, and is an increasing problem. In order to combat drug resistance, it is becoming standard practice to use combinations of more than one antimalarial, either simultaneously or
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sequentially. However, many such combinations are antagonistic, resulting in less effective treatment and the dosage regimens are often complicated, increasing the likelihood of patients failing to complete the treatment. Accordingly, it was an object of the present invention to provide a combination of antimalarial drugs which was not antagonistic and which did not require a complex dosing regimen. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05998449__ •
Compositions for the treatment of parasitic infections Inventor(s): McCaffrey; Ronald P. (Needham, MA), Wigzell; Hans L. R. (Hagersten, SE) Assignee(s): The University Hospital (Boston, MA) Patent Number: 5,663,155 Date filed: November 30, 1994 Abstract: The invention relates to compositions comprising an adenosine derivative and a deaminase inhibitor for the prevention and treatment of parasitic infections by eukaryotic organisms. Parasitic infections which are treatable and preventable with these compositions include malaria, trypanosomiasis, leishmania, toxoplasmosis, sarcocystis, pneumocystis, schistosomiasis, blood flukes and elephantiasis. The invention also relates to methods for utilizing these compositions in treatment regiments. Treatments may be either in vivo or in vitro. In vivo treatments involve administration of compositions of the invention to mammals suspected or at risk of being infected with a parasitic organism. In vitro treatments involve incubation of cells, tissues, biological products derived from living materials or foods with compositions of the invention to inhibit or prevent further infection. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to compositions useful for the prevention and treatment of parasitic infections which cause diseases such as malaria, trypanosomiasis, leishmania, schistosomiasis and elephantitis. Useful compositions contain an adenosine or adenosine derivative and, optionally, a deaminase inhibitor. Compositions may be used in vivo to treat patients and also in vitro to inactivate or destroy infectious organisms in cultured cells, in fluids such as blood and blood products, in biological products derived from cells and in foods. This invention also relates to methods for treating or preventing parasitic infections with these compositions. Parasitism is a normal and ubiquitous part of all aspects of life and has been found to occur in nearly every living organism. A wide variety of organisms parasitize prokaryotics and an even wider variety plants and animals. As a general rule, the more complex the host the greater the number and variety of parasites which are possible and probable. There is a diverse array of host-parasite relationships found to occur between parasites and hosts. These relationships can be divided into three major groups, mutualism, commensalism and true parasitism. Mutualism, or mutual symbiosis, occurs in those relationships where both the parasite and the host receive some benefit. One example of this type of relationship is found between the protozoan that inhabits the termite gut and the termite. Termites ingest wood and play an important if not essential role in the life cycle of a forest. Termites can perform this task because of the particular flora which inhabit their gut. These microorganisms carry and express the enzymes necessary to break down cellulosic materials, but do not appear to be detrimental to the termite. The benefits to both host and parasite are clear. Another form of parasitism is commensalism where one member of the association receives all or at least most of the benefits of the relationship while the other is neither harmed or benefited. True parasitism is where the
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parasite inflicts some degree of injury or damage to the host. When the damage becomes pathogenic, intervention is required to save or minimize damage to the host. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05663155__ •
Diagnostic genes for toxoplasmosis Inventor(s): Boothroyd; John C. (Palo Alto, CA), Burg; James L. (Foster City, CA), Kasper; Lloyd H. (Norwich, VT) Assignee(s): The Board of Trustees of the Leeland Stanford Junior University (Stanford, CA) Patent Number: 5,629,414 Date filed: January 14, 1994 Abstract: Genetic material encoding p30 and B1 peptides of Toxoplasma gondii has been isolated and characterized. This genetic material allows the production of peptides for use in diagnosis or immunization or can itself be directly used in hybridization assays. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to the field of genetic engineering and more particularly to the identification and preparation of polynucleotide sequences and polypeptides useful for vaccine development and for detection of a toxoplasma infection by hybridization and immunological assays. Toxoplasmosis is caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. The disease is traditionally associated with the developing fetus in whom it can cause severe neurological problems manisfesting as hydrocephaly, mental retardation, or blindness. In healthy adults, the disease is typically mild producing few if any symptoms. Recently, the number of toxoplasmosis cases has dramatically increased as a result of an increase in persons who are in some way immunodeficient, such as resulting from post-transplantation therapy, neoplastic disease, or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). In such immunodeficient patients, the parasite can cause encephalitis, a potentially fatal form of the disease. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05629414__
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Medicaments for the treatment of toxoplasmosis Inventor(s): Hudson; Alan Thomas (Kent, GB2) Assignee(s): Glaxo Wellcome Inc. (Research Triangle Park, NC) Patent Number: 5,856,362 Date filed: June 6, 1995 Abstract: The present invention relates to the use of 2-›4-(4-chlorophenyl)cyclohexyl!-3hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone or a physiologically acceptable salt or other physiologically funtional derivative thereof for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of toxoplasmosis in animals, to pharmaceutical compositions for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of toxoplasmosis, comprising said compound as active ingredient and to a method of treating or preventing toxoplasmosis in an animal which comprises administering to said animal an effective amount of said compound. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the treatment of toxoplasmosis. More particularly the invention is concerned with the use of 2-›4-(4-chlorophenyl)cyclohexyl!-
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3-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone and physiologically acceptable salts and physiologically functional derivatives thereof in treating toxoplasmosis, the use of said compound for the manufacture of medicaments for the treatment of toxoplasmosis, and novel dosage forms containing said compound. Toxoplasma gondii is a parasitic organism which occurs in a wide range of animals, especially warm-blooded animals i.e. mammals, e.g. cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, dogs, cats and humans, and birds, e.g. poultry. In general this organism is considered to be non-pathogenic, and infection remains latent but in certain circumstances it can give rise to an acute illness (toxoplasmosis) which is often fatal. Thus, for example T. gondii is associated with serious disease in young children and in immunocompromised hosts. In particular, transplant patients are at risk from infection with T. gondii parasites introduced in the donated organ. In another group of immunocompromised patients, those with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) toxoplasmosis is associated with life-threatening encephalitis. Other immunocompromised patients at risk include those being treated with immunosuppressive drugs in cancer chemotherapy. Infection with T. gondii during early pregnancy may lead to foetal death or abnormality, whilst congenital infection during late pregnancy is associated with eye disease which may subsequently appear in early adulthood. In animal husbandry T. gondii frequently gives rise to foetal death in pregnant sheep. Felids (including the domestic cat) are the definitive hosts of T. gondii and a common source of human toxoplasmosis, via infective stages in the faeces. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05856362__ •
Method for treating toxoplasmosis Inventor(s): Berens; Randolph L. (Littleton, CO), Ke; Ou-Yang (Hunan, CN), Krug; Edward C. (Aurora, CO), Marr; J. Joesph (Lake Forest, IL) Assignee(s): Regents of the University of Colorado (Boulder, CO) Patent Number: 5,486,535 Date filed: September 7, 1993 Abstract: This invention provides a method of treating toxoplasmosis in a mammal by administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective dose of an alkyl derivative of qinghaosu. In another embodiment, this invention provides a method for inhibiting the growth of parasites of the suborder Eimeriorina, particularly members of the genus Toxoplasma, by administration of a growth inhibitory level of an alkyl derivative of ginghaosu. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method of inhibiting the growth of strains of Toxoplasma and to a method of treating toxoplasmosis by administration of Qinghaosu or certain of its derivatives. Toxoplasma gondii, a protozoan parasite, is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis. Although benign in normal individuals, it is a serious problem for immune compromised hosts, such as patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and can also cause fetal damage if infection occurs during pregnancy. Qinghaosu (QHS) is a sequiterpene lactone natural product derived from the Chinese herb Artemisia annua (I, where X=O). Artemisia annua has been used for centuries in China as a treatment for fever and malaria (Klayman (1985) Science 228:1049-1055). QHS (also called artemisinine, arteannuin, or artemisinin) has been shown to have in vitro and in vivo activity against Plasmodium (Qinghaosu Antimalaria Coordinating Research Group (1979) Chinese Medical Journal 92:811-816; China Cooperative Research Group on Qinghaosu and Its Derivatives as Antimalarials (1982) Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine 2:17-24; Jiang et al. (1982) Lancet ii:285; Li et al.
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(1983) Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77:522-523; Klayman et al. (1984) Journal of Natural Products 47:715-717). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05486535__ •
Method of using P35 antigen of toxoplasma gondii in distinguishing acute from chronic toxoplasmosis Inventor(s): Araujo; Fausto (Palo Alto, CA), Brojanac; Susan (Brookfield, WI), Chovan; Linda E. (Kenosha, WI), Howard; Lawrence V. (Libertyville, IL), Hunt; Jeffrey C. (Mundelein, IL), Li; Shuli (San Jose, CA), Maine; Gregory T. (Gurnee, IL), Parmley; Stephen F. (San Jose, CA), Remington; Jack S. (Menlo Park, CA), Sheu; Michael JyhTsing (Gurnee, IL), Suzuki; Yashuhiro (Menlo Park, CA), Tyner; Joan D. (Beach Park, IL) Assignee(s): Abbott Laboratories (Abbott Park, IL) Patent Number: 6,221,619 Date filed: April 30, 1999 Abstract: The present invention relates to combinations or mixtures of antigens which may be used in the detection of IgM and/or IgG antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii as well as to the P35 antigen which may be used to distinguish acute from chronic toxoplasmosis. Furthermore, the present invention also relates to methods of using these combinations of antigens, antibodies raised against these combinations of antigens or against the novel P29 antigen thereof, as well as kits and vaccines containing the antigens present in the combinations. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to combinations or mixtures of antigens which may be used in the detection of IgM or IgG antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii, as well as one antigen, in particular, which may be used to distinguish between acute and chronic infection. Furthermore, the present invention also relates to methods of using these combinations of antigens, antibodies raised against these combinations of antigens or against the novel P29 antigen thereof, as well as kits and vaccines containing the antigens present in the combinations. Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite which is classified among the Coccidia. This parasite has relatively broad host range infecting both mammals and birds. The organism is ubiquitous in nature and exists in three forms: tachyzoite, cyst, and oocyst (Remington, J. S., McLeod, R., Desmonds, G., Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant (J. S. Remington and J. O. Klein, Eds.), pp. 140-267, Saunders, Philadelphia (1995)). Tachyzoites, found during acute infection, are the invasive form capable of invading all nucleated mammalian cells. After the acute stage of infection, tissue cysts called bradyzoites are formed within host cells and persist within the host organism for the life of the host. Cysts are important in transmission of infection, especially in humans, as the ingestion of raw or undercooked meat can result in the ingestion of bradyzoites which can infect the individual resulting in an acute infection. Oocysts represent a stage of sexual reproduction which occurs only in the intestinal lining of the cat family from which they are excreted in the feces. A T. gondii infection acquired through contaminated meat or cat feces in a healthy adult is often asymptomatic. In pregnant women and immunosuppressed patients, the clinical outcome can be very serious. An acute infection with T. gondii acquired during pregnancy, especially during the first trimester, can result in intrauterine transmission to the unborn fetus resulting in severe fetal and neonatal complications, including mental retardation and fetal death. Recrudesence of a previous T. gondii infection or an acute infection in an immunosuppressed individual can be pathogenic. Toxoplasmic encephalitis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality
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in AIDS patients. Toxoplasma infection has also been shown to be a significant cause of chorioretinitis in children and adults. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06221619__ •
Praziquantel compounds for treating diseases due to Sarcocystis Neospora Toxoplasma and Isospora Inventor(s): Kennedy; Thomas J. (Mission, KS) Assignee(s): Bayer Corporation (Pittsburgh, PA) Patent Number: 6,429,211 Date filed: May 23, 2000 Abstract: Disclosed herein are compositions and methods of treating therapeutically, or metaphylactically infected mammals susceptible to, or infected mammals suffering from parasitic neurologic or abortigenic diseases such as Sarcocystis, Neosporosis or Toxoplasmosis or Isosporosis that are treatable with a praziquantel compound by administering thereto a composition containing a pharmaceutically effective amount of praziquantel or derivative thereof, including metaphylactic and single high dose treatment regimens. Excerpt(s): Field of the Invention: The present invention relates to a praziquantel composition for treating animals infected with parasites that cause abortigenic or neurologic diseases. More specifically, the present invention relates a praziquantel composition that is useful in treating parasitic protozoa such as coccidia that cause abortigenic or neurologic diseases of mammals. Brief Description of the Prior Art: In protecting and treating various mammals, insects and fish from diseases caused by protozoa suspected of causing neurologic and/or abortigenic diseases, the art has used a number of compounds, recent among which are triazineone compounds. Generally, protozoa that are sensitive to these compounds include parasites that infect the intestines of birds, mammals and insects causing diarrhea, wasting disease, nausea and vomiting. Recently it has been found that some parasites that pass through the blood brain barrier, as well as parasites that pass through the placental barrier can be treated with the triazineones. Illustrative of parasites that are now known to cross the blood brain barrier or the placental barrier are those causing coccidial diseases such as Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis neurona, Neospora caninum, Neospora hugesii, and Isospora suis. Illustrative of the triazineone compounds are triazinediones such as diclazuril compounds, and triazinetriones such as toltrazuril compounds. See U.S. Pat Nos. 4,933,341; 4,935,423; 5,114,938; 5,141,938; 5,188,832; 5,196,562; 5,256,631 and 5,464,837. While other art-related compounds pertinent among which is praziquantel (2acyl-4-oxo-hexahydro-4H-pyrazino[2,1-a[isoquinoline derivatives) are disclosed for use in treating parasites, the disclosure lacks any teaching or suggestion relating to the compounds as being useful in treating parasites that cross the blood or placental barrier. Generally, praziquantel has been used by itself or in combination with other compounds to formulate anthelmintic compositions for treating infestation of cestodes and nematodes and the like. See U.S. Pat. No. 4,001,411, 4,447,414, and 5,824,653. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06429211__
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Process for the preparation of toxoplasmas for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis, and preparations thus obtained Inventor(s): Trouyez; G/e/ rard (Charbonnieres les Bains, FR) Assignee(s): Biomerieux (Charbonnieres les Bains, FR) Patent Number: 4,480,043 Date filed: May 12, 1981 Abstract: The invention relates to a process for obtaining preparations of toxoplasmas, improved for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis by direct agglutination, said process comprising, in a first step, the inoculation in mice of a mixture of toxoplasmas and of sarcomatous cells, in a second step the inoculation in other mice of a mixture of sarcomatous cells infected with toxoplasmas coming from the mice of the first step and of non-infected sarcomatous cells, and finally the collection of the ascitic exsudate of these latter mice from 48 to 72 hours after inoculation. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a process for preparing toxoplasmas, i.e. suspensions of toxoplasmas intended for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis by direct agglutination. The diagnosis of acute infection with Gondii toxoplasmas depends on the results of the serological test. The number of problems connected with the available methods of serodiagnosis of this infection has been a stimulant for seeking other methods. At present, current methods available in practice to biologists are expensive to carry out, are long and are insufficiently sensitive to be useful at the first stage of the infection (cf. haemagglutination test). Firstly, they lack sensitivity. In the agglutination test, the titer is generally much lower than in the lysis test or in the conventional immunofluorescence test. Consequently, some serums which may be positive in the latter two tests are in fact presented as negative by the agglutination method. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04480043__
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Toxoplasmosis factor and production of same Inventor(s): Gaafar; Hassan A. (Voorheesville, NY), Grimwood; Brian G. (Delmar, NY) Assignee(s): Research Corporation (New York, NY) Patent Number: 4,564,592 Date filed: January 21, 1983 Abstract: A vaccine for the prevention of congenital Toxoplasmosis and methods for its production. Excerpt(s): Toxoplasmosis is a ubiquitous infection in nature. It is characterized as a severe generalized or CNS granulomatous disease caused by Toxoplasma gondii. Asymptomatic infections are common; serologic surveys show that worldwide 25-50% of adult populations are infected and have detectable antibodies to the etiologic agent. When the disease is acquired after birth, it may be associated with mild, nonspecific signs and symptoms, or it may be completely asymptomatic, with antibodies in patient's sera as the only indication of exposure. A more acute and sometimes fatal infection occurs in immunologically compromised patients. Congenital infection, on the other hand, can be devastating. In animals, primary infection during pregnancy results in abortion or low fertility. In humans the clinical manifestations of congenital toxoplasmosis appear to be related to the trimester of pregnancy during which the mother acquired the infection. Infection during the first trimester is commonly
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associated with stillbirth, perinatal death, or the more severe forms of congenital toxoplasmosis. Infection during the third trimester usually results in mild or subclinical infection. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04564592__ •
Treatment for toxoplasmosis Inventor(s): Araujo; Fausto G. (Palo Alto, CA), Remington; Jack S. (Menlo Park, CA) Assignee(s): Palo Alto Medical Foundation (Palo Alto, CA) Patent Number: 5,529,994 Date filed: February 28, 1994 Abstract: A method of reducing the severity of toxoplasmosis resulting from infection of a patient with Toxoplasma gondii by administering to a patient in need of such treatment, either after infection or before exposure to infection, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound that is a spiropiperidyl derivative of rifamycin S, wherein the derivative comprises an imidazole ring that includes carbons at positions 3 and 4 of the rifamycin ring, the carbon at position 2 of the imidazole ring also being a ring carbon at position 4 of a piperidine ring system, thereby forming a spiropiperidyl ring system, the spiropiperidyl ring system optionally comprising a lower hydrocarbon substituent on the nitrogen of the piperidine. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to the field of disease treatment and prophylaxis. More particularly it relates to the treatment and prophylaxis of Toxoplasma gondii infections. Toxoplasmosis is caused by the parasitic protozoan, Toxoplasma gondii. In humans, the disease is traditionally associated with the developing fetus in whom it can cause severe neurological problems manifesting as hydrocephaly, mental retardation and/or blindness [1, 2]. In healthy adults, the disease is typically mild, producing few if any symptoms. In immunocompromised adults, however, the parasite can cause severe or even fatal disease [3, 4, 5]. The disease also occurs in other mammals and is a leading cause of spontaneous abortion in sheep. Diagnosis of congenital infection has in the past relied on serology (reviewed in [1,21]). This can be done postnatally or, ideally, prenatally and relies on the relative titers of IgG and IgM (to deduce whether the titers are due to a current infection or legacy of a past infection). The factors contributing to the severity of disease in the developing fetus have been poorly understood. The only wellestablished factor is that the time of initial infection of the mother relative to conception is critical: infection significantly before conception such that an effective immune response has been mounted by the mother, results in little if any fetal disease. Infection immediately before or after conception (i.e., in the first trimester of pregnancy) results in severe disease for about 10-15% of fetuses [21]. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05529994__
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Treatment of protozoal diseases Inventor(s): McHardy; Nicholas (Berkhamsted, GB) Assignee(s): Coopers Animal Health Limited (Hertfordshire, GB2) Patent Number: 5,273,970 Date filed: January 3, 1991
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Abstract: The antibacterial substance baquiloprim (2,4-diamino-5-[8-dimethylamino-7methyl-5-quinolylmethyl]pyrimidine) is shown to be active against protozoal infections, e.g. toxoplasmosis. Preferably the baquiloprim is administered together with a sulphonamide. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the treatment of protozoal diseases. More particularly, the present invention is concerned with the use of a 2,4-diamino-5(substituted)pyrimidine in treating toxoplasmosis and the use of this compound for the manufacture of medicaments for the treatment of toxoplasmosis. Parasitic protozoal infections are responsible for a wide variety of diseases of medical and veterinary importance, ranging across malaria and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in man and various coccidioses in birds, fish and mammals. Many of the diseases are life threatening to the host and cause considerable economic loss in animal husbandry. The Apicomplexa are a phylum of the sub-kingdom Protozoa and include the coccidians, (e.g. Toxoplasma) and the malaria parasite Plasmodium. We have now found that baquiloprim is active against protozoal infections and, in particular, against apicomplexan infections such as those caused by Toxoplasma gondii. Toxoplasma gondii occurs in a wide range of mammals, e.g. cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, dogs, cats and humans, and birds, e.g. chickens. Infection frequently remains inapparent and latent but in certain circumstances it can give rise to an acute illness (toxoplasmosis) which is often fatal. Thus, for example T. gondii is associated with congenital toxoplasmosis of newborn children (probably the commonest form in humans) and with disease in immunocompromised hosts. Transplant patients treated with immunosuppressants may be at risk from infection with T. gondii parasites introduced in the donated organ. In another group of immumocompromised patients, those with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), toxoplasmosis is associated with life-threatening encephalitis. Other immunocompromised patients at risk include those being treated with immunosuppressive drugs in cancer chemotherapy. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05273970__ •
Triazineone compounds for treating diseases due to sarcosystis, neospora and toxoplasma Inventor(s): Kennedy; Thomas J. (Mission, KS) Assignee(s): Bayer Corporation (Pittsburgh, PA) Patent Number: 6,150,361 Date filed: December 22, 1998 Abstract: Disclosed herein are a methods of treating therapeutically, or metaphylactically infected animals susceptible to, or infected animal suffering from parasitic neurologic or abortigenic diseases such as Sarcocystidiae or Toxoplasmosis that are treatable with triazineone compound by administering thereto a pharmaceutically effective amount of ponazuril, including a single high dose therapeutic treatment. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to triazineone compounds for treating animals infected with parasites that cause abortigenic or neurologic diseases. More specifically, the present invention relates the triazineone compounds that are useful in treating parasitic protozoa such as coccidia that cause abortigenic or neurologic diseases. Triazineone compounds such as triazinediones, e.g., diclazuril compounds, and triazinetriones, e.g., toltrazuril compounds have been used in treating and protecting
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various mammals, insects and fish from diseases caused by a broad range of protozoa. See U.S. Pat. Nos.; 4,933,341; 4,935,423; 5,114,938; 5,141,938; 5,188,832, 5,196,562, 5,256,631 and 5,464,837. Protozoa sensitive to these compounds include parasites, which infect the intestines of birds, mammals and insects and manifest as diarrhea, wasting, nausea and vomiting. Generally, the mode of action of the triazineones is to attack the intermediate parasite stages found in the gut and intestinal wall cells, causing the endoplasmic reticulum, the perinuclear space and the mitochondria of the parasite to swell. This purportedly disturbs the ability for nuclear divisions causing the shizonts and microgamonts to remain small forming only a few merozoites and microgametes respectively. The end result is reported to be the loss of the ability of these latter stages of the parasites to penetrate new mammalian cells, effectively halting the replication of the parasite in the host. Of particular concern here are certain protozoa suspected of causing neurologic and/or abortigenic diseases of animals since the 1970's. Successful isolation and in vitro cultivation of some of these protozoa proved to be difficult. For example successful isolation from the brain or cerebral spinal fluid were not accomplished until the late 1980s. Once it was determined that neurologic diseases could be produced by parasites infecting the brain and abortigenic diseases could be produced infecting the fetus, there was a need for effective anti-protozoa drugs which could cross the blood-brain barrier and the placental barrier without producing deleterious side effects. Very few drugs are able to pass the blood-brain barrier or the placental barrier of animals. However, many of the art-known drugs that can to cross the blood-brain barrier and/or the placental barrier to effectively treat parasitic infections of the brain have detrimental side effects such that they cannot be used without great risk. Therefore, there have been no effective drugs approved to date which provide an effective treatment for such neurologic or abortigenic diseases. The following is a brief description of the parasitic diseases. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06150361__ •
Use of cirsiliol and derivatives to treat infections Inventor(s): Prendergast; Patrick T. (Baybrush, Straffan, County Kildare, IE) Assignee(s): none reported Patent Number: 6,555,523 Date filed: July 7, 2000 Abstract: The invention provides the use of flavin compounds such as cirsiliol, 3',4'diacetoxy-5,6,7-trimethoxyflavone or naringin in the treatment of infections, particularly for viral (e.g., HCV, HIV, a picornavirus genus virus or a respiratory virus) or parasite (e.g., toxoplasmosis) infections. Also provided are compositions for use in the methods. Excerpt(s): The present invention is directed to the use of flavones, flavanones and related compounds, to treat infectious conditions such as viral or parasite infections. The common cold and other respiratory infections are often associated with or caused by infection by a number of viruses that can infect the respiratory system ("respiratory viruses"), such as rhinoviruses, paramyxoviruses such as respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), enteroviruses and coronaviruses. Methods to treat such infections are usually limited to treating symptoms and not the infectious agent. Otitis media, middle ear inflammation, is another common early childhood infection. Agents responsible for otitis media typically are respiratory syncytial viruses, rhinoviruses, influenza A viruses or adenoviruses (Henderson et al., New Eng. J. Med. 1982 1377; Ruuskanin et al., Pedr. Infect. Dis. J. 1989 94). Prevention of respiratory virus infections decreases the incidence
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of otitis media (Heikkinen et al., AJDC 1991 445). Agents that treat or prevent such infections are needed. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06555523__ •
Use of inhibitors of the sodium-hydrogen exchanger for the production of a pharmaceutical for the treatment of disorders which are caused by protozoa Inventor(s): Lang; Hans Jochen (Hofheim, DE), Lanzer; Michael (Kitzingen, DE), Sanchez; Cecilia (Wuerzburg, DE), Wiesner; Jochen (Wuerzburg, DE), Wunsch; Stefan (Gerbrunn, DE) Assignee(s): Hoechst Marion Roussel Deutschland GmbH (Frankfurt am Main, DE) Patent Number: 6,114,393 Date filed: August 26, 1998 Abstract: Inhibitors of the sodium-hydrogen exchanger are suitable on their own or in combination with other classes of active compound for the production of a medicament for the treament of diseases which are caused by protozoa; thus of diseases which are caused by animal- and human-pathogenic protozoa, such as by intracellularly active parasites of the classes Apicomplexa and Zoomastigophorea, in particular trypanosomes, plasmodia (malaria pathogens), leishmanias, babesias and theilerias, cryptosporidiidae, sarcocystidae, amoebae, coccidia and trichomonads. NHE inhibitors are particularly preferably suitable for the production of a medicament for the treatment of tropical malaria, of tertian malaria, of quartan malaria, as well as toxoplasmosis, of coccidiosis, of intestinal sarcosporidosis, of cryptosporidosis, of Chargas' disease and of the cutaneous and visceral as well as other forms of leishmaniases; and also for the production of a medicament for the treatment of animals which have been infected by animal-pathogenic protozoa, such as by Theileria parva, the pathogen of East Coast fever of cattle, Babesia begemina, the pathogen of Texas fever in cattle and buffalo, Babesia bovis, the pathogen of European bovine babesiosis, and babesioses in dogs, cats and sheep, sarcocystidae, the pathogens of sarcocystoses in sheep, cattle and pigs, cryptosporidiidae, the pathogens of cryptosporidosis in cattle and birds, coccidia, the pathogens of coccidioses of rabbits, cattle, sheep, goats and pigs, but in particular of chickens and turkeys. Excerpt(s): Use of inhibitors of the sodium-hydrogen exchanger for the production of a pharmaceutical for the treatment of disorders which are caused by protozoa. The invention relates to the use of inhibitors of the cellular sodium-hydrogen exchanger for the production of a pharmaceutical for the treatment of diseases which occur as a result of attack of humans and animals by protozoa. Inhibitors of the sodium-hydrogen exchanger (NHE) have in recent years been characterized in numerous preclinical studies as substances which in the case of restricted circulation of the heart are suitable in a superior manner to protect endangered heart tissue from death. The protection of the heart tissue in this case includes all forms of heart damage caused by inadequate circulation, starting with cardiac arrhythmias via hypercontraction of the heart muscle and temporary loss of function up to death of the heart tissue and permanent damage associated therewith. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06114393__
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Use of trimetrexate as antiparasitic agent Inventor(s): Allegra; Carmen (Vienna, VA), Chabner; Bruce A. (Potomac, MD), Drake; James C. (Ijamsville, MD), Kovacs; Joseph A. (Bethesda, MD), Masur; Henry (Bethesda, MD) Assignee(s): The United States of America as represented by the Secretary of the (Washington, DC) Patent Number: 4,694,007 Date filed: May 20, 1986 Abstract: A method of treating infections of Toxoplasmosis or P. carini comprising administering to the host an effective amount of trimetrexate, (2,4-diamino-5-methyl-6[(3,4,5-trimethoxyanilino)methyl]quinazoline. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to the use of the antifolate trimetrexate as an antiparasitic agent, specifically for use in treating infections from Toxoplasma gondii and Pneumocistis carinii. Toxoplasma gondii is a common protozoan infection in man, with a sero-positivity in 30-50% of North Americans. Life-threatening toxoplasmosis occurs most often in patients with defective cell-mediated immunity who appear to reactivate previously acquired infection and develop severe encephalitis or disseminated disease. Life-threatening infections have occurred most often in organtransplant recipients and patients with hematologic malignancies. More recently, toxoplasmosis has become a particularly prevalent opportunistic infection in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Systemic infection with toxoplasmosis and Pneumocistis carinii are generally treated with the antifolates pyrimethamine and trimethoprim, respectively. In the general population of patients with an intact immune system, these treatments have met with good success. However, over the past 3-4 years these infections have become widespread in the population of patients with AIDS. The AIDS syndrome develops following infection with a specific virus, HTLV-3, producing severe immune deficiency and increasing the risk of infection with opportunistic organisms such as Toxoplasmosis and P. carinii. Infection with these organisms in the AIDS population is extremely refractory to standard therapy, and many of those infected ultimately die from infectious complications. Therapy of Pneumocistis carinii pneumonia in the expanding population with AIDS has become problematic because of the high frequency of therapeutic failures. Because of the fastidious nature of the causative organisms, current treatment choices have been made with little information on the effects of the agents on the PC metabolic pathway. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04694007__
Patent Applications on Toxoplasmosis As of December 2000, U.S. patent applications are open to public viewing.10 Applications are patent requests which have yet to be granted. (The process to achieve a patent can take several years.) The following patent applications have been filed since December 2000 relating to toxoplasmosis:
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This has been a common practice outside the United States prior to December 2000.
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Antigen cocktails, P35, and uses thereof Inventor(s): Araujo, Fausto; (Palo Alto, CA), Brojanac, Susan; (Brookfield, WI), Chovan, Linda E.; (Kenosha, WI), Howard, Lawrence V.; (Libertyville, IL), Hunt, Jeffrey C.; (Mundelein, IL), Li, Shuli; (San Jose, CA), Maine, Gregory T.; (Gurnee, IL), Parmley, Stephen F.; (San Jose, CA), Remington, Jack S.; (Menlo Park, CA), Sheu, Michael JyhTsing; (Gurnee, IL), Suzuki, Yashuhiro; (Menlo Park, CA), Tyner, Joan D.; (Beach Park, IL) Correspondence: Steven F. Weinstock; Abbott Laboratories; D-377 / Ap6d-2; 100 Abbott Park Road; Abbott Park; IL; 60064-6050; US Patent Application Number: 20030119053 Date filed: December 1, 2000 Abstract: The present invention relates to combinations or mixtures of antigens which may be used in the detection of IgM and/or IgG antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii as well as to the P35 antigen which may be used to distinguish acute from chronic Toxoplasmosis. Furthermore, the present invention also relates to methods of using these combinations of antigens, antibodies raised against these combinations of antigens or against the novel P29 antigen thereof, as well as kits and vaccines containing the antigens present in the combinations. Excerpt(s): The present application is a Continuation-In-Part of pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/086,503, filed on May 28, 1998, hereby incorporated in its entirety by reference. The present invention relates to combinations or mixtures of antigens which may be used in the detection of IgM or IgG antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii, as well as one antigen, in particular, which may be used to distinguish between acute and chronic infection. Furthermore, the present invention also relates to methods of using these combinations of antigens, antibodies raised against these combinations of antigens or against the novel P29 antigen thereof, as well as kits and vaccines containing the antigens present in the combinations. Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite which is classified among the Coccidia. This parasite has relatively broad host range infecting both mammals and birds. The organism is ubiquitous in nature and exists in three forms: tachyzoite, cyst, and oocyst (Remington, J. S., McLeod, R., Desmonds, G., Infectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn Infant (J. S. Remington and J. O. Klein, Eds.), pp. 140-267, Saunders, Philadelphia (1995)). Tachyzoites, found during acute infection, are the invasive form capable of invading all nucleated mammalian cells. After the acute stage of infection, tissue cysts called bradyzoites are formed within host cells and persist within the host organism for the life of the host. Cysts are important in transmission of infection, especially in humans, as the ingestion of raw or undercooked meat can result in the ingestion of bradyzoites which can infect the individual resulting in an acute infection. Oocysts represent a stage of sexual reproduction which occurs only in the intestinal lining of the cat family from which they are excreted in the feces. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html
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Praziquantel compounds for treating diseases due to Sarcocystis, Neospora, Toxoplasma and Isospora Inventor(s): Kennedy, Thomas J.; (Mission, KS) Correspondence: Bayer Corporation; Patent Department; 100 Bayer Road; Pittsburgh; PA; 15205; US Patent Application Number: 20020143018 Date filed: March 5, 2002 Abstract: Disclosed herein are compositions and methods of treating therapeutically, or metaphylactically infected mammals susceptible to, or infected mammals suffering from parasitic neurologic or abortigenic diseases such as Sarcocystis, Neosporosis or Toxoplasmosis or Isosporosis that are treatable with a praziquantel compound by administering thereto a composition containing a pharmaceutically effective amount of praziquantel or derivative thereof, including metaphylactic and single high dose treatment regimens. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a praziquantel composition for treating animals infected with parasites that cause abortigenic or neurologic diseases. More specifically, the present invention relates a praziquantel composition that is useful in treating parasitic protozoa such as coccidia that cause abortigenic or neurologic diseases of mammals. In protecting and treating various mammals, insects and fish from diseases caused by protozoa suspected of causing neurologic and/or abortigenic diseases, the art has used a number of compounds, recent among which are triazineone compounds. Generally, protozoa that are sensitive to these compounds include parasites that infect the intestines of birds, mammals and insects causing diarrhea, wasting disease, nausea and vomiting. Recently it has been found that some parasites that pass through the blood brain barrier, as well as parasites that pass through the placental barrier can be treated with the triazineones. Illustrative of parasites that are now known to cross the blood brain barrier or the placental barrier are those causing coccidial diseases such as Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis neurona, Neospora caninum, Neospora hugesii, and Isospora suis. Illustrative of the triazineone compounds are triazinediones such as diclazuril compounds, and triazinetriones such as toltrazuril compounds. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,933,341; 4,935,423; 5,114,938; 5,141,938; 5,188,832; 5,196,562; 5,256,631 and 5,464,837. While other art-related compounds pertinent among which is praziquantel (2acyl-4-oxo-hexahydro-4H-pyrazino[2, 1-a[isoquinoline derivatives) are disclosed for use in treating parasites, the disclosure lacks any teaching or suggestion relating to the compounds as being useful in treating parasites that cross the blood or placental barrier. Generally, praziquantel has been used by itself or in combination with other compounds to formulate anthelmintic compositions for treating infestation of cestodes and nematodes and the like. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,001,411, 4,447,414, and 5,824,653. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html
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Pyrimidine derivatives and methods of making and using these derivatives Inventor(s): Gangjee, Aleem; (Allison Park, PA) Correspondence: Eckert Seamans Cherin & Mellott; 600 Grant Street; 44th Floor; Pittsburgh; PA; 15219 Patent Application Number: 20030144509 Date filed: December 5, 2002
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Abstract: This invention discloses compounds, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, useful in therapeutically and/or prophylactically treating patients with an illness. Such illnesses include cancer, and secondary infections caused by Pneumocystis carinii and Toxoplasmosis gondii in immunocompromised patients. The compounds themselves, methods of making these compounds, and methods of using these compounds are all disclosed. Excerpt(s): This is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/515,491 filed Aug. 15, 1995, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/304,044, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,281, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 07/950,982 filed Sep. 23, 1992, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,346,900, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 07/829,519 filed Jan. 31, 1992, now abandoned, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 07/682,043 filed Apr. 8, 1991, now abandoned. This invention relates to pyrimidine derivative compounds and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. More specifically, this invention relates to furo[2,3-d]pyrimidines, pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidines, pyrrolo[3,2d]pyrimidines, pyrrolo[3,4-d]pyrimidines, thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidines, cyclopentapyrimidines and cyclopenta[d]pyrimidines. These compounds have been found useful in resisting and treating Pneumocystis carinii and Toxoplasmosis gondii infections in immunocompromised patients, such as, for example, patients with autoimmune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). These compounds are also useful as potential antitumor, antibiotic, antimalarial, antifungal or antiprotozoal agents, or as synergistic agents when used with sulfonamides may require the use of leucovorin rescue. These compounds are also useful as antitumor agents in cancer patients. Methods of preparing and using these compounds are also provided. Various pyrimidine systems, such as the pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine ring system, have been studied due to their involvement in the inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) enzymes activity. The pyrimidine derivatives disclosed herein function as DHFR inhibitors. Because DHFR reduces dihydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate, inhibition of DHFR deprives the cell of tetrahydrofolate, without which the cell cannot produce 5, 10Methylenetetrahydrofolate. 5, 10-Methylene-tetrahydrofolate is essential for cell growth. The inhibition of DHFR by the compounds, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, of this invention results in the inhibition of DNA synthesis and leads to cell death. Methotrexate (MTX), trimetrexate (TMQ), piritrexim (PTX) and other folic acid analogues function as inhibitors of cell growth by similar mechanisms involving the inhibition of dihydrofolate reductase. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html
Keeping Current In order to stay informed about patents and patent applications dealing with toxoplasmosis, you can access the U.S. Patent Office archive via the Internet at the following Web address: http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. You will see two broad options: (1) Issued Patent, and (2) Published Applications. To see a list of issued patents, perform the following steps: Under “Issued Patents,” click “Quick Search.” Then, type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “Term 1” box. After clicking on the search button, scroll down to see the various patents which have been granted to date on toxoplasmosis.
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You can also use this procedure to view pending patent applications concerning toxoplasmosis. Simply go back to http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. Select “Quick Search” under “Published Applications.” Then proceed with the steps listed above.
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CHAPTER 6. BOOKS ON TOXOPLASMOSIS Overview This chapter provides bibliographic book references relating to toxoplasmosis. In addition to online booksellers such as www.amazon.com and www.bn.com, excellent sources for book titles on toxoplasmosis include the Combined Health Information Database and the National Library of Medicine. Your local medical library also may have these titles available for loan.
Book Summaries: Federal Agencies The Combined Health Information Database collects various book abstracts from a variety of healthcare institutions and federal agencies. To access these summaries, go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. You will need to use the “Detailed Search” option. To find book summaries, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer. For the format option, select “Monograph/Book.” Now type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database which is updated every three months. The following is a typical result when searching for books on toxoplasmosis: •
The Medical Management of AIDS in Women Contact: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 605 3rd Ave 10th Fl, New York, NY, 10158, (800) 225-5945. Summary: This book provides an overview of the medical treatment of female patients with AIDS. The book covers modes of transmission, contraception, gender-specific manifestations, and conditions common in HIV-infected women. The chapters are organized into the following sections: epidemiology, transmission, and pathophysiology; natural history of HIV in women; management of HIV infection in women; and prevention of HIV infection. One chapter is dedicated to each of the opportunistic infections associated with HIV disease in women, including toxoplasmosis, pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, systemic fungal infections, and enteric protozoan infections. Much of the book focuses on the special issues and concerns
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related to the HIV-positive pregnant patient, including antiviral therapy, breastfeeding, and perinatal transmission.
Book Summaries: Online Booksellers Commercial Internet-based booksellers, such as Amazon.com and Barnes&Noble.com, offer summaries which have been supplied by each title’s publisher. Some summaries also include customer reviews. Your local bookseller may have access to in-house and commercial databases that index all published books (e.g. Books in Print). IMPORTANT NOTE: Online booksellers typically produce search results for medical and non-medical books. When searching for “toxoplasmosis” at online booksellers’ Web sites, you may discover non-medical books that use the generic term “toxoplasmosis” (or a synonym) in their titles. The following is indicative of the results you might find when searching for “toxoplasmosis” (sorted alphabetically by title; follow the hyperlink to view more details at Amazon.com): •
A clinical study of infectious mononucleosis and toxoplasmosis by Donald Cameron; ISBN: 072360326X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/072360326X/icongroupinterna
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Congenital Toxoplasmosis: Scientific Background, Clinical Management and Control by Pierre Ambroise-Thomas (Editor), et al; ISBN: 228759664X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/228759664X/icongroupinterna
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Human Toxoplasmosis (Oxford Medical Publications) by Darrel O. Ho-Yen (Editor), Alex W. Joss (Editor) (1992); ISBN: 0198547501; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0198547501/icongroupinterna
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Ocular toxoplasmosis and pars planitis by T. F. Schlaegel; ISBN: 0808910787; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0808910787/icongroupinterna
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Prenatal Screening for Toxoplasmosis in the UK: Report of a Multidisciplinary Working Group; ISBN: 0902331566; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0902331566/icongroupinterna
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The Official Patient's Sourcebook on Toxoplasmosis: A Revised and Updated Directory for the Internet Age by Icon Health Publications (2002); ISBN: 059783444X; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/059783444X/icongroupinterna
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Toxoplasmosis (NATO ASI Series H: Cell Biology) by J.E. Smith (Editor); ISBN: 3540573054; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/3540573054/icongroupinterna
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Toxoplasmosis : A Comprehensive Clinical Guide by David H. M. Joynson (Editor), Tim G. Wreghitt (Editor) (2001); ISBN: 0521443288; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0521443288/icongroupinterna
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Toxoplasmosis in Sheep: Review - Cabi Ito by Dubey Towle Cabi, et al (1996); ISBN: 0851985629; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0851985629/icongroupinterna
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Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Man by J.P. Dubey, C.P. Beattie (1988); ISBN: 0849346185; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0849346185/icongroupinterna
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Toxoplasmosis with special reference to transmission and life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii by Kresten Work; ISBN: 8716007808; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/8716007808/icongroupinterna
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Toxoplasmosis: Proceedings of the Who Expert Committee of Investigation Geneva 1968 (Technical Report Ser.; No. 431)) by Who Staff (Editor); ISBN: 9241204311; http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/9241204311/icongroupinterna
The National Library of Medicine Book Index The National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health has a massive database of books published on healthcare and biomedicine. Go to the following Internet site, http://locatorplus.gov/, and then select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once you are in the search area, simply type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box, and select “books only.” From there, results can be sorted by publication date, author, or relevance. The following was recently catalogued by the National Library of Medicine:11 •
A bibliography of toxoplasmosis and Toxoplasma gondii, by Don E. Eyles and Jacob Karl Frenkel. Author: Eyles, Don E.; Year: 1963; [Washington] Federal Security Agency, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health [1952]
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Chronological reference of zoonoses: Toxoplasma and toxoplasmosis Author: Ryu, E.; Year: 1971; Taipei: International Laboratory for Zoonoses, 1978-
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Congenital toxoplasmosis Author: Lebech, Morten.; Year: 1962; Oslo: Scandinavian University Press; Stockholm: Universitetsforlaget/AWI, [1992]
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International Symposium on Toxoplasmosis; Year: 1958; Parma: Maccari, [1980?]
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Ocular toxoplasmosis. Author: Hogan, Michael John,; Year: 1961; New York, Columbia Univ. Press, 1951
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State of the art toxoplasmosis diagnostic testing and the value of the toxonostika microelisa tests for anti-toxoplasma IgM and IgG.; Year: 1967; Brussels (Belgium): Medical Media International, c1984
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The laboratory diagnosis of toxoplasmosis Author: Fleck, D. G.; Year: 1972; London: H.M.S.O., c1980; ISBN: 0118871048
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Toxoplasmosis: a protozoan disease of animals and man Author: Swanson, Janice C.; Year: 1970; Beltsville, Md.: National Agricultural Library, [1990]
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Toxoplasmosis: a summary of the occupational health concern Author: Counter, Erica.; Year: 1969; Hamilton, Ont.: Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, 1989; ISBN: 0660132702
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Toxoplasmosis in man and animals: January 1987 through May 1989, 986 citations Author: Gluckstein, Fritz P.; Year: 1965; Bethesda, Md.: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Library of
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In addition to LOCATORPlus, in collaboration with authors and publishers, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is currently adapting biomedical books for the Web. The books may be accessed in two ways: (1) by searching directly using any search term or phrase (in the same way as the bibliographic database PubMed), or (2) by following the links to PubMed abstracts. Each PubMed abstract has a "Books" button that displays a facsimile of the abstract in which some phrases are hypertext links. These phrases are also found in the books available at NCBI. Click on hyperlinked results in the list of books in which the phrase is found. Currently, the majority of the links are between the books and PubMed. In the future, more links will be created between the books and other types of information, such as gene and protein sequences and macromolecular structures. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books.
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Medicine, Reference Section; Washington, D.C.: Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O. [distributor, 1989] •
Toxoplasmosis, a bibliography of literature, 1956-September, 1960. Comp. by Dorothy Bocker. Author: National Library of Medicine (U.S.); Year: 1963; Washington, Public Health Service, 1960
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Toxoplasmosis, edited by Didier Hentsch, with contributions by P. AmbroiseThomas [et. al.]. Author: Ambroise-Thomas, Pierre.; Year: 1964; Bern, Huber [1971]; ISBN: 3456000545
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Toxoplasmosis, with special reference to transmission and life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii. Author: Work, Kresten.; Year: 1966; Copenhagen, Munksgaard, 1971
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Toxoplasmosis; a clinical, serological and histopathological study with special reference to the eye manifestations. Author: Binkhorst, C. D.; Year: 1956; Leiden, Kroese, 1948
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Toxoplasmosis; pathology of neonatal disease, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment, by Jacob Karl Frenkel and Saul Friedlander. Author: Frenkel, Jacob Karl.; Year: 1965; [Washington, U. S. Govt. Print. Off., 1951]
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Uveitis and toxoplasmosis. Author: Perkins, Edward S. (Edward Sylvester); Year: 1964; London, Churchill, 1961
Chapters on Toxoplasmosis In order to find chapters that specifically relate to toxoplasmosis, an excellent source of abstracts is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to book chapters and toxoplasmosis using the “Detailed Search” option. Go to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find book chapters, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Book Chapter.” Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for book chapters on toxoplasmosis: •
Neonatal Hepatitis Source: in Wyllie, R. and Hyams, J.S., eds. Pediatric Gastrointestinal Disease. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company. 1999. p. 553-567. Contact: Available from W.B. Saunders Company. Book Order Fulfillment Department, 11830 Westline Industrial Drive, Saint Louis, MO 63146-9988. (800) 545-2522 or (314) 4537010. Fax (800) 568-5136 or (314) 453-7095. E-mail:
[email protected]. Website: customerservice.wbsaunders.com. PRICE: $155.00 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 0721674615. Summary: Neonatal hepatitis is a syndrome of symptoms, signs, and hepatic (liver) histology that includes many types of neonatal disease of infectious, genetic, toxic, and metabolic origin. This chapter on neonatal hepatitis in children is from a medical textbook that covers all facets of clinical pediatric gastrointestinal disease. The text emphasizes a clinical focus and incorporates anatomy and physiology considerations into each chapter rather than a separate section. During the neonatal period, infants are susceptible to cholestasis (reduction in bile flow resulting in accumulation in the tissues) resulting from a variety of insults, including infections, drugs, and ischemia (decrease of oxygenated blood to an organ). The chapter covers evaluation and differential diagnosis,
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giant cell hepatitis, congenital infections, viral infections (cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, rubella, enteroviruses, hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E, human immunodeficiency virus), bacterial infections (syphilis and others), parasitic infections (toxoplasmosis), familial intrahepatic cholestasis, Alagille syndrome (arteriohepatic dysplasia), progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis, benign recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis, neonatal cholestasis associated with total parenteral nutrition (TPN), and miscellaneous causes of neonatal hepatitis or cholestasis, including vascular disorders of the liver, drug hepatotoxicity, inspissated bile syndrome (often due to cystic fibrosis), ischemia, endocrine disorders, chromosomal disorders, neonatal lupus erythematosus. The authors conclude with a brief discussion of the complications and management of neonatal hepatitis and cholestasis. 8 tables. 166 references. •
Congenital Hearing Impairment Source: in Mencher, G.T.; Gerber, S.E.; McCombe, A. Audiology and Auditory Dysfunction. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 1997. p. 117-142. Contact: Available from Allyn and Bacon. 160 Gould Street, Needham Heights, MA 02194-2310. (800) 278-3525; Fax (617) 455-7024; E-mail:
[email protected]; http://www.abacon.com. PRICE: $46.95 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 0205161014. Summary: This chapter on congenital hearing impairment is from an audiology textbook on auditory dysfunction. After a brief discussion delineating the differences between congenital and genetic, the author discusses the etiology and pathology of congenital genetic deafness, forms of pathology, and associated anomalies, including integumentary, skeletal, ocular, and other anomalies. The second section of the chapter addresses congenital nongenetic deafness, including viral deafness due to rubella or cytomegalovirus, protozoal infections, and the remaining causes of the TORCHS (Toxoplasmosis, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes, and Syphilis) syndrome, i.e., congenital syphilis and herpes simplex virus. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the medical and audiological considerations for patients with congenital hearing impairment. The author notes that audiometric data should not lead to the assumption that a profoundly hearing impaired patient should not be provided with amplification. When examining and when providing rehabilitative programming, the audiologist must consider all the special problems of someone who has never had any hearing or never had sufficient hearing to communicate aurally. 2 tables. 11 figures.
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Safe Kitchen Source: in Duyff, R.L. American Dietetic Association's Complete Food and Nutrition Guide. Minneapolis, MN: Chronimed Publishing. 1996. p. 299-322. Contact: Available from Chronimed Publishing. P.O. Box 59032, Minneapolis, MN 55459. (800) 848-2793 or (612) 541-0239. Fax (800) 395-3344 or (612) 541-0210. PRICE: $29.95; bulk orders available. ISBN: 1565610989. Summary: This chapter on food safety is from a food and nutrition guide that focuses on a healthful diet for all stages of life. Foodborne illness, sometimes called food poisoning, comes from eating contaminated food. Because symptoms vary, from fatigue, chills, a mild fever, dizziness, headaches, an upset stomach, and diarrhea to dehydration, severe cramps, vision problems, and even death, diagnosing foodborne illness is difficult. While many reported cases are caused by food prepared outside the home, small outbreaks in home settings are considered to be far more common. Also, different people react differently to the same contaminated food. The reaction depends on the type of bacteria or toxin, how extensively the food was contaminated, how much food
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was eaten, and the person's susceptibility to the bacteria. Topics include bacteria that cause foodborne illness, including salmonella, staph, clostridium perfringens, clostridium botulinum, E. coli, and listeria monocytogenes; illnesses related to parasites and viruses, including trichinosis, toxoplasmosis, and hepatitis A; when to consult with a health care provider regarding a possible foodborne illness; common food safety mistakes; storage tips for cupboards, refrigerator, and freezer storage; safe food preparation and serving; microwave safety tips; picnicking and safety; and preventing injuries in the kitchen. The chapter concludes with a self assessment questionnaire with which readers can determine their level of food safety knowledge. The chapter includes numerous charts and sidebars with fun facts, meat and fish target temperatures, strategies for how to avoid choking and how to help someone who is choking, and recommended storage temperatures. •
Infections, Intoxication, and Iatrogens Source: in Gerber, S.E. Etiology and Prevention of Communicative Disorders. 2nd ed. San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group, Inc. 1998. p. 83-127. Contact: Available from Singular Publishing Group, Inc. 401 West 'A' Street, Suite 325, San Diego, CA 92101-7904. (800) 521-8545 or (619) 238-6777. Fax (800) 774-8398 or (619) 238-6789. E-mail:
[email protected]. Website: www.singpub.com. PRICE: $65.00 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 1565939476. Summary: This chapter on infection, intoxication, and iatrogens is from a textbook that focuses on the primary and secondary prevention of communicative disorders. In this chapter, the author focuses on exogenous factors for communication disorders, that is, factors that come from outside the organism. The author discusses viral diseases, including rubella, cytomegalovirus, and AIDS; protozoal diseases, including syphilis, and toxoplasmosis; bacterial diseases; maternal diseases, including diabetes, thyroid disorders, and hyperbilirubinemia; acquired diseases; intoxication, including environmental toxins, lead and other metals, radiation, petroleum and petroleum products, pesticides and other chemicals, foods and food additives, social toxins, fetal alcohol syndrome, drugs, and smoking; and iatrogens, including teratogens, neurotoxins, ototoxicity, antibiotics, loop diuretics, antimalarial agents, and antineoplastic or chemotherapeutic agents. The author concludes with a brief discussion of the preventive efforts appropriate in these areas. The chapter concludes with a glossary of terms and a reference list. 13 figures. 6 tables. 183 references.
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Socioeconomic, Ethnic and Geographical Health Issues Source: in Scully, C. and Cawson, R.A. Medical Problems in Dentistry. 4th ed. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann. 1998. p. 529-547. Contact: Available from Butterworth-Heinemann. 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041. (800) 366-2665 or (781) 904-2500. Fax (800) 446-6520 or (781) 933-6333. E-mail:
[email protected]. Website: www.bh.com. PRICE: $110.00. ISBN: 0723610568. Summary: This chapter on socioeconomic, ethnic, and geographical health issues is from a text that covers the general medical and surgical conditions relevant to the oral health care sciences. The authors discuss mainly the relevant imported diseases, problems related to social deprivation, and those which religious or ethnic groups may present during oral health care. Topics include infections, including typhoid, paratyphoid, cholera, nonvenereal treponematoses, yaws (framboesia), granuloma inguinale (donovanosis), lymphogranuloma vereneum, blood-borne viruses, arboviruses, arenaviruses, rhabdoviruses (Ebola, rabies), systemic mycoses, Aspergillosis,
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blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mucormycosis, rhinosporidiosis, sporotrichosis, systemic candidosis, parasitic infestations, scabies, lice, fleas, malaria, toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis, trichinosis, echinococcosis, cysticercosis, myiasis, larva migrans, filariasis, trichuriasis, gnathostomiasis, and oral submucous fibrosis. For each condition, the authors discuss general aspects, diagnosis and management issues, dental aspects, and patient care strategies. The chapter includes a summary of the points covered. 9 tables. 45 references. •
Auditory System and Related Disorders Source: in Gelfand, S.A. Essentials of Audiology. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc. 2001. p. 173-218. Contact: Available from Thieme Medical Publishers, Inc. 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001. (800) 782-3488. Fax (212) 947-0108. E-mail:
[email protected]. PRICE: $49.00 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 1588900177. Summary: This chapter on the auditory (hearing) system and related disorders is from an undergraduate textbook that deals with audiology and related topics in speech language pathology. The author addresses the nature of various pathologies (problems or diseases), where and when they occur, their major signs and symptoms, how hearing is affected, and the ways they are treated. The author first explains the importance of the case history in diagnosis and patient care. The chapter then covers conductive, sensorineural, and mixed hearing impairments; tinnitus (ringing or buzzing sounds in the ears); congenital and hereditary disorders; maternal infections, including syphilis, toxoplasmosis, rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV); other influences in the maternal environment; congenital anomalies of the ear, including dysplasia (abnormal development in the anatomical structure); syndromes involving the ear and hearing; acquired disorders, including head trauma; outer ear disorders, including impacted cerumen (earwax), foreign bodies, growths and tumors, and infections; middle ear disorders, including bullus myringitis, tympanosclerosis, perforations of the tympanic membrane (eardrum), otitis media (middle ear infection), and otosclerosis (bone disease); surgery to improve or restore hearing, including otosclerosis surgery, tympanoplasy (repair and reconstruction of the eardrum), and surgery for growths and tumors; cochlear disorders, including noise induced hearing loss (NIHL), Meniere's disease, ototoxicity (chemical damage to the ear), infections, perilymphatic fistulas; retrocochlear disorders; auditory neuropathy; central disorders; sudden hearing loss; presbycusis (hearing loss related to aging); Paget's disease (osteitis deformans, a progressive bone disease); obscure auditory dysfunction; and nonorganic hearing loss. 19 figures. 2 tables. 138 references.
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Sensorineural Hearing Loss in Children: Etiology and Pathology Source: in Martin, F.N.; Greer Clark, J., eds. Hearing Care for Children. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 1996. p. 73-91. Contact: Available from Allyn and Bacon. 160 Gould Street, Needham Heights, MA 02194-2310. (800) 278-3525; Fax (617) 455-7024; E-mail:
[email protected]; http://www.abacon.com. PRICE: $59.00 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 0131247026. Summary: This chapter on the etiology and pathology of sensorineural hearing loss is from a textbook that focuses on the provision of hearing care for children with hearing loss. Topics covered include the etiologies of congenital hearing loss, including ototoxic drugs, teratogenic drugs, viral infections (maternal rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex, HIV), toxoplasmosis, erythroblastosis fetalis, and prematurity and birth
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trauma; the etiologies of acquired hearing loss, including bacterial infections, syphilis, viral diseases, neoplastic disorders (cancer), traumatic injury, acoustic trauma, metabolic disorders, and sudden deafness; monitoring dynamic sensorineural hearing loss in children; and medical diagnosis and treatment strategies. The authors emphasize that health care cost containment and the medical and legal implications of missed or delayed diagnosis of sensorineural hearing loss in children are critical issues for the pediatric otolaryngologist. 3 tables. 134 references. (AA-M). •
Medical and Surgical Treatment of Cochlear Hearing Loss Source: in Valente, M.; Hosford-Dunn, H.; Roeser, R.J., eds. Audiology: Treatment. New York, NY: Thieme. 2000. p. 377-396. Contact: Available from Thieme. 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001. (800) 7823488. Fax (212) 947-0108. E-mail:
[email protected]. PRICE: $69.00 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 0865778590. Summary: This chapter on the medical and surgical management of cochlear hearing loss is from a textbook that provides a comprehensive overview of the numerous treatment options available to help patients relieve the clinical symptoms seen in an audiology practice. Cochlear hearing loss may be caused by a wide variety of medical problems; it is the responsibility of the practitioner to identify the cause of hearing loss and to evaluate the other potential associated medical ramifications to treat the patient as a whole. Topics covered include metabolic disorders, including Meniere's disease, diabetes mellitus, renal disease, hypothyroidism, and cochlear otosclerosis; immunologic disorders, including autoimmune inner ear disease, Cogan's syndrome, polyarteritis nodosa, Vogt Koyanagi Harada syndrome, Wegener's granulomatosis, sarcoidosis, and postapedectomy granuloma; ototoxicity, including that from aminoglycoside antibiotics, erythromycin, vancomycin, other antibiotics, loop diuretics, antineoplastic (chemotherapy) agents, antiinflammatory agents, and antimalarials; trauma, including temporal bone fractures, noise trauma, and barotrauma (from barometric pressure changes); infections, including cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis, congenital rubella, mumps, measles, Varicella Zoster virus, HIV, other viruses and Mycoplasma, meningitis, labyrinthitis, fungal infections, and syphilis; malignancy; presbycusis; sudden idiopathic sensorineural hearing loss; and hereditary or development causes. The authors stress that complete audiological assessments are crucial in the initial evaluation and subsequent therapeutic monitoring of sensorineural hearing losses. The chapter includes an outline of the topic covered, a list of references, a summary outline of the related preferred practice guidelines, and various 'pearls and pitfalls' offering practical advice to the reader. 11 figures. 1 table. 67 references.
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Otolaryngologic Manifestations of AIDS Source: in Jafek, B.W.; Stark, A.K., eds. ENT Secrets: Questions You Will Be Asked On Rounds, In the Clinic, In the OR, On Exams. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley and Belfus. 1996. p. 153-158. Contact: Available from Hanley and Belfus. Medical Publishers, 210 South 13th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107. (800) 962-1892 or (215) 546-7293; Fax (215) 790-9330; http://www.hanleyandbelfus.com. PRICE: $35.95 plus shipping and handling. ISBN: 1560531592. Summary: This chapter on the otolaryngologic manifestations of AIDS is from a book that utilizes a question and answer format to review details of the specialty of otorhinolaryngology (ear, nose and throat, or ENT). Topics discussed include the
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transmission of HIV, risk factors of acquiring HIV infection from blood transfusion or from mother to child, the percentage of HIV positive patients who develop AIDS, AIDS indicator diseases (including pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, most common index disease for the diagnosis of AIDS), CD4 counts and how they classify HIV infection, toxoplasmosis, problems with cytomegalovirus (CMV), common dermatologic manifestations of HIV infection, Kaposi's sarcoma, chronic otitis externa, serous and acute otitis media (the most common otologic condition seen in HIV infected patients), problems with pneumococcus as a middle ear pathogen, Ramsay Hunt syndrome (herpes zoster oticus), sinusitis and its treatment, oral candidiasis, hairy leukoplakia, salivary gland disease, risks of seroconversion after needlestick exposure from an HIV positive patient, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, indications for lymph node biopsy, infection control measures for nasopharyngoscopy, and management of benign lymphoepithelial cysts. The chapter focuses on helping readers acquire the vocabulary required to discuss the otolaryngologic care of patients with AIDS. 1 figure. 1 table. 13 references.
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CHAPTER 7. MULTIMEDIA ON TOXOPLASMOSIS Overview In this chapter, we show you how to keep current on multimedia sources of information on toxoplasmosis. We start with sources that have been summarized by federal agencies, and then show you how to find bibliographic information catalogued by the National Library of Medicine.
Video Recordings An excellent source of multimedia information on toxoplasmosis is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to “Videorecording” and “toxoplasmosis” using the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find video productions, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Videorecording (videotape, videocassette, etc.).” Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for video recordings on toxoplasmosis: •
Toxoplasmosis in AIDS Patients Contact: Ortho - McNeil Pharmaceutical Incorporated, PO Box 300, Raritan, NJ, 088690602, (908) 218-6000, http://www.ortho-mcneil.com. Summary: This videorecording presents information designed to help the clinician correctly diagnose and treat toxoplasmosis, the most frequent central nervous system opportunistic infection, in Persons with AIDS (PWA's). The speaker, Dr. Jack Remington of Stanford University, discusses the etiology, incidence, clinical signs and symptoms, and diagnostic criteria for toxoplasmic encephalitis. He continues on to present his recommendations for diagnosis and effective management of the disease and concludes with a projection on the future treatment directions for it.
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Audio Recordings The Combined Health Information Database contains abstracts on audio productions. To search CHID, go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find audio productions, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Sound Recordings.” Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a typical result when searching for sound recordings on toxoplasmosis: •
AIDS and the Internist -- Part II Contact: California Medical Association, Audio Digest Foundation, 1577 E Chevy Chase Dr, Glendale, CA, 91206, (213) 245-8505. Summary: This sound recording contains the transcripts of talks in the second part of the program on the role of the internist in managing patients with HIV infection. In this segment, Dr. Constance Wofsy discusses the epidemiology and concerns of HIV infection in women. Transmission and diagnosis are examined; gynecological issues and pregnancy are explored. Dr. Harry Hollander discusses neurological syndromes and dementia in HIV disease. He presents information on AIDS dementia complex, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, toxoplasmosis, cerebral ischemia, vacuolar myelopathy, tropical spastic parapesis and CMV polyradiculopathy. Meningitis and HIV-related neuropathies are also discussed.
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AIDS Update: ED Management, Part II Contact: California Medical Association, Audio Digest Foundation, 1577 E Chevy Chase Dr, Glendale, CA, 91206, (213) 245-8505. Summary: This sound recording, along with accompanying pre-test and post-test questions, comprises part of an ongoing series of educational activities. The first speaker, George F. Risi Jr., Assistant Professor of Medicine at Louisiana State University School of Medicine in New Orleans, looks at the evolution of the Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemic between 1981 and 1986. He discusses the test for Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antibodies, HIV transmission, early theories about the origin of the illness, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) classification system for AIDS patients. David F. Dreis, of the Section of Chest and Infectious Diseases at Virginia Mason Medical Center in Seattle, looks at symptoms and opportunistic infections associated with AIDS in the second presentation. He examines Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), Candida Albicans, Kaposi's sarcoma, decreased vision, headache, unexplained fever, leukoplakia, pulmonary diseases, cryptosporidium, toxoplasmosis, and tuberculosis (TB). Asymptomatic carriers are discussed.
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AIDS: Counseling Patient and Family Contact: California Medical Association, Audio Digest Foundation, 1577 E Chevy Chase Dr, Glendale, CA, 91206, (213) 245-8505. Summary: This sound recording, along with an accompanying pre-test and post-test, is part of an ongoing series of educational activities. It opens with a presentation on Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the primary-care physician given by Thomas C. Cesario, professor of medicine at the University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine. He describes the Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and its effects on
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the immune system, then discusses routes of HIV transmission. The HIV-antibody test and its reliability is explained, and criteria for clinical AIDS and for AIDS-related complex (ARC) are given. He goes on to discuss various opportunistic infections, such as Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), cryptosporidium, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, atypical tuberculosis, candidal infections, Kaposi's sarcoma, and hairy leukoplakia. Treatment with azidothymidine (AZT) is explained. The second presentation comes from Sherman N. Williamson, Department of Family Medicine at the University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine. He discusses managing the families of AIDS patients. He looks at specific risk groups and which members needed to be tested, then goes on to list specific goals in family management, other precautionary measures to take, and other considerations.
Bibliography: Multimedia on Toxoplasmosis The National Library of Medicine is a rich source of information on healthcare-related multimedia productions including slides, computer software, and databases. To access the multimedia database, go to the following Web site: http://locatorplus.gov/. Select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once in the search area, simply type in toxoplasmosis (or synonyms). Then, in the option box provided below the search box, select “Audiovisuals and Computer Files.” From there, you can choose to sort results by publication date, author, or relevance. The following multimedia has been indexed on toxoplasmosis: •
Toxoplasmosis [slide] Source: author, Billy C. Ward; Year: 1981; Format: Slide; [Mississippi State, Miss.]: College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississipppi State University, 1981
•
Toxoplasmosis [videorecording] Source: University of Arizona, College of Medicine; produced by Radio-TV-Film Bureau, Medical Television Film Division, Arizona Medical Center; Year: 1975; Format: Videorecording; Tucson: The College: [for loan and sale by University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, Biomedical Communication], c1975
•
Toxoplasmosis [videorecording]: an update Source: a production of the Palo Alto Medical Foundation; produced for the Palo Alto Medical Foundation by Video Arts, Inc; Year: 1984; Format: Videorecording; Palo Alto, CA: The Foundation, c1984
•
Toxoplasmosis life cycle [videorecording] Source: University of Arizona, College of Medicine; produced by Radio-TV-Film Bureau, Medical Television-Film Division, Arizona Medical Center; Year: 1974; Format: Videorecording; Tucson: The College: [for loan and sale by University of Arizona Health Sciences Center, Biomedical Communications], c1974
•
Toxoplasmosis, epidemiology and public health implications [slide] Source: William F. McCulloch and Edward R. Ames; Year: 1980; Format: Slide; [College Station, Tex.]: College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A & M University, 1980
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CHAPTER 8. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON TOXOPLASMOSIS Overview In this chapter, we suggest a number of news sources and present various periodicals that cover toxoplasmosis.
News Services and Press Releases One of the simplest ways of tracking press releases on toxoplasmosis is to search the news wires. In the following sample of sources, we will briefly describe how to access each service. These services only post recent news intended for public viewing. PR Newswire To access the PR Newswire archive, simply go to http://www.prnewswire.com/. Select your country. Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box. You will automatically receive information on relevant news releases posted within the last 30 days. The search results are shown by order of relevance. Reuters Health The Reuters’ Medical News and Health eLine databases can be very useful in exploring news archives relating to toxoplasmosis. While some of the listed articles are free to view, others are available for purchase for a nominal fee. To access this archive, go to http://www.reutershealth.com/en/index.html and search by “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms). The following was recently listed in this archive for toxoplasmosis: •
Multicomponent vaccine seen feasible against toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Industry Breifing Date: September 02, 2003
•
Type II T. gondii genotype most often linked to congenital toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: August 26, 2002
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•
HAART, immune recovery enhance protection against HIV-related toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: December 05, 2001
•
Azithromycin plus pyrimethamine a possible option for HIV-related toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Industry Breifing Date: April 30, 2001
•
Toxoplasmosis vaccine may require combination approach Source: Reuters Medical News Date: April 19, 2000
•
DNA vaccine protects mice against toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: February 01, 2000
•
High-dose co-trimoxazole effective for HIV-related toxoplasmosis prophylaxis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: January 07, 2000
•
CCR5 delta 32 mutation may delay onset of HIV-related toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: August 20, 1999
•
Studies shed light on risk of maternal-fetal transmission of toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: May 31, 1999
•
Toxoplasmosis treatment may not protect fetus Source: Reuters Health eLine Date: May 28, 1999
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Targeted prophylaxis for toxoplasmosis important in HIV-infected patients Source: Reuters Medical News Date: April 05, 1999
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TMP-SMZ effective for AIDS-related cerebral toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: September 04, 1998
•
Anti-HIV Drug, ddI, May Be Effective For Toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: July 14, 1997
•
Brain Scan Most Useful Diagnostic Tool In AIDS-Related Toxoplasmosis Source: Reuters Medical News Date: February 19, 1997
•
Trends Reported For Toxoplasmosis In HIV-Positive Individuals Source: Reuters Medical News Date: November 06, 1996
•
Daily Sulfadiazine-Pyrimethamine Prevents Toxoplasmosis Encephalitis Recurrence In AIDS Source: Reuters Medical News Date: August 02, 1995
Periodicals and News
•
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Two Prophylactic Regimens Effective Against PCP And Toxoplasmosis In HIVInfected Patients Source: Reuters Medical News Date: May 15, 1995 The NIH
Within MEDLINEplus, the NIH has made an agreement with the New York Times Syndicate, the AP News Service, and Reuters to deliver news that can be browsed by the public. Search news releases at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_a.html. MEDLINEplus allows you to browse across an alphabetical index. Or you can search by date at the following Web page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/newsbydate.html. Often, news items are indexed by MEDLINEplus within its search engine. Business Wire Business Wire is similar to PR Newswire. To access this archive, simply go to http://www.businesswire.com/. You can scan the news by industry category or company name. Market Wire Market Wire is more focused on technology than the other wires. To browse the latest press releases by topic, such as alternative medicine, biotechnology, fitness, healthcare, legal, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals, access Market Wire’s Medical/Health channel at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_index?channel=MedicalHealth. Or simply go to Market Wire’s home page at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/home, type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click on “Search News.” As this service is technology oriented, you may wish to use it when searching for press releases covering diagnostic procedures or tests. Search Engines Medical news is also available in the news sections of commercial Internet search engines. See the health news page at Yahoo (http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/News_and_Media/), or you can use this Web site’s general news search page at http://news.yahoo.com/. Type in “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms). If you know the name of a company that is relevant to toxoplasmosis, you can go to any stock trading Web site (such as http://www.etrade.com/) and search for the company name there. News items across various news sources are reported on indicated hyperlinks. Google offers a similar service at http://news.google.com/. BBC Covering news from a more European perspective, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) allows the public free access to their news archive located at http://www.bbc.co.uk/. Search by “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms).
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Newsletter Articles Use the Combined Health Information Database, and limit your search criteria to “newsletter articles.” Again, you will need to use the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. Go to the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language that you prefer. For the format option, select “Newsletter Article.” Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database as it is updated every three months. The following is a typical result when searching for newsletter articles on toxoplasmosis: •
Understanding the AIDS Dementia Complex Source: Family Survival Project Update. [Newsletter] 10(3): 6. Fall, 1991. Contact: Family Survival Project. 425 Bush Street, Suite 500, San Francisco, CA 94108. (415) 434-3388 or (800) 445-8106 (in California). PRICE: Call for price information. Summary: This newsletter article for the nonprofessional caregiver reviews the types of neurological problems that may develop in people infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Neurological disorders in people with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) consist of two broad types: opportunistic infections such as Cryptococcal meningitis and Toxoplasmosis, and the AIDS Dementia Complex. The AIDS Dementia Complex is caused by direct infection of the brain by the HIV virus. Early cognitive symptoms include poor concentration, slowed mental processing, impaired initiation, and forgetfulness. Behavioral symptoms include withdrawal, apathy, and personality changes. Early motor problems include difficulty with balance, clumsiness, and leg weakness. There is no treatment for AIDS Dementia Complex, but some patients have benefitted from the anti-viral drug, AZT (Azidothymidine or Retrovir). Caregivers should be aware of the common early signs of cognitive impairment so that patients can be quickly referred for diagnosis and treatment. 4 references.
Academic Periodicals covering Toxoplasmosis Numerous periodicals are currently indexed within the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed database that are known to publish articles relating to toxoplasmosis. In addition to these sources, you can search for articles covering toxoplasmosis that have been published by any of the periodicals listed in previous chapters. To find the latest studies published, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed, type the name of the periodical into the search box, and click “Go.” If you want complete details about the historical contents of a journal, you can also visit the following Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/jrbrowser.cgi. Here, type in the name of the journal or its abbreviation, and you will receive an index of published articles. At http://locatorplus.gov/, you can retrieve more indexing information on medical periodicals (e.g. the name of the publisher). Select the button “Search LOCATORplus.” Then type in the name of the journal and select the advanced search option “Journal Title Search.”
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CHAPTER 9. RESEARCHING MEDICATIONS Overview While a number of hard copy or CD-ROM resources are available for researching medications, a more flexible method is to use Internet-based databases. Broadly speaking, there are two sources of information on approved medications: public sources and private sources. We will emphasize free-to-use public sources.
U.S. Pharmacopeia Because of historical investments by various organizations and the emergence of the Internet, it has become rather simple to learn about the medications recommended for toxoplasmosis. One such source is the United States Pharmacopeia. In 1820, eleven physicians met in Washington, D.C. to establish the first compendium of standard drugs for the United States. They called this compendium the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP). Today, the USP is a non-profit organization consisting of 800 volunteer scientists, eleven elected officials, and 400 representatives of state associations and colleges of medicine and pharmacy. The USP is located in Rockville, Maryland, and its home page is located at http://www.usp.org/. The USP currently provides standards for over 3,700 medications. The resulting USP DI Advice for the Patient can be accessed through the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health. The database is partially derived from lists of federally approved medications in the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Drug Approvals database, located at http://www.fda.gov/cder/da/da.htm. While the FDA database is rather large and difficult to navigate, the Phamacopeia is both user-friendly and free to use. It covers more than 9,000 prescription and over-the-counter medications. To access this database, simply type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html. To view examples of a given medication (brand names, category, description, preparation, proper use, precautions, side effects, etc.), simply follow the hyperlinks indicated within the United States Pharmacopeia (USP). Below, we have compiled a list of medications associated with toxoplasmosis. If you would like more information on a particular medication, the provided hyperlinks will direct you to ample documentation (e.g. typical dosage, side effects, drug-interaction risks, etc.). The
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following drugs have been mentioned in the Pharmacopeia and other sources as being potentially applicable to toxoplasmosis: Azithromycin •
Systemic - U.S. Brands: Zithromax http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202642.html
Clarithromycin •
Systemic - U.S. Brands: Biaxin http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202667.html
Clindamycin •
Systemic - U.S. Brands: Cleocin http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202145.html
•
Topical - U.S. Brands: Clinda-Derm http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202146.html
•
Vaginal - U.S. Brands: Cleocin http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202700.html
Leucovorin •
Systemic - U.S. Brands: Wellcovorin http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202321.html
Pyrimethamine •
Systemic - U.S. Brands: Daraprim http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202494.html
Spiramycin •
Systemic http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202494.html
Sulfonamides and Trimethoprim •
Systemic - U.S. Brands: Bactrim; Bactrim DS; Bactrim I.V.; Bactrim Pediatric; Cofatrim Forte; Cotrim; Cotrim DS; Cotrim Pediatric; Septra; Septra DS; Septra Grape Suspension; Septra I.V.; Septra Suspension; Sulfatrim; Sulfatrim Pediatric; Sulfatrim S/S; Sulfatrim Suspension; S http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202781.html
Trimethoprim •
Systemic - U.S. Brands: Proloprim; Trimpex http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202579.html
Commercial Databases In addition to the medications listed in the USP above, a number of commercial sites are available by subscription to physicians and their institutions. Or, you may be able to access these sources from your local medical library.
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Mosby’s Drug Consult Mosby’s Drug Consult database (also available on CD-ROM and book format) covers 45,000 drug products including generics and international brands. It provides prescribing information, drug interactions, and patient information. Subscription information is available at the following hyperlink: http://www.mosbysdrugconsult.com/. PDRhealth The PDRhealth database is a free-to-use, drug information search engine that has been written for the public in layman’s terms. It contains FDA-approved drug information adapted from the Physicians’ Desk Reference (PDR) database. PDRhealth can be searched by brand name, generic name, or indication. It features multiple drug interactions reports. Search PDRhealth at http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/index.html. Other Web Sites Drugs.com (www.drugs.com) reproduces the information in the Pharmacopeia as well as commercial information. You may also want to consider the Web site of the Medical Letter, Inc. (http://www.medletter.com/) which allows users to download articles on various drugs and therapeutics for a nominal fee.
Researching Orphan Drugs Although the list of orphan drugs is revised on a daily basis, you can quickly research orphan drugs that might be applicable to toxoplasmosis by using the database managed by the National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. (NORD), at http://www.rarediseases.org/. Scroll down the page, and on the left toolbar, click on “Orphan Drug Designation Database.” On this page (http://www.rarediseases.org/search/noddsearch.html), type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.” When you receive your results, note that not all of the drugs may be relevant, as some may have been withdrawn from orphan status. Write down or print out the name of each drug and the relevant contact information. From there, visit the Pharmacopeia Web site and type the name of each orphan drug into the search box at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html. You may need to contact the sponsor or NORD for further information. NORD conducts “early access programs for investigational new drugs (IND) under the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA’s) approval ‘Treatment INDs’ programs which allow for a limited number of individuals to receive investigational drugs before FDA marketing approval.” If the orphan product about which you are seeking information is approved for marketing, information on side effects can be found on the product’s label. If the product is not approved, you may need to contact the sponsor. The following is a list of orphan drugs currently listed in the NORD Orphan Drug Designation Database for toxoplasmosis: •
Poloxamer 331 (trade name: Protox) http://www.rarediseases.org/nord/search/nodd_full?code=396
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•
Dapsone http://www.rarediseases.org/nord/search/nodd_full?code=438
If you have any questions about a medical treatment, the FDA may have an office near you. Look for their number in the blue pages of the phone book. You can also contact the FDA through its toll-free number, 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332), or on the World Wide Web at www.fda.gov.
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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES Overview In this chapter, we focus on databases and Internet-based guidelines and information resources created or written for a professional audience.
NIH Guidelines Commonly referred to as “clinical” or “professional” guidelines, the National Institutes of Health publish physician guidelines for the most common diseases. Publications are available at the following by relevant Institute12: •
Office of the Director (OD); guidelines consolidated across agencies available at http://www.nih.gov/health/consumer/conkey.htm
•
National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS); fact sheets available at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/facts/
•
National Library of Medicine (NLM); extensive encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.) with guidelines: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html
•
National Cancer Institute (NCI); guidelines available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/list.aspx?viewid=5f35036e-5497-4d86-8c2c714a9f7c8d25
•
National Eye Institute (NEI); guidelines available at http://www.nei.nih.gov/order/index.htm
•
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); guidelines available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index.htm
•
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); research available at http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10000375
•
National Institute on Aging (NIA); guidelines available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/health/
12
These publications are typically written by one or more of the various NIH Institutes.
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•
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); guidelines available at http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/publications.htm
•
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); guidelines available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/
•
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); fact sheets and guidelines available at http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/index.htm
•
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); guidelines available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm
•
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); fact sheets and guidelines at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/
•
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR); guidelines available at http://www.nidr.nih.gov/health/
•
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); guidelines available at http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/health.htm
•
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); guidelines available at http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugAbuse.html
•
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS); environmental health information available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/facts.htm
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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); guidelines available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/practitioners/index.cfm
•
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); neurological disorder information pages available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm
•
National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR); publications on selected illnesses at http://www.nih.gov/ninr/news-info/publications.html
•
National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering; general information at http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/becon_info.htm
•
Center for Information Technology (CIT); referrals to other agencies based on keyword searches available at http://kb.nih.gov/www_query_main.asp
•
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM); health information available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/
•
National Center for Research Resources (NCRR); various information directories available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/publications.asp
•
Office of Rare Diseases; various fact sheets available at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/html/resources/rep_pubs.html
•
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; various fact sheets on infectious diseases available at http://www.cdc.gov/publications.htm
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NIH Databases In addition to the various Institutes of Health that publish professional guidelines, the NIH has designed a number of databases for professionals.13 Physician-oriented resources provide a wide variety of information related to the biomedical and health sciences, both past and present. The format of these resources varies. Searchable databases, bibliographic citations, full-text articles (when available), archival collections, and images are all available. The following are referenced by the National Library of Medicine:14 •
Bioethics: Access to published literature on the ethical, legal, and public policy issues surrounding healthcare and biomedical research. This information is provided in conjunction with the Kennedy Institute of Ethics located at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_bioethics.html
•
HIV/AIDS Resources: Describes various links and databases dedicated to HIV/AIDS research: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/aidsinfs.html
•
NLM Online Exhibitions: Describes “Exhibitions in the History of Medicine”: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/exhibition.html. Additional resources for historical scholarship in medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/hmd.html
•
Biotechnology Information: Access to public databases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
•
Population Information: The National Library of Medicine provides access to worldwide coverage of population, family planning, and related health issues, including family planning technology and programs, fertility, and population law and policy: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_population.html
•
Cancer Information: Access to cancer-oriented databases: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_cancer.html
•
Profiles in Science: Offering the archival collections of prominent twentieth-century biomedical scientists to the public through modern digital technology: http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/
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Chemical Information: Provides links to various chemical databases and references: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Chem/ChemMain.html
•
Clinical Alerts: Reports the release of findings from the NIH-funded clinical trials where such release could significantly affect morbidity and mortality: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html
•
Space Life Sciences: Provides links and information to space-based research (including NASA): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_space.html
•
MEDLINE: Bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, and the pre-clinical sciences: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_medline.html
13 Remember, for the general public, the National Library of Medicine recommends the databases referenced in MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/ or http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/databases.html). 14 See http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases.html.
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•
Toxicology and Environmental Health Information (TOXNET): Databases covering toxicology and environmental health: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxMain.html
•
Visible Human Interface: Anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of normal male and female human bodies: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html The Combined Health Information Database
A comprehensive source of information on clinical guidelines written for professionals is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to one of the following: Brochure/Pamphlet, Fact Sheet, or Information Package, and “toxoplasmosis” using the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For the publication date, select “All Years.” Select your preferred language and the format option “Fact Sheet.” Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a sample result: •
Management of Tuberculosis and CNS Toxoplasmosis Source: Aspects of HIV Management in Injecting Drug Users. Contact: Wellcome Foundation, Group Marketing, Langley Court, Beckenham. Summary: This paper, presented at an international seminar on managing Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) among Injecting drug users (IDU's), says that tuberculosis is seen in approximately one-third of all IDU's with Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and that it presents a different clinical picture than it does in other subjects. The paper, which presents the results of clinical trials in Spain to treat TB and CNS toxoplasmosis, looks at maintenance therapy for tuberculosis. It also addresses primary prophylaxis for TB and treatment for toxoplasmosis.
The NLM Gateway15 The NLM (National Library of Medicine) Gateway is a Web-based system that lets users search simultaneously in multiple retrieval systems at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It allows users of NLM services to initiate searches from one Web interface, providing one-stop searching for many of NLM’s information resources or databases.16 To use the NLM Gateway, simply go to the search site at http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd. Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Search.” The results will be presented in a tabular form, indicating the number of references in each database category.
15 16
Adapted from NLM: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?Overview.x.
The NLM Gateway is currently being developed by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications (LHNCBC) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
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Results Summary Category Journal Articles Books / Periodicals / Audio Visual Consumer Health Meeting Abstracts Other Collections Total
Items Found 13528 196 36 780 0 14540
HSTAT17 HSTAT is a free, Web-based resource that provides access to full-text documents used in healthcare decision-making.18 These documents include clinical practice guidelines, quickreference guides for clinicians, consumer health brochures, evidence reports and technology assessments from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), as well as AHRQ’s Put Prevention Into Practice.19 Simply search by “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) at the following Web site: http://text.nlm.nih.gov.
Coffee Break: Tutorials for Biologists20 Coffee Break is a general healthcare site that takes a scientific view of the news and covers recent breakthroughs in biology that may one day assist physicians in developing treatments. Here you will find a collection of short reports on recent biological discoveries. Each report incorporates interactive tutorials that demonstrate how bioinformatics tools are used as a part of the research process. Currently, all Coffee Breaks are written by NCBI staff.21 Each report is about 400 words and is usually based on a discovery reported in one or more articles from recently published, peer-reviewed literature.22 This site has new articles every few weeks, so it can be considered an online magazine of sorts. It is intended for general background information. You can access the Coffee Break Web site at the following hyperlink: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/.
17
Adapted from HSTAT: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/hstat.html.
18
The HSTAT URL is http://hstat.nlm.nih.gov/.
19
Other important documents in HSTAT include: the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference Reports and Technology Assessment Reports; the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) resource documents; the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (SAMHSA/CSAT) Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIP) and Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (SAMHSA/CSAP) Prevention Enhancement Protocols System (PEPS); the Public Health Service (PHS) Preventive Services Task Force's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services; the independent, nonfederal Task Force on Community Services’ Guide to Community Preventive Services; and the Health Technology Advisory Committee (HTAC) of the Minnesota Health Care Commission (MHCC) health technology evaluations. 20 Adapted from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/Archive/FAQ.html. 21 The figure that accompanies each article is frequently supplied by an expert external to NCBI, in which case the source of the figure is cited. The result is an interactive tutorial that tells a biological story. 22 After a brief introduction that sets the work described into a broader context, the report focuses on how a molecular understanding can provide explanations of observed biology and lead to therapies for diseases. Each vignette is accompanied by a figure and hypertext links that lead to a series of pages that interactively show how NCBI tools and resources are used in the research process.
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Other Commercial Databases In addition to resources maintained by official agencies, other databases exist that are commercial ventures addressing medical professionals. Here are some examples that may interest you: •
CliniWeb International: Index and table of contents to selected clinical information on the Internet; see http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/.
•
Medical World Search: Searches full text from thousands of selected medical sites on the Internet; see http://www.mwsearch.com/.
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APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES Overview Official agencies, as well as federally funded institutions supported by national grants, frequently publish a variety of guidelines written with the patient in mind. These are typically called “Fact Sheets” or “Guidelines.” They can take the form of a brochure, information kit, pamphlet, or flyer. Often they are only a few pages in length. Since new guidelines on toxoplasmosis can appear at any moment and be published by a number of sources, the best approach to finding guidelines is to systematically scan the Internet-based services that post them.
Patient Guideline Sources The remainder of this chapter directs you to sources which either publish or can help you find additional guidelines on topics related to toxoplasmosis. Due to space limitations, these sources are listed in a concise manner. Do not hesitate to consult the following sources by either using the Internet hyperlink provided, or, in cases where the contact information is provided, contacting the publisher or author directly. The National Institutes of Health The NIH gateway to patients is located at http://health.nih.gov/. From this site, you can search across various sources and institutes, a number of which are summarized below. Topic Pages: MEDLINEplus The National Library of Medicine has created a vast and patient-oriented healthcare information portal called MEDLINEplus. Within this Internet-based system are “health topic pages” which list links to available materials relevant to toxoplasmosis. To access this system, log on to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html. From there you can either search using the alphabetical index or browse by broad topic areas. Recently, MEDLINEplus listed the following when searched for “toxoplasmosis”:
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•
Guides on toxoplasmosis Toxoplasmosis http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/toxoplasmosis.html
•
Other guides Infections and Pregnancy http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/infectionsandpregnancy.html Parasitic Diseases http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/parasiticdiseases.html Pets and Pet Health http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/petsandpethealth.html
Within the health topic page dedicated to toxoplasmosis, the following was listed: •
General/Overviews Toxoplasmosis Source: National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitic Diseases http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/toxoplasmosis/factsht_toxoplasmosi s.htm
•
Specific Conditions/Aspects Toxoplasmosis Source: New Mexico AIDS Education and Training Center http://www.aidsinfonet.org/articles.php?articleID=517 Toxoplasmosis and Pregnancy Source: American Academy of Family Physicians http://familydoctor.org/180.xml
•
Children Toxoplasmosis Source: Nemours Foundation http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/parasitic/toxoplasmosis.html
•
From the National Institutes of Health Toxoplasmosis Source: Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/genpub/topics/toxoplasmosis2-ccae.html
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Men Toxoplasmosis: Important Message for Women http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/toxoplasmosis/ToxoWomen.pdf
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Organizations National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitic Diseases http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/default.htm National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases http://www.niaid.nih.gov/
•
Prevention/Screening You Can Prevent Toxoplasmosis: A Guide for People with HIV Infection Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/brochure/oi_toxo.htm
•
Women Toxoplasmosis: Important Message for Women http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/toxoplasmosis/ToxoWomen.pdf
You may also choose to use the search utility provided by MEDLINEplus at the following Web address: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/. Simply type a keyword into the search box and click “Search.” This utility is similar to the NIH search utility, with the exception that it only includes materials that are linked within the MEDLINEplus system (mostly patient-oriented information). It also has the disadvantage of generating unstructured results. We recommend, therefore, that you use this method only if you have a very targeted search. The Combined Health Information Database (CHID) CHID Online is a reference tool that maintains a database directory of thousands of journal articles and patient education guidelines on toxoplasmosis. CHID offers summaries that describe the guidelines available, including contact information and pricing. CHID’s general Web site is http://chid.nih.gov/. To search this database, go to http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. In particular, you can use the advanced search options to look up pamphlets, reports, brochures, and information kits. The following was recently posted in this archive: •
Toxoplasmosis Contact: US Government Printing Office, PO Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA, 15250-7954, (202) 512-1800, http://www.access.gpo.gov. Summary: This brochure describes toxoplasmosis: its symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, transmission, prevention, and research.
•
Toxoplasmosis: What You Need to Know Contact: Research and Education Group, Community Program for Clinical Research on AIDS, 2701 NW Vaughn Ste 840, Portland, OR, 97210, (503) 229-8428, http://www.reg.org. Summary: This pamphlet describes the symptoms, treatment, and course of toxoplasmosis (toxo). In people infected with HIV in the U.S., toxoplasmosis is the leading cause of encephalitis. Humans most commonly become infected by eating raw
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or uncooked meat, or through exposure to contact with infected cat feces. The common symptoms are confusion, headaches, and fever. The importance of early diagnosis and treatment is emphasized. The NIH Search Utility The NIH search utility allows you to search for documents on over 100 selected Web sites that comprise the NIH-WEB-SPACE. Each of these servers is “crawled” and indexed on an ongoing basis. Your search will produce a list of various documents, all of which will relate in some way to toxoplasmosis. The drawbacks of this approach are that the information is not organized by theme and that the references are often a mix of information for professionals and patients. Nevertheless, a large number of the listed Web sites provide useful background information. We can only recommend this route, therefore, for relatively rare or specific disorders, or when using highly targeted searches. To use the NIH search utility, visit the following Web page: http://search.nih.gov/index.html. NORD (The National Organization of Rare Disorders, Inc.) NORD provides an invaluable service to the public by publishing short yet comprehensive guidelines on over 1,000 diseases. NORD primarily focuses on rare diseases that might not be covered by the previously listed sources. NORD’s Web address is http://www.rarediseases.org/. A complete guide on toxoplasmosis can be purchased from NORD for a nominal fee. Additional Web Sources A number of Web sites are available to the public that often link to government sites. These can also point you in the direction of essential information. The following is a representative sample: •
AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=168&layer=&from=subcats
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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/specific.htm
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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/
•
Med Help International: http://www.medhelp.org/HealthTopics/A.html
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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/
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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/
•
WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/health_topics
Finding Associations There are several Internet directories that provide lists of medical associations with information on or resources relating to toxoplasmosis. By consulting all of associations listed in this chapter, you will have nearly exhausted all sources for patient associations concerned with toxoplasmosis.
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The National Health Information Center (NHIC) The National Health Information Center (NHIC) offers a free referral service to help people find organizations that provide information about toxoplasmosis. For more information, see the NHIC’s Web site at http://www.health.gov/NHIC/ or contact an information specialist by calling 1-800-336-4797. Directory of Health Organizations The Directory of Health Organizations, provided by the National Library of Medicine Specialized Information Services, is a comprehensive source of information on associations. The Directory of Health Organizations database can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Dir/DirMain.html. It is composed of two parts: DIRLINE and Health Hotlines. The DIRLINE database comprises some 10,000 records of organizations, research centers, and government institutes and associations that primarily focus on health and biomedicine. To access DIRLINE directly, go to the following Web site: http://dirline.nlm.nih.gov/. Simply type in “toxoplasmosis” (or a synonym), and you will receive information on all relevant organizations listed in the database. Health Hotlines directs you to toll-free numbers to over 300 organizations. You can access this database directly at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/hotlines/. On this page, you are given the option to search by keyword or by browsing the subject list. When you have received your search results, click on the name of the organization for its description and contact information. The Combined Health Information Database Another comprehensive source of information on healthcare associations is the Combined Health Information Database. Using the “Detailed Search” option, you will need to limit your search to “Organizations” and “toxoplasmosis”. Type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Then, select your preferred language and the format option “Organization Resource Sheet.” Type “toxoplasmosis” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database since it is updated every three months. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. has prepared a Web site that provides, at no charge, lists of associations organized by health topic. You can access this database at the following Web site: http://www.rarediseases.org/search/orgsearch.html. Type “toxoplasmosis” (or a synonym) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.”
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APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES Overview In this Appendix, we show you how to quickly find a medical library in your area.
Preparation Your local public library and medical libraries have interlibrary loan programs with the National Library of Medicine (NLM), one of the largest medical collections in the world. According to the NLM, most of the literature in the general and historical collections of the National Library of Medicine is available on interlibrary loan to any library. If you would like to access NLM medical literature, then visit a library in your area that can request the publications for you.23
Finding a Local Medical Library The quickest method to locate medical libraries is to use the Internet-based directory published by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM). This network includes 4626 members and affiliates that provide many services to librarians, health professionals, and the public. To find a library in your area, simply visit http://nnlm.gov/members/adv.html or call 1-800-338-7657.
Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada In addition to the NN/LM, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) lists a number of libraries with reference facilities that are open to the public. The following is the NLM’s list and includes hyperlinks to each library’s Web site. These Web pages can provide information on hours of operation and other restrictions. The list below is a small sample of
23
Adapted from the NLM: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/psd/cas/interlibrary.html.
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libraries recommended by the National Library of Medicine (sorted alphabetically by name of the U.S. state or Canadian province where the library is located)24: •
Alabama: Health InfoNet of Jefferson County (Jefferson County Library Cooperative, Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences), http://www.uab.edu/infonet/
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Alabama: Richard M. Scrushy Library (American Sports Medicine Institute)
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Arizona: Samaritan Regional Medical Center: The Learning Center (Samaritan Health System, Phoenix, Arizona), http://www.samaritan.edu/library/bannerlibs.htm
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California: Kris Kelly Health Information Center (St. Joseph Health System, Humboldt), http://www.humboldt1.com/~kkhic/index.html
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California: Community Health Library of Los Gatos, http://www.healthlib.org/orgresources.html
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California: Consumer Health Program and Services (CHIPS) (County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Library) - Carson, CA, http://www.colapublib.org/services/chips.html
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California: Gateway Health Library (Sutter Gould Medical Foundation)
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California: Health Library (Stanford University Medical Center), http://wwwmed.stanford.edu/healthlibrary/
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California: Patient Education Resource Center - Health Information and Resources (University of California, San Francisco), http://sfghdean.ucsf.edu/barnett/PERC/default.asp
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California: Redwood Health Library (Petaluma Health Care District), http://www.phcd.org/rdwdlib.html
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California: Los Gatos PlaneTree Health Library, http://planetreesanjose.org/
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California: Sutter Resource Library (Sutter Hospitals Foundation, Sacramento), http://suttermedicalcenter.org/library/
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California: Health Sciences Libraries (University of California, Davis), http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/healthsci/
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California: ValleyCare Health Library & Ryan Comer Cancer Resource Center (ValleyCare Health System, Pleasanton), http://gaelnet.stmarysca.edu/other.libs/gbal/east/vchl.html
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California: Washington Community Health Resource Library (Fremont), http://www.healthlibrary.org/
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Colorado: William V. Gervasini Memorial Library (Exempla Healthcare), http://www.saintjosephdenver.org/yourhealth/libraries/
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Connecticut: Hartford Hospital Health Science Libraries (Hartford Hospital), http://www.harthosp.org/library/
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Connecticut: Healthnet: Connecticut Consumer Health Information Center (University of Connecticut Health Center, Lyman Maynard Stowe Library), http://library.uchc.edu/departm/hnet/
24
Abstracted from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/libraries.html.
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•
Connecticut: Waterbury Hospital Health Center Library (Waterbury Hospital, Waterbury), http://www.waterburyhospital.com/library/consumer.shtml
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Delaware: Consumer Health Library (Christiana Care Health System, Eugene du Pont Preventive Medicine & Rehabilitation Institute, Wilmington), http://www.christianacare.org/health_guide/health_guide_pmri_health_info.cfm
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Delaware: Lewis B. Flinn Library (Delaware Academy of Medicine, Wilmington), http://www.delamed.org/chls.html
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Georgia: Family Resource Library (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta), http://cmc.mcg.edu/kids_families/fam_resources/fam_res_lib/frl.htm
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Georgia: Health Resource Center (Medical Center of Central Georgia, Macon), http://www.mccg.org/hrc/hrchome.asp
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Hawaii: Hawaii Medical Library: Consumer Health Information Service (Hawaii Medical Library, Honolulu), http://hml.org/CHIS/
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Idaho: DeArmond Consumer Health Library (Kootenai Medical Center, Coeur d’Alene), http://www.nicon.org/DeArmond/index.htm
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Illinois: Health Learning Center of Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago), http://www.nmh.org/health_info/hlc.html
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Illinois: Medical Library (OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, Peoria), http://www.osfsaintfrancis.org/general/library/
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Kentucky: Medical Library - Services for Patients, Families, Students & the Public (Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington), http://www.centralbap.com/education/community/library.cfm
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Kentucky: University of Kentucky - Health Information Library (Chandler Medical Center, Lexington), http://www.mc.uky.edu/PatientEd/
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Louisiana: Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation Library (Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans), http://www.ochsner.org/library/
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Louisiana: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Medical LibraryShreveport, http://lib-sh.lsuhsc.edu/
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Maine: Franklin Memorial Hospital Medical Library (Franklin Memorial Hospital, Farmington), http://www.fchn.org/fmh/lib.htm
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Maine: Gerrish-True Health Sciences Library (Central Maine Medical Center, Lewiston), http://www.cmmc.org/library/library.html
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Maine: Hadley Parrot Health Science Library (Eastern Maine Healthcare, Bangor), http://www.emh.org/hll/hpl/guide.htm
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Maine: Maine Medical Center Library (Maine Medical Center, Portland), http://www.mmc.org/library/
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Maine: Parkview Hospital (Brunswick), http://www.parkviewhospital.org/
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Maine: Southern Maine Medical Center Health Sciences Library (Southern Maine Medical Center, Biddeford), http://www.smmc.org/services/service.php3?choice=10
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Maine: Stephens Memorial Hospital’s Health Information Library (Western Maine Health, Norway), http://www.wmhcc.org/Library/
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•
Manitoba, Canada: Consumer & Patient Health Information Service (University of Manitoba Libraries), http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/health/reference/chis.html
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Manitoba, Canada: J.W. Crane Memorial Library (Deer Lodge Centre, Winnipeg), http://www.deerlodge.mb.ca/crane_library/about.asp
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Maryland: Health Information Center at the Wheaton Regional Library (Montgomery County, Dept. of Public Libraries, Wheaton Regional Library), http://www.mont.lib.md.us/healthinfo/hic.asp
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Massachusetts: Baystate Medical Center Library (Baystate Health System), http://www.baystatehealth.com/1024/
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Massachusetts: Boston University Medical Center Alumni Medical Library (Boston University Medical Center), http://med-libwww.bu.edu/library/lib.html
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Massachusetts: Lowell General Hospital Health Sciences Library (Lowell General Hospital, Lowell), http://www.lowellgeneral.org/library/HomePageLinks/WWW.htm
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Massachusetts: Paul E. Woodard Health Sciences Library (New England Baptist Hospital, Boston), http://www.nebh.org/health_lib.asp
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Massachusetts: St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library (St. Luke’s Hospital, Southcoast Health System, New Bedford), http://www.southcoast.org/library/
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Massachusetts: Treadwell Library Consumer Health Reference Center (Massachusetts General Hospital), http://www.mgh.harvard.edu/library/chrcindex.html
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Massachusetts: UMass HealthNet (University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worchester), http://healthnet.umassmed.edu/
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Michigan: Botsford General Hospital Library - Consumer Health (Botsford General Hospital, Library & Internet Services), http://www.botsfordlibrary.org/consumer.htm
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Michigan: Helen DeRoy Medical Library (Providence Hospital and Medical Centers), http://www.providence-hospital.org/library/
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Michigan: Marquette General Hospital - Consumer Health Library (Marquette General Hospital, Health Information Center), http://www.mgh.org/center.html
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Michigan: Patient Education Resouce Center - University of Michigan Cancer Center (University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor), http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/learn/leares.htm
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Michigan: Sladen Library & Center for Health Information Resources - Consumer Health Information (Detroit), http://www.henryford.com/body.cfm?id=39330
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Montana: Center for Health Information (St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center, Missoula)
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National: Consumer Health Library Directory (Medical Library Association, Consumer and Patient Health Information Section), http://caphis.mlanet.org/directory/index.html
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National: National Network of Libraries of Medicine (National Library of Medicine) provides library services for health professionals in the United States who do not have access to a medical library, http://nnlm.gov/
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National: NN/LM List of Libraries Serving the Public (National Network of Libraries of Medicine), http://nnlm.gov/members/
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•
Nevada: Health Science Library, West Charleston Library (Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, Las Vegas), http://www.lvccld.org/special_collections/medical/index.htm
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New Hampshire: Dartmouth Biomedical Libraries (Dartmouth College Library, Hanover), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~biomed/resources.htmld/conshealth.htmld/
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New Jersey: Consumer Health Library (Rahway Hospital, Rahway), http://www.rahwayhospital.com/library.htm
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New Jersey: Dr. Walter Phillips Health Sciences Library (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.englewoodhospital.com/links/index.htm
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New Jersey: Meland Foundation (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/9360/
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New York: Choices in Health Information (New York Public Library) - NLM Consumer Pilot Project participant, http://www.nypl.org/branch/health/links.html
•
New York: Health Information Center (Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse), http://www.upstate.edu/library/hic/
•
New York: Health Sciences Library (Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park), http://www.lij.edu/library/library.html
•
New York: ViaHealth Medical Library (Rochester General Hospital), http://www.nyam.org/library/
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Ohio: Consumer Health Library (Akron General Medical Center, Medical & Consumer Health Library), http://www.akrongeneral.org/hwlibrary.htm
•
Oklahoma: The Health Information Center at Saint Francis Hospital (Saint Francis Health System, Tulsa), http://www.sfh-tulsa.com/services/healthinfo.asp
•
Oregon: Planetree Health Resource Center (Mid-Columbia Medical Center, The Dalles), http://www.mcmc.net/phrc/
•
Pennsylvania: Community Health Information Library (Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey), http://www.hmc.psu.edu/commhealth/
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Pennsylvania: Community Health Resource Library (Geisinger Medical Center, Danville), http://www.geisinger.edu/education/commlib.shtml
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Pennsylvania: HealthInfo Library (Moses Taylor Hospital, Scranton), http://www.mth.org/healthwellness.html
•
Pennsylvania: Hopwood Library (University of Pittsburgh, Health Sciences Library System, Pittsburgh), http://www.hsls.pitt.edu/guides/chi/hopwood/index_html
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Pennsylvania: Koop Community Health Information Center (College of Physicians of Philadelphia), http://www.collphyphil.org/kooppg1.shtml
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Pennsylvania: Learning Resources Center - Medical Library (Susquehanna Health System, Williamsport), http://www.shscares.org/services/lrc/index.asp
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Pennsylvania: Medical Library (UPMC Health System, Pittsburgh), http://www.upmc.edu/passavant/library.htm
•
Quebec, Canada: Medical Library (Montreal General Hospital), http://www.mghlib.mcgill.ca/
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•
South Dakota: Rapid City Regional Hospital Medical Library (Rapid City Regional Hospital), http://www.rcrh.org/Services/Library/Default.asp
•
Texas: Houston HealthWays (Houston Academy of Medicine-Texas Medical Center Library), http://hhw.library.tmc.edu/
•
Washington: Community Health Library (Kittitas Valley Community Hospital), http://www.kvch.com/
•
Washington: Southwest Washington Medical Center Library (Southwest Washington Medical Center, Vancouver), http://www.swmedicalcenter.com/body.cfm?id=72
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ONLINE GLOSSARIES The Internet provides access to a number of free-to-use medical dictionaries. The National Library of Medicine has compiled the following list of online dictionaries: •
ADAM Medical Encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.), comprehensive medical reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html
•
MedicineNet.com Medical Dictionary (MedicineNet, Inc.): http://www.medterms.com/Script/Main/hp.asp
•
Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (Inteli-Health, Inc.): http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/
•
Multilingual Glossary of Technical and Popular Medical Terms in Eight European Languages (European Commission) - Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish: http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html
•
On-line Medical Dictionary (CancerWEB): http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/
•
Rare Diseases Terms (Office of Rare Diseases): http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp
•
Technology Glossary (National Library of Medicine) - Health Care Technology: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ta101/ta10108.htm
Beyond these, MEDLINEplus contains a very patient-friendly encyclopedia covering every aspect of medicine (licensed from A.D.A.M., Inc.). The ADAM Medical Encyclopedia can be accessed at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html. ADAM is also available on commercial Web sites such as drkoop.com (http://www.drkoop.com/) and Web MD (http://my.webmd.com/adam/asset/adam_disease_articles/a_to_z/a). The NIH suggests the following Web sites in the ADAM Medical Encyclopedia when searching for information on toxoplasmosis: •
Basic Guidelines for Toxoplasmosis Aids Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000594.htm Chorioretinitis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000665.htm Chorioretinitis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001005.htm Erythroblastosis fetalis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001298.htm Herpes simplex Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001324.htm Histoplasmosis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001082.htm
168 Toxoplasmosis
Listeriosis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001380.htm Lymphadenopathy Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001377.htm Lymphoma Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001086.htm Myocarditis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000149.htm PML Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000674.htm Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000671.htm Rubella Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001574.htm Sarcoidosis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000076.htm Syphilis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001327.htm Toxoplasmosis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000637.htm •
Signs & Symptoms for Toxoplasmosis Abdominal pain Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003120.htm Anemia Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000560.htm Blindness Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003040.htm Blurred vision Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003029.htm Confusion Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003205.htm Cysts Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003240.htm Deafness Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003044.htm
Online Glossaries 169
Enlarged liver Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003275.htm Enlarged lymph nodes Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003097.htm Fever Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003090.htm Headache Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003024.htm Hepatosplenomegaly Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003275.htm Jaundice Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003243.htm Malaise Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003089.htm Microcephaly Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003272.htm Muscle pain Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003178.htm Myalgia Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003178.htm Photophobia Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003041.htm Rash Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003220.htm Seizures Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003200.htm Sore throat Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003053.htm Spasticity Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003297.htm •
Diagnostics and Tests for Toxoplasmosis Biopsy Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003416.htm CBC Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003642.htm
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Chest X-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003804.htm Cranial CT scan Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003786.htm CT Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003330.htm Cysts Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003240.htm Electrocardiogram Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003868.htm ELISA Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003332.htm Hyperplasia Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003441.htm Lymph node biopsy Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003933.htm MRI Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003335.htm MRI of head Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003791.htm Open lung biopsy Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003861.htm Serologic titers for toxoplasmosis Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003514.htm Serology Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003511.htm Spinal tap Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003428.htm Toxoplasma serology Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003514.htm Ultrasound Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003336.htm X-ray Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003337.htm
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•
Background Topics for Toxoplasmosis Acute Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002215.htm Amniotic fluid Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002220.htm Antibody Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002223.htm Asymptomatic Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002217.htm Benign Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002236.htm Cardiovascular Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002310.htm Central nervous system Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002311.htm Chronic Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002312.htm Incidence Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002387.htm Retina Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002291.htm
Online Dictionary Directories The following are additional online directories compiled by the National Library of Medicine, including a number of specialized medical dictionaries: •
Medical Dictionaries: Medical & Biological (World Health Organization): http://www.who.int/hlt/virtuallibrary/English/diction.htm#Medical
•
MEL-Michigan Electronic Library List of Online Health and Medical Dictionaries (Michigan Electronic Library): http://mel.lib.mi.us/health/health-dictionaries.html
•
Patient Education: Glossaries (DMOZ Open Directory Project): http://dmoz.org/Health/Education/Patient_Education/Glossaries/
•
Web of Online Dictionaries (Bucknell University): http://www.yourdictionary.com/diction5.html#medicine
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TOXOPLASMOSIS DICTIONARY The definitions below are derived from official public sources, including the National Institutes of Health [NIH] and the European Union [EU]. Abdominal: Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs. [NIH] Ablation: The removal of an organ by surgery. [NIH] Abscess: A localized, circumscribed collection of pus. [NIH] Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine in vertebrates is the major transmitter at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system. It is generally not used as an administered drug because it is broken down very rapidly by cholinesterases, but it is useful in some ophthalmological applications. [NIH] Acoustic: Having to do with sound or hearing. [NIH] Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome: An acquired defect of cellular immunity associated with infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a CD4-positive Tlymphocyte count under 200 cells/microliter or less than 14% of total lymphocytes, and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and malignant neoplasms. Clinical manifestations also include emaciation (wasting) and dementia. These elements reflect criteria for AIDS as defined by the CDC in 1993. [NIH] Acyl: Chemical signal used by bacteria to communicate. [NIH] Adaptability: Ability to develop some form of tolerance to conditions extremely different from those under which a living organism evolved. [NIH] Adenine: A purine base and a fundamental unit of adenine nucleotides. [NIH] Adenopathy: Large or swollen lymph glands. [NIH] Adenosine: A nucleoside that is composed of adenine and d-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. Adenosine itself is a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Adenosine Kinase: An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of ADP plus AMP from adenosine plus ATP. It can serve as a salvage mechanism for returning adenosine to nucleic acids. EC 2.7.1.20. [NIH] Adenovirus: A group of viruses that cause respiratory tract and eye infections. Adenoviruses used in gene therapy are altered to carry a specific tumor-fighting gene. [NIH] Adjuvant: A substance which aids another, such as an auxiliary remedy; in immunology, nonspecific stimulator (e.g., BCG vaccine) of the immune response. [EU] Adolescence: The period of life beginning with the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and terminating with the cessation of somatic growth. The years usually referred to as adolescence lie between 13 and 18 years of age. [NIH] Adoptive Transfer: Form of passive immunization where previously sensitized immunologic agents (cells or serum) are transferred to non-immune recipients. When transfer of cells is used as a therapy for the treatment of neoplasms, it is called adoptive immunotherapy (immunotherapy, adoptive). [NIH]
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Adrenal Glands: Paired glands situated in the retroperitoneal tissues at the superior pole of each kidney. [NIH] Adrenal insufficiency: The reduced secretion of adrenal glands. [NIH] Adrenergic: Activated by, characteristic of, or secreting epinephrine or substances with similar activity; the term is applied to those nerve fibres that liberate norepinephrine at a synapse when a nerve impulse passes, i.e., the sympathetic fibres. [EU] Adverse Effect: An unwanted side effect of treatment. [NIH] Aerobic: In biochemistry, reactions that need oxygen to happen or happen when oxygen is present. [NIH] Aerosol: A solution of a drug which can be atomized into a fine mist for inhalation therapy. [EU]
Aetiology: Study of the causes of disease. [EU] Affinity: 1. Inherent likeness or relationship. 2. A special attraction for a specific element, organ, or structure. 3. Chemical affinity; the force that binds atoms in molecules; the tendency of substances to combine by chemical reaction. 4. The strength of noncovalent chemical binding between two substances as measured by the dissociation constant of the complex. 5. In immunology, a thermodynamic expression of the strength of interaction between a single antigen-binding site and a single antigenic determinant (and thus of the stereochemical compatibility between them), most accurately applied to interactions among simple, uniform antigenic determinants such as haptens. Expressed as the association constant (K litres mole -1), which, owing to the heterogeneity of affinities in a population of antibody molecules of a given specificity, actually represents an average value (mean intrinsic association constant). 6. The reciprocal of the dissociation constant. [EU] Agar: A complex sulfated polymer of galactose units, extracted from Gelidium cartilagineum, Gracilaria confervoides, and related red algae. It is used as a gel in the preparation of solid culture media for microorganisms, as a bulk laxative, in making emulsions, and as a supporting medium for immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis. [NIH]
Agonists: Drugs that trigger an action from a cell or another drug. [NIH] Air Sacs: Thin-walled sacs or spaces which function as a part of the respiratory system in birds, fishes, insects, and mammals. [NIH] Algorithms: A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task. [NIH] Alimentary: Pertaining to food or nutritive material, or to the organs of digestion. [EU] Alkaline: Having the reactions of an alkali. [EU] Alkaloid: A member of a large group of chemicals that are made by plants and have nitrogen in them. Some alkaloids have been shown to work against cancer. [NIH] Alkylating Agents: Highly reactive chemicals that introduce alkyl radicals into biologically active molecules and thereby prevent their proper functioning. Many are used as antineoplastic agents, but most are very toxic, with carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and immunosuppressant actions. They have also been used as components in poison gases. [NIH]
Allogeneic: Taken from different individuals of the same species. [NIH] Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: A procedure in which a person receives stem cells, the cells from which all blood cells develop, from a compatible, though not genetically identical, donor. [NIH]
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Allograft: An organ or tissue transplant between two humans. [NIH] Alpha Particles: Positively charged particles composed of two protons and two neutrons, i.e., helium nuclei, emitted during disintegration of very heavy isotopes; a beam of alpha particles or an alpha ray has very strong ionizing power, but weak penetrability. [NIH] Alternative medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used instead of standard treatments. Alternative medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Alveoli: Tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles in the lungs. [NIH] Amino Acid Sequence: The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining protein conformation. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amniocentesis: Percutaneous transabdominal puncture of the uterus during pregnancy to obtain amniotic fluid. It is commonly used for fetal karyotype determination in order to diagnose abnormal fetal conditions. [NIH] Amnion: The extraembryonic membrane which contains the embryo and amniotic fluid. [NIH]
Amniotic Fluid: Amniotic cavity fluid which is produced by the amnion and fetal lungs and kidneys. [NIH] Amphetamines: Analogs or derivatives of amphetamine. Many are sympathomimetics and central nervous system stimulators causing excitation, vasopression, bronchodilation, and to varying degrees, anorexia, analepsis, nasal decongestion, and some smooth muscle relaxation. [NIH] Amplification: The production of additional copies of a chromosomal DNA sequence, found as either intrachromosomal or extrachromosomal DNA. [NIH] Ampulla: A sac-like enlargement of a canal or duct. [NIH] Amygdala: Almond-shaped group of basal nuclei anterior to the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle of the brain, within the temporal lobe. The amygdala is part of the limbic system. [NIH]
Anaerobic: 1. Lacking molecular oxygen. 2. Growing, living, or occurring in the absence of molecular oxygen; pertaining to an anaerobe. [EU] Anaesthesia: Loss of feeling or sensation. Although the term is used for loss of tactile sensibility, or of any of the other senses, it is applied especially to loss of the sensation of pain, as it is induced to permit performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [EU] Anal: Having to do with the anus, which is the posterior opening of the large bowel. [NIH] Analgesic: An agent that alleviates pain without causing loss of consciousness. [EU] Analog: In chemistry, a substance that is similar, but not identical, to another. [NIH] Analogous: Resembling or similar in some respects, as in function or appearance, but not in origin or development;. [EU]
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Anaphylatoxins: The family of peptides C3a, C4a, C5a, and C5a des-arginine produced in the serum during complement activation. They produce smooth muscle contraction, mast cell histamine release, affect platelet aggregation, and act as mediators of the local inflammatory process. The order of anaphylatoxin activity from strongest to weakest is C5a, C3a, C4a, and C5a des-arginine. The latter is the so-called "classical" anaphylatoxin but shows no spasmogenic activity though it contains some chemotactic ability. [NIH] Anatomical: Pertaining to anatomy, or to the structure of the organism. [EU] Anemia: A reduction in the number of circulating erythrocytes or in the quantity of hemoglobin. [NIH] Angiitis: Inflammation of a vessel, chiefly of a blood or a lymph vessel; called also vasculitis. [EU] Angiogenesis: Blood vessel formation. Tumor angiogenesis is the growth of blood vessels from surrounding tissue to a solid tumor. This is caused by the release of chemicals by the tumor. [NIH] Animal Husbandry: The science of breeding, feeding, and care of domestic animals; includes housing and nutrition. [NIH] Animal model: An animal with a disease either the same as or like a disease in humans. Animal models are used to study the development and progression of diseases and to test new treatments before they are given to humans. Animals with transplanted human cancers or other tissues are called xenograft models. [NIH] Annealing: The spontaneous alignment of two single DNA strands to form a double helix. [NIH]
Anomalies: Birth defects; abnormalities. [NIH] Anoxia: Clinical manifestation of respiratory distress consisting of a relatively complete absence of oxygen. [NIH] Anterior chamber: The space in front of the iris and behind the cornea. [NIH] Anthelmintic: An agent that is destructive to worms. [EU] Antibacterial: A substance that destroys bacteria or suppresses their growth or reproduction. [EU] Antibiotic: A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms. [NIH]
Antibodies: Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the antigen that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially plasma cells), or with an antigen closely related to it. [NIH] Antibody: A type of protein made by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind to only a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen. [NIH] Antidote: A remedy for counteracting a poison. [EU] Antifungal: Destructive to fungi, or suppressing their reproduction or growth; effective against fungal infections. [EU] Antigen: Any substance which is capable, under appropriate conditions, of inducing a specific immune response and of reacting with the products of that response, that is, with specific antibody or specifically sensitized T-lymphocytes, or both. Antigens may be soluble substances, such as toxins and foreign proteins, or particulate, such as bacteria and tissue
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cells; however, only the portion of the protein or polysaccharide molecule known as the antigenic determinant (q.v.) combines with antibody or a specific receptor on a lymphocyte. Abbreviated Ag. [EU] Antigen-Antibody Complex: The complex formed by the binding of antigen and antibody molecules. The deposition of large antigen-antibody complexes leading to tissue damage causes immune complex diseases. [NIH] Anti-infective: An agent that so acts. [EU] Anti-Infective Agents: Substances that prevent infectious agents or organisms from spreading or kill infectious agents in order to prevent the spread of infection. [NIH] Antimicrobial: Killing microorganisms, or suppressing their multiplication or growth. [EU] Antineoplastic: Inhibiting or preventing the development of neoplasms, checking the maturation and proliferation of malignant cells. [EU] Antioxidants: Naturally occurring or synthetic substances that inhibit or retard the oxidation of a substance to which it is added. They counteract the harmful and damaging effects of oxidation in animal tissues. [NIH] Antiprotozoal Agents: Substances that are destructive to protozoans. [NIH] Antiserum: The blood serum obtained from an animal after it has been immunized with a particular antigen. It will contain antibodies which are specific for that antigen as well as antibodies specific for any other antigen with which the animal has previously been immunized. [NIH] Antiviral: Destroying viruses or suppressing their replication. [EU] Anus: The opening of the rectum to the outside of the body. [NIH] Apathy: Lack of feeling or emotion; indifference. [EU] Apoptosis: One of the two mechanisms by which cell death occurs (the other being the pathological process of necrosis). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA (DNA fragmentation) at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth. [NIH] Applicability: A list of the commodities to which the candidate method can be applied as presented or with minor modifications. [NIH] Aqueous: Having to do with water. [NIH] Aqueous humor: Clear, watery fluid that flows between and nourishes the lens and the cornea; secreted by the ciliary processes. [NIH] Arginine: An essential amino acid that is physiologically active in the L-form. [NIH] Arterial: Pertaining to an artery or to the arteries. [EU] Arteries: The vessels carrying blood away from the heart. [NIH] Aspartate: A synthetic amino acid. [NIH] Aspiration: The act of inhaling. [NIH] Assay: Determination of the amount of a particular constituent of a mixture, or of the biological or pharmacological potency of a drug. [EU] Astrocytes: The largest and most numerous neuroglial cells in the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes (from "star" cells) are irregularly shaped with many long processes, including
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those with "end feet" which form the glial (limiting) membrane and directly and indirectly contribute to the blood brain barrier. They regulate the extracellular ionic and chemical environment, and "reactive astrocytes" (along with microglia) respond to injury. Astrocytes have high- affinity transmitter uptake systems, voltage-dependent and transmitter-gated ion channels, and can release transmitter, but their role in signaling (as in many other functions) is not well understood. [NIH] Asymptomatic: Having no signs or symptoms of disease. [NIH] Ataxia: Impairment of the ability to perform smoothly coordinated voluntary movements. This condition may affect the limbs, trunk, eyes, pharnyx, larnyx, and other structures. Ataxia may result from impaired sensory or motor function. Sensory ataxia may result from posterior column injury or peripheral nerve diseases. Motor ataxia may be associated with cerebellar diseases; cerebral cortex diseases; thalamic diseases; basal ganglia diseases; injury to the red nucleus; and other conditions. [NIH] Attenuated: Strain with weakened or reduced virulence. [NIH] Atypical: Irregular; not conformable to the type; in microbiology, applied specifically to strains of unusual type. [EU] Audiologist: Study of hearing including treatment of persons with hearing defects. [NIH] Audiology: The study of hearing and hearing impairment. [NIH] Auditory: Pertaining to the sense of hearing. [EU] Autoimmune disease: A condition in which the body recognizes its own tissues as foreign and directs an immune response against them. [NIH] Autologous: Taken from an individual's own tissues, cells, or DNA. [NIH] Autologous bone marrow transplantation: A procedure in which bone marrow is removed from a person, stored, and then given back to the person after intensive treatment. [NIH] Autonomic: Self-controlling; functionally independent. [EU] Avidity: The strength of the interaction of an antiserum with a multivalent antigen. [NIH] Axons: Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron cell body. [NIH] Azithromycin: A semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic structurally related to erythromycin. It has been used in the treatment of Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infections, toxoplasmosis, and cryptosporidiosis. [NIH] Babesiosis: A group of tick-borne diseases of mammals including zoonoses in humans. They are caused by protozoans of the genus babesia, which parasitize erythrocytes, producing hemolysis. In the U.S., the organism's natural host is mice and transmission is by the deer tick ixodes scapularis. [NIH] Bacteremia: The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion. [NIH] Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. [NIH] Bacterial Infections: Infections by bacteria, general or unspecified. [NIH] Bacteriophage: A virus whose host is a bacterial cell; A virus that exclusively infects bacteria. It generally has a protein coat surrounding the genome (DNA or RNA). One of the coliphages most extensively studied is the lambda phage, which is also one of the most
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important. [NIH] Bacteriostatic: 1. Inhibiting the growth or multiplication of bacteria. 2. An agent that inhibits the growth or multiplication of bacteria. [EU] Bacterium: Microscopic organism which may have a spherical, rod-like, or spiral unicellular or non-cellular body. Bacteria usually reproduce through asexual processes. [NIH] Barbiturate: A drug with sedative and hypnotic effects. Barbiturates have been used as sedatives and anesthetics, and they have been used to treat the convulsions associated with epilepsy. [NIH] Barotrauma: Injury following pressure changes; includes injury to the eustachian tube, ear drum, lung and stomach. [NIH] Base: In chemistry, the nonacid part of a salt; a substance that combines with acids to form salts; a substance that dissociates to give hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions; a substance whose molecule or ion can combine with a proton (hydrogen ion); a substance capable of donating a pair of electrons (to an acid) for the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. [EU] Basophils: Granular leukocytes characterized by a relatively pale-staining, lobate nucleus and cytoplasm containing coarse dark-staining granules of variable size and stainable by basic dyes. [NIH] Benign: Not cancerous; does not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body. [NIH]
Beta-Galactosidase: A group of enzymes that catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal, nonreducing beta-D-galactose residues in beta-galactosides. Deficiency of beta-Galactosidase A1 may cause gangliodisosis GM1. EC 3.2.1.23. [NIH] Bewilderment: Impairment or loss of will power. [NIH] Bilateral: Affecting both the right and left side of body. [NIH] Bile: An emulsifying agent produced in the liver and secreted into the duodenum. Its composition includes bile acids and salts, cholesterol, and electrolytes. It aids digestion of fats in the duodenum. [NIH] Bile Acids: Acids made by the liver that work with bile to break down fats. [NIH] Bile Acids and Salts: Steroid acids and salts. The primary bile acids are derived from cholesterol in the liver and usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. The secondary bile acids are further modified by bacteria in the intestine. They play an important role in the digestion and absorption of fat. They have also been used pharmacologically, especially in the treatment of gallstones. [NIH] Bile Pigments: Pigments that give a characteristic color to bile including: bilirubin, biliverdine, and bilicyanin. [NIH] Biliary: Having to do with the liver, bile ducts, and/or gallbladder. [NIH] Bilirubin: A bile pigment that is a degradation product of heme. [NIH] Biochemical: Relating to biochemistry; characterized by, produced by, or involving chemical reactions in living organisms. [EU] Biogenesis: The origin of life. It includes studies of the potential basis for life in organic compounds but excludes studies of the development of altered forms of life through mutation and natural selection, which is evolution. [NIH] Biological response modifier: BRM. A substance that stimulates the body's response to infection and disease. [NIH] Biological Transport: The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and
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drugs) across cell membranes and epithelial layers, usually by passive diffusion. [NIH] Biopsy: Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body. [NIH] Biosynthesis: The building up of a chemical compound in the physiologic processes of a living organism. [EU] Biotechnology: Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., genetic engineering) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include transfection and cloning technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction. [NIH] Biotransformation: The chemical alteration of an exogenous substance by or in a biological system. The alteration may inactivate the compound or it may result in the production of an active metabolite of an inactive parent compound. The alteration may be either nonsynthetic (oxidation-reduction, hydrolysis) or synthetic (glucuronide formation, sulfate conjugation, acetylation, methylation). This also includes metabolic detoxication and clearance. [NIH] Bladder: The organ that stores urine. [NIH] Blast phase: The phase of chronic myelogenous leukemia in which the number of immature, abnormal white blood cells in the bone marrow and blood is extremely high. Also called blast crisis. [NIH] Blastocyst: The mammalian embryo in the post-morula stage in which a fluid-filled cavity, enclosed primarily by trophoblast, contains an inner cell mass which becomes the embryonic disc. [NIH] Blastomycosis: A fungal infection that may appear in two forms: 1) a primary lesion characterized by the formation of a small cutaneous nodule and small nodules along the lymphatics that may heal within several months; and 2) chronic granulomatous lesions characterized by thick crusts, warty growths, and unusual vascularity and infection in the middle or upper lobes of the lung. [NIH] Blood Coagulation: The process of the interaction of blood coagulation factors that results in an insoluble fibrin clot. [NIH] Blood pressure: The pressure of blood against the walls of a blood vessel or heart chamber. Unless there is reference to another location, such as the pulmonary artery or one of the heart chambers, it refers to the pressure in the systemic arteries, as measured, for example, in the forearm. [NIH] Blood transfusion: The administration of blood or blood products into a blood vessel. [NIH] Blood vessel: A tube in the body through which blood circulates. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. [NIH] Blood-Brain Barrier: Specialized non-fenestrated tightly-joined endothelial cells (tight junctions) that form a transport barrier for certain substances between the cerebral capillaries and the brain tissue. [NIH] Blot: To transfer DNA, RNA, or proteins to an immobilizing matrix such as nitrocellulose. [NIH]
Blotting, Western: Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blotting and transferred to strips of nitrocellulose paper. The blots are then detected by radiolabeled antibody probes. [NIH] Body Fluids: Liquid components of living organisms. [NIH]
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Bone Conduction: Sound transmission through the bones of the skull to the inner ear. [NIH] Bone Marrow: The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue and is the site of production of erythrocytes and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made up of a framework of connective tissue containing branching fibers with the frame being filled with marrow cells. [NIH] Bone Marrow Transplantation: The transference of bone marrow from one human or animal to another. [NIH] Bowel: The long tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a small and a large bowel. Also called the intestine. [NIH] Bowel Movement: Body wastes passed through the rectum and anus. [NIH] Bradykinin: A nonapeptide messenger that is enzymatically produced from kallidin in the blood where it is a potent but short-lived agent of arteriolar dilation and increased capillary permeability. Bradykinin is also released from mast cells during asthma attacks, from gut walls as a gastrointestinal vasodilator, from damaged tissues as a pain signal, and may be a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Brain Neoplasms: Neoplasms of the intracranial components of the central nervous system, including the cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, thalamus, brain stem, and cerebellum. Brain neoplasms are subdivided into primary (originating from brain tissue) and secondary (i.e., metastatic) forms. Primary neoplasms are subdivided into benign and malignant forms. In general, brain tumors may also be classified by age of onset, histologic type, or presenting location in the brain. [NIH] Branch: Most commonly used for branches of nerves, but applied also to other structures. [NIH]
Breeding: The science or art of changing the constitution of a population of plants or animals through sexual reproduction. [NIH] Broad-spectrum: Effective against a wide range of microorganisms; said of an antibiotic. [EU] Bronchioles: The tiny branches of air tubes in the lungs. [NIH] Bronchoalveolar Lavage: Washing out of the lungs with saline or mucolytic agents for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. It is very useful in the diagnosis of diffuse pulmonary infiltrates in immunosuppressed patients. [NIH] Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid: Fluid obtained by washout of the alveolar compartment of the lung. It is used to assess biochemical and inflammatory changes in and effects of therapy on the interstitial lung tissue. [NIH] Buccal: Pertaining to or directed toward the cheek. In dental anatomy, used to refer to the buccal surface of a tooth. [EU] Caffeine: A methylxanthine naturally occurring in some beverages and also used as a pharmacological agent. Caffeine's most notable pharmacological effect is as a central nervous system stimulant, increasing alertness and producing agitation. It also relaxes smooth muscle, stimulates cardiac muscle, stimulates diuresis, and appears to be useful in the treatment of some types of headache. Several cellular actions of caffeine have been observed, but it is not entirely clear how each contributes to its pharmacological profile. Among the most important are inhibition of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases, antagonism of adenosine receptors, and modulation of intracellular calcium handling. [NIH] Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic
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weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. [NIH] Calcium Signaling: Signal transduction mechanisms whereby calcium mobilization (from outside the cell or from intracellular storage pools) to the cytoplasm is triggered by external stimuli. Calcium signals are often seen to propagate as waves, oscillations, spikes or puffs. The calcium acts as an intracellular messenger by activating calcium-responsive proteins. [NIH]
Candidiasis: Infection with a fungus of the genus Candida. It is usually a superficial infection of the moist cutaneous areas of the body, and is generally caused by C. albicans; it most commonly involves the skin (dermatocandidiasis), oral mucous membranes (thrush, def. 1), respiratory tract (bronchocandidiasis), and vagina (vaginitis). Rarely there is a systemic infection or endocarditis. Called also moniliasis, candidosis, oidiomycosis, and formerly blastodendriosis. [EU] Candidosis: An infection caused by an opportunistic yeasts that tends to proliferate and become pathologic when the environment is favorable and the host resistance is weakened. [NIH]
Capsules: Hard or soft soluble containers used for the oral administration of medicine. [NIH] Carbohydrate: An aldehyde or ketone derivative of a polyhydric alcohol, particularly of the pentahydric and hexahydric alcohols. They are so named because the hydrogen and oxygen are usually in the proportion to form water, (CH2O)n. The most important carbohydrates are the starches, sugars, celluloses, and gums. They are classified into mono-, di-, tri-, polyand heterosaccharides. [EU] Carbon Dioxide: A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. [NIH] Carcinogenic: Producing carcinoma. [EU] Carcinoma: Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. [NIH]
Cardiac: Having to do with the heart. [NIH] Carotene: The general name for a group of pigments found in green, yellow, and leafy vegetables, and yellow fruits. The pigments are fat-soluble, unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons functioning as provitamins and are converted to vitamin A through enzymatic processes in the intestinal wall. [NIH] Case report: A detailed report of the diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports also contain some demographic information about the patient (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin). [NIH] Case series: A group or series of case reports involving patients who were given similar treatment. Reports of case series usually contain detailed information about the individual patients. This includes demographic information (for example, age, gender, ethnic origin) and information on diagnosis, treatment, response to treatment, and follow-up after treatment. [NIH] Cataract: An opacity, partial or complete, of one or both eyes, on or in the lens or capsule, especially an opacity impairing vision or causing blindness. The many kinds of cataract are classified by their morphology (size, shape, location) or etiology (cause and time of occurrence). [EU] Catecholamine: A group of chemical substances manufactured by the adrenal medulla and secreted during physiological stress. [NIH]
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Cat-Scratch Disease: A self-limiting bacterial infection of the regional lymph nodes caused by Afipia felis, a gram-negative bacterium recently identified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and by Bartonella henselae. It usually arises one or more weeks following a feline scratch, with raised inflammatory nodules at the site of the scratch being the primary symptom. [NIH] Cell: The individual unit that makes up all of the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells. [NIH] Cell Adhesion: Adherence of cells to surfaces or to other cells. [NIH] Cell Count: A count of the number of cells of a specific kind, usually measured per unit volume of sample. [NIH] Cell Cycle: The complex series of phenomena, occurring between the end of one cell division and the end of the next, by which cellular material is divided between daughter cells. [NIH] Cell Death: The termination of the cell's ability to carry out vital functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and adaptability. [NIH] Cell Differentiation: Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function which takes place during the development of the embryo and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Cell Division: The fission of a cell. [NIH] Cell Lineage: The developmental history of cells as traced from the first division of the original cell or cells in the embryo. [NIH] Cell membrane: Cell membrane = plasma membrane. The structure enveloping a cell, enclosing the cytoplasm, and forming a selective permeability barrier; it consists of lipids, proteins, and some carbohydrates, the lipids thought to form a bilayer in which integral proteins are embedded to varying degrees. [EU] Cell proliferation: An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division. [NIH] Cell Respiration: The metabolic process of all living cells (animal and plant) in which oxygen is used to provide a source of energy for the cell. [NIH] Cell Size: The physical dimensions of a cell. It refers mainly to changes in dimensions correlated with physiological or pathological changes in cells. [NIH] Cell Survival: The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability. [NIH] Cell Transplantation: Transference of cells within an individual, between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species. [NIH] Cellulose: A polysaccharide with glucose units linked as in cellobiose. It is the chief constituent of plant fibers, cotton being the purest natural form of the substance. As a raw material, it forms the basis for many derivatives used in chromatography, ion exchange materials, explosives manufacturing, and pharmaceutical preparations. [NIH] Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. [NIH] Central Nervous System Infections: Pathogenic infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. DNA virus infections; RNA virus infections; bacterial infections; mycoplasma infections; Spirochaetales infections; fungal infections; protozoan infections; helminthiasis; and prion diseases may involve the central nervous system as a primary or secondary
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process. [NIH] Cerebellar: Pertaining to the cerebellum. [EU] Cerebellar Diseases: Diseases that affect the structure or function of the cerebellum. Cardinal manifestations of cerebellar dysfunction include dysmetria, gait ataxia, and muscle hypotonia. [NIH] Cerebral: Of or pertaining of the cerebrum or the brain. [EU] Cerebral Infarction: The formation of an area of necrosis in the cerebrum caused by an insufficiency of arterial or venous blood flow. Infarcts of the cerebrum are generally classified by hemisphere (i.e., left vs. right), lobe (e.g., frontal lobe infarction), arterial distribution (e.g., infarction, anterior cerebral artery), and etiology (e.g., embolic infarction). [NIH]
Cerebral Palsy: Refers to a motor disability caused by a brain dysfunction. [NIH] Cerebrospinal: Pertaining to the brain and spinal cord. [EU] Cerebrospinal fluid: CSF. The fluid flowing around the brain and spinal cord. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the ventricles in the brain. [NIH] Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebrum controls muscle functions of the body and also controls speech, emotions, reading, writing, and learning. [NIH] Cerumen: The yellow or brown waxy secretions produced by vestigial apocrine sweat glands in the external ear canal. [NIH] Cervical: Relating to the neck, or to the neck of any organ or structure. Cervical lymph nodes are located in the neck; cervical cancer refers to cancer of the uterine cervix, which is the lower, narrow end (the "neck") of the uterus. [NIH] Cestode: A flatworm that is an endoparasite and belongs to the class Cestoda. [NIH] Chemokines: Class of pro-inflammatory cytokines that have the ability to attract and activate leukocytes. They can be divided into at least three structural branches: C (chemokines, C), CC (chemokines, CC), and CXC (chemokines, CXC), according to variations in a shared cysteine motif. [NIH] Chemotactic Factors: Chemical substances that attract or repel cells or organisms. The concept denotes especially those factors released as a result of tissue injury, invasion, or immunologic activity, that attract leukocytes, macrophages, or other cells to the site of infection or insult. [NIH] Chemotaxis: The movement of cells or organisms toward or away from a substance in response to its concentration gradient. [NIH] Chemotherapy: Treatment with anticancer drugs. [NIH] Chitin Synthase: An enzyme that converts UDP glucosamine into chitin and UDP. EC 2.4.1.16. [NIH] Chlorophyll: Porphyrin derivatives containing magnesium that act to convert light energy in photosynthetic organisms. [NIH] Chloroplasts: Plant cell inclusion bodies that contain the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll, which is associated with the membrane of thylakoids. Chloroplasts occur in cells of leaves and young stems of higher plants. [NIH] Cholera: An acute diarrheal disease endemic in India and Southeast Asia whose causative agent is vibrio cholerae. This condition can lead to severe dehydration in a matter of hours unless quickly treated. [NIH]
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Cholestasis: Impairment of biliary flow at any level from the hepatocyte to Vater's ampulla. [NIH]
Cholesterol: The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils. [NIH] Chorioretinitis: Inflammation of the choroid in which the sensory retina becomes edematous and opaque. The inflammatory cells and exudate may burst through the sensory retina to cloud the vitreous body. [NIH] Choroid: The thin, highly vascular membrane covering most of the posterior of the eye between the retina and sclera. [NIH] Chromatin: The material of chromosomes. It is a complex of DNA, histones, and nonhistone proteins (chromosomal proteins, non-histone) found within the nucleus of a cell. [NIH] Chromosomal: Pertaining to chromosomes. [EU] Chromosome: Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Except for sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes. [NIH] Chronic: A disease or condition that persists or progresses over a long period of time. [NIH] Chronic Disease: Disease or ailment of long duration. [NIH] Chronic lymphocytic leukemia: A slowly progressing disease in which too many white blood cells (called lymphocytes) are found in the body. [NIH] Chronic myelogenous leukemia: CML. A slowly progressing disease in which too many white blood cells are made in the bone marrow. Also called chronic myeloid leukemia or chronic granulocytic leukemia. [NIH] Chronic phase: Refers to the early stages of chronic myelogenous leukemia or chronic lymphocytic leukemia. The number of mature and immature abnormal white blood cells in the bone marrow and blood is higher than normal, but lower than in the accelerated or blast phase. [NIH] Ciliary: Inflammation or infection of the glands of the margins of the eyelids. [NIH] Ciliary Body: A ring of tissue extending from the scleral spur to the ora serrata of the retina. It consists of the uveal portion and the epithelial portion. The ciliary muscle is in the uveal portion and the ciliary processes are in the epithelial portion. [NIH] Ciliary processes: The extensions or projections of the ciliary body that secrete aqueous humor. [NIH] CIS: Cancer Information Service. The CIS is the National Cancer Institute's link to the public, interpreting and explaining research findings in a clear and understandable manner, and providing personalized responses to specific questions about cancer. Access the CIS by calling 1-800-4-CANCER, or by using the Web site at http://cis.nci.nih.gov. [NIH] Clarithromycin: A semisynthetic macrolide antibiotic derived from erythromycin that is active against a variety of microorganisms. It can inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria by reversibly binding to the 50S ribosomal subunits. This inhibits the translocation of aminoacyl transfer-RNA and prevents peptide chain elongation. [NIH] Clindamycin: An antibacterial agent that is a semisynthetic analog of lincomycin. [NIH] Clinical Medicine: The study and practice of medicine by direct examination of the patient. [NIH]
Clinical study: A research study in which patients receive treatment in a clinic or other medical facility. Reports of clinical studies can contain results for single patients (case reports) or many patients (case series or clinical trials). [NIH] Clinical trial: A research study that tests how well new medical treatments or other
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interventions work in people. Each study is designed to test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. [NIH] Clone: The term "clone" has acquired a new meaning. It is applied specifically to the bits of inserted foreign DNA in the hybrid molecules of the population. Each inserted segment originally resided in the DNA of a complex genome amid millions of other DNA segment. [NIH]
Cloning: The production of a number of genetically identical individuals; in genetic engineering, a process for the efficient replication of a great number of identical DNA molecules. [NIH] Clostridium: A genus of motile or nonmotile gram-positive bacteria of the family Bacillaceae. Many species have been identified with some being pathogenic. They occur in water, soil, and in the intestinal tract of humans and lower animals. [NIH] Clostridium botulinum: The etiologic agent of botulism in man, wild ducks, and other waterfowl. It is also responsible for certain forms of forage poisoning in horses and cattle. The bacterium produces a powerful exotoxin that is resistant to proteolytic digestion. [NIH] Clostridium perfringens: The most common etiologic agent of gas gangrene. It is differentiable into several distinct types based on the distribution of twelve different toxins. [NIH]
Coca: Any of several South American shrubs of the Erythroxylon genus (and family) that yield cocaine; the leaves are chewed with alum for CNS stimulation. [NIH] Cocaine: An alkaloid ester extracted from the leaves of plants including coca. It is a local anesthetic and vasoconstrictor and is clinically used for that purpose, particularly in the eye, ear, nose, and throat. It also has powerful central nervous system effects similar to the amphetamines and is a drug of abuse. Cocaine, like amphetamines, acts by multiple mechanisms on brain catecholaminergic neurons; the mechanism of its reinforcing effects is thought to involve inhibition of dopamine uptake. [NIH] Coccidia: A subclass of protozoans commonly parasitic in the epithelial cells of the intestinal tract but also found in the liver and other organs. Its organisms are found in both vertebrates and higher invertebrates and comprise two orders: Eimeriida and Eucoccidiida. [NIH]
Coccidioidomycosis: An infectious disease caused by a fungus, Coccidioides immitis, that is prevalent in the western United States and is acquired by inhalation of dust containing the spores. [NIH] Coccidiosis: Protozoan infection found in animals and man. It is caused by several different genera of Coccidia. [NIH] Cochlea: The part of the internal ear that is concerned with hearing. It forms the anterior part of the labyrinth, is conical, and is placed almost horizontally anterior to the vestibule. [NIH]
Cochlear: Of or pertaining to the cochlea. [EU] Cochlear Diseases: Diseases of the cochlea, the part of the inner ear that is concerned with hearing. [NIH] Cofactor: A substance, microorganism or environmental factor that activates or enhances the action of another entity such as a disease-causing agent. [NIH] Cognition: Intellectual or mental process whereby an organism becomes aware of or obtains knowledge. [NIH] Colchicine: A major alkaloid from Colchicum autumnale L. and found also in other Colchicum species. Its primary therapeutic use is in the treatment of gout, but it has been
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used also in the therapy of familial Mediterranean fever (periodic disease). [NIH] Collagen: A polypeptide substance comprising about one third of the total protein in mammalian organisms. It is the main constituent of skin, connective tissue, and the organic substance of bones and teeth. Different forms of collagen are produced in the body but all consist of three alpha-polypeptide chains arranged in a triple helix. Collagen is differentiated from other fibrous proteins, such as elastin, by the content of proline, hydroxyproline, and hydroxylysine; by the absence of tryptophan; and particularly by the high content of polar groups which are responsible for its swelling properties. [NIH] Colloidal: Of the nature of a colloid. [EU] Colonic Pseudo-Obstruction: Functional obstruction of the colon. [NIH] Commensal: 1. Living on or within another organism, and deriving benefit without injuring or benefiting the other individual. 2. An organism living on or within another, but not causing injury to the host. [EU] Commensalism: A relationship between two kinds of living organism whereby one (the commensal) benefits and the other (the host) remains relatively or absolutely unaffected, and which is often obligatory for the commensal. [NIH] Communicable disease: A disease that can be transmitted by contact between persons. [NIH] Communication Disorders: Disorders of verbal and nonverbal communication caused by receptive or expressive language disorders, cognitive dysfunction (e.g., mental retardation), psychiatric conditions, and hearing disorders. [NIH] Complement: A term originally used to refer to the heat-labile factor in serum that causes immune cytolysis, the lysis of antibody-coated cells, and now referring to the entire functionally related system comprising at least 20 distinct serum proteins that is the effector not only of immune cytolysis but also of other biologic functions. Complement activation occurs by two different sequences, the classic and alternative pathways. The proteins of the classic pathway are termed 'components of complement' and are designated by the symbols C1 through C9. C1 is a calcium-dependent complex of three distinct proteins C1q, C1r and C1s. The proteins of the alternative pathway (collectively referred to as the properdin system) and complement regulatory proteins are known by semisystematic or trivial names. Fragments resulting from proteolytic cleavage of complement proteins are designated with lower-case letter suffixes, e.g., C3a. Inactivated fragments may be designated with the suffix 'i', e.g. C3bi. Activated components or complexes with biological activity are designated by a bar over the symbol e.g. C1 or C4b,2a. The classic pathway is activated by the binding of C1 to classic pathway activators, primarily antigen-antibody complexes containing IgM, IgG1, IgG3; C1q binds to a single IgM molecule or two adjacent IgG molecules. The alternative pathway can be activated by IgA immune complexes and also by nonimmunologic materials including bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides, and cell walls. Activation of the classic pathway triggers an enzymatic cascade involving C1, C4, C2 and C3; activation of the alternative pathway triggers a cascade involving C3 and factors B, D and P. Both result in the cleavage of C5 and the formation of the membrane attack complex. Complement activation also results in the formation of many biologically active complement fragments that act as anaphylatoxins, opsonins, or chemotactic factors. [EU] Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices are not considered standard medical approaches. CAM includes dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementary medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as
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standard or conventional medical approaches and used to enhance or complement the standard treatments. Complementary medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementation: The production of a wild-type phenotype when two different mutations are combined in a diploid or a heterokaryon and tested in trans-configuration. [NIH] Computational Biology: A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and theories applicable to molecular biology and areas of computer-based techniques for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets. [NIH] Conception: The onset of pregnancy, marked by implantation of the blastocyst; the formation of a viable zygote. [EU] Concomitant: Accompanying; accessory; joined with another. [EU] Conduction: The transfer of sound waves, heat, nervous impulses, or electricity. [EU] Cones: One type of specialized light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors) in the retina that provide sharp central vision and color vision. [NIH] Confounding: Extraneous variables resulting in outcome effects that obscure or exaggerate the "true" effect of an intervention. [NIH] Confusion: A mental state characterized by bewilderment, emotional disturbance, lack of clear thinking, and perceptual disorientation. [NIH] Conjunctiva: The mucous membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelids and the anterior part of the sclera. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Consciousness: Sense of awareness of self and of the environment. [NIH] Constitutional: 1. Affecting the whole constitution of the body; not local. 2. Pertaining to the constitution. [EU] Constriction: The act of constricting. [NIH] Consumption: Pulmonary tuberculosis. [NIH] Contamination: The soiling or pollution by inferior material, as by the introduction of organisms into a wound, or sewage into a stream. [EU] Contraception: Use of agents, devices, methods, or procedures which diminish the likelihood of or prevent conception. [NIH] Contraindications: Any factor or sign that it is unwise to pursue a certain kind of action or treatment, e. g. giving a general anesthetic to a person with pneumonia. [NIH] Controlled study: An experiment or clinical trial that includes a comparison (control) group. [NIH]
Conventional therapy: A currently accepted and widely used treatment for a certain type of disease, based on the results of past research. Also called conventional treatment. [NIH] Conventional treatment: A currently accepted and widely used treatment for a certain type of disease, based on the results of past research. Also called conventional therapy. [NIH] Coordination: Muscular or motor regulation or the harmonious cooperation of muscles or
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groups of muscles, in a complex action or series of actions. [NIH] Cornea: The transparent part of the eye that covers the iris and the pupil and allows light to enter the inside. [NIH] Coronary: Encircling in the manner of a crown; a term applied to vessels; nerves, ligaments, etc. The term usually denotes the arteries that supply the heart muscle and, by extension, a pathologic involvement of them. [EU] Coronary Thrombosis: Presence of a thrombus in a coronary artery, often causing a myocardial infarction. [NIH] Corpus: The body of the uterus. [NIH] Cortical: Pertaining to or of the nature of a cortex or bark. [EU] Corticosteroids: Hormones that have antitumor activity in lymphomas and lymphoid leukemias; in addition, corticosteroids (steroids) may be used for hormone replacement and for the management of some of the complications of cancer and its treatment. [NIH] Co-trimoxazole: A combination of two anti-infection drugs, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim. It is used to fight bacterial and protozoal infections. [NIH] Cranial: Pertaining to the cranium, or to the anterior (in animals) or superior (in humans) end of the body. [EU] Craniocerebral Trauma: Traumatic injuries involving the cranium and intracranial structures (i.e., brain; cranial nerves; meninges; and other structures). Injuries may be classified by whether or not the skull is penetrated (i.e., penetrating vs. nonpenetrating) or whether there is an associated hemorrhage. [NIH] Crossing-over: The exchange of corresponding segments between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during meiosia, forming a chiasma. [NIH] Cryptococcosis: Infection with a fungus of the species Cryptococcus neoformans. [NIH] Cryptosporidiidae: A family of parasitic Protozoa in the order Eimeriida. Cryptosporidium is the most important genus. [NIH] Cryptosporidiosis: Parasitic intestinal infection with severe diarrhea caused by a protozoan, Cryptosporidium. It occurs in both animals and humans. [NIH] Cryptosporidium: A genus of coccidian parasites of the family Cryptosporidiidae, found in the intestinal epithelium of many vertebrates including humans. [NIH] Crystallization: The formation of crystals; conversion to a crystalline form. [EU] Culture Media: Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as agar or gelatin. [NIH] Cultured cells: Animal or human cells that are grown in the laboratory. [NIH] Curative: Tending to overcome disease and promote recovery. [EU] Cutaneous: Having to do with the skin. [NIH] Cyclic: Pertaining to or occurring in a cycle or cycles; the term is applied to chemical compounds that contain a ring of atoms in the nucleus. [EU] Cyclin: Molecule that regulates the cell cycle. [NIH] Cyclin A: A 33-kD protein identical to adenovirus E1A-associated protein p60. Cyclin A regulates p33cdk2 and p34cdc2, and is necessary for progression through the S phase of the cell cycle. [NIH]
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Cyst: A sac or capsule filled with fluid. [NIH] Cysteine: A thiol-containing non-essential amino acid that is oxidized to form cystine. [NIH] Cysteine Endopeptidases: Endopeptidases which have a cysteine involved in the catalytic process. This group of enzymes is inactivated by sulfhydryl reagents. EC 3.4.22. [NIH] Cysteine Proteinase Inhibitors: Exogenous and endogenous compounds which inhibit cysteine endopeptidases. [NIH] Cystine: A covalently linked dimeric nonessential amino acid formed by the oxidation of cysteine. Two molecules of cysteine are joined together by a disulfide bridge to form cystine. [NIH]
Cytokine: Small but highly potent protein that modulates the activity of many cell types, including T and B cells. [NIH] Cytomegalovirus: A genus of the family Herpesviridae, subfamily Betaherpesvirinae, infecting the salivary glands, liver, spleen, lungs, eyes, and other organs, in which they produce characteristically enlarged cells with intranuclear inclusions. Infection with Cytomegalovirus is also seen as an opportunistic infection in AIDS. [NIH] Cytoplasm: The protoplasm of a cell exclusive of that of the nucleus; it consists of a continuous aqueous solution (cytosol) and the organelles and inclusions suspended in it (phaneroplasm), and is the site of most of the chemical activities of the cell. [EU] Cytotoxic: Cell-killing. [NIH] Databases, Bibliographic: Extensive collections, reputedly complete, of references and citations to books, articles, publications, etc., generally on a single subject or specialized subject area. Databases can operate through automated files, libraries, or computer disks. The concept should be differentiated from factual databases which is used for collections of data and facts apart from bibliographic references to them. [NIH] De novo: In cancer, the first occurrence of cancer in the body. [NIH] Degenerative: Undergoing degeneration : tending to degenerate; having the character of or involving degeneration; causing or tending to cause degeneration. [EU] Dehydration: The condition that results from excessive loss of body water. [NIH] Deletion: A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA (chromosomes), bringing sequences, which are normally separated, into close proximity. [NIH] Dementia: An acquired organic mental disorder with loss of intellectual abilities of sufficient severity to interfere with social or occupational functioning. The dysfunction is multifaceted and involves memory, behavior, personality, judgment, attention, spatial relations, language, abstract thought, and other executive functions. The intellectual decline is usually progressive, and initially spares the level of consciousness. [NIH] Denaturation: Rupture of the hydrogen bonds by heating a DNA solution and then cooling it rapidly causes the two complementary strands to separate. [NIH] Dendrites: Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other neurons. [NIH] Dendritic: 1. Branched like a tree. 2. Pertaining to or possessing dendrites. [EU] Density: The logarithm to the base 10 of the opacity of an exposed and processed film. [NIH] Depolarization: The process or act of neutralizing polarity. In neurophysiology, the reversal of the resting potential in excitable cell membranes when stimulated, i.e., the tendency of the cell membrane potential to become positive with respect to the potential outside the cell. [EU] Deprivation: Loss or absence of parts, organs, powers, or things that are needed. [EU]
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Dermatosis: Any skin disease, especially one not characterized by inflammation. [EU] Deuterium: Deuterium. The stable isotope of hydrogen. It has one neutron and one proton in the nucleus. [NIH] Developed Countries: Countries that have reached a level of economic achievement through an increase of production, per capita income and consumption, and utilization of natural and human resources. [NIH] Diabetes Mellitus: A heterogeneous group of disorders that share glucose intolerance in common. [NIH] Diagnostic procedure: A method used to identify a disease. [NIH] Diarrhea: Passage of excessively liquid or excessively frequent stools. [NIH] Diffusion: The tendency of a gas or solute to pass from a point of higher pressure or concentration to a point of lower pressure or concentration and to distribute itself throughout the available space; a major mechanism of biological transport. [NIH] Digestion: The process of breakdown of food for metabolism and use by the body. [NIH] Digestive system: The organs that take in food and turn it into products that the body can use to stay healthy. Waste products the body cannot use leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive system includes the salivary glands, mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, small and large intestines, and rectum. [NIH] Digestive tract: The organs through which food passes when food is eaten. These organs are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and rectum. [NIH] Dihydrotestosterone: Anabolic agent. [NIH] Dilatation: The act of dilating. [NIH] Dilation: A process by which the pupil is temporarily enlarged with special eye drops (mydriatic); allows the eye care specialist to better view the inside of the eye. [NIH] Diploid: Having two sets of chromosomes. [NIH] Direct: 1. Straight; in a straight line. 2. Performed immediately and without the intervention of subsidiary means. [EU] Discrimination: The act of qualitative and/or quantitative differentiation between two or more stimuli. [NIH] Disease Progression: The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis. [NIH] Disorientation: The loss of proper bearings, or a state of mental confusion as to time, place, or identity. [EU] Dizziness: An imprecise term which may refer to a sense of spatial disorientation, motion of the environment, or lightheadedness. [NIH] Domesticated: Species in which the evolutionary process has been influenced by humans to meet their needs. [NIH] Dopamine: An endogenous catecholamine and prominent neurotransmitter in several systems of the brain. In the synthesis of catecholamines from tyrosine, it is the immediate precursor to norepinephrine and epinephrine. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. A family of dopaminergic receptor subtypes mediate its action. Dopamine is used pharmacologically for its direct (beta adrenergic agonist) and indirect (adrenergic releasing) sympathomimetic effects including its actions as an inotropic agent and as a renal vasodilator. [NIH]
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Dosage Forms: Completed forms of the pharmaceutical preparation in which prescribed doses of medication are included. They are designed to resist action by gastric fluids, prevent vomiting and nausea, reduce or alleviate the undesirable taste and smells associated with oral administration, achieve a high concentration of drug at target site, or produce a delayed or long-acting drug effect. They include capsules, liniments, ointments, pharmaceutical solutions, powders, tablets, etc. [NIH] Dose-dependent: Refers to the effects of treatment with a drug. If the effects change when the dose of the drug is changed, the effects are said to be dose dependent. [NIH] Dose-limiting: Describes side effects of a drug or other treatment that are serious enough to prevent an increase in dose or level of that treatment. [NIH] Drug Design: The molecular designing of drugs for specific purposes (such as DNAbinding, enzyme inhibition, anti-cancer efficacy, etc.) based on knowledge of molecular properties such as activity of functional groups, molecular geometry, and electronic structure, and also on information cataloged on analogous molecules. Drug design is generally computer-assisted molecular modeling and does not include pharmacokinetics, dosage analysis, or drug administration analysis. [NIH] Drug Interactions: The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug. [NIH] Drug Resistance: Diminished or failed response of an organism, disease or tissue to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should be differentiated from drug tolerance which is the progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, as a result of continued administration. [NIH] Drug Tolerance: Progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, resulting from its continued administration. It should be differentiated from drug resistance wherein an organism, disease, or tissue fails to respond to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should also be differentiated from maximum tolerated dose and no-observed-adverse-effect level. [NIH] Duct: A tube through which body fluids pass. [NIH] Duodenum: The first part of the small intestine. [NIH] Dura mater: The outermost, toughest, and most fibrous of the three membranes (meninges) covering the brain and spinal cord; called also pachymeninx. [EU] Dynorphins: A class of opioid peptides including dynorphin A, dynorphin B, and smaller fragments of these peptides. Dynorphins prefer kappa-opioid receptors (receptors, opioid, kappa) and have been shown to play a role as central nervous system transmitters. [NIH] Dysplasia: Cells that look abnormal under a microscope but are not cancer. [NIH] Dystrophy: Any disorder arising from defective or faulty nutrition, especially the muscular dystrophies. [EU] Eardrum: A thin, tense membrane forming the greater part of the outer wall of the tympanic cavity and separating it from the external auditory meatus; it constitutes the boundary between the external and middle ear. [NIH] Echinococcosis: An infection caused by the infestation of the larval form of tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus. The liver, lungs, and kidney are the most common areas of infestation. [NIH] Effector: It is often an enzyme that converts an inactive precursor molecule into an active second messenger. [NIH] Effector cell: A cell that performs a specific function in response to a stimulus; usually used
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to describe cells in the immune system. [NIH] Efficacy: The extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service produces a beneficial result under ideal conditions. Ideally, the determination of efficacy is based on the results of a randomized control trial. [NIH] Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions when fused or in solution, and thus becomes capable of conducting electricity; an ionic solute. [EU] Electrons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known negative charge, present in all elements; also called negatrons. Positively charged electrons are called positrons. The numbers, energies and arrangement of electrons around atomic nuclei determine the chemical identities of elements. Beams of electrons are called cathode rays or beta rays, the latter being a high-energy biproduct of nuclear decay. [NIH] ELISA: A sensitive analytical technique in which an enzyme is complexed to an antigen or antibody. A substrate is then added which generates a color proportional to the amount of binding. This method can be adapted to a solid-phase technique. [NIH] Emaciation: Clinical manifestation of excessive leanness usually caused by disease or a lack of nutrition. [NIH] Embryo: The prenatal stage of mammalian development characterized by rapid morphological changes and the differentiation of basic structures. [NIH] Emulsion: A preparation of one liquid distributed in small globules throughout the body of a second liquid. The dispersed liquid is the discontinuous phase, and the dispersion medium is the continuous phase. When oil is the dispersed liquid and an aqueous solution is the continuous phase, it is known as an oil-in-water emulsion, whereas when water or aqueous solution is the dispersed phase and oil or oleaginous substance is the continuous phase, it is known as a water-in-oil emulsion. Pharmaceutical emulsions for which official standards have been promulgated include cod liver oil emulsion, cod liver oil emulsion with malt, liquid petrolatum emulsion, and phenolphthalein in liquid petrolatum emulsion. [EU] Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain due to infection, autoimmune processes, toxins, and other conditions. Viral infections (see encephalitis, viral) are a relatively frequent cause of this condition. [NIH] Encephalitis, Viral: Inflammation of brain parenchymal tissue as a result of viral infection. Encephalitis may occur as primary or secondary manifestation of Togaviridae infections; Herpesviridae infections; Adenoviridae infections; Flaviviridae infections; Bunyaviridae infections; Picornaviridae infections; Paramyxoviridae infections; Orthomyxoviridae infections; Retroviridae infections; and Arenaviridae infections. [NIH] Endemic: Present or usually prevalent in a population or geographical area at all times; said of a disease or agent. Called also endemial. [EU] Endocarditis: Exudative and proliferative inflammatory alterations of the endocardium, characterized by the presence of vegetations on the surface of the endocardium or in the endocardium itself, and most commonly involving a heart valve, but sometimes affecting the inner lining of the cardiac chambers or the endocardium elsewhere. It may occur as a primary disorder or as a complication of or in association with another disease. [EU] Endocytosis: Cellular uptake of extracellular materials within membrane-limited vacuoles or microvesicles. Endosomes play a central role in endocytosis. [NIH] Endometrium: The layer of tissue that lines the uterus. [NIH] Endorphins: One of the three major groups of endogenous opioid peptides. They are large peptides derived from the pro-opiomelanocortin precursor. The known members of this group are alpha-, beta-, and gamma-endorphin. The term endorphin is also sometimes used
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to refer to all opioid peptides, but the narrower sense is used here; opioid peptides is used for the broader group. [NIH] Endothelial cell: The main type of cell found in the inside lining of blood vessels, lymph vessels, and the heart. [NIH] Endothelium: A layer of epithelium that lines the heart, blood vessels (endothelium, vascular), lymph vessels (endothelium, lymphatic), and the serous cavities of the body. [NIH] Endothelium, Lymphatic: Unbroken cellular lining (intima) of the lymph vessels (e.g., the high endothelial lymphatic venules). It is more permeable than vascular endothelium, lacking selective absorption and functioning mainly to remove plasma proteins that have filtered through the capillaries into the tissue spaces. [NIH] Endothelium, Vascular: Single pavement layer of cells which line the luminal surface of the entire vascular system and regulate the transport of macromolecules and blood components from interstitium to lumen; this function has been most intensively studied in the blood capillaries. [NIH] Endothelium-derived: Small molecule that diffuses to the adjacent muscle layer and relaxes it. [NIH] Endotoxin: Toxin from cell walls of bacteria. [NIH] Enkephalins: One of the three major families of endogenous opioid peptides. The enkephalins are pentapeptides that are widespread in the central and peripheral nervous systems and in the adrenal medulla. [NIH] Environmental Health: The science of controlling or modifying those conditions, influences, or forces surrounding man which relate to promoting, establishing, and maintaining health. [NIH]
Enzymatic: Phase where enzyme cuts the precursor protein. [NIH] Enzyme: A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. [NIH] Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay: An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed. [NIH] Eosinophils: Granular leukocytes with a nucleus that usually has two lobes connected by a slender thread of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing coarse, round granules that are uniform in size and stainable by eosin. [NIH] Epidemic: Occurring suddenly in numbers clearly in excess of normal expectancy; said especially of infectious diseases but applied also to any disease, injury, or other healthrelated event occurring in such outbreaks. [EU] Epidermoid carcinoma: A type of cancer in which the cells are flat and look like fish scales. Also called squamous cell carcinoma. [NIH] Epigastric: Having to do with the upper middle area of the abdomen. [NIH] Epinephrine: The active sympathomimetic hormone from the adrenal medulla in most species. It stimulates both the alpha- and beta- adrenergic systems, causes systemic vasoconstriction and gastrointestinal relaxation, stimulates the heart, and dilates bronchi and cerebral vessels. It is used in asthma and cardiac failure and to delay absorption of local anesthetics. [NIH]
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Epithelial: Refers to the cells that line the internal and external surfaces of the body. [NIH] Epithelial Cells: Cells that line the inner and outer surfaces of the body. [NIH] Epithelium: One or more layers of epithelial cells, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body. [NIH] Epitope: A molecule or portion of a molecule capable of binding to the combining site of an antibody. For every given antigenic determinant, the body can construct a variety of antibody-combining sites, some of which fit almost perfectly, and others which barely fit. [NIH]
Erectile: The inability to get or maintain an erection for satisfactory sexual intercourse. Also called impotence. [NIH] Erythrocytes: Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing hemoglobin whose function is to transport oxygen. [NIH] Erythromycin: A bacteriostatic antibiotic substance produced by Streptomyces erythreus. Erythromycin A is considered its major active component. In sensitive organisms, it inhibits protein synthesis by binding to 50S ribosomal subunits. This binding process inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with translocation of amino acids during translation and assembly of proteins. [NIH] Esophagus: The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach. [NIH]
Estrogen: One of the two female sex hormones. [NIH] Ethnic Groups: A group of people with a common cultural heritage that sets them apart from others in a variety of social relationships. [NIH] Eukaryotic Cells: Cells of the higher organisms, containing a true nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane. [NIH] Eustachian tube: The middle ear cavity is in communication with the back of the nose through the Eustachian tube, which is normally closed, but opens on swallowing, in order to maintain equal air pressure. [NIH] Evoke: The electric response recorded from the cerebral cortex after stimulation of a peripheral sense organ. [NIH] Excipients: Usually inert substances added to a prescription in order to provide suitable consistency to the dosage form; a binder, matrix, base or diluent in pills, tablets, creams, salves, etc. [NIH] Excitation: An act of irritation or stimulation or of responding to a stimulus; the addition of energy, as the excitation of a molecule by absorption of photons. [EU] Exhaustion: The feeling of weariness of mind and body. [NIH] Exocrine: Secreting outwardly, via a duct. [EU] Exocytosis: Cellular release of material within membrane-limited vesicles by fusion of the vesicles with the cell membrane. [NIH] Exogenous: Developed or originating outside the organism, as exogenous disease. [EU] Exotoxin: Toxic substance excreted by living bacterial cells. [NIH] Extracellular: Outside a cell or cells. [EU] Extracellular Matrix: A meshwork-like substance found within the extracellular space and in association with the basement membrane of the cell surface. It promotes cellular proliferation and provides a supporting structure to which cells or cell lysates in culture dishes adhere. [NIH]
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Extracorporeal: Situated or occurring outside the body. [EU] Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: Application of a life support system that circulates the blood through an oxygenating system, which may consist of a pump, a membrane oxygenator, and a heat exchanger. Examples of its use are to assist victims of smoke inhalation injury, respiratory failure, and cardiac failure. [NIH] Extraction: The process or act of pulling or drawing out. [EU] Exudate: Material, such as fluid, cells, or cellular debris, which has escaped from blood vessels and has been deposited in tissues or on tissue surfaces, usually as a result of inflammation. An exudate, in contrast to a transudate, is characterized by a high content of protein, cells, or solid materials derived from cells. [EU] Eye Manifestations: Ocular disorders attendant upon non-ocular disease or injury. [NIH] Facial: Of or pertaining to the face. [EU] Family Planning: Programs or services designed to assist the family in controlling reproduction by either improving or diminishing fertility. [NIH] Fat: Total lipids including phospholipids. [NIH] Fatal Outcome: Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from death, the physiological cessation of life and from mortality, an epidemiological or statistical concept. [NIH] Fatigue: The state of weariness following a period of exertion, mental or physical, characterized by a decreased capacity for work and reduced efficiency to respond to stimuli. [NIH]
Feces: The excrement discharged from the intestines, consisting of bacteria, cells exfoliated from the intestines, secretions, chiefly of the liver, and a small amount of food residue. [EU] Fermentation: An enzyme-induced chemical change in organic compounds that takes place in the absence of oxygen. The change usually results in the production of ethanol or lactic acid, and the production of energy. [NIH] Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A disorder occurring in children born to alcoholic women who continue to drink heavily during pregnancy. Common abnormalities are growth deficiency (prenatal and postnatal), altered morphogenesis, mental deficiency, and characteristic facies - small eyes and flattened nasal bridge. Fine motor dysfunction and tremulousness are observed in the newborn. [NIH] Fetal Death: Death of the young developing in utero. [NIH] Fetus: The developing offspring from 7 to 8 weeks after conception until birth. [NIH] Fibroblasts: Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules. [NIH] Fibrosis: Any pathological condition where fibrous connective tissue invades any organ, usually as a consequence of inflammation or other injury. [NIH] Filariasis: Infections with nematodes of the superfamily Filarioidea. The presence of living worms in the body is mainly asymptomatic but the death of adult worms leads to granulomatous inflammation and permanent fibrosis. Organisms of the genus Elaeophora infect wild elk and domestic sheep causing ischaemic necrosis of the brain, blindness, and dermatosis of the face. [NIH] Fine-needle aspiration: The removal of tissue or fluid with a needle for examination under a microscope. Also called needle biopsy. [NIH] Fistula: Abnormal communication most commonly seen between two internal organs, or
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between an internal organ and the surface of the body. [NIH] Fixation: 1. The act or operation of holding, suturing, or fastening in a fixed position. 2. The condition of being held in a fixed position. 3. In psychiatry, a term with two related but distinct meanings : (1) arrest of development at a particular stage, which like regression (return to an earlier stage), if temporary is a normal reaction to setbacks and difficulties but if protracted or frequent is a cause of developmental failures and emotional problems, and (2) a close and suffocating attachment to another person, especially a childhood figure, such as one's mother or father. Both meanings are derived from psychoanalytic theory and refer to 'fixation' of libidinal energy either in a specific erogenous zone, hence fixation at the oral, anal, or phallic stage, or in a specific object, hence mother or father fixation. 4. The use of a fixative (q.v.) to preserve histological or cytological specimens. 5. In chemistry, the process whereby a substance is removed from the gaseous or solution phase and localized, as in carbon dioxide fixation or nitrogen fixation. 6. In ophthalmology, direction of the gaze so that the visual image of the object falls on the fovea centralis. 7. In film processing, the chemical removal of all undeveloped salts of the film emulsion, leaving only the developed silver to form a permanent image. [EU] Flaccid: Weak, lax and soft. [EU] Flavoring Agents: Substances added to foods and medicine to improve the quality of taste. [NIH]
Fleas: Parasitic, blood-sucking, wingless insects comprising the order Siphonaptera. [NIH] Flow Cytometry: Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake. [NIH] Fluorescence: The property of emitting radiation while being irradiated. The radiation emitted is usually of longer wavelength than that incident or absorbed, e.g., a substance can be irradiated with invisible radiation and emit visible light. X-ray fluorescence is used in diagnosis. [NIH] Fluorescent Dyes: Dyes that emit light when exposed to light. The wave length of the emitted light is usually longer than that of the incident light. Fluorochromes are substances that cause fluorescence in other substances, i.e., dyes used to mark or label other compounds with fluorescent tags. They are used as markers in biochemistry and immunology. [NIH] Foetal: Of or pertaining to a fetus; pertaining to in utero development after the embryonic period. [EU] Folate: A B-complex vitamin that is being studied as a cancer prevention agent. Also called folic acid. [NIH] Folic Acid: N-(4-(((2-Amino-1,4-dihydro-4-oxo-6-pteridinyl)methyl)amino)benzoyl)-Lglutamic acid. A member of the vitamin B family that stimulates the hematopoietic system. It is present in the liver and kidney and is found in mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. [NIH] Food Additives: Substances which are of little or no nutritive value, but are used in the processing or storage of foods or animal feed, especially in the developed countries; includes
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antioxidants, food preservatives, food coloring agents, flavoring agents, anti-infective agents (both plain and local), vehicles, excipients and other similarly used substances. Many of the same substances are pharmaceutic aids when added to pharmaceuticals rather than to foods. [NIH]
Food Coloring Agents: Natural or synthetic dyes used as coloring agents in processed foods. [NIH] Food Preservatives: Substances capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the process of fermentation, acidification or other deterioration of foods. [NIH] Foodborne Illness: An acute gastrointestinal infection caused by food that contains harmful bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and chills. Also called food poisoning. [NIH] Fovea: The central part of the macula that provides the sharpest vision. [NIH] Fungi: A kingdom of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that live as saprobes or parasites, including mushrooms, yeasts, smuts, molds, etc. They reproduce either sexually or asexually, and have life cycles that range from simple to complex. Filamentous fungi refer to those that grow as multicelluar colonies (mushrooms and molds). [NIH] Fungus: A general term used to denote a group of eukaryotic protists, including mushrooms, yeasts, rusts, moulds, smuts, etc., which are characterized by the absence of chlorophyll and by the presence of a rigid cell wall composed of chitin, mannans, and sometimes cellulose. They are usually of simple morphological form or show some reversible cellular specialization, such as the formation of pseudoparenchymatous tissue in the fruiting body of a mushroom. The dimorphic fungi grow, according to environmental conditions, as moulds or yeasts. [EU] Galactosides: Glycosides formed by the reaction of the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon atom of galactose with an alcohol to form an acetal. They include both alpha- and beta-galactosides. [NIH] Gallbladder: The pear-shaped organ that sits below the liver. Bile is concentrated and stored in the gallbladder. [NIH] Ganglia: Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized connective tissue located outside the central nervous system. [NIH] Ganglion: 1. A knot, or knotlike mass. 2. A general term for a group of nerve cell bodies located outside the central nervous system; occasionally applied to certain nuclear groups within the brain or spinal cord, e.g. basal ganglia. 3. A benign cystic tumour occurring on a aponeurosis or tendon, as in the wrist or dorsum of the foot; it consists of a thin fibrous capsule enclosing a clear mucinous fluid. [EU] Gas: Air that comes from normal breakdown of food. The gases are passed out of the body through the rectum (flatus) or the mouth (burp). [NIH] Gas exchange: Primary function of the lungs; transfer of oxygen from inhaled air into the blood and of carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs. [NIH] Gas Gangrene: A severe condition resulting from bacteria invading healthy muscle from adjacent traumatized muscle or soft tissue. The infection originates in a wound contaminated with bacteria of the genus Clostridium. C. perfringens accounts for the majority of cases (over eighty percent), while C. noyvi, C. septicum, and C. histolyticum cause most of the other cases. [NIH] Gastric: Having to do with the stomach. [NIH] Gastroenteritis: An acute inflammation of the lining of the stomach and intestines, characterized by anorexia, nausea, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, and weakness, which has
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various causes, including food poisoning due to infection with such organisms as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella species; consumption of irritating food or drink; or psychological factors such as anger, stress, and fear. Called also enterogastritis. [EU] Gastrointestinal: Refers to the stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein. [NIH]
Gene Expression: The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of gene action. [NIH] Genetic Engineering: Directed modification of the gene complement of a living organism by such techniques as altering the DNA, substituting genetic material by means of a virus, transplanting whole nuclei, transplanting cell hybrids, etc. [NIH] Genetic testing: Analyzing DNA to look for a genetic alteration that may indicate an increased risk for developing a specific disease or disorder. [NIH] Genetics: The biological science that deals with the phenomena and mechanisms of heredity. [NIH] Genital: Pertaining to the genitalia. [EU] Genitourinary: Pertaining to the genital and urinary organs; urogenital; urinosexual. [EU] Genotype: The genetic constitution of the individual; the characterization of the genes. [NIH] Germ Cells: The reproductive cells in multicellular organisms. [NIH] Gestation: The period of development of the young in viviparous animals, from the time of fertilization of the ovum until birth. [EU] Giant Cells: Multinucleated masses produced by the fusion of many cells; often associated with viral infections. In AIDS, they are induced when the envelope glycoprotein of the HIV virus binds to the CD4 antigen of uninfected neighboring T4 cells. The resulting syncytium leads to cell death and thus may account for the cytopathic effect of the virus. [NIH] Giardiasis: An infection of the small intestine caused by the flagellated protozoan Giardia lamblia. It is spread via contaminated food and water and by direct person-to-person contact. [NIH] Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production. [NIH] Glomerular: Pertaining to or of the nature of a glomerulus, especially a renal glomerulus. [EU]
Glucose: D-Glucose. A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. [NIH] Glucose Intolerance: A pathological state in which the fasting plasma glucose level is less than 140 mg per deciliter and the 30-, 60-, or 90-minute plasma glucose concentration following a glucose tolerance test exceeds 200 mg per deciliter. This condition is seen frequently in diabetes mellitus but also occurs with other diseases. [NIH] Glucuronic Acid: Derivatives of uronic acid found throughout the plant and animal kingdoms. They detoxify drugs and toxins by conjugating with them to form glucuronides in the liver which are more water-soluble metabolites that can be easily eliminated from the body. [NIH]
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Glutamic Acid: A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid (glutamate) is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. [NIH]
Glycoprotein: A protein that has sugar molecules attached to it. [NIH] Goats: Any of numerous agile, hollow-horned ruminants of the genus Capra, closely related to the sheep. [NIH] Gonadal: Pertaining to a gonad. [EU] Gout: Hereditary metabolic disorder characterized by recurrent acute arthritis, hyperuricemia and deposition of sodium urate in and around the joints, sometimes with formation of uric acid calculi. [NIH] Governing Board: The group in which legal authority is vested for the control of healthrelated institutions and organizations. [NIH] Graft: Healthy skin, bone, or other tissue taken from one part of the body and used to replace diseased or injured tissue removed from another part of the body. [NIH] Grafting: The operation of transfer of tissue from one site to another. [NIH] Gram-negative: Losing the stain or decolorized by alcohol in Gram's method of staining, a primary characteristic of bacteria having a cell wall composed of a thin layer of peptidoglycan covered by an outer membrane of lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharide. [EU] Gram-positive: Retaining the stain or resisting decolorization by alcohol in Gram's method of staining, a primary characteristic of bacteria whose cell wall is composed of a thick layer of peptidologlycan with attached teichoic acids. [EU] Gram-Positive Bacteria: Bacteria which retain the crystal violet stain when treated by Gram's method. [NIH] Granule: A small pill made from sucrose. [EU] Granulocytes: Leukocytes with abundant granules in the cytoplasm. They are divided into three groups: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. [NIH] Granuloma: A relatively small nodular inflammatory lesion containing grouped mononuclear phagocytes, caused by infectious and noninfectious agents. [NIH] Granuloma Inguinale: Anogenital ulcers caused by Calymmatobacterium granulomatis as distinguished from lymphogranuloma inguinale (see lymphogranuloma venereum) caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. Diagnosis is made by demonstration of typical intracellular Donovan bodies in crushed-tissue smears. [NIH] Grasses: A large family, Gramineae, of narrow-leaved herbaceous monocots. Many grasses produce highly allergenic pollens and are hosts to cattle parasites and toxic fungi. [NIH] Growth: The progressive development of a living being or part of an organism from its earliest stage to maturity. [NIH] Guanylate Cyclase: An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of GTP to 3',5'-cyclic GMP and pyrophosphate. It also acts on ITP and dGTP. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 4.6.1.2. [NIH] Habitual: Of the nature of a habit; according to habit; established by or repeated by force of habit, customary. [EU] Haploid: An organism with one basic chromosome set, symbolized by n; the normal condition of gametes in diploids. [NIH] Headache: Pain in the cranial region that may occur as an isolated and benign symptom or as a manifestation of a wide variety of conditions including subarachnoid hemorrhage;
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craniocerebral trauma; central nervous system infections; intracranial hypertension; and other disorders. In general, recurrent headaches that are not associated with a primary disease process are referred to as headache disorders (e.g., migraine). [NIH] Headache Disorders: Common conditions characterized by persistent or recurrent headaches. Headache syndrome classification systems may be based on etiology (e.g., vascular headache, post-traumatic headaches, etc.), temporal pattern (e.g., cluster headache, paroxysmal hemicrania, etc.), and precipitating factors (e.g., cough headache). [NIH] Health Education: Education that increases the awareness and favorably influences the attitudes and knowledge relating to the improvement of health on a personal or community basis. [NIH] Hearing Disorders: Conditions that impair the transmission or perception of auditory impulses and information from the level of the ear to the temporal cortices, including the sensorineural pathways. [NIH] Heart failure: Loss of pumping ability by the heart, often accompanied by fatigue, breathlessness, and excess fluid accumulation in body tissues. [NIH] Helminthiasis: Infestation with parasitic worms of the helminth class. [NIH] Helminths: Commonly known as parasitic worms, this group includes the acanthocephala, nematoda, and platyhelminths. Some authors consider certain species of leeches that can become temporarily parasitic as helminths. [NIH] Hematologic malignancies: Cancers of the blood or bone marrow, including leukemia and lymphoma. Also called hematologic cancers. [NIH] Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation: The transference of stem cells from one animal or human to another (allogeneic), or within the same individual (autologous). The source for the stem cells may be the bone marrow or peripheral blood. Stem cell transplantation has been used as an alternative to autologous bone marrow transplantation in the treatment of a variety of neoplasms. [NIH] Hematuria: Presence of blood in the urine. [NIH] Hemoglobin: One of the fractions of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c. Glycosylated hemoglobin is formed when linkages of glucose and related monosaccharides bind to hemoglobin A and its concentration represents the average blood glucose level over the previous several weeks. HbA1c levels are used as a measure of long-term control of plasma glucose (normal, 4 to 6 percent). In controlled diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin A is within the normal range, but in uncontrolled cases the level may be 3 to 4 times the normal conentration. Generally, complications are substantially lower among patients with Hb levels of 7 percent or less than in patients with HbA1c levels of 9 percent or more. [NIH] Hemolysis: The destruction of erythrocytes by many different causal agents such as antibodies, bacteria, chemicals, temperature, and changes in tonicity. [NIH] Hemorrhage: Bleeding or escape of blood from a vessel. [NIH] Heparin: Heparinic acid. A highly acidic mucopolysaccharide formed of equal parts of sulfated D-glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid with sulfaminic bridges. The molecular weight ranges from six to twenty thousand. Heparin occurs in and is obtained from liver, lung, mast cells, etc., of vertebrates. Its function is unknown, but it is used to prevent blood clotting in vivo and vitro, in the form of many different salts. [NIH] Hepatic: Refers to the liver. [NIH] Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver and liver disease involving degenerative or necrotic alterations of hepatocytes. [NIH]
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Hepatitis A: Hepatitis caused by hepatovirus. It can be transmitted through fecal contamination of food or water. [NIH] Hepatocyte: A liver cell. [NIH] Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver. [NIH] Hepatotoxicity: How much damage a medicine or other substance does to the liver. [NIH] Hepatovirus: A genus of Picornaviridae causing infectious hepatitis naturally in humans and experimentally in other primates. It is transmitted through fecal contamination of food or water. [NIH] Hereditary: Of, relating to, or denoting factors that can be transmitted genetically from one generation to another. [NIH] Heredity: 1. The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring. 2. The genetic constitution of an individual. [EU] Herpes: Any inflammatory skin disease caused by a herpesvirus and characterized by the formation of clusters of small vesicles. When used alone, the term may refer to herpes simplex or to herpes zoster. [EU] Herpes Simplex Encephalitis: An inflammatory disease of the skin or mucous membrane characterized by the formation of clusters of small vesicles. [NIH] Herpes Zoster: Acute vesicular inflammation. [NIH] Herpes Zoster Oticus: A virus infection of the Gasserian ganglion and its nerve branches, characterized by discrete areas of vesiculation of the epithelium of the forehead, the nose, the eyelids, and the cornea together with subepithelial infiltration. [NIH] Histology: The study of tissues and cells under a microscope. [NIH] Histone Deacetylase: Hydrolyzes N-acetyl groups on histones. [NIH] HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus. Species of lentivirus, subgenus primate lentiviruses, formerly designated T-cell lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV). It is acknowledged to be the agent responsible for the acute infectious manifestations, neurologic disorders, and immunologic abnormalities linked to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. [NIH] Homeostasis: The processes whereby the internal environment of an organism tends to remain balanced and stable. [NIH] Homologous: Corresponding in structure, position, origin, etc., as (a) the feathers of a bird and the scales of a fish, (b) antigen and its specific antibody, (c) allelic chromosomes. [EU] Hormone: A substance in the body that regulates certain organs. Hormones such as gastrin help in breaking down food. Some hormones come from cells in the stomach and small intestine. [NIH] Horseradish Peroxidase: An enzyme isolated from horseradish which is able to act as an antigen. It is frequently used as a histochemical tracer for light and electron microscopy. Its antigenicity has permitted its use as a combined antigen and marker in experimental immunology. [NIH] Host: Any animal that receives a transplanted graft. [NIH] Host-Parasite Relations: The interactions between two organisms, one of which lives at the expense of the other. [NIH] Hybrid: Cross fertilization between two varieties or, more usually, two species of vines, see also crossing. [NIH] Hybridization: The genetic process of crossbreeding to produce a hybrid. Hybrid nucleic
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acids can be formed by nucleic acid hybridization of DNA and RNA molecules. Protein hybridization allows for hybrid proteins to be formed from polypeptide chains. [NIH] Hybridoma: A hybrid cell resulting from the fusion of a specific antibody-producing spleen cell with a myeloma cell. [NIH] Hydrocephalus: Excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid within the cranium which may be associated with dilation of cerebral ventricles, intracranial hypertension; headache; lethargy; urinary incontinence; and ataxia (and in infants macrocephaly). This condition may be caused by obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid pathways due to neurologic abnormalities, intracranial hemorrhages; central nervous system infections; brain neoplasms; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. Impaired resorption of cerebrospinal fluid from the arachnoid villi results in a communicating form of hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus ex-vacuo refers to ventricular dilation that occurs as a result of brain substance loss from cerebral infarction and other conditions. [NIH] Hydrogen: The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight 1. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are protons. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope tritium. [NIH] Hydrolysis: The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water. [NIH] Hyperbilirubinemia: Pathologic process consisting of an abnormal increase in the amount of bilirubin in the circulating blood, which may result in jaundice. [NIH] Hypertension: Persistently high arterial blood pressure. Currently accepted threshold levels are 140 mm Hg systolic and 90 mm Hg diastolic pressure. [NIH] Hypnotic: A drug that acts to induce sleep. [EU] Hypothalamus: Ventral part of the diencephalon extending from the region of the optic chiasm to the caudal border of the mammillary bodies and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the third ventricle. [NIH] Hypothyroidism: Deficiency of thyroid activity. In adults, it is most common in women and is characterized by decrease in basal metabolic rate, tiredness and lethargy, sensitivity to cold, and menstrual disturbances. If untreated, it progresses to full-blown myxoedema. In infants, severe hypothyroidism leads to cretinism. In juveniles, the manifestations are intermediate, with less severe mental and developmental retardation and only mild symptoms of the adult form. When due to pituitary deficiency of thyrotropin secretion it is called secondary hypothyroidism. [EU] Hypoxanthine: A purine and a reaction intermediate in the metabolism of adenosine and in the formation of nucleic acids by the salvage pathway. [NIH] Hypoxia: Reduction of oxygen supply to tissue below physiological levels despite adequate perfusion of the tissue by blood. [EU] Id: The part of the personality structure which harbors the unconscious instinctive desires and strivings of the individual. [NIH] Idiopathic: Describes a disease of unknown cause. [NIH] Imidazole: C3H4N2. The ring is present in polybenzimidazoles. [NIH] Immune response: The activity of the immune system against foreign substances (antigens). [NIH]
Immune Sera: Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by antigen injection or infection with microorganisms containing the
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antigen. [NIH] Immune system: The organs, cells, and molecules responsible for the recognition and disposal of foreign ("non-self") material which enters the body. [NIH] Immunity: Nonsusceptibility to the invasive or pathogenic microorganisms or to the toxic effect of antigenic substances. [NIH]
effects
of
foreign
Immunization: Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. Active immunization involves administration of antigens or immunologic adjuvants. Passive immunization involves administration of immune sera or lymphocytes or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow). [NIH] Immunoassay: Immunochemical assay or detection of a substance by serologic or immunologic methods. Usually the substance being studied serves as antigen both in antibody production and in measurement of antibody by the test substance. [NIH] Immunoblotting: Immunologic methods for isolating and quantitatively measuring immunoreactive substances. When used with immune reagents such as monoclonal antibodies, the process is known generically as western blot analysis (blotting, western). [NIH]
Immunocompromised: Having a weakened immune system caused by certain diseases or treatments. [NIH] Immunocompromised Host: A human or animal whose immunologic mechanism is deficient because of an immunodeficiency disorder or other disease or as the result of the administration of immunosuppressive drugs or radiation. [NIH] Immunodeficiency: The decreased ability of the body to fight infection and disease. [NIH] Immunodeficiency syndrome: The inability of the body to produce an immune response. [NIH]
Immunodiffusion: Technique involving the diffusion of antigen or antibody through a semisolid medium, usually agar or agarose gel, with the result being a precipitin reaction. [NIH]
Immunoelectrophoresis: A technique that combines protein electrophoresis and double immunodiffusion. In this procedure proteins are first separated by gel electrophoresis (usually agarose), then made visible by immunodiffusion of specific antibodies. A distinct elliptical precipitin arc results for each protein detectable by the antisera. [NIH] Immunofluorescence: A technique for identifying molecules present on the surfaces of cells or in tissues using a highly fluorescent substance coupled to a specific antibody. [NIH] Immunogenic: Producing immunity; evoking an immune response. [EU] Immunoglobulin: A protein that acts as an antibody. [NIH] Immunohistochemistry: Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents. [NIH] Immunologic: The ability of the antibody-forming system to recall a previous experience with an antigen and to respond to a second exposure with the prompt production of large amounts of antibody. [NIH] Immunology: The study of the body's immune system. [NIH] Immunosuppressant: An agent capable of suppressing immune responses. [EU] Immunosuppressive: Describes the ability to lower immune system responses. [NIH] Immunotherapy: Manipulation of the host's immune system in treatment of disease. It includes both active and passive immunization as well as immunosuppressive therapy to
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prevent graft rejection. [NIH] Impairment: In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. [NIH] Implantation: The insertion or grafting into the body of biological, living, inert, or radioactive material. [EU] In vitro: In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). [NIH] In vivo: In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). [NIH] Incision: A cut made in the body during surgery. [NIH] Incontinence: Inability to control the flow of urine from the bladder (urinary incontinence) or the escape of stool from the rectum (fecal incontinence). [NIH] Incubation: The development of an infectious disease from the entrance of the pathogen to the appearance of clinical symptoms. [EU] Incubation period: The period of time likely to elapse between exposure to the agent of the disease and the onset of clinical symptoms. [NIH] Incubators: Insulated enclosures in which temperature, humidity, and other environmental conditions can be regulated at levels optimal for growth, hatching, reproduction, or metabolic reactions. [NIH] Indicative: That indicates; that points out more or less exactly; that reveals fairly clearly. [EU] Induction: The act or process of inducing or causing to occur, especially the production of a specific morphogenetic effect in the developing embryo through the influence of evocators or organizers, or the production of anaesthesia or unconsciousness by use of appropriate agents. [EU] Infarction: A pathological process consisting of a sudden insufficient blood supply to an area, which results in necrosis of that area. It is usually caused by a thrombus, an embolus, or a vascular torsion. [NIH] Infection: 1. Invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues, which may be clinically unapparent or result in local cellular injury due to competitive metabolism, toxins, intracellular replication, or antigen-antibody response. The infection may remain localized, subclinical, and temporary if the body's defensive mechanisms are effective. A local infection may persist and spread by extension to become an acute, subacute, or chronic clinical infection or disease state. A local infection may also become systemic when the microorganisms gain access to the lymphatic or vascular system. 2. An infectious disease. [EU]
Infection Control: Programs of disease surveillance, generally within health care facilities, designed to investigate, prevent, and control the spread of infections and their causative microorganisms. [NIH] Infectious Mononucleosis: A common, acute infection usually caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (Human herpesvirus 4). There is an increase in mononuclear white blood cells and other atypical lymphocytes, generalized lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, and occasionally hepatomegaly with hepatitis. [NIH] Infestation: Parasitic attack or subsistence on the skin and/or its appendages, as by insects, mites, or ticks; sometimes used to denote parasitic invasion of the organs and tissues, as by helminths. [NIH] Infiltration: The diffusion or accumulation in a tissue or cells of substances not normal to it or in amounts of the normal. Also, the material so accumulated. [EU] Inflammation: A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues
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caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. [NIH] Influenza: An acute viral infection involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the nasal mucosa, the pharynx, and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia. [NIH] Ingestion: Taking into the body by mouth [NIH] Inhalation: The drawing of air or other substances into the lungs. [EU] Initiation: Mutation induced by a chemical reactive substance causing cell changes; being a step in a carcinogenic process. [NIH] Inlay: In dentistry, a filling first made to correspond with the form of a dental cavity and then cemented into the cavity. [NIH] Inner ear: The labyrinth, comprising the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals. [NIH] Insecticides: Pesticides designed to control insects that are harmful to man. The insects may be directly harmful, as those acting as disease vectors, or indirectly harmful, as destroyers of crops, food products, or textile fabrics. [NIH] Insertional: A technique in which foreign DNA is cloned into a restriction site which occupies a position within the coding sequence of a gene in the cloning vector molecule. Insertion interrupts the gene's sequence such that its original function is no longer expressed. [NIH] Insight: The capacity to understand one's own motives, to be aware of one's own psychodynamics, to appreciate the meaning of symbolic behavior. [NIH] Insulin: A protein hormone secreted by beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, generally promoting the cellular utilization of glucose. It is also an important regulator of protein and lipid metabolism. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. [NIH] Integumentary: Pertaining to or composed of skin. [EU] Intensive Care: Advanced and highly specialized care provided to medical or surgical patients whose conditions are life-threatening and require comprehensive care and constant monitoring. It is usually administered in specially equipped units of a health care facility. [NIH]
Intensive Care Units: Hospital units providing continuous surveillance and care to acutely ill patients. [NIH] Interferon: A biological response modifier (a substance that can improve the body's natural response to disease). Interferons interfere with the division of cancer cells and can slow tumor growth. There are several types of interferons, including interferon-alpha, -beta, and gamma. These substances are normally produced by the body. They are also made in the laboratory for use in treating cancer and other diseases. [NIH] Interferon-alpha: One of the type I interferons produced by peripheral blood leukocytes or lymphoblastoid cells when exposed to live or inactivated virus, double-stranded RNA, or bacterial products. It is the major interferon produced by virus-induced leukocyte cultures and, in addition to its pronounced antiviral activity, it causes activation of NK cells. [NIH] Interstitial: Pertaining to or situated between parts or in the interspaces of a tissue. [EU] Intestinal: Having to do with the intestines. [NIH] Intestines: The section of the alimentary canal from the stomach to the anus. It includes the large intestine and small intestine. [NIH] Intoxication: Poisoning, the state of being poisoned. [EU]
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Intracellular: Inside a cell. [NIH] Intracellular Membranes: Membranes of subcellular structures. [NIH] Intracranial Hemorrhages: Bleeding within the intracranial cavity, including hemorrhages in the brain and within the cranial epidural, subdural, and subarachnoid spaces. [NIH] Intracranial Hypertension: Increased pressure within the cranial vault. This may result from several conditions, including hydrocephalus; brain edema; intracranial masses; severe systemic hypertension; pseudotumor cerebri; and other disorders. [NIH] Intrahepatic: Within the liver. [NIH] Intramuscular: IM. Within or into muscle. [NIH] Intraocular: Within the eye. [EU] Intraperitoneal: IP. Within the peritoneal cavity (the area that contains the abdominal organs). [NIH] Intravenous: IV. Into a vein. [NIH] Invasive: 1. Having the quality of invasiveness. 2. Involving puncture or incision of the skin or insertion of an instrument or foreign material into the body; said of diagnostic techniques. [EU]
Invertebrates: Animals that have no spinal column. [NIH] Iodine: A nonmetallic element of the halogen group that is represented by the atomic symbol I, atomic number 53, and atomic weight of 126.90. It is a nutritionally essential element, especially important in thyroid hormone synthesis. In solution, it has anti-infective properties and is used topically. [NIH] Ion Channels: Gated, ion-selective glycoproteins that traverse membranes. The stimulus for channel gating can be a membrane potential, drug, transmitter, cytoplasmic messenger, or a mechanical deformation. Ion channels which are integral parts of ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors are not included. [NIH] Ions: An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a positive charge are known as cations; those with a negative charge are anions. [NIH] Iridocyclitis: Acute or chronic inflammation of the iris and ciliary body characterized by exudates into the anterior chamber, discoloration of the iris, and constricted, sluggish pupil. Symptoms include radiating pain, photophobia, lacrimation, and interference with vision. [NIH]
Iris: The most anterior portion of the uveal layer, separating the anterior chamber from the posterior. It consists of two layers - the stroma and the pigmented epithelium. Color of the iris depends on the amount of melanin in the stroma on reflection from the pigmented epithelium. [NIH] Ischemia: Deficiency of blood in a part, due to functional constriction or actual obstruction of a blood vessel. [EU] Ixodes: A large, widely distributed genus of ticks consisting of approximately 245 species. Many infest man and other mammals and several are vectors of diseases such as Lyme disease, tick-borne encephalitis (encephalitis, tick-borne), and Kyasanur forest disease. [NIH] Jaundice: A clinical manifestation of hyperbilirubinemia, consisting of deposition of bile pigments in the skin, resulting in a yellowish staining of the skin and mucous membranes. [NIH]
Joint: The point of contact between elements of an animal skeleton with the parts that surround and support it. [NIH]
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Karyotype: The characteristic chromosome complement of an individual, race, or species as defined by their number, size, shape, etc. [NIH] Kb: A measure of the length of DNA fragments, 1 Kb = 1000 base pairs. The largest DNA fragments are up to 50 kilobases long. [NIH] Kidney Disease: Any one of several chronic conditions that are caused by damage to the cells of the kidney. People who have had diabetes for a long time may have kidney damage. Also called nephropathy. [NIH] Kinetic: Pertaining to or producing motion. [EU] Labile: 1. Gliding; moving from point to point over the surface; unstable; fluctuating. 2. Chemically unstable. [EU] Labyrinth: The internal ear; the essential part of the organ of hearing. It consists of an osseous and a membranous portion. [NIH] Labyrinthitis: Inflammation of the inner ear. [NIH] Lactation: The period of the secretion of milk. [EU] Language Development: The gradual expansion in complexity and meaning of symbols and sounds as perceived and interpreted by the individual through a maturational and learning process. Stages in development include babbling, cooing, word imitation with cognition, and use of short sentences. [NIH] Language Disorders: Conditions characterized by deficiencies of comprehension or expression of written and spoken forms of language. These include acquired and developmental disorders. [NIH] Large Intestine: The part of the intestine that goes from the cecum to the rectum. The large intestine absorbs water from stool and changes it from a liquid to a solid form. The large intestine is 5 feet long and includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum. Also called colon. [NIH] Larva: Wormlike or grublike stage, following the egg in the life cycle of insects, worms, and other metamorphosing animals. [NIH] Larva Migrans: Infections caused by nematode larvae which never develop into the adult stage and migrate through various body tissues. They commonly infect the skin, eyes, and viscera in man. Ancylostoma brasiliensis causes cutaneous larva migrans. Toxocara causes visceral larva migrans. [NIH] Latency: The period of apparent inactivity between the time when a stimulus is presented and the moment a response occurs. [NIH] Latent: Phoria which occurs at one distance or another and which usually has no troublesome effect. [NIH] Laxative: An agent that acts to promote evacuation of the bowel; a cathartic or purgative. [EU]
Leishmania: A genus of flagellate protozoa comprising several species that are pathogenic for humans. Organisms of this genus have an amastigote and a promastigote stage in their life cycles. As a result of enzymatic studies this single genus has been divided into two subgenera: Leishmania leishmania and Leishmania viannia. Species within the Leishmania leishmania subgenus include: L. aethiopica, L. arabica, L. donovani, L. enrietti, L. gerbilli, L. hertigi, L. infantum, L. major, L. mexicana, and L. tropica. The following species are those that compose the Leishmania viannia subgenus: L. braziliensis, L. guyanensis, L. lainsoni, L. naiffi, and L. shawi. [NIH] Leishmaniasis: A disease caused by any of a number of species of protozoa in the genus
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Leishmania. There are four major clinical types of this infection: cutaneous (Old and New World), diffuse cutaneous, mucocutaneous, and visceral leishmaniasis. [NIH] Lens: The transparent, double convex (outward curve on both sides) structure suspended between the aqueous and vitreous; helps to focus light on the retina. [NIH] Lentivirus: A genus of the family Retroviridae consisting of non-oncogenic retroviruses that produce multi-organ diseases characterized by long incubation periods and persistent infection. Lentiviruses are unique in that they contain open reading frames (ORFs) between the pol and env genes and in the 3' env region. Five serogroups are recognized, reflecting the mammalian hosts with which they are associated. HIV-1 is the type species. [NIH] Leprosy: A chronic granulomatous infection caused by Mycobacterium leprae. The granulomatous lesions are manifested in the skin, the mucous membranes, and the peripheral nerves. Two polar or principal types are lepromatous and tuberculoid. [NIH] Lesion: An area of abnormal tissue change. [NIH] Lethal: Deadly, fatal. [EU] Lethargy: Abnormal drowsiness or stupor; a condition of indifference. [EU] Leucovorin: The active metabolite of folic acid. Leucovorin is used principally as its calcium salt as an antidote to folic acid antagonists which block the conversion of folic acid to folinic acid. [NIH] Leukemia: Cancer of blood-forming tissue. [NIH] Leukocytes: White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils) as well as non-granular leukocytes (lymphocytes and monocytes). [NIH] Leukoencephalopathy: A condition with spongy holes in the brain's white matter. [NIH] Leukopenia: A condition in which the number of leukocytes (white blood cells) in the blood is reduced. [NIH] Leukoplakia: A white patch that may develop on mucous membranes such as the cheek, gums, or tongue and may become cancerous. [NIH] Library Services: Services offered to the library user. They include reference and circulation. [NIH]
Lice: A general name for small, wingless, parasitic insects, previously of the order Phthiraptera. Though exact taxonomy is still controversial, they can be grouped in the orders Anoplura (sucking lice), Mallophaga (biting lice), and Rhynchophthirina (elephant lice). [NIH] Life cycle: The successive stages through which an organism passes from fertilized ovum or spore to the fertilized ovum or spore of the next generation. [NIH] Ligament: A band of fibrous tissue that connects bones or cartilages, serving to support and strengthen joints. [EU] Ligands: A RNA simulation method developed by the MIT. [NIH] Lincomycin: (2S-trans)-Methyl 6,8-dideoxy-6-(((1-methyl-4-propyl-2pyrrolidinyl)carbonyl)amino)-1-thio-D-erythro-alpha-D-galacto-octopyranoside. An antibiotic produced by Streptomyces lincolnensis var. lincolnensis. It has been used in the treatment of staphylococcal, streptococcal, and Bacteroides fragilis infections. [NIH] Linkage: The tendency of two or more genes in the same chromosome to remain together from one generation to the next more frequently than expected according to the law of independent assortment. [NIH] Lipid: Fat. [NIH]
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Lipophilic: Having an affinity for fat; pertaining to or characterized by lipophilia. [EU] Listeria monocytogenes: A species of gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria widely distributed in nature. It has been isolated from sewage, soil, silage, and from feces of healthy animals and man. Infection with this bacterium leads to encephalitis, meningitis, endocarditis, and abortion. [NIH] Litter: Appliance consisting of an oblong frame over which is stretched a canvas or other material, used for carrying an injured or disabled person. [NIH] Liver: A large, glandular organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile. [NIH] Liver Transplantation: The transference of a part of or an entire liver from one human or animal to another. [NIH] Localization: The process of determining or marking the location or site of a lesion or disease. May also refer to the process of keeping a lesion or disease in a specific location or site. [NIH] Localized: Cancer which has not metastasized yet. [NIH] Locomotion: Movement or the ability to move from one place or another. It can refer to humans, vertebrate or invertebrate animals, and microorganisms. [NIH] Loop: A wire usually of platinum bent at one end into a small loop (usually 4 mm inside diameter) and used in transferring microorganisms. [NIH] Lubricants: Oily or slippery substances. [NIH] Lumen: The cavity or channel within a tube or tubular organ. [EU] Lupus: A form of cutaneous tuberculosis. It is seen predominantly in women and typically involves the nasal, buccal, and conjunctival mucosa. [NIH] Lutein Cells: The cells of the corpus luteum which are derived from the granulosa cells and the theca cells of the Graafian follicle. [NIH] Lymph: The almost colorless fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymph node: A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Also known as a lymph gland. Lymph nodes are spread out along lymphatic vessels and contain many lymphocytes, which filter the lymphatic fluid (lymph). [NIH]
Lymphadenopathy: Disease or swelling of the lymph nodes. [NIH] Lymphatic: The tissues and organs, including the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes, that produce and store cells that fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymphatic system: The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infection and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes and a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells. These tubes branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body. [NIH] Lymphocyte: A white blood cell. Lymphocytes have a number of roles in the immune system, including the production of antibodies and other substances that fight infection and diseases. [NIH] Lymphocyte Count: A count of the number of lymphocytes in the blood. [NIH] Lymphogranuloma Venereum: Subacute inflammation of the inguinal lymph glands caused by certain immunotypes of Chlamydia trachomatis. It is a sexually transmitted disease in the U.S. but is more widespread in developing countries. It is distinguished from granuloma
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venereum (granuloma inguinale), which is caused by Calymmatobacterium granulomatis. [NIH]
Lymphoid: Referring to lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. Also refers to tissue in which lymphocytes develop. [NIH] Lymphoma: A general term for various neoplastic diseases of the lymphoid tissue. [NIH] Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis: An angiocentric and angiodestructive lymphoreticular proliferative disorder primarily involving the lungs. Histologically it simulates malignant lymphoma and in some cases may progress to lymphoma. [NIH] Lytic: 1. Pertaining to lysis or to a lysin. 2. Producing lysis. [EU] Macrophage: A type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells. [NIH] Maintenance therapy: Treatment that is given to help a primary (original) treatment keep working. Maintenance therapy is often given to help keep cancer in remission. [NIH] Malaria: A protozoan disease caused in humans by four species of the genus Plasmodium (P. falciparum (malaria, falciparum), P. vivax (malaria, vivax), P. ovale, and P. malariae) and transmitted by the bite of an infected female mosquito of the genus Anopheles. Malaria is endemic in parts of Asia, Africa, Central and South America, Oceania, and certain Caribbean islands. It is characterized by extreme exhaustion associated with paroxysms of high fever, sweating, shaking chills, and anemia. Malaria in animals is caused by other species of plasmodia. [NIH] Malaria, Falciparum: Malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum. This is the severest form of malaria and is associated with the highest levels of parasites in the blood. This disease is characterized by irregularly recurring febrile paroxysms that in extreme cases occur with acute cerebral, renal, or gastrointestinal manifestations. [NIH] Malaria, Vivax: Malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax. This form of malaria is less severe than malaria, falciparum, but there is a higher probability for relapses to occur. Febrile paroxysms often occur every other day. [NIH] Malignancy: A cancerous tumor that can invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body. [NIH] Malignant: Cancerous; a growth with a tendency to invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body. [NIH] Manifest: Being the part or aspect of a phenomenon that is directly observable : concretely expressed in behaviour. [EU] Mannans: Polysaccharides consisting of mannose units. [NIH] Meat: The edible portions of any animal used for food including domestic mammals (the major ones being cattle, swine, and sheep) along with poultry, fish, shellfish, and game. [NIH]
Meatus: A canal running from the internal auditory foramen through the petrous portion of the temporal bone. It gives passage to the facial and auditory nerves together with the auditory branch of the basilar artery and the internal auditory veins. [NIH] Mediate: Indirect; accomplished by the aid of an intervening medium. [EU] Mediator: An object or substance by which something is mediated, such as (1) a structure of the nervous system that transmits impulses eliciting a specific response; (2) a chemical substance (transmitter substance) that induces activity in an excitable tissue, such as nerve or muscle; or (3) a substance released from cells as the result of the interaction of antigen with antibody or by the action of antigen with a sensitized lymphocyte. [EU]
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Medical Records: Recording of pertinent information concerning patient's illness or illnesses. [NIH] Medicament: A medicinal substance or agent. [EU] MEDLINE: An online database of MEDLARS, the computerized bibliographic Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System of the National Library of Medicine. [NIH] Megaloblastic: A large abnormal red blood cell appearing in the blood in pernicious anaemia. [EU] Membrane: A very thin layer of tissue that covers a surface. [NIH] Membrane Fusion: The adherence of cell membranes, intracellular membranes, or artifical membrane models of either to each other or to viruses, parasites, or interstitial particles through a variety of chemical and physical processes. [NIH] Memory: Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory. [NIH] Meninges: The three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. [NIH] Meningitis: Inflammation of the meninges. When it affects the dura mater, the disease is termed pachymeningitis; when the arachnoid and pia mater are involved, it is called leptomeningitis, or meningitis proper. [EU] Mental deficiency: A condition of arrested or incomplete development of mind from inherent causes or induced by disease or injury. [NIH] Mental Disorders: Psychiatric illness or diseases manifested by breakdowns in the adaptational process expressed primarily as abnormalities of thought, feeling, and behavior producing either distress or impairment of function. [NIH] Mental Health: The state wherein the person is well adjusted. [NIH] Mental Retardation: Refers to sub-average general intellectual functioning which originated during the developmental period and is associated with impairment in adaptive behavior. [NIH]
Mercury: A silver metallic element that exists as a liquid at room temperature. It has the atomic symbol Hg (from hydrargyrum, liquid silver), atomic number 80, and atomic weight 200.59. Mercury is used in many industrial applications and its salts have been employed therapeutically as purgatives, antisyphilitics, disinfectants, and astringents. It can be absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes which leads to mercury poisoning. Because of its toxicity, the clinical use of mercury and mercurials is diminishing. [NIH] Mesoderm: The middle germ layer of the embryo. [NIH] Metabolic disorder: A condition in which normal metabolic processes are disrupted, usually because of a missing enzyme. [NIH] Metabolite: Any substance produced by metabolism or by a metabolic process. [EU] MI: Myocardial infarction. Gross necrosis of the myocardium as a result of interruption of the blood supply to the area; it is almost always caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, upon which coronary thrombosis is usually superimposed. [NIH] Mice Minute Virus: The type species of parvovirus prevalent in mouse colonies and found as a contaminant of many transplanted tumors or leukemias. [NIH] Microbe: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Microbiology: The study of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, archaea, and
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viruses. [NIH] Microorganism: An organism that can be seen only through a microscope. Microorganisms include bacteria, protozoa, algae, and fungi. Although viruses are not considered living organisms, they are sometimes classified as microorganisms. [NIH] Microscopy: The application of microscope magnification to the study of materials that cannot be properly seen by the unaided eye. [NIH] Microscopy, Fluorescence: Microscopy of specimens stained with fluorescent dye (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) or of naturally fluorescent materials, which emit light when exposed to ultraviolet or blue light. Immunofluorescence microscopy utilizes antibodies that are labeled with fluorescent dye. [NIH] Milligram: A measure of weight. A milligram is approximately 450,000-times smaller than a pound and 28,000-times smaller than an ounce. [NIH] Minocycline: A semisynthetic staphylococcus infections. [NIH]
antibiotic
effective
against
tetracycline-resistant
Mitochondria: Parts of a cell where aerobic production (also known as cell respiration) takes place. [NIH] Mitochondrial Swelling: Increase in volume of mitochondria due to an influx of fluid; it occurs in hypotonic solutions due to osmotic pressure and in isotonic solutions as a result of altered permeability of the membranes of respiring mitochondria. [NIH] Mitosis: A method of indirect cell division by means of which the two daughter nuclei normally receive identical complements of the number of chromosomes of the somatic cells of the species. [NIH] Mobilization: The process of making a fixed part or stored substance mobile, as by separating a part from surrounding structures to make it accessible for an operative procedure or by causing release into the circulation for body use of a substance stored in the body. [EU] Modeling: A treatment procedure whereby the therapist presents the target behavior which the learner is to imitate and make part of his repertoire. [NIH] Modification: A change in an organism, or in a process in an organism, that is acquired from its own activity or environment. [NIH] Molecular: Of, pertaining to, or composed of molecules : a very small mass of matter. [EU] Molecule: A chemical made up of two or more atoms. The atoms in a molecule can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or different (a water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be made up of many thousands of atoms. [NIH] Monitor: An apparatus which automatically records such physiological signs as respiration, pulse, and blood pressure in an anesthetized patient or one undergoing surgical or other procedures. [NIH] Monoclonal: An antibody produced by culturing a single type of cell. It therefore consists of a single species of immunoglobulin molecules. [NIH] Monoclonal antibodies: Laboratory-produced substances that can locate and bind to cancer cells wherever they are in the body. Many monoclonal antibodies are used in cancer detection or therapy; each one recognizes a different protein on certain cancer cells. Monoclonal antibodies can be used alone, or they can be used to deliver drugs, toxins, or radioactive material directly to a tumor. [NIH] Monocytes: Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate bone
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marrow and released into the blood; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles. [NIH] Mononuclear: A cell with one nucleus. [NIH] Morphine: The principal alkaloid in opium and the prototype opiate analgesic and narcotic. Morphine has widespread effects in the central nervous system and on smooth muscle. [NIH] Morphogenesis: The development of the form of an organ, part of the body, or organism. [NIH]
Morphological: Relating to the configuration or the structure of live organs. [NIH] Morphology: The science of the form and structure of organisms (plants, animals, and other forms of life). [NIH] Motility: The ability to move spontaneously. [EU] Motion Sickness: Sickness caused by motion, as sea sickness, train sickness, car sickness, and air sickness. [NIH] Motor Activity: The physical activity of an organism as a behavioral phenomenon. [NIH] Mucociliary: Pertaining to or affecting the mucus membrane and hairs (including eyelashes, nose hair, .): mucociliary clearing: the clearance of mucus by ciliary movement ( particularly in the respiratory system). [EU] Mucocutaneous: Pertaining to or affecting the mucous membrane and the skin. [EU] Mucolytic: Destroying or dissolving mucin; an agent that so acts : a mucopolysaccharide or glycoprotein, the chief constituent of mucus. [EU] Mucosa: A mucous membrane, or tunica mucosa. [EU] Multivalent: Pertaining to a group of 5 or more homologous or partly homologous chromosomes during the zygotene stage of prophase to first metaphasis in meiosis. [NIH] Muscular Dystrophies: A general term for a group of inherited disorders which are characterized by progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles. [NIH] Mutagenesis: Process of generating genetic mutations. It may occur spontaneously or be induced by mutagens. [NIH] Mutagens: Chemical agents that increase the rate of genetic mutation by interfering with the function of nucleic acids. A clastogen is a specific mutagen that causes breaks in chromosomes. [NIH] Myalgia: Pain in a muscle or muscles. [EU] Mycobacteriosis: Any disease caused by Mycobacterium other than M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, and M. avium. [NIH] Mycoplasma: A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacteria bounded by a plasma membrane only. Its organisms are parasites and pathogens, found on the mucous membranes of humans, animals, and birds. [NIH] Mycoplasma Infections: Infections with species of the genus Mycoplasma. [NIH] Myelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord. Relatively common etiologies include infections; autoimmune diseases; spinal cord; and ischemia (see also spinal cord vascular diseases). Clinical features generally include weakness, sensory loss, localized pain, incontinence, and other signs of autonomic dysfunction. [NIH] Myeloma: Cancer that arises in plasma cells, a type of white blood cell. [NIH] Myiasis: The invasion of living tissues of man and other mammals by dipterous larvae. [NIH] Myocarditis: Inflammation of the myocardium; inflammation of the muscular walls of the
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heart. [EU] Myocardium: The muscle tissue of the heart composed of striated, involuntary muscle known as cardiac muscle. [NIH] Naive: Used to describe an individual who has never taken a certain drug or class of drugs (e. g., AZT-naive, antiretroviral-naive), or to refer to an undifferentiated immune system cell. [NIH] Narcotic: 1. Pertaining to or producing narcosis. 2. An agent that produces insensibility or stupor, applied especially to the opioids, i.e. to any natural or synthetic drug that has morphine-like actions. [EU] Nasal Mucosa: The mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity. [NIH] Natural selection: A part of the evolutionary process resulting in the survival and reproduction of the best adapted individuals. [NIH] Nausea: An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. [NIH] NCI: National Cancer Institute. NCI, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the federal government's principal agency for cancer research. NCI conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the NCI Web site at http://cancer.gov. [NIH] Necrosis: A pathological process caused by the progressive degradative action of enzymes that is generally associated with severe cellular trauma. It is characterized by mitochondrial swelling, nuclear flocculation, uncontrolled cell lysis, and ultimately cell death. [NIH] Need: A state of tension or dissatisfaction felt by an individual that impels him to action toward a goal he believes will satisfy the impulse. [NIH] Needle biopsy: The removal of tissue or fluid with a needle for examination under a microscope. Also called fine-needle aspiration. [NIH] Neonatal: Pertaining to the first four weeks after birth. [EU] Neonatal Hepatitis: Irritation of the liver with no known cause. Occurs in newborn babies. Symptoms include jaundice and liver cell changes. [NIH] Neonatal period: The first 4 weeks after birth. [NIH] Neonatal Screening: The identification of selected parameters in newborn infants by various tests, examinations, or other procedures. Screening may be performed by clinical or laboratory measures. A screening test is designed to sort out healthy neonates from those not well, but the screening test is not intended as a diagnostic device, rather instead as epidemiologic. [NIH] Neoplasia: Abnormal and uncontrolled cell growth. [NIH] Neoplasm: A new growth of benign or malignant tissue. [NIH] Neoplastic: Pertaining to or like a neoplasm (= any new and abnormal growth); pertaining to neoplasia (= the formation of a neoplasm). [EU] Neospora: A genus of protozoan parasites of the subclass Coccidia. Its species are parasitic in dogs, cattle, goats, and sheep, among others. N. caninum, a species that mainly infects dogs, is intracellular in neural and other cells of the body, multiplies by endodyogeny, has no parasitophorous vacuole, and has numerous rhoptries. It is known to cause lesions in many tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord as well as abortion in the expectant mother. [NIH]
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Nephropathy: Disease of the kidneys. [EU] Nerve: A cordlike structure of nervous tissue that connects parts of the nervous system with other tissues of the body and conveys nervous impulses to, or away from, these tissues. [NIH] Nervous System: The entire nerve apparatus composed of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia. [NIH] Neural: 1. Pertaining to a nerve or to the nerves. 2. Situated in the region of the spinal axis, as the neutral arch. [EU] Neurologic: Having to do with nerves or the nervous system. [NIH] Neuronal: Pertaining to a neuron or neurons (= conducting cells of the nervous system). [EU] Neurons: The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the nervous system. [NIH] Neuropathy: A problem in any part of the nervous system except the brain and spinal cord. Neuropathies can be caused by infection, toxic substances, or disease. [NIH] Neuroretinitis: Inflammation of the optic nerve head and adjacent retina. [NIH] Neurotoxic: Poisonous or destructive to nerve tissue. [EU] Neurotoxicity: The tendency of some treatments to cause damage to the nervous system. [NIH]
Neurotoxins: Toxic substances from microorganisms, plants or animals that interfere with the functions of the nervous system. Most venoms contain neurotoxic substances. Myotoxins are included in this concept. [NIH] Neutralization: An act or process of neutralizing. [EU] Neutrons: Electrically neutral elementary particles found in all atomic nuclei except light hydrogen; the mass is equal to that of the proton and electron combined and they are unstable when isolated from the nucleus, undergoing beta decay. Slow, thermal, epithermal, and fast neutrons refer to the energy levels with which the neutrons are ejected from heavier nuclei during their decay. [NIH] Neutrophil: A type of white blood cell. [NIH] Nitric Oxide: A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells. It is synthesized from arginine by a complex reaction, catalyzed by nitric oxide synthase. Nitric oxide is endothelium-derived relaxing factor. It is released by the vascular endothelium and mediates the relaxation induced by some vasodilators such as acetylcholine and bradykinin. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic guanylate cyclase and thus elevates intracellular levels of cyclic GMP. [NIH]
Nitrogen: An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight 14. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells. [NIH] Nonverbal Communication: Transmission of emotions, ideas, and attitudes between individuals in ways other than the spoken language. [NIH] Norepinephrine: Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic. [NIH]
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Nuclear: A test of the structure, blood flow, and function of the kidneys. The doctor injects a mildly radioactive solution into an arm vein and uses x-rays to monitor its progress through the kidneys. [NIH] Nuclei: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nucleic acid: Either of two types of macromolecule (DNA or RNA) formed by polymerization of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and contain the information (genetic code) for the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next. [NIH] Nucleic Acid Hybridization: The process whereby two single-stranded polynucleotides form a double-stranded molecule, with hydrogen bonding between the complementary bases in the two strains. [NIH] Nucleus: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Nutritive Value: An indication of the contribution of a food to the nutrient content of the diet. This value depends on the quantity of a food which is digested and absorbed and the amounts of the essential nutrients (protein, fat, carbohydrate, minerals, vitamins) which it contains. This value can be affected by soil and growing conditions, handling and storage, and processing. [NIH] Occupational Health: The promotion and maintenance of physical and mental health in the work environment. [NIH] Ocular: 1. Of, pertaining to, or affecting the eye. 2. Eyepiece. [EU] Ointments: Semisolid preparations used topically for protective emollient effects or as a vehicle for local administration of medications. Ointment bases are various mixtures of fats, waxes, animal and plant oils and solid and liquid hydrocarbons. [NIH] Oncogenic: Chemical, viral, radioactive or other agent that causes cancer; carcinogenic. [NIH] Oocytes: Female germ cells in stages between the prophase of the first maturation division and the completion of the second maturation division. [NIH] Opacity: Degree of density (area most dense taken for reading). [NIH] Open Reading Frames: Reading frames where successive nucleotide triplets can be read as codons specifying amino acids and where the sequence of these triplets is not interrupted by stop codons. [NIH] Ophthalmology: A surgical specialty concerned with the structure and function of the eye and the medical and surgical treatment of its defects and diseases. [NIH] Opioid Peptides: The endogenous peptides with opiate-like activity. The three major classes currently recognized are the enkephalins, the dynorphins, and the endorphins. Each of these families derives from different precursors, proenkephalin, prodynorphin, and proopiomelanocortin, respectively. There are also at least three classes of opioid receptors, but the peptide families do not map to the receptors in a simple way. [NIH] Opium: The air-dried exudate from the unripe seed capsule of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, or its variant, P. album. It contains a number of alkaloids, but only a few morphine, codeine, and papaverine - have clinical significance. Opium has been used as an analgesic, antitussive, antidiarrheal, and antispasmodic. [NIH] Opportunistic Infections: An infection caused by an organism which becomes pathogenic under certain conditions, e.g., during immunosuppression. [NIH] Opsin: A protein formed, together with retinene, by the chemical breakdown of meta-
218 Toxoplasmosis
rhodopsin. [NIH] Optic Chiasm: The X-shaped structure formed by the meeting of the two optic nerves. At the optic chiasm the fibers from the medial part of each retina cross to project to the other side of the brain while the lateral retinal fibers continue on the same side. As a result each half of the brain receives information about the contralateral visual field from both eyes. [NIH]
Optic Nerve: The 2nd cranial nerve. The optic nerve conveys visual information from the retina to the brain. The nerve carries the axons of the retinal ganglion cells which sort at the optic chiasm and continue via the optic tracts to the brain. The largest projection is to the lateral geniculate nuclei; other important targets include the superior colliculi and the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Though known as the second cranial nerve, it is considered part of the central nervous system. [NIH] Optic nerve head: The circular area (disc) where the optic nerve connects to the retina. [NIH] Oral Health: The optimal state of the mouth and normal functioning of the organs of the mouth without evidence of disease. [NIH] Organelles: Specific particles of membrane-bound organized living substances present in eukaryotic cells, such as the mitochondria; the golgi apparatus; endoplasmic reticulum; lysomomes; plastids; and vacuoles. [NIH] Ossicles: The hammer, anvil and stirrup, the small bones of the middle ear, which transmit the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the oval window. [NIH] Otitis: Inflammation of the ear, which may be marked by pain, fever, abnormalities of hearing, hearing loss, tinnitus, and vertigo. [EU] Otitis Media: Inflammation of the middle ear. [NIH] Otolaryngologist: A doctor who specializes in treating diseases of the ear, nose, and throat. Also called an ENT doctor. [NIH] Otorhinolaryngology: That branch of medicine concerned with medical and surgical treatment of the head and neck, including the ears, nose and throat. [EU] Otosclerosis: The formation of spongy bone in the labyrinth capsule. The ossicles can become fixed and unable to transmit sound vibrations, thereby causing deafness. [NIH] Ototoxic: Having a deleterious effect upon the eighth nerve, or upon the organs of hearing and balance. [EU] Outer ear: The pinna and external meatus of the ear. [NIH] Ovum: A female germ cell extruded from the ovary at ovulation. [NIH] Ovum Implantation: Endometrial implantation of the blastocyst. [NIH] Oxidation: The act of oxidizing or state of being oxidized. Chemically it consists in the increase of positive charges on an atom or the loss of negative charges. Most biological oxidations are accomplished by the removal of a pair of hydrogen atoms (dehydrogenation) from a molecule. Such oxidations must be accompanied by reduction of an acceptor molecule. Univalent o. indicates loss of one electron; divalent o., the loss of two electrons. [EU]
Oxygenator: An apparatus by which oxygen is introduced into the blood during circulation outside the body, as during open heart surgery. [NIH] Pachymeningitis: Inflammation of the dura mater of the brain, the spinal cord or the optic nerve. [NIH] Palliative: 1. Affording relief, but not cure. 2. An alleviating medicine. [EU] Pancreas: A mixed exocrine and endocrine gland situated transversely across the posterior
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abdominal wall in the epigastric and hypochondriac regions. The endocrine portion is comprised of the Islets of Langerhans, while the exocrine portion is a compound acinar gland that secretes digestive enzymes. [NIH] Pancreas Transplant: A surgical procedure that involves replacing the pancreas of a person who has diabetes with a healthy pancreas that can make insulin. The healthy pancreas comes from a donor who has just died or from a living relative. A person can donate half a pancreas and still live normally. [NIH] Pancreas Transplantation: The transference of a pancreas from one human or animal to another. [NIH] Pancytopenia: Deficiency of all three cell elements of the blood, erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets. [NIH] Paralysis: Loss of ability to move all or part of the body. [NIH] Paranasal Sinuses: Air-filled extensions of the respiratory part of the nasal cavity into the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary cranial bones. They vary in size and form in different individuals and are lined by the ciliated mucous membranes of the nasal cavity. [NIH]
Parasite: An animal or a plant that lives on or in an organism of another species and gets at least some of its nutrition from that other organism. [NIH] Parasitic: Having to do with or being a parasite. A parasite is an animal or a plant that lives on or in an organism of another species and gets at least some of its nutrients from it. [NIH] Parasitic Diseases: Infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure. [NIH] Parasitism: A) The mode of life of a parasite; b) The relationship between an organism (parasite) that derives benefits from, and at the expense of, another organism (host). [NIH] Parenteral: Not through the alimentary canal but rather by injection through some other route, as subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraorbital, intracapsular, intraspinal, intrasternal, intravenous, etc. [EU] Parenteral Nutrition: The administering of nutrients for assimilation and utilization by a patient who cannot maintain adequate nutrition by enteral feeding alone. Nutrients are administered by a route other than the alimentary canal (e.g., intravenously, subcutaneously). [NIH] Parotid: The space that contains the parotid gland, the facial nerve, the external carotid artery, and the retromandibular vein. [NIH] Pars Planitis: Form of granulomatous uveitis occurring in the region of the pars plana. This disorder is a common condition with no detectable focal pathology. It causes fibrovascular proliferation at the inferior ora serrata. [NIH] Parturition: The act or process of given birth to a child. [EU] Parvovirus: A genus of the family Parvoviridae, subfamily Parvovirinae, infecting a variety of vertebrates including humans. Parvoviruses are responsible for a number of important diseases but also can be non-pathogenic in certain hosts. The type species is mice minute virus. [NIH] Patch: A piece of material used to cover or protect a wound, an injured part, etc.: a patch over the eye. [NIH] Pathogen: Any disease-producing microorganism. [EU] Pathogenesis: The cellular events and reactions that occur in the development of disease.
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[NIH]
Pathologic: 1. Indicative of or caused by a morbid condition. 2. Pertaining to pathology (= branch of medicine that treats the essential nature of the disease, especially the structural and functional changes in tissues and organs of the body caused by the disease). [EU] Pathologic Processes: The abnormal mechanisms and forms involved in the dysfunctions of tissues and organs. [NIH] Pathologies: The study of abnormality, especially the study of diseases. [NIH] Pathophysiology: Altered functions in an individual or an organ due to disease. [NIH] Patient Education: The teaching or training of patients concerning their own health needs. [NIH]
Pediatrics: A medical specialty concerned with maintaining health and providing medical care to children from birth to adolescence. [NIH] Pelvic: Pertaining to the pelvis. [EU] Penis: The external reproductive organ of males. It is composed of a mass of erectile tissue enclosed in three cylindrical fibrous compartments. Two of the three compartments, the corpus cavernosa, are placed side-by-side along the upper part of the organ. The third compartment below, the corpus spongiosum, houses the urethra. [NIH] Peptide: Any compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Peptides are combined to make proteins. [NIH] Peptide Chain Elongation: The process whereby an amino acid is joined through a substituted amide linkage to a chain of peptides. [NIH] Perfusion: Bathing an organ or tissue with a fluid. In regional perfusion, a specific area of the body (usually an arm or a leg) receives high doses of anticancer drugs through a blood vessel. Such a procedure is performed to treat cancer that has not spread. [NIH] Perilymph: The fluid contained within the space separating the membranous from the osseous labyrinth of the ear. [NIH] Perinatal: Pertaining to or occurring in the period shortly before and after birth; variously defined as beginning with completion of the twentieth to twenty-eighth week of gestation and ending 7 to 28 days after birth. [EU] Peripheral blood: Blood circulating throughout the body. [NIH] Peripheral Nerves: The nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord, including the autonomic, cranial, and spinal nerves. Peripheral nerves contain non-neuronal cells and connective tissue as well as axons. The connective tissue layers include, from the outside to the inside, the epineurium, the perineurium, and the endoneurium. [NIH] Peritoneal: Having to do with the peritoneum (the tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers most of the organs in the abdomen). [NIH] Peritoneal Cavity: The space enclosed by the peritoneum. It is divided into two portions, the greater sac and the lesser sac or omental bursa, which lies behind the stomach. The two sacs are connected by the foramen of Winslow, or epiploic foramen. [NIH] Pesticides: Chemicals used to destroy pests of any sort. The concept includes fungicides (industrial fungicides), insecticides, rodenticides, etc. [NIH] Petechiae: Pinpoint, unraised, round red spots under the skin caused by bleeding. [NIH] Petroleum: Naturally occurring complex liquid hydrocarbons which, after distillation, yield combustible fuels, petrochemicals, and lubricants. [NIH] Phagocytosis: The engulfing of microorganisms, other cells, and foreign particles by
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phagocytic cells. [NIH] Phallic: Pertaining to the phallus, or penis. [EU] Pharmaceutic Aids: Substances which are of little or no therapeutic value, but are necessary in the manufacture, compounding, storage, etc., of pharmaceutical preparations or drug dosage forms. They include solvents, diluting agents, and suspending agents, and emulsifying agents. Also, antioxidants; preservatives, pharmaceutical; dyes (coloring agents); flavoring agents; vehicles; excipients; ointment bases. [NIH] Pharmaceutical Solutions: Homogeneous liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical substances dissolved, i.e., molecularly dispersed, in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents. For reasons of their ingredients, method of preparation, or use, they do not fall into another group of products. [NIH] Pharmacists: Those persons legally qualified by education and training to engage in the practice of pharmacy. [NIH] Pharmacokinetic: The mathematical analysis of the time courses of absorption, distribution, and elimination of drugs. [NIH] Pharmacologic: Pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. [EU] Pharmacotherapy: A regimen of using appetite suppressant medications to manage obesity by decreasing appetite or increasing the feeling of satiety. These medications decrease appetite by increasing serotonin or catecholamine—two brain chemicals that affect mood and appetite. [NIH] Pharynx: The hollow tube about 5 inches long that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes to the stomach). [NIH] Phenotype: The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes and between the genotype and the environment. This includes the killer phenotype, characteristic of yeasts. [NIH] Phospholipases: A class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphoglycerides or glycerophosphatidates. EC 3.1.-. [NIH] Phosphorus: A non-metallic element that is found in the blood, muscles, nevers, bones, and teeth, and is a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP; the primary energy source for the body's cells.) [NIH] Phosphorylated: Attached to a phosphate group. [NIH] Photophobia: Abnormal sensitivity to light. This may occur as a manifestation of eye diseases; migraine; subarachnoid hemorrhage; meningitis; and other disorders. Photophobia may also occur in association with depression and other mental disorders. [NIH] Physiologic: Having to do with the functions of the body. When used in the phrase "physiologic age," it refers to an age assigned by general health, as opposed to calendar age. [NIH]
Physiology: The science that deals with the life processes and functions of organismus, their cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Picornavirus: Any of a group of tiny RNA-containing viruses including the enteroviruses and rhinoviruses. [NIH] Pigment: A substance that gives color to tissue. Pigments are responsible for the color of skin, eyes, and hair. [NIH] Piritrexim: An anticancer drug. [NIH] Pituitary Gland: A small, unpaired gland situated in the sella turcica tissue. It is connected to the hypothalamus by a short stalk. [NIH]
222 Toxoplasmosis
Plana: The radiographic term applied to a vertebral body crushed to a thin plate. [NIH] Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of the kingdom Plantae. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (meristems); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absense of nervous and sensory systems; and an alteration of haploid and diploid generations. [NIH] Plasma: The clear, yellowish, fluid part of the blood that carries the blood cells. The proteins that form blood clots are in plasma. [NIH] Plasma cells: A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. [NIH] Plasmid: An autonomously replicating, extra-chromosomal DNA molecule found in many bacteria. Plasmids are widely used as carriers of cloned genes. [NIH] Plasmodium: A genus of coccidian protozoa that comprise the malaria parasites of mammals. Four species infect humans (although occasional infections with primate malarias may occur). These are Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium malariae, P. ovale, and Plasmodium vivax. Species causing infection in vertebrates other than man include: Plasmodium berghei, Plasmodium chabaudi, P. vinckei, and Plasmodium yoelii in rodents; P. brasilianum, Plasmodium cynomolgi, and Plasmodium knowlesi in monkeys; and Plasmodium gallinaceum in chickens. [NIH] Plastids: Self-replicating cytoplasmic organelles of plant and algal cells that contain pigments and may synthesize and accumulate various substances. Plastids are used in phylogenetic studies. [NIH] Platelet Activation: A series of progressive, overlapping events triggered by exposure of the platelets to subendothelial tissue. These events include shape change, adhesiveness, aggregation, and release reactions. When carried through to completion, these events lead to the formation of a stable hemostatic plug. [NIH] Platelet Aggregation: The attachment of platelets to one another. This clumping together can be induced by a number of agents (e.g., thrombin, collagen) and is part of the mechanism leading to the formation of a thrombus. [NIH] Platelets: A type of blood cell that helps prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called thrombocytes. [NIH] Platinum: Platinum. A heavy, soft, whitish metal, resembling tin, atomic number 78, atomic weight 195.09, symbol Pt. (From Dorland, 28th ed) It is used in manufacturing equipment for laboratory and industrial use. It occurs as a black powder (platinum black) and as a spongy substance (spongy platinum) and may have been known in Pliny's time as "alutiae". [NIH]
Poisoning: A condition or physical state produced by the ingestion, injection or inhalation of, or exposure to a deleterious agent. [NIH] Polyarteritis Nodosa: A form of necrotizing vasculitis involving small- and medium-sized arteries. The signs and symptoms result from infarction and scarring of the affected organ system. [NIH] Polymerase: An enzyme which catalyses the synthesis of DNA using a single DNA strand as a template. The polymerase copies the template in the 5'-3'direction provided that sufficient quantities of free nucleotides, dATP and dTTP are present. [NIH] Polymerase Chain Reaction: In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their
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complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships. [NIH] Polypeptide: A peptide which on hydrolysis yields more than two amino acids; called tripeptides, tetrapeptides, etc. according to the number of amino acids contained. [EU] Polyradiculopathy: Disease or injury involving multiple spinal nerve roots. Polyradiculitis refers to inflammation of multiple spinal nerve roots. [NIH] Polysaccharide: A type of carbohydrate. It contains sugar molecules that are linked together chemically. [NIH] Posterior: Situated in back of, or in the back part of, or affecting the back or dorsal surface of the body. In lower animals, it refers to the caudal end of the body. [EU] Postnatal: Occurring after birth, with reference to the newborn. [EU] Postsynaptic: Nerve potential generated by an inhibitory hyperpolarizing stimulation. [NIH] Postural: Pertaining to posture or position. [EU] Potentiating: A degree of synergism which causes the exposure of the organism to a harmful substance to worsen a disease already contracted. [NIH] Potentiation: An overall effect of two drugs taken together which is greater than the sum of the effects of each drug taken alone. [NIH] Practice Guidelines: Directions or principles presenting current or future rules of policy for the health care practitioner to assist him in patient care decisions regarding diagnosis, therapy, or related clinical circumstances. The guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by the convening of expert panels. The guidelines form a basis for the evaluation of all aspects of health care and delivery. [NIH] Praziquantel: An anthelmintic used in most schistosome and many cestode infestations. [NIH]
Preclinical: Before a disease becomes clinically recognizable. [EU] Precursor: Something that precedes. In biological processes, a substance from which another, usually more active or mature substance is formed. In clinical medicine, a sign or symptom that heralds another. [EU] Prenatal: Existing or occurring before birth, with reference to the fetus. [EU] Prenatal Diagnosis: Determination of the nature of a pathological condition or disease in the postimplantation embryo, fetus, or pregnant female before birth. [NIH] Presbycusis: Progressive bilateral loss of hearing that occurs in the aged. Syn: senile deafness. [NIH] Prevalence: The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from incidence, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time. [NIH] Primary central nervous system lymphoma: Cancer that arises in the lymphoid tissue found in the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord. [NIH]
Primary Prevention: Prevention of disease or mental disorders in susceptible individuals or populations through promotion of health, including mental health, and specific protection, as in immunization, as distinguished from the prevention of complications or after-effects of existing disease. [NIH]
224 Toxoplasmosis
Prion: Small proteinaceous infectious particles that resist inactivation by procedures modifying nucleic acids and contain an abnormal isoform of a cellular protein which is a major and necessary component. [NIH] Probe: An instrument used in exploring cavities, or in the detection and dilatation of strictures, or in demonstrating the potency of channels; an elongated instrument for exploring or sounding body cavities. [NIH] Progesterone: Pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. The principal progestational hormone of the body, secreted by the corpus luteum, adrenal cortex, and placenta. Its chief function is to prepare the uterus for the reception and development of the fertilized ovum. It acts as an antiovulatory agent when administered on days 5-25 of the menstrual cycle. [NIH] Progression: Increase in the size of a tumor or spread of cancer in the body. [NIH] Progressive: Advancing; going forward; going from bad to worse; increasing in scope or severity. [EU] Progressive disease: Cancer that is increasing in scope or severity. [NIH] Projection: A defense mechanism, operating unconsciously, whereby that which is emotionally unacceptable in the self is rejected and attributed (projected) to others. [NIH] Prolactin: Pituitary lactogenic hormone. A polypeptide hormone with a molecular weight of about 23,000. It is essential in the induction of lactation in mammals at parturition and is synergistic with estrogen. The hormone also brings about the release of progesterone from lutein cells, which renders the uterine mucosa suited for the embedding of the ovum should fertilization occur. [NIH] Promoter: A chemical substance that increases the activity of a carcinogenic process. [NIH] Pro-Opiomelanocortin: A precursor protein, MW 30,000, synthesized mainly in the anterior pituitary gland but also found in the hypothalamus, brain, and several peripheral tissues. It incorporates the amino acid sequences of ACTH and beta-lipotropin. These two hormones, in turn, contain the biologically active peptides MSH, corticotropin-like intermediate lobe peptide, alpha-lipotropin, endorphins, and methionine enkephalin. [NIH] Prophase: The first phase of cell division, in which the chromosomes become visible, the nucleus starts to lose its identity, the spindle appears, and the centrioles migrate toward opposite poles. [NIH] Prophylaxis: An attempt to prevent disease. [NIH] Proportional: Being in proportion : corresponding in size, degree, or intensity, having the same or a constant ratio; of, relating to, or used in determining proportions. [EU] Prospective study: An epidemiologic study in which a group of individuals (a cohort), all free of a particular disease and varying in their exposure to a possible risk factor, is followed over a specific amount of time to determine the incidence rates of the disease in the exposed and unexposed groups. [NIH] Prostate: A gland in males that surrounds the neck of the bladder and the urethra. It secretes a substance that liquifies coagulated semen. It is situated in the pelvic cavity behind the lower part of the pubic symphysis, above the deep layer of the triangular ligament, and rests upon the rectum. [NIH] Protein S: The vitamin K-dependent cofactor of activated protein C. Together with protein C, it inhibits the action of factors VIIIa and Va. A deficiency in protein S can lead to recurrent venous and arterial thrombosis. [NIH] Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein. [NIH]
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Proteolytic: 1. Pertaining to, characterized by, or promoting proteolysis. 2. An enzyme that promotes proteolysis (= the splitting of proteins by hydrolysis of the peptide bonds with formation of smaller polypeptides). [EU] Protocol: The detailed plan for a clinical trial that states the trial's rationale, purpose, drug or vaccine dosages, length of study, routes of administration, who may participate, and other aspects of trial design. [NIH] Protons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known positive charge, found in the nuclei of all elements. The proton mass is less than that of a neutron. A proton is the nucleus of the light hydrogen atom, i.e., the hydrogen ion. [NIH] Protozoa: A subkingdom consisting of unicellular organisms that are the simplest in the animal kingdom. Most are free living. They range in size from submicroscopic to macroscopic. Protozoa are divided into seven phyla: Sarcomastigophora, Labyrinthomorpha, Apicomplexa, Microspora, Ascetospora, Myxozoa, and Ciliophora. [NIH] Protozoal: Having to do with the simplest organisms in the animal kingdom. Protozoa are single-cell organisms, such as ameba, and are different from bacteria, which are not members of the animal kingdom. Some protozoa can be seen without a microscope. [NIH] Protozoan Infections: Infections with unicellular organisms of the subkingdom Protozoa. [NIH]
Pruritic: Pertaining to or characterized by pruritus. [EU] Psychiatric: Pertaining to or within the purview of psychiatry. [EU] Psychiatry: The medical science that deals with the origin, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. [NIH] Psychic: Pertaining to the psyche or to the mind; mental. [EU] Psychomotor: Pertaining to motor effects of cerebral or psychic activity. [EU] Psychomotor Performance: The coordination of a sensory or ideational (cognitive) process and a motor activity. [NIH] Puberty: The period during which the secondary sex characteristics begin to develop and the capability of sexual reproduction is attained. [EU] Public Health: Branch of medicine concerned with the prevention and control of disease and disability, and the promotion of physical and mental health of the population on the international, national, state, or municipal level. [NIH] Public Policy: A course or method of action selected, usually by a government, from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. [NIH] Publishing: "The business or profession of the commercial production and issuance of literature" (Webster's 3d). It includes the publisher, publication processes, editing and editors. Production may be by conventional printing methods or by electronic publishing. [NIH]
Pulmonary: Relating to the lungs. [NIH] Pulmonary hypertension: Abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries of the lungs. [NIH] Pulmonary Ventilation: The total volume of gas per minute inspired or expired measured in liters per minute. [NIH] Pupil: The aperture in the iris through which light passes. [NIH] Purines: A series of heterocyclic compounds that are variously substituted in nature and are known also as purine bases. They include adenine and guanine, constituents of nucleic acids, as well as many alkaloids such as caffeine and theophylline. Uric acid is the metabolic end product of purine metabolism. [NIH]
226 Toxoplasmosis
Rabies: A highly fatal viral infection of the nervous system which affects all warm-blooded animal species. It is one of the most important of the zoonoses because of the inevitably fatal outcome for the infected human. [NIH] Radiation: Emission or propagation of electromagnetic energy (waves/rays), or the waves/rays themselves; a stream of electromagnetic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, alpha particles) or a mixture of these. The most common source is the sun. [NIH] Radiation therapy: The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body in the area near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, or brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Also called radiotherapy. [NIH] Radioactive: Giving off radiation. [NIH] Randomized: Describes an experiment or clinical trial in which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. [NIH] Reactivation: The restoration of activity to something that has been inactivated. [EU] Receptor: A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell. [NIH] Recombinant: A cell or an individual with a new combination of genes not found together in either parent; usually applied to linked genes. [EU] Recombination: The formation of new combinations of genes as a result of segregation in crosses between genetically different parents; also the rearrangement of linked genes due to crossing-over. [NIH] Rectum: The last 8 to 10 inches of the large intestine. [NIH] Recurrence: The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission. [NIH] Reductase: Enzyme converting testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. [NIH] Refer: To send or direct for treatment, aid, information, de decision. [NIH] Refraction: A test to determine the best eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct a refractive error (myopia, hyperopia, or astigmatism). [NIH] Refractory: Not readily yielding to treatment. [EU] Regimen: A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. [NIH] Regional lymph node: In oncology, a lymph node that drains lymph from the region around a tumor. [NIH] Rehabilitative: Instruction of incapacitated individuals or of those affected with some mental disorder, so that some or all of their lost ability may be regained. [NIH] Reliability: Used technically, in a statistical sense, of consistency of a test with itself, i. e. the extent to which we can assume that it will yield the same result if repeated a second time. [NIH]
Remission: A decrease in or disappearance of signs and symptoms of cancer. In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although there still may be cancer in the body. [NIH] Renal failure: Progressive renal insufficiency and uremia, due to irreversible and
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progressive renal glomerular tubular or interstitial disease. [NIH] Resorption: The loss of substance through physiologic or pathologic means, such as loss of dentin and cementum of a tooth, or of the alveolar process of the mandible or maxilla. [EU] Respiratory failure: Inability of the lungs to conduct gas exchange. [NIH] Respiratory syncytial virus: RSV. A virus that causes respiratory infections with cold-like symptoms. [NIH] Respiratory System: The tubular and cavernous organs and structures, by means of which pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange between ambient air and the blood are brought about. [NIH] Restoration: Broad term applied to any inlay, crown, bridge or complete denture which restores or replaces loss of teeth or oral tissues. [NIH] Retina: The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the optic nerve and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the choroid and the inner surface with the vitreous body. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent. [NIH] Retinal: 1. Pertaining to the retina. 2. The aldehyde of retinol, derived by the oxidative enzymatic splitting of absorbed dietary carotene, and having vitamin A activity. In the retina, retinal combines with opsins to form visual pigments. One isomer, 11-cis retinal combines with opsin in the rods (scotopsin) to form rhodopsin, or visual purple. Another, all-trans retinal (trans-r.); visual yellow; xanthopsin) results from the bleaching of rhodopsin by light, in which the 11-cis form is converted to the all-trans form. Retinal also combines with opsins in the cones (photopsins) to form the three pigments responsible for colour vision. Called also retinal, and retinene1. [EU] Retinal Ganglion Cells: Cells of the innermost nuclear layer of the retina, the ganglion cell layer, which project axons through the optic nerve to the brain. They are quite variable in size and in the shapes of their dendritic arbors, which are generally confined to the inner plexiform layer. [NIH] Retinal pigment epithelium: The pigment cell layer that nourishes the retinal cells; located just outside the retina and attached to the choroid. [NIH] Retinitis: Inflammation of the retina. It is rarely limited to the retina, but is commonly associated with diseases of the choroid (chorioretinitis) and of the optic nerve (neuroretinitis). The disease may be confined to one eye, but since it is generally dependent on a constitutional factor, it is almost always bilateral. It may be acute in course, but as a rule it lasts many weeks or even several months. [NIH] Retinol: Vitamin A. It is essential for proper vision and healthy skin and mucous membranes. Retinol is being studied for cancer prevention; it belongs to the family of drugs called retinoids. [NIH] Retrocochlear: Hearing loss in which the air conduction threshold and the bone conduction threshold have risen almost equally with no gap between them. In such cases the defect is usually either in the cochlea of the inner ear or in the central pathways. [NIH] Retrospective: Looking back at events that have already taken place. [NIH] Retrospective study: A study that looks backward in time, usually using medical records and interviews with patients who already have or had a disease. [NIH] Ribose: A pentose active in biological systems usually in its D-form. [NIH] Rifabutin: A broad-spectrum antibiotic that is being used as prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in HIV-positive patients. [NIH]
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Rigidity: Stiffness or inflexibility, chiefly that which is abnormal or morbid; rigor. [EU] Risk factor: A habit, trait, condition, or genetic alteration that increases a person's chance of developing a disease. [NIH] Ristocetin: An antibiotic mixture of two components, A and B, obtained from Nocardia lurida (or the same substance produced by any other means). It is no longer used clinically because of its toxicity. It causes platelet agglutination and blood coagulation and is used to assay those functions in vitro. [NIH] Rod: A reception for vision, located in the retina. [NIH] Rodenticides: Substances used to destroy or inhibit the action of rats, mice, or other rodents. [NIH]
Roxithromycin: Semisynthetic derivative of erythromycin. It is concentrated by human phagocytes and is bioactive intracellularly. While the drug is active against a wide spectrum of pathogens, it is particularly effective in the treatment of respiratory and genital tract infections. [NIH] Saline: A solution of salt and water. [NIH] Saliva: The clear, viscous fluid secreted by the salivary glands and mucous glands of the mouth. It contains mucins, water, organic salts, and ptylin. [NIH] Salivary: The duct that convey saliva to the mouth. [NIH] Salivary glands: Glands in the mouth that produce saliva. [NIH] Salmonella: A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that utilizes citrate as a sole carbon source. It is pathogenic for humans, causing enteric fevers, gastroenteritis, and bacteremia. Food poisoning is the most common clinical manifestation. Organisms within this genus are separated on the basis of antigenic characteristics, sugar fermentation patterns, and bacteriophage susceptibility. [NIH] Salvage Therapy: A therapeutic approach, involving chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery, after initial regimens have failed to lead to improvement in a patient's condition. Salvage therapy is most often used for neoplastic diseases. [NIH] Saponins: Sapogenin glycosides. A type of glycoside widely distributed in plants. Each consists of a sapogenin as the aglycon moiety, and a sugar. The sapogenin may be a steroid or a triterpene and the sugar may be glucose, galactose, a pentose, or a methylpentose. Sapogenins are poisonous towards the lower forms of life and are powerful hemolytics when injected into the blood stream able to dissolve red blood cells at even extreme dilutions. [NIH] Sarcocystidae: A family of parasitic Protozoa in the order Eimeriidae. They form tissue-cysts in their intermediate hosts, ultimately leading to pathogenesis in the final hosts that includes various mammals (including humans) and birds. The most important genera include Neospora, Sarcocystis, and Toxoplasma. [NIH] Sarcocystis: A genus of protozoa found in reptiles, birds, and mammals, including humans. This heteroxenous parasite produces muscle cysts in intermediate hosts such as domestic herbivores (cattle, sheep, pigs) and rodents. Final hosts are predators such as dogs, cats, and man. [NIH] Sarcoidosis: An idiopathic systemic inflammatory granulomatous disorder comprised of epithelioid and multinucleated giant cells with little necrosis. It usually invades the lungs with fibrosis and may also involve lymph nodes, skin, liver, spleen, eyes, phalangeal bones, and parotid glands. [NIH] Sarcoma: A connective tissue neoplasm formed by proliferation of mesodermal cells; it is usually highly malignant. [NIH]
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Scabies: A contagious cutaneous inflammation caused by the bite of the mite Sarcoptes scabiei. It is characterized by pruritic papular eruptions and burrows and affects primarily the axillae, elbows, wrists, and genitalia, although it can spread to cover the entire body. [NIH]
Schistosome: Dermatitis caused by the snail parasite, Schistosoma cercariae. [NIH] Schizogony: Reproduction by fission. [NIH] Schizoid: Having qualities resembling those found in greater degree in schizophrenics; a person of schizoid personality. [NIH] Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by a special type of disintegration of the personality. [NIH] Schizotypal Personality Disorder: A personality disorder in which there are oddities of thought (magical thinking, paranoid ideation, suspiciousness), perception (illusions, depersonalization), speech (digressive, vague, overelaborate), and behavior (inappropriate affect in social interactions, frequently social isolation) that are not severe enough to characterize schizophrenia. [NIH] Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. [NIH] Secretion: 1. The process of elaborating a specific product as a result of the activity of a gland; this activity may range from separating a specific substance of the blood to the elaboration of a new chemical substance. 2. Any substance produced by secretion. [EU] Secretory: Secreting; relating to or influencing secretion or the secretions. [NIH] Secretory Vesicles: Vesicles derived from the golgi apparatus containing material to be released at the cell surface. [NIH] Segregation: The separation in meiotic cell division of homologous chromosome pairs and their contained allelomorphic gene pairs. [NIH] Seizures: Clinical or subclinical disturbances of cortical function due to a sudden, abnormal, excessive, and disorganized discharge of brain cells. Clinical manifestations include abnormal motor, sensory and psychic phenomena. Recurrent seizures are usually referred to as epilepsy or "seizure disorder." [NIH] Sella: A deep depression in the shape of a Turkish saddle in the upper surface of the body of the sphenoid bone in the deepest part of which is lodged the hypophysis cerebri. [NIH] Semen: The thick, yellowish-white, viscid fluid secretion of male reproductive organs discharged upon ejaculation. In addition to reproductive organ secretions, it contains spermatozoa and their nutrient plasma. [NIH] Semicircular canal: Three long canals of the bony labyrinth of the ear, forming loops and opening into the vestibule by five openings. [NIH] Semisynthetic: Produced by chemical manipulation of naturally occurring substances. [EU] Senile: Relating or belonging to old age; characteristic of old age; resulting from infirmity of old age. [NIH] Sensory loss: A disease of the nerves whereby the myelin or insulating sheath of myelin on the nerves does not stay intact and the messages from the brain to the muscles through the nerves are not carried properly. [NIH] Sequencing: The determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA chain. [NIH] Seroconversion: The change of a serologic test from negative to positive, indicating the development of antibodies in response to infection or immunization. [EU] Serologic: Analysis of a person's serum, especially specific immune or lytic serums. [NIH]
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Serology: The study of serum, especially of antigen-antibody reactions in vitro. [NIH] Serotonin: A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (receptors, serotonin) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator. [NIH] Serous: Having to do with serum, the clear liquid part of blood. [NIH] Serrata: The serrated anterior border of the retina located approximately 8.5 mm from the limbus and adjacent to the pars plana of the ciliary body. [NIH] Serum: The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed. [NIH] Sex Characteristics: Those characteristics that distinguish one sex from the other. The primary sex characteristics are the ovaries and testes and their related hormones. Secondary sex characteristics are those which are masculine or feminine but not directly related to reproduction. [NIH] Shock: The general bodily disturbance following a severe injury; an emotional or moral upset occasioned by some disturbing or unexpected experience; disruption of the circulation, which can upset all body functions: sometimes referred to as circulatory shock. [NIH]
Side effect: A consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other than the one sought to be benefited by its administration. [EU] Signal Transduction: The intercellular or intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GABA-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptormediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway. [NIH] Signs and Symptoms: Clinical manifestations that can be either objective when observed by a physician, or subjective when perceived by the patient. [NIH] Silage: Fodder converted into succulent feed for livestock through processes of anaerobic fermentation (as in a silo). [NIH] Sinusitis: An inflammatory process of the mucous membranes of the paranasal sinuses that occurs in three stages: acute, subacute, and chronic. Sinusitis results from any condition causing ostial obstruction or from pathophysiologic changes in the mucociliary transport mechanism. [NIH] Skeletal: Having to do with the skeleton (boney part of the body). [NIH] Skeleton: The framework that supports the soft tissues of vertebrate animals and protects many of their internal organs. The skeletons of vertebrates are made of bone and/or cartilage. [NIH]
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Skull: The skeleton of the head including the bones of the face and the bones enclosing the brain. [NIH] Small intestine: The part of the digestive tract that is located between the stomach and the large intestine. [NIH] Smoke Inhalation Injury: Pulmonary injury following the breathing in of toxic smoke from burning materials such as plastics, synthetics, building materials, etc. This injury is the most frequent cause of death in burn patients. [NIH] Smooth muscle: Muscle that performs automatic tasks, such as constricting blood vessels. [NIH]
Sodium: An element that is a member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23. With a valence of 1, it has a strong affinity for oxygen and other nonmetallic elements. Sodium provides the chief cation of the extracellular body fluids. Its salts are the most widely used in medicine. (From Dorland, 27th ed) Physiologically the sodium ion plays a major role in blood pressure regulation, maintenance of fluid volume, and electrolyte balance. [NIH] Soft tissue: Refers to muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissue of the body. [NIH] Solid tumor: Cancer of body tissues other than blood, bone marrow, or the lymphatic system. [NIH] Spastic: 1. Of the nature of or characterized by spasms. 2. Hypertonic, so that the muscles are stiff and the movements awkward. 3. A person exhibiting spasticity, such as occurs in spastic paralysis or in cerebral palsy. [EU] Spasticity: A state of hypertonicity, or increase over the normal tone of a muscle, with heightened deep tendon reflexes. [EU] Spatial disorientation: Loss of orientation in space where person does not know which way is up. [NIH] Specialist: In medicine, one who concentrates on 1 special branch of medical science. [NIH] Species: A taxonomic category subordinate to a genus (or subgenus) and superior to a subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. In taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a Latin or Latinized adjective or noun. [EU] Species Specificity: Restriction of a characteristic or response to the members of one species; it usually refers to that property of the immune response which differentiates one species from another on the basis of antigen recognition, but the concept is not limited to immunology and is used loosely at levels higher than the species. [NIH] Specificity: Degree of selectivity shown by an antibody with respect to the number and types of antigens with which the antibody combines, as well as with respect to the rates and the extents of these reactions. [NIH] Spectrum: A charted band of wavelengths of electromagnetic vibrations obtained by refraction and diffraction. By extension, a measurable range of activity, such as the range of bacteria affected by an antibiotic (antibacterial s.) or the complete range of manifestations of a disease. [EU] Sperm: The fecundating fluid of the male. [NIH] Spinal cord: The main trunk or bundle of nerves running down the spine through holes in the spinal bone (the vertebrae) from the brain to the level of the lower back. [NIH]
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Spinal Cord Vascular Diseases: Hypoxic-ischemic and hemorrhagic disorders of the spinal cord. Arteriosclerosis, emboli, and vascular malformations are potential causes of these conditions. [NIH] Spinal Nerve Roots: The paired bundles of nerve fibers entering and leaving the spinal cord at each segment. The dorsal and ventral nerve roots join to form the mixed segmental spinal nerves. The dorsal roots are generally afferent, formed by the central projections of the spinal (dorsal root) ganglia sensory cells, and the ventral roots efferent, comprising the axons of spinal motor and autonomic preganglionic neurons. There are, however, some exceptions to this afferent/efferent rule. [NIH] Spiramycin: A macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces ambofaciens. The drug is effective against gram-positive aerobic pathogens, N. gonorrhoeae, and staphylococci. It is used to treat infections caused by bacteria and Toxoplasma gondii. [NIH] Spirochete: Lyme disease. [NIH] Spleen: An organ that is part of the lymphatic system. The spleen produces lymphocytes, filters the blood, stores blood cells, and destroys old blood cells. It is located on the left side of the abdomen near the stomach. [NIH] Splenomegaly: Enlargement of the spleen. [NIH] Spontaneous Abortion: The non-induced birth of an embryo or of fetus prior to the stage of viability at about 20 weeks of gestation. [NIH] Spores: The reproductive elements of lower organisms, such as protozoa, fungi, and cryptogamic plants. [NIH] Sporotrichosis: The commonest and least serious of the deep mycoses, characterized by nodular lesions of the cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues. It is caused by inhalation of contaminated dust or by infection of a wound. [NIH] Sputum: The material expelled from the respiratory passages by coughing or clearing the throat. [NIH] Squamous: Scaly, or platelike. [EU] Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that begins in squamous cells, which are thin, flat cells resembling fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of the hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Also called epidermoid carcinoma. [NIH] Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that begins in squamous cells, which are thin, flat cells resembling fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of the hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Also called epidermoid carcinoma. [NIH] Squamous cells: Flat cells that look like fish scales under a microscope. These cells cover internal and external surfaces of the body. [NIH] Standard therapy: A currently accepted and widely used treatment for a certain type of cancer, based on the results of past research. [NIH] Staphylococcus: A genus of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, coccoid bacteria. Its organisms occur singly, in pairs, and in tetrads and characteristically divide in more than one plane to form irregular clusters. Natural populations of Staphylococcus are membranes of warm-blooded animals. Some species are opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals. [NIH] Stem cell transplantation: A method of replacing immature blood-forming cells that were destroyed by cancer treatment. The stem cells are given to the person after treatment to help
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the bone marrow recover and continue producing healthy blood cells. [NIH] Stem Cells: Relatively undifferentiated cells of the same lineage (family type) that retain the ability to divide and cycle throughout postnatal life to provide cells that can become specialized and take the place of those that die or are lost. [NIH] Steroid: A group name for lipids that contain a hydrogenated cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring system. Some of the substances included in this group are progesterone, adrenocortical hormones, the gonadal hormones, cardiac aglycones, bile acids, sterols (such as cholesterol), toad poisons, saponins, and some of the carcinogenic hydrocarbons. [EU] Stillbirth: The birth of a dead fetus or baby. [NIH] Stimulant: 1. Producing stimulation; especially producing stimulation by causing tension on muscle fibre through the nervous tissue. 2. An agent or remedy that produces stimulation. [EU]
Stimulus: That which can elicit or evoke action (response) in a muscle, nerve, gland or other excitable issue, or cause an augmenting action upon any function or metabolic process. [NIH] Stomach: An organ of digestion situated in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen between the termination of the esophagus and the beginning of the duodenum. [NIH] Stool: The waste matter discharged in a bowel movement; feces. [NIH] Strand: DNA normally exists in the bacterial nucleus in a helix, in which two strands are coiled together. [NIH] Stress: Forcibly exerted influence; pressure. Any condition or situation that causes strain or tension. Stress may be either physical or psychologic, or both. [NIH] Stroke: Sudden loss of function of part of the brain because of loss of blood flow. Stroke may be caused by a clot (thrombosis) or rupture (hemorrhage) of a blood vessel to the brain. [NIH] Stroma: The middle, thickest layer of tissue in the cornea. [NIH] Structure-Activity Relationship: The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups. Other factors contributing to structure-activity relationship include chemical reactivity, electronic effects, resonance, and inductive effects. [NIH] Subacute: Somewhat acute; between acute and chronic. [EU] Subarachnoid: Situated or occurring between the arachnoid and the pia mater. [EU] Subclinical: Without clinical manifestations; said of the early stage(s) of an infection or other disease or abnormality before symptoms and signs become apparent or detectable by clinical examination or laboratory tests, or of a very mild form of an infection or other disease or abnormality. [EU] Subcutaneous: Beneath the skin. [NIH] Submandibular: Four to six lymph glands, located between the lower jaw and the submandibular salivary gland. [NIH] Submucous: Occurring beneath the mucosa or a mucous membrane. [NIH] Subspecies: A category intermediate in rank between species and variety, based on a smaller number of correlated characters than are used to differentiate species and generally conditioned by geographical and/or ecological occurrence. [NIH] Substance P: An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and
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peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of pain, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses. [NIH]
Substrate: A substance upon which an enzyme acts. [EU] Substrate Specificity: A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts. [NIH] Sulfadiazine: A short-acting sulfonamide used in combination with pyrimethamine to treat toxoplasmosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and in newborns with congenital infections. [NIH] Sulfadoxine: A long acting sulfonamide that is used, usually in combination with other drugs, for respiratory, urinary tract, and malarial infections. [NIH] Superoxide: Derivative of molecular oxygen that can damage cells. [NIH] Suppression: A conscious exclusion of disapproved desire contrary with repression, in which the process of exclusion is not conscious. [NIH] Suspensions: Colloids with liquid continuous phase and solid dispersed phase; the term is used loosely also for solid-in-gas (aerosol) and other colloidal systems; water-insoluble drugs may be given as suspensions. [NIH] Sweat: The fluid excreted by the sweat glands. It consists of water containing sodium chloride, phosphate, urea, ammonia, and other waste products. [NIH] Sweat Glands: Sweat-producing structures that are embedded in the dermis. Each gland consists of a single tube, a coiled body, and a superficial duct. [NIH] Symbiosis: The living together of organisms of different species. [NIH] Symphysis: A secondary cartilaginous joint. [NIH] Synaptic: Pertaining to or affecting a synapse (= site of functional apposition between neurons, at which an impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another by electrical or chemical means); pertaining to synapsis (= pairing off in point-for-point association of homologous chromosomes from the male and female pronuclei during the early prophase of meiosis). [EU] Synergistic: Acting together; enhancing the effect of another force or agent. [EU] Syphilis: A contagious venereal disease caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidum. [NIH]
Syphilis, Congenital: Syphilis acquired in utero and manifested by any of several characteristic tooth (Hutchinson's teeth) or bone malformations and by active mucocutaneous syphilis at birth or shortly thereafter. Ocular and neurologic changes may also occur. [NIH] Systemic: Affecting the entire body. [NIH] Technetium: The first artificially produced element and a radioactive fission product of uranium. The stablest isotope has a mass number 99 and is used diagnostically as a radioactive imaging agent. Technetium has the atomic symbol Tc, atomic number 43, and atomic weight 98.91. [NIH] Temporal: One of the two irregular bones forming part of the lateral surfaces and base of the skull, and containing the organs of hearing. [NIH] Teratogenesis: Production of monstrous growths or fetuses. [NIH] Teratogenic: Tending to produce anomalies of formation, or teratism (= anomaly of formation or development : condition of a monster). [EU]
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Teratogens: An agent that causes the production of physical defects in the developing embryo. [NIH] Terminator: A DNA sequence sited at the end of a transcriptional unit that signals the end of transcription. [NIH] Testosterone: A hormone that promotes the development and maintenance of male sex characteristics. [NIH] Tetracycline: An antibiotic originally produced by Streptomyces viridifaciens, but used mostly in synthetic form. It is an inhibitor of aminoacyl-tRNA binding during protein synthesis. [NIH] Thalamic: Cell that reaches the lateral nucleus of amygdala. [NIH] Thalidomide: A pharmaceutical agent originally introduced as a non-barbiturate hypnotic, but withdrawn from the market because of its known tetratogenic effects. It has been reintroduced and used for a number of immunological and inflammatory disorders. Thalidomide displays immunosuppresive and anti-angiogenic activity. It inhibits release of tumor necrosis factor alpha from monocytes, and modulates other cytokine action. [NIH] Theophylline: Alkaloid obtained from Thea sinensis (tea) and others. It stimulates the heart and central nervous system, dilates bronchi and blood vessels, and causes diuresis. The drug is used mainly in bronchial asthma and for myocardial stimulation. Among its more prominent cellular effects are inhibition of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases and antagonism of adenosine receptors. [NIH] Therapeutics: The branch of medicine which is concerned with the treatment of diseases, palliative or curative. [NIH] Thermal: Pertaining to or characterized by heat. [EU] Threshold: For a specified sensory modality (e. g. light, sound, vibration), the lowest level (absolute threshold) or smallest difference (difference threshold, difference limen) or intensity of the stimulus discernible in prescribed conditions of stimulation. [NIH] Thrombosis: The formation or presence of a blood clot inside a blood vessel. [NIH] Thylakoids: Membranous cisternae of the chloroplast containing photosynthetic pigments, reaction centers, and the electron-transport chain. Each thylakoid consists of a flattened sac of membrane enclosing a narrow intra-thylakoid space (Lackie and Dow, Dictionary of Cell Biology, 2nd ed). Individual thylakoids are interconnected and tend to stack to form aggregates called grana. They are found in cyanobacteria and all plants. [NIH] Thymidine: A chemical compound found in DNA. Also used as treatment for mucositis. [NIH]
Thymidylate Synthase: An enzyme of the transferase class that catalyzes the reaction 5,10methylenetetrahydrofolate and dUMP to dihydrofolate and dTMP in the synthesis of thymidine triphosphate. (From Dorland, 27th ed) EC 2.1.1.45. [NIH] Thymoma: A tumor of the thymus, an organ that is part of the lymphatic system and is located in the chest, behind the breastbone. [NIH] Thymus: An organ that is part of the lymphatic system, in which T lymphocytes grow and multiply. The thymus is in the chest behind the breastbone. [NIH] Thyroid: A gland located near the windpipe (trachea) that produces thyroid hormone, which helps regulate growth and metabolism. [NIH] Thyroid Gland: A highly vascular endocrine gland consisting of two lobes, one on either side of the trachea, joined by a narrow isthmus; it produces the thyroid hormones which are concerned in regulating the metabolic rate of the body. [NIH]
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Thyroid Hormones: Hormones secreted by the thyroid gland. [NIH] Thyrotropin: A peptide hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary. It promotes the growth of the thyroid gland and stimulates the synthesis of thyroid hormones and the release of thyroxine by the thyroid gland. [NIH] Thyroxine: An amino acid of the thyroid gland which exerts a stimulating effect on thyroid metabolism. [NIH] Tick-Borne Diseases: Bacterial, viral, or parasitic diseases transmitted to humans and animals by the bite of infected ticks. The families Ixodidae and Argasidae contain many bloodsucking species that are important pests of man and domestic birds and mammals and probably exceed all other arthropods in the number and variety of disease agents they transmit. Many of the tick-borne diseases are zoonotic. [NIH] Ticks: Blood-sucking arachnids of the order Acarina. [NIH] Tinnitus: Sounds that are perceived in the absence of any external noise source which may take the form of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. [NIH] Tissue: A group or layer of cells that are alike in type and work together to perform a specific function. [NIH] Tolerance: 1. The ability to endure unusually large doses of a drug or toxin. 2. Acquired drug tolerance; a decreasing response to repeated constant doses of a drug or the need for increasing doses to maintain a constant response. [EU] Toxic: Having to do with poison or something harmful to the body. Toxic substances usually cause unwanted side effects. [NIH] Toxicity: The quality of being poisonous, especially the degree of virulence of a toxic microbe or of a poison. [EU] Toxicokinetics: Study of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of test substances. [NIH] Toxicology: The science concerned with the detection, chemical composition, and pharmacologic action of toxic substances or poisons and the treatment and prevention of toxic manifestations. [NIH] Toxins: Specific, characterizable, poisonous chemicals, often proteins, with specific biological properties, including immunogenicity, produced by microbes, higher plants, or animals. [NIH] Toxoplasma: A genus of protozoa parasitic to birds and mammals. T. gondii is one of the most common infectious pathogenic animal parasites of man. [NIH] Toxoplasmosis: The acquired form of infection by Toxoplasma gondii in animals and man. [NIH]
Trachea: The cartilaginous and membranous tube descending from the larynx and branching into the right and left main bronchi. [NIH] Transcription Factors: Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process. [NIH] Transduction: The transfer of genes from one cell to another by means of a viral (in the case of bacteria, a bacteriophage) vector or a vector which is similar to a virus particle
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(pseudovirion). [NIH] Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA into cells, usually eukaryotic. It is analogous to bacterial transformation. [NIH] Transfer Factor: Factor derived from leukocyte lysates of immune donors which can transfer both local and systemic cellular immunity to nonimmune recipients. [NIH] Transfusion: The infusion of components of blood or whole blood into the bloodstream. The blood may be donated from another person, or it may have been taken from the person earlier and stored until needed. [NIH] Transgenes: Genes that are introduced into an organism using gene transfer techniques. [NIH]
Translation: The process whereby the genetic information present in the linear sequence of ribonucleotides in mRNA is converted into a corresponding sequence of amino acids in a protein. It occurs on the ribosome and is unidirectional. [NIH] Translocating: The attachment of a fragment of one chromosome to a non-homologous chromosome. [NIH] Translocation: The movement of material in solution inside the body of the plant. [NIH] Transmitter: A chemical substance which effects the passage of nerve impulses from one cell to the other at the synapse. [NIH] Transplantation: Transference of a tissue or organ, alive or dead, within an individual, between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species. [NIH] Trauma: Any injury, wound, or shock, must frequently physical or structural shock, producing a disturbance. [NIH] Tremor: Cyclical movement of a body part that can represent either a physiologic process or a manifestation of disease. Intention or action tremor, a common manifestation of cerebellar diseases, is aggravated by movement. In contrast, resting tremor is maximal when there is no attempt at voluntary movement, and occurs as a relatively frequent manifestation of Parkinson disease. [NIH] Trichinosis: A disease due to infection with Trichinella spiralis. It is caused by eating undercooked meat, usually pork. [NIH] Trichuriasis: Infection with nematodes of the genus Trichuris, formerly called Trichocephalus. [NIH] Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: An antibiotic drug used to treat infection and prevent pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. [NIH] Trimetrexate: A nonclassical folic acid inhibitor through its inhibition of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase. It is being tested for efficacy as an antineoplastic agent and as an antiparasitic agent against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in AIDS patients. Myelosuppression is its dose-limiting toxic effect. [NIH] Trophoblast: The outer layer of cells of the blastocyst which works its way into the endometrium during ovum implantation and grows rapidly, later combining with mesoderm. [NIH] Trypanosomiasis: Infection with protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma. [NIH] Tuberculosis: Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of Mycobacterium. [NIH] Tumor Necrosis Factor: Serum glycoprotein produced by activated macrophages and other mammalian mononuclear leukocytes which has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. It mimics the action of endotoxin but differs
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from it. It has a molecular weight of less than 70,000 kDa. [NIH] Tympanic membrane: A thin, tense membrane forming the greater part of the outer wall of the tympanic cavity and separating it from the external auditory meatus; it constitutes the boundary between the external and middle ear. [NIH] Ubiquinone: A lipid-soluble benzoquinone which is involved in electron transport in mitochondrial preparations. The compound occurs in the majority of aerobic organisms, from bacteria to higher plants and animals. [NIH] Unconscious: Experience which was once conscious, but was subsequently rejected, as the "personal unconscious". [NIH] Universal Precautions: Prudent standard preventive measures to be taken by professional and other health personnel in contact with persons afflicted with a communicable disease, to avoid contracting the disease by contagion or infection. Precautions are especially applicable in the diagnosis and care of AIDS patients. [NIH] Uracil: An anticancer drug that belongs to the family of drugs called alkylating agents. [NIH] Uranium: A radioactive element of the actinide series of metals. It has an atomic symbol U, atomic number 92, and atomic weight 238.03. U-235 is used as the fissionable fuel in nuclear weapons and as fuel in nuclear power reactors. [NIH] Urban Population: The inhabitants of a city or town, including metropolitan areas and suburban areas. [NIH] Uremia: The illness associated with the buildup of urea in the blood because the kidneys are not working effectively. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, weakness, and mental confusion. [NIH] Urethra: The tube through which urine leaves the body. It empties urine from the bladder. [NIH]
Urinary: Having to do with urine or the organs of the body that produce and get rid of urine. [NIH] Urinary tract: The organs of the body that produce and discharge urine. These include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. [NIH] Urine: Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra. [NIH] Urogenital: Pertaining to the urinary and genital apparatus; genitourinary. [EU] Uterus: The small, hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman's pelvis. This is the organ in which a fetus develops. Also called the womb. [NIH] Uveitis: An inflammation of part or all of the uvea, the middle (vascular) tunic of the eye, and commonly involving the other tunics (the sclera and cornea, and the retina). [EU] Vaccine: A substance or group of substances meant to cause the immune system to respond to a tumor or to microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses. [NIH] Vacuole: A fluid-filled cavity within the cytoplasm of a cell. [NIH] Vagina: The muscular canal extending from the uterus to the exterior of the body. Also called the birth canal. [NIH] Vaginitis: Inflammation of the vagina characterized by pain and a purulent discharge. [NIH] Vancomycin: Antibacterial obtained from Streptomyces orientalis. It is a glycopeptide related to ristocetin that inhibits bacterial cell wall assembly and is toxic to kidneys and the inner ear. [NIH] Varicella: Chicken pox. [EU]
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Vascular: Pertaining to blood vessels or indicative of a copious blood supply. [EU] Vasculitis: Inflammation of a blood vessel. [NIH] Vasodilators: Any nerve or agent which induces dilatation of the blood vessels. [NIH] Vector: Plasmid or other self-replicating DNA molecule that transfers DNA between cells in nature or in recombinant DNA technology. [NIH] Vein: Vessel-carrying blood from various parts of the body to the heart. [NIH] Venereal: Pertaining or related to or transmitted by sexual contact. [EU] Venoms: Poisonous animal secretions forming fluid mixtures of many different enzymes, toxins, and other substances. These substances are produced in specialized glands and secreted through specialized delivery systems (nematocysts, spines, fangs, etc.) for disabling prey or predator. [NIH] Venous: Of or pertaining to the veins. [EU] Ventricle: One of the two pumping chambers of the heart. The right ventricle receives oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle receives oxygen-rich blood from the left atrium and pumps it to the body through the aorta. [NIH] Ventricular: Pertaining to a ventricle. [EU] Vertigo: An illusion of movement; a sensation as if the external world were revolving around the patient (objective vertigo) or as if he himself were revolving in space (subjective vertigo). The term is sometimes erroneously used to mean any form of dizziness. [EU] Vesicular: 1. Composed of or relating to small, saclike bodies. 2. Pertaining to or made up of vesicles on the skin. [EU] Vestibule: A small, oval, bony chamber of the labyrinth. The vestibule contains the utricle and saccule, organs which are part of the balancing apparatus of the ear. [NIH] Vestibulocochlear Nerve: The 8th cranial nerve. The vestibulocochlear nerve has a cochlear part (cochlear nerve) which is concerned with hearing and a vestibular part (vestibular nerve) which mediates the sense of balance and head position. The fibers of the cochlear nerve originate from neurons of the spiral ganglion and project to the cochlear nuclei (cochlear nucleus). The fibers of the vestibular nerve arise from neurons of Scarpa's ganglion and project to the vestibular nuclei. [NIH] Vestibulocochlear Nerve Diseases: Diseases of the vestibular and/or cochlear (acoustic) nerves, which join to form the vestibulocochlear nerve. Vestibular neuritis, cochlear neuritis, and acoustic neuromas are relatively common conditions that affect these nerves. Clinical manifestations vary with which nerve is primarily affected, and include hearing loss, vertigo, and tinnitus. [NIH] Veterinary Medicine: The medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases in animals. [NIH] Vibrio: A genus of Vibrionaceae, made up of short, slightly curved, motile, gram-negative rods. Various species produce cholera and other gastrointestinal disorders as well as abortion in sheep and cattle. [NIH] Vibrio cholerae: The etiologic agent of cholera. [NIH] Villi: The tiny, fingerlike projections on the surface of the small intestine. Villi help absorb nutrients. [NIH] Viral: Pertaining to, caused by, or of the nature of virus. [EU] Virulence: The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or
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viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. [NIH] Virulent: A virus or bacteriophage capable only of lytic growth, as opposed to temperate phages establishing the lysogenic response. [NIH] Virus: Submicroscopic organism that causes infectious disease. In cancer therapy, some viruses may be made into vaccines that help the body build an immune response to, and kill, tumor cells. [NIH] Viscera: Any of the large interior organs in any one of the three great cavities of the body, especially in the abdomen. [NIH] Visceral: , from viscus a viscus) pertaining to a viscus. [EU] Visceral Larva Migrans: Infestation of the dermis by various larvae, characterized by bizarre red irregular lines which are broad at one end and fade at the other, produced by burrowing larvae. [NIH] Vitreous Body: The transparent, semigelatinous substance that fills the cavity behind the crystalline lens of the eye and in front of the retina. It is contained in a thin hyoid membrane and forms about four fifths of the optic globe. [NIH] Vitro: Descriptive of an event or enzyme reaction under experimental investigation occurring outside a living organism. Parts of an organism or microorganism are used together with artificial substrates and/or conditions. [NIH] Vivo: Outside of or removed from the body of a living organism. [NIH] White blood cell: A type of cell in the immune system that helps the body fight infection and disease. White blood cells include lymphocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, and others. [NIH]
Windpipe: A rigid tube, 10 cm long, extending from the cricoid cartilage to the upper border of the fifth thoracic vertebra. [NIH] Withdrawal: 1. A pathological retreat from interpersonal contact and social involvement, as may occur in schizophrenia, depression, or schizoid avoidant and schizotypal personality disorders. 2. (DSM III-R) A substance-specific organic brain syndrome that follows the cessation of use or reduction in intake of a psychoactive substance that had been regularly used to induce a state of intoxication. [EU] Xanthine: An urinary calculus. [NIH] Xenograft: The cells of one species transplanted to another species. [NIH] X-ray: High-energy radiation used in low doses to diagnose diseases and in high doses to treat cancer. [NIH] Yaws: A systemic non-venereal infection of the tropics caused by Treponema pallidum subspecies pertenue. [NIH] Yeasts: A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers' and bakers' yeasts are Saccharomyces cerevisiae; therapeutic dried yeast is dried yeast. [NIH] Zidovudine: A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3'-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by an azido group. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA during reverse transcription. It improves immunologic function, partially reverses the HIVinduced neurological dysfunction, and improves certain other clinical abnormalities associated with AIDS. Its principal toxic effect is dose-dependent suppression of bone marrow, resulting in anemia and leukopenia. [NIH]
Dictionary 241
Zoonoses: Diseases of non-human animals that may be transmitted to man or may be transmitted from man to non-human animals. [NIH] Zoster: A virus infection of the Gasserian ganglion and its nerve branches, characterized by discrete areas of vesiculation of the epithelium of the forehead, the nose, the eyelids, and the cornea together with subepithelial infiltration. [NIH] Zygote: The fertilized ovum. [NIH]
243
INDEX A Abdominal, 168, 173, 198, 207, 219, 220 Ablation, 19, 173 Abscess, 4, 173 Acetylcholine, 173, 216 Acoustic, 132, 173, 239 Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, 20, 48, 60, 66, 85, 111, 173, 202, 234 Acyl, 114, 122, 173 Adaptability, 173, 183 Adenine, 173, 225 Adenopathy, 82, 173 Adenosine, 8, 18, 21, 110, 173, 181, 203, 221, 235 Adenosine Kinase, 8, 21, 173 Adenovirus, 173, 189 Adjuvant, 20, 173 Adolescence, 173, 220 Adoptive Transfer, 20, 35, 173 Adrenal Glands, 174 Adrenal insufficiency, 45, 174 Adrenergic, 78, 174, 191, 194 Adverse Effect, 103, 174, 230 Aerobic, 174, 213, 232, 238 Aerosol, 174, 234 Aetiology, 90, 174 Affinity, 174, 178, 210, 231 Agar, 6, 174, 189, 204 Agonists, 25, 174 Air Sacs, 174, 175 Algorithms, 174, 180 Alimentary, 174, 206, 219 Alkaline, 174, 181 Alkaloid, 174, 186, 214, 235 Alkylating Agents, 174, 238 Allogeneic, 48, 66, 84, 90, 174, 201 Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation, 66, 174 Allograft, 39, 55, 85, 175 Alpha Particles, 175, 226 Alternative medicine, 141, 175 Alveoli, 15, 175 Amino Acid Sequence, 175, 176, 224 Amino Acids, 22, 175, 195, 217, 220, 223, 224, 237 Amniocentesis, 59, 175 Amnion, 175 Amniotic Fluid, 59, 74, 75, 175
Amphetamines, 175, 186 Amplification, 129, 175 Ampulla, 175, 185 Amygdala, 175, 235 Anaerobic, 175, 214, 228, 230, 232 Anaesthesia, 175, 205 Anal, 175, 197 Analgesic, 175, 214, 217 Analog, 175, 185 Analogous, 175, 192, 237 Anaphylatoxins, 176, 187 Anatomical, 131, 176, 205 Anemia, 101, 168, 176, 197, 211, 240 Angiitis, 60, 176 Angiogenesis, 31, 176 Animal Husbandry, 109, 112, 117, 176 Animal model, 18, 42, 104, 176 Annealing, 176, 222 Anomalies, 90, 129, 131, 176, 234 Anoxia, 5, 176 Anterior chamber, 176, 207 Anthelmintic, 114, 122, 176, 223 Antibacterial, 117, 176, 185, 231, 238 Antibiotic, 104, 108, 123, 176, 178, 181, 185, 195, 209, 213, 227, 228, 231, 232, 235, 237 Antidote, 176, 209 Antifungal, 123, 176 Antigen, 14, 20, 26, 34, 35, 37, 41, 97, 113, 121, 174, 176, 177, 178, 187, 193, 194, 199, 202, 203, 204, 205, 211, 230, 231 Antigen-Antibody Complex, 177, 187 Anti-infective, 177, 198, 207 Anti-Infective Agents, 177, 198 Antimicrobial, 36, 97, 177 Antineoplastic, 130, 132, 174, 177, 237 Antioxidants, 177, 198, 221 Antiprotozoal Agents, 123, 177 Antiserum, 177, 178 Antiviral, 14, 126, 177, 206 Anus, 175, 177, 181, 206 Apathy, 142, 177 Apoptosis, 7, 11, 15, 23, 28, 177 Applicability, 79, 177 Aqueous, 39, 43, 54, 55, 87, 91, 177, 179, 185, 190, 193, 209 Aqueous humor, 54, 55, 87, 91, 177, 185 Arginine, 176, 177, 216 Arterial, 177, 184, 203, 224
244 Toxoplasmosis
Arteries, 177, 180, 189, 212, 222, 225 Aspartate, 27, 177 Aspiration, 177 Assay, 21, 39, 40, 55, 56, 63, 73, 177, 204, 228 Astrocytes, 24, 30, 177 Asymptomatic, 14, 17, 30, 52, 113, 115, 136, 171, 178, 196 Ataxia, 178, 184, 203 Attenuated, 20, 178 Atypical, 47, 53, 61, 63, 85, 87, 137, 178, 205 Audiologist, 129, 178 Audiology, 3, 129, 131, 132, 178 Auditory, 3, 129, 131, 178, 192, 201, 211, 238 Autoimmune disease, 178, 214 Autologous, 48, 49, 54, 71, 96, 178, 201 Autologous bone marrow transplantation, 178, 201 Autonomic, 173, 178, 214, 216, 220, 232 Avidity, 20, 40, 44, 62, 63, 66, 68, 178 Axons, 178, 218, 220, 227, 232 Azithromycin, 42, 44, 47, 92, 103, 140, 144, 178 B Babesiosis, 119, 178 Bacteremia, 178, 228 Bacterial Infections, 3, 129, 132, 178, 183 Bacteriophage, 178, 228, 236, 240 Bacteriostatic, 179, 195 Bacterium, 179, 183, 186, 210 Barbiturate, 179, 235 Barotrauma, 132, 179 Base, 173, 179, 190, 195, 208, 234 Basophils, 179, 200, 209 Benign, 112, 129, 133, 171, 179, 181, 198, 200, 215 Beta-Galactosidase, 35, 179 Bewilderment, 179, 188 Bilateral, 48, 179, 223, 227 Bile, 128, 179, 198, 207, 210, 233 Bile Acids, 179, 233 Bile Acids and Salts, 179 Bile Pigments, 179, 207 Biliary, 179, 185 Bilirubin, 179, 203 Biochemical, 21, 30, 32, 33, 179, 181, 197, 230 Biogenesis, 32, 179 Biological response modifier, 179, 206 Biological Transport, 179, 191
Biopsy, 48, 87, 133, 169, 170, 180 Biosynthesis, 19, 33, 180 Biotechnology, 37, 43, 127, 141, 151, 180 Biotransformation, 180 Bladder, 4, 180, 205, 224, 238 Blast phase, 180, 185 Blastocyst, 180, 188, 218, 237 Blastomycosis, 131, 180 Blood Coagulation, 180, 182, 228 Blood pressure, 180, 203, 213, 225, 231 Blood transfusion, 133, 180 Blood vessel, 176, 180, 194, 196, 207, 210, 220, 231, 233, 235, 239 Blood-Brain Barrier, 118, 180 Blot, 56, 73, 86, 180, 204 Blotting, Western, 180, 204 Body Fluids, 180, 192, 231 Bone Conduction, 181, 227 Bone Marrow Transplantation, 48, 53, 54, 55, 66, 69, 81, 83, 84, 86, 181 Bowel, 175, 181, 191, 208, 233 Bowel Movement, 181, 191, 233 Bradykinin, 181, 216 Brain Neoplasms, 181, 203 Branch, 60, 165, 181, 210, 211, 218, 220, 225, 231, 235 Breeding, 176, 181 Broad-spectrum, 181, 227 Bronchioles, 175, 181 Bronchoalveolar Lavage, 41, 181 Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid, 41, 181 Buccal, 181, 210 C Caffeine, 181, 225 Calcium, 8, 11, 15, 17, 102, 104, 181, 182, 187, 209, 230 Calcium Signaling, 15, 182 Candidiasis, 5, 133, 182 Candidosis, 131, 182 Capsules, 182, 192 Carbohydrate, 33, 182, 217, 223 Carbon Dioxide, 182, 197, 198 Carcinogenic, 174, 182, 206, 217, 224, 233 Carcinoma, 182 Cardiac, 82, 119, 181, 182, 193, 194, 196, 215, 233 Carotene, 182, 227 Case report, 46, 60, 70, 76, 81, 82, 85, 86, 182, 185, 196 Case series, 182, 185 Cataract, 59, 77, 182 Catecholamine, 182, 191, 221
Index 245
Cat-Scratch Disease, 48, 183 Cell Adhesion, 23, 183 Cell Count, 5, 183 Cell Cycle, 12, 34, 183, 189 Cell Death, 7, 28, 123, 177, 183, 199, 215 Cell Differentiation, 183, 230 Cell Division, 178, 183, 213, 222, 224, 229 Cell Lineage, 16, 183 Cell membrane, 180, 183, 190, 195, 212 Cell proliferation, 183, 230 Cell Respiration, 183, 213 Cell Size, 183, 197 Cell Survival, 28, 183 Cell Transplantation, 49, 71, 183 Cellulose, 183, 198, 222 Central Nervous System Infections, 30, 183, 201, 203 Cerebellar, 90, 178, 184, 237 Cerebellar Diseases, 178, 184, 237 Cerebral Infarction, 184, 203 Cerebral Palsy, 184, 231 Cerebrospinal, 40, 73, 87, 184, 203 Cerebrospinal fluid, 73, 87, 184, 203 Cerebrum, 184 Cerumen, 131, 184 Cervical, 184 Cestode, 184, 223 Chemokines, 11, 29, 184 Chemotactic Factors, 184, 187 Chemotaxis, 11, 184 Chemotherapy, 8, 17, 30, 97, 112, 117, 132, 184, 228 Chitin Synthase, 33, 184 Chlorophyll, 184, 198 Chloroplasts, 32, 184 Cholera, 130, 184, 239 Cholestasis, 128, 185 Cholesterol, 179, 185, 233 Chorioretinitis, 33, 36, 49, 67, 73, 114, 167, 185, 227 Choroid, 185, 227 Chromatin, 12, 177, 185, 194 Chromosomal, 12, 129, 175, 185, 222 Chromosome, 12, 185, 200, 208, 209, 229, 237 Chronic Disease, 31, 185 Chronic lymphocytic leukemia, 185 Chronic myelogenous leukemia, 180, 185 Chronic phase, 68, 185 Ciliary, 177, 185, 207, 214, 230 Ciliary Body, 185, 207, 230 Ciliary processes, 177, 185
CIS, 185, 227 Clarithromycin, 38, 42, 144, 185 Clindamycin, 41, 42, 93, 97, 102, 103, 105, 144, 185 Clinical Medicine, 185, 223 Clinical study, 126, 185 Clinical trial, 6, 27, 37, 64, 101, 105, 151, 152, 185, 188, 225, 226 Clone, 15, 186 Cloning, 17, 68, 180, 186, 206 Clostridium, 130, 186, 198 Clostridium botulinum, 130, 186 Clostridium perfringens, 130, 186 Coca, 186 Cocaine, 24, 186 Coccidia, 113, 114, 117, 119, 121, 122, 186, 215 Coccidioidomycosis, 131, 186 Coccidiosis, 17, 19, 109, 119, 186 Cochlea, 186, 206, 227 Cochlear, 131, 132, 186, 236, 239 Cochlear Diseases, 186, 236 Cofactor, 24, 186, 224 Cognition, 186, 208 Colchicine, 92, 93, 186 Collagen, 187, 196, 222 Colloidal, 187, 234 Colonic Pseudo-Obstruction, 78, 187 Commensal, 187 Commensalism, 110, 187 Communicable disease, 187, 238 Communication Disorders, 106, 130, 150, 187 Complement, 10, 83, 176, 187, 188, 199, 208 Complementary and alternative medicine, 95, 99, 187 Complementary medicine, 95, 187 Complementation, 17, 188 Computational Biology, 151, 188 Conception, 116, 188, 196 Concomitant, 14, 188 Conduction, 188, 227 Cones, 188, 227 Confounding, 40, 65, 188 Confusion, 158, 168, 188, 191, 238 Conjunctiva, 188, 206 Connective Tissue, 181, 187, 188, 196, 198, 210, 220, 228 Consciousness, 175, 188, 190 Constitutional, 188, 227 Constriction, 188, 207
246 Toxoplasmosis
Consumption, 188, 191, 199 Contamination, 188, 202 Contraception, 125, 188 Contraindications, ii, 188 Controlled study, 36, 188 Conventional therapy, 102, 188 Conventional treatment, 188 Coordination, 188, 225 Cornea, 176, 177, 189, 202, 233, 238, 241 Coronary, 189, 212 Coronary Thrombosis, 189, 212 Corpus, 189, 210, 220, 224 Cortical, 189, 229 Corticosteroids, 92, 189 Co-trimoxazole, 140, 189 Cranial, 6, 170, 189, 200, 207, 218, 219, 220, 239 Craniocerebral Trauma, 189, 201, 203, 236 Crossing-over, 189, 226 Cryptococcosis, 131, 189 Cryptosporidiidae, 119, 189 Cryptosporidiosis, 5, 13, 178, 189 Cryptosporidium, 13, 21, 109, 136, 137, 189 Crystallization, 22, 27, 189 Culture Media, 174, 189 Cultured cells, 110, 189 Curative, 189, 235 Cutaneous, 119, 180, 182, 189, 208, 209, 210, 229, 232 Cyclic, 39, 108, 109, 181, 189, 200, 216, 235 Cyclin, 12, 189 Cyclin A, 12, 189 Cyst, 17, 19, 23, 33, 35, 62, 78, 113, 121, 190 Cysteine, 26, 184, 190 Cysteine Endopeptidases, 190 Cysteine Proteinase Inhibitors, 26, 190 Cystine, 26, 190 Cytokine, 10, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20, 24, 28, 29, 35, 190, 235 Cytomegalovirus, 3, 4, 5, 6, 58, 83, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 137, 190 Cytoplasm, 177, 179, 182, 183, 190, 194, 200, 214, 238 Cytotoxic, 11, 20, 29, 31, 35, 96, 190, 230 D Databases, Bibliographic, 151, 190 De novo, 8, 27, 190 Degenerative, 190, 201 Dehydration, 129, 184, 190 Deletion, 16, 18, 23, 177, 190 Dementia, 23, 136, 142, 173, 190
Denaturation, 190, 222 Dendrites, 190, 216 Dendritic, 29, 52, 190, 227 Density, 190, 197, 217 Depolarization, 190, 230 Deprivation, 130, 190 Dermatosis, 191, 196 Deuterium, 191, 203 Developed Countries, 109, 191, 197 Diabetes Mellitus, 132, 191, 199, 201, 206 Diagnostic procedure, 107, 141, 191 Diarrhea, 114, 118, 122, 129, 189, 191, 198 Diffusion, 54, 180, 191, 204, 205 Digestion, 174, 179, 181, 186, 191, 210, 233 Digestive system, 106, 191 Digestive tract, 191, 231, 232 Dihydrotestosterone, 191, 226 Dilatation, 191, 224, 239 Dilation, 181, 191, 203 Diploid, 188, 191, 222 Direct, iii, 7, 15, 17, 18, 31, 32, 33, 40, 61, 115, 142, 143, 185, 191, 199, 219, 226 Discrimination, 6, 40, 54, 63, 67, 191 Disease Progression, 11, 191 Disorientation, 188, 191 Dizziness, 129, 191, 239 Domesticated, 109, 191 Dopamine, 52, 186, 191 Dosage Forms, 108, 112, 192, 221 Dose-dependent, 192, 240 Dose-limiting, 192, 237 Drug Design, 9, 13, 145, 192 Drug Interactions, 145, 192 Drug Resistance, 17, 109, 192 Drug Tolerance, 192, 236 Duct, 175, 192, 195, 228, 234 Duodenum, 179, 192, 233 Dura mater, 192, 212, 218 Dynorphins, 192, 217 Dysplasia, 129, 131, 192 Dystrophy, 15, 192 E Eardrum, 131, 192 Echinococcosis, 131, 192 Effector, 7, 14, 16, 173, 187, 192 Effector cell, 14, 192 Efficacy, 20, 38, 39, 50, 92, 102, 104, 192, 193, 237 Electrolyte, 193, 231 Electrons, 179, 193, 207, 218, 226 ELISA, 29, 50, 57, 170, 193 Emaciation, 173, 193
Index 247
Embryo, 175, 180, 183, 193, 205, 212, 223, 232, 235 Emulsion, 193, 197 Encephalitis, Viral, 193 Endemic, 62, 184, 193, 211 Endocarditis, 182, 193, 210 Endocytosis, 29, 193 Endometrium, 193, 237 Endorphins, 193, 217, 224 Endothelial cell, 19, 180, 194 Endothelium, 19, 194, 216 Endothelium, Lymphatic, 194 Endothelium, Vascular, 194 Endothelium-derived, 194, 216 Endotoxin, 194, 237 Enkephalins, 194, 217 Environmental Health, 150, 152, 194 Enzymatic, 8, 22, 32, 182, 187, 194, 208, 223, 227 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay, 38, 40, 44, 49, 63, 194 Eosinophils, 194, 200, 209 Epidemic, 136, 194 Epidermoid carcinoma, 194, 232 Epigastric, 194, 219 Epinephrine, 174, 191, 194, 216 Epithelial, 180, 185, 186, 195 Epithelial Cells, 186, 195 Epithelium, 189, 194, 195, 202, 207, 241 Epitope, 10, 57, 195 Erectile, 195, 220 Erythrocytes, 176, 178, 181, 195, 201, 219 Erythromycin, 132, 178, 185, 195, 228 Esophagus, 191, 195, 221, 233 Estrogen, 195, 224 Ethnic Groups, 130, 195 Eukaryotic Cells, 34, 195, 218 Eustachian tube, 179, 195 Evoke, 195, 233 Excipients, 195, 198, 221 Excitation, 175, 195, 197 Exhaustion, 195, 211 Exocrine, 195, 218 Exocytosis, 15, 195 Exogenous, 18, 28, 29, 130, 180, 190, 195 Exotoxin, 186, 195 Extracellular, 178, 188, 193, 195, 196, 231 Extracellular Matrix, 188, 195, 196 Extracorporeal, 4, 196 Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation, 4, 196 Extraction, 77, 196
Exudate, 185, 196, 217 Eye Manifestations, 51, 128, 196 F Facial, 6, 196, 211, 219 Family Planning, 4, 151, 196 Fat, 179, 181, 182, 196, 209, 210, 217, 231 Fatal Outcome, 196, 226 Fatigue, 129, 196, 201 Feces, 113, 121, 158, 196, 210, 233 Fermentation, 196, 198, 228, 230 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, 3, 130, 196 Fetal Death, 113, 196 Fetus, 27, 35, 62, 101, 111, 113, 116, 118, 121, 140, 196, 197, 223, 232, 233, 238 Fibroblasts, 30, 196 Fibrosis, 129, 131, 196, 228 Filariasis, 92, 131, 196 Fine-needle aspiration, 45, 196, 215 Fistula, 4, 5, 196 Fixation, 83, 197 Flaccid, 69, 197 Flavoring Agents, 197, 198, 221 Fleas, 131, 197 Flow Cytometry, 29, 31, 197 Fluorescence, 29, 38, 74, 197 Fluorescent Dyes, 197 Foetal, 112, 197 Folate, 197 Folic Acid, 123, 197, 209, 237 Food Additives, 130, 197 Food Coloring Agents, 198 Food Preservatives, 198 Foodborne Illness, 129, 198 Fovea, 197, 198 Fungi, 176, 198, 200, 212, 213, 232, 240 Fungus, 108, 182, 186, 189, 198 G Galactosides, 179, 198 Gallbladder, 173, 179, 191, 198 Ganglia, 173, 178, 181, 198, 216, 232 Ganglion, 198, 202, 227, 239, 241 Gas, 182, 186, 191, 198, 203, 216, 225, 227, 234 Gas exchange, 198, 227 Gas Gangrene, 186, 198 Gastric, 60, 192, 198 Gastroenteritis, 198, 228 Gastrointestinal, 128, 181, 194, 198, 199, 211, 230, 234, 239 Gene, 9, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19, 21, 24, 26, 29, 30, 34, 127, 173, 180, 199, 206, 229, 237 Gene Expression, 30, 199
248 Toxoplasmosis
Genetic Engineering, 111, 180, 186, 199 Genetic testing, 199, 223 Genetics, 5, 15, 31, 199 Genital, 4, 199, 228, 238 Genitourinary, 4, 199, 238 Genotype, 25, 61, 139, 199, 221 Germ Cells, 199, 217 Gestation, 199, 220, 232 Giant Cells, 199, 228 Giardiasis, 5, 57, 199 Gland, 133, 199, 210, 218, 219, 221, 224, 229, 233, 234, 235, 236 Glomerular, 199, 227 Glucose, 183, 191, 199, 201, 206, 228 Glucose Intolerance, 191, 199 Glucuronic Acid, 199, 201 Glutamic Acid, 197, 200 Glycoprotein, 34, 199, 200, 214, 237 Goats, 93, 119, 200, 215 Gonadal, 200, 233 Gout, 186, 200 Governing Board, 200, 223 Graft, 200, 202, 205 Grafting, 41, 200, 205 Gram-negative, 183, 200, 214, 228, 239 Gram-positive, 186, 200, 210, 232 Gram-Positive Bacteria, 186, 200 Granule, 30, 200 Granulocytes, 200, 230, 240 Granuloma, 130, 132, 200, 210 Granuloma Inguinale, 130, 200, 211 Grasses, 197, 200 Guanylate Cyclase, 200, 216 H Habitual, 83, 200 Haploid, 200, 222 Headache, 136, 169, 181, 200, 201, 203, 206 Headache Disorders, 201 Health Education, 64, 201 Hearing Disorders, 187, 201 Heart failure, 52, 201 Helminthiasis, 183, 201 Helminths, 201, 205 Hematologic malignancies, 120, 201 Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation, 73, 84, 201 Hematuria, 4, 201 Hemoglobin, 176, 195, 201 Hemolysis, 178, 201 Hemorrhage, 189, 200, 201, 221, 233 Heparin, 19, 201 Hepatic, 128, 201
Hepatitis, 128, 130, 201, 202, 205 Hepatitis A, 129, 202 Hepatocyte, 185, 202 Hepatomegaly, 202, 205 Hepatotoxicity, 129, 202 Hepatovirus, 202 Hereditary, 131, 132, 200, 202 Heredity, 199, 202 Herpes, 4, 5, 6, 83, 129, 131, 133, 167, 202 Herpes Simplex Encephalitis, 5, 202 Herpes Zoster, 133, 202 Herpes Zoster Oticus, 133, 202 Histology, 128, 202 Histone Deacetylase, 12, 202 Homeostasis, 8, 14, 15, 202 Homologous, 15, 18, 21, 189, 202, 214, 229, 234, 237 Hormone, 189, 194, 202, 206, 207, 224, 230, 235, 236 Horseradish Peroxidase, 194, 202 Host-Parasite Relations, 110, 202 Hybrid, 186, 202, 203 Hybridization, 38, 41, 74, 111, 202 Hybridoma, 32, 203 Hydrocephalus, 32, 203, 207 Hydrogen, 119, 179, 182, 190, 191, 203, 213, 216, 217, 218, 225 Hydrolysis, 179, 180, 203, 221, 223, 225 Hyperbilirubinemia, 4, 5, 130, 203, 207 Hypertension, 203, 207 Hypnotic, 179, 203, 235 Hypothalamus, 181, 203, 221, 224 Hypothyroidism, 4, 132, 203 Hypoxanthine, 9, 21, 203 Hypoxia, 4, 5, 203 I Id, 94, 98, 158, 164, 166, 203 Idiopathic, 132, 203, 228 Imidazole, 116, 203 Immune response, 7, 14, 16, 18, 20, 26, 27, 34, 54, 77, 116, 173, 176, 178, 203, 204, 231, 234, 240 Immune Sera, 203, 204 Immunity, 4, 9, 14, 24, 28, 29, 31, 41, 52, 56, 68, 97, 120, 173, 204, 237 Immunization, 9, 10, 16, 20, 111, 173, 204, 223, 229 Immunoassay, 194, 204 Immunoblotting, 39, 63, 204 Immunocompromised, 17, 20, 23, 25, 31, 32, 35, 40, 66, 109, 112, 116, 117, 123, 204
Index 249
Immunocompromised Host, 20, 109, 112, 117, 204 Immunodeficiency, 4, 18, 38, 62, 64, 67, 71, 102, 129, 136, 142, 152, 173, 202, 204 Immunodeficiency syndrome, 136, 152, 204 Immunodiffusion, 174, 204 Immunoelectrophoresis, 174, 204 Immunofluorescence, 22, 115, 204, 213 Immunogenic, 32, 204 Immunoglobulin, 38, 39, 40, 42, 49, 52, 55, 56, 57, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 68, 176, 204, 213 Immunohistochemistry, 29, 48, 53, 204 Immunologic, 132, 173, 184, 202, 204, 240 Immunosuppressant, 23, 174, 204 Immunosuppressive, 14, 91, 112, 117, 204 Immunotherapy, 173, 204 Impairment, 5, 129, 142, 178, 179, 185, 205, 212 Implantation, 188, 205, 218 In vivo, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 17, 24, 26, 28, 33, 34, 110, 112, 201, 205 Incision, 205, 207 Incontinence, 203, 205, 214 Incubation, 28, 110, 205, 209 Incubation period, 205, 209 Incubators, 28, 205 Indicative, 126, 205, 220, 239 Induction, 24, 31, 34, 205, 224 Infarction, 184, 189, 205, 212, 222 Infection Control, 133, 205 Infectious Mononucleosis, 95, 126, 205 Infestation, 114, 122, 192, 201, 205, 240 Infiltration, 202, 205, 241 Influenza, 118, 206 Ingestion, 113, 121, 206, 222 Inhalation, 174, 186, 206, 222, 232 Initiation, 16, 27, 28, 142, 206, 236 Inlay, 206, 227 Inner ear, 132, 181, 186, 206, 208, 227, 238 Insecticides, 206, 220 Insertional, 18, 22, 206 Insight, 30, 33, 71, 206 Insulin, 206, 219 Integumentary, 129, 206 Intensive Care, 4, 5, 6, 206 Intensive Care Units, 4, 206 Interferon, 31, 39, 41, 42, 92, 206 Interferon-alpha, 92, 206 Interstitial, 181, 206, 212, 227 Intestinal, 113, 118, 119, 121, 182, 186, 189, 206
Intestines, 114, 118, 122, 173, 196, 198, 199, 206 Intoxication, 130, 206, 240 Intracellular Membranes, 207, 212 Intracranial Hemorrhages, 203, 207 Intracranial Hypertension, 201, 203, 207, 236 Intrahepatic, 129, 207 Intramuscular, 207, 219 Intraocular, 53, 65, 87, 207 Intraperitoneal, 29, 207 Intravenous, 40, 65, 105, 207, 219 Invasive, 113, 121, 204, 207 Invertebrates, 186, 207 Iodine, 93, 207 Ion Channels, 178, 207 Ions, 179, 193, 203, 207 Iridocyclitis, 46, 207 Iris, 176, 189, 207, 225 Ischemia, 128, 136, 207, 214 Ixodes, 178, 207 J Jaundice, 101, 169, 203, 207, 215 Joint, 39, 207, 234 K Karyotype, 175, 208 Kb, 150, 208 Kidney Disease, 4, 106, 150, 208 Kinetic, 22, 27, 208 L Labile, 187, 208 Labyrinth, 186, 206, 208, 218, 220, 229, 239 Labyrinthitis, 132, 208 Lactation, 208, 224 Language Development, 5, 208 Language Disorders, 187, 208 Large Intestine, 191, 206, 208, 226, 231 Larva, 131, 208 Larva Migrans, 131, 208 Latency, 25, 208 Latent, 17, 19, 25, 33, 40, 52, 54, 64, 77, 103, 112, 117, 208 Laxative, 174, 208 Leishmania, 22, 110, 208, 209 Leishmaniasis, 36, 52, 131, 208 Lens, 177, 182, 209, 240 Lentivirus, 18, 20, 202, 209 Leprosy, 36, 209 Lesion, 180, 200, 209, 210 Lethal, 17, 19, 37, 209 Lethargy, 203, 209 Leucovorin, 101, 102, 104, 123, 144, 209
250 Toxoplasmosis
Leukemia, 48, 185, 201, 209 Leukocytes, 7, 20, 29, 179, 181, 184, 194, 200, 206, 209, 213, 219, 237 Leukoencephalopathy, 136, 209 Leukopenia, 209, 240 Leukoplakia, 133, 136, 137, 209 Library Services, 164, 209 Lice, 131, 209 Life cycle, 16, 33, 110, 127, 128, 137, 198, 208, 209 Ligament, 209, 224 Ligands, 34, 209 Lincomycin, 185, 209 Linkage, 33, 209, 220 Lipid, 206, 209, 238 Lipophilic, 13, 210 Listeria monocytogenes, 130, 210 Litter, 76, 210 Liver, 39, 49, 54, 55, 58, 66, 101, 128, 169, 173, 179, 186, 190, 191, 192, 193, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 207, 210, 215, 228 Liver Transplantation, 39, 54, 55, 58, 210 Localization, 204, 210 Localized, 173, 197, 205, 210, 214, 222 Locomotion, 210, 222 Loop, 130, 132, 210 Lubricants, 210, 220 Lumen, 15, 194, 210 Lupus, 61, 129, 210 Lutein Cells, 210, 224 Lymph node, 23, 45, 87, 133, 169, 170, 184, 210, 226, 228 Lymphadenopathy, 35, 40, 48, 63, 168, 202, 205, 210 Lymphatic, 194, 205, 210, 231, 232, 235 Lymphatic system, 210, 231, 232, 235 Lymphocyte, 11, 16, 62, 173, 177, 210, 211 Lymphocyte Count, 173, 210 Lymphogranuloma Venereum, 200, 210 Lymphoid, 14, 34, 176, 189, 211, 223 Lymphoma, 4, 31, 40, 54, 67, 69, 133, 168, 201, 211 Lymphomatoid Granulomatosis, 62, 211 Lytic, 11, 17, 211, 229, 240 M Macrophage, 7, 29, 67, 211 Maintenance therapy, 83, 103, 152, 211 Malaria, 7, 12, 15, 17, 19, 27, 36, 92, 109, 110, 112, 117, 119, 131, 211, 222 Malaria, Falciparum, 211 Malaria, Vivax, 211 Malignancy, 4, 53, 132, 211
Malignant, 173, 177, 181, 211, 215, 228 Manifest, 118, 211 Mannans, 198, 211 Meat, 33, 113, 121, 130, 158, 211, 237 Meatus, 192, 211, 218, 238 Mediate, 23, 25, 29, 30, 32, 191, 211 Mediator, 15, 20, 27, 211, 230 Medical Records, 212, 227 Medicament, 111, 119, 212 MEDLINE, 151, 212 Megaloblastic, 197, 212 Membrane Fusion, 15, 212 Memory, 20, 190, 212 Meninges, 183, 189, 192, 212 Meningitis, 4, 5, 132, 136, 142, 210, 212, 221 Mental deficiency, 196, 212 Mental Disorders, 106, 212, 221, 223, 225 Mental Health, iv, 6, 106, 150, 153, 212, 217, 223, 225 Mental Retardation, 33, 111, 113, 116, 187, 212 Mercury, 197, 212 Mesoderm, 212, 237 Metabolic disorder, 132, 200, 212 Metabolite, 180, 209, 212 MI, 60, 171, 212 Mice Minute Virus, 212, 219 Microbe, 212, 236 Microorganism, 186, 213, 219, 240 Microscopy, 19, 22, 29, 202, 213 Microscopy, Fluorescence, 19, 213 Milligram, 21, 213 Minocycline, 42, 213 Mitochondria, 30, 118, 213, 218 Mitochondrial Swelling, 213, 215 Mitosis, 177, 213 Mobilization, 182, 213 Modeling, 26, 192, 213 Modification, 22, 199, 213, 240 Monitor, 213, 217 Monoclonal, 13, 204, 213, 226 Monoclonal antibodies, 204, 213 Monocytes, 34, 209, 213, 235 Mononuclear, 200, 205, 213, 214, 237 Morphine, 24, 214, 215, 217 Morphogenesis, 196, 214 Morphological, 17, 193, 198, 214 Morphology, 19, 68, 182, 214 Motility, 23, 214, 230 Motion Sickness, 214, 215 Motor Activity, 214, 225
Index 251
Mucociliary, 214, 230 Mucocutaneous, 209, 214, 234 Mucolytic, 181, 214 Mucosa, 210, 214, 224, 233 Multivalent, 178, 214 Muscular Dystrophies, 192, 214 Mutagenesis, 18, 22, 23, 27, 214 Mutagens, 214 Myalgia, 169, 206, 214 Mycobacteriosis, 20, 214 Mycoplasma, 132, 183, 214 Mycoplasma Infections, 183, 214 Myelitis, 47, 69, 214 Myeloma, 203, 214 Myiasis, 131, 214 Myocarditis, 41, 52, 168, 214 Myocardium, 212, 214, 215 N Naive, 14, 215 Narcotic, 214, 215 Nasal Mucosa, 206, 215 Natural selection, 179, 215 Nausea, 114, 118, 122, 192, 198, 215, 238 NCI, 1, 105, 149, 185, 215 Necrosis, 15, 177, 184, 196, 205, 212, 215, 228 Needle biopsy, 196, 215 Neonatal, 4, 5, 6, 24, 39, 51, 53, 55, 59, 61, 69, 70, 73, 87, 91, 113, 128, 215 Neonatal Hepatitis, 128, 215 Neonatal period, 6, 53, 91, 128, 215 Neonatal Screening, 59, 61, 215 Neoplasia, 215 Neoplasm, 215, 228 Neoplastic, 31, 111, 132, 211, 215, 228 Neospora, 7, 9, 37, 114, 117, 122, 215, 228 Nephropathy, 4, 208, 216 Nerve, 174, 178, 190, 198, 202, 211, 216, 218, 219, 223, 232, 233, 237, 239, 241 Nervous System, 4, 12, 23, 24, 32, 33, 40, 48, 58, 69, 70, 93, 97, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 135, 171, 173, 175, 181, 183, 186, 192, 194, 198, 200, 211, 214, 216, 218, 223, 226, 230, 234, 235 Neural, 215, 216 Neurologic, 70, 114, 117, 122, 202, 203, 216, 234 Neuronal, 24, 216, 220 Neurons, 30, 186, 190, 198, 216, 232, 234, 239 Neuropathy, 47, 131, 216 Neuroretinitis, 48, 71, 216, 227
Neurotoxic, 23, 216 Neurotoxicity, 23, 24, 216 Neurotoxins, 130, 216 Neutralization, 10, 216 Neutrons, 175, 216, 226 Neutrophil, 29, 216 Nitric Oxide, 7, 25, 216 Nitrogen, 116, 174, 197, 216 Nonverbal Communication, 187, 216 Norepinephrine, 174, 191, 216 Nuclear, 77, 97, 118, 193, 195, 198, 215, 217, 227, 238 Nuclei, 175, 193, 199, 213, 216, 217, 218, 225, 239 Nucleic acid, 173, 203, 214, 216, 217, 224, 225, 240 Nucleic Acid Hybridization, 203, 217 Nucleus, 177, 178, 179, 185, 189, 190, 191, 194, 195, 214, 216, 217, 224, 225, 233, 235, 239 Nutritive Value, 197, 217 O Occupational Health, 127, 217 Ointments, 192, 217 Oncogenic, 209, 217 Oocytes, 22, 217 Opacity, 182, 190, 217 Open Reading Frames, 209, 217 Opioid Peptides, 24, 192, 193, 194, 217 Opium, 214, 217 Opportunistic Infections, 4, 7, 20, 21, 27, 33, 104, 109, 125, 136, 137, 142, 173, 217 Opsin, 217, 227 Optic Chiasm, 203, 218 Optic Nerve, 92, 216, 218, 227 Optic nerve head, 216, 218 Oral Health, 130, 218 Organelles, 8, 15, 17, 19, 23, 30, 190, 214, 218, 222 Ossicles, 218 Otitis, 4, 5, 118, 131, 133, 218 Otitis Media, 4, 5, 118, 131, 133, 218 Otolaryngologist, 132, 218 Otorhinolaryngology, 132, 218 Otosclerosis, 131, 132, 218 Ototoxic, 3, 4, 131, 218 Outer ear, 131, 218 Ovum, 199, 209, 218, 224, 237, 241 Ovum Implantation, 218, 237 Oxidation, 177, 180, 190, 218 Oxygenator, 196, 218
252 Toxoplasmosis
P Pachymeningitis, 212, 218 Palliative, 218, 235 Pancreas, 49, 173, 191, 206, 218, 219 Pancreas Transplant, 49, 219 Pancreas Transplantation, 49, 219 Pancytopenia, 85, 219 Paralysis, 47, 69, 219, 231 Paranasal Sinuses, 219, 230 Parasitic Diseases, 21, 118, 156, 157, 219, 236 Parasitism, 30, 110, 219 Parenteral, 90, 102, 129, 219 Parenteral Nutrition, 129, 219 Parotid, 219, 228 Pars Planitis, 126, 219 Parturition, 219, 224 Parvovirus, 83, 212, 219 Patch, 209, 219 Pathogen, 7, 13, 17, 19, 23, 32, 119, 133, 205, 219 Pathogenesis, 12, 24, 26, 28, 36, 39, 47, 73, 78, 96, 128, 219, 228 Pathologic, 177, 180, 182, 189, 203, 220, 227 Pathologic Processes, 177, 220 Pathologies, 16, 17, 131, 220 Pathophysiology, 125, 220 Patient Education, 157, 162, 164, 171, 220 Pediatrics, 36, 37, 49, 53, 80, 91, 220 Pelvic, 220, 224 Penis, 4, 220, 221 Peptide, 26, 35, 185, 217, 220, 223, 224, 225, 236 Peptide Chain Elongation, 185, 220 Perfusion, 203, 220 Perilymph, 5, 220 Perinatal, 37, 75, 76, 84, 87, 116, 126, 220 Peripheral blood, 11, 48, 49, 54, 62, 96, 201, 206, 220 Peripheral Nerves, 209, 220 Peritoneal, 207, 220 Peritoneal Cavity, 207, 220 Pesticides, 130, 206, 220 Petechiae, 101, 220 Petroleum, 130, 220 Phagocytosis, 29, 220 Phallic, 197, 221 Pharmaceutic Aids, 198, 221 Pharmaceutical Solutions, 192, 221 Pharmacists, 37, 221 Pharmacokinetic, 221 Pharmacologic, 221, 236
Pharmacotherapy, 43, 73, 221 Pharynx, 206, 221 Phenotype, 14, 188, 221 Phospholipases, 221, 230 Phosphorus, 182, 221 Phosphorylated, 9, 221 Photophobia, 169, 207, 221 Physiologic, 180, 221, 226, 227, 237 Physiology, 128, 221 Picornavirus, 118, 221 Pigment, 179, 184, 221, 227 Piritrexim, 123, 221 Pituitary Gland, 221, 224 Plana, 219, 222, 230 Plants, 110, 174, 181, 182, 184, 186, 199, 214, 216, 222, 228, 232, 235, 236, 238 Plasma, 15, 32, 41, 176, 183, 194, 199, 201, 214, 222, 229 Plasma cells, 176, 214, 222 Plasmid, 18, 19, 222, 239 Plasmodium, 9, 19, 21, 27, 112, 117, 211, 222 Plastids, 32, 218, 222 Platelet Activation, 222, 230 Platelet Aggregation, 176, 216, 222 Platelets, 216, 219, 222, 230 Platinum, 210, 222 Poisoning, 129, 186, 198, 199, 206, 212, 215, 222, 228 Polyarteritis Nodosa, 132, 222 Polymerase, 53, 54, 59, 73, 74, 76, 79, 86, 91, 222 Polymerase Chain Reaction, 53, 54, 59, 74, 76, 79, 86, 91, 222 Polypeptide, 175, 187, 203, 223, 224 Polyradiculopathy, 136, 223 Polysaccharide, 177, 183, 223 Posterior, 175, 178, 185, 207, 218, 223 Postnatal, 39, 42, 43, 55, 56, 65, 66, 72, 87, 91, 196, 223, 233 Postsynaptic, 223, 230 Postural, 85, 223 Potentiating, 109, 223 Potentiation, 223, 230 Practice Guidelines, 132, 153, 223 Praziquantel, 114, 122, 223 Preclinical, 104, 119, 223 Precursor, 33, 191, 192, 193, 194, 216, 223, 224 Prenatal, 4, 43, 50, 52, 55, 56, 59, 65, 72, 74, 75, 78, 87, 91, 98, 126, 193, 196, 223 Prenatal Diagnosis, 43, 59, 74, 87, 91, 223
Index 253
Presbycusis, 131, 132, 223 Prevalence, 61, 223 Primary central nervous system lymphoma, 77, 96, 97, 223 Primary Prevention, 105, 223 Prion, 183, 224 Probe, 41, 224 Progesterone, 224, 233 Progression, 12, 24, 34, 176, 189, 224 Progressive, 4, 11, 12, 14, 129, 131, 136, 183, 190, 192, 200, 214, 215, 222, 223, 224, 226 Progressive disease, 11, 224 Projection, 135, 216, 218, 224 Prolactin, 91, 224 Promoter, 18, 224 Pro-Opiomelanocortin, 193, 217, 224 Prophase, 214, 217, 224, 234 Prophylaxis, 5, 17, 43, 64, 76, 82, 85, 104, 109, 111, 116, 140, 152, 224, 227 Proportional, 193, 194, 224 Prospective study, 44, 64, 224 Prostate, 4, 224 Protein S, 30, 127, 180, 185, 195, 224, 235 Proteolytic, 186, 187, 225 Protocol, 5, 13, 55, 225 Protons, 175, 203, 225, 226 Protozoal, 4, 5, 99, 109, 116, 117, 129, 130, 189, 225 Protozoan Infections, 10, 125, 183, 225 Pruritic, 225, 229 Psychiatric, 187, 212, 225 Psychiatry, 70, 197, 225 Psychic, 225, 229 Psychomotor, 52, 225 Psychomotor Performance, 52, 225 Puberty, 74, 225 Public Health, 46, 69, 77, 97, 98, 127, 128, 137, 153, 225 Public Policy, 151, 225 Publishing, 37, 129, 130, 158, 225 Pulmonary, 4, 20, 74, 76, 136, 180, 181, 188, 225, 227, 231, 239 Pulmonary hypertension, 4, 225 Pulmonary Ventilation, 225, 227 Pupil, 189, 191, 207, 225 Purines, 21, 225 R Rabies, 130, 226 Radiation, 130, 197, 204, 226, 228, 240 Radiation therapy, 226, 228
Radioactive, 203, 205, 213, 217, 226, 234, 238 Randomized, 36, 44, 101, 103, 104, 193, 226 Reactivation, 20, 25, 33, 77, 226 Receptor, 10, 11, 25, 34, 177, 191, 226, 230 Recombinant, 19, 21, 26, 27, 35, 41, 57, 68, 226, 239 Recombination, 15, 18, 226 Rectum, 177, 181, 191, 198, 205, 208, 224, 226 Recurrence, 78, 103, 140, 226 Reductase, 9, 13, 123, 226, 237 Refer, 1, 181, 187, 191, 194, 197, 198, 202, 210, 215, 216, 226 Refraction, 226, 231 Refractory, 31, 120, 226 Regimen, 93, 97, 101, 110, 193, 221, 226 Regional lymph node, 183, 226 Rehabilitative, 129, 226 Reliability, 137, 226 Remission, 211, 226 Renal failure, 4, 226 Resorption, 203, 227 Respiratory failure, 196, 227 Respiratory syncytial virus, 118, 227 Respiratory System, 118, 174, 214, 227 Restoration, 21, 226, 227 Retina, 47, 54, 75, 91, 92, 171, 185, 188, 209, 216, 218, 227, 228, 230, 238, 240 Retinal, 36, 51, 76, 77, 79, 86, 87, 218, 227 Retinal Ganglion Cells, 218, 227 Retinal pigment epithelium, 86, 227 Retinitis, 69, 79, 227 Retinol, 227 Retrocochlear, 131, 227 Retrospective, 40, 43, 44, 64, 87, 227 Retrospective study, 44, 87, 227 Ribose, 173, 227 Rifabutin, 91, 227 Rigidity, 222, 228 Risk factor, 5, 64, 133, 224, 228 Ristocetin, 228, 238 Rod, 179, 210, 228 Rodenticides, 220, 228 Roxithromycin, 39, 228 Rubella, 3, 4, 5, 6, 83, 129, 130, 131, 132, 168 S Saline, 181, 228 Saliva, 228 Salivary, 133, 190, 191, 228, 233 Salivary glands, 190, 191, 228
254 Toxoplasmosis
Salmonella, 130, 199, 228 Salvage Therapy, 38, 228 Saponins, 228, 233 Sarcocystidae, 119, 228 Sarcocystis, 21, 110, 114, 122, 228 Sarcoidosis, 132, 168, 228 Sarcoma, 4, 133, 136, 137, 228 Scabies, 131, 229 Schistosome, 223, 229 Schizogony, 19, 229 Schizoid, 229, 240 Schizophrenia, 52, 79, 229, 240 Schizotypal Personality Disorder, 229, 240 Screening, 5, 9, 32, 40, 41, 44, 50, 56, 58, 65, 68, 69, 70, 72, 75, 78, 79, 126, 186, 215, 229 Secretion, 17, 23, 30, 174, 203, 208, 229 Secretory, 15, 32, 229 Secretory Vesicles, 15, 229 Segregation, 226, 229 Seizures, 169, 229 Sella, 221, 229 Semen, 224, 229 Semicircular canal, 206, 229 Semisynthetic, 185, 213, 228, 229 Senile, 223, 229 Sensory loss, 214, 229 Sequencing, 27, 223, 229 Seroconversion, 41, 52, 74, 133, 229 Serologic, 68, 80, 103, 115, 170, 204, 229 Serology, 65, 116, 170, 230 Serotonin, 221, 230 Serous, 133, 194, 230 Serrata, 185, 219, 230 Serum, 10, 97, 173, 176, 177, 187, 203, 229, 230, 237 Sex Characteristics, 173, 225, 230, 235 Shock, 28, 34, 230, 237 Side effect, 5, 9, 118, 143, 145, 174, 192, 230, 236 Signal Transduction, 16, 34, 230 Signs and Symptoms, 115, 131, 135, 222, 226, 230 Silage, 210, 230 Sinusitis, 133, 230 Skeletal, 129, 214, 230 Skeleton, 207, 230, 231 Skull, 181, 189, 231, 234 Small intestine, 192, 199, 202, 206, 231, 239 Smoke Inhalation Injury, 196, 231 Smooth muscle, 175, 176, 181, 214, 231, 234
Sodium, 119, 200, 231, 234 Soft tissue, 181, 198, 230, 231 Solid tumor, 176, 231 Spastic, 136, 231 Spasticity, 169, 231 Spatial disorientation, 191, 231 Specialist, 159, 191, 231 Species Specificity, 27, 231 Specificity, 10, 12, 15, 22, 27, 34, 57, 174, 231 Spectrum, 8, 29, 228, 231 Sperm, 185, 231 Spinal cord, 177, 183, 184, 185, 192, 198, 212, 214, 215, 216, 218, 220, 223, 231, 232 Spinal Cord Vascular Diseases, 214, 232 Spinal Nerve Roots, 223, 232 Spiramycin, 76, 144, 232 Spirochete, 232, 234 Spleen, 23, 41, 96, 101, 190, 203, 210, 228, 232 Splenomegaly, 205, 232 Spontaneous Abortion, 116, 232 Spores, 186, 232 Sporotrichosis, 131, 232 Sputum, 74, 232 Squamous, 97, 194, 232 Squamous cell carcinoma, 97, 194, 232 Squamous cells, 232 Standard therapy, 104, 120, 232 Staphylococcus, 199, 213, 232 Stem cell transplantation, 48, 54, 90, 96, 201, 232 Stem Cells, 174, 201, 232, 233 Steroid, 93, 179, 228, 233 Stillbirth, 116, 233 Stimulant, 115, 181, 233 Stimulus, 20, 28, 192, 195, 207, 208, 233, 235 Stomach, 129, 173, 179, 191, 195, 198, 199, 202, 206, 215, 220, 221, 231, 232, 233 Stool, 205, 208, 233 Strand, 222, 233 Stress, 34, 96, 132, 182, 199, 215, 233 Stroke, 106, 150, 233 Stroma, 32, 207, 233 Structure-Activity Relationship, 8, 233 Subacute, 205, 210, 230, 233 Subarachnoid, 200, 207, 221, 233 Subclinical, 116, 205, 229, 233 Subcutaneous, 219, 232, 233 Submandibular, 45, 233 Submucous, 131, 233
Index 255
Subspecies, 231, 233, 240 Substance P, 195, 212, 228, 229, 233 Substrate, 22, 193, 194, 234 Substrate Specificity, 22, 234 Sulfadiazine, 36, 42, 44, 83, 101, 102, 103, 104, 140, 234 Sulfadoxine, 43, 92, 234 Superoxide, 25, 29, 234 Suppression, 18, 31, 41, 102, 234, 240 Suspensions, 115, 234 Sweat, 184, 234 Sweat Glands, 184, 234 Symbiosis, 110, 234 Symphysis, 224, 234 Synaptic, 230, 234 Synergistic, 42, 93, 108, 109, 123, 224, 234 Syphilis, 3, 4, 5, 6, 83, 129, 130, 131, 132, 168, 234 Syphilis, Congenital, 4, 234 T Technetium, 97, 234 Temporal, 5, 65, 132, 175, 201, 211, 234 Teratogenesis, 3, 234 Teratogenic, 3, 131, 174, 234 Teratogens, 130, 235 Terminator, 235, 240 Testosterone, 226, 235 Tetracycline, 213, 235 Thalamic, 85, 178, 235 Thalidomide, 3, 235 Theophylline, 225, 235 Therapeutics, 13, 145, 235 Thermal, 216, 222, 235 Threshold, 203, 227, 235 Thrombosis, 224, 233, 235 Thylakoids, 184, 235 Thymidine, 235 Thymidylate Synthase, 9, 13, 235 Thymoma, 47, 235 Thymus, 23, 204, 210, 235 Thyroid, 90, 130, 203, 207, 235, 236 Thyroid Gland, 235, 236 Thyroid Hormones, 235, 236 Thyrotropin, 203, 236 Thyroxine, 236 Tick-Borne Diseases, 178, 236 Ticks, 205, 207, 236 Tinnitus, 131, 218, 236, 239 Tolerance, 102, 104, 173, 199, 236 Toxic, iv, 4, 5, 9, 29, 35, 128, 174, 195, 200, 204, 216, 231, 236, 237, 238, 240 Toxicity, 9, 102, 103, 104, 192, 212, 228, 236
Toxicokinetics, 236 Toxicology, 8, 152, 236 Toxins, 130, 176, 186, 193, 199, 205, 213, 236, 239 Trachea, 221, 235, 236 Transcription Factors, 16, 236 Transduction, 182, 230, 236 Transfection, 19, 24, 180, 237 Transfer Factor, 204, 237 Transfusion, 237 Transgenes, 19, 237 Translation, 195, 237 Translocating, 8, 237 Translocation, 185, 195, 237 Transmitter, 173, 178, 191, 207, 211, 216, 237 Transplantation, 49, 54, 82, 83, 84, 85, 111, 204, 237 Trauma, 4, 5, 131, 132, 215, 237 Tremor, 85, 237 Trichinosis, 130, 131, 237 Trichuriasis, 131, 237 Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, 82, 85, 237 Trimetrexate, 120, 123, 237 Trophoblast, 39, 56, 180, 237 Trypanosomiasis, 36, 109, 110, 237 Tuberculosis, 5, 6, 136, 137, 152, 188, 210, 214, 237 Tumor Necrosis Factor, 25, 235, 237 Tympanic membrane, 131, 218, 238 U Ubiquinone, 27, 238 Unconscious, 203, 238 Universal Precautions, 4, 238 Uracil, 21, 238 Uranium, 234, 238 Urban Population, 93, 238 Uremia, 226, 238 Urethra, 220, 224, 238 Urinary, 4, 199, 203, 205, 234, 238, 240 Urinary tract, 234, 238 Urine, 43, 53, 86, 180, 201, 205, 238 Urogenital, 199, 238 Uterus, 175, 184, 189, 193, 224, 238 Uveitis, 86, 99, 128, 219, 238 V Vaccine, 10, 11, 27, 32, 53, 111, 115, 139, 140, 173, 225, 238 Vacuole, 30, 215, 238 Vagina, 182, 238 Vaginitis, 182, 238
256 Toxoplasmosis
Vancomycin, 132, 238 Varicella, 83, 87, 132, 238 Vascular, 129, 185, 194, 201, 205, 216, 232, 235, 238, 239 Vasculitis, 86, 176, 222, 239 Vasodilators, 216, 239 Vector, 206, 219, 236, 239 Vein, 207, 217, 219, 239 Venereal, 234, 239, 240 Venoms, 216, 239 Venous, 184, 224, 239 Ventricle, 175, 203, 239 Ventricular, 40, 203, 239 Vertigo, 218, 239 Vesicular, 202, 239 Vestibule, 186, 206, 229, 239 Vestibulocochlear Nerve, 236, 239 Vestibulocochlear Nerve Diseases, 236, 239 Veterinary Medicine, 93, 137, 151, 239 Vibrio, 184, 239 Vibrio cholerae, 184, 239 Villi, 203, 239 Viral, 3, 11, 13, 24, 118, 129, 130, 131, 142, 193, 199, 206, 217, 226, 236, 239, 240 Virulence, 25, 83, 178, 236, 239
Virulent, 10, 240 Viscera, 208, 240 Visceral, 119, 208, 209, 240 Visceral Larva Migrans, 208, 240 Vitreous Body, 185, 227, 240 Vitro, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 24, 28, 30, 33, 34, 35, 67, 96, 110, 112, 118, 201, 205, 222, 228, 230, 240 Vivo, 11, 15, 16, 19, 25, 28, 110, 240 W White blood cell, 176, 180, 185, 205, 209, 210, 211, 214, 216, 222, 240 Windpipe, 221, 235, 240 Withdrawal, 142, 240 X Xanthine, 21, 240 Xenograft, 176, 240 X-ray, 21, 170, 197, 217, 226, 240 Y Yaws, 130, 240 Yeasts, 182, 198, 221, 240 Z Zidovudine, 104, 240 Zoonoses, 127, 178, 226, 241 Zoster, 83, 132, 241 Zygote, 188, 241
Index 257
258 Toxoplasmosis
Index 259
260 Toxoplasmosis
