Jews and Christians in Their Graeco-Roman Context: Selected Essays on Early Judaism, Samaritanism, Hellenism & Christianity (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 196)

Pieter W. van der Horst

Jews and Christians in Their Graeco-Roman Context Selected Essays on Early Judaism, Samaritanism, Hellenism, and Christianity

Mohr Siebeck

Pieter W. van der Horst, born 1946, studied Classical Philology and received a PhD in Theology (1978); from 1969-2006 he was firstly research assistent, then junior and later senior lecturer, and finally full professor in N e w Testament, Early Christian Literature, and the Jewish and Hellenistic world of Early Christianity at the Faculty of Theology of Utrecht University.

ISBN 3-16-148851-2 ISBN-13 978-3-16-148851-1 ISSN 0 5 1 2 - 1 6 0 4 (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament) Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at http://dnb.ddb.de. © 2 0 0 6 Mohr Siebeck Tubingen. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher's written permission. This applies particularly to repro­ ductions, translations, microfilms and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was typeset by Martin Fischer in Tubingen, printed by Gulde-Druck in Tubingen on non-aging paper and bound by GroBbuchbinderei Spinner in Ottersweier. Printed in Germany.

Preface T h e a u t h o r w i s h e s to e x p r e s s his sincere t h a n k s to the f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n s : To P r o f e s s o r s M a r t i n H e n g e l a n d J o r g F r e y for their w i l l i n g n e s s to a c c e p t this c o l ­ lection o f e s s a y s for p u b l i c a t i o n in their series W U N T ; to Dr. H e n n i n g Ziebritzki o f M o h r S i e b e c k ' s p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e for his c a r e in s e e i n g t h e b o o k t h r o u g h t h e p r e s s ; to Dr. G e r a r d M u s s i e s a n d P r o f e s s o r M a r t i e n P a r m e n t i e r for their p e r m i s s i o n to h a v e t h e t w o articles o f w h i c h t h e y w e r e c o - a u t h o r s reprinted; a n d e s p e c i a l l y to m y friend Dr. J a m e s N . P a n k h u r s t for his unfailing r e a d i n e s s d u r i n g so m a n y y e a r s to e m e n d t h e E n g l i s h o f a l m o s t all m y e s s a y s . T h e a u t h o r also t h a n k s the f o l l o w i n g p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e s for their p e r m i s s i o n to reprint the e s s a y s in this v o l u m e : B a r Ilan U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , Brill A c a d e m i c P u b l i s h e r s , C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , T. & T. C l a r k International ( C o n t i n ­ u u m ) , Librairie D r o z , M o h r S i e b e c k , N e u k i r c h e n e r V e r l a g s h a u s , E d i z i o n i d e l l ' Orso, Oxford University Press, Peeters Publishers, Kluwer Academic Publishers ( S p r i n g e r Verlag), S c h o l a r s P r e s s , a n d Sheffield A c a d e m i c P r e s s . U t r e c h t , Sept. 2 0 0 5

PWvdH

Table of Contents Preface

V

Abbreviations

Introduction

IX

1

The Jews of Ancient Crete

12

The Jews of Ancient Cyprus

28

T h e J e w s o f A n c i e n t Sicily

37

T h e S y n a g o g u e of Sardis a n d its I n s c r i p t i o n s

43

J e w s a n d B l u e s in L a t e A n t i q u i t y

53

A N o t e o n the Evil I n c l i n a t i o n a n d S e x u a l D e s i r e in T a l m u d i c L i t e r a t u r e

59

" H i s D a y s Shall B e O n e H u n d r e d a n d T w e n t y Y e a r s " . G e n e s i s 6:3 in E a r l y J u d a i s m a n d A n c i e n t Christianity

66

Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis. A Review Article

71

H u l d a h ' s T o m b in E a r l y J e w i s h T r a d i t i o n

87

P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s on the Afterlife. A R e j o i n d e r to J o h n C o l l i n s

93

P h i l o ' s In F l a c c u m a n d t h e B o o k o f A c t s

98

C o m m o n P r a y e r in P h i l o ' s In F l a c c u m 1 2 1 - 1 2 4

108

P h i l o a n d t h e R a b b i s on G e n e s i s . S i m i l a r Q u e s t i o n s , Different A n s w e r s . .

114

P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a on t h e W r a t h o f G o d

128

A n t i - S a m a r i t a n P r o p a g a n d a in E a r l y J u d a i s m

134

J a c q u e s B a s n a g e ( 1 6 5 3 - 1 7 2 3 ) on t h e S a m a r i t a n s . Or: H o w m u c h did o n e k n o w a b o u t the S a m a r i t a n s three c e n t u r i e s a g o in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ? . .

151

O n c e M o r e : T h e T r a n s l a t i o n o f oi 5e in M a t t h e w 2 8 : 1 7

161

A b r a h a m ' s B o s o m , the P l a c e W h e r e H e B e l o n g e d . A S h o r t N o t e o n djievexdrjvai

in L u k e 16:22

164

VIII

Table of

Contents

" S n o r t i n g T h r e a t a n d M u r d e r " . T h e H e l l e n i s t i c B a c k g r o u n d o f A c t s 9:1

167

" O n l y t h e n will all Israel b e s a v e d " . A S h o r t N o t e on t h e M e a n i n g o f xcd oihcog in R o m a n s 11:26

176

M a c a r i u s M a g n e s a n d the U n n a m e d A n t i - C h r i s t i a n P o l e m i c i s t . A r e v i e w article

181

A N e w E a r l y C h r i s t i a n P o e m on the Sacrifice o f Isaac ( P a p . B o d m e r 3 0 )

190

T h e R o l e o f S c r i p t u r e in Cyril o f S c y t h o p o l i s ' L i v e s o f the M o n k s of Palestine

206

T w e n t y - F i v e Q u e s t i o n s to C o r n e r the J e w s . A B y z a n t i n e A n t i - J e w i s h D o c u m e n t from the S e v e n t h C e n t u r y

216

" T h e M o s t S u p e r s t i t i o u s a n d D i s g u s t i n g o f All N a t i o n s " . D i o g e n e s o f O e n o a n d a on the J e w s

227

T h e S h a d o w in H e l l e n i s t i c P o p u l a r B e l i e f

234

T h e First A t h e i s t

242

S u b t r a c t i v e Versus A d d i t i v e C o m p o s i t e N u m e r a l s in A n c i e n t L a n g u a g e s

250

T h e G r e a t M a g i c a l P a p y r u s o f Paris ( P G M I V ) a n d the B i b l e

269

" T h e G o d W h o D r o w n e d the K i n g o f E g y p t " . A S h o r t N o t e o n an Exorcistic Formula

280

Original places of publication

285

B i b l i o g r a p h y o f P i e t e r W. v a n der Horst, 1 9 7 0 - 2 0 0 5

287

Index of passages

321

Index of modern authors

340

I n d e x o f n a m e s a n d subjects

348

Abbreviations ANRW

A u f s t i e g u n d N i e d e r g a n g d e r R o m i s c h e n Welt

ARW

A r c h i v fur R e l i g i o n s w i s s e n s c h a f t

BAGD

B a u e r - A r n d t - G i n g r i c h - D a n k e r , Greek-English of the NT, 2

BDAG

Lexicon

ed.

B a u e r - D a n k e r - A r n d t - G i n g r i c h , Greek-English of the NT, 3

BZ

n d

r d

Lexicon

ed.

B i b l i s c h e Zeitschrift

CBQ

Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CCSG

C o r p u s C h i s t i a n o r u m Series G r a e c a

CIJ

C o r p u s I n s c r i p t i o n u m J u d a i c a r u m (ed. F r e y )

CPJ

C o r p u s P a p y r o r u m J u d a i c a r u m (edd. T c h e r i k o v e r & F u k s )

CSCO

Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium

DDD

D i c t i o n a r y o f D e i t i e s a n d D e m o n s in t h e B i b l e

GLAJJ

G r e e k a n d Latin A u t h o r s on J e w s a n d J u d a i s m (ed. Stern)

GMA

G r e e k M a g i c a l A m u l e t s (ed. K o t a n s k y )

HTR

Harvard Theological Review

HUCA

Hebrew Union College Annual

ICS

Illinois Classical S t u d i e s

IG

Inscriptiones Graecae

IJO

I n s c r i p t i o n e s J u d a i c a e O r i e n t i s (edd. N o y et al.)

JBL

J o u r n a l o f Biblical L i t e r a t u r e

JECS

Journal of Early Christian Studies

JIGRE

Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco-Roman Egypt

JIWE

J e w i s h I n s c r i p t i o n s o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e (ed. N o y )

JJS

Journal of Jewish Studies

(edd. H o r b u r y & N o y )

JNES

Journal of N e a r Eastern Studies

JQR

Jewish Quarterly Review

JSJ

J o u r n a l for the S t u d y o f J u d a i s m

JSNT

J o u r n a l for the S t u d y o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t

JTS

Journal of Theological Studies

LCL

L o e b Classical L i b r a r y

LSJ

L i d d e l l - S c o t t - J o n e s , Greek English

Mnem.

Mnemosyne

Lexicon

X

Abbreviations

NP NT

N e u e Pauly N o v u m Testamentum

NTS

N e w Testament Studies

OLD

O x f o r d Latin D i c t i o n a r y (ed. G l a r e )

OLZ

Orientalistische Literaturzeitung

PG

Patrologia Graeca

PGM

P a p y r i G r a e c a e M a g i c a e (ed. P r e i s e n d a n z )

PL

Patrologia Latina

PW

Pauly-Wissowa

RAC

R e a l l e x i k o n fur A n t i k e u n d C h r i s t e n t u m

RB

Revue biblique

REJ

Revue des etudes juives

SC

Sources chretiennes

TLZ

Theologische Literaturzeitung

TRE

Theologische Realenzyklopadie

TSAJ

Texts a n d S t u d i e s in A n c i e n t J u d a i s m

TUGAL

Texte u n d U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u r G e s c h i c h t e d e r altchristlichen Literatur

VC

Vigiliae C h r i s t i a n a e

ZNW

Zeitschrift fur d i e n e u t e s t a m e n t l i c h e W i s s e n s c h a f t

ZPE

Zeitschrift fur P a p y r o l o g i e u n d E p i g r a p h i k

Introduction T h i s v o l u m e is the ninth, a n d p r o b a b l y the last, in a series o f v o l u m e s w i t h e s s a y s 1

that I h a v e w r i t t e n o v e r t h e y e a r s . It is p u b l i s h e d o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f m y 6 0

t h

b i r t h d a y in m i d 2 0 0 6 , w h i c h h a p p e n s to c o i n c i d e w i t h m y r e t i r e m e n t as a profes­ sor at U t r e c h t University. T h a t r e t i r e m e n t is early, a n d s u d d e n , a n d not w h o l l y v o l u n t a r y ; it is d u e partly to drastic financial m e a s u r e s t a k e n b y the F a c u l t y o f T h e o l o g y a n d partly to the drastic d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f m y e y e s i g h t . E v e n so, it s e e m e d to b e a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y to collect several o f m y m o s t r e c e n t c o n t r i b u ­ tions ( a n d s o m e o f the earlier o n e s , o n w h i c h s e e m o r e b e l o w ) . A s the subtitle i n d i c a t e s , t h e e s s a y s c o v e r a r a t h e r w i d e r a n g e o f subjects, a n d the r e a d e r is entitled to k n o w w h a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g u n i t y o f all this is, if i n d e e d there is a n y such unity. O n e will find studies o n subjects as far apart as the o r i g i n s o f G r e e k a t h e i s m in 5

t h

century B C E Athens and aspects of rabbinic

a n t h r o p o l o g y in T a l m u d i c s o u r c e s o f a l m o s t a m i l l e n n i u m later. O n e will find a s t u d y o f t h e c u r i o u s p h e n o m e n o n o f s u b t r a c t i v e n u m e r a l s in v a r i o u s a n c i e n t l a n g u a g e s b u t also a c o n t r i b u t i o n o n a n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d early C h r i s t i a n p o e m o n t h e sacrifice o f Isaac. O n e will find a s t u d y o f t h e m e a n i n g o f the G r e e k w o r d s hoi de in M a t t h e w 2 8 : 1 7 b u t also o n e o n the f a m o u s H u g u e n o t J a c q u e s B a s n a g e ' s v i e w o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s . A n d so o n e c o u l d g o o n , b u t w h a t is the focus in this v a r i e t y ? T h e focus is t h e cultural milieu o f early C h r i s t i a n i t y in t h e w i d e s t sense of the word. A s a s t u d e n t o f classical G r e e k a n d R o m a n antiquity in t h e sixties o f the p r e v i o u s century, I d e v e l o p e d a s t r o n g interest in the r e l i g i o u s m e n t a l i t y o f 1

The eight volumes that were published previously are partly in Dutch, partly in English. They are (in chronological order): De onbekende God. Essays over de joodse en hellenistische achtergrond van het vroege Christendom (Utrechtse Theologische Reeks 2), Utrecht 1988; Es­ says on the Jewish World of Early Christianity (Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus 14), Fribourg-Gottingen 1990; (with Gerard Mussies) Studies on the Hellenistic Background of the New Testament (Utrechtse Theologische Reeks 10), Utrecht 1990; Studies over het jodendom in de oudheid, Kampen 1992; Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity. Essays on Their Interaction (Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology 8), Kampen 1994 (a second, much enlarged edition appeared in Leuven in 1998); Mozes, Plato, Jezus. Studies over de wereld van het vroege Christendom, Amsterdam 2000; Japheth in the Tents of Shem. Studies on Jewish Hellenism in Antiquity (Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology 32), Leuven 2002; Joden in de Grieks-Romeinse wereld, Zoetermeer 2003. These volumes contain some 130 essays (160 if those in the present volume are included), which is about half of the articles I have written; those not reprinted are mostly encyclopedia articles and contributions for a wider audience.

2

Introduction

a n c i e n t m e n a n d w o m e n , i n c l u d i n g the early C h r i s t i a n s . S o o n 1 found out that it is not p o s s i b l e to u n d e r s t a n d early Christianity if o n e d o e s not k n o w its J e w i s h h e r i t a g e , so I also b e g a n to s t u d y biblical a n d r a b b i n i c H e b r e w , a n d later on Palestinian a n d B a b y l o n i a n A r a m a i c as w e l l , in o r d e r to e n a b l e m y s e l f to read the H e b r e w B i b l e a n d also the J e w i s h interpretations o f this B i b l e as a n essential part o f that h e r i t a g e . A n d this t u r n e d out to b e a crucial step for the future d i r e c ­ tion o f m y a c a d e m i c career. It w a s in the s u m m e r o f 1968 that I h a p p e n e d to r e a d an article b y W i l l e m C. v a n U n n i k , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t p r o f e s s o r at U t r e c h t U n i v e r s i t y ( w h o m I did n o t y e t k n o w at that t i m e ) , w h i c h further o p e n e d m y e y e s to the i m p o r t a n c e o f k n o w ­ ing b o t h the a n c i e n t G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d the J e w i s h literature from t h e c e n t u r i e s a r o u n d t h e turn o f the era in o r d e r to e l u c i d a t e difficult p a s s a g e s in the N e w 2

T e s t a m e n t . After that s u m m e r I started to follow a c o u r s e in S y r i a c a n d m u c h to m y p l e a s u r e the t e a c h e r t u r n e d o u t to b e the v e r y s a m e W i l l e m C. v a n U n n i k . S i n c e I w a s the o n l y student in that c o u r s e , w e d e v e l o p e d a close relationship a n d b y t h e e n d o f that a c a d e m i c y e a r h e offered m e a j o b as a r e s e a r c h assistant in his d e p a r t m e n t . It w a s v a n U n n i k w h o e m p h a s i z e d t i m e a n d a g a i n that, h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e o f G r a e c o - R o m a n c u l t u r e is for t h e u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s in early Christianity, k n o w l e d g e o f J e w i s h c u l t u r e is e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d this n e w r e l i g i o n in its initial p h a s e s . H i s classic dictum

w a s that after his birth, J e s u s w a s not carried a r o u n d

t h e h e a r t h (as w a s t h e R o m a n c u s t o m ) but c i r c u m c i s e d , a n d that a n y o n e w h o forgot that fact w o u l d n e v e r u n d e r s t a n d the N e w T e s t a m e n t . H i s o w n w o r k w a s , a n d still is, an i m p r e s s i v e e x a m p l e o f h o w o n e c a n b r i n g to b e a r a w i d e - r a n g i n g k n o w l e d g e o f the literature a n d religions o f a n t i q u i t y in its b r o a d e s t s e n s e on t h e s t u d y o f early Christianity. I say ' w i d e - r a n g i n g ' k n o w l e d g e b e c a u s e v a n U n n i k also e m p h a s i z e d t h a t it is m y o p i c to confine o n e s e l f to s t u d y o f first-century s o u r c e s ; o n e s h o u l d cast o n e ' s nets as w i d e l y as p o s s i b l e : P l a t o ' s Timaeus

is as

i m p o r t a n t as t h e r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h , a n d the D e a d S e a Scrolls are as i m p o r t a n t as the patristic interpretations o f the B i b l e . H e h i m s e l f r o a m e d w i d e l y in the a n c i e n t w o r l d , a n d e v e n w e n t as far as p u b l i s h i n g studies on m e d i e v a l S y r i a n c h u r c h 3

h i s t o r y . H i s v i e w w a s that a b r o a d k n o w l e d g e o f the cultural s u r r o u n d i n g s o f early C h r i s t i a n i t y w o u l d a l w a y s h a v e , if not a direct, at least an indirect i m p a c t on the w a y o n e v i e w s t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f this r e l i g i o n in its early p h a s e s . Van U n n i k w a s m y g r e a t p a r a g o n a n d h e h a d a f o r m a t i v e influence on m y s u b s e q u e n t

2

The article was '"Den Geist ldschet nicht aus" (1 Thessalonicher V 19),' Novum Testamentum 1 0 ( 1 9 6 8 ) 2 5 5 - 2 6 9 . For bibliographical details see my 'Einleitung des Herausgebers' in Willem Cornells van Unnik, Das Selbstverstdndnis der judischen Diaspora in der hellenistisch-rdmischen Zeit, aus dem NachlaB herausgegeben und bearbeitet von Pieter Willem van der Horst, Leiden 1993, 13-50. 3

3

Introduction

scholarly career. N o w o n d e r that u n d e r his g u i d a n c e I w r o t e a dissertation on a J e w i s h a u t h o r w h o w a s v e r y m u c h at h o m e in the G r e e k w o r l d .

4

A n o t h e r m a j o r i m p e t u s c a m e in the s a m e period, w h e n M a r t i n H e n g e l p u b ­ lished his magisterial Judentum

und Hellenismus

5

in 1 9 6 9 . T h i s w o r k h a d a

d e e p a n d lasting influence o n m a n y w h o w o r k e d in the fields o f early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n studies a n d w a s , o f c o u r s e , ' g e f u n d e n e s F r e s s e n ' for a y o u n g classical p h i l o l o g i s t w h o w a s also e n g a g e d in J e w i s h studies. It inspired m e not o n l y to p u r s u e further t h e line o f r e s e a r c h that v a n U n n i k h a d a l r e a d y p u t m e on b u t also to p a y m u c h c l o s e r attention to t h e m a n y forms o f i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n b e t w e e n the classical w o r l d o f G r e e c e a n d R o m e a n d the J e w i s h (and C h r i s t i a n ) w o r l d a r o u n d the b e g i n n i n g o f the C o m m o n Era. E v e n t u a l l y m y r e s e a r c h in this field (and also m y l o n g - s t a n d i n g friendly r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h M a r t i n H e n g e l ) led to a p u b l i c a t i o n on t h e p o s i t i o n o f G r e e k as a l a n g u a g e s p o k e n b y J e w s in P a l e s t i n e on the o c ­ c a s i o n o f the c e l e b r a t i o n o f the 3 0 the 2 5

t h

t h

a n n i v e r s a r y o f H e n g e l ' s b o o k (or rather, o f 6

a n n i v e r s a r y o f its E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ) in 1 9 9 9 . H e n g e l ' s insights into

t h e t h o r o u g h h e l l e n i z a t i o n o f J u d a i s m , not o n l y in the D i a s p o r a b u t also in the J e w i s h h o m e l a n d , e v e n in the p r e - C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d , h a s o p e n e d m a n y e y e s to the c o n t r i b u t i o n s Hellenistic c u l t u r e has m a d e to the c h a n g i n g face o f J u d a i s m in this f o r m a t i v e p e r i o d and to t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s this h a s for o u r study o f ' H e l l e n i s t i c e l e m e n t s ' in early Christianity. Van U n n i k p u t m e to w o r k on t h e Corpus

Hellenisticum

Novi

Testamenti

7

p r o j e c t . M a n y o f m y early p u b l i c a t i o n s , for that r e a s o n , focus on t h e H e l l e n i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . S o m e 15 o f t h e m h a v e b e e n reprinted in the v o l u m e I p u b l i s h e d in 1990 in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h m y l o n g - t i m e c o l l e a g u e , Dr. G e r a r d M u s s i e s (see n o t e 1). T h e r e a s o n that I h a v e d e c i d e d to reprint here t w o of these e s s a y s is s i m p l y that the b o o k u n f o r t u n a t e l y n e v e r h a d a n y w i d e circulation a n d h a s , therefore, largely b e e n i g n o r e d (it w a s a p u b l i c a t i o n b y the F a c u l t y o f T h e o l o g y in U t r e c h t , but s i n c e this institute h a d n o distribution a p p a r a t u s , the b o o k r e a c h e d v e r y few p e o p l e a n d w a s n e v e r r e v i e w e d a n y w h e r e ) . T h e o n l y t w o s t u d i e s from that v o l u m e w h i c h are r e p r i n t e d h e r e , h o w e v e r , a r e m y v e r y first 8

article, w r i t t e n in 1969 a n d p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 7 0 , a n d t h e r a t h e r p r o v o c a t i v e p i e c e 4

The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, Leiden 1978. Unfortunately, van Unnik died a couple o f months before the public defense of my doctoral thesis in the spring of 1978. Tubingen 1969 and many reprints; English translation (Judaism and Hellenism), London 1974. See also his later books Juden, Griechen und Barbaren. Aspekte der Hellenisierung des Judentums in vorchristlicher Zeit, Stuttgart 1976, and The 'Hellenization 'of Judaea in the First Century after Christ, London 1989. See my 'Greek in Jewish Palestine in Light o f Jewish Epigraphy,' in J.J. Collins & G.E. Sterling (eds.), Hellenism in the Land of Israel, Notre Dame 2 0 0 1 , 1 5 4 - 1 7 4 , reprinted in my Japheth in the Tents of Shem 9 - 2 6 . On the history of this project see my article 'Corpus Hellenisticum' in the Anchor Bible Dictionary 1 (1992) 1 1 5 7 - 1 1 6 1 . It was published in German under the title 'Drohung und Mord schnaubend (Acta IX 1)' in Novum Testamentum 12 (1970) 2 5 7 - 2 6 9 , but is presented here in an English translation. 5

6

7

8

4

Introduction

w r i t t e n b y b o t h M u s s i e s a n d m y s e l f on the s u b t r a c t i v e n u m e r a l s in a n t i q u i t y .

9

In m y o p i n i o n , b o t h articles d e s e r v e a w i d e r circulation t h a n they h a v e r e c e i v e d h i t h e r t o b e c a u s e there is m u c h n e w a n d relevant m a t e r i a l in t h e m . N o w the rel­ e v a n c e o f a s t u d y o f subtractive n u m e r a l s m a y n o t b e r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t , b u t o n c e the r e a d e r realizes that P a u l u s e s s u c h a n u m e r a l in 2 Cor. 11:24 ('forty s t r o k e s less o n e ' ) , t h e i m p o r t a n c e of p u t t i n g this e x p r e s s i o n in as w i d e a linguistic c o n ­ text as p o s s i b l e will b e c o m e clear. M o s t o f t h e o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n s are m o r e r e c e n t a n d t h e y reflect m y i n c r e a s e d interest a n d r e s e a r c h in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m . T h e r e is a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y o f t h e c l o s e l y related q u e s t i o n s w h i c h b o t h P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a a n d t h e r a b b i s a s k e d a b o u t difficult v e r s e s in the b o o k o f G e n e s i s , w h e r e their different a n s w e r s are also p u t into p e r s p e c t i v e .

10

A p a r t from o t h e r Philonica,

on w h i c h m o r e b e l o w ,

t h e r e is a further s t u d y o f r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l s in t h e article on the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n G o d ' s p o s i t i v e c o m m a n d m e n t to p r o c r e a t e {peru u-revu)

in G e n . 1:28 on the

o n e h a n d , a n d the often less t h a n p o s i t i v e v i e w the r a b b i s h a d o f sexual d e s i r e , w h i c h they r e g a r d e d as a manifestation o f the evil inclination (yester humans.

1 1

ha-ra *) in

T h e r e is also a recent c o n t r i b u t i o n o n the subject o f m y dissertation,

the Sentences

o f P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s , in w h i c h I c r o s s s w o r d s w i t h the A m e r i c a n

s c h o l a r J o h n C o l l i n s on this J e w i s h p o e t ' s v i e w s on a f t e r l i f e .

12

A s in the p r e v i ­

o u s v o l u m e s , the r e a d e r will o n c e a g a i n notice that there is also m a t e r i a l on the a n c i e n t S a m a r i t a n s . H e r e a third s c h o l a r is to b e m e n t i o n e d for his influence u p o n m e , A l a n D . C r o w n from S y d n e y . T w e n t y y e a r s a g o , in 1 9 8 5 / 8 6 , h e w a s m y g u e s t at the U t r e c h t F a c u l t y for a c o u p l e o f g u e s t lectures, a n d h e o p e n e d m y e y e s to the d e g r e e to w h i c h the S a m a r i t a n s h a d u n d u l y suffered from n e g l e c t b y s c h o l a r s in J u d a i c r e s e a r c h . T h e S a m a r i t a n s f o r m e d a substantial p a r t o f the J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f P a l e s t i n e ( e v e n t h o u g h they w o u l d n e v e r call t h e m s e l v e s ' J e w s ' b u t r a t h e r ' I s r a e l i t e s ' ) a n d also h a d their o w n large d i a s p o r a .

13

It is m a i n l y

d u e to the g r e a t efforts o f A l a n C r o w n that S a m a r i t a n studies h a v e c o m e to flourish o f l a t e

1 4

a n d t h a n k s to h i m I h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d in t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s ,

albeit on a m o d e s t scale. A g a i n , I focused initially m a i n l y on the interaction b e 9

It was originally published in Illinois Classical Studies 13 (1988) 1 8 3 - 2 0 2 . 'Philo and the Rabbis on Genesis: Similar Questions, Different Answers,' in: A. Volgers & C. Zamagni (eds.), Erotapokriseis. Early Christian Question-and-Answer Literature in Context (Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and Theology 37), Leuven 2 0 0 4 , 5 5 - 7 0 . 'A Note on the Evil Inclination and Sexual Desire in Talmudic Literature,' in U. Mittmann-Richert, F. Avemarie & G.S. Oegema (eds.), Der Mensch vor Gott. Forschungen zum Menschenbild in Bibel, antikem Judentum und Koran (Festschrift fur Hermann Lichtenberger zum 60. Geburtstag), Neukirchen 2 0 0 3 , 9 9 - 1 0 6 . 'Pseudo-Phocylides on the Afterlife: A Rejoinder to John J. Collins,' Journalfor the Study of Judaism 35 (2004) 7 0 - 7 5 . See my 'The Samaritan Diaspora in Antiquity' in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity 136-147. See, e. g. A . D . Crown (ed.), The Samaritans, Tubingen 1988, the most extensive reference work to date. 1 0

11

1 2

1 3

1 4

5

Introduction

tween Samaritans and Hellenistic culture,

15

b u t later I w i d e n e d t h e s c o p e o f m y

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s as m a y b e a p p a r e n t from the t w o e s s a y s i n c l u d e d in this v o l u m e . 6

M y r e c e n t b o o k De Samaritanen^

is the l o n g - t e r m result o f this i n v o l v e m e n t in

s a m a r i t a n o l o g i c a l research. A g a i n a n o t h e r s c h o l a r w h o h a s e x e r t e d influence on m y scholarly c a r e e r is D a v i d T. R u n i a o f M e l b o u r n e , o n e o f the g r e a t P h i l o n i c s c h o l a r s o f o u r t i m e . After r e a d i n g his m a g i s t e r i a l 1983 dissertation o n P h i l o ' s c r e a t i v e u s e o f P l a t o ' s Timaeus

1 7

in his biblical e x e g e s i s , 1 b e c a m e m u c h m o r e a w a r e o f the i m p o r t a n c e

o f this p a r a g o n o f J e w i s h H e l l e n i s m from A l e x a n d r i a . R u n i a also m a d e v e r y clear to m e h o w g r e a t the i m p a c t o f P h i l o h a d b e e n o n the t h e o l o g y o f m a n y C h u r c h Fathers.

18

volume,

1 9

S o m e o f the fruits o f m y fascination w i t h P h i l o are to b e found in this a l t h o u g h h a l f o f t h e m are n o m o r e than parerga

m e n t a r y o n P h i l o ' s In Flaccum

to m y r e c e n t c o m ­

w h i c h D a v i d R u n i a a n d G r e g o r y Sterling invited

m e to w r i t e for their n e w P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a C o m m e n t a r y Series ( P A C S ) .

2 0

It w a s t h e w o r k on this c o m m e n t a r y , a n d especially t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e c o m p l i c a t e d b a c k g r o u n d s o f t h e s e r i o u s conflict in A l e x a n d r i a in the y e a r 3 8 C E d e s c r i b e d b y P h i l o that led m e to further r e s e a r c h the situations in w h i c h v a r i o u s J e w i s h d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s h a d lived. N o t o n l y m y earlier study o n the J e w s o f a n c i e n t C r e t e , b u t also t h e r e c e n t o n e s on the J e w s o f C y p r u s , o f Sicily, a n d o f the city o f Sardis h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d h e r e .

21

T h e y s h o w the great variety in

d e g r e e s o f integration a n d a c c u l t u r a t i o n in t h e s e d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e h o w difficult it is to say w i t h a n y certainty w h y in s o m e p l a c e s t h e v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s lived in h a r m o n y , or at least n o t in conflict, w h i l e e l s e w h e r e t h i n g s derailed c o m p l e t e l y . A special c a s e is the story o f the conflicts, 15

See my study of the Samaritan diaspora mentioned in note 13 and the one on 'The Samaritan Languages in the pre-Islamic Period,' Journal for the Study of Judaism 32 (2001) 1 7 8 - 1 9 2 , reprinted in my Japheth in the Tents ofShem 2 3 5 - 2 4 9 . See also my 'Samaritans and Hellenism' in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity 4 9 - 5 8 . Kampen 2 0 0 4 (the book is in Dutch). Published as Philo of Alexandria and the Timaeus of Plato, Leiden 1986. See his Philo and Early Christian Literature, Assen-Minneapolis 1993. The article on 'Philo o f Alexandria on the Wrath of God' was originally published in Dutch as 'Philo Alexandrinus over de toorn Gods,' in A. de Jong & A. de Jong (eds.), Kleine encyclopedic van de toorn, Utrecht 1993, 7 7 - 8 2 . For the present volume I have translated it into English. See my Philo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom, Leiden 2003. The parerga reprinted here are 'Common Prayer in Philo's In Flaccum 1 2 1 - 1 2 4 , ' Kenishta: Studies of the Synagogue World, ed. J. Tabory, vol. 2, Bar Ilan 2 0 0 3 , 2 1 - 2 8 ; and 'Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts,' in: R. Deines & K.-W. Niebuhr (eds.), Philo und das Neue Testament. Wechselseitige Wahrnehmungen (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 172), Tubingen 2004, 9 5 - 1 0 5 . The study of Cretan Jewry had already been republished in 1990 in my Essays on the Jewish World 1 4 8 - 1 6 5 , but it is included here again - albeit in an abbreviated form - in order to retain the character o f a trilogy on the Jewish communities of the three great islands in the Mediterranean Sea (Crete, Cyprus, Sicily). About the Jews of the great island of Euboia we know next to nothing (see Philo, Legat. 2 8 2 , and IJO I, Ach57). 1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

Introduction

6

t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f the R o m a n a n d early B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e , b e t w e e n J e w s a n d G r e e n s , a n o t o r i o u s h o o l i g a n - l i k e c i r c u s faction a c t i v e in the great cities, a n d o f the s e e m i n g l y s t r a n g e alliance b e t w e e n J e w s a n d B l u e s , the o p p o n e n t s o f the G r e e n s . H e r e social p s y c h o l o g y t u r n e d out to b e v e r y helpful in s o l v i n g a n anomaly.

22

All t h e s e studies o f details c o n c e r n i n g d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s fill in

t h e b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h i c h w e h a v e to u n d e r s t a n d the lives a n d activities o f the early C h r i s t i a n s w h o , as a minority, h a d to m a i n t a i n their p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n these parties.

23

R e l a t e d to this a r e a o f r e s e a r c h is a n o t h e r field in w h i c h I h a v e d o n e w o r k o v e r t h e p a s t 15 y e a r s , early J e w i s h e p i g r a p h y . In a n a t t e m p t to fill a l a c u n a , I p u b l i s h e d in 1991 an i n t r o d u c t o r y w o r k to the s t u d y o f J e w i s h e p i t a p h s ( w h i c h form the b u l k o f the e p i g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l ) .

24

The book received a very w a r m

w e l c o m e s i n c e t h e r e existed n o s u c h w o r k for s t u d e n t s o f a n c i e n t J u d a i s m .

2 5

W h e n I w a s w r i t i n g t h e b o o k ( d u r i n g a s a b b a t i c a l s p e n t at the H e b r e w U n i v e r ­ sity in J e r u s a l e m ) , I c o u l d n o t foresee h o w q u i c k l y t h e situation in this field o f r e s e a r c h w o u l d c h a n g e in t e r m s o f the availability o f n e w critical editions o f t h e e p i g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l a n d o f i n - d e p t h studies. In a h i g h t e m p o , b e t w e e n 1992 a n d 2 0 0 4 , m o s t o f this m a t e r i a l w a s p u b l i s h e d a g a i n in m u c h better editions t h a n the old a n d o u t d a t e d Corpus

Inscriptionum

Judaicarum

(CIJ) by Frey,

26

upon

w h i c h I still h a d to rely b y a n d large in 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 , a n d v e r y m u c h n e w m a t e r i a l w a s a d d e d in t h e s e p u b l i c a t i o n s . In a long r e v i e w article o n the three r e c e n t v o l u m e s Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

( I J O ) , reprinted in this v o l u m e , I sketch

t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d s h o w h o w d r a m a t i c a l l y t h e situation h a s i m p r o v e d . T h e s t u d y o f J e w i s h e p i t a p h s , h o n o r a r y i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d o t h e r e p i g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e to the s t u d e n t o f early J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y s i n c e t h e s e s o u r c e s quite often p r o v i d e u s w i t h information a b o u t J e w i s h life a n d t h o u g h t that w e d o n o t find in the literary d o c u m e n t s (for i n s t a n c e , d a t a a b o u t a g e at death and onomastics).

2 2

Published as 'Jews and Blues in Late Antiquity,' in D. Accorinti & P. Chuvin (edd.), Des Geants a Dionysos. Melanges de mythologie et de poesie grecques offerts a Francis Vian, Alessandria 2 0 0 3 , 5 6 5 - 5 7 2 . See also I. Levinskaya, The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting, vol. 5: Diaspora Setting, Grand Rapids-Carlisle 1996. Diaspora studies have come o f age in recent decades; see John Barclay's Introduction to J.G.M. Barclay (ed.), Negotiating Diaspora. Jewish Strategies in the Roman Empire, London - N e w York 2 0 0 4 , 1-7. Ancient Jewish Epitaphs. An Introductory Survey of a Millennium of Jewish Funerary Epigraphy (300 BCE - 700 CE), Kampen 1991. Even the otherwise excellent book by B.H. McLean, An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy of the Hellenistic and Roman Periods from Alexander the Great down to the Reign of Constantine, Ann Arbor 2 0 0 2 , deals very insufficiently with Jewish material. J.-B. Frey, Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum. Recueil des inscriptions juives qui vont du Hie siecle avant Jesus-Christ au Vile siecle de notre ere, 2 vols, Rome 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 5 2 . Vol. I was reprinted in 1975 with an extensive Prolegomenon containing many corrections and additions by Baruch Lifshitz. 2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

7

Introduction

T h e interpretation of biblical texts in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m a n d early C h r i s t i a n i t y is also a field that has b e e n b l o s s o m i n g in t h e past d e c a d e s .

2 7

M y first steps in

this field w e r e t a k e n s o m e 15 y e a r s a g o in an article w r i t t e n for A d a m v a n der W o u d e ' s Festschrift

on t h e w i d e l y d i v e r g i n g interpretations, b y a n c i e n t J e w s

a n d C h r i s t i a n s , o f the e n i g m a t i c w o r d s in E z e k . 2 0 : 2 5 w h e r e G o d s a y s that h e g a v e Israel ' l a w s that w e r e n o t g o o d ! '

2 8

T h e text in E x . 2 2 : 2 8 as r e n d e r e d in

the S e p t u a g i n t , " T h o u shalt n o t revile the g o d s , " also e v o k e d a w i d e variety o f e x e g e s e s in J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n circles, w h i c h I c h a r t e d b r i e f l y .

29

In t h e p r e s e n t

v o l u m e there are t w o further e x a m p l e s , albeit on a m o d e s t scale, n a m e l y , a study o f the w a y in w h i c h t h e limitation o f the h u m a n life span to 120 y e a r s b y G o d in G e n . 6:3 w a s v a r i o u s l y interpreted b y J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s in antiquity, a n d o n e on the w a y J e w i s h interpreters v i e w e d w h a t w a s for t h e m the a m a z i n g activity o f the p r o p h e t e s s H u l d a h in 2 K i n g s 2 2 a n d h o w their v i e w s relate to t h e r a b b i n i c traditions a b o u t the p r e s e n c e o f H u l d a h ' s t o m b in J e r u s a l e m , quite c l o s e to the T e m p l e , o f all p l a c e s . B o t h studies s h o w h o w p a s s a g e s in t h e B i b l e that w e r e r e g a r d e d as p r o b l e m a t i c b y the a n c i e n t r e a d e r s w e r e creatively dealt w i t h . A g a i n a n o t h e r subject that has w i t n e s s e d a n u p s u r g e in scholarly i n t e r e s t

3 0

31

and

h a s fascinated m e intensely since the b e g i n n i n g o f the nineties w a s that o f ancient p r a y e r cultures. It resulted inter alia in a b o o k l e t in D u t c h in w h i c h I p r e s e n t e d an a n n o t a t e d translation of 6 0 a n c i e n t p r a y e r s , 2 0 G r a e c o - R o m a n , 2 0 J e w i s h , a n d 2 0 Christian,

32

and also in an article on the u n c o m m o n a n d s u s p e c t p h e n o m e n o n of

silent p r a y e r ,

33

in a study o f o n e o f the few a n c i e n t t h e m a t i c treatises on prayer,

especially on the question o f w h e t h e r o n e s h o u l d p r a y at all, a n d if so, w h a t for,

2 7

A m o n g the innumerable publications I mention - honoris causa - only James Kugel's magisterial Traditions of the Bible. The Bible as It Was at the Start of the Common Era, Cam­ bridge MA-London 1998. '"I Gave Them Laws That Were Not Good." Ezekiel 20:25 in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity,'in J.N. Bremmer & F. Garcia Martinez (eds.), Sacred History and Sacred Texts in Early Judaism. A Symposium in Honour of A.S. van der Woude, Kampen 1992, 9 4 - 1 1 8 , repr. in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity 135-156. '"Thou shalt not revile the gods." The LXX-translation of Ex. 22:28 (27), its background and influence, ' Studia Philonica Annual 5 (1993) 1-8, reprinted in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity 125-134. The first study appeared in the new annual Zutot ( 2 0 0 2 , 1 8 - 2 3 ) , the second was published in Dutch in Nederlands Theologisch Tijdschrift 55 (2001) 9 1 - 9 6 , and translated by me into English for the present volume. See, e.g., J.H. Charlesworth, M. Harding & M. Kiley (eds.), The Lord's Prayer and Other Prayer Texts from the Greco-Roman Era, Valley Forge 1993; M. Kiley (ed.), Prayer from Alexander to Constantine, London-New York 1997; J.H. Newman, Praying by the Book. The Scripturalization of Prayer in Second Temple Judaism, Atlanta 1999; H. Lohr, Studien zum fruhchristlichen und fruhjudischen Gebet, Tubingen 2003. Many other works could be mentioned as well. Gebeden uit de antieke wereld, Kampen 1994. 'Silent Prayer in Antiquity,' Numen 41 (1994) 1-25, reprinted in my Hellenism-Judaism - Christianity 2 9 3 - 3 1 6 . 2 8

2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

3 3

Introduction

8

n a m e l y the fifth oration of M a x i m u s o f T y r e ,

3 4

as well as in an investigation o f

w h e t h e r o r n o t a forgotten p r a y e r text in o n e o f the E g e r t o n p a p y r i is J e w i s h o r Christian.

35

In this v o l u m e , the r e a d e r s will find a short c o n t r i b u t i o n on a r e ­

m a r k a b l e p r a y e r b y t h e J e w s o f A l e x a n d r i a after their p e r s e c u t i o n b y the R o m a n g o v e r n o r F l a c c u s , as r e p o r t e d b y P h i l o in his In

6

Flaccum?

A s far as t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t is c o n c e r n e d , s o m e o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s in this v o l u m e i n t e n d to s h e d light o n l o n g - s t a n d i n g t r a n s l a t i o n p r o b l e m s ( a l t h o u g h often n o t e v e n s e e n as p r o b l e m a t i c ) from i n s i g h t s w o n in classical p h i l o l o g y . T h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e w o r d s 01 6e ebioxaoav

in M a t t . 2 8 : 1 7 m e a n ' b u t t h e y

d o u b t e d ' or 'but some doubted' or 'but others d o u b t e d ' (which m a k e s quite a difference!) is s o l v e d on t h e b a s i s of strictly p h i l o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s : it m e a n s ' b u t s o m e d o u b t e d . ' In a s e c o n d c o n t r i b u t i o n , t h e s a m e k i n d o f p h i l o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , b u t n o w o f a m o r e lexical n a t u r e , lead t o t h e s u g g e s t i o n that in t h e p a r a b l e o f t h e rich m a n a n d t h e p o o r L a z a r u s t h e w o r d s tyevexo be afto0aveiv x o v jtTcoxov x c d cutevexOfi'vai avxov VTIO x w v ayyekwv

eig xov xoXjtov ' A c a d i a d o n o t

j u s t m e a n that t h e p o o r m a n w a s carried a w a y to A b r a h a m ' s b o s o m b u t that h e w a s c a r r i e d to a p l a c e h e d e s e r v e d or w h e r e h e b e l o n g e d , t h e b o s o m o f A b r a h a m (apo-

in c o m p o s i t a often h a s this force). T h e striking e x p r e s s i o n sujrveoov ajteiXfjg

xcd (povov in A c t s 9:1 is s t u d i e d in t h e light o f e x p r e s s i o n s in G r e e k literature that c i r c u m s c r i b e s t r o n g e m o t i o n s or p a s s i o n s w i t h v e r b s o f b r e a t h i n g o r s n o r t i n g .

37

Finally, in a p h i l o l o g i c a l s t u d y o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n xcd oikcog jidg 'IapafiA. aoo0r|a£Tai in R o m . 1 1 : 2 6 , 1 a r g u e that t h e w o r d s x c d o i k o ) g in this c o n t e x t d o n o t m e a n ' a n d so [or ' t h u s ' ] all Israel will b e s a v e d , ' b u t 'only

then will all Israel b e s a v e d . '

T h a t x c d oikcog c a n h a v e this s e n s e , a l t h o u g h it is n o t r e g i s t e r e d in t h e s t a n d a r d G r e e k l e x i c o n s , is w e l l - k n o w n a m o n g classical p h i l o l o g i s t s , b u t h a r d l y familiar a m o n g t h e o l o g i a n s (a j u s t l y r e n o w n e d c o m m e n t a t o r e v e n s a y s that a t e m p o r a l m e a n i n g o f this w o r d is never

found in G r e e k ! ) .

3 8

These proposals are not

s h a t t e r i n g i n n o v a t i o n s b u t t h e y d o p r o v e that d e t a i l e d k n o w l e d g e o f t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e c a n h e l p s o l v e N e w T e s t a m e n t e x e g e t i c a l p r o b l e m s , w h i c h s o u n d s like a t r u i s m b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y still n e e d s to b e said o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n . It m a y b e a d d e d h e r e that t h e article o n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p o p u l a r beliefs a b o u t t h e p o w e r o f the s h a d o w 3 4

3 9

w a s u l t i m a t e l y inspired b y t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e N T c o m m e n t a r i e s o n

'Maximus o f Tyre on Prayer. An Annotated Translation o f El 5el ei5xEo0aL (Dissertatio 5),' in H. Cancik, H. Lichtenberger & P. Schafer (eds.), Geschichte - Tradition - Reflexion: Festschrift fur Martin Hengel zum 70. Gehurtstag, 3 vols., Tubingen 1996, Vol. 2: 3 2 3 - 3 3 8 . 'Neglected Greek Evidence for Early Jewish Liturgical Prayer,' Journal for the Study of Judaism 29 (1998) 2 7 8 - 2 9 6 . Originally published as 'Common Prayer in Philo's In Flaccum 1 2 1 - 1 2 4 , ' Kenishta: Studies of the Synagogue World, ed. J. Tabory, vol. 2, Bar Ilan 2 0 0 3 , 2 1 - 2 8 . Since this was my very first publication, written when I was 23, the reader is asked to exercise a certain clemency as regards the woodenness o f the presentation. This note appeared in the Journal of Biblical Literature 119 (2000) 5 2 1 - 5 2 5 . Originally published in German as 'Der Schatten im hellenistischen Volksglauben,' in M. J. Vermaseren (ed.), Studies in Hellenistic Religions, EPRO 78, Leiden 1979, 2 7 - 3 6 . 3 5

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

9

Introduction

A c t s 5 : 1 5 , w h e r e L u k e s a y s that t h e p e o p l e o f J e r u s a l e m ' e v e n carried out their sick into t h e streets a n d laid t h e m on b e d s a n d pallets, h o p i n g that as Peter c a m e b y at least his s h a d o w m i g h t fall o n s o m e o f t h e m . ' A n d , finally, the s t u d y on P h i l o ' s In Flaccum

and t h e B o o k o f A c t s h i g h l i g h t s the i m p o r t a n c e o f e a c h o f

t h e s e t w o w o r k s for the s t u d y o f the o t h e r .

40

M y early interest in patristic literature m a y b e s e e n in an article o f 1 9 7 1 , not r e p r i n t e d h e r e , o n A u g u s t i n e ' s v i e w o f suicide as c o m p a r e d to that o f his p a g a n contemporary, the philosopher Macrobius.

41

A later s t u d y dealt w i t h the interest­

ing m o t i f o f P l a t o ' s fear o f telling the ( s u p p o s e d l y C h r i s t i a n ) truth in a p o l o g e t i c 42

patristic l i t e r a t u r e . A l t h o u g h n o t at all a patristic s c h o l a r myself, in this v o l u m e I h a v e yet a g a i n i n c l u d e d s o m e studies o f the w o r k s o f C h u r c h F a t h e r s . T h e first is a b y - p r o d u c t o f m y D u t c h b o o k De Woestijnvaders

(The Desert Fathers),

43

in

w h i c h I also translated large parts o f Cyril o f S c y t h o p o l i s ' w o r k o n the Palestin­ ian m o n k s in t h e desert o f J u d a e a . In this chapter, w h i c h w a s originally p r e s e n t e d as a p a p e r at a J e r u s a l e m c o n f e r e n c e a b o u t S a b a s , the f a m o u s f o u n d e r o f the M a r S a b a m o n a s t e r y in the J u d a e a n d e s e r t ,

44

I investigate v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f C y r i l ' s

u s e o f S c r i p t u r e a n d c o m p a r e t h e s e to the o t h e r m o n a s t i c a u t h o r s from t h e 4 6

t h

t h

to

century. A n o t h e r u n d e s e r v e d l y less k n o w n a u t h o r is M a c a r i u s M a g n e s , w h o s e

w o r k Monogenes

(or Apokritikos)

is a long refutation of the attacks on Christian­

ity b y an u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t w h o s e identity h a s a l w a y s b e e n a n object o f m u c h s p e c u l a t i o n ( w a s he P o r p h y r y ? ) . It is a fascinating w o r k w h i c h h a d l o n g a w a i t e d a n e w critical edition. T h e recent o n e by R i c h a r d G o u l e t g a v e m e the o p p o r t u n i t y to d i s c u s s s o m e o f t h e issues in a r e v i e w article that is r e p r i n t e d h e r e . F u r t h e r the r e a d e r will find a study, c o - a u t h o r e d b y m y c o l l e a g u e M a r t i e n P a r m e n t i e r , o n a r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d p a p y r u s , P a p . B o d m e r 3 0 , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a v e r y interesting 4

t h

c e n t u r y p o e m on the sacrifice o f Isaac. T h e article i n c l u d e s the first E n g l i s h

translation o f the G r e e k text a n d a study on b o t h the J e w i s h a n d the Christian b a c k g r o u n d s o f the m a n y n o n - b i b l i c a l e l e m e n t s in this t e x t .

4 0

45

Finally, as far as

'Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts,' in: R. Deines & K.-W. Niebuhr (eds), Philo und das Neue Testament. Wechselseitige Wahrnehmungen (Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 172), Tubingen 2004, 9 5 - 1 0 5 . 'A Christian Platonist and a Pagan Platonist on Suicide,' Vigiliae Christianae 25 (1971) 282-288. 'Plato's Fear as a Topic in Early Christian Apologetics,' Journal of Early Christian Stud­ ies 6 (1998) 1-14, repr. In Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity 2 5 7 - 2 6 8 . Amsterdam 1998. 'The Role o f Scripture in Cyril of Scythopolis' Lives of the Monks of Palestine,'' in J. Patrich (ed.), The Sabaite Heritage in the Orthodox Church from the Fifth Century to the Present, Leuven 2001 [published in 2 0 0 2 ] , 1 2 7 - 1 4 5 . Published as 'A N e w Early Christian Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac,' in A. Hurst & J. Rudhardt (eds.), Le Codex des Visions (Recherches et rencontres 18), Geneva 2002, 1 5 5 - 1 7 2 . This batch of papyri contains several more early Christian poems that deserve much more at­ tention from patristic scholars; see A. Hurst & J. Rudhardt (eds), Papyri Bodmer XXX-XXXVII: Codex des Visions, poemes divers, Miinchen 1999. For one of my earlier publications (with 4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 5

10

Introduction

C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s are c o n c e r n e d , w e m o v e to q u i t e a late d o c u m e n t , t h e sev­ e n t h - c e n t u r y 'E^:ajtoQr|Tixd xecpdXaia xaxd xoov 'Iou5aicov, ' A r g u m e n t s t o c o r n e r the J e w s , ' a s h o r t B y z a n t i n e m a n u a l in the form o f 2 5 q u e s t i o n s w h i c h s h o u l d e n a b l e C h r i s t i a n s in their d i s p u t a t i o n s w i t h J e w s to d r i v e t h e m into a c o r n e r from w h i c h t h e y c o u l d n o t e s c a p e ( n o t e ejtajiopTixixd). In this c o n t r i b u t i o n I p r e s e n t the d o c u m e n t in a first E n g l i s h translation a n d a d d s o m e c o m m e n t s to p l a c e the d o c u m e n t in its historical c o n t e x t .

46

A s t o the p a g a n G r a e c o - R o m a n p a r t o f this v o l u m e , I a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d the s t u d i e s o n the s h a d o w in H e l l e n i s t i c folklore a n d the o n e o n s u b t r a c t i v e c o m p o s ­ ite n u m e r a l s . A p a r t from t h e s e , the r e a d e r will find an article o n a r e c e n t l y found n e w f r a g m e n t o f the g r e a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n s c r i p t i o n in t h e city o f O e n o a n d a ( A s i a M i n o r ) , in w h i c h t h e E p i c u r e a n t h i n k e r D i o g e n e s sets o u t his v i e w o f life a c c o r d i n g to E p i c u r u s (the text is from t h e e a r l y 2

n d

century CE). The fragment

a l s o c h i d e s t h e J e w s as ' t h e m o s t s u p e r s t i t i o u s a n d d i s g u s t i n g o f all n a t i o n s , ' a s t a t e m e n t that I try to p u t into the c o n t e x t o f t h e tradition o f a n c i e n t J u d a e o phobia

4 7

a n d o f c o n t e m p o r a r y history. J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s w e r e often c h a r g e d

w i t h a t h e i s m in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d b e c a u s e t h e y did n o t w o r s h i p the g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d g o d s , b u t t h e y w e r e n o atheists in t h e strict s e n s e , a n d t h e r e w e r e v e r y few a t h e i s t s in a n t i q u i t y in g e n e r a l , as far as w e k n o w . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a t h e i s m did o r i g i n a t e in a n c i e n t G r e e c e , b u t w h y a n d w h e n a n d w h e r e ? T h a t is the t o p i c o f a n o t h e r article (originally p u b l i s h e d in D u t c h b u t h e r e p r e s e n t e d in an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ) in w h i c h I a r g u e that e v e n t h o u g h t h e w e l l - k n o w n D i a g o r a s ( 5

t h

c e n t u r y B C E ) w a s the first o u t s p o k e n atheist, it w a s in all p r o b a b i l i t y C r i t i a s , a n e p h e w o f P l a t o ' s m o t h e r , w h o first i n v e n t e d a t h e o r y that the origin o f r e l i g i o n w a s b a s e d o n a c y n i c a l lust for p o w e r . Finally, t h e r e are t w o p i e c e s o n m a g i c , a n i n t e r d e n o m i n a t i o n a l or s y n c r e t i s t i c p h e n o m e n o n o f w h i c h t h e d o c u m e n t s are often h a r d to c a t e g o r i z e as p a g a n , J e w ­ ish or C h r i s t i a n . H o w difficult it often is to take such a d e c i s i o n (if p o s s i b l e at all) is d e m o n s t r a t e d in the article o n the g r e a t m a g i c a l p a p y r u s in t h e B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e in Paris ( P G M I V ) a n d t h e B i b l e , as well as in t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o n the e x o r c i s t i c f o r m u l a ' t h e G o d w h o d r o w n e d the k i n g o f E g y p t , ' w h i c h is o f c o u r s e o f J e w i s h origin b u t w a s also in u s e a m o n g p a g a n m a g i c i a n s .

4 8

A.H.M. Kessels) on a Bodmer papyrus see 'The Vision o f Dorotheus (Pap. Bodmer 29). Edited with Introduction, Translation and Notes,' Vigiliae Christianae 41 (1987) 3 1 3 - 3 5 9 . Originally published as 'Twenty-Five Questions to Corner the Jews: A Byzantine AntiJewish Document from the Seventh Century,' in E.G. Chazon, D . Satran & R.A. Clements (eds.), Things Revealed. Studies in Early Jewish and Christian Literature in Honor of Michael E. Stone (Supplements to the Journal for the Study o f Judaism 89), Leiden 2004, 2 8 9 - 3 0 2 . See P. Schafer, Judeophobia. Attitudes towards the Jews in the Ancient World, Cambridge MA-London 1997. Originally published as "The God Who Drowned the King o f Egypt.' A Short Note on an Exorcistic Formula,' in: A. Hilhorst & G.H. van Kooten (eds.), The Wisdom of Egypt. Jew­ ish, Early Christian, and Gnostic Studies in Honour of Gerard P. Luttikhuizen, Leiden 2005, 135-140. 4 6

4 7

4 8

11

Introduction

T h e s e b r i e f r e m a r k s hopefully suffice to p u t t h e s e e s s a y s n o t o n l y into the c o n ­ text o f the individual ' W e r d e g a n g ' of a n old-fashioned scholarly recluse, but also into that o f the d e v e l o p m e n t s in b o t h J e w i s h , classical, a n d early C h r i s t i a n stud­ ies in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the 2 0

t h

century. I h a v e left out o f a c c o u n t m y w o r k on

a n c i e n t J e w i s h m y s t i c i s m , w h i c h w a s o n l y p u b l i s h e d in D u t c h a n d i n t e n d e d for a non-academic audience.

49

I h a d to b e selective, as the subtitle o f this v o l u m e

indicates. E v e n so the a u t h o r h o p e s that t h e s e e s s a y s will inspire in m a n y r e a d e r s a desire to w i d e n their h o r i z o n s a n d try to enjoy t h e fascinating p a n o r a m a s to b e s e e n in the multifaceted w o r l d o f the religions o f late a n t i q u i t y .

4 9

50

E. g., my annotated translation o f 3 Enoch or Sepher Hekhaloth published as Het boek der hemelse paleizen (3 Henoch), een joods mystiek geschrift uit de late oudheid (Joodse Bronnen 2), Kampen 1999. The essays have only slightly been updated, mainly in places where it seemed essential (e. g., references to important new editions o f texts or documents). These updating additions are always put between square brackets [...]. Typographical errors have been removed as much as possible. One essay (the one on Cretan Jewry) has been abridged. 5 0

The Jews of Ancient Crete T h e history o f C r e t a n J e w r y in antiquity is largely u n k n o w n to u s . T h i s is d u e not o n l y to the scarcity o f o u r s o u r c e s , but also to the fact that this history s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a r a t h e r uneventful o n e . T h i s is in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e history o f t h e island itself, for it c a n b e said that from t h e late H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d to the early M i d d l e A g e s C r e t e e n j o y e d a u n i q u e p e r i o d o f p e a c e a n d h a d practically n o ' h i s t o r y ' i n a s m u c h as until the s e v e n t h c e n t u r y C E ' n o t h i n g r e g a r d e d as w o r t h y o f n o t e b y t h e a n c i e n t a u t h o r s h a p p e n e d . " A l t h o u g h the s c a r c e literary a n d 2

e p i g r a p h i c a l d a t a d o n o t g r a n t u s m o r e t h a n o c c a s i o n a l g l i m p s e s o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in C r e t e , it is n o n e t h e l e s s w o r t h w i l e a s s e m b l i n g the m a t e r i a l avail­ a b l e in o r d e r to try to m a k e a d o s s i e r as c o m p l e t e as p o s s i b l e , s o m e t h i n g that h a s not b e e n d o n e so far.

3

B e f o r e s u r v e y i n g the e v i d e n c e , let us ask h o w a n d w h e n the C r e t a n d i a s p o r a o r i g i n a t e d . W e c a n o n l y g u e s s at t h e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n b u t it m a y b e a n e d u c a t e d s u r m i s e . W e k n o w that d u r i n g the M a c c a b a e a n revolt m a n y J e w s fled from P a l e s t i n e to o t h e r c o u n t r i e s like E g y p t a n d Syria. It is not i m p r o b a b l e that s o m e o f t h e m m a y h a v e t a k e n refuge in C r e t e s i n c e that w o u l d tie in v e r y well w i t h a p a s s a g e in 1 Maccabees

to b e d i s c u s s e d presently. S o m e m a y h a v e

c o m e b y w a y o f E g y p t , for an inscription from C r e t e r e v e a l s that P t o l e m y V I 4

P h i l o m e t o r ( 1 8 0 - 1 4 5 B C E ) sent t r o o p s to G o r t y n in C r e t e in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e sixties o f the s e c o n d century B C E , a n d it is well k n o w n from v a r i o u s s o u r c e s that P h i l o m e t o r u s e d a great m a n y J e w s in his military o p e r a t i o n s , often in l e a d i n g 5

p o s i t i o n s . A d m i t t e d l y , this d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e c o m p e l l i n g p r o o f that the C r e t a n

1

I.F. Sanders, Roman Crete. An Archaeological Survey and Gazetteer of Late Hellenistic, Roman and Early Byzantine Crete, Warminster 1982, 1. There are no remains of ancient synagogues in Crete. For incomplete and summary statements on Cretan Jewry see Sanders, Roman Crete 4 3 ; M. Stern, 'The Jewish Diaspora,' in S. Safrai & M. Stern (eds.), The Jewish People in the First Century (CR1NT I 1), Assen 1974, 160; S. Marcus, 'Crete,' Enc. Jud. 5 (1972) 1 0 8 8 - 8 9 ; U. Baumann, Rom und die Juden, Bern & Frankfurt 1983, 240 n. 12; E. Schiirer, G. Vermes, F. Millar and M. Goodman, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ III 1, Edinburgh 1986, 69. M. Guarducci (ed.), Inscriptiones Creticae, 4 vols., Rome 1 9 3 5 - 1 9 5 0 , IV no. 195. Ptolemy probably sent his troops to assist Gortyn in its war against Cnossos. P.M. Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols., Oxford 1972,1 83 with notes in II 1 6 3 - 4 . For other Ptolemaic officials in Crete see ibid. I 66, 101. It is notable that there were also many 2

3

4

5

The Jews of Ancient

13

Crete

d i a s p o r a started in the sixties o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , b u t it is a h y p o t h e s i s that g a i n s s o m e s u p p o r t from 1 Mace.

15:22-23.

T h i s p a s s a g e i m m e d i a t e l y follows u p o n a letter written in 140 B C E b y L u c i u s , c o n s u l o f R o m e , to P t o l e m y V I I I E u e r g e t e s in w h i c h h e a s k s h i m to refrain from w a g i n g w a r u p o n the J e w s w h o m h e calls ' o u r friends a n d a l l i e s ' ( 1 5 : 1 7 ) . After h a v i n g q u o t e d t h e letter, t h e a u t h o r o f 1 Maccabees

adds:

( 2 2 ) H e wrote the s a m e letter to king D e m e t r i u s and to Attalus, Ariarathus and A r s a c e s , ( 2 3 ) and to all the f o l l o w i n g countries: to S a m p s a m e and the Spartans, D e l o s , M y n d o s , S i c y o n , Caria, S a m o s , Pamphylia, Lycia, Halicarnassus, R h o d o s , Phaselis, C o s , Side, Aradus, Gortyn, Cnidus, Cyprus, and Cyrene.

T h e s e lines form an interesting d o c u m e n t for t h e s p r e a d o f the J e w i s h d i a s p o r a 6

in the m i d d l e o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . F o r o u r p u r p o s e it is r e m a r k a b l e that, w h e r e a s in the c a s e o f o t h e r islands the n a m e o f the w h o l e island is m e n t i o n e d ( D e l o s , S a m o s , R h o d o s , C o s , C y p r u s ) , o n l y in t h e c a s e o f C r e t e is the n a m e o f o n e single city m e n t i o n e d , w h i c h h a p p e n s to b e G o r t y n , w h e r e P t o l e m y V I h a d sent his t r o o p s a q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y before. T h i s a d d s p r o b a b i l i t y to m y h y p o t h ­ esis that t h e m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n o f P h i l o m e t o r m a y h a v e m a r k e d the b e g i n n i n g o f J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t in C r e t e , e s p e c i a l l y in G o r t y n , w h i c h w a s also the b i r t h p l a c e or r e s i d e n c e o f o n e o f the v e r y few C r e t a n J e w s a b o u t w h o m m o r e is k n o w n t h a n j u s t the n a m e , as will b e seen later (see b e l o w on S o p h i a ) .

7

A l t h o u g h w e will r e s e r v e the e p i g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e for C r e t a n J e w r y for the latter part o f this study, it s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e to deal at this p o i n t w i t h an i n s c r i p ­ tion w h i c h m a y indicate that in a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e p e r i o d t h e r e w e r e also S a m a r i t a n s in C r e t e . It is a r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d inscription from the island o f D e l o s a n d r u n s as f o l l o w s :

8

T h e Israelites o f D e l o s w h o contribute their offerings to the t e m p l e (of) Argarizin (or: to the sacred mountain o f Garizin) c r o w n with a g o l d e n c r o w n Sarapion, the s o n o f Iason, from C n o s s o s , for his benefaction towards them.

Cretans in Ptolemaic service in Egypt (ibid. 66, 70, 8 1 , 8 8 - 9 , 1 0 1 , 1 8 0 , 6 1 4 - 5 ) , which indicates the strong ties between Egypt and Crete. See the commentary on this passage by J.A. Goldstein, / Maccabees, Garden City 1976, 4 9 6 - 5 0 0 . It is obvious that these lines list not just names of allies, but countries and cities where Jews were living and in danger of being attacked. In a private communication, Professor Martin Hengel suggested that Jewish settlement in Crete may have started as early as the third century BCE, in view of the fact that elsewhere in Greece (Attica, Cyprus) there is evidence of Jewish presence from ca. 300 BCE onwards (see the references in his Juden, Griechen und Barbaren, Stuttgart 1976, 121) and that there is also a third century BCE epitaph (in Gaza) of a Cretan officer in Ptolemaic service (SEG 8 , 2 6 9 ; see Hengel's Judentum und Hellenismus, Tubingen 1969, 26 with n. 77), which may be indicative o f contacts between Crete and Jewish Palestine in that period. Ph. Bruneau, 'Les Israelites de Delos et la juiverie delienne,' Bulletin de correspondence hellenique 106 (1982) 4 6 5 - 5 0 4 . At pp. 4 6 8 - 9 Bruneau presents a photo and a transcription with translation of the inscription. 6

7

8

14

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

T h e r e is n o d o u b t that the Israelites w h o p a y their t e m p l e taxes to the 9

Argarizin

hieron

are the religious c o m m u n i t y o f the S a m a r i t a n s , w h o d e s c r i b e t h e m ­

selves as Israelites in o r d e r to distinguish t h e m s e l v e s from t h o s e called w h o h a d their o w n s y n a g o g u e n e a r b y on D e l o s .

1 0

Ioudaioi

These Samaritans honour

S a r a p i o n from C n o s s o s in C r e t e for his b e n e f a c t i o n s to t h e c o m m u n i t y . A n earlier S a m a r i t a n inscription, built into the s a m e w a l l o f w h a t m a y h a v e b e e n a S a m a r i t a n s y n a g o g u e , r e c o r d s the h o n o u r i n g o f a certain M e n i p p u s o f H e r a c l e a for h a v i n g e r e c t e d a n d d e d i c a t e d at his o w n cost a b u i l d i n g , p r o b a b l y for t h e S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t y . " W h a t S a r a p i o n ' s gift to the c o m m u n i t y w a s , w e d o n o t k n o w , but the r e l e v a n t p o i n t is that h e w a s m o s t likely a S a m a r i t a n b e l i e v e r from C r e t e , w h e t h e r h e w a s o n l y born in C n o s s o s or still lived there w h e n h e a c t e d as a b e n e f a c t o r to the D e l a n S a m a r i t a n s .

12

That he had a very pagan-sounding

n a m e is n o p r o o f that h e c a n n o t h a v e b e e n a S a m a r i t a n believer. T h e J e w i s h p r o s o p o g r a p h y o f P t o l e m a i c a n d R o m a n E g y p t s h o w s that several J e w s b o r e t h e o p h o r i c n a m e s c o n t a i n i n g the e l e m e n t s T s i s ' a n d ' H o r n s , '

1 3

so a S a m a r i t a n

n a m e w i t h the e l e m e n t ' S a r a p i s ' n e e d not b e surprising. O f c o u r s e , the possibility c a n n e v e r b e ruled o u t that the S a m a r i t a n s h o n o u r e d p a g a n b e n e f a c t o r s , b u t it is m u c h m o r e p r o b a b l e that a religious c o m m u n i t y h o n o u r s a co-religionist. In that c a s e , w e m a y a s s u m e that in the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E there w e r e S a m a r i t a n s in C r e t e , w h i c h should c a u s e n o a s t o n i s h m e n t in v i e w o f the extent o f the S a m a r i t a n d i a s p o r a in a n t i q u i t y .

14

S i n c e the editor d a t e s t h e inscription b e t w e e n 150 a n d 5 0

B C E on p a l a e o g r a p h i c a l g r o u n d s , a n d since it w a s m o s t p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n before the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the S a m a r i t a n s a n c t u a r y o n M o u n t G a r i z i m in ca. 110 B C E , it is p l a u s i b l e to s u p p o s e that S a r a p i o n lived in C n o s s o s a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e o f t h e second century B C E . 9

For Argarizin = har Garizim = the mountain of Garizim or mount Garizim, see also Pseudo-Eupolemus, fragm. 1, ap. Eusebius, Praep. Ev. 9.17.5. It is written as one word in Samaritan sources (e. g., argarizim in the Greek translation of the Samaritan Pentateuch). Cf. also the use of Argarizin in Josephus, Bell. 1.63, which derives from a Samaritan source; see R. Egger, Josephus Flavius und die Samaritaner, Fribourg - Gottingen 1986, 2 9 4 - 6 . See further C.R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. 1, Chico 1983, 183 n. 2 1 , and R. Pummer, 'Argarizin: A Criterion for Samaritan Provenance?,' JSJ18 (1987) 1 8 - 2 5 , who fails to discuss Bell. 1.63. Bruneau, 'Les Israelites' 477, refers to TOURGARIZ1N on the Madaba map (tur being Aramaic for 'mountain'). See Bruneau, 'Les Israelites,'passim. See Bruneau, 'Les Israelites' 4 7 1 - 2 . The inscription is damaged so that w e do not know what Menippus built and dedicated. See Bruneau, 'Les Israelites' 4 8 1 : 'Le plus probable est que Sarapion et Menippos soient eux-memes Samaritains.' This is doubted by A.T. Kraabel, ' N e w Evidence of the Samaritan Diaspora Has Been Found on Delos,' Biblical Archaeologist 47 (1984) 4 4 - 6 . See V.A. Tcherikover, A. Fuks & M. Stern (eds.), Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum, vol. 3, Cambridge M A 1964, 1 6 7 - 1 9 6 . See A . D . Crown, 'The Samaritan Diaspora to the End o f the Byzantine Era,' Australian Journal of Biblical Archaeology 2 (\91 All 5) 1 0 7 - 1 2 3 ; and my article 'The Samaritan Diaspora in Antiquity,' in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg - Gottingen 1990,136-147. 1 0

11

1 2

1 3

1 4

The Jews of Ancient

15

Crete

T h e n e x t p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e in c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r dates from m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y a n d a half later. In the early fourties o f the first c e n t u r y C E , the J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a w r o t e his Legatio

ad Gaium w h e r e h e q u o t e s at

l e n g t h a letter from A g r i p p a I to the E m p e r o r C a l i g u l a , in w h i c h the former s a y s that J e r u s a l e m h a s settled c o l o n i e s in a l m o s t e v e r y c o u n t r y o f the w o r l d : A n d not o n l y are the mainlands full o f J e w i s h c o l o n i e s , but also the m o s t highly e s t e e m e d o f the islands: Euboia, Cyprus, and Crete (Legat.

282).

T h e difference from t h e earlier t e s t i m o n i e s is striking. H e r e it is n o l o n g e r a few cities that are m e n t i o n e d , like G o r t y n or C n o s s o s : it is stated that t h e greater is­ lands, C r e t e included, are full of Jewish

settlements.

T h a t the C r e t a n d i a s p o r a h a d

e x p a n d e d c o n s i d e r a b l y in t h e m e a n t i m e is c o n f i r m e d b y a few o t h e r t e s t i m o n i e s from the last q u a r t e r o f t h e first c e n t u r y C E . In o n e o f his m a n y stories a b o u t J e w s w h o h a d b e e n d e c e i v e d b y a n impostor, J o s e p h u s tells a b o u t a J e w i s h fraud w h o p r e t e n d e d to b e the p r i n c e A l e x a n d e r w h o m k i n g H e r o d h a d p u t to d e a t h (Bell.

II 1 0 1 - 1 1 6 ) . T h i s m a n g a v e out that

the e x e c u t i o n e r s sent to kill b o t h h i m a n d A r i s t o b u l u s h a d stolen t h e m a w a y out o f c o m p a s s i o n , substituting in their stead t h e c o r p s e s o f p e r s o n s w h o r e s e m b l e d t h e m . S o , c o n t r a r y to the r u m o u r s , h e w a s still alive. 'With this tale he c o m p l e t e l y d e c e i v e d the J e w s in Crete, and, b e i n g magnificently fur­ nished with supplies, he sailed across to M e l o s (Bell. II 103).

In M e l o s a n d e l s e w h e r e , a n d finally in R o m e , the P s e u d o - A l e x a n d e r s u c c e e d e d in g a t h e r i n g a large f o l l o w i n g a m o n g the J e w s , b u t the E m p e r o r A u g u s t u s u n ­ m a s k e d h i m as an i m p o s t o r .

15

W h e r e a s this history t o o k p l a c e at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e first century, t h e s a m e J o s e p h u s tells u s in his a u t o b i o g r a p h y that in the s e c o n d h a l f o f the s e v e n t i e s h e d i v o r c e d his w i f e a n d t o o k a n o t h e r : Thereafter I married a w o m a n w h o w a s J e w i s h by birth and had settled in Crete. She c a m e o f very distinguished parents, indeed the m o s t illustrious p e o p l e in that country (Vita

All).

T h e s e t w o p a s s a g e s d e m o n s t r a t e that C r e t a n J e w r y h a d not o n l y b e c o m e n u ­ m e r o u s , as P h i l o h a d a l r e a d y s h o w n , b u t also that s o m e o f t h e m w e r e p r o b a b l y w e l l - t o - d o a n d b e l o n g e d to t h e u p p e r class o f the island. C o n t e m p o r a r y w i t h J o s e p h u s ' t e s t i m o n i e s , t w o p a s s a g e s in the N e w Testa­ m e n t , t h o u g h n o t v e r y i l l u m i n a t i n g , n e v e r t h e l e s s offer c o r r o b o r a t i v e e v i d e n c e . In a text c o m p a r a b l e to 1 Mace.

15 a n d P h i l o ' s Legat.

282 (discussed above),

the a u t h o r of A c t s e n u m e r a t e s a large n u m b e r o f c o u n t r i e s from w h i c h d i a s p o r a J e w s w e n t o n p i l g r i m a g e to J e r u s a l e m , w h e r e t h e y w i t n e s s e d t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f the H o l y Spirit. A c t s 2 : 9 - 1 1 : 15

The same story is also found in Josephus, Ant. XVII 3 2 4 - 3 3 8 .

16

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

Parthians and M e d e s and Elamites and residents o f M e s o p o t a m i a , Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and A s i a , ( 1 0 ) Phrygia and Pamphylia, E g y p t and the parts o f Libya b e l o n g i n g to Cyrene, and visitors from R o m e , both J e w s and proselytes, ( 1 1 ) Cretans and Arabs, w e hear t h e m telling in our o w n t o n g u e s the mighty w o r k s o f G o d ( R S V ) .

In spite o f O t t o Eissfeldt's theory that the p l a c i n g o f ' C r e t a n s a n d A r a b s ' after the s u m m a r i z i n g ' J e w s a n d p r o s e l y t e s ' indicates that t h e s e t w o w o r d s s h o u l d n o t b e interpreted literally b u t as a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t m e a n i n g ' ( J e w s a n d p r o s e l y t e s ) 1 6

from W e s t to E a s t , ' 1 still think it legitimate to t a k e the s e n t e n c e at its face v a l u e as m e a n i n g that J e w s lived in C r e t e , t o o . T h i s is w h a t is i m p l i e d in the s e c o n d N e w T e s t a m e n t text, in the p s e u d o - P a u l i n e letter to Titus, w r i t t e n to a C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y in C r e t e , w h e r e w e read in 1 : 1 0 - 1 4 ; There are m a n y insubordinate m e n , e m p t y talkers and d e c e i v e r s , e s p e c i a l l y the circumci­ sion party; ( 1 1 ) they must b e silenced, s i n c e they are upsetting w h o l e families by teaching for base gain w h a t they have n o right to teach. ( 1 2 ) O n e o f t h e m s e l v e s , a prophet o f their o w n , said: 'Cretans are a l w a y s liars, evil beasts, lazy gluttons.' ( 1 3 ) This testimony is true. Therefore, rebuke them sharply, that they m a y be sound in faith ( 1 4 ) instead o f g i v i n g heed to Jewish m y t h s or to c o m m a n d s o f m e n w h o reject the truth ( R S V ) .

A l t h o u g h t h e p a s s a g e c o n c e r n s J e w s w h o h a v e b e c o m e C h r i s t i a n s , it is also an indirect t e s t i m o n y to J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in C r e t e . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e epistle a c ­ c u s e s w h a t h e calls literally ' t h o s e o f the c i r c u m c i s i o n , ' /. e., J e w i s h c o n v e r t s , o f p e r v e r t i n g t h e truth o f t h e g o s p e l b y t a k i n g n o t i c e o f J e w i s h fables or m y t h s a n d h u m a n c o m m a n d m e n t s , a n d h e tries to b l a c k e n t h e m b y a p p l y i n g to t h e m a q u o t e from a p o e m b y E p i m e n i d e s o f C n o s s o s a b o u t the o b j e c t i o n a b l e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e Cretans.

17

T h i s s h o w s that, as in A s i a M i n o r a n d Syria, t e n s i o n s s o m e t i m e s ran

h i g h b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n s o f J e w i s h a n d G e n t i l e origin. F o r t h e p r e s e n t p u r p o s e it is n o t n e c e s s a r y to e n t e r into the details o f this c o n t r o v e r s y . W e s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , r e c o r d t h e a p p e a r a n c e a r o u n d the turn o f the first to the s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E o f t h e first signs that C h r i s t i a n i t y m a d e c o n v e r t s a m o n g C r e t a n J e w s . T h i s is t h e b e g i n ­ n i n g o f a p r o c e s s o f w h i c h w e find the sad a p o g e e in the final literary d o c u m e n t concerning Cretan Jewry. B u t b e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g that last t e s t i m o n y , w e will - b y w a y o f interlude - look at a c u r i o u s text from the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E . In the f a m o u s fifth b o o k o f his Historiae,

Tacitus relates the fall o f J e r u s a l e m in 7 0 C E , b u t before

d o i n g so h e m a k e s t h e following r e m a r k : A s I a m n o w to record the final days o f a f a m o u s city, it s e e m s appropriate to inform the reader o f its origins. T h e J e w s are said to have been refugees o f the island o f Crete w h o 1 6

O. Eissfeldt, 'Kreter und hx&ber,'' Kleine Schriften, vol. 3, Tubingen 1966, 2 8 - 3 4 . See also G. Schneider, Die Apostelgeschichte I, Freiburg 1 9 8 0 , 2 5 3 , and R. Pesch, Die Apostelgeschichte I,Neukirchen 1986, 106. On the problem of the attribution of this verse see esp. C. Spicq, Les Epitres Pastorales II, Paris 1 9 6 9 , 6 0 8 - 9 (there lit.), and M. Dibelius & H. Conzelmann, Die Pastoralbriefe, Tubingen 1966,101-3. 17

The Jews of Ancient

17

Crete

settled in the coastal area o f Africa in the stormy days w h e n , according to the story, Saturn w a s dethroned and e x p e l l e d b y the aggression o f Jupiter. This is a deduction from the n a m e Iudaei: that word is to b e regarded as a barbarous lengthening o f Idaei, the n a m e o f the p e o p l e d w e l l i n g around the famous mount Ida in Crete {Hist. V 2 , 1 - 3 ) .

T h i s c u r i o u s p a s s a g e s e e m s to b e the p r o d u c t o f a m i x t u r e o f b l u r r e d historical r e m i n i s c e n c e s , folk e t y m o l o g y , the e q u a t i o n o f S h a b b a t h w i t h t h e d a y o f Saturn u s , and fantasy. T h e r e m i n i s c e n c e s m a y c o n c e r n the very early contacts b e t w e e n Palestine a n d C r e t e in the a g e o f the so-called Sea P e o p l e s (ca. 1200 B C E ) , w h e n m o s t p r o b a b l y the Philistines i n v a d e d P a l e s t i n e from C r e t e . a b l e that the Philistines w e r e e x p e l l e d from C r e t e (Creta

18

It is not i m p r o b ­

insula profugos,

says

Tacitus) a n d that therefore until late antiquity the g o d M a r n a s in the originally Philistine city o f G a z a w a s identified w i t h Zeus Cretagenes

(Zeus who was born

19

in C r e t e ) . T h i s unhistorical identification o f Philistines w i t h ' J u d a e a n s ' i n d u c e d the f o l k - e t y m o l o g i c a l e q u a t i o n o f Iudaei

a n d Idaei,

a well-known type of 'ae-

t i o l o g i c a l ' e t y m o l o g y o f w h i c h a f a m o u s o t h e r b u t similar e x a m p l e is Vergil's d e r i v a t i o n o f lulus from Ilus, the f o u n d e r o f T r o y ( I l i u m ) , w h i c h is m e a n t to link the f o u n d i n g o f R o m e w i t h that o f T r o y .

20

O n the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n S a t u r n u s

a n d t h e J e w s a n d especially the J e w i s h S a b b a t h , the ' d a y o f S a t u r n u s , ' several a n c i e n t a u t h o r s m a k e their c o m m e n t s . S i n c e t h e s e c a n easily b e found in S t e r n ' s 21

GLAJJ,

they n e e d not d e t a i n us h e r e . All t h e s e e l e m e n t s , p e r h a p s w i t h the

a d m i x t u r e o f the story that C r e t a n s - like J e w s - a b s t a i n e d from e a t i n g p o r k ,

22

m a y h a v e c r e a t e d this fanciful t h e o r y o f the C r e t a n origin o f the J e w s . It d o e s not a d d a n y t h i n g to o u r k n o w l e d g e o f J e w i s h h i s t o r y in C r e t e , h o w e v e r . F r o m the p e r i o d b e t w e e n the b e g i n n i n g o f the s e c o n d to that of t h e fifth c e n ­ tury C E w e h a v e n o literary e v i d e n c e on C r e t a n Jewry. R a b b i n i c literature yields n o d a t a n o r d o Christian s o u r c e s . It is p o s s i b l e only to s p e c u l a t e . T h u s a consider­ able influx o f J e w s into C r e t e from C y r e n e (ancient L i b y a ) m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d in the y e a r s 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 C E , w h e n the great r e v o l t erupted t h e r e a n d e l s e w h e r e in N o r t h Africa. T h e r e h a d b e e n c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n C r e t e a n d C y r e n e e v e r s i n c e R o m e united the t w o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y to form o n e p r o v i n c e in t h e sixties o f the first c e n t u r y B C E . It is k n o w n that d u r i n g the revolt m a n y J e w s fled to the islands, a n d it is p r o b a b l e that m a n y o f t h e m w e n t to C r e t e . 1 8

2 3

On this problem see W. Fauth in H. Heubner & W. Fauth, P. Cornelius Tacitus: Die Historien, vol. 5, Heidelberg 1982, 2 0 - 2 (there lit.). On the Sea Peoples E. Noort, Die Seevolker in Paldstina, Kampen 1994. See G. Mussies, 'Marnas, God of Gaza,' ANRW II 18, 4, Berlin & N e w York 1990, 2412-2457. Vergil, Aen. I 2 6 7 - 8 . See A.M.A. Hospers-Jansen, Tacitus over de Joden, Groningen 1949, 112. Other instances in M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism (= GLAJJ;, vol. 2, Jerusalem 1980, 33. See the references in GLAJJ, vol. 3, Jerusalem 1984, 147. See the references in GLAJJ, vol. 1, Jerusalem 1974, 559. See S. Applebaum, Jews and Greeks in Ancient Cyrene, Leiden 1979, 2 9 2 - 3 , and H.Z. (J.W.) Hirschberg, A History of the Jews in North Africa, vol. 1, Leiden 1974, 39. 1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

18

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

N o w w e turn to the final a n d m o s t d r a m a t i c p i e c e o f r e l e v a n t literary e v i d e n c e e x t a n t : the Historia

Ecclesiastica

o f S o c r a t e s , c o m p o s e d in a b o u t 4 4 0 , a w o r k

d e s i g n e d to c o n t i n u e t h e story o f E u s e b i u s ' Historia

Ecclesiastical

and cover­

ing the e v e n t s from the a c c e s s i o n o f C o n s t a n t i n e to the y e a r 4 3 8 / 9 . In o n e o f t h e final c h a p t e r s o f the b o o k (VII 38) h e w r i t e s the f o l l o w i n g :

25

At about the s a m e time, m a n y o f the J e w s in Crete b e c a m e Christians b e c a u s e o f the fol­ l o w i n g incident. A J e w i s h impostor pretended to b e M o s e s . H e said he had b e e n sent from h e a v e n in order to evacuate the J e w s w h o lived on the island by leading t h e m through the sea. For he said he w a s the s a m e person w h o also s a v e d Israel through the R e d S e a l o n g a g o . During a w h o l e year he w e n t around along e v e r y t o w n o f the island, and he tried to persuade the J e w s w h o lived there to b e l i e v e such things. H e exhorted t h e m to l e a v e behind all their m o n e y and p o s s e s s i o n s . For he p r o m i s e d to lead them through the dry sea to the land o f promise. T h o s e w h o let t h e m s e l v e s be cheated with such h o p e s b e g a n to n e g l e c t all their tasks. A n d they also d e s p i s e d what they p o s s e s s e d and let it b e taken a w a y by any c h a n c e person. W h e n the day designated b y the J e w i s h impostor arrived, he h i m s e l f led the w a y and all the others f o l l o w e d with their w i v e s and little children. H e brought t h e m to a promontory that stood as a precipice a b o v e the sea and ordered t h e m to p l u n g e into it. T h o s e w h o first reached the e d g e did s o , and they died straight away, partly b e c a u s e they dashed against the cliffs, partly also b e c a u s e they d r o w n e d in the water. A n d more p e o p l e w o u l d h a v e b e e n killed if not b y G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e s o m e Christian

fishermen

and merchants w o u l d have been there. T h e s e saved s o m e w h o w e r e drowning by dragging t h e m up. O n l y then, w h e n they w e r e suffering so badly, they realized their folly. T h e y kept the others off from throwing t h e m s e l v e s d o w n by telling them about the deaths o f those w h o threw t h e m s e l v e s d o w n before. Then they too realized the fraud and b l a m e d t h e m ­ s e l v e s for their uncritical belief. But w h e n they eagerly w a n t e d to kill the p s e u d o - M o s e s , they c o u l d not lay their hands o n h i m , for he had disappeared. A n d this raised in m a n y the s u s p i c i o n that he had been an a v e n g i n g d e m o n w h o had taken o n human d i s g u i s e in order to outrage their p e o p l e there. B y this incident m a n y o f the J e w s w h o then lived in Crete took l e a v e o f Judaism and embraced the Christian faith (Hist. Eccl. VII 3 8 ) .

Several e l e m e n t s in this p a s s a g e n e e d to b e d i s c u s s e d .

27

2 6

A s r e g a r d s the reliability

o f t h e story, it s h o u l d b e said that, a l t h o u g h o n the o n e h a n d Christian bias m a y

2 4

See G.F. Chesnut, The First Christian Histories, Paris 1977, 1 6 7 - 1 8 9 . The text translated is that from Migne's Patrologia Graeca 67, 8 2 5 - 8 (with minor cor­ rections). Unfortunately, the new edition by P. Perichon for the Sources Chretiennes series, although announced long ago (see his article 'Pour une edition nouvelle de l'historien Socrate: les manuscripts et les versions,' Recherches de science religieuse 53 (1965) 112-120), has not appeared so far. See also the old three-volume edition by R. Hussey, Socratis Scholastici Ecclesiastica Historia, Oxford 1853, text in vol. 2, 8 2 2 - 4 ; Hussey has no annotations to this chapter. [In 2004, finally, Perichon published, in collaboration with P. Maraval, the first volume in the Sources Chretiennes, containing only book 1. Also the new edition by G.C. Hansen and M. Sirinjan, published in 1995 in the GCS series, was not yet available when this article was written. Their new text does not make any difference for the translation.] For Latin versions of the same story see, inter alios, Cassiodorus, Historia tripartita X I I 9 (PL 69, 1210-11 or CSEL 7 1 , 6 7 7 - 8 ) . Several other Latin authors are listed by B. Blumenkranz, Juifs et chretiens dans le monde occidental 430-1096, Paris - La Haye 1960, 2 4 4 n. 139. Very brief discussions of this passage are given by M. Seligsohn in Jew. Enc. 9 (1905) 2 5

2 6

2 7

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

19

b e r e s p o n s i b l e for s o m e e x a g g e r a t i o n ( e . g . , many o f the J e w s f o l l o w i n g the im­ p o s t o r ) , e s p e c i a l l y in the h a p p y e n d i n g (many

o f t h e m b e c o m i n g C h r i s t i a n ) , on

t h e o t h e r h a n d it w a s to b e e x p e c t e d e x a c t l y in this p e r i o d , as w e shall see p r e s ­ ently, that m e s s i a n i c h o p e s w o u l d run high. So t h e r e c a n b e little d o u b t that the kernel o f the story is historical. T h e p e r i o d in q u e s t i o n c a n b e fixed fairly exactly. T h e terminus

ante quern is 4 3 8 / 4 3 9 C E , the final y e a r dealt w i t h b y S o c r a t e s in

this w o r k ; the terminus

a quo is 4 3 1 / 4 3 2 , since the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g story

r e c o u n t s e v e n t s w h i c h took p l a c e d u r i n g the c o n s u l s h i p o f B a s s u s a n d A n t i o c h u s , w h o b e c a m e c o n s u l s in 4 3 1 . S o m o s t p r o b a b l y the t i m e c a n b e p l a c e d in the first h a l f or the m i d d l e of the thirties o f the fifth c e n t u r y C E . Strikingly e n o u g h , this is the first m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t k n o w n since the B a r K o c h b a revolt exactly three c e n t u r i e s before. T h a t m e s s i a n i c risings n o l o n g e r o c c u r r e d after the shattering defeat o f t h e s e c o n d r e v o l t ( 1 3 2 - 5 C E ) is n o t surprising, b u t w h y did they recur, in b o t h pacifistic-quietistic a n d in b e l l i g e r e n t w a y s , from ca. 4 3 0 o n w a r d s ? F o r this m o v e m e n t w a s only t h e first in a long series r a n g i n g from o u r p s e u d o - M o s e s to S h a b b e t a i Z w i .

2 8

T h e r e are clear r e a s o n s for t h e r e s u r g e n c e o f m e s s i a n i c e x p e c t a t i o n s in this p e r i o d . First, e v e r since t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e in 7 0 C E , J e w s h a d p r a y e d for a n d e x p e c t e d the defeat o f R o m e a n d t h e a s c e n d a n c y o f t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e consequent upon it.

29

' I n t h e fifth c e n t u r y t h e s e h o p e s r e a c h e d their fever point.

T h e E m p i r e w a s b r e a k i n g u p ; the l o n g - a n t i c i p a t e d c o l l a p s e w a s a b o u t to take place.'

3 0

T h e city of R o m e h a d b e e n c o n q u e r e d a n d s a c k e d b y the V i s i g o t h s in

4 1 0 . T h e y e a r s following s a w other i n v a s i o n s in Italy a n d e l s e w h e r e . In 4 3 0 N o r t h Africa w a s o v e r r u n b y t h e V a n d a l s . A n d in 4 3 3 A t t i l a ' s rise to p o w e r in the H u n n i s h k i n g d o m w a s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w a n d t r e m e n d o u s threat to the p o w e r o f R o m e . S e c o n d , t h e r e w a s a n e n o r m o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n in the c o n d i t i o n s o f life for t h e J e w s in the first third o f the fifth century. R o m a n , /. e. Christian, o p ­ p r e s s i o n intensified. T h e o d o s i u s II (408^4-50) a b o l i s h e d t h e J e w i s h p a t r i a r c h a t e a n d c l o s e d t h e few r e m a i n i n g r a b b i n i c s c h o o l s . T h i s e m p e r o r , w h o d e p o s e d the patriarch G a m l i e l V I , also forbade t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n e w s y n a g o g u e s a n d o r d e r e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f e x i s t i n g o n e s . In 4 3 8 h e e v e n issued a d e c r e e in w h i c h 64; S.W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, vol. 5, N e w York 1957, 168, 367; B. Blumenkranz, Juifs 244. For a list of messianic movements from the fifth through the twelfth centuries see K.H. Bernhardt, 'Zur Eigenart und Alter der messianisch-eschatologischen Zusatze im Targum Jeruschalmi I,' in Gott und die Gotten FS E. Fascher, Berlin n.d. (1958?), 79. For the same period see further A.H. Silver, A History of Messianic Speculation from the First through the Seventeenth Centuries, Boston 1959 (repr. of the 1927 ed.), 2 5 - 8 0 ; H. Ben Sasson, 'Messianic Movements,' Enc. Jud. 11 (1972) 1 4 2 0 - 2 2 . Both Silver and Ben Sasson wrongly date the ap­ pearance of the Cretan Moses to the middle o f the fifth century. See Silver, History 2 7 - 9 for references. For a general survey of Jewish attitudes toward Rome in antiquity see G. Stemberger, Die romische Herrschaft im Urteil derJuden, Darmstadt 1983. Silver, History 29. 2 8

2 9

3 0

20

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

J e w s , defined as e n e m i e s o f the R o m a n l a w s a n d o f s u p r e m e majesty, w e r e forbidden to h o l d a n y h i g h office. T h u s in the t w e n t i e s a n d thirties o f the fifth century, their civil inferiority a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w e r e legally s a n c t i o n e d . T h i s in itself w o u l d h a v e b e e n a l r e a d y e n o u g h to k i n d l e m e s s i a n i c s e n t i m e n t s .

31

B u t quite apart from t h e s e factors, o l d e r traditions p r e d i c t e d that t h e m e s s i a h w o u l d c o m e s o m e t i m e in the fifth century. A s m a y b e o b s e r v e d in T a l m u d B a v l i (Avoda Zara 9 a - b ; Sanhedrin

9 7 a - b a n d 99a, a n d parallel p a s s a g e s ) , c a l c u l a t i o n s

v a r i e d from 3 6 5 to 4 0 0 (or m o r e ) y e a r s after the d e s t r u c t i o n of the T e m p l e , that is to say, s o m e w h e r e from ca. 4 3 5 o n w a r d s . R a v A s h i , w h o lived in t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the fifth century, e v e n s o u g h t to avert a n y evil c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h m i g h t follow u p o n the failure o f this m e s s i a n i c h o p e b y s a y i n g that before the e i g h t y fifth j u b i l e e , i. e. 4 4 0 - 4 9 0 C E , o n e s h o u l d not e x p e c t the m e s s i a h (Sanh.

97b).

3 2

It w a s i n e v i t a b l e that the w o r s e n i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s fertilized t h e s e m e s s i a n i c s p e c u l a t i o n s e x a c t l y in the thirties o f the fifth c e n t u r y C E . N o w o n d e r , t o o , that in an a g e o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ferment s o m e o n e c l a i m i n g to b e a n e w G o d - s e n t M o s e s found a r e a d y a u d i e n c e . T h e n e x t p o i n t to b e n o t e d is that t h e e v e n t d e s c r i b e d follows a pattern w e l l - k n o w n from similar m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t s in t h e first c e n t u r y C E .

3 3

A

c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t in it is the idea that the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l liberation will b e similar to the e x o d u s from E g y p t . ' J e w i s h p r o p h e c y - a n d particularly J e w i s h e s ­ c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o p h e c y - foresees the future as r e - c r e a t i o n o f the p a s t . '

3 4

Already

the p r o p h e t M i c a h h a d said: ' A s in the d a y s w h e n y o u c a m e out o f the land o f E g y p t , I will s h o w t h e m m a r v e l l o u s t h i n g s ' ( 7 : 1 5 , R S V ) . T h i s ' e x o d u s ' m o t i f in e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n r e c u r s in m o s t m e s s i a n i c m o v e m e n t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d a n d later t i m e s , a n d o f c o u r s e the figure o f a n e w M o s e s w a s integral to 3 1

For the text of the imperial decrees see A. Lindcr, The Jews in Roman Imperial Legisla­ tion, Detroit & Jerusalem 1 9 8 7 , 2 9 5 - 3 3 7 . See further J. Juster, Les Juifs dans I 'Empire Romain, 2 vols., Paris 1914,1 162-7, II 101 - 3 ; M. Simon, Verus Israel. A Study of the Relations Between Christians and Jews in the Roman Empire, Oxford 1986, 2 2 4 - 3 3 ; A.M. Rabello, 'Theodosius II,' Enc. Jud. 15 (1972) 1101-2. It should be added that Theodosius' measures sometimes had only regional application or were later mitigated. Silver, History 2 6 - 7 . See on these passages also E.E. Urbach, 'Redemption and Repen­ tance in Talmudic Judaism,' in R.J. Zwi Werblowski & C.J. Bleeker (eds.), Types of Redemp­ tion, Leiden 1970, 1 9 0 - 2 0 6 . P.W. Barnett, 'The Jewish Sign Prophets 4 0 - 7 0 AD: Their Intentions and Origins,' NTS 27 (1980/81) 6 7 9 - 9 7 ; R. A. Horsley, 'Popular Messianic Movements Around the Time of Jesus,' CBQ 46 (1984) 4 7 1 - 9 5 ; idem, 'Popular Prophetic Movements at the Time of Jesus,' JSNT26 (1986) 3 - 2 7 ; M. Hengel, DieZeloten, Leiden 1976 ( 2 ed.),passim. See now also R.A. Horsley and J.S. Hanson, Bandits, Prophets and Messiahs: Popular Movements in the Time of Jesus, N e w York 1986. Horsley's careful distinction between messianic and prophetic movements is relevant for the study of the various first-century charismatic types, but not for our passage from the fifth century. H. Jacobson, 'Visions of the Past: Jews and Greeks,' Judaism 35 (1986) 468; cf. ibid. 479: 'Jews consistently saw themselves, both in large (i.e., the Jewish nation) and in small (individuals), as rc-cxperiencing, re-creating or rc-living the history of earlier Jews.' Jacobson argues that in this respect there is a striking difference between Jews and Greeks. 3 2

3 3

n d

3 4

The Jews of Ancient

this e x p e c t a t i o n .

35

21

Crete

'It w a s perfectly natural that a p e o p l e w h o s e v e r y identity

h a d b e e n forged in the recitation o f the e x o d u s d e l i v e r a n c e s h o u l d treasure the m e m o r y o f M o s e s a n d look for r e s c u e in their o w n p e r i o d s o f crisis in t e r m s o f a repetition o f the e x o d u s e v e n t s . '

3 6

A s e c o n d e l e m e n t that p l a y e d a role h e r e is the

prediction in D e u t . 1 8 : 1 5 - 1 8 of the a p p e a r a n c e o f a p r o p h e t like M o s e s , a l t h o u g h this m o t i f is less explicit in o u r s o u r c e s . Josephus,

3 8

37

If t h e e v i d e n c e is studied, e s p e c i a l l y in

it will b e s e e n that r e c u r r i n g traits o f t h e s e first-century m o v e m e n t s

are the e x o d u s into t h e desert, the u s u a l l y sizeable following, a n d the e x p e c t a t i o n o f m i r a c l e s p r o m i s e d b y t h e m e s s i a n i c pretender. N o w s i n c e t h e r e is n o d e s e r t in C r e t e , the first c o u l d n o t p l a y a part in o u r story. It w a s therefore r e p l a c e d b y the t h e m e o f b e i n g led d r y s h o d t h r o u g h the sea to Palestine. T h e m i r a c l e o f deliver­ a n c e is p r e s e n t in the form o f the e x o d u s m i r a c l e par excellence,

the passage

t h r o u g h the sea. T h e large f o l l o w i n g is also i n c l u d e d . A s t h e s e m o v e m e n t s in the first c e n t u r y a p p e a r e d to r e - e n a c t the g r e a t d i v i n e act o f liberation from biblical history, so o u r p r e t e n d e r a n d his followers a c t e d out this p a t t e r n o f liberation a c ­ c o r d i n g to the historical-eschatological t y p o l o g y a n d t h u s participated in the n e w and anticipated divine action.

39

H e n c e w e see that after four c e n t u r i e s the pattern

is still essentially u n c h a n g e d , t h e o n l y real n e w e l e m e n t b e i n g that the p r e t e n d e r called h i m s e l f M o s e s . A n o t h e r difference is, o f c o u r s e , that the m o v e m e n t did n o t e n d in m a s s a c r e b y the r u l i n g authorities, w h i c h w a s the c o m m o n d i s a s t r o u s e n d i n g o f the first-century m o v e m e n t s a c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s . T h e r e c u r r e n c e o f this a n c i e n t pattern in the story u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n s u g g e s t s that the C r e t a n J e w s fostered the old traditions o f their p e o p l e . T h e final q u e s t i o n to b e raised in this c o n n e c t i o n is w h e t h e r the e v e n t r e c o r d e d b y S o c r a t e s i m p l i e d the e n d o f C r e t a n Jewry, as the a u t h o r s e e m s to suggest. A s a m a t t e r o f fact, apart from a n inscription w h i c h m a y d e r i v e from the s a m e p e r i o d a n d w h i c h will b e d i s c u s s e d presently, n o reports w h a t s o e v e r exist o n J e w s or J u d a i s m in C r e t e b e t w e e n t h e first h a l f o f the fifth c e n t u r y a n d the e l e v e n t h c e n ­ tury.

40

F u r t h e r m o r e , reports from ca. 1000 C E o n w a r d s s u g g e s t that C r e t a n J e w s

f o r m e d o n l y a v e r y small g r o u p b y then. W h a t h a d h a p p e n e d in the i n t e r v e n i n g five or six c e n t u r i e s , w e d o not k n o w . T h e o n l y C r e t a n C h u r c h father o f s o m e significance, A n d r e w of C r e t e , w h o w o r k e d in t h e first h a l f o f t h e eight century, m a k e s v e r y n e g a t i v e a n d s c a t h i n g r e m a r k s c o n c e r n i n g the J e w s , but t h e s e are so 3 5

See J. Jeremias, 'Moses,' TWNT 4 (1942) 8 5 2 - 7 8 , esp. 8 6 0 - 8 ; D.L. Tiede, The Charis­ matic Figure as Miracle Worker, Missoula 1972, 1 7 8 - 2 0 7 . Tiede, Charismatic Figure 178-9. Jeremias,'Moses'860-1. E.g., Bell. II 2 5 8 - 2 6 3 ; VI 285; VII 4 3 7 - 4 4 1 ; Ant. XVIII 8 5 - 8 7 ; X X 9 7 - 9 8 , 1 6 7 - 1 7 2 , 188. This formulation is borrowed from Horsley, JSNT 26 (1986) 7 - 8 . For the later Middle A g e s see, e.g., I. L e v i , ' L e s juifs de Candie de 1380 a 1485,' REJ 26 (1893) 1 9 8 - 2 0 8 ; S. Schwarzfuchs, 'Apropos des juifs de Crete et de N e g r e p o n t , ' . K £ / ( 3 ser.) 2 [119] (1961) 1 5 2 - 8 ; L.J. Weinberger, Jewish Poets in Crete, Cincinnati 1985. 3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

rd

The Jews of Ancient

22

Crete

m u c h the stock invectives k n o w n from other Christian w r i t e r s that A n d r e w p r o b ­ ably b o r r o w e d t h e m from his p r e d e c e s s o r s . T h e y c a n n o t b e u s e d to s h e d light o n the situation o f the C r e t a n J e w s o f that t i m e .

41

W h e t h e r or n o t t h e e v e n t s related

b y S o c r a t e s m a r k e d the e n d i n g of a n c i e n t C r e t a n J e w r y , w e h a v e to r e c o r d that it c o n s t i t u t e s the last p i e c e o f e x t a n t e v i d e n c e for a v e r y l o n g period. To turn lastly to the e p i g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l , o n e p i e c e o f inscriptional e v i d e n c e , t h e r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d S a m a r i t a n inscription from D e l o s , h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d i s ­ c u s s e d a b o v e , a n d w e will n o w limit o u r s e l v e s to e v i d e n c e from C r e t e itself. A s e a r c h o f the 1936 edition o f vol. I o f J . - B . F r e y ' s Corpus carum

Inscriptionum

Judai­

y i e l d s n o t h i n g . In the 1975 reprint, h o w e v e r , B a r u c h Lifshitz h a s a d d e d a

P r o l e g o m e n o n w i t h quite a n u m b e r o f n e w inscriptions, three o f w h i c h are from Crete.

4 2

B e f o r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s e , w e first h a v e to d i s c u s s briefly the difficult

p r o b l e m o f h o w to tell a J e w i s h from a n o n - J e w i s h inscription. In his Corpus pyrorum

Judaicarum,

Victor T c h e r i k o v e r lists the f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a :

is J e w i s h (a) if t h e w o r d loudaios

or Hebraios

43

Pa-

a papyrus

o c c u r s in it; (b) if t e c h n i c a l t e r m s

like ' s y n a g o g u e ' or ' s a b b a t h ' a p p e a r in it; (c) if it o r i g i n a t e s from w h a t is k n o w n to h a v e b e e n a p l a c e o f e x c l u s i v e l y J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t ; (d) if it c o n t a i n s J e w i s h n a m e s . N o w , unfortunately, the first three criteria c a n n o t b e applied to a n y C r e t a n inscription, w i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n , a n d in a p p l y i n g t h e fourth criterion w e m o v e on e x t r e m e l y s l i p p e r y g r o u n d . A s R o s s K r a e m e r r e m i n d s u s , there are v e r y few n a m e s ' w h i c h c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d to h a v e b e e n used o n l y by J e w s , and n e v e r b y 4 4

C h r i s t i a n s or p a g a n s , w h e t h e r in the s a m e or other g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s . ' A s will b e seen, b o t h B a n d y (see n. 4 2 ) a n d Lifshitz d e s i g n a t e inscriptions as J e w i s h o n l y on t h e b a s i s o f a n a m e w h i c h c o u l d as w e l l b e r e g a r d e d as C h r i s t i a n or p a g a n , w h e r e a s t h e y d o not m e n t i o n s o m e inscriptions from the c o r p u s o f Creticae

Inscriptiones

w h i c h o n the s a m e p r i n c i p l e c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d as J e w i s h .

To b e g i n w i t h the first category, B a n d y ' s first ' J e w i s h ' inscription (from t h e fifth c e n t u r y C E ) r u n s as follows (Inscr. Cret. IV n o . 5 0 9 ) : [This burial place b e l o n g s ] to lord Satyros, s o n o f T h e o d o u l o s , a priest, (and) to M o s e s , a ruler w h o (both?) sought salvation with m a n y t o i l s . 4 1

See Andreas Cretensis, Homiliae

45

2 (PG 97: 821C), 3 ( 8 4 5 C - D 0 , 8 (964B), 10 (1024C)

etc. 4 2

In the forty years in between both Margareta Guarducci's Inscriptiones Creticae (4 vols., Rome 1 9 3 5 - 1 9 5 0 ) and Anastasios C. Bandy's Greek Christian Inscriptions from Crete (Athens 1970; with an appendix on Jewish inscriptions) were published. [ N o w w e have D. Noy, A. Panayotov & H. Bloedhorn, Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis I: Eastern Europe, Tubingen 2 0 0 4 , where on pp. 2 4 9 - 2 5 3 three Jewish inscriptions from Crete are published, one of which is a very dubious case.] V.A. Tcherikover & A. Fuks, Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum, vol. 1, Cambridge M A 1957, x v i i - x x . R.S. Kraemer, 'Hellenistic Jewish Women: The Epigraphical Evidence,' SBL Seminar Papers 1986, Atlanta 1986, 191 ( 1 8 3 - 2 0 0 ) . Bandy, Greek Christian Inscriptions 140. I correct his translation where I do not agree with him. 4 3

4 4

4 5

The Jews of Ancient

23

Crete

B a n d y r e g a r d s the inscription as J e w i s h b e c a u s e o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f the n a m e M o s e s a n d the m e n t i o n o f the offices o f priest, hiereus,

a n d ruler, archon,

which

h e s u g g e s t i v e l y translates as ' h e a d o f t h e s y n a g o g u e . ' A s Lifshitz aptly r e m a r k s , h o w e v e r , ' t h e n a m e o f M o s e s is e x t r e m e l y rare in J e w i s h inscriptions a n d v e r y frequent in C h r i s t i a n e p i g r a p h y . '

46

It s h o u l d b e a d d e d that hiereus

title o f a C h r i s t i a n official, a n d that archon, official, m a y b e a secular ruler o f s o m e k i n d .

c o u l d b e the

a l t h o u g h it c a n d e s i g n a t e a J e w i s h 47

T h a t is to say, B a n d y m a y b e right

a n d Lifshitz m a y b e right; w e j u s t d o n o t k n o w .

4 8

C u r i o u s l y e n o u g h , the critical s e n s e that Lifshitz d i s p l a y e d in this c a s e s e e m s to l e a v e h i m in a n o t h e r c a s e . F o r his o w n first inscription, o n a t o m b s t o n e re­ g a r d e d b y h i m as J e w i s h , r u n s as follows (Inscr. Cret. II n o . 8): Sanbathis (set up this stone) for H e r m e s for the sake o f m e m o r y .

49

Lifshitz a s s u m e s that the inscription is J e w i s h b e c a u s e o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e of the n a m e S a n b a t h i s , w h i c h is o n e o f t h e H e l l e n i z e d f o r m s o f the H e b r e w n a m e S h a b b e t a i . H e is certainly right in stating that this n a m e w a s v e r y c o m m o n a m o n g J e w s . B u t h e c o u l d h a v e k n o w n t h e v e r y instructive e x c u r s u s o n ' T h e S a m b a t h i o n s ' b y M e n a c h e m Stern in the Corpus

Papyrorum

Judaicarum^

w h e r e it is p r o v e d b e y o n d a n y d o u b t that, w h e r e a s in t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d this n a m e w a s b y a n d large a t y p i c a l l y J e w i s h n a m e , in the R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d s a great m a n y n o n - J e w s a d o p t e d it w i t h o u t b e i n g a w a r e o f its original connotations.

51

S t e r n ' s e v i d e n c e is from E g y p t , b u t it is attested from C r e t e as

w e l l that t h e n a m e s S a n b a t h i o n a n d S a n b a t h i s w e r e u s e d b y p a g a n s a n d C h r i s ­ tians.

52

If Lifshitz w o u l d h a v e b e e n as critical in this i n s t a n c e as in t h e c a s e o f

B a n d y ' s first inscription, h e w o u l d h a v e o m i t t e d it, for the inscription is not from t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d b e said o n c e m o r e that t h e r e is n o w a y o f attaining a n y certainty r e g a r d i n g inscriptions w h i c h d o n o t exhibit, in a d d i t i o n to n a m e s , explicitly J e w i s h s y m b o l s like t h e m e n o r a h or Christian 4 6

Prolegomenon to the CIJ reprint, N e w York 1975, 89. See BAGD 114. Except Lifshitz, also B. Nystrom, 'Inscr. Cret. IV 509: An Ancient Christian Priest?,' ZPE 50 (1983) 122, regards this inscription as non-Jewish. [And so does Noy, Inscr. Jud. Ori­ ent. I, 3 4 1 - 3 , where this inscription is relegated to an appendix with material not considered Jewish.] [This inscription is also published by N o y c.s., Inscr. Jud. Orient. I, 343—4, but again regarded as probably Christian.] CPJ III, Cambridge M A 1964, 4 3 - 5 6 . In the Hellenistic period the usual Greek form of the name was Sabbathai/Sabbathaios or Sambathaios; in Imperial times it often became Sambat(h)i6n and Sambathion or Sambathis or Sabbatis (fern.); later hypocoristic forms are Sambas (masc.) and Sabbe (fern.). Details in Stern (see n. 50). E.G., Inscr. Cret. II.xxiv.12. For more evidence of the non-Jewish use o f the names Sambathis etc. see H. Solin, 'Juden und Syrer im westlichen Teil der romischen Welt. Eine ethnisch-demographische Studie mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der sprachlichen Zustande,' ANRWW 2 9 , 2, Berlin & N e w York 1983, 5 8 7 - 7 8 9 , esp. 645 n. 145 and 679. 4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

5 1

5 2

24

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

s y m b o l s like the cross or a l p h a a n d o m e g a . T h a t is to say, G u a r d u c c i ' s large c o r p u s o f C r e t a n inscriptions m a y w e l l i n c l u d e a n u m b e r o f J e w i s h o n e s w h i c h w e c a n n o t r e c o g n i z e as s u c h . W h a t , for i n s t a n c e , is o n e to say o f graffiti w i t h n a m e s s u c h as Avdias, (Inscr.

w h i c h is a l m o s t certainly t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f O v a d i a

Cret. I I . x x i i i . 2 8 . 3 4 . 5 2 ) ; or o f inscriptions c o n t a i n i n g the n a m e

w h i c h c a n h a r d l y be o t h e r than a scribal v a r i a n t o f Saulos a n d IV 2 2 3 b ) ; or o f inscriptions w i t h n a m e s like Simon

Zaulos,

(Inscr. Cret. II.xii.23

a n d loannes

(Inscr.

Cret.

II.xv.4 a n d 5; I.xxv.8); or o f the n u m e r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s in w h i c h n a m e s s u c h as Eirena

or Theodoros

or Dositheos

are found (Inscr.

Cret.,

I n d e x s.vv.)? T h e y

m a y b e J e w i s h , b u t s o m e , or all, m a y b e C h r i s t i a n or p a g a n , like the inscriptions w i t h n a m e s s u c h as M o s e s a n d S a n b a t h i s . W e h a v e to r e c o n c i l e o u r s e l v e s to t h e fact that there are n o m e a n s o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n J e w i s h a n d n o n - J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s on the b a s i s o f n a m e s a l o n e , w h e n o t h e r indicators are absent. T h i s sad c o n c l u s i o n l e a v e s u s w i t h o n l y t w o i n s c r i p t i o n s r e g a r d e d as J e w i s h b y b o t h B a n d y a n d Lifshitz a n d b y o t h e r scholars as w e l l .

5 3

T h e first is a t o m b s t o n e a n d is not v e r y r e v e a l i n g . T h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t h r e e typically J e w i s h n a m e s in three s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s m a k e s it h i g h l y p r o b a b l e that it is a J e w i s h inscription. It runs as follows: Josephus, son o f T h e o d o r u s , (set up this stone) for Judas his s o n as a memorial. ( H e lived) o n e year (Inscr. Cret. I . v . 1 7 ) .

54

T h i s inscription from the third or fourth c e n t u r y C E w a s found in an a r e a at K a s s a n o i called Hebroi cemetery.'

55

(= Hebraioi),

' w h e r e there w a s r e p u t e d to b e a J e w i s h

B u t it is not o n l y this e l e m e n t that m a k e s it p r o b a b l e that w e h a v e

to d o w i t h a J e w i s h inscription. A n a d d i t i o n a l factor is that a l t h o u g h , as w e h a v e seen, ' J e w i s h ' n a m e s n e e d not in t h e m s e l v e s indicate a J e w i s h origin, in this case a J e w i s h o r i g i n is m a d e e x t r e m e l y p r o b a b l e b y t h e fact that the f a t h e r ' s n a m e is r e c o r d e d , w h i c h is an e l e m e n t l a c k i n g in all C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s o f C r e t e .

5 6

A l t h o u g h I a m c o n v i n c e d that this inscription is J e w i s h , it m u s t b e a d m i t t e d that it leaves r o o m for d o u b t to the e x t r e m e sceptic. Fortunately, the final p i e c e o f e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e d o e s not. A g a i n , it is a s e p u l c h r a l inscription, from Kastelli K i s s a m o u , w h i c h w a s d a t e d b y B a n d y to the first or s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , b u t b y t h e great e p i g r a p h e r L o u i s R o b e r t to the fourth or fifth c e n t u r y C E .

5 3

5 7

T h e latter

There is a possibility that Inscr. Cret. IV no. 518 (Bandy's no. 35) is Jewish, but it may be Christian, and the interpretation is highly uncertain because the text is seriously damaged. See Bandy, Greek Christian Inscriptions 142, for a photo of the inscription. Bandy, ibid. Bandy, ibid. This inscription is not included in Inscr. Cret. It was first published by Bandy in Hesperia 32 (1963) 2 2 7 - 9 , and afterwards also in his Greek Christian Inscriptions 143. Jeanne and Louis Robert discussed it in their 'Bulletin epigraphique' in Revue des etudes grecques 11 (1964) 4 1 3 , and Lifshitz in the Prolegomenon to CIJ, at I 88, where the text is printed as no. 73 lc. [It is now no. Cre3 in Inscr. Jud. Orient. I 2 5 2 - 3 . ] 5 4

5 5

5 6

5 7

The Jews of Ancient

25

Crete

d a t i n g is also d e f e n d e d b y Lifshitz a n d b y B e r n a d e t t e B r o o t e n in h e r disserta­ tion.

58

T h e text r u n s as follows :

Sophia o f Gortyn, elder and leader o f the s y n a g o g u e o f K i s s a m o s , lies here. T h e m e m o r y o f the righteous o n e be for ever. A m e n .

5 9

T h e r e is an i l l u m i n a t i n g difference b e t w e e n the interpretation o f this inscrip­ tion b y B a n d y a n d the o n e b y B r o o t e n . B a n d y a d o p t s the traditional t h e o r y that ' e l d e r ' {presbytera)

a n d ' l e a d e r o f the s y n a g o g u e ' (archisynagogissa)

are

' h o n o r a r y t i t l e s ' ( 1 4 3 ) , b e s t o w e d u p o n S o p h i a b e c a u s e h e r h u s b a n d - not she h e r s e l f - h e l d the offices o f e l d e r a n d h e a d o f the s y n a g o g u e . It w a s B r o o t e n w h o w a s the first to b r e a k t h r o u g h this traditional a n d r o c e n t r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

60

S h e c o n v i n c i n g l y interpreted a w h o l e series o f inscriptions c o n c e r n i n g J e w i s h w o m e n in s u c h a w a y that it b e c a m e o b v i o u s that titles like presbytera archisynagogissa

w e r e n o t h o n o r a r y titles but i n d i c a t e d real f u n c t i o n s .

w r i t e s o n o u r inscription: ' T h e r e is n o internal

and 61

She

r e a s o n for b e l i e v i n g that S o p h i a

o f G o r t y n received the titles t h r o u g h h e r h u s b a n d . If h e r h u s b a n d w e r e the s o u r c e o f h e r titles, w h y is she n o t called S o p h i a t h e wife o f X ? T h e i m a g e o f S o p h i a o f G o r t y n e m e r g i n g from t h e inscription ( . . . ) is o f a v e r y i m p o r t a n t figure in the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f C i s s a m o s . S h e w a s not o n l y an elder, b u t also h e a d o f t h e s y n a g o g u e . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e that she w a s m a r r i e d . ' interpretation o f presbytera

6 2

' I m p o r t a n t for the

is its parallelization w i t h archisynagogissa,

m a k e s it u n l i k e l y that presbytera e l d e r from a S o p h i a the y o u n g e r . '

which

is s i m p l y a t e r m to d i s t i n g u i s h S o p h i a the 6 3

B r o o t e n ' s r e s e a r c h h a s m a d e several t h i n g s

clear. First, a n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s l e a v e n o d o u b t that in s o m e c o m m u n i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e d i a s p o r a , there w e r e f e m a l e elders. T h e y p r o b a b l y h a d finan­ cial, p o s s i b l y also e d u c a t i o n a l responsibilities. S e c o n d , t h e r e are a n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s that m e n t i o n w o m e n as h e a d o f a s y n a g o g u e . In t h e s e , n o h u s b a n d s are m e n t i o n e d ; a n d it is h i g h l y significant that in t h o s e i n s t a n c e s w h e r e w i v e s of ( m a l e ) archisynagogoi

are m e n t i o n e d , they d o not b e a r this title. T h a t is to say,

the traditional t h e o r y that r e g a r d s this title as honorific w h e n a w o m a n is the b e a r e r h a s n o leg to stand o n . Archisynagogissai 5 8

w e r e i n d e e d f e m a l e leaders o f a

B.J. Brooten, Women Leaders in the Ancient Synagogue, Chico 1982, 1 1 - 2 , 4 1 . CI J 73 l c = Inscr. Jud. Or. Cre3. It should be said, however, that in the same year (1982) the late I.F. Sanders adopted the same interpretation of the inscription as Brooten by taking it at face value; see his Roman Crete 43: 'One of these [inscriptions] includes the only evidence for the organization o f the faith, the dead person, Sophia of Gortyna, being an elder and leader of the synagogue at Kissamos.' It is very much to the point when Susanne Heine writes: 'Wer, wie bewuBt oder unbewuBt immer, Frauen in hoheren Amtern und Funktionen nicht wahrhaben will, neigt nicht nur dazu, weibliche Vornamen zu iibersehen, sondem auch dazu, das Amt dann, wenn eine Frau es bekleidet, abzuwerten' (Frauen derfriihen Christenheit, Gottingen 1986, 98). Women Leaders 12. Women Leaders 4 1 . See now also R.S. Kraemer, 'A N e w Inscription from Malta and the Question o f Women Elders in the Diaspora Jewish Communities,' HTR 78 (1985) 4 3 1 - 8 . 5 9

6 0

6 1

6 2

6 3

26

The Jews of Ancient

Crete

s y n a g o g u e . T h e y w e r e p r o b a b l y active in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d e x h o r t a t i o n . ' T h e y c o u l d h a v e w o r k e d in a t e a m o f t w o or three s y n a g o g u e h e a d s , for w e h a v e s e e n that the n u m b e r w a s not n e c e s s a r i l y restricted to o n e . O r p e r h a p s t h e y s e r v e d alone. (...) Sophia of Gortyn, both elder and head of the synagogue, must have b e e n v e r y actively i n v o l v e d in the affairs o f the s y n a g o g u e . W a s it h e r long y e a r s o f w o r k that c o n v i n c e d e v e n t h e m o s t sceptical that a w o m a n w a s c a p a b l e o f filling that office? F a m i l y ties, long y e a r s o f i n v o l v e m e n t , l a r g e s s e - t h e s e h a v e often p l a y e d a role in attaining v a r i o u s offices a n d s e e m as likely in t h e c a s e o f w o m e n as o f m e n . '

6 4

B r o o t e n h a s b e e n q u o t e d at length b e c a u s e h e r c o n c l u s i o n s s h e d a striking light on C r e t a n J e w r y in late antiquity. T h e c o m p a r a b l e inscriptions s h e a d d u c e s m a k e v e r y p r o b a b l e i n d e e d that in d i a s p o r a situations w o m e n c o u l d rise to h i g h p o s i t i o n s a n d e v e n to l e a d e r s h i p in J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s . I n d e p e n d e n t l y from her, m y o w n r e s e a r c h h a s led m e to identical c o n c l u s i o n s a l o n g v e r y different l i n e s .

65

N e e d l e s s to say, it is not p o s s i b l e to d r a w g e n e r a l i z ­

ing c o n c l u s i o n s for the w h o l e o f C r e t e from o n e sepulchral inscription in Kastelli K i s s a m o u , b u t it c a n at least b e asserted that in s o m e q u a r t e r s o f C r e t a n J e w r y in t h e later R o m a n p e r i o d e m a n c i p a t o r y t e n d e n c i e s m a d e t h e m o s t o f their c h a n c e s so that w o m e n w e r e a b l e to attain to p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p . T h a t s u c h w o m e n w e r e at o d d s w i t h strict r a b b i n i c rules is o b v i o u s .

66

S o m e final r e m a r k s . It is self-evident that the m a t e r i a l at o u r d i s p o s a l d o e s not a l l o w for a h i s t o r y o f C r e t a n J e w s in antiquity to b e w r i t t e n . A l t h o u g h it c a n n e v e r b e e x c l u d e d that n e w d o c u m e n t s m a y e m e r g e , it h a s to b e r e c o g n i z e d that the c h a n c e s are s m a l l . N e w literary s o u r c e s c a n h a r d l y b e e x p e c t e d a n d p a p y r o logical e v i d e n c e from C r e t e itself will not b e found; o n l y a few fresh inscriptions (an e p i t a p h o r t w o ) m a y r e a s o n a b l y b e e x p e c t e d . T h e s m a l l c o r p u s o f e v i d e n c e will in c o n s e q u e n c e p r o b a b l y r e m a i n s m a l l a n d n o t a l l o w u s to arrive at g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s . A r e c e n t historian o f C r e t e o b s e r v e s o f t h e J e w s that ' t h e literary r e f e r e n c e s d e p i c t a peaceful, rich c o m m u n i t y , if s o m e w h a t g u l l i b l e , '

67

solely o n

the b a s i s o f t w o p a s s a g e s in J o s e p h u s a n d S o c r a t e s . T h a t is t o o s w e e p i n g a state­ m e n t w h e n in fact all that c a n b e d e d u c e d from t h e s e p a s s a g e s is that in t h e first c e n t u r y there w e r e rich J e w s living in C r e t e a n d that in the first a n d fifth centuries m a n y (?) J e w s p u t their u n t h i n k i n g trust in an impostor. Similarly, t h e inscription 6 4

Brooten, Women Leaders 3 2 - 3 . P.W. van der Horst, 'Images o f Women in the Testament of Job,' in M.A. Knibb & P.W. van der Horst (eds.), Studies on the Testament of Job, Cambridge 1 9 8 9 , 9 3 - 1 1 6 . Idem, 'Portraits o f Biblical Women in Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum,' Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha 5 (1989) 2 9 - 4 6 . See, e.g., L. Swidler, Women in Judaism. The Status of Women in Formative Juda­ ism, Metuchen 1976. M. Kuchler, Schweigen, Schmuck und Schleier. Drei neutestamentliche Vorschriften zur Verdrdngung der Frauen auf dem Hintergrund einerfrauenfeindlichen Exegese des Alten Testaments im antiken Judentum, Freiburg & Gottingen 1986. Sanders, Roman Crete 4 3 . 6 5

6 6

6 7

The Jews of Ancient

27

Crete

o f S o p h i a o f G o r t y n d o e s n o t p e r m i t u s to c o n c l u d e that J e w i s h w o m e n in C r e t e found it e a s y to r e a c h l e a d i n g p o s i t i o n s ; t h e c a s e o f S o p h i a w a s p r o b a b l y e x ­ c e p t i o n a l . W h e n the a f o r e - m e n t i o n e d historian s a y s that t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y w a s peaceful, w e c a n m o r e easily a g r e e w i t h h i m s i n c e t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e to the contrary. T h e fact that w e h a v e n o r e p o r t s on C r e t a n J e w r y b e t w e e n say 100 a n d 4 3 0 C E m a y indicate that in the s e c o n d t h r o u g h fourth c e n t u r i e s the J e w s r e a c h e d a h i g h d e g r e e o f i n t e g r a t i o n in C r e t a n society, a situation that w a s p r o b ­ a b l y o n l y d i s r u p t e d b y t h e legal m e a s u r e s o f T h e o d o s i u s I I .

6 8

A s w a s said in t h e

b e g i n n i n g , t h e e v i d e n c e y i e l d s n o m o r e t h a n o c c a s i o n a l g l i m p s e s o f t h e history o f this c o m m u n i t y , b u t t h e s e are w i t h o u t d o u b t interesting a n d f a s c i n a t i n g .

6 8

69

Compare the situation of several Jewish communities in Asia Minor, e. g. Sardis, on which see A.T. Kraabel, 'Paganism and Judaism: The Sardis Evidence,' in A. Benoit et al. (eds.), Paganisme, Juda'isme, Christianisme. Melanges offerts a Marcel Simon, Paris 1978, 1 3 - 3 3 . This article is the expanded version o f a paper read at the July 1987 meeting of the European Association for Jewish Studies in Berlin. It may be added here that I have left out of account all legendary material from the Christian apocvrypha such as the story that after Jesus' execution, the emperor Tiberius had Annas and Caiaphas arrested and brought to Rome, but on the way Caiaphas died. When they wanted to bury him in Crete, the earth refused to receive his body and they had to cover it with stones; see, e. g., M.R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament, Oxford 1924, 153. Until the nineteenth century there was near Cnossos a site called 'the tomb o f Caiaphas'; for details see N . A . Bees, Die griechisch-christlichen Inschriften des Peloponnes, Athens 1941, 41 with n. 2. 6 9

The Jews of Ancient Cyprus J e w s lived on the G r e e k islands in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a from as early as the third or s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . B e s t k n o w n are t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f C r e t e 2

1

and

3

D e l o s , m u c h less k n o w n are t h o s e o f E u b o i a , C o s , R h o d e s , a n d S a m o s . In this c o n t r i b u t i o n I will briefly p r e s e n t the m o s t r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e for J e w i s h p r e s e n c e 4

o n t h e i m p o r t a n t island o f C y p r u s . S c a r c e t h o u g h it m a y b e , this e v i d e n c e d o e s m a k e clear that there w a s i n d e e d a relatively large a n d vital J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o n this a n c i e n t island. I will first d i s c u s s t h e literary e v i d e n c e , thereafter the epigraphic material. T h e earliest e v i d e n c e is a p a s s a g e in 1 Maccabees

15, d e s c r i b i n g S i m o n t h e

M a c c a b e e ' s r u l e , d u r i n g w h i c h h e forged c l o s e c o n t a c t s w i t h the R o m a n s in his s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the S e l e u c i d s . A b o u t 140 B C E , N u m e n i u s w a s sent as his e n v o y to R o m e a n d c a m e b a c k w i t h "letters to the k i n g s a n d c o u n t r i e s " ( 1 5 : 1 5 ) , in w h i c h the c o n s u l o f R o m e w a r n e d t h e m not to h a r m the J e w s a n y w h e r e . C o p i e s w e r e sent " t o all the c o u n t r i e s ( . . . ) , a n d to the S p a r t a n s , a n d to D e l o s , a n d to M y n d o s , a n d to S i c y o n , a n d to C a r i a , a n d to S a m o s , a n d to P a m p h y l i a , a n d to Lycia, a n d to H a l i c a r n a s s u s , a n d to R h o d e s , a n d to P h a s e l i s , a n d to C o s , a n d to S i d e , a n d to 5

A r a d o s , a n d to G o r t y n a , a n d to C n i d o s a n d C y p r u s a n d C y r e n e " ( 1 5 : 2 3 ) . T h i s list n o d o u b t i m p l i e s that in all t h e s e p l a c e s or r e g i o n s J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e to b e found. F o r C y p r u s this i m p l i e s that the J e w s h a d b e e n r e s i d e n t s there for a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e p r e v i o u s to 140 B C E . In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d w h y t h e rulers o f C y p r u s r e c e i v e d a letter w a r n i n g t h e m n o t to h a r m t h e interests o f the J e w s , o n e

1

P.W. van der Horst, 'The Jews of Ancient Crete,' JJS 39 (1988) 1 8 3 - 2 0 0 , reprinted in my Studies on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg & Gottingen 1990, 1 4 8 - 1 6 5 [see the previous chapter]. Ph. Bruneau, Recherches sur les cultes de Delos, Paris 1970, 4 8 0 - 4 9 3 , and idem, '"Les Israelites de Delos" et la juiverie delienne,' Bulletin de correspondence hellenique 106 (1982) 465-504. See the survey by Fergus Millar in E. Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, rev. ed. by G. Vermes a. o., vol. III. 1, Edinburgh 1986, 6 8 - 7 2 . Very brief and incomplete surveys are A. Reifenberg, 'Das antike zyprische Judentum und seine Beziehungen zu Palastina,' Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society 1 2 ( 1 9 3 2 ) 2 0 9 - 2 1 5 ; G. Hill, A History of Cyprus, 4 vols., vol. I, Cambridge 1940, 2 4 1 - 2 4 3 ; and T.B. Mitford, 'The Cults of Roman Cyprus,' Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt II. 18.3, Berlin - N e w York 1990, 2 2 0 4 - 2 2 0 6 . For the problems relating to this letter (e. g., its displacement in the present text of / Mace.) see J.A. Goldstein, / Maccabees (Anchor Bible 41), Garden City 1976, A92-A9A. 2

3

4

5

The Jews of Ancient

29

Cyprus

m u s t a s s u m e that their n u m b e r s w e r e not insignificant, w h i c h w o u l d b e p o s s i b l e o n l y if the J e w s h a d lived there a l r e a d y for a l o n g e r p e r i o d , p e r h a p s from as early 6

as the third cent. B C E , like o n C r e t e a n d D e l o s . T h a t J e w s w e r e p r e s e n t on the island at least in M a c c a b a e a n t i m e s is indicated also b y the H a s m o n a e a n c o i n s 7

found in P a p h o s . It s h o u l d b e b o r n e in m i n d that C y p r u s w a s attractive from an e c o n o m i c p o i n t o f v i e w s i n c e it w a s " a d m i r a b l y situated for c o m m e r c e b e t w e e n 8

A s i a M i n o r , Syria, J u d a e a a n d G r e e c e . " E s p e c i a l l y b y t h e e n d o f the first cent. B C E , " w h e n H e r o d the G r e a t o b t a i n e d the c o n c e s s i o n o f h a l f t h e C y p r i o t c o p ­ p e r - m i n e s from A u g u s t u s in 12 B . C . E . , t h e c o m m e r c i a l p r o s p e c t s thus o p e n e d u p will h a v e e n c o u r a g e d J e w i s h i m m i g r a t i o n . "

9

T h e i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e r e b e i n g a large a n d significant c o m m u n i t y is cor­ r o b o r a t e d b y an i m p o r t a n t p a s s a g e in J o s e p h u s . In Ant. Jud.

13.284, J o s e p h u s ,

s p e a k i n g a b o u t t h e r e i g n o f P t o l e m y I X S o t e r II ( 1 4 2 - 8 0 B C E ) , s a y s that " a t this t i m e not o n l y w e r e t h e J e w s in J e r u s a l e m a n d in the c o u n t r y - s i d e ( o f J u d a e a ) in a flourishing c o n d i t i o n , b u t also t h o s e w h o lived in A l e x a n d r i a a n d in E g y p t a n d C y p r u s . " H e a d d s , in a q u o t e from S t r a b o ,

10

that P t o l e m y ' s m o t h e r , C l e o p a t r a

III, w h o w a s at w a r w i t h h e r son, sent J e w i s h t r o o p s w i t h C h e l k i a s a n d A n a n i a s as g e n e r a l s to C y p r u s ( 2 8 7 ) .

11

A g a i n , the fact that the J e w s o f C y p r u s are m e n ­

tioned in o n e b r e a t h w i t h t h e large c o m m u n i t i e s in J e r u s a l e m , A l e x a n d r i a , and E g y p t is telling e n o u g h . T h e fact that the E g y p t i a n q u e e n sent J e w i s h t r o o p s to C y p r u s o n l y h e l p s to confirm the i m p r e s s i o n that this island h a d a large J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in the last d e c a d e s o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E . In Ant. Jud.

18.131,

J o s e p h u s tells u s that o n e o f H e r o d ' s g r a n d d a u g h t e r s , A l e x a n d r a , m a r r i e d an i m p o r t a n t m a n from C y p r u s called T i m i o s , p r o b a b l y a J e w as w e l l .

1 2

Finally, in

Ant. Jud. 2 0 . 1 4 2 w e r e a d that in the m i d d l e o f t h e fifties o f t h e first c e n t u r y C E , the R o m a n g o v e r n o r o f J u d a e a , Felix, fell in love w i t h A g r i p p a ' s sister, Drusilla. S h e w a s m a r r i e d to A z i z u s , b u t w i t h t h e aid of a J e w i s h m a g i c i a n from C y p r u s called A t o m u s , h e successfully i n d u c e d h e r to m a r r y h i m . H e r e for t h e first t i m e

6

It is not clear to me how Lea Roth can confidently state that the beginning of the third century BCE was "the period at which a Jewish settlement on the island apparently began to develop on a large scale" (L. Roth, 'Cyprus,' Enc. Jud. 5 [1972] 1181), although, o f course, it is not impossible to surmise that "under Ptolemy I there seems to have been a considerable exodus from Palestine of Jews who settled in many places in the Eastern Mediterranean, and Cyprus must have had its share of such settlers" (Hill, History of Cyprus, vol. I, 241 note 4). See D.H. Cox in Numismatic Notes and Monographs 145 (1959) 2 5 - 2 6 (nos. 1 9 1 - 2 0 0 , including Herodian coins [non vidi]); also Reifenberg, 'Das antike zyprische Judentum' 2 1 3 . Sh. Applebaum, 'The Social and Economic Status of the Jews in the Diaspora,' in S. Safrai & M. Stern (eds.), The Jewish People in the First Century, vol. 2, Assen 1976, 711. M. Smallwood, The Jews Under Roman Rule, Leiden 1 9 7 6 , 4 1 2 . The reference for Herod is Josephus, Ant. Jud. 1 6 . 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 . See M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, vol. 1, Jerusalem 1974, 268-270. For the sequel see Ant. Jud. 1 3 . 3 2 4 - 3 3 3 . Though that is not as certain as Lea Roth claims it to be ('Cyprus' 1181). 7

8

9

1 0

11

1 2

30

The Jews of Ancient

Cyprus

w e c o m e a c r o s s the m o t i f of J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s from C y p r u s w h i c h , as w e will p r e s e n t l y s e e , will o c c u r m o r e often. P h i l o is a n o t h e r w i t n e s s to J e w i s h p r e s e n c e o n C y p r u s w h e n a r o u n d 4 0 C E , in Legatio

ad Gaium

2 8 2 , h e h a s k i n g A g r i p p a I list t h e m a n y c o u n t r i e s w h e r e

J e w s h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d ' c o l o n i e s , ' a n d g o e s o n to say that m a n y s u c h c o l o n i e s are also to b e found on " t h e m o s t h i g h l y e s t e e m e d o f t h e islands, E u b o e a , C y p r u s , and Crete." F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e c o m e s from the N e w T e s t a m e n t . T h e B o o k o f A c t s m e n ­ t i o n s several J e w s from C y p r u s .

1 3

First, in A c t s 4 : 3 6 it is said that to the earliest

C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y in J e r u s a l e m , c o n s i s t i n g e x c l u s i v e l y o f J e w s , b e l o n g e d a L e v i t e o f C y p r i o t origin called J o s e p h , w h o m the a p o s t l e s s u r n a m e d B a r n a b a s . T h i s B a r n a b a s is later said to h a v e b e c o m e the m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o m p a n i o n o f t h e a p o s t l e Paul d u r i n g his early m i s s i o n a r y activity. T h i s p a r t n e r s h i p , h o w e v e r , s o o n b r o k e u p : A c t s 15:39 s a y s that in A n t i o c h t h e y b e c a m e so e m b r o i l e d in conflict w i t h e a c h o t h e r that B a r n a b a s sailed a w a y to C y p r u s , a p p a r e n t l y r e t u r n ­ ing to his original h o m e l a n d . B e f o r e that r u p t u r e , h o w e v e r , t h e t w o h a d visited C y p r u s t o g e t h e r a n d p r o c l a i m e d t h e C h r i s t i a n m e s s a g e in S a l a m i s , t h e m a i n city o n t h e east c o a s t o f t h e island, w h e r e there w e r e several s y n a g o g u e s ( 1 3 : 5 s a y s so explicitly). T h e r e a f t e r they travelled to the West, a n d in P a p h o s " t h e y m e t a certain m a g i c i a n , a J e w i s h false p r o p h e t , n a m e d B a r - J e s u s " ( 1 3 : 6 ) , w h o o p p o s e d t h e m a n d tried to turn the p r o c o n s u l , in w h o s e s e r v i c e h e w a s , a w a y from t h e faith, s a y s t h e author. Paul c u r s e d the m a g i c i a n so that h e b e c a m e blind. T h i s is o u r s e c o n d e n c o u n t e r w i t h a J e w i s h m a g i c i a n from C y p r u s . A n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n o f J e w i s h p r e s e n c e at C y p r u s is g i v e n in A c t s 1 1 : 1 9 - 2 0 w h e r e w e are told that, after a p e r s e c u t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n s in J e r u s a l e m (in the m i d d l e o f t h e thirties), s o m e o f the p e r s e c u t e d J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s " t r a v e l l e d as far as P h o e n i c i a , C y p r u s , a n d A n t i o c h , a n d t h e y s p o k e the w o r d to n o o n e e x c e p t J e w s ; b u t a m o n g t h e m w e r e s o m e m e n o f C y p r u s a n d C y r e n e w h o , o n c o m i n g to A n t i o c h , s p o k e to t h e G r e e k s a l s o . " T h i s m i g h t i m p l y that e v e n before P a u l ' s first visit to C y p r u s t h e r e w e r e J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s on that island, b u t it is m o r e p r o b a b l e that the reference is to C y p r i o t J e w s w h o h a d m o v e d to P a l e s t i n e a n d b e c o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e early C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y in J e r u s a l e m . S o e v e n if t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t d o e s n o t t e s ­ tify to the size a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e C y p r i o t J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y , its e x i s t e n c e is t a k e n for g r a n t e d . M a y b e o n e c o u l d e v e n s p e c u l a t e that, in v i e w o f P a u l ' s c u s t o m o f p r e a c h i n g first in the s y n a g o g u e s o f the m a j o r d i a s p o r a c e n t r e s , t h e fact t h a t his v e r y first m i s s i o n a r y trip b r i n g s h i m to C y p r u s is an indirect indication o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h e r e . F o r t h e p e r i o d after 7 0 w e h a v e little literary e v i d e n c e , b u t the R o m a n h i s ­ torian C a s s i u s D i o ( b e g i n n i n g o f the third cent. C E ) tells u s that at t h e t i m e o f 1 3

A. Nobbs, "Cyprus," in D.W.J. Gill & C. Glempf (eds.), The Book of Acts in Its FirstCentury Setting. Volume 2: The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting, Grand Rapids - C a r l i s l e 1994, 2 7 9 - 2 8 9 .

The Jews of Ancient

31

Cyprus

Trajan, in 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 C E , t h e J e w s o f C y p r u s r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t t h e R o m a n s (and G r e e k s ) u n d e r the l e a d e r s h i p o f a certain A r t e m i o n , a n d m a s s a c r e d 2 4 0 . 0 0 0 n o n - J e w s {Historia

Romana

6 8 . 3 2 ) . A c c o r d i n g to E u s e b i u s , they e v e n d e s t r o y e d

the w h o l e city o f S a l a m i s a n d m a s s a c r e d all its i n h a b i t a n t s (Chronicon,

Trajan

X I X , p . 2 1 9 ed. K a r s t = p . 164 ed. S c h o e n e = J e r o m e , Chron. p . 196 ed. H e l m ) .

1 4

T h i s r e v o l t w a s part o f a larger J e w i s h u p r i s i n g that started in t h e C y r e n a i c a (i. e., L i b y a ) , w h e r e t h e J e w s a t t a c k e d t h e G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s a n d killed 2 2 0 . 0 0 0 o f t h e m after h a v i n g c o m m i t t e d u n d e s c r i b a b l e atrocities ( s a y s D i o ) , a n d the revolt s p r e a d to n e a r b y E g y p t a n d C y p r u s . are i m p r o b a b l y h i g h ,

1 6

1 5

E v e n t h o u g h t h e s e n u m b e r s o f casualties

t h e y d o indicate that the J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f C y p r u s

m u s t h a v e b e e n large. T h e r e is also a n o t i c e in E u s e b i u s to the effect that the C y p r i o t J e w s c a m e to the r e s c u e o f the E g y p t i a n J e w s a n d " c o n t i n u e d to p l u n d e r the c o u n t r y o f E g y p t " {Historia

Ecclesiastica

4.2). T h e w a r was devastating,

a n d the R o m a n s ruthlessly q u e l l e d t h e revolt, a l m o s t totally a n n i h i l a t i n g the Jewry of Egypt and of the Cyrenaica.

17

A b o u t t h e fate o f the C y p r i o t J e w s in the

s u p p r e s s i o n o f the r e v o l t w e k n o w little, b u t , as C a s s i u s D i o r e p o r t s , b e c a u s e o f their role in the w a r " n o J e w m a y set foot on this island [ C y p r u s ] a n y m o r e , b u t if o n e o f t h e m is d r i v e n u p o n its s h o r e s b y a s t o r m , h e is p u t to d e a t h " (Hist.

Rom.

6 8 . 3 2 ) . T h i s a g a i n is an e x a g g e r a t i o n , b u t it d o e s indicate that the m a g i s t r a t e s t o o k e x t r e m e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t the J e w s t h e r e . T h e fact that the R o m a n s tried to kill as m a n y insurgents as p o s s i b l e a n d w e r e successful in that r e s p e c t i m p l i e s that b y 117 C E C y p r i o t J e w r y w a s at least d e c i m a t e d , if n o t w o r s e .

1 8

It is p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f its ( n e a r ) e x t i n c t i o n that the literary s o u r c e s are silent a b o u t this c o m m u n i t y for a l o n g t i m e .

1 9

We h a v e to w a i t till t h e early

s e v e n t h c e n t u r y w h e n S o p h r o n i u s , b i s h o p o f J e r u s a l e m , tells u s a story a b o u t a C h r i s t i a n o n C y p r u s w h o h a d fallen ill b u t w a s h e a l e d b y t w o C h r i s t i a n saints, C y r u s a n d J o h n , w h o found o u t that t h e p o o r m a n h a d b e e n m a d e ill b y a J e w ­ ish m a g i c i a n w h o lived o n t h e island ( h e r e w e m e e t a J e w i s h m a g i c i a n for the

1 4

The same information is repeated by Orosius, Hist. 7.12.8 and Syncellus, Chron. 657. See M. Hengel & A.M. Schwemer, Paul Between Damascus and Antioch, London 1997, 347 note 240. See M. Smallwood, The Jews 389^127, esp. 4 1 2 - 4 1 5 ; Schiirer, History, vol. I, Edinburgh 1973, 5 2 9 - 5 3 4 . Reifenberg, 'Das antike zyprische Judentum' 211: "eine starke Ubertreibung." See J. Meleze-Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt, Philadelphia 1995, 1 9 8 - 2 0 5 . Rabbinic literature seems, according to some interpreters ( e . g . S. Krauss in his entry on Cyprus in the Jewish Encyclopedia), to confirm this when in Talmud Yerushalmi, Sukka 5.1, 55b, it is said that the blood of the Jews slaughtered by Trajan flowed into the sea as far as Cyprus (he passage is repeated in Lamentations Rabbah 1.16.45), but here it is rather the Jews o f Egypt or Palestine who are meant. See M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, vol. 2, Jerusalem 1980, 389. I refer here only in passing to the fifth-century Acts of Barnabas (ch. 23) which mentions the synagogue o f Salamis and tells the legendary story of a Jewish uprising against Barnabas' preaching organized by the Jewish magician Bar-Jesus, resulting in the death o f Barnabas. 15

1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

32

The Jews of Ancient

third t i m e ) .

2 0

Cyprus

S h o r t l y afterwards (in the thirties or fourties o f the s e v e n t h cent.

C E ) , b i s h o p L e o n t i u s o f N e a p o l i s (on C y p r u s ) w r o t e a w o r k Contra

21

Judaeos,

w h i c h w r i t i n g m a y b e t a k e n to p o i n t t o w a r d s a J e w i s h p r e s e n c e on t h e i s l a n d .

22

T h i s is c o n f i r m e d b y t h e report o f E u t y c h i u s A l e x a n d r i n u s (first h a l f o f t h e tenth c e n t u r y ) that d u r i n g the reign o f H e r a c l i u s ( 6 1 0 - 6 4 1 ) , C y p r i o t J e w s j o i n e d their P a l e s t i n i a n c o r e l i g i o n i s t s in a series o f raids o f C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t e r i e s .

23

As we

will see in the n e x t section, e p i g r a p h i c a l s o u r c e s indicate that in t h e c e n t u r i e s after 117 C E the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f C y p r u s s e e m s i n d e e d to h a v e r e c o v e r e d from t h e blow. W e n o w turn to the e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e .

24

T h e earliest p i e c e is an inscription

from the ( p r o b a b l y late) H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d found in K o u r i o n that m e n t i o n s the Jew Onias.

2 5

U n f o r t u n a t e l y it d o e s not yield a n y o t h e r information. F r o m t h e

R o m a n p e r i o d , m o r e specifically from the third a n d fourth c e n t u r i e s C E , d e r i v e the following: F r o m the third c e n t u r y is CIJ736

= DF 8 3 , an inscription o n a col­

u m n from L a p e t h o s that reads: ' E x - v o t o o f rabbi A t t i c u s . '

2 6

T h i s inscription n e e d

n o t i m p l y that as early as the third c e n t u r y C E the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f C y p r u s h a d c o m e u n d e r r a b b i n i c sway, for that w o u l d b e b o t h i m p r o b a b l e a n d e x c e p ­ tional. F r o m the c i r c a 6 0 ' e p i g r a p h i c a l r a b b i s '

2 7

it is v e r y difficult to ascertain in

w h i c h c a s e s t h e w o r d rabbi d e s i g n a t e s an o r d a i n e d R a b b i a n d in w h i c h c a s e s it 2 0

Laudatio sanctorum martyrum Cyri et Johannis 55 (=PG 87/3: 3625). J. Starr, The Jews of the Byzantine Empire, N e w York 1939, 8 5 - 8 6 , mentions medieval sources reporting that a Jewish sorcerer from Salamis was burnt there at the stake ca. 635 CE. PG 9 3 : 1 5 9 7 - 1 6 1 2 . On this treatise see H. Schreckenberg, Die christlichen Adversus-Judaeos-Texte und ihr literarisches und historisches Umfeld (l.-ll. Jh.), Frankfurt 1990, 445. This is, o f course, not necessarily the case. It is also unwarranted to conclude from the fact that Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, wrote a refutation of the ideas of a great number of Jewish (and Christian) groups, that all these groups were represented on Cyprus, in spite of what is suggested by S. Krauss-W. Horbury, The Jewish-Christian Controversy I: History, Tubingen 1 9 9 6 , 4 3 . Annates 2 . 2 2 0 - 2 2 3 (PG 111:1084-5 = CSCO 4 5 : 1 0 1 - 2 ) . See K.L. Noethlichs, DieJuden im christlichen Imperium Romanum (4.-6. Jahrhundert), Berlin 2 0 0 1 , 48 with note 111. Some o f it was collected by J.-B. Frey, Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum, vol. 2, Rome 1952, 6 - 7 , and B. Lifshitz, Donateurs et fondateurs dans les synagogues juives, Paris 1967, 7 3 - 7 6 . See also T.B. Mitford, "Some N e w Inscriptions from Early Christian Cyprus," Byzantion 20 (1950) 1 0 5 - 1 7 5 , here esp. 110-116. The corpora of Frey and Lifshitz will be referred to in the main text as CIJ and DF. [For a new edition of the Jewish inscriptions from Cyprus see the Addendum.] T.B. Mitford, The Inscriptions of Kourion, Philadelphia 1971, 1 3 3 - 1 3 4 (no. 70). Another late Hellenistic inscription mentioned as Jewish by Mitford, 'Cults' 2204, is much too fragmen­ tary to warrant his conclusion that it "appears to concern the construction in cedar wood o f the doorway o f a synagogue at Amathus" {ibid.). For a discussion of this inscription see Reifenberg, "Das antike zyprische Judentum" 211-212. S. J. D. Cohen, 'Epigraphical Rabbis,' JQR 72 (1981/82) 1-17. For an addendum see P. W. van der Horst, '"Lord, Help the Rabbi'. The Interpretation of SEG X X X I 1578b," JJS 38 (1987) 1 0 2 - 1 0 6 , now also in my Essays on the Jewish World 1 8 2 - 1 8 6 . 2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

The Jews of Ancient

33

Cyprus

m e a n s j u s t an individual o f r a n k or an i m p o r t a n t p e r s o n , a w e l l established m e a n ­ ing o f rabbi,

also in r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e .

28

' R a b b i ' w a s n o t a p r o t e c t e d title a n d

there w a s n o central registry o f p e r s o n s w h o w e r e o r d a i n e d R a b b i s . " W h o c o u l d p r e v e n t v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s from b e s t o w i n g t h e title ' r a b b i ' o n their p r o m i n e n t citizens r e g a r d l e s s o f their p r a c t i c e s a n d beliefs? H e n c e it m a k e s n o s e n s e to a s s u m e that all r a b b i s in a n t i q u i t y w e r e T a l m u d i c s c h o l a r s . "

29

O t h e r inscriptions

m a k e clear that t h e real l e a d e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e t h e archontes, archisynagogoi,

t h e gerousiarchai,

etc.

3 0

the

Most of the epigraphical rabbis were

not r a b b i s in o u r s e n s e o f t h e w o r d , a n d m o s t s y n a g o g u e s in b o t h Israel a n d the d i a s p o r a w e r e n o t led b y r a b b i s . N o w h e r e d o the inscriptions s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n o f r a b b i n i c d o m i n a n c e . E p i g r a p h i c a l r a b b i s " a p p e a r as donors, the s y n a g o g u e s . "

31

n o t a s leaders o f

T h i s is p r o b a b l y w h a t w e see h e r e : t h e m a r b l e c o l u m n m a y

v e r y w e l l h a v e b e e n a gift o f ' r a b b i ' A t t i c u s , w h o o n t h e b a s i s o f a v o w (the text h a s euche

= neder)

d o n a t e d it to his s y n a g o g u e . O f c o u r s e t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t

a s p e c t o f this inscription is that o n e century, or a c e n t u r y a n d a half, after the d e s t r u c t i v e w a r o f 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 w e a g a i n see J e w i s h p r e s e n c e o n C y p r u s a n d e v e n the p r e s e n c e o f s y n a g o g u e b u i l d i n g s . P r o b a b l y also from t h e third c e n t u r y C E is DF 8 5 ,

3 2

a g a i n a n inscription o n a

m a r b l e c o l u m n , from C o n s t a n t i a . It is h e a v i l y d a m a g e d a n d v e r y i n c o m p l e t e , b u t a c c o r d i n g to t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e r e a d i n g it s a y s : " . . . o f [ N N ? ] w h o w a s five t i m e s archisynagogos,

33

t h e son o f A n a n i a s , w h o w a s t w o t i m e s archon,,"

sibility is that A n a n i a s ' s o n w a s five t i m e s archisynagogos

Another pos­

and two times

archon.

T h e s e t w o titles a r e w i d e l y attested a s d e s i g n a t i o n s o f s y n a g o g u e officials in J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s . B o t h w e r e l e a d i n g figures w i t h t a s k s a n d responsibilities that a r e still relatively u n c l e a r b u t n o n e t h e l e s s i m p o r t a n t .

34

Even though the

inscription is n o t v e r y i n f o r m a t i v e in itself, it d o e s a g a i n testify t o J e w i s h p r e s ­ e n c e in C y p r u s after t h e revolt. F r o m t h e fourth c e n t u r y ( b u t p o s s i b l y later) is CIJ 7 3 5 = DF 8 2 , a g a i n an inscription o n a m a r b l e c o l u m n , this t i m e from t h e t o w n o f G o l g o i : " J o s e the elder, son of S y n e s i u s , h a s r e s t o r e d t h e w h o l e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s y n a g o g u e . " F o r ' s y n a g o g u e ' t h e inscription h a s hebra'ike,

a v e r y e x c e p t i o n a l t e r m to d e s i g ­

n a t e a s y n a g o g u e b u i l d i n g . A s far a s I k n o w , t h e r e is n o o t h e r i n s t a n c e o f this 2 8

See L. I. Levine, The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity, Jerusalem - N e w York 1989, 15: "In antiquity this title was applied to anyone o f high standing in the community". Cohen, 'Epigraphical Rabbis' 13. See P. W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs, Kampen 1991, 8 5 - 9 8 ; L.I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue, N e w Haven-London 2 0 0 0 , 387^128. Cohen, 'Epigraphical Rabbis' 14 (italics added). It is not in CIJ because Mitford published the inscription only in 1950, after the death o f Frey; see Mitford, ' N e w Inscriptions' 110-116. I here follow Lifshitz's reconstruction with some modifications, not the more speculative one by Mitford. See van der Horst, Epitaphs 8 9 - 9 3 ; Levine, Synagogue 3 9 0 - 4 0 4 (the best discussion). 2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

3 3

3 4

34

The Jews of Ancient

usage

3 5

Cyprus

(the first further o c c u r r e n c e b e i n g from t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y ) . O b v i o u s l y

its m e a n i n g h e r e is ' t h e p l a c e w h e r e the H e b r e w s g a t h e r . ' T h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' H e ­ b r e w s ' for J e w s is found m o r e often in a n c i e n t i n s c r i p t i o n s .

36

T h e inscription

i m p l i e s that J o s e p a i d for the costs o f t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e local s y n a g o g u e , so h e m u s t h a v e b e e n well to d o .

3 7

F r o m the fifth or sixth c e n t u r y is an inscription from L a p e t h u s listed b y Lifs­ hitz, b u t I find it a d u b i o u s c a s e .

3 8

DF 8 4 r u n s as follows: " G o d , h e l p (us)! W e ,

E n t o l i o s t h e e l d e r a n d E n k a i r i o s the s o n o f the late Isaak, w h o w a s also called S i n d o u r o s , offer y o u w h a t is y o u r s from w h a t is y o u r s . In the fifth m o n t h o f t h e fifth indiction. L o r d , save (us)!. A m e n . " T h e inscription definitely has a Christian r i n g a b o u t it ( ' w e offer y o u w h a t is y o u r s from w h a t is y o u r s ' ) , b u t Lifshitz a r g u e s that the n a m e s E n t o l i o s ( N . B . : entole

= mitswah)

a n d I s a a c are t y p i c a l l y

J e w i s h a n d h e n c e a s s u m e s that the inscription is o f J e w i s h p r o v e n a n c e . H e h i m ­ self m u s t c o n c e d e , h o w e v e r , that b o t h n a m e s are found also a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s in late antiquity. N a m e s , m o r e v e r , are n e v e r a sure criterion for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the J e w i s h n e s s o f inscriptions for there are v e r y few n a m e s (if a n y ) " w h i c h c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d to h a v e b e e n u s e d o n l y b y J e w s , a n d n e v e r b y C h r i s t i a n s or p a g a n s , w h e t h e r in t h e s a m e or other g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s . "

3 9

It c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d

that this inscription is J e w i s h , b u t it is o n e o f t h o s e c a s e s w h e r e c e r t a i n t y is i m p o s s i b l e . Finally, t h e o n l y H e b r e w e v i d e n c e w e h a v e is a g e m i n s c r i b e d w i t h t h e n a m e ' B e n a y a h u b e n H u r ' (CIJ 7 3 7 ) , b u t it is h a r d to d a t e .

4 0

It d o e s attest,

h o w e v e r , to J e w i s h p r e s e n c e . W e m a y further p o i n t to J e w i s h oil l a m p s d e c o ­ r a t e d w i t h m e n o r o t from the third - fifth cent. C E . a n d a g l a s s m e d a l i o n w i t h a m e n o r a h , lulav a n d e t h r o g , from the s a m e p e r i o d .

41

W e h a v e o b s e r v e d r e f e r e n c e s to J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s r e c u r r i n g in t h e e v i d e n c e . H e r e it s h o u l d b e k e p t in m i n d that in antiquity quite often t h e w o r d s ' m a g i c i a n ' or ' m a g i c ' w e r e u s e d as t e r m s o f a b u s e a n d r e v e a l to u s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e n e g a t i v e attitude o f the u s e r s o f t h e s e w o r d s t o w a r d s the beliefs a n d p r a c t i c e s o f their o p p o n e n t s o r e n e m i e s . E v e n so it is striking that n o t o n l y C h r i s t i a n b u t also 3 5

See also C. Claufien, Versammlung, Gemeinde, Synagoge. Das hellenistisch-jiidische Umfeld der fruhchristlichen Gemeinde, Gottingen 2 0 0 2 , 145. For instances from Rome, Corinth, and Lydian Philadelphia see van der Horst, Epitaphs 87. Pace S. Krauss, Synagogale Altertiimer, Berlin 1922 = Hildesheim 1966, 307. The first editor thinks it is Christian; see Mitford, ' N e w Inscriptions' 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 . R. S. Kraemer, 'Hellenistic Jewish Women: The Epigraphical Evidence,' SBL 1986 Seminar Papers, Atlanta 1986, 191. Although J. Juster, Les Juifs dans I 'Empire Romain, vol. 1, Paris 1914, 189 note 5, thinks it is 'tres ancien.' Reifenberg, 'Das antike zyprische Judentum' 213 (with photos opposite p. 212). T.B. Mitford, 'Further Contributions to the Epigraphy ofCyprus,' American Journal of Archaeology 65 (1961) 1118-119, publishes the text of a Cypriot horoscope of Flavian date in which one o f the months is given the Jewish name Shebat (if that reading is correct!), but it is hard to draw conclusions from that. 3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

4 1

The Jews of Ancient

35

Cyprus

J e w i s h a u t h o r s (see J o s e p h u s , a b o v e ) s p e a k a b o u t J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s on C y p r u s . In that light it m a y b e interesting to n o t e that in a w e l l n e a r P a p h o s a large c a c h e o f m o r e than t w o h u n d r e d lead tablets w i t h so-called defixiones p e o p l e , i.e.,

( c u r s e s to ' b i n d '

to r e n d e r t h e m i n c a p a b l e o f s p e a k i n g or a c t i n g ) from the early

Christian period was discovered.

42

S e v e r a l e l e m e n t s in t h e s e texts b e t r a y J e w i s h

influence. It is a w e l l - k n o w n fact that J e w s p l a y e d a m a j o r role in the d e v e l o p ­ m e n t a n d p r a c t i c e o f m a g i c in late a n t i q u i t y ,

43

b u t as far as C y p r u s is c o n c e r n e d

it is n o t e w o r t h y that in the first c e n t u r y C E Pliny t h e E l d e r w r i t e s : " T h e r e is y e t a n o t h e r b r a n c h o f m a g i c , d e r i v e d from M o s e s , J a n n e s , L o p a t e s , a n d the J e w s , b u t living m a n y t h o u s a n d y e a r s after Zoroaster. A n d m u c h m o r e r e c e n t is their b r a n c h in C y p r u s " (Naturalis

Historia

30.11 ) .

4 4

U n c l e a r t h o u g h this p a s s a g e m a y

b e , it d o e s s u g g e s t J e w i s h p r o m i n e n c e in circles o f C y p r i o t m a g i c i a n s , n i c e l y dovetailing with the various texts w e have already seen about Cypriot Jewish m a g i c i a n s (in J o s e p h u s , t h e B o o k o f A c t s , S o p h r o n i u s ) . T h e r e c a n b e little d o u b t that m a g i c w a s part a n d p a r c e l o f the J e w i s h religion on C y p r u s , as e l s e w h e r e . Finally a n o t h e r k i n d o f indirect e v i d e n c e h a s to b e m e n t i o n e d briefly, n a m e l y , t h e 2 3 i n s c r i p t i o n s for the Theos Hypsistos

( ' G o d M o s t H i g h ' ) at C y p r u s .

4 5

This

cult, ' a c o n v e n i e n t m e e t i n g g r o u n d for J e w a n d j u d a i z e r , C h r i s t i a n a n d p a g a n , ' w a s certainly a p r o d u c t o f 'cross-fertilization b e t w e e n J e w s a n d p a g a n s , '

4 7

4 6

and

m a y for that r e a s o n b e r e g a r d e d as a sign o f J e w i s h p r e s e n c e , a l t h o u g h that is n o t an u n a v o i d a b l e c o n c l u s i o n . W e h a v e to l e a v e that m a t t e r a s i d e , h o w e v e r . O n t h e b a s i s o f this short s u r v e y w e m a y c o n c l u d e that e v i d e n c e for J e w i s h s e t t l e m e n t s o n a n c i e n t C y p r u s exists for six t o w n s a n d villages: S a l a m i s , P a p h o s , Kourion, Golgoi, Constantia, and L a p e t h o s .

4 8

T h e r e w e r e certainly m o r e p l a c e s

w h e r e J e w s lived o f w h i c h w e k n o w n o t h i n g . T h e literary e v i d e n c e c o m b i n e d w i t h the e p i g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l s h o w s that t h r o u g h o u t t h e H e l l e n i s t i c , R o m a n , a n d early B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d s , J e w s lived on C y p r u s . F o r t h e first c e n t u r i e s w e h a v e to r e c k o n w i t h e v e r i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s , a l t h o u g h there is n o w a y o f b e i n g m o r e p r e c i s e . In n o n e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s to t h e C y p r i o t J e w s d u r i n g t h e last t w o c e n t u r i e s B C E a n d the first c e n t u r y C E is there a n y hint o f friction at a n y t i m e b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e G r e e k s ( a n d R o m a n s ) o f the island, a n d J o s e p h u s d o e s 4 2

See J.G. Gager, Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World, Oxford 1992, 1 3 2 - 1 3 6 . The more important of these defixiones were published as nos. 1 2 7 - 1 4 2 in Mitford, The Inscriptions of Kourion 2 4 6 - 2 8 3 . See e.g. M. Simon, Verus Israel. A Study of the Relations Between Christians and Jews in the Roman Empire, Oxford 1986, 3 3 9 - 3 6 8 . Stern, Greek and Latin Authors I, 498^199. See the convenient list and the texts in S. Mitchell, 'The Cult of Theos Hypsistos Between Pagans, Jews, and Christians,' in P. Athanassiadi & M. Frede (eds.), Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Oxford 1999, 1 4 4 - 1 4 5 . Mitford, 'Cults' 2207. Mitchel, 'Cult' 114 For their location see Map B VI 18 of the Tiibinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients: Die judische Diaspora bis zum 7. Jahrhundert n. Chr., Wiesbaden 1992. 4 3

4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 8

36

The Jews of Ancient

Cyprus

n o t m e n t i o n a n y a n t i - R o m a n agitation there after 7 0 c o m p a r a b l e to the t r o u b l e in E g y p t a n d C y r e n a i c a at that t i m e .

4 9

F o r r e a s o n s that by a n d large still r e m a i n

u n e x p l a i n e d , that peaceful situation c h a n g e d drastically, h o w e v e r , w h e n in 115 C E " t h e J e w s o f C y p r u s m a d e their sole, a n d fatal, incursion into r e c o r d e d politi­ cal h i s t o r y . "

50

In spite o f the d e v a s t a t i n g b l o w t h e y r e c e i v e d from the R o m a n s ,

it is certain that the J e w s w e r e a b l e to re-establish t h e m s e l v e s on the island after s o m e t i m e (as t h e y did as well in E g y p t a n d the C y r e n a i c a ) . T h e e v i d e n c e from the third t h r o u g h s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s C E leaves n o d o u b t a b o u t that. [Addendum:

T h e collection o f J e w i s h inscriptions from C y p r u s in D . N o y & H .

B l o e d h o r n , Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis,

vol. Ill: Syria and Cyprus,

Tubin­

g e n 2 0 0 4 , 2 1 3 - 2 2 6 , w a s p u b l i s h e d o n l y after the c o m p l e t i o n o f this article. F o r the m i n o r differences b e t w e e n this c o l l e c t i o n a n d m i n e see m y r e v i e w o f this w o r k e l s e w h e r e in this v o l u m e . ]

Smallwood, Jews 4 1 2 - 3 . Smallwood, Jews 4 1 2 .

The Jews of Ancient Sicily T h e e v i d e n c e for a J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in Sicily in antiquity is as s c a r c e as the at­ 1

testation for it is plentiful in the M i d d l e A g e s . U n l i k e t h e o t h e r large islands in 2

the M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea, C r e t e a n d C y p r u s , for J e w s in Sicily w e d o not h a v e a n y literary e v i d e n c e before the late sixth c e n t u r y C E (but see the A p p e n d i x ) . W e d o h a v e , h o w e v e r , s o m e 2 0 J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s from this island, c o n v e n i e n t l y col­ 3

lected by D a v i d N o y , w h i c h m a k e clear that J e w s h a d b e e n p r e s e n t in Sicily well before m e d i e v a l t i m e s . In a d d i t i o n to that, w e h a v e a fascinating d o c u m e n t in the 4

form o f an a n c i e n t J e w i s h a m u l e t , p u b l i s h e d b y R o y K o t a n s k y . C h r o n o l o g i c a l l y this m a t e r i a l (both i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d a m u l e t s ) r a n g e s from the third to the fifth c e n t u r y C E . W h a t c a n w e learn from t h e s e s c a n t t e s t i m o n i e s ? L e t u s b e g i n w i t h a rapid s u r v e y o f the inscriptions. F r o m T a o r m i n a w e h a v e a c u r i o u s G r e e k inscription ( J I W E 143) stating that the d a y o f the s a b b a t h is g o o d or that the s a b b a t h is a g o o d d a y (hemera

agathe,

cf. yom tov). T h e c o n t e x t a n d

p u r p o s e o f this inscription is unclear. F r o m A c i r e a l e w e h a v e a seal w i t h t h e G r e e k n a m e H e u r e s i s a n d a m e n o r a h a n d shofar ( J I W E 144). J I W E 145, from C a t a n i a , is interesting in that the inscription is bilingual: it is an e p i t a p h w i t h the first line in H e b r e w followed b y n i n e lines in Latin. T h e H e b r e w s a y s : 'al Yisra 'el, Amen

Amen.

Shalom

Shalom

Shmu 'el. T h e Latin part s a y s that A u r e l i u s

S a m o h i l ( = S a m u e l ) b o u g h t this t o m b for h i m s e l f a n d his wife L a s s i a Irene, w h o 5

died at the a g e o f 2 3 . H e a d d s the adjuration that n o b o d y s h o u l d o p e n the t o m b a n d ' p u t s o m e o n e e l s e ' s b o d y on t o p o f o u r b o n e s . ' T h i s adjuration is s o l e m n i z e d b y referring to the victories o f t h e rulers, the h o n o u r s o f t h e p a t r i a r c h s (certainly t h e influential J e w i s h l e a d e r s in P a l e s t i n e ) , a n d t h e L a w w h i c h the L o r d g a v e t h e 1

For the Middle A g e s see the massive collection o f documents in S. Simonsohn, The Jews in Sicily, 7 vols., Leiden 1 9 7 7 - 2 0 0 5 . Still valuable is C. Roth, 'Jewish Intellectual Life in Medieval Sicily,' Jewish Quarterly Review Al (1956/57) 3 1 7 - 3 3 5 . See RW. van der Horst, 'The Jews of Ancient Crete,' Journal ofJewish Studies 39 (1988) 1 8 3 - 2 0 0 ; and idem, 'The Jews of Ancient Cyprus,' Zutot: Perspectives on Jewish Culture 2003,110-120. D. Noy, Jewish Inscriptions ojWestern Europe. Vol. I: Italy (excluding the City of Rome), Spain and Gaul, Cambridge 1993, 1 8 4 - 2 2 0 ; henceforth JIWE. R. Kotansky, Greek Magical Amulets. The Inscribed Gold, Silver, Copper, and Bronze Lamellae, vol. 1, Opladen 1994, 1 2 6 - 1 5 4 ; henceforth GMA. A not unusual age at death for a woman; see my Ancient Jewish Epitaphs. An Introductory Survey of a Millennium of Jewish Funerary Epigraphy (300 BCE-700 CE), Kampen 1991, Ch. 5 ('Age at Death'). 2

3

4

5

38

The Jews of Ancicral Sicily

Jews. JIWE 146, again from Catania, is a Greek epitaph for two girls, Leontia who died at the age of 3 and Kalliope who dicd at the agc of 18. Two mcnorahs have been incised on this marble plaque. A menorah is also incised on nr. 147, again a Greek cpitaph from Catcmia, which is almost impossibIc to dcciphcr due to damage. Nr. 148 (Catania) is a marble plaque on which Imnacus, an elder ( y r e s b y ~ s states ) , (in Greek) that he has bought the burial place without offending thc commandment. Since it is unclear what commandment lrenaeus is referring to, tlre Jewishness of the inscription is debated (since sometimes crttole is also used for Jesus' precepts). Also mother marble plaque from Catnnia recording the acquisition of a tomb (JIWE 149, in Greek) says that the owner (again an elder, pmbytems, called Jason) in no way intiingcd the commandment. JIWE 150, again from Catania, statcs that Zosimianus bought this tomb; a menorah is added after the text. From Syracuse there is a Greek epitaph (JIWE 151 ) in which Imnc Nymphc (or: Ircnc thc bridc) says that no one should open the grave where she lies, but the Jewishness of the inscription is again a matter of some debate. Another S y r a c m epitaph in Grcck (JIWE 152) threatens anyone who opens thc tomb with 'the futurc' (to meli2tikon).which most probably rcfers to the final judgement. The Jewish character is ensured by the closing forrnula 'Blcssing to the pious hcre' (eulogiatois lrosiois h d e ) . JIWE 153 is a Samaritan inscription from Syracuse. It is written on a marble column in Samaritan Hebrew and cites the text of Num. 10:35: 'Rise,YHWH, tnay your enemies be scattered,' a text found more oflen in Samaritan inscriptions and on amulcts? JIWE I54 (from Noto Vecchio) contains only menoroth as tomb decoration. Nr. 155 is a Greek cpitaph from Acrilla for 'Jason the child' (with a menorah). JIWE 156 is a Hebrew amirlet on a gold sheet from Comiso. It is heavily damaged but contains twice the line 'He shall save by the name that is in the height and He shall spare the lowly.' The often garblcd Hcbrcw suggcsts that thc copyist did not rally understand what he was writing. From Sofiana we have Gnck epitaphs for Attinis (==Atinius), an elder, with a menorah and for Judas Sabaiias (JIWE 157 and 158).Froin probably the same place there is a bronze sheet with an amulet text in Grcck and transliterated Hebrew containing mostly names of angels, both wellknown and unknown (JIWE 159).' The final itcm.. arc hvo epitaphs in Greek. one on a very damaged stone from Agrigento with the word lorrd[aios] in final position (JIWE 160)?thc othcr (1 6 1, from Tcrmc Imcmc) calling the dcccascd, Gaius Seius Ptolemaeus, a Samat~rcs,the meaning of which is uncertain: Was

R. Pummer, 'Inscriptions.' in A.D. Cmwn (cd.), 7 % ~Samaritans, TQhingen 1989, 192; Pummcr, 'Samaritan Rituals and Customs,'ibid. 652. T l ~ csame cat was published simultaneously as no. 33 in Kobnksky, GMA. Among thc wcll-known nanes we find the four archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel; among thc tnany unknown wc find namcs such as Dclko and Gibiiiba

Thc Jews trf ,4ncic*1rr.Siciir

39

the man a Samaritan (a member of the Samaritan religious community) or a Samarian (an inhabitant of Samarirt)?w The amulet from Acre publislied by Kotansky (GMA 32) is a copper tablet found in the early 19" century and publishcd scvcrnl timcs sincc? It is usually calted 'the phylactery of Moses,' since the arllulet idcntifios itsclf as suclr in the opcning lincs: "A phylactery which Moscs used to protect himself in the 1-Ioly of Holies (and) to lcad him in thc glory of tho divinc." And in lint 8 it says: "A phylactery of Moses (to protect himself) when hc wcnt up on Mount Sinai ... to receive the amulet," and this is rcpcatcd again in line 23. Thc amulct also statcs three times that whoevcr carries it will tiot have to fear sorcerers or birrding spells or evil spirits. The protecting chann itsclf bcgins with ttlc words, "la6 Sabalith AdBnaie Seilam Ablanathanalba, 0 world of the world,1uprotect so-and-so, Abmsax," follo\ved by nomina barbara. This is a familiar mis of Jcwish and Greek elements that onc finds so of'tcn in magical papyri, including thosc of nonJewish origin.]' The surprise comes in lines 19-22, where we find a previously unidentified fragment of Aquila's translation of Dcutcronorny 32: 1-3: "The heaven will be darkened, and I will speak, atrd let the cartlr hcar tiit: words of my mouth, as finc dew upon the grass, and as gentle showcrs upon thc hcrb, because I liave called the name of the Lord."" Tiic text on the tablet is rather commpt but according to the carchl and convincing study by Kohnsky thcrc are seven1 Aquilan clcmcnts in thcsc lincs (inter alia. the reading 'will be darkened'), but for our purposes it is unnecessary to go into these details." The important point is that this particular quotation in thc amulet's text is not without its purpose. AS Kotansky observes, Deutcronotny 32 and 33 prcscrvc the last words of Moscs before his death. Both chapters "contain poetic compositions that cffcctively closc thc wholc of the Mosaic I'cntatcuch" ( 144). In the verses quoted, "n this problem see my 'The Samaritan Disrspora in Antiquity.' in my E s s ~ otr s tire Jt*wb h Ifi~rlrlnfEari'y Chri.vticrrti!\~,Fribourg - GOttingcn 1990. 136147. ' For publication details scc GMA 126. It is unclcar to mc why Noy. who knows this aniulct (see p. 213), did not include this tcxt in JIWE, whcrcas hc did so with (ihltl no. 53. Thc strange phrase kosnre kosnrou i s probably a w d n translation of tile Hcbrew words 'olan~ILS- ' o l m . M. Snrith, '?he Jewish Elements in the Magical Papyri.' in his .Tttltiic~in rhc Ctrlt of Ycrlrwel~.vol. 2. Lxidcn I(N6.242-256. l 2 On Aquila six N. Fcrndndcz Marcos, Tltc .Qpttragint in C'ontcrt. lntmdirctioir to the Gwek 14miorr.t c,Sfhu Bible, Leidcn 2000, 109-122. For tlir sake of co~ilparisonI also give Deut. 32: 1-3 accoding to the NRSV [ranslation of the Masoretic vcrsion: "Give car. 0 hcavcns. and 1 will speak, Ict the earth hcar the words of my mouth. May my tcsching drop like the rain my spccy:lr condense like the dew, like gmtlc rain on grass, likc tlic showcrs on ncw growth. For I will proclninl thc nmlc ofthc Lord."Thc JPS translatiotl runs as follows: *%iuc car. 0 liuvcns. let mc speak; let the earth h a r the words I utter! May my discourse come down like the nin, my spccch distill likc thc Jcw, likc showcrs on young growth, like droplcts on thc grass. For the namc of the Lord I proclaim." l3 Scc for a dolailed study of this Aquilan quote Kotansky, GMA 149- 154.

'

40

The Jews of Ancient

Sicily

" M o s e s sings his s o n g to the w h o l e a s s e m b l y o f Israel, with his o w n w o r d s likened to a divine utterance that e v e n heaven and earth must hear. T h e w o r d s not o n l y represent a distillation o f all M o s e s ' divine teaching as g i v e n o n Sinai, they serve as a sort o f incanta­ tion in t h e m s e l v e s , for the w o r d s appropriately end, 'I will proclaim the n a m e o f the Lord.' That n a m e , and its proclamation, represents the very e s s e n c e o f the m a g i c 'Phylactery o f M o s e s ' - it is the 'Sabaoth' o f the inscribed g o l d e n leaf (line 6), the D i v i n e N a m e s and Tetragrammaton (lines 1 4 - 1 8 , 2 9 f . ) that M o s e s acquires o n his ascent to Sinai" ( 1 4 4 ) .

M u c h m o r e s h o u l d b e said a b o u t this c u r i o u s a m u l e t , but w e leave it h e r e in o r d e r to r e t u r n to o u r m a i n q u e s t i o n : W h a t d o e s all this t e a c h u s a b o u t the J e w s o f a n c i e n t Sicily? To b e g i n w i t h , w e c a n see from the p l a c e s w h e r e t h e m a t e r i a l s w e r e found that in t h e later R o m a n E m p i r e J e w s lived all o v e r Sicily, a l t h o u g h t h e r e s e e m s to b e a certain c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e v i d e n c e in C a t a n i a ( J I W E 1 4 5 - 1 5 0 ) . Further, in c o n t r a s t to C r e t e a n d C y p r u s , all o f the e v i d e n c e is late: W h e r e a s for t h e o t h e r t w o large islands, J e w i s h i n h a b i t a n t s are attested as early as the last c e n t u r i e s B C E , for Sicily they are not attested before the third c e n t u r y C E . T h a t is not to say t h e y w e r e n o t t h e r e before; w e s i m p l y h a v e n o e v i d e n c e , b u t n o e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t i m p l y a b s e n c e . In v i e w o f the fact that m a n y o t h e r islands in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a h a d J e w i s h d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s from m u c h earlier t i m e s , it is hard to b e l i e v e t h e y did not exist in Sicily, b u t w e will h a v e to w a i t for n e w e v i d e n c e before w e c a n b e sure a b o u t that. Thirdly, n o t surprisingly, the J e w s o f Sicily s p o k e G r e e k , like a l m o s t all other d i a s p o r a J e w s (at least in the W e s t ) . W e s a w t h r e e i n s c r i p t i o n s in H e b r e w , b u t o n e o f t h e m w a s n o m o r e than s o m e stock p h r a s e s o f a liturgical c h a r a c t e r (like shalom

'al Yisra 'el) a n d a g r e e t i n g ;

m o r e o v e r the rest o f this inscription w a s in L a t i n ( J I W E 145). T h e s e c o n d o n e w a s a S a m a r i t a n inscription w i t h a biblical q u o t e in H e b r e w ( J I W E 153), but S a m a r i t a n inscriptions w i t h such q u o t e s t e n d to b e a l w a y s in H e b r e w so that w e c a n n o t u s e s u c h e v i d e n c e for d e t e r m i n i n g the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e - as a m a t t e r o f fact, like t h e J e w s , all d i a s p o r a S a m a r i t a n s s p o k e G r e e k .

1 4

T h e third o n e is a

H e b r e w a m u l e t ( J I W E 156) the text o f w h i c h is in large parts so u n i n t e l l i g i b l e that its first e d i t o r s u g g e s t s that " t h e c o p y i s t did n o t u n d e r s t a n d it a n d c o p i e d it p u r e l y for m a g i c a l p u r p o s e s . "

15

So n o n e o f t h e s e three inscriptions entitles u s

to a s s u m e that Sicilian J e w s k n e w m o r e t h a n m i n i m a l H e b r e w . T h e o n l y Latin inscription ( J I W E 145) is an e x c e p t i o n a n d as such an indication o f an e x c e p t i o n ­ ally h i g h d e g r e e o f integration into R o m a n society; e v e n in the city o f R o m e , Latin i n s c r i p t i o n s b y J e w s are a rarity ( a l t h o u g h i n c r e a s i n g o v e r t i m e ) .

1 6

Finally,

a g a i n n o t surprisingly, J e w s in Sicily t e n d e d to i n d u l g e in m a g i c , as w e also see e l s e w h e r e (for i n s t a n c e in C y p r u s ; see m y article m e n t i o n e d in n o t e 2 ) .

14

See my 'The Samaritan Languages in the Prc-Islamic Period,' in my Japheth in the Tents ofShem. Studies on Jewish Hellenism in Antiquity, Leuven 2 0 0 2 , 2 3 5 - 2 5 0 . Noy, JIWE 208. See L.V. Rutgers, The Jews of Late Ancient Rome, Leiden 1995, 1 7 6 - 7 . 15

1 6

The Jews of Ancient

Sicily

41

N o s y n a g o g u e s h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t e d in Sicily. E v e n so, the e v i d e n c e r e v i e w e d s u g g e s t s that there w e r e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s w i t h their o w n o r g a n i z a t i o n s . S o m e o f t h e inscriptions m e n t i o n e l d e r s (presbyteroi),

a well-attested d e s i g n a t i o n for

d i g n i t a r i e s o f J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s ( J I W E 148, 149, 157); t h e y w e r e p r o b a b l y 1

m e m b e r s o f a council o f e l d e r s (gerousia)}

R a b b i s are not m e n t i o n e d at all, but

the r e f e r e n c e to the h o n o r o f the p a t r i a r c h s in J I W E 145 s u g g e s t s that c o n t a c t s w i t h the J e w i s h l e a d e r s h i p in P a l e s t i n e w e r e m a i n t a i n e d . A n d the u s e o f A q u i l a ' s B i b l e translation in the a m u l e t d i s c u s s e d a b o v e ( G M A 3 2 ) is at least an indica­ tion that this r a b b i n i c a l l y inspired G r e e k v e r s i o n h a d influence a n d p r e s t i g e a m o n g ( s o m e ) Sicilian J e w s . A l m o s t the o n l y setting in w h i c h t h e y c o u l d h a v e h e a r d this v e r s i o n is that o f a s y n a g o g u e s e r v i c e , so this is a n o t h e r indication that there m u s t h a v e b e e n J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e s in Sicily. In this c o n n e c t i o n it is to b e n o t i c e d that J I W E 143 stresses t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s a b b a t h . A l s o the frequent o c c u r r e n c e o f the m e n o r a h as a J e w i s h s y m b o l is i n d i c a t i v e o f an o u t s p o k e n J e w i s h s e l f - a w a r e n e s s a n d identity. A n o t h e r interesting feature o f the e v i d e n c e is the p r e s e n c e o f S a m a r i t a n s . To b e s u r e , t h e Samareus

o f J I W E 161 n e e d not h a v e b e e n a S a m a r i t a n at all

(see a b o v e ) , but the p r e s e n c e in S y r a c u s e o f a m a r b l e c o l u m n w i t h a S a m a r i t a n inscription ( J I W E 153) c a n n o t b u t indicate that t h e city h a r b o r e d a c o m m u n i t y o f S a m a r i t a n s . W e k n o w from a literary s o u r c e that there w a s i n d e e d a S a m a r i ­ tan c o m m u n i t y in Sicily in t h e sixth c e n t u r y : P o p e G r e g o r y the G r e a t w r o t e to the b i s h o p s o f the islands that the S a m a r i t a n s there s h o u l d not b e a l l o w e d to c i r c u m c i s e their C h r i s t i a n slaves (Epist. r e d e e m e d {Epist.

6.33) a n d that t h e s e slaves s h o u l d b e

8.21).

T h e s a m e G r e g o r y also attests to J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in Sicily b y the e n d o f the sixth c e n t u r y : H e o r d e r e d t h e b i s h o p s to g i v e the J e w s o f P a l e r m o full i n d e m ­ nification for the d a m a g e suffered b y the e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e s y n a g o g u e b y C h r i s t i a n s (Epist.

9.38). A s S a l o W. B a r o n aptly r e m a r k s in this c o n t e x t , " T h i s

p r o t e c t i o n o f J e w i s h religious institutions, w h i l e in k e e p i n g w i t h the a c c e p t e d R o m a n law, w a s particularly significant in Italy in so far as there the conflict b e t w e e n Saint A m b r o s e a n d t h e e m p e r o r o v e r t h e illegal e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f the s y n a g o g u e o f C a l l i n i c u m in 3 8 8 h a d h e l p e d c r e a t e the illusion that the c h u r c h favored such m o b a c t i o n . "

18

B e that as it may, t h e s e p a p a l d o c u m e n t s m a k e clear

that b y the e n d o f antiquity there m u s t h a v e b e e n s i z e a b l e J e w i s h a n d S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t i e s in Sicily. A n d this g r o w t h c o n t i n u e d in the M i d d l e A g e s : In the

1 7

See my Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 91; esp. L.I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue. The First Thousand Years, N e w Haven-London 2000, 4 0 7 - 4 0 8 . S.W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, vol. 3, N e w York-Philadelphia 1957, 30. At pp. 2 8 - 3 3 Baron also mentions other letters of pope Gregory concerning things Jewish. 1 8

42

The Jews of Ancient

12

th

Sicily

century, B e n j a m i n o f T u d e l a c o u n t e d n o less t h a n 1500 J e w i s h families in

Palermo.

Appendix:

1 9

Caecilius

of

Calacte

In t h e e n t r y on Sicily in the Encyclopaedia

Judaica

( 1 4 : 1 4 9 3 ) , S.J. Sierra m e n ­

tions t h e first-century C E G r e e k orator C a e c i l i u s o f C a l a c t e (/. e., K a l e A k t e on the n o r t h c o a s t o f Sicily) as the first Sicilian J e w k n o w n to u s , a l t h o u g h h e s p e n t m o s t o f his life in R o m e . T h i s o p i n i o n is also a d h e r e d to b y M a r t i n G o o d m a n in 20

the r e v i s e d E n g l i s h edition o f S c h i i r e r ' s History.

A c t u a l l y the o n l y e v i d e n c e

for C a e c i l i u s ' J e w i s h n e s s is a r e m a r k to that effect in t h e m u d d l e d e n t r y on this o r a t o r in the 1 0

th

c e n t u r y B y z a n t i n e e n c y c l o p e d i a called the Suda. T h i s is v e r y

w e a k e v i d e n c e , the m o r e so s i n c e all o t h e r d a t a a b o u t C a e c i l i u s , to b e found in m u c h earlier a n d therefore m o r e reliable a u t h o r s , d o not g i v e u s t h e slightest hint o f his J e w i s h n e s s . A l s o t h e t o p i c s o f his b o o k s d o not s u g g e s t in the least that t h e w r i t e r w a s a Jew. I w o u l d therefore s u b m i t that, for r e a s o n s o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l strictness, in a s t u d y o f Sicilian J e w s in antiquity C a e c i l i u s o f C a l a c t e s h o u l d b e left o u t o f a c c o u n t . [ N o t e : T h e v o l u m e edited b y N . B u c a r i a , Ebrei e Sicilia

(Palermo 2003), came

to m y n o t i c e o n l y after the c o m p l e t i o n o f this article.]

19

Sefer ha-Massa'ot 108 (p. 78 in Adler's edition). E. Schurer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, vol. 3, Edinburgh 1986, 7 0 1 - 7 0 3 . Cf. also M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, vol. 1, Jerusalem 1974, 3 6 1 - 3 6 3 , 566. 2 0

The Synagogue of Sardis and its Inscriptions Introduction F o r t y y e a r s a g o , in 1962, A m e r i c a n a r c h a e o l o g i s t s u n e a r t h e d the greatest a n c i e n t s y n a g o g u e e v e r in a large-scale e x c a v a t i o n in the city o f Sardis, capital o f ancient 1

L y d i a in A s i a M i n o r . T h e colossal b a s i l i c a - s h a p e d b u i l d i n g m e a s u r e s a l m o s t 2 0 2

x 100 m e t e r s a n d c o u l d a c c o m m o d a t e s o m e 1000 p e o p l e . T h i s richly d e c o r a t e d basilica is an integral part o f a h u g e b a t h - a n d - g y m n a s i u m c o m p l e x in the city c e n t r e a n d as such it is a l s o a m o n u m e n t to t h e integration o f the J e w i s h c o m ­ m u n i t y in this G r a e c o - R o m a n city. T h i s s p e c t a c u l a r d i s c o v e r y p r o v i d e d a s t r o n g s t i m u l u s to s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h on the J e w i s h d i a s p o r a in antiquity, e s p e c i a l l y as r e g a r d s p r o b l e m s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , a s s i m i l a t i o n , a n d identity f o r m a t i o n .

3

The

m o r e t h a n e i g h t y inscriptions that w e r e found inside the s y n a g o g u e are o b v i ­ o u s l y o f the greatest i m p o r t a n c e for t h e s t u d y o f these i s s u e s , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y w e h a v e h a d to w a i t v e r y l o n g for their p u b l i c a t i o n . To b e fair, the greatest e p i g r a p h i s t o f the 2 0

t h

century, t h e F r e n c h s c h o l a r L o u i s R o b e r t , h a d p u b l i s h e d 4

s o m e o f t h e s e inscriptions as early as 1 9 6 4 , b u t that w a s less than 1 0 % o f the m a t e r i a l . A t last w e n o w h a v e t h e l o n g a w a i t e d p u b l i c a t i o n o f this d o s s i e r in the form o f a special issue o f the Harvard

Theological

Review,

in w h i c h J o h n Kroll

5

p r e s e n t s the m a t e r i a l . In this m o d e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n , I first w a n t to briefly say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t w h a t w a s k n o w n a b o u t the J e w s o f S a r d i s b e f o r e t h e d i s c o v e r y

1

A.R. Seager & A.T. Kraabel, 'The Synagogue and the Jewish Community,' in G.M.A. Hanfmann (ed.), Sardis from Prehistoric to Roman Times, Cambridge ( M A ) 1983, 1 6 9 - 1 7 8 . For a concise survey of the archaeological data see also RR. Trebilco, Jewish Communities in Asia Minor, Cambridge 1991, 4 0 - 4 3 . In the scholarly literature one finds sometimes other measures (e. g., a length of 60 meters) but these are the interior measures o f the basilica, especially o f the great hall in which the meet­ ings took place, and that room is of course considerably smaller than the total complex which encompassed not only the great assembly hall but also the large forecourt with provisions for ritual washings and a number of other rooms. For information about the details of these adjacent rooms the reader is referred to the publications mentioned in note 1. See, e.g., J.M.G. Barclay, Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora, Edinburgh 1996. Nouvelles inscriptions de Sardes, Paris 1964, 3 7 - 5 8 . J.H. Kroll, 'The Greek Inscriptions o f the Sardis Synagogue,' HTR 9 4 (2001) 5 - 1 2 7 . Pp. 5 7 - 1 2 7 contain photos of the inscriptions. [After the original publication of this article the inscriptions were published anew by Walter Ameling in Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis II: Kleinasien, Tubingen 2 0 0 4 , 2 0 9 - 2 9 7 . ] 2

3

4

5

44

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

o f the s y n a g o g u e , a n d t h e n d e v o t e s o m e w o r d s to t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e i n s c r i p ­ tions for o u r k n o w l e d g e o f J u d a i s m in the a n c i e n t d i a s p o r a .

Jews

in

Sardis

It w a s o n l y after t h e m i d d l e o f the third c e n t u r y C E that the great basilica w a s c o n v e r t e d into a s y n a g o g u e ; thereafter it s e r v e d t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y for several c e n t u r i e s until t h e city w a s d e s t r o y e d by the S a s s a n i d s in 6 1 6 C E . J e w s , h o w e v e r , h a d b e e n living in Sardis s o m e c e n t u r i e s before t h e y h a d this s y n a ­ g o g u e . H o w m a n y c e n t u r i e s before is u n c e r t a i n , h o w e v e r , b e c a u s e o f a p r o b l e m in t h e interpretation o f a w o r d in O b a d i a h 2 0 . T h e p r o p h e t s a y s there that t h e exiles o f J e r u s a l e m w h o live in S e p h a r a d will p o s s e s s t h e t o w n s o f the N e g e v . S e p h a r a d (only in later H e b r e w the d e s i g n a t i o n for S p a i n ) is a n a m e that o c c u r s n o w h e r e else in the H e b r e w B i b l e a n d it is u n c e r t a i n w h i c h p l a c e or r e g i o n the 6

p r o p h e t h a s in m i n d h e r e . T h a t u n c e r t a i n t y is also reflected in t h e a n c i e n t ver­ s i o n s : t h e S e p t u a g i n t r e n d e r s it E p h r a t h a (or S e p h r a t h a ) , the V u l g a t e B o s p o r u s , a n d t h e P e s h i t t a a n d the T a r g u m read Spain. A c c o r d i n g to s o m e m o d e r n s c h o l a r s , 7

h o w e v e r , the city o f Sardis is m e a n t h e r e . W h y ? In 1916 an A r a m a i c inscription from the P e r s i a n p e r i o d ( K A I n o . 2 6 0 ) w a s found on t h e a n c i e n t n e c r o p o l i s o f S a r d i s . In that text t h e n a m e S e p h a r a d (in the s a m e s p e l l i n g as in O b a d i a h 2 0 : sprd) is u s e d for the capital o f t h e P e r s i a n s a t r a p y S p a r d a = S a r d i s . A n d fifty y e a r s later, in 1966, a n o t h e r A r a m a i c inscription from the P e r s i a n p e r i o d (ca. 4 5 0 B C E ) w a s p u b l i s h e d from w h i c h it b e c a m e a p p a r e n t that in D a s k y l e i o n , n o t 8

far from S a r d i s , a J e w i s h family h a d s e t t l e d . T h a t is to s a y that it is not i m p o s ­ sible that the p r o p h e t i n d e e d d o e s h a v e in m i n d h e r e J e w i s h exiles in t h e L y d i a n capital, S a r d i s . B u t that c a n n o t b e strictly p r o v e d , a n d it is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e that some scholars remain skeptical.

9

T h e J e w i s h historian F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s m e n t i o n s a letter b y t h e S e l e u c i d k i n g A n t i o c h u s III from 2 0 5 B C E in w h i c h this ruler states that h e h a s transferred t w o t h o u s a n d J e w i s h families from M e s o p o t a m i a to t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t cities o f L y d i a a n d P h r y g i a (Antiquitates

6

Judaicae

XII 1 4 8 - 1 5 2 ) . S o there c a n b e little

See the survey in J.D. Wineland, 'Sepharad,' Anchor Bible Dictionary

5 (1992) 1089—

90. 7

See, e.g., E. Lipinski, 'Obadiah 2 0 , ' Vetus Testamentum 23 (1973) 3 6 8 - 3 7 0 ; H.W. Wolff, Dodekapropheton 3: Obadja undJona (BKAT XIV/3), Neukirchen 1977, 4 7 - 4 8 . A l s o Wineland (see n. 6) is inclined to see a reference to Sardis here.. For details the reader is referred to the publications mentioned in the previous note. E.g., Trebilco, Jewish Communities 38; and F. Millar in E. Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, rev. ed. by G. Vermes, F. Millar & M. Goodman, vol. Ill 1, Edinburgh 1986, 2 0 - 2 1 . 8

9

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

45

doubt that by the end of the third century B C E , Sardis, as capital of Lydia, had Jewish inhabitants.

1 0

Furthermore, J o s e p h u s cites s o m e decrees o f Julius C a e s a r and the R o m a n S e n a t e from t h e m i d d l e o f t h e first c e n t u r y B C E w h i c h s t i p u l a t e t h e r i g h t s o f t h e J e w s in a n u m b e r o f c i t i e s in A s i a M i n o r . T h e R o m a n g o v e r n o r o f A s i a M i n o r h a d in g e n e r a l g r a n t e d t h e J e w s f r e e d o m from m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e as w e l l as p e r ­ m i s s i o n t o live fully in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e J e w i s h a n c e s t r a l l a w s a n d c u s t o m s (Ant.

Jud.

X I V 2 2 3 - 2 2 7 ) , b u t a p a r t from t h a t t h e r e w a s a l s o a s p e c i a l d e c r e e

c o n c e r n i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e J e w s in S a r d i s : L u c i u s A n t o n i u s , s o n o f Marcus, proquaestor and propraetor, to the magistrates, council and p e o p l e o f Sardis, greeting. J e w i s h citizens o f yours h a v e c o m e to m e and pointed out that from the earliest t i m e s they have had an association o f their o w n in accordance with their native l a w s and a place o f their o w n in w h i c h they d e c i d e their affairs and controver­ sies with o n e another.

11

U p o n their request that it b e permitted them to d o these things, I

d e c i d e d that they m a y b e maintained and permitted them s o to d o (Ant. Jud. X I V 2 3 5 ) .

1 2

S l i g h t l y further o n J o s e p h u s q u o t e s a d e c r e e o f t h e p e o p l e o f S a r d i s : T h e f o l l o w i n g decree w a s p a s s e d b y the council and p e o p l e o n the m o t i o n o f the m a g i s ­ trates. Whereas the Jewish citizens living in our city have continually r e c e i v e d many great privileges from the p e o p l e and h a v e n o w c o m e before the council and the p e o p l e and have pleaded that, as their l a w s and freedom h a v e b e e n restored t o t h e m b y the R o m a n senate and p e o p l e , they m a y , in accordance with their accepted c u s t o m s , c o m e together and h a v e a c o m m u n a l life and adjudicate suits a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , and that a place b e g i v e n to t h e m in w h i c h they m a y gather together with their w i v e s and children and offer their ancestral prayers and sacrifices to G o d , it has therefore b e e n decreed b y the council and the p e o p l e that permission shall b e g i v e n them to c o m e together o n stated days to d o these things w h i c h are in accordance with their l a w s , and also that a place shall b e set apart b y the magistrates for them to build and inhabit, such as they m a y consider suitable for this purpose, and that the market officials o f the city shall b e charged with the duty o f having suitable food for t h e m brought in (Ant. Jud. X I V 2 5 9 - 2 6 1 ) . F r o m t h e s e d e c r e e s s e v e r a l t h i n g s b e c o m e clear. T h e p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e J e w s in t h e city d i d n o t c o m e t o t h e m a u t o m a t i c a l l y . T h e y h a d h a d t o s t r u g g l e for it a n d t h e y a p p a r e n t l y h a d sufficient i n f l u e n c e a n d g o o d w i l l t o g e t t h i n g s d o n e a s t h e y w a n t e d . T h e y g o t t h e i r o w n p i e c e o f l a n d for t h e b u i l d i n g o f a s y n a g o g u e (not the one n o w excavated), the right to h a v e their o w n m e e t i n g s a n d to decide o n t h e i r o w n affairs t h e r e , a n d it w a s e v e n t a k e n c a r e o f b y t h e city m a g i s t r a t e s

1 0

There are scholars w h o doubt the authenticity o f the letter o f Antiochus III; see Barclay, Jews 261 with note 8. This almost certainly refers to a synagogue. For the multifunctionality o f ancient syna­ gogues see now esp. L.I. Levine, The Ancient Synagogue, N e w Haven 2 0 0 0 , 1 2 4 - 1 3 4 et passim. Translation by Ralph Marcus in LCL VII 575. 11

1 2

46

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

that k o s h e r food w o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e .

13

Inscriptions

We thus get a picture of a Jewish c o m ­

m u n i t y that is k e e n o n the m a i n t e n a n c e o f its o w n identity in the m i d s t o f a p a g a n society, but that is also e n a b l e d by that v e r y s a m e society to d o so w i t h o u t serious p r o b l e m s . W e also h a v e information from o t h e r cities in A s i a M i n o r that m a k e s clear that the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s there w e r e in a relatively safe a n d s e c u r e p o s i ­ tion a n d c o u l d d e v e l o p a h i g h d e g r e e o f integration in city life in s u c h a w a y that they c o u l d also m a i n t a i n their identity, T h e city o f A p h r o d i s i a s , situated in the S o u t h - W e s t e r n part o f A s i a M i n o r , is a fine e x a m p l e o f that k i n d o f integration, as 1 h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e .

The

14

synagogue

T h i s p i c t u r e is n o w c o n f i r m e d in a striking w a y b y the e x c a v a t i o n o f t h e g r e a t s y n a g o g u e in S a r d i s a n d its inscriptions. A s w a s a l r e a d y n o t e d , the s y n a g o g u e w a s an integral part o f a centrally located c o m p l e x c o n s i s t i n g o f a p u b l i c b a t h , a g y m n a s i u m , a n d a s h o p p i n g m a l l . T h e b u i l d i n g is ' o n e o f the m o s t p r o m i n e n t features o f t h e c i t y ' s r u i n e d u r b a n l a n d s c a p e , '

15

as e v e r y m o d e r n visitor c a n n o w

easily see. E v e n apart from the e n o r m o u s size, this p o i n t s to the fact that the J e w ­ ish c o m m u n i t y o f Sardis w a s definitely not a ' q u a n t i t e n e g l i g e a b l e . ' M i n o r i t i e s in a city d o n o t u s u a l l y get h o l d o f a central a n d p r e s t i g i o u s b u i l d i n g if t h e y d o n o t h a v e a n y c l o u t a n d influence there. In m y view, therefore, T h o m a s K r a a b e l is c o m p l e t e l y right w h e n h e s a y s : ' T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f the S a r d i s s y n a g o g u e is s i m p l y that it r e v e a l s a J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f far greater w e a l t h , p o w e r , a n d self-confidence than the u s u a l v i e w s o f a n c i e n t J u d a i s m w o u l d g i v e u s a n y right to e x p e c t . '

1 6

T h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in S a r d i s w a s a minority, ' b u t a

p o w e r f u l , e v e n a w e a l t h y o n e , o f great antiquity, in a m a j o r city o f the D i a s p o r a , 1 3

See T. Rajak, 'Jews, Pagans and Christians in Late Antique Sardis: Models o f Interaction,' in her The Jewish Dialogue with Greece and Rome. Studies in Cultural and Social Interaction, Leiden 2 0 0 1 , 447^162, esp. 448. The enigmatic remark that the Jews were also allowed to bring their sacrifices to God in their own communal building must be left out o f account here. Sacrifices to the God of Israel outside the Jerusalem temple were of course strictly forbidden according to the priestly rules, but that does not imply that everyone agreed with and stuck to these rules. It is known that there were other Jewish temples outside of Jerusalem. See, e.g., M. Smith, Palestinian Parties and Politics that Shaped the Old Testament, N e w York 1971, ch. 4, esp. p. 97; M.E. Stone, Scriptures, Sects and Visions. A Profile of Judaism from Ezra to the Jewish Revolts, London 1980, 7 7 - 8 2 . But see also the discussion of the problem by J. Leonhardt, 'Euchai kai thusiai (A 14:260) - Opfer in der jiidischen Synagoge von Sardes?,' in J.U. Kalms (ed.), Internationales Josephus-Kolloquium Amsterdam 2000, Miinster 2 0 0 1 , 1 8 9 - 2 0 3 , who argues that this passage cannot be interpreted as a break with the Jerusalem temple by the Jews o f Sardis. P.W. van der Horst, 'Jews and Christians in Aphrodisias in the Light of Their Relation­ ships in Other Cities o f Asia Minor,' in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg-Gottingen 1990, 1 6 6 - 1 8 1 . Rajak, 'Jews, Pagans and Christians in Sardis' 449. Kraabel in Sardis (n. 1) 178. 1 4

15

1 6

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

47

Inscriptions

c o n t r o l l i n g a h u g e a n d lavishly d e c o r a t e d structure on ' M a i n S t r e e t ' a n d a b l e to retain control o f it as long as t h e city e x i s t e d . '

17

H e r e o n e d o e s n o t find J e w s w h o

k e e p a ' l o w profile' b u t influential a n d s e l f - c o n s c i o u s p e o p l e . T h e inscriptions that h a v e n o w b e e n p u b l i s h e d a d d an extra confirmation to this picture.

The

inscriptions

A p a r t from the G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s there are a handful o f H e b r e w e p i g r a p h i c r e m a i n s , b u t I will l e a v e t h e s e o u t o f a c c o u n t , not o n l y b e c a u s e they h a v e not yet b e e n p u b l i s h e d ,

18

b u t also b e c a u s e t h e s e five or six f r a g m e n t s yield little

m o r e than the w o r d shalom

and the proper names Jochanan and Severus. These

few H e b r e w f r a g m e n t s c a n certainly n o t b e u s e d as p r o o f that the J e w s in Sardis w e r e still a b l e to s p e a k H e b r e w for t h e y p r o v e n o m o r e t h a n that o n e or t w o p e o p l e k n e w the c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e ' s a c r e d l a n g u a g e , ' or o n e or t w o w o r d s in that l a n g u a g e , as a sign o f b e l o n g i n g to t h e h i s t o r y o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e . T h e fact that m o r e t h a n 9 0 % o f the inscriptions are in G r e e k m a k e s a b u n d a n t l y clear that t h e daily l a n g u a g e o f this J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y w a s G r e e k . T h e e i g h t y or so G r e e k inscriptions offer u s an interesting w i n d o w on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f this d i a s p o r a community. To b e g i n w i t h , it s h o u l d b e said that m o s t o f t h e inscriptions in this s y n a g o g u e ' c o m m e m o r a t e m e m b e r s o f the c o n g r e g a t i o n w h o c o n t r i b u t e d t h e m a n y e l e ­ m e n t s o f interior d e c o r a t i o n : t h e m o s a i c s o n t h e floor, the m a r b l i n g o f the w a l l s , a n d a n u m b e r o f architectural a n d ritual f u r n i s h i n g s . '

19

T h a t is a t y p e o f inscrip­

tion that w e also find in o t h e r a n c i e n t s y n a g o g u e s a n d o f w h i c h m o r e than o n e hundred were already k n o w n .

2 0

T h i s c o r p u s is n o w e x p a n d e d c o n s i d e r a b l y b y

t h e s e n e w inscriptions, w h i c h - like t h e o t h e r s o f this t y p e - all date from the period o f c a . 3 0 0 - 6 0 0 CE. It is often m e n t i o n e d that t h e g e n e r o u s d o n o r m a d e his d o n a t i o n ' i n fulfill­ m e n t o f a v o w ' (kat' euchen, euxamenos

hyper

euches,

eplerosa

euchen,

euchen

etelesa,

etc.). O n c e t h e d o n a t i o n w a s m a d e out o f g r a t i t u d e for the health o f

the g i v e r ( 6 3 ) , p o s s i b l y an act o f t h a n k s g i v i n g for r e c o v e r y from a s e r i o u s illness b e c a u s e the d o n a t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f n o t h i n g less t h a n a m o n u m e n t a l m a r b l e Torah shrine (the 'aron ha-qodesh),

h e r e d e s i g n a t e d w i t h a w o r d that h a s not b e e n

p r e v i o u s l y attested w i t h this m e a n i n g , viz. nomophylakion, 17

lit. that in w h i c h the

Kraabel, 'The Diaspora Synagogue: Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence Since Sukenik,' in Aufstieg undNiedergang der Romischen Welt II 19,1, Berlin-New York 1979, 488. F.M. Cross from Harvard University is preparing an edition. [In the meantime Cross has published them in Harvard Theological Review 95 (2002) 3 - 1 9 . ] Kroll, 'Greek Inscriptions' 5. For a (now outdated) collection o f these inscriptions see B. Lifshitz, Donateurs et fondateurs dans les synagogues juives, Paris 1967. At pp. 2 4 - 3 1 Lifshitz deals with the inscrip­ tions from Sardis that had been published by Louis Robert in 1964 (Nouvelles inscriptions de Sardes). 1 8

1 9

2 0

48

The Synagogue

law is g u a r d e d .

21

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

W i t h d u e piety it is often stated that t h e gift w a s d o n a t e d ' f r o m

t h e gifts o f P r o v i d e n c e ' ( 1 2 , 1 6 - 1 7 , 1 9 - 2 4 , 5 8 , 6 6 ) . It is striking that the G o d o f Israel is d e s i g n a t e d n o less than 11 t i m e s by the n o n - b i b l i c a l t e r m

Pronoia,

s o m e t h i n g that w e k n o w p r i m a r i l y from the w r i t i n g s o f several C h u r c h F a t h e r s . G r a e c o - J e w i s h a u t h o r s s u c h as P h i l o a n d J o s e p h u s , t o o , u s e the t e r m

22

pronoia

d o z e n s o f t i m e s , b u t a l w a y s as an attribute or quality, n e v e r as t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f G o d . In antiquity, pronoia dentia

w a s initially u s e d p r i m a r i l y for the i m p e r s o n a l

provi-

in Stoic p h i l o s o p h y . L a t e r o n this c o n c e p t w a s also e m p l o y e d in a w i d e r

s e n s e in the p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n p e r i o d (think o f the v a r i o u s tractates Peripronoias that this striking u s e of pronoia

2 3

from the I m p e r i a l t i m e ) . It is n o t i m p r o b a b l e as a d e s i g n a t i o n o f G o d in t h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s w a s

influenced b y the r e l i g i o - p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s a b o u t p r o v i d e n c e in later antiq­ uity. A s w a s the c a s e w i t h P h i l o (albeit in a v e r y different w a y ) , t h e s e H e l l e n i z e d J e w s , t o o , w e r e influenced in their w a y s o f t h i n k i n g a n d s p e a k i n g b y d e b a t e s in c o n t e m p o r a r y p h i l o s o p h y ; n o w o n d e r if o n e realizes h o w m a n y c e n t u r i e s they h a d a l r e a d y lived in the t h o r o u g h l y G r e e k city that S a r d i s w a s . ' T h e y t o o k o v e r a n i m p o r t a n t gentile w o r d in the s a m e w a y that t h e y h a d a p p r o p r i a t e d gentile s c u l p t u r e , h a u l i n g R o m a n e a g l e s a n d L y d i a n lions into their b u i l d i n g to a d o r n it, b o l d l y m a k i n g t h e m J e w i s h in the p r o c e s s . '

2 4

Six t i m e s t h e d o n o r s are called ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' (theosebeis,

8, 9, 2 2 , 5 7 , 5 9 ,

6 6 ) . T h i s is o f i m p o r t a n c e since w e a l m o s t certainly h a v e to d o h e r e w i t h t h e terminus

technicus

the B o o k of A c t s ) .

for n o n - J e w i s h s y m p a t h i z e r s w i t h J u d a i s m (the sebomenoi 2 5

of

It is the great d o n o r inscription from A p h r o d i s i a s that h a d

a l r e a d y m a d e i m p r e s s i v e l y clear that in that C a r i a n city n o n - J e w s h a d c o n t r i b ­ u t e d g e n e r o u s l y ( a n d in great n u m b e r s ) to t h e financing o f a J e w i s h b u i l d i n g (or b u r i a l p l a c e ) , a n d , in a d d i t i o n to that, t h o s e m a n y ' G o d - f e a r e r s ' ( a l m o s t h a l f o f t h e m o r e t h a n 120 d o n o r s b e l o n g e d to that c a t e g o r y o f p a g a n 'affiliates o f s o m e 2 6

s o r t ' ) t u r n e d o u t to b e l o n g to the h i g h e r strata o f s o c i e t y .

27

A l t h o u g h in Sardis

t h e n u m e r i c a l ratio is quite different from that in A p h r o d i s i a s , h e r e a g a i n o n e c a n see u n m i s t a k a b l y that till l o n g after C o n s t a n t i n e p a g a n s o f the h i g h e r e c h e l o n s

2 1

This rare word is used elsewhere in the sense of 'office of the guardian o f the laws.' A.T. Kraabel, 'Pronoia at Sardis,' B. Isaac & A. Oppenheimer (eds.), Studies on the Jewish Diaspora in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods (= Te'uda XII), Tel Aviv 1996, 7 5 - 9 6 . Only inscription no. 29 has the formula 'from the gifts of the Almighty God.' Kraabel, 'Pronoia at Sardis' 8 2 - 8 4 . See esp. M. Dragona-Monachou, 'Divine Providence in the Philosophy o f the Empire,' Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt II 36, 7, BerlinN e w York 1994, 4417^1490. Kraabel, 'Pronoia' 95. The most comprehensive and recent study of the phenomenon of 'Godfearers' is B. Wander, Gottesfurchtige und Sympathisanten, Tubingen 1998. Rajak, 'Jews, Pagans and Christians' 449. J. Reynolds & R. Tannenbaum, Jews and Godfearers at Aphrodisias Cambridge 1987. 2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

49

Inscriptions

t e n d e d to s y m p a t h i z e with J u d a i s m r a t h e r t h a n w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y .

28

O n e of these

' g e n t i l e s y m p a t h i z e r s ' e v e n d o n a t e d the large m e n o r a h to t h e s y n a g o g u e ( 6 6 ) ! W h e n d o n o r s m e n t i o n their o c c u p a t i o n or function, s e c u l a r p r o f e s s i o n s are m e n t i o n e d m u c h m o r e often than religious o n e s . O n l y in t h r e e c a s e s are p o s i ­ tions or functions in t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y m e n t i o n e d , w h e r e a s in n o less than t w e n t y c a s e s secular p r o f e s s i o n s a n d functions are m e n t i o n e d ( a m o n g w h i c h three g o l d s m i t h s ! ) . W h a t is e s p e c i a l l y striking is that n o less t h a n n i n e p e r s o n s are bouleutai,

i.e., m e m b e r s o f the city council (boule),

the h i g h e s t a d m i n i s t r a ­

tive b o d y o f t h e city. H e r e w e s e e J e w s w h o h a v e c l i m b e d u p to the h i g h e s t r u n g on the social ladder, for ' t h e c o u n c i l s o f G r e e k cities u n d e r t h e L a t e E m p i r e w e r e o p e n o n l y to t h e w e a l t h i e r families, w i t h m e m b e r s h i p , o n c e p u r c h a s e d , b e i n g h e r e d i t a r y a n d h e l d for l i f e . '

29

S o d i s t i n g u i s h e d a n d w e l l - t o - d o J e w i s h families

participated in the g o v e r n m e n t o f the city. N o w o n d e r that h e r e , u n l i k e e l s e w h e r e in the fifth a n d sixth century, t h e s y n a g o g u e w a s not e x p r o p r i a t e d b y the C h r i s ­ tians in o r d e r to b e c o n v e r t e d into a c h u r c h b u i l d i n g . T h i s basilica c o u l d h a v e b e e n a magnificent c h u r c h , b u t w h a t h a p p e n e d in fact w a s that d u r i n g the fifth a n d sixth c e n t u r y the C h r i s t i a n s in Sardis h a d to m a k e d o w i t h a m u c h s m a l l e r b u i l d i n g than t h e s y n a g o g u e . A striking difference from the f a m o u s A p h r o d i s i a s inscription, w h i c h also m e n t i o n s n i n e bouleutai,

is that t h e r e t h e city c o u n c i l o r s

are all gentiles w h e r e a s h e r e t h e y are J e w s ! A s far as religious functions are c o n c e r n e d , an elder (presbyteros,

52 and 7 5 )

is m e n t i o n e d t w i c e . E l d e r s are found m o r e often in o t h e r J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e y w e r e m e m b e r s o f the c o u n c i l o f e l d e r s (often called gerousia)

30

w h o formed

t h e g o v e r n i n g b o d y o f the r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e o n e is called hiereus

kai sophodidaskalos

(4). ' P r i e s t , ' hiereus,

is h e r e a l m o s t certainly not

t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f an official t e m p l e priest, w h i c h s e e m s v e r y u n l i k e l y after the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e in 7 0 C E ( a l t h o u g h it c a n n e v e r b e ruled out c o m p l e t e l y ; think o f the reference to sacrifices b y J e w s in Sardis in Ant. Jud. X I V 2 5 9 - 2 6 1 [quoted a b o v e ] ) . C a s e s like t h e s e m o s t p r o b a b l y c o n c e r n d e s c e n d a n t s o f f o r m e r priestly families w h o ' w e r e a c c o r d e d the p r i v i l e g e o f p r o n o u n c i n g certain b e n e d i c t i o n s d u r i n g s e r v i c e s ' a n d w e r e r e g a r d e d as ' p r e f e r r e d r e a d e r s o f the T o r a h . '

31

T h e prestige o f t h e s e kohanim

w a s still so great, e v e n centuries after

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f the t e m p l e , that in t h e r a b b i n i c c a t a c o m b s o f B e t h S h e ' a r i m (in t h e G a l i l e e ) a special burial c h a m b e r h a d b e e n r e s e r v e d for t h e m . daskalos

Sophodi­

is a t e a c h e r o f w i s d o m . T h e w o r d l o o k s like a v a r i a n t o f the m o r e usual

nomodidaskalos,

2 8

3 2

t e a c h e r o f t h e L a w . S i n c e t h e Torah w a s w i d e l y r e g a r d e d as

See my study 'Jews and Christians in Aphrodisias in the Light of Their Relations in Other Cities of Asia Minor'(n. 14). Kroll, 'Greek Inscriptions' 10. For a list see R W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs, Kampen 1991, 9 1 . Kroll, 'Greek Inscriptions' 18. R W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 96. 2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

50

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

the c o m p e n d i u m o f all d i v i n e w i s d o m in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m ,

3 3

it s e e m s v e r y p r o b ­

a b l e that t h e t e r m is a d e s i g n a t i o n o f a Torah s c h o l a r ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a r a b b i ) , s o m e t h i n g t h a t fits in w e l l w i t h t h e priestly d e s c e n t o f t h e m a n . M o s t o f t h e gifts m e n t i o n e d in t h e inscriptions a r e t h e m a r b l e w a l l d e c o r a ­ tions a n d floor m o s a i c s o f t h e s y n a g o g u e , b u t s o m e a r e o f a different n a t u r e . T w o p e r s o n s d o n a t e d e a c h a m e n o r a h ( 6 6 , 6 9 ; in n o . 6 6 t h e m e n o r a h is called heptamyxion,

lit. ' s e v e n b u r n e r ' ) ; a n o t h e r d o n a t e d t h e m a r b l e for the Torah shrine

( 6 3 ) ; a n d S a m o e p o s s i b l y d o n a t e d t h e bima, t h e e l e v a t e d structure from w h i c h the T o r a h w a s r e a d ( 4 ? ) . T h i s S a m o e is o n e o f the v e r y few w i t h a biblical n a m e (it is a r e n d i t i o n o f S h a m u ' a ) ; further w e o n l y find o n e i n s t a n c e o f S a m u e l ( 3 4 , 5 6 ) . A l l o t h e r n a m e s are familiar G r e e k a n d Latin n a m e s , e x c e p t E u l o g i o s ( 9 ) , a n a m e d e r i v e d from eulogia

- berakha,

blessing.

34

This Eulogios happens to be

a ' G o d - f e a r e r , ' a s w e r e his p a r e n t s , w h o g a v e h i m this n a m e a s t h e y p r o b a b l y a l r e a d y felt attracted to J u d a i s m .

The lions and the

Torah

Finally, I will briefly d i s c u s s s o m e inscriptions t h a t a r e interesting for r e a s o n s o t h e r than t h e o n e s m e n t i o n e d so far, to b e g i n w i t h n o . 10. T h e r e w e read t h e f o l l o w i n g text: I, Aurelios O l y m p i o s o f the tribe o f the Leontii, fulfilled a v o w with m y wife and children.

T h e fact that a J e w is n a m e d after t h e G r e e k m o u n t a i n o f the g o d s ( O l y m p u s ) is not s o s t r a n g e in t h e light o f t h e fact that w e k n o w q u i t e a n u m b e r o f n a m e s o f 35

J e w s ( a n d C h r i s t i a n s ) w i t h t h e o p h o r i c e l e m e n t s (till t h e p r e s e n t d a y t h e r e a r e J e w s called I s i d o r e = 'gift o f I s i s ' ) .

36

' L e u r s e n s etait a p p a r a m m e n t oblitere c h e z 37

les Juifs c o m m e c h e z les Chretiens.' O f g r e a t e r interest is t h e fact that A u r e l i u s O l y m p i u s s a y s that h e b e l o n g s to ' t h e tribe o f t h e L e o n t i i . ' L o u i s R o b e r t w a s c o n v i n c e d that this is n o t a tribe o f the city o f S a r d i s b u t o f the J e w i s h c o m m u ­ nity. H e p o i n t s o u t that n o t o n l y d o e s t h e n a m e L e o n t i o s o c c u r m o r e frequently a m o n g J e w s (also in Sardis), b u t that in addition to that t h e lion is u s e d frequently as a s y m b o l i c d e c o r a t i v e e l e m e n t in t h e s y n a g o g a l m o s a i c s a n d r e l i e f s . 3 3

38

F o r that

See, e.g., E.J. Schnabel, Law and Wisdom from Ben Sira to Paul, Tubingen 1985. Robert, Nouvelles inscriptions 4 0 : 'II [ce nom] convient de facon excellente a un Juif, puisqu'il evoque Veulogia, la benediction, cette priere qui figure sur les tombes juives c o m m e dans les synagogues.' For other Jews with the name Eulogios or Eulogia see the indices in J.B. Frey, Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaicarum, 2 vols, Rome 1 9 3 5 - 5 2 , and in D. Noy, Jewish Inscrip­ tions of Western Europe, 2 vols., Cambridge 1 9 9 3 - 9 5 . Think o f Origenes = son o f Horus! On Jewish names with pagan theophoric elements see the fine essay by G. Mussies, 'Jew­ ish Personal N a m e s in Some Non-Literary Sources,' in J.W. van Henten & P.W. van der Horst (eds.), Studies in Early Jewish Epigraphy, Leiden 1994, 2 4 2 - 2 7 6 , esp. 2 4 5 - 2 4 9 . Robert, Nouvelles inscriptions 4 6 n. 2. Robert, Nouvelles inscriptions 4 6 with nn. 6 - 8 . 3 4

3 5

3 6

3 7

3 8

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

51

Inscriptions

r e a s o n h e r e g a r d s the tribe o f the Leontii as ' u n e a d a p t a t i o n h e l l e n i s a n t e ' o f the tribe o f J u d a h . I n d e e d , in J a c o b ' s b l e s s i n g ( G e n . 4 9 : 9 ) J u d a h is called a y o u n g lion a n d this s y m b o l i c d e s i g n a t i o n is still u s e d in A p o c . 5:5 a n d in later J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . J e w s from the tribe o f J u d a h for that r e a s o n h a d a prefer­ e n c e for the n a m e L e o n t i o s , s a y s R o b e r t . B a r u c h Lifshitz d i s a g r e e s a n d objects that this self-designation w o u l d m a k e little s e n s e since m o s t J e w s

(Ioudaioi)

w e r e d e s c e n d a n t s o f the tribe o f J u d a h ; h e t a k e s the e x p r e s s i o n phyle

Leontion

to m e a n ' t h e family o f t h e L e o n t i i '

3 9

since in the S e p t u a g i n t phyle

to r e n d e r the H e b r e w w o r d for family, mishpachah.

is often u s e d

Kroll, however, agrees with

R o b e r t . H e p o i n t s out that a n o t h e r part o f the wall d e c o r a t i o n to w h i c h A u r e l i o s O l y m p i o s c o n t r i b u t e d w a s d o n a t e d b y G o d - f e a r e r s , or n o n - J e w s . It m a y well b e t h e c a s e that A u r e l i u s O l y m p i u s w a n t e d to d i s t i n g u i s h h i m s e l f as a J e w b y a d v e r t i s i n g h i m s e l f explicitly, a n d n o t w i t h o u t p r i d e , as a m e m b e r o f t h e tribe o f y o u n g lions, the tribe o f J u d a h : h e is a L e o n t i o s a n d h e n c e a real

Ioudaios\

B e s i d e s , it s h o u l d also b e k e p t in m i n d that t h e lion h a d b e e n a favourite t h e m e in the i c o n o g r a p h y o f Sardis from o f old; n o less than 2 2 s t a t u e s o f lions h a v e b e e n found t h e r e . H e n c e T r e b i l c o ' s r e m a r k : ' T h e lion s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p r e s s e d their J e w i s h identity a n d their " b e l o n g i n g n e s s " in S a r d i s . '

4 0

Certainty cannot be

attained in this matter, h o w e v e r , a n d m o r e r e s e a r c h n e e d s to b e d o n e , but the inscription is certainly intriguing. I n t r i g u i n g as w e l l is the inscription o f n o . 6 5 . In a literal translation it says: ' H a v i n g found, h a v i n g b r o k e n , read, o b s e r v e ' (heuron laxon).

klasas

anagndthi

phy-

T h e i m p e r a t i v e s ' r e a d ' a n d ' o b s e r v e ' (or ' k e e p ' ) h a r d l y l e a v e other

interpretations than that r e a d i n g o f the T o r a h is m e a n t h e r e a n d that it is incul­ cated in the m i n d s o f the c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s that t h e y s h o u l d not o n l y read or listen to this h o l y text w i t h its c o m m a n d m e n t s but also live in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h it.

41

P r o b a b l y the p l a q u e t t e w i t h this inscription h a d b e e n a t t a c h e d to the Torah

shrine. It is n o t e a s y to s a y w h a t e x a c t l y ' h a v i n g b r o k e n ' (klasas)

i m p l i e s , but

p r e s u m a b l y it refers to the b r e a k i n g o f seals or u n l o c k i n g o f l o c k s o n the Torah scroll.

42

B e that as it may, it is clear that the central p o s i t i o n o f the Torah w a s

part o f the identity o f this c o m m u n i t y .

43

E v e n t h o u g h , in c u r r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , t h e Torah forbade the m a k i n g o f im­ a g e s , y e t a J e w i s h family n o t o n l y took u p o n t h e m s e l v e s the c o s t s o f the m a r b l e 3 9

Donateurs et fondateurs 2 7 - 2 8 . Jewish Communities 45. Thus also L.H. Feldman, 'Diaspora Synagogues: N e w Light from Inscriptions and Pa­ pyri,' in S. Fine (ed.), Sacred Realm. The Emergence of the Synagogue in the Ancient World, N e w York - Oxford 1996, 6 4 - 6 5 . Thus Trebilco, Jewish Communities 51; his alternative suggestion that what is meant is 'breaking open a text by discussing its meaning' seems far-fetched. See W. Ameling, 'Eine liturgische Inschrift aus der Synagoge von Sardes,' in Klassisches Altertum, Spatantike undfruhes Christentum (FS A. Lippold), Wurzburg 1993, 4 9 5 - 5 0 8 [see now also his brief comments in IJO II 287.] 4 0

4 1

4 2

4 3

52

The Synagogue

of Sardis and its

Inscriptions

wall d e c o r a t i o n in the great a s s e m b l y hall o f the s y n a g o g u e ( ' f r o m the gifts o f G o d A l m i g h t y , ' 2 9 ) , b u t also the c o s t s o f the wall p a i n t i n g s (zographia).

These

p a i n t i n g s are l a m e n t a b l y lost b u t in p r i n c i p l e w e c o u l d h a v e found h e r e a fine parallel to the f a m o u s frescoes in the s y n a g o g u e o f Syrian D u r a - E u r o p o s ( m i d d l e o f the third c e n t u r y C E ) . H e r e w i t h I w a n t to c o n c l u d e this s u m m a r y survey. I h o p e to h a v e m a d e clear to r e a d e r s that t h e o l o g i a n s , N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a r s , h i s t o r i a n s o f a n c i e n t religion, a n d J u d a i c scholars can only ignore t h e s e n e w a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s to their d e t r i m e n t , s o m e t h i n g w h i c h unfortunately still h a p p e n s all t o o often in t h e s e fields o f r e s e a r c h . It is p r o p e r to e n d this s u r v e y b y q u o t i n g t h e final s e n t e n c e o f K r o l l ' s edition o f t h e s e inscriptions: ' T h e Sardis d o s s i e r s t a n d s out for its s h e e r r i c h n e s s a n d scale, a n d for the striking vitality o f late R o m a n J u d a i s m that it c o n v e y s , a vitality that a p p e a r s all the m o r e r e m a r k a b l e b e c a u s e o f the g r o w i n g strength o f Christianity at the s a m e p e r i o d in h i s t o r y . '

44

O f c o u r s e it is hard to say

w h e t h e r this p i c t u r e c o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d if t h e w h o l e o f a n c i e n t Sardis w e r e to b e e x c a v a t e d , for p e r h a p s the fact that o n l y a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f this relatively large city h a s b e e n b r o u g h t to light c o n v e y s a slanted i m p r e s s i o n o f the p r o m i n e n t J e w i s h p r e s e n c e t h e r e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y w e will p r o b a b l y n e v e r k n o w c o m p l e t e l y for s u r e . B u t a c c o r d i n g to o u r p r e s e n t state o f k n o w l e d g e , it is fair to say that in the capital o f a n c i e n t Lydia J e w s p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role in t h e cultural life o f t h e city d u r i n g at least a m i l l e n n i u m .

4 4

45

Kroll, 'Greek Inscriptions' 48. The British scholar Tessa Rajak is of the opinion that what w e can learn from Sardis is no more than that there Jews 'were both tolerated and tolerant' ('Jews, Pagans and Christians' 452). But although 'a little scepticism will be helpful in considering this glowing portrayal of co-existence' (453) - for even the Jewish bouleutai 'may in fact have had quite a mediocre ranking in the social hierarchy' (455) - her comparison with the situation in pre-war Berlin is misleading rather than elucidating. Her study of the Jews in Sardis is on the one hand a testimony to healthy reserve and restraint, but on the other hand also a proof of an inclination to skepticism in a situation where there is less reason for it than in many other cases. 4 5

Jews and Blues in Late Antiquity F r o m the early imperial p e r i o d till the t i m e o f the C r u s a d e s c i r c u s factions p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role in the cultural life o f the R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e s . T h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s e factions c h a n g e d o v e r the c e n t u r i e s , b u t their c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the w o r l d o f the athletic c o n t e s t s , t h e a r e n a s , e s p e c i a l l y the h i p p o d r o m e s , r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t . H a v i n g b e g u n as p r i v a t e l y run o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f p e r f o r m e r s a n d s u p p o r t e r s , in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e h i s t o r y o f the E m p i r e ( s ) , the authorities g a i n e d m o r e a n d m o r e o f a g r i p o n t h e m . T h e n o w p u b l i c l y m a i n t a i n e d factions w e r e a d m i n i s t e r e d b y a m a n a g e r , the factionarius

( w h o s e role a n d function also

c h a n g e d o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s ) . To an i n c r e a s i n g d e g r e e t h e s e s p o r t i n g a s s o c i a t i o n s b e c a m e political p a r t i e s a n d p r e s s u r e g r o u p s , e v e n m i l i t i a s , e s p e c i a l l y in late a n t i q u i t y a n d the early B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d . T h e n a m e s o f t h e four m a i n factions w e r e c o l o u r d e s i g n a t i o n s : t h e G r e e n s (riQdaivoi) a n d B l u e s (Bevexoi) w e r e the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d influential o n e s ; the m i n o r o n e s w e r e the R e d s (TOTJOLOL) 1

a n d t h e W h i t e s (Atuxoi,). T h e h i s t o r y a n d r o l e o f t h e s e factions h a s b e e n e x c e l ­ lently d e s c r i b e d b y A l a n C a m e r o n ( m y s u m m a r y o f the d a t a is b a s e d u p o n his 2

m o n o g r a p h ) . T h i s short n o t e is solely f o c u s s e d o n o n e m i n o r a s p e c t o f this history, n a m e l y , the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s e factions a n d t h e J e w s , a b o u t w h i c h w e k n o w little, b u t n o w s o m e w h a t m o r e t h a n 2 5 y e a r s a g o t h a n k s to r e c e n t e p i g r a p h i c d i s c o v e r i e s a n d n e w insights from social p s y c h o l o g y . F r o m the b e g i n n i n g , the B l u e s a n d t h e G r e e n s w e r e g r o u p s that w e r e in c o n ­ flict w i t h e a c h other. T h i s is c l e a r in a l m o s t all the p a g a n , J e w i s h , a n d C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s that m e n t i o n t h e s e factions. T h e r e is a long r e c o r d o f factional riots in the tumultuous history of Blues and Greens. T h e Greens, apparently always m o r e r o w d y a n d n u m e r o u s than t h e B l u e s , w e r e the o n e s w h o u s u a l l y started the riots. T h e y w e r e relatively often from the l o w e r strata o f society, t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r ­ ily s o ; a l s o the B l u e s w e r e n o t a l w a y s from t h e u p p e r c l a s s , far from it. It w o u l d rather s e e m that m o s t or all strata o f society w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d in b o t h factions, a l t h o u g h the s o u r c e s d o g i v e t h e d e c i d e d i m p r e s s i o n t h a t in g e n e r a l t h e B l u e s h a d h i g h e r social s t a n d i n g t h a n t h e G r e e n s . W h e n t h e r e w a s fighting b e t w e e n B l u e s a n d G r e e n s , h o w e v e r , it is u s u a l l y difficult t o find the c a u s e in social or political i s s u e s . G r e e n s h a t e d B l u e s s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e n o t G r e e n s , a n d 1

For the astrological background o f these colour designations see A. Hermann, "Farbe," Reallexikon fur Antike und Christentum 7 (1969) 4 3 0 . A. Cameron, Circus Factions. Blues and Greens at Rome and Byzantium, Oxford 1976. 2

54

Jews and Blues in Late

Antiquity

v i c e versa. A c o m p a r i s o n w i t h m o d e r n s o c c e r s u p p o r t e r g r o u p s or h o o l i g a n s i n e v i t a b l y forces itself u p o n u s . T h e r e is an a n o n y m o u s J e w i s h l e g e n d from t h e early M i d d l e A g e s that hints at this a n t a g o n i s m . In a tale called Solomon's

Throne

and Hippodrome?

we

r e a d that k i n g S o l o m o n w a s seated on his t h r o n e in the J e r u s a l e m h i p p o d r o m e in the style o f a B y z a n t i n e E m p e r o r . S o l o m o n a n d h i s e n t o u r a g e , e s p e c i a l l y the spiritual l e a d e r s , w e r e d r e s s e d in b l u e ; the c o m m o n p e o p l e o f J e r u s a l e m w e r e d r e s s e d in w h i t e ; t h e p e o p l e from o u t s i d e J e r u s a l e m in red; b u t the gentiles in g r e e n . To b e sure, J e w s a n d gentiles are h e r e n o t o p p o s e d en bloc as B l u e s a n d G r e e n s , but it is clear that the r a b b i n i c a u t h o r o f this l e g e n d r e g a r d e d the G r e e n s as a p a r t y that w a s n o t J e w i s h , or n o t p r o - J e w i s h , a n d that r a n k e d low. T h e r e is n e w e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e as w e l l that g i v e s a s t r o n g i m p r e s s i o n o f affinity b e t w e e n J e w s a n d B l u e s . To b e g i n w i t h , t h e r e are s o m e i n s c r i p t i o n s from late a n t i q u e A p h r o d i s i a s that p o i n t in that direction. In this C a r i a n city, a b e n c h in the O d e o n is inscribed w i t h t w o s e a t - m a r k e r s , o n e o f t h e m stating that c

the seats t h e r e b e l o n g to the J e w s (xojtog E|3QBCOV), the o t h e r o n e on the adjacent r o w that t h e s e seats b e l o n g to the elderly J e w i s h B l u e s (TOKOS Bevexoov 'EPQECOV 4

TOW j t c d e i w v ) . All the s u r r o u n d i n g seats are for the B l u e s ! T h i s at least i m p l i e s J e w i s h s u p p o r t for the B l u e s . A l s o in M i l e t u s , a theatre seat is i n s c r i b e d w i t h a n 5

i n t r i g u i n g s e a t - m a r k e r Bsvexcov EIOSEODV. T h e t e r m ' B l u e J e w s ' s u g g e s t s clearly that they w e r e s e e n by o t h e r s , or s a w t h e m s e l v e s , as the e n e m i e s o f t h e G r e e n s . T h e r e is also e p i g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e from t h e h i p p o d r o m e o f late a n t i q u e T y r e i n d i c a t i n g that t h e J e w s h a d their seats in t h e section r e s e r v e d for the B l u e s .

6

T h e q u e s t i o n that arises a u t o m a t i c a l l y is w h e t h e r or n o t it is t h e r e l i g i o u s affiliations o f B l u e s a n d G r e e n s that m a y e x p l a i n the affinity b e t w e e n J e w s 7

a n d B l u e s or the a d v e r s i t y b e t w e e n J e w s a n d G r e e n s . C a m e r o n a r g u e d that t h e traditional a n d firmly e n t r e n c h e d v i e w that in t h e early B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d ( a n d to that p e r i o d t h e J e w i s h e v i d e n c e b e l o n g s ) the B l u e s w e r e O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n s a n d t h e G r e e n s w e r e M o n o p h y s i t e s is totally w r o n g . W h a t c o n c e r n s h i m is " t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n that riots b e t w e e n B l u e s a n d G r e e n s s p r a n g from n o t h ­ ing so s i m p l e as the victory or defeat o f this or that c o l o u r in t h e h i p p o d r o m e ; 3

See the edition in A. Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrasch. Sammlung kleiner Midraschim und vermischter Abhandlungen aus der dltern jiidischen Literatur, vol. 5, Jerusalem 1967 (repr. of the original 1877 ed.), 3 4 - 3 9 . English summary in L. Ginberg, The Legends of the Jews, vol. 4, Philadelphial913, 1 6 0 - 1 6 2 (with note 75 in vol. 6, p. 298). See the study of E. Ville-Patlagean, "Une image de Salomon en Basileus Byzantin," Revue des Etudes Juives 121 (1962) 8 - 3 3 ; the author mainly focusses on the dating of the original text (between the 6th and 10th century). 4

J. Reynolds & R. Tannenbaum, Jews and Godfearers at Aphrodisias, Cambridge 1987, 132. Ch. Roueche, Aphrodisias in Late Antiquity, London 1989, 2 2 0 - 2 2 2 , no. 180 (at pp. 2 1 8 228 Roueche deals with several other inscriptions mentioning Blues and Greens). P. Herrmann, Inschriften von Milet, Teil VI, Bd. 2, Berlin-New York 1998, no. 940h. J.-P. Rey-Coquais, "Tyr, fouilles recentes, ville, hippodrome et necropole: L'apport des inscriptions," Revue Archeologique (1979) 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 . Cameron, Circus Factions 126-153. 5

6

7

Jews and Blues in Late

55

Antiquity

that factional rivalry is a direct reflection of r e l i g i o u s rivalry. ( . . . ) [TJhere is not 8

o n e s c r a p of a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e in its f a v o u r . " H e a r g u e s o n the b a s i s o f a p l e t h o r a o f e v i d e n c e that the G r e e n s w e r e j u s t as o r t h o d o x as the B l u e s , a n d that the fac­ tions did not p l a y a n y role in t h e r e l i g i o u s d i s p u t e s b e c a u s e in g e n e r a l religious m o t i v e s p l a y e d n o part in factional rivalry b e t w e e n B l u e s a n d G r e e n s , let a l o n e that t h e y c o u l d b e e q u a t e d w i t h m o d e r a t e s ( B l u e s ) a n d e x t r e m i s t s ( G r e e n s ) . If this is correct, it b e c o m e s h a r d e r to e x p l a i n the literary e v i d e n c e w e h a v e to the effect that not o n l y did t h e J e w s u s u a l l y side w i t h the B l u e s b u t that t h e G r e e n s often e v e n initiated a n t i - J e w i s h v i o l e n c e . L e t us r e v i e w t h e e v i d e n c e briefly. J o h n M a l a l a s (first h a l f o f t h e sixth century, from S y r i a n A n t i o c h ) h a s several stories that g i v e the d e c i d e d i m p r e s s i o n o f the e x i s t e n c e o f a n t i - J e w i s h resent­ m e n t a m o n g the G r e e n s o f A n t i o c h . T h e first p a s s a g e is a slightly g a r b l e d n o t i c e about the reign of Caligula ( 3 7 - 4 1 CE): From the first year o f Gaius Caesar the Green faction a s s u m e d from h i m l i c e n c e to d o as they c h o s e and rioted in R o m e and in e v e r y other city for three years, till the end o f his reign, for he w a s its supporter. In the third year o f his reign, in A n t i o c h o f Syria, the supporters o f the B l u e faction o f that city chanted in the theatre against the local Greens, "Time raises up and time casts d o w n . T h e Greens are lechers!" Pronoios [read: Petroniusl, the consular governor, w a s w a t c h i n g at the time. There f o l l o w e d a great factional riot and disaster befell the city, for the G r e e k s o f A n t i o c h fought with the J e w s o f the city in a factional brawl, killed m a n y o f them, and burned their s y n a g o g u e s (Chronographia p. 185 e d . T h u r n ) .

10.20,

9

In a n o t h e r p a s s a g e , d e a l i n g w i t h t h e situation in the s a m e city a b o u t 4 9 0 C E , d u r i n g t h e reign o f Z e n o , M a l a l a s w r i t e s : T h o s e o f the Green faction in the city o f A n t i o c h started a stone fight against the B l u e s during a spectacle at the h i p p o d r o m e , w h i l e T h a l a s s i o s , the consular governor, w a s w a t c h i n g . ( . . . ) Six months later the A n t i o c h e n e s o f the Green faction gathered again and, during a riot at the hippodrome, killed m a n y p e o p l e . T h e y burnt the s y n a g o g u e called after A s a b i n o s b e c a u s e the J e w s w e r e supporters o f the B l u e s . T h e y plundered all that w a s in the s y n a g o g u e and those w h o lived there (Chronographia

15.15, p. 3 1 6 ed. T h u r n ) .

10

M a l a l a s a d d s the lurid detail that, w h e n Z e n o w a s i n f o r m e d a b o u t the c r i m e s o f the G r e e n s , h e b e c a m e a n g r y b e c a u s e t h e y h a d o n l y b u r n t the d e a d J e w s w h e r e a s t h e y s h o u l d h a v e b u r n t the living o n e s as w e l l !

11

S o m e w h a t later, in 5 0 7 , G r e e n

h o o l i g a n s also b u r n e d t h e s y n a g o g u e in n e a r b y D a p h n e a n d a g a i n killed m a n y 8

Ibid. 126. J. Thurn (ed.), Ioannis Malalae Chronographia, Berlin-New York 2000. 1 adapt the translation by E. Jeffreys, M. Jeffreys and R. Scott, The Chronicle of John Malalas, Melbourne 1986, 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 . Cf. also M. Williams, The Jews Among the Greeks and Romans: A Diaspora Sourcebook, Baltimore 1998, 115. On this passage see B.J. Brooten, "The Jews of Ancient Antioch," in Chr. Kondoleon (ed.), Antioch. The Lost Ancient City, Princeton 2000, 31. Transl. Jeffreys, ibid. 218; Williams, ibid. 116. 5ia TL xovc, vexQoxig (xovov xarv 'Iou&ouarv exauoav; sxefjv yo-Q avxovq xcd xovc, t,
1 0

11

56

Jews and Blues in Late

Jews.

1 2

Antiquity

D o e s all this i m p l y that the G r e e n s w e r e J e w - h a t e r s a n d the B l u e s w e r e

not? C a m e r o n t h i n k s this is v e r y unlikely since " J e w s w e r e held in a l m o s t universal dislike a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s b y the fifth a n d sixth c e n t u r i e s , " a n d h e s u r m i s e s that " t h e B l u e s o f Z e n o ' s d a y p r o t e c t e d J e w s less out o f disinterested p h i l o - J u d a i s m t h a n s i m p l y to a n n o y the G r e e n s " ( 1 5 0 ) . H e p o i n t s o u t that stories found in the Doctrina

Jacobi

nuper baptizati

( m i d - 7 t h cent.) p r o v e that either faction m i g h t

p e r s e c u t e J e w s a n d that J e w s in turn m i g h t t a k e their r e v e n g e on either faction. T h a t is to say, " J e w s c a n h a r d l y b e r e g a r d e d as an issue that c o u l d b e c o u n t e d u p o n to divide

t h e f a c t i o n s " ( 1 5 1 ) . It s h o u l d b e a d d e d , t h o u g h , that C a m e r o n

insufficiently t a k e s into a c c o u n t that the Doctrina c o n f u s e d p e r i o d in h i s t o r y .

13

is a c o n f u s e d s o u r c e o n a v e r y

H e e m p h a s i z e s a g a i n that t h e o u t b u r s t s o f v i o l e n c e

w e r e not c a u s e d by a n t i - S e m i t i s m ; the a n t i - J e w i s h riots a n d outbursts o f v i o l e n c e w e r e a l w a y s o n l y part

o f a m o r e e n c o m p a s s i n g agitation that h a d to d o w i t h

factional h o o l i g a n i s m . " O n c e t e m p e r s w e r e lost a n d t h e v i o l e n c e h a d b e g u n , the original c a u s e m i g h t b e lost to v i e w a n d (as at A n t i o c h , a n d often e l s e w h e r e b e f o r e a n d since) the u n h a p p y J e w s found t h e m s e l v e s the v i c t i m s " ( 1 5 1 - 2 ) . Yet w e a r e left w i t h the d i s t u r b i n g fact that, for t h e m o s t part, t h e e v i d e n c e , b o t h literary a n d e p i g r a p h i c a l , s e e m s to s u g g e s t that to t h e J e w s it did m a k e a real difference w h e t h e r they sided w i t h the B l u e s or w i t h the G r e e n s , a n d that it w a s safer to b e o n the B l u e side. C a m e r o n ' s t h e o r y is s o m e w h a t unsatisfactory h e r e . T h a t t h e B l u e s p r o t e c t e d the J e w s " s i m p l y to a n n o y the G r e e n s " ( 1 5 0 ) , as h e s a y s , l e a v e s u n e x p l a i n e d w h y the J e w s sided w i t h t h e B l u e s . O n e n e e d n o t follow Patricia K a r l i n - H a y t e r

14

w h e n she s u g g e s t s that t h e J e w s h a d to side w i t h

the B l u e s b e c a u s e they, t o o , w e r e in a s e n s e an ' o r t h o d o x ' party a n d b e c a u s e b y f o l l o w i n g the less r o w d y B l u e s t h e y p l a y e d safe. T h i s is s h e e r s p e c u l a t i o n , a n d s t r a n g e r e a s o n i n g at that. E v e n so, o n e feels that C a m e r o n ' s total e x c l u s i o n o f re­ ligious factors h e r e h a s m a d e an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e J e w s - B l u e s c o n n e c t i o n m o r e difficult. M a l a l a s ' reports a b o u t consistent v i o l e n c e o f G r e e n s a g a i n s t J e w s , even before

the Greens

became

Christians,

p l a y a role h e r e . M a y b e A n d r e w S h a r f

s u g g e s t s that a n t i - J e w i s h s e n t i m e n t s did 15

is right w h e n h e s a y s that the B l u e s w e r e

u s u a l l y m u c h m o r e likely to s u p p o r t the authorities a n d that it w a s , therefore, safer for the J e w s to side w i t h t h e m .

1 2

Malalas 16.6 (p. 324 ed. Thurn). See on Blues and Greens in the Doctrina G. Dagron et V. Deroche, "Juifs et Chretiens dans l'Orient du V i l e siecle," Travaux et Memoires 11 (1991) 2 3 5 - 2 3 7 (at pp. 7 0 - 2 1 9 of this lengthy study one finds a new critical edition and French translation of the Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati). "Les AKTA D1A KALAPODION," Byzantion 43 (1973) 9 6 - 9 7 . A. Sharf, Byzantine Jewry from Justinian to the Fourth Crusade, London 1971, 10. 1 3

1 4

15

Jews and Blues in Late

Charlotte R o u e c h e ,

1 6

Antiquity

57

h o w e v e r , m o r e r e a s o n a b l y s u r m i s e s that it w a s partly

a m a t t e r o f c u s t o m : J e w s h a p p e n e d to h a v e a l w a y s h a d theatre or h i p p o d r o m e seats in t h e sectors c u s t o m a r i l y o c c u p i e d b y t h e B l u e s . " I n all t h e s e c a s e s w e h a v e e x a m p l e s o f p r e - e x i s t i n g g r o u p s (the b u t c h e r s , the g o l d - w o r k e r s , the J e w s , the r e s i d e n t s o f a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a ) w h o a l r e a d y h a d a tradition of sitting t o g e t h e r at s p e c t a c l e s , b e c o m i n g s u p p o r t e r s o f o n e c o l o u r or the other. F o r c e n t u r i e s the r e s i d e n t s o f cities all o v e r the e m p i r e h a d a s s e m b l e d in the theatres a n d stadia o f their cities, a n d h a d b e e n s e a t e d a c c o r d i n g to their p l a c e in society. D u r i n g t h o s e c e n t u r i e s , riots o f o n e k i n d or a n o t h e r h a d often b r o k e n o u t " ( 1 3 1 ) . S h e s u g g e s t s that loyalty to the B l u e s a n d the G r e e n s a b s o r b e d earlier f o r m s o f p a r t i s a n s h i p , and "if such loyalties w e r e adopted by pre-existing groups within the cities, this helps to explain w h y such partisanship, e s p e c i a l l y w h e n it w a s suddenly e m p i r e - w i d e , c a m e to s e e m so important and so threatening. ( . . . ) It s e e m s likely that e v e r y auditorium b e c a m e divided b e t w e e n Greens and B l u e s , and that to sit in a particular position, w h i c h m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n the traditional seat o f s o m e particular association for centuries, w a s automati­ cally to b e c o m e a supporter o f o n e colour or the other. ( . . . ) If w e find, for e x a m p l e , J e w s associated with B l u e s , or sail-makers associated with Greens, at more than o n e place in the empire, this might m e a n that such groups had traditionally sat in similar positions in different cities since the R o m a n period; such a hypothesis can o n l y b e proved or disproved as more inscriptions from auditoria are published"

(ibid.)

R o u e c h e ' s h y p o t h e s i s m a k e s s e n s e , a l t h o u g h it still l e a v e s u n e x p l a i n e d w h y , for e x a m p l e , w h e n riots b e t w e e n G r e e n s a n d B l u e s b r o k e out, J e w s w e r e singled out for a t t a c k s . B u t she t o u c h e s o n an i m p o r t a n t p o i n t h e r e . A s the social p s y c h o l o g i s t M u z a f e r S h e r i f has d e m o n s t r a t e d in his influential r e s e a r c h on i n t e r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s ,

17

when one has b e c o m e associated with a

certain g r o u p - b y c o i n c i d e n c e or, originally, for r e a s o n s that later d o not m a t t e r a n y m o r e - the m e r e a w a r e n e s s o f o t h e r g r o u p s w i t h i n the r a n g e o f o n e ' s d e s i g n s a l w a y s g e n e r a t e s a p r o c e s s o f c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n ' u s ' a n d ' t h e o t h e r s . ' In the c o u r s e o f t i m e , e v e n f u n d a m e n t a l differences b e t w e e n o n e s e l f a n d other m e m ­ b e r s o f o n e ' s o w n g r o u p are c o m p l e t e l y o v e r r i d d e n b y the (real or p r e s u m e d ) differences b e t w e e n ' u s ' a n d t h e s e ' o t h e r s . ' E v e n great r e l i g i o u s d i s a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n m e m b e r s o f the s a m e g r o u p often b e c o m e c o m p l e t e l y irrelevant rather s o o n o n c e t h e o v e r r i d i n g o p p o s i t i o n to the others h a s b e c o m e the d o m i n a n t p r i n c i p l e . Fidelity to o n e ' s o w n g r o u p a n d its m e m b e r s is t h e n t h e o n l y t h i n g that m a t t e r s , a n d usually this fidelity is s t r e n g t h e n e d b y d e m o n i z a t i o n o f the o t h e r s . To b e a ' g o o d ' m e m b e r o f t h e g r o u p (e. g. G r e e n s ) " i m p l i e s b e l i e v i n g all t h e nasty qualities a n d p r a c t i c e s attributed b y o n e ' s g r o u p to the a d v e r s a r y . " 1 6

18

Ch. Roueche, Performers and Partisans at Aphrodisias in the Roman and Late Roman Periods, London 1993, 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 . See, e.g., his Group Conflict and Co-operation. Their Social Psychology, London 1967. Sherif, Group Conflict 14. 1 7

1 8

58

Jews and Blues in Late

Antiquity

It also i m p l i e s r e m a i n i n g d e a f a n d b l i n d to f a v o u r a b l e a n d c o r r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h a t adversary. It a p p e a r s that " t h e sufficient

condition

for the rise o f

h o s t i l e a n d a g g r e s s i v e d e e d s ( . . . ) a n d for the s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f social d i s t a n c e justified b y d e r o g a t o r y i m a g e s o f t h e o u t - g r o u p is the e x i s t e n c e o f t w o g r o u p s 19

c o m p e t i n g for g o a l s that o n l y o n e g r o u p c a n a t t a i n . " A n d c o n t a c t b e t w e e n h o s ­ tile g r o u p s as e q u a l s in p l e a s a n t situations d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e d u c e conflict b e t w e e n t h e m . A l m o s t a n y o n e c a n illustrate this k i n d o f p r o c e s s e s from his or her own experience.

20

A n d I w o u l d s u g g e s t that it is this k i n d o f insight from

social p s y c h o l o g y , o n l y h i n t e d at b y R o u e c h e , that c a n b e helpful in s h e d d i n g further light o n this intriguing historical p r o b l e m . A s the m o r e h o m o g e n e o u s and, for that r e a s o n , p e r h a p s m o r e easily identifiable o f the s u b g r o u p s w i t h i n t h e B l u e s , t h e J e w s c o u l d m o r e readily b e s i n g l e d out as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e B l u e s for a t t a c k s b y t h e G r e e n s ( w e h a v e to k e e p in m i n d that in t h e R o m a n a n d B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d s the J e w s o f the greater t o w n s a n d cities often t e n d e d to live in 21

their o w n d i s t r i c t s ) . It is clear that m u c h w o r k r e m a i n s to b e d o n e . H o p e f u l l y n e w s o u r c e s will e n a b l e us to d o that w o r k .

1 9

2 2

Sherif, Group Conflict 85 (italics his). In the village where I live, there are two brass bands, one called 'The Royal Harmony' (De Koninklijke Harmonie) and the other 'Exercise is the Mother o f Art' (Oefening Baart Kunst). Both bands comprise in equal measure an average sample of members of the village's society and they play equally well, so there are no real differences between these two groups aside from their membership of a different brass band; yet the mutual contempt and hatred is incredibly great! A s Sherif, Group Conflict 38, remarks, "derogatory images are well documented between various groups in which cultural or national differences play little or no part." See J. Starr, The Jews in the Byzantine Empire, N e w York 1939, 4 3 - 4 4 . I o w e thanks to my colleague Prof. Willem Albert Wagenaar for his advice on the psycho­ logical aspects of the problem discussed. 2 0

2 1

2 2

A Note on the Evil Inclination and Sexual Desire in Talmudic Literature T h e r e are s o m e factors t h a t m a k e it difficult to get a clear v i e w o f i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f r a b b i n i c a n t h r o p o l o g y . F o r instance, there is as y e t n o critical edition o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t literary c o r p u s o f early r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m , t h e B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d , a n d this i m p e d e s r e s e a r c h to a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e , for w h a t solid c o n c l u s i o n s c o u l d b e b a s e d u p o n a n o t - s o l i d textual b a s i s ? A n d there is also a lack o f s y s t e m a t i c t h i n k i n g in T a l m u d i c literature, w h i c h i m p e d e s u s from d r a w i n g a c o n s i s t e n t p i c t u r e o f r a b b i n i c beliefs. It is, therefore, o n l y to a limited e x t e n t that this literature g i v e s u s a c c e s s to the ideas the r a b b i s d e v e l o p e d a b o u t 1

h u m a n k i n d . E v e n s o , it is p o s s i b l e to s k e t c h s o m e a s p e c t s o f t h e s e ideas w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e o f clarity, as w e will see in this short c o n t r i b u t i o n . T h e biblical c o n c e p t that h u m a n k i n d ' s f o u n d a t i o n a l distinction is that it w a s m a d e in t h e i m a g e o f G o d ( G e n . 1:27) m a d e R. A k i v a r e m a r k : " B e l o v e d (sc. to G o d ) is m a n , in that h e w a s c r e a t e d in t h e ( d i v i n e ) i m a g e ; still m o r e b e l o v e d in that it w a s m a d e k n o w n to h i m that h e w a s c r e a t e d in this i m a g e " (m.

Avoth

3 , 15). A n d A k i v a definitely w a s n o t t h e o n l y rabbi to c h e r i s h this idea. All the m o r e striking is it that the r a b b i s d e v e l o p e d the t h e o r y that a n evil inclination or i m p u l s e w a s part o f this i m a g e . T h e w i d e s p r e a d G o e t h e a n c o n c e p t o f the exist­ e n c e o f ' z w e i S e e l e n in m e i n e r B r u s t ' w a s g i v e n e x p r e s s i o n b y t h e early rabbis in a t h e o r y o f t w o yetsarim

('inclinations, desires, passions, drives, impulses,

b e n t s o f m i n d ' ) , n a m e l y t h e yetser ha-ra' 1

(the d e s i r e to d o e v i l ) .

ha-tov

(the d e s i r e to d o g o o d ) a n d the

yetser

2

E. Stiegman, "Rabbinic Anthropology," ANRW II 19, 2, Berlin - N e w York 1979, 4 9 3 -

495. 2

See F.C. Porter, "The Yecer Hara: A Study in the Jewish Doctrine o f Sin," in Biblical and Semitic Studies: Yale Historical and Critical Contributions to Biblical Science, N e w York 1901, 9 3 - 1 5 6 (in spite o f its outdated approach, after more than a century still the best study!); S. Schechter, Aspects of Rabbinic Theology: Major Concepts of the Talmud, N e w York 1909 (repr. 1961) 2 4 2 - 2 9 2 ; E.E. Urbach, The Sages. Their Concepts and Beliefs, Jerusalem 1975, vol. I, 4 7 1 - 4 8 3 ; G. Cohen Stuart, The Struggle in Man between Good and Evil. An Inquiry into the Origin of the Rabbinic Concept of Yetser Hara, Kampen 1984; P.W. van der Horst, "Evil Inclination," in K. van der Toorn, B. Becking and P.W van der Horst (eds.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, 2nd ed., Leiden - Grand Rapids 1999, 3 1 7 - 3 1 9 . In these publications one finds a wealth of references to the rabbinic sources. The long passages in b. Sukkah 5 1 b - 5 2 b , Berakhoth 6 0 b - 6 1 b , and Yoma 6 9 b - 7 0 b are among the most instructive rabbinic texts on theories about the evil inclination.

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T h i s t h e o r y m a y h a v e h a d p r e c u r s o r s in w r i t i n g s such as the p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c Testament

of Asher

3

1:3-9 a n d the Q u m r a n d o c u m e n t JQS3:13-14,

but nowhere

else d o w e find a c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h e o r y s u c h as w e h a v e it in r a b b i n i c literature. T h e n o t i o n o f t w o o p p o s i n g inclinations is a m a j o r feature o f t h e a n t h r o p o l o g y o f t h e r a b b i s . T h e y found biblical s u p p o r t for this n o t i o n in the fact that in G e n . 2:7 ( ' t h e L o r d G o d f o r m e d [wayyetser] w i t h o n e but w i t h twoyods,

m a n ' ) the v e r b ' f o r m e d ' is written n o t 4

w h i c h is u n u s u a l a n d h e n c e l o a d e d w i t h m e a n i n g : It

w a s G o d h i m s e l f w h o h a d c r e a t e d h u m a n k i n d w i t h two yetsarim, a b a d o n e (see, e . g . , b . Berakhoth

a good one and

6 1 a ; Sifre Deut. 4 5 ) . M o r e o v e r , G e n . 6:5 a n d

8:21 state explicitly that the inclination (yetser)

o f t h e h u m a n heart is c o n t i n u ­

ally evil (ra *), a n d it is so from its y o u t h (cf. b . Sanhedrin

9 1 b ) . F u r t h e r biblical

p a s s a g e s t a k e n into service b y the r a b b i s for this t h e o r y i n c l u d e D e u t . 6:5 ( a n d 11:13), w h e r e the H e b r e w w o r d u s e d for ' h e a r t , ' levav

instead o f lev, h a s t w o

beths, w h i c h is a g a i n t a k e n b y the rabbis as a sign that G o d c r e a t e d h u m a n k i n d w i t h t w o inclinations (see, e . g . , m . Berakhoth

5

9 : 5 ) ; a n d also G e n . 4 : 7 , D e u t . 6

3 1 : 2 1 a n d P s . 103:14 w e r e interpreted a c c o r d i n g l y . Interestingly e n o u g h , a c ­ c o r d i n g to a m i n o r i t y o p i n i o n ( r e c o r d e d in b . Sukkah a n d Gen. Rabba

5 2 b , j . Ta'anit

2 7 : 4 ) , G o d regretted h a v i n g c r e a t e d t h e evil

III 4 , 6 6 c , 1

yetser.

E v e n t h o u g h t h e r e is s o m e d e b a t e a m o n g the r a b b i s a b o u t the m o m e n t o f the a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e evil inclination w i t h h u m a n s ( c o n c e p t i o n , birth, the a g e o f t e n ? ) , t h e g e n e r a l n o t i o n s e e m s to b e that it a c c o m p a n i e s a p e r s o n from his or h e r earliest b e g i n n i n g s to old a g e , a n d for that r e a s o n it h a s a priority o f s o m e 13 y e a r s o v e r the g o o d inclination w h i c h m a k e s its a p p e a r a n c e o n l y at the a g e o f t h e bar mitzwah

8

or p u b e r t y . A c c o r d i n g to the r a b b i s , the g o o d inclination i n d u c e s

h u m a n k i n d to k e e p G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s , b u t the evil o n e is the s o u r c e o f r e b e l ­ lion a g a i n s t G o d . B u t it is i m p o r t a n t to a d d that the g o o d o n e n e v e r resides solely in t h e soul a n d the evil o n e o n l y in the b o d y ; the seat o f b o t h o f t h e m is t h o u g h t 9

to b e in the heart (levavl).

E v e n so the evil inclination is a n e c e s s a r y a n d e v e n

essential e l e m e n t in h u m a n life on earth in that it is also the s o u r c e o f s e x u a l

3

On which see H. Lichtenberger, Studien zum Menschenbild in Texten der Qumrangemeinde, Gottingen 1980, 1 2 3 - 1 4 2 . Other possible predecessors of the concept of two yetsarim are discussed by Porter, "The Yecer Hara" 136-156. G. F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, vol. I, Cambridge Mass. 1927, 4 8 4 - 5 . Also biblical passages which use the plural of the word heart, e.g. Ps. 7:10 "For the righteous God probes the hearts," were interpreted as referring to the two yetsarim. See e. g. Midrash Mis hie 12. Moore, Judaism, 1 479^180. See Schechter, Aspects, 2 8 4 - 5 ; Porter, "The Yecer Hara" 1 2 0 - 1 2 1 . Schechter, Aspects, 2 5 2 - 2 5 5 . Moore, Judaism, I 485, and, for the seat of both the good and the evil yetser in the heart, see esp. Porter, "The Yecer Hara" 110-111. Here we observe an important difference between rabbinic Judaism and patristic Christianity; see P. Brown, The Body and Society. Men, Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity, N e w York 1988. 4

5

6

7

8

9

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and Sexual Desire in Talmudic

61

Literature

10

p a s s i o n a n d h e n c e o f p r o c r e a t i o n (see G e n 1 : 2 8 ) . Life w i t h o u t the d r i v i n g force o f the evil inclination w o u l d b e g o o d but it w o u l d also b e u n c r e a t i v e . F o r that r e a s o n the evil inclination will not b e e r a d i c a t e d before t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f the w o r l d to c o m e ( ' o l a m ha-ba'; Targum

Ps-Jonathan

see b . Sukkah

52a; cf. Berakhoth

17a a n d

on D e u t . 3 0 : 6 ) . " A c c o r d i n g to a l e g e n d in b . Yoma 6 9 b ,

the M e n o f t h e G r e a t S y n a g o g u e w a n t e d to kill the evil inclination, b u t t h e y w e r e w a r n e d that, if they w e r e to d o so, they w o u l d b r i n g a b o u t the e n d o f the w o r l d (cf. Gen. Rabba

9:7 q u o t e d b e l o w ) . In g e n e r a l , h o w e v e r , the evil inclina­

tion is p e r c e i v e d as a threat to life a c c o r d i n g to G o d ' s will s i n c e , in addition to s e x u a l desires, the c o n c e p t also i n c l u d e s o t h e r p a s s i o n a t e i m p u l s e s , especially the p a s s i o n for w o r s h i p p i n g idols, but also anger, a g g r e s s i o n , hatred, vanity, a n d u n b r i d l e d a m b i t i o n or lust for p o w e r (e. g., b . Shabbath SifreDeut.

33).

105b; Gen. Rabba

22:6;

1 2

A s t h e o r i g i n a t o r o f sin, t h e evil inclination is h u m a n k i n d ' s g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t i m p l a c a b l e e n e m y . T h e b e s t m e a n s o f c o n t r o l l i n g this f o r m i d a b l e t e m p t e r are the p r e c e p t s o f the Torah (b. Qiddushin

3 0 b ; Si/re Deut. 4 5 ; cf. B e n Sira 2 1 : 1 1 ) .

It is therefore i n c u m b e n t u p o n b e l i e v e r s to a t t e m p t to s u b d u e it ( m . Avoth

4:1)

a n d to e x e r c i s e s e v e r e self-control w i t h t h e h e l p o f T o r a h study, prayer, a n d G o d ' s g r a c e . T h e y s h o u l d h a v e their g o o d yetser (b. Berakhoth

5a; Eccles.

Rabba

w a g e w a r a g a i n s t the evil o n e

9:7). A s t h e r a b b i s say in Avodah

Zarah

5b:

" A s l o n g as t h e y [the Israelites] o c c u p y t h e m s e l v e s w i t h s t u d y o f t h e Torah a n d w o r k s o f l o v i n g k i n d n e s s , t h e evil inclination is m a s t e r e d b y t h e m . " S c h o l a r s are e s p e c i a l l y p r o n e to s u b m i t to t h e evil yetser,

since t h e g r e a t e r the m a n the

s t r o n g e r his evil inclination, b u t s e r i o u s s t u d y o f Torah is sufficient to o v e r c o m e it (b. Sukkah

52a).

1 3

T h e evil inclination w a s s o m e t i m e s identified w i t h Satan or

t h e A n g e l o f D e a t h or a s t r a n g e g o d (e. g., b . Berakhoth Bathra

16a; j . Nedarim

4 1 b ; Exod. Rabba

61 a; Sukkah

5 2 a - b ; Bava

3 0 : 1 7 ) . In parallel p a s s a g e s S a t a n a n d

the evil i m p u l s e m a y b e i n t e r c h a n g e d , as e l s e w h e r e are evil i m p u l s e a n d s i n .

14

In this w a y it c o m e s v e r y c l o s e to the P a u l i n e c o n c e p t o f personified Sin (e. g. R o m . 7 : 1 3 - 2 5 ) . B u t in g e n e r a l the evil inclination is v i e w e d as i m p e r s o n a l a n d e q u a t e d w i t h ' t h e heart o f s t o n e ' in E z . 3 6 : 2 6 ( e . g . , Tanhuma Cant. Rabba

B : Wayyikra

12;

I 2, 4).

All this s t a n d s in r e m a r k a b l e conflict w i t h t h e fact that a c c o r d i n g to the bibli­ cal a c c o u n t the v e r y first w o r d s G o d s p o k e to h u m a n k i n d w e r e a c o m m a n d to 1 0

D. Boyarin, Carnal Israel. Reading Sex in Talmudic Culture, Berkeley 1993, 6 1 - 6 7 . It is obvious that angels do not have an evil inclination. More references in Porter, "The Yecer Hara" 1 3 0 - 1 3 2 . See Porter, "The Yecer Hara" 111-116; Schechter, Aspects, 2 5 0 - 2 5 2 ; L. Jacobs, The Jewish Religion: A Companion, Oxford 1995, 608. Note the chapter title "Man's victory by the grace of God over the Evil Yezer created by God" in Schechter's Aspects, 2 6 4 - 2 9 2 . For the Torah as antidote against the evil inclination see Sifre Deut. 45; b. Qiddushin 30b. See Moore, Judaism, I 4 9 2 ; Porter, "The Yecer Hara" 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 . 11

1 2

1 3

1 4

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Literature

h a v e s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e a n d p r o c r e a t e : " B e fruitful a n d m u l t i p l y " ( G e n . 1:28).

15

In r a b b i n i c literature this biblical ideal o f f o u n d i n g a family is fully e n d o r s e d . " N o b o d y m a y a b s t a i n from k e e p i n g the law Be fruitful M i s h n a h (Yevamot

and multiply,"

says the

6:6). R a b b i n i c dicta to the effect that the u n m a r r i e d state is

d i s a p p r o v e d o f are found f r e q u e n t l y .

16

A n d it is for this v e r y r e a s o n that m a n y

J e w s o f the first c e n t u r i e s " h a d a s e n s e that t h e y w e r e c o m m a n d e d b y G o d to d o that w h i c h G o d h i m s e l f c o n s i d e r e d s i n f u l . "

17

T h a t this is not j u s t an e x a g g e r a t e d

s t a t e m e n t b y a m o d e r n s c h o l a r is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y the fact that in the T a l m u d R e s h L a k i s h s a y s , " L e t u s a s c r i b e m e r i t to o u r a n c e s t o r s for, if t h e y h a d n o t sinned,

w e s h o u l d n o t h a v e c o m e into the w o r l d " (Avoda

here the equivalent of 'had sexual intercourse.'

18

Zara 5a). ' S i n n e d ' is

T h u s by strictly o b e y i n g the

first o f G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s the Israelites s i n n e d , b e c a u s e t h e sexual d r i v e is inspired b y t h e evil inclination! It is for that r e a s o n that a n o t h e r rabbi c a n say, " H o w c a n a h u m a n b e i n g e s c a p e from the evil i m p u l s e w i t h i n h i m , w h e n the first d r o p o f s e m e n a m a n p u t s into a w o m a n is t h e evil i m p u l s e ? " (Avoth Nathan

rec. A 1 6 ) .

19

de

Rabbi

T h e t e n s i o n that is e v i d e n t h e r e is well w o r d e d b y R. A c h a

w h e n h e s a y s , c o m m e n t i n g u p o n P s . 51:5 ("I w a s b r o u g h t forth in iniquity a n d in sin did m y m o t h e r c o n c e i v e m e " ) , that in s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e , e v e n if o n e is t h e m o s t p i o u s a n d saintly p e r s o n , it is totally i m p o s s i b l e that o n e s h o u l d h a v e n o streak o f iniquity or sin in h i m : " D a v i d said before the H o l y o n e , b l e s s e d b e H e , ' O h L o r d o f t h e u n i v e r s e , did m y father J e s s e h a v e t h e intention o f b r i n g i n g m e into the w o r l d ? ' W h y , his intention w a s his o w n e n j o y m e n t ; the p r o o f for this is that after they h a d a c c o m p l i s h e d their d e s i r e , h e t u r n e d his face in o n e d i r e c t i o n a n d s h e t u r n e d h e r face in the o p p o s i t e direction, a n d it w a s T h o u that c a u s e d e v e r y single d r o p ( o f s e m e n ) to enter, a n d this is w h a t D a v i d m e a n t w h e n h e said, ' T h o u g h m y father a n d m y m o t h e r forsook m e , t h e L o r d did g a t h e r m e i n ' ( P s . 2 7 : 1 0 ) " (Lev. Rabba

14:5). A s B o y a r i n r e m a r k s , t h e irony that s e x u a l d e s i r e is

t h e a g e n t o f the first p o s i t i v e c o m m a n d m e n t in t h e T o r a h c o u l d n o t e s c a p e the

1 5

See for the 'Wirkungsgeschichte' of this verse J. Cohen, "Be Fertile and Increase, Fill the Earth and Master It. " The Ancient and Medieval Career of a Biblical Text, Ithaca-London 1989. According to D. Boyarin, A Radical Jew. Paul and the Politics of Identity, Berkeley 1994, 1 5 8 - 1 7 9 , it is this commandment that is referred to by Paul as 'another law' when he says in Rom. 7:23: "I see in my members another law at war with the law of my mind, making me captive to the law of sin that dwells in my members." More references in Moore, Judaism, II 119-120, and H. McArthur, "Celibacy in Judaism at the Time of Christian Beginnings," Andrews University Seminary Studies 25 (1987) 1 6 3 - 1 8 1 , esp. 1 6 4 - 1 6 8 . Cf. P.W. van der Horst, "Celibacy in Early Judaism," RB 109 (2002) 3 9 0 - 4 0 2 . Boyarin, Radical Jew, 159. So rightly Stiegman, "Rabbinic Anthropology" 516, and Boyarin, Carnal Israel,52-53, against the annotators of the Soncino translation. J. Goldin, The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan, N e w Haven 1955, 85. Cf. also the version in ARN rec. B 30, and A.J. Saldarini, The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan, Leiden 1975, 1 7 7 - 1 7 8 . 1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

Evil Inclination

rabbis.

20

and Sexual Desire in Talmudic

63

Literature

S i n c e t h e sexual act is u s u a l l y a n d inevitably also p e r f o r m e d w i t h the

p u r p o s e o f satisfying p h y s i c a l d e s i r e s , r a t h e r t h a n solely w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f b e g e t t i n g a child, sin is d u l y i n v o l v e d . T h i s intractable p r o b l e m c o u l d h a v e b e e n a v o i d e d if the rabbis h a d d e c i d e d to attribute sexual d e s i r e to the good yetser.

If

G o d c o m m a n d s h u m a n k i n d to p r o c r e a t e , n o t h i n g w o u l d b e m o r e o b v i o u s t h a n attributing t h e sexual u r g e that is the n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e for this p r o c r e a t i o n , to the g o o d i m p u l s e in h u m a n s . W h y , then, did t h e r a b b i s n o t d o that? T h e y did n o t d o that b e c a u s e t h e y v i e w e d sensual p l e a s u r e w i t h f u n d a m e n t a l s u s p i c i o n . F o r t h e v e r y s a m e r e a s o n w h y the G r e e k s m a d e eros into a g o d ( E r o s ) , the r a b b i s d e g r a d e d eros, in t h e s e n s e o f p a s s i o n a t e d e s i r e , to the level o f a d a n g e r o u s a n d sinful affection o r affliction. T h e o v e r w h e l m i n g a n d insatiable c h a r a c t e r o f eros i n d u c e d the G r e e k s to deify it, b e c a u s e t h e y d r e w n o s h a r p distinction b e t w e e n t h e p a s s i o n a t e d e s i r e a n d the deity w h o b r o u g h t it a b o u t . S o m e G r e e k a u t h o r s e v e n r e g a r d e d E r o s as t h e greatest o f all g o d s .

2 2

21

Deification

w a s o f c o u r s e not an o p t i o n in the J e w i s h w o r l d , b u t d e m o n i z a t i o n w a s . A s early as the b e g i n n i n g o f the first c e n t u r y C E , t h e J e w i s h w i s d o m p o e t P s e u d o P h o c y l i d e s stated it clearly: " D o not d e l i v e r y o u r s e l f w h o l l y to u n b r i d l e d eros t o w a r d s y o u r wife [or: a w o m a n ] , for eros is n o t a g o d b u t a p a s s i o n d e s t r u c t i v e o f a l l ! " ( 1 9 3 - 1 9 4 ) . It is t h e p o t e n t i a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f eros as an u n b r i ­ d l e d a n d insatiable p a s s i o n that m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e , b o t h for P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s a n d for the later r a b b i s , to v i e w it in a positive light. T h i s n a t u r e o f eros is already h i g h l i g h t e d b y the L X X translator o f Prov. 3 0 : 1 6 ( w h i c h h a s n o e q u i v a l e n t in the H e b r e w B i b l e ) , w h e r e the a u t h o r e n u m e r a t e s e x a m p l e s o f insatiability, w h i c h 23

i n c l u d e H a d e s , fire, a n d also p a s s i o n for a w o m a n , eros gynaikos.

It is this

a l m o s t d e m o n i c n a t u r e o f erotic desire that m a d e it b e c o m e t h e d o m a i n o f the evil yetser.

T h e d e m o n i c v i e w is w e l l illustrated b y t h e story a b o u t R. Eliezer

b e n H y r k a n o s in b . Nedarim

2 0 b , w h e r e his wife s a y s a b o u t h i m that w h e n h e

h a s i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h her, it is as if h e is c o m p e l l e d b y a d e m o n ; h e u n c o v e r s o n l y a n inch o f her b o d y a n d after the act h e i m m e d i a t e l y c o v e r s it a g a i n . " T h e story r e p r e s e n t s a h i g h l y n e g a t i v e attitude t o w a r d sexual p l e a s u r e . R a b b i E l i e z e r ' s b e h a v i o r as if d r i v e n b y a d e m o n a p p a r e n t l y r e p r e s e n t s his c o n v i c t i o n that h e is fulfilling an o b l i g a t i o n that s h o u l d n o t b e e n j o y e d b u t s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d as

2 0

Boyarin, Radical Jew 160. See P.W. van der Horst, "Eros," in DDD 3 0 4 - 3 0 6 . For evidence see P.W. van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, Leiden 1978, 2 4 0 - 2 4 1 . There one also finds evidence of different opinions of authors w h o polemicized against this overrating o f Eros. The Greek could also be translated as 'passion of a woman;' see D.M. d'Hamonville, La Bible d'Alexandrie 17: Les Proverbes, Paris 2000, 3 0 2 - 3 0 3 . The only other occurrence o f eros in the L X X is again in Prov., in 7:18, where a prostitute addresses a young man with the words, "Come on, let us drown ourselves in passion!" The negative overtones of eros are obvious here. 2 1

2 2

2 3

64

Evil Inclination

q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e . " the Amoraic period,

24

25

and Sexual Desire in Talmudic

But this is a rather e x t r e m e c a s e , a n d usually, certainly in the r a b b i s s t o p p e d short o f calling the evil inclination d e ­

m o n i c or satanic ( s o m e e x c e p t i o n s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g ) this yetser

Literature

26

for the s i m p l e r e a s o n that

also inspired m e n a n d w o m e n to their v a r i o u s c r e a t i v e acts, i n c l u d i n g

the procreation demanded by God. It w a s for that r e a s o n that s o m e o f the r a b b i s c o u l d e v e n say that t h e w o r d s " A n d b e h o l d , it w a s v e r y g o o d " ( G e n . 1:31), s p o k e n after t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e creation, refer to the evil inclination: " C a n then the evil inclination b e g o o d ? T h a t is i n c r e d i b l e ! W i t h o u t the evil inclination, h o w e v e r , n o m a n w o u l d build a h o u s e , t a k e a w i f e a n d b e g e t c h i l d r e n , or e n g a g e in t r a d e " (Gen. Rabba

9:7). A s

B o y a r i n stresses, h o w e v e r , far from b e i n g a s i m p l e l e g a c y o f its cultural h e r i t a g e , " t h e r a b b i n i c insistence on t h e p o s i t i v e v a l u e o f s e x u a l i t y s e e m s to h a v e b e e n hard won and contested."

27

If o n e a n d the s a m e p o w e r , t h e evil inclination, is t h e

d r i v i n g force b e h i n d , or the s o u r c e of, both idolatry a n d sexuality, h o w c o u l d the latter e v e r b e g o o d ? O n e c a n n o t h a v e only half o f this yetser,

w i t h o u t its n e g a t i v e

a n d d e s t r u c t i v e c o n c o m i t a n t s . If there is to b e desire at all, there is b o u n d to b e also the possibility o f illicit d e s i r e . B u t t h e d e s t r u c t i v e c o n c o m i t a n t s h a v e to b e , a n d c a n b e , c u r b e d a n d s u p p r e s s e d , a n d G o d , w h o c r e a t e d the evil yetser,

gives

h u m a n k i n d t h e m e a n s to d o so. A s part o f G o d ' s creation, w h i c h is ' v e r y g o o d ' ( G e n . 1:31), t h e ' e v i l ' inclination is ' g o o d ' as w e l l . O n e n e e d n o t resort h e r e to the forced h y p o t h e s i s o f B o y a r i n : " M y h y p o t h e s i s is that the R a b b i s inherited the t e r m ' E v i l I n s t i n c t ' from a first-century J u d a i s m m u c h m o r e a v e r s e to sexuality t h a n they w e r e , a n d u n a b l e to d i s p e n s e w i t h it, t h e y ironized t h e t e r m - ' T h e Evil Instinct is v e r y g o o d . ' "

2 8

T h e r e is n o p r o o f w h a t e v e r that the r a b b i s inherited a

t e r m that t h e y actually d i s g r e e d w i t h , on the contrary, t h e r e is clear e v i d e n c e that t h e y t h e m s e l v e s i n v e n t e d a n d c o i n e d it. It w a s their c o n c e p t o f G o d as the c r e a t o r o f h u m a n k i n d in H i s i m a g e that forbade t h e m to see in the 'evil i n c l i n a t i o n ' n o t h ­ ing b u t evil. M o s t o f t h e a c t i o n s inspired b y this yetser

w e r e evil i n d e e d , b u t t h e

act o f p r o c r e a t i o n c o u l d not b e evil since G o d h i m s e l f c o m m a n d e d h u m a n k i n d to p e r f o r m it, albeit o n l y w i t h i n n a r r o w l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e fact that most ( t h o u g h not all) o f t h e s e a c t i o n s are evil g a v e it its n e g a t i v e d e s i g n a ­ tion, yetser

hara'.

B u t that d o e s not e x c l u d e the fact that it c o u l d incidentally b e

the s o u r c e o f a g o o d act, n a m e l y that o f p r o c r e a t i o n . "It is called the Evil D e s i r e solely b e c a u s e o f its d e s t r u c t i v e side, from 2 4

which

it cannot

escape,

but at the

Boyarin, Carnal Israel, 47. In some of the later rabbinic texts there is even room for a viewpoint in which sexual intercourse that does not take place for the sake of procreation is regarded in a positive light; see Boyarin, Carnal Israel, 5 3 - 5 5 . The evil inclination was sometimes identified with Satan; see above. Carnal Israel, 6 1 . Boyarin, Carnal Israel, 63. For criticism of Boyarin's position see D. Winston, "Philo and the Rabbis on Sex and the Body," in his The Ancestral Philosophy. Hellenistic Philosophy in Second Temple Judaism, ed. by G.E. Sterling, Providence 2 0 0 1 , 1 9 9 - 2 1 9 . 2 5

2 6

27

2 8

Evil Inclination

and Sexual Desire in Talmudic

Literature

65

s a m e t i m e there is full r e c o g n i t i o n not o n l y o f the necessity for d e s i r e but o f its very positive o v e r t o n e s . "

29

F o r that r e a s o n it is p o s s i b l e to w o r s h i p G o d not o n l y

w i t h o n e ' s g o o d b u t e v e n w i t h o n e ' s evil yetser,

as is said in m . Berakhoth

9:5

(on the basis o f t h e d o u b l e beth o f levav in D e u t . 6:5 a n d 11:13, ' l o v e / s e r v e the L o r d y o u r G o d w i t h all y o u r h e a r t ' ) . ' G o o d ' is h e r e i n s e p a r a b l e from ' e v i l ' since t h e y d e r i v e from o n e a n d the s a m e s o u r c e . Inevitably, in s u c h a ' d i a l e c t i c a l ' a n t h r o p o l o g y , tension a n d a m b i g u i t y r e m a i n . A s S t i e g m a n e x p r e s s e s it: " S e x u a l i t y is g o o d a n d evil, c o n s t r u c t i v e a n d d e s t r u c ­ tive, a d u t y a n d a m i s f o r t u n e , beautiful a n d s h a m e f u l . "

30

In the s e x u a l act g o o d

a n d evil are i n e x t r i c a b l y b o u n d u p . T h e j o y f u l aspect o f it is that it is d o n e in fulfilment o f a d i v i n e c o m m a n d ; the d e p l o r a b l e a s p e c t is that it is i m p o s s i b l e to d o it w i t h o u t lust or desire. A n d it is this desire that c a n unfold its d e s t r u c t i v e a s p e c t s as w e l l . In a k i n d o f prefiguration o f the r a b b i n i c view, t h e a u t h o r o f the Testament

of Reuben

h a d said a b o u t ' t h e spirit o f p r o c r e a t i o n ' that is g i v e n to

h u m a n k i n d at creation that " w i t h it sin c o m e s in t h r o u g h f o n d n e s s for p l e a s u r e " (2:8).

31

In p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r , love of p l e a s u r e w a s n o t a l w a y s rejected as sin­

ful. E v e n in the T a l m u d w e find s o m e p a s s a g e s w h e r e n o n - r e p r o d u c t i v e sexual i n t e r c o u r s e is v i e w e d as s o m e t h i n g g o o d . F o r i n s t a n c e , sex w a s p e r m i t t e d w i t h p r e g n a n t w i v e s a n d e v e n e n c o u r a g e d w i t h m e n o p a u s a l w i v e s , a n d in s o m e c a s e s contraception was deemed permissible.

32

S o t h e reality o f life c o u l d m i t i g a t e the

r a b b i n i c p r i n c i p l e s , b u t t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t e n s i o n a n d a m b i g u i t y c a u s e d b y the r a b b i s ' p r o b l e m a t i c i d e o l o g y o f sex w a s n e v e r really r e s o l v e d .

2 9

Boyarin, Carnal Israel, 63. "Rabbinic Anthropology" 516. Cf. Philo, Spec. 3.313, on pleasure-lovers whose sexual activity resembles that of "pigs and goats in quest of the enjoyment that such intercourse gives." For references see the chapter entitled "The Legitimacy of Sexual Pleasure" in D.M. Feldman, Birth Control in Jewish Law, N e w York 1968, 8 1 - 1 0 5 . Urbach, Sages, I 478. 3 0

3 1

3 2

"His Days Shall Be One Hundred and Twenty Years" Genesis 6:3 in Early Judaism and Ancient Christianity

W h e n m a n k i n d h a d b e c o m e c o r r u p t e d in t h e p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g the flood, G o d said: " M y spirit shall n o t a b i d e in m a n for ever, for h e is flesh; his d a y s shall b e a h u n d r e d a n d t w e n t y y e a r s " ( G e n . 6:3). A n c i e n t interpreters, b o t h J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s , did n o t a g r e e a b o u t the interpretation o f t h e s e w o r d s . It w o u l d s e e m fitting to d i s c u s s the v a r i o u s v i e w s o f this limitation o f m a n k i n d ' s lifespan to 120 y e a r s on the o c c a s i o n o f the celebration o f o u r e s t e e m e d c o l l e a g u e A l b e r t van der H e i d e ' s 6 0 t h birthday, since h e has n o w a c h i e v e d h a l f this s p a n . O u r earliest e v i d e n c e for the interpretation o f this text is to b e found in the Septuagint ( L X X ) . T h e G r e e k translation of the P e n t a t e u c h w a s c o m p l e t e d s o m e w h e r e in t h e first h a l f o f the third c e n t u r y B C E . T h i s early B i b l e translation r e n d e r s the v e r s e as follows: " M y spirit will certainly n o t r e m a i n in t h e s e p e o p l e b e c a u s e t h e y are flesh, b u t their d a y s will b e 120 y e a r s . " I n s t e a d o f the g e n e r i c 'adam the M T , the L X X h a s 'these

p e o p l e ' a n d therefore also 'their

the d e m o n s t r a t i v e ' t h e s e ' (toutois),

of

days.' By adding

the translator m a k e s clear that he takes G o d ' s 1

t h r e a t to a p p l y o n l y to t h e e v i l d o e r s o f N o a h ' s d a y s . T h i s interpretation m o s t p r o b a b l y o w e s its origin to the fact that m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s w h o inhabited t h e earth 2

after t h e t i m e o f t h e flood are r e c o r d e d as h a v i n g lived l o n g e r than 120 y e a r s . In G e n . 7:6, N o a h is said to h a v e b e e n 6 0 0 y e a r s w h e n t h e flood b e g a n , a n d in G e n . 9:29 he dies after a life o f 9 5 0 y e a r s . M o r e o v e r , his s o n S h e m dies at 6 0 0 , a n d o t h e r s e x c e e d e d t h e 120 y e a r s as w e l l (see G e n . 11:11.13.15.17.19.21 etc.). A l s o A b r a h a m , I s a a c a n d J a c o b e x c e e d e d the lifespan o f 120 y e a r s . In D e u t . 3 4 : 7 , h o w e v e r , M o s e s dies at t h e a g e o f 120 y e a r s a n d that n u m b e r is p r o b a b l y to b e v i e w e d in t h e light o f G e n . 6 : 3 : M o s e s , the ideal m a n , is g r a n t e d t h e m a x i m u m lifespan that is p o s s i b l e for a h u m a n b e i n g after G o d ' s d e c r e e in G e n . 6 : 3 . B u t the L X X translator h a d to s o l v e a difficulty that a r o s e from the H e b r e w text as 3

it s t a n d s , so h e c o u l d n o t t a k e it at face v a l u e . In his view, " G o d w a s t a l k i n g 1

See M. Harl e.a., La Genese (La Bible d'Alexandrie, vol. 1), Paris 1986, 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 . Thus A. Kamesar, Jerome, Greek Scholarship and the Hebrew Bible. A Study of the Quaestiones Hebraicae in Genes im, Oxford 1993, 185. In the Vulgate Jerome keeps strictly to the wording o f the Hebrew text, in spite o f what he writes in his Quaestiones Hebraicae in Genesim 6:3, quoted below in the text. The Jewish Bible translator Symmachus seems to have followed the L X X here. 2

3

Genesis 6:3 in Early Judaism and Ancient

67

Christianity

o n l y a b o u t a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p o f h u m a n s , the g e n e r a t i o n o f the f l o o d . "

4

Because

t h e y are so w i c k e d , G o d will d e s t r o y this a n t e d i l u v i a l g e n e r a t i o n at an early a g e (relatively early, that is, for t h o s e d a y s ) . F o r o u r translator, " G o d ' s w o r d s did n o t a n n o u n c e a f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e in h u m a n l o n g e v i t y . "

5

A s K u g e l h a s p o i n t e d out, the s a m e interpretation is also found in a n o t h e r early d o c u m e n t , the Genesis

Pesher

o f Q u m r a n , w h e r e w e read that in t h e four

h u n d r e d a n d eightieth y e a r o f N o a h ' s life G o d said: " M y spirit will n o t r e s i d e in m a n for ever. T h e i r d a y s shall b e fixed at 120 y e a r s until t h e t i m e o f the flood" (4Q252,

col. 1, 2 - 3 ) .

6

S i n c e N o a h w a s 6 0 0 ( 4 8 0 + 1 2 0 ) y e a r s w h e n the flood

b e g a n , it is clear that the 120 y e a r s are h e r e the t i m e until t h e flood. H e r e it w o u l d s e e m that t h e plural ' t h e i r ' in stead o f ' h i s ' h a s t h e s a m e function as in the L X X , a n d this limitation o f the m e a s u r e to t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e flood is, m o r e o v e r , u n d e r s c o r e d b y the a d d i t i o n o f t h e w o r d s 'until the t i m e o f the flood.' T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t that h e r e w e h a v e a n o t h e r w i t n e s s to the e x e g e t i c a l tradition w e m e t first in t h e L X X . A l s o Jubilees interpretation.

5:8 ("their d a y s . . . " ) i m p l i e s the s a m e

7

W e n o w m a k e a b i g c h r o n o l o g i c a l j u m p in o r d e r to t a k e a look at o t h e r J e w i s h 8

B i b l e translations from (late) antiquity, the T a r g u m s . Let u s b e g i n w i t h Neofiti

1,

9

on w h i c h w e n o w h a v e t h e fine c o m m e n t a r y b y B e r n a r d G r o s s f e l d . O u r text is r e n d e r e d b y t h e m e t u r g e m a n as f o l l o w s : " N o n e o f t h e g e n e r a t i o n s yet to arise will b e j u d g e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e o r d e r o f the j u d g m e n t o f the g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e flood. B e h o l d , t h e o r d e r o f the j u d g m e n t o f t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e flood h a s b e e n sealed before h i m : to b e d e s t r o y e d a n d b l o t t e d out from t h e m i d s t o f t h e w o r l d . B e h o l d , I h a v e p u t m y spirit in the s o n s o f m a n b e c a u s e t h e y are flesh a n d their d e e d s are evil. B e h o l d , I h a v e g i v e n t h e s p a n o f 120 y e a r s (in t h e h o p e that) p e r h a p s t h e y m i g h t d o r e p e n t a n c e , b u t they h a v e n o t d o n e s o . "

1 0

T h e train o f

t h o u g h t in this ' t r a n s l a t i o n ' s e e m s to b e as f o l l o w s : N e v e r a g a i n will G o d j u d g e future g e n e r a t i o n s in the s a m e w a y as the g e n e r a t i o n o f the flood. G o d i m p l a n t e d

4

J. L. Kugel, Traditions of the Bible. A Guide to the Bible As It Was at the Start of the Common Era, Cambridge ( M A ) - London 1998, 184. Kugel, Traditions 183. See J. Maier, Die Qumran-Essener: Die Texte vom Toten Meer II, Miinchen-Basel 1995, 194 with n. 284, and esp. F. Garcia Martinez, "Interpretations of the Flood in the Dead Sea Scrolls," in F. Garcia Martinez & G.P. Luttikhuizen (eds.), Interpretations of the Flood, Leiden 1999, 8 6 - 1 0 8 , esp. 99 ff. with extensive bibliography at 100 nn. 3 6 - 3 7 . Also J.L. Trafton, "Com­ mentary on Genesis A," in J.H. Charlesworth e.a. (eds.), The Dead Sea Scrolls, vol. VIB: Pesharim, Other Commentaries, and Related Documents, Tubingen-Louisville 2002, 2 0 7 - 2 0 9 . See J.T.A.G.M. Ruiten, "The Interpretation of the Flood Story in the Book of Jubilees," in Garcia Martinez & Luttikhuizen (eds.), Interpretations 83. For the dating o f the Targums to the Torah see U. GleBmer, Einleitung in die Targume zum Pentateuch, Tubingen 1995, passim. B. Grossfeld, Targum Neofiti I: An Exegetical Commentary to Genesis, N e w York 2000. Translation by M. McNamara, Targum Neofiti I: Genesis (The Aramaic Bible 1A), Edinburgh 1992, 72. 5

6

7

8

9

1 0

68

Genesis 6:3 in Early Judaism and Ancient

Christianity

his spirit in m a n k i n d in o r d e r that t h e y m i g h t d o g o o d , b u t since t h e y are also flesh, their d e e d s are evil. F o r that r e a s o n G o d g a v e m a n k i n d 120 y e a r s , so that t h e y m i g h t repent, b u t t h e y d i d n ' t . It has to b e p o i n t e d out that the w o r d s a b o u t the g i v i n g o f a s p a n o f 120 y e a r s p r o b a b l y h a v e to b e u n d e r s t o o d as an e x t e n ­ sion, in v i e w o f t h e fact that in the other t a r g u m i m this is explicitly indicated b y the w o r d 'rk' ( e x t e n s i o n ) . T h u s T a r g u m P s e u d o - J o n a t h a n h a s : "I g a v e t h e m an e x t e n s i o n o f 120 y e a r s that they m i g h t repent, b u t t h e y h a v e n o t d o n e s o . "

1 1

T h e F r a g m e n t T a r g u m h a s : "I g a v e t h e m a n e x t e n s i o n o f 120 y e a r s so that t h e y m i g h t d o r e p e n t a n c e , but they h a v e n o t d o n e s o . "

1 2

And Targum Onkelos reads:

" L e t an e x t e n s i o n b e g r a n t e d to t h e m for 120 y e a r s to see if t h e y will r e p e n t . " F i n a l l y w e also r e a d in a m i d r a s h i c w o r k , Mekhilta

deR. Ishmael,

13

Beshallach

5 (p. 3 8 b ) : " F o r y o u g a v e an e x t e n s i o n to the g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e flood that they m i g h t repent, b u t t h e y did not repent, as it is said, ' M y spirit shall not a b i d e in m a n . ' " M a n k i n d h a d b e e n g i v e n b y G o d an extra o p p o r t u n i t y to repent, b u t t h e y did n o t profit from this ' G n a d e n z e i t . '

1 4

F r o m the r a b b i s w e n o w g o b a c k to earlier J e w i s h interpreters. P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a , w h o b a s e d his e x e g e s i s u p o n the L X X , r e m a r k s that the 120 y e a r s ' limit w a s m e a n t for N o a h ' s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s : " W h y shall ' t h e d a y s o f m a n b e 120 y e a r s ' ? B y this n u m b e r (Scripture) s e e m s to limit h u m a n life. ( . . . ) B u t p e r h a p s 120 y e a r s a r e not t h e universal limit o f h u m a n life, b u t o n l y o f t h e m e n living at that t i m e , w h o w e r e later to perish in the flood after so great a n u m b e r o f y e a r s , w h i c h a b e n e v o l e n t b e n e f a c t o r p r o l o n g e d , a l l o w i n g r e p e n t a n c e for s i n " (Quaestiones

et solutiones

in Genesim

I 91).

1 5

H e r e w e see the r a b b i n i c inter­

p r e t a t i o n b e i n g anticipated. B u t h a l f a c e n t u r y after P h i l o , the J e w i s h historian F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s r e n d e r s o u r p a s s a g e as follows: " G o d l o v e d this m a n [ N o a h ] b e c a u s e o f his r i g h t e o u s n e s s , but did not c o n d e m n the o t h e r s a l o n e for their w i c k e d n e s s , it also s e e m e d b e s t to h i m to d e s t r o y all h u m a n i t y , as m a n y as there w e r e at that t i m e , a n d to create a n o t h e r r a c e free o f k n a v e r y , cutting short their lives a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g their life e x p e c t a n c y not as f o r m e r l y b u t at 120 y e a r s " (Antiquitates

Judaicae

I 75).

1 6

It is clear that J o s e p h u s interpreted G e n . 6:3 as

m e a n i n g that t h e h u m a n lifespan h a d b e e n r e d u c e d b y G o d to 120 y e a r s for ever, n o t j u s t for N o a h ' s g e n e r a t i o n . A n d h e w a s certainly n o t a l o n e in that view. 11

Translation by M. Maher, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Genesis (The Aramaic Bible IB), Edinburgh 1992, 38. M. Klein, The Fragment Targums of the Pentateuch, vol. 2, Rome 1980, 10. A. Sperber, The Bible in Aramaic, vol. 1, Leiden 1992, 9. References to other passages with this motif can be found in R. Le Deaut, Targum du Pentateuque I: Genese, Paris 1978, 114, and in L. Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, vol. 5, Philadelphia 1925, 174 n. 19. One might add Avoth deR. Nathan (A) 32 and Bereshit Rabba X X V I 6. Ch. Mercier (ed.), Quaestiones et solutiones in Genesim I (Les oeuvres de Philon d'Alexandrie 3 4 A ) , Paris 1979, 165-171 Translation by L.H. Feldman, Flavius Josephus, vol. 3: Judaean Antiquities 1-4, Leiden 2000, 2 8 - 2 9 . 1 2

1 3

1 4

15

1 6

Genesis 6:3 in Early Judaism and Ancient

69

Christianity

H i s c o n t e m p o r a r y , the a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r o f the Liber Antiquitatum

Biblicarum

c o m m o n l y called P s e u d o - P h i l o , m a k e s clear h e w a s o f the s a m e o p i n i o n w h e n h e w r i t e s that the L o r d said to P i n c h a s : " B e h o l d y o u h a v e p a s s e d the 120 y e a r s that h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d for e v e r y m a n " (LAB 4 8 , 1 ) .

1 7

O f course Josephus and

others w i t h the s a m e o p i n i o n w e r e a w a r e o f the p r o b l e m that after t h e flood so m a n y p e r s o n s lived m u c h l o n g e r t h a n 120 y e a r s . T h e i r solution w a s different, h o w e v e r . E l s e w h e r e J o s e p h u s s a y s that A b r a h a m ' s father Terah d i e d at the a g e o f 2 0 5 : " F o r a l r e a d y the life e x p e c t a n c y w a s b e i n g s h o r t e n e d a n d w a s b e c o m i n g briefer until the birth o f M o s e s , after w h o m G o d set the limit o f life at 120 y e a r s , the n u m b e r that M o s e s also h a p p e n e d to l i v e " (Ant. Jud. I 152). To p u t it in other w o r d s : G o d ' s d e c r e e to curtail h u m a n life to 120 y e a r s w a s carried out in stages. O n l y w h e n M o s e s a p p e a r e d on t h e s c e n e w a s it definitive: after M o s e s n o o n e e v e r got o l d e r t h a n 120. T h i s l e a v e s r o o m for t h e m a n y biblical p e r s o n s b e t w e e n N o a h a n d M o s e s w h o e x c e e d e d this limit. A g a i n a ' G n a d e n z e i t ' !

1 8

L e t u s finally look v e r y briefly at c o m p a r a b l e m a t e r i a l from early Christian s o u r c e s . Julius A f r i c a n u s , a C h r i s t i a n c h r o n o g r a p h e r w h o w a s b o r n in J e r u s a l e m a b o u t 160 C E , w r i t e s that G o d d e c i d e d to d e s t r o y m a n k i n d a n d that m a n k i n d ' s life w o u l d n e v e r a g a i n e x c e e d 120 y e a r s . H e then a d d s that o n e s h o u l d not s e e a p r o b l e m in t h e fact that after that d e c r e e p e o p l e lived on for a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e , for the s i n n e r s o f that g e n e r a t i o n w e r e all 2 0 y e a r s old a n d t h e flood took p l a c e 100 y e a r s after G o d ' s d e c r e e . S o t h e y did n o t e x c e e d t h e limit (fragm. 7 as q u o t e d b y S y n c e l l u s , Ecloga

chronographica

38, pp. 2 1 - 2 Mosshammer).

A f r i c a n u s u n f o r t u n a t e l y d o e s not a d d r e s s the p r o b l e m o f the m a n y p e o p l e w h o lived l o n g e r than 120 y e a r s after the flood. T h e C h u r c h F a t h e r J e r o m e , w h o lived for m a n y y e a r s in B e t h l e h e m , d o e s not a g r e e , for h e w r i t e s : " L e s t G o d m i g h t s e e m to b e cruel o n t h e g r o u n d s that h e h a d n o t g i v e n a p l a c e of r e p e n t a n c e for s i n n e r s , h e a d d e d : ' B u t their d a y s shall b e 120 y e a r s . ' T h i s m e a n s t h e y shall h a v e 120 y e a r s to d o p e n a n c e . S o h u m a n life is not s h o r t e n e d to 120 y e a r s , as m a n y m i s t a k e n l y s u p p o s e , b u t 120 y e a r s w e r e g i v e n to that g e n e r a t i o n for r e p e n t a n c e . F o r i n d e e d w e find that after t h e flood A b r a h a m lived for 175 y e a r s a n d o t h e r s m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 or 3 0 0 y e a r s " (Quaestiones 1 7

in Genesim

6:3).

19

Translation by H. Jacobson, A Commentary on Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Bib­ licarum, vol. 1, Leiden 1996, 172. In Ant. I 9 8 - 9 9 , Josephus has Noah pray that the survivors of the flood may come 'to good old age and length o f life similar to that of men previously,' and God promises 'that he would fulfill these prayers.' So it may be that, apart from the explanation offered in Ant. 1 152 quoted above in the text, Josephus also believed that the longevity after the flood was due to God's promise to fulfill Noah's prayer, albeit temporarily. I o w e this suggestion to my doctoral student, Tessel Jonquiere. Translation by C.T.R. Hayward, Saint Jerome's Hebrew Questions on Genesis, Oxford 1995, 37. I o w e the reference to Jerome to A. Louth (ed.), Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture, Old Testament, vol. I: Genesis 1-11, Downers Grove 2 0 0 1 , 1 2 4 - 5 , w h o also quotes Ephrem's commentary on Genesis ad locum. 1 8

1 9

70

Genesis 6:3 in Early Judaism and Ancient

Christianity

A u g u s t i n e d e v o t e s a p a r a g r a p h to the p r o b l e m o f t h e 120 y e a r s in his City

of

God: " T o p a s s to G o d ' s s a y i n g that ' t h e i r d a y s will b e a 120 y e a r s , ' that is n o t to b e t a k e n as foretelling that after this m e n w o u l d n o t e x c e e d 120 y e a r s , s i n c e w e find that after t h e flood, as w e l l as before, m e n s u r p a s s e d e v e n 5 0 0 y e a r s . W e m u s t r e a l i z e that G o d said this w h e n N o a h h a d n e a r l y c o m p l e t e d 5 0 0 y e a r s , that is, h e w a s in h i s 4 8 0 t h year, w h i c h is called the 5 0 0 t h y e a r in S c r i p t u r e , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h its g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e o f u s i n g r o u n d n u m b e r s for a total o n l y slightly less. N o w w e k n o w that the flood h a p p e n e d in the 6 0 0 t h y e a r o f N o a h ' s life, in the s e c o n d m o n t h , a n d thus the p r e d i c t i o n m e a n t that m e n w h o w e r e g o i n g to p e r i s h w o u l d live 120 y e a r s m o r e , a n d at the e n d o f that p e r i o d t h e y w o u l d b e w i p e d out b y t h e flood" (Civ. Dei X V 2 4 ) .

2 0

E v e n from t h e s e few e x a m p l e s it b e c o m e s clear that in C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s w e find the s a m e variety o f interpretation as in the J e w i s h m a t e r i a l . T h i s is n o t o n l y b e c a u s e the C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r s h a d to face the s a m e interpretational p r o b l e m s as t h e J e w s , b u t also b e c a u s e s o m e o f t h e m w e r e i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e s o l u t i o n s p r o p o s e d b y their J e w i s h c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . A f r i c a n u s a n d J e r o m e c e r t a i n l y h a d g a i n e d k n o w l e d g e o f J e w i s h biblical interpretation d u r i n g their l o n g l a s t i n g s o j o u r n s in t h e H o l y L a n d .

2 0

21

Translation by H. Bettenson, Augustine: Concerning the City of God, Harmondsworth 1972, 642. Further references to Christian writers can be found in Ginzberg, Legends V 174. See, e.g., the evidence collected in W. Adler, Time Immemorial. Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus, Washington 1989, and A. Kamesar, Jerome, Greek Scholarship and the Hebrew Bible. A Study of the Quaestiones Hebraicae in Genesim, Oxford 1993. 2 1

Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis A Review

1

Article

T h e s p e e d o f r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s in t h e s c h o l a r l y s t u d y o f e a r l y J e w i s h e p i g r a ­ p h y is h i g h . W h e n I p u b l i s h e d m y i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e s t u d y o f J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s 2

in 1 9 9 1 , 1 c o u l d m e n t i o n a s t h e s o u r c e s at o u r d i s p o s a l o n l y t h e o u t d a t e d c o l ­ 3

lection by Frey ( C I J ) , and partial collections such as that of the inscriptions of 4

R o m e b y L e o n , of Beth S h e ' a r i m b y Mazar, S c h w a b e , Lifshitz, and Avigad, 6

5

of

7

E g y p t by L e w i s , of the C y r e n a i c a by Liideritz, and of the rest of N o r t h Africa 8

by Le B o h e c . Further there w e r e of course a large n u m b e r of articles with p u b ­ l i c a t i o n s o f i n s c r i p t i o n s s c a t t e r e d o v e r a v e r y w i d e v a r i e t y o f j o u r n a l s in m a n y l a n g u a g e s . N o w , o n l y 13 y e a r s later, t h e s i t u a t i o n h a s i m p r o v e d d r a m a t i c a l l y . In 1 9 9 2 W i l l i a m H o r b u r y a n d D a v i d N o y p u b l i s h e d t h e i r Jewish tions

of Graeco-Roman

o f his Jewish

1

Inscriptions

9

Egypt;

Inscrip­

in 1 9 9 3 N o y a l o n e p u b l i s h e d t h e first v o l u m e

of Western

Europe

I: Italy

(excluding

the

City

of

The books reviewed here are the three volumes of the series Inscriptiones Judaicae Orien­ tis: Vol. I, Eastern Europe, Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism (TSAJ) 101, edd. David Noy, Alexander Panayotov & Hanswulf Bloedhorn, Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004; xvi+398 pp. (ISBN 3 - 1 6 - 1 4 8 1 8 9 - 5 ) ; Vol. II: Kleinasien, TSAJ 9 9 , ed. Walter Ameling, Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004; xviii+650 pp. (ISBN 3 - 1 6 - 1 4 8 1 9 6 - 8 ) ; Vol. Ill: Syria and Cyprus, TSAJ 102, edd. David N o y & Hanswulf Bloedhorn, Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2004; xvi+284 pp. (ISBN 3-16-148188-7). Pieter W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs: An Introductory Survey of a Millennium of Jewish Funerary Epigraphy (300 BCE-700 CE), Kampen 1991. J.-B. Frey, Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum. Recueil des inscriptions juives qui vont du Hie siecle avant Jesus-Christ au Vile siecle de notre ere, 2 vols., Rome 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 5 2 . This work will be referred to as CIJ. Vol. 1 w a s reprinted in 1975 by Baruch Lifshitz, w h o wrote a very extensive Prolegomenon in which he proposed a considerable number o f corrections and additions. H.J. Leon, The Jews of Ancient Rome, Philadelphia 1960, 2 6 3 - 3 4 6 . T h i s work w a s re­ printed with addenda et corrigenda by C. Osiek, Peabody 1995. B. Mazar, Beth She'arim 1, Jerusalem 1973; M. Schwabe - B. Lifshitz, Beth She'arim II, 1974; N . Avigad, Beth She'arim III, 1976. D.M. Lewis in an Appendix to V. A. Tcherikover - A. Fuks - M. Stern, Corpus Papyrorum Judaicarum, 3 vols., Cambridge (Mass.) 1 9 5 7 - 1 9 6 4 , vol. Ill, 1 3 8 - 1 6 6 . G. Liideritz, Corpus judischer Zeugnisse aus der Cyrenaica, Wiesbaden 1983. Y. le Bohec, "Inscriptions juives et judai'santes de l'Afrique Romaine," Antiquites Africaines 1 7 ( 1 9 8 1 ) 1 6 5 - 2 0 7 . Cambridge 1992. See my review in JSJ 25 (1994) 3 2 0 - 3 2 3 . Abbr. JIGRE. 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

72

Inscriptiones

Rome),

0

Spain

Inscriptions

and Gaul? of Western

State of Israel? Inscriptions

Orientis

a n d in 1995 the s e c o n d v o l u m e a p p e a r e d as n

Europe

II: The City of Rome.

R a h m a n i p u b l i s h e d his A Catalogue 2

Judaicae

of Jewish

Ossuaries

in the Collections

In 1999 E. L e i g h G i b s o n p u b l i s h e d The Jewish

of the Bosporus

1

Kingdom} '

Jewish

In the s a m e p e r i o d L.Y. of the

Manumission

A l s o in 1999, E. M i r a n d a p u b l i s h e d

t h e J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in P h r y g i a n H i e r a p o l i s .

14

A n d in 2 0 0 1 J o h n Kroll finally p u b l i s h e d t h e G r e e k inscriptions o f t h e S a r d i s s y n a g o g u e in HTR (they w e r e found s o m e 4 0 y e a r s b e f o r e ) .

15

A n d there w a s o f

c o u r s e the usual h o s t o f m i n o r p u b l i c a t i o n s in v a r i o u s j o u r n a l s .

1 6

T h e zenith o f

this e p i g r a p h i c activity, h o w e v e r , w a s r e a c h e d in 2 0 0 4 , w h e n t h e l o n g a w a i t e d three v o l u m e s o f the Inscriptiones published simultaneously.

17

Judaicae

Orientis

(henceforth IJudO)

were

It is t h e s e n e w v o l u m e s that will b e t h e focus o f the

rest o f this article. L e t m e b e g i n b y stating that the n a m e o f D a v i d N o y n o w a p p e a r s on t h e title p a g e o f n o less than 5 v o l u m e s w i t h J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s , in 2 c a s e s as the o n l y n a m e , in 3 c a s e s c o m b i n e d w i t h o n e or t w o o t h e r s . N o y h a s b e e n the d r i v i n g force b e h i n d this w h o l e enterprise for a l o n g t i m e a n d h e m a y rightfully b e r e ­ g a r d e d as the ' F r e y ' o f o u r d a y s , a l t h o u g h the quality o f his w o r k s u r p a s s e s that o f Frey. After h a v i n g c o v e r e d ( S o u t h - ) W e s t e r n E u r o p e in the earlier v o l u m e s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , h e h a s n o w t u r n e d to t h e E a s t e r n part o f the c o n t i n e n t . T h e great e x t e n t o f the p r o g r e s s m a d e since F r e y c a n b e easily g a u g e d w h e n w e see that, o f the r o u g h l y 5 4 0 inscriptions p u b l i s h e d in IJudO,

s o m e 3 1 0 w e r e not to b e

found in the old CIJ, i. e., an i m p r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e o f a l m o s t 6 0 % ! In vol. 1 N o y c.s. c o v e r a n c i e n t P a n n o n i a , D a l m a t i a , M o e s i a , T h r a c e , M a c e d o n i a , T h e s s a l y , A t t i c a , the rest o f the G r e e k m a i n l a n d , the G r e e k islands (but not C y p r u s ) , C r e t e , 1 0

Cambridge 1993. See my review mJTSn.s. 45 (1994) 7 0 1 - 7 0 4 . Abbr. JIWE I. Cambridge 1995. See my review in JTS n.s. 47 (1996) 256-259.Abbr. JIWE II. Jerusalem 1994. Tubingen 1999. See also Appendix 3 (Inscriptions from the Bosporan Kingdom) in I. Levinskaya, The Book of Acts in Its First-Century Setting, vol. 5: Diaspora Setting, Grand Rapids - Carlisle 1996, 2 2 8 - 2 4 6 . E. Miranda, "La comunita giudaica di Hierapolis di Frigia," Epigraphica Anatolica 31 (1999)109-156. John H. Kroll, "The Greek Inscriptions of the Sardis Synagogue," HTR 94 (2001) 5 - 1 2 7 . See my discussion of this publication in "De synagoge van Sardis en haar inscripties," in my Joden in de Grieks-Romeinse wereld, Zoetermeer 2 0 0 3 , 4 0 - 4 9 [in English translation elsewhere in this volume]. For short surveys see M. H. Williams, "Jewish Inscriptions of the Graeco-Roman Period - An Update," Bulletin of Judaeo-Greek Studies 33 ( 2 0 0 3 - 2 0 0 4 ) 40^16. For the importance of epigraphical material for the study of ancient Judaism in general see M.H. Williams, "The Contribution of Jewish Inscriptions to the Study of Judaism," in W. Horbury e.a. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. Ill: The Early Roman Period, Cambridge 1999, 7 5 - 9 3 . It may be added here that there is now also a new, third edition o f the authoritative Guide de I 'epigraphiste, edd. F. Berard et alii, Paris 2000, but unfortunately it is very weak on Jewish epigraphy. See note 1. 11

1 2

1 3

1 4

1 5

1 6

17

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

73

a n d t h e N o r t h coast o f the B l a c k Sea. T o b e fair, it s h o u l d b e a d d e d i m m e d i a t e l y that m u c h o f the w o r k for this v o l u m e h a s b e e n d o n e b y A l e x a n d e r P a n a y o t o v and, to a lesser d e g r e e , H a n s w u l f B l o e d h o r n - N o y is m a i n l y r e s p o n s i b l e for the s e c t i o n s on P a n n o n i a a n d the B l a c k Sea, b u t h e h a s c o n t r i b u t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y to the s e c t i o n s c o v e r e d by t h e t w o other s c h o l a r s . N o y briefly m e n t i o n s t h e criteria for inclusion ( h o w to tell a J e w i s h from a n o n - J e w i s h inscription): (i) t h e u s e o f H e b r e w ; (ii) the u s e o f specifically J e w i s h s y m b o l s ; (iii) the use o f J e w i s h t e r m i n o l o g y or d e s i g n a t i o n s ; (iv) the u s e o f d i s ­ tinctively J e w i s h n a m e s , in c o n t e x t s w h e r e their u s e d o e s n o t s e e m m o r e likely to b e C h r i s t i a n than J e w i s h ; (v) p r o v e n a n c e from a s y n a g o g u e ; (vi) reference to f a m o u s J e w s ; (vii) reference to S a m a r i t a n s ; (viii) s o m e B o s p o r a n m a n u m i s s i o n s h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e o f their similarity to J e w i s h m a n u m i s s i o n s from the a r e a a n d the lack o f i n d i c a t i o n that they are n o t J e w i s h . It is clear that s o m e o f t h e s e criteria are m o r e d e c i s i v e than o t h e r s . Criteria (i), (ii), (iii), and (v) are o b v i o u s l y the m o s t u n a m b i g u o u s a n d c a n stand on their o w n . A s to the u s e o f J e w i s h n a m e s (iv), the criterion o f " c o n t e x t s w h e r e their u s e d o e s not s e e m m o r e likely to b e Christian than J e w i s h " is, h o w e v e r , m u c h m o r e slippery, a n d it is for that r e a s o n that I h a v e a d v o c a t e d the position that this criterion s h o u l d n e v e r b e used in isolation b u t a l w a y s in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o n e o f the m o r e solid criteria in o r d e r to b e on t h e safe s i d e .

18

S i n c e N o y c.s. d o not follow this a d v i c e ,

t h e y i n c l u d e quite a n u m b e r o f v e r y d u b i o u s c a s e s ( e . g . , M a c l 4 a n d M a c l 6 are included only because of the occurrence of the names Benjamin and Abraham, w h i c h w e r e u s e d b y C h r i s t i a n s as w e l l , a n d there is n o c o n t e x t s u g g e s t i n g J e w i s h n e s s ; cf. also A c h l 5 ) . R e f e r e n c e s to f a m o u s J e w s (vi) m a y also o c c u r in inscriptions that are n o n - J e w i s h , b u t it is r e a s o n a b l e a n d useful to i n c l u d e t h e m . R e f e r e n c e to S a m a r i t a n s (vii) is to b e w e l c o m e d as a criterion s i n c e there is n o c o r p u s o f S a m a r i t a n i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d there p r o b a b l y c o u l d n o t b e o n e since so often S a m a r i t a n inscriptions a r e i m p o s s i b l e to distinguish from J e w i s h o n e s ,

1 9

a n d for t h e s a k e o f c o m p l e t e n e s s they s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d . T h e p r o b l e m h e r e is, h o w e v e r , that quite often it is i m p o s s i b l e to tell a S a m a r i t a n from a ' S a m a r i a n , ' /'. e., a ( n o n - S a m a r i t a n ) n a t i v e from S a m a r i a (see further b e l o w ) . T h e inclusion o f inscribed S a m a r i t a n a m u l e t s is m o s t w e l c o m e (e. g. A c h 5 0 ) . T h a t s o m e n o n explicitly J e w i s h B o s p o r a n m a n u m i s s i o n inscriptions w e r e i n c l u d e d as well is r e a s o n a b l e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e lack o f c o m p l e t e certainty a b o u t their J e w i s h n e s s h a s to b e k e p t in m i n d .

18

Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 1 6 - 1 8 . See also the cautions by R.S. Kraemer, "Jewish Tuna and Christian Fish: Identifying Religious Affiliation in Epigraphic Sources," HTR 84 (1991) 141-162. See the discussion of this problem in my "Samaritans at Rome?" in my book Japheth in the Tents of Shem: Studies on Jewish Hellenism in Antiquity, Leuven 2 0 0 2 , 2 5 7 - 2 5 8 . On the absence of a corpus of Samaritan inscriptions see also my "The Samaritan Languages of the Pre-Islamic Period," ibid. 2 3 6 - 2 3 7 . 1 9

74

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

It is striking that, w h e r e a s N o y d e v o t e s less than o n e p a g e o f his Preface to the p r o b l e m o f t h e criteria for i n c l u s i o n ,

20

Walter A m e l i n g , t h e sole e d i t o r o f

IJudO

II ( A s i a M i n o r ) , d e v o t e s a c h a p t e r o f 14 p a g e s to it ( 8 - 2 1 ) . A m e l i n g b e g i n s w i t h a s u r v e y o f a n c i e n t d e b a t e s o v e r ' w h o is a J e w ? ' T h e e v e r shifting b o r d e r s o f J u d a i s m a c c o r d i n g to the different interpretations o f its v a r i o u s g r o u p s are a s o u r c e o f m u c h u n c e r t a i n t y in this matter. H e then first lists five criteria for J e w ­ i s h n e s s w h i c h identify an inscription certainly as J e w i s h : (i) T h e identification o f p e r s o n s as Ioudaioi;

A m e l i n g rightly rejects t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l ( p e r s o n from

J u d a e a ) a n d t h e o n o m a s t i c (Ioudaios tion o f J e w i s h realia,

as p r o p e r n a m e ) interpretation, (ii) M e n ­

such as J e w i s h feasts, their H o l y S c r i p t u r e s , s y n a g o g u e s ,

etc. H e r e , h o w e v e r , o n e s h o u l d n o t rule out the possibility that J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s c o u l d refer to the s a m e realia.

(iii) P r o v e n a n c e from u n q u e s t i o n a b l y

J e w i s h b u i l d i n g s such as s y n a g o g u e s or e x c l u s i v e l y J e w i s h c a t a c o m b s ( s u c h as B e t h S h e ' a r i m ) . (iv) O c c u r r e n c e o f J e w i s h s y m b o l s such as m e n o r a h , lulav, e t h r o g , shofar etc. A m e l i n g d o e s c o n c e d e , h o w e v e r , that s o m e t i m e s C h r i s t i a n s u s e d s o m e o f t h e s e s y m b o l s , (v) T h e u s e of H e b r e w , w h i c h w a s the s a c r e d l a n g u a g e o f n o n e b u t the J e w s . A s w e see, t w o o f t h e s e criteria a r e less than 1 0 0 % certain indicators of J e w i s h n e s s ,

21

so they m i g h t p e r h a p s better h a v e b e e n

i n c l u d e d in the f o l l o w i n g list, w h e r e A m e l i n g m e n t i o n s four a d d i t i o n a l criteria o f a m o r e d i s p u t e d n a t u r e , (vi) P r o p e r n a m e s are a h a r d - t o - u s e criterion, as is t h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' G o d f e a r e r s ' (theosebeis,

w h i c h c a n also m e a n ' p i o u s ' ) .

2 2

also rightly rejects the inclusion o f w o r s h i p p e r s o f t h e Theos Hypsistos, g r e a t t h e J e w i s h influence m a y h a v e b e e n in this c a s e .

2 3

Ameling however

(vii) Biblical a n d p o s t -

biblical J e w i s h e x p r e s s i o n s w h i c h m a y also h a v e b e e n u s e d b y n o n - J e w s , (viii) M a g i c a l f o r m u l a e , w h i c h often c o n t a i n m a n y J e w i s h e l e m e n t s b u t n e e d not b e o f J e w i s h o r i g i n for that r e a s o n ( A m e l i n g r e l e g a t e s the magika Finally (ix) t h e few S a m a r i t a n inscriptions, n o n - J e w i s h stricto

to a n A p p e n d i x ) . sensu,

b u t for­

t u n a t e l y i n c l u d e d b y A m e l i n g as w e l l . In g e n e r a l it s h o u l d b e said that N o y ' s ( a n d P a n a y o t o v ' s a n d B l o e d h o r n ' s ) s y s t e m o f n u m b e r i n g the i n s c r i p t i o n s b y p r o v i n c e ( P a n 1-5, A c h 1 - 7 5 , C r e 1-3) instead o f n u m b e r i n g t h e m t h r o u g h (as A m e l i n g d o e s for A s i a M i n o r , 1 - 2 5 8 ) , is u n f o r t u n a t e y e t c o n v e n i e n t : R e f e r r i n g to a J e w i s h inscription as IJudO

I A c h 52 is c u m b e r s o m e a n d u n w i e l d y , but, o n

the o t h e r h a n d , w h e n n e w m a t e r i a l c r o p s u p , it c a n m o r e easily b e inserted into the existent c o l l e c t i o n s b y n u m b e r i n g it in this w a y . All entries follow the s a m e 2 0

This is of course to avoid repetition of what he had already said in his previous volumes (JIGRE and JIWE 1+2), but there the discussions are very brief as well. Ameling calls them 'zweifelsfrei' (13), but that is an overstatement. But one might of course ask: why include Godfearers when they were not Jews but only pagan sympathizers with Judaism? A catalogue of the inscriptions pertaining to the cult of Theos Hypsistos is to be found in S. Mitchell, "The Cult of Theos Hypsistos Between Pagans, Jews, and Christians," in P. Athanassiadi & M. Frede (eds.), Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Oxford 1999, 8 1 - 1 4 8 , esp. 1 2 8 - 1 4 7 . 2 1

2 2

2 3

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

75

Orientis

format: E d i t i o n s are listed in c h r o n o l o g i c a l order, f o l l o w e d b y o t h e r b i b l i o g r a ­ p h y a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the p l a c e w h e r e t h e inscription w a s found, its p r e s e n t w h e r e a b o u t s , details o f the material (stone, m a r b l e , b r o n z e etc.) a n d the lettering, l a n g u a g e a n d d a t e . T h e n follows t h e text, w i t h critical a p p a r a t u s , a c c o m p a n i e d b y a translation; finally t h e r e are line b y line c o m m e n t s . M a n y entries contain d r a w i n g s or p h o t o s o f the i n s c r i p t i o n s . B r i e f historical i n f o r m a t i o n is p r o v i d e d on m a j o r sites a n d cities. A s far as t h e i n d i v i d u a l inscriptions are c o n c e r n e d , I h a v e to restrict m y s e l f to o n l y a few short o b s e r v a t i o n s on a v e r y limited n u m b e r o f t e x t s . P a n l + 2

2 4

(from

H u n g a r i a ) a n d D a l 2 are g o o d e x a m p l e s o f t h e interesting p h e n o m e n o n o f a m i x ­ ture o f Latin a n d G r e e k (with the Latin w r i t t e n partly in G r e e k letters) that w e see m o r e often in J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s ( w e also find H e b r e w i n s c r i p t i o n s in G r e e k 25

l e t t e r s ) . It is interesting that in P a n 2 w e find a h u m a n i m a g e o n the t o m b s t o n e to w h i c h later on, secondarily, t h e J e w i s h e p i t a p h s w e r e a d d e d a n d a p p a r e n t l y the p r e s e n c e o f h u m a n i m a g e s w a s not felt to b e a p r o b l e m (4th cent. C E ) . D a l 4 is d e s c r i b e d as a n e p i t a p h o f a S a m a r i t a n , b u t the s t o n e h a s o n l y [....]reitissa, w h i c h is read as Samareitissa.

N o t o n l y is that r e a d i n g u n c e r t a i n , there is also

n o t h i n g that identifies t h e d e c e a s e d w o m a n as a S a m a r i t a n , e v e n t h o u g h the editors c l a i m that there is " n o t h i n g i n c o n s i s t e n t with h e r b e i n g a S a m a r i t a n b y r e l i g i o n " ( 2 8 ) . T h e r e is, m o r e o v e r , n o o t h e r e v i d e n c e o f S a m a r i t a n p r e s e n c e in Y u g o s l a v i a ( a l t h o u g h it c a n n o t b e ruled o u t a l t o g e t h e r ) . A n c i e n t t e r m i n o l o g y for ' S a m a r i a n s , ' n a t i v e s o f S a m a r i a ( w h e t h e r J e w s or C h r i s t i a n s or G r e e k s or P h o e n i c i a n s ) , is not differentiated from that for S a m a r i t a n s b y religion ( C 7 V 5 1 3 Samaritai

ten threskeian

[ S a m a r i t a n s b y faith] is the o n l y e x c e p t i o n ) .

26

S o , for

i n s t a n c e , in t h e c a s e o f A c h 3 5 , the e p i t a p h o f A m m i a S a m a r i t i s , the editors h a v e to c o n c e d e that "it is not clear w h e t h e r A m m i a w a s a S a m a r i t a n by religion or a n a t i v e o f S a m a r i a " ( 1 6 0 ) ; a n d the s a m e a p p l i e s to A c h 3 6 - 3 7 , 41 (all are from A t h e n s ) . In the d i s c u s s i o n o f M a c 1, t h e f a m o u s P o l y c h a r m u s inscription from the s y n a g o g u e at Stobi, w e learn that in r e c e n t y e a r s m o r e inscriptions h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d at the site, w h i c h will b e p u b l i s h e d b y J a m e s W i s e m a n . I find it v e r y r e g r e t t a b l e that t h e s e n e w inscriptions c o u l d not b e i n c l u d e d in

IJudO.

T w o fascinating a n d r e c e n t l y found M a c e d o n i a n e p i t a p h s from t h e 4th c e n t u r y C E (Mac8 and M a c 9 ) mention a "Theodosios the Hebrew,

mellopresbyteros,

t h r e e y e a r s old ( ? ) " a n d a " G e r a s (or: an old m a n ) , m o s t r e n o w n e d in h y m n s o f the H e b r e w s . " L e a v i n g a s i d e the fact that it r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h y Hebraios

2 4

is

Panl means the first inscription in the section on Pannonia. Dal stands for Dalmatia, Cre for Crete, B S for Black Sea area, Ach for Greece (mainland and islands) etc. See my Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 3 2 - 3 4 . See my "The Samaritan Diaspora in Antiquity," in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Freiburg-Gottingen 1990, 137. 2 5

2 6

76

Inscriptiones

preferred here (and e l s e w h e r e )

27

Judaicae

to Ioudaios,

h e r e the first attestation o f mellopresbyteros,

Orientis

it s h o u l d b e n o t i c e d that w e h a v e ' p r e s b y t e r - t o - b e , ' a p e r s o n w h o is

g o i n g to h o l d t h e office o f Elder. If the r e a d i n g trietou

is correct, the d e s i g n a t e d

p r e s b y t e r w a s o n l y three y e a r s old so that w e h a v e a n i c e parallel to t h e larchon

2 8

b o t h from R o m e . 1 d i s a g r e e w i t h the e d i t o r s ' interpretation o f hymnois,

mel-

o f 2 y e a r s (JIWE II 100) a n d the 8-years-old child archon (JIWE II 2 8 8 ) , propherestatos

w h i c h t h e y t a k e to m e a n that " t h e d e c e a s e d p e r s o n w a s p r a i s e d ( i . e .

c o m m e m o r a t e d ) in h y m n s " ( 8 5 ) . ' M o s t e x c e l l e n t in h y m n s ' certainly m u s t m e a n h e r e that the d e c e a s e d w a s an e x c e p t i o n a l l y a b l e cantor

in the s y n a g o g u e

s e r v i c e s . T h e c o u n t e r - a r g u m e n t s a d d u c e d are u n c o n v i n c i n g (see IJudO P e e k , GV642

I 85;

is n o parallel). C o u l d ' h y m n s o f t h e H e b r e w s ' p e r h a p s i m p l y the

( u n l i k e l y ) possibility that G e r a s c o n d u c t e d the liturgy in H e b r e w ? Interesting is also the n e w c a s e o f a J e w i s h scholastikos,

a l a w y e r or r h e t o ­

rician, a n d e v i d e n c e for i n t e r m a r r i a g e , b o t h from L a r i s s a ( A c h 5 a n d A c h 6 ) , w h e r e w e also find the c u r i o u s g r o u p o f ' f a r e w e l l - t o - t h e - p e o p l e ' i n s c r i p t i o n s (toi laoi chairein,

A c h 1-4, 8 - 1 4 ) . Q u i t e e x t r a o r d i n a r y too is the m a n u m i s s i o n

inscription A c h 4 5 from O r o p o s , in w h i c h the (to-be-freed) slave M o s c h u s calls h i m s e l f a J e w b u t at the s a m e t i m e states that in a d r e a m the G r e e k h e a l i n g g o d s A m p h i a r a u s a n d H y g i e i a a p p e a r e d to h i m a n d c o m m a n d e d h i m to set u p a stele by t h e altar, w h i c h h e o b e d i e n t l y did. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f A c h 5 8 (from A e g i n a ) o b s c u r e s t h e fact that t h e d o n o r h e r e s p e a k s in t h e first p e r s o n (not " T h e o d o r u s b u i l t . . . " but "I, Theodorus, b u i l t . . . " ) .

2 9

In t h e c h a p t e r o n D e l o s , the five T h e o s

H y p s i s t o s inscriptions found in w h a t is often a s s u m e d to b e the local s y n a g o g u e h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d as A c h 6 0 - 6 4 , a q u e s t i o n a b l e d e c i s i o n since n e i t h e r the p r e ­ cise n a t u r e o f t h e b u i l d i n g n o r the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n J u d a i s m a n d t h e cult o f T h e o s H y p s i s t o s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h a n y certainty, h o w e v e r m u c h ink h a s b e e n spilt o v e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . W h e t h e r the d e d i c a t o r s w e r e J e w s or not r e m a i n s an o p e n q u e s t i o n , as t h e editors t h e m s e l v e s c o n c e d e ( 2 2 7 ) . T h e s e (and other) i n s c r i p t i o n s m i g h t better h a v e b e e n r e l e g a t e d to a n A p p e n d i x w i t h dubia.

In this

s a m e chapter, a g a i n , the t w o v e r y i m p o r t a n t S a m a r i t a n inscriptions from D e l o s are dealt w i t h at length ( A c h 6 6 - 6 7 ) , b u t A c h 6 8 on t h e S a m a r i a n i m m i g r a n t (Praulos

Samareus)

w h o c o n t r i b u t e d to the t e m p l e o f S a r a p i s o n D e l o s s h o u l d

h a v e b e e n e x c l u d e d ; there is n o t h i n g J e w i s h or e v e n S a m a r i t a n a b o u t this m a n (as the e d i t o r s t h e m s e l v e s c o n c e d e at p . 2 3 4 ) . F a s c i n a t i n g are t w o n e w i n s c r i p ­ tions (with menoroth) 2 7

from G r a m m a t a B a y at t h e island o f S y r o s , o n e w i t h a

Sec G. Harvey, "Synagogues o f the Hebrews: Good Jews in the Diaspora," in S. Jones & S. Pearce (eds.), Jewish Local Patriotism and Self-Identification in the Graeco-Roman period, Sheffield 1998, 1 3 2 - 1 4 7 , w h o collects the epigraphic evidence and concludes that the term Hebrew "consistently carries associations with piety, traditionalism and conservatism" (145). See also IJudO III 113-114. For more instances and discussion of this phenomenon see my Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 89-90. One finds the same error in IJudO 140 (nr. 27). 2 8

2 9

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

11

Orientis

p r a y e r for a safe sea v o y a g e for " E u n o m i o s a n d all his c r e w " ( A c h 7 2 ) , t h e o t h e r w i t h t h a n k s g i v i n g s after a safe return ( A c h 7 3 ) . C r e 2 , an e p i t a p h J o s e p h m a d e for his wife B e r e n i k e , is a n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d C r e t a n inscription that s h o u l d n o w b e 3 0

a d d e d to the d o s s i e r I p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 8 8 . 1 w o n d e r w h y the inscription in Inscr. Cret. IV 5 0 9 , m e n t i o n i n g a M o s e s (5th cent. C E ) , w h i c h in itself c o u l d o f c o u r s e b e C h r i s t i a n , is r e l e g a t e d to t h e a p p e n d i x w i t h n o n - J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s , in v i e w o f the fact that t h e n a m e o f M o s e s is n o w k n o w n to h a v e b e e n less r a r e a m o n g a n c i e n t J e w s t h a n h a s l o n g b e e n a s s u m e d (see, e. g., A c h 3 0 , in spite o f IJudO p . 1 5 3 ; also IJudO

II 2 4 0 from C o r y c o s ) .

31

I,

A l s o Inscr. Cret. II 8 a n d others w i t h

n a m e s such as S a n b a t h i s , O b a d i a etc. m i g h t h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d here a n d then relegated to the c a t e g o r y dubia.

T h e y m a y all b e C h r i s t i a n b u t w e s i m p l y d o

n o t k n o w for sure. In o t h e r c a s e s t h e editors d o retain s u c h d u b i o u s c a s e s in the m a i n c o r p u s , b u t t h e s e h a v e b e e n put into the c a t e g o r y ' n o t c o n s i d e r e d J e w i s h ' (see A p p 2 0 - 2 1 ) . T h e section o n t h e N o r t h c o a s t o f the B l a c k S e a [BS] c o n t a i n s 2 8 i t e m s , m a n y o f t h e m m a n u m i s s i o n i n s c r i p t i o n s from the B o s p o r a n k i n g d o m , 16 o f w h i c h h a d also b e e n p u b l i s h e d in 1999 b y G i b s o n .

3 2

In legal form, t h e s e are entirely G r e e k

( w i t h c l o s e parallels in the p a g a n m a n u m i s s i o n inscriptions from D e l p h i ) . T h e s e often b a d l y d a m a g e d i n s c r i p t i o n s w i t h their m a n y interpretative p r o b l e m s

3 3

are

d i s c u s s e d in rather great detail, a n d c o m p e t e n t l y , b y N o y . In B S 1 6 w e find the spelling chithe (xi-Or)) for keitai (xeixai), a variant (with all four letters w r o n g ) that c a n n o w b e a d d e d to the 19 (!) different s p e l l i n g s o f that w o r d I listed in 1 9 9 1 .

3 4

M o s t interesting a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l is B S 2 0 , an inscription w i t h t h e m a n u m i s s i o n o f t h e female slave C h r y s a in 41 C E , w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h an i n v o c a t i o n o f T h e o s H y p s i s t o s , t h e n m e n t i o n s t h e m a n u m i s s i o n in the s y n a g o g u e (proseuche),

and

c o n c l u d e s w i t h an i n v o c a t i o n o f Z e u s , G e , a n d H e l i o s as o v e r s e e r s o f the a g r e e ­ m e n t . N o y s u m s u p t h e d e b a t e as follows: " T h e m o s t likely e x p l a n a t i o n is that, a l t h o u g h the m a n u m i s s i o n t o o k p l a c e in the p r a y e r - h o u s e , the f r e e d w o m a n w a s not p u t u n d e r an o b l i g a t i o n to it in the w a y that o t h e r e x - s l a v e s w e r e ; t h e p r o t e c ­ tion o f p a g a n g o d s is therefore for her benefit a n d irrelevant to t h e J e w i s h n e s s o f t h e m a n u m i t t o r " ( 3 0 7 ) . A r e m a r k a b l y latitudinarian v i e w o f r e l i g i o u s loyalty is u n d e n i a b l e in this i n s c r i p t i o n .

3 0

35

T h e r e are t w o A p p e n d i c e s , o n e c o n t a i n i n g

"The Jews of Ancient Crete," JJS 39 (1988) 1 8 3 - 2 0 0 , reprinted in my Essays on the World 1 4 8 - 1 6 5 [in abbreviated form also elsewhere in this volume]. See T. Derda, "Did the Jews Use the Name of Moses in Antiquity?," ZPE 115 (1997) 2 5 7 - 2 6 0 ; convincingly against Derda now M. Williams, "Jewish U s e o f M o s e s as a Personal Name in Antiquity," ZPE 118 (1997) 274, and idem, "The case for Jewish U s e o f Moses as a Personal Name in Graeco-Roman Antiquity," ZPE 140 (2002) 2 7 9 - 2 8 3 . See note 13. A m o n g which the famous 'exception clause,' choris thopeias kaiproskartereseds. Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 26 note 2 1 . Note that in A c h 4 4 from Delphi the slave-owner Ioudaios took part in a fictitious sale to Apollo.

Jewish 3 1

3 2

3 3

3 4

3 5

78

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

p r o b a b l y m e d i e v a l inscriptions (all b u t o n e in H e b r e w ) , the o t h e r w i t h t w o d o z e n or so inscriptions n o t c o n s i d e r e d J e w i s h ( h e r e w e also find t h e t w o C r e t a n e p i t a p h s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ) . A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n said, I w o u l d h a v e w e l c o m e d a n o t h e r A p p e n d i x w i t h the dubia. After t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y a n d c o n c o r d a n c e (with CIJ),

v o l . I c o n c l u d e s w i t h v e r y useful i n d e x e s g i v i n g detailed information

a b o u t t h e t y p e s o f inscription, the l a n g u a g e s , p r o v e n a n c e , n a m e s , i n d i c a t i o n s o f a g e at d e a t h , v o c a b u l a r y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e p i t h e t s , o c c u p a t i o n s , p l a c e - n a m e s a n d e t h n i c s , t e r m s i n d i c a t i n g J e w s etc., p r a y e r s a n d b l e s s i n g s , c u r s e s , biblical q u o t a t i o n s , d a t e s , s y m b o l s , t e r m s for t o m b s et multa cetera.

The value of these

indexes can hardly be exaggerated. I n o w p r o c e e d to vol. I l l , Syria a n d C y p r u s , e d i t e d as w e l l b y N o y a n d B l o e d ­ h o r n , leaving A m e l i n g ' s v o l u m e to b e r e v i e w e d after the t w o N o y v o l u m e s . Syria ( i n c l u d i n g P h o e n i c i a ) t a k e s u p the b u l k o f this v o l u m e w i t h its m o r e t h a n 130 i n s c r i p t i o n s , a b o u t t w i c e as m a n y as CIJ h a d .

3 6

T h e collection o f the texts a n d

b i b l i o g r a p h i e s w a s d o n e b y B l o e d h o r n ; N o y w r o t e the e x e g e t i c a l c o m m e n t a r i e s . C y p r u s y i e l d s 8 inscriptions. In m y f o r t h c o m i n g s t u d y o f the J e w s o n a n c i e n t 3 7

C y p r u s 1 deal w i t h o n l y 6, the difference r e s i d i n g m a i n l y in t h e fact that

IJudO

i n c l u d e s t h r e e P h o e n i c i a n inscriptions from as early as t h e 4th c e n t u r y B C E ( C y p 6 - 8 ) w h i c h s e e m to c o n t a i n Yahwistic n a m e s . I d i s a g r e e w i t h the r e m a r k that " J e w s are unlikely to h a v e built s y n a g o g u e s in C y p r u s before the 3rd c e n t u r y C E " ( 2 2 0 ) , s i n c e A c t s 13:5 testifies that in S a l a m i s , the m a i n city on t h e east c o a s t o f the island, there w e r e several s y n a g o g u e s as early as t h e m i d d l e o f t h e first c e n t u r y C E . M o s t interesting is C y p 3 ( 4 t h - 5 t h cent.) w h e r e w e find a u n i q u e u s e o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n he hebraike munity. A s to S y r i a ,

38

for either the s y n a g o g u e b u i l d i n g or the c o m ­

the editors are t o o o p t i m i s t i c a b o u t S a m a r i t a n p r e s e n c e in

Tyre. S u c h a p r e s e n c e is in a n d o f itself quite p o s s i b l e , e v e n p r o b a b l e , b u t t w o inscriptions m e n t i o n i n g Samaritai

( S y r 3 , 11) w i t h o u t g i v i n g u s a n y clue w h e t h e r

t h e s e w e r e S a m a r i a n s or S a m a r i t a n s d o n o t p r o v e a n y t h i n g o f t h e sort; n e i t h e r d o e s an a m u l e t in S a m a r i t a n H e b r e w ( S y r 6 ) since S a m a r i t a n a m u l e t s w e r e often b o u g h t a n d u s e d b y n o n - S a m a r i t a n s , i n c l u d i n g C h r i s t i a n s ( S y r 6 c o m e s from a t o m b in the Christian n e c r o p o l i s ) . Interpreting these three inscriptions in the light o f e a c h o t h e r is u n w a r r a n t e d from a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view. E v e n so, w e h a v e to w e l c o m e the inclusion o f this material. A n o t h e r helpful feature is the sys­ t e m a t i c inclusion o f inscriptions from e l s e w h e r e p e r t a i n i n g to J e w s o f a certain p l a c e in Syria. H e r e , for instance, the e p i t a p h s for Tyrian J e w s b u r i e d in B e t h

3 6

This progress is o f course mainly due to the big strides taken in the project Inscriptions grecques et latines de la Syrie ( 1 9 2 9 - . . . . ) . Zutot 2003 (Perspectives on Jewish Culture 3), Dordrecht 2 0 0 4 [now also elsewhere in this volume]. The inscriptions of Syrian Jewry have recently also been collected by Lea Roth-Gerson in her book The Jews of Syria in the Light of the Greek Inscriptions, Jerusalem 2001 [in Hebrew, non vidi]. 37

3 8

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

79

Orientis

S h e ' a r i m a n d J e r u s a l e m ( S y r 5 - 8 ) h a v e b e e n included (cf. S y r l 7 - 1 9 , 2 5 - 2 6 , 3 2 , 5 1 - 5 2 : p e o p l e from S i d o n , Beirut, B y b l o s , a n d P a l m y r a w h o s e e p i t a p h s w e r e found in B e t h S h e ' a r i m ) . F a s c i n a t i n g is t h e n e w inscription from the circus o f Tyre ( S y r 10), from the section r e s e r v e d for t h e faction o f t h e B l u e s , indicating the seat for a J e w i s h w o m a n , M a t r o n a t h e purple-fisher. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f the b a c k g r o u n d o f this v a r i o u s l y attested c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n J e w s a n d B l u e s I h a v e to refer the r e a d e r to m y r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d s t u d y o f that s u b j e c t .

39

It is v e r y

helpful to h a v e p u t t o g e t h e r h e r e all o f the t w e n t y G r e e k d o n o r inscriptions from t h e s y n a g o g u e o f A p a m e a w i t h a g o o d c o m m e n t a r y ( S y r 5 3 - 7 2 ) , s i n c e they yield v a l u a b l e information a b o u t the social situation o f the J e w s in that city in t h e t i m e that J o h n C h r y s o s t o m d e l i v e r e d his n o t o r i o u s l y a n t i - J e w i s h s e r m o n s in S y r i a n Antioch. hazzan

40

S y r 5 8 is interesting in that it m e n t i o n s an azzana

or s e r v a n t (not yet c a n t o r ! )

41

(in G r e e k letters), a

o f the s y n a g o g u e called N e h e m i a , b y w h o s e

t e r m o f office t h e d o n a t i o n a n d inscription are dated, w h i c h is h i g h l y u n u s u a l . It is a m a z i n g a n d instructive to see h o w m a n y w o m e n there are a m o n g the d o n o r s to this rich s y n a g o g u e ( S y r 6 1 - 7 1 e x c e p t S y r 7 0 ) . T h e r e are s o m e fifty J e w i s h inscriptions from D u r a - E u r o p o s , the city on the b o r d e r w i t h the P e r s i a n E m p i r e that h a d an e x c e p t i o n a l l y d e c o r a t e d s y n a g o g u e w i t h f a m o u s w a l l p a i n t i n g s from the m i d d l e of t h e 3rd c e n t u r y C E . T h e s e in­ scriptions are in G r e e k , H e b r e w , a n d A r a m a i c , b u t there are a l s o s o m e t w e n t y in M i d d l e P e r s i a n . M o s t o f t h e inscriptions a n d graffiti d e r i v e from the a n c i e n t s y n a g o g u e . T h e Iranian inscriptions are all o f t h e m dipinti w r i t t e n o n the w a l l p a i n t i n g s o f this s y n a g o g u e .

42

T h e y are an e n i g m a t i c g r o u p , e s p e c i a l l y b e c a u s e

they are c o n c e n t r a t e d on t w o o f the m a n y p a n e l s o f the p a i n t i n g s ; the rest are in A r a m a i c . T h e A r a m a i c graffiti briefly e x p l a i n the p a i n t e d s c e n e s , b u t the P e r s i a n o n e s u s u a l l y d o not, t h e y r a t h e r look like graffiti i n s c r i b e d b y visitors (only P e r s i a n n a m e s are m e n t i o n e d ) , a l t h o u g h there a r e s o m e b r i e f r e m a r k s on the p a i n t i n g s (e. g., N a n d N " l i k e d this p i c t u r e " ) . W e r e the scribblers p a g a n Persian tourists w h o c a m e to see t h e frescoes b e c a u s e of their g r e a t r e p u t a t i o n ? O r w e r e they Iranian J e w s w h o h a d a b s o r b e d m u c h o f Persian culture ( e v e n to the p o i n t o f m e n t i o n i n g ' g o d s ' in the plural ( S y r l 2 1 , 1 2 4 - 5 ) ? O r w e r e they Persian ' G o d f e a r ­ e r s ' ( p a g a n s y m p a t h i z e r s w i t h J u d a i s m ) ? A r e the graffiti s i g n s o f the t e m p o r a r y

3 9

"Jews and Blues in Late Antiquity," in D. Accorinti & P. Chuvin (edd.), Des Geants a Dionysos. Melanges de mythologie et de poesie grecques offerts a Francis Vian, Alessandria 2003, 5 6 5 - 5 7 2 [elsewhere in this volume]. See my "Jews and Christians in Antioch at the End o f the Fourth Century," in my Japheth in the Tents of Shem 109-118. Epiphanius, Panarion 30.11 explains that azanitai is the term used by Jews for diakonoi and in the inscription Syr58 azzana is explained as diakonos. The Persian graffiti are presented according to the reconstructions by Geiger but the editors unfortunately fail to mention any publication by Geiger in their bibliography. It is: B. Geiger, 'The Middle Iranian Texts,' in C.H. Kraeling, The Excavations at Dura-Europos VIII, 1: The Synagogue, N e w Haven 1956, 2 8 3 - 3 1 7 . 4 0

4 1

4 2

80

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

o c c u p a t i o n o f D u r a in 2 5 3 C E (all of t h e m d a t e from this y e a r ) , shortly before the P e r s i a n s c o n q u e r e d a n d d e s t r o y e d the city in 2 5 6 ? A n d there are m a n y m o r e q u e s t i o n s , to w h i c h w e s i m p l y d o not k n o w t h e a n s w e r s . I, for o n e , g u e s s that t h e possibility t h a t t h e s e graffiti are J e w i s h is s m a l l . E v e n s o , it is v e r y g o o d to h a v e all t h e D u r a material g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r in this v o l u m e . T h e r e are t h r e e A p p e n d i c e s : o n e w i t h the J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s in P a l m y r e n e A r a m a i c from the L a n d o f Israel, all o f t h e m e p i t a p h s o f P a l m y r e n e J e w s b u r i e d in B e t h S h e ' a r i m a n d in J e r u s a l e m ; o n e w i t h J e w i s h inscriptions w r o n g l y related to S y r i a ( m a i n l y t h e J e r u s a l e m inscription w i t h t h e w o r d Beroutos, c o n s i d e r e d to m e a n not ' f r o m B e i r u t ' b u t ' [ s o n ] o f B e r o u s ' ) ;

4 3

w h i c h is n o w

a n d o n e w i t h 16

i n s c r i p t i o n s not c o n s i d e r e d J e w i s h a n y m o r e . A s a m a t t e r of fact, m o s t i n s c r i p ­ t i o n s in t h e latter c a t e g o r y s h o u l d b e classified as dubia,

a n d m o r e c a s e s in this

v o l u m e c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d . T h e u s u a l a n d useful i n d e x e s follow, w i t h slight a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s . V o l u m e II o f IJudO

c o v e r s A s i a M i n o r a n d is t h e o n l y o f the t h r e e v o l u m e s

that is t h e p r o d u c t o f the efforts o f a single scholar, Walter A m e l i n g (professor o f A n c i e n t H i s t o r y in J e n a ) . M o r e o v e r , it is b y far the m o s t v o l u m i n o u s o f t h e three w i t h its 6 5 0 p a g e s . It is a w o r k that d e s e r v e s to b e h i g h l y p r a i s e d for its c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s a n d the j u d i c i o u s n a t u r e o f its c o m m e n t a r i e s . B e c a u s e origi­ nally A m e l i n g ' s enterprise h a d a n i n d e p e n d e n t start, u n r e l a t e d to N o y ' s project, the format is s o m e w h a t different. T h e o t h e r v o l u m e s h a v e short i n t r o d u c t i o n s to t h e m a j o r sites w h e r e inscriptions w e r e found, b u t n o t a g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n , w h e r e a s A m e l i n g h a s a useful 3 6 - p a g e i n t r o d u c t i o n o n t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f J e w ­ ish d i a s p o r a in antiquity ( a n d there are also i n t r o d u c t i o n s to the individual sites). H i s b o o k c o n t a i n s - unfortunately - n o c u m u l a t i v e b i b l i o g r a p h y at the e n d

4 4

and,

regrettably, also n o m a p o f A s i a M i n o r w i t h the r e l e v a n t p l a c e s indicated; a n d the i n d e x e s are a r r a n g e d in a rather different w a y a n d are u n f o r t u n a t e l y less useful t h a n t h o s e in t h e other v o l u m e s (no i n d e x o f biblical q u o t a t i o n s , o f r e l i g i o u s ter­ m i n o l o g y , o f funerary f o r m u l a e etc.). A s detailed a n d e l a b o r a t e d as t h e table o f c o n t e n t s is, so is t h e table o f a b b r e v i a t i o n s short a n d defective: e. g., for E n g l i s h r e a d e r s it m a y b e h a r d to find out that F O is ' F u n d o r t ' a n d A O is ' A u f b e w a h r u n g sort,' self-evident t h o u g h that m a y b e for a G e r m a n classical e p i g r a p h i s t ; t o o m a n y a b b r e v i a t i o n s r e m a i n u n e x p l a i n e d so that t h e r e a d e r h a s to b e referred to o t h e r ' A b k i i r z u n g s v e r z e i c h n i s s e . ' It w a s , h o w e v e r , a v e r y fortunate i d e a to offer t h e r e a d e r a c o m p l e t e list o f all a n c i e n t literary r e f e r e n c e s to J e w s a n d J u d a i s m in A s i a M i n o r (see A p p e n d i x I; cf. also p p . 3 2 - 3 6 ) , w h i c h are m o s t l y q u o t e d in

4 3

This is one of the group of epitaphs from the so-called 'Eros family' (4 persons are called Erotas), to which one may compare the name Venus, the daughter of rabbi Abundantius from Naples (JIWE I 36). Not many theologians or Judaic scholars will know, e. g., what is meant by "die Handbucher von Zgusta" (23), and Ameling does not make it easy to find that out (since KPN is nowhere 'aufgeschlusselt'!; it is: Kleinasiatische Personennamen). 4 4

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

81

the original l a n g u a g e in t h e n o t e s to the m a i n text. In the i n t r o d u c t i o n , A m e l i n g e x p l a i n s that h e i n c l u d e d t h e inscriptions o f the islands C h i o s , S a m o s , K o s , a n d R h o d o s since from an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o i n t o f v i e w t h e s e islands before the West c o a s t o f A s i a M i n o r often f o r m e d part o f the p r o v i n c e o f A s i a (the other A e g e a n islands w e r e c o v e r e d in IJudO

I, C y p r u s in IJudO

II).

It is inevitable that in t h e c o m m e n t a r i e s o n the individual inscriptions there is a lot o f o v e r l a p w i t h the t w o o t h e r v o l u m e s as r e g a r d s the details: A g a i n the archisynagogos

a n d t h e p r e s b y t e r o i (etc.) are d i s c u s s e d at length; a g a i n the s a m e

p e r s o n a l n a m e s are dealt w i t h ; a g a i n the s a m e d e v i a t i o n s from t h e s t a n d a r d g r a m m a r are e x p l a i n e d etc. B u t that is not s o m e t h i n g to b e regretted, on the contrary, s o m e t i m e s o n e finds h e r e different a p p r o a c h e s to t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n s a n d e v e n additional i n f o r m a t i o n that s h e d s extra light o n a p r o b l e m a n d creates n e w insights. T h a t c a n be s e e n v e r y clearly in the section on T h r a c e b e c a u s e this p r o v i n c e is c o v e r e d in b o t h IJudO

I a n d in IJudO

S i n c e the m u c h d e b a t e d t e r m presbytera

II ( T h r 3 = 1 2 a n d T h r 4 = 1 3 ) .

4 5

(female elder) o c c u r s in the first of these

i n s c r i p t i o n s , o n e c a n c o m p a r e the r e s p e c t i v e c o m m e n t a r i e s , a n d A m e l i n g h a s a better d o c u m e n t e d c a s e h e r e than N o y c.s., as is also the c a s e w i t h the c o m m e n t s o n the eulogia

pasin

formula. B u t N o y is s t r o n g e r in J e w i s h o n o m a s t i c s . A v e r y

telling n e w inscription, from t h e little island of Icaria, is 5a: "It is i m p o s s i b l e that y o u will e v e r h e a r the truth from J e w s o f Icaria." T h i s 5th or 6th c e n t u r y inscription w a s found in t h e local c h u r c h ! Nr. 11, from R h o d e s , is entitled ' E i n M a n n a u s S a m a r i a ' b y A m e l i n g , a n d in his translation the m a n is a ' S a m a r i t e r ' (not: ' S a m a r i t a n e r ' ) , w i s e l y (see a b o v e ) ; all the m o r e s u r p r i s i n g is it that at nr. 2 4 (Sikimitai

in K a u n o s ) h e s e e m s to m i x up S a m a r i t a n s a n d S a m a r i a n s .

A s w a s to b e e x p e c t e d , t h e b i g g e s t c h a p t e r s in the b o o k are t h o s e d e a l i n g w i t h A p h r o d i s i a s ( 7 0 - 1 2 3 ) a n d Sardis ( 2 0 9 - 2 9 7 ) . T h e f a m o u s d o n o r inscription from A p h r o d i s i a s , w h i c h is o n e o f the m o s t r e v e a l i n g e p i g r a p h i c finds o f a r e c e n t date,

4 6

is dealt w i t h at g r e a t length a n d in d e p t h . A m e l i n g a r g u e s that the text

o n side A is u n r e l a t e d to that o n side B a n d that the inscriptions s h o u l d n o t b e d a t e d in the early 3rd c e n t u r y C E b u t in t h e late 4th or 5th. H e initially leaves u n e x p l a i n e d , h o w e v e r , w h y , if A a n d B h a v e n o t h i n g to d o w i t h e a c h other, b o t h texts are on the s a m e s t o n e , b u t later on h e a d d s the o b s e r v a t i o n that " d i e in B g e n a n n t e n Stifter lieBen ein mnema

e r b a u e n , d a s n a c h einiger Z e i t - a u s w e l c h e n

G r i i n d e n a u c h i m m e r - e r n e u e r u n g s b e d u r f t i g w a r " ( 9 0 ) . In c o n t r a s t to R e y n o l d s a n d T a n n e n b a u m , A m e l i n g t a k e s mnema

( A 8) to h a v e its u s u a l m e a n i n g o f

' t o m b ' (not ' m o n u m e n t ' or ' m e m o r i a l b u i l d i n g ' ) a n d s a y s the inscription is

4 5

This doublet is caused by the fact that initially the projects of N o y and his team and of Ameling were independent from each other. J. Reynolds & R. Tannenbaum, Jews and Godfearers at Aphrodisias, Cambridge 1987. For its significance see, e. g., my "Jews and Christians in Aphrodisias" in Essays on the Jewish World 166-181 (Ameling overlooks this study at 82 n. 50). 4 6

82

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

a b o u t t h e f o u n d a t i o n of a collective burial p l a c e for p o o r J e w s a s o u p - k i t c h e n ) ; t h e dekania

in A 3 is not a minyan

T h e r i d d l e s o m e patellado[s]

4 7

(and not a b o u t

b u t a funeral a s s o c i a t i o n .

in A 1 is interpreted as the g e n i t i v e o f

48

patellas

( T m b i B i n h a b e r ' ) , a w o r d o n l y v e r y r e c e n t l y attested for t h e first t i m e , a n d d i s r e ­ g a r d e d as irrelevant for t h e interpretation o f t h e inscription as a w h o l e since it is a n a d d i t i o n b y a later h a n d . O f t h e h a p a x l e g o m e n o n apenthesia

( A 6) A m e l i n g

o n l y s a y s that " d e s s e n Sinn klar ist" (89) a n d h e t r a n s l a t e s it b y ' B e f r e i u n g v o n T r a u e r ' ( 7 5 ) , b u t it is n o t i m m e d i a t e l y ' k l a r ' h o w t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a c o l l e c ­ tive burial site s e r v e s to further ' B e f r e i u n g v o n T r a u e r . ' A l s o less t h a n clear is A m e l i n g ' s r e m a r k o n the n a m e Prounikios, " D e r N a m e paBt z u e i n e m gnapheus'"

a cloth refiner (or fuller,

(111). Prounikos

gnapheus):

often h a s the m e a n i n g o f

' l e w d , ' b u t did cloth refiners really h a v e a r e p u t a t i o n o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y r a n d i n e s s ? B e that as it m a y , it s h o u l d b e said that A m e l i n g b r i n g s forward valid r e a s o n s to differ from R e y n o l d s ' a n d T a n n e n b a u m ' s interpretation o f this inscription. It is also interesting to see h o w he takes issue w i t h C h a r l o t t e R o u e c h e ' s interpretation o f the J e w s - B l u e s c o n n e c t i o n in A p h r o d i s i a s a n d e l s e w h e r e ( f o l l o w e d b y m e in the F S V i a n ) .

4 9

T h e five i n s c r i p t i o n s from E p h e s u s are d i s a p p o i n t i n g l y few in n u m b e r in v i e w o f t h e e n o r m o u s scale o f the e x c a v a t i o n s o f this city a n d the m a n y literary d a t a a b o u t t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y t h e r e . Interesting h e r e are the t w o e p i t a p h s e n d i n g w i t h t h e w o r d s , " T h e J e w s will t a k e c a r e of this t o m b " ( 3 2 , 3 3 ) , a n d t h e C h r i s ­ tian inscription in w h i c h a local b i s h o p s n e e r s at the " J e w i s h love o f m o n e y " {philargyria

Ioudal'ke,

3 5 ) . It is not clear to m e w h y ad nr. 3 6 , w h i c h states that

" T a t i o n d o n a t e d h e r h o u s e to the J e w s " a n d w a s for that r e a s o n h o n o u r e d b y the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y w i t h a g o l d e n w r e a t h , A m e l i n g a s s u m e s that Tation h e r s e l f w a s J e w i s h r a t h e r than an o u t s i d e r (see 165 n o t e 7 4 ) . F r o m M i l e t u s w e h a v e t h e w e l l - k n o w n t h e a t e r seat inscription, " P l a c e o f the J e w s w h o are also (called) G o d - f e a r e r s " (nr. 3 7 ) . A m e l i n g h e r e p l e a d s against the often d e f e n d e d m e t a t h e s i s o f ton kai into kai ton (place o f the J e w s a n d t h e G o d f e a r e r s ) a n d a r g u e s t h a t theosebioi

is an h o n o r a r y adjective a p p l i e d b y the J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f M i l e t u s

to itself, a likely interpretation that is, h o w e v e r , n o t likely to e n d the d e b a t e . T h e e n i g m a t i c d e s i g n a t i o n hoi pote Ioudaioi

in nr. 4 0 from S m y r n a ( ' d i e v o r m a l i -

g e n J u d e n ' or ' d i e v o r m a l i g e n B e w o h n e r I u d a e a s ' etc.) r e m a i n s a n u n s o l v e d p r o b l e m ; A m e l i n g : non liquet.

A special c a s e is nr. 4 1 , a n o w lost inscription

from S m y r n a , w h i c h w a s found a n d d e s c r i b e d in the early 18th c e n t u r y b y m y

4 7

"Gegriindet wurde ein Grabbau, der alien Mitgliedern der Gemeinde offen stand" (92); ibid. Ameling refers to IJudO III 187, 223, and 244 for parallels. The interesting implication is that three proselytes and two (pagan) 'Godfearers' were members of this Jewish burial society. See my "Jews and Blues" [in this volume] and Ch. Roueche, Performers and Partisans at Aphrodisias in the Roman and Late Roman Periods, London 1993. Ameling's criticism is on pp. 115-6. 4 8

4 9

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

83

Orientis

n e a r - n a m e s a k e H e r m a n v a n d e r H o r s t ( m i n i s t e r o f the D u t c h R e f o r m e d C h u r c h in S m y r n a ! ) ,

5 0

in w h i c h E i r e n o p o i o s , s o n o f J a c o b a n d " f a t h e r o f t h e t r i b e " (tribe

= community),

51

p r o u d l y d e c l a r e s that h e h a d the floor o f t h e interior, p r o b a b l y

o f the s y n a g o g u e , r e p a i r e d a n d beautified at the cost o f 7

solidi.

A s to Sardis, w e n o w h a v e t h e s e c o n d edition in a relatively short p e r i o d o f the m a n y inscriptions from t h e giant-size s y n a g o g u e that w a s a part o f t h e great bathhouse-gymnasium complex.

5 2

A m e l i n g rightly p a y s m u c h attention to the

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h e inscriptions w e r e found. In nr. 6 3 w e m e e t the priest S a m o e w h o calls h i m s e l f sophodidaskalos,

w i s d o m teacher, a hitherto

u n a t t e s t e d t e r m that m i g h t indicate that there w a s a J e w i s h s c h o o l in Sardis w h e r e Torah w a s taught (or w a s h e a sort o f G r e e k r a b b i ? ) . F o r the e n i g m a t i c reference to t h e phyle

Leontion

(the tribe o f t h e L e o n t i i , in Sardis) in nr. 6 9

Ameling does not come up with a new solution.

53

I n t e r e s t i n g is the frequent

o c c u r r e n c e in Sardis o f the f o r m u l a that d o n a t i o n s to the s y n a g o g u e w e r e d o n e ek ton tes pronoias

(from the [gifts] o f P r o v i d e n c e ) , as a v a r i a n t o f the m o r e

usual ek ton doreon

tou theou

80-85).

5 4

T h e u s e o f Pronoia

impression,

55

or ek ton tou theou dorematon

(e.g., 7 1 , 77. 78,

as a t e r m referring to G o d m a k e s a v e r y C h r i s t i a n

but here w e see it in an u n d e n i a b l y J e w i s h c o n t e x t . C u r i o u s is

the s p e a k i n g T o r a h - s h r i n e that s a y s , " T h e s a m e M e m n o n i u s , o n a c c o u n t o f his health, h a d m e , the T o r a h - s h r i n e , d e c o r a t e d w i t h m a r b l e " (nr. 1 2 9 ) . u s e d h e r e for T o r a h - s h r i n e , nomophylakion,

56

The word

o c c u r s h e r e for t h e first t i m e in this

s e n s e . T h e m o s t intriguing inscription from Sardis is, h o w e v e r , nr. 131 ( ' e i n e liturgische InschrifV), w r i t t e n on a m a r b l e p l a q u e : " W h e n y o u h a v e found (the 57

b o o k a n d ) b r o k e n (it o p e n ) , r e a d (it a n d ) o b s e r v e ( i t ) . " A m e l i n g d e m o n s t r a t e s that w i t h r e g a r d to t h e S c r i p t u r e s in early J u d a i s m a n d Christianity, t h e m u l t i p l e injunction o f t a k i n g , o p e n i n g , r e a d i n g a n d o b e y i n g h a d b e c o m e a l m o s t formu­ laic. F o r that r e a s o n the ' b r e a k i n g ' s h o u l d refer to the b r e a k i n g o f t h e seal o f a b o o k in o r d e r to o p e n it. " A n g e s i c h t s d e s Inhalts u n d d e r P a r a l l e l e n w i r d m a n g l a u b e n diirfen, daB sich d i e s e r Text a u f die V e r k u n d i g u n g u n d A u f n a h m e der

5 0

See my entry "Herman van der Horst" in the Biografisch Lexicon voor de Geschiedenis van het Nederlandse Protestantisme, vol. 4, Kampen 1998, 2 2 0 - 2 2 2 . Apart from stemma (tribe), one finds as designations of local Jewish communities synagoge, ethnos, laos, genos, katoikia, hebra'ike. One of the few Jewish inscriptions from outside this complex, a short Hebrew inscription, is unfortunately presented in a very garbled version; see nr. 56 at p. 216 (six letters have been rendered incorrectly). The same applies to the nrs. 1 0 5 - 1 0 8 and other Hebrew items in the volume. Especially final mem is consistently misprinted as samekh. See my discussion in "De synagoge van Sardis en haar inscripties" 47^48 [in English elsewhere in this volume]. Nr. 90 has ek ton doreon tou pantokratoros theou. See G.W.H. Lampe, Greek Patristic Lexicon, Oxford 1968, s.v. B 2 v. For 'speaking stones' see my Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 4 9 - 5 4 . Heuron klasas anagndthi phylaxon. 5 1

5 2

5 3

5 4

5 5

5 6

57

84

Inscriptiones

Judaicae

Orientis

T o r a b e z i e h t , also in i r g e n d e i n e r B e z i e h u n g z u m T o r a s c h r e i n o d e r zu e i n e m Lesepult stand" (287). O f the rest o f this rich v o l u m e I single o u t for brief m e n t i o n o n l y a few o t h e r i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r s . A m e l i n g ' s s u g g e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g nr. 156 (from N i c o m e d i a ) , to the effect that t h e m e n t i o n o f an anagnostes

= lector ( w h i c h o c c u r s o n l y v e r y

rarely since in p r i n c i p l e e v e r y o n e c o u l d b e called u p o n to r e a d Scripture in t h e s y n a g o g u e ) m a y b e " e i n H i n w e i s a u f die n i e d r i g e A l p h a b e t i s i e r u n g s r a t e " o f t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , is n o w confirmed b y the r e c e n t r e s e a r c h o f C a t h e r i n e Hezser.

58

T h e r e are m o r e than a d o z e n P h r y g i a n inscription c o n t a i n i n g t h e

f o r m u l a (eis)

tekna

teknon,

w h i c h h a s often b e e n c l a i m e d to b e a s h o r t h a n d

r e f e r e n c e to E x o d . 3 4 : 7 , b u t A m e l i n g sides w i t h J . H . M . S t r u b b e in rejecting this c l a i m since t h e formula o c c u r s also o u t s i d e a J e w i s h ( i . e . , in a p a g a n ) c o n t e x t ; so t h e s e i n s c r i p t i o n s are n o w e x c l u d e d from the c o r p u s . F o r a similar r e a s o n , b u t n o w b e c a u s e t h e r e are Christian parallels, inscriptions c o n t a i n i n g t h e so-called ' E u m e n e i a n f o r m u l a ' (estai autoipros

ton theon = h e will h a v e to r e c k o n w i t h ,

or: a n s w e r to, G o d ; a n d variants) h a v e b e e n e x c l u d e d as w e l l , u n l e s s there are o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f J e w i s h n e s s . It w o u l d p e r h a p s h a v e b e e n better to i n c l u d e t h e m in an a p p e n d i x w i t h dubia. Nr. 180, t h e e p i t a p h o f D e b o r a h from A n t i o c h , is m e t r i c a l (disticha, h e x a m e t e r s a n d p e n t a m e t e r s in alternation) a n d s h o u l d h a v e 5 9

b e e n i n c l u d e d in m y collection o f m e t r i c a l e p i t a p h s ; 1 o v e r l o o k e d it b e c a u s e it is so h e a v i l y d a m a g e d that I did n o t n o t i c e the m e t r e . T h e 2 3 n e w inscriptions from P h r y g i a n H i e r a p o l i s are c o n s p i c u o u s in that t h e y v e r y often explicitly identify the p e r s o n s m e n t i o n e d o n t h e s t o n e as J e w s . O n c e e v e n a s a r c o p h a g u s is called J e w i s h (191 ) !

6 0

A l s o in other a s p e c t s this g r o u p o f e p i t a p h s h a s its specific

features. In v i e w o f A c t s 1 6 : 1 3 - 1 4 (Lydia, a G o d f e a r e r a n d d e a l e r in p u r p l e - d y e from T h y a t i r a in A s i a M i n o r ) it is interesting to find in nr. 196 a clear indication o f J e w i s h i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e p u r p l e industry o f H i e r a p o l i s . In t h e s a m e text w e also find o n e o f the v e r y few references to t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f P e s a c h a n d o f S h a v u o t in the d i a s p o r a (see also A c t s 2 0 : 6 on P e s a c h in P h i l i p p i ) .

61

Nr. 2 1 3

from L a o d i c e a is u n i q u e in that it is the o n l y J e w i s h e p i t a p h in w h i c h e r a s i n g o f the inscription is also t h r e a t e n e d w i t h the c u r s e s in D e u t e r o n o m y 2 8 ( u s u a l l y 6 2

t h e s e c u r s e s are r e s e r v e d for illegal u s e o f t h e t o m b ) . Nr. 2 1 8 is t h e inscription on t h e s m a l l altar from A s p e n d o s ("For the truthful G o d w h o is not m a d e w i t h h a n d s " ) w h i c h I h a v e tried to d e m o n s t r a t e w a s m a d e b y a p a g a n s y m p a t h i z e r

5 8

Jewish Literacy in Roman Palestine, Tubingen 2 0 0 1 . "Jewish Tomb Inscriptions in Verse," in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity. Essays on Their Interaction, 2nd ed., Leuven 1998, 21-47. If Ameling's interpretation is correct (see p. 407), which I think it is. The Greek terms used are heorte ton azymon and heorte tes pentekostes. In an inscription from ancient Libya the feast o f Booths (Sukkoth, here called skenopegia) is mentioned: Nr. 71 in G. Liideritz, Corpus judischer Zeugnisse aus der Cyrenaica, Wiesbaden 1983. See my Ancient Jewish Epitaphs 5 6 - 5 7 . 5 9

6 0

6 1

6 2

Inscriptiones

with J u d a i s m , a G o d f e a r e r .

63

Judaicae

Orientis

85

A m e l i n g is less certain a b o u t that, a n d after a

t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n h e c o n c l u d e s : " I n s g e s a m t bleibt d e r Text a b e r ratselhaft" ( 4 6 1 ) . H e interestingly s p e c u l a t e s on a p a g a n o r a c u l a r b a c k g r o u n d b u t d o e s n o t deny Jewish influence.

64

O n e o f t h e m o s t striking n e w inscriptions is nr. 2 2 2 ,

a r e c e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d n e w fragment o f the f a m o u s inscription o f D i o g e n e s o f O e n o a n d a . In t h e t i m e of H a d r i a n this E p i c u r e a n p h i l o s o p h e r D i o g e n e s h a d the h u g e wall o f the S t o a (ca. 8 0 x 4 m e t e r ) on the A g o r a o f O e n o a n d a inscribed w i t h a v e r y large inscription b y w h i c h , p r o b a b l y shortly before his d e a t h , h e w a n t e d to instruct his fellow-citizens in E p i c u r u s ' p h i l o s o p h y in o r d e r to dispel their fear o f d e a t h a n d o f t h e g o d s .

6 5

In this f r a g m e n t ( N F 127 in S m i t h ' s n u m ­

b e r i n g ) w e r e a d that the c l e a r e s t sign that t h e g o d s are u n a b l e to p r e v e n t evils from h a p p e n i n g are the J e w s a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s , s i n c e " t h e s e are b o t h the m o s t g o d f e a r i n g a n d t h e m o s t a b o m i n a b l e o f all n a t i o n s . " T h e w o r d s u s e d h e r e are deisidaimonestatoi

a n d miardtatoi.

o f t h e s e t e r m s . Deisidaimon tious p e r s o n ; miaros

It is n o t e a s y to find a n a d e q u a t e translation

c a n d e s i g n a t e n o t o n l y a p i o u s b u t also a supersti­

h a s b o t h a ritual s e n s e ( i m p u r e ) a n d a m o r a l o n e ( c r i m i n a l ) .

B e that as it m a y , it is in a n y c a s e again a striking n e w i n s t a n c e o f the n e g a t i v e v i e w o f J e w s a n d J u d a i s m , w h i c h h a d such a long history in a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e .

66

It is also interesting to find s o m e o n e calling h i m s e l f a L e v i t e in L y c a o n i a (nr. 224)

6 7

a n d to m e e t in C o r y c o s a g o l d s m i t h called M o s e s the H e b r e w (nr. 2 4 0 ) .

Finally A m e l i n g p u b l i s h e s s o m e m a g i c a l texts from a m u l e t s found in A s i a M i n o r a n d h e rightly stresses that t h e y d o p r o v e J e w i s h influence b u t d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e to b e J e w i s h . L o o k i n g b a c k u p o n this rich h a r v e s t w e c a n say t h e f o l l o w i n g . T h e s e three w o r k s will b e c o m e s t a n d a r d reference w o r k s for the d e c a d e s to c o m e . N o y , P a n a y o t o v , B l o e d h o r n , a n d A m e l i n g h a v e d o n e the w o r l d o f J u d a i c s c h o l a r s a n d classical e p i g r a p h i s t s an i m m e n s e service b y p a i n s t a k i n g l y c o l l e c t i n g this m a t e ­ rial that is so w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d ,

68

a n d b y e l u c i d a t i n g it b y their e x p e r t c o m m e n t s .

Even t h o u g h there is m u c h to b e criticized o n the level o f details, in g e n e r a l it s h o u l d b e said that t h e s e v o l u m e s are e x c e l l e n t tools for further s t u d y o f a s p e c t s o f t h e early J e w i s h w o r l d that are often not m e n t i o n e d at all in the literary

6 3

"A N e w Altar of a Godfearer?" in my Judaism - Hellenism - Christianity 6 5 - 7 1 . The entry bears the title "Judischer EinfluB?" (p. 458). See Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean Inscription, edited with introduction, transla­ tion, and notes by M. F. Smith, Napoli 1993; my review in Mnemosyne 48 (1995) 1 0 1 - 1 0 3 . [See the chapter "The Most Superstitious and Disgusting of All Nations" elsewhere in this volume.] See esp. P. Schafer, Judaeophobia. Attitudes towards the Jews in the Ancient World, Cambridge M A - London 1997. The only other epigraphical Levite is from Jaffa, CIJ I I 9 0 2 . It is strange that here Ameling lapses into the oldfashioned German terminology of "spates Judentum" (483 note 6). Even publications o f inscriptions in obscure journals in Russian and Turkish were traced. 6 4

6 5

6 6

6 7

6 8

86

Inscriptiones

sources.

69

Judaicae

Orientis

A m e l i n g ' s b o o k is less user-friendly than the t w o other v o l u m e s , n o t

o n l y b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o b i b l i o g r a p h y a n d a n i n a d e q u a t e table o f a b b r e v i a t i o n s , b u t also b e c a u s e h e v e r y frequently q u o t e s ( s o m e t i m e s v e r y l o n g stretches of) texts in G r e e k (also m o d e r n G r e e k ) , Latin, Italian, F r e n c h etc. w i t h o u t p r e s e n t ­ ing a translation, w h i c h m a k e s the b o o k less a c c e s s i b l e to t h e a v e r a g e J u d a i c s c h o l a r t h a n t h e N o y v o l u m e s , b u t this is m o r e t h a n b a l a n c e d b y t h e h i g h quality of Ameling's work. F r e y ' s CIJ h a s n o w b e e n r e p l a c e d e x c e p t for a n c i e n t P a l e s t i n e . F o r that g a p w e will h a v e to a w a i t t h e results o f the Israeli p r o j e c t Corpus Iudaeae/Palestinae

Inscriptionum

( C U P ) , b u t that enterprise is still in its infancy. T h e C U P will

b e a n e w c o r p u s o f all inscriptions ( p a g a n , J e w i s h , C h r i s t i a n ) , in all l a n g u a g e s , a r r a n g e d t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y , found in Israel ( i n c l u d i n g t h e West B a n k , G a z a , a n d the G o l a n H e i g h t s ) a n d d a t i n g from the 4th c e n t u r y B C E to the 7th c e n t u r y C E . T h e c o r p u s will i n c l u d e a full r e - e d i t i n g of e v e r y text, a d r a w i n g or p h o t o g r a p h , textual a p p a r a t u s , E n g l i s h translation, a n d c o m m e n t a r y . T h e e s t i m a t e is that t h e r e will b e b e t w e e n 6 0 0 0 a n d 7 0 0 0 texts in t h e c o r p u s , s o m e 1800 o f w h i c h ( p e r h a p s m o r e ) are J e w i s h .

70

W e will h a v e to a w a i t t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f that project

before w e c a n say that F r e y ' s CIJ definitively b e l o n g s to the past. B u t e v e n n o w w e c a n say t h a t t h e p r o g r e s s is e n o r m o u s : F r e y ' s w h o l e c o r p u s n u m b e r e d s o m e 1600 i n s c r i p t i o n s , Israel i n c l u d e d .

71

JIGRE,JIWE

1+2, a n d IJudO

t o g e t h e r slightly o v e r 1600 inscriptions, Israel e x c l u d e d .

72

1-3 c o m p r i s e

W h e n the 1800 or

m o r e i n s c r i p t i o n s o f the land o f Israel are a d d e d , w e will h a v e a l m o s t t h r e e - a n d a-half t h o u s a n d J e w i s h inscriptions from the p e r i o d b e t w e e n A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t a n d M u h a m m e d , m o r e than t w i c e as m a n y as in CIJ. In the last 15 y e a r s early J e w i s h e p i g r a p h y h a s p u t itself s q u a r e l y on the m a p o f international s c h o l a r s h i p . S t u d e n t s o f a n c i e n t J u d a i s m c a n n e g l e c t w o r k s s u c h as t h o s e r e v i e w e d h e r e o n l y to their great d i s a d v a n t a g e .

6 9

This can be clearly seen in the valuable book by Margaret H. Williams, The Jews Among the Greeks and Romans. A Diasporan Sourcebook, Baltimore 1998, where literary sources and epigraphic material play an equal role. I o w e this information to Professor Jonathan Price from Tel Aviv University w h o initiated the enterprise together with Prof. Hannah Cotton of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. And Lifshitz's addenda included. It may be interesting to notice that, while in 1991 I calculated that the epitaphs formed some 80% o f the material, now a new calculation on the basis of the six above-mentioned new editions comes to some 7 2 % (some 1150). That is mainly due to the fact that many more donor inscriptions have been found in the meantime (e. g. Sardis). 7 0

7 1

7 2

Huldah's Tomb in Early Jewish Tradition T h e p r o p h e t e s s H u l d a h r e m a i n s a s o m e w h a t v a g u e b u t also fascinating figure in the O l d T e s t a m e n t . In 2 K i n g s 2 2 : 1 4 - 2 0 w e are told that she lived in J e r u s a l e m at t h e t i m e o f k i n g Josiah, w h o ruled o v e r J u d a e a at the e n d o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y B C E (ca. 6 4 0 - 6 0 9 B C E ) . After t h e s p e c t a c u l a r find o f the ' B o o k o f L a w ' in the t e m p l e ( w h i c h w a s the s u p p o s e d r e a s o n for J o s i a h ' s r e f o r m ) , at t h e c o m m a n d o f t h e k i n g , t h e finders o f that b o o k a p p r o a c h e d t h e p r o p h e t e s s H u l d a h , the wife o f S a l l u m w h o w a s k e e p e r o f the w a r d r o b e , w h e r e u p o n she u t t e r e d a p r o p h e c y o f c a t a s t r o p h y (this is r e p e a t e d w i t h m i n o r modifications in 2 C h r o n . 3 4 : 2 2 - 2 8 ) . 1

After this w e n e v e r h e a r a n y t h i n g a b o u t this w o m a n a g a i n . In this short contri­ b u t i o n I d o not w a n t to deal w i t h the biblical d a t a a b o u t this w o m a n , b u t with the traditions post-biblical J u d a i s m c h e r i s h e d a b o u t her, a n d especially a b o u t her t o m b , w h i c h is n o t e v e n m e n t i o n e d in the H e b r e w B i b l e .

2

To b e g i n w i t h , it s h o u l d b e r e m a r k e d that the traditions c o n c e r n i n g H u l d a h ' s t o m b are found o n l y in r a b b i n i c literature - in post-biblical p r e - r a b b i n i c litera­ ture ( 3 0 0 BCE - 2 0 0 CE) s h e is n o w h e r e m e n t i o n e d - a n d that all t h e s e traditions situate h e r t o m b in J e r u s a l e m , to b e m o r e p r e c i s e , at t h e s o u t h e r n b o r d e r o f the T e m p l e s q u a r e . T h a t is to say, it w a s situated o n a p i e c e o f land that in the S e c o n d T e m p l e p e r i o d w a s initially still o u t s i d e t h e T e m p l e s q u a r e , b u t that c a m e to lie j u s t inside it after the e n o r m o u s e x p a n s i o n o f the s q u a r e b y k i n g H e r o d the 3

G r e a t ( a r o u n d the b e g i n n i n g o f o u r e r a ) , n a m e l y in the s o u t h - w e s t corner. T h a t is e x a c t l y t h e part in H e r o d ' s t e m p l e c o m p l e x w h e r e t h e g r e a t g a t e s that w e r e n a m e d after H u l d a h w e r e located, o f w h i c h o n e c a n see t h e m o n u m e n t a l steps and portals even today.

4

1

See C.V. Camp, 'Huldah,' in Carol Meyers (ed.), Women in Scripture, Boston & N e w York 2000, 9 6 - 9 7 . A very succinct summary can be found in J. Jeremias, Heiligengrdber in Jesu Umwelt, Gottingen 1958, 5 1 - 5 2 . It is interesting to see that in a rather late (= early medieval) rabbinic midrash, Huldah's husband Sallum is said to have been the man who was revived by contact with the bones of the deceased prophet Elisha (see 2 Kings 13:21). Cf. L. Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, vol. 4, Philadelphia 1913, 246, with the note in vol. 6, Philadelphia 1928, 347 n. 2 1 . See the elaborate description by Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae 15:380^125, translated 2

3

and annotated in my Bronnen voor de studie van de wereld van het vroege Christendom, deel 1: Joodse bronnen, Kampen 1997, 1 3 7 - 1 4 4 . See e. g. B. Mazar, 'The Archaeological Excavations near the Temple Mount,' in Y. Yadin 4

88

Huldah s Tomb in Early Jewish

T h e M i s h n a treatise Middot

Tradition

(early third cent. C E ) , w h i c h is the first to m e n t i o n

t h e s e g a t e s , b e g i n s its e n u m e r a t i o n o f the five great g a t e s o f the t e m p l e s q u a r e as f o l l o w s : ' T h e t w o g a t e s o f H u l d a h on the south s e r v e d for c o m i n g in a n d for g o i n g o u t ( o f t h e t e m p l e s q u a r e ) ' (Middot

5

1:3). N o w it w a s o b v i o u s l y a p r o b l e m

that a t o m b w a s situated inside the h o l y city, y e s e v e n e x t r e m e l y c l o s e to the t e m p l e , since it c o u l d result in c o r p s - u n c l e a n n e s s (the m o s t serious form o f ritual i m p u r i t y ) for t h o s e w h o c a m e t o o c l o s e to it. W e s e e that for that r e a s o n the r a b ­ bis d o their u t m o s t to explain this situation. In the Tosefta, a r a b b i n i c c o m p i l a t i o n o f h a l a k h a that r e c e i v e d its final r e d a c t i o n s o m e w h a t later than the M i s h n a h ( a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e o f the 3

r d

cent, c e ) , w e r e a d that t h e rabbis state that e a c h

t o m b s h o u l d lie at least 5 0 cubits ( s o m e 2 5 m e t e r s ) o u t s i d e the city w a l l , a n d if 6

that w a s not t h e c a s e , it s h o u l d b e cleared a w a y . T h e Tosefta a d d s , h o w e v e r , that a n e x c e p t i o n is m a d e for the g r a v e s o f k i n g s a n d p r o p h e t s . B u t w h e n rabbi A k i v a s a y s that s u c h g r a v e s , t o o , s h o u l d b e e m p t i e d out, the o t h e r r a b b i s tell h i m : ' W e r e not t h e g r a v e s o f the h o u s e o f D a v i d a n d o f H u l d a h the p r o p h e t e s s a l w a y s in J e r u s a l e m , a n d n o o n e e v e r laid a h a n d o n t h e m ? ' W h e r e u p o n A k i v a s a y s that t h e s e g r a v e s h a d u n d e r g r o u n d c h a n n e l s t h r o u g h w h i c h their u n c l e a n n e s s w a s r e m o v e d to t h e K i d r o n B r o o k (i.Bava

Bathra

7

1:11). E l s e w h e r e in the

Tosefta, it is said that, a l t h o u g h t o m b s are forbidden inside J e r u s a l e m , y e t there is a n e x c e p t i o n for the t o m b s o f D a v i d a n d H u l d a h b e c a u s e ' t h e s e w e r e there from the d a y s o f the former p r o p h e t s ' (i.Nega de-rabbi

Nathan

'im 6:2). A l s o in the tractate

Avoth

8

( r e c e n s i o n A ) 35:1 w e find t h e s a m e m o t i v a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the

r a b b i n i c e x p l a n a t i o n s m a y b e l e g e n d a r y a n d historically incorrect, yet the fact that t h e t o m b s o f D a v i d a n d H u l d a h are localized so p r e c i s e l y at the e d g e o f the K i d r o n Valley (so v e r y close to the H u l d a h gates) is an u n m i s t a k a b l e indication that e v e n in t h e earliest r a b b i n i c p e r i o d (not later t h a n the 2

n d

c e n t u r y CE, b u t

p o s s i b l y earlier) H u l d a h ' s t o m b w a s visible at the s o u t h e r n side o f t h e T e m p l e 9

s q u a r e . 1 will r e t u r n p r e s e n t l y to the role a n d function o f that t o m b . In the B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d , Megillah

1 4 a - b , a series o f s e v e n biblical p r o p h e t ­

e s s e s are d i s c u s s e d : S a r a h , M i r i a m , D e b o r a h , H a n n a h , A b i g a i l , H u l d a , a n d E s ­ ther.

10

A s far as H u l d a h is c o n c e r n e d , the q u e s t i o n is raised h o w it w a s p o s s i b l e

that s h e d a r e d to m a k e h e r a p p e a r a n c e as a p r o p h e t e s s in t h e s a m e p e r i o d that

(ed.), Jerusalem Revealed, Jerusalem 1976, 2 5 - 3 0 ; H. Shanks, Jerusalem. An Archaeological Biography, N e w York 1995, 1 4 2 - 1 4 7 . Translation by H. Danby, The Mishnah, Oxford 1933, 590. See text and commentary in O. Holtzmann, Middot (Die Mischna V, 10), Giessen 1913, 4 8 - 5 0 . See also the Babylonian Talmud, Bava Qamma 82b; more refernces in L. Ginzberg, Legends VI, 441 n. 32. See also the extra-Talmudic treatise Semachot 14:10. With a parallel in recension B, ch. 39. Parallel traditions are found also in the Jerusalem Talmud, Nazir 9, 57d. Comparable lists with female prophets are also to be found in the Christian Constitutiones Apostolicae VIII 2,9 and 2 0 , 1 . 5

6

7

8

9

1 0

Huldah s Tomb in Early Jewish

89

Tradition

- nota benel - the great p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h w a s p r o p h e s y i n g . S h o u l d s h e not h a v e k e p t silent? T h e school o f R a v , a great B a b y l o n i a n r a b b i from t h e third c e n t u r y CE, a d d u c e s as an e x p l a n a t i o n that H u l d a h w a s a close relative o f J e r e m i a h a n d that for that r e a s o n h e did not object to h e r p r o p h e s y i n g on one occasion*.

Others

explain the fact that k i n g J o s i a h p a s s e d o v e r J e r e m i a h in favour o f H u l d a h , b y a s ­ s u m i n g that J e r e m i a h h a d j u s t g o n e a w a y o n his m i s s i o n to find t h e ten lost tribes o f Israel. R a b b i N a c h m a n , h o w e v e r , i n c l u d e s H u l d a h , w i t h D e b o r a h , a m o n g the ' s h a m e l e s s w o m e n ' : D e b o r a h is i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e it is written a b o u t h e r that ' s h e s u m m o n e d B a r a k ' ( J u d g e s 4 : 6 ) , w h i c h is, o f c o u r s e , an u n h e a r d o f i n s o l e n c e on the part o f a w o m a n ; H u l d a h is i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e it is w r i t t e n a b o u t her that she said, 'Tell t h e m a n w h o sent y o u . . . ' (2 K i n g s 2 2 : 1 5 ) instead o f 'Tell the k i n g ' ! A g a i n a n o t h e r rabbi states that H u l d a h w a s a d e s c e n d a n t o f R a h a b the w h o r e ( w i t h o u t m a k i n g clear w h a t that i m p l i e s , but it will certainly not h a v e b e e n m e a n t as a c o m p l i m e n t ) .

11

B e that as it may, it is clear that m a n y a rabbi f r o w n e d o v e r

H u l d a h ' s i m p e r t i n e n t b e h a v i o u r , as t h e y did in D e b o r a h ' s c a s e . A quite different note is struck in t h e early r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h Pesiqta

Rabbati

2 6 : 1 - 2 . T h e r e w e r e a d that J e r e m i a h , t o g e t h e r w i t h A d a m , J a c o b , a n d Isaiah, w a s o n e o f t h e four m e n w h o m G o d h a d c r e a t e d as perfect c r e a t u r e s par

excel­

lence. N e v e r t h e l e s s J e r e m i a h c u r s e d the d a y that h e w a s b o r n b e c a u s e h e h a d to b r i n g s u c h terribly b a d t i d i n g s . B u t in c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h Z e p h a n i a h a n d H u l d a h h e m a n a g e d to fulfil his task: he p l a y e d his part on t h e streets a n d s q u a r e s o f the city, Z e p h a n i a did so on t h e T e m p l e s q u a r e , a n d Huldah

did so for the women.

So

here she is r e g a r d e d not as a c o m p e t i t o r b u t as a c o l l a b o r a t o r o f the great p r o p h e t . A s far as I c a n see, this e x h a u s t s the early J e w i s h traditions a b o u t H u l d a h .

1 2

A l t o g e t h e r it is not m u c h , but the e v i d e n c e d o e s contain s o m e fascinating aspects that I will n o w briefly review. To b e g i n w i t h , there is t h e interesting fact that in t h e w e l l - k n o w n Lives Prophets

(Vitae prophetarum)

of the

n o t a s i n g l e w o r d is d e v o t e d to t h e p r o p h e t e s s

H u l d a h . A t first sight that is s t r a n g e s i n c e in that w o r k n o t o n l y all great p r o p h e t s such as Isaiah, J e r e m i a h , E z e c h i e l , a n d the t w e l v e M i n o r P r o p h e t s are dealt with, b u t also p r o p h e t s w h o o c c u r o n l y as figures in biblical stories s u c h as Elijah, Elisha, S a m u e l , a n d N a t h a n , N o less than 2 3 p r o p h e t s p a s s r e v i e w h e r e a n d for each o f t h e m w e are told, often in detail, w h e r e their g r a v e s are to b e found, but not for 11

Megillah 14b also states that it can hardly be coincidental that both women have such ugly names: Deborah = bee, Huldah = weasel! See on this passage L.L. Bronner, 'Deborah,' in N.N. Hyman (ed.), Biblical Women in the Midrash, Northvale-London 1997, 109-110. Although the Targumim scarcely yield any material for our investigation, it is a nice detail that the Targum on both 2 Kings 22:14 and 2 Chron. 33:22 state that Huldah lived in a Jerusalem 'in a house of instruction.' The text o f the Hebrew Bible here reads mishneh in the sense of 'second quarter of the city,' but because of its close resemblance to mishnah the translators have taken it to be a name for a rabbinic study house, which is at least meant as a positive statement. In early Christian literature, Huldah does not play any role. 1 2

90

Huldah s Tomb in Early Jewish

Tradition

H u l d a h . T h a t is all the m o r e c u r i o u s since - as w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n - h e r g r a v e in J e r u s a l e m w a s w e l l - k n o w n e v e n in the first c e n t u r i e s C E . N o w it s h o u l d b e a d m i t t e d that t h e J e w i s h origin o f the Vitae prophetarum but, as I h a v e tried to d e m o n s t r a t e e l s e w h e r e ,

14

is a m a t t e r o f d e b a t e ,

13

e v e n if t h e text o f this d o c u m e n t

in its p r e s e n t form w e r e Christian a n d d e r i v e d from the fourth c e n t u r y C E , t h e traditions a b o u t t h e t o m b s o f t h e p r o p h e t s it c o n t a i n s are certainly J e w i s h a n d d a t e b a c k to t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the C o m m o n Era. In the light o f w h a t h a s b e e n said b e f o r e , t h e o m i s s i o n o f H u l d a h m a y certainly b e called a telling silence. E v e n if it c a n n o t b e strictly p r o v e d that criticism o f t h e activity o f this f e m a l e p r o p h e t is the b a c k g r o u n d for this o m i s s i o n , it is h i g h l y p r o b a b l e .

15

In s o m e (but n o t all) r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s w e c o u l d o b s e r v e an o u t s p o k e n criti­ cal attitude t o w a r d s H u l d a h : S h e s h o u l d h a v e k e p t silent d u r i n g the t i m e that J e r e m i a h w a s a c t i v e , a n d she s h o u l d not h a v e s p o k e n a b o u t ' t h a t m a n ' but, m o r e respectfully, a b o u t ' t h e k i n g . ' B u t also in the p r e - r a b b i n i c literature o f t h e first c e n t u r y C E o n e finds a l r e a d y similar s e n t i m e n t s , albeit n o t as far as H u l d a h is c o n c e r n e d b u t as to h e r m a t c h , t h e p r o p h e t e s s D e b o r a h ( J u d g e s 4 : 4 explicitly calls h e r ' p r o p h e t e s s ' ) . In his r e n d e r i n g of t h e biblical history, the h i s t o r i a n J o s e p h u s m a k e s n o effort to c o n c e a l his d i s d a i n for this female l e a d e r

16

figure.

H e r e d u c e s t h e a l m o s t 8 0 0 w o r d s o f the biblical story a b o u t D e b o r a h (in J u d g e s 4 - 5 ) to less than 5 0 0 (Antiquitates

Judaicae

5 : 2 0 0 - 2 0 9 ) , w h e r e a s his m u c h m o r e

w o m e n - f r i e n d l y c o n t e m p o r a r y , the u n k n o w n a u t h o r o f t h e P s e u d o - P h i l o n i c LiberAntiquitatum

Biblicarum,

d e v o t e s m o r e t h a n 2 5 0 0 w o r d s to this w o m a n , a n d

in a v e r y p o s i t i v e w a y at that (chs. 3 0 - 3 3 ) !

1 7

J o s e p h u s clearly w a n t s to trivialize

D e b o r a h ' s role; h e e v e n m a k e s h e r b u r s t out in an i n d i g n a n t t o n e

(aganaktesasa)

a g a i n s t B a r a k w h e n the latter a s k s h e r to s h a r e the s u p r e m e c o m m a n d w i t h h i m : ' Y o u , h o w c o u l d y o u yield to a w o m a n a r a n k that G o d h a s g i v e n y o u ? N e v e r t h e ­ less, I d o not d e c l i n e it' ( 5 . 2 0 3 ) . D e b o r a h ' s f a m o u s s o n g ( J u d g e s 5) is e v e n c o m ­ p l e t e l y o m i t t e d b y J o s e p h u s . L o u i s F e l d m a n c o n c l u d e s at t h e e n d o f his s t u d y o f J o s e p h u s ' portrait of D e b o r a h : ' J o s e p h u s ( . . . ) h a s , in his m i s o g y n y , b o t h r e d u c e d

1 3

See D. Satran, Biblical Prophets in Byzantine Palestine. Reassessing the Lives of the Prophets, Leiden 1995, w h o argues that it is a Christian document from the Byzantine period, and for the contrary position (early Jewish origin) see A. M. Schwemer, Studien zu den fruhjiidischen Prophetenlegenden Vitae Prophetarum, 2 vols., Tubingen 1995. P.W. van der Horst, Die Prophetengrdber im antiken Judentum (Delitzsch-Vorlesung 2000), Miinster 2 0 0 1 . An English version in my book Japheth in the Tents of Shem, Leuven 2 0 0 2 , 119-138. Schwemer, Studien I 30 n. 130, remarks with regard to Huldah's absence in the Vitae Prophetarum: 'Weibliche Propheten standen in fruhjiidischer Zeit nicht hoch im Kurs." That is an understatement. See for what follows L.H. Feldman's chapter 'Deborah' in his Studies in Josephus' Re­ written Bible, Leiden 1998, 1 5 3 - 1 6 2 . See P.W. van der Horst, 'Portraits of Biblical Women in Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquita­ tum Biblicarum,' in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg-Gottingen, 1 9 9 0 , 1 1 1 - 1 2 2 , e s p . 114-5. 1 4

15

1 6

1 7

Huldah s Tomb in Early Jewish

91

Tradition

the length o f t h e e p i s o d e a n d the i m p o r t a n c e o f D e b o r a h , d o w n g r a d i n g her in her role o f p o e t e s s , military leader, a n d j u d g e . '

1 8

T h i s is n o t an isolated c a s e . A s in

early C h r i s t i a n literature, o n e c o m e s a c r o s s a lot o f d e n i g r a t i n g l a n g u a g e a b o u t w o m e n (biblical a n d n o n - b i b l i c a l ) in early J e w i s h s o u r c e s as w e l l .

1 9

T h e fact

that, as w e h a v e s e e n a b o v e , D e b o r a h a n d H u l d a h t o g e t h e r p a r a d e as e x a m p l e s o f ' s h a m e l e s s w o m e n ' in later r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s is an indication that it is far from p u r e l y s p e c u l a t i v e to c l a i m that the o m i s s i o n o f H u l d a h a n d h e r t o m b in the Vitae prophetarum

m a y w e l l b e m o r e than a c o i n c i d e n c e . It is h i g h l y p r o b a b l e that

here a conscious decision was taken. Yet it is an e s t a b l i s h e d fact that H u l d a h ' s t o m b , like t h o s e o f the m a t r i a r c h s S a r a h , R e b e c c a h , R a c h e l a n d L e a h , a n d J e p h t h a h ' s d a u g h t e r , w a s k n o w n to b e in J e r u s a l e m at the b e g i n n i n g o f the C o m m o n E r a a n d e v e n e n j o y e d a certain fame. H o w s h o u l d w e interpret that? R e c e n t r e s e a r c h h a s c o n f i r m e d that, e v e n t h o u g h o n e w o u l d n o t e x p e c t it from a biblical p o i n t o f view, a certain v e n e r a t i o n o f saints, u s u a l l y in the form o f p i l g r i m a g e to a n d p r a y e r at t h e t o m b s o f biblical saints, h a d d e v e l o p e d in t h e p e r i o d o f the S e c o n d T e m p l e a n d in early T a l m u d i c times.

20

O f c o u r s e , these p r a c t i c e s w e r e frowned u p o n b y scribes a n d r a b b i s , w h o

rejected t h e m if o n l y b e c a u s e the c o r p s e i m p u r i t y o n e c o u l d incur at g r a v e s i t e s w a s the g r a v e s t form o f ritual i m p u r i t y k n o w n in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m .

21

But, as Saul

L i e b e r m a n h a s r e m a r k e d : ' T h e Torah forbade a n u m b e r [of t h e s e p r a c t i c e s ] , a n d the rabbis a d d e d their o w n p r o h i b i t i o n s . H o w e v e r , it is e a s i e r to fight w i c k e d n e s s t h a n to c o m b a t t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f p i o u s p e o p l e . ( . . . ) T h e m a s s e s h a d their o w n ways.'

2 2

P e o p l e c o n c e i v e d o f t h e biblical saints as still p r e s e n t in their t o m b s a n d

listening to the p r a y e r s o f the p e o p l e w h o a s k e d for i n t e r c e s s i o n w i t h G o d , for healing e t c . 1 8

2 3

N o t o n l y the Life of Isaiah

8 m a k e s clear that the p r o p h e t ' s t o m b

Feldman, 'Deborah' 162. See for a first orientation P.W. van der Horst, 'Conflicting Images of Women in Ancient Judaism,' in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity: Essays on Their Interaction, 2nd ed., Leuven 1998, 7 3 - 9 2 . See, e. g., J.N. Lightstone, The Commerce of the Sacred. Mediation of the Divine among Jews in the Graeco-Roman Diaspora, Chico 1984, 7 0 - 8 7 ; W. Horbury, 'The Cult o f Christ and the Cult o f the Saints,' New Testament Studies 4 4 (1998) 4 4 4 - 4 6 9 ; and my above-mentioned Prophetengrdber im antiken Judentum. The rabbinic Mishnah treatise Ohaloth deals with this subject. Zie W. Bunte, Ohalot (Die Mischna VI 2), Berlin-New York 1988, esp. 2 4 - 4 8 . S. Lieberman, 'Some Aspects of After Life in Early Rabbinic Literature,' in his Texts and Studies, N e w York 1974, 2 5 2 - 2 5 3 . Morton Smith rightly noticed that one should not construct a rigid opposition between 'popular religion' on the one hand and rabbinic attitudes on the other for 'even rabbinic tradition contains some elements which show an amazing indifference to this consideration [of impurity], e. g. the story that Solomon brought the coffin o f David into the Temple (Pesiq. Rab. 2, ed. Friedmann 6b, & parallels): Instead of polluting it, this produced the descent of the heavenly fire' ('The Image o f God,' in his Studies in the Cult ofYahweh, Leiden 1996, vol. 1, 1 3 1 - 2 n. 73). See Jeremias, Heiligengrdber 129: '[S]ie alle waren fur sie nicht tote Gestalten der Vergangenheit, sondern sie lebten in ihren Grabern, nahmen teil am Ergehen des Volkes.' Satran, Biblical Prophets 111, in this connection refers to the epitaph of Saint Martin: 'Here lies Martin 1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

92

Huldah's Tomb in Early Jewish

Tradition

w a s v e n e r a t e d in o r d e r that ' b y his p r a y e r s e v e n after his d e a t h ' o n e c o u l d r e a p t h e fruits o f his influence w i t h G o d , b u t also the p o l e m i c a g a i n s t the i d e a that d e c e a s e d p e r s o n s c a n i n t e r c e d e w i t h G o d , e . g . in P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s LAB 3 3 : 4 a n d in o t h e r early J e w i s h d o c u m e n t s ,

2 4

strongly s u g g e s t s that t h e t o m b s o f biblical

saints h a d b e c o m e c e n t r e s o f p i l g r i m a g e w h e r e t h e s e saints w e r e b e s e e c h e d to m a k e intercession. T h a t is p r o b a b l y also h o w it w e n t in the c a s e o f H u l d a h . T h e r e w a s n o d e n y i n g that s h e p l a y e d a striking role in the biblical story, h o w e v e r limited it w a s . It is quite p o s s i b l e that for that r e a s o n she w a s a n i n s p i r i n g role m o d e l for J e w i s h w o m e n . In the H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n p e r i o d , w h e n t h e cult of biblical saints at t h e sites o f their t o m b s b e g a n to d e v e l o p g r a d u a l l y a m o n g certain sectors o f t h e J e w i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f P a l e s t i n e - a d e v e l o p m e n t that t h e r a b b i s c o u l d n o t s t o p , e v e n if t h e y tried h a r d - this p r o p h e t e s s c a r v e d o u t h e r o w n n i c h e a l o n g s i d e all t h e m a l e p r o p h e t s , w h o were dealt w i t h in t h e Vitae Prophetarum.

In spite o f

c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n , she g a i n e d a p l a c e in the v e r y m o d e s t r o w o f biblical w o m e n w h o s e g r a v e s b e c a m e c e n t r e s o f J e w i s h p o p u l a r piety.

the bishop, o f holy memory, whose soul is in the hand of God; but he is fully here, present and made plain in miracles of every kind' (quoted after P. Brown, The Cult of the Saints, Chicago 1981, 4). Cf. also John 5:28: 'All who are in the tombs will hear his voice.' See Ch. Perrot & M. Bogaert, Pseudo-Philon: Les Antiquites Bibliques, vol. 2, Paris 1976, 177, for references. See also J. Wilkinson, 'Visits to Jewish Tombs by Early Christians,' Akten des XII. Internationalen Kongresses fur christliche Archdologie [= Jahrbuch fur Antike und Christentum Erganzungsband 2 0 ] , 2 vols., Minister 1995, 1: 456. 2 4

Pseudo-Phocylides on the Afterlife A Rejoinder to John Collins

In a recent p u b l i c a t i o n , J o h n C o l l i n s takes m e to task for several s t a t e m e n t s I m a d e in m y c o m m e n t a r y o n P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s of 2 5 y e a r s a g o , especially as far 1

as this J e w i s h a u t h o r ' s v i e w o f the afterlife is c o n c e r n e d . After h a v i n g carefully studied C o l l i n s ' p o i n t s o f criticism, I h a d to c o m e to the c o n c l u s i o n that m o s t o f t h e m h a v e little or n o b a s i s , as I will n o w d e m o n s t r a t e . To b e g i n w i t h , I s h o u l d state that the p a s s a g e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n (vv. 1 0 3 - 1 1 5 ) , in w h i c h this J e w i s h a u t h o r sets out his v i e w o n the fate o f the individual after d e a t h , is n o t o r i o u s l y difficult a n d h a s g i v e n rise to v e r y c o n t r a d i c t o r y interpreta­ tions o v e r the past 150 y e a r s . It is n o w o n d e r that o n e s c h o l a r s p e a k s o f " t h e u n h a r m o n i z e d j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y ideas a b o u t afterlife" in this p a s s a g e .

2

M o s t s c h o l a r s find it v e r y difficult, if not i m p o s s i b l e , to interpret t h e s e 13 lines as a s y s t e m a t i c e x p o s i t i o n o f a c o n s i s t e n t v i e w o n life after d e a t h , e s p e c i a l l y so since, inter alia, the a u t h o r s e e m s to d e f e n d the i m m o r t a l i t y o f t h e soul as m u c h as the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the b o d y

3

and, m o r e o v e r , d o e s not clarify the relations

b e t w e e n body, soul, a n d spirit. C o l l i n s is less p e s s i m i s t i c , h o w e v e r . H e c o n c e d e s that P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s relied o n traditional forms that " s t a n d in s o m e tension w i t h e a c h o t h e r " ( 8 5 ) , b u t affirms at the s a m e t i m e that h e " s t r u n g t h e m t o g e t h e r in a w a y that a c h i e v e d a m e a s u r e o f c o h e r e n c e " ( 8 5 ) . It m a y w e l l b e the c a s e that t h e r e is m o r e u n i t y a n d c o h e r e n c e to this p a s s a g e than I a n d others h a v e b e e n 4

a b l e to s e e , b u t C o l l i n s ' a r g u m e n t s are s o m e t i m e s far from c o n v i n c i n g . I will first deal w i t h his o b j e c t i o n s to m y translation o f t h e first line o f the p a s s a g e . Vv. 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 a xcd x d / a 6' ex Y ^ ! ? eXjti£ou-ev eg (pdog eXGeiv / tahpav' 0

1

1

J.J. Collins, "Life After Death in Pseudo-Phocylides," in F. Garcia Martinez & G.P. Luttikhuizen (eds), Jerusalem, Alexandria, Rome. Studies in Ancient Cultural Interaction in Honour of A. Hilhorst, Supplements to Journal for the Study of Judaism 82, Leiden 2 0 0 3 , 7 5 - 8 6 . My commentary: P.W. van der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, Leiden 1978, 1 8 5 - 1 9 5 . H.C.C. Cavallin, Life After Death, vol. I, Lund 1974, 153. See the fine discussion of this issue in the chapter "Immortality and Resurrection: Conflict or Complementarity?" in James Barr, The Garden of Eden and the Hope of Immortality, Min­ neapolis 1992, 9 4 - 1 1 6 . But, as Arthur Nock said, "to press this point would be to ignore the widespread tendency o f language about the afterlife to admit inconsistencies" {Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, vol. 1, Oxford 1972, 507 n. 19). 2

3

4

94

Pseudo-Phocylides

on the

Afterlife

ajtoixouivorv w a s translated b y m e as follows: " F o r in fact w e h o p e that t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e d e p a r t e d will s o o n c o m e to the light a g a i n o u t o f the e a r t h . " H i s o w n t r a n s l a t i o n is rather different: " A n d w e h o p e that t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e d e a d will p e r h a p s c o m e to the light again out o f t h e e a r t h " ( 7 5 ) . C o l l i n s firstly objects ( t w i c e , 7 5 a n d 7 9 ) that ' i n fact' in m y translation is w i t h o u t a n y b a s i s in the G r e e k . T h a t is not true. M y translation is b a s e d u p o n t h e following c o n s i d e r a ­ tions. O n e h a s to m a k e s e n s e o f xcd ... be in t h e text. U s u a l l y this c o m b i n a t i o n i m p l i e s that t h e f o r m e r particle d e n o t e s that s o m e t h i n g is a d d e d , a n d the latter 5

that w h a t is a d d e d is distinct from w h a t p r e c e d e s . B u t that d o e s n o t m a k e s e n s e h e r e . In the p r e c e d i n g line ( 1 0 2 ) , the a u t h o r h a s w a r n e d a g a i n s t d i s i n t e g r a t i n g the h u m a n frame ( m o s t p r o b a b l y for a n a t o m i c a l p u r p o s e s ) . W h a t follows m u s t g i v e t h e r e a s o n for this p r o h i b i t i o n . Just as in t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g lines ( 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ) , the r e a s o n g i v e n for his p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t d i s t u r b i n g g r a v e s is that it m a y stir u p d i v i n e anger, so o n e w o u l d e x p e c t s o m e t h i n g similar h e r e . T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t that the p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t d i s i n t e g r a t i n g t h e h u m a n frame s t a n d s in a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p to the i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g r e m a r k a b o u t the h o p e o f the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the b o d y . B e c a u s e this b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t i o n is h o p e d for, o n e s h o u l d n o t d i s s e c t t h e h u m a n frame. S o o n e e x p e c t s a w o r d like yag h e r e , not particles d e n o t i n g that s o m e t h i n g is a d d e d a n d that w h a t is a d d e d is different from w h a t p r e c e d e s . N o w it is w e l l - k n o w n that in G r e e k "5e is n o t infrequently u s e d w h e r e t h e c o n t e x t a d m i t s , or e v e n a p p e a r s to d e m a n d , y d Q . "

6

Denniston

lists d o z e n s o f e x a m p l e s , especially from poetry, a n d a d d s the o b s e r v a t i o n that a n c i e n t scholia often o b s e r v e : 6 be dvxi xoti yag (be is u s e d instead o f yag).

In

o t h e r w o r d s , 6e is the w o r d indicating the causal c o n n e c t i o n that w e n e e d h e r e .

7

S o m u c h for be, w h i c h is left u n t r a n s l a t e d b y C o l l i n s . H e d o e s translate xcd b y ' a n d ' w h e r e a s I r e n d e r it b y ' i n fact' ( w h i c h C o l l i n s s a y s h a s n o b a s i s in t h e G r e e k text). W h y this u n u s u a l t r a n s l a t i o n ? T h e c o m m o n m e a n i n g s o f xcd such as ' a n d , ' ' a l s o , ' or ' e v e n ' d o not m a k e s e n s e at all h e r e . After a stern p r o h i b i ­ tion a g a i n s t d i s i n t e g r a t i n g d e a d h u m a n b o d i e s it w o u l d b e l a m e to c o n t i n u e b y s a y i n g , ' a n d w e h o p e for the r e s u r r e c t i o n . ' T h e force o f xcd h e r e , h o w e v e r , is that o f a n e m p h a t i c particle. It is a g a i n d i s c u s s e d at length in the classic w o r k o f D e n n i s t o n . H e s a y s o n xcd that its m e a n i n g c a n easily p a s s into ' a c t u a l l y ' (or ' i n fact'!), 'really,' ' i n d e e d , ' a n d that for that r e a s o n it " i s often u s e d before intensive 8

a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e a d v e r b s a n d a d j e c t i v e s , " in c a s e s s u c h as xcd Xiav, xcd \iaka, xcd jtdvu, xcd jtoXug etc. S o it m a k e s perfect s e n s e to t r a n s l a t e the line as 'for in fact w e h o p e . . . ' or 'for w e really h o p e . . . ' or e v e n 'for w e v e r y m u c h h o p e that e t c ' A n o t h e r possibility is to c o n n e c t xcd m o r e c l o s e l y to xdx<x, a n d to translate 'for w e h o p e t h a t really s o o n e t c ' 5

6

7

8

J.D. Denniston, The Greek Particles, Oxford 1954 (2nd ed.), 199. Denniston, Particles 169. That Ps-Phoc. does not use yao here is probably metri causa. Denniston, Particles 317.

Pseudo-Phocylides

on the

Afterlife

95

T h i s leads u s i m m e d i a t e l y to a n o t h e r difference b e t w e e n C o l l i n s ' a n d m y t r a n s l a t i o n . H e r e n d e r s xaxa b y ' p e r h a p s ' as a g a i n s t m y ' s o o n . ' H i s m o t i v a t i o n for this t r a n s l a t i o n , w h i c h is in itself p o s s i b l e from a lexical p o i n t o f v i e w , is as f o l l o w s : " P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s w a s n o a p o c a l y p t i c visionary, a n d t h e r e is n o hint in t h e p o e m o f i m m i n e n t e s c h a t o l o g y " ( 7 9 ) ; a n d h e a d d s that ' p e r h a p s ' is t h e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t r a n s l a t i o n h e r e b e c a u s e " t h i s is t h e o n l y t i m e in this passage where he speaks of h o p e " (79). " T h e resurrection of the physical body is a c k n o w l e d g e d as a p o s s i b i l i t y to b e h o p e d for. P r e s u m a b l y t h e a u t h o r w a s a w a r e that s o m e J e w s h e l d t h i s belief, a n d h e affirms it tentatively. . . . T h e t o n e is s p e c u l a t i v e rather than c e r t a i n " (79). I find all this very u n c o n v i n c i n g . To b e g i n w i t h , t h e fact that t h e r e is n o o t h e r hint in t h e p o e m o f i m m i n e n t e s c h a t o l o g y is a b s o l u t e l y n o a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t a k i n g t d x a to m e a n ' s o o n , ' s i n c e as is t h e c a s e w i t h m o s t o t h e r subjects b r o a c h e d b y o u r author, he h a r d l y e v e r d e v o t e s m o r e t h a n o n e o r t w o lines to t h e m , h o w e v e r i m p o r t a n t t h e y m a y b e . S o this line m a y i n d e e d b e t h e o n l y o n e in w h i c h t h e a u t h o r r e v e a l s his i m m i n e n t e s c h a t o l o g y . B u t a p a r t from that, ' s o o n ' m a y h e r e s i m p l y i m p l y that t h e a u t h o r h o p e s that his b o d i l y r e m a i n s will b e r e s u r r e c t e d s o o n after his d e a t h , so that n o a p o c a l y p t i c s c e n a r i o o f a n i m m i n e n t e s c h a t o n is i m p l i e d at all. M y a b o v e r e m a r k s a b o u t t h e p r o b a b l e m e a n i n g o f xai h e r e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n b y D e n n i s t o n that it is often u s e d b e f o r e i n t e n s i v e a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e a d v e r b s , m a k e s it all the m o r e p r o b a b l e that ' s o o n ' a n d n o t ' p e r h a p s ' is m e a n t h e r e . T h e a u t h o r ' s u s e o f t h e v e r b ' h o p i n g ' (sAm^eiv) is n o t e v i d e n c e o f a ' s p e c u l a t i v e ' t o n e , as C o l l i n s w o u l d h a v e u s b e l i e v e , b u t it r a t h e r i n d i c a t e s that t h e a u t h o r l o o k s f o r w a r d to s o m e t h i n g " w i t h t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f confidence

a b o u t s o m e t h i n g c o m i n g to

9

p a s s , " as is u s u a l l y t h e c a s e in early J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n literature. T h e w h o l e p o e m s p e a k s a s t r o n g a n d s e l f - a s s u r e d l a n g u a g e , w i t h n e v e r a t r a c e o f hesitancy, so that a l a m e ' p e r h a p s , ' e s p e c i a l l y in s u c h a vital m a t t e r as t h e n a t u r e o f life after d e a t h , w o u l d b e w h o l l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e . So C o l l i n s ' t r a n s l a t i o n a n d interpretation l o o k s v e r y i m p r o b a b l e . I w o u l d e v e n s u g g e s t that this t r a n s l a t i o n is ruled o u t b y t h e i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t r i u m p h a n t w o r d s OJILOCO be Beoi TEXEGOVTCU ( ' a n d thereafter t h e y b e c o m e g o d s ! ' , 104b), w h i c h I t a k e to e x p r e s s t h e s t r o n g c o n v i c ­ tion that t h e r e s u r r e c t e d r i g h t e o u s will b e e l e v a t e d to h e a v e n w h e r e t h e y will s h i n e like stars ( s e e m y c o m m e n t a r y ad

locum).

Let m e finally a d d s o m e c o m m e n t s a b o u t o n e or t w o o t h e r p o i n t s w h e r e w e disagree. Collins counters m y remark about the 'very u n - G r e e k ' nature of the d o c t r i n e o f t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n b y p o i n t i n g o u t that t h e r e a r e m a n y stories in t h e G r e e k w o r l d o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a d r e t u r n e d from t h e d e a d ( 7 6 ) . I find this irrelevant s i n c e t h e s e stories c o n c e r n e x c e p t i o n a l a n d i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s a n d h a v e n o t h i n g to d o w i t h s h a r e d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s . C o l l i n s a l s o objects to m y s t a t e m e n t that there is n o t t h e slightest hint o f t h e u s e o f o s s u a r i a in the line 9

BDAG 319 s.v. efoti£a> (italics added).

96

Pseudo-Phocylides

on the Afterlife

c o n t a i n i n g the p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t d i s i n t e g r a t i n g the h u m a n frame for h e finds it difficult to see " h o w the a d m o n i t i o n w o u l d n o t a p p l y t o the p r a c t i c e o f s e c o n d ­ ary b u r i a l , w h i c h m o s t certainly i n v o l v e d the d i s s o l u t i o n of the h u m a n f r a m e " ( 7 8 n. 18). A s h e h i m s e l f c o n c e d e s , h o w e v e r , A l e x a n d r i a is still b y far the m o s t likely p l a c e o f origin o f the p o e m . O s s u a r i a w e r e m a i n l y in u s e in P a l e s t i n e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in a n d a r o u n d J e r u s a l e m , o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y e l s e w h e r e .

1 0

They were

c e r t a i n l y n o t a c o m m o n p h e n o m e n o n in A l e x a n d r i a b u t d i s s e c t i o n o f h u m a n b o d i e s for a n a t o m i c a l r e s e a r c h was p r a c t i c e d in A l e x a n d r i a , a n d o n l y t h e r e as far as w e k n o w . T h i s fact m a k e s m y interpretation that ' d i s i n t e g r a t i n g t h e h u m a n f r a m e ' refers to this p r a c t i c e m u c h m o r e feasible. Finally, at p p . 8 3 - 8 4 C o l l i n s i n g e n i o u s l y tries to m a k e s e n s e o f lines 1 0 5 - 1 0 8 , w h e r e at first sight P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s s e e m s t o i m p l y a tripartite a n t h r o p o l o g y a

b y s p e a k i n g o f b o d y , soul, a n d spirit. T h e p o e t s a y s that t h e s o u l s ( ^ ^ x 0 r e m a i n u n h a r m e d in t h e d e c e a s e d (or ' a m o n g the d e a d , ' t h u s C o l l i n s ) ; that t h e spirit (jtveijua) is a l o a n from G o d to m o r t a l s a n d a l s o his i m a g e ; a n d that t h e b o d y (awfm) c o m e s from earth a n d returns a g a i n into earth, b u t that the air r e c e i v e s the spirit (jrveuu.a). L a t e r (v. 111) h e a d d s that G o d r u l e s o v e r the s o u l s (ipuxcu) a n d that t h e s e are i m m o r t a l a n d live forever ( 1 1 5 ) . T h i s is n o t t h e p l a c e to d i s c u s s all a s p e c t s o f this s e e m i n g l y c o n f u s e d c o l l o c a t i o n o f i d e a s . I will a g a i n focus o n l y o n a n a s p e c t u p o n w h i c h C o l l i n s a n d I d i s a g r e e . T h i s is the q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r or n o t ' s o u l ' a n d ' s p i r i t ' are h e r e distinct or identical. I a r g u e d that t h e y are identical, as is so often the c a s e in J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c literature ( s e e , e . g . , Test. Abraham

[rec.A] 1 6 - 2 0 ) .

1 1

C o l l i n s t h i n k s t h e y are distinct entities. H e interprets

the p a s s a g e as f o l l o w s : W h e n w e d i e , o u r b o d y r e t u r n s to dust, o u r soul g o e s to H a d e s , a n d o u r spirit g o e s u p t o the air. A s s u m i n g that H a d e s is the p l a c e is w h e r e t h e s o u l s d w e l l after d e a t h ( w h i c h is n o t explicit in t h e t e x t ! ) , G o d m u s t r u l e o v e r the s o u l s in H a d e s , from w h e r e t h e y will b e a g a i n u n i t e d w i t h t h e spirit a n d the b o d y at the r e s u r r e c t i o n . M u c h c o u l d b e said a b o u t this r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s ' view, b u t let m e limit m y r e m a r k s to w h a t I t h i n k is t h e m a i n p o i n t : It is said explicitly that t h e spirit (jrvEi)u,a) is a loan from G o d t o m o r t a l s a n d a l s o his i m a g e ( 1 0 6 ) . In several o t h e r G r a e c o - J e w i s h t e x t s , this is w h a t is said a b o u t the soul (i|wx*l)- T h a t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y that the s a m e is m e a n t h e r e t o o , b u t a n o t h e r p o i n t s h o u l d b e k e p t in m i n d as w e l l . T h e spirit is t a k e n u p into the air a n d r e t u r n s to G o d b e c a u s e h e h a d g i v e n it to h u m a n s o n l y as a loan. It is to b e a s s u m e d that from the m o m e n t o f d e a t h o n w a r d s G o d rules o v e r t h e s e spirits; after all t h e y w e r e his loan. T h e text, h o w e v e r , s a y s that G o d r u l e s

1 0

Leiden 1988, State ofIsrael, Jewish Burial

11

Judentums

R. Hachlili, Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Land of Israel, 8 9 - 1 1 9 . L. Y. Rahmani, A Catalogue ofJewish Ossuaries in the Collections of the Jerusalem 1994, 2 1 - 2 5 , 3 0 2 - 3 0 7 . C.A. Evans, Jesus and the Ossuaries. What Practices Reveal about the Beginning of Christianity, Waco 2003. For more instances see W. Bousset & H. Gressmann, Die Religion des spdthellenistischen Zeitalter, Tubingen 1966, 4 0 0 .

im

Pseudo-Phocylides

97

on the Afterlife

o v e r t h e s o u l s n o t t h e spirits. W h y w o u l d G o d rule o v e r t h e s o u l s o f h u m a n s e l s e ­ w h e r e (in H a d e s , s a y s C o l l i n s ) w h i l e t h e spirits o f t h e s e s a m e h u m a n s are w i t h h i m in h e a v e n ( t a k e n b a c k a g a i n into t h e air)? T h a t d o e s n o t m a k e s e n s e . O n l y if o n e a s s u m e s that souls a n d spirits a r e identical c a n this a n o m a l y b e a v o i d e d . T h e c o n s e q u e n c e is t h e n , h o w e v e r , that o n e h a s a l s o to a s s u m e that H a d e s = t h e air ( g r a n t i n g C o l l i n s that t h e s o u l s are in H a d e s , w h i c h is u n c e r t a i n ) . A c c o r d i n g to P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s ' c o n t e m p o r a r y , t h e Stoic t h e o l o g i a n C o r n u t u s , in his Com­ pendium

of Greek Theology

3 5 , this is p r e c i s e l y w h a t w a s d o n e b y p h i l o s o p h e r s

a n d t h e o l o g i a n s : TOV &ex6uevov xaq tyvxac, d e g a "Ai6r|v ... jiQocrnYOQeuaav ( t h e y c a l l e d t h e air that r e c e i v e s t h e s o u l s H a d e s ) . A n d h e is n o t t h e o n l y w i t n e s s t o t h i s b e l i e f a b o u t a H a d e s h i g h u p in t h e a i r .

12

So an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n that identifies

soul a n d spirit still s e e m s t o m e to b e d e f e n s i b l e . M u c h m o r e c o u l d b e said a b o u t this fascinating p a s s a g e . M y a i m h e r e w a s m o d e s t , h o w e v e r . I w a n t e d to d e m o n s t r a t e that C o l l i n s ' c r i t i c i s m s o f m y inter­ p r e t a t i o n o f P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s c a n in s o m e c a s e s b e refuted a n d in o t h e r c a s e s b e s h o w n to b e less c o n v i n c i n g t h a n h e t h i n k s . I w a n t to t h a n k J o h n C o l l i n s for t h i s c h a l l e n g e a n d o p p o r t u n i t y for d e b a t e .

Postscript [In a p o s t s c r i p t a d d e d t o t h e r e p r i n t o f his article in his Jewish lenistic

Culture

Cult and

Hel­

( L e i d e n 2 0 0 5 , 1 3 9 - 1 4 2 ) , C o l l i n s tries to r e s t a t e h i s p o s i t i o n , b u t

u n f o r t u n a t e l y h e m i s r e p r e s e n t s o n e o f m y m a i n p o i n t s o f c r i t i c i s m (the m e a n i n g o f t h e c o m b i n a t i o n x c d ... 6E; a p p a r e n t l y C o l l i n s still d o e s n o t k n o w t h e foun­ d a t i o n a l w o r k o f D e n n i s t o n ) ; h e i g n o r e s a n o t h e r (the u s u a l s e n s e o f eAjti^eiv); m o r e o v e r , h e g l o s s e s o v e r m y a r g u m e n t that, w h e n the spirit is said to b e a loan from G o d that r e t u r n s to t h e air ( = h e a v e n ) after d e a t h , it is o n l y to b e e x p e c t e d that G o d t h e n r u l e s o v e r t h e spirits, w h i c h P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s s a y s G o d d o e s o v e r t h e souls. A g a i n , I a m n o t at all c o n v i n c e d . ]

1 2

Many other references to where this belief is attested can be found in F. Cumont, Lux perpetua, Paris 1949, 189-218.

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts C o l l e c t i n g p a r a l l e l s from P h i l o to the N e w T e s t a m e n t h a s b e e n part a n d p a r c e l o f t h e C o r p u s J u d a e o - H e l l e n i s t i c u m project from t h e b e g i n n i n g , a n d u n d e r s t a n d ­ a b l y s o . A l s o a p a r t from this project, several s c h o l a r s h a v e u n d e r t a k e n d e t a i l e d c o m p a r i s o n s o f P h i l o w i t h a specific N e w T e s t a m e n t a u t h o r or c o r p u s .

1

Much

less c o m m o n , h o w e v e r , is the c o m p a r i s o n o f o n e b o o k o f P h i l o w i t h o n e N e w T e s t a m e n t b o o k . D o e s a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n P h i l o ' s In Flaccum

a n d the B o o k

o f A c t s m a k e a n y s e n s e , o n e m i g h t ask, a n d the a n s w e r is y e s . B o t h b o o k s deal for a g r e a t part w i t h e v e n t s that t o o k p l a c e in t h e d e c a d e s a r o u n d t h e m i d d l e o f the first c e n t u r y C E in a M e d i t e r r a n e a n u r b a n setting w h e r e d i a s p o r a J e w s or J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e living. If for n o o t h e r r e a s o n , this w o u l d a l r e a d y b e e n o u g h justification for c o m p a r i n g t h e s e t w o b o o k s . A s i d e from that, a l t h o u g h w r i t i n g ' h i s t o r y , ' n e i t h e r o f the t w o a u t h o r s , P h i l o a n d ' L u k e ' , w e r e professional h i s t o r i o g r a p h e r s ; t h e y w e r e t h e o l o g i a n s w h o w a n t e d to c o n v e y a clear m e s s a g e a n d their ' h i s t o r i e s ' s t o o d in the service o f that m e s s a g e - h o w e v e r different their r e s p e c t i v e m e s s a g e s m a y h a v e b e e n . B o t h are a p o l o g e t i c historians o f a 2

v e r y special s o r t . P h i l o w a n t s to d e m o n s t r a t e that G o d has n e v e r a b a n d o n e d 3

the J e w i s h p e o p l e a n d will n e v e r d o s o . L u k e w a n t s to p r e s e n t an a p o l o g y for the m a i n p r o t a g o n i s t P a u l a n d his t e a c h i n g , a n d h e w a n t s to p o r t r a y C h r i s t i a n i t y 4

as a h a r m l e s s , e v e n beneficial r e l i g i o n . B o t h o f t h e m p i c t u r e their r e s p e c t i v e r e l i g i o n s as h a v i n g a p o s i t i v e o u t l o o k on a n d loyal attitude t o w a r d s t h e R o m a n e m p i r e , a n d for that r e a s o n the a p p a r e n t conflicts h a v e to b e attributed to t h e m a c h i n a t i o n s o f p e o p l e w i t h evil intent, or to m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e s e are s o m e of the more general points of contact between the two documents. W e n o w turn to a m o r e detailed c o m p a r i s o n o f s o m e e l e m e n t s that b o t h w r i t i n g s h a v e in c o m m o n o n e w a y or another. If w e look at p e r s o n s , first a n d

1

E.g., R. Williamson, Philo and the Epistle to the Hebrews, Leiden 1970; B.W. Winter, Philo and Paul Among the Sophists, Cambridge 1997. For apologetic historiography see G.E. Sterling, Historiography and Self-Definition. Josephos, Luke-Acts and Apologetic Historiography (Supplements to Novum Testamentum 64), Leiden 1992. See R W. van der Horst, Philo s Flaccus. The First Pogrom, with Introduction, Translation, and Commentary (PACS 2), Leiden 2 0 0 3 , Introduction, esp. pp. 1-2, 16-17. C.K. Barrett, The Acts of the Apostles (ICC), vol. II, Edinburgh 1998, Ixxxii-cx. 2

3

4

99

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

5

f o r e m o s t to b e m e n t i o n e d is the J e w i s h p u p p e t k i n g A g r i p p a I . H i s role in b o t h w r i t i n g s is m a r k e d l y a n d strikingly different, if n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y at first sight. In In Flaccum

P h i l o tells u s that j u s t before t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e p o g r o m that t o o k

p l a c e in A l e x a n d r i a in t h e s u m m e r o f the y e a r 3 8 , quite u n e x p e c t e d l y A g r i p p a s h o w e d u p in that city. W e a r e i n f o r m e d that shortly before, the e m p e r o r G a i u s g a v e A g r i p p a , the g r a n d s o n o f k i n g H e r o d the G r e a t , as his k i n g d o m a third o f his g r a n d f a t h e r ' s i n h e r i t a n c e , n a m e l y the part o v e r w h i c h P h i l i p the tetrarch, his p a t e r n a l u n c l e , u s e d to r u l e . O n t h e w a y to his n e w k i n g d o m in t h e s o u t h o f L e b a n o n h e m a d e a stop in A l e x a n d r i a a n d tried to r e m a i n i n c o g n i t o , b u t w i t h o u t s u c c e s s . T h e J e w s hailed h i m as a k i n g b u t t h e G r e e k s s t a g e d a m o c k c e r e m o n y in w h i c h t h e y h o n o u r e d a local J e w i s h lunatic b y calling h i m marin,

'our Lord'

in A r a m a i c . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f A g r i p p a ' s role in the e v e n t s o f 3 8 b e c o m e s appar­ ent, h o w e v e r , o n l y in the s e c o n d h a l f o f the treatise. T h e w h o l e treatise h a s b e e n structured b y P h i l o as a d i p t y c h : t h e first h a l f is a b o u t t h e u n d e s e r v e d sufferings that the J e w s u n d e r w e n t in t h e p o g r o m , the s e c o n d h a l f a b o u t t h e w e l l - d e s e r v e d sufferings o f their e n e m y , t h e R o m a n g o v e r n o r F l a c c u s , w h o n o t o n l y let e v e ­ r y t h i n g r u n out o f h a n d b u t e v e n actively e n c o u r a g e d t h e G r e e k s a n d E g y p t i a n s to c o m m i t m a n y atrocities a g a i n s t the J e w s . T h i s s e c o n d h a l f is i n t r o d u c e d b y p o s t p o n e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a d e c l a r a t i o n o f loyalty that t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f A l e x a n d r i a h a d tried to s e n d to the n e w e m p e r o r , G a i u s C a l i g u l a , o n the o c c a ­ sion o f his a c c e s s i o n to the t h r o n e in 3 7 . T h e y h a d to s e n d this d e c l a r a t i o n via the R o m a n g o v e r n o r , F l a c c u s , w h o , h o w e v e r , did not p a s s it o n ; h e s i m p l y w i t h h e l d it a n d p u t it into a drawer. A s P h i l o s a y s , t h e d r a m a t i c c o n s e q u e n c e o f that w a s that " o f all t h e p e o p l e u n d e r the s u n o n l y the J e w s w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d e n e m i e s o f t h e e m p e r o r " ( 1 0 1 ) . B u t h e g o e s on to say: G o d , h o w e v e r , took m e r c y o n us and s a w to it that not long thereafter w e had g o o d reason to think that our h o p e s w e r e not lost. For w h e n king Agrippa visited u s , w e informed h i m o f F l a c c u s ' intrigues, whereupon

he intervened

to rectify

the matter.

H e p r o m i s e d us that

he w o u l d forward the decree to the emperor - w h i c h , as w e later heard, is what he indeed did - with a p o l o g i e s for the delay, s h o w i n g that w e w e r e not s l o w at all in understanding the duty o f piety towards our benefactor and his family; that, o n the contrary, w e had b e e n z e a l o u s in this respect from the very b e g i n n i n g , but that w e had b e e n deprived o f the o p ­ portunity to demonstrate this zeal in time due to the governor's m a l i c i o u s n e s s ( 1 0 2 - 3 ) .

W h a t t h e n follows is the m a i n part o f t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e d i p t y c h , n a m e l y the d r a m a t i c story o f F l a c c u s ' arrest, trial, c o n d e m n a t i o n , d e p o r t a t i o n a n d d e a t h . P h i l o i m p l i e s h e r e w i t h o u t a n y d o u b t that A g r i p p a ' s interference w a s i n s t r u m e n ­ tal in G o d ' s p l a n to p u n i s h F l a c c u s for his m i s d e e d s . N o w , for o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s , w e n e e d n o t g o into the difficult q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r or n o t it w a s A g r i p p a ' s letter to G a i u s that w a s t h e d e c i s i v e factor in

5

D. Schwartz, Agrippa on this king.

I: The Last King of Judaea, Tubingen 1990, is the best monograph

100

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

F l a c c u s ' d e m i s e - it w a s certainly n o t the o n l y factor, to say the least - b u t t h e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t is that A g r i p p a is p o r t r a y e d here (and e l s e w h e r e in the treatise) in a v e r y p o s i t i v e w a y . H e s a v e d t h e J e w s from further p e r s e c u t i o n a n d is the m a n w h o s a w to it that t h e p e r s e c u t o r o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e w a s rightly p u n i s h e d . In the i m m e d i a t e sequel to In Flaccum,

P h i l o ' s Legatio

ad Gaium, h e again presents

this k i n g as a p e r s o n w h o w e n t to great lengths in t a k i n g his responsibility for the safety o f t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e v e r y seriously. H i s c o u r a g e o u s s t a n c e in the is p a i n t e d w i t h fervour in a v e r y long section o f the b o o k (see Leg.

Legatio

261-348).

A s D a n n y S c h w a r t z s a y s , there w e see h i m " a s an a d v o c a t e o f t h e J e w s o f the 6

E m p i r e . " P h i l o p r o b a b l y k n e w the k i n g v e r y w e l l since his brother, the a l a b a r c h A l e x a n d e r , w a s the financier, t h e m o n e y l e n d e r to A g r i p p a , w h o w a s a n o t o r i o u s spendthrift ( a c c o r d i n g to J o s e p h u s , Ant.

19.352), a n d there are g o o d r e a s o n s to

s u r m i s e that, d u r i n g his stay in A l e x a n d r i a , A g r i p p a w a s e v e n P h i l o ' s o w n g u e s t ( h e s a y s , ' k i n g A g r i p p a visited us' [103]). H o w d o e s this p i c t u r e o f A g r i p p a as a p e r s o n w h o s a v e d his p e o p l e from (further) p e r s e c u t i o n relate to the i m a g e o f A g r i p p a p a i n t e d b y L u k e in the B o o k o f A c t s ? To state i m m e d i a t e l y the m o s t o b v i o u s : L u k e p r e s e n t s A g r i p p a ( w h o m o n l y h e calls H e r o d ) as a p e r s e c u t o r himself. In A c t s 12 h e p e r s e c u t e s t h e early c h u r c h in J e r u s a l e m : " H e killed J a m e s the b r o t h e r o f J o h n w i t h the s w o r d , a n d w h e n h e s a w that it p l e a s e d the J e w s , h e p r o c e e d e d to arrest P e t e r as w e l l . T h i s w a s d o n e d u r i n g the feast o f u n l e a v e n e d b r e a d " ( 1 2 : 2 - 3 ) . A t t h e e n d o f t h e s a m e chapter, h o w e v e r , w e r e a d h o w G o d p u n i s h e d t h e k i n g for this. After h a v i n g a d d r e s s e d a d e l e g a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e o f Tyre a n d S i d o n in C a e s a r e a M a r i t i m a , " t h e p e o p l e s h o u t e d , ' T h e v o i c e of a g o d a n d not o f a m a n ! ' I m m e d i a t e l y an a n g e l of the L o r d s m o t e h i m b e c a u s e h e did not g i v e G o d the glory; a n d h e w a s e a t e n b y w o r m s a n d d i e d " ( 1 2 : 2 2 - 2 3 ) . S o m e r e m a r k s are in o r d e r h e r e .

7

Firstly, in P h i l o ' s b o o k F l a c c u s t o o k e v e r m o r e s e v e r e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t t h e J e w s in order

to please

the Jew-haters

in A l e x a n d r i a , as P h i l o explicitly s a y s

(§ 82), a n d it is A g r i p p a w h o s a v e s t h e m ; but in the B o o k o f A c t s it is A g r i p p a h i m s e l f w h o t a k e s additional m e a s u r e s against the C h r i s t i a n s a n d h a s Peter p u t into p r i s o n in order

to please

the Jews

( 1 2 : 3 ) . A n d secondly, w h i l e F l a c c u s '

a c t i o n s a g a i n s t the J e w s t o o k p l a c e partly d u r i n g t h e feast o f S u k k o t h , as P h i l o e m p h a t i c a l l y m e n t i o n s (§ 116), the o n e b y A g r i p p a is e m p h a t i c a l l y said to h a v e t a k e n p l a c e d u r i n g P e s a c h ( 1 2 : 3 ) . It is as if L u k e h a d r e a d In Flaccum

and n o w

r e v e r s e s the roles. T h i s i m p r e s s i o n is further s t r e n g h t e n e d b y a c l o s e r look at the fate o f t h e m a i n culprits o f t h e t w o stories. In In Flaccum

w e see a typical e x a m p l e o f w h a t

L a c t a n t i u s w o u l d later call the mortes persecutorum. De mortibus

persecutorum,

6

Agrippa

7

See also Schwartz, Agrippa

A l m o s t at the e n d o f his

written in the s e c o n d d e c a d e o f the 4th c e n t u r y C E ,

11. 119-124.

101

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

L a c t a n t i u s s a y s : " I n this w a y G o d v a n q u i s h e d all the p e r s e c u t o r s o f H i s N a m e , so that n o s t e m o r root o f theirs r e m a i n e d " ( 5 0 . 1 ) . T h i s is the c o n c l u s i o n o f a w o r k in w h i c h the a u t h o r d e s c r i b e s the m i s e r a b l e fate o f all t h o s e w h o tried to a n n i h i l a t e the a d h e r e n t s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n faith a n d w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y p u n i s h e d 8

v e r y s e v e r e l y by G o d . L a c t a n t i u s h e r e s t a n d s in a long tradition: T h e t h e m e o f the v i o l e n t d e a t h of t h o s e w h o fight a g a i n s t or resisted the (or a) deity (or its w o r s h i p p e r s ) , w h o h a v e b e e n called Beopiaxoi since E u r i p i d e s , r e a c h e s b a c k far into t h e p r e - C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d , a n d there c a n b e n o d o u b t that P h i l o a n d L u k e w e r e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h it. S i n c e H e r o d o t u s there is a long r o w o f s i n n e r s w h o w e r e p u n ­ ished for their impiety, quite often b y b e i n g eaten b y w o r m s (oxooA/nxoPQartog, cf. A c t s 12:23), a c c o r d i n g to tradition; s h i p w r e c k is the favorite k i n d o f p u n i s h m e n t for atheists ( e . g . , D i a g o r a s a n d P r o t a g o r a s ) ; further w e c o m e a c r o s s insanity, b e i n g struck by lightning, b e i n g torn apart b y w i l d a n i m a l s or h u m a n s , b e i n g b u r n t etc. T h e m o t i f w a s t a k e n u p early in J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y (think o f the stories a b o u t the fates o f H o l o p h e r n e s , A n t i o c h u s IV, the e m p e r o r Titus, J u d a s 9

a. o . ) , a n d there c a n b e little d o u b t that, j u s t like L a c t a n t i u s , b o t h P h i l o a n d L u k e s t o o d in this G r a e c o - J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n tradition o f w h a t W i l h e l m N e s t l e h a s called " L e g e n d e n v o m Tod d e r G o t t e s v e r a c h t e r . "

10

T h e significant t h i n g is that,

a c c o r d i n g to P h i l o , k i n g A g r i p p a is the o p p o n e n t o f the theomachos, a c c o r d i n g to L u k e h e is the theomachos

whereas

himself, w h o dies a d e a t h that is typical

o f m a n y ' G o t t e s v e r a c h t e r , ' n a m e l y b e i n g axcoXrixoBetoxog, eaten b y w o r m s .

1 1

T h e r e is little r e a s o n to d o u b t the historicity o f A g r i p p a ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n on b e h a l f o f the A l e x a n d r i a n J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . P h i l o w o u l d h a v e m a d e a fool o f h i m s e l f if h e h a d written t h i n g s that m a n y p e o p l e in his e n v i r o n m e n t k n e w h a d not t a k e n p l a c e . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n either to d o u b t that w h a t L u k e w r i t e s a b o u t A g r i p p a ' s p e r s e c u t i o n of J e r u s a l e m C h r i s t i a n s has a historical k e r n e l . T r u e , it is h a r d to find the r e a s o n w h y A g r i p p a e n g a g e d in p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e early C h r i s ­ tians ( w h i c h a d m i t t e d l y w a s v e r y limited) b e c a u s e L u k e d o e s not m e n t i o n a n y r e a s o n , t h u s m i r r o r i n g P h i l o ' s silence o n the r e a s o n s for the p e r s e c u t i o n o f the A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s . B u t e v e n so b o t h a s p e c t s , A g r i p p a as o p p o n e n t o f a p e r s e c u t o r a n d A g r i p p a as a p e r s e c u t o r himself, are t w o sides o f the s a m e A g r i p p a - c o i n . It m a y b e a d d e d that the historicity o f L u k e ' s story a b o u t A g r i p p a ' s d e a t h is m o r e or less confirmed b y J o s e p h u s (Ant. 1 9 . 3 4 3 - 3 5 2 ) , but that L u k e , u n l i k e J o s e p h u s , stresses that h e w a s p u n i s h e d this w a y not so m u c h b e c a u s e o f his p e r s e c u t i o n o f the J e r u s a l e m c h u r c h b u t b e c a u s e h e a c c e p t e d a c c l a m a t i o n s that i m p l i e d his

8

J.L. Creed, (ed. and transl.), Lactantius: De mortibus persecutorum, Oxford 1984, xxxv-xl. Holophernes in Judith 13; Antiochus IV in 2 Mace. 9; Titus in b.Gittin 56b, Bereshit Rabba 10.7, Vayikra Rabba 22.3; Judas in Matt. 27:5. W. Nestle, "Legenden vom Tod der Gottesverachter," ARW33 (1936) 2 4 6 - 2 6 9 ; see now esp. W. Speyer, "Gortesfeind," RAC 11 (1981) 9 9 6 - 1 0 4 3 . " Many instances in Barrett, Acts I, 5 9 1 . 9

1 0

102

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

divinity, w h e r e a s J o s e p h u s h a s A g r i p p a m a k e critical r e m a r k s on t h e s e a c c l a m a ­ tions.

12

B u t in t h e final analysis " b o t h L u k e a n d J o s e p h u s a g r e e that A g r i p p a d i e d

b e c a u s e h e a t t e m p t e d to e x c e e d his natural l i m i t s . "

13

W h e n w e n o w t a k e a n o t h e r look at t h e A g r i p p a p a s s a g e in In Flaccum,

we

n o t i c e a different p r o b l e m , b u t o f a m i n o r n a t u r e , n a m e l y the k i n g ' s r o u t e from R o m e to L e b a n o n . A s P h i l o w r i t e s , " W h e n A g r i p p a w a s a b o u t to l e a v e , G a i u s a d v i s e d h i m n o t to m a k e the v o y a g e to Syria v i a B r i n d i s i u m , b e c a u s e that m a d e for a l o n g a n d t i r e s o m e trip, b u t to w a i t for t h e trade w i n d s a n d t h e n t a k e the s h o r t e r r o u t e v i a A l e x a n d r i a . H e said that the t r a d i n g v e s s e l s that d e p a r t e d from t h e r e w e r e v e r y fast a n d h a d h i g h l y e x p e r i e n c e d p i l o t s , w h o g u i d e d their ships like c h a r i o t e e r s d r i v i n g their r a c e - h o r s e s , k e e p i n g t h e m straight a n d on c o u r s e . A g r i p p a c o m p l i e d w i t h this a d v i c e b e c a u s e G a i u s w a s his m a s t e r b u t a l s o b e c a u s e it s e e m e d that t h e a d v i c e h e h a d b e e n g i v e n w a s u s e f u l " ( 2 6 ) . Several t h i n g s m a y b e said a b o u t this p a r a g r a p h . S t r a b o (Geogr.

6.3.7 [282]) indicates that the r o u t e v i a B r i n d i s i u m a n d G r e e c e

a n d the G r e e k islands a n d v i c e v e r s a w a s n o t u n c o m m o n at all; P h i l o h i m s e l f d e s c r i b e s it later on w h e n F l a c c u s is d e p o r t e d to the island o f A n d r o s , s o m e 100 k i l o m e t e r s off the c o a s t o f A t h e n s (Flacc.

1 5 2 - 1 5 6 ) . It w a s a l o n g a n d a r d u o u s

j o u r n e y w h i c h w o u l d n o r m a l l y t a k e 2 to 3 m o n t h s . T h e r o u t e via A l e x a n d r i a w a s n o t s h o r t e r - h e r e G a i u s , or P h i l o , is m i s t a k e n , or lying - b u t it is m u c h quicker. It w a s , h o w e v e r , also m o r e risky b e c a u s e o n e h a d to c r o s s large stretches o f o p e n sea. It w o u l d u s u a l l y t a k e 2 to 4 w e e k s d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e w e a t h e r a n d o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s (Pliny s a y s that the a b s o l u t e r e c o r d for t h e p a s s a g e w a s 9 d a y s , Nat. hist. 19.1.3). A different v i e w o f t h e s e t w o routes w a s r e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d b y t h e Israeli scholar Kushnir-Stein,

14

w h o a r g u e s that the n o r t h e r n r o u t e w a s shorter, e a s i e r

a n d less d a n g e r o u s , a n d that t h e r o u t e p r o p o s e d b y the e m p e r o r w a s l o n g e r a n d m o r e difficult, thus i m p l y i n g that G a i u s ' n o n s e n s i c a l a d v i c e h a s b e e n w h o l l y fab­ ricated b y P h i l o . B u t K u s h n i r - S t e i n t e n d s to o v e r l o o k t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e q u i c k availability o f large ships on the n o r t h e r n r o u t e , w h i c h w a s n o p r o b l e m w h e n travelling via Puteoli a n d A l e x a n d r i a ( b e c a u s e o f the frequent grain t r a n s p o r t s b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o h a r b o u r s ) , w h e r e a s o n the o t h e r r o u t e it c o u l d b e a real p r o b ­ l e m ( e v e n a p a r t from t h e n e e d to c h a n g e ships several t i m e s ) . U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , later C h r i s t i a n p i l g r i m s to the H o l y L a n d from the West u s u a l l y travelled b y s h i p via A l e x a n d r i a as w e l l .

1 2

1 5

Barrett's remark that "Luke probably thought of him [Agrippa] as the first Gentile adver­ sary o f the church" (I, 575) is an improbable suggestion. Schwartz, Agrippa 149. A. Kushnir-Stein, "On the Visit of Agrippa I to Alexandria in A D 38," JJS 51 (2000) 232-233. E.D. Hunt, Holy Land Pilgrimage in the Later Roman Empire, AD 312-460, Oxford 1982, 53, 6 3 , 7 2 , 74. 1 3

1 4

15

103

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

T h e t r a d i n g v e s s e l s m e n t i o n e d b y Philo w e r e m e r c h a n t s h i p s u s e d for the transport o f a w i d e v a r i e t y o f g o o d s such as g l a s s , paper, linen, m e t a l s , b u t b e t w e e n A l e x a n d r i a a n d R o m e t h e y w e r e e s p e c i a l l y for the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f corn, since A l e x a n d r i a w a s R o m e ' s m o s t i m p o r t a n t granary. T h e s e ships w e r e 16

e x p l o i t e d by large a s s o c i a t i o n s o f s h i p o w n e r s a n d their collegia.

P h i l o says that

A g r i p p a c h o s e o n e or m o r e o f t h e s e for a q u i c k j o u r n e y to A l e x a n d r i a , w h i c h s o u n d s quite p r o b a b l e . P h i l o also s a y s that " A g r i p p a c o m p l i e d . . . b e c a u s e it s e e m e d that t h e a d v i c e h e h a d b e e n g i v e n [by G a i u s ] w a s u s e f u l . " O n e m a y d o u b t this r e a s o n , for it h a s rightly b e e n s u g g e s t e d that A g r i p p a h a d t h i n g s to d o in A l e x a n d r i a a n d that P h i l o h a d his o w n a p o l o g e t i c r e a s o n s for c o v e r i n g this u p .

1 7

K u s h n i r - S t e i n p o i n t s out

that P h i l o ' s r e p e a t e d r e f e r e n c e to G a i u s ' a d v i c e (in § 31 it is e v e n said to h a v e b e e n his c o m m a n d m e n t ) s e r v e s to d r i v e h o m e the p o i n t that A g r i p p a ' s p r e s e n c e in A l e x a n d r i a w a s n o t o f his o w n c h o i c e , a p o i n t w h i c h s e e m s doubtful; s h e s u g g e s t s that his visit m a y h a v e b e e n intended

to i n t e r v e n e in the J e w i s h - G r e e k

conflict (see § 103!), w h i c h m a y h a v e s p a r k e d the riots for that v e r y r e a s o n .

18

But

in fact t h e r e is n o w a y o f k n o w i n g the actual r e a s o n for A g r i p p a ' s visit. B e that as it may, the s h o r t nautical e x c u r s u s on the b e s t r o u t e is illustrative, in an indirect w a y , for the p a s s a g e on P a u l ' s sea v o y a g e in A c t s 2 7 - 2 8 , albeit that it w a s exactly the o t h e r w a y r o u n d , n a m e l y from a coastal t o w n in n o r t h e r n Israel to R o m e , b u t partly v i a the r o u t e A l e x a n d r i a - R o m e . A c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the story o f P a u l ' s s t o r m y v o y a g e to R o m e , the final stage o f w h i c h w a s m a d e o n a ship from A l e x a n d r i a , indicates that c r o s s i n g the M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a s s o m e t h i n g that c o u l d n o t b e u n d e r t a k e n lightly a n d w i t h o u t careful p r e p a r a t i o n b o t h as far as the c h o i c e o f the route a n d the vessel a n d as far as t h e t i m e o f travelling w a s c o n c e r n e d . B o t h p a s s a g e s s h e d m u t u a l light u p o n e a c h o t h e r as r e g a r d s travel p r o b l e m s in the a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n .

19

Finally s o m e r e m a r k s s h o u l d b e m a d e on s y n a g o g u e s , firstly in relation to t h e reference to t h e ' s y n a g o g u e o f the Libertino? in Flacc.

in A c t s 6:9. T h e r e is a p a s s a g e

53 w h e r e Philo s a y s that " h i s [ F l a c c u s ' ] attack o n o u r l a w s b y m e a n s

o f a seizure o f o u r s y n a g o g u e s , o f w h i c h h e h a d e v e n the n a m e s r e m o v e d , s e e m e d to b e succesful to h i m . " It is h a r d to say w h a t P h i l o has in m i n d w h e n he w r i t e s a b o u t s y n a g o g u e s " o f w h i c h h e h a d e v e n the names

r e m o v e d . " H o w the

r e m o v a l o f the s y n a g o g u e n a m e s in A l e x a n d r i a w a s b r o u g h t a b o u t is uncertain. W e r e n a m e plates r e m o v e d , or e r a s e d (by w a y o f damnatio

memoriae)!

Were

the b u i l d i n g s so t h o r o u g h l y d e s t r o y e d that t h e y w e r e n o l o n g e r r e c o g n i z a b l e as s y n a g o g u e b u i l d i n g s o f this or that n a m e ? W e d o n o t k n o w . A n y w a y , the e l e m e n t

1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

P.W. van der Horst, Philo s Flaccus 117. E. g., Schwartz, Agrippa 74. Kushnir-Stein, "Agrippa's Visit" 230. L. Casson, Travel in the Ancient World, Baltimore 1974, passim.

104

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

o f s y n a g o g u e names

is interesting in that b o t h e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e a n d t h e B o o k

o f A c t s testify to this p h e n o m e n o n . F r o m v a l u a b l e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e in R o m e w e k n o w that s y n a g o g u e s t h e r e had n a m e s .

2 0

T h e r e w e r e s y n a g o g a l c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h d e r i v e d their n a m e s

from p r o m i n e n t p e r s o n s , w h o m a y or m a y n o t h a v e b e e n p a t r o n s o f t h e s e c o n g r e ­ g a t i o n s . T h e ouvaycoYTi AuYouaTTjaiarv (CIJ 2 8 4 , 3 0 1 , 3 3 8 , 3 6 8 , 4 1 6 , 4 9 6 = J I W E II, 5 4 7 , 9 6 , 169, 189, 194, 5 4 2 )

2 1

w a s n o d o u b t n a m e d after the first E m p e r o r ,

w h o is k n o w n to h a v e b e f r i e n d e d t h e J e w s ; a n d t h e ouvaYwyri 'AYQutTtnoicDv ( C I J 3 6 5 , 4 2 5 , 5 0 3 = J I W E II, 170, 130, 5 4 9 ) w a s v e r y p r o b a b l y n a m e d after A u g u s ­ t u s ' s o n - i n - l a w a n d a d v i s e r M a r c u s A g r i p p a , w h o w a s a l s o a real friend o f t h e J e w s , as w e k n o w from literary s o u r c e s . O r w a s it p e r h a p s called after A g r i p p a I, t h e J e w i s h k i n g j u s t m e n t i o n e d w h o h a d lived in R o m e for so l o n g ?

2 2

The

oDvaYcoYti BO^OUUVTIOLOOV (CIJ 3 4 3 , 4 0 2 , 4 1 7 , 5 2 3 = J I W E II, 167, 100, 1 6 3 , 5 7 7 ) w a s n a m e d after a certain V o l u m n i u s , p r e s u m a b l y its p a t r o n , w h o is, h o w e v e r , c o m p l e t e l y u n k n o w n to u s . O t h e r c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e n a m e d after t h e district o r a r e a o f t h e city w h e r e t h e m e m b e r s lived o r w h e r e their h o u s e o f w o r s h i p w a s s i t u a t e d (or p r o b a b l y b o t h ) . T h e r e is a s y n a g o g u e o f t h e Ka^jtnoioi (CIJ 8 8 , 3 1 9 , 5 2 3 , p e r h a p s 4 3 3 = J I W E II, 2 8 8 , 5 6 0 , 5 7 7 , 1), n a m e d after t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s ; a s y n a g o g u e o f t h e ZiBouQfjoioi (CIJ 18, 2 2 , 6 7 , 140, 3 8 0 , 35a, p e r h a p s 3 7 = J I W E II, 4 2 8 , 4 5 1 , 4 5 2 , 3 3 8 , 5 5 7 , 5 2 7 , 4 8 8 ) , n a m e d after t h e S u b u r a , o n e o f t h e most populous quarters of ancient R o m e . Probably also the synagogue of the Katamofjoioi ( C I J 3 0 4 , 3 1 6 , 3 8 4 , 5 0 4 , 5 3 7 , p e r h a p s 4 3 3 = J I W E II, 6 9 , 9 8 , 1 6 5 , 5 5 8 , 5 8 4 , 1) b e l o n g s h e r e : calcar(i)enses

a r e l i m e - b u r n e r s , a n d it s e e m s r e a s o n ­

a b l e to a s s u m e that this n a m e d e r i v e s from t h e q u a r t e r w h e r e t h e l i m e - b u r n e r s lived a n d w o r k e d a n d w h e r e the J e w i s h s y n a g o g u e b u i l d i n g w a s situated. F u r t h e r t h e r e a r e t w o s y n a g o g u e s n a m e d after the cities w h e r e their m e m b e r s o r i g i n a l l y c a m e from: a aDvcr/toYr] TputoXiTwv ( C I J 3 9 0 , 4 0 8 = J I W E II, 166, 113), p r o b ­ a b l y T r i p o l i s in P h o e n i c i a , b u t p o s s i b l y T r i p o l i s in L i b y a b e i n g m e a n t h e r e ; a n d a ouvaYWYfi 'EAiag o r 'EAmag (CIJ 2 8 1 , 5 0 9 = J I W E II, 4 0 6 , 5 7 6 ) , p r o b a b l y n o t t h e ' s y n a g o g u e o f t h e olive t r e e ' ( w h i c h d o e s n o t m a k e s e n s e ) , b u t t h e s y n a g o g u e o f E l e a , a l t h o u g h it m u s t r e m a i n q u i t e u n c e r t a i n w h i c h o n e o f t h e v a r i o u s t o w n s 2 0

For the following see P.W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs. An Introductory Survey of a Millennium of Jewish Funerary Epigraphy (300 BCE - 700 CE), Kampen 1991, 86-89. CIJ stands for Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum, ed. J.-B. Frey, 2 vols, Rome 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 5 2 . JIWE stands for Jewish Inscriptions of Western Europe. Volume 2: The City of Rome, ed. D. Noy, Cambridge 1995. Fergus Millar, in E. Schurer's History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ III, Edinburgh 1986, 96, defends the thesis that these communities "may have originally consisted o f slaves and freedmen of Augustus or of Agrippa," and he refers to ol ex xfjg Kaioapog olxias in Phil. 4:22. This cannot be wholly ruled out. The less probable thesis that the Agrippesioi named themselves after the Jewish king Agrippa I (or II) is proposed, for example, by K. Galling, "Die jiidischen Katakomben in Rom als ein Beitrag zur jiidischen Konfessionskunde," Theologische Studien undKritiken 103 (1931) 353. 2 1

2 2

105

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

n a m e d E l e a c a n be m e a n t h e r e . Finally, there are t w o s y n a g o g u e s n a m e d after characteristics o f their m e m b e r s . T h e r e is a ovvaywyi] 510,

'EBQcdoov (CIJ 2 9 1 , 3 1 7 ,

5 3 5 = J I W E II, 3 3 , 2 , 5 7 8 , 5 7 9 ) ; here o n e c a n c o m p a r e the ' s y n a g o g u e

o f t h e H e b r e w s ' in C o r i n t h (CIJ 7 1 8 ) , a n d also t h e o n e in L y d i a n P h i l a d e l p h i a (CIJ 7 5 4 ) , the n a t u r e o f w h i c h is m u c h d e b a t e d . D o e s it d e s i g n a t e a s y n a g o g u e o f H e b r e w s p e a k i n g p e r s o n s (but their inscriptions are m o s t l y in G r e e k ! ) , or a s y n a g o g u e w h e r e the liturgy w a s in H e b r e w (cf. J u s t i n i a n ' s Novella

146!), or the

s y n a g o g u e o f r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s from P a l e s t i n e , or d o e s it s i m p l y m e a n : c o n g r e ­ g a t i o n o f the J e w s , ' H e b r e w s ' b e i n g t h e self-identification o f w h a t w a s p o s s i b l y t h e first c o m m u n i t y o f J e w s in R o m e by w h i c h t h e y d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s from other (i. e., p a g a n ) religious or ethnic g r o u p s (note that auvaYcoyri w a s not an e x c l u s i v e l y J e w i s h t e r m ! ) ? T h i s last possibility s e e m s to b e f a v o u r e d b y the fact that J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in G r e e c e a n d A s i a M i n o r also d e s i g n a t e d t h e m s e l v e s as ovvayoiyi]

(xcov) 'EBQcdoov (CIJ 7 1 8 a n d 7 5 4 ) . But this, t o o , r e m a i n s an e d u ­

c a t e d g u e s s at best. E q u a l l y d e b a t e d is the n a t u r e o f the ovvaywyi] or Beovcodwowv, ' o f the vernaculi'

BEQvaxA-riaicov

(CIJ 3 1 8 , 3 8 3 , 3 9 8 , 4 9 4 = J I W E II, 114, 117,

106, 5 4 0 ) . It has b e e n a r g u e d that vernaculus

m e a n s bovXoc, oixoyEvrig, h o u s e b o r n

slave, a n d that this is the s y n a g o g u e o f J e w i s h imperial slaves or f r e e d m e n . It w o u l d b e v e r y fascinating o f c o u r s e if t h e r e h a d b e e n a s e p a r a t e s y n a g o g u e o f i m p e r i a l slaves a n d / o r f r e e d m e n . In that c a s e it w o u l d b e c o m p a r a b l e to the auvaycoyfi ALBEQTIVCDV in J e r u s a l e m m e n t i o n e d in A c t s 6 : 9 . the e v i d e n c e w e h a v e for s y n a g o g u e n a m e s in a n t i q u i t y .

23

T h i s , h o w e v e r , is all

24

D o e s all this s h e d light u p o n t h e n a m e s o f the d e s t r o y e d s y n a g o g u e s in A l ­ e x a n d r i a ? Unfortunately, apart from t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f n a m i n g s y n a g o g u e s in itself, it d o e s not, for w e c a n o n l y g u e s s at t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s y n a g o g u e n a m e s . W e r e s o m e o f t h e m called after o n e or the o t h e r o f the P t o l e m i e s ( w h i c h is n o t at all i m p r o b a b l e ) ? O r w e r e t h e y n a m e d after b e n e f a c t o r s s u c h as Julius C a e s a r a n d A u g u s t u s ? W e r e s o m e of t h e m called ' s y n a g o g u e o f the H e b r e w s ' or ' s y n a g o g u e o f the I o u d a i o i ' ? O r w e r e t h e y n a m e d after p r o f e s s i o n s or o c c u p a t i o n s such as s i l v e r s m i t h s , s h i p o w n e r s , m o n e y - l e n d e r s , w e a v e r s , o r o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s that w e k n o w w e r e held by A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s ?

2 5

O r w e r e s o m e o f t h e m called after

the city districts, such as t h e D e l t a quarter, or after the c o u n t r y o f origin o f its m e m b e r s ? We s i m p l y d o n o t k n o w , unfortunately. B e that as it m a y , also in this m i n o r m a t t e r the B o o k o f A c t s a n d In Flaccum

2 3

confirm e a c h other.

For the translation problem o f this verse see Barret, Acts, I 324; also C. ClauBen, Versammlung, Gemeinde, Synagoge. Das hellenistisch-judische Umfeld der fruhchristlichen Gemeinden, Gottingen 2002, 116-117. J. Leonhardt, Jewish Worship in Philo of Alexandria, Tubingen 2 0 0 1 , 9 4 - 9 5 . Cf. the mention o f ' t h e synagogue of the Alexandrians' in Jerusalem in Tosefta Megillah 2:17(3:6). See my commentary on Flacc. 57. 2 4

2 5

106

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

A s far as d i a s p o r a s y n a g o g u e s are c o n c e r n e d , a s e c o n d a s p e c t to b e d i s c u s s e d briefly is that o f their location in the vicinity o f water. It is not a feature m e n ­ t i o n e d directly b y P h i l o , b u t h e s a y s that the J e w s , after h e a r i n g that F l a c c u s h a d b e e n arrested, c a m e o u t o f the g h e t t o a n d " t h e y p o u r e d o u t t h r o u g h the g a t e s a n d made their way to the nearby parts of their synagogues.

of the beach, for they had been

deprived

A n d t h e r e , s t a n d i n g in the p u r e s t p o s s i b l e p l a c e , t h e y cried

o u t w i t h o n e a c c o r d " (§ 122; t h e n follows a p r a y e r text). A p p a r e n t l y , in the v i e w o f t h e J e w s , w h e n t h e r e is n o s y n a g o g u e , the b e a c h is t h e n e x t p u r e s t p o s s i b l e p l a c e to p r a y to G o d . W h a t is t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f this r e m a r k ? It is n o t a b l e that J o s e p h u s m e n t i o n s a d e c r e e from the city o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s p e r m i t t i n g the J e w s " t o offer p r a y e r s n e a r the sea according

to their custom''' (Ant. 14.258). A n d there

is also a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e for s y n a g o g u e s v e r y n e a r to the w a t e r - s i d e , for i n s t a n c e at D e l o s , O s t i a a n d at t h e L a k e o f T i b e r i a s .

26

The water was probably

n e e d e d for purificatory p u r p o s e s . It w o u l d s e e m that " t h e J e w s r e g a r d e d the s h o r e as the n e a r e s t e q u i v a l e n t as p l a c e o f w o r s h i p . "

2 7

B u t w h y is it called ' t h e

p u r e s t p o s s i b l e p l a c e ' (TO x a B a Q o b x a t o v ) ? It m o s t p r o b a b l y refers b a c k to § 5 6 w h e r e it is said that t h e J e w s " p o u r e d out to the b e a c h e s , t h e dunghills

a n d the

t o m b s , " a n d the ' p u r i t y ' of the p l a c e referred to h e r e is n o m o r e t h a n the fact that t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e J e w s w e r e p r a y i n g w a s clear o f r u b b i s h h e a p s a n d far a w a y from t h e t o m b s .

2 8

T h i s is confirmed b y the fact that in Mos. 2 . 3 4 " t h e m o s t p u r e

p l a c e (TO xaBaQWTcaov) o u t s i d e t h e c i t y " is c h o s e n b y the S e p t u a g i n t transla­ tors for their s a c r e d w o r k , a n d Mos. 2.72 u s e s t h e s a m e w o r d for t h e site o f the J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e . "In all c a s e s , the idea o f the p u r i t y o f t h e p l a c e m a k e s g o o d s e n s e as that r e q u i r e d for the d w e l l i n g p l a c e o f G o d or c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h G o d in a q u a s i - t e m p l e s e t t i n g . "

29

T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d also a c c o r d w i t h the later

r a b b i n i c p r o h i b i t i o n against p r a y i n g in dirty or s t i n k i n g p l a c e s (e. g., B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d , Berakhot

2 4 b ) . B o t h t h e p e o p l e w o r s h i p p i n g a n d the p l a c e o f w o r s h i p

h a v e to b e p u r e (from a ritual p o i n t o f v i e w ) a n d clean (from a h y g i e n i c p o i n t o f v i e w ) , s e p a r a t e t h o u g h t h e s e c o n c e p t s m a y b e in p r i n c i p l e . T h i s is a m a t t e r o f s o m e r e l e v a n c e to the p a s s a g e in A c t s 16:13, w h e r e it is said that in Philippi P a u l " w e n t o u t s i d e the city gate to a river, 1 1

euche '

2 6

supposing there would be a

pros-

30

(either a p l a c e o f p r a y e r or a s y n a g o g u e ) . A l t h o u g h there is n o written

A. Runcsson, "Water and Worship: Ostia and the Ritual Bath in the Diaspora Synagogue," in B. Olsson et al. (eds.), The Synagogue of Ancient Ostia and the Jews of Rome, Stockholm 2001, 115-129; also ClauBen, Versammlung, Gemeinde, Synagoge 116-117, 2 2 0 - 2 2 1 . Leonhardt, Jewish Worship in Philo 79. For the translation problems of this passage see H. Box, Philonis Alexandrini In Flaccum, Oxford 1939, 100. S. Pearce, "Belonging and Not Belonging: Local Perspectives in Philo of Alexandria," in S. Jones & S. Pearce (eds.), Jewish Local Patriotism and Self-Identification in the GraecoRoman Period, Sheffield 1998, 104 note 138. See on this question the recent discussion by ClauBen, Versammlung, Gemeinde, Syna­ goge 118. 2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

107

Philo's In Flaccum and the Book of Acts

p r e c e p t to this effect to b e found in a n y o f t h e a n c i e n t J e w i s h s o u r c e s , it w o u l d s e e m that the c o m b i n a t i o n o f the texts in A c t s , In Flaccum,

and Josephus with

the a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s the e x i s t e n c e o f a J e w i s h c u s t o m ( e v e n if n o t g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w e d ) o f w o r s h i p p i n g n e a r w a t e r . M u c h m o r e c o u l d b e said a b o u t In Flaccum

31

and Acts by way of comparison.

O n e c o u l d deal with the role o f the city t h e a t r e ( s ) in m o b riots (§§ 4 1 , 138 a n d A c t s 19); w i t h the list of c o u n t r i e s w h e r e J e w s live (in § 4 6 , as c o m p a r e d to the similar list in A c t s 2:11); w i t h the traditional triad in § 158: " I , F l a c c u s , w a s b o r n a n d b r o u g h t u p a n d e d u c a t e d e t c . " as c o m p a r e d to t h e s a m e triad in P a u l ' s s t a t e m e n t in A c t s 2 2 : 3 ;

3 2

w i t h t h e role o f the personified D i k e in b o t h Flacc.

104

a n d A c t s 2 8 : 4 , w h e r e t h e p a g a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f M e l i t e , after the s h i p w r e c k a n d r e s c u e o f Paul a n d his fellow travellers, react to P a u l ' s b e i n g bitten b y a v e n o m ­ o u s s n a k e b y s a y i n g : " N o d o u b t this m a n is a m u r d e r e r . T h o u g h h e h a s e s c a p e d from the sea, D i k e h a s n o t a l l o w e d h i m to l i v e . "

33

And very much more.

Suffice it for t h e m o m e n t to say that e v e n this superficial s u r v e y o f s o m e e l e ­ m e n t s in In Flaccum

as c o m p a r e d to the B o o k o f A c t s m a k e s clear b e y o n d d o u b t

that P h i l o a n d L u k e lived in t h e s a m e w o r l d , that t h e y n o t o n l y h a d a c o m m o n l a n g u a g e but also a c o m m o n c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k , a n d that a N e w T e s t a m e n t s c h o l a r c a n o n l y n e g l e c t P h i l o ' s historical w o r k s to his or h e r d e t r i m e n t .

31

Cf. also Ep. Arist. 305 (about the seventy translators o f the Torah): "Following the custom o f all the Jews, they washed their hands in the sea in the course of their prayers to God, and then propceeded to the reading and explication of each passage." See van der Horst, Philo's Flaccus 228, for the details. See P.W. van der Horst, "Dike," in K. van der Toorn, B. Becking & P.W. van der Horst (eds.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, 2nd ed., Leiden - Grand Rapids 1999, 250-252. 3 2

3 3

Common Prayer in Philo's In Flaccum 121-124 In this p a p e r I will deal briefly w i t h a p r a y e r found in P h i l o ' s In Flaccum. w o r k In Flaccum

The

is o n e o f the t w o so-called historical treatises o f this A l e x a n ­

drian J e w i s h philosopher. T h e treatise certainly d e s c r i b e s historical e v e n t s b u t it d o e s so w i t h so m a n y novellistic e m b e l l i s h m e n t s a n d w i t h s u c h an o b v i o u s t h e o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e that the d e s i g n a t i o n ' h i s t o r i c a l t r e a t i s e ' n e e d s s o m e qualifi­ c a t i o n . A p a r t from w r i t i n g history P h i l o also w a n t s to c o n s o l e his c o r e l i g i o n i s t s b y m e a n s o f the c o n v i c t i o n that G o d , in his b e n i g n p r o v i d e n c e , n e v e r will d e s e r t his p e o p l e in t i m e s o f great distress (the parallel w i t h the b o o k o f E s t h e r is clear). F u r t h e r m o r e , h e is p r o b a b l y trying to w a r n t h e n e w R o m a n g o v e r n o r o f E g y p t n o t to follow in the footsteps o f his p r e d e c e s s o r . F o r w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d ? P h i l o s a y s that in the late s u m m e r o f 3 8 , w i t h the c o n n i v a n c e a n d e v e n the s u p p o r t o f F l a c c u s , R o m a n g o v e r n o r o f A l e x a n d r i a a n d E g y p t from 3 2 - 3 8 C E , a m o b o f G r e e k s a n d E g y p t i a n s b e g a n a p o g r o m a g a i n s t t h e large J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f Alexandria. Synagogues and houses were destroyed, hundreds of Jewish m e n a n d w o m e n t o r t u r e d a n d m u r d e r e d ; it w a s , in short, a ' K r i s t a l l n a c h t ' e x a c t l y 1900 y e a r s avant la date. S o o n thereafter, h o w e v e r , F l a c c u s w a s arrested at the c o m m a n d o f t h e R o m a n E m p e r o r , G a i u s ( C a l i g u l a ) , s e n t e n c e d to d e p o r t a t i o n to an island, a n d there finally e x e c u t e d . In t h e p u n i s h m e n t o f F l a c c u s , P h i l o sees a proof of divine providence.

1

I m m e d i a t e l y after the n e w s of F l a c c u s ' arrest h a d s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t A l e x a n ­ dria, the J e w s c a m e t o g e t h e r to c e l e b r a t e it. T h i s is w h a t P h i l o w r i t e s a b o u t that celebration: ( 1 2 1 ) W h e n they heard that Flaccus had b e e n arrested and w a s already within the hunter's net, they stretched out their arms to heaven and b e g a n to sing s o n g s o f praise and victory to G o d w h o o v e r s e e s all human affairs. T h e y said, "O Lord, w e are not delighted at the punishment o f our e n e m y , for w e have learnt from our holy l a w s that w e should s y m p a ­ thize w i t h our f e l l o w m e n . But it is right to g i v e thanks to y o u for having taken pity and c o m p a s s i o n on us and for having relieved our constant and incessant oppression."

1

For recent discussions of these events see P. Schafer, Judeophobia. Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World, Cambridge MA-London 1997, 1 3 6 - 1 6 0 ; and J. Meleze Modrzejewski, The Jews of Egypt From Rameses II to Emperor Hadrian, Philadelphia-Jerusalem 1995, 1 6 1 - 1 8 3 . The most recent edition of In Flaccum is A. Pelletier, Contre Flaccus (Les Oeuvres de Philon d'Alexandrie, vol. 31), Paris 1967. The most recent commentary is P.W. van der Horst, Philo s Flaccus: The First Pogrom (PACS 2), Leiden 2003.

Common Prayer

in Philo's In Flaccum

109

121-124

( 1 2 2 ) After they had spent all night singing h y m n s and other s o n g s , at daybreak they poured out through the gates and m a d e their w a y to the nearby b e a c h e s , for they w e r e deprived o f their s y n a g o g u e s . A n d there, standing in the purest place, they cried out with o n e accord: ( 1 2 3 ) "O a l m i g h t y King o f mortals and immortals, w e have c o m e here to call on earth and sea, on air and heaven, w h i c h are the parts o f the universe, and o n the universe as a w h o l e , to offer thanks to y o u . In these alone w e can d w e l l , e x p e l l e d as w e are from all m a n - m a d e buildings, deprived o f the city and the public and private areas within its w a l l s , the only p e o p l e under the sun to b e c o m e c i t y l e s s and h o m e l e s s b e c a u s e o f the m a l i c e o f their governor. ( 1 2 4 ) But y o u m a k e us realize that w e m a y b e confident that what is still in need o f restoration will indeed be restored, because y o u h a v e already b e g u n to answer our prayers. After all, y o u suddenly brought d o w n the c o m m o n e n e m y o f our nation, w h o thought so highly o f himself, w h o w a s the instigator o f our misfortunes and e x p e c t e d that these things w o u l d bring him fame. A n d w h e n y o u did s o , y o u did not wait until h e w a s already far a w a y s o that those w h o had suffered badly under him w o u l d o n l y have learnt about it by hearsay, and h e n c e h a v e less satisfaction, no, y o u did s o right here, so c l o s e by that it w a s almost before the very e y e s o f those w h o m he had w r o n g e d . Thus y o u g a v e them a clearer picture o f y o u r swift and u n e x p e c t e d intervention."

Before w e t a k e a closer look at s o m e o f the e l e m e n t s o f this prayer, it should b e n o t e d that there is o n e m o r e p r a y e r in P h i l o ' s In Flaccum,

and that is the o n e

s p o k e n by F l a c c u s himself. In his p l a c e o f b a n i s h m e n t h e is g i v e n o v e r to great despair a n d finally p r a y s to G o d - the G o d o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e to b e sure - in o r d e r to confess that he n o w realizes that " y o u are not indifferent to the nation o f the J e w s , n o r is w h a t they assert about y o u r p r o v i d e n c e false, for all w h o say that the J e w s d o not h a v e you for a c h a m p i o n a n d defender g o astray from s o u n d opin­ ion. I a m a clear p r o o f of this, for all the m a d acts that I h a v e c o m m i t t e d against the J e w s I h a v e n o w suffered m y s e l f ( 1 7 0 ) . In these final w o r d s the c o n t e n t s o f the entire b o o k are c o v e r e d . T h e idea that the p e r s e c u t o r of G o d ' s p e o p l e is p u n i s h e d in a c o m m e n s u r a t e w a y so m u c h g o v e r n s the w h o l e treatise In

Flaccum

that P h i l o d e v o t e s half o f the b o o k (95 out o f 191 p a r a g r a p h s ! ) to the description o f F l a c c u s ' downfall. Therefore the treatise " m a y b e characterized as the passion story of the j u s t l y cursed a n d p u n i s h e d governor, p r e c e d e d by the story o f his 2

m i s d e e d s a n d c r i m e s against G o d ' s p e o p l e . " F l a c c u s ' p r a y e r s u m m a r i z e s this p e r s p e c t i v e in a c o n c i s e way. A l t h o u g h w e c a n n o t take this p r a y e r into a c c o u n t as it is not a c o m m o n prayer, it is w o r t h looking at in t e r m s of the w a y it m i r r o r s the p u b l i c p r a y e r of the g a t h e r e d J e w s in that in this individual p r a y e r too the e n e m y o f the J e w s e m p h a s i z e s that G o d d o e s n o t a b a n d o n his p e o p l e a n d that it is his 3

p r o v i d e n c e that m a k e s things turn from evil to g o o d . T h i s is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e

2

P. Borgen, "Two Philonic Prayers and Their Contexts," NTS 45 (1999) 302. On providence in the ancient world in general see the short but excellent contribution by R.L. Gordon, "Pronoia," in K. van der Toorn, B. Becking and P.W. van der Horst (eds.), Dic­ tionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, Leiden-Grand Rapids 1999 ( 2 ed.), 6 6 4 - 6 6 7 . On providence in Philo P. Frick, Divine Providence in Philo of Alexandria, Tubingen 1999. 3

n d

110

Common Prayer in Philo's In Flaccum

121-124

i m m e d i a t e l y after the p r a y e r b y the J e w s , Philo s a y s that he will p r e s e n t a n o t h e r p r o o f that " d i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e i n t e r v e n e d " (§ 125). M o r e o v e r , in the v e r y last line o f the w h o l e treatise h e r e m a r k s that the fate o f F l a c c u s p r o v e d b e y o n d d o u b t that " t h e J e w i s h p e o p l e h a d not b e e n d e p r i v e d o f the h e l p of G o d " ( 1 9 1 ) . So b o t h p r a y e r s stand in this f r a m e w o r k of a story a b o u t G o d ' s providential intervention in history in o r d e r to save his p e o p l e from a catastrophic e v e n t and to p u n i s h its o p p o n e n t s . In a certain sense it is, therefore, right w h e n the G e r m a n translator o f this treatise, G e r s c h m a n n , calls In Flaccum

w e see in the o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s o f the Legatio o f In Flaccum,

4

a ' T r o s t s c h r i f t . ' It certainly w a s , as ad Gaium,

the i m m e d i a t e sequel

w h e r e P h i l o s p e a k s a b o u t p e o p l e w h o " h a v e c o m e to d i s b e l i e v e

that the deity e x e r c i s e s his p r o v i d e n c e for m e n , a n d particularly for the suppliant n a t i o n w h i c h the F a t h e r a n d K i n g of the u n i v e r s e a n d the s o u r c e o f all things has t a k e n for his p o r t i o n " (Legatio

3), n a m e l y the p e o p l e o f Israel. So, Philo h a s to

a d d r e s s a real a n d u r g e n t pastoral need. P h i l o i n t r o d u c e s the w h o l e s c e n e by s a y i n g that the J e w s " s t r e t c h e d out their a r m s to h e a v e n " w h e n they b e g a n to p r a i s e G o d . T h e raising o f h a n d s is also m e n t i o n e d in the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the E g y p t i a n J e w s in 3 M a c e . 5 : 2 5 , w h e r e t h e y b e s e e c h G o d to s a v e t h e m from the k i n g ' s p l a n to e x e c u t e all J e w s . In J o s e p h u s , t o o , w e find several r e f e r e n c e s to this p r a y e r g e s t u r e , e. g. in t h e c a s e o f the long p r a y e r o f M o s e s in Ant. 4 : 4 0 . A n d o n e is also r e m i n d e d o f the raised h a n d s c a r v e d a b o v e t h e J e w i s h i m p r e c a t i o n incised o n t h e f a m o u s t o m b s t o n e from 5

R h e n e i a . B u t t h e r a i s i n g o f h a n d s is, o f c o u r s e , a w i d e s p r e a d p r a y e r p o s t u r e in antiquity in g e n e r a l .

6

N o w b a c k to t h e text o f t h e p u b l i c p r a y e r itself. A c t u a l l y there are t w o p r a y e r s , a v e r y short o n e in § 121 a n d a l o n g e r o n e in §§ 1 2 3 ^ 1 . T h e short o n e a m o u n t s to h a r d l y m o r e t h a n a d i s c l a i m e r of m a l i c i o u s p l e a s u r e , ' S c h a d e n f r e u d e . ' F o r this r e a s o n a s t u d y b y the F r e n c h p h i l o n i c s c h o l a r Valentin N i k i p r o w e t z k y , that e x a m i n e s this p r a y e r in In Flaccum,

b e a r s the title 'Schadenfreude

chez Philon

7

d ' A l e x a n d r i e ? " T h e p e o p l e say to G o d : " W e are n o t d e l i g h t e d at the p u n i s h m e n t o f o u r e n e m y , for w e h a v e learnt from o u r h o l y l a w s that w e s h o u l d s y m p a t h i z e w i t h o u r f e l l o w m e n . " T h e s e are p i o u s , p e r h a p s all t o o p i o u s w o r d s from the p e n o f P h i l o , for t h e w h o l e s e c o n d part of the b o o k s e e m s to b e n o t h i n g else t h a n a 4

K.H. Gerschmann, "Gegen Flaccus," in Philo von Alexandria, Die Werke in deutscher Ubersetzung, vol. 7, ed. W. Theiler, Berlin 1964, 124. Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum 725, with the comments by P.W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs. An Introductory Survey of a Millennium of Jewish Funerary Epigraphy (300 BCE- 700 CE), Kampen 1 9 9 1 , 1 4 8 - 1 4 9 ; cf. also W. Horbury, "Early Christians on Synagogue Prayer and Imprecation," in G.N. Stanton & G.G. Stroumsa (eds.), Tolerance and Intolerance in Early Judaism and Christianity, Cambridge 1998, 307. K. Gross, Menschenhand und Gotteshand in Antike und Christentum, Stuttgart 1985, 1 4 - 2 4 ; S. Pulleyn, Prayer in Greek Religion, Oxford 1997, 189. V. Nikiprowetzky, Etudes philoniennes, Paris 1996, 9 6 - 1 0 9 . 5

6

7

Common Prayer in Philo's In Flaccum

121-124

111

g l a r i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n of ' S c h a d e n f r e u d e ' on his part. T h e E n g l i s h translator o f P h i l o , F.H. C o l s o n , w r y l y r e m a r k s : " T h i s is easily said b u t n o t so easily d o n e , a n d if Philo b e l i e v e d that h e h i m s e l f h a d learned the lesson, I think h e d e c e i v e d 8

h i m s e l f . " It is true that P h i l o gloats u p o n t h e series o f m i s f o r t u n e s that c o m e over Flaccus, which he describes with obvious pleasure. Here, however, he says that the Torah o f M o s e s t e a c h e s o t h e r w i s e . M a y b e P h i l o is t h i n k i n g o f the p a s ­ s a g e in E x . 2 3 : 4 - 5 a b o u t b r i n g i n g b a c k the d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s o f o n e ' s e n e m y w h e n o n e sees t h e m g o i n g astray or h e l p i n g t h e m w h e n t h e y c o l l a p s e u n d e r a b u r d e n . M u c h m o r e likely, h o w e v e r , h e d o e s not allude to a p a s s a g e from the Torah, b u t to Prov. 2 4 : 1 7 - 1 8 : " D o not rejoice w h e n y o u r e n e m y falls a n d let not y o u r heart b e g l a d w h e n h e s t u m b l e s , lest the L o r d see it a n d b e d i s p l e a s e d a n d 9

turn a w a y his a n g e r from h i m . " T h e fact that P h i l o ' s o w n ' b e h a v i o u r ' w o u l d s e e m to b e so m u c h at o d d s w i t h w h a t h e says here a b o u t biblical ideas a n d ideals c a n b e e x p l a i n e d , as N i k i p r o w e t z k y s u g g e s t e d , o n the b a s i s o f t h e final lines o f t h e l o n g e r p r a y e r w h e r e h e s a y s that " w h e n y o u did so [i.e., p u n i s h e d F l a c c u s ] , it w a s not w h e n he w a s a l r e a d y far a w a y , so that t h o s e w h o h a d suffered b a d l y u n d e r h i m w o u l d h a v e learnt a b o u t it o n l y b y h e a r s a y a n d h e n c e h a v e h a d less satisfaction, n o , y o u did so j u s t h e r e , so c l o s e b y that it w a s a l m o s t before the e y e s o f t h o s e w h o m h e h a d w r o n g e d , a n d t h u s y o u g a v e t h e m a clearer i m a g e o f y o u r swift a n d u n l o o k e d for i n t e r v e n t i o n . " H e r e the e m p h a s i s is clearly on t h e fact that s e e i n g the downfall o f their e n e m y right before their o w n e y e s c o n v i n c e s t h e J e w s that G o d c a n a n d will i n t e r v e n e q u i c k l y a n d effectively. So the ' S c h a d e n f r e u d e ' - s a y s N i k i p r o w e t z k y - is not a goal in itself, it s t a n d s in the s e r v i c e o f the c r e a t i o n o f h o p e a n d faith a m o n g G o d ' s p e o p l e . T h e i r j o y is n o t a b o u t the m i s e r y o f a n individual p e r s o n , it is a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g a n d i m p l i ­ cation o f this, n a m e l y the merciful intervention o f G o d . " M e m e d a n s ses ecrits h i s t o r i q u e s , P h i l o n n e c e s s e p a s d ' e t r e un t h e o l o g i e n . "

10

W h a t h e a i m s at in his

treatise is n o t to d e m o n s t r a t e a t r i u m p h o f r e v e n g e b u t o n e o f d i v i n e j u s t i c e . T h a t is also w h y at t h e e n d o f t h e b o o k P h i l o s a y s a b o u t F l a c c u s ' d e a t h : " J u s t i c e w a n t e d that single b o d y to r e c e i v e the s a m e n u m b e r o f w o u n d s as that o f the J e w s w h o h a d b e e n u n l a w f u l l y m u r d e r e d by h i m " ( 1 9 0 ) .

T h e longer p r a y e r (§§ 123^4) b e g i n s w i t h the striking a c c l a m a t i o n o f G o d as " a l ­ m i g h t y K i n g o f m o r t a l s a n d i m m o r t a l s . " T h a t G o d is the k i n g o f h u m a n s is a cur­ rent idea, but his b e i n g k i n g of i m m o r t a l s is strange at first sight b e c a u s e it s o u n d s

8

F.H. Colson in vol. 9 of the LCL edition o f Philo, Cambridge MA-London 1941, 3 0 1 . I. Heinemann, Philons griechische undjudische Bildung, Breslau 1932 (repr. HildesheimN e w York 1973), 5 2 6 - 7 , explains this misattribution of a passage from the Writings to the Torah from Philo's lack of knowledge of biblical books other than those of the Pentateuch. This is hardly convincing. Also elsewhere, nomos is sometimes used to refer to the Jewish Bible as a whole. Nikiprowetzky, Etudes 102. 9

1 0

112

Common Prayer

in Philo's In Flaccum

121-124

polytheistic. I f i m m o r t a l s ' m e a n s ' g o d s , ' it w o u l d i m p l y that G o d is n o t the o n l y b u t the h i g h e s t g o d in a p a n t h e o n . It is then a variant o f the w e l l - k n o w n H o m e r i c formula 'father o f m e n a n d g o d s ' in p a g a n literature. A n d indeed, e l s e w h e r e Philo s p e a k s o f " H i m , w h o m all G r e e k s a n d b a r b a r i a n s u n a n i m o u s l y a c k n o w l e d g e , the s u p r e m e F a t h e r o f g o d s a n d m e n a n d the m a k e r o f the w h o l e u n i v e r s e "

(Spec,

leg. II 165). It w o u l d a l m o s t s e e m here as if Philo tries to blur the distinction b e t w e e n m o n o t h e i s t s a n d polytheists. T h i s n e e d not b e implied, h o w e v e r , if w e t a k e into a c c o u n t that P h i l o here m a y d r a w u p o n traditional p r a y e r formulae as w e c o m e across t h e m in J e w i s h prayers such as the o n e by E s t h e r (addition C 23in the L X X ) a n d the s y n a g o g a l p r a y e r incorporated in the Apostolic

Constitutions

(VII 3 3 , 2). In b o t h o f these texts w e see G o d i n v o k e d as ' k i n g of the g o d s . ' T h i s formula is e v i d e n t l y p a t t e r n e d u p o n the originally polytheistic formulations such as w e find in Ps. 95:3 and 8 2 : 1 , w h e r e G o d is called ' t h e great king a b o v e all g o d s ' a n d the like. T h i s is n o m o r e than a verbal relic o f an earlier (polytheistic) stage in the history of Israelite religion. A s u s e d b y the a u t h o r s o f these later p r a y e r s they certainly d o not i m p l y a polytheistic stance. P h i l o e v e n has M o s e s u s e this formula in a p r a y e r in w h i c h t h e great L a w g i v e r a d d r e s s e s G o d as " L o r d , K i n g o f the g o d s " (Conf. 173, in an inaccurate q u o t e from D e u t . 10:17). T h e n follows t h e p h r a s e , " W e h a v e c o m e h e r e to call on earth a n d sea, o n air a n d h e a v e n , w h i c h are the parts o f the u n i v e r s e , a n d o n the u n i v e r s e as a w h o l e , to offer t h a n k s to y o u . " T h e r e h a s b e e n s o m e d e b a t e o v e r w h e t h e r or not P h i l o refers h e r e to t h e four e l e m e n t s earth, water, air, a n d fire, w h i c h d o e s n o t s e e m an u n r e a s o n a b l e s u p p o s i t i o n at first sight. B u t t h e r e is n o w a g r o w i n g c o n s e n s u s that P h i l o h e r e u s e s a p o p u l a r classification to e x p r e s s the four r e g i o n s o f t h e visible w o r l d . H e m e n t i o n s the s a m e four in the s a m e w a y as h e r e also in Vita Mosis

1 1 1 3 a n d II 3 7 , as ' p a r t s [ = r e g i o n s ] o f the u n i v e r s e ' a n d n o t as e l e m e n t s .

A s a m a t t e r o f fact P h i l o n o w h e r e explicitly identifies h e a v e n w i t h fire a n d h e n e v e r m e n t i o n s h e a v e n as the fourth e l e m e n t , e v e n t h o u g h h e k n e w the t h e o r y o f t h e four e l e m e n t s . " S o w h a t is m e a n t h e r e is that the w h o l e u n i v e r s e is called u p o n to j o i n t h e Israelites in t h a n k i n g G o d for his d e l i v e r a n c e . T h i s is d o n e , so the a u t h o r s a y s , b e c a u s e the J e w s h a v e b e e n r o b b e d o f their h o m e s a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e a n d p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s so that o n l y t h e r e g i o n s o f the u n i v e r s e are left to t h e m as p l a c e s to d w e l l . O n e s h o u l d n o t u s e this, o f c o u r s e , to a r g u e that P h i l o c o n s i d e r e d t h e sea a n d the air as p l a c e s for h u m a n s to live in. T h e e m p h a s i s is on t h e h o m e l e s s state o f the J e w s after the p o g r o m . T h e train of t h o u g h t in § 124 is not easy to follow ( w h i c h is partly d u e to uncer­ tainties in the translation), b u t it s e e m s to b e as follows: G o d h a s m a d e a start on the fulfilling o f their p r a y e r s by c a u s i n g their e n e m y to fall d o w n a n d that g i v e s t h e m h o p e that h e will g o on n o w b y also restoring other things for t h e m that they

11

H. Box, Philonis Alexandrini In Flaccum, London 1939, 113-114. O f course, calling heaven and earth to witness is a welLknown biblical theme; see Deut. 4:26; 30:19; 31:28 etc.

Common Prayer

113

in Philo's In Flaccum 121- 124

h a v e lost. A s is often the c a s e in Philo, it is p o s s i b l e for t h a n k s g i v i n g to function in fact as a p e t i t i o n .

12

A l t h o u g h it is clear that Philo has the J e w s urge G o d not to

leave it at that, w h a t exactly Philo has in m i n d w h e n he s p e a k s of the a m e n d m e n t o f things that are still in n e e d o f restoration is uncertain. It is certainly not (only) the d e m o l i s h e d h o u s e s a n d s y n a g o g u e s that he has in m i n d ; there m u s t be m o r e , b u t w e can only g u e s s . D o e s h e e x p r e s s h e r e the h o p e for G o d ' s support in the J e w i s h striving for citizenship o f A l e x a n d r i a , that h a d b e e n o n e o f the m a i n points o f friction b e t w e e n J e w s a n d n o n - J e w s in the p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g the p o g r o m ? O r is it only about the restoration o f the J e w i s h politeuma

that F l a c c u s h a d a b o l i s h e d ?

We s i m p l y d o not know. A n y w a y , Philo d o e s not stress the point a n d m a k e s only a v a g u e reference. H e d o e s e m p h a s i z e , h o w e v e r , in the r e m a i n i n g lines, that G o d has i m m e n s e l y c o n s o l a t e d his p e o p l e by not d e l a y i n g his p u n i s h m e n t of F l a c c u s till after his t e r m , w h i c h w o u l d h a v e g i v e n t h e m m u c h less p l e a s u r e , but by d o i n g it " a l m o s t before the eyes o f t h o s e w h o m he h a d w r o n g e d . " T h a t w a s so important b e c a u s e b y d o i n g so G o d g a v e t h e m a clearer impression, a n d therefore a stronger c o n v i c t i o n , o f h o w swiftly h e could a n d w o u l d intervene, w h i c h is o f c o u r s e a s o u r c e o f great e n c o u r a g e m e n t to the J e w s .

1 3

In spite o f several e c h o e s from the b o o k o f P s a l m s , this p r a y e r d o e s not h a v e close parallels e l s e w h e r e , b e i n g t o o m u c h o f a P h i l o n i c creation. T h e r e are also n o e c h o e s o f s y n a g o g a l p r a y e r s as w e k n o w t h e m , w h i c h is to b e e x p e c t e d since in P h i l o ' s t i m e there w a s n o t yet a n y form o f statutory p r a y e r in the s y n a g o g u e . T h a t k i n d o f p r a y e r w a s a m u c h later d e v e l o p m e n t . S o w i t h o u t w a n t i n g to s u g ­ gest in a n y w a y that P h i l o k n e w the s y n a g o g a l A m i d a h ( o f w h i c h there w e r e in his t i m e at best n o m o r e than s o m e small b u i l d i n g b l o c k s ) , in a sense w e could re­ gard this c o m m o n p r a y e r as a k i n d o f early variant o f s o m e o f the later s y n a g o g a l b e r a k h o t o f the A m i d a h , s u c h as Shomea'

Tefillah

( H e w h o listens to p r a y e r )

a n d Ge 'ula ( R e d e m p t i o n ) , b u t e s p e c i a l l y t h e b e r a k h a h Avoth

in w h i c h G o d is

p r a i s e d as ' S h i e l d o f A b r a h a m ' (or ' D e f e n d e r of t h e offspring o f A b r a h a m ' as in t h e fourth c e n t u r y G r a e c o - J e w i s h p r a y e r in t h e Apostolic H

7, w h i c h is b a s e d u p o n the b e r a k h a h Avoth ).

Constitutions

VII 3 3 ,

T h e idea o f G o d b e i n g A b r a h a m ' s

shield d e r i v e s from G e n . 1 5 : 1 : " D o not b e afraid, A b r a h a m , I a m y o u r s h i e l d " (cf. also Sirach 5 1 : 1 2 ) . T h i s idea o f G o d w h o listens to t h e p r a y e r s o f his p e o p l e , r e d e e m s t h e m a n d is a shield o f A b r a h a m a n d his offspring, is ' t r a n s l a t e d ' h e r e b y P h i l o into a c o m m o n p r a y e r o f t h a n k s g i v i n g that h e c o m p o s e d in o r d e r to b r i n g h o m e to his fellow J e w s h i s b e l i e f that G o d ' s p r o v i d e n c e w a s , is n o w , a n d will a l w a y s be active in their favour.

1 2

C.W. Larson, "Prayer of Petition in Philo," JBL 65 (1946) 190; ibid. 201 for the impor­ tance o f hope in Philo. For other Philonic prayers on behalf of Israel see Larson, "Prayer" 198. See P.W. van der Horst, "The Greek Synagogue Prayers in the Apostolic Constitutuions, book VII," in J. Tabory (ed.), From Qumran to Cairo. Studies in the History of Prayer, Jeru­ salem 1999, 19-46. 1 3

1 4

Philo and the Rabbis on Genesis Similar Questions, Different Answers

Introduction In t h e o p e n i n g d e c a d e s o f t h e C o m m o n E r a , t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r P h i l o (ca. 2 0 B C E - 5 0 C E ) w r o t e t w o w o r k s a b o u t t h e b o o k s o f G e n e s i s a n d E x o d u s in t h e f o r m o f q u e s t i o n s a n d a n s w e r s ,

1

in a d d i t i o n to d o z e n s o f t r e a t i s e s 2

with allegorical explanations of the books of M o s e s . T h e s e two books are n o w k n o w n as t h e Quaestiones

in Genesim

a n d t h e Quaestiones

in Exodum,

of which,

u n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e o r i g i n a l G r e e k t e x t is lost for t h e m o s t p a r t ( t h e y h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d o n l y in a n A r m e n i a n t r a n s l a t i o n ) .

3

Since both works have

suffered

from r e l a t i v e n e g l e c t b y t h e s c h o l a r l y c o m m u n i t y , D a v i d R u n i a h a s c a l l e d t h e m 'the Cinderellas of Philonic studies.'

4

P h i l o w a s n o t t h e first b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r t o raise q u e s t i o n s a n d f o r m u l a t e a n s w e r s to these questions about the Holy Scriptures of the Jewish people. Neither were h i s J e w i s h p r e d e c e s s o r s t h e first o n e s t o u s e this f o r m a t for t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f b o o k s regarded as holy or e n d o w e d with divine authority and canonical status in t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . T h i s literary f o r m is c o m m o n l y d u b b e d ' e r o t a p o k r i s e i s , '

1

5

Only occasionally is the qucstions-and-answers format used by Philo also in his allegorical commentary to the Pentateuch; see P. Borgen & R. Skarstcn, "Quaestiones et solutiones: Some Observations on the Form o f Philo's Exegesis," Studia Philonica 4 (1976/77) 1-16, esp. 4 - 9 . See for an introduction V. Nikiprowetzky, Le commentaire de I'Ecriture chez Philon d'Alexandrie, Leiden 1977, or P. Borgen, Philo of Alexandria, an Exegete for his Time, Leiden 1997. See the edition of the Greek fragments (in the form of quotations by later Christian authors) by F. Petit, Philo, Quaestiones in Genesim et in Exodum, fragmenta graeca, Paris 1978. For a survey o f the textual history o f the Quaestiones see E. Hilgert, "The Quaestiones: Texts and Translations," in D . Hay (ed.), Both Literal and Allegorical: Studies in Philo of Alexandria's Questions and Answers on Genesis and Exodus, Atlanta 1991, 1-15. For reasons o f time and space I leave out o f account here the complicated and much debated priority question: Were the Quaestiones meant as Prolegomena to the allegorical treatises, or were they an 'afterthought' to them? See on this problem, inter alios, A. Terian, "The Priority o f the Quaestiones A m o n g Philo's Exegetical Commentaries," and G.E. Sterling, "Philo's Quaestiones: Prolegomena or Afterthought?," both in Hay, Both Literal and Allegorical 29-46 and 9 9 - 1 2 4 . Both Terian and Sterling defend the thesis o f the priority o f the Quaestiones. D.T. Runia, "Secondary Texts in Philo's Quaestiones," in Hay, Both Literal and Allegori­ cal 47. H. Dorrie & H. Dorries, 'Erotapokriseis,' RAC 6 (1966) 3 4 2 - 3 7 0 . Their article is still a 2

3

4

5

Philo and the Rabbis on

115

Genesis

a l t h o u g h that is not its a n c i e n t d e s i g n a t i o n (the G r e e k s called the g e n r e djtocdai xcd A.i)aeT, or t,r\xr]\iaxa xcd \vozl

[ p r o b l e m s a n d solutions] or nevoel xcd ajtoxpioeT

[questions a n d a n s w e r s ] ) . T h e g e n r e h a s a long p a g a n p r e h i s t o r y that g o e s b a c k to t h e early Hellenistic 6

p e r i o d , a n d e v e n further. A c c o r d i n g to a n c i e n t r e p o r t s , the learned tyrant o f S a m o s called D u r i s w r o t e a b o o k w i t h t h e title 'OuxiQixd £nxr|u,axa ( H o m e r i c ,

c

q u e s t i o n s ) , as Aristotle h a d d o n e before h i m ( AjtoQr|u.axa Ou.r|Qixd), a n d this g e n r e c o n t i n u e d to flourish all the w a y d o w n to P o r p h y r y s o m e six centuries 7

later, w h e n h e w r o t e a w o r k w i t h a similar t i t l e . In later antiquity the e v e r m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s , e v e n d i v i n e , P l a t o u n d e r w e n t t h e s a m e fate as w e c a n g a u g e from the nXaxcovixd ^nxrmaxa b y P l u t a r c h , a n d from o t h e r w r i t i n g s . O f c o u r s e these treatises d o n o t o n l y c o n s i s t o f q u e s t i o n s , they g i v e a n s w e r s as w e l l . T h e s e t w o a u t h o r s , H o m e r a n d Plato, or r a t h e r their w r i t i n g s , h a d a c q u i r e d a s a c r o s a n c t status so as to b e c o m e t h e ' I n b e g r i f f , the summum, encompassing wisdom and knowledge.

8

or r e p o s i t o r y o f d i v i n e ,

In o r d e r to retrieve this w i s d o m a n d

k n o w l e d g e , v a r i o u s e x e g e t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d , a m o n g w h i c h (in the c a s e o f H o m e r at least) a l l e g o r y t o o k p r i d e o f p l a c e , but the m e t h o d o f raising q u e s t i o n s a n d g i v i n g a n s w e r s w a s the m o s t p e d a g o g i c a l . W e k n o w the titles o f n u m e r o u s £nxr|[Aaxa c o m m e n t a r i e s w h i c h w e r e written b e t w e e n t h e third c e n t u r y B C E a n d the s e c o n d c e n t u r y o f the C o m m o n Era, but m o s t o f t h e m are n o w lost. To be sure, e x e g e s i s o f H o m e r a n d Plato w a s not the o n l y c o n t e x t in w h i c h erotapokriseis

flourished; i n d e e d , there is a w h o l e r a n g e o f o t h e r a r e a s w h e r e

this literary form t u r n e d out to b e a p p l i c a b l e , i n c l u d i n g t h e e x a c t s c i e n c e s , philology, im Leben

10

philosophy

11

and jurisprudence.

12

9

( N o t e that t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e Sitz

o f all t h e s e w o r k s is a s c h o o l setting.) B u t for o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s w e

restrict o u r s e l v e s to the g e n r e as a p p l i e d in e x e g e t i c a l w o r k s on a u t h o r i t a t i v e or c a n o n i c a l scriptures, a n d m o r e specifically, in c o m m e n t a r i e s on the B i b l e . In the late third c e n t u r y B C E , the J e w i s h historian D e m e t r i u s , c o m m o n l y called D e m e t r i u s t h e C h r o n o g r a p h e r , is the first t r a c e a b l e a u t h o r w h o m a d e u s e very valuable survey; see, however, also the much older article by A. Gudemann, Atiaeig, PW 13/2 (1927) 2 5 1 1 - 2 5 2 9 , and the most recent one by H.A. Gartner, 'Zetema,' NP 12/2 (2002) 7 7 8 - 7 7 9 , although both of them are restricted to pagan material. Useful bird's eye views are given by O. Drcycr, 'Lyseis,' KP 3 (1975) 8 3 2 - 8 3 3 , and A. Kamesar, Jerome, Greek Scholar­ ship, and the Hebrew Bible. A Study of the Quaestiones Hebraicae in Genesim, Oxford 1993, 82-86. See Gudemann, Aijoeig 2 5 1 2 and 2516; also Dreyer, 'Lyseis,' 832. Most of these works have not been preserved; for the few fragments o f Porphyry's 'OUTIQIXU ^ntrmaxa see A. Smith (ed.), Porphyrius. Fragmenta, Stuttgart-Leipzig 1993, 4 6 7 - 4 7 4 . See R. Lamberton, Homer the Theologian: Neoplatonist Allegorical Reading and the Growth of the Epic Tradition, Berkeley 1986. E. g., Aristotle's Problemata. E.g., the lost work of the grammarian Satyros. " E. g., Porphyry's Symmikta zetemata. E.g., the works of Papinian. 6

7

8

9

1 0

1 2

116

Philo and the Rahbis on

o f t h e G r e e k literary form o f the erotapokriseis the biblical t e x t .

13

Genesis

in o r d e r to deal w i t h p r o b l e m s o f

F i v e f r a g m e n t s o f his c h r o n i c l e o f biblical history h a v e b e e n

p r e s e r v e d in E u s e b i u s ' Praeparatio

Evangelica

(9.19.4; 9.21.1-19; 9.29.1-3;

9 . 2 9 . 1 5 ; 9 . 2 9 . 1 6 ; ) a n d o n e in C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a ' s Stromateis

(1.21.141).

I c a n n o t deal w i t h h i m at length since h e is n o t the subject o f this paper, but, n e v e r t h e l e s s , s i n c e h e is a p r e c u r s o r o f P h i l o , h e d e s e r v e s to r e c e i v e at least s o m e attention. Suffice it to say that h e deals w i t h q u e s t i o n s s u c h as, ' H o w c o u l d t w e l v e c h i l d r e n h a v e b e e n b o r n to J a c o b w i t h i n s e v e n y e a r s ? , ' ' H o w c o u l d M o s e s h a v e m a r r i e d Z i p p o r a h , s e p a r a t e d as they w e r e b y three g e n e r a t i o n s ? , ' ' W h y did J o s e p h r e m a i n in E g y p t for n i n e y e a r s w i t h o u t r e p o r t i n g his w h e r e a ­ b o u t s to his w o r r i e d father in C a n a a n ? ' ' H o w did the Israelites w h o left E g y p t u n a r m e d m a n a g e to o b t a i n w e a p o n s w i t h w h i c h t h e y fought after c r o s s i n g t h e R e d S e a ? ' W h a t all t h e s e (and other) q u e s t i o n s h a v e in c o m m o n is that t h e y deal w i t h o b v i o u s p r o b l e m s that p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s u p o n close r e a d i n g o f the biblical text. W h e t h e r or n o t D e m e t r i u s dealt w i t h t h e s e p r o b l e m s for a p o l o g e t i c r e a s o n s (did a n t i - J e w i s h G r e e k s p o i n t o u t i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in the B i b l e , as did later a n t i C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s like P o r p h y r y a n d J u l i a n ? ) , w e d o not k n o w . h o w e v e r , that t h e H e l l e n i s t i c literary form o f erotapokriseis J e w i s h s e r v i c e for the first t i m e .

1 5

1 4

We do observe,

is h e r e t a k e n into

W e d o n o t k n o w o f o t h e r i n s t a n c e s o f this

g e n r e in J e w i s h literature in the m o r e than t w o c e n t u r i e s b e t w e e n D e m e t r i u s a n d P h i l o , b u t it w o u l d b e u n w i s e to a s s u m e that in t h e s e c e n t u r i e s n o o t h e r J e w i s h s c h o l a r m a d e u s e o f this literary form. T h e fact that P h i l o and, after h i m , o t h e r e x e g e t e s m a k e clear that they stand in a v e n e r a b l e tradition m a k e s it p r o b a b l e that the fact that s u c h s o u r c e s are n o t extant d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n that they did n o t exist. T h e y are s i m p l y l o s t .

Biblical

16

interpretation

W e n o w turn to P h i l o a n d the r a b b i s .

17

B u t w h y the r a b b i s ? A r e they not t o o far

r e m o v e d from P h i l o in b o t h t i m e a n d p l a c e to m a k e a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e m 13

For an edition with translation and commentary of his fragments see C. R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. I, Chico 1983, 5 1 - 9 1 . A s Kamesar, Jerome 84, points out, Marcion's pupil Apelles employed the quaestiones method in his attempt to undermine the authority of the Old Testament. See E. Bickerman, 'The Jewish Historian Demetrius,' in his Studies in Jewish and Chris­ tian History, Leiden 1980, vol. 2, 3 4 7 - 3 5 8 ; and my article 'The Interpretation of the Bible by the Minor Hellenistic Jewish Authors,' in RW. van der Horst, Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Freibourg in der Schweiz- Gottingen 1990, 1 8 7 - 2 1 9 , here esp. 1 9 6 - 2 0 0 . For the continuation of the genre in early Christianity see the series of six articles by G. Bardy in RB 41 (1932) and 4 2 (1933), all of them with the title "La litterature patristique des Quaestiones et responsiones sur PEcriture Sainte." Unfortunately, I have not been able to consult S. Belkin, "The Earliest Source of the Rabbinic Midrash - Quaestiones et Solutiones in Genesim et Exodum o f Philo Alexandrinus," in S. Belkin (ed.), Abraham Weiss Jubilee Volume (1964) 5 7 9 - 6 3 3 [Hebr.]. 1 4

15

1 6

1 7

Philo and the Rabbis on

117

Genesis

m e a n i n g f u l ? A n d is t h e r e , t h e n , a n y r a b b i n i c erotapokriseis

literature? To b e g i n

w i t h t h e last q u e s t i o n , the a n s w e r is y e s a n d n o . T h e a n s w e r is y e s in t h e s e n s e that from t h e p o s t - T a l m u d i c p e r i o d w e d o h a v e a s p a t e o f s o - c a l l e d literature, called She'elot

u-Teshuvot,

Responsa

that is ' q u e s t i o n s a n d a n s w e r s , '

1 8

b u t in

this c a s e w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h early m e d i e v a l texts (7th c e n t u r y a n d later) in w h i c h q u e s t i o n s from d i a s p o r a c o m m u n i t i e s all o v e r t h e w o r l d w e r e a n s w e r e d b y f a m o u s r a b b i s in B a b y l o n i a a n d P a l e s t i n e , a n d t h e s e fall o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e a n s w e r is n o in t h e s e n s e that w e h a v e n o r a b b i n i c literature in w h i c h t h e biblical text is d i s c u s s e d in t h e w a y P h i l o d o e s in his Quaestiones,

n a m e l y in t h e form o f stating a p r o b l e m raised b y t h e biblical text

as a q u e s t i o n a n d p r e s e n t i n g an a n s w e r to that q u e s t i o n . T h a t w o u l d s e e m to rule o u t a c o m p a r i s o n o f P h i l o a n d t h e r a b b i s , b u t it rules it o u t o n l y o n a superficial level. T h e latter p o i n t c a n b e m a d e c l e a r b y t h e s i m p l e o b s e r v a t i o n that, e v e n t h o u g h in r a b b i n i c c o m m e n t a r i e s t o t h e B i b l e , t h e s o - c a l l e d M i d r a s h i m , u s u a l l y n o q u e s t i o n s a r e raised explicitly, their e x e g e t i c a l m a n o e u v r e s a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s o b v i o u s l y a n s w e r s to implicit

q u e s t i o n s , o r s o l u t i o n s to p r o b l e m s , raised b y t h e

biblical text. T h e s e c a s e s h a v e b e e n t e r m e d ' v e r s t e c k t e ^ntrifAaxa'

19

(hidden

q u e s t i o n s ) a n d t h e p h e n o m e n o n c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y c o m p a r i n g it t o a l l e g o r i ­ cal e x p l a n a t i o n s o f H o m e r w i t h o u t explicit specification o f t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e p r o b l e m to b e solved. " T h e r a b b i s often follow a s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e in their e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . T h e m o s t likely e x p l a n a t i o n for s u c h a p r a c t i c e , in b o t h classical a n d r a b b i n i c e x e g e s i s , is that s o m e jtQo3Ar|u.aTa w e r e e i t h e r so o b v i o u s o r s o w e l l k n o w n that it b e c a m e u n n e c e s s a r y to i n t r o d u c e t h e m explicitly."

20

T h e fact that m i d r a s h i m often s k i p c o m p l e t e p a s s a g e s o f S c r i p t u r e

u n d e r l i n e s that t h e y focus n o t o n the biblical text in all its details b u t r a t h e r o n t h e p r o b l e m s found t h e r e . To illustrate m y p o i n t I will g i v e s o m e e x a m p l e s that m a k e clear that in their m i d r a s h o n G e n e s i s , Bereshit t h e biblical text t h r o w s at t h e m .

18

2 1

Rabbah,

the rabbis wrestle with questions

T h e p r o b l e m s t h e y see a r e often t h e s a m e as

See E. Fram, "Responsa," The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, eds. R.J. Zwi Werblowsky & G. Wigoder, Oxford 1997, 5 8 1 - 5 8 3 . D . Cohn-Sherbock, A Dictionary of Juda­ ism and Christianity, London 1991, 144. Gudemann, Atioeig 2 5 1 4 - 1 5 . Kamesar, Jerome 89. For an introduction to the phenomenon o f midrash see G.G. Porton, "Defining Midrash," in J. Neusner (ed.), The Study of Ancient Judaism, vol. 1, N e w York 1981, 5 5 - 9 2 ; idem, "Rab­ binic Midrash," in J. Neusner (ed.), Judaism in Late Antiquity, vol. 1, Leiden 1995, 2 1 7 - 2 3 6 . B.W. Holtz, "Midrash," in idem (ed.), Back to the Sources. Reading the Classic Jewish Texts, N e w York 1984, 1 7 7 - 2 1 1 ; G. Stemberger, Midrasch. Vom Umgang der Rabbinen mit der Bibel, Miinchen 1989. For an introduction to Genesis Rabbah see G. Stemberger, Einleitung in Talmud und Midrasch, 8th ed., Miinchen 1992, 2 7 2 - 2 7 9 . See further L. Haas, "Bibliography on Midrash," in Neusner, Study 9 3 - 1 0 3 , and the recent bibliography in G.P. Porton, 'Rabbinic Midrash,' in A.J. Hauser & D.F. Watson (eds.), A History of Biblical Interpretation, vol. 1: The Ancient Period, Grand Rapids 2003, 2 1 9 - 2 2 4 . 1 9

2 0

2 1

118

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the o n e s Philo s e e s , b u t their a n s w e r s are u s u a l l y quite different. It is essential to o b s e r v e , h o w e v e r , that it is p r o b l e m s in t h e biblical text, a n d quite often t h e s a m e p r o b l e m s , that b o t h parties w i s h to a d d r e s s a n d s o l v e . T h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l g a p b e t w e e n P h i l o ' s QG a n d the r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h on G e n e s i s (Bereshit

Rabbah

o r i g i n a t e d in fifth-century P a l e s t i n e ) is an u n a v o i d a b l e p r o b ­

lem, d u e to the fact that after P h i l o , Bereshit

Rabbah

is t h e first o t h e r J e w i s h 22

c o m m e n t a r y to G e n e s i s w e h a v e (the o n e s from Q u m r a n are by a n d large l o s t ) . A s w e will see, h o w e v e r , in spite o f this g a p , t h e t w o parties a d d r e s s t h e s a m e p r o b l e m s since the biblical text they dealt w i t h w a s (practically) the s a m e , w i t h all its p r o b l e m a t i c e l e m e n t s . B y w a y o f p r e l i m i n a r y r e m a r k s , let m e say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t early J e w i s h biblical interpretation in g e n e r a l . S i n c e I a m n o t a b l e to d o this better than J a m e s K u g e l , the H a r v a r d professor o f biblical a n d J e w i s h literature, did in his w o n d e r ­ ful b o o k Traditions

of the Bible,

I will follow h i m closely in this p a r a g r a p h .

23

K u g e l states that, d e s p i t e the great variety o f styles a n d g e n r e s a n d e v e n inter­ p r e t i v e m e t h o d s i n v o l v e d in the J e w i s h literature o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n p e r i o d , ' u n d e r l y i n g it all is a c o m m o n a p p r o a c h , a c o m m o n set o f a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e biblical t e x t ' ( 1 4 ) . T h e first a s s u m p t i o n is that ' t h e B i b l e is a f u n d a m e n t a l l y c r y p t i c d o c u m e n t ' (15). All a n c i e n t J e w i s h interpreters ' a r e fond o f m a i n t a i n i n g that a l t h o u g h S c r i p t u r e m a y a p p e a r to b e s a y i n g X , w h a t it really m e a n s is Y ' ( 1 5 ) . E v e n t h o u g h this m a y n o t s e e m a natural a s s u m p t i o n , a n c i e n t interpreters tell u s t i m e a n d a g a i n that ' i n p l a c e of, or b e y o n d , the a p p a r e n t m e a n i n g o f the text is s o m e h i d d e n , e s o t e r i c m e s s a g e ' ( 1 5 ) . T h e i r capability to elicit a m e a n i n g from the text that their h e a r e r s or r e a d e r s w o u l d not find t h e m s e l v e s at first g l a n c e , certainly c o n t r i b u t e d to their s t a n d i n g a n d authority in the c o m m u n i t y o f b e l i e v e r s . T h e i r s e c o n d a s s u m p t i o n is that ' S c r i p t u r e c o n s t i t u t e s o n e great B o o k o f I n s t r u c t i o n a n d as such is a f u n d a m e n t a l l y relevant

t e x t ' ( 1 5 ) . T h e lives o f t h e

great biblical figures are r e g a r d e d as ' a g u i d e g i v e n to later h u m a n b e i n g s for the l e a d i n g o f their o w n l i v e s ' ( 1 6 ) . Biblical p r o p h e c i e s are r e l e v a n t to the inter­ p r e t e r a n d his a u d i e n c e b e c a u s e t h e y refer to their situation. T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n ' w a s h e l d to b e true a b o u t all o f the H e b r e w B i b l e , the s o n g s a n d p s a l m s a n d p r a y e r s a n d l a w s a n d n a r r a t i v e s it c o n t a i n e d ' ( 1 6 ) . All o f t h e m , as the A p o s t l e Paul s a y s , ' w e r e written d o w n for our i n s t r u c t i o n ' (1 Cor. 10:11),

2 2

None of the passages from Genesis discussed below is commented upon in the extant Dead Sea Scrolls; see D.L. Washburn, A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Atlanta 2 0 0 2 . Traditions of the Bible. A Guide to the Bible As It Was At the Start of the Common Era, Cambridge M A - London 1998, esp. 14—19. The words in the subtitle "as it was" should be understood as "as it was interpreted." A somewhat shorter and less technical version of this work was published by Kugel one year earlier as The Bible As It Was, Cambridge M A - London 1997. 2 3

Philo and the Rabbis on

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119

not j u s t so as to r e c o r d e v e n t s from t h e past, but to t e a c h u s s o m e vital l e s s o n s for o u r o w n lives. T h e third a s s u m p t i o n is that ' S c r i p t u r e is perfect a n d perfectly h a r m o n i o u s ' ( 1 7 ) . T h a t is to say that it d o e s n o t c o n t a i n a n y m i s t a k e s , a n d that w h a t m i g h t look like a m i s t a k e ' m u s t therefore b e an allusion to b e clarified b y p r o p e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' ( 1 7 ) . T h i s p r i n c i p l e also i m p l i e s that there is ' a perfect h a r m o n y b e t w e e n the B i b l e ' s v a r i o u s p a r t s ' ( 1 7 ) . All o f Scripture s p e a k s w i t h o n e v o i c e ; h o w c o u l d it b e o t h e r w i s e w h e n G o d h i m s e l f is the sole a u t h o r ? ' T a k e n to its e x t r e m e , this s a m e v i e w o f S c r i p t u r e ' s perfection u l t i m a t e l y led to the d o c t r i n e o f ' o m n i s i g n i f i c a n c e , ' w h e r e b y n o t h i n g in Scripture is said in v a i n or for r h e ­ torical flourish: e v e r y detail is i m p o r t a n t , e v e r y t h i n g is i n t e n d e d to i m p a r t s o m e t e a c h i n g ' ( 1 7 ) . A n d since t h e t e a c h i n g s o f S c r i p t u r e are perfect, b u t s o m e t i m e s the biblical h e r o e s b e h a v e in a less than perfect way, this is an indication that ' s o m e t h i n g else must h a v e b e e n m e a n t ' ( 1 8 ) ; a n d the interpreters c a m e to their heroes' 'rescue.'

2 4

T h e fourth a s s u m p t i o n ( a l r e a d y hinted at) is the basic o n e that 'all o f Scripture is s o m e h o w d i v i n e l y s a n c t i o n e d , o f d i v i n e p r o v e n a n c e , or d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d ' (18). N o t o n l y the p a s s a g e s in w h i c h G o d s p e a k s in t h e first p e r s o n , but also texts w h i c h s p e a k a b o u t or to H i m , or not e v e n that, are r e g a r d e d as inspired b y H i m and, therefore, infallible. T h e n o t i o n o f the d i v i n e a u t h o r s h i p o f all o f the B i b l e is not often explicitly m e n t i o n e d b u t it u n d e r l i e s m o s t if n o t all o f a n c i e n t ( J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n ) biblical interpretation. I c a n n o t refrain from q u o t i n g in full K u g e l ' s o w n s u m m a r y : C o n v i n c e d that Scripture w a s a fundamentally cryptic d o c u m e n t , they scrutinized its e v e r y detail in search o f hidden m e a n i n g . That m e a n i n g w a s to b e , b y definition, relevant to the situation o f the interpreter and his listeners, not s o m e insight into the historical circumstances in w h i c h the text w a s originally written, but a m e s s a g e o f immediate value and applicability, either a t i m e l e s s moral truth or a l a w to be o b s e r v e d in o n e particular fashion or s o m e t h i n g bearing in s o m e other w a y o n the present or the immediate future. In searching for such a m e s s a g e , the interpreter could rest assured that n o detail in Scripture's manner o f speaking w a s insignificant, nor w o u l d there b e any i n c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n what is said in o n e place and what is said in another, nor any l e s s o n that contradicted right thinking. For that reason, any apparent contradiction, or unnecessary detail or repetition or e v e n an emphatic turn o f phrase, s e e m e d to be an invitation to the interpreter to look d e e p l y into the text's w o r d s and so d i s c o v e r its real m e a n i n g , the hidden, relevant, perfect truth that o n l y befit the w o r d o f G o d ' ( 1 9 ) .

F o r o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s it is i m p o r t a n t to e m p h a s i z e that it is e s p e c i a l l y t h e first a s s u m p t i o n , a b o u t the c r y p t i c n a t u r e a n d t h e h i d d e n m e a n i n g o f t h e biblical text, that is r e l e v a n t to o u r t o p i c b e c a u s e it i m p l i e s that the text lays a p r o b l e m 2 4

Philo himself gives a fine instance in his interpretation o f Gen. 20:2, where out of fear Abraham says about his wife that she is his sister. In QG 4.60 he emphatically states that not a streak of impiety should come upon us by thinking unworthy things about the patriarch, whereupon he goes on to explain the deeper sense of Abraham's remark.

120

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before or p o s e s a q u e s t i o n to t h e interpreter, w h i c h h e h a s to s o l v e or answer. In that s e n s e , m u c h of a n c i e n t J e w i s h interpretation o f the B i b l e is implicitly o f an erotapokriseis

n a t u r e . L e t us see if w e c a n find o u t to w h i c h d e g r e e t h e implicit

q u e s t i o n s o f the rabbis c o r r e s p o n d to or differ from t h e explicit o n e s o f P h i l o .

25

F o r practical r e a s o n s I will restrict m y i n v e s t i g a t i o n to five illustrative p a s s a g e s from the first five c h a p t e r s o f G e n e s i s .

The

26

texts

T h e first e x a m p l e is relatively short a n d s i m p l e . It c o n c e r n s G e n . 2:17, w h e r e G o d s a y s to A d a m that, if h e eats from the tree o f k n o w l e d g e , h e will surely die. T h e H e b r e w h a s moth

tamuth,

' y o u will die ( b y ) a d e a t h , ' w h i c h is a c u r r e n t

i d i o m in biblical H e b r e w to indicate e m p h a s i s ( ' y o u will surely d i e ' ) . T h e L X X translates r a t h e r literally w i t h 0avdxqj djio0aveia0e. It is the o c c u r r e n c e o f t w o w o r d s (instead o f o n e ) d e s i g n a t i n g d e a t h or d y i n g that is the riddle to b e s o l v e d h e r e , for it c a n n o t b e superfluous, it surely m u s t h a v e a d e e p e r m e a n i n g . T h e r a b b i s are quite b r i e f h e r e . In Gen.R.

16.6 t h e y s i m p l y state that the t w o w o r d s

for d e a t h indicate that it is n o t o n l y A d a m a n d E v e w h o will die as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f their t r a n s g r e s s i o n , b u t also all their d e s c e n d a n t s , /'. e., h u m a n i t y as a w h o l e . Philo has a more elaborate answer: For worthy m e n , death is the b e g i n n i n g o f another life. For life is twofold: o n e is the corruptible life, in a body, the other the incorruptible, without a body. Consequently, o n l y the evil man dies by death; e v e n w h e n he breathes, he has already b e e n buried in a d v a n c e b e c a u s e he did not preserve in h i m s e l f any spark o f the true life, that is, e x c e l l e n c e o f character (xa^oxayaOia). A meritorious and worthy man, h o w e v e r , d o e s not die b y death, but after a l o n g life he p a s s e s a w a y to eternity (QG

1.16).

It is clear that for P h i l o t h e t w o w o r d s refer to t w o sorts o f d e a t h , a p h y s i c a l o n e a n d a spiritual o n e , the latter b e i n g w h o l l y i n d e p e n d a n t from the b o d y . R e a l life is a spiritual life that c a n also b e lived w i t h o u t a body. F o r a p e r s o n w h o lives that life, d e a t h is n o t d e a t h but a transition to eternal life; a b a d p e r s o n , h o w e v e r , h a s a l r e a d y d i e d a spiritual d e a t h , w h i c h will b e f o l l o w e d b y a p h y s i c a l o n e . T h e s e P l a t o n i c ideas are w h o l l y a b s e n t from t h e s o b e r e x p l a n a t i o n b y t h e r a b b i s . O u r s e c o n d e x a m p l e is G e n . 3 : 3 , w h e r e a c c o r d i n g to t h e H e b r e w text E v e s a y s to t h e s e r p e n t that G o d h a d said, ' Y o u shall n o t eat o f the fruit o f t h e tree that is 2 5

For another brief comparison of Philo with rabbinic midrash, see D.T. Runia, 'Further Observations on the Structure of Philo's Allegorical Treatises,' in his Exegesis and Philosophy. Studies on Philo of Alexandria, Aldershot 1990, 117-119. In the following I use the translation of Philo's QG by R. Marcus in the first Supplement to the LCL edition, London - Cambridge M A 1953; and the French translation by Ch. Mercier in vol. 34a of the series Les oeuvres de Philon d'Alexandrie, Paris 1979. For Gen.R. I used H. Freedman's translation in vol. 1 o f Midrash Rabbah, London 1939; and J. Neusner, Genesis Rabbah. The Judaic Commentary to the Book of Genesis, vol. 1, Atlanta 1985. All translations were slightly modified by me for clarity's sake. 2 6

Philo and the Rabbis on

121

Genesis

in t h e m i d d l e o f the g a r d e n , n o r shall y o u t o u c h it, or y o u shall d i e . ' In QG 1.35, P h i l o raises the q u e s t i o n o f w h y , w h e r e a s G o d h i m s e l f h a d o n l y said that t h e y s h o u l d not eat from that tree ( G e n . 2 : 1 7 ) , E v e n o w a d d s the extra p r o h i b i t i o n o f not e v e n t o u c h i n g the tree. S i n c e o f c o u r s e that c a n n o t b e j u s t a c c i d e n t a l , the interpreter is b o u n d to look for its m e a n i n g . P h i l o ' s a n s w e r is as follows: First, b e c a u s e taste - and actually e v e r y sense perception - is naturally brought about by contact. S e c o n d , (she said this) for the severe punishment o f those w h o have practised this. For if e v e n touching (the tree) w a s forbidden, h o w m u c h greater a crime w o u l d those h a v e c o m m i t t e d w h o , in addition to touching it, also ate o f it and e n j o y e d it? Would they not have c o n d e m n e d t h e m s e l v e s and brought punishment d o w n upon t h e m s e l v e s ?

It is clear that a c c o r d i n g to P h i l o ' s s e c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n E v e ' s a d d i t i o n to G o d ' s original p r o h i b i t i o n w a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f a w e l l - k n o w n h a l a k h i c p r i n c i p l e that the r a b b i s w o u l d later call seyag

la-Torah,

a fence a r o u n d the T o r a h , i.e., an

injunction in t h e form o f a stringent intensification o f t h e law e n a c t e d to safe­ g u a r d the o b s e r v a n c e o f the c o m m a n d m e n t s .

2 7

This principle, widely accepted

in postbiblical J u d a i s m , is h e r e r e t r i e v e d b y P h i l o from S c r i p t u r e itself. W h a t d o the rabbis m a k e o f this v e r s e ? In Gen.R.

19.3 t h e y c o m m e n t u p o n

it as follows: It is written, ' D o not add to H i s w o r d s , lest H e reprove y o u and y o u b e found a liar' (Prov. 30:6). R. H i y y a taught, 'It m e a n s that o n e should not m a k e the fence bigger than its foundation, b e c a u s e it m a y then fall and destroy the plants. T h e H o l y O n e , b l e s s e d be H e , had said, "For o n the day o n w h i c h y o u eat from it, y o u shall surely die" (Gen. 2:17), but she did not say that but " G o d said: You shall not eat from it and y o u shall not touch it." W h e n the snake s a w that she w a s lying, he took her and p u s h e d here against the tree. H e said to her, "Have y o u n o w died? Just as y o u did not die by touching it, y o u will not die w h e n y o u eat o f it.'"

It is v e r y interesting to see that the r a b b i s , t o o , see in this v e r s e a reference to the p r i n c i p l e o f the fence a r o u n d t h e T o r a h , b u t in quite a different w a y : T h e y say that in fact E v e w a s lying - a traditional role o f E v e in r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e

28

- and

that m a y b e seen from the fact that she m a d e the fence b i g g e r than its foundation. T h a t is to say, t h e fact that t h e w o r d s ' o r y o u shall d i e ' follow i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n t h e w o r d s ' n e i t h e r shall y o u t o u c h it' s u g g e s t s that E v e i m p l i e d t h a t it w a s not so m u c h the e a t i n g as the t o u c h i n g that w o u l d entail their d e a t h , w h e r e a s G o d h a d explicitly said that it w a s t h e e a t i n g o f the fruit that w o u l d d o so. T h u s she m a d e the fence ( n o t t o u c h i n g ) b i g g e r than the f o u n d a t i o n ( n o t e a t i n g ) . S o it was a fence but u s e d in a c o m p l e t e l y w r o n g m a n n e r b y this w o m a n w h o t h u s g a v e the serpent the o p p o r t u n i t y to p r o v e that she w a s m i s t a k e n : h e p u s h e d h e r against the tree a n d she did not die. P h i l o a p p r o v e s o f the fact that t h e first w o m a n a l r e a d y

2 7

On the concept of the 'fence around the Torah' see E.E. Urbach, The Halakhah. Sources and Development, Jerusalem 1986, 7 with the notes at 3 6 1 . See, e.g., N.M. Hyman, Biblical Women in the Midrash, Northvale 1997, 5 - 1 0 . 2 8

Its

122

Philo and the Rabbis on

f o r m u l a t e d the p r i n c i p l e o f the seyag la-Torah,

Genesis

b u t t h e r a b b i s d i s a p p r o v e d o f the

fact that s h e m i s a p p l i e d it b y m a k i n g it m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e p r i n c i p a l thing, t h u s o p e n i n g t h e g a t e to the devil. A n o t h e r m i d r a s h e v e n g o e s so far as m a k i n g E v e think (after s h e n o t i c e d that t o u c h i n g t h e tree w a s n o t lethal): ' S o all t h e t h i n g s that m y h u s b a n d h a s told m e are j u s t l i e s ! ' (Avoth deR. Nathan

rec. A 1).

H e r e a n o t h e r p r o b l e m is s o l v e d , n a m e l y the fact that G o d g a v e his p r o h i b i t i o n to eat from the tree to A d a m (in G e n . 2 : 1 7 ) before

the creation o f E v e (in G e n .

2 : 2 2 ) , so E v e c a n n o t h a v e h e a r d it h e r s e l f a n d h e n c e m u s t h a v e h e a r d it from A d a m , w h o is, therefore, a liar in h e r view, a l t h o u g h in the e y e s o f the rabbis h e is t h e i n v e n t o r o f the p r i n c i p l e o f the fence a r o u n d t h e T o r a h .

29

O u r third e x a m p l e is G e n . 3:9 w h e r e , after t h e fall, G o d called to A d a m a n d said to h i m , ' W h e r e are y o u ? ' T h i s is at first sight an u n p a l a t a b l e u t t e r a n c e o n G o d ' s part s i n c e H e is s u p p o s e d to b e o m n i s c i e n t . O f c o u r s e H e k n e w w h e r e A d a m w a s ! H e n c e P h i l o raises the q u e s t i o n , ' W h y d o e s H e w h o k n o w s all t h i n g s a s k A d a m , " W h e r e are y o u ? " , a n d w h y d o e s h e n o t also a s k the w o m a n ? ' H i s a n s w e r is as f o l l o w s : T h e things said appear to b e not a question but a kind o f threat and reproach: ' W h e r e are y o u n o w ! From what g o o d have y o u r e m o v e d yourself, o man! G i v i n g up immortality and a b l e s s e d life, y o u have g o n e over to death and unhappiness, in w h i c h y o u h a v e b e e n buried.' A s to the w o m a n , H e did not consider it w o r t h w i l e to question her s i n c e she w a s the b e g i n n i n g o f evil and led him ( A d a m ) into a life o f v i l e n e s s (QG

1.45).

G o d is t h u s s a v e d from the c h a r g e o f i g n o r a n c e o f the w h e r e a b o u t s o f his c r e a t u r e s . ' W h e r e are y o u ? ' m e a n s actually, ' W h a t - for G o d ' s s a k e - h a v e y o u d o n e ? ! ' ' W h a t a n awful situation y o u h a v e m a n o e u v e r e d y o u r s e l f i n t o ! ' A n d h e s a y s this o n l y to A d a m since E v e , the s o u r c e o f all evil, is not e v e n w o r t h b e i n g s p o k e n to b y G o d .

3 0

W h a t d o t h e r a b b i s s a y ? In Gen.R. that t h e biblical ayyekkah

19.9 they p l a y w i t h t h e p u n c t u a t i o n in

( ' w h e r e are y o u ? ' ) is r e a d as ekhah,

' h o w , ' u s e d in

e x c l a m a t i o n : ' H o w are y o u ? H o w is it p o s s i b l e that earlier y o u followed m y will, b u t n o w t h e will o f t h e s e r p e n t ? ! ' A n d l i k e w i s e , a l t h o u g h slightly different, the T a r g u m P s e u d o - J o n a t h a n translates this v e r s e as ' H o w c o u l d y o u i m a g i n e it p o s s i b l e to h i d e from m e ? ! ' S o h e r e a g a i n w e see that P h i l o a n d t h e r a b b i s t a c k l e the s a m e p r o b l e m in the biblical text ( h o w c o u l d G o d p o s s i b l y say, ' W h e r e are y o u ? ' ) a n d p r e s e n t s o l u t i o n s that are o n l y m a r g i n a l l y different, e x c e p t for t h e fact that P h i l o h e r e , a l m o s t in p a s s i n g , s o l v e s a n o t h e r p r o b l e m in the biblical text - w h y , if b o t h A d a m a n d E v e h i d e in the g a r d e n , d o e s G o d talk o n l y to A d a m ? 2 9

A Christian example of this exegesis, from Ambrose of Milan, is quoted by Kugel in Traditions 129. For further instances see A. Louth, Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture. Old Testament, vol. 1: Genesis l-ll, Downers Grove 2 0 0 1 , 8 4 - 8 5 . There is a parallel to this passage in Philo's Leg. 3 . 4 9 - 5 0 , on which see A. Measson & J. Cazeaux, "From Grammar to Discourse: A Study of the Quaestiones in Genesim in Relation to the Treatises," in Hay, Both Literal and Allegorical 145. 3 0

Philo and the Rabbis on

123

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- b y a d d i n g the p u n g e n t c o m m e n t that G o d did n o t find E v e w o r t h w i l e to talk to a n y m o r e , p r o b a b l y i m p l y i n g that the B i b l e d e n i e s that real c o n t a c t b e t w e e n w o m e n a n d the d i v i n e w o r l d is p o s s i b l e .

31

A fourth e x a m p l e : G e n . 4 : 1 5 states that the L o r d said that w h o e v e r kills C a i n w o u l d suffer a s e v e n f o l d p u n i s h m e n t a n d that G o d p u t a m a r k on C a i n so that n o o n e w h o c a m e u p o n h i m w o u l d kill h i m . It is not h a r d to g u e s s w h i c h q u e s t i o n s are raised b y this text. P h i l o formulates t h e f o l l o w i n g o n e s (in QG 1.75-6):

32

W h y shall a n y o n e w h o kills C a i n suffer s e v e n f o l d p u n i s h m e n t ? A n d

w h y is a sign p l a c e d u p o n t h e fratricide so that a n y w h o m e e t s h i m will not kill h i m , w h e r e a s it w o u l d h a v e b e e n fitting to d o the o p p o s i t e a n d h a n d h i m o v e r to s o m e o n e for d e s t r u c t i o n ? A s w e will see, the r a b b i s deal w i t h the s a m e t w o problems.

3 3

P h i l o ' s a n s w e r s are long a n d c o m p l i c a t e d a n d I will r e n d e r t h e m in a

simplified a n d a b b r e v i a t e d form. T h e s e v e n f o l d p u n i s h m e n t is e x p l a i n e d b y h i m as referring to t h e s e v e n s u b d i v i s i o n s o f the irrational part o f t h e soul (the five s e n s e s , t h e o r g a n o f s p e e c h a n d t h e s e x u a l o r g a n ) , the e i g h t h d i v i s i o n , h o w e v e r , b e i n g the (indivisible) rational part, the intellect. T h e s e v e n parts, irrational as t h e y are, are the c a u s e s o f all evil a n d for t h a t r e a s o n h a v e to b e p u n i s h e d b y the h i g h e s t part o f t h e soul, t h e i n t e l l e c t .

34

T h i s is a perfectly G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l

r e a d i n g o f the biblical text w h i c h s o l v e s an o t h e r w i s e (in P h i l o ' s e y e s ) i n s o l u b l e problem. T h e r a b b i s l e a v e t h e p r o b l e m o f ' s e v e n f o l d p u n i s h m e n t ' for w h a t it is (they did n o t h a v e a typically G r e e k sevenfold d i v i s i o n o f t h e irrational part o f the soul) a n d instead t h e y focus on the overall t h e m e that C a i n ' s m u r d e r e r s will t h e m s e l v e s b e p u n i s h e d . W h y is that? H e r e t h e y resort to a w e l l - k n o w n r a b b i n i c d e v i c e called 'al tiqre: ' d o n o t r e a d ' (/. e., d o not read this b u t read that). T h e biblical text h a s , " T h e r e f o r e (lakeri),

w h o e v e r kills C a i n e t c . " In Gen.R.

22.12,

o n e o f the r a b b i s s u g g e s t s , ' T h e cattle, b e a s t s , a n d b i r d s a s s e m b l e d to d e m a n d j u s t i c e for A b e l [the r e a s o n b e i n g that, s i n c e n o o t h e r h u m a n s w e r e t h e r e as yet, t h e a n i m a l s w o u l d t a k e v e n g e a n c e . C a i n w a s afraid a n d for that r e a s o n G o d said to h i m : ] "I say to y o u [ r e a d i n g laken as lakh ani (to y o u I [say]), w h o e v e r kills C a i n . . . " [thus a s s u r i n g h i m that h e n e e d h a v e n o fear o f a n i m a l s ] . B u t a n o t h e r rabbi read the w o r d laken as lo'ken,

3 1

' n o t in this w a y '

3 5

a n d interpreted

D. Sly, Philo's Perception of Women, Atlanta 1990. See on this passage also J. Mansfeld, 'Heraclitus, Empedocles, and Others in a Middle Platonist Cento in Philo of Alexandria,' in his Studies in Later Greek Philosophy and Gnosti­ cism, Aldershot 1989, 1 3 1 - 1 5 6 . Christian parallels in Louth, Ancient Christian Commentary 108. More is said by Philo on this topic but the Armenian text is so obscure (and most prob­ ably corrupt) that only the vague outlines of what he is asserting can be discerned. These are rendered in the text above. It is interesting to see that both the L X X and the Vulgate read here 'not in this way' (ov% oiixcog, non sic), as do also Symmachus and the Peshitta; see A. Salvesen, Symmachus in the Pentateuch, Manchester 1991, 24. 3 2

3 3

3 4

3 5

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the p a s s a g e as follows: C a i n ' s j u d g e m e n t s h o u l d not b e like the j u d g e m e n t o f o t h e r (future) m u r d e r e r s , b e c a u s e he killed w h i l e h e h a d n o o n e from w h o m to learn (the c o n s e q u e n c e s of his d e e d ) . B u t from n o w o n [ p e o p l e d o k n o w t h e s e c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d for that r e a s o n ] w h o e v e r kills a p e r s o n shall b e put to d e a t h . '

3 6

T h i s is q u i t e a different solution t h a n P h i l o ' s but it d o e s try to s o l v e the s a m e p r o b l e m . It s k i p s , h o w e v e r , the ' s e v e n f o l d p u n i s h m e n t ' b u t the solution to that p r o b l e m s e e m s to b e i m p l i e d . A s to t h e o t h e r q u e s t i o n - w h y d o e s G o d p r o t e c t C a i n w i t h a sign instead o f d e l i v e r i n g h i m into the h a n d s o f his e n e m i e s ? , w h i c h is w h a t C a i n w o u l d d e s e r v e - P h i l o offers a variety o f s o l u t i o n s . First, h e s a y s , t h e r e are, b e s i d e a p h y s i c a l death, also the m a n y d e a t h s o n e can die w h e n o n e h a s to live in fear or sorrow. So in a s e n s e h a v i n g to live on w a s a h e a v i e r p u n i s h m e n t for C a i n than h a v i n g to die. S e c o n d , the fact that the g o o d o n e ( A b e l ) w a s killed w h e r e a s the b a d o n e lived o n is a clear indication that the soul is i m p e r i s h a b l e , i m m o r t a l , a n d therefore t h e o n l y t h i n g that c o u n t s , w h e r e a s b o d i l y life h a r d l y d e s e r v e s to b e called life. In fact, C a i n is d e a d , a l t h o u g h p h y s i c a l l y alive, a n d A b e l lives, a l t h o u g h p h y s i c a l l y dead.

37

S o the i m m o r t a l i t y o f the soul is t a u g h t b y Scripture right from the outset.

T h i r d , C a i n w a s the first to h a v e c o m m i t t e d a very great c r i m e , a n d b y not m e t i n g out to h i m his d e s e r v e d p u n i s h m e n t , G o d sets an e x a m p l e o f m e r c y to all future j u d g e s : T h e y s h o u l d hesitate in capital c a s e s a n d b e inclined to m e r c y r a t h e r t h a n to strictness. G o d t h u s p r e s c r i b e s a c a n o n of g e n t l e n e s s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g . S o P h i l o s e e s h e r e at least three i m p o r t a n t lessons b e i n g t a u g h t b y G o d . T h e r a b b i s are n o t that different here. In Gen.R.

2 2 . 1 3 they, t o o , offer v a r i o u s

s o l u t i o n s to the scriptural riddle. O n e o f t h e m s a y s that, in the light o f t h e fact that in E x . 4 : 8 leprosy is called a sign, C a i n ' s sign w a s that G o d s m o t e h i m w i t h leprosy, t h u s b a n i s h i n g h i m from the c o m m u n i t y o f h u m a n s . A n o t h e r s a y s that t h e sign w a s that G o d g a v e C a i n a d o g w h o w o u l d p r o t e c t h i m a g a i n s t his e n e m i e s . A n o t h e r sees t h e sign as h o r n s that g r e w from C a i n ' s h e a d to w a r d off potential a t t a c k e r s . T h e n again a n o t h e r rabbi c o m e s u p w i t h a n original n e w translation o f the biblical text, r e n d e r i n g the v e r s e as ' G o d turned C a i n into a sign for m u r d e r e r s . ' T h e H e b r e w le-qain

( ' t o C a i n ' ) is h e r e t a k e n to b e a n a c c u s a t i v e

not a d a t i v e , w h i c h w a s p o s s i b l e in the e y e s o f the r a b b i s b e c a u s e in their daily l a n g u a g e , P a l e s t i n i a n A r a m a i c , the p r e p o s i t i o n le- c o u l d d e n o t e b o t h the direct a n d the indirect o b j e c t .

38

In this w a y C a i n b e c a m e a terrifying e x a m p l e to future

m u r d e r e r s , w h o w o u l d k n o w that after s u c h a c r i m e t h e y w o u l d h a v e to live in 3 6

The square brackets indicate that these words are not in the lapidary text of the midrash itself but have been added in order to clarify the meaning. I here follow the procedure of J. Neusner in his translation of Genesis Rabbah. On the Greek background of this motif see D. Zeller, 'The Life and Death of the Soul in Philo of Alexandria: The Use and Origin of a Metaphor,' Studia Philonica Annual 7 (1995) 19-56. See H. Odeberg, The Aramaic Portions of Bereshit Rabba, vol. 2: Short Grammar of Galilaean Aramaic, Lund - Leipzig 1939, 87. 3 7

3 8

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125

n e v e r - e n d i n g fear. N o , s a y s a n o t h e r rabbi, C a i n thus b e c a m e an e n c o u r a g i n g e x a m p l e to p e n i t e n t s : he s h o w e d t h e m t h e s a v i n g p o w e r o f r e p e n t a n c e , for G o d did n o t p u n i s h h i m .

3 9

A t least G o d did n o t p u n i s h h i m i m m e d i a t e l y for h e g a v e

C a i n t i m e for r e p e n t a n c e a n d s u s p e n d e d his j u d g e m e n t . C a i n thus signifies the possibility o f forgiveness for s i n n e r s w h o repent. B u t s i n c e C a i n did n o t repent, h e w a s finally s w e p t a w a y in the f l o o d .

40

H e r e w e see that, as in P h i l o , the text

g i v e s o c c a s i o n to a w i d e variety o f e x p l a n a t i o n s , not o n e o f w h i c h is d e c l a r e d to b e the o n l y valid o n e to t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r s . A g a i n w e s e e that the a n s w e r s o f P h i l o a n d the r a b b i s are r a t h e r different b u t t h e q u e s t i o n s are the s a m e . A fifth a n d final i n s t a n c e is G e n . 5:24, the f a m o u s v e r s e that states that ' E n o c h walked with God, but then he w a s no more because God took him.' This verse g a v e rise to a spate o f E n o c h i c literature, b a s e d u p o n e x e g e t i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s e e n i g m a t i c w o r d s . Both P h i l o a n d the r a b b i s deal w i t h it, b u t their e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e g l a r i n g l y different. P h i l o raises the s i m p l e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t is t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d s ' a n d then h e w a s not b e c a u s e G o d t o o k h i m a w a y ' (QG 1.86). H i s a n s w e r is as follows (in a n a b b r e v i a t e d p a r a p h r a s e ) : First o f all, h e s a y s , the e n d o f w o r t h y a n d h o l y m e n is not d e a t h b u t a transfer to a n o t h e r p l a c e . T h i s is w h a t h a p p e n e d to E n o c h , for t h e text i m p l i e s that h e w a s transferred from a p l a c e visible b y s e n s e p e r c e p t i o n to a p l a c e in t h e incor­ p o r e a l a n d intelligible w o r l d ( n o t e the P l a t o n i c t e r m i n o l o g y ! ) . T h i s is w h a t also h a p p e n e d to M o s e s ( w h o s e burial p l a c e h a s a l w a y s r e m a i n e d u n k n o w n for that v e r y r e a s o n [see D e u t . 3 4 : 6 ] ) a n d to Elijah ( w h o a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n as w e l l [see 2 K i n g s 2:11 ] ) .

4 1

T h e s e t h r e e h o l y m e n w e r e d e e m e d w o r t h y b y G o d to b e t a k e n

u p into the i n c o r p o r e a l w o r l d instead o f d y i n g . T h i s is an utterly p o s i t i v e p i c t u r e o f E n o c h , j u s t as w e find it in t h e E n o c h i c literature. B u t n o w t h e r a b b i s . O n e o f the rabbis says (Gen.R.

2 5 . 1 ) : ' H e w a s n o t m o r e ' m e a n s that E n o c h w a s

not inscribed in the scroll o f the r i g h t e o u s but in the scroll o f t h e w i c k e d . A n o t h e r rabbi s a y s , ' E n o c h w a s a h y p o c r i t e , a c t i n g s o m e t i m e s as a r i g h t e o u s , s o m e t i m e s as a w i c k e d m a n . T h e r e f o r e t h e H o l y O n e , b l e s s e d b e H e , said: " W h i l e h e is in his r i g h t e o u s p h a s e , I will t a k e h i m a w a y " (/. e., w h e n h e w a l k e d w i t h G o d , h e died). Some sectarians

42

said to rabbi A b b a h u , " W e d o n o t find that E n o c h d i e d . "

H e a s k e d , " W h y n o t ? " T h e y a n s w e r e d : " T h e w o r d ' t a k i n g ' is u s e d b o t h h e r e a n d in the c a s e o f the p r o p h e t Elijah [and since Elijah w a s t a k e n u p into h e a v e n , t h e s a m e a p p l i e s to E n o c h ] . " B u t A b b a h u rejoined: " I f y o u w a n t to interpret the w o r d ' t a k i n g , ' t h e n take n o t i c e o f the fact that this w o r d is u s e d b o t h h e r e a n d 3 9

In QG 1.82 Philo speaks about 'the forgiving of Cain'! Thus, e.g., also Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Quaest. et Resp. in Genes. 4 1 . Kugel, Traditions 164, suggests that the rabbis may have read the text of Gen. 4:15 as follows: 'And the Lord said to him, "It will not be thus [that is, lo 'ken] with any [other] killer. [But as for] Cain, punishment will be exacted from him in seven generations.' On Philo's use of'secondary' biblical texts in his exegesis see Runia, "Secondary Texts," on this passage (QG I 86) esp. 5 1 - 5 2 . Which 'sectarians' are referred to is uncertain: Christians?, Jewish mystics?, others? 4 0

4 1

4 2

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in the c a s e o f E z e k i e l [ w h e r e it s a y s ] , " B e h o l d , I t a k e a w a y from y o u the d e s i r e o f y o u r e y e s " ( E z e k . 2 4 : 1 6 [ w h e r e it definitely refers to the d e a t h o f E z e k i e l ' s wife]). R a b b i T a n h u m a o b s e r v e d : " H e refuted t h e m w e l l . " A lady said to rabbi J o s e , " O n e d o e s n o t find that E n o c h d i e d . " H e said to her, " I f t h e text h a d o n l y said, ' A n d E n o c h w a l k e d w i t h G o d , ' a n d n o t h i n g else, I w o u l d a g r e e w i t h y o u , b u t s i n c e it s a y s , ' H e w a s n o m o r e since G o d t o o k h i m , ' it m e a n s that h e is n o t in t h e w o r l d a n y m o r e [ b e c a u s e h e d i e d ] . ' T h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n E n o c h as P h i l o ' s h o l y m a n w h o w a s transferred b y G o d to the h e a v e n l y r e a l m a n d E n o c h as the r a b b i s ' w i c k e d h y p o c r i t e w h o h a d to die a n o r m a l d e a t h c o u l d not b e greater. T h i s is not the p l a c e to deal w i t h the b a c k ­ g r o u n d o f t h e s e w i d e l y different interpretations. Suffice it to say h e r e that it h a s m u c h to d o w i t h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f the traditions a b o u t E n o c h in t h e c e n t u r i e s a r o u n d t h e turn o f the C o m m o n E r a a n d the o p p o s i t i o n to this d e v e l o p m e n t in the circles o f r a b b i s w h o found the s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t E n o c h ' s e v e r m o r e e x a l t e d status a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e v e l a t i o n s a d a n g e r o u s threat to m o n o t h e i s m a n d s a w E n o c h as a rival to M o s e s . E n o c h ' s metathesis

4 3

P h i l o , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e l c o m e d t h e i d e a o f

since it g a v e h i m the o p p o r t u n i t y to e m p h a s i z e the P l a t o n i c

i d e a that a really h o l y p e r s o n c o u l d b e g i v e n a vision o f the intelligible w o r l d . M o s t r e m a r k a b l e is that b o t h P h i l o a n d the r a b b i s d o n o t e t h e parallel w i t h t h e story o f Elijah, b u t that P h i l o g l a d l y a c c e p t s it w h e r e a s t h e rabbis d o their u t m o s t to reject it, e v e n if they h a v e to w r i g g l e in o r d e r to a v o i d the o b v i o u s m e a n i n g .

Conclusion W e h a v e selected o n l y a v e r y limited s a m p l e o f e x e g e t i c a l p a s s a g e s , restricting o u r s e l v e s to t h e first 5 c h a p t e r s o f G e n e s i s a n d to p a s s a g e s w h i c h are c o v e r e d b y b o t h P h i l o a n d t h e m i d r a s h i c w o r k Genesis

Rabbah.

T h i s s a m p l e is t o o s m a l l

to b a s e s w e e p i n g c o n c l u s i o n s u p o n . E v e n s o , t h e y are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e n o u g h to w a r r a n t s o m e p r o v i s i o n a l a n d tentative c o n c l u s i o n s . W e m a y say that, in spite o f the g r e a t d i v e r s i t y o f solutions o f or a n s w e r s to e x e g e t i c a l p r o b l e m s a n d q u e s ­ t i o n s , t h e c o m m o n g r o u n d o f the first c e n t u r y A l e x a n d r i a n p h i l o s o p h e r a n d t h e rabbis o f B y z a n t i n e P a l e s t i n e is to b e found in t h e fact that t h e y w r e s t l e d w i t h t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n s that the biblical text p u t before t h e m . K u g e l ' s f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e first a s s u m p t i o n c o m m o n to all J e w i s h e x e g e t e s , the cryptic n a t u r e a n d h i d d e n m e a n i n g o f the biblical text w h i c h n e e d s to b e d e c o d e d , t u r n e d out to b e at w o r k in all c a s e s r e v i e w e d . A l s o t h e other a s s u m p t i o n s - the r e l e v a n c e to the

4 3

See P.S. Alexander, "Enoch and the Beginnings of Jewish Interest in Natural Science," in C. Hempel a. o. (eds.), The Wisdom texts from Qumran and the Development of Sapiential Thought, Leuven 2 0 0 3 , 2 3 3 - 2 3 4 ; R. Elior, The Three Temples. On the Emergence of Jewish Mysticism, Oxford - Portland 2004, 205, 2 2 1 ; P.W. van der Horst, Het boek der hemelse paleizen (3 Henoch), Kampen 1999, 1 1 - 1 3 . On Enoch traditions in general see J.C. VanderKam, Enoch, a Man for All Generations, Columbia 1995.

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p r e s e n t situation, the perfect h a r m o n y o f all parts o f Scripture, a n d its d i v i n e in­ spiration w e r e clearly d i s c e r n i b l e in t h e few c a s e s that p a s s e d review. O f c o u r s e , the differences in the a n s w e r s are c o n s i d e r a b l e , o n e o f the m o s t significant b e i n g that typically G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e m e s s u c h as t h e i m m o r t a l i t y o f t h e soul, the noetic w o r l d , a n d the a s c e n t o f t h e soul to this w o r l d o f

intelligibilia,

so p r o m i n e n t in P h i l o , are c o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t in the r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s . B u t such d i v e r g e n c e is, in the final a n a l y s i s , less w e i g h t y than t h e striking c o n v e r g e n c e in t h e n a t u r e o f the q u e s t i o n s . A m o r e large-scale a n d d e t a i l e d c o m p a r i s o n o f large parts o f P h i l o ' s e x e g e s i s o f G e n e s i s , i n c l u d i n g that in m a n y o f h i s allegorical treatises, w i t h n o t o n l y t h e w h o l e o f Genesis

Rabbah

b u t also w i t h the m a n y

other p a s s a g e s in early r a b b i n i c literature c o n t a i n i n g e x e g e s i s o f p a s s a g e s in G e n e s i s , is a d e s i d e r a t u m that I h o p e o t h e r s c h o l a r s are w i l l i n g to fill. T h i s m o d ­ est c o n t r i b u t i o n h a s hopefully w h e t t e d t h e a p p e t i t e o f s u c h s c h o l a r s for t a c k l i n g this fascinating e n t e r p r i s e .

4 4

paper.

44

I o w e thanks to Prof. David T. Runia for his valuable comments on the first draft o f this

Philo of Alexandria on the Wrath of God It w a s to b e e x p e c t e d that the n o t i o n of G o d ' s w r a t h w o u l d constitute a p r o b l e m to the J e w i s h p h i l o s o p h e r P h i l o of A l e x a n d r i a . A s is w e l l - k n o w n , the t w o c u l ­ tural traditions that m e r g e in his religious p h i l o s o p h y , the Biblical a n d J e w i s h tradition on t h e o n e h a n d a n d t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l on t h e other, s p e a k a w i d e l y different l a n g u a g e as far as the w r a t h o f G o d or the g o d s is c o n c e r n e d . P h i l o ' s i n g e n u i t y is i n d e e d great e n o u g h to find a s o l u t i o n to this p r o b l e m , b u t - as w e shall s e e - it is a far from u n p r o b l e m a t i c e n t e r p r i s e . In o r d e r to m a k e clear w h a t t h e difficult task w a s w h i c h P h i l o faced, I will first p r e s e n t a sketch o f t h e t w o d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d p o s i t i o n s in the t w o traditions, a n d t h e n I will s h o w h o w P h i l o tries to c r e a t e a s y n t h e s i s b e t w e e n t h e s e antithetical p o s i t i o n s , a task for w h i c h h e w a s w e l l e q u i p p e d as a ' B i n d e g l i e d ' kat' exochen Jewish and the Greek traditions.

between the

1

O n the m o t i f o f G o d ' s w r a t h in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t I c a n b e b r i e f s i n c e the texts c o n t a i n i n g that m o t i f are so n u m e r o u s a n d w e l l - k n o w n that a v e r y s u c c i n c t r e v i e w suffices. W h e n M o s e s a s k s G o d at the b u r n i n g b u s h to s e n d s o m e o n e else to t h e P h a r a o h , G o d ' s w r a t h w a s k i n d l e d a g a i n s t h i m ( E x . 4 : 1 4 ) . In t h e story a b o u t Israel's sin w i t h the g o l d e n calf, it is G o d ' s b u r n i n g w r a t h that t h r e a t e n s to d e s t r o y t h e p e o p l e so that M o s e s b e s e e c h e s h i m to turn a w a y from his w r a t h a n d s p a r e the Israelites for his N a m e ' s s a k e ( E x . 3 2 : 1 0 - 1 2 ) . G o d ' s w r a t h is k i n d l e d in the story o f B a l a a m ( N u m . 2 2 : 2 2 ) , at I s r a e l ' s idolatry w i t h B a ' a l P e ' o r ( N u m . 2 5 : 3 ^ 4 ) , at the sin o f A c h a n (Josh. 7 : 1 , 2 6 ) , at the w o r s h i p o f B a ' a l en A s h e r a b y the p e o p l e (Jud. 3:8; 10:7), w h e n U z z a t o o k h o l d o f the ark (2 S a m . 6:7), w h e n Z e d e k i a h did w h a t w a s evil in the sight o f the L o r d (2 K i n g s 2 4 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) etcetera. T h e a u t h o r o f 2 C h r o n i c l e s has t h e b u r n i n g w r a t h o f t h e L o r d p l a y an e v e n m o r e frequent role t h a n w a s a l r e a d y the c a s e in his s o u r c e s ; in the b o o k s o f t h e g r e a t p r o p h e t s , Isaiah, J e r e m i a h , a n d E z e c h i e l , the t h e m e o f G o d ' s w r a t h a g a i n s t Israel is a c o n s t a n t l y r e c u r r i n g m o t i f (Is. 2 0 x , Jer. 2 4 x , Ez. 1 l x ) ; a n d t h e m i n o r

1

H. Frohnhofen, Apatheia tou Theou. Uber die Affektlosigkeit Gottes in der griechischen Ant ike und bei den griechischsprachigen Kirchenvdtern bis zu Gregorios Thaumaturgos, Frankfurt etc. 1987, 108, rightly remarks that Philo, in view of his boundary position, seems to be predestined "einen ersten Harmonisicrungsversuch zwischen dem weitgehend apathischen Gott griechischer Provenienz und dem mitfiihlenden und durch die Menschen und ihr Schicksal betroffenen jiidischen Gott andererseits vorzunehmen."

Philo of Alexandria

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on the Wrath of God 2

p r o p h e t s also s p e a k a b o u t G o d ' s w r a t h ( 1 5 x in t o t a l ) . S o m e t i m e s G o d ' s w r a t h is k i n d l e d s p o n t a n e o u s l y , w i t h o u t a n y d i s c e r n i b l e r e a s o n , as in 2 S a m . 2 4 : 1 , w h e r e G o d , in s e e m i n g l y u n m o t i v a t e d anger, incites D a v i d to c o u n t t h e p e o p l e (it is p e r h a p s partly the u n m o t i v a t e d n a t u r e o f this w r a t h that i n d u c e d the later a u t h o r o f C h r o n i c l e s to r e p l a c e ' G o d ' h e r e b y ' S a t a n ' in 1 C h r o n . 2 1 : 1 ) . G o d ' s w r a t h is d i r e c t e d n o t o n l y a g a i n s t his o w n p e o p l e o r m e m b e r s thereof, b u t also against t h e h e a t h e n n a t i o n s , especially in e s c h a t o l o g i c a l u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e p r o p h e t s , e. g., Is. 13:3, 5, 9, 13; M i c a h 5:14, Z e p h . 2 (cf. in vv. 2 a n d 3 the e x p r e s s i o n ' t h e d a y o f t h e w r a t h o f the L o r d ' ) ; also in P s . 2 : 5 , 1 2 .

3

T h e n u m b e r o f i n s t a n c e s a n d r e f e r e n c e s c o u l d b e m u l t i p l i e d ad libitum,

but

this s m a l l selection suffices to s h o w that the m o t i f o f G o d ' s w r a t h is not limited to o n l y a handful o f a u t h o r s or layers o f tradition in the H e b r e w Bible. O n the contrary, it is a c o n c e p t i o n s h a r e d b y all a u t h o r s : their G o d h a s t h e ability to get e n r a g e d a b o u t m a t t e r s d i s p l e a s i n g to h i m or a b o u t situations in w h i c h his love is hurt. N o o n e d e n i e s h i m this e m o t i o n , or w h a t e v e r o t h e r p a s s i o n for that matter. F u r t h e r m o r e , this p i c t u r e d o e s not c h a n g e essentially in post-biblical J e w i s h lit­ e r a t u r e . In r a b b i n i c w r i t i n g s G o d ' s w r a t h is s p o k e n o f as freely as in t h e H e b r e w B i b l e , a n d in m o s t o f p r e - r a b b i n i c literature, i n c l u d i n g t h e J e w i s h - H e l l e n i s t i c literature a n d the N e w T e s t a m e n t , the situation is not m u c h different.

4

Initially, the situation w a s not different in G r e e k culture either. In H o m e r , H e s i o d a n d t h e early t r a g e d i a n s , the w r a t h o f the g o d s is s p o k e n a b o u t in a w a y that is not essentially different from that o f the biblical a u t h o r s (apart from t h e difference b e t w e e n m o n o t h e i s m a n d p o l y t h e i s m ) . B u t at the e n d o f the sixth a n d d u r i n g the fifth c e n t u r y B C E , in G r e e c e a critical attitude t o w a r d s t h e traditional stories a b o u t t h e O l y m p i a n g o d s a r o s e , e s p e c i a l l y in p h i l o s o p h i c a l circles. X e n o p h a n e s 5

o f C o l o p h o n p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role in this m o v e m e n t . A central e l e m e n t in this criticism o f traditional m y t h o l o g y w a s t h e c o n c e p t o f ( w h a t w o u l d later b e called) to theoprepes, dignum

6

deo).

' t h a t w h i c h is fitting to a g o d or w o r t h y o f a g o d ' (in Latin,

T h e r e w a s a g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s that h u m a n affections a n d e m o ­

tions, such as j e a l o u s y , lust, a n d anger, w e r e unfittingly a n d unjustly a s c r i b e d to the g o d s in t h e m y t h o l o g i c a l tales o f the tradition (e. g., H o m e r a n d H e s i o d ) . A n

2

Statistical data from G. Sauer, "af,' in Theologisches Handworterbuch zum Alten Testa­ ment 1 ( 1 9 7 1 ) 2 2 1 - 2 2 2 . For further discussion see E. Johnson, 'anaph, ' in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament 1 (1974) 3 4 8 - 3 6 0 ; G.A. Herion, 'Wrath o f G o d , ' Anchor Bible Dictionary 6 (1992) 989-996. See the survey by E. Sjoberg and G. Stahlin in the Theologisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament V (1954) 413—419. See for his fragments H. Diels & W. Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, vol. 1, Berlin 1951, 1 1 3 - 1 3 9 (nr. 21). O. Dreyer, Untersuchungen zum Begriff des Gottgeziemenden in der Antike, Hildesheim 1970. 3

4

5

6

130

Philo of Alexandria

on the Wrath of God

effect o f this idea o u t s i d e of strictly p h i l o s o p h i c a l circles, as far as t h e c o n c e p t o f d i v i n e w r a t h is c o n c e r n e d , c a n a l r e a d y b e s e e n in E u r i p i d e s w h e n , in the final s c e n e o f his Bacchae

( 1 3 4 8 ) , h e h a s o n e o f t h e dramatis

personae

say that it is

u n s e e m l y for g o d s to b e like m o r t a l s in m a t t e r s s u c h as fits o f anger. It w a s , h o w e v e r , especially Plato ( w h o w a n t e d to b a n i s h H o m e r ' s p o e t r y from his ideal state!) w h o s e great influence m a d e the i d e a o f the theoprepes

into

a central n o t i o n in t h e p e r i o d after h i m , t h e H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n era. H i s t h e o r y o f t h e essential a n d a n d a b s o l u t e u n c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f t h e d i v i n e w o r l d , in w h i c h t h e r e is o f c o u r s e n o p l a c e for an e m o t i o n s u c h as w r a t h , t h e n c o n q u e r s t h e intellectual w o r l d , albeit slowly, a n d b e c o m e s a n u n w r i t t e n d o g m a o f the reli­ g i o u s p h i l o s o p h y o f later antiquity. Initially this influence will limit itself to t h e w o r l d o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d religious t h i n k e r s , as is a p p a r e n t from a u t h o r s w h o are c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o f P h i l o in the w i d e s e n s e o f the w o r d , i. e., from the third c e n t u r y B C E to the third c e n t u r y C E . F o r i n s t a n c e , E p i c u r u s w r i t e s in t h e v e r y first s e n t e n c e o f his Kyriai w r a t h or g r a c e (neque

doxai that w h a t is d i v i n e c a n n o t b e m o v e d b y either

ira neque gratia),

a n d C i c e r o , w h o q u o t e s this s e n t e n c e ,

a d d s that if w e t o o k that into c o n s i d e r a t i o n , all fear o f the p o w e r a n d a n g e r o f t h e g o d s w o u l d b e b a n i s h e d (De natura

deorum

I 1 7 , 4 5 ) . D i s p e l l i n g t h e fear o f

t h e w r a t h o f t h e g o d s w a s o n e o f the m a j o r m o t i v e s for L u c r e t i u s to w r i t e his De rerum natura

(cf., t o o , P l u t a r c h ' s De sera numinis

vindicta,

e s p . c h s . 12 a n d 2 0 ) .

S e x t u s E m p i r i c u s , finally, s a y s that it h a s b e e n a d o g m a o f all p h i l o s o p h e r s that the d i v i n e c a n n o t b e subject to e m o t i o n s or p a s s i o n s (apathes, Hypotyposeis

1 162).

in his

Pyrrhoneiai

7

In a s e n s e , P h i l o h i m s e l f b e l o n g e d to t h e s e p h i l o s o p h e r s , a l t h o u g h o n e c o u l d d e b a t e t h e q u e s t i o n ( a n d it is i n d e e d a d e b a t e d q u e s t i o n ! ) o f w h e t h e r P h i l o is a p h i l o s o p h e r p r a c t i c i n g e x e g e s i s or r a t h e r a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y t r a i n e d e x e g e t e . B e that as it m a y , it is clear in w h a t field o f t e n s i o n P h i l o h a d to m o v e . It is i m p o r t a n t to s e e h o w h e s o l v e d the p r o b l e m o f the conflict b e t w e e n the t w o traditions h e s t o o d in, n o t in the least b e c a u s e his solution will turn out to s e r v e as a m o d e l for t h e w a y in w h i c h later p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y trained C h u r c h F a t h e r s w o u l d t a c k l e t h e s a m e a n d s i m i l a r p r o b l e m s . To p u t it a n o t h e r w a y , t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l k e y d e s i g n e d b y P h i l o w o u l d h a v e a far-reaching influence o n later C h r i s t i a n t h e o l ­ ogy.

8

W e n o w find that for P h i l o the c o n c e p t o f the theoprepes,

the dignum

deo,

h a d b e c o m e so m u c h o f a d o g m a that in fact the t h o u g h t that the biblical texts m e n t i o n i n g G o d ' s w r a t h c o u l d h a v e b e e n m e a n t literally d o e s not e v e n c r o s s his m i n d . To b e fair, h e d o e s o c c a s i o n a l l y fall b a c k on this biblical u s a g e w h e n , for 7

I specifically mention here some philosophers who do not (or at least not strictly or exclu­ sively) belong to the Platonic school in order to demonstrate that this concept was certainly not restricted to just the inner circle o f Platonists. See D. T. Runia, Philo in Early Christian Literature. A Survey, Assen-Philadelphia 1993. 8

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on the Wrath of God

instance, h e s a y s that s o m e p e o p l e p r o v o k e G o d ' s a n g e r b y their w i c k e d lives a n d that w e s h o u l d a l w a y s a v o i d that (De somniis

II 1 7 7 - 1 7 9 ) , o r w h e n h e s a y s

that t h e a n n u a l i n u n d a t i o n o f t h e N i l e b r i n g s a b o u t a rich h a r v e s t for the inhabit­ ants o f E g y p t u n l e s s G o d ' s w r a t h a b o u t their sinfulness p r e v e n t s this from t a k i n g p l a c e (Vita Mosis I 6). B u t t h e s e are s p o r a d i c e x c e p t i o n s , a n d they are n o m o r e than c o n c e s s i o n s to biblical u s a g e . F o r w h e n the issue b e c o m e s crucial, P h i l o e x p r e s s e s h i m s e l f in all clarity: " W e u s e to think o f the b l e s s e d a n d t h e i m m o r t a l in t e r m s o f o u r o w n n a t u r e s . F o r in w o r d s w e d o s h u n i n d e e d the m o n s t r o s i t y o f s a y i n g that G o d is o f h u m a n form, b u t in actual fact w e a c c e p t the i m p i o u s t h o u g h t that h e is o f h u m a n p a s s i o n s . A n d therefore w e i n v e n t for h i m h a n d s a n d feet, i n c o m i n g s a n d o u t g o i n g s , e n m i t i e s , a v e r s i o n s , e s t r a n g e m e n t s , anger, in fact s u c h b o d y parts a n d p a s s i o n s as c a n n e v e r b e l o n g to the C a u s e " (De

sacrificiis

Abelis et Caini 9 5 - 9 6 ) . F o r " t h e n a t u r e o f G o d is w i t h o u t g r i e f or fear a n d w h o l l y e x e m p t from p a s s i o n o f a n y kind, a n d a l o n e p a r t a k e s o f perfect h a p p i n e s s a n d b l i s s " (De Abrahamo

2 0 2 ; cf. Quoddeus

sit immutabilis

fully as t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r h e really i s .

5 9 ) . H e r e w e see P h i l o

9

B u t if this is P h i l o ' s d e e p c o n v i c t i o n , h o w , then, d o e s h e c o p e w i t h the m a n y biblical t e x t s that s p e a k o f G o d ' s w r a t h ? " W h y t h e n d o e s M o s e s s p e a k o f feet a n d h a n d s , g o i n g s in a n d g o i n g s out in c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e U n c r e a t e d ? ( . . . ) W h y a g a i n d o e s h e s p e a k o f h i s j e a l o u s y , his w r a t h , his m o o d s o f a n g e r a n d the o t h e r e m o t i o n s similar to t h e m , w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e s in t e r m s o f h u m a n n a ­ t u r e ? , " P h i l o a s k s h i m s e l f (Quod

deus sit immutabilis

6 0 ) . T h e a n s w e r lies in a

p e d a g o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e that the later C h u r c h F a t h e r s will n a m e synkatabasis condescensio,

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the p e r s o n ( s ) o n e w a n t s to r e a c h .

10

In a p r o g r a m m a t i c p a s s a g e ,

P h i l o f o r m u l a t e s this p r i n c i p l e as follows (here I briefly p a r a p h r a s e Quod sit immutabilis

or

that is. ' d e s c e n t ' (in the s e n s e o f ' a c c o m m o d a t i o n ' ) to the level o f

61-69):

1 1

deus

A l a w g i v e r w h o a i m s at the b e s t m u s t h a v e o n l y o n e

g o a l b e f o r e h i m , n a m e l y to benefit all t h o s e w h o m h e w a n t s to r e a c h w i t h his l a w s . T h o s e w h o h a v e a gifted n a t u r e a n d h a v e h a d a t h o r o u g h e d u c a t i o n a n d s c h o o l i n g will n o t feel inclined to a s c r i b e h u m a n features to G o d , 'initiated in the infallible m y s t e r i e s o f B e i n g ' as they are. T h e s a y i n g that " G o d is n o t as a m a n " ( N u m . 2 3 : 1 9 ) suffices for t h e m . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , also a n o t h e r c a t e g o r y o f h u m a n s , t h o s e w h o s e n a t u r e is m o r e dull a n d t a r d y a n d w h o s e e d u c a t i o n or training h a s b e e n insufficient a n d w h o are for that r e a s o n i n c a p a b l e o f a clear vi­ sion, a n d t h e s e are the p e o p l e w h o n e e d a p h y s i c i a n w h o will d e v i s e a therapeutic t r e a t m e n t p r o p e r to their c o n d i t i o n in o r d e r to i m p r o v e t h e m . T h e situation is

9

Note that the title o f the last mentioned treatise - hoti atrepton to theion - sounds like a philosophical program. On this topic see the old but still valuable study by H. Koch, Pronoia und Paideusis. Studien iiber Origenes undsein Verhdltnis zum Platonismus, Berlin 1932. See the commentary by D. Winston en J. Dillon, Two Treatises of Philo of Alexandria, Chico 1 9 8 3 , 3 0 7 - 3 1 1 . 1 0

11

132

Philo of Alexandria

on the Wrath of God

also c o m p a r a b l e to that of an u n d i s c i p l i n e d a n d foolish slave w h o n e e d s a strict m a s t e r w h o t h r e a t e n s h i m a n d scares h i m in o r d e r to k e e p h i m u n d e r c o n t r o l . In such situations, u n t r u t h (ta pseude)

is s o m e t i m e s t h e o n l y m e a n s to benefit t h e m

if t h e y c a n n o t b e b r o u g h t to w i s d o m b y m e a n s o f truth. W h e n M o s e s a s c r i b e s to G o d t h e h u m a n attribute o f a n g e r e v o k e d b y sin, that is o n l y a m e t a p h o r . W h a t h e w a n t s to say is that all o u r d e e d s are r e p r e h e n s i b l e if t h e y are the fruits o f e m o t i o n s a n d p a s s i o n s , b u t l a u d a b l e if they are the p r o d u c t s o f o u r insight a n d k n o w l e d g e . B u t it is also an e l e m e n t a r y lesson for all t h o s e w h o c a n b e b r o u g h t in line o n l y b y threats. ' T h i s is the o n l y w a y in w h i c h the fool c a n b e a d m o n ­ i s h e d ' ( 6 8 ) . It is for that v e r y r e a s o n that, apart from the text a b o u t G o d ' s n o t b e i n g like a m a n ( N u m . 2 3 : 1 9 ) , there is also a n o t h e r text that s e e m s to say t h e o p p o s i t e b y stating that " t h e L o r d y o u r G o d d i s c i p l i n e s y o u as a m a n d i s c i p l i n e s his s o n " ( D e u t . 8:5), a s a y i n g that is directed at the ' f o o l s . ' T h i s d e m o n s t r a t e s that G o d links t w o p r i n c i p l e s , fear a n d love. " T o love h i m is t h e m o s t suitable for t h o s e into w h o s e c o n c e p t i o n o f the E x i s t e n t n o t h o u g h t o f h u m a n parts or p a s s i o n s e n t e r s , w h o p a y H i m the h o n o u r m e e t for G o d for H i s o w n s a k e only. To fear, h o w e v e r , is m o s t suitable to the o t h e r s " ( 6 9 ) .

1 2

It is clear that, a c c o r d i n g to P h i l o , quite often G o d , as in a p e d a g o g i c a l situa­ tion, has to d e s c e n d to the level o f children or u n e d u c a t e d slaves in o r d e r to b r i n g t h e m to insight, o b e d i e n c e , a n d the right w a y o f life. In De somniis

I 234-237

P h i l o p u t s it in a slightly different w a y : It is for t h o s e w h o lack the n e c e s s a r y w i s d o m that S c r i p t u r e p r e s e n t s G o d in an a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c w a y ; h e n c e the biblical p a s s a g e s a b o u t H i s b o d i l y parts, H i s m o v e m e n t s , H i s a n g e r a n d w r a t h , e v e n H i s w e a p o n r y . B u t that is not l a n g u a g e in w h i c h the truth is c o n v e y e d , for its a i m is solely t h e useful effect o f that l a n g u a g e u p o n p e o p l e w h o still h a v e to learn v e r y m u c h . Unfortuately, there are p e o p l e w h o c a n n o t b u t i m a g i n e G o d as a k i n d o f h u m a n b e i n g , w i t h all l i m b s , m o v e m e n t s , e m o t i o n s , a n d w e a p o n s . W e c a n o n l y b e grateful if they c a n b e b r o u g h t to lead a s o m e w h a t m o r e s e n s i b l e life b y i n s p i r i n g fear into t h e m , s a y s P h i l o . H e r e P l a t o p r e v a i l s o v e r M o s e s . P l a t o ' s d o c t r i n e o f the a b s o l u t e i m m u t a b i l i t y o f G o d p r e v a i l s o v e r M o s e s ' a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c c o n c e p t i o n o f G o d . A n d it is e x a c t l y for that r e a s o n that P h i l o h a s b e c o m e so influential, not in J e w i s h b u t in C h r i s t i a n circles. It is not a c o i n c i d e n c e that it is t w o A l e x a n d r i a n C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r s in w h o s e w o r k s o n e finds the first clear traces o f influence o f P h i l o ' s s y n t h e s i s o f biblical faith a n d G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y , n a m e l y , C l e m e n t a n d O r i g e n . In C l e m e n t ' s Stromateis

13

IV 1 1 , 6 8 , 3 w e h e a r a clear e c h o o f P h i l o w h e n C l e m e n t

s a y s that n o o n e s h o u l d think that the B i b l e talks o f real objects or e v e n t s w h e n it s p e a k s o f His l i m b s , m o v e m e n t s , w r a t h , a n d threats; this is to b e u n d e r s t o o d 1 2

On this passage sec also J. Dillon, 'The Nature of God in the Quod deus,' in Winston & Dillon, Two Treatises 2 1 7 - 2 2 8 , esp. 2 2 0 - 2 . Runia, Philo in Early Christian Literature 1 3 2 - 1 8 3 . 1 3

Philo of Alexandria

133

on the Wrath of God

allegorically. P h i l o ' s v o i c e is h e a r d e v e n m o r e clearly in O r i g e n ' s w o r k , in his p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t the p a g a n p h i l o s o p h e r C e l s u s . W h e n C e l s u s ridicules the an­ t h r o p o m o r p h i c w a y s the B i b l e s p e a k s o f G o d , O r i g e n a r g u e s as follows (Contra

Celsum

1 4

especially his w r a t h a n d threats,

I V 7 1 - 7 2 ) : Just as p a r e n t s a d a p t their

l a n g u a g e to t h e level o f their c h i l d r e n s ' c a p a c i t y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , so d o e s t h e L o g o s o f G o d . T h e w o r d s that Scripture p u t s into G o d ' s m o u t h d o not c o r r e s p o n d w i t h G o d ' s real n a t u r e but w i t h the h u m a n c a p a c i t y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e s o called w r a t h o f G o d , s a y s O r i g e n , h a s in the B i b l e o n l y o n e p u r p o s e : the c o r r e c ­ tion o f m e n ' s b e h a v i o u r .

15

T h a t m u s t b e clear to a n y o n e w h o sees that the B i b l e

attributes D a v i d ' s b e i n g instigated to c o u n t the p e o p l e o f Israel to G o d ' s w r a t h in o n e b o o k (2 S a m . 2 4 : 1 ) b u t to t h e devil in a n o t h e r b o o k (1 C h r o n . 2 1 : 1 ) . T h a t b o t h A l e x a n d r i a n s k n e w P h i l o is b e y o n d a n y d o u b t ; his influence is d i s c e r n i b l e e v e r y w h e r e . O n e c a n g a u g e h e r e h o w w e l c o m e P h i l o ' s solution o f t h e p r o b l e m o f G o d ' s w r a t h w a s to t h e s e P l a t o n i z i n g Christian t h e o l o g i a n s .

1 4

16

On Celsus' and other anti-Christian polemicists' criticism of the biblical idea of God's wrath see J.G. Cook, The Interpretation of the Old Testament in Greco-Roman Paganism, Tubingen 2004, 1 4 3 - 5 , 2 9 1 - 3 , 3 0 2 - 5 . In his Homiliae in Ieremiam XVIII - X X Origen even speaks o f apate (pia fraus, pious deceit) on God's part in this connection. See Runia, Philo in Early Christian Literature 176 (et al.); also the contributions by E. Osborn and R. Heine in P.M. Blowers (ed.), The Bible in Greek Christian Antiquity, Notre Dame 1997, 112-148. 15

1 6

Anti-Samaritan Propaganda in Early Judaism Introduction F r o m a religio-historical p o i n t o f view, the S a m a r i t a n s s h o u l d n o t b e n e g l e c t e d as t h e y w e r e a n i m p o r t a n t a n d large r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y in a n c i e n t P a l e s t i n e , a l o n g s i d e t h e J e w s , a n d they c o n t i n u e to exist to the p r e s e n t day, e v e n t h o u g h 1

their c o m m u n i t y is n o w v e r y s m a l l ( s o m e 6 7 5 m e m b e r s ) . S a m a r i t a n i s m c a n n o t 2

b e r e g a r d e d as a n y t h i n g but a variety o f J u d a i s m . B o t h are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f I s r a e l ' s religion. T h e S a m a r i t a n s w o r s h i p t h e s a m e G o d as t h e J e w s , they h a v e the s a m e T o r a h o f M o s e s , t h e y k e e p the s a m e l a w s , t h e y h a v e similar s y n a g o g u e s e r v i c e s etc. S a m a r i t a n i s m r e p r e s e n t s a c o n s e r v a t i v e Y a h w i s t i c cult a n d c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d as a religion that is essentially different from J u d a i s m . In p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r , t h i n g s are v e r y different: S a m a r i t a n s w o u l d n e v e r call t h e m s e l v e s J e w s (their self-designation is ' I s r a e l i t e s ' ) a n d t h e y r e g a r d J u d a i s m as a h e r e s y or p e r v e r t e d religion; similarly, in t h e m a n y p a s s a g e s in a n c i e n t J e w i s h literature a b o u t t h e S a m a r i t a n s it is far from e a s y to find a k i n d w o r d . W h e n the a u t h o r o f the G o s p e l o f J o h n r e m a r k s , " J e w s d o n o t s h a r e t h i n g s in c o m m o n w i t h S a m a r i t a n s " (4:9), it is not far from the truth. A l s o t h e p a s s a g e in the G o s p e l o f L u k e in w h i c h the S a m a r i t a n s refuse to r e c e i v e J e s u s a n d his disciples in o n e o f their v i l l a g e s w h i l e on their w a y to J e r u s a l e m ( 9 : 5 1 - 5 3 ) g i v e s the i m p r e s s i o n 3

o f great a n i m o s i t y . T h i s m u t u a l a n i m o s i t y is quite p r o m i n e n t in m a n y o f t h e a n c i e n t J e w i s h s o u r c e s , a n d it c o m e s a l m o s t as a surprise w h e n in o n e o f t h e s e s o u r c e s , the e x t r a - T a l m u d i c treatise Kuthim

( = S a m a r i t a n s ) , t h e o p e n i n g line

r u n s as f o l l o w s : " T h e S a m a r i t a n s in s o m e o f their w a y s r e s e m b l e the g e n t i l e s a n d in s o m e r e s e m b l e Israel, b u t in the majority t h e y r e s e m b l e I s r a e l " ( l . l ) . 1

4

For surveys of Samaritan research see J.D. Purvis, "The Samaritans and Judaism," in R.A. Kraft & G.W.E. Nickelsburg (eds.), Early Judaism and its Modern Interpreters, Atlanta 1986, 8 1 - 9 8 , and esp. R. Pummer, "Einfuhrung in den Stand der Samaritanerforschung," in F. Dexinger & R. Pummer (eds.), Die Samaritaner, Darmstadt 1992, 1-66. See the fine survey in Alan Crown's article "Samaritan Judaism," in The Encyclopedia of Judaism. Vol. V. Supplement Two, ed. Jacob Neusner, Alan J. Avery-Peck, and William Scott Green, N e w York 2004, 2 2 4 1 - 2 2 6 5 For the N T passages on Samaritans see I. Hjelm, The Samaritans and Early Judaism. A Literary Analysis, Sheffield 2 0 0 0 , 115-125. Transl. by M. Simon, "Kuthim: On the Samaritans," in A. Cohen (ed.), The Minor Trac­ tates of the Talmud, vol. 2, London 1965, 615. L. Gulkowitsch, "Der kleine Talmudtraktat iiber die Samaritaner," ANGELOS: Archiv fur neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte 1 (1925) 4 8 - 5 6 , 2

3

4

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

in Early

Judaism

135

T h i s relatively m i l d j u d g e m e n t is, h o w e v e r , certainly not the usual s e n t i m e n t o n e finds in a n c i e n t J e w i s h s o u r c e s b e c a u s e , as w e will p r e s e n t l y see, there w a s n o t m u c h love lost b e t w e e n t h e t w o parties a n d there w a s a long history o f m u t u a l m a l i g n i n g . B e c a u s e m u c h o f o u r data c o m e s from J e w i s h s o u r c e s , w h i c h are hostile, a n d b e c a u s e the S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s are g e n e r a l l y from a late p e r i o d 5

( B y z a n t i n e a n d m e d i e v a l ) a n d therefore u n r e l i a b l e , it is e x t r e m e l y hard to trace 6

the history of the S a m a r i t a n s , e s p e c i a l l y the early p h a s e s . In this p a p e r I a m not g o i n g to search for historical facts. I will restrict m y s e l f to e x a m i n i n g certain a s p e c t s o f the history of m a l i g n i n g , e s p e c i a l l y the w a y S a m a r i t a n s are p o r t r a y e d in J e w i s h literature. O n l y a small selection o f p a s s a g e s reflecting a n t i - S a m a r i t a n p r o p a g a n d a c a n b e dealt w i t h h e r e .

The Hebrew

Bible

T h e p r o c e s s s e e m s a l r e a d y to h a v e b e g u n in the H e b r e w B i b l e , w h e r e w e r e a d in 2 K i n g s 17 that t h e A s s y r i a n s d e p o r t e d a l m o s t all o f the i n h a b i t a n t s o f the N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m o f Israel a n d i n t r o d u c e d p a g a n s from v a r i o u s c o r n e r s of t h e A s s y r i a n E m p i r e . T h e s e i m m i g r a n t s o c c u p i e d S a m a r i a a n d its t o w n s . " I n t h e early y e a r s o f their s e t t l e m e n t s they did not p a y h o m a g e to the L o r d , so the L o r d sent lions a m o n g t h e m " ( 2 5 ) . W h e n the A s s y r i a n k i n g h e a r d this, " h e g a v e o r d e r s that o n e o f t h e priests t a k e n c a p t i v e from S a m a r i a s h o u l d b e sent b a c k to live t h e r e a n d t e a c h the p e o p l e the u s a g e o f t h e G o d o f the country. S o o n e o f the d e p o r t e d priests c a m e b a c k a n d ( . . . ) t a u g h t t h e m h o w to w o r s h i p the L o r d " ( 2 7 - 2 8 ) . S o o n e c o u l d say that, a c c o r d i n g to this s o u r c e , " Y a h w i s m w a s i n t r o d u c e d o n l y as a s u p e r s t i t i o u s g e s t u r e a n d t h e n o n l y b y an illegitimate priest 7

from o n e o f the forbidden n o r t h e r n s h r i n e s . " But, the story g o e s on, " e a c h o f the n a t i o n s w e n t on m a k i n g its o w n g o d s . T h e y set t h e m u p in n i c h e s at the shrines w h i c h the S a m a r i t a n s h a d m a d e , e a c h n a t i o n in its o w n s e t t l e m e n t s . (...) T h e y k e e p u p t h e s e old p r a c t i c e s to the present

day; t h e y d o not p a y h o m a g e to the

Lord, for t h e y d o not k e e p his statutes a n d j u d g e m e n t s , t h e l a w a n d c o m m a n d ­ m e n t , w h i c h h e enjoined on t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f J a c o b w h o m h e n a m e d Israel. ( . . . ) T h e y w o u l d not listen b u t c o n t i n u e d their former p r a c t i c e s . W h i l e t h e s e n a t i o n s p a i d h o m a g e to t h e L o r d , t h e y c o n t i n u e d to s e r v e their i m a g e s , a n d their c h i l d r e n a n d their c h i l d r e n ' s c h i l d r e n h a v e m a i n t a i n e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f their forefathers to this day" ( 2 9 , 3 4 , 4 0 - 4 1 ) . offers a German translation. It is to be borne in mind that the closing paragraph of the same tractate says that Samaritans may only be readmitted into the Jewish community "when they have renounced Mount Gerizim and acknowledged Jerusalem and the resurrection from the dead," which of course implies that without that they are complete outsiders. The benevolent opening line of the treatise may reflect an earlier Tannaitic position (see below). See for a brief introduction to the Samaritan sources Pummer, "Einfuhrung" 1 2 - 3 4 . See L.L. Grabbe, Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian, vol. 2, Minneapolis 1992, 503. Grabbe, Judaism 504. 5

6

7

136

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

in Early

Judaism

T h i s p a s s a g e h a s a p a t e n t l y p o l e m i c a l n a t u r e , a n d it is n o w g e n e r a l l y r e c o g ­ n i z e d that its historical a c c u r a c y a n d reliability is e x t r e m e l y d u b i o u s .

8

Modern

r e s e a r c h h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d that, a m o n g other t h i n g s , " o n l y a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f the p o p u l a t i o n ( s o m e o f t h e u p p e r class) w e r e d e p o r t e d a n d the b u l k o f the p o p u l a ­ 9

tion r e m a i n e d in t h e l a n d . " C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e c o u l d h a v e b e e n n o large-scale influx o f foreigners, w i t h p a g a n religions, w h o o n l y s e e m i n g l y w o r s h i p p e d t h e G o d o f Israel. It is o b v i o u s l y the biblical a u t h o r ' s intention to c o n v i n c e his a u d i e n c e that the r e l i g i o u s beliefs a n d p r a c t i c e s o f t h e p e o p l e w h o lived in the n o r t h e r n parts o f the c o u n t r y o u t s i d e J u d a e a w e r e o f s u c h a r e g r e t t a b l y s y n c r e t istic n a t u r e that it w o u l d b e best to k e e p t h e m at a great d i s t a n c e .

10

F r o m its earliest k n o w n interpretations in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m this p a s s a g e w a s t h o u g h t to d e s c r i b e t h e origins o f t h e S a m a r i t a n religion, as w e c a n see b o t h in J o s e p h u s a n d in r a b b i n i c literature (Ant. 9 . 2 7 7 - 2 9 1 ; b . Qidd. 7 5 b ) .

11

Especially

t h e m e n from C u t h a m e n t i o n e d in 2 K i n g s 17:30 w e r e s i n g l e d out as b e i n g S a m a r i t a n b e l i e v e r s ; h e n c e the d e s i g n a t i o n Cuthim Chouthaioi

in r a b b i n i c literature a n d

in J o s e p h u s . B u t is this interpretation justified? T h e critical q u e s t i o n

is: A g a i n s t w h o m w a s the p o l e m i c o f this p a s s a g e originally d i r e c t e d ? O n the b a s i s o f the reference to the shomronim

in v. 2 9 it has often b e e n a s s u m e d that it

w a s the S a m a r i t a n s w h o m the a u t h o r h a d in m i n d . N o w a d a y s it is a s s u m e d that 2 K i n g s 17 w a s originally

not a b o u t the origins o f the S a m a r i t a n s b u t referred o n l y

to t h e syncretistic, or e v e n gentile, p o p u l a t i o n o f S a m a r i a , w h o m w e n o w call 'Samarians.'

1 2

T h e final redactor, h o w e v e r , m a y h a v e w a n t e d to g i v e the p a s s a g e

a n a n t i - S a m a r i t a n twist. A l s o the p a s s a g e in E z r a 4 a b o u t t h e o p p o n e n t s o f the r e t u r n e d e x i l e s , called ' t h e e n e m i e s o f J u d a h a n d B e n j a m i n ' a n d ' t h e p e o p l e o f the l a n d , ' m a y not refer to the S a m a r i t a n s , as it h a s often b e e n t a k e n to d o , but to v a r i o u s g r o u p s o f S a m a r i a n s .

8

13

See e. g. R.J. Coggins, Samaritans and Jews. The Origins of Samaritanism Reconsidered, Oxford 1975, 1 3 - 1 8 ; F. Dexinger, "Limits of Tolerance in Judaism: The Samaritan Example," in E.R Sanders et al. (eds.), Jewish and Christian Self-Definition, vol. 2, London 1981, 8 9 - 9 1 ; Purvis, "The Samaritans and Judaism". Grabbe, Judaism 504. See also M. Bohm, Samarien und die Samaritai bei Lukas, Tubingen 1999, 1 0 5 - 1 3 4 . In traditional Jewish circles this is still the accepted point of view; see e.g. L.H. Schiffman, Texts and Traditions. A Source Reader for the Study of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism, Hoboken 1998, 9 6 - 9 8 . For a survey of the debate see Dexinger, "Limits of Tolerance" 8 9 - 9 6 , and Bohm, Sa­ marien 1 0 5 - 1 3 4 . See the observations by B. Becking, "Continuity and Community: The Belief System of the Book of Ezra," in B. Becking & M.C.A. Korpel (eds.), The Crisis of Israelite Reli­ gion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic and Post-Exilic Times, Leiden 1999, 272-275. 9

1 0

11

1 2

1 3

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Josephus It is striking that in his r e n d e r i n g o f 2 K i n g s 17, J o s e p h u s not o n l y d o e s not m e n t i o n a n y s y n c r e t i s m o f the A s s y r i a n c o l o n i s t s , h e e v e n e m p h a s i z e s that after h a v i n g r e c e i v e d the n e c e s s a r y instruction in the true w o r s h i p o f G o d from an Israelite priest " t h e y w o r s h i p p e d H i m w i t h great z e a l " a n d that this r e m a i n e d the c a s e " e v e n to this d a y " ( 9 . 2 9 0 ) . N o t a single w o r d a b o u t r e l a p s i n g or a b o u t m i x i n g this true religion w i t h tenets or rites o f their old religion! A s J u r g e n Z a n g e n b e r g h a s r e m a r k e d , J o s e p h u s p i c t u r e s t h e m as true p r o s e l y t e s : " A b w e n d u n g v o m fremden G o t t , H i n w e n d u n g z u m w a h r e n G o t t d u r c h B e l e h r u n g m i t d e r K o n z e q u e n z der T r e u e z u r a n g e n o m m e n e n L e b e n s w e i s e . "

14

In r a b b i n i c

literature, t h e S a m a r i t a n s are s o m e t i m e s also p r e s e n t e d as p r o s e l y t e s , b u t o f a very suspect type, namely 'lion p r o s e l y t e s . '

15

T h e y w e r e so called b e c a u s e they

a d o p t e d the Israelite faith o n l y after G o d p u n i s h e d t h e m w i t h attacks b y lions. T h i s , o f c o u r s e , w a s not v o l u n t a r y or w h o l e h e a r t e d , so there w a s e v e r y r e a s o n to b e s u s p i c i o u s o f their real beliefs. T h e r e is n o trace o f this k i n d o f s e n t i m e n t s in this p a s s a g e b y J o s e p h u s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h o w e v e r , J o s e p h u s d o e s state e v e n m o r e e m p h a t i c a l l y t h a n the biblical text that - c o n t r a r y to w h a t t h e S a m a r i t a n s t h e m s e l v e s h a v e a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d - there w a s n o c o n t i n u i t y at all b e t w e e n the n o r t h e r n Israelites a n d t h e S a m a r i t a n s . T h e former h a d all b e e n d e p o r t e d (see 9 . 2 7 8 ) a n d the latter w e r e a n e w p e o p l e that h a d a d o p t e d the religion o f Israel. T h e o n l y critical n o t e that J o s e p h u s a d d s at t h e e n d is that t h e s e p e o p l e , w h o h e s a y s are called Chouthaioi

in H e b r e w a n d Samareitai

in G r e e k , are quite o p p o r ­

tunistic in their attitude t o w a r d s t h e J e w s : " W h e n they see t h e J e w s p r o s p e r i n g , they call t h e m their k i n s m e n o n t h e g r o u n d that they are d e s c e n d e d from J o s e p h and are related to t h e m t h r o u g h their origin from h i m , but w h e n they see the J e w s in trouble, they say that they h a v e n o t h i n g w h a t e v e r in c o m m o n w i t h t h e m n o r d o t h e s e h a v e a n y c l a i m of friendship or k i n s h i p , a n d they d e c l a r e t h e m s e l v e s to b e aliens o f a different n a t i o n " ( 9 . 2 9 1 ) . B u t aside from this, it r e m a i n s r e m a r k a b l e a n d also s o m e w h a t e n i g m a t i c that J o s e p h u s alters the biblical report to m a k e it so m u c h m o r e p o s i t i v e w h e r e a s e l s e w h e r e h e is so critical o f the S a m a r i a n s , as w e shall see presently. W a s t h e r e a s o n that h e k n e w t h e S a m a r i t a n s w e l l e n o u g h p e r s o n a l l y to b e a w a r e o f t h e fact that they w e r e faithful a d h e r e n t s o f the G o d o f Israel? D i d h e p e r h a p s h a v e a different Vorlage o f t h e text o f 2 K i n g s ? M a y b e M a r i a B o h m is right w h e n she c o n c l u d e s , " S o ist Ant. 9 , 2 7 7 - 2 9 1 ein B e l e g dafur, daB d e r Erfolg der d u r c h die R e d a k t i o n v o n 2 K 6 n . 1 7 , 2 4 - 4 1 verbreiteten 1 6

This could

J. Zangenberg, SAMAREIA. Antike Quellen zur Geschichte und Kultur der in deutscher Ubersetzung, Tubingen-Basel 1994, 54. E.g., y. Gift. 43c; b. Qidd. 75b; b. Sanh. 85b; b. Niddah 56b. Samarien 133.

Samaritaner

I d e o l o g i c i m 1. Jh.n. n o c h n i c h t u m f a s s e n d gegriffen h a b e n k a n n . " be the case, but w e do not know.

1 4

15

16

138

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

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It is o n l y J o s e p h u s w h o reports the b u i l d i n g o f a S a m a r i t a n t e m p l e on M o u n t G e r i z i m (Ant.

1 1 . 3 0 2 - 3 4 7 ) . T h a t is not to say that w e h a v e h e r e o n l y a late

tradition from t h e first c e n t u r y C E , for J o s e p h u s clearly u s e d h e r e o l d e r s o u r c e s of both Jewish and Samaritan provenance.

17

T h e story g o e s as follows (the fol­

l o w i n g is not a q u o t e b u t a s u m m a r y ) : During the time that A l e x a n d e r the Great w a s conquering the empire o f the Persian king Darius, s o m e leading Jerusalemites objected to the high priest's brother M e n a s s e h ' s mar­ riage to a n o n - J e w i s h w o m a n and they d e m a n d e d that he separate from her. W h e n his brother, the high priest Jaddus, also supported this d e m a n d , M e n a s s e h left Jerusalem and w e n t to his father-in-law, Sanballat, w h o w a s the governor o f Samaria, and told h i m that b e c a u s e o f the priesthood he c o u l d not remain married to his daughter. Thereupon Sanbal­ lat p r o m i s e d M e n a s s e h that not o n l y could he stay married but he c o u l d also b e c o m e high priest o f the Samaritans. H e w o u l d build a t e m p l e for h i m o n M o u n t G e r i z i m , identical to the o n e in Jerusalem. A s a c o n s e q u e n c e m a n y priests and other Israelites from Jerusalem j o i n e d M e n a s s e h and c a m e to live in the area o f Samaria. W h e n A l e x a n d e r had conquered m o s t o f Syria, he sent a m e s s a g e to Jaddus, the high priest o f the J e w s , d e m a n d i n g that their loyalty to Darius b e replaced by loyalty to him. But the high priest wrote back that he c o u l d not break an oath o f loyalty to Darius. This infuriated Alexander, w h o d e c i d e d to punish the J e w s severely. H e entered Palestine and i m m e d i a t e l y Sanballat sent troops to support Alexander, telling h i m that he r e c o g n i z e d h i m , not Darius, as his overlord. H e also asked p e r m i s s i o n to build a temple, s u g g e s t i n g that it w o u l d create a d i v i s i o n a m o n g the J e w i s h p e o p l e w h i c h w o u l d m a k e it easier to rule over t h e m than if they w e r e united. A l e x a n d e r g a v e permission and Sanballat immediately started building. A l e x a n d e r then w e n t o n to Jerusalem w h e r e Jaddus waited in fear and trembling. But G o d told h i m in a dream not to b e afraid, to o p e n the gates for Alexander, and to g o out to m e e t h i m w e a r i n g his highpriestly g o w n . This is what happened, and although the Samaritans had e x p e c t e d h i m to destroy Jerusalem, Alexander, s e e i n g the H o l y N a m e inscribed u p o n the g o l d e n plaque o n the high priest's mitre, prostrated h i m s e l f before the N a m e . H e greeted Jaddus and said that he had seen h i m in a nightly v i s i o n sent to h i m by G o d , in w h i c h Jaddus had e n c o u r a g e d him to undertake his great c a m p a i g n b e c a u s e he w o u l d defeat the Persians. Thereupon A l e x a n d e r sacrificed to G o d in the Jerusalem temple. C o n s e q u e n t l y the Sa­ maritans, w h o lived in S h e c h e m together with the J e w i s h apostates, d e c i d e d to profess t h e m s e l v e s J e w s , s e e i n g h o w kind A l e x a n d e r had b e e n to the J e w s .

1 8

T h e y w e n t to m e e t

A l e x a n d e r after his departure from Jerusalem and invited h i m to honour their t e m p l e as w e l l , w h i c h he p r o m i s e d to d o o n l y after his return from the c a m p a i g n . After A l e x a n d e r ' s death, so Josephus adds, the t e m p l e on M o u n t G e r i z i m continued to exist. " A n d w h e n e v e r a n y o n e w a s a c c u s e d by the p e o p l e o f Jerusalem o f eating unclean food or violating the sabbath or c o m m i t t i n g any other such sin, he w o u l d flee to the S h e c h e m i t e s " ( 1 1 . 3 4 6 ) .

T h i s story is e v i d e n t l y a strange m i x t u r e of l e g e n d a n d history, o f fact a n d fiction. O f c o u r s e A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t n e v e r w o r s h i p p e d G o d in the t e m p l e o f J e r u s a -

1 7

For an analysis of the story see Dexinger, "Limits of Tolerance" 9 6 - 1 0 8 ; idem, "Der Ursprung der Samaritaner im Spiegel der friihen Quellen," in Dexinger-Pummer, Die Samaritaner 1 0 2 - 1 1 6 ; R. Egger, Josephus Flavius und die Samaritaner, Gottingen 1986, 6 5 - 7 4 , 2 5 1 - 2 6 0 . Here Josephus explicitly refers back to his earlier remarks in Ant. 9.291 about the op­ portunism of the Samaritans in this respect. 1 8

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

in Early

139

Judaism

l e m ; it is a l e g e n d that later p r o d u c e d a series o f e v e n m o r e p i o u s v a r i e t i e s .

19

H o w e v e r , t h e story o f b u i l d i n g the t e m p l e on M o u n t G e r i z i m , that h a s often b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a l e g e n d as w e l l , h a s r e c e i v e d i n c r e a s i n g s u p p o r t from a r c h a e o l o g y of late.

20

T h e r e is n o w little d o u b t that a rival t e m p l e w a s built on that m o u n t a i n

in the early H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d a n d that it r e m a i n e d in u s e until t h e H a s m o n a e a n k i n g J o h n H y r c a n u s d e s t r o y e d S h e c h e m a n d this t e m p l e in 110 B C E .

2 1

T h e fact

that t h e r e are n o biblical s o u r c e s that refer to the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f this t e m p l e is not surprising in v i e w o f the fact that " t h e i g n o r i n g o f issues is a standard w e a p o n in r e l i g i o u s q u a r r e l s o f all t i m e s . " aside here, however.

2 2

W e h a v e to l e a v e this historical q u e s t i o n

23

In this p a s s a g e J o s e p h u s is not so m u c h c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e origin o f the Sa­ m a r i t a n s ; this w a s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d in his interpretation o f 2 K i n g s 17 in Ant. 9 . 2 7 7 - 2 9 1 (partly q u o t e d a b o v e ) . H e is m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h " e s t a b l i s h i n g the illegitimacy o f the M o u n t G e r i z i m cult against c o m p e t i n g c l a i m s from t h e side o f the S a m a r i t a n s . "

24

T h e s u p p o s e d i l l e g i t i m a c y o f the t e m p l e d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y

h a v e to d o w i t h t h e efforts in J e r u s a l e m to centralize the cult. In fact w e see that o n e a n d a h a l f c e n t u r i e s later J e r u s a l e m priests h a d n o s c r u p l e s a b o u t b u i l d i n g a n o t h e r t e m p l e , in L e o n t o p o l i s , a n d it r e m a i n e d in u s e w i t h o u t m u c h o p p o s i t i o n for a l m o s t t w o a n d a h a l f c e n t u r i e s . S o t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e S a m a r i t a n t e m p l e w a s p r o b a b l y n o t t h e d e c i s i v e factor in the b r e a k b e t w e e n J e w s a n d S a m a r i t a n s . N e h e m i a h w r i t e s that h e d r o v e a w a y o n e o f the s o n s o f the h i g h priest J o i a d a b e c a u s e that s o n h a d m a r r i e d a d a u g h t e r o f the H o r o n i t e S a n b a l l a t ( a n o t h e r S a n ­ ballat t h a n t h e o n e m e n t i o n e d b y J o s e p h u s ) . H e r e g a r d e d this as a defilement o f t h e p r i e s t h o o d a n d o f the c o v e n a n t o f the priests a n d L e v i t e s ( N e h . 1 3 : 2 8 - 2 9 ) . T h i s illustrates that the issue o f m i x e d m a r r i a g e s o f priests or m e m b e r s o f the h i g h - p r i e s t l y families w a s m o r e significant in d i v i d i n g t h e p e o p l e into - say - an E z r a - N e h e m i a h p a r t y a n d a p r o - S a m a r i t a n p a r t y in J u d e a . M e m b e r s o f the Z a d o k i t e high-priestly families h a d b e e n p r e v e n t e d from a c h i e v i n g influence a n d

1 9

See G. Delling, "Alexander der GroBe als Bekenner des jiidischen Gottesglaubens," JSJ 12 (1981) 1 - 5 1 . Cf. also P.W. van der Horst, "De reis van Alexander de Grote naar het paradijs," in my Studies over het jodendom in de oudheid, Kampen 1992, 9 6 - 1 0 7 , esp. 9 6 - 9 8 . See especially a series of publications by the main excavator o f Mt. Gerizim, Yitshak Magen, o f which I only mention "Gerizim, Mount," in E. Stern (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, Jerusalem 1993, 4 8 4 - 4 9 2 ; "Mount Gerizim - a Temple City," Qadmoniot 33,2 (2000) 7 4 - 1 1 8 ([Hebr.]; at pp. 119-143 of the same issue one finds more articles on Mt. Gerizim and its temple, of which Magen is a co-author). See R. Pummer, "Temple," in A.D. Crown et al. (eds.), A Companion to Samaritan Stud­ ies, Tubingen 1993, 2 2 9 - 2 3 1 . Dexinger, "Limits of Tolerance" 98. Further discussion in Crown, "Samaritan Judaism." Dexinger, "Limits of Tolerance" 97. Dexinger adds: "Nor is he interested in describing the first construction of a shrine on Mount Gerizim, but only in the construction of a temple" (98), which is important in that data yielded by the excavations may be interpreted in the sense that there was an earlier sacred area. 2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

140

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Propaganda

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p o w e r o u t s i d e J e r u s a l e m e v e r since J o s i a h h a d c l o s e d s a n c t u a r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e country. O n e m a y s p e c u l a t e that i n t e r m a r r i a g e w i t h l e a d i n g S a m a r i t a n families o p e n e d u p this possibility a g a i n . After all, t h e S a m a r i t a n s a l r e a d y c l a i m e d to p o s s e s s a h i g h p r i e s t o f Z a d o k i t e d e s c e n t . T h e u s u r p a t i o n of the J e r u s a l e m h i g h p r i e s t h o o d b y the n o n - Z a d o k i t e J o n a t h a n in 152 B C E o u s t e d the Z a d o k i t e s a n d p r o b a b l y c o n f i r m e d the p r i e s t h o o d o n M o u n t G e r i z i m as w e l l as t h e priests w h o h a d m o v e d to Q u m r a n in their o p p o s i t i o n to J e r u s a l e m . G e n e a l o g i c a l purity is an issue w e often tend to u n d e r r a t e but w h i c h in a n c i e n t J e w i s h a n d S a m a r i t a n society c o u l d e v o k e v e h e m e n t e m o t i o n s a n d often lead to bitter rivalry. C e r t a i n l y t h e m a t t e r d e s c r i b e d b y J o s e p h u s did not lead to a n i m m e d i a t e p a r t i n g o f the w a y s b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s a r o u n d 3 0 0 B C E ; that p r o c e s s w a s p r o b a b l y m u c h s l o w e r b u t w e d o n o t k n o w a n y details a b o u t it, a l t h o u g h w e m a y a s s u m e that t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f G e r i z i m a n d its t e m p l e b y t h e J e w i s h k i n g J o h n H y r c a n u s in 110 B C E m a r k e d a definitive b r e a k . C h r o n o l o g i c a l l y in b e t w e e n lies the f a m o u s r e m a r k b y B e n Sira that o n e o f the n a t i o n s d e t e s t e d b y his soul, w h i c h is n o t a n a t i o n at all, is " t h e foolish p e o p l e that d w e l l in S h e c h e m " ( 5 0 : 2 6 ) .

25

It is not e a s y to say w h a t e x a c t l y the

a u t h o r is referring to h e r e b u t t h e s e n s e is g e n e r a l l y t a k e n to b e a n t i - S a m a r i t a n . B u t 'foolish p e o p l e ' m a y , o f c o u r s e , also refer to t h e n o n - S a m a r i t a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f S h e c h e m , a n d w e k n o w there w e r e several g r o u p s . S o to say that " B e n Sira e x p r e s s e s his d e e p e s t c o n t e m p t for the S a m a r i t a n s , " as Di L e i l a d o e s in his commentary,

26

is definitely m o r e than w h a t c a n b e inferred from this text w i t h

certainty. A l s o t w o texts in the 1st a n d 2 n d b o o k s o f t h e M a c c a b e e s (1 M a c e . 3:10; 2 M a c e . 6:2; b o t h from t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E ) are less than helpful, b e c a u s e w e c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e p e o p l e s p o k e n a b o u t are S a m a r i t a n s ( i . e . , m e m b e r s o f the religious c o m m u n i t y a r o u n d t h e t e m p l e o n M o u n t G e r i z i m ) or S a m a r i a n s ( i . e . , n o n - S a m a r i t a n i n h a b i t a n t s o f S a m a r i a ) .

27

So w e must leave them aside.

Two

Pseudepigrapha

Q u i t e interesting, and hitherto s o m e w h a t neglected, e v i d e n c e for the study of antiS a m a r i t a n p r o p a g a n d a in J e w i s h s o u r c e s is to b e found in t w o p s e u d e p i g r a p h i c a l 2 5

See J.D. Purvis, "Ben Sira and the Foolish People of Shechem," JNES 24 (1965) 8 8 - 9 4 ; cf. also Zangenberg, SAMAREIA 4 1 - 4 3 ; Hjelm, Samaritans 1 3 8 - 1 4 6 . There are differences between the Hebrew and Greek versions here; the Greek translation would seem to be more outspoken anti-Samaritan. P.W. Skehan & A. Di Leila, The Wisdom of Ben Sira (Anchor Bible 3), N e w York 1987, 558. See R. Pummer, "Antisamaritanische Polemik in jiidischen Schriften aus der intertestamentarischen Zeit," BZ 26 (1982) 2 3 8 - 2 4 2 ; L.L. Grabbe, "The Samaritans in the Hasmonean Period," Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers 1993, Atlanta 1993, 3 3 4 - 3 3 5 ; Hjelm, Samaritans 1 6 4 - 1 7 0 . 2 6

2 7

Anti-Samaritan

w r i t i n g s , n a m e l y the Martyrium

Propaganda

in Early

141

Judaism

Isaiae a n d the Paralipomena

Jeremiae.

It is true

that b o t h d o c u m e n t s h a v e b e e n h a n d e d d o w n to u s o n l y in C h r i s t i a n a d a p t a t i o n s a n d v e r y often it is h a r d to p i n p o i n t w h e r e the J e w i s h Grundschrift w h e r e the Christian interpolations or r e p h r a s i n g s b e g i n .

28

ends and

However, anti-Samari­

tan p r o p a g a n d a is so infinitely m u c h m o r e a J e w i s h than a C h r i s t i a n i s s u e

2 9

that I

think w e c a n safely a s s u m e that in t h o s e p a s s a g e s w h e r e S a m a r i t a n s n e g a t i v e l y feature, w e h a v e hit J e w i s h b e d r o c k . In the Martyrdom S a m a r i t a n m a n called B e l k i r a

30

of Isaiah

( 3 : 1 - 1 2 ) it is a

w h o p l a y s a pivotal r o l e in the e v e n t s that lead

u p to the d e a t h o f Isaiah. T h i s S a m a r i t a n p r o p h e t e s c a p e s t h e d e p o r t a t i o n o f the n o r t h e r n tribes b y the A s s y r i a n s a n d flees to J e r u s a l e m w h e r e h e b e c o m e s an a d e p t o f the evil k i n g M a n a s s e h , inspired as h e is b y Beliar. H e finds out w h e r e Isaiah is h i d i n g from this k i n g a n d h e a c c u s e s Isaiah o f false p r o p h e c i e s c o n c e r n i n g the future o f Israel a n d J u d a h . H e also asserts that Isaiah c l a i m e d that h e c o u l d see m o r e t h a n the p r o p h e t M o s e s , for M o s e s h a d said, " N o m a n c a n see G o d a n d l i v e " ( E x . 3 3 : 2 0 ) , w h e r e a s Isaiah h a d said, "I h a v e seen G o d a n d b e h o l d I a m still a l i v e ! " (a s o m e w h a t t w i s t e d s u m m a r y o f Is. 6 : 5 - 7 ) . It is this a c c u s a ­ tion o f a r r o g a n c e t o w a r d s M o s e s that p r o v e s fatal for o u r p r o p h e t w h o is t h e n t o r t u r e d to d e a t h b y b e i n g s a w n in t w o w i t h a w o o d - s a w w h i l e B e l k i r a s t a n d s by laughing ( 5 : 1 - 1 4 ) .

3 1

It s h o u l d b e n o t e d h o w specifically S a m a r i t a n B e l k i r a ' s

a c c u s a t i o n is: A c c o r d i n g to S a m a r i t a n tradition, M o s e s ' p o s i t i o n is u n a s s a i l a b l e ; h e h a s r e a c h e d a h i g h e r level than a n y o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g will e v e r b e a b l e to r e a c h ; h e w a s G o d ' s o n l y p r o p h e t a n d for that r e a s o n o n l y his five b o o k s h a v e d i v i n e authority. In contrast, t h e Israelite p r o p h e t s c a n b e d i s c o u n t e d b e c a u s e t h e y c o n t r a d i c t M o s e s b y their c l a i m to b e p r o p h e t s a n d their talk o f J e r u s a l e m as the site o f G o d ' s h o u s e . I s a i a h ' s c l a i m to b e a b l e to still b e alive after h a v i n g seen G o d is utterly p r e p o s t e r o u s in that h e h a s the p r e t e n t i o n to k n o w better, a n d actually b e better, than the u n s u r p a s s a b l e M o s e s .

3 2

S o , Isaiah d e s e r v e s capital

p u n i s h m e n t . H e r e w e see h o w a J e w i s h author, w h o p r o b a b l y lived in the first

2 8

See on this hotly debated issue now the contributions in a special instalment of the JSJ 32,4 (2001). How little early Christian literature yields for our topic becomes apparent when one reads the chapter "Fruhchrisfliche Literatur" in Zangenberg, SAMAREIA. His name is given in the various manuscripts and ancient versions as Belkira, Balkira, Bechira, Melchira etc. It has been suggested that the original Hebrew name was Bechir-ra' = the evil chosen one (or: the one chosen for evil) or Melki-ra' = evil king (cf. Melkiresha in Qumran). See my book De Profeten. Joodse en christelijke legenden uit de oudheid, Amsterdam 2 0 0 1 , 154 note 214. See for an extensive discussion of this passage M. Kartveit, "The Martyrdom of Isaiah and the Background of the Formation o f the Samaritan Group," in V. Morabito et al. (eds.), Samaritan Researches, vol. 5, Sydney 2 0 0 0 , 3 . 1 5 - 3 . 2 8 . Note that an exact rendering of M o s e s ' words and a twisted version o f the Isaian ones would certainly fit into a Samaritan milieu, as Kartveit rightly remarks (Martyrdom 3.24). For Samaritan views of Moses see the chapter "Moses, Lord of the World" in J. Macdonald, The Theology of the Samaritans, London 1964, 1 4 7 - 2 2 4 . 2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

142

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Propaganda

in Early

Judaism

c e n t u r y C E , v i e w e d t h e S a m a r i t a n s . T h e y a r e f o l l o w e r s o f Beliar, t h a t is, s a t a n i c p e r s o n s . It is t h e i r d i s r e g a r d , t h e i r u t t e r c o n t e m p t , for t h e b i b l i c a l p r o p h e t s t h a t t u r n s t h e m into p e r s e c u t o r s o f t h e t r u e b e l i e v e r s . T h i s is i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e t h i s p o l e m i c t a k e s p l a c e in e x a c t l y t h e s a m e p e r i o d in w h i c h t h e J e w s g r a d u a l l y c o m e t o t h e d e c i s i o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e w o r d s o f G o d a r e f o u n d n o t o n l y in t h e T o r a h o f M o s e s b u t a l s o in t h e b o o k s o f t h e p r o p h e t s a n d in s o m e o t h e r w r i t i n g s . T h i s p o s i t i o n w a s , a n d is, u t t e r l y u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e S a m a r i t a n s a n d is r e j e c t e d as apostasy.

33

S o , t h e p i c t u r e r e a l l y is b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e .

T h e s e c o n d p s e u d e p i g r a p h o n , Paralipomena Jeremiah),

3 4

Jeremiae

(The Chronicles of

is i n t e r e s t i n g from a n o t h e r a n g l e , n a m e l y its v i e w o n t h e o r i g i n s o f

t h e S a m a r i t a n s w h i c h differs from t h a t in t h e B i b l e , o r at least is q u i t e different f r o m t h e w a y in w h i c h J e w i s h a u t h o r s from t h e p e r i o d ( h e r e t h e e n d o f t h e first cent. C E or the beginning of the second cent. C E ) interpreted the biblical story in 2 K i n g s 17. W h e r e a s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e latter i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h e b i b l i c a l a c c o u n t t r a c e s t h e o r i g i n s o f S a m a r i t a n i s m to t h e e n d o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t . B C E , this J e w ­ ish a u t h o r p u t s it in t h e p e r i o d i m m e d i a t e l y after t h e e x i l e . T h e t e x t ( c h . 8) is s o c u r i o u s t h a t it d e s e r v e s t o b e q u o t e d in f u l l :

35

T h e day c a m e w h e n G o d led the p e o p l e out o f B a b y l o n . A n d the Lord said to Jeremiah: 'Get u p , both y o u and the p e o p l e , and m a k e your w a y to the Jordan. S a y to the p e o p l e : "He that is for the Lord, let h i m leave behind what w a s d o n e in B a b y l o n , the m e n w h o married B a b y l o n i a n w i v e s and the w o m e n w h o married B a b y l o n i a n husbands." A n d let those w h o listen to y o u cross over, and bring them to Jerusalem; but those w h o d o not listen to y o u , d o n o t bring into it.' A n d Jeremiah told t h e m this; and they g o t up and c a m e to the Jordan to cross over, and h e repeated to t h e m what the Lord had told h i m . A n d half o f those w h o had married B a b y l o n i a n s refused to listen to Jeremiah, but they said to him: ' W e will n e v e r l e a v e our w i v e s behind; let us take t h e m back with u s to our city.' S o they c r o s s e d the Jordan and c a m e to Jerusalem. A n d Jeremiah stood up ( . . . ) and said: ' N o o n e with a B a b y l o n i a n partner shall enter this city. A n d they said to him: 'Let u s then return to B a b y l o n , our place.' A n d they w e n t away. B u t w h e n they c a m e to B a b y l o n , the B a b y l o n i a n s c a m e o u t to m e e t them and said: ' Y o u shall not enter our city b e c a u s e in your hatred for us y o u left secretly; y o u shall not return to us for that reason. For w e h a v e b o u n d o u r s e l v e s b y oath in the n a m e o f our g o d not to receive either y o u or your children, b e c a u s e y o u left us secretly.' A n d w h e n they heard this, they turned back and c a m e to a deserted place at s o m e distance from Jerusalem, and there they built a city for t h e m s e l v e s and called it Samaria. A n d Jeremiah sent a m e s s a g e to them saying: 'Repent, for the angel o f righteousness is c o m i n g and will lead y o u to your place o n high.'

3 3

This is not to deny that the motif of a conflict between the prophets and the Torah has Jew­ ish parallels, but in Judaism these conflicts are 'solved,' as is done for instance in b. Yevamoth 49b, Menahoth 45a, Sanhedrin 89a, and Shabbath 13b. See for this translation o f the title my De Profeten 11. Translation by R. Thornhill in H.F.D. Sparks (ed.), The Apocryphal Old Testament, Oxford 1984, 831 (with some minor modifications by the present author). For an extensive discussion of this passage see J. Herzer, Die Paralipomena Jeremiae, Tubingen 1994, 1 2 9 - 1 4 3 . 3 4

3 5

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

in Early

143

Judaism

T h i s is a fascinating p a s s a g e that n e e d s further d i s c u s s i o n . L e t m e b e g i n b y say­ ing o n c e a g a i n that a striking a s p e c t o f this c h a p t e r is that it p l a c e s the c o m i n g i n t o - b e i n g o f t h e S a m a r i t a n c o m m u n i t y at a m u c h later t i m e t h a n c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h literature d o e s . T h e r e is a difference o f a l m o s t t w o c e n t u r i e s . B u t aside from that, there are s o m e o t h e r interesting p o i n t s that c a t c h the e y e .

3 6

Firstly,

o n e w o u l d e x p e c t that p e o p l e l e a v i n g B a b y l o n w o u l d g a t h e r at t h e E u p h r a t e s , not at the J o r d a n . O n e c o u l d say, o f c o u r s e , that the E u p h r a t e s is m e r e l y g o i n g u n m e n t i o n e d b e c a u s e w h a t is really i m p o r t a n t is e n t e r i n g the h o l y land. A n d that is right; the a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e is: p r o f a n e land - w h i c h g o e s u n m e n t i o n e d ; h o l y land - w h e r e there is a p a r t i n g o f spirits at the b o r d e r ; h o l y city - w h e r e the J e w i s h r e t u r n e e s w h o h a d m a r r i e d B a b y l o n i a n p a r t n e r s d o arrive b u t are n o t al­ l o w e d to e n t e r a n d h a v e n o c h o i c e but to return to B a b y l o n . T h e E z r a - N e h e m i a h v i e w o f m i x e d m a r r i a g e s is d e c i s i v e here. But, interestingly e n o u g h , the founders o f S a m a r i a , a n d for that r e a s o n o f the S a m a r i t a n m o v e m e n t , are not the former i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m h e r e , n o , t h e y are former J e r u s a l e m i t e s ! T h e y talk a b o u t ' o u r c i t y ' w h e n referring to J e r u s a l e m . A s J e n s H e r z e r s a y s , " A n d e r s als in d e r b i b l i s c h e n T r a d i t i o n w a r d e m Verfasser d e r P a r J e r d a r a n g e l e g e n , die S a m a r i t a n e r hinsichtlich ihres U r s p r u n g e s m i t d e m Volk d e r J u d e n in V e r b i n d u n g z u b r i n g e n . ( . . . ) E r stellt sich d a m i t in b e w u B t e n G e g e n s a t z z u d e n traditionellen Vorgaben, i n d e m er die S a m a r i t a n e r in e i n e m positiveren Licht als s o l c h e darstellt, die z w a r u n g e h o r s a m , a b e r d e n n o c h m i t Israel v e r w a n d t u n d d u r c h die g e m e i n s a m e G e s c h i c h t e m i t i h m v e r b u n d e n s i n d . "

37

It s h o u l d also b e

b o r n e in m i n d that the final line o f the p a s s a g e c o n t a i n s a m e s s a g e from J e r e m i a to the i n h a b i t a n t s o f the n e w city o f S a m a r i a to the effect that w h e n they repent, the a n g e l o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s (that is M i c h a e l , s e e 9.5) will c o m e a n d lead t h e m to their p l a c e on high. T h a t is to say that t h e y will s h a r e in t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o m ­ ises to Israel. A n d , to q u o t e a g a i n J e n s Herzer, " D e m Verfasser d e r P a r J e r scheint a n g e s i c h t s d i e s e s G e s c h e h e n s ein N i c h t b e f o l g e n d e s U m k e h r r u f e s u n m o g l i c h zu sein, d a k e i n e w e i t e r e G e r i c h t s a n k u n d i g u n g f o l g t . "

38

T h e fact that the a u t h o r stresses that they w e r e not t a k e n b a c k b y the inhabit­ ants o f B a b y l o n i a u n d e r l i n e s that t h e y w e r e n o t B a b y l o n i a n s , n o t p a g a n s , t h e y w e r e originally i n h a b i t a n t s o f J e r u s a l e m w h o h a d b e c o m e so inculturated into their d i a s p o r a setting, h o w e v e r , that t h e y m a r r i e d n o n - J e w i s h p a r t n e r s . A n d this is w h a t w o r k e d a g a i n s t t h e m . S o again it is t h e m a t t e r o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e that t u r n s out to b e a m a j o r factor. A s w e h a v e seen, this p r o b l e m a l r e a d y p l a y e d a signifi­ cant role in J o s e p h u s ' stories o f t h e erection o f a t e m p l e on M o u n t G e r i z i m . B u t there it w a s priestly purify that w a s defiled b y m i x e d m a r r i a g e , w h e r e a s h e r e it is a b o u t h o w it affects the c o m m o n p e o p l e ; t h e r e t h e story is a b o u t the foundation o f a t e m p l e , w h e r e a s h e r e n o t e m p l e is m e n t i o n e d at all, o n l y t h e city. A l t h o u g h 3 6

3 7

3 8

See my book De Profeten 166, notes 3 6 2 - 3 6 4 . Herzer, Paralipomena 134-135. Herzer, Paralipomena 137.

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the a u t h o r d o e s n o t say so explicitly, h e s e e m s to s u g g e s t that it is the idolatry o f t h e B a b y l o n i a n s p o u s e s that bars t h e m from t h e h o l y city. S o , w h a t w e see h e r e is that the biblical c h r o n o l o g y r e g a r d i n g t h e o r i g i n s o f S a m a r i t a n i s m is n o t t a k e n into a c c o u n t b y the a u t h o r o f the Paralipomena

Jeremiae

b u t that t h e

biblical s u g g e s t i o n o f s y n c r e t i s m is taken u p b y h i m . In t h e e y e s o f o u r a u t h o r the S a m a r i t a n s lost all c l a i m s to call t h e m s e l v e s 'real I s r a e l i t e s ' b e c a u s e t h e y did n o t o b e y t h e rules o f J e r e m i a h - read: E z r a ! - w h i c h m e a n t that they s h o u l d s e n d a w a y a n y n o n - J e w i s h p a r t n e r s . A g a i n , w e see h o w the issue o f m i x e d m a r r i a g e d o m i n a t e d the S a m a r i t a n - J e w i s h d e b a t e s o f the t i m e . B u t w e c a n also o b s e r v e that in this p e r i o d , a r o u n d the turn o f the era, a relatively m i l d p o s i t i o n v i s - a - v i s the S a m a r i t a n s w a s certainly p o s s i b l e in J e w i s h circles. W e h a d a l r e a d y s e e n this w h e n J o s e p h u s altered t h e biblical report in 2 K i n g s 17 to t a k e a drastically m o r e p o s i t i v e p o s i t i o n . It is clear that b y t h e e n d o f t h e first c e n t u r y C E the relations b e t w e e n J e w s a n d S a m a r i t a n s w a s a m u c h d e b a t e d t o p i c . T h i s will c o n t i n u e in the T a n n a i t i c d e b a t e s o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y as w e shall see.

The Samaritan

Temple

B u t n o w w e r e t u r n for a m o m e n t to J o s e p h u s .

39

In Ant. XII 7 - 1 0 h e tells u s that

P t o l e m y I Soter ( e n d o f the 4th cent. B.C.) " t o o k m a n y c a p t i v e s b o t h from t h e hill c o u n t r y o f J u d a e a a n d the district r o u n d J e r u s a l e m a n d from S a m a r i a a n d t h o s e o n G a r i z i m a n d b r o u g h t t h e m all to E g y p t a n d settled t h e m t h e r e " ( 7 ) . L a t e r P t o l e m y f a v o u r e d t h e J e w s m o r e than o t h e r s so that " t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s h a d q u a r r e l s w i t h t h e S a m a r i t a n s b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e d e t e r m i n e d to k e e p alive their f a t h e r s ' w a y o f life a n d c u s t o m s , a n d so t h e y fought w i t h e a c h other, t h o s e from J e r u s a l e m s a y i n g that their t e m p l e w a s t h e h o l y o n e , a n d r e q u i r i n g that the sacrifices b e sent t h e r e , w h i l e the S h e c h e m i t e s w a n t e d t h e s e to g o to M o u n t G a r i z i m " ( 1 0 ) . T h i s is clearly a conflict b e t w e e n t w o religious c o m m u n i t i e s , a conflict that will escalate a g a i n later in H e l l e n i s t i c E g y p t . F o r in Ant.

XIII

7 4 - 7 9 J o s e p h u s tells u s a b o u t a v i o l e n t quarrel in A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g t h e reign o f P t o l e m y VI P h i l o m e t o r ( 1 8 0 - 1 4 5 ) b e t w e e n J e w s a n d S a m a r i t a n s o v e r the q u e s ­ tion o f w h e t h e r t h e t e m p l e in J e r u s a l e m or the o n e on G a r i z i m w a s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e L a w o f M o s e s . B o t h parties a s k the k i n g to m a k e t h e d e c i s i o n . P t o l e m y follows t h e p r i n c i p l e o f audi et alteram

partem

a n d listens to s p e a k e r s o f b o t h

p a r t i e s . It is the c h a m p i o n of the J e w i s h c a u s e w h o is a b l e to c o n v i n c e t h e k i n g b y u s i n g p r o o f from t h e Torah a n d also b y e m p h a s i z i n g that "all the k i n g s o f A s i a h a d h o n o u r e d t h e t e m p l e w i t h d e d i c a t o r y offerings a n d m o s t s p l e n d i d gifts, w h i l e n o n e h a d s h o w n a n y r e s p e c t or r e g a r d for that o n G a r i z i m , as t h o u g h it w e r e n o t in e x i s t e n c e " ( 7 8 ) . F o l l o w i n g the k i n g ' s d e c i s i o n the S a m a r i t a n p l e a d ­ ers w e r e put to d e a t h . It s h o u l d b e a d d e d h e r e that this story is told as w e l l in On the following two passages in Josephus see Zangenberg, SAMAREIA

64-65.

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

in Early

145

Judaism

m e d i e v a l S a m a r i t a n c h r o n i c l e s , b u t then w i t h the o p p o s i t e o u t c o m e !

4 0

B e that

as it may, w e see h e r e t w o c o m m u n i t i e s in conflict o v e r the l e g i t i m a c y o f their r e s p e c t i v e t e m p l e s , or rather o f t h e p l a c e w h e r e their t e m p l e s w e r e built. O n e is r e m i n d e d o f J o h n 4 : 2 0 w h e r e the S a m a r i t a n w o m a n s a y s to J e s u s : " O u r fathers w o r s h i p p e d on this m o u n t a i n , but y o u J e w s say that the p l a c e w h e r e G o d m u s t b e w o r s h i p p e d is in J e r u s a l e m . " W e also see this e l e m e n t in t w o inscriptions that d a t e from r o u g h l y the s a m e t i m e as t h e conflict in A l e x a n d r i a b u t w e r e found in a different r e g i o n . It w a s a s p e c t a c u l a r find b e c a u s e t h e s e t w o s t o n e tablets constitute the m o s t a n c i e n t e p i g r a p h i c a l t e s t i m o n y to a S a m a r i t a n d i a s p o r a , w h i c h w a s m u c h m o r e s i z e a b l e than is g e n e r a l l y a s s u m e d , as I h a v e a r g u e d at length e l s e w h e r e . S a m a r i t a n inscriptions w e r e found on t h e little island o f D e l o s .

41

4 2

In 1980, t w o Both inscrip­

tions, d a t i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y from t h e third to s e c o n d a n d from t h e s e c o n d to first c e n t u r y B C E , d o n o t s p e a k a b o u t S a m a r i t a n s expressis

verbis,

but they do speak

a b o u t " t h e Israelites o n D e l o s w h o p a y their first offerings to t h e s a n c t u a r y (of) A r g a r i z i n . " T h e m e n t i o n of Argarizin

(= H a r G a r i z i m ) leaves n o r o o m for d o u b t .

T h e s e D e l i a n S a m a r i t a n s h o n o u r a certain S a r a p i o n o f C n o s s o s a n d M e n i p p u s o f H e r a c l e a for their b e n e f a c t i o n s t o w a r d s the c o m m u n i t y , p o s s i b l y the b u i l d i n g o f a synagogue.

43

T h e interesting t h i n g a b o u t t h e s e inscriptions is n o t o n l y that they

are e v i d e n c e o f a v e r y early p r e s e n c e o f S a m a r i t a n s on D e l o s , b u t also that they m a k e it v e r y likely that the S a m a r i t a n s lived in C r e t e ( S a r a p i o n o f C n o s s o s ) as early as the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E .

4 4

F o r o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s it suffices to p o i n t

out that in r o u g h l y the s a m e p e r i o d to w h i c h o u r literary s o u r c e s d a t e a quarrel b e t w e e n S a m a r i t a n s a n d J e w s a b o u t the location o f the t e m p l e , e p i g r a p h i c a l e v i d e n c e from e l s e w h e r e in the S a m a r i t a n d i a s p o r a g i v e s t e s t i m o n y to the fact that it w a s p r e c i s e l y this ' s a n c t u a r y o f A r g a r i z i n ' w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e m from the J e w s . A n d it is again from t h e s a m e p e r i o d , the s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , that w e h a v e a f r a g m e n t o f an a n o n y m o u s S a m a r i t a n author, k n o w n as P s e u d o - E u 4 0

See J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans, Philadelphia 1907 (repr. N e w York 1968), 7 6 - 7 7 ; on both the Samaritan versions of this conflict and the possible reasons for it see Egger, Josephus Flavius und die Samaritaner 9 5 - 1 0 1 . P.W. van der Horst, "The Samaritan Diaspora in Antiquity," in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg - Gottingen 1990, 1 3 6 - 1 4 7 . See Ph. Bruneau, '"Les Israelites de D e l o s ' et la juiverie delienne," BCH 106 (1982) 4 6 5 - 5 0 4 , which is the editio princeps. An English translation of the inscriptions is given by A. T. Kraabel, "New Evidence of the Samaritan Diaspora Has Been Found on Delos," Biblical Archaeologist 47 (1984) 4 4 - 4 6 . Bruneau extensively discusses all the problems. For Argarizin see R. Pummer, "ARGARIZIN: A Criterion for Samaritan Provenance?," JSJ 18 (1987) 18-25. This interpretation is not undisputed; see P. W. van der Horst, "The Jews of Ancient Crete," JJS 39 (1988) 1 8 3 - 2 0 0 [also elsewhere in this volume]. From which of the 10 known Heraclea's Menippus came is unknown. Bruneau 479 mentions in this connection an inscription {Inscriptions de Delos 2 6 1 6 ) of ca. 100 B C E in which a certain Praylos Samareus is mentioned who has contributed to the building of the Sarapieion of Delos. This will have been a Samarian rather than a Samaritan. 4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

146

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

in Early

Judaism

p o l e m o s , w h e r e w e r e a d that after A b r a h a m ' s w a r w i t h t h e k i n g s h e w a s r e c e i v e d as a g u e s t b y the city at the t e m p l e o f A r g a r i z i n (or: at h o l y A r g a r i z i n ) w h e r e h e r e c e i v e d gifts from M e l c h i z e d e k ( f r a g m e n t 1 in E u s e b i u s , Praep.

Evang.

45

9.17.5—6). A story o f a visit b y the great patriarch to t h e h o l y m o u n t a i n o f the S a m a r i t a n s c a n o n l y b e e x p l a i n e d as i n t e n d e d to reinforce the S a m a r i t a n idea that this w a s the p l a c e c h o s e n b y G o d as his d w e l l i n g . T h i s b r i n g s u s to the d e b a t e a b o u t the original text o f D e u t . 2 7 : 4 . In the stand­ ard v e r s i o n s w e read: " W h e n y o u h a v e c r o s s e d t h e J o r d a n , y o u are to set u p t h e s e s t o n e s on M o u n t E b a l , as I instruct y o u this day, a n d coat t h e m w i t h plaster. Build t h e r e a n altar to the L o r d y o u r G o d . " Instead of ' E b a l ' t h e S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h r e a d s ' G e r i z i m . ' T h i s h a s a l w a y s b e e n r e g a r d e d b y t h e J e w s as a n intentional alteration o f t h e text b y the S a m a r i t a n s ,

46

a l t h o u g h the S a m a r i t a n s asserted that

it w a s t h e o t h e r w a y r o u n d : t h e y said that t h e J e w s h a d altered the original text b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e not w i l l i n g to r e c o g n i z e that t h e S a m a r i t a n s w e r e right. B u t t h i n g s are n o t t h a t s i m p l e . Firstly, if it w a s altered b y the S a m a r i t a n s , it is h a r d to e x p l a i n w h y the Vetus L a t i n a also h a s this r e a d i n g (Gerizim)

here and w h y

J o s e p h u s in his r e n d e r i n g o f this p a s s a g e s p e a k s a b o u t t h e m o u n t a i n s ' G e r i z i m a r a / E b a l ' (Ant. 4 . 3 0 5 ) . Secondly, it is w e l l - k n o w n that there are o t h e r i n s t a n c e s as w e l l w h e r e J e w i s h scribes m a d e a n t i - S a m a r i t a n c h a n g e s in the biblical t e x t .

47

In o t h e r w o r d s , it m a y well b e that the S a m a r i t a n s are right: that theirs is t h e original text a n d that the J e w s c h a n g e d the original for p o l e m i c a l or p r o p a g a n distic r e a s o n s .

48

O n the o t h e r h a n d , w e k n o w that t h e S a m a r i t a n s t h e m s e l v e s did

n o t s h y a w a y from c h a n g i n g biblical texts. T h e b e s t k n o w n e x a m p l e o f this is the a d d i t i o n o f t h e c o m m a n d m e n t to b u i l d an altar at G e r i z i m to t h e D e c a l o g u e in E x o d u s 2 0 : 1 7 . S o the m a t t e r is far from u n e q u i v o c a l .

Rabbinic

views

W e n o w turn to the r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l .

49

T h i s brief s u r v e y will c o v e r o n l y a few

p a s s a g e s out o f the m a n y texts a v a i l a b l e . It b e g i n s o n a g l o o m y n o t e , b e c a u s e 4 5

For text and translation see C.R. Holladay, Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors, vol. l . C h i c o 1983, 1 7 2 - 1 7 3 . For this accusation in rabbinic literature see e. g. b. Sotah 33b, Sifre Num. 15:31. R. Tournay, "Quelques relectures bibliques anti-samaritaines," RB 71 (1964) 5 0 4 - 5 3 6 . It is interesting that Tournay dates most of his examples to the 2nd cent. BCE. A simple instance of 'relecture anti-samaritaine' is Hos. 14:9 where the L X X and other versions have the original "Ephraim, what further dealings does it have with idols?" whereas the MT has changed the Hebrew lo into // which results in the sentence "Ephraim, what further dealings do I have with idols?" See Zangenberg, SAMARIA 1 8 4 - 1 8 5 ; Dexinger, "Limits o f Tolerance" 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 . For convenient collections of the relevant passages the reader is referred to [H.L. Strack &] P. Billerbeck, Kommentarzum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch, vol. 1, Miinchen 1926, 5 3 8 - 5 6 0 ; Zangenberg, SAMAREIA 9 2 - 1 6 6 . A detailed presentation of all the relevant material from the Mishna is to be found in B. W. Hall, Samaritan Religion from John Hyrcanus 4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

o u r earliest d o c u m e n t , called The Scroll

in Early

147

Judaism

of Fasting

(Megillat

Ta'anit),

which

p r o b a b l y d a t e s to the early s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , lists ' t h e d a y o f G e r i z i m ' as o n e o f the d a y s on w h i c h it w a s forbidden to fast ( 2 2 ) . T h i s is the d a y on w h i c h t h e t e m p l e on M o u n t G e r i z i m w a s d e s t r o y e d a n d r a s e d to the g r o u n d b y J o h n Hyrcanus.

5 0

B e c a u s e the d e s t r u c t i o n o f that t e m p l e w a s such a j o y o u s o c c a s i o n it

w a s f o r b i d d e n to fast on that day. It is clear that in the e y e s o f t h e c o m p i l e r s the d e s t r u c t i o n o f the t e m p l e o n M t . G e r i z i m (to q u o t e Z a n g e n b e r g ) " n i c h t p r i m a r als rein militarischer A k t , s o n d e r n als b e s o n d e r e , h e i l s g e s c h i c h t l i c h - r e l i g i o s e Tat interpretiert w u r d e . " were heard.

52

5 1

B u t as so often in r a b b i n i c literature, d i s s e n t i n g v o i c e s

N o t o n l y w a s there little u n a n i m i t y a m o n g the r a b b i s but their

attitudes also s e e m to c h a n g e c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r t i m e . F r o m r o u g h l y the s a m e p e r i o d as Megillat

Ta 'anit w e h a v e a s t a t e m e n t at­

tributed to R a b b i A q i v a to t h e effect that the S a m a r i t a n s are sincere p r o s e l y t e s , not j u s t ' l i o n - p r o s e l y t e s , ' a n d for that r e a s o n s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d as Israelites (y. Gift. 4 3 c ; b . Qidd. 7 5 b ; b . Sanh.

8 5 b ; b . Niddah

56b).

5 3

His near-contempo­

rary R a b b a n S h i m o n b e n G a m l i e l is e v e n r e p o r t e d to h a v e said that S a m a r i t a n s are like Israelites in e v e r y respect, a n d that t h e y are often m o r e s c r u p u l o u s in f o l l o w i n g the c o m m a n d m e n t s than t h e Israelites (y. Berakh.

l i b ; m.

Berakh.

7 . 1 ; t. Terum. 4 : 1 4 ; b . Qidd. 7 6 a ) . It is on t h e basis o f s u c h m a t e r i a l that H a n s K i p p e n b e r g c o n c l u d e s : " S o findet sich im 2 . Jh. n. Chr. n o c h g e b r o c h e n die Einsicht, daB es sich bei d e n S a m a r i t a n e r n u m Israeliten h a n d e l t . " w e also s a w in the p e r h a p s slightly earlier Paralipomena in the later p o s t - T a l m u d i c treatise, Cuthim,

54

Jeremiae.

T h i s is w h a t But even

t h e c o m p i l e r s still s p e a k o f m a n y

areas in w h i c h the S a m a r i t a n s c a n b e trusted to follow the Torah c a r e f u l l y .

55

Yet

this is not the d o m i n a n t t e n o r in r a b b i n i c literature o f t h e p o s t - T a n n a i t i c p e r i o d .

to Baba Rabba, Sydney 1987, 1 7 9 - 2 2 5 . Discussions of this material also in, e.g., J. Jeremias, Jerusalem zur Zeit Jesu, Gottingen 1962, 3 8 7 - 3 9 4 ; H. Kippenberg, Garizim und Synagoge, Berlin 1971, 1 3 7 - 1 4 3 ; esp. L.H. Schiffman, "The Samaritans inTannaitic Halakhah," JQR 75 (1984/85)323-350. H. Lichtenstcin, "Die Fastenrolle," HUCA 8 - 9 (1931/32) 2 5 7 - 3 5 2 , here 288; J.A. Fitzmyer & D.J. Harrington, A Manual of Palestinian Aramaic Texts, Rome 1994 (2nd ed.), 186. For a discussion of this passage see Zangenberg, SAMAREIA 1 5 9 - 1 6 2 ; Hjelm, Samaritans 128. Zangenberg, SA MARE/A 162. A very clear case o f inner-rabbinic debate and dissension is to be found for instance in b. Hullin 5b-6a. Aqiva also opposed the strict rulings on the Samaritans by his colleague R. Eliezer; see m. Shev. 8:10. The trustworthiness o f the attribution of these dicta to Aqiva is doubtful, how­ ever; see Schiffman, "The Samaritans" 327. Kippenberg, Garizim 138. See the list in Kippenberg, Garizim 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 . One may wonder whether this attitude might still have contributed to the closing o f the ranks and the co-operation between Samaritans and Jews in the great anti-Byzantine revolts in sixth-century Palestine, on which see L. di Segni, "Rebellions o f Samaritans in Palestine," in Crown et al. (eds.), Companion 1 9 9 - 2 0 1 . These revolts cost the Samaritans tens o f thousands of casualties. 5 0

5 1

5 2

5 3

5 4

5 5

148

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

A s the final w o r d s o f the treatise Cuthim

in Early

Judaism

indicate, it is only " w h e n they h a v e

renounced M o u n t Gerizim and acknowledged Jerusalem and the resurrection from the d e a d " that t h e y c a n b e r e - a d m i t t e d into the fold o f G o d ' s p e o p l e .

5 6

That

the S a m a r i t a n s , like the S a d d u c e e s , rejected the idea o f r e s u r r e c t i o n b e c a u s e it is n o t found in the T o r a h , t h e M i s h n a , Sank.

57

is s o m e t h i n g that m u s t h a v e offended the r a b b i s . In

1 0 . 1 , it is explicitly stated that h e w h o d e n i e s that the Torah

t e a c h e s t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n of the d e a d has n o s h a r e in t h e w o r l d to c o m e . T h a t the S a m a r i t a n s o p p o s e this idea c a n n o t b e s u b s t a n t i a t e d from the earliest S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s extant, b u t several k n o w l e d g e a b l e C h u r c h F a t h e r s from the third a n d fourth c e n t u r i e s confirm that the S a m a r i t a n s did not b e l i e v e in the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the d e a d .

5 8

H o w e v e r , for s o m e r e a s o n or another, in later antiquity or early

m e d i e v a l t i m e s the S a m a r i t a n s did a d o p t this idea, as the J e w s did s o m e centuries earlier. T h a t the S a m a r i t a n rejection o f J e r u s a l e m a n d the P r o p h e t s a n d W r i t i n g s r e ­ m a i n e d a b o n e o f c o n t e n t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o parties s h o u l d n o t surprise u s after w h a t w e h a v e seen. B u t aside from that, in the late T a n n a i t i c a n d the A m o r a i c p e r i o d w e also s e e that the old a c c u s a t i o n of p a g a n i s m is r e s u s c i t a t e d l e a d i n g , finally, to the e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s b y the r a b b i s . In this r e s p e c t it is significant that the S a m a r i t a n s r e c e i v e n o m e n t i o n in the M i s h n a treatise Avodah

Zarah ( = i d o l a t r y ) , w h e r e a s t h e y d o in the later G e m a r a on this treatise in

both T a l m u d i m .

5 9

In the 4th century, the C h u r c h F a t h e r E p i p h a n i u s reports that

S a m a r i t a n s w h o w a n t e d to b e c o m e J e w s h a d to b e r e - c i r c u m c i s e d , a n d the s a m e a p p l i e d to J e w s w h o w a n t e d to b e c o m e S a m a r i t a n s {De mensis

et

ponderibus

1 6 . 7 - 9 ) . T h i s s h o u l d b e seen in the c o n t e x t o f a series o f r a b b i n i c s t a t e m e n t s c l a i m i n g that S a m a r i t a n s are n o t h i n g b u t p a g a n s : e . g . , t. Terumot

4 . 1 4 tells u s

that n o less a p e r s o n than R a b b i ( i . e . , J u d a h h a - N a s i ) d e c r e e d that S a m a r i t a n s s h o u l d b e treated like g e n t i l e s . wards

6 1

60

T h i s is a j u d g e m e n t that is often r e p e a t e d after­

( e v e n t h o u g h it d o e s not a l w a y s g o u n c o n t e s t e d ) . W e h a v e to k e e p t w o

t h i n g s in m i n d h e r e : First o f all, r a b b i n i c literature d o e s n o t d e s c r i b e reality as it is b u t as the r a b b i s w o u l d like to h a v e it. In o t h e r w o r d s , w h e n t h e r a b b i s d e c l a r e S a m a r i t a n s to b e n o t h i n g b u t p a g a n s , that d o e s n o t i m p l y that the J e w s in g e n e r a l s h a r e d this o p i n i o n a n d acted accordingly. W e k n o w o f v e r y m a n y situations in

5 6

See b. AZ21&: "An Israelite may perform circumcision on a Cuthean but a Cuthean should not circumcise an Israelite, because he performs it in the name of Mount Gerizim." See J. Le Moyne, Les Sadduceens, Paris 1972, passim; G. Stemberger, Pharisder, Sadduzder, Essener, Stuttgart 1991, 6 8 - 7 0 . Evidence in Kippenberg, Garizim 1 4 1 - 1 4 2 , and in F. Dexinger, "After Life," in Crown et al. (eds.), Companion 9 - 1 0 . Hall, Samaritan Religion 208. In the very same passage his father, Simeon ben Gamliel, says that Samaritans are like Jews in all respects! See the collection in Billerbeck, Kommentar I, 5 5 2 - 5 5 3 , w h o refers to the following pas­ sages from the Jerusalem Talmud: Berakh. 1 l b , Ket. 27a; Dem. 25d, Sheq. 36b etc. 5 7

5 8

5 9

6 0

6 1

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

in Early

149

Judaism

which the c o m m o n Jews simply ignored rabbinic prescripts. Secondly, even t o d a y w e w i t n e s s the p h e n o m e n o n that strictly o r t h o d o x J e w s call n o n - o r t h o d o x J e w s s i m p l y n o n - J e w s , w h e r e a s they k n o w quite well that, seen from a n o t h e r v i e w p o i n t , this is u n t e n a b l e . G r o u p s c l a i m i n g e x c l u s i v e rights to t h e epithet J e w or Israelite are v e r y c o m m o n in the history o f J e w i s h religion. T h e S a m a r i t a n s t h e m s e l v e s d o t h e s a m e w h e n t h e y say that J e w s are not Israelites b u t a p o s t a t e s . A g a i n , this kind o f c l a i m s often d o e s not w o r k on the level o f p r a c t i c e , a n d this is p r o b a b l y why, e v e n after the s t r o n g s t a t e m e n t s b y p e r s o n s like R a b b i , m a n y J e w s c o n t i n u e d to treat the S a m a r i t a n s as if t h e y w e r e Israelites, albeit p e r h a p s second-rate. B u t the rabbis did not g i v e u p easily. In the 4th c e n t u r y they started to a c ­ c u s e t h e S a m a r i t a n s o f w o r s h i p p i n g a d o v e (y. Av. Zar. 4 4 d ; b . Hull. 6 a et so o f d o w n r i g h t i d o l a t r y .

62

T h i s is a l m o s t certainly a c o m p l e t e l y

al),

unjustified

allegation a n d s h o u l d b e s e e n as either a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g or, m o r e probably, as a d e l i b e r a t e distortion o f the S a m a r i t a n w o r s h i p o f Shema 'ashima),

(in their l a n g u a g e

the N a m e ( i . e . Y H W H ) . " T h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f the J e w i s h allegation

w o u l d s e e m to b e that the S a m a r i t a n s still w o r s h i p p e d t h e g o d d e s s A s h i m a , w h o s e cult is said to h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t into t h e N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m o f Israel b y t h e A s s y r i a n c o l o n i s t s (2 K i n g s 1 7 : 2 9 - 3 0 ) . "

6 3

T h e r e h a s n e v e r b e e n the slightest

e v i d e n c e that the S a m a r i t a n s e v e r w o r s h i p p e d this d o v e ,

6 4

so h e r e w e are a l m o s t

certainly in the r e a l m o f religious slander. T h e r e is little d o u b t that the fact that the S a m a r i t a n s resolutely rejected the central r a b b i n i c c o n c e p t o f Oral T o r a h

65

- in this r e s p e c t they w e r e a g a i n not u n l i k e the S a d d u c e e s - w a s the factor that fuelled the a n g e r o f the rabbis against t h e m . It is clear from T a l m u d i c d i s c u s s i o n s ( e . g . , b. Qidd. 7 5 a - 7 6 a ) that, as in the p r e - r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l , q u e s t i o n s o f strict m a r r i a g e rules, purity o f l i n e a g e a n d related m a t t e r s c o n t i n u e d to play a large role in the r a b b i s ' a s s e s s m e n t o f the S a m a r i t a n s . T h e p r o b l e m a l w a y s w a s that s o m e r a b b i s c l a i m e d that the Cuthim

w e r e not strict e n o u g h in t h e s e m a t t e r s .

66

A n o t h e r b a r o m e t e r o f J e w i s h / n o n - J e w i s h relations w a s the a c c e p t a n c e o f w i n e held b y a g r o u p , i n d i c a t i n g that t h e y are c o n s i d e r e d J e w s . " U n t i l t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E w i n e sealed b y a S a m a r i t a n w a s a c c e p t a b l e but, in A m o r a i c t i m e s , it c a m e to be forbidden iyAZ

5:4 ( 4 4 d ) ; bAZ 3 1 a - b ; cf. Kutim

2:9). T h e r e a s o n

g i v e n is the c o r r u p t i o n o f the S a m a r i t a n s , that is their laxity in t h e o b s e r v a n c e o f the c o m m a n d m e n t s as n o t e d in A m o r a i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e m . " 6 2

6 7

T h e r e are

E.g., b.Hull. 6a: "R. Assi declared the Cuthaeans to be absolute heathens." Cf. Gen. RabbaS\3. J. Fossum, "Dove," Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (eds. K. van der Toorn, B. Becking & P.W. van der Horst), Leiden-Grand Rapids 1999 (2nd ed.), 2 6 3 . See for instance Hall, Samaritan Religion. See R. Boid, "Use, Authority and Exegesis o f Mikra in the Samaritan Tradition," In M.J. Mulder (ed.), Mikra (CRINT 11,1), Assen - Philadelphia 1988, 598. Schiffman, "The Samaritans" 3 2 8 - 3 3 4 . L.H. Schiffman, "Rabbinic Literature, Samaritans in-," in Crown, Companion 199. 6 3

6 4

6 5

6 6

6 7

150

Anti-Samaritan

Propaganda

in Early

Judaism

m a n y m o r e early r a b b i n i c texts o n the S a m a r i t a n s b u t for r e a s o n s o f s p a c e w e h a d to m a k e a selection. W e h a v e seen e n o u g h , h o w e v e r , to b e a b l e to c o n c l u d e that " t h e attitude o f the rabbis to the S a m a r i t a n s c h a n g e d from o n e o f J e w i s h or q u e s t i o n a b l e status to the a s s u m p t i o n that the S a m a r i t a n s w e r e like n o n - J e w s in all h a l a k h i c m a t t e r s . "

68

Conclusion W e h a v e to d r a w to a c l o s e . T h e t h r e a d that runs t h r o u g h o u t this story has b e e n o n e o f a m b i g u i t y a n d a m b i v a l e n c e . T h e S a m a r i t a n s are at the s a m e t i m e b o t h J e w s a n d n o n - J e w s . " T h e y w e r e neither in n o r o u t . "

6 9

T h e fact that the Sa­

m a r i t a n s a c c e p t e d the Torah o f M o s e s as a u t h o r i t a t i v e a n d d i v i n e a n d also lived a c c o r d i n g l y m a d e o t h e r J e w s feel that t h e y w e r e d e a l i n g w i t h k i n s m e n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e fact that t h e S a m a r i t a n s rejected s o m e tenets that h a d b e c o m e f u n d a m e n t a l to post-exilic a n d post-biblical J u d a i s m (i.e. the a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e P r o p h e t s a n d W r i t i n g s , the centralization o f t h e cult in J e r u s a l e m , t h e i d e a o f a r e s u r r e c t i o n o f the b o d y ) m a d e other J e w s feel that t h e y w e r e d e a l i n g with o u t ­ siders, b e y o n d t h e p a l e o f J u d a i s m . A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s b y i n d i v i d u a l J e w s v a r i e d greatly d e p e n d i n g o n t h e political c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h o w o p e n m i n d e d or strict they w e r e , a n d w h e t h e r they h a d actual a n d p e r s o n a l k n o w l e d g e of t h e m . T h e S a m a r i t a n s w e r e s t r a n g e coreligionists w h o w e r e h a r d to identify a n d w h o t h e r e f o r e m a d e it difficult to define t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e m a n d the J e w s . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s there is n o u n e q u i v o c a l J e w i s h v i e w o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s .

6 8

Schiffman, Schiffman, The author from Sydney, for errors. 6 9

7 0

70

"Rabbinic Literature" 199. "The Samaritans" 323. expresses his gratitude to the doyen of Samaritan studies, Prof. Alan Crown his critical remarks on the first draft of this article. He saved me from several

Jacques Basnage (1653-1723) on the Samaritans Or: How much did one know about the Samaritans three centuries ago in the Netherlands?

F r e n c h P r o t e s t a n t i s m h a d a v e r y difficult start. T h e 16th c e n t u r y w a s a p e r i o d o f p e r s e c u t i o n w i t h as its m o s t brutal z e n i t h t h e so-called M a s s a c r e o f St. Bar­ t h o l o m e w ' s D a y in A u g u s t o f 1572 w h e n at the instigation o f q u e e n C a t h e r i n e d e ' M e d i c i b e t w e e n 5 0 0 0 a n d 1 0 0 0 0 H u g u e n o t s (as the F r e n c h P r o t e s t a n t s w e r e called) w e r e m u r d e r e d in t h e cities o f F r a n c e . T h e Edict o f N a n c e , signed in 1598 b y H e n r i IV after the F r e n c h w a r s o f religion, formally g r a n t e d the H u g u e n o t s t h e right o f free e x e r c i s e o f their r e l i g i o n a n d civil e q u a l i t y w i t h C a t h o l i c s , b u t as the history o f the 17th c e n t u r y p r o v e d , it d i d n ' t w o r k : in fact the H u g u e n o t s h e r e b y a c h i e v e d the status o f a b a r e l y tolerated minority, a status that w a s g r a d u a l l y a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y u n d e r m i n e d b y a l o n g series o f formal a n d informal e n c r o a c h m e n t s o f their n e w rights. T h i s g l a r i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f F r e n c h intoler­ a n c e r e a c h e d its natural a p o g e e in the r e v o c a t i o n o f t h e E d i c t o f N a n t e s in 1685 b y L o u i s XIV, the S u n K i n g , an act w h i c h i m p l i e d that t h e H u g u e n o t s w e r e 1

forced to b e c o m e C a t h o l i c s ; o t h e r w i s e they w o u l d b e c o m e o u t l a w s . A l t h o u g h they w e r e n o t a l l o w e d to l e a v e t h e country, s o m e 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 m a n a g e d to flee from F r a n c e , a n d a large n u m b e r o f H u g u e n o t s , at least o n e third o f t h e m , settled in the c o u n t r y that h a d the l o n g e s t a n d s t r o n g e s t tradition o f r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a n c e in E u r o p e , the so-called U n i t e d R e p u b l i c o f the N e t h e r l a n d s . O t h e r s w e n t to Switzerland, England, and Germany.

2

T h e m o s t f a m o u s a n d illustrious o f t h e s e F r e n c h P r o t e s t a n t s in the N e t h e r ­ lands w a s the w r i t e r Pierre B a y l e , t h e t o l e r a n t s k e p t i c w h o b e c a m e p r o f e s s o r o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d h i s t o r y at R o t t e r d a m , w h e r e h e w r o t e his f a m o u s f o u r - v o l u m e Dictionnaire

historique

et critique

( 1 6 9 5 - 9 7 ) , a m a n w h o is n o w g e n e r a l l y

r e g a r d e d as a p r e c u r s o r o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t . H e is an e x e m p l a r y e x p o n e n t of the p h e n o m e n o n that his m o s t r e c e n t a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e b i o g r a p h e r , E l i s a b e t h L a b r o u s s e , d e s c r i b e s to the effect that b y a n d large t h e H u g u e n o t s a l w a y s " w e r e incomparably better educated and trained than the average Catholic parish 1

On the serious consequences of this revocation (and its prehistory) see J. Orcibal, Louis lesprotestants, Paris \95\,passim but esp. 1 2 4 - 1 5 8 . Hundreds of thousands, however, became French Catholics, of course contre coeur, so that in fact a kind of 'Protestant Marranos' came into being.

XIVet 2

152

Jacques Basnage

3

p r i e s t . " T h i s a p p l i e s a fortiori

(1653-1723)

on the

Samaritans

to his c l o s e a n d lifelong friend a n d b e n e f a c t o r 4

J a c q u e s B a s n a g e , w h o p l a y e d such an i m p o r t a n t role t h r o u g h o u t his life. B a ­ s n a g e w a s b o r n in 1653 as the son o f a P r o t e s t a n t l a w y e r in R o u e n a n d a m e m b e r o f " o n e o f N o r m a n d y ' s m o s t c e l e b r a t e d d y n a s t i e s , k n o w n a n d r e c o g n i z e d still 5

t o d a y for its scholarly barristers a n d H u g u e n o t p a s t o r s . " H e b e c a m e a m i n i s t e r in his n a t i v e t o w n in 1676, but in 1 6 8 5 , the y e a r o f t h e r e v o c a t i o n o f the E d i c t o f N a n t e s that m a r k e d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e so-called S e c o n d R e f u g e , h e fled to the N e t h e r l a n d s w h e r e h e b e c a m e a m i n i s t e r o f the F r e n c h Protestant c o m m u n i t y (the E g l i s e W a l l o n n e ) in R o t t e r d a m ; since 1710 h e h e l d that p o s i t i o n in T h e H a g u e , w h e r e - apart from b e i n g a p a s t o r - h e also p l a y e d a v e r y p r o m i n e n t role 6

in D u t c h affairs o f s t a t e . Voltaire, w h o w a s a great a d m i r e r o f B a s n a g e , w r o t e a b o u t h i m that a p o s i t i o n o f ' m i n i s t r e d ' E t a t ' in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s w o u l d b e m u c h m o r e fitting to B a s n a g e ' s qualities than that o f P r o t e s t a n t p a s t o r .

7

J a c q u e s B a s n a g e w a s o n e o f the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e s c h o l a r s o f his t i m e . H i s s c h o l a r s h i p w a s i m p r e s s i v e l y w i d e - r a n g i n g a n d his p r o d u c t i v i t y w a s s t u n n i n g . H i s m o s t f a m o u s w o r k s are p r o b a b l y his t w o - v o l u m e Histoire

de la religion

eglises

(1699, again two

reformees

( 1 6 9 0 ) a n d his g e n e r a l Histoire

de I'eglise

des

v o l u m e s ) . B u t h e also w r o t e influential w o r k s in the field o f biblical studies, p a s t o r a l t h e o l o g y , the h i s t o r y o f r e l i g i o n s , a n d history in g e n e r a l , a n d m a n y p o ­ l e m i c a l w o r k s a g a i n s t the C a t h o l i c c h u r c h c a m e from h i s p e n as w e l l . In total h e 8

p u b l i s h e d s o m e 3 0 b o o k s , several o f w h i c h w e r e m u l t i - v o l u m e w o r k s . H i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t w o r k for o u r p u r p o s e s is his L 'histoire Jesus-Christ

jusqu

'a present

et la religion

des Juifs

depuis

( T h e H i s t o r y a n d R e l i g i o n o f the J e w s from J e s u s

C h r i s t to t h e P r e s e n t D a y ) o f 1 7 0 6 - 1 7 0 7 , w h i c h w a s also p u b l i s h e d in an E n g l i s h v e r s i o n in 1708 a n d a D u t c h version in 1726 (that w a s r e p r i n t e d as r e c e n t l y as 9

1988 in m y c o u n t r y ! ) . In 1710 the C a t h o l i c a b b o t L o u i s D u p i n p u b l i s h e d in 3

E. Labrousse, Bayle, Oxford 1983, 5. See Labrousse, Bayle 1 8 - 2 0 , 32, 4 5 - 4 7 . G. Cerny, Theology, Politics and Letters at the Crossroads of European Civilization: Jacques Basnage and the Baylean Huguenot Refugees in the Dutch Republic, Dordrecht - B o s t o n 1987, 11. See E. & E. Haag, La France Protestante, vol. I, Paris 1877 (2nd ed.), 9 3 0 - 9 4 3 ; Anon., "Basnage (Jacques)," in J.P. de Bie & J. Loosjes (eds.), Biographisch Woordenboek van Protestantsche Godgeleerden in Nederland, vol. I, Den Haag (n.d.), 3 3 4 - 3 3 8 ; B. Heurtebize, 'Basnage de Beauval, Jacques,' Dictionnaire de la Bible 1,2 (Paris 1926) 1 4 9 5 - 1 4 9 6 ; B. Dinur, 'Basnage, Jacques,' Encyclopaedia Judaica 4 (1972) 3 0 9 - 3 1 0 ; M. Silvera, Jacques Basnage. Corrispondenza da Rotterdam, 1685-1709, Amsterdam & Maarssen 2000; and esp. Cerny, Theology, Politics and Letters (see previous note), still the best treatment. See Biographisch Woordenboek 1 335; Haag, La France protestante 1 9 3 1 ; and Cerny, Theology, Politics and Letters 181. Voltaire: "[Basnage] etait plus propre a etre ministre d'Etat que d'une paroisse." For a bibliography of his works see La France protestante 1 9 3 4 - 9 4 2 ; also Cerny, Theol­ ogy, Politics and Letters 3 2 3 - 3 2 6 . J. Basnage, L 'histoire et la religion des Juifs depuis Jesus-Christ jusqu 'a present, pour servir de suplement [sic] & de continuation a I 'Histoire de Joseph [sic], Rotterdam: Reinier 4

5

6

7

8

9

Jacques Basnage

(1653-1723)

on the

153

Samaritans

Paris a n a n o n y m o u s a n d strictly e x p u r g a t e d pirate edition o f t h e w o r k in w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g that c o u l d b e s e e n as d a m a g i n g to the interests o f the R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h h a d b e e n r e m o v e d ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e p a s s a g e s in w h i c h B a s n a g e h e a v i l y criticized t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h for its m a n y p e r s e c u t i o n s o f t h e J e w s ) . In 1711 an a n g r y B a s n a g e t o o k r e v e n g e w i t h his Histoire par son veritable T h e Histoire

auteur

des Juifs

contre

Vedition

des Juifs reclamee

anonyme

et tronquee

et

retablie

(458 pages!).

is a v e r y large w o r k that a p p e a r e d in 6 v o l u m e s in the

first edition o f 1 7 0 6 - 0 7 a n d in 15 in the v e r y m u c h e n l a r g e d s e c o n d edition of 1716, in w h i c h h e also r e p l i e d to his critics. T h e D u t c h translation o f this latter e d i t i o n is a folio-size o n e - v o l u m e edition o f s o m e 2 0 0 0 t w o - c o l u m n p a g e s . T h e s e c o n d F r e n c h edition c o n t a i n s m o r e t h a n 4 0 0 0 p a g e s . T h e b o o k ' s influence w a s enormous.

1 0

O n e o f t h e m o s t striking a s p e c t s o f this b o o k , w h i c h is b a s e d u p o n a solid k n o w l e d g e o f the original s o u r c e s o f J e w i s h history a n d r e l i g i o n ,

11

is that it also

c o n t a i n s the first m a j o r study o f the S a m a r i t a n s e v e r to a p p e a r in the N e t h e r l a n d s . In its first edition s o m e 150 p a g e s are d e v o t e d to the S a m a r i t a n s , a n d in the s e c o n d e v e n m o r e ; the D u t c h translation o f that edition c o n t a i n s 8 2 d o u b l e foliosize p a g e s in t w o c o l u m n s o n the S a m a r i t a n s (in a m o d e r n s t a n d a r d edition that w o u l d c o v e r b e t w e e n 165 a n d 2 0 0 p a g e s , /. e., the c h a p t e r w o u l d b e m o n o g r a p h l e n g t h ) . T h i s is v e r y striking b e c a u s e in the l o n g c h a p t e r a b o u t ' J e w i s h s e c t s ' o f w h i c h t h e p a g e s on the S a m a r i t a n s are a p a r t ,

12

B a s n a g e d e v o t e s m o r e attention

to the S a m a r i t a n s than to P h a r i s e e s , S a d d u c e e s , E s s e n e s , H e r o d i a n s , K a r a i t e s etc. altogether. A p a r t from that, h e also turns out to b e r e m a r k a b l y w e l l - i n f o r m e d Leers, 1706-7; new augmented cd. Den Haag: Henri Scheurleer, 1716. The English version was the translation by Thomas Taylor: The History of the Jews from Jesus Christ to the Present Time, London 1708 (non vidi). The Dutch version, a translation of the 1716 edition, appeared under the title Vervolg op Flavius Josephus; of Algemene Historie der Joodsche Naatsie etc., Delft: Gerard onder de Linden, 1726. The book was reprinted in 1988 by publishing house De Banier in Utrecht. See my review in Nederlands Theologisch Tijdschrift 4 4 (1990) 2 6 5 - 2 6 6 . On Reinier Leers, the famous international publisher who brought out many of Basnage's works see O.S. Lankhorst, Reinier Leers (1654-1714), uitgever en boekverkoper te Rotterdam, Amsterdam & Maarssen 1983. It is interesting to see that the second edition o f Basnage's work inspired the Dutch Yid­ dish historiographer Menachem Mann to write a general history of the Jews going back to 70 CE in Yiddish, She'erit Yisrael(Amsterdam 1743); see L. Fuks & R. Fuks, 'Joodse geschiedschrijving in de Republiek in de 17e en 18e eeuw,' Studia Rosenthaliana 6 (1972) 1 3 7 - 1 6 5 , esp. 1 5 3 - 1 5 6 . A s Cerny, Theology, Politics and Letters 185, remarks: "In a very real sense, it was primarily because of Basnage's Histoire des Juifs that Dutch Jewish scholars, Sephardim and Ashkenazim, became the first among Europe's Jews to resume what, seventeen centuries earlier, Flavius Josephus had begun." It may be added that Basnage's veneration for Josephus is somewhat excessive, no doubt because he regarded himself as this author's successor. The chapter is called "Livre second contenant l'Histoire des Sectes qui subsistoient au temps de J. Christ, et de la mine de Jerusalem. Les Samaritains; les Sadduceens; les Pharisiens; les Esseniens; les Herodiens; etc. Leur origine; leurs dogmes; leurs progres; et leur etat pres­ ent." 1 0

11

1 2

154

Jacques Basnage

a b o u t the S a m a r i t a n s .

13

(1653-1723)

on the

Samaritans

To p u t all this into a s o m e w h a t w i d e r f r a m e w o r k , let m e

s a y s o m e t h i n g m o r e a b o u t B a s n a g e ' s r e a s o n s for w r i t i n g this m a j o r w o r k . B a s n a g e k n e w that o n e o f t h e m o s t f a m o u s J e w i s h s c h o l a r s from A m s t e r d a m , M e n a s s e h b e n Israel, h a d p l a n s to write a history o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e as a sequel to J o s e p h u s ' Antiquitates

Judaicae,

b u t that c i r c u m s t a n c e s h a d k e p t h i m so far

from c o m p l e t i n g this first J e w i s h history for 15 c e n t u r i e s . A s a m a t t e r o f fact, M e n a s s e h b e n I s r a e l ' s unfinished m a n u s c r i p t w a s p r o b a b l y in B a s n a g e ' s p o s s e s ­ sion. B a s n a g e , like M e n a s s e h b e n Israel a v i c t i m o f R o m a n C a t h o l i c p e r s e c u t i o n , h a d a great s y m p a t h y for this project, for it w a s his fate as an exile that m a d e h i m feel c o n n e c t e d to the e q u a l l y e x i l e d J e w s . M a n y H u g u e n o t s b e l i e v e d that t h e y r e l i v e d for t h e m s e l v e s t h e B a b y l o n i a n captivity o f the J e w s .

1 4

B a s n a g e b e g a n to

r e a d w i d e l y in o r d e r to b e able to write this c o m p r e h e n s i v e J e w i s h history w h i c h , in fact, is t h e first m o d e r n history o f the J e w s . In t h e list o f w o r k s h e c o n s u l t e d for this enterprise h e m e n t i o n s s o m e 5 5 0 a u t h o r s , from J o s e p h u s to M a i m o n i d e s , a n d from the M i s h n a h to Ibn E z r a a n d K a b b a l i s t i c w r i t e r s ( a l t h o u g h it s h o u l d b e a d d e d that h e c o n s u l t e d m a n y H e b r e w w o r k s o n l y in Latin translation); o f c o u r s e he also consulted non-Jewish authors.

15

Both Jewish and Christian scholars of

his d a y s p r a i s e d t h e w o r k as a m o n u m e n t o f s c h o l a r s h i p ,

16

w h i c h i n d e e d it is.

T h a t is n o t to say, h o w e v e r , that h e w a s a b l e to r e a d t h e J e w i s h a n d S a m a r i t a n s o u r c e s w i t h o u t t h e p r e j u d i c e s that w e r e c u r r e n t in h i s t i m e , also a m o n g P r o t ­ e s t a n t s . O n t h e c o n t r a r y : " T h e c o e x i s t e n c e [in B a s n a g e ] o f B a y l e a n historical c r i t i c i s m a n d a r e m n a n t o f C h r i s t i a n a n t i - S e m i t i s m that h a d l o n g c h a r a c t e r i z e d the r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t of Protestants a n d C a t h o l i c s m a d e for a c u r i o u s , a m b i v a l e n t h y b r i d that r e v e a l s m u c h a b o u t the transition from the A g e o f R e a s o n to t h e A g e of Enlightenment."

17

T h e r e w a s still a n o t h e r m o t i v e for h i m to w r i t e this w o r k . B a s n a g e w a s a M i l lenarian. H e e x p e c t e d that t h e m e s s i a n i c i n t e r r e g n u m o f a t h o u s a n d y e a r s w o u l d b e g i n in the y e a r 1 7 1 6 . " B a s n a g e ' s o s t e n s i b l e r e a s o n for w r i t i n g t h e w o r k w a s M i l l e n a r i a n . H e w a n t e d to c o m p l e t e the great task M e n a s s e h b e n Israel said h e w a s w o r k i n g o n , the history o f the J e w s from the t i m e o f F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s u p to t h e p r e s e n t . It w o u l d s h o w g l a r i n g l y h o w G o d h a s b e e n a c t i v e in history, a n d w o u l d p r e p a r e m a n k i n d for the M i l l e n i u m , w h i c h B a s n a g e said w o u l d b e g i n in

13

It is a shame that Basnage does not figure among the many scholars that are dealt with in A . D . Crown, R. Pummer & A. Tal (eds.), A Companion to Samaritan Studies, Tubingen 1993. See M. Yardeni, ' N e w Concepts o f Post-Commonwealth Jewish History in the Early En­ lightenment: Bayle and Basnage,' European Studies Review 7 (1977) 2 4 5 - 2 5 8 , esp. 2 4 6 - 2 4 7 . His bibliography covers some 40 pages and lists titles in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, English, Portuguese, Italian, and Spanish. The fact that he added a bibliography at all was a novum in his days. Some years later, Basnage said he was very gratified by the positive reception of his work by his Jewish contemporaries; Cerny, Theology, Politics and Letters 186. A m o n g his non-Jew­ ish admirers Richard Simon takes pride of place (La France protestante I 938). Cerny, Theology, Politics and Letters 190. 1 4

15

1 6

1 7

Jacques Basnage

1716."

1 8

(1653-1723)

on the

155

Samaritans

B a s n a g e e x p e c t e d that in this n e w e r a all J e w s w o u l d b e c o m e C h r i s ­

tians. B u t in 1716 it w a s n o t the M i l l e n i u m b u t the s e c o n d edition o f his of the Jews

History

that a p p e a r e d , a n d t h e n B a s n a g e said that h e o n l y w r o t e t h e w o r k

to p r o v e t h e truth o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a g a i n s t t h e J e w s (vol.1, p . v ) . S u p e r s e s s i o n i s t t h o u g h h e w a s , h e w a s p r o f o u n d l y repelled b y C h r i s t i a n p e r s e c u t i o n o f J e w s .

1 9

W e h a v e to l e a v e t h e s e m a t t e r s , h o w e v e r , for w h a t they are a n d w e will further focus o n w h a t B a s n a g e w r o t e a b o u t the S a m a r i t a n s . To b e g i n w i t h , it is striking that his t r e a t m e n t o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s is part o f a long c h a p t e r on w h a t h e c a l l e d t h e ' s e c t s ' in J u d a i s m in t h e t i m e o f J e s u s Christ. E v e n t h o u g h h e k n e w , as w e shall later see, o f the bitter a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n S a m a r i t a n s a n d (other) J e w s , from a p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w h e rightly s a w that S a m a r i t a n i s m h a d to b e r e g a r d e d as a v a r i a n t o f t h e Israelite religion. B u t h e also w a n t e d to i n c l u d e as m a n y sects as p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e he " f o u n d e v i d e n c e for t h e fall of J u d a i s m in r e l i g i o u s s c h i s m s a n d h e r e s i e s that a r o s e within it."

20

A n d " t h e a u t h o r p r e p a r e d his r e a d e r to a c c e p t t h e n o t i o n that the

political a n d r e l i g i o u s d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f P a l e s t i n e c o r r o b o r a t e d t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f J u d a i s m b y C h r i s t i a n i t y as t h e t r i u m p h a n t w o r l d r e l i g i o n . "

21

Judaism's chief

m i s f o r t u n e w a s religious f a c t i o n a l i s m , a c c o r d i n g to B a s n a g e . O n e o f t h e s e fac­ tions w a s t h e S a m a r i t a n m o v e m e n t . After a short s k e t c h of t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f t h e city o f S h e c h e m , B a s n a g e p a y s attention to t h e h o l y m o u n t a i n o f G a r i z i m , its role in S a m a r i t a n i s m , a n d its p r e c i s e location, partly c o r r e c t i n g the D u t c h s c h o l a r H a d r i a n ( A d r i a a n ) R e l a n d w h o h a d r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d a treatise on this m o u n t a i n ( 1 7 0 6 ) .

2 2

After t h e s e

g e o g r a p h i c a l r e m a r k s , B a s n a g e t u r n s to S a m a r i t a n h i s t o r y a n d o p e n s w i t h criti­ cal r e m a r k s on the S a m a r i t a n Book

of Joshua

w h i c h h e rightly s a y s S c a l i g e r

w r o n g l y t o o k to b e a v e r y a n c i e n t w o r k , a n d h e then p r e s e n t s s o m e e x c e r p t s from the w o r k . H e also m e n t i o n s the C h r o n i c l e o f A b u ' l F a t h , t h a t h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n 1 8

R.H. Popkin, "Jacques Basnage's Histoire des Juifs and the Bibliotheca Sarraziana," Studia Rosenthaliana 21 (1987) 1 5 4 - 1 6 2 , quote on p. 161. Cerny, Theology, Politics and Letters 199: "Basnage reasoned that Jews should be per­ mitted to live peacefully in order that they might study the Christian religion and, hopefully, become converted one day." Ibid. 200: "Jacques Basnage's censure o f duress to convert Jews occupied a central position in his history." Cf. Yardeni, ' N e w Concepts' 252: "In the last resort Basnage is convinced that the Jews are indeed the chosen people who will yet recover the place God has destined for them." In this framework Yardeni refers to another study written by her which, unfortunately, I have not been able to consult: 'Judaism and Jews in the Eyes of the French Protestant Exiles in Holland, 1 6 8 5 - 1 7 1 5 , ' Mechqarim: Studies in the History of the Jewish People and the Land of Israel 1 (1970) 1 6 3 - 1 8 5 [Hebrew]. Cerny, Theology, Politics and Letters 193. Ibid. 194. Reland ( 1 6 7 8 - 1 7 1 8 ) was professor of Oriental languages in Utrecht. Basnage regarded Reland as one of the greatest Orientalists of his time. His most famous work is De religione mohammedica of 1705. See A. Hamilton, "Adrianus Reland ( 1 6 7 6 - 1 7 1 8 ) : Outstanding Orien­ talist," in: H. Jamin (ed.), Zes keer zestig. 360jaar universitaire geschiedenis in zes biografieen, Utrecht 1996, 2 3 - 3 1 . 1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

156

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(1653-1723)

on the

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e x p l o i t e d b y E d w a r d B e r n a r d in his studies o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s , a n d o t h e r S a m a r i ­ tan d o c u m e n t s , e s p . letters, a c q u i r e d b y H u n t i n g t o n a n d p u b l i s h e d in 1704. H e a g a i n q u o t e s s e l e c t e d p a s s a g e s a n d a d d s his critical c o m m e n t s , p o i n t i n g o u t the m a n y c h r o n o l o g i c a l i m p r o b a b i l i t i e s but, in spite o f that, o c c a s i o n a l l y p r e f e r r i n g t h e S a m a r i t a n v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s to the J e w i s h o n e . O n t h e w h o l e , h o w e v e r , his v e r d i c t a b o u t t h e historical reliability o f the c h r o n i c l e s is e x t r e m e l y n e g a t i v e , e s p e c i a l l y as far as t h e early origin o f S a m a r i t a n i s m in t h e t i m e o f J o s h u a is c o n c e r n e d . B u t h e w i s e l y a d d s that this is a c o m m o n p h e n o m e n o n , also a m o n g C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h e s : all t e n d to retroject their o r i g i n s into t i m e s as r e m o t e in the past as p o s s i b l e . A s to the hotly d e b a t e d issue o f the original text o f D e u t . 2 7 : 4 - 5 , B a s n a g e t h i n k s it is not entirely i m p o s s i b l e that h e r e the S a m a r i t a n s are m o r e right t h a n the J e w s : the latter m a y h a v e c h a n g e d the original text, t h u s r e m o v i n g the m e n t i o n o f M o u n t G a r i z i m . It is from several p a s s a g e s in the p r o p h e t i c b o o k s w h i c h s p e a k a b o u t G o d ' s love for E p h r a i m that B a s n a g e c o n c l u d e s that G o d l o v e d t h e S a m a r i t a n s as m u c h as the (other) Israelites. H e d o e s interpret 2 K i n g s 17 in the traditional w a y to t h e effect that t h e S a m a r i t a n s h a d originally b e e n C u t h a e a n s , b u t h e i m m e d i a t e l y c o n c e d e s that in t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e this p a g a n o r i g i n h a d b e c o m e c o m p l e t e l y obliterated s i n c e t h e y h a d b e c o m e Israelites, albeit erring o n e s . T h r o u g h o u t his w o r k B a s n a g e m a k e s clear that his s y m p a t h i e s are m o r e on t h e J e w i s h t h a n on the S a m a r i t a n side ( h e r e p e a t e d l y calls t h e m ' s c h i s m a t i c s ' ) , e v e n t h o u g h h e g i v e s t h e m the benefit o f t h e d o u b t in t h e m a t t e r o f t h e original text o f D e u t . 2 7 . It s h o u l d b e a d d e d , h o w e v e r , that n o w h e r e d o e s h e m a k e a n y distinction b e t w e e n S a m a r i t a n s a n d i n h a b i t a n t s o f S a m a r i a ( S a m a r ians) so that his p i c t u r e is often b l u r r e d b y irrelevant e v i d e n c e . F o r i n s t a n c e , h e w r o n g l y b l a m e s it u p o n the S a m a r i t a n s that the city o f S a m a r i a issued a c o i n o n w h i c h t h e e m p e r o r N e r o is called a g o d . It is for that r e a s o n that h e d e v o t e s so m u c h s p a c e to a h o s t o f details in the history o f t h e city o f S a m a r i a . In a r a t h e r l o n g w i n d e d s u r v e y of S a m a r i t a n h i s t o r y in antiquity, i n t e r r u p t e d time and again by various excursions,

23

B a s n a g e c o n t i n u o u s l y c o r r e c t s errors in

J o s e p h u s , t h e C h u r c h F a t h e r s , t h e S a m a r i t a n C h r o n i c l e s a n d in p u b l i c a t i o n s b y t h e m o d e r n s c h o l a r s o f his t i m e ( i n c l u d i n g S c a l i g e r ) ; a n d quite often h e is right, e v e n t h o u g h h e is far t o o m u c h i m p r e s s e d b y J o s e p h u s . In his t r e a t m e n t o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t data, he s h o w s little critical a w a r e n e s s in that he takes e v e r y state­ m e n t a b o u t S a m a r i t a n s at face v a l u e , w h e r e a s e v e r y s t a t e m e n t in the S a m a r i t a n C h r o n i c l e s h e k n e w w a s critically scrutinized a n d v e r y often rejected. E v e n s o , it is i m p r e s s i v e to see that h a r d l y a n y p i e c e o f a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e for the S a m a r i ­ tans that w a s k n o w n in his t i m e - b e it J e w i s h , p a g a n , C h r i s t i a n , or S a m a r i t a n - e s c a p e d his e y e . O n the b a s i s o f this e v i d e n c e h e p r e s e n t s a s u m m a r y s k e t c h o f the h i s t o r y o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s in antiquity. H e s o m e t i m e s m a k e s m i s t a k e s , e. g.,

2 3

For instance, a very long excursion on the double circumcision of the (supposedly) Samaritan Bible translator Symmachus.

Jacques Basnage

(1653-1723)

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157

w h e n h e situates M a r i n u s o f N e a p o l i s , w h o lived in the fifth century, in the reign o f Justinian, b u t this k i n d o f error is an e x c e p t i o n . F o r t h e p e r i o d after Justinian, h e stresses the e n o r m o u s r e d u c t i o n in n u m b e r s o f S a m a r i t a n s , partly d u e to t h e d e v a s t a t i n g w a r s that h a d t a k e n p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e B y z a n t i n e s in the 6th century, partly d u e to c o m p u l s o r y m a s s c o n v e r s i o n to C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d , later, Islam. H e refers to the small n u m b e r s o f S a m a r i t a n s m e n t i o n e d , a m o n g o t h e r s , b y B e n j a m i n o f T u d e l a at t h e e n d o f the twelfth century. H e t h e n j u m p s to his o w n t i m e a n d p r o v i d e s the r e a d e r w i t h e x c e r p t s from H u n t i n g t o n ' s r e c e n t d e s c r i p t i o n o f the p r e s e n t state o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s in the N e a r East. H e also p r e s e n t s a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e letters from t h e S a m a r i t a n s in N a b l u s r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d b y H u n t i n g t o n ( 1 7 0 4 ) a n d a d d r e s s e d to " t h e i r b r e t h r e n in the city o f E n g l a n d . " T h i s a d d r e s s m a k e s h i m ridicule their lack o f e d u c a t i o n . T h e e m p h a s i s in the d e s c r i p t i o n is u p o n the v e r y i m p o v e r i s h e d state o f m a n y S a m a r i ­ tans a n d u p o n t h e incredibility o f the a n t i q u i t y c l a i m e d for their A b i s h a Scroll. H e m e n t i o n s w i t h hardly c o n c e a l e d a m u s e m e n t that several S a m a r i t a n s d e c l a r e d they w o u l d b e v e r y h a p p y to visit their b r e t h r e n in E n g l a n d , b u t d e c l i n e d to d o so w h e n they h e a r d that t h e y w o u l d h a v e to s p e n d a s h a b b a t t r a v e l l i n g o n a boat. T h e letter o f the S a m a r i t a n s , w h i c h c o n t a i n s a detailed d e s c r i p t i o n o f S a m a r i t a n c u s t o m s , h e a v i l y e m p h a s i z e s the differences b e t w e e n t h e S a m a r i t a n s a n d t h e J e w s in t e r m s o f m u c h greater o r lesser strictness in k e e p i n g the c o m m a n d m e n t s . F o r t h e rest it is a m o v i n g p l e a for c o n t a c t b e t w e e n the S a m a r i t a n s in P a l e s t i n e a n d t h o s e in ' t h e city o f E n g l a n d . ' B a s n a g e g i v e s e l a b o r a t e c o m m e n t s u p o n t h e letters a n d in t h e s e c o m m e n t s h e also i n c l u d e s o t h e r S a m a r i t a n letters sent to t h e s c h o l a r s J o b L u d o l f a n d J o s e p h Scaliger. F o r o n e thing, h e a g r e e s w i t h the S a m a r i t a n s that their script is o l d e r than the A r a m a i c script u s e d b y t h e J e w s . A s to their strictness in k e e p i n g the s h a b b a t , B a s n a g e s i m p l y calls it superstition. T h e J e w i s h a c c u s a t i o n that t h e S a m a r i t a n s w o r s h i p p e d a foreign deity called A s i m a (cf. 2 K i n g s 17:34) is, h o w e v e r , i n d i g n a n t l y refuted b y h i m ; h e s a y s that there is n o d o u b t that this is a p e r v e r t e d interpretation o f t h e fact that t h e S a m a r i t a n s n e v e r p r o n o u n c e the h o l y T e t r a g r a m m a t o n b u t instead say Ashima,

i. e., h a - S h e m (the N a m e ) . H e also

e x t e n s i v e l y d e a l s w i t h the a c c u s a t i o n that the S a m a r i t a n s w o r s h i p p e d a d o v e a n d a n a l y s e s all t h e p e r t i n e n t t r a d i t i o n s , o n l y to c o m e to t h e c o n c l u s i o n that it is a piece of rabbinic slander.

24

H e is s i n c e r e l y a m a z e d that, a l t h o u g h t h e S a m a r i ­

tans a c k n o w l e d g e o n l y o n e G o d , t h e y a s c r i b e s u c h an e x t r e m e l y h i g h d e g r e e o f a u t h o r i t y to their H i g h Priest; to h i m , as a fervent a n t i - C a t h o l i c , that is an i n e x p l i c a b l e a n d u n a c c e p t a b l e attitude. H e r e p e a t s that t h e S a m a r i t a n c h r o n i c l e s c o n t a i n m o r e fables a n d l e g e n d s than historical truth.

2 4

In this connection he also pays ample attention to the anti-Jewish slander that the Jews venerate an ass (or its head). In his view this is an equally ridiculous accusation as that of Samaritan dove worship.

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H e then t u r n s to the B i b l e o f the S a m a r i t a n s a n d c a s t i g a t e s t h e m for not a c ­ c e p t i n g the P r o p h e t s , not e v e n t h o s e from the N o r t h . A s to their P e n t a t e u c h , h e d i s a g r e e s w i t h t h o s e s c h o l a r s w h o state that it is out o f evil intent that they c h a n g e d b o t h the script a n d the text o f the b o o k s o f M o s e s . H e e v e n b e l i e v e s that t h e y p o s s e s s e d t h e Torah o f M o s e s in this s h a p e as early as the t i m e s o f D a v i d and S o l o m o n .

2 5

H e d i s c u s s e s at length w h a t h e calls t h e errors o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s

as r e p o r t e d b y E p i p h a n i u s a n d o t h e r C h u r c h F a t h e r s . H e s h o w s h o w often t h e s e Christian authors were misinformed and mixed up various groups (e.g., Sadd u c e e s a n d S a m a r i t a n s ) on the basis o f s e c o n d - h a n d r e p o r t s . In this c o n n e c t i o n h e p a y s special attention to the fact that several C h u r c h F a t h e r s r e p o r t that the S a m a r i t a n s d o not b e l i e v e in the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e b o d y , w h e r e a s the S a m a r i t a n c h r o n i c l e s clearly d e m o n s t r a t e , says B a s n a g e , that t h e y do b e l i e v e in t h e resur­ rection. H e r e h e o v e r l o o k s the possibility that in the first c e n t u r i e s C E this tenet m a y not y e t h a v e b e e n part o f t h e S a m a r i t a n creed, w h i l e later o n it did b e c o m e so.

2 6

H e also rejects J e w i s h a c c u s a t i o n s o f p e r s i s t i n g a n i m a l w o r s h i p a m o n g t h e

S a m a r i t a n s , a l t h o u g h h e a d m i t s that in the b e g i n n i n g o f S a m a r i t a n history, w h e n they still w e r e C u t h a e a n s , idolatry m a y h a v e p l a y e d a r o l e for s o m e t i m e b u t n o t for long. E v e n t h o u g h h e h a d a l r e a d y refuted several stories a b o u t S a m a r i t a n idolatry in an earlier chapter, B a s n a g e r e t u r n s to this t o p i c in o r d e r to e m p h a s i z e a g a i n that t h e r a b b i s d o s e r i o u s injustice to the S a m a r i t a n s b y their a l l e g a t i o n s o f d o v e w o r s h i p a n d o f idols h i d d e n u n d e r M t . G a r i z i m . H e a c c u s e s the J e w s h e r e o f e x c e s s i v e a n i m o s i t y t o w a r d s the S a m a r i t a n s , a g a i n s t w h i c h h e w a n t s to d o j u s t i c e to t h e m . H e n e x t t u r n s to the p u z z l i n g p a s s a g e in the G o s p e l o f J o h n , w h e r e J e s u s in his c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a S a m a r i t a n w o m a n s a y s that " s a l v a t i o n is from the J e w s " ( J o h n 4 : 2 2 ) . T h i s raises for h i m the intriguing q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r J e s u s m e a n t to e x c l u d e t h e S a m a r i t a n s from G o d ' s salvation. H i s firm a n s w e r is n o . A n d it is interesting to s e e that o n e o f the r e a s o n s for this a n s w e r is that B a s n a g e , a r g u i n g that the S a m a r i t a n s are actually identical to t h e ten N o r t h e r n tribes o f Israel, s a y s that from t h e s e tribes G o d recruited not o n l y several o f the biblical p r o p h e t s b u t a l s o t h e 7 0 0 0 w h o did not b o w their k n e e s to B a ' a l (1 K i n g s 19:18), w h i c h w o u l d s e e m to rule out G o d ' s w h o l e s a l e rejection o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s a n d their e x c l u s i o n from eternal salvation. T h a t " s a l v a t i o n is from the J e w s

(Ioudaioi)"

m e a n s n o m o r e t h a n that J e s u s , t h e m e a n s o f G o d ' s s a l v a t i o n , is from the tribe o f J u d a h . It is a rather r a m b l i n g w a y o f r e a s o n i n g , b u t it testifies to B a s n a g e ' s f u n d a m e n t a l t o l e r a n c e . H e q u o t e s p a s s a g e s from H o s e a 11 ( e s p . t h e v e r s e s on E p h r a i m ) as p r o o f o f G o d ' s t e n d e r love for t h e S a m a r i t a n s . If there h a d o c c a s i o n ­ ally b e e n idolatry a m o n g the S a m a r i t a n s , so t h e r e w a s a m o n g t h e J e w s as w e l l , 2 5

In this chapter he also inserts a curious excursus on the shape(s) o f the Samaritan letter

Tav. 2 6

See F. Dexinger, 'Eschatology,' in Crown, Pummer & Tal (eds.), A Companion maritan Studies, 8 6 - 9 0 .

to Sa­

Jacques

Basnage

(1653-/723)

on the

Samaritans

159

a n d G o d did not a b a n d o n either o f t h e m . T h e fact that the biblical p r o p h e t s from the N o r t h e r n K i n g d o m w e r e G o d ' s p r o p h e t s n o less than t h o s e o f the South is h e r e h e a v i l y stressed b y B a s n a g e as an a r g u m e n t that G o d m a k e s n o distinction between Jews and Samaritans. After that, w i t h an a m a z i n g gullibility, B a s n a g e reports as historical facts the m u c h later C h r i s t i a n l e g e n d that the a f o r e - m e n t i o n e d S a m a r i t a n w o m a n from t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n c o n v e r t e d to C h r i s t i a n i t y t o g e t h e r w i t h h e r family a n d that P h o t i n a , as she is then called, t o g e t h e r w i t h h e r sisters P h o t o a n d Photis (!), p r e a c h e d the G o s p e l not o n l y in S a m a r i a b u t also in N o r t h Africa - s h e w a s the f o u n d e r o f the C h r i s t i a n C h u r c h in C a r t h a g e - a n d that t h e y finally suf­ fered m a r t y r d o m in R o m e u n d e r N e r o . Unfortunately, s a y s B a s n a g e , several o f the S a m a r i t a n s w h o h a d b e c o m e C h r i s t i a n s b e c a m e a p o s t a t e s a g a i n u n d e r the influence o f S i m o n the M a g i c i a n . H e r e w e c a n clearly see to w h i c h a b s u r d i t i e s a c o m b i n a t i o n o f trust in the C h r i s t i a n tradition a n d inability to distinguish b e t w e e n S a m a r i t a n s a n d S a m a r i a n s c a n lead. N e x t h e d e a l s w i t h the v a r i o u s r e p o r t s a b o u t S a m a r i t a n sects. A g a i n h e is v e r y critical o f t h e m u d d l e - h e a d e d report b y E p i p h a n i u s a n d c o m e s to t h e c o n c l u s i o n that it is o n l y D o s i t h e u s a n d the D o s i t h e a n s that m a y c l a i m to b e historical. H e p l a c e s D o s i t h e u s in the first c e n t u r y a n d details t h e p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g this m a n a n d his followers that are c a u s e d b y t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e o f o u r s o u r c e s . A n d finally B a s n a g e q u o t e s in full the S a m a r i t a n C r e e d as it h a d b e e n sent to S c a l i g e r b y the then H i g h Priest E l a z a r from N a b l u s . L o o k i n g b a c k at w h a t J a c q u e s B a s n a g e p r e s e n t s as a h i s t o r y o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s a n d their religion, w e m a y s i n g l e o u t s o m e striking e l e m e n t s for o u r final o b s e r v a t i o n s . T h e r e is n o d e n y i n g that as a n o r t h o d o x P r o t e s t a n t h e shared in the b i a s e s a n d p r e j u d i c e s o f his t i m e a n d culture. H i s v i e w o f the biblical d o c u ­ m e n t s is b y a n d large fundamentalist, t h o u g h it m a y b e called s u r p r i s i n g that in the m a t t e r o f t h e original text in D e u t . 2 7 he k e e p s o p e n t h e possibility that it is not t h e J e w i s h M a s o r e t i c text b u t t h e S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h w h i c h p r e s e r v e s the original r e a d i n g . T h a t w a s n e w a n d c o u r a g e o u s in his t i m e . W e further o b s e r v e that in the m a t t e r o f the l o n g p o l e m i c a l tradition a b o u t S a m a r i t a n idolatry h e is c o n s p i c u o u s l y m i l d : h e d o e s not c o m p l e t e l y d e n y this possibility b u t h e d o e s limit it strictly to t h e earliest p e r i o d a n d stresses that, if e v e r there has b e e n s u c h a t h i n g as S a m a r i t a n idolaltry, it h a s b e e n v e r y s h o r t - l i v e d a n d not really different from w h a t c o u l d b e o b s e r v e d in J e w i s h circles as w e l l . Striking is his o p e n - m i n d e d n e s s in that h e is c o n v i n c e d that G o d not o n l y c o n t i n u e s to tolerate the S a m a r i t a n s b u t loves t h e m as his o w n children a n d that, therefore, toler­ a n c e on t h e part o f n o n - S a m a r i t a n s is a h o l y duty. A s I said before, his p i c t u r e o f S a m a r i t a n history is m a r r e d at several p l a c e s b y the fact that h e r e g a r d s all information a b o u t S a m a r i a a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s as information a b o u t S a m a r i t a n s instead o f a b o u t S a m a r i a n s . T h i s is r e g r e t t a b l e , but to his great credit it m u s t

160

Jacques

Basnage

(1653-1723)

on the

Samaritans

i m m e d i a t e l y b e a d d e d that h e h a s not o v e r l o o k e d a n y p i e c e o f relevant e v i d e n c e , as far as I c a n j u d g e . H i s history a n d religion o f the S a m a r i t a n s is for that r e a s o n t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e o f his t i m e . It is an i m p r e s s i v e feat w h i c h , in spite o f its m a n y s h o r t c o m i n g s from o u r m o d e r n p o i n t o f view, is an i m p o r t a n t w o r k in that in t h e final a n a l y s i s it paints w h a t is, for his d a y s , a strikingly s y m p a t h e t i c p i c t u r e o f the S a m a r i t a n s .

Once More: The Translation of oi Se in Matthew 28:17 In v i e w o f the r e c e n t d e b a t e b e t w e e n K. G r a y s t o n a n d K . L . M c K a y t h e c o r r e c t r e n d e r i n g o f oi 6 E in M t . 2 8 . 1 7 (l&ovTeg

OVUTOV

1

concerning

j i Q o a e x w n a a v , ol &E

e d t a x a a a v ) , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e m a r k s are in order. E x i s t i n g t r a n s l a t i o n s d i v i d e r o u g h l y into t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : (1) ' W h e n t h e y s a w h i m , t h e y w o r s h i p p e d h i m , b u t s o m e d o u b t e d . ' In this t r a n s l a t i o n (the m o s t 2

usual o n e ) , OL &E refers to part o f the d i s c i p l e s . (2) ' W h e n t h e y s a w h i m , t h e y 3

w o r s h i p p e d h i m , b u t t h e y d o u b t e d . ' In this t r a n s l a t i o n , oi 6 E refers to all o f the d i s c i p l e s . (3) ' W h e n t h e y s a w h i m , t h e y w o r s h i p p e d h i m , b u t o t h e r s d o u b t e d . ' 4

In this t r a n s l a t i o n , oi be refers to p e r s o n s o t h e r t h a n the d i s c i p l e s . T h e p r o b l e m is. o f c o u r s e , (a) that t h e r e is n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g oi

LLEV

in t h e first

h a l f o f the s e n t e n c e ; (b) that the f o l l o w i n g v e r s e s d o n o t g i v e a n y indication o f d o u b t o n the p a r t o f the d i s c i p l e s ; (c) that n o w h e r e in the c o n t e x t is t h e r e a n y i n d i c a t i o n that p e r s o n s o t h e r t h a n the d i s c i p l e s ( w h o are m e n t i o n e d in v. 16 a n d are u n a m b i g u o u s l y the g r a m m a t i c a l subject o f jtpoa£xi>vriaav in v. 17) are involved. G r a y s t o n rightly d r a w s M t . 2 6 . 6 7 (EVEjrxuaav elc, T O jtQoaoojtov avxov

xai

ExoXdcpioav cnutov, oi &e E Q a m a a v ) into the d i s c u s s i o n , b u t w r o n g l y s u g g e s t s the t r a n s l a t i o n , ' t h e y spat . . . a n d struck h i m a n d t h e y s l a p p e d h i m , ' since M c K a y is right w h e n h e s a y s that t h e n o r m a l u s e o f oi 6 E i n v o l v e s a c h a n g e o f subject, w h e t h e r or n o t oi

LIEV

p r e c e d e s it, for w h e n t h e r e is n o c h a n g e o f subject, t h e r e 5

is n o r m a l l y n o p r o n o u n . T h e c h a n g e o f subject m a y b e c o m p l e t e or partial. B o t h G r a y s t o n a n d M c K a y refer t o the partitive u s e o f oi 6 E ( w i t h o u t a p r e c e d ­ ing oi

LLEV),

b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e y m e n t i o n o n l y t w o p a s s a g e s from X e n o p h o n

as illustrations o f this u s a g e ( t a k e n from W i n e r - M o u l t o n ' s Grammar

1

of

New

K. Grayston, 'The Translation ofMatthew 28.17,' JSNT21 (1984) 1 0 5 - 1 0 9 ; K.L. McKay, 'The Use ofhoide in Matthew 2 8 . 1 7 , ' J E W 2 4 (1985) 7 1 - 7 2 . See AV, RSV, N E B , N1V, G N B , JB, etc. and many commentaries. So Grayston, art. cit. (n. 1), and the commentaries o f Lohmeier, Grundmann, Bonnard, and others noted by Grayston; also A T . Robertson, A Grammar of the Greek New Testament, N e w York 1919 ( 3 ed.), 694. Some mss. o f the Vctus Latina; also F. Blass, A. Debrunner & F. Rehkopf, Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch, Gottingen 1976 ( 1 4 ed.), § 250. See, e. g., J.H. Moulton, W.F. Howard & N. Turner, A Grammar of New Testament Greek, III: Syntax, Edinburgh 1 9 6 3 , 3 7 , referring to B.L. Gildersleeve, Syntax of Classical Greek, N e w York 1911, § 518. McKay gives no references. 2

3

r d

4

th

5

162

Once More: The Translation

Testament

Greek,

of oi 6e in Matthew

28:17

1882), as if this w e r e all t h e e v i d e n c e . M o r e o v e r , G r a y s t o n

g e t s rid o f this e v i d e n c e b y m e a n s o f t h e r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , ' B u t in M a t t h e w , w h a t r e a s o n is t h e r e for d i s c o v e r i n g s e p a r a t e g r o u p s ? ' ( 1 6 0 ) . A n d M c K a y t e n d s t o b e led a s t r a y b y his m i s t a k e n o b s e r v a t i o n that ' i n v i e w o f t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e w h o l e g r o u p subject from t h e m a i n v e r b s it c o u l d b e that hoi de w e r e a m i n o r i t y o f a larger g r o u p led b y t h e e l e v e n a n d d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n t a i n a n y o f the eleven themselves' (71). L e t it b e stated c l e a r l y that it is a w e l l k n o w n a n d frequently u s e d s y n t a c t i c a l d e v i c e t o indicate

a division

o f a g r o u p o f p e r s o n s o r t h i n g s into t w o (or m o r e )

s u b g r o u p s only in the second

half of the sentence

(ol u i v / xovc, u i v b e i n g o m i t t e d

in t h e first half). I n s t a n c e s o f this u s a g e c a n easily b e found, e. g., in t h e g r a m m a r 6

7

of K u h n e r - G e r t h , in D e n n i s t o n ' s classic w o r k o n t h e p a r t i c l e s , o r in Liddell a n d 8

S c o t t . L e t m e q u o t e s o m e e x a m p l e s (other than X e n o p h o n , Hellenica Cyropaedia

1.2.14 a n d

9

3.2.12 mentioned by Grayston and M c K a y ) .

E u r i p i d e s , Herculesfurens

6 3 5 - 6 3 6 : xgj]\iaaiv be Sidcpoooi, e%ovoiv, o i 6 ' o v ('It

is in r e s p e c t o f w e a l t h that p e o p l e are different; s o m e h a v e r i c h e s , s o m e d o n ' t ' ) . Cf. a l s o Hecuba Inscriptiones

1161-1163. Graecae

II 2 , 6 5 2 A 4 5 (from 3 9 7 B C E ) : 6tio oygaylbe

XQuoxrOv eypvoa xov banxvlxov,

f| 6' exega agyvgovv

XiBivoo

( ' t w o stone seals, one having

a g o l d e n r i n g , t h e o t h e r a silver o n e ' ) . P l a t o , Leges boibexa

iega,

828b—c: 6 \iev yag br\ vou.og egel 6o)6exa u£v eogxac, elvca xolg

Beoig, dbv a v r\ cpvkr] exdaxr] ejT(ovuu.og f|, B u o v x a g xotixoov e x d a x o i g e\i\ir\va

XOQOVC,

xe x a l dycovag |a.ouaixoi)g, xovc, be yvuvixoug

('... dances and contests,

[the latter b e i n g ] b o t h m u s i c a l a n d g y m n a s t i c ' ) . A n d o c i d e s , De mysteriis

3 8 : . . . o Q d v 6s dvGQobjraug

XOV

\iev

&QL9U.6V

t Q i a x o a i o u g , eaxdvca be xiixXw d v d Jtevxe xai 6 s x a dv&Qag, xovc, be d v d

\xakioxa SLXOOLV

( ' . . . in total n u m b e r a b o u t t h r e e h u n d r e d , b u t s t a n d i n g in g r o u p s , s o m e o f fif­ t e e n , s o m e o f t w e n t y m e n ' ) . Ibid, 1 0 5 : el atixotg e^eoxai ddewg cruxoqpavxEiv xai 6

R. Kuhner & B. Gcrth, Ausfuhrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache II/2, Han­ nover-Leipzig 1904 ( 3 ed.) = repr. Darmstadt 1966, 2 6 5 - 2 6 6 on partial change o f subject ('der Redende denkt zunachst ausschliesslich an die Mehrheit, die er als Gesamtsubjekt fasst, ohne auf die Minderheit Rucksicht zu nehmen, und ftigt dann erst nachtraglich mit oi 5e die Erganzung oder Beschrankung hinzu'); ibid. 2 7 2 - 2 7 3 on complete change o f subject ('Der Grund der Weglassung von \iev liegt teils darin, dass der Vorstellung des Redenden bei dem ersten Gliede nicht zugleich auch das entgegengesetzte Glied vorschwebte, teils darin, dass der Redende absichtlich auf den Gegensatz nicht vorbereiten will, teils darin, dass der erste Glied einen zu schwachen Gegensatz bildet'). J.D. Denniston, The Greek Particles, Oxford 1954 ( 2 ed.), 166; he remarks that in several cases the sentence with 6 5e / ol be 'is more or less o f an after-thought.' Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford 1940 ( 9 ed.), s.v. Se. See also U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Euripides 'Herakles, III, Darmstadt 1959 (repr.), 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 , who quotes instances from Homer to Himerius! Xenophon, Hellenica 1.2.14 oi ouxud^ooToi • • • aJtoSodvieg vuxtog a»xovxo eig AexeX.eiav, oi 6' eig Meyaoa. Cyropaedia 3.2.12 jrooactYouai tw KIIQO) XOVC, av/jixakwxovc, 6e5e(xevo u5, xovq be xwaq xai TexQcouivoajc;. One may also compare Anabasis 1.10.3; 2.3.10; 5.4.31; 7.5.2. r d

7

8

n d

th

9

,

Once More: The Translation of oi de in Matthew

YQdcpso6ai, xovo, be

EVSEIXVTJVCU

28:17

163

( ' . . . w h e t h e r t h e y w o u l d b e a l l o w e d t o act a s

s y c o p h a n t s w i t h i m p u n i t y , a n d t o indict s o m e a n d inform a g a i n s t o t h e r s ' ) . H e r e S t e p h a n u s m a d e t h e u n n e c e s s a r y c o n j e c t u r e < xovc, L u c i a n , Lexiphanes

LIEV

> YQd(pea0ai.

2 , c l e a r l y s h o w s that this u s a g e w a s still k n o w n in t h e

I m p e r i a l p e r i o d : xax£tax|3ov xovc, Eoydxag ^LyuQi^ovxag xf|v BeQivfjv (b&r|v, xovc, 6e xdcpov xa>

SLIO) KCXXQL

x a x a o x e u d ^ o v x a g ( T found the labourers while s o m e of

t h e m w e r e s i n g i n g t h e h a r v e s t s o n g a n d o t h e r s w e r e p r e p a r i n g a g r a v e for m y father'). S e v e r a l o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , from H o m e r t o late a n c i e n t t i m e s , a r e q u o t e d in t h e w o r k s m e n t i o n e d in n o t e s 6 - 8 , a b o v e . T h a t this u s a g e is p r o b a b l y n o t w h o l l y u n k n o w n t o t h e o t h e r a u t h o r s o f t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t m i g h t b e inferred from A c t s 2 . 1 2 - 1 3 : £ | i o x a v x o &E jidvxeg x a i SITIJCOQOUV . . .

(13)

SXEQOI

be biaxkeva^ovxec,

eXeyov . . . T h e w o r d s

EXEQOL 6 E

after

TtdvxEg in v. 1 2 i n d i c a t e that t h e m e a n i n g is that all r e a c t e d t o t h e p h e n o m e n o n d e s c r i b e d in vv. 6 - 1 1 , b u t that t h e r e a c t i o n s w e r e d i v i d e d : s o m e w e r e a m a z e d a n d p e r p l e x e d , o t h e r s h o w e v e r m o c k e d at t h e d i s c i p l e s (classical u s a g e c o u l d have had ol

5E

h e r e ) . Cf. A c t s 1 7 . 1 8 :

XLVEC;

cruv£|3cdXov avxti) xai, xivec, ekeyov

o l &E X T L , w h e r e it is clear that a g a i n t h e r e w e r e different r e a c t i o n s to P a u l ' s preaching.

1 0

All this i m p l i e s that in M t . 2 8 . 1 7 o l 6 E cannot

m e a n all o f t h e d i s c i p l e s , can

m e a n (from a strictly g r a m m a t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w ) o t h e r p e r s o n s t h a n t h e d i s c i ­ p l e s , b u t , s i n c e n o o t h e r p e r s o n s a r e i n v o l v e d h e r e at all, must m e a n p a r t o f t h e d i s c i p l e s . T h i s m o t i f (the d o u b t o f s o m e o f t h e d i s c i p l e s ) is n o t e l a b o r a t e d in t h e M a t t h e a n c o n t e x t , b u t it is w e l l k n o w n in o t h e r p o s t - r e s u r r e c t i o n stories ( L k . 2 4 . 2 2 ff, 3 7 ff; J n . 2 0 . 2 4 f f ) . T h e c o r r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n o f M t . 2 8 . 1 7 is t h e r e f o r e

m o s t p r o b a b l y as f o l l o w s : ' W h e n t h e y s a w h i m , t h e y (or: s o m e o f t h e m ) w o r ­ shipped him, but some of them d o u b t e d . '

1 0

1 1

See also my note on Acts 2 . 1 2 - 3 in m y 'Hellenistic Parallels to the Acts o f the Apostles II,'J5^r25(1985) 49-60. [Postscriptum: In his W B C commentary on Matthew (Dallas 1995), Donald Hagner asserts that in this article I 'overstated' my case since in his view an examination o f the o i be construction in Matthew mainly supports the interpretation that all disciples are referred to here: 'but they doubted' (884). This conclusion is totally unwarranted since in all instances he mentions a change o f subject is unambiguously clear from the context, so all these instances are irrelevant.] 11

Abraham's Bosom, the Place Where He Belonged A

Short Note on dnevexOfivai

in Luke 16:22

In t h e story o f t h e rich m a n a n d t h e p o o r L a z a r u s in L u k e 16, t h e u s u a l translation o f v. 2 2 is: " T h e p o o r m a n d i e d a n d w a s c a r r i e d a w a y b y t h e a n g e l s to b e w i t h A b r a h a m , " o r " h e w a s carried b y t h e a n g e l s to t h e b o s o m o f A b r a h a m " (eyevexo 6e djioGavetv xov

JITCD/OV

xai djr.ev£%Ofyvai avxov i m o xoov dyy^cov eig xov xo)arov

'A|3QadLi). N o n e o f t h e d o z e n s o f e x i s t i n g t r a n s l a t i o n s o f L u k e a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s o n his G o s p e l that h a v e I c o n s u l t e d offer a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n this. T h e r e is n o t h ­ i n g w r o n g w i t h this translation, e x c e p t that t h e v e r b u s e d h e r e for c a r r y i n g a w a y , djtocp£Q8iv, c a n h a v e a s e m a n t i c a s p e c t that is n o t c a p t u r e d in this r e n d e r i n g , an a s p e c t w h i c h I s t r o n g l y s u s p e c t is p r e s e n t h e r e . I s u b m i t as a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e v e r s e t h e f o l l o w i n g free r e n d i t i o n : " T h e p o o r m a n d i e d a n d t h e a n g e l s c a r r i e d h i m a w a y to t h e b o s o m o f A b r a h a m , t h e p l a c e w h e r e h e b e l o n g e d (or: his w e l l d e s e r v e d p l a c e ) . " W h y d o I p r o p o s e this t r a n s l a t i o n ? In c o m p o u n d v e r b s b e g i n n i n g w i t h dito-, this p r e p o s i t i o n often h a s t h e c o n n o ­ tation o f ' b a c k to w h e r e it b e l o n g s , ' or it g i v e s t h e v e r b a n o t i o n o f ' d e s e r v e d n e s s ' o r o f w h a t is d u e . To g i v e a clear e x a m p l e from t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t : T h e v e r b djto&i&ooLu u s u a l l y m e a n s ' t o g i v e a w a y , to g i v e u p , to y i e l d , ' b u t it also often h a s t h e s e m a n t i c a s p e c t s o f ' t o m e e t or fulfill a c o n t r a c t u a l o r o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n , to p a y out, to g i v e b a c k , to r e s t o r e to t h e original p o s s e s s o r , t o r e c o m p e n s e , to r e w a r d . '

1

It is u s e d in this w a y for p a y i n g o u t w a g e s in M a t t . 2 0 . 8 ; for p a y i n g b a c k d e b t s in M a t t . 5.26, L u k e 7.42 a n d e l s e w h e r e ; for g i v i n g d u e r e w a r d in R o m . 2 . 6 ; for m a k i n g ' r e p a y m e n t s ' to o n e ' s p a r e n t s in 1 T i m . 5.4 etc. ( s e e a l s o Rev. 18.6 for a p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d e x a m p l e ) . S o t i m e a n d a g a i n this v e r b is u s e d for g i v i n g p e r s o n s w h a t is d u e to t h e m o r w h a t t h e y are entitled to. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s t h e v e r b ditexco: W h e n in M a t t . 6 J e s u s r e p e a t e d l y (vv. 2, 5, 16) s a y s o f ' t h e h y p o c r i t e s ' that t h e y anijovaiv

xov uxoOov atkwv, h e

m e a n s that t h e y h a v e b e e n p a i d h e r e a n d n o w w h a t w a s d u e t o t h e m , s o t h e y c a n ­ n o t c l a i m a n y t h i n g m o r e in t h e hereafter. A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p o i n t e d o u t l o n g 2

a g o b y A . D e i s s m a n n , in t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g v. 1 t h e a u t h o r s p e a k s o f LILOOOV

s'xeiv w i t h o u t t h e djto-prefix, so there m u s t b e a difference. T h e difference

is t h a t dnsxeiv is a t e c h n i c a l t e r m for g e t t i n g a r e c e i p t b y w h i c h d e b t s a r e settled. 1

BDAG 109-110.

2

Licht vom Osten, Tubingen 1923 (4th ed.), 8 8 - 9 0 .

Abraham s Bosom, the Place Where He

165

Belonged

S o ajTixouaiv x o v uioBov cmxcov m e a n s that t h e y h a v e r e c e i v e d their d u e r e w a r d . N o w t h e s e are v e r y w e l l - k n o w n i n s t a n c e s o f this u s a g e , b u t it is m u c h less w e l l k n o w n that o t h e r c o m p o u n d s w i t h

CCJIO-

can h a v e the s a m e f o r c e .

3

I will d e m o n s t r a t e this w i t h the v e r b djrdya). It u s u a l l y m e a n s ' l e a d a w a y ' or ' c a r r y off.' B u t it c a n also h a v e the s e m a n t i c a s p e c t o f ' b r i n g i n g b a c k , ' ' b r i n g i n g h o m e , ' ' r e t u r n i n g , ' ' r e n d e r i n g w h a t o n e o w e s , ' as a q u i c k g l a n c e in L S J s h o w s . F o r i n s t a n c e , in X e n o p h o n , Anabasis

1.3.14, the soldiers say that t h e y are g o i n g

to c h o o s e o t h e r l e a d e r s as s o o n as p o s s i b l e if C l e a r c h u s is n o t w i l l i n g to them back home

4

( d j t d y e i v ) . O r P l a t o , Phaedo

bring

5 8 b , w h e r e in the o p e n i n g s c e n e

o f the d i a l o g u e the s p e a k e r r e c o u n t s : " T h e A t h e n i a n s say that this is the ship in w h i c h T h e s e u s o n c e sailed to C r e t e w i t h the s e v e n y o u t h s a n d s e v e n m a i d e n s , a n d s a v e d their lives a n d his o w n as well. T h e story g o e s that the A t h e n i a n s m a d e a v o w to A p o l l o that if t h e s e y o u n g p e o p l e ' s lives w e r e s a v e d , t h e y w o u l d s e n d ( d j t d y e i v ) a s o l e m n m i s s i o n e v e r y y e a r to D e l o s , a n d e v e r s i n c e t h e n t h e y h a v e k e p t their v o w to the g o d , e v e n d o w n to the p r e s e n t d a y . " T h i s is a v e r y illustra­ tive e x a m p l e s i n c e it is the e l e m e n t o f the v o w to A p o l l o that m a k e s it a b u n d a n t l y clear that s e n d i n g a y e a r l y m i s s i o n to his s a c r e d island w a s s o m e t h i n g d u e to b e d o n e ; it w a s a m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n . H e n c e d j i d y e i v a n d n o t j u s t d y e i v or jteujteiv or the like is u s e d h e r e . M a n y m o r e e x a m p l e s c o u l d b e g i v e n , b u t a few m o r e i n s t a n c e s o f t h e v e r b u s e d b y L u k e in t h e v e r s e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n (ajtotpegsiv) will suffice. In H e r o d o t u s a n d T h u c y d i d e s o n e finds djtocpeQeiv r e p e a t e d l y u s e d for p a y ­ ing t a x e s d u e to the g o v e r n m e n t or for p a y i n g a m o u n t s o f m o n e y that h a d b e e n stipulated in a treaty (e. g., H d t . , Hist.

1.196.3; 4 . 3 5 . 1 ; 5 . 8 4 . 1 ; T h u c , Hist.

5.31).

In s u c h c a s e s the v e r b u n d o u b t e d l y m e a n s ' b r i n g i n g [the m o n e y ] to t h e p e r s o n s 5

entitled t o it or to t h e b o d i e s w h e r e it b e l o n g s . ' T h e e l e m e n t o f b e l o n g i n g is a l s o a p p a r e n t in t h o s e c a s e s in w h i c h djtocpeoEo-Ocu is u s e d for g o i n g b a c k h o m e or b e i n g b r o u g h t h o m e , as in L y s i a s , Or. 12.18, w h e r e it is said that a m a n w h o h a d d i e d in p r i s o n w a s b r o u g h t b a c k h o m e (xeBvecog ex 6e0uo)xr|Qiot) djrecpeQexo). A n d in Leges

9 1 0 c , P l a t o s a y s that w o r s h i p m a y t a k e p l a c e o n l y in p u b l i c t e m p l e s ; it

is forbidden to h a v e p r i v a t e s h r i n e s . If s o m e o n e is found to p o s s e s s s u c h a p r i v a t e s h r i n e , the g o v e r n o r s s h o u l d o r d e r it to b e ' t r a n s f e r r e d ' (djtocpEQeiv) to a p u b l i c t e m p l e . It is c l e a r w h y the v e r b djtoq)£Qeiv is u s e d for ' t r a n s f e r r i n g ' : the p u b l i c t e m p l e is the o n l y p l a c e w h e r e w o r s h i p is d u e . M o r e i n s t a n c e s c o u l d b e q u o t e d , b u t t h e s e few illustrative e x a m p l e s m a k e suf­ ficiently c l e a r that in the c a s e o f L u k e ' s u s e o f djtevexOfjvcu in 16.22 w e h a v e to t a k e into s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n that h e w a n t e d to c o n v e y the s e n s e o f A b r a h a m ' s 3

Even the new B D A G often does not record this semantic aspect. See for some other in­ stances J.H. Moulton & W.F. Howard, A Grammar of New Testament Greek, vol. 2, Edinburgh 1929 (repr. 1963), 298. S.v. II and III. The lexicon o f LSJ s.v. II 4 also lists as a meaning "to hand over as required." 4

5

166

Abraham s Bosom, the Place

Where He

Belonged

b o s o m as t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h e p o o r L a z a r u s b e l o n g e d a n d t h a t h e w a s e n t i t l e d to.

6

T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n fits in e x c e l l e n t l y w i t h L u k e ' s o w n v e r s i o n o f t h e first

b e a t i t u d e in L k . 6 . 2 0 : " B l e s s e d a r e y o u w h o a r e p o o r , for y o u r s is t h e k i n g d o m of G o d . "

6

7

The fact that in other places in the N T djiocpeoeiv usually has the meaning of'carrying off, taking away' does not at all militate against this conclusion. I o w e thanks to my colleagues Professors Tjitze Baarda and Maarten Menken for some critical remarks on the first version o f this short note. 7

The Hellenistic Background of Acts 9:1 "Snorting

Threat

and

Murder"

In this e s s a y a n a t t e m p t will b e m a d e to s h e d s o m e light o n a n e x p r e s s i o n in A c t s 9 : 1 . It is said there o f Saul that h e w a s ELutvecov ajteilfjg x a i cpovou Big xovc, \iaQr\xac, xov

-KVQIOV.

Firstly,the literary b a c k g r o u n d o f this r a t h e r u n u s u a l e x p r e s s i o n will

b e i n v e s t i g a t e d . S e c o n d l y , t h e function o f t h e g e n i t i v e in amikxyz, xaicpovou will h a v e t o b e defined. In his e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y f a s c i n a t i n g study, The Origins

of European

Thought^

R. B . O n i a n s h a s p o i n t e d o u t that in a r c h a i c G r e e k t h o u g h t b r e a t h p l a y s a m u c h g r e a t e r role t h a n in o u r m o d e s o f t h i n k i n g a n d that b r e a t h i n g is c o n n e c t e d t h e r e w i t h all k i n d s o f p s y c h i c f u n c t i o n s , w i t h e m o t i o n s , w i s h i n g , t h i n k i n g , e v e n w i t h 2

p e r c e p t i o n in all its v a r i e t i e s , a n d p r o c r e a t i o n . A l l k i n d s o f G r e e k w o r d s that d e s i g n a t e soul, spirit, m i n d , m o o d , a n d their functions a p p e a r to b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h b r e a t h i n g a n d b l o w i n g . S o tyv%r) is o r i g i n a l l y b r e a t h a n d h a s a n e t y m o l o g i ­ cal c o n n e c t i o n w i t h ipuxstv, to b r e a t h o r to b l o w . A n d a l s o QuLiog ( L a t i n S a n s k r i t dhumah)

fumus,

o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t b r e a t h , v a p o u r o r s m o k e . O n i a n s also c o n ­

v i n c i n g l y d e m o n s t r a t e s that in H o m e r a n d o t h e r early G r e e k w r i t e r s , cpoeveg d o e s n o t m e a n midriff ( d i a p h r a g m a , as in the classical p e r i o d ) , b u t l u n g s , a n d that it 3

d e s i g n a t e s a s s u c h t h e seat o f e m o t i o n s a n d t h o u g h t s . ( A l s o in later a u t h o r s o n e still finds t h e l u n g s , jtXeiiLuov o r jtveuLuov, as t h e seat o f e m o t i o n s . )

4

So H o m e r s a y s for e x a m p l e : 5ixa be acpiv evi cprjeoi 9uu.6g o n t o , (Iliad

21:386),

literally: ' t h e i r b r e a t h in their l u n g s b l e w in t w o d i r e c t i o n s ' , i . e . t h e r e w a s d i s ­ s e n s i o n , strife a m o n g t h e m . O n c e o n e h a s r e a d O n i a n s ' d i s c u s s i o n o f s u c h a n d s i m i l a r p h r a s e s , o n e c a n n o l o n g e r d o u b t that t h e y w e r e m e a n t to b e t a k e n liter-

1

R. B. Onians, The Origins of European Thought about the Body, the Mind, the Soul, the World, Time and Fate. New Interpretations of Greek, Roman, and Kindred Evidence, also of some Basic Jewish and Christian Beliefs, Cambridge 1951 (repr. 1988). Op. cit. 13-122. It is well known how great the role was that breathing and air played in early Greek philosophy (Anaximcnes, Diogenes of Apollonia) and also in early Greek medicine. The related qpoovelv, later reserved especially for the intellectual faculties, is still more encompassing in Homer, "covering undifferentiated psychic activity, involving emotion and conation also" (Onians, p. 14). The same applies to ol&a, ibid. 15 f. In early Greek thought, the various psychic and mental functions are not yet differentiated. Examples in Onians, op. cit. 37f. Striking is Hesychius: n\ev[ioviav vooov tf|v eoamxrrv. 2

3

4

168

The Hellenistic

Background

of Acts 9:1

5

ally a n d n o t as m e t a p h o r s or m e r e i m a g e s . A l s o the adjective Tt8:rrvvu.£vog, w h i c h m e a n s 'wise, clever', should be considered to be the participle of the passive perfect o f

JXVEU).

6

W o r d s a n d t h o u g h t s ( w h i c h are not d i s t i n g u i s h e d ) , c o u r a g e a n d

energy, are ' l o c a t e d i n ' t h e (poeveg a n d the 0v\i6c, a n d c o m e o u t o f t h e m as the situation d e m a n d s . N o w , if feelings a n d t h o u g h t s c o m e o u t o f the l u n g s , it also b e c o m e s more understandable h o w and w h y one has developed the notion of i n s p i r a t i o n ( i n - b r e a t h i n g ) . T h e deity b r e a t h e s or b l o w s e m o t i o n s , p o w e r , b u t also p l a n s a n d t h o u g h t s into the l u n g s o f p e o p l e . S e e for e x a m p l e Odyssey w h e r e P e n e l o p e tells a b o u t h e r w i l e : cpdQog uiv uoi &CUU.00V

JTQWTOV

19:138-9

evejtveuaE cpoeaL

/ axr)aau,Evr) u i y a v l a x o v evi u-syaQoiaiv {jcpaiveiv (cf. Iliad

7

1:297). W h e n

in later a u t h o r s t h e s e a r c h a i c f o r m s of t h o u g h t are less c o n s c i o u s or p e r h a p s e v e n n o l o n g e r p l a y a n y r o l e , m a n y e x p r e s s i o n s from this c o n c e p t u a l w o r l d c o n t i n u e to b e u s e d , b u t n o w in a m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e . It is in this f r a m e w o r k that o n e h a s t o see a w h o l e series o f e x p r e s s i o n s in G r e e k literature in w h i c h e m o t i o n s , affections a n d o t h e r p s y c h i c functions are c o n n e c t e d w i t h v e r b s for b r e a t h i n g , 8

s n o r t i n g a n d b l o w i n g . H o w often this o c c u r s is d e m o n s t r a t e d b y the f o l l o w i n g s e l e c t i o n , in w h i c h 1 g o b e y o n d i n s t a n c e s w i t h jxvew a n d its c o m p o s i t a in o r d e r to illustrate t h e p h e n o m e n o n m o r e widely. H o m e r calls t h e G r e e k h e r o e s

UKVECI

jxveiovxeg ' A x a i o i (Iliad

3:8; 11:508;

2 4 : 3 6 4 ) a n d s i m i l a r l y u i v e a jtveiovxsg 'A|3avxeg ( 2 : 5 3 6 ) . H e r e b e l o n g s a l s o Iliad 2 1 : 3 9 5 w h e r e it is said o f the fighting A t h e n a that s h e h a s Qagooq drrxov, s n o r t i n g courage. P s . - H e s i o d , Asp is 2 3 - 5 , s a y s a b o u t m e n w h o are g o i n g to battle: x w 6' d u a ieu.evoi jToA.en.oio xe qxuA.6jti&6g xe Boiooxol jtAri^utJTOi, viteg a a x e c o v Jiveiovxeg ... E03X0VX0.

S a p p h o , fragm. 4 7 L o b e l - P a g e (42 B e r g k , 5 0 D i e h l ) : "Egog 6 exiva^e uoi cpoevag, obg dveu.og x d x o g o g 6QT3OIV Eajtixcov.

A e s c h y l u s , Agamemnon

187, d e s c r i b i n g A g a m e m n o n w h o tries to r e c o n c i l e

h i m s e l f w i t h his b a d fortune, eujtaioig xi>xcaca O V U J I V E C O V . Ibid. 2 1 9 , o n A g a m e m ­ n o n w h o sacrifices his d a u g h t e r , cpgevog jivecov &uoae|3fj xQOJtaiav ( h e b l o w s from his l u n g s a g o d l e s s w i n d that h a d v e e r e d r o u n d ) . Ibid. 3 7 4 - 5 , o n t o o b e l l i c o s e 5

On the question o f whether or not there is metaphorical language in Homer see the series of articles by W. J. Verdenius on archaic forms o f thinking in Lampas 2 ff (1969 ff). 6

Onians, op. cit. 56ff. Contra Onians see H. Kleinknecht, TWNTVl

335 n.l (not convinc­

ing)7

Onians, op. cit. 50ff, 56. Material is also to be found in Kleinknecht, TWNTW 341 ff., who, however, does not mention Onians even once in his long article on pneuma. Onians writes (52): "This association o f the emotion with the breathing may seem strange to us since w e are in the habit o f abstracting the emotion itself from its bodily expressions." How 'strange' e. g. Jackson - Lake found this becomes apparent from their comments on Acts 9:1 (The Beginnings of Christianity IV, London 1933, 99): "The phrase EUJIVEWV djreilfjc; xai qpovou is regular in that e^nveo) takes with it a genitive cause but unusual as having as its objec­ tive what must be understood quite figuratively, though such metaphors occur, esp. in poetry, with the simple TCVEW". 8

The Hellenistic troops, "Aqti

JCVEOVXCOV L I E I ^ O V

of Acts 9:1

169

r\ Sixaicog. Ibid. 1206, C a s s a n d r a o n A p o l l o ' s feel­

ings t o w a r d s her,

ELIOI JTVECOV

dojtov&ov x'

cpiA.oig nvzovoav.

"AQTI

Background

xdgiv. Ibid. 9

1 2 3 5 - 6 , Cassandra on Clytemnestra,

Choephoroi

3 9 1 - 2 , t h e choir, h o p i n g that

C l y t e m n e s t r a a n d A e g i s t h u s will b e p u n i s h e d , s a y s : jtaQoiGsv 6e jiQcopag &QiLU)g dnxaL xga&iag GuLiog,

EVXOXOV

oTuyog (before t h e b o w o f m y h e a r t a fierce w i n d

b l o w s , bitter h a t r e d ) . Ibid. 9 5 2 , o n t h e g o d d e s D i k e , xoxov. Eumenides Athena:

JTVECO

O^EGQIOV

jtveoua'

EV

ExQQolg

8 4 0 , after t h e c h o i r h a s lost t h e lawsuit, it is v e r y a n g r y at

xoi uivog djtavxd xe xoxov. Supplices

2 6 f., t h e D a n a i d e s ask the

land w h e r e t h e y a r r i v e as b a n i s h e d p e r s o n s to a c c e p t t h e m alSoicp jtvEttLtaxi, w i t h respectful b r e a t h i n g . Septem BuLiog dv&Qeiq cpXEycov EJXVEI, S o p h o c l e s , Electra her mother:

52 f., o f w a r r i o r s b e f o r e battle, oi&riQocpQcov ydo XEOVXCOV

cog

" A Q T ) &E6OQX6XCOV.

610, w h e r e the choir says about Electra raging against

uivog jrvEouaav. Antigone

OQCO

so steadfast in h e r o p p o s i t i o n to C r e o n :

9 2 9 f., t h e c h o i r o n A n t i g o n e w h o is

E X I XCOV

auxcov dvELicov avxox tpux'ns Qutai

ovoav

xr|v6£ y'

£X -

E u r i p i d e s , Andromache

1 8 9 - 9 0 , A n d r o m a c h e on the arrogant m e n w h o have

seized her: ol yaq jxveovxeg Lieyd^a xoijg xQEiaooug Xoyoug juxQcog cpsQouoi xcov ekaooovwv

(mo. Ibid. 3 2 6 f., A n d r o m a c h e r e p r o a c h e s M e n e l a o s that h e too easily

b e l i e v e s t h e evil talk o f his d a u g h t e r : ooxig OuyaxQog dvxijr.ai6og EjivEuaag. Iphigeneia

o n e o f t h e F u r i e s a n d calls h e r KVQ nveovoa

10

x a i c p o v o v . Phoenissai

w a n t s to c a l m d o w n h e r b e l l i g e r e n t son: oxdaov 6E Ibid.

E X X.6YCOV

xooovo'

Taur. 2 8 8 , in o n e o f his a t t a c k s o f m a d n e s s , O r e s t e s s e e s

5ELVOV

454, Iocaste

oLiLia xai Guumj jrvodg.

11

8 7 6 , o n O e d i p u s w h o c u r s e s his son: E X 6' EjivEucf aiixoig dfjdg 6£Lvdg.

Bacchae

6 2 0 , o n P e n t h e u s , w h o r a g e s at D i o n y s u s : Guu.6v

l&Qcoxa

EXJXVECOV,

aooLiaxog axd^cov djto. Ibid. 6 4 0 , D i o n y s u s says a b o u t P e n t h e u s : gq&icog yaq oi'oco, xdv dvxr)Qi6a)v

JTVECOV

zKQr\ \iiya. Rhesus

GULIOV

7 8 5 , o n frightened h o r s e s : ai 6'

avxov

EQQEYXOV E ^

j t v E o u o m xdvExaixi^ov cp6(3cp.

T h e r e is n o d o u b t that A r i s t o p h a n e s w a n t s to m a k e a p a r o d y o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f the t r a g e d i a n s , w h e n he w r i t e s in Ranae 1121 oiixool

XQEXEI

xig 'AkpEidv

JTVECOV

1016 jrvsovxag 5 6 Q D xai JuSyxag,

a n

d

dves

(i. e., s n o r t i n g like a r u n n e r at t h e O l y m p i a n

g a m e s [ O l y m p i a is situated at t h e r i v e r A l p h e i o s ] ) . Pindar, Pythian GoaoEiq

S E JTVECOV

Ode xae&iq

1 0 : 4 4 , o n P e r s e u s w h o w e n t to t h e H y p e r b o r a e a n s LI6A.EV

Aavdag

JTOXE

Jiatg. Ibid.

11:29-30: a w o m a n of

standing cannot conceal her lapses, everyone speaks about them immediately: icr/EL

XE

yag oAftog ov LiEiova cpGovov, 6 6 E xaLit|X.d

JTVECOV

dcpavxov

PQELIEI

(Bowra

t r a n s l a t e s : ' F o r bliss m a k e s e n v y as b i g as itself; a n d h e w h o b r e a t h e s t h e d u s t 9

In Agam. 1309, Cassandra says about the palace where the murder has taken place, cpovov &6n.oi jtvEoucnv alfxaTooxaYfi, but that probably means: the palace smells o f blood. It is not certain if passages like Hercules Furens 862 (xeoauvoij t' olaToog cb&Ivac; JTVECOV) and Iphigeneia Aulensis 69 (QTQV jrvoai (ptooiev 'AcpQo&itTic; cpiAai.) belong in this category. ' oxuoov Ou^oo) jivodg could be compared to the Dutch expression 'stoom afblazen' (or the German 'Dampf ablassen'). But these expressions have a different background. 10

1

170

The Hellenistic

Background

w h i s p e r s , b u t is n o t k n o w n ' ) . Nemean i|>E(pr|v6g dvrjQ dAlox' ak\a

of Acts 9:1

Ode 3 : 4 1 - 2 , o n a p e r s o n o f l o w s t a n d i n g :

Jtveoov.

A n t i p h o n , F r a g m . B 4 9 ( D i e l s - K r a n z ) , o n r e l a t i v e s : i'oa qpQovof)vxag I'aa jtveovxag ( D i e l s : g l e i c h g e s i n n t e , g l e i c h g e s t i m m t e M e n s c h e n ) . X e n o p h o n , Hellenica

7 , 5 , 1 2 : t h e e n e m i e s a r e ol JTI5Q jtveovxeg.

H e r o n d a s , Mimiambe

8:58, in t h e m i d d l e o f a l a c u n a , b u t it is c e r t a i n l y a b o u t

a q u a r r e l , . . . ] xd 6eivd Jtveuaai \a% jcaxe [... T h e o c r i t u s 1 8 : 5 4 - 5 says to a loving c o u p l e : eti&ex' eg aXkakwv oxeovov cpiAoxaxa jtveovxeg x a i Jt60ov. Ibid. 2 2 : 8 2 , a b o u t t w o fighters: cpovov dAA,r|A.oiai Jtveovxeg. Anthologia

Palatina

2 : 2 3 3 : a ringfighter ejtveev frvoQer|g. 2 : 4 5 1 : Vergil is

jtveioov evejting. 5 : 2 5 9 : t h e e y e s o f a girl in l o v e are o n ' s songs are

XOLQITOIV

jtvelovxa \iekr\, jtvelovxa 6'

JIOOOV

jxveiovxa. 7:25 A n a c r e -

CQOOXOOV.

9:159: when a wicked

p e r s o n t h r o w s a s t o n e u p o n t h e skull o f a d e c e a s e d m a n , b u t t h e stone j u m p s b a c k a n d hits t h e t h r o w e r ; this s t o n e is called jtveovxa &ixr|g. D i o n y s i u s o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s , Antiquitates

Romanae

7, 5 1 , 3 : w h e n t h e revolt­

ing p e o p l e s e e that t h e y h a v e n o p o w e r a g a i n s t t h e R o m a n s e n a t e , xfjg avGa&eiag f|g jtoA/ug ejtvei xoxe, ucpeTxai vuvi ( C a r y : t h e y n o w a b a t e their a r r o g a n c e w h i c h t h e n b l e w so s t r o n g ) . C h i o n o f H e r a c l e a , Epistula

3 : 3 : O u t r a g e o u s s o l d i e r s w a n t to d e s t r o y t h e city,

b u t a p h i l o s o p h e r c a l m s t h e m d o w n so that t h e y b e c o m e u.n&ev exi exeivou xoi5 d6ixou x a i aQJtaxxoij "Ageog jrveovxag. P h i l o o f A l e x a n d r i a c o n n e c t s jxveo) w i t h t h e adjectives u.eyag a n d A.au.jt.o6g, b o t h in b o n a m a n d in m a l a m p a r t e m . S e e , for e x a m p l e , Vita Mosis

1:55, M o s e s

rejects w e a l t h s i n c e it h a s s u c h an influence u p o n p e o p l e , x(b jtac/ dvQodmoic; u i y a jtveovxi jrloijxa). Ibid. 2 : 2 4 0 on h a u g h t y p e o p l e : ol \ieya jtveovxeg. De

mutatione

nominum

l:107,on

paideia,

2 1 5 jtveiioavxeg \ieya, said o f successful p e o p l e . De somniis w h i c h is s e v e r e a g a i n s t its a d v e r s a r i e s : \izyaka

jtvexjoaaa. De

Josepho

2 1 : R u b e n s a y s to his b r o t h e r s w h o h a v e sold J o s e p h : xQaxi>xaxoi yag (eaxe) elg O Q Y T I V x a i djtaQaixr)xoi x a i Jtvel A.aujtg6g exi 6 ev exdaxw Oufiog. De

congressu

108, in its original state t h e soul A.aujtQov ejtvei. Quod deus sit immutabilis

174:

E g y p t ' s o r i g i n a l p o w e r a n d g l o r y is g o n e , e'jtveuoe Jioxe Aaujtgov x a i em u,r)xiaxov Aiyunxog, aKK cog vecpog aiixfjg f| ueydAr) JtaQfjABev eimQayla. P s e u d o - C a l l i s t h e n e s , Historia

Alexandra

Magni

12

A 4 6 (ed. W. K r o l l , 1926,

p. 5 9 ) , 6 6e Maxe&cov o u ^ a JtQog aiixov ^r|XT3vag x a i xotig 666vxag xoig 66otlai auvxQi^cov O Q Y T I V dvajtvecov xotov eiJte xov H e l i o d o r u s , Aethiopica

UA36OV.

1,2,1, o n a girl w h o b e h a v e s c o u r a g e o u s l y in v e r y

difficult c i r c u m s t a n c e s : xoig u.ev jiaQoDot jteQiaXyoHoa, qpQovf)[j,axog 6e exi jiveouaa.

12

Josephus does not yield anything of importance for our purpose.

tvyzvovc,

The Hellenistic

A r i s t a e n e t u s , Epistula

171

of Acts 9:1

1:5, o n a h u s b a n d w h o is a n g r y at his w i f e b e c a u s e h e

s u s p e c t s h e r o f adultery- xEXQaycbg N o n n u s , Dionysiaca

Background

SLUX

x a i jtvecov B U L I O D .

1 3

4 8 , 6 5 0 : after t h e w e d d i n g n i g h t a m a n is exi JTVECOV

iJLievaicov.

In o r d e r to d e m o n s t r a t e that this p h e n o m e n o n is n o t limited to G r e e k literature, I m e n t i o n briefly a few i n s t a n c e s from Latin a u t h o r s . C i c e r o , In Catilinam

2:1 s c e l u s i n h e l a n t e m (sc. C a t i l i n a m ) . Ad

Herennium

4 , 5 5 , 6 8 a n h e l a n s ex infimo p e c t o r e c r u d e l i t a t e m . L u c r e t i u s , De rerum natura

5:392 spirantes bellum.

P r o p e r t i u s 1,3,7 m o l l e m s p i r a r e q u i e t e m . H o r a t i u s , Carmen Vergil, Aeneid

4,13,19 quae spirabat amores.

7:510 spirans i m m a n e .

1 4

A s is w e l l k n o w n , in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , t o o , s e v e r a l w o r d s w h i c h a r e u s e d to i n d i c a t e t h e p s y c h e a n d p s y c h i c a l functions, o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t b r e a t h ( i n g ) o r snorting. Nhr: S o n g o f S o n g s 1:6 bene

'immi niharu

bi = the s o n s o f m y m o t h e r w e r e

a n g r y (orig. s n o r t e d ) at m e . Pwh:

E z e k i e l 2 1 : 3 6 ( 3 1 ) be 'esh 'evrati

'aphiah

w i t h t h e fire o f m y w r a t h . P s a l m 2 7 : 1 2 yepheah

'alayikh hamas

= I blow against you = h e b r e a t h e s o u t (or:

s n o r t s ) v i o l e n c e , a s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e s i n c e h e r e t h e v e r b , like t h e G r e e k an o b j e c t (cf. P r o v e r b s \ 2\\1 yaphiah Nephesh

JTVECO,

has

'emunah).

is o r i g i n a l l y t h e throat, t h e n a l s o b r e a t h ; it d e v e l o p s , like Guuog,

m e a n i n g s w h i c h i n d i c a t e p s y c h i c a l f u n c t i o n s : l o n g i n g , feeling, e m o t i o n s (as does Aramaic Ruah

5

naphsha)}

is t h e w i n d , later a l s o t h e s p i r i t ;

16

t h u s also 'aph, o r i g i n a l l y v e h e m e n t

b r e a t h i n g or s n o r t i n g ( h e n c e t h e m e a n i n g ' n o s e ' ) , later a l s o anger, w r a t h . S e e the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t h e s e t e r m s in P s a l m 18:16 ( = 2 S a m . 2 2 : 1 6 ) : minishmat appekha

ruah

in P s a l m 18:16 is r e n d e r e d in t h e L X X b y djto ELiJtvsijoEcog jtveijLiaTog

oeyfjg GOV. T h e s a m e e x p r e s s i o n in 2 S a m . 2 2 : 1 6 is r e n d e r e d b y djto jrvofjg jtvEiiLtaxog BuLioij

13

avxov.

H o w much the original concept behind this usage has disappeared in the course o f time is well demonstrated by a passage in Themistius, Oratio 1:7a (on the philanthropia o f the prince): xai Toivuv el Paodecoc; tyvxi] (XT) xufxaivei, \JLT]&E 0v\iov xai ooyfig JivEiifxata ayQia xuxq xe ai)TT)v xai xaQarcei yqfilcog o^iyfis dQxilS Quu^ofxeva, TOT' e^eaxiv ov (iovov e^JioQoig xai vaijxaig aXka xai jtaaiv dvSQOJJtoig TOV |3iov 6Laji^.Hlv dacpaXojc;. T. E. Page ad locum: spirans is an imitation of JTVECOV which is constantly used with acc. or neut. adj. o f excited feeling. See L. Koehler - W. Baumgartner, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, Leiden 1953, 627-8 See F. Baumgartel in TWNTW 357ff. 14

15

1 6

The Hellenistic

172

Background

of Acts 9:1

A l t h o u g h i n d e e d " t h e e m o t i o n o f a n g e r w a s in S e m i t i c p h y s i o l o g y c o n n e c t e d with b r e a t h , "

17

it s h o u l d n o t b e too easily a s s u m e d that L u k e h a s d e r i v e d his

e x p r e s s i o n in A c t s 9:1 from the O l d T e s t a m e n t , i. e. t h e L X X , for t h e lack o f c l o s e v e r b a l p a r a l l e l s m a k e s that v e r y i m p r o b a b l e .

18

Neither are there m a n y parallels

from o t h e r J e w i s h G r e e k literature, a l t h o u g h w e d o find o n e striking i n s t a n c e in Testamentum biaonagagai

Salomonis

D 4:1 eu.dxovxo aXkr\koic, 0uu.oi) jtveovxeg

akhqkovc,

|3ouA.6[Aevoi. B u t , as h a s n o w b e e n s h o w n , t h e r e is o v e r w h e l m i n g l y

rich c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l in p a g a n G r e e k literature. W e a l s o n e e d n o t look for p a r a l l e l s in ' n o n - l i t e r a r y s o u r c e s ' . M o u l t o n a n d Milligan

1 9

m e n t i o n o n l y o n e i n s t a n c e w h i c h is n o t a real parallel: G. K a i b e l ,

Epigrammata

Graeca,

B e r l i n 1 8 7 8 , n o . 5 6 2 , 9 - 1 0 ( 2 n d / 3 r d cent. C E ) , eg 6' oaov

evjtveiei (3iox6v x' ejti r\\ia.Q epiwei / &i>au.oQog avxA/naei JtevBog de^ifhov.

20

Moreover,

t h e w h o l e series o f p a r a l l e l s from G r e e k literature q u o t e d a b o v e d o e s n o t at all g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n that o n e h a s to d o h e r e w i t h an e x p r e s s i o n from c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h , b u t r a t h e r w i t h o n e from the h i g h e r literary l a n g u a g e . T h e r e f o r e w e h a v e to c o n c l u d e that in A c t s 9:1 L u k e h a s t a k e n o v e r an e x p r e s s i o n from G r e e k literary tradition. T h i s a g a i n c o n f i r m s t h e s u s p i c i o n o f s e v e r a l s c h o l a r s that L u k e m u s t h a v e h a d a c e r t a i n a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h G r e e k literature. If h e w e r e a G r e e k p h y s i c i a n (as h a s often b e e n c o n c l u d e d from C o l . 4:11 a n d P h i l e m o n 2 4 , w r o n g l y s o ) , that w o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s i n g . B u t it is i m p o s s i b l e to b e m o r e p r e c i s e . S o t h e d e b a t e o v e r w h e t h e r o r n o t L u k e m a y h a v e k n o w n E u r i p i d e s , e s p . his Bacchae,

should

n o t b e r e k i n d l e d h e r e ( t h o s e interested c a n refer to t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s b y N e s t l e , V o g e l i , a n d H a c k e t t , n o n e o f w h i c h , c u r i o u s l y e n o u g h , d r a w s A c t s 9:1 into this discussion).

21

W e c a n n o t g o further t h a n s t a t i n g that L u k e h e r e u s e s an e x p r e s ­

sion that c a n b e said w i t h c e r t a i n t y to s t e m from G r e e k literary tradition. A s w e h a v e s e e n , w h e n t h e v e r b jtveiv is f o l l o w e d b y a n o u n i n d i c a t i n g an e m o ­ tion ( e . g. 0uu.6g, xoxog), this n o u n is a l w a y s p u t in t h e a c c u s a t i v e in t e x t s d a t i n g b e f o r e t h e h e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , b u t in a n d after that p e r i o d often in t h e g e n i t i v e

17

K. Lake and H.J. Cadbury, The Beginnings of Christianity, vol. 4, London 1933, 99. E. Preuschen no doubt is wrong in stating that Luke's source for this expression was LXX Ps. 17 (18): 16 (quoted above in the text); see his Die Apostelgeschichte (HNT), Tubingen 1912, 5 4 - 5 . The only passage in the LXX which is comparable to Acts 9:1, as far as I know, is 2 Maccabees 9:7 where Antiochus Epiphanes is said to have been JTUQ e^jtvEoov xoig Bu^otg em xovc, 'lovbahovq. The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament Illustratedfrom the Papyri and Other Non-Liter­ ary Sources, London 1 9 3 0 , 2 0 7 . They could have better referred to no. 8 1 1 , 7 - 8 where the expression X&QIV ... jrveoig occurs. W. Nestle in Philologus 59 (1900) 4 6 - 5 7 ; A. Vogeli in Theologische Zeitschrift 9 (1953) 415^138; J. Hackett in Irish Theological Quarterly 23 (1956) 2 1 8 - 2 2 7 and 3 5 0 - 3 6 6 . 18

19

2 0

21

The Hellenistic

Background

c a s e . A c t s 9:1 b e l o n g s to this s e c o n d g r o u p .

173

of Acts 9:1 2 2

O n the function o f this g e n i t i v e

several o p i n i o n s are p o s s i b l e . 1. B l a s s - D e b r u n n e r § 174 t a k e the e x p r e s s i o n in A c t s 9:1 to b e c o n s t r u c t e d in a n a l o g y to 6t;£iv, (e|j,)jTvav xivog, ' t o smell o f s o m e t h i n g ' . M a n y s c h o l a r s s h a r e this o p i n i o n , e. g. A . T. R o b e r t s o n in his Grammar in the Light of Historical

Research,

d e l l - S c o t t - J o n e s , s.v. eujtveco I 3 .

of the Greek New

Testament

N e w York 1914, 5 0 7 , a n d the lexicon o f L i d 2 3

H o w t h e n s h o u l d this g e n i t i v e b e c o n s i d e r e d

from a g r a m m a t i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w ? K i i h n e r - G e r t h ' s Griechische

Grammatik

(I

3 5 6 ) calls the g e n i t i v e after v e r b s m e a n i n g ' t o s m e l l o f p a r t i t i v e (cf. a l s o W. W. G o o d w i n ' s Greek

Grammar

§ 1102). B u t p e r h a p s o n e s h o u l d prefer H . H.

W e n d t ' s s u g g e s t i o n (in his c o m m e n t a r y o n A c t s ad loc. p . 162) that in this c a s e the g e n i t i v e indicates that w h i c h the action indicated b y the v e r b t a k e s as its p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e . T h e n t h e g e n i t i v e h a s an a b l a t i v e f u n c t i o n . 2. C . F. D . M o u l e , Idiom

Book

of New

Testament

24

Greek,

Cambridge 1953,

3 6 - 7 , t a k e s t h e g e n i t i v e in A c t s 9:1 to b e a partitive g e n i t i v e w h i c h is u s e d w i t h " v e r b s c o n n e c t e d w i t h a p o r t i o n or s h a r e " , as is a l s o the c a s e w i t h e. g. ajxxo^ai, |j,vr|uxyv£ij(jo, ayxiyp\x,o.v, hnixvyyavu). New

Testament

T h u s also the Greek-English

Lexicon

of the

b y G r i m m - T h a y e r ( E d i n b u r g h 1 9 0 1 ) , s.v., w h i c h t r a n s l a t e s

' i n h a l e ' a n d e x p l a i n s : " T h r e a t e n i n g a n d s l a u g h t e r w e r e s o to s p e a k t h e e l e m e n t s from w h i c h h e d r e w his b r e a t h " (thus a l s o J. R. L u m b y , The Acts of the

Apostles,

C a m b r i d g e 1904, 189). T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d i m p l y that Saul did not b r e a t h all o f the t h r e a t e n i n g a n d m u r d e r that w a s in h i m b u t o n l y a p a r t o f it (cf. e. g. a l s o Apoc. 2:17

TOO

vixcovxi 6cbato cruxa) xov [i&vva xov

XEXQVH\IEVOV).

3. M o r e attractive, it w o u l d s e e m to m e , is the o p i n i o n that in A c t s 9:1 t h e r e is to b e found a partitive g e n i t i v e , b u t o n e that is to b e u n d e r s t o o d in a n a l o g y to t h e g e n i t i v e after v e r b s m e a n i n g ' t o fill, to b e full', etc. G. B . W i n e r , Grammatik neutestamentlichen

Sprachidioms

des

( L e i p z i g 1867) § 3 0 , 9 c , l o o k s for a s o l u t i o n in

this direction. A l s o E. S c h w e i z e r , in TWNT

V I 4 5 0 , t a k e s ejAJTVEw w i t h g e n i t i v e

to h a v e the m e a n i n g o f ' t o b e filled w i t h ' . T h e i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g a b o u t this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is that w e h a v e from a n t i q u i t y itself t e s t i m o n i e s to the effect that o n e h a s u n d e r s t o o d t h e g e n i t i v e in A c t s 9:1

2 2

Some Katharevousa translations o f the N T into 'modern' Greek turn it again into a clas­ sical construction: jrvecov e u dnedfiv xai epovov. The prefix in £\XKVEEIV should be connected with dg xovq \iaQr\Tac,, meaning: blowing loose on them. LSJ s.v. II 3 lists several of the passages with genitive mentioned by us under the meaning 'to smell of.' Wendt's reference to L X X Joshua 10:40 JIOV e^jivsov t,u>f\c, is also found in several later commentaries, but it is very questionable whether this is really a parallel. Its meaning is clear: every living being (MT: kol ha-neshamah), but the L X X always translates that by nav e(iJtveov. R. Helbing, Die Kasussyntax der Verba bei den Septuaginta, Gottingen 1928, 9 1 - 2 , doubts therefore whether it belongs in the text (with reference to Field's notes on the Hexapla). Preuschen ad locum ( 5 4 - 5 ) remarks that Joshua 10:40 is not comparable since it uses s.[mveov as a substantive. 2 3

2 4

174

The Hellenistic

Background

of Acts 9:1

in this s e n s e . A s c h o l i o n to H o m e r , Iliad 2 : 5 3 6 ( q u o t e d a b o v e ) , r e m a r k s : Qv\iov x a i ovvduecog jtveovxeg, xouxeaxi yeuovxeg.

25

F u r t h e r m o r e , in H e s y c h i u s w e find

the t e r s e n o t e : eu.jt.ver jtejtA.riQCDu.evog (ed. K. L a t t e II 8 1 ) . A n d in o r d e r to p r o v e that o n e h a s u n d e r s t o o d a l s o A c t s 9:1 in this s e n s e , o n e c a n refer to the P e s h i t t a a n d the S a h i d i c a n d B o h a r i c v e r s i o n s o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t ; all t h r e e v e r s i o n s t r a n s l a t e o u r v e r s e b y : " h e w a s full o f t h r e a t e n i n g a n d m u r d e r . " S i n c e all t h r e e v e r s i o n s o r i g i n a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y from o n e another, o n e c a n n o t d e n y t h e m a certain i n t e r p r e t a t i v e v a l u e , t h e m o r e s o w h e n t h e y are v i e w e d in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the H o m e r s c h o l i o n a n d the H e s y c h i u s n o t e . T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n , that (eu.)jtveiv w i t h g e n i t i v e w a s c o n c e i v e d as parallel to v e r b s for ' b e i n g full o f w i t h g e n i t i v e , c a n a l s o b e a p p l i e d to o t h e r p a s s a g e s ( q u o t e d a b o v e ) , w h e r e jtvetv is u s e d w i t h t h e g e n i t i v e . S o this e x p l a n a t i o n s e e m s to h a v e m u c h in its favour. 4 . A n o t h e r theoretical possibility is to e x p l a i n the g e n i t i v e as b e i n g o n e of a i m ­ ing or s t r i v i n g as is u s u a l after v e r b s like umu,dv, ooeyeaBai, (ecp)teaOai, oQu.aaBai, etc. B u t then (eu)jtveiv s h o u l d h a v e an e l e m e n t o f striving or pursuit in it, w h i c h it d o e s not. M o r e o v e r , s u c h an e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d fit o n l y a few o f o u r i n s t a n c e s . 5. M o r e is to b e said for t h e e x p l a n a t i o n that w e h a v e h e r e a g e n i t i v e w h i c h d e s i g n a t e s " d e n A u s g a n g s p u n k t e i n e r H a n d l u n g bei Verben d e r G e m u t s b e w e gung, des Z o r n e s " .

2 6

T h i s ' g e n i t i v e - a b l a t i v e ' o c c u r s after v e r b s like xoAoiiaGai,

XtoeaGai, u.r|vieiv, GuuovaGai, xoxelv, etc. A c c o r d i n g l y , it s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to t a k e (eu.)jtv£Lv to m e a n ' r a g i n g , b e i n g w r a t h f u l ' . T h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d i n s t a n c e s from P s - H e s i o d , Aspis 2 3 - 4 , Pindar, Pyth.

10:44, a n d E u r i p i d e s , Andromache

326-7,

p r o v e that that is p o s s i b l e i n d e e d . M o r e o v e r , w e h a v e a v a l u a b l e n o t e in P h o t i u s : jtveiiaag- acpoSgtog ooyiaQzio, (ed. R. P o r s o n II 4 3 5 ) . H o w e v e r , it s h o u l d b e h e l d a g a i n s t this e x p l a n a t i o n that in all c a s e s o f this a b l a t i v e - g e n i t i v e it d e s i g n a t e s t h e e x t e r i o r m o t i v e for the e m o t i o n d e s c r i b e d , e . g . , S o p h o c l e s , Antigone

1177

jtaxoi u/nviaag cpovou = b e i n g wrathful a g a i n s t her father b e c a u s e o f t h e m u r d e r c o m m i t t e d b y h i m . In his Syntaxe

grecque,

H u m b e r t t h e r e f o r e states explicitly

that it is o n l y t h e " c a u s e e x t e r i e u r e " that c a n b e d e s i g n a t e d b y this g e n i t i v e .

27

T h i s o b j e c t i o n is a l s o valid a g a i n s t D i i r i n g ' s a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n t h e g e n i t i v e in "Aoeog Jtveovxag in C h i o 3:3 ( s e e a b o v e ) as c a u s a t i v e .

2 5

28

See H. Ebeling, Lexicon Homericum, Leipzig 1885, II 192. Kiihner-Gerth, Grammatik I 388b. Schwyzer-Debrunner, Grammatik II 133. Blass-Debrunner § 176 state that this ablative-genitive is no longer used in Koine Greek, but that is not an objection against this explanation. J. Humbert, Syntaxe grecque, Paris 1960, 280. Cf. also the instances mentioned in the grammars in the previous note. I. During, Chion of Heraclea. A Novel in Letters, Goteborg 1951, 85: "dojiaxxo-u "Aoeog jtveovxag, a popular flourish, inspired by well-known expressions like nivea nveiovxeg, "Aon jxveovx(Dv (Agam. 3 7 5 , parodied Equit. 4 3 7 ) but here with genitive (ablative), which sometimes implies the sense 'smelling o f , as in Anth. Pal. XI, 2 4 0 iiveiv xodyou, often however is used (as partitive) in the same sense as the causative, Anth. Pal. IX, 159 jtveovxa 6i.xng, II, 415 jtveioov evemng BeoyiAtaog. 2 6

2 7

2 8

The Hellenistic

Background

of Acts 9:1

175

A s o n e can see, m o s t o f t h e a t t e m p t s at e x p l a n a t i o n either opt for the parti­ tive (in v a r i o u s forms, s e e n o s . 1-3) or for the ablative solution. P e r h a p s it is i m p o s s i b l e to reject c o m p l e t e l y a n y o f t h e s e p r o p o s a l s ( e x c e p t the fourth). B u t it w o u l d s e e m to m e that m o s t is to b e said for t h e third alternative s k e t c h e d a b o v e , n a m e l y to u n d e r s t a n d eimvetv with g e n i t i v e as a n a l o g o u s to v e r b s d e n o t i n g ' t o b e full' with (partitive) g e n i t i v e .

2 9

29

I express my gratitude to Professors W. J. Verdenius and W. F. Bakker for several valu­ able hints.

"Only then will all Israel be saved" A Short Note on the Meaning of xai omojq in Romans 11:26

T h e p r o b l e m o f the m e a n i n g a n d translation o f xai oikcog in R o m 1 1 : 2 6 h a s b e e n a m a t t e r o f d e b a t e e v e r since the b e g i n n i n g o f m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p . T h e w e l l - k n o w n q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r this e x p r e s s i o n s h o u l d b e t a k e n in a m o d a l s e n s e ( ' a n d so [or ' t h u s ' ] all Israel will b e s a v e d ' ) , w h i c h is the m o s t c u r r e n t translation, or in a t e m p o r a l s e n s e ( ' a n d then [or ' o n l y t h e n ' or ' t h e r e a f t e r ' ] all Israel will b e s a v e d ' ) , w h i c h is a m u c h less c o m m o n interpretation b u t o n e that is n e v e r t h e l e s s d e f e n d e d b y a handful o f c o m m e n t a t o r s a n d translators. In this short c o n t r i b u t i o n to the d e b a t e I h o p e to p r o v e that t h e t e m p o r a l s e n s e is m o r e w i d e s p r e a d t h a n is c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d a n d therefore a m u c h m o r e s e r i o u s al­ t e r n a t i v e to the m o d a l m e a n i n g than m o s t t r a n s l a t i o n s a n d c o m m e n t a r i e s w o u l d have us believe.

1

It is quite u n d e r s t a n d a b l e that m o s t translators a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s t a k e oikcog in the m o d a l s e n s e since it is the m o s t c u r r e n t a n d usual m e a n i n g o f the w o r d ; t h e t e m p o r a l s e n s e is less u s u a l , or at least so m u c h less frequent that several d i c t i o n a r i e s d o n o t e v e n m e n t i o n it. F o r i n s t a n c e , B a u e r ' s Worterbuch

zum Neuen

Testament

w o r d a n d n e i t h e r d o L o u w a n d N i d a in their Greek-English Testament

According

to Semantic

m e a n i n g in their Greek-English

Griechisch-deutsches

d o e s not m e n t i o n this s e m a n t i c a s p e c t o f t h e Domains.

Lexicon,

Lexicon

of the

New

L i d d e l l & Scott d o register this

b u t in s u c h a veiled w a y that it is v e r y

h a r d to n o t i c e , s i n c e s.v. oikcog 1 7 they o n l y say that oiktog is frequently u s e d in an a p o d o s i s after a p r o t a s i s , w i t h o u t i n d i c a t i n g that in several o f t h e i n s t a n c e s listed b y t h e m the m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d is ' ( o n l y ) t h e n ' ( m o r e o v e r t h e y deal o n l y w i t h c a s e s from classical G r e e k ) . S o it m a k e s s e n s e to p r e s e n t a selected n u m b e r o f i n s t a n c e s w h i c h clearly indicate that oikoog can i n d e e d h a v e this m e a n i n g . T h a t this is n o t superfluous is clear if o n e t a k e s a l o o k into m o d e r n c o m m e n ­ taries. T h e r e is, for i n s t a n c e , the r e m a r k in an o t h e r w i s e e x c e l l e n t c o m m e n t a r y on R o m a n s , t h e r e c e n t o n e b y J o s e p h F i t z m y e r , w h o s i m p l y states that " a t e m p o -

1

The Jerusalem Bible is one of the very few translations that render: "And then after this the rest of Israel will be saved as well." The Revised English Biblehas: "Once that has happened the whole of Israel will be saved." Cf. also Das Neue Testament, iibersetzt und kommentiert von U. Wilckens, Hamburg 1970, 542: "Dann wird auch ganz Israel gerettet werden."

A Short Note on the Meaning of xai ovrwq in Romans

ral m e a n i n g o f houtos

177

11:26

2

is n o t o t h e r w i s e found in G r e e k . " D u n n is n o t sure a b o u t

the m a t t e r a n d s u g g e s t s that " s o m e t e m p o r a l w e i g h t c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d from x a i 3

ouxcog (...)> b u t t h e b a s i c s e n s e o f oijtcog is ' t h u s , in this m a n n e r , ' " w i t h o u t g i v ­ ing a r g u m e n t s for his n o n - e x c l u s i o n o f ' t e m p o r a l w e i g h t . ' O t h e r s s i m p l y d e n y the p o s s i b i l i t y that oikcog c o u l d h a v e a t e m p o r a l s e n s e ( e . g . , U. L u z a n d C . E . B . Cranfield)

4

or p o s i t that it d o e s h a v e that s e n s e h e r e , s o m e t i m e s w i t h o u t a n y

r e f e r e n c e s (e. g. T h . Z a h n , O . M i c h e l , C.K. B a r r e t t ) , s o m e t i m e s w i t h r e f e r e n c e to p a s s a g e s s u c h as A c t s 17:33 a n d 20:11 (e. g. E . K a s e m a n n ) . It s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t that t h e r e a r e s o m e p u b l i c a t i o n s b y classical p h i ­ lologists o n t h e t e m p o r a l m e a n i n g o f ( x a i ) oi)xio(g) w h i c h h a v e g o n e u n n o t i c e d b y N T s c h o l a r s . A s early as 1934 K u r t L a t t e briefly d i s c u s s e d this u s a g e a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d that it c a m e to t h e fore m o r e s t r o n g l y in p o s t - c l a s s i c a l G r e e k ,

5

6

a n d in 1961 E . S k a r d m a d e s o m e a d d i t i o n s to L a t t e ' s d o s s i e r . M o r e r e c e n t l y t h e D u t c h classical p h i l o l o g i s t D . H o l w e r d a p o i n t e d o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e 7

o b s e r v a t i o n s b y t h e s e t w o s c h o l a r s for t h e interpretation o f R o m a n s 1 1 : 2 6 . 1 will d i s c u s s s o m e o f their findings a n d a l s o a d d s o m e i m p o r t a n t n e w p a s s a g e s to t h e o n e s t h e y found. First s o m e i n s t a n c e s from p a g a n G r e e k a u t h o r s will b e briefly p r e s e n t e d , thereafter s o m e from J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . T h u c y d i d e s , Hist.

3.96.2 tells u s that in t h e w a r a g a i n s t the A e t o l i a n s , t h e

c o m m a n d e r o f t h e A t h e n i a n a r m y first w a n t e d to s u b d u e t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s a n d only then to attack t h e O p h i o n i a n s t h e m s e l v e s ( i d aXka xaxaoxQ£i|)du,evog o i k t o g jbtl 'Ocpioveag ... axQaxEuaai); cf. a l s o Hist.

1.37.1. In his Charact.

18,

T h e o p h r a s t u s d e s c r i b e s ' t h e distrustful m a n . ' B e f o r e g o i n g to s l e e p , this m a n a s k s his w i f e w h e t h e r the h o u s e - d o o r h a s b e e n b o l t e d a n d t h e c u p b o a r d sealed etc. a n d , e v e n w h e n s h e h a s said y e s , g e t s o u t of his b e d in o r d e r to c h e c k e v e ­ r y t h i n g a g a i n , x a i olkco u.6)ag vxvov

xvy%aveiv,

' a n d only then h e g o e s t o s l e e p ,

t h o u g h w i t h difficulty.' H e r e it m a y p e r h a p s b e p o s s i b l e to t r a n s l a t e ' e v e n so h e will h a r d l y g o to s l e e p , ' b u t t h e n e x t i n s t a n c e d o e s n o t l e a v e u s t h i s e s c a p e . P l a t o w r i t e s in Prot.

3 1 4 c that S o c r a t e s a n d H i p p o c r a t e s , h a v i n g arrived at

P r o t a g o r a s ' h o u s e , d e c i d e first to finish their d i s c u s s i o n a n d only

then to g o

into t h e h o u s e ( d A l d &iajteQavduevoi oikoog eaioi^iev). Cf. his Gorg. 4 5 7 d , w h e r e 2

Romans ( A B 33), N e w York 1993, 622. Romans_(vVBC 38B), Dallas 1988, 6 8 1 . Cf. also D. Sanger, Die Verkundigung des Gekreuzigten und Israel. Studien zum Verhdltnis von Kirche und Israel bei Paulus und im friihen Christentum, Tubingen 1994, 166: "Zunachst ist negativ festzustellen, daB xai ovxwq keine primar temporale Bedeutung ('und dann' = xai TOTE) in sich tragi." Review o f P. Maas, Epidaurische Hymnen (1933) in Gottingische Gelehrte Anzeigen 196 (1934) 4 0 5 - 4 1 3 , at 411. 'Zum temporalen Gebrauch von oiitcog,' Symbolae Osloenses 37 (1961) 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 . Skard pays special attention to the frequent occurrence o f the temporal use o f oiitcos in the Homilies of Asterius. D. Holwerda, 'Heel Israel behouden,' in his De Schrift opent een vergezicht, Kampen 1998, 1 6 0 - 1 9 3 . 3

4

5

6

7

178

A Short Note on the Meaning of xai ovrwg in Romans

11:26

S o c r a t e s says that p e o p l e w h o start a d e b a t e often h a v e p r o b l e m s in defining their subject; t h e y first t e a c h a n d instruct e a c h o t h e r a b o u t w h a t t h e y k n o w a n d then (oikcog) b r i n g t h e m e e t i n g to a close (and cf. also Resp.

II 3 6 8 d exeiva jtgcoxov

dvayvovxeg oikcog ejuaxojteiv i d etaxxxco). X e n o p h o n , Anab.

7.1.4, s a y s that at a

certain m o m e n t h e w a n t e d to t a k e leave o f his a r m y b u t that A n a x i b i u s u r g e d h i m first to c r o s s t h e B o s p o r u s w i t h t h e a r m y a n d only then to t a k e l e a v e (ejteixa oikcog djtaAMxEaGai)." In his Cyrop. 2 . 1 . 1 , X e n o p h o n w r i t e s a b o u t t h e P e r s i a n a r m y : " W h e n an e a g l e a p p e a r e d on their right a n d flew o n a h e a d o f t h e m , they p r a y e d to the g o d s a n d h e r o e s w h o w a t c h o v e r the land o f P e r s i a to c o n d u c t t h e m o n w a r d s w i t h g r a c e a n d favour, a n d t h e n (oikco) p r o c e e d e d to c r o s s t h e frontier." In his Poet.

1 4 5 5 M A r i s t o t l e states that a p o e t s h o u l d first simplify his story a n d

r e d u c e it to a u n i v e r s a l form " a n d o n l y t h e n d e v e l o p t h e s e q u e n c e o f e p i s o d e s " (eiB' oikcog EJteiao&ioiiv x a i jxaQaxeiveiv). O n e m i g h t a r g u e that h e r e a n d in s o m e o t h e r i n s t a n c e s the idea o f ' o n l y t h e n / t h e r e a f t e r ' is e x p r e s s e d b y eixa or ejteixa, b u t that is n o t correct: ma/ejteixa d o e s e x p r e s s that w h a t follows is t h e n e x t s t e p , but it is o n l y oikcog that e x p r e s s e s the n e c e s s i t y o f 'first things first' a n d ' o n l y then' what follows.

8

F r o m the post-classical period many examples could be quoted, but two m a y suffice. In t h e Tabula Cebetis

1 9 . 1 , the p r o t a g o n i s t a s k s H e r a c l e s w h y (the

personified) P a i d e i a is s t a n d i n g o u t s i d e the e n c l o s u r e o f t h e d w e l l i n g p l a c e o f the h a p p y , w h e r e u p o n h e a n s w e r s that this h a p p e n s " s o that s h e c a n heal t h e o n e s a r r i v i n g a n d g i v e t h e m purifying p o w e r to drink. F o r o n l y t h e n , after t h e y h a v e b e e n purified, d o e s she lead t h e m to t h e v i r t u e s " (eiB' oxav xaBaQBooaiv, 9

oikcog eiadyei xoikoug jtQog xdg dgexag). Finally a n i n s t a n c e from

Epictetus

2 . 1 5 . 8 : " D o y o u n o t w i s h to m a k e y o u r b e g i n n i n g a n d y o u r f o u n d a t i o n firm, that is, to c o n s i d e r w h e t h e r y o u r d e c i s i o n is s o u n d or u n s o u n d , a n d o n l y then (xai oikcog) p r o c e e d to rear t h e r e o n the structure o f y o u r d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d y o u r firm r e s o l v e ? " M o r e i n s t a n c e s from E p i c t e t u s c o u l d b e q u o t e d .

10

In all t h e s e c a s e s

the e m p h a s i s is o n the n e c e s s i t y o f a certain order: first o t h e r t h i n g s h a v e to b e finished

a n d o n l y then c a n the m a i n t h i n g b e d o n e .

1 1

N o w I will g i v e s o m e e x a m p l e s to d e m o n s t r a t e that this u s a g e w a s not u n ­ k n o w n a m o n g a u t h o r s o f J u d a e o - G r e e k literature. In the Test, of Abraham

(rec.

A ) 7.11 w e find t h e a r c h a n g e l M i c h a e l s a y i n g to A b r a h a m that "I h a v e b e e n sent to y o u in o r d e r to tell y o u not to forget d e a t h ; but thereafter (eiB' oikcog) I will

8

Another fine instance is Polybius 5.9.9. The translation by J.T. Fitzgerald and L.M. White {The Tabula of Cebes [Chico 1983] 91) is not correct here. In his Teubner edition of 1916 H. Schenkl lists several instances of this usage from Epictetus in his Index A-, v., e.g., 3 . 2 3 . 1 - 2 : "Good athletes first decide what kind of athletes they want to be, only then (el0' oikcog) they act accordingly." More examples in R. Kiihner & B. Gerth, Ausfuhrliche Grammatik der griechischen Sprache II 2, Darmstadt 1966 (= Leipzig 1904), 83. 9

1 0

11

A Short Note on the Meaning of xai oihwq in Romans

return to h i m as h e c o m m a n d e d m e . " in the Vitae prophetarum:

1 2

179

11:26

W e s e e it also in t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e

In the Life of Jeremiah

6 w e read that d u r i n g his stay

in E g y p t , J e r e m i a h c h a s e d a w a y the a s p s from the dry land a n d the c r o c o d i l e s from the N i l e , a n d thereafter (xai oikcog) h e i n t r o d u c e d t h e so-called 'snakefighte r s . ' H e r e it is interesting a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g to see that m o s t o f the m a n u s c r i p t s h a v e xai oikcog, b u t o n e o t h e r h a s x a i T O T E ,

1 3

w h i c h indicates that this m e d i e v a l

B y z a n t i n e scribe k n e w that oikcog h e r e h a s t h e t e m p o r a l s e n s e o f

TOTE

(then).

In t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w e find, apart from R o m 11:26, s o m e o t h e r p o s s i b l e i n s t a n c e s o f this u s a g e . It is h i g h l y i m p r o b a b l e that, w h e n the a u t h o r o f A c t s has S t e p h e n say that " G o d g a v e A b r a h a m the c o v e n a n t o f c i r c u m c i s i o n , xai oikcog A b r a h a m b e g o t I s a a c " (7:8), it m a k e s s e n s e to translate h e r e ' a n d t h u s ' : L u k e d o e s n o t w a n t to inform his r e a d e r s a b o u t the p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h A b r a ­ h a m b e g o t t h e son that w o u l d b e the heir o f t h e c o v e n a n t , b u t a b o u t t h e fact that this h a p p e n e d only after h e h a d r e c e i v e d the sign o f this c o v e n a n t ! A c t s 20:11 is an e v e n c l e a r e r case, for b y far the m o s t natural translation o f dvafJdg 5E xai xAxxoag T O V dcrtov xai yeuadu.£vog ecp' ixavov T8 6u.ilr|aag dxQi auyfjg, oikcog e^fiA.9£v is " [ P a u l ] w e n t u p s t a i r s , a n d after h e h a d b r o k e n b r e a d a n d eaten, h e c o n t i n u e d to c o n v e r s e w i t h t h e m until d a w n (!); only then h e left." T h e d^Qi a-uyfjg h a r d l y leaves a n o t h e r possibility. A n d it also m a k e s s e n s e to t a k e A c t s 2 7 : 1 7 to m e a n that only after t h e sailors, w h o w e r e afraid o f r u n n i n g o n to t h e s a n d b a n k s , h a d l o w e r e d the g e a r (or: t h r o w n out a s e a - a n c h o r ) , they let the ship drift (xaXdoavTeg TO

oxetjog, oikcog

ECPECKTVTO).

1 T h e s s 4 : 1 6 - 1 7 is a n o t h e r instance: after the d e s c e n t

o f J e s u s C h r i s t from h e a v e n " t h e d e a d in C h r i s t will rise first; thereafter

we who

are alive, w h o are left, will b e c a u g h t u p in the c l o u d s t o g e t h e r with t h e m to m e e t the L o r d in the air; and [only] EV XQIOTCO

dvaoTf|GovTai

then w e will b e w i t h the L o r d f o r e v e r " (oi vexQoi

JTQCOTOV,

eiteiTa rmeig oi t/dvTeg oi JteQiX.£iJt6|iEvoi d^ia ovv

atkolg aQKaynooLieOa ev vEcpeXaig slg djtdvTnaiv xov

XUQIOD

-

eig deQa xai oikcog

jtdvTOTE auv xuoico so-o^eGa.). T h i s translation m a k e s at least as m u c h s e n s e as the traditional o n e ' a n d s o , ' if o n l y b e c a u s e the text so u n a m b i g u o u s l y indicates that the a p o s t l e is s p e a k i n g a b o u t a t e m p o r a l order: first A, therafter B , a n d (but only then) C. A n d there are m o r e N T e x a m p l e s .

finally

1 4

F r o m early C h r i s t i a n literature o u t s i d e t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t I a d d u c e o n l y the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e to r o u n d off the p i c t u r e .

15

I r e n a e u s tells us in Adv.

haer.

1.30.14 that the G n o s t i c sect o f the O p h i t e s say that after his r e s u r r e c t i o n J e s u s t a u g h t his d i s c i p l e s (not for 4 0 d a y s , as t h e N T s a y s , but) for n o less than 18 m o n t h s , a n d only then w a s h e t a k e n u p into h e a v e n : et sic receptus

1 2

est in

caelum.

It is significant in this respect that there are manuscripts that omit eixa here, but none that omit oikcog. See F. Schmidt, Le Testament grec a"Abraham, Tubingen 1986, 118. See A.M. Schwemer, Studien zu den friihjiidischen Prophetenlegenden. Beiheft: Synopse zu den_Vitae Prophetarum, Tubingen 1996, 12*. E.g., 1 Cor 14:25. See Latte, GGA 196 (1934) 4 1 1 ; Holwerda, De Schrift\62. For instances from Asterius I refer to the article by Skard (see note 6). 1 3

1 4

1 5

180

A Short Note on the Meaning of xai oikwg in Romans

11:26

I r e n a e u s ' original G r e e k is lost h e r e , but there c a n b e n o d o u b t at all that the Latin t r a n s l a t i o n (et sic) reflects an original x a i oiktog h e r e .

1 6

It is p o s s i b l y u n d e r

the influence o f this G r e e k u s a g e that in Latin C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s o n e finds this t e m p o r a l u s e o f sic m u c h m o r e frequently t h a n in p a g a n Latin a u t h o r s .

17

Q u i t e apart from the g r a m m a t i c a l a n d lexical possibilities that t h e w o r d oiktog had, it is also the c o n t e x t in R o m a n s 11 that m a k e s it v e r y p r o b a b l e that it w a s the t e m p o r a l m e a n i n g o f oikoog that the a u t h o r had in m i n d here. H i s w h o l e a r g u m e n t is b a s e d u p o n t h e i d e a that it is the p r e c e d e n c e of t h e g e n t i l e s w h i c h r o u s e s Israel to j e a l o u s y . O n l y after the gentiles h a v e fully e n t e r e d t h e c o v e n a n t , will Israel r e - e n t e r it, b e c a u s e it first h a s to b e p r o v o k e d to d o so. It is, h o w e v e r , not the p u r p o s e o f this article to e x c l u d e the possibility that Paul u s e d x a i oikcog in the m o d a l s e n s e in R o m 1 1 : 2 6 .

18

W h a t I d o w a n t to e x c l u d e ,

h o w e v e r , is the u s e o f the false a r g u m e n t that it is i m p o s s i b l e to t a k e oikoog in the t e m p o r a l s e n s e b e c a u s e this is " n o t found o t h e r w i s e in G r e e k " ( F i t z m y e r ) , s i n c e o u r findings confirm w h a t K u r t Latte w r o t e 6 5 y e a r s a g o : " D i e W e n d u n g in d e r hier v o r l i e g e n d e n B e d e u t u n g ' u n d d a n n ' [ist] alles a n d e r e als u n g e w o h n l i c h . "

19

T h i s s e m a n t i c possibility has therefore to b e t a k e n into a c c o u n t m u c h m o r e seri­ o u s l y than h a s hitherto b e e n the c a s e .

1 6

2 0

So Bentlcy Layton's translation, "And so he was taken up into heaven" (The Gnostic Scriptures [Garden City 1987] 180) is wrong, whereas the translation by D.J. Unger, "Then he was assumed into heaven" (St. Irenaeus of Lyons Against the Heresies [ACW 55; N e w York 1992] 102) is correct. For instances see A. Blaise & H. Chirat, Dictionnaire latin-francais des auteurs Chretiens, Turnhout 1954, 758, where A-.v. 3 they quote inter alios Filastrius 127.1: primum erat apud Patrem et sic natus est. Moreover, the modal and the temporal sense are not necessarily mutually exclusive. GGA 1 9 6 ( 1 9 3 4 ) 4 1 1 . 1 o w e thanks to Professor Stephan Radt (Groningen) for his valuable suggestions. 1 7

1 8

19

2 0

Macarius Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian Polemicist A review article'

T h e s t u d y o f the a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l anti-Christian p o l e m i c h a s w i t n e s s e d an u p s u r g e o f interest in the last t w o d e c a d e s . After t h e s k e t c h o f the status

quaes-

2

tionis by S. B e n k o a n d A . M e r e d i t h in 1 9 8 0 , w e h a v e seen the p u b l i c a t i o n of, 3

e. g . , R. W i l k e n , The Christians 1984); R.J. H o f f m a n n , Celsus:

as the Romans

G . B . B o z z o & S. R i z z o , Celso: II discorso 1989); G. R i n a l d i , Biblia gentium peratore:

Contra

Galilaeos

( R o m a 1990); R.J. H o f f m a n n , Porphyry's

( A m h e r s t 1 9 9 4 ) ; G. R i n a l d i , La Bibbia

Polemic

the Christians.

dei pagani

of P o r p h y r y ' s Contra

Christianos

Paganism

Im-

"Against (2 vols.;

The Rise of Early

( N e w York etc. 1999); J.G. C o o k , The Interpretation

in Greco-Roman

(Milano

( R o m a 1989); E. M a s a r a c c h i a , Giuliano

B o l o g n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 ) ; J.W. H a r g i s , Against New Testament

( N e w Y o r k - O x f o r d 1987);

della veritd contro i cristiani

4

the Christians" Christian

Saw Them ( N e w H a v e n - L o n d o n

On the True Doctrine

Antiof the

5

( T u b i n g e n 2 0 0 0 ) ; a n d a n e w edition

b y P.F. B e a t r i c e h a s b e e n a n n o u n c e d for the

6

n e a r f u t u r e . To this list w e c a n n o w h a p p i l y a d d R i c h a r d G o u l e t ' s n e w a n d i m p o r t a n t critical edition, w i t h translation, i n t r o d u c t i o n , a n d e x e g e t i c a l n o t e s , o f M a c a r i u s o f M a g n e s i a ' s r a t h e r n e g l e c t e d treatise Monogenes tikos),

1

(formerly

Apokri-

a large t w o - v o l u m e w o r k o f s o m e 8 3 0 p a g e s in F r e n c h (see n o t e 1).

The work reviewed here is: Macarios dc Magnesie, Le Monogenes, edition critique et traduction francaisc par Richard Goulet, 2 vols. (Textes et traditions 7), Paris: Vrins, 2003; 383+445 pp. ISBN 2-7116-1647-9 (€ 80). Volume 1 contains the Introduction, a bibliography, a 30-page synopsis of the arguments o f the anonymous philosopher and those of Celsus, Por­ phyry and Julian, and an index of Greek words; volume 2 contains the text, translation, and exegetical notes. See their contributions i n / J A W II, 2 3 , 2, Berlin-New York 1980, 1 0 5 5 - 1 1 4 9 . I mention here only a selection o f the most important monographs. This book has a very misleading title since it deals only with the fragments related to the unnamed opponent in Macarius Magnes' work. [ N o w supplemented by his The Interpretation of the Old Testament in Greco-Roman Paganism, Tubingen 2004.] It should be added, though, that Beatrice does not believe that a separate treatise Against the Christians ever existed; he rather opines that the anti-Christian arguments were part o f a larger work by Porphyry to which also his Dephilosophia ex oraculis haurienda belonged. See his entry "Porphyrius" in TRE 27 (1997) 5 4 - 5 9 . 2

3

4

5

6

182

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

T h e subject o f this magnum

Polemicist

opus is an early C h r i s t i a n treatise o f c o n s i d e r ­

a b l e i m p o r t a n c e since it c o n t a i n s substantial q u o t a t i o n s from a w o r k in w h i c h an a n o n y m o u s G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r c o m b a t s C h r i s t i a n i t y w i t h a w i d e r a n g e o f a r g u m e n t s . It is w e l l - k n o w n that A d o l f v o n H a r n a c k , as m a n y before a n d after h i m , r e g a r d e d the u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t as n o n e other than the Platonic p h i l o s o p h e r P o r p h y r y , a n d m o r e than h a l f o f the f r a g m e n t s in H a r n a c k ' s edition o f P o r p h y ­ r y ' s Against

the Christians

7

c o n s i s t o f p a s s a g e s from M a c a r i u s ' Monogenes,

but

this did not g o u n c o n t e s t e d . T h e text o f the treatise p r e t e n d s to b e a v e r b a t i m report o f a five-days p u b l i c d e b a t e b e t w e e n M a c a r i u s a n d an a n t i - C h r i s t i a n p h i ­ l o s o p h e r w h o s e n a m e is not m e n t i o n e d . B o t h the a r g u m e n t s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r , w h o raises s e r i o u s a n d intelligent o b j e c t i o n s to the N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d h a s s h a r p c r i t i c i s m o f b o t h J e s u s a n d P a u l , as w e l l as t h o s e o f his C h r i s t i a n o p p o n e n t are often interesting a n d d e s e r v e c l o s e r attention t h a n h a s b e e n p a i d t h e m so far. S a d l y e n o u g h , t h e o n l y m a n u s c r i p t o f the w o r k , d i s c o v e r e d in 1867 in A t h e n s 8

a n d e d i t e d by C h a r l e s B l o n d e l in 1 8 7 6 , is n o w lost. M o r e o v e r , it is i n c o m p l e t e ; it b e g i n s s o m e w h e r e in the m i d d l e of b o o k 2 a n d e n d s before the c l o s i n g c h a p t e r s o f b o o k 4 ; b o o k 5 is m i s s i n g as w e l l . In a d d i t i o n to that, t h e m a n u s c r i p t is cor­ rupt in m a n y p l a c e s a n d G o u l e t c o n f e s s e s that it h a s b e e n e x t r e m e l y difficult a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to r e c o n s t r u c t the original text. S o m a n y riddles r e m a i n , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s G o u l e t h a s d o n e u s an e n o r m o u s service b y p r e p a r i n g this first n e w edition after B l o n d e l . In an instructive ' F o r s c h u n g s g e s c h i c h t e ' ( 1 4 ^ 4 0 ) , G o u l e t first s k e t c h e s t h e r e ­ search on M a c a r i u s M a g n e s before the d i s c o v e r y o f the m a n u s c r i p t , d o n e m a i n l y o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e few citations from the w o r k b y N i c e p h o r u s o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e (9th c e n t ) a n d s o m e o t h e r s . H e h i g h l i g h t s the fact that several o f t h e s e early scholars r e g a r d ' M a c a r i u s ' not as a n a m e but an adjective (blessed) a n d ' M a g n e s ' not as a d e s i g n a t i o n o f his p l a c e o f origin (from M a g n e s i a ) b u t as a p r o p e r n a m e (the b l e s s e d M a g n e s ) , a p o i n t h e will c o m e b a c k to later. After the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the editio princeps

in 1876 o n e sees that the identification o f the a n o n y m o u s

a d v e r s a r y w i t h either H i e r o c l e s (the target o f E u s e b i u s ' Contra

Hieroclem)

or

P o r p h y r y , or a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h , g a i n s g r o u n d , a l t h o u g h s o m e w h o favour a later d a t e l e a v e o p e n t h e possibility that Julian the A p o s t a t e m a y b e t h e u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t . O t h e r s , s u c h as T h e o d o r Z a h n , identify M a c a r i u s w i t h t h e b i s h o p o f 7

See his 'Porphyrius, "Gegen die Christen,"' in Abhandlungen der Koniglich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Jahrgang 1916, Philosophisch-historische Klasse, Berlin 1916, 3 - 1 1 5 ; and 'Neue Fragmente des Werks des Porphyrius gegen die Christen,' Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 1921, Berlin 1921, 2 6 6 - 2 8 4 . It is amazing and also a shame that A. Smith omitted the fragments of Against the Christians from his new Teubner edi­ tion of the fragments of Porphyry's works with the lame argument that they were readily available in the recent (!) edition by Harnack; see his Porphyrius, Fragmenta, Stuttgart-Leipzig 1993. MAKAPIOY MArNHTOZ 'Anoxyitixog r\ Movoyevrig. Macarii Magnetis quae supersunt ex inedito codice edidit C. Blondel, Paris 1876. Actually the book was seen through the press by Paul Foucart after Blondel's untimely death (he died in 1873 at the age of 37). 8

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

183

Polemicist

9

M a g n e s i a (in A s i a M i n o r ) called M a c a r i u s w h o w a s p r e s e n t at the S y n o d o f t h e O a k in 4 0 3 ; Z a h n t h i n k s this b i s h o p w r o t e a refutation o f 3rd a n d 4th c e n t u r y a n t i - C h r i s t i a n p o l e m i c s in g e n e r a l a r o u n d 4 0 0 . T.W. Crafer, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , dates M a c a r i u s a r o u n d 3 0 0 a n d a r g u e s that t h e d e b a t e t o o k p l a c e before the D i o c l e t i a n p e r s e c u t i o n ; the c o m b a t a n t s w e r e H i e r o c l e s a n d M a c a r i u s .

1 0

Harnack

sees in M a c a r i u s the b i s h o p o f M a g n e s i a , w h o w r o t e this w o r k in t h e last q u a r t e r o f the 4th century, but w h o s e target w a s n o o t h e r than P o r p h y r y . S i n c e , h o w e v e r , M a c a r i u s k n e w P o r p h y r y ' s w o r k o n l y in an a n o n y m o u s a n d a b r i d g e d form, h e w a s n o t a w a r e o f t h e identity o f his o p p o n e n t (!). O t h e r s r e m a i n inclined to s e e either J u l i a n or H i e r o c l e s as the a n o n y m o u s o p p o n e n t o r to a s s u m e that the b i s h o p i n d e e d r e a c t e d to a n a n o n y m o u s a n t i - C h r i s t i a n treatise that m a d e u s e of m a n y a r g u m e n t s levelled b y C e l s u s , P o r p h y r y , H i e r o c l e s , a n d Julian. To d a t e t h e r e is n o c o n s e n s u s o n a n y o f t h e s e m a j o r issues. A t the e n d o f this s u r v e y (40) G o u l e t lists a d o z e n o r so p r o b l e m s that still r e m a i n b y a n d large u n s o l v e d . T h e first h e d e a l s w i t h is t h e title. S i n c e the o n l y m a n u s c r i p t is a c e p h a l o u s , w e h a v e to rely o n the tables o f c o n t e n t s o f the b o o k or r e f e r e n c e s to it as w e find t h e m in s o m e o t h e r early d o c u m e n t s ( a b o u t t h e s e s e e further b e l o w ) . T h i s leaves u s w i t h 'Ajtoxomxog JtQog "EAA/nvag or Movoyevrig

JIQOC;

"EAAnvac; or 'Ajtoxoitixog

f| Movoyevrig jiQog "EXkx\vac,. G o u l e t rightly s a y s that the latter d o u b l e title is p r o b a b l y a conflation a n d that o f t h e t w o single titles the easily u n d e r s t a n d a b l e Apokritikos

is m o r e likely to h a v e r e p l a c e d the difficult Monogenes

o t h e r w a y r o u n d . B u t w h a t d o e s Monogenes

pros Hellenas

t h a n the

m e a n a s a b o o k title?

B a s e d u p o n M a c a r i u s ' o w n u s e o f t h e w o r d , it s e e m s m o s t feasible that genes

(sc. logos)

Mono­

here has primarily the sense of "Discours d ' u n genre unique

a d r e s s e a u x H e l l e n e s " but w i t h the double-entendre

o f " D i s c o u r s d u Fils u n i q u e

. . . " T h i s s e e m s r a t h e r o d d , b u t I h a v e n o a l t e r n a t i v e to offer. T h e s e c o n d p r o b l e m is t h e identity o f the author. G o u l e t s u g g e t s that it is m o r e natural to interpret Makarios

Magnes

as ' M a c a r i u s o f M a g n e s i a ' than as ' t h e

b l e s s e d M a g n e s , ' a n d I fully a g r e e . H e also t e n d s to b e l i e v e P h o t i u s ' report that M a c a r i u s , b i s h o p o f M a g n e s i a , a t t e n d e d t h e S y n o d o f t h e O a k in 4 0 3 a n d a r g u e s that n o t h i n g c o n t r a d i c t s the identification o f t h e s e t w o m e n . B u t h e w i s e l y a d d s that it is i m p o s s i b l e to identify t h e m " d e facon i n c o n t e s t a b l e " ( 5 1 ) . E v e n so h e t h i n k s his p o s i t i o n c a n b e s t r e n g t h e n e d b y g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . M a n y details in t h e text s u g g e s t a m u c h greater a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h A s i a M i n o r than w i t h a n y o t h e r g e o g r a p h i c a l area. B u t that is, o f c o u r s e , not in a n y w a y a p r o o f that o u r M a c a r i u s w a s the m a n o f t h e S y n o d o f 4 0 3 . "

9

The Greek Magnes can indeed mean 'living in Magnesia' (see LSJ s.v.). For references to publications by these and other authors I must refer the reader to Goulet's notes. Crafer published the only English translation (though an abridged one) of Macarius'work in 1919. 1 also do not understand how Macarius could have borrowed details from John Malalas (6th cent.!); see p. 52. 1 0

11

184

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

A n o t h e r p r o b l e m is the d a t i n g o f t h e w o r k . H e r e G o u l e t a g a i n c o n c e d e s that c e r t a i n t y m a y b e u n a t t a i n a b l e , b u t h e carefully s u g g e s t s , o n the b a s i s o f his t e n t a t i v e identification o f M a c a r i u s w i t h the h o m o n y m o u s b i s h o p o f M a g n e s i a w h o w a s a c t i v e at the S y n o d o f 4 0 3 , that t h e w o r k m a y h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d in t h e final q u a r t e r of the 4th c e n t u r y r a t h e r than a c e n t u r y earlier. It is - inter

alia

- the c h r i s t o l o g i c a l v i e w s o f the a u t h o r that favour this later d a t e . M o r e o v e r , t w i c e in this treatise t h e a u t h o r refers to e v e n t s that h a v e t a k e n p l a c e m o r e t h a n 3 0 0 y e a r s after e v e n t s in the N e w T e s t a m e n t p e r i o d (4.5.1 a n d 4 . 5 . 2 ) ; a n d o n e h a s to k e e p in m i n d that t h e s e c h r o n o l o g i c a l r e m a r k s are m a d e b y t h e o p p o n e n t (at least a c c o r d i n g to M a c a r i u s ) , i.e.,

before M a c a r i u s w r o t e his refutation.

O n l y a n o v e r l y skeptical p e r s o n c o u l d d e f e n d a n early d a t e a r o u n d 3 0 0 , t h e n ; a d a t e after 3 5 0 is m u c h m o r e r e a s o n a b l e . A l s o the r e f e r e n c e s to t h e r e m a r k a b l e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e m o n a s t i c m o v e m e n t in the E a s t ( 2 . 7 . 1 0 ; 2 . 1 6 . 2 6 - 2 9 ) m a k e s e n s e o n l y b y the final d e c a d e s o f the 4th century, n o t m u c h earlier ( T h e o d o r e t s k e t c h e s its z e n i t as o c c u r r i n g b e t w e e n 3 6 5 a n d 4 4 0 ) .

1 2

T h i s d a t i n g is further

c o n f i r m e d b y M a c a r i u s ' strikingly critical attitude t o w a r d s the l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e i m p e r i a l p o w e r , w h i c h - in the fourth c e n t u r y - is o n l y to b e e x p l a i n e d a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d o f V a l e n s ' v i o l e n t rule ( 3 6 4 - 3 7 8 ) , s a y s G o u l e t , a p o i n t o f v i e w that will p r o b a b l y not g o u n c h a l l e n g e d . G o u l e t rightly r e g a r d s t h e p u b l i c d e b a t e setting as a literary fiction b u t a r g u e s that t h e r e is g o o d r e a s o n to a s s u m e that M a c a r i u s did not h i m s e l f invent the o b j e c t i o n s to C h r i s t i a n i t y in o r d e r to easily refute t h e m . It is n o t so m u c h the d i s p a r i t y in style a n d diction b e t w e e n t h e u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t ' s o b j e c t i o n s a n d M a c a r i u s ' r e s p o n s e s that p l e a d s in favour o f his u s e o f a p a g a n s o u r c e (this d i s p a r i t y c o u l d still b e e x p l a i n e d as part o f M a c a r i u s ' t e c h n i q u e ) , b u t it is r a t h e r w h a t G o u l e t calls " l e r a p p o r t d i a l e c t i q u e entre o b j e c t i o n s et r e p o n s e s , " w h i c h h e defines as f o l l o w s : " M a c a r i o s p a s s e s y s t e m a t i q u e m e n t a c o t e d e s o b j e c t i o n s , il n e g l i g e la p o i n t e p h i l o s o p h i q u e d ' a r g u m e n t s attestes p a r ailleurs d a n s la l i ­ t e r a t u r e a n t i c h r e t i e n n e , il laisse s a n s r e p o n s e c e r t a i n s e l e m e n t s d e l ' o b j e c t i o n , t a n d i s q u ' i l se livre a d e s d e v e l o p p e m e n t s q u e n ' a p p e l a i e n t p a s les o b j e c t i o n s d e l ' a d v e r s a i r e " ( 7 1 - 7 2 ) . T h i s leaves n o r o o m for d o u b t : M a c a r i u s u s e d a written s o u r c e . T h i s s o u r c e , h o w e v e r , has o s t e n s i b l y b e e n h e a v i l y e d i t e d by h i m

1 3

so

that o n e c a n n o t s i m p l y u s e the ' q u o t e d ' o b j e c t i o n s o f the p a g a n p h i l o s o p h e r as ' f r a g m e n t s ' (in the s e n s e o f ipsissima

verba)

o f his original text. E v e n so it is

c l e a r that his w o r k c o n s i s t e d p r i m a r i l y o f s u s t a i n e d a t t a c k s on the p e r s o n a n d t e a c h i n g o f b o t h J e s u s C h r i s t a n d t h e apostle Paul (to a lesser d e g r e e P e t e r w a s also his target). S i n c e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r p r e s e n t s C h r i s t i a n s as p e r s o n s w i t h o u t a n y political p o w e r b u t at the s a m e t i m e as c o n s t r u c t o r s o f b i g c h u r c h e s , a t e n t a t i v e

1 2

1 3

89.

See P. Canivet, Le monachisme syrien selon Theodoret de Cyr, Paris 1977. For an elaborate stylistic analysis underpinning this conclusion by Goulet see pp. 7 6 -

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

185

Polemicist

d a t i n g o f his w r i t i n g to the y e a r s a b o u t 3 0 0 s e e m s d e f e n s i b l e . G o u l e t d o e s not deal w i t h the intriguing q u e s t i o n o f w h y it t o o k ( a l m o s t ) a c e n t u r y before this attack on C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s a n s w e r e d (but see b e l o w ) . B e f o r e t a c k l i n g the m a j o r issue o f the identity o f the p a g a n p h i l o s o p h e r , G o u l e t d i s c u s s e s his p e r s o n a l i t y a n d his attitude t o w a r d s Christianity. D u e to the h e a v y r e d a c t i o n a l h a n d o f M a c a r i u s , his p e r s o n a l i t y r e m a i n s v a g u e . W h a t little c a n b e said w i t h certainty, h o w e v e r , is that the p h i l o s o p h e r h a d a heart-felt d i s d a i n for C h r i s t a n d his f o l l o w e r s . J e s u s is neither a s a g e n o r a h e r o , let a l o n e a g o d , h e is a m u d d l e - h e a d e d t e a c h e r ; Paul is a great h y p o c r i t e ; a n d Peter is an erratic personality. T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t testifies to t h e l a m e n t a b l y l o w level o f its a u t h o r s ; m u c h o f w h a t is said in it (e. g., a b o u t the P a r o u s i a ) is irrational a n d a b s u r d : "il s ' e n tient a u c h o c subi p a r 1'esprit cultive d e v a n t le c a r a c t e r e parfois c o n t r a d i c t o i r e , p a r a d o x a l et m e m e brutal de certains p a s s a g e s du N o u v e a u Testa­ ment" (106).

1 4

T h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s historical a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l k n o w l e d g e is far

from e x c e p t i o n a l a n d d o e s n o t s u g g e s t a level c o m p a r a b l e to P o r p h y r y ' s . H i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t a n c e , as far as it is r e c o v e r a b l e , is a k i n d o f g e n e r a l P l a t o n i s m that h a s n o clearly N e o p l a t o n i c e l e m e n t s . After all this, it c o m e s m o r e or less as a surprise that the l o n g c h a p t e r on "Identification d e la s o u r c e pai'enne" ( 1 1 2 - 1 4 9 ) c o m e s to t h e c o n c l u s i o n that the u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r w a s , after all, n o o n e o t h e r than P o r p h y r y . All other possibilities are r e v i e w e d a n d fairly tested b u t all fail to p a s s t h e test. In spite o f several p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r a n d C e l s u s , the latter h a r d l y focuses on t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t d o c u m e n t s a n d - quite u n l i k e the u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r - h e also r e g a r d s C h r i s t i a n i t y as a threat to the e m p i r e a n d the H e l l e n i c tradition. T h e u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r refuted b y L a c t a n t i u s in his Institutiones

c a n n o t b e o u r p h i l o s o p h e r b e c a u s e o f t h e political focus o f the

former a n d t h e lack o f a n y a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n w h a t little w e k n o w o f his argu­ m e n t s a n d t h o s e o f M a c a r i u s ' o p p o n e n t . H i e r o c l e s , the a u t h o r o f t h e w h o is often s e e n as a g o o d a l t e r n a t i v e to P o r p h y r y in this r e s p e c t ,

Philalethes 15

is not o u r

u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r s i n c e there are t o o m a n y striking differences b e t w e e n the t o n e a n d a r g u m e n t s o f the t w o a n d " o n n e r e l e v e p a s d e s r a p p r o c h e m e n t s s u f f i s a m m e n t etroits p o u r q u e T o n p u i s s e c o n c l u r e a u n e identification des d e u x a u t e u r s " ( 1 2 6 ) . A s to J u l i a n the E m p e r o r , in spite o f " u n g r a n d n o m b r e d e r a p p r o c h e m e n t s , " w h i c h is to b e e x p e c t e d in v i e w o f " l ' e x i s t e n c e d ' u n m a t e r i e l p o l e m i q u e c o m m u n " ( 1 2 7 ) , there are hardly a n y c l o s e parallels b e t w e e n the texts o f the t w o a u t h o r s . B u t t h e n , there is P o r p h y r y , a n d h e r e w e find " d e s paralleles beaucoup plus proches que ceux que nous avons rencontres j u s q u ' i c i " (127). 1 4

The philosopher focuses almost exclusively on the N e w Testament; he has only 10 refer­ ences to Old Testament passages. The most recent defense of this position is E. DePalma Digeser, 'Porphyry, Julian, or Hierokles? The Anonymous Hellene in Makarios Magnes' Apokritikos^ JTS 53 (2002) 466-502. 15

186

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

A n d i n d e e d , w i t h n o o t h e r a n t i - C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r d o e s o n e find m o r e a n d c l o s e r a g r e e m e n t s t h a n w i t h this Platonist. W h a t w o u l d s e e m to militate a g a i n s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s that o u r u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r is P o r p h y r y is t h e fact that at a certain m o m e n t M a c a r i u s invites his o p p o n e n t to h a v e a look at a p a s s a g e in P o r p h y r y ' s Philosophia

ex oraculis

haurienda

( 3 . 4 2 . 6 ) , w i t h o u t e v e n h i n t i n g at the fact

that this P o r p h y r y is his o p p o n e n t . B u t that is n o s e r i o u s o b j e c t i o n b e c a u s e , in v i e w o f t h e literary fiction that the d e b a t e t o o k p l a c e in t h e r e c e n t p a s t b e t w e e n M a c a r i u s h i m s e l f a n d his adversary, h e s i m p l y c o u l d n o t tell that his o p p o n e n t w a s Porphyry (who had already died almost a century ago). T h e r e r e m a i n p r o b l e m s h e r e , h o w e v e r . If O r i g e n m e n t i o n e d C e l s u s b y n a m e , if E u s e b i u s m e n t i o n e d H i e r o c l e s by n a m e , if M e t h o d i u s as w e l l as E u s e b i u s a n d A p o l l i n a r i s m e n t i o n e d P o r p h y r y b y n a m e , a n d if C y r i l l u s m e n t i o n e d Julian b y n a m e , why, t h e n , w o u l d M a c a r i u s k e e p his o p p o n e n t a n o n y m o u s ? O f c o u r s e , o n e c o u l d say that o n l y in this w a y c o u l d h e p r e s e n t t h e d e b a t e as h a v i n g t a k e n p l a c e r e c e n t l y w i t h h i m s e l f as the d e f e n d e r o f Christianity. B u t it is v e r y h a r d to i m a g i n e that this literary fiction c a r r i e d m o r e w e i g h t w i t h M a c a r i u s t h a n the fact that h e e n g a g e d in a battle w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s m o s t f o r m i d a b l e o p p o n e n t in antiquity, a m a n w h o w r o t e n o less than 15 b o o k s Contra

Christianos.

And why

w o u l d h e e n g a g e in this battle after several others h a d a l r e a d y d o n e so better t h a n h e e v e r c o u l d ? A n d , finally, h o w is it to b e e x p l a i n e d that t h e u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r f o c u s e s a l m o s t entirely on t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , w h e r e a s w e k n o w that P o r p h y r y also dealt critically a n d e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h the O l d T e s t a m e n t ? T h e s e q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n u n a n s w e r e d b y G o u l e t ' s h y p o t h e s i s . A l t h o u g h it is a s u b j e c ­ tive j u d g e m e n t , I for o n e find t o o m u c h in t h e u n n a m e d o p p o n e n t ' s o b j e c t i o n s that l o o k s n o n - P o r p h y r i a n . I therefore v e n t u r e t h e h y p o t h e s i s

16

that M a c a r i u s '

o p p o n e n t n e v e r existed b u t that M a c a r i u s c r e a t e d h i m in o r d e r to e n a b l e h i m s e l f to w r i t e a b o o k that refuted w h a t h e h i m s e l f r e g a r d e d as still t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d t h r e a t e n i n g a r g u m e n t s against Christianity b r o u g h t forward b y its o p p o n e n t s in the p a s t t w o c e n t u r i e s , from C e l s u s to Julian. O f c o u r s e , P o r p h y r y w a s o n e o f t h e m , i n d e e d t h e m o s t i m p r e s s i v e o n e , a n d this e x p l a i n s the c l o s e parallels w i t h P o r p h y r y in a b o u t 5 0 % o f t h e f r a g m e n t s .

17

"Faut-il supposer plutot que

M a c a r i o s o u sa s o u r c e ont c o m p i l e les o b j e c t i o n s d e d i v e r s e s p o l e m i s t e s ? A u c u n i n d i c e n e le s u g g e r e . O n a a u c o n t r a i r e , a la lecture d e s o b j e c t i o n s , 1'impression d ' u n e c r i t i q u e fort h o m o g e n e " ( 1 3 5 ) . Yes, b u t this h o m o g e n e i t y m a y b e e x a c t l y t h e result o f M a c a r i u s ' purposeful selection a n d r e d a c t i o n . A s G o u l e t h i m s e l f s a y s , " C ' e s t lui qui a s e l e c t i o n n e , a g e n c e et e n c h a i n e les t h e m e s d u d i s c o u r s d e l ' A d v e r s a i r e , c ' e s t lui qui les a m i s e n f o r m e " ( 1 3 8 ) . In all fairness, it s h o u l d

1 6

Not unlike the one suggested by Theodor Zahn (see above). It should be said here that Goulet's synoptic presentation of the agreements and disagree­ ments between Porphyry and Macarius' unnamed philosopher (vol. I, 2 6 9 - 2 7 8 ) is immensely helpful. 1 7

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

187

b e said to his credit that G o u l e t is the first to a d m i t that t h e r e is n o c o m p e l l i n g p r o o f o f t h e identity o f the u n n a m e d p h i l o s o p h e r w i t h P o r p h y r y . " F i n a l e m e n t , la q u e s t i o n doit rester o u v e r t e " ( 1 3 5 ; cf. 149). T h e m a i n p r o b l e m is that w e actually k n o w r a t h e r little a b o u t the early a n t i - C h r i s t i a n p o l e m i c i s t s b e c a u s e for t h e m o s t part their w o r k s w e r e d e s t r o y e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n s . G o u l e t is w e l l a w a r e o f this, since h e s a y s that "il faut r e c o n n a i t r e la possibilite q u e M a c a r i o s ait utilise u n traite g r e c a u j o u r d ' h u i c o m p l e t e m e n t d i s p a r u " ( 1 3 9 ) . T h e largest c h a p t e r o f t h e first v o l u m e is d e v o t e d to a t h o r o u g h s t u d y o f M a c a r i u s as a t h e o l o g i a n a n d a p o l o g i s t . In 8 0 p a g e s ( 1 5 0 - 2 3 1 ) a fine a n d b a l ­ a n c e d sketch is p r e s e n t e d o f the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f this n e g l e c t e d a u t h o r w h o s e o p p o n e n t has u s u a l l y r e c e i v e d m u c h m o r e attention than h e himself. H e r e G o u l e t w a n t s to d o full j u s t i c e to t h e m a n , a n d so h e d o e s . F o r r e a s o n s o f s p a c e I c a n s u m m a r i z e his findings o n l y v e r y briefly. A s an a p o l o g i s t , M a c a r i u s d o e s not, or at least n o t a l w a y s , rise to t h e level o f his o p p o n e n t - as h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d , h e s o m e t i m e s d o e s n o t e v e n fully c o m p r e h e n d w h a t his o p p o n e n t ' s a r g u m e n t i m p l i e s ( G o u l e t also s p e a k s o f his " i n c a p a c i t e a d i s c e r n e r le c a r a c t e r e p r o p r e et i n c o m m u n i c a b l e d e la foi r e l i g i e u s e ; " p . 1 6 3 ) .

18

B u t h e d o e s k n o w h o w to a p p l y

the t e c h n i q u e s o f a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c . A s a t h e o l o g i a n , M a c a r i u s fares better. H i s s y s t e m o f t h o u g h t is c o h e r e n t a n d c a n b e situated v e r y clearly in p o s t - N i c e n e b u t p r e - C o n s t a n t i n o p o l i t a n t h e o l o g i c a l m i l i e u s , a l t h o u g h his t h e o l o g y a n d christolo g y is not o n a p a r w i t h , say, that o f the great C a p p a d o c i a n F a t h e r s o f this p e r i o d . H e s h o u l d r a t h e r b e s e e n as r e p r e s e n t i n g the m a i n s t r e a m ' p o p u l a r t h e o l o g y ' o f his t i m e . " E n fait, ce d o c u m e n t e x p r i m e tres b i e n ce qui r e p r e s e n t a i t la foi p o u r les h o m m e s d ' a l o r s et il p e r m e t d ' o b s e r v e r les c o r r e l a t i o n s qui existent entre cette foi et les d e s i r s , les c r a i n t e s et les i n t e r r o g a t i o n s d e l ' e p o q u e " ( 2 3 1 ) . W h a t I m i s s e d in this o t h e r w i s e e x c e l l e n t c h a p t e r w a s a d i s c u s s i o n o f M a c a r i u s ' n e g a ­ tive attitude t o w a r d s J e w s a n d J u d a i s m , a t o p i c that certainly d e s e r v e s c l o s e r investigation.

19

T h e final c h a p t e r o f vol. 1 is a b o u t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e text. H e r e G o u l e t d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s a n d t h o s e that a r e lost. A s to the latter category, t h e s e are the m a n u s c r i p t r e p o r t e d l y found a n d u s e d b y N i c e p h o r u s in the 9th century, b y J a n o s L a s k a r i s a r o u n d 1500, a n d b y T u r r i a n u s (Torrensis) in the m i d d l e o f t h e 16th century. It is o f c o u r s e e s p e c i a l l y their q u o t e s from the n o w lost p a r t s o f the b o o k that are m o s t v a l u a b l e . To this c a t e g o r y b e l o n g s also t h e m a n u s c r i p t found a n d u s e d b y B l o n d e l for the editio princeps,

once

b e l o n g i n g to the N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y at A t h e n s b u t e n i g m a t i c a l l y lost s i n c e 1876 (it

1 8

Sometimes Macarius bases his defence upon a wrong translation o f the biblical text, as in 2.31. Unfortunately, the word index is not exhaustive (see p. 305) and the word Ioudaios was not included so that it is difficult to find the many places where Macarius speaks about the Jews. 1 9

188

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

d a t e s from t h e 14th—15th cent.). T h e e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s are t h o s e m i s c e l l a n e o u s o n e s w h i c h c o n t a i n , inter alia, tables o f c o n t e n t s o f t h e Monogenes,

scholia on

biblical texts w i t h p a s s a g e s from M a c a r i u s , or o t h e r d o c u m e n t s c o n t a i n i n g s u m ­ m a r i e s o f certain p a s s a g e s from his text, for instance in treatises on the Eucharist. O n the b a s i s o f a detailed analysis o f all t h e s e data, G o u l e t tries to r e c o n s t r u c t the c o n t e n t s o f t h e w o r k in its entirety. A t p a g e 2 4 7 w e finally find G o u l e t ' s s t e m m a o f all n o - l o n g e r - e x t a n t c o d i c e s . In this c h a p t e r h e s h o w s his m a s t e r y in t h e field o f m e t i c u l o u s a n a l y s i s o f textual traditions. V o l u m e 2 c o n t a i n s G o u l e t ' s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the G r e e k text a n d his F r e n c h translation on facing p a g e s . H e presents this material in a v e r y user-friendly m a n ­ ner. F o r i n s t a n c e , n o t o n l y are t h e p a g e n u m b e r s o f B l o n d e l ' s edition a n d t h o s e o f t h e lost m a n u s c r i p t h e u s e d indicated in margine,

the r e a d e r is also h e l p e d b y

b r i e f m a r g i n a l a n n o t a t i o n s i n d i c a t i n g w h e r e M a c a r i u s ' r e s p o n s e to a n objection b y his a d v e r s a r y b e g i n s w h e n t h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the t w o (as is often t h e c a s e ) , a n d also the other w a y r o u n d in t h e form o f r e f e r e n c e s b a c k to the p l a c e w h e r e the objection h e r e a n s w e r e d c a n b e found. In t h e m a r g i n o n e also finds the references to the n u m b e r i n g o f the ' f r a g m e n t s ' in H a r n a c k ' s edition o f P o r p h y r y ' s Contra

Christianos.

In v i e w o f the h i g h d e g r e e of c o r r u p t i o n o f the

A t h e n i a n m a n u s c r i p t there are m a n y p l a c e s w h e r e conjectures w e r e u n a v o i d a b l e ; G o u l e t c o n s i s t e n t l y alerts the r e a d e r s to this b y i n d i c a t i n g conjectural r e a d i n g s in t h e text, n o t o n l y in the a p p a r a t u s . T h e r e are several a p p a r a t u s e s : O n t h e left h a n d (often spilling o v e r into t h e right h a n d ) p a g e o n e finds a list o f sigla for the d o c u m e n t s w h e r e t h e text o f (parts of) the p a g e c a n b e found; further there is an apparatus

criticus;

an a d d i t i o n a l a p p a r a t u s o n marginalia

in the A t h e n i a n m s . ;

a n d an a p p a r a t u s o f s o u r c e s ( m a i n l y biblical). O n t h e right h a n d p a g e o n e finds an a p p a r a t u s d i s c u s s i n g textual p r o b l e m s , b u t in the text o f the translation t h e r e a d e r is also referred (by m e a n s o f letters) to t h e scriptural a p p a r a t u s a n d ( b y m e a n s o f a s t e r i s k s ) to the m a n y exegetical n o t e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n r e l e g a t e d to the end of the volume (pp. 3 7 7 ^ 4 3 6 : Appendice exegetique). These exegetical d i s c u s s i o n s s o m e t i m e s a m o u n t to v e r y useful m i n i - e s s a y s (see e. g. p p . 3 8 0 - 3 8 2 o n t h e p r o b l e m o f the d e l a y e d c o m i n g o f s a l v a t i o n , or p p . 4 0 5 ^ 1 0 7 o n o b j e c ­ tions to t h e d o c t r i n e o f the b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t i o n ) . H e r e o n e also finds a w e a l t h o f r e f e r e n c e s to parrallels in early patristic s o u r c e s a n d to s c h o l a r l y literature. T h e t r a n s l a t i o n is fluent, as far as I c a n j u d g e , e v e n t h o u g h G o u l e t k e e p s r a t h e r c l o s e to the original. T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f the G r e e k text is a tour de force

on

w h i c h m u c h c o u l d b e said, b u t I prefer to l e a v e that m a t t e r to m o r e c o m p e t e n t c o l l e a g u e s ( a l t h o u g h I w a n t to say that I found G o u l e t ' s conjectures often v e r y ingenious). T o c o n c l u d e : T h i s is a project in w h i c h a n u m b e r o f f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e s h a d to b e o v e r c o m e , as w e h a v e seen. G o u l e t h e r e p r e s e n t s the results o f several d e c a d e s of w r e s t l i n g w i t h t h e s e p r o b l e m s . T h e s e results are i m p r e s s i v e . T h e c a r e w i t h w h i c h G o u l e t h a s dealt with all these often intractable m a t t e r s is e x e m p l a r y .

Macarius

Magnes and the Unnamed Anti-Christian

Polemicist

189

N o t o n l y s t u d e n t s o f M a c a r i u s but also t h o s e w h o are interested in the field o f a n t i - C h r i s t i a n critique on t h e p a r t o f p a g a n G r e e k intellectuals o w e h i m a great debt. E v e n if o n e is not c o n v i n c e d b y e v e r y t h i n g G o u l e t p r o p o s e s as a s o l u t i o n (as in the c a s e o f t h e identity o f the u n n a m e d a d v e r s a r y ) , that d o e s not detract in the least from t h e great v a l u e o f his w o r k .

2 0

2 0

A good study of the interpretation of the N T by the unnamed opponent is J.G. Cook, The Interpretation of the New Testament in Greco-Roman Paganism, Tubingen 2 0 0 0 , 1 6 8 - 2 4 9 .

A New Early Christian Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac (Pap. Bodmer 30) Introduction A l m o s t h a l f a c e n t u r y a g o , in 1952, several d o z e n p a p y r i w e r e d i s c o v e r e d n e a r the E g y p t i a n v i l l a g e o f D i s h n a (not far from N a g H a m m a d i , w h e r e the w e l l k n o w n C o p t i c G n o s t i c library w a s found). T h e y w e r e a c q u i r e d b y P h o k i o n T a n o , a C y p r i o t antiquities d e a l e r in C a i r o , w h o sold m o s t o f t h e m to M a r t i n B o d m e r , the S w i s s m a g n a t e a n d scholar w h o founded the f a m o u s B i b l i o t h e c a B o d m e r i a n a in C o l o g n y ( n e a r G e n e v a ) . In a series o f m o n o g r a p h s that a p p e a r e d from the m i d d l e o f t h e fifties, a g r e a t n u m b e r o f t h e s e so-called B o d m e r p a p y r i w e r e p u b l i s h e d (with b o o k s o f t h e S e p t u a g i n t a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , M e n a n d e r , t h e Pastor

Hermae

etc.). T h e

p u b l i c a t i o n o f P a p . B o d m e r 2 9 , s o m e 15 y e a r s a g o , w a s e x c i t i n g n e w s . It c o n ­ t a i n e d a c o m p l e t e l y n e w text, the early C h r i s t i a n Vision of Dorotheus}

T h i s is a

G r e e k p o e m from the fourth c e n t u r y written in H o m e r i c l a n g u a g e a n d style in w h i c h a certain D o r o t h e u s , w h o h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y u n k n o w n to u s , tells a b o u t 2

his v i s i o n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s . O n t h e last p h o t o o f the p a p y r u s found in that e d i ­ tion, o n e c a n a l r e a d y see the o p e n i n g lines o f t h e n e x t p o e m , a g a i n in H o m e r i c h e x a m e t r e s , entitled Pros Abra(h)am.

It took 15 y e a r s before the c o m p l e t e text o f

that p o e m w a s p u t at o u r d i s p o s a l , b u t it is a v a i l a b l e n o w , in a beautiful edition, w h i c h also c o n t a i n s the text o f six other early C h r i s t i a n p o e m s from the s a m e 3

c o d e x . W e will p r e s e n t h e r e t h e text in an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n a n d t h e n briefly d i s c u s s t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f its c o n t e n t s .

1

A. Hurst, O. Reverdin & J. Rudhardt, Papyrus Bodmer XXIX: Vision de Dorotheus, Cologny-Geneve 1984. For a revised edition and English translation see A. H. M. Kessels & R W. van der Horst, "The Vision o f Dorotheus (Pap. Bodmer 29). Edited with Introduction, Translation and Notes," VC4\ ( 1 9 8 7 ) 3 1 3 - 3 5 9 . A. Hurst & J. Rudhardt, Papyrus Bodmer XXX-XXXVII: "Codex des Visions. " Poemes divers, Miinchen 1999. It should be remarked here, albeit only in passing, that actually the text of this poem had already been accessible from 1994, but that the publication that made this possible has been intentionally ignored by almost all scholars. The scandal is as follows. The Italian classicist and papyrologist Enrico Livrea was asked in 1993 by Hurst en Rudhardt, who prepared the editio princeps, to give them advice on certain points. He agreed and received 2

3

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191

Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

T h e p a p y r u s itself dates from the first d e c a d e s o f the fifth century, but the text o f t h e p o e m is certainly older, a l t h o u g h not older t h a n the fourth c e n t u r y as the editors p e r s u a s i v e l y a r g u e in their i n t r o d u c t i o n (their d a t i n g o f the text a n d p a p y r u s o f the Visio Dorothei

4

has met with only marginal criticism ).

T h e i r linguistic a n a l y s i s o f t h e G r e e k m a k e s clear that t h e a u t h o r o f the p o e m Pros Abraam

c a n n o t b e t h e s a m e as D o r o t h e u s , the a u t h o r o f the p r e c e d i n g

a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l p o e m . S o it is a n a n o n y m o u s p i e c e . It is a poetical r e n d e r i n g o f the story o f G e n e s i s 2 2 , t h e f a m o u s n a r r a t i v e o f the sacrifice o f Isaac (or the sacrifice o f A b r a h a m , as it is often called), w h i c h , in J e w i s h tradition, is k n o w n as the 'Aqedat

Yitschak

(litt. ' t h e b i n d i n g o f I s a a c ' ) or, m o r e briefly, as ' t h e

A q e d a h . ' T h e editors are not sufficiently a w a r e o f the fact that G e n e s i s 2 2 h a d a v e r y influential ' W i r k u n g s g e s c h i c h t e ' in t h e early c e n t u r i e s o f b o t h J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y (see p p . 3 9 - 4 0 ) , a n d it is for that r e a s o n that t h e y a p p e a l to their c o l l e a g u e s to d o further r e s e a r c h to " l a q u e s t i o n d e s a v o i r s'il existe u n e s o u r c e litteraire qui e x p l i q u e les ecarts p a r r a p p o r t au texte d e l ' A n c i e n T e s t a m e n t ou s'il faut les attribuer a l ' i m a g i n a t i o n d e l ' a u t e u r " (p. 4 3 ) . B u t there is not j u s t o n e ' s o u r c e litteraire' that c a n e x p l a i n the d e v i a t i o n s from t h e text o f the O l d T e s t a m e n t , there are m a n y o f t h e m , as w a s to b e e x p e c t e d . S h o r t t h o u g h it m a y b e ( o n l y 3 0 lines), t h e p o e m has a tripartite structure: Vv. 1-3 are a k i n d o f p r e l u d e ; vv. 4 - 2 7 form an a c r o s t i c h o n , a p o e m in w h i c h the o p e n i n g letters o f the lines form a w o r d , in this c a s e s i m p l y t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t ; finally an e p i l o g u e in vv. 2 8 - 3 0 . T h i s tripartite structure is v e r y clearly indicated b y t h e c o p y i s t o f the p a p y r u s in that h e p u t s the w o r d hypertheta

('placed above

i t ' ) a b o v e lines 1-3; a b o v e lines 4 - 2 7 the w o r d s kata stoicheion

( ' a c c o r d i n g to

the letters o f t h e a l p h a b e t ' ) ; a n d a b o v e lines 2 8 - 3 0 the w o r d s ta loipa ( ' t h e rest is an a d d i t i o n ' or e p i l o g u e ) .

prostheta

5

a copy of the Greek text and a photo of the papyrus. Shortly afterwards, Livrea himself pub­ lished the papyrus with an Italian translation under the title 'Un poema inedito di Dorotheos: Ad Abramo' in the Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik 100 ( 1 9 9 4 ) 1 7 5 - 1 8 7 . It is understandable that there were furious reactions to this 'acte de piraterie litteraire'; thus, for instance, H.E. Braun, A. Hurst & J. Rudhardt in ZPE 103 (1994) 154 (Braun is the director of the Bibliotheca Bodmeriana). Notably J.N. Bremmer, 'The Vision o f Dorotheus,' in J. den Boeft & A. Hilhorst (eds.), Early Christian Poetry, Leiden 1993, 2 5 3 - 2 6 1 . In the text of the translation square brackets [...] indicate that there is a lacuna in the papyrus, and round brackets (...) that w e have added one or more words for the sake o f clarity. The papyrus has been preserved relatively well; the lacunae are small and especially in the acrostic part at the start o f the lines they can for the most part relatively easily be filled because it is known with which letter of the alphabet each line has to begin. Only lines 1 3 - 1 4 (begin­ ning with the letters kappa and lahda) are completely missing because the bottom part o f the papyrus is destroyed. 4

5

192

A New Early Christian

Text in

Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

translation 6

On

Abraham

Prelude ( 1 ) H e w h o put together the w o r l d and the heaven [and the s]ea 7

( 2 ) sent from the ether a swift a n [ g e l ] to Abraham (with the c o m m a n d ) ( 3 ) to sacrifice his o w n b e l o v e d son as a perfect offering.

8

In alphabetical order ( 4 ) A s s o o n as he learnt this, he rejoiced in his w i l l i n g m i [ n d ] , ( 5 ) and he w e n t to s e e whether he c o u l d persuade his illustrious w i [ f e ] : ( 6 ) ' W i f e o f m i n e , the immortal G o d desires that I br[ing] to H i m ( 7 ) the n o b l e Isaac. [He w a s ? ] a great gift o n the t h r e s h o l d ] o f our old a g e , ( 8 ) (this) d e s c e n d a n t .

10

Let h i m e x e c u t e [God's w i l l ] ( ? ) . "

( 9 ) I will bind m y u n [ t o u c h e d ( ? )

12

s o n ] o n the altar as an offering.'

( 1 0 ) W h e n his w i f e heard that, she w a s p r o u d (11) 'Keep cou[rage],

9

14

kappa}

( 1 4 ) {the letter

lambda}

[to say] (these) w i s e words:

m y dear child, for [you] h a v e [been] happy in [this l]ife,

( 1 2 ) Isa[ac, child] of m y w o m b , ( 1 3 ) {the letter

13

1 5

[...]

( 1 5 ) Full of [ s w e e t ] j o y their glorious son s p o k e to them: ( 1 6 ) 'Parents, prepare for m e a luxurious brid[al] chamber! ( 1 7 ) Citizens, braid m y fai[r] hair into l o c k s , 6

1 6

The meaning of the Greek pros in this title may seem unclear at first sight since pros + acc. is usually an indication of direction or of address, but that does not make sense here, unless one assumes that the title refers to the fact that the final three lines ( 2 8 - 3 0 ) are indeed addressed to Abraham. The suggestion by the editors (p. 50) that the expression is comparable to the words le-Dawid, which are often found as a superscript to the Psalms, does not solve anything. Pros here has the sense of 'with regard to' (see W. Bauer - W. F. Arndt - F. W. Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon to the New Testament, Chicago & London 1979, s.v. 5b); hence our translation 'on.' Here for'highest heaven.' The Greek has here hekatombe. 'The threshold of old age' is a well-known Homeric expression and verse-ending. One could read the word ekgenetes (descendant) also as ekgenetes (from his birth). Because o f the lacuna the text and meaning of this line remain uncertain. One could take the word ekgenetes at the beginning of the line to be the subject of the verb so as to get, 'Let (our) descendant fulfill [God's w i l l ] . " The editors here read athikton, but that is far from certain. If correct, it could be a refer­ ence to the demand that a sacrificial animal must be completely without blemish; but it could as well refer to the fact that Isaac is still unmarried (see v. 16), 'untouched' in the sexual sense (athiktos can also mean 'virgin'). Or 'she began' (erxato instead of euxato). This imperative (tharsei) is also often found on tombstones as encouragement for the deceased; see the discussion in P. W. van der Horst, Ancient Jewish Epitaphs, Kampen 1991, 120-122. Litt. 'from my limbs.' The second half of this line and the two following verses are lacking due to a large lacuna. The editors suggest that "Isaac fait peut-etre allusion a (...) la flamme du sacrifice, designee c o m m e une chevelure tressee" (53) with reference to Bacchylides 3:56. It would 7

8

9

1 0

11

1 2

1 3

1 4

15

1 6

A New Early Christian

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Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

( 1 8 ) tha[t] I m a y fulfil a [hol]y task with magnanimity." ( 1 9 ) [At] o n c e able m e n stirred up the f[ire] around the altar. ( 2 0 ) Around the flames [rush]ed the sea that M o s e s ( 2 1 ) w o u l d [split]. A w a v e lifted A b r a h a m ' s s o n (or: A b r a h a m lifted his s o n to a wave?).

1 7

( 2 2 ) T h e father brought h [ i m ] , w h o s m e l l e d o f incense, to the altar, and (the son) re­ joiced. (23) He welcomed ( ? )

1 8

19

him [on top of?] the fire

and he hastened to

( 2 4 ) strike his n e c k with a sharp [ s w o r d ] . But G o d ' s ( 2 5 ) [hand] reached out (towards h i m ) , for nearby a goat a p p e a r e d .

20

2 1

( 2 6 ) L e a v i n g his s o n unscathed Abrafham p l u c k e d / s a n g the praise o f ? ] the fruit in the tree ( 2 7 ) [so that in as]sent he c h o s e to prepare that (goat) as a sacrificial meal (?). [The rest i]s e p i l o g u e ( 2 8 ) [...?] c o u r a g e o u s man, c o u l d y o u receive another mark o f honour for this (?): ( 2 9 ) T h o u s a n d s o f flourishing [children] to m a k e y o u shine (?), ( 3 0 ) e x c e l l e n t [giver] o f gifts, w h o has c l i m b e d the t o w e r .

22

Comments T h e differences b e t w e e n this text a n d t h e biblical story are striking. To m e n t i o n o n l y the m o s t i m p o r t a n t : (1) N o t o n l y A b r a h a m , b u t S a r a a n d I s a a c as w e l l , a s s e n t to G o d ' s c o m m a n d to sacrifice Isaac w i t h o u t a n y h e s i t a t i o n a n d e v e n w i t h e n t h u s i a s m . (2) N o t h i n g is k e p t h i d d e n from Isaac. (3) Isaac c o m p a r e s his i m m i n e n t d e a t h to a w e d d i n g . (4) S a r a is p r e s e n t e d as s p e a k i n g ( w h e r e a s in the

seem more natural, however, to take it as a reference to the usual cosmetic preparation for a wedding. The Greek (Ahraam huia potixunaeireto kuma) is very unclear and the whole scene is confusing in view o f the fact that in the next line it is Abraham himself w h o brings his son to the altar. The exact meaning o f the form didisketo is far from certain. Litt. 'Hephaistos.' The Greek here has melon, which can mean both 'goat' and 'apple.' In view of what fol­ lows (Abraham's 'plucking' of the 'fruit' [if that reading is correct]) the author seems to make a conscious play on this homophony. Both the reading and the meaning o f the word pselen (aorist of psallo) are very uncertain. In Aeschylus, Persae 1062, according to a scholiast, psallein is used in the sense of 'plucking' and that might have inspired our author, but of course the sense o f '(psalm)singing' is much more current. The editors also considered the reading psilon, which in combination with 'son' would yield the following translation: 'Leaving unscathed his only son, Abraham chose the fruit in the tree to prepare as a sacrificial meal.' But it should be borne in mind that the word pselen is conjectural, The final three lines are an echo o f the promise o f numerous offspring in Gen. 22:17, with the special twist that these offspring are the Christians, at least, if the editors are right in suggesting that climbing the tower is here equivalent to founding the church. The tower as a symbol of the church is well-known from the Pastor Hermae, a treatise parts of which were found in the same codex in which the present poem is to be found. 1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

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biblical story she is not e v e n m e n t i o n e d ) . (5) G o d ' s c o m m a n d is h e r e g i v e n via a n a n g e l , b u t (6) t h e biblical a n g e l in G e n . 22:11 h e r e b e c o m e s G o d ' s h a n d . (7) T h e R e d S e a p l a y s an e n i g m a t i c r o l e .

23

M a n y m o r e differences in detail c o u l d

b e m e n t i o n e d , b u t this short e n u m e r a t i o n suffices to s h o w that the biblical story h a s u n d e r g o n e s o m e drastic modifications h e r e . W h a t is t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e s e modifications? It is w e l l - k n o w n that a l r e a d y in the p r e - C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d a n d e v e n m o r e t h e r e ­ after the story o f G e n e s i s 2 2 g a i n e d a s u r p l u s o f m e a n i n g a n d v a l u e in J e w i s h circles ( a n d that n o t o n l y in the m a r t y r o l o g i c a l s p h e r e ) .

24

F o r i n s t a n c e , w e see

that I s a a c ' s sacrifice w a s g i v e n a soteriological significance in the first c e n t u r y C E Liber Antiquitatum

Biblicarum

(LAB) b y P s e u d o - P h i l o . In LAB 18:5 w e r e a d

the f o l l o w i n g u t t e r a n c e o f G o d : " B e c a u s e h e did n o t object, his offering w a s 2 5

a c c e p t a b l e before m e , a n d in return for his b l o o d ( ! ) 1 c h o s e t h e m ( n a m e l y t h e p e o p l e o f I s r a e l ) . " In LAB 4 0 : 2 J e p h t h a ' s d a u g h t e r w a n t s to e m u l a t e Isaac on a s o t e r i o l o g i c a l level a n d s p e a k i n g a b o u t it to h e r father, she r e m a r k s : " O r h a v e y o u forgotten w h a t h a p p e n e d in the d a y s o f o u r fathers, w h e n t h e father p l a c e d the s o n as a b u r n t offering, a n d h e did n o t d i s p u t e w i t h h i m b u t g l a d l y g a v e his c o n s e n t to h i m , a n d t h e o n e b e i n g offered w a s r e a d y a n d the o n e offering w a s rejoicing?"

26

T h i s j o y f u l r e a d i n e s s is m a d e e v e n m o r e explicit in P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s

r e n d e r i n g o f D e b o r a h ' s s o n g , w h e r e h e h a s h e r say (LAB

32:2-3):

(2) Abraham did not dispute, but set out immediately. W h e n he set out, he said to his son, ' B e h o l d now, m y s o n , I am offering y o u as a burnt-offering and am delivering y o u into the hands o f the o n e w h o g a v e y o u to m e . ' (3) T h e son said to the father, 'Hear m e , father. If a lamb o f the flock is accepted as an offering to the Lord as an odour o f s w e e t n e s s and if, for the sins o f m e n , animals are appointed to be killed, but man is d e s i g n e d to inherit the world, h o w is it that y o u do not say to m e , " C o m e and inherit a secure life and time without measure?" What if I had not been born into the world to be offered as a sacrifice to him w h o made m e ? N o w m y blessedness will be a b o v e that o f all m e n , because there will be no other [sacrifice like this]. Through m e nations will be b l e s s e d and through m e the p e o p l e s will understand that the Lord has d e e m e d the soul o f a man worthy to be a sacrifice.'

S i m i l a r r e m a r k s a b o u t I s a a c ' s h e r o i c s t a n c e are found in P s e u d o - P h i l o ' s c o n t e m ­ porary, t h e J e w i s h historian F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s (Antiquitates 2 3

1232: 'Isaac received

The editors are of the opinion (41) that what is meant with the reference to the sea is that Isaac, by being laid upon the altar, undergoes a symbolic baptism. In this connection they refer to Paul's allegory of the passage through the Red Sea in 1 Cor. 10:1-2. This seems somewhat forced at first sight, but it is hard to come up with a more satisfactory explanation (see, however, below in the text). Livrea ( 1 8 4 - 1 8 5 ) sees here a reference to a lustration ritual before sacrifice. The most exhaustive collection of material is now L. Kundert, Die Opferung/Binciting Isaaks, 2 vols., Neukirchen 1998. A l s o some medieval rabbinic midrashim speak of Isaac's blood (or ashes) as if the sacrifice had taken place in reality. See H. Jacobson, A Commentary on Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum, Leiden 1996, vol. I, 583. Translation by Jacobson, A Commentary on Pseudo-Philo 582 (slightly altered). 2 4

2 5

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t h e s e w o r d s [of h i s father] w i t h j o y ' ) , a n d a l s o in later r a b b i n i c m i d r a s h i m a n d in t h e p a r a p h r a s t i c B i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n s i n t o A r a m a i c , t h e t a r g u m i m . Targum

Pseudo-Jonathan

2 7

For instance,

r e n d e r s G e n . 2 2 : 7 - 1 1 as f o l l o w s :

(7) Isaac s p o k e to h i s father Abraham and said, ' F a t h e r ! ' A n d h e said, 'Here I am, m y s o n . ' H e said, ' B e h o l d the fire and the w o o d ; but where is the lamb for the burnt offering?' ( 8 ) Abraham said, 'The Lord will c h o o s e for h i m s e l f the lamb for the burnt offering, m y s o n . ' A n d the t w o o f them w e n t together with a perfect heart. ( 9 ) T h e y c a m e to the place o f w h i c h the Lord had told him, and there Abraham (re)built the altar w h i c h A d a m had built and w h i c h had been d e m o l i s h e d b y the waters o f the Flood. N o a h rebuilt it, but it w a s d e ­ m o l i s h e d in the generation o f the D i v i s i o n . H e arranged the w o o d upon it and tied Isaac his s o n and placed h i m o n the altar o n top o f the w o o d . ( 1 0 ) Abraham put forth h i s hand and took the knife to slaughter his son. Isaac s p o k e up and said to his father, 'Tie m e w e l l , lest I struggle b e c a u s e o f the anguish o f m y soul, with the result that a b l e m i s h will be found in your offering, and I will b e thrust into the pit o f destruction.' T h e e y e s o f Abraham w e r e l o o k i n g at the e y e s o f Isaac, and the e y e s o f Isaac w e r e l o o k i n g at the a n g e l s o n high. Isaac s a w them but Abraham did not s e e them. T h e a n g e l s o n high e x c l a i m e d , ' C o m e , s e e t w o unique o n e s ; o n e is slaughtering and o n e is b e i n g slaughtered; the o n e w h o slaughters d o e s not hesitate, and the o n e w h o is b e i n g slaughtered stretches forth his n e c k . '

28

It m a y b e c l e a r t h a t t h e m o t i f o f I s a a c ' s j o y f u l w i l l i n g n e s s t o b e a n a c c e p t a b l e sacrifice to t h e L o r d a l r e a d y h a d a l o n g t r a d i t i o n in J u d a i s m b y t h e t i m e o u r a n o n y m o u s author w r o t e his p o e m . T h e s a m e applies also to several other n o n b i b l i c a l m o t i f s in t h e p o e m . F o r i n s t a n c e , G o d ' s hand j u s t in t i m e ( i n s t e a d o f t h e angel

that restrains A b r a h a m

o f t h e L o r d in G e n . 2 2 : 1 1 - 1 2 ) is a m o t i f t h a t

w e k n o w f r o m a n c i e n t J e w i s h art: it is t o b e f o u n d o n t h e w a l l p a i n t i n g s o f t h e D u r a E u r o p u s s y n a g o g u e from t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y C E , as w e l l as in t h e later floor m o s a i c in t h e s y n a g o g u e o f B e t h A l p h a ( b u t a l s o in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n pictures!).

2 7

2 9

Apart from the recent and all-encompassing work by Kundert (mentioned in note 2 4 ) , much material can also be found in the curious study by S. Spiegel, The Last Trial: On the Legends and Lore of the Command to Abraham to Offer Isaac as a Sacrifice, the Akedah, N e w York 1967 (repr. Woodstock 1993); also in G. Vermes, 'Redemption and Genesis xxii - The Binding o f Isaac and the Sacrifice o f Jesus,' in his Scripture and Tradition in Judaism, Leiden 1973, 1 9 3 - 2 2 7 . See further J. Swetnam, Jesus and Isaac. A Study of the Epistle to the Hebrews in the Light of the Akedah, Rome 1981, 2 3 - 8 0 ; A. F. Segal, 'The Sacrifice o f Isaac in Early Judaism and Christianity,' in his The Other Judaisms of Late Antiquity, Atlanta 1987, 1 0 9 - 1 3 0 ; J. Milgrom, The Binding of Isaac: The Akedah - A Primary Symbol in Jewish Thought and Art, Berkeley 1988. Translation by M. Maher, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan: Genesis (The Aramaic Bible I B ) , Edinburgh 1992, 7 9 - 8 0 ; discussion in R. Hayward, "The Present State o f Research into the Targumic Account o f the Sacrifice o f Isaac," Journal of Jewish Studies 3 2 (1981) 1 2 7 - 1 5 0 . See C.H. Kraeling, 77z
2 9

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A t first sight it s e e m s a s t r a n g e m o t i f that I s a a c ' s first r e a c t i o n to the m e s s a g e that his father is g o i n g to sacrifice h i m is his r e q u e s t to p r e p a r e a bridal c h a m b e r (the altar!) for h i m . T h i s m o t i f is not k n o w n from o t h e r s o u r c e s in relation to Isaac, b u t it is k n o w n from J e w i s h traditions c o n c e r n i n g I s a a c ' s female c o u n ­ terpart, J e p h t h a ' s daughter. It is a g a i n in t h e p s e u d o - P h i l o n i c LAB that w e read that S e i l a

30

- as this w o m a n , w h o is a n o n y m o u s in the B i b l e , is called here - in

a r e a c t i o n to the m e s s a g e o f h e r father that h e h a s to sacrifice her, s a y s : ' T h e u n d e r w o r l d h a s b e c o m e m y bridal c h a m b e r ' ( 4 0 : 6 ) . T h e m o t i f o f d e a t h as a w e d d i n g a n d the u n d e r w o r l d as a bridal c h a m b e r h a s a l o n g history in G r e e k literature. T h e e d i t o r s o f o u r p o e m rightly refer to S o p h o c l e s (Antigone a n d E u r i p i d e s (Iphigeneia

Aulensis

4 5 8 ff.)

31

8 0 6 ff.)

as p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s for o u r author,

b u t it is at least as r e l e v a n t to p o i n t out that in J e w i s h w o r k s in w h i c h biblical stories are ' r e w r i t t e n ' the m o t i f o f d e a t h as m a r r i a g e to t h e u n d e r w o r l d h a d a l r e a d y e n t e r e d into t h e stories a b o u t p e r s o n s w h o h a d to die y o u n g b y s e r v i n g as sacrifices to t h e L o r d (Isaac a n d Seila), albeit u n d e r G r e e k i n f l u e n c e .

32

The

interesting t h i n g is, h o w e v e r , that in the c a s e o f Seila, as in the G r e e k tradition o f lamentatio,

the m o t i f is a c o m p l a i n t , w h e r e a s in the c a s e o f Isaac in o u r p o e m

it is a p a r a d o x i c a l e x p r e s s i o n of j o y . D o w e h a v e to a s s u m e n o w that the a u t h o r o f the p o e m w a s a c q u a i n t e d w i t h J e w i s h h a g g a d a a b o u t G e n e s i s 2 2 ? In itself that is n o t i m p o s s i b l e ,

33

b u t it w o u l d

s e e m to b e less p l a u s i b l e if it c o u l d b e d e m o n s t r a t e d that m a n y o f t h e n o n - b i b l i ­ cal e l e m e n t s c o u l d h a v e b e e n k n o w n to h i m from his o w n C h r i s t i a n tradition. F o r in early Christianity, p r o b a b l y in r e a c t i o n to s o t e r i o l o g i c a l e l e m e n t s in t h e J e w i s h h a g g a d a o n G e n e s i s 2 2 , a Christian h a g g a d a o n the s a m e c h a p t e r b e g a n to d e v e l o p . L e t u s therefore look for e l e m e n t s in t h e s e traditions a b o u t I s a a c ' s sacrifice that m a y s h e d light on o u r n e w p o e m .

3 4

depictions of the sacrifice of Isaac are discussed by I. Speyart van Woerden, 'The Iconography o f the Sacrifice of Abraham,' VC 15 (1961) 2 1 4 - 2 5 5 . Probably She 'ilah = she w h o is demanded (by God). P. 53: 'On ne peut s'empecher de se demander si l'lphigenie d'Euripide n'interfere pas ici avec le modele biblique.' See M. Alexiou & P. Dronke, 'The Lament of Jephtha's Daughter: Themes, Traditions, Originality,' Studi medievali (3rd series) 12 (1971) 8 1 9 - 8 6 3 ; also P.W. van der Horst, 'Portraits of Biblical Women in Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum,' in my Essays on the Jewish World of Early Christianity, Fribourg-Gottingen 1990, 119-120. On old mural paintings in the monastery o f St. Catherine in the Sinai, Isaac and Jephtha's daughter are often depicted side by side. An outdated but still useful survey o f motifs borrowed by Church Fathers from Jewish haggadic tradition is L. Ginzberg, Die Haggada bei den Kirchenvdtern, Amsterdam 1899; further, e. g., M. Hirshman, A Rivalry of Genius. Jewish and Christian Biblical Interpretation in Late Antiquity, Albany 1996. For what follows cf. D. Lerch, Isaaks Opferung christlich gedeutet, Tubingen 1950; S.P. Brock, 'Genesis 22 in Syriac Tradition,' Melanges Dominique Barthelemy, Fribourg-Gottingen 1981, 2 - 3 0 ; R. M. Jensen, 'The Offering of Isaac in Jewish and Christian Tradition,' Biblical Interpretation 2 (1994) 8 5 - 1 1 0 ; and M.F.G. Parmentier, Isadk gebonden - Jezus gekruisigd: 3 0

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T h e n e w text on the sacrifice o f A b r a h a m d o e s in fact offer possibilities for a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the C h r i s t i a n e x e g e t i c a l tradition o f this story. W e h a v e found eight o f t h e m :

1. Abraham

is willing

and he

rejoices

M a n y Christian e x e g e t e s e m p h a s i z e the h u m a n grief of the faithful A b r a h a m . Yet there are also a n u m b e r o f texts that p r e s e n t h i m as not o n l y faithful, but e v e n as rejoicing. E v i d e n t l y this j o y d o e s not o r i g i n a t e from n e g a t i v e feelings t o w a r d s Isaac. O n t h e contrary, Isaac is ' t h e b e l o v e d s o n . ' A b r a h a m ' s j o y at t h e sacrifice h a s a different b a c k g r o u n d . A p a r t from the m a r t y r o l o g i c a l interpretation w h i c h w e a l r e a d y k n o w from J e w i s h s o u r c e s (2 a n d 4 M a c c a b e e s ) , there is a l s o a specifically christological o n e . I r e n a e u s ( s e c o n d c e n t u r y ) , for e x a m p l e , s a y s that A b r a h a m o b e y e d G o d ' s c o m m a n d to sacrifice his son, b e c a u s e h e k n e w w h a t G o d i n t e n d e d to d o in the l o n g t e r m : " S i n c e . . . A b r a h a m w a s a p r o p h e t a n d s a w in t h e Spirit the d a y o f the L o r d ' s c o m i n g , a n d the d i s p e n s a t i o n o f his suffering, t h r o u g h w h o m b o t h h e h i m s e l f a n d all w h o , f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e o f his faith, trust in G o d , w o u l d b e s a v e d , h e rejoiced e x c e e d i n g l y . "

35

I r e n a e u s d e p a r t s from

J o h n 8:56 h e r e ( ' A b r a h a m rejoiced that h e w a s to see m y d a y ; h e s a w it a n d w a s g l a d ' ) . T h o s e w h o b e l i e v e like A b r a h a m are the C h r i s t i a n s w h o see the life a n d p a s s i o n o f J e s u s C h r i s t prefigured in t h e sacrifice o f Isaac. T h e y d o this in c o n t r a s t to the J e w s , w h o d o n o t d e r i v e the m e a n i n g o f Biblical texts from the life a n d death o f J e s u s Christ. I n t e r p r e t i n g a text from t h e E p i s t l e to the H e b r e w s , O r i g e n (third c e n t u r y ) s u g g e s t s that A b r a h a m ' s h o p e did n o t j u s t lie in the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f J e s u s Christ, b u t also in the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f I s a a c himself: " T h e A p o s t l e ( i . e . H e b . l 1:17,19)... has r e p o r t e d to u s the t h o u g h t s o f the faithful m a n , that b e l i e f in t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n b e g a n to b e h e l d a l r e a d y at that t i m e in Isaac. A b r a h a m , therefore, h o p e d for the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f Isaac a n d b e l i e v e d in a future w h i c h h a d not y e t h a p p e n e d . " I m m e d i a t e l y after this, a n t i - J e w i s h p o l e m i c s follow: " H o w , t h e n , are t h e y ' s o n s o f A b r a h a m ' w h o d o not b e l i e v e w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d in Christ, w h i c h A b r a h a m b e l i e v e d w a s to b e in Isaac? N a y , rather, that I m a y s p e a k m o r e clearly, A b r a h a m k n e w h i m s e l f to prefigure t h e i m a g e o f future truth; h e k n e w t h e C h r i s t w a s to b e b o r n from his seed, w h o also w a s to b e offered as a truer v i c t i m for the w h o l e w o r l d a n d w a s to b e raised from the d e a d . " sixth Festal

Letter

31

3 6

A t h a n a s i u s (fourth c e n t u r y ) in his

p a r a p h r a s e s the e x e g e t i c a l starting p o i n t in t h e N e w Testa­

m e n t for A b r a h a m ' s j o y , J o h n 8:56: " . . . t h e p a t r i a r c h A b r a h a m rejoiced not to Oudchristelijke teksten over Genesis 22, Kampen 1996. [See now also E. Kessler, Bound by the Bible. Jews, Christians and the Sacrifice of Isaac, Cambridge 2004.] Against the Heresies IV,5,4—5. Homily 8 on Genesis. The Festal Epistles of St. Athanasius (translatedfrom the Syriac), Oxford 1854, 5 0 - 5 1 . 3 5

3 6

3 7

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s e e his o w n day, b u t that o f the L o r d ; a n d w h e n h e t h u s l o n g e d for it, h e s a w it, a n d w a s g l a d . " T h i s e v o k e s the c o n t e x t o f C h r i s t i a n - J e w i s h p o l e m i c s a b o u t t h e m e s s i a n i c status o f J e s u s . I m m e d i a t e l y after the p a r a p h r a s e o f J o h n 8 A t h a n a s i u s b e g i n s to d i s c u s s the m e a n i n g o f A b r a h a m ' s sacrifice. T h e c o n t e x t is a l w a y s the d i s p u t e w i t h t h e J e w s . A t h a n a s i u s e v e n g o e s so far as to s u g g e s t that G o d s t o p p e d t h e sacrifice b e c a u s e o t h e r w i s e the J e w s w o u l d d e n y t h e prefiguration o f the sacrifice o f J e s u s Christ, as found in P s a l m 4 0 : 7 ( L X X 3 9 : 6 ) a c c o r d i n g to t h e text o f the S e p t u a g i n t : "Sacrifice a n d offering T h o u w o u l d e s t not, a b o d y T h o u hast p r e p a r e d m e . " A c c o r d i n g to A t h a n a s i u s , this text m u s t b e interpreted as a r e f e r e n c e to the i n c o m p l e t e sacrifice o f A b r a h a m a n d the i n c a r n a t i o n a n d d e a t h o f J e s u s C h r i s t respectively. If the sacrifice o f A b r a h a m h a d t a k e n p l a c e , A t h a n a s i u s a r g u e s , t h e J e w s w o u l d e l i m i n a t e P s a l m 3 9 [40] as a text in w h i c h I s a a c ' s r o l e a n d J e s u s ' role are p u t into the right p e r s p e c t i v e . Yet it w a s n o t I s a a c ' s d e a t h b u t J e s u s ' d e a t h that liberated t h e w o r l d . J e s u s raises u s from the d e a d a n d p r e p a r e s t h e j o y o f his festal b a n q u e t for u s . N e x t , A t h a n a s i u s e l a b o ­ rates for s o m e t i m e on t h e t h e m e o f joy. W e m a y c o n c l u d e : b e c a u s e h e f o r e s a w all this, A b r a h a m rejoiced. A s e r m o n b y t h e Latin a u t h o r Z e n o o f V e r o n a (fourth c e n t u r y ) is a n e x a m p l e o n t h e C h r i s t i a n side in w h i c h n o t a t y p o l o g i c a l e x e g e s i s but a m a r t y r o l o g i c a l m o t i f e x p l a i n s A b r a h a m ' s j o y : " A b r a h a m , fully d e v o t e d , s h o w s n o sad face, n e i t h e r d o e s g r i e f p e r s u a d e h i m to cry. N o , h e rejoices a n d is glad. A n d h e is n o t afraid to risk the a c c u s a t i o n o f p a r r i c i d e , r a t h e r h e is g l a d that G o d h a s c o m ­ m a n d e d h i m to d o this, so that h e c a n satisfy his d e v o t i o n . . . . W h e n e v e r y t h i n g is r e a d y for the m y s t e r i o u s sacrifice, the joyful father leads t h e j o y f u l son, w h o is g o i n g to b e killed b y his f a t h e r ' s right h a n d . . . In spite o f t h e terrible situation o f t h e s o n h e rejoices a n d is g l a d a n d h e j u b i l a t e s that h e h a s g a i n e d t h e L o r d . "

3 8

After this, t h e t h e m e of A b r a h a m ' s steadfastness a l m o s t b e c o m e s an e x e g e t i ­ cal c o m m o n p l a c e . T h u s Basil o f S e l e u c i a (fifth c e n t u r y ) w r i t e s : " H o w b r a v e w a s his soul: h e did n o t w a i l , h e did n o t cry, h e did n o t g i v e in to his n a t u r e , h e w a s not torn apart b y conflicting w i s h e s , h e did n o t contort his face, h e did n o t c h a n g e his c o n v i c t i o n , h e did n o t g i v e u p his intention, h e did not utter t h o s e w o r d s t h a t c a n b e e x p e c t e d from a father w h o is a s k e d to b u t c h e r his child, h e did n o t say what nature demands.. , "

2. Abraham

3 9

tries to convince

Sara

M o s t C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r s say that A b r a h a m k e p t S a r a i g n o r a n t o f the c o m m a n d to sacrifice Isaac, b e c a u s e h e w a s afraid that she w o u l d v e t o his p l a n s . T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , q u i t e a n u m b e r o f a u t h o r s w h o r e c o r d a h y p o t h e t i c a l s p e e c h b y Sara, 3 8

Treatise on Abraham I 43 (II 10). J.M.Tevel, De preken van Basilius 1990, 1 8 4 - 1 8 5 . 3 9

van Seleucie,

diss. Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam

A New Early Christian

Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

199

to s h o w w h a t s h e m i g h t h a v e said, since S a r a d o e s n o t o c c u r in G e n e s i s 2 2 . E v e n so I s h o ' d a d o f M e r v , a n i n t h c e n t u r y c o m p i l e r o f n u m e r o u s o l d e r s o u r c e s , o b s e r v e s that o p i n i o n s a b o u t the q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r A b r a h a m let S a r a into t h e secret are d i v i d e d .

40

In fact t h e r e are also d o c u m e n t s that r e c o r d a real d i s c u s ­

sion b e t w e e n A b r a h a m a n d Sara. A m o n g the d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n A b r a h a m , S a r a a n d I s a a c , a large n u m b e r o f Syriac texts, e s p e c i a l l y t h e so-called " d i a l o g u e p o e m s , " a specific S y r i a c literary g e n r e , c a t c h e s t h e e y e .

4 1

H o w e v e r o u r n e w text d o e s not p r e s e n t a d i a l o g u e , b u t a m o n o l o g u e w h i c h A b ­ r a h a m h o l d s in front o f Sara. S h e reacts b y p u t t i n g heart into Isaac. A n e x a m p l e o f a real d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n A b r a h a m a n d S a r a is t h e a n o n y m o u s D i a l o g u e P o e m on A b r a h a m a n d I s a a c .

42

A p p a r e n t l y , S a r a h a s s e n s e d the d i v i n e c o m m a n d a n d

s h e a s k s A b r a h a m w h y h e is c h o p p i n g w o o d : not b y a n y c h a n c e to sacrifice o u r s o n ? A b r a h a m o r d e r s h e r to b e silent, w h i c h S a r a i g n o r e s o f c o u r s e : You are not aware h o w I h a v e suffered the pains and travail through w h i c h he c a m e to be. S w e a r to m e by h i m that nothing will happen to him, for he is m y hope. Then g o .

To this, A b r a h a m replies: T h e m i g h t y G o d in w h o m I b e l i e v e stands surety for m e with y o u if y o u b e l i e v e firmly that your son Isaac returns s o o n and remains your consolation by his youth.

3. Sara puts

heart

into

Isaac

In o u r n e w text, S a r a p u t s h e a r t into Isaac. A d d r e s s e s b y S a r a to Isaac are r a r e .

43

A m p h i l o c h i u s o f I c o n i u m (fourth c e n t u r y ) r e c o r d s s u c h an a d d r e s s b y S a r a to Isaac,

44

in w h i c h she s a y s that s h e h o p e s that G o d will p r e v e n t the sacrifice at the

last m i n u t e a n d c h a n g e it into a " b l o o d l e s s sacrifice." S o s h e e x p e c t s that Isaac will return alive. After this a d d r e s s b y Sara, A b r a h a m q u i c k l y m a k e s off, as h e is afraid that s h e will c h a n g e h e r m i n d . R o m a n o s t h e S i n g e r (fifth-sixth c e n t u r y ) m a k e s Sara d e s c r i b e a similar feeling b e t w e e n h o p e a n d fear; she a d d r e s s e s Isaac

4 0

J.-M.Voste et C. van den Eynde, Commentaire de Isho'dadde Merv sur I'Ancien Testa­ ment. I. Genese, in: CSCO Vol. 126 = SS Tome 67, Louvain 1 9 5 0 , 1 7 3 (Syriac); CSCO Vol. 156 = SS Tome 75, Louvain 1955, 187 (French). Cf. S. Brock, "Two Syriac verse homilies on the binding of Isaac", Le Museon 99 (1986) 6 1 - 1 2 9 ; for a survey of the speeches by Sara in Syriac and Greek patristic literature, cp. ibid. 68. Ed. S. Brock, Sughyotho mgabyotho (= Select Dialogue Poems), Glane 1982, 7 - 1 2 . Brock, "Two Syriac verse homilies", 69. On the Patriarch Abraham, ed. L.van Rompay in: C. Datema (ed.), Amphilochii Iconiensis Opera, CCSG 3, Turnhout 1978, 2 8 0 - 2 8 1 (Coptic text with English translation). 4 1

4 2

4 3

4 4

200

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at l e n g t h .

45

Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

A n a n o n y m o u s Syriac h o m i l y also a l l o w s S a r a to s p e a k . In tears, she

a d m o n i s h e s Isaac to o b e y A b r a h a m : " W h e n y o u g o w i t h y o u r father, listen a n d d o all h e tells y o u , a n d if h e s h o u l d actually bind y o u , stretch o u t y o u r h a n d s to t h e b o n d s , a n d if h e s h o u l d actually sacrifice y o u , stretch out y o u r n e c k before his knife; stretch out y o u r n e c k like a l a m b , like a kid before t h e s h e a r e r . "

46

W h e n Isaac h a s r e t u r n e d safely, S a r a a d d r e s s e s h i m o n c e m o r e at the e n d o f the p o e m : " W e l c o m e , m y son, m y b e l o v e d , w e l c o m e , child o f m y v o w s ; w e l c o m e , o d e a d o n e c o m e to life, w e l c o m e . . . "

4 7

In a r e w o r k i n g o f his earlier s e r m o n on the

sacrifice o f A b r a h a m , G r e g o r y o f N y s s a e m p h a s i z e s S a r a ' s r o l e m o r e t h a n in t h e earlier t e x t .

48

T h i s is in the y e a r 3 8 5 , in the s p e e c h that h e g i v e s o n t h e o c c a s i o n

o f the p r i n c e s s P u l c h e r i a ' s d e a t h . H e tries to c o m f o r t t h e e m p r e s s Flacilla w i t h the e x a m p l e o f S a r a ' s c o u r a g e . In c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e earlier text, S a r a h a s a n u n u s u a l l y a c t i v e r o l e h e r e , b y m e a n s o f w h i c h h e h o p e s to set an e x a m p l e for the e m p r e s s . After h a v i n g f o r m u l a t e d an i m a g i n a r y a d d r e s s in w h i c h h e h a s S a r a a d d u c e all p o s s i b l e k i n d s o f o b j e c t i o n s to the sacrifice, G r e g o r y w r i t e s : " S a r a w o u l d c e r t a i n l y h a v e b r o u g h t forward t h e s e a n d similar t h i n g s , if s h e h a d not s e e n that w h i c h is invisible to u s w i t h h e r o w n e y e s . F o r s h e k n e w that t h e e n d o f the life in t h e flesh is the b e g i n n i n g o f the m o r e d i v i n e life for t h o s e w h o c r o s s o v e r : Isaac l e a v e s s h a d o w s b e h i n d , h e r e a c h e s truth, h e lets g o off d e l u s i o n s , er­ rors a n d n o i s e s a n d finds the g o o d t h i n g s that s u r p a s s e y e a n d ear a n d h e a r t (cf. 1 Cor. 2:9). L u s t will not t o r m e n t h i m n o r i m p u r e d e s i r e distract h i m , h e will n o t b e puffed u p w i t h p r i d e , n o r will a n y o t h e r o f t h e p a s s i o n s that t r o u b l e t h e soul h i n d e r h i m , b u t G o d b e c o m e s all t h i n g s to h i m (cf. 1 Cor. 15:28). T h a t is w h y s h e e a g e r l y g i v e s h e r son to G o d . "

4. Isaac

is willing

and he

4 9

rejoices

T h e r e is a n old a n d w i d e l y k n o w n tradition that Isaac h i m s e l f also l o o k e d for­ w a r d to t h e sacrifice w i l l i n g l y a n d w i t h j o y . T h i s s e e m s to fit in w i t h A b r a h a m ' s c o r r e s p o n d i n g attitude. T h e idea o f A b r a h a m ' s j o y is m o r e or less a s s u m e d in the text o f t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n ( 8 : 5 6 ) ; h o w e v e r , I s a a c ' s q u i e t n e s s o f m i n d or e v e n j o y c a n n o t b e d e r i v e d so easily from Scripture. B u t C l e m e n t o f R o m e (end o f the first c e n t u r y ) a l r e a d y w r i t e s : " I s a a c in confident k n o w l e d g e o f t h e future w a s g l a d l y led as a s a c r i f i c e . "

50

It is in the s a m e vein that M e l i t o o f S a r d e s ( s e c o n d c e n t u r y )

s p e a k s : " . . .Isaac w a s silent, b o u n d like a r a m , n o t o p e n i n g his m o u t h n o r uttering 4 5

Kontakion on Abraham and Isaac III 14 (in SC 99, cf. esp. 152/153 and 154/155). Brock, "Two Syriac verse homilies" 118 (Syriac) and 123 (English). Ibidem 122 and 125. Cp. his On the divinity of the Son and the Spirit and on Abraham, Gregorii Nysseni Opera [=GNO] X , 2 , Leiden 1996, 135 with his work In Pulcheriam, Gregorii Nysseni Opera IX, Leiden 1967, 469. Ibid. 4 6 9 , 1 0 - 2 0 . 1 Clement X X X L 3 . 4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

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Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

a s o u n d . F o r not frightened b y the s w o r d n o r a l a r m e d b y the fire n o r sorrowful at t h e offering, h e carried w i t h fortitude the m o d e l o f the L o r d . "

51

Clement of

A l e x a n d r i a ( s e c o n d / t h i r d c e n t u r y ) p l a y s w i t h the e t y m o l o g y o f I s a a c ' s n a m e , w h i c h h e interpret as " l a u g h i n g , "

52

p r o b a b l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e story o f I s a a c ' s

birth, e s p e c i a l l y G e n . 2 1 : 6 . H o w e v e r , C l e m e n t d o e s n o t d e v e l o p the t h e m e o f the l a u g h t e r a n d j o y from the birth story, b u t from G e n . 2 6 : 8 . T h e r e I s a a c ' s " f o n d l i n g " ( t h u s in the H e b r e w ) is t r a n s l a t e d into the G r e e k o f the S e p t u a g i n t as " s p o r t i n g " (paizon).

W e m a y w o n d e r w h e t h e r I s a a c ' s m a r i t a l bliss d e s c r i b e d

h e r e c a n n o t also b e c o n n e c t e d s o m e h o w w i t h his j o y a b o u t the sacrifice, since p r e c i s e l y his w e d d i n g is u s e d as a n i m a g e for the sacrifice, b o t h in o u r n e w text a n d e l s e w h e r e (see b e l o w ) . M o r e o v e r , C l e m e n t h i m s e l f i n d i c a t e s the possibility that the Biblical text in q u e s t i o n is u n d e r s t o o d as referring to the j o y o f the r e a d e r a b o u t his s a l v a t i o n (by J e s u s C h r i s t ) , like I s a a c , w h o " d e l i v e r e d from d e a t h , l a u g h e d , s p o r t i n g a n d rejoicing w i t h his s p o u s e . . . "

5 3

We conclude: Clement

links a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e m e a n i n g o f I s a a c ' s n a m e w i t h a tradition o f I s a a c ' s j o y after (!) t h e c a n c e l l a t i o n o f the sacrifice, a l t h o u g h h e finds the e x e g e t i c a l b a s i s for this in the text o f G e n e s i s o n l y four c h a p t e r s further d o w n . B u t a j o y f u l Isaac before t h e sacrifice is o f c o u r s e m u c h m o r e r e m a r k a b l e . It s e e m s feasible that this m o t i f finds its e x e g e t i c a l starting p o i n t in G e n . 2 1 : 6 , b u t so far w e h a v e not found a text w h i c h explicitly m a k e s this c o n n e c t i o n . A m p h i l o c h i u s o f I c o n i u m (fourth c e n t u r y ) in his s e r m o n o n G e n . 2 2 r e c o r d s several s p e e c h e s o f the a c t o r s i n v o l v e d , i n c l u d i n g Isaac. A b r a h a m ' s son r e ­ p r o a c h e s his father that h e is n o t frank w i t h h i m : I myself, I am ready, o m y father, but m y mind ponders: W h i c h is the s h e e p ? Or what is that w h i c h will be slain? Perhaps it is m e . I a m the s h e e p ! W h y don't y o u reveal to m e m y killing? W h y do y o u d e c e i v e m e as if I w e r e not w i l l i n g to offer m y s e l f to G o d ? Certainly I a m w i l l i n g , and I implore it, I rejoice and I take delight in it. I h a v e b e c o m e n o w the o n e w h o m y o u hide from m e ; for after a w h i l e G o d w i l l reveal everything to m e . A n d n o w , build a place o f sacrifice, and this will b e c o m e a t o m b for m e , for your s o n , and I shall ascend it w e l l . I myself, m y father, I shall help y o u eagerly to build m y t o m b . I shall heap up the stones. M a y m y tomb r e s e m b l e a temple, and g u i d e m e thereto. Slay m e for the O n e w h o has called y o u .

5 4

O n c e a g a i n w e h a v e a p a s s a g e h e r e w i t h o u t a t y p o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e : its s c o p e s e e m s to b e p u r e l y m a r t y r o l o g i c a l . T h e s a m e g o e s for a p a s s a g e in t h e s e r m o n b y Z e n o o f V e r o n a (fourth c e n t u r y ) a l r e a d y referred to a b o v e ,

5 5

which explains

I s a a c ' s j o y as a j o y a b o u t the faith o f A b r a h a m , w h o is frank w i t h Isaac: " T h e father, w h o felt safe a b o u t t h e faith o f his offspring, r e v e a l e d to his son, c o n c e r n -

5 1

5 2

5 3

5 4

5 5

Fragment 9. Paidagogos 1,5,22,3. Paidagogos 1,5,22,2. CCSG 3, 286/287. See note 38.

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Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

ing w h o m h e h a d n o d o u b t s , w h a t the L o r d h a d r e q u i r e d from h i m , a n d m a d e clear to h i m w h a t h e h i m s e l f h a d p r o m i s e d to t h e L o r d . T h e b o y rejoiced a b o u t the faithful father, b e i n g strongly faithful himself, a n d h e did not refuse the death w h i c h the G o d w h o h a d g i v e n life h a d o r d e r e d . T h e father rejoices a b o u t the j o y f u l b o y a n d h e j o y f u l l y b i n d s t h e h a n d s o f t h e o n l y p l e d g e o f his love, w h o offers t h e m w i l l i n g l y to h a v e t h e m c u f f e d . "

5. Isaac

regards

the sacrifice

as a

56

wedding

In t h e n e w text, Isaac m a k e s a s p e e c h before his p a r e n t s a n d h e c o m p a r e s t h e sacrifice w i t h a w e d d i n g . A p a r t from the G r e e k tradition referred to a b o v e that d e a t h is r e g a r d e d as a w e d d i n g w i t h the g o d o f the u n d e r w o r l d ( H a d e s ) , t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f this c o m p a r i s o n is the i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f the sacrifice o f his o n l y son w i t h t h e p r o m i s e to A b r a h a m that his d e s c e n d a n t s w o u l d b e n u m e r o u s . B y this c o m p a r i s o n , Isaac s h o w s that h e c o n t i n u e s to h a v e faith in G o d ' s p r o m i s e . W e h a v e f o u n d n o o t h e r a d d r e s s o f Isaac to b o t h his p a r e n t s , b u t his w e d d i n g is d i s c u s s e d a few t i m e s , also as an i m a g e o f t h e sacrifice. T h u s a s e r m o n o f G r e g o r y o f N y s s a (fourth c e n t u r y ) that c o n t a i n s a section w h i c h l o o k s like a paraphrase of a poem by Pseudo-Ephrem

5 7

on A b r a h a m a n d h i s sacrifice, tells

u s that initially A b r a h a m t h o u g h t that G o d w o u l d o r d e r h i m to let Isaac m a r r y : " F o r w i t h o u t d o u b t h e e x p e c t s s o m e t h i n g like t h e c o m m a n d to let his s o n m a r r y a n d to p r e p a r e t h e bridal c h a m b e r quickly, so that t h e b l e s s i n g on h i s seed c o u l d take effect."

58

In an i m a g i n a r y s p e e c h , A b r a h a m reacts to G o d ' s c o m m a n d : " I s

this the b r i d a l c h a m b e r I a m to b u i l d ? Is this the m a r i t a l bliss for w h i c h I a m to m a k e p r e p a r a t i o n s ? A m I to light a funeral p y r e for h i m instead o f a w e d d i n g l a m p ? Is it for this p u r p o s e that I shall p u t o n a w r e a t h ? Shall I b e a father o f m a n y n a t i o n s in this w a y , w h e n n o child is c o n c e d e d to m e ? "

5 9

E q u a l l y in a n

i m a g i n a r y s p e e c h b y A b r a h a m , this t i m e a d d r e s s e d to Isaac, Basil o f S e l e u c i a (fifth c e n t u r y ) w r i t e s : " B u t I, m y child, w a s a l r e a d y t h i n k i n g a b o u t y o u r w e d d i n g suite a n d bridal c h a m b e r . B u t u n w i t t i n g l y I h a v e raised m y d e a r e s t for the fire a n d the s w o r d : instead o f a w e d d i n g suite there is an altar, instead o f t h e w e d d i n g t o r c h t h e r e is the altar f l a m e . "

6. Around

60

the flames the Red Sea

roars

A c c o r d i n g to t h e e d i t o r s o f t h e p a p y r u s , Isaac u n d e r w e n t a s y m b o l i c b a p t i s m at t h e m o m e n t o f h i s sacrifice (cf. a b o v e , n. 2 3 ) . W e h a v e found this m o t i f n o w h e r e 5 6

57

5 8

5 9

6 0

C C S L X X I I , 115. On the divinity..., cf. note 48 above and G N O X,2, 1 0 9 - 1 1 3 . G N O X , 2 133,7-10. G N O X , 2 134,15-19. Tevel, Preken 1 8 4 - 1 8 5 .

A New Early Christian

203

Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

else in this form. In s o m e e x p l i c a t i o n s o f G e n . 2 2 b a p t i s m is d i s c u s s e d , however.. Clement of Alexandria (second/third century) makes a connection between A b r a h a m ' s three d a y s j o u r n e y ( G e n . 2 2 : 3 - 4 ) a n d b a p t i s m ("the s e a l " ) in the n a m e o f the T r i n i t y .

61

Cyril o f J e r u s a l e m (fourth c e n t u r y ) w r i t e s that, b e c a u s e

A b r a h a m w a s p r e p a r e d to sacrifice his s o n , h e r e c e i v e d c i r c u m c i s i o n as the seal o f his faith. N o w the C h r i s t i a n s , w h o follow the faith o f A b r a h a m , b e c o m e c h i l d r e n o f A b r a h a m a n d " r e c e i v e like h i m t h e spiritual seal, b e i n g c i r c u m c i s e d b y the H o l y Spirit t h r o u g h b a p t i s m , n o t in t h e foreskin o f t h e b o d y , b u t in t h e heart."

62

S i n c e Isaac w a s o n l y eight d a y s old w h e n he w a s c i r c u m c i s e d (cf. G e n .

2 1 : 4 ) , o u r text c a n n o t refer to his c i r c u m c i s i o n ( w h i c h m i g h t t h e n h a v e b e e n linked w i t h C h r i s t i a n b a p t i s m ) . It w o u l d s e e m h i g h l y likely that w e h a v e h e r e s o m e kind o f prefiguration

o f C h r i s t i a n b a p t i s m . T h e R e d S e a is a v e r y c o m m o n

t y p e o f b a p t i s m in patristic t e x t s , as D a n i e l o u h a s s h o w n .

6 3

Is this w h a t t h e n e w

text hints at? D a n i e l o u a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s that s o m e J e w i s h a n d s o m e C h r i s t i a n s o u r c e s link the sacrifice o f A b r a h a m a n d t h e e x o d u s from E g y p t together. T h e P a s c h a l L a m b a n d A b r a h a m ' s sacrifice b o t h h a v e a t o n i n g v a l u e .

7. God's

hand

holds

Abraham

6 4

back

T h e text o f G e n . 2 2 says clearly that the a n g e l o f the L o r d called A b r a h a m a n d m a d e h i m c h a n g e his m i n d at the last m i n u t e . In t h e n e w text, h o w e v e r , it is G o d ' s h a n d that h o l d s h i m b a c k . B r o c k h a s e d i t e d a S y r i a c h o m i l y that s a y s that " t h e L o r d ' s right h a n d o v e r s h a d o w e d as a v o i c e c a m e from o n h i g h . "

6 5

The

p h r a s e o l o g y is t a k e n from P s . 1 3 8 : 7 - 8 . W e a l r e a d y referred a b o v e to a n c i e n t d e p i c t i o n s o f A b r a h a m ' s sacrifice like t h o s e in t h e D u r a - E u r o p o s s y n a g o g u e , the synagogue mosaic of Beth Alpha and m a n y Christian sarcophagi and other artefacts that r e p r e s e n t G o d ' s h a n d in this s c e n e .

6 6

We probably have here a

J e w i s h m o t i f that a p p a r e n t l y influenced C h r i s t i a n tradition.

8. A goat/apple

as fruit

in the tree serves

as an

alternative

T h e t y p o l o g i c a l link b e t w e e n the near-sacrifice o f Isaac a n d the c o m p l e t e sacri­ fice o f J e s u s C h r i s t leads to different d e s i g n a t i o n s in G r e e k o f the r a m w h i c h is substituted for Isaac in the G e n e s i s story. T h o s e d e s i g n a t i o n s c o m e c l o s e to the n o t i o n o f "sacrificial l a m b . " " R a m " in G r e e k is krios. F r o m t h e c a t e n a tradition it 6 1

Stromateis V, 11,73. Catechesis V,5-6. Cp. J. Danielou, From Shadows to Reality. Studies in the Typology of the Fathers, London 1960, 1 7 5 - 2 0 1 . Ibid. 119-120. "Two Syriac verse homilies" 127, at line 77. Cp. E.Lucchesi Palli in E. Kirchbaum (Hrsg.), Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie I, Freiburg 1968, col.24. 6 2

6 3

6 4

6 5

6 6

204

A New Early Christian

Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

is e v i d e n t h o w t h e c h u r c h fathers w r e s t l e d to m a k e s e n s e o f t h e typology. M e l i t o o f S a r d e s ( s e c o n d c e n t u r y ) s a y s : " T h e L o r d w a s a l a m b (amnos) (krios) w h i c h A b r a h a m s a w c a u g h t in a S a b e k - t r e e . "

67

c e n t u r y ) c o n t r a d i c t s M e l i t o w h e n h e s a y s that the r a m (krios) a y o u n g l a m b (amnos

like t h e r a m

E u s e b i u s o f E m e s a (fourth

neos) like Isaac, b u t a r a m (krios)

was precisely not

that w a s full-grown like

the L o r d ; n o d o u b t h e o n c e a g a i n refers to t h e difference in v a l u e b e t w e e n the two sacrifices.

68

S e v e r i a n o f G a b a l a (fourth/fifth c e n t u r y )

69

u s e s the t e r m pro-

baton ( " s h e e p , " referring to Is. 5 3 : 7 ) ; the s a m e is true o f the s e r m o n b y B a s i l o f S e l e u c i a . Lastly, M e l i t o o f S a r d e s , s p e a k i n g a b o u t J e s u s in c o m p a r i s o n to I s a a c , b r i n g s all t e r m s t o g e t h e r : " A s a r a m h e w a s b o u n d . . . . as a l a m b h e w a s s h o r n , as a s h e e p h e w a s led to slaughter, a n d as a l a m b h e w a s c r u c i f i e d . . . "

70

Nowhere

in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e x e g e s i s o f G e n . 2 2 h a v e w e c o m e a c r o s s the w o r d

melon

( " g o a t " ) that is u s e d in the n e w text. In fact, this t e r m is n o t found a n y w h e r e in the G r e e k O l d T e s t a m e n t . It l o o k s as if the a u t h o r c o n s c i o u s l y c h o s e a n u n u s u a l t e r m , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f t h e p o e t i c effect or b e c a u s e o f the p l a y o n w o r d s w i t h " t h e fruit in the t r e e " ( m o r e specifically an a p p l e , also n a m e d melon

in G r e e k ) .

H o w e v e r , s o m e t h i n g is the m a t t e r with the tree, at least in the S y r i a c tradi­ tion. T h u s E p h r e m the S y r i a n (fourth c e n t u r y ) in his c o m m e n t a r y o n G e n . 2 2 : 1 3 w r i t e s : " A b r a h a m s a w a r a m in a tree a n d h e t o o k h i m a n d offered h i m as a sacrifice instead o f his son. T h a t there w a s n o r a m there is p r o v e d b y Isaac a s k i n g for the l a m b . A n d that there w a s n o tree there is confirmed b y t h e w o o d o n I s a a c ' s s h o u l d e r s . T h e m o u n t a i n spat out the tree a n d t h e tree t h e r a m , in o r d e r that in t h e r a m that w a s h u n g a n d that w a s m a d e into a sacrifice for A b r a h a m ' s son, the d a y w o u l d b e prefigured o f h i m w h o w a s h u n g o n the w o o d like a r a m a n d w h o tasted d e a t h for t h e s a k e o f the w h o l e w o r l d . "

71

T h e d i a l o g u e p o e m referred to

a b o v e e q u a l l y s p e a k s o f " t h e tree that h a s n o t b e e n c o n c e i v e d , w h i c h b e a r s a fruit that h a s n o t b e e n r e c e i v e d . "

72

S e b a s t i a n B r o c k p o i n t s o u t that, a c c o r d i n g to

a J e w i s h tradition, the r a m w a s o n e o f the ten t h i n g s c r e a t e d at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f creation;

73

h e also s h o w s h o w t h e "virgin b i r t h " o f the r a m c a m e to lead its o w n

life in S y r i a c tradition. C o u l d it b e that o u r n e w text w i t h its p l a y o n w o r d s w i t h " g o a t " a n d " a p p l e " is i n d e b t e d to this Syriac t r a d i t i o n ? 6 7

Fragment 10. Petit, La chaine 236, frg. 1277. Petit, La chaine 2 3 2 , frg. 1271. Fragment 9. R.M.Tonneau, Sancti Ephraem Syri in Genesim et in Exodum commentarii, in: CSCO 152, SS7\, Louvain 1955, 84. The "day" is of course a reference to John 8:56. Edward G.Matthews, Jr., The Armenian Commentary on Genesis Attributed to Ephrem the Syrian, CSCO 573, Leuven 1998, p. X X X I , ranges the fact that Abraham finds a ram in "a tree" and not in "a bush" among "Jewish readings or ideas" that can be found in both the Pseudo-Ephremitic work he edits and also in Ephrem's genuine works: he emphasizes (note 70) that "tree" is the reading of all the Targums, against the reading of the Peshitta. Sughyotho 10. "Genesis 2 2 in Syriac Tradition" 28 n. 72. 6 8

6 9

7 0

7 1

7 2

7 3

A New Early Christian

Poem on the Sacrifice of Isaac

205

Conclusions T h e n e w p o e m offers the f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s o f c o n t a c t w i t h the C h r i s t i a n e x e g e t i ­ cal tradition o f G e n . 2 2 : A b r a h a m ' s j o y , a w e l l - k n o w n m o t i f that is c o n n e c t e d w i t h J o h n 8:56; the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n A b r a h a m a n d S a r a (in t h e tradition m o s t l y i m a g i n a r y ) ; the d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n Sara a n d Isaac (in the tradition rarely attested); I s a a c ' s j o y , d e p a r t i n g from t h e e t y m o l o g y o f " I s a a c " a n d from G e n . 2 6 : 8 ; the w e d d i n g as an i m a g e o f t h e sacrifice; the linking o f the sacrifice w i t h b a p t i s m ; the h a n d o f G o d instead o f t h e v o i c e o f the a n g e l ; the r a m ( g o a t ) as fruit in the tree. B u t there are also differences w h i c h s e e m to indicate a certain originality o f o u r C h r i s t i a n p o e t : t h e d i a l o g u e s are m o r e like m o n o l o g u e s ; Isaac a d d r e s s e s b o t h his p a r e n t s ; Isaac a s k s to h a v e his h a i r plaited; t h e r e are a c t i v e b y s t a n d e r s at the sacrifice; t h e unsacrificed Isaac s m e l l s o f i n c e n s e (as if the sacrifice h a d b e e n c o m p l e t e d in s o m e s e n s e ) ; the p l a y on w o r d s w i t h g o a t / a p p l e . T h e s e motifs d e s e r v e further research. T h u s it s e e m s that w e h a v e h e r e a literary p r o d u c t that stands within the Greek poetic tradition,

74

b u t that h a s b e e n influenced b y other,

p r o b a b l y S y r i a c , traditions: e s p e c i a l l y the p r e s e n c e o f s p e e c h e s a n d the "fruit in the t r e e " s e e m to p o i n t into that direction.

7 4

J.B.Glenthej, Cain and Abel in Syriac and Greek Writers (4th-6th centuries), CSCO 567, Leuven 1997, p. 275 indicates that just as in the homiletic tradition related to Gen.4, dialogue is also more characteristic of Syriac than of Greek homilies on Gen.22.

The Role of Scripture in Cyril of Scythopolis' Lives of the Monks of Palestine S t u d y i n g the r o l e o f S c r i p t u r e in the w r i t i n g s o f Cyril o f S c y t h o p o l i s t u r n e d o u t to b e a less e a s y e n t e r p r i s e than I h a d anticipated. T h e r e a s o n s for that are t h e f o l l o w i n g . In his edition o f C y r i l ' s G r e e k text, E d u a r d S c h w a r t z i n c l u d e d an 1

a p p e n d i x w i t h a list o f biblical r e f e r e n c e s ( ' Z i t a t e u n d A n s p i e l u n g e n ' ) ; a n d in his a n n o t a t i o n s to P r i c e ' s translation o f the w o r k , J o h n B i n n s h a s d u l y listed the 2

biblical q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s at t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p a g e s . S o at first sight it w o u l d s e e m that t h e g r o u n d h a d b e e n w e l l p r e p a r e d for the k i n d o f r e s e a r c h I w a n t e d to u n d e r t a k e . O n closer scrutiny, h o w e v e r , that t u r n e d o u t not to b e the 3

c a s e , for t h e s e t w o lists are far from b e i n g i d e n t i c a l . To m e n t i o n o n l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t differences: S c h w a r t z h a s r e f e r e n c e s that o n e d o e s not find in B i n n s ; B i n n s h a s r e f e r e n c e s that S c h w a r t z d o e s n o t h a v e ; a n d s o m e t i m e s their refer­ e n c e s differ for o n e a n d the s a m e p a s s a g e in t h e text. M o r e o v e r , t h e r e are d o z e n s o f p a s s a g e s in Cyril w i t h u n m i s t a k a b l y biblical a l l u s i o n s w h e r e n e i t h e r S c h w a r t z n o r B i n n s n o t e s a n y reference. S o in o r d e r to p r o v i d e the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i t h t h e b a s i s it n e e d s , t h e w h o l e o f C y r i l ' s text h a d to b e read all o v e r a g a i n in s e a r c h o f biblical q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s .

1

4

E. Schwartz, Kyrillos von Skythopolis ( T U G A L 49/2), Leipzig 1 9 3 9 , 2 5 4 - 2 5 6 . For serious criticisms o f Schwartz's edition see P. Thomsen, "Kyrillos von Skythopolis," O L Z 4 3 (1940) 4 5 7 - 4 6 3 ; cf. also E. Stein, "Cyrille de Scythopolis. A propos de la nouvelle edition de ses oeuvres," Analecta Bollandiana 62 (1944) 1 6 9 - 1 8 6 ; and F. J. Dolger, "E. Schwartz, Kyrillos von Skythopolis [TUGAL IV 4 9 , 2 ] , " Byz. Ztschr. 4 0 (1940) 4 7 4 - 4 8 4 . A s these critical reviews show, a new edition of Cyril based on all the evidence is a strongly felt desideratum. Important data about manuscripts and versions are to be found in H.-G. Beck, Kirche und theologische Literatur im byzantinischen Reich, Miinchen 1959, 410. Cyril of Scythopolis: The Lives of the Monks of Palestine, translated by R.M. Price with an Introduction and Notes by J. Binns, Kalamazoo 1991. A.-J. Festugiere's annotated French translation proved to be less helpful in tracing bibli­ cal quotes and reminiscences; see his Les moines d'Orient III 1-3, Paris 1 9 6 2 - 1 9 6 3 . In his introduction to Cyril, however, he claims to have found "216 citations de l'Ecriture" (III 1, 43). I have not been able to consult the Italian translation by R. Baldelli & L. Mortari, Cirillo di Scitopoli. Storie monastiche del deserto di Gerusalemme, Bresseo di Teolo 1990. For Cyril's use o f non-biblical sources the best survey to date is B. Flusin, Miracle et histoire dans I'oeuvre de Cyrille de Scythopolis, Paris 1983, 4 1 - 8 6 . 2

3

4

The Role of Scripture

in Cyril of

207

Scythopolis

Let u s b e g i n w i t h s o m e d r y statistics. A l t o g e t h e r I found 2 7 5 biblical refer­ 5

e n c e s in C y r i l ' s Lives:

133 from the ( G r e e k ) O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d 142 from t h e

6

7

N e w T e s t a m e n t . B y ' r e f e r e n c e ' I m e a n b o t h q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s . O n the 2 4 3 p a g e s o f G r e e k in S c h w a r t z ' s edition this is slightly o v e r o n e reference a 8

p a g e on a v e r a g e . T h i s distribution is also m o r e or less reflected in the individual Lives: E u t h y m i u s has 107 r e f e r e n c e s on 8 0 p a g e s ; S a b a s 117 o n 116 p a g e s ; J o h n the H e s y c h a s t 2 3 on 2 2 p a g e s ; C y r i a c u s 21 o n 13 p a g e s ; T h e o d o s i u s 6 o n 5,5 p a g e s ; T h e o g n i u s 4 o n 2 p a g e s ; o n l y t h e p o o r A b r a a m i u s h a s 0 references on 4 p a g e s (but, admittedly, this Vita is n o t c o m p l e t e ) . T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t is referred to slightly m o r e often than the O l d ( 1 4 2 v e r s u s 133) from an a b s o l u t e p o i n t o f view, b u t in v i e w o f the fact that t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t is m u c h s m a l l e r than the O l d , it m a y b e said from a relative p o i n t o f v i e w that it is m u c h m o r e referred to t h a n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the biblical b o o k that is m o s t often q u o t e d or a l l u d e d to is a b o o k from the O l d T e s t a m e n t , n a m e l y the b o o k o f P s a l m s . W i t h its 4 0 r e f e r e n c e s it is g o o d for a l m o s t 1 5 % o f all q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s , in the Life of Sabas

e v e n for 2 0 % : that Vita c o n t a i n s n o less than 2 2

r e f e r e n c e s to the b o o k o f P s a l m s . In a n o t h e r respect, t o o , the b o o k o f P s a l m s s t a n d s o u t a m o n g t h e biblical b o o k s in C y r i l ' s w r i t i n g s . W h a t I call 'favorite q u o t e s ' (or a l l u s i o n s ) , i.e. q u o t e s that o c c u r m o r e than o n c e , d e r i v e from 16 biblical b o o k s , 4 O l d T e s t a m e n t a n d 12 N e w T e s t a m e n t b o o k s , b u t it is o n l y the b o o k o f P s a l m s that h a s 4 p a s s a g e s that are q u o t e d m o r e t h a n o n c e a n d e v e n 9

s o m e v e r s e s that are q u o t e d 3 or 4 t i m e s : Ps. 4 : 8 ( 9 ) a n d P s . 1 4 4 [ 1 4 5 ] : 9 . G e n e s i s w i t h 18 r e f e r e n c e s a n d Isaiah w i t h 12 (9 o f t h e m in t h e Life ofSabasl),

further

M a t t h e w w i t h 25 r e f e r e n c e s , L u k e w i t h 18, a n d P a u l ' s Letter to t h e R o m a n s w i t h 13 are also great favorites, b u t t h e y all lag far b e h i n d the b o o k o f P s a l m s . N o w it m u s t b e a d d e d i m m e d i a t e l y that in this r e s p e c t C y r i l d o e s not d e v i a t e from o t h e r early m o n a s t i c w r i t e r s or w r i t i n g s , as s o m e r a n d o m c o m p a r i s o n s m a k e clear. If o n e t a k e s , for i n s t a n c e , t h e Historia

monachorum

in

Aegypto,

o n e will find that t h e b o o k o f P s a l m s is m o s t often referred t o , i m m e d i a t e l y followed b y the G o s p e l o f M a t t h e w , t h e n t h e b o o k o f G e n e s i s , a n d then the prophet Isaiah. 5

10

In T h e o d o r e t o f C y r r h u s ' w o r k on the Syrian m o n k s

(Philotheos

Schwartz has 2 4 0 references; Binns 182. For Festugiere see note 3. Although I do realize the inadequacy of the terminology when speaking of 'Old Testa­ ment' and ' N e w Testament,' for reasons of convenience I retain this traditional terminology. I found what I think are 115 quotations and 160 allusions, but I will come back later in this article to the problematic nature o f this distinction. In practice, one page sometimes contains a whole cluster of citations and/or allusions, whereas sometimes these are completely or almost completely absent in a large number of con­ secutive pages (e.g. Sab. 3 3 - 3 8 [pp. 118-128 Schw.]). Especially in the long passages that Cyril devotes to the christological controversies, scriptural references are completely lacking (which might be indicative o f the lack o f biblical support for the positions o f the warring parties). Only Gen. 25:8 is referred to 4 times as well. See the Index o f biblical passages in P. W. van der Horst, Woestijn, begeerte en geloof. De Historia monachorum in Aegypto (ca. 400 na Chr.), Kampen 1995, 1 2 4 - 1 2 6 . 6

7

8

9

1 0

208 historia),

The Role of Scripture

in Cyril of

Scythopolis

the p i c t u r e is o n l y slightly different: A g a i n the b o o k o f P s a l m s is w a y

out in front, followed b y G e n e s i s a n d M a t t h e w , b u t this t i m e the G o s p e l o f J o h n scores higher than Isaiah.

11

In J o h n C a s s i a n ' s Conlationes

the book of Psalms

easily w i n s o v e r all other biblical b o o k s in t e r m s o f frequency o f q u o t e s a n d a l l u s i o n s , f o l l o w e d b y M a t t h e w , Isaiah a n d G e n e s i s , b u t this t i m e P a u l ' s epistle to the R o m a n s s c o r e s as high as I s a i a h .

12

In P a l l a d i u s ' Historia

Lausiaca,

how­

ever, t h e G o s p e l s o f M a t t h e w a n d L u k e s c o r e h i g h e s t , f o l l o w e d b y t h e b o o k o f 13

P s a l m s a n d G e n e s i s (Isaiah b e i n g a l m o s t a b s e n t ) . A n d , finally, a quite different e x a m p l e : in an a n t h o l o g y o f texts a b o u t t h e d e s e r t fathers in D u t c h translation that I c o m p i l e d r e c e n t l y a n d w h i c h c o m p r i s e s a w i d e v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l from t h e fourth t h r o u g h sixth c e n t u r i e s , w e find a situation that is, interestingly e n o u g h , c o m p l e t e l y parallel to w h a t w e find in Cyril: t h e r e are 2 9 0 q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s in s o m e 2 8 0 p a g e s o f text (so a g a i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e r e f e r e n c e a p a g e ) ; the h i g h e s t s c o r e is that o f the b o o k o f P s a l m s , f o l l o w e d b y t h e G o s p e l s o f M a t t h e w a n d L u k e , t h e n b y Isaiah a n d G e n e s i s .

1 4

A n d a look at o t h e r w o r k s

from the w o r l d o f early m o n a s t i c i s m a l m o s t invariably y i e l d s the s a m e or at least a v e r y similar p i c t u r e .

15

N o w it s h o u l d n o t surprise u s that M a t t h e w is t h e G o s p e l that is m o s t often referred to. B e i n g the first G o s p e l in t h e c a n o n i c a l order, it w a s r e a d m o s t often in s e r v i c e s a n d h e n c e b e c a m e the b e s t k n o w n a n d m o s t frequently q u o t e d o f t h e four G o s p e l s in t h e a n c i e n t c h u r c h , to b e g i n w i t h .

1 6

M o r e o v e r , it is e s p e c i a l l y t h e

S e r m o n o n the M o u n t , w i t h its h i g h d e m a n d s - w h i c h o n l y M a t t h e w h a s - that w a s a n e n o r m o u s s o u r c e o f inspiration for the early m o n k s ; h e n c e t h e n u m b e r o f 17

q u o t a t i o n s from M a t t h e w 5 - 7 in o u r s o u r c e s is relatively l a r g e . A n d it s t a n d s to r e a s o n that in g e n e r a l a G o s p e l w i t h stories a b o u t J e s u s w a s m o r e o f a favorite a n d therefore b e t t e r k n o w n a m o n g t h e desert fathers a n d their b i o g r a p h e r s t h a n 11

See the Index in P. Canivet & A. Leroy-Molinghen (edd.), Theodoret de Cyr: Histoire des moines de Syrie II (SC 257), Paris 1979, 3 1 9 - 3 2 2 . See B. Ramsey, John Cassian: The Conferences, N e w York 1997, 8 6 1 - 8 8 2 . See G.J.M. Bartelink, Palladio: La storia lausiaca, Milan 1974, 407^108. See P. W. van der Horst, De woestijnvaders, Amsterdam 1998, 2 8 1 - 2 8 5 . D. Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert. Scripture and the Quest for Holiness in Early Christian Monasticism, N e w York - Oxford 1993, 97: "All agree that the most frequently cited Old Testament texts are the Psalms, followed by the books o f Genesis and Isaiah." Cf. H. Bacht, "Vom Umgang mit der Bibel im altesten Monchtum," Theologie und Philosophic 41 (1966) 5 5 8 - 5 5 9 : Psalms, Isaiah, and Matthew are the top three in the Apophthegmatapatrum. It should be added here that already in the N e w Testament the books o f Psalms, Isaiah and Genesis are the most often quoted books from the Old Testament, although the differences with other books are far less outspoken than in the literature of the desert fathers. E.g., E. Romero Pose, "Matthieu," in Dictionnaire encyclopedique du christianisme ancien, ed. A. di Berardino, vol. 2, Paris 1990, 1 5 8 9 - 1 5 9 0 . See K. McVey, "The Chreia in the Desert: Rhetoric and the Bible in the Apophthegmata Patrum" in A.J. Malherbe et al. (eds.), The Early Church in Its Context. Essays in Honor of Everett Ferguson, Leiden 1998, 245, who refers to L. Regnault, "The Beatitudes in the Apoph­ thegmata Patrum," Eastern Churches Review 6 (1974) 2 3 - 4 3 (non vidi). 1 2

1 3

14

15

1 6

1 7

The Role of Scripture

in Cyril of

209

Scythopolis

the m o r e ' t h e o r e t i c a l ' w r i t i n g s o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t . B u t w h a t m a d e the b o o k s o f G e n e s i s , P s a l m s a n d Isaiah to b e preferred to o t h e r biblical b o o k s ? A s for the b o o k o f G e n e s i s , there c a n b e little d o u b t that, a p a r t from its b e i n g b e s t k n o w n d u e to its p o s i t i o n as the first b o o k in t h e B i b l e , it w a s e s p e c i a l l y t h e stories a b o u t t h e p i o n e e r s o f faith, the P a t r i a r c h s , that m a d e this b o o k a particular favorite w i t h t h e early m o n k s . T h e P a t r i a r c h s ' r o a m i n g t h r o u g h the N e a r E a s t e r n d e s e r t s at G o d ' s c o m m a n d c a n n o t h a v e failed to m a k e i m p a c t o n the m i n d s o f the d e s e r t fathers a n d their a d m i r e r s . T h e fact that Cyril r e p e a t e d l y a l l u d e s to the w o r d i n g o f G e n . 2 5 : 8 , w h e r e A b r a h a m ' s d e a t h is d e s c r i b e d , w h e n h e w r i t e s a b o u t the d e a t h o f S a b a s (Sab. 7 0 [ 1 7 1 , 2 9 ] ) ,

18

o f E u t h y m i u s (Euth.

3 9 [59,14]),

a n d o f T h e o d o s i u s (Theod. 4 [ 2 3 9 , 2 6 ] ) , m a k e s clear that h e r e g a r d e d t h e s e saints as w o r t h y followers o f this g r e a t Patriarch. In this c o n n e c t i o n J o h n B i n n s rightly s p e a k s o f " t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g that the lives o f t h e saints c o n f o r m to biblical m o d e l s . "

1 9

A s far as Isaiah is c o n c e r n e d , w e s h o u l d r e m i n d o u r s e l v e s o f t h e fact that " t h e c o n c e p t o f the w i l d e r n e s s b l o s s o m i n g like t h e r o s e is d e v e l o p e d in Isaiah as n o w h e r e e l s e . "

2 0

B o t h at t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d at the e n d o f the Life of

Sabas

(Sab. 6 [90,9] a n d 9 0 [200,6]) f a m o u s Isaianic p a s s a g e s s u c h as " L e t the desert rejoice a n d b l o s s o m like t h e lily" (Is. 3 5 : 1 ) a n d " t h e L o r d will m a k e h e r wilder­ n e s s like E d e n a n d h e r desert like t h e g a r d e n o f t h e L o r d " (Is. 5 1 : 3 ) are q u o t e d or a l l u d e d to. N o w m o s t o f t h e desert fathers will n o t h a v e p o s s e s s e d a B i b l e . e x p e n s i v e a n d s c a r c e i t e m s , u s u a l l y o n l y a c c e s s i b l e in l i b r a r i e s , o f b o o k s in g e n e r a l w a s often f r o w n e d u p o n b y t h e s e m o n k s .

2 3

22

21

Books were

and possession

B u t they certainly

k n e w t h e s e texts from their w e e k l y g a t h e r i n g s w h e r e the S c r i p t u r e s w e r e read. A n d that a p p l i e s a fortiori

to the b o o k o f P s a l m s . P s a l m s w e r e often learnt b y

heart in o r d e r to b e s u n g in the w e e k l y s e r v i c e s ,

1 8

24

but n o t o n l y that. P s a l m s w e r e

Numbers between brackets after the chapter number refer to page and line in Schwartz's edition. J. Binns, Ascetics and Ambassadors of Christ. The Monasteries of Palestine, 314-631, Oxford 1994, 6 1 . See also D. Krueger, "Typological Figuration in Theodoret of Cyrrhus's Religious History and the Art o f Postbiblical Narrative," JECS 5 (1997) 3 9 3 - 4 1 9 . J.F.A. Sawyer, The Fifth Gospel. Isaiah in the History of Christianity, Cambridge 1996, 56. See Y. Hirschfeld, The Judean Desert Monasteries in the Byzantine Period, N e w Haven and London 1992, 96. H. Y. Gamble, Books and Readers in the Early Church, N e w Haven & London 1995, 1 7 0 - 1 7 4 , on early monastic libraries. Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert 115-116. H. Dorries, "Die Bibel im altesten Monchtum," TLZ12 (1947) 217 ( 2 1 5 - 2 2 2 ) . Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert 117-118. See on this aspect now especially the most important monograph on Sabas ever, namely J. Patrich, Sabas, Leader of Palestinian Monasticism. A Comparative Study of Eastern Monasticism, Fourth to Seventh Centuries, Washington 1995, 2 2 9 - 2 3 9 and 264. 1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

210

The Role of Scripture

in Cyril of

Scythopolis

also m e m o r i z e d b e c a u s e the desert fathers ( a n d also the o t h e r m o n k s ) u s e d t h e m for their m e d i t a t i o n s .

25

W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is that

"[fjirstly it w a s the Psalter alone that they used, not b e c a u s e they lacked anything e l s e but b e c a u s e there w a s a g r o w i n g c o n v i c t i o n in the fourth century in both secular and monastic circles that the ' s o n g s o f the Spirit,' as they w e r e considered to be, w e r e to b e preferred to mere ecclesiastical c o m p o s i t i o n s . ( . . . ) Secondly, this attitude towards the inspiration o f the Psalter c o u p l e d with the fact that the aim w a s to fill day and night with unbroken prayer meant that, whereas previously it had b e e n u s e d selectively, appropriate p s a l m s for different o c c a s i o n s and situations b e i n g drawn from it, it w a s n o w to be c o m m i t t e d to m e m o r y and for the first time used in its entirety, and it c a m e to b e regarded as a great and w o r t h y a c c o m p l i s h m e n t to g o through the w h o l e Psalter in the space o f twenty-four hours: in effect, the h y m n b o o k o f the secular church b e c a m e the prayer b o o k o f monasti­ cism."

2 6

T h i s m a d e t h e b o o k o f P s a l m s not o n l y the b e s t k n o w n b o o k o f t h e B i b l e in t h e s e circles b u t also t h e m o s t b e l o v e d , since it p l a y e d s u c h a pivotal role in their s t r u g g l e for spiritual g r o w t h . F o r o u r p u r p o s e s it is not irrelevant to n o t e that, as far as Cyril h i m s e l f is c o n c e r n e d , in an a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n o t e in the Vita o f S a b a s h e tells u s that t h e great saint u r g e d his [Cyril's] father: " T e a c h h i m the Psalter, for I n e e d h i m ! " (Sab. 7 5 [ 1 8 0 , 2 3 ] ) .

27

Cyril u s e s a r e m a r k a b l y w i d e variety o f f o r m u l a s to i n t r o d u c e q u o t a t i o n s from S c r i p t u r e , w h i c h i n c l u d e "that text o f S c r i p t u r e s a y s . . . " (Euth.

3 5 [53,14]),

" S c r i p t u r e calls s u c h a p e r s o n . . . " (Sab. 2 8 [ 1 1 3 , 1 4 ] ) , " t h e G o s p e l s a y i n g o f the L o r d that r u n s . . . " (Sab. 2 [ 8 8 , 8 - 9 ] ) , " t h a t terryfying threat that r u n s . . . "

(Sab.

Prol. [ 8 6 , 1 4 ] , i n t r o d u c i n g M a t . 2 5 : 2 6 - 2 7 ) , " t h e c u r s e o f the P r o p h e t w h o s a y s ..." (Sab. 2 [ 8 8 , 1 5 ] ) , " t h e D a v i d i c s a y i n g . . . " (Sab. w i t h w h a t is w r i t t e n . . . " (Sab. (Sab.

12 [95,13]), " i n a c c o r d a n c e

12 [95,17]), " w i t h the w o r d s o f t h e p r o p h e t . . . "

16 [ 9 9 , 1 5 ] ) , " w h a t t h e p r o p h e t a d v i s e s . . . " (Sab.

3 9 [ 1 2 9 , 1 8 ] ) , " a s the

a p o s t l e s a y s . . . " (Sab. 4 0 [ 1 3 1 , 1 5 ] ) , " t h e p r e c e p t that s a y s . . . " (Sab. 4 7 [ 1 3 8 , 3 ] ) , "it is w e l l said in d i v i n e Scripture that . . . " (Sab. 52 [ 1 4 4 , 2 5 ] ) , " D a v i d s a y s . . . " (Cyr. 10 [ 2 2 8 , 2 9 ] ) , " t h e G o s p e l s a y s . . . " (Cyr. 3 [ 2 2 4 , 4 - 5 ] ) e t c .

2 8

W h a t is strik­

ing h e r e is that w o r d s for ' s a y i n g ' are u s e d m u c h m o r e frequently than w o r d s for ' w r i t i n g ' ('it is w r i t t e n ' o c c u r s o n l y v e r y r a r e l y ) . Is this a reflection o f the fact that t h e early m o n k s w e r e e x p o s e d to S c r i p t u r e m o r e often b y h e a r i n g t h a n b y r e a d i n g it? M o s t p r o b a b l y s o . 2 5

2 9

Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert 97, 112-113. P. F. Bradshaw, Daily Prayer in the Early Church, London 1981, 94. Biblical books completely absent from Cyril's writings are, from the Old Testament, Leviticus, 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemia, Esther, Lamentations, and 7 of the 12 Minor Prophets (Hosea, Obadiah, Micha, Nahum, Zephaniah, Haggai, Malachi); from the N e w Testament, the Epistles to Titus and Philemon, 1+2+3 John, and the Apocalypse of John. Cf. Bacht, "Vom Umgang mit der Bibel" 5 5 9 - 5 6 0 , w h o deals with the various quotation formula's in the Apophthegmata patrum. It should be borne in mind that many monks were illiterate as most other people of their times; see Gamble, Books and Readers in the Early Church 1 —4-1. Deviations from the biblical 2 6

2 7

2 8

2 9

The Role of Scripture

in Cyril of

211

Scythopolis

M o r e often, h o w e v e r , biblical q u o t a t i o n s are not m a r k e d as such, but are i n t e r w o v e n w i t h C y r i l ' s text. F o r i n s t a n c e , in his farewell a d d r e s s on his d e a t h b e d E u t h y m i u s s a y s : " W h i l e h u m i l i t y exalts to a h e i g h t , l o v e p r e v e n t s falling from this height, since h e w h o h u m b l e s h i m s e l f will b e e x a l t e d a n d love n e v e r fails" (Euth.

3 9 [ 5 8 , 9 - 1 0 ] ) , t h e latter part o f this s a y i n g b e i n g n o t h i n g else than

literal q u o t e s from L u k e 18:14 a n d 1 Cor. 13:8. In a n o t h e r story an a n g e l a p p e a r s to S a b a s , s h o w s h i m a c a v e a n d s a y s : " M a k e it y o u r h o m e a n d h e w h o g i v e s food to the a n i m a l s a n d to t h e y o u n g r a v e n s that i n v o k e h i m will h i m s e l f t a k e c a r e o f y o u " (Sab.

15 [ 9 8 , 4 - 6 ] ) , w h i c h is for the m o s t part a literal q u o t e from

P s a l m 1 4 6 [ 1 4 7 ] : 9 . O n c e S a b a s said to his d i s c i p l e A g a p e t u s , w h o h a d fallen a s l e e p : " D r i v e h e a v y sleep from y o u r e y e s a n d c a r e l e s s n e s s from y o u r h e a r t to s a v e y o u r s e l f as a gazelle from the s n a r e s a n d as a bird from t h e t r a p " (Sab.

23

[ 1 0 7 , 2 0 ] ) , a g a i n h a l f o f the s a y i n g b e i n g a q u o t e from Prov. 6:5 ( L X X ) . A n d m a n y more examples could be given. T h i s b r i n g s us to t h e slippery a r e a o f a l l u s i o n s . M a k i n g a h a r d a n d fast distinc­ tion b e t w e e n q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s is n o t o r i o u s l y difficult. A s t h e e x a m p l e s j u s t m e n t i o n e d m a k e clear, it is t o o s i m p l e to state that o n l y citations that are m a r k e d off clearly from their c o n t e x t b y q u o t a t i o n f o r m u l a s c o u n t as q u o t a t i o n s . B u t then the q u e s t i o n arises: W h e n d o e s a q u o t a t i o n that is n o t p r e c e d e d b y a q u o t a t i o n f o r m u l a c e a s e to b e a q u o t a t i o n a n d b e c o m e a n a l l u s i o n ? T h a t is often h a r d to say, partly b e c a u s e t h e r e is so far n o g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d definition o f w h a t an allusion is. T h i s p r o b l e m is strikingly d e m o n s t r a t e d b y D o u g l a s B u r t o n C h r i s t i e in his i m p o r t a n t b o o k The Word in the Desert?® In this s t u d y on the role o f Scripture in the sayings o f t h e desert fathers (Apophthegmata

Patrum),

h e lists

in a v e r y r e v e a l i n g a p p e n d i x the n u m b e r s o f biblical q u o t a t i o n s a n d a l l u s i o n s as n o t e d in four editions a n d t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e apophthegmata.

There one can

s e e that C o t e l i e r n o t e d 145 o f t h e m , Ward 9 3 , R e g n a u l t 2 2 4 , a n d M o r t a r i n o less than 8 3 2 ! To g i v e o n e m o r e c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e : C o t e l i e r n o t e d 6 r e f e r e n c e s to the b o o k o f G e n e s i s , W a r d 4 , R e g n a u l t 2 0 , a n d M o r t a r i 5 2 . N o w , fortunately, for o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e it is n o t n e c e s s a r y to g o into the details o f the d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t an allusion is. Suffice it to say that a l l u s i o n s - w h e t h e r b r o a d l y or n a r r o w l y defined - far o u t n u m b e r t h e q u o t a t i o n s in C y r i l ' s w o r k . H i s l a n g u a g e is i m b u e d w i t h biblical diction, p h r a s e o l o g y , i m a g e r y , a n d all sorts o f r e m i n i s c e n c e s . " T h e B i b l e is u s e d consistently a n d frequently in all parts o f his L i v e s . "

31

A s if to m a k e

this p r o g r a m m a t i c a l l y clear, in t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h o f his w o r k Cyril m a k e s u s e o f a l o n g c o n c a t e n a t i o n o f five biblical p a s s a g e s w i t h o u t m a r k i n g t h e m as s u c h ( e x c e p t for o n e e l e m e n t ) . text in Cyril may partly be due to quoting from memory, partly also to changing the text on purpose. O f the latter w e find a fine instance in Theogn. 1 ( 2 4 3 , 1 - 2 ) where a reference to the cross o f Jesus is inserted into an otherwise literal quotation from Job 38:11. Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert 3 0 1 - 3 0 3 . Binns, Ascetics and Ambassadors of Christ 60. 3 0

31

212

The Role of Scripture

in Cyril of

Scythopolis

L e t m e g i v e o n e or t w o o t h e r e x a m p l e s , the first o n e b o r r o w e d from J o h n B i n n s ' b o o k o n t h e J u d a e a n desert f a t h e r s .

32

In his story o f the foundation o f

C a s t e l l i o n , Cyril n o t e s that there w e r e large n u m b e r s o f d e m o n s l u r k i n g t h e r e that S a b a s h a d to struggle w i t h . S o m e s h e p h e r d s w e r e w i t n e s s e s to this s t r u g ­ gle: " T h e r e w e r e s h e p h e r d s in the desert r o u n d that m o u n t a i n , w h o w e r e out in the fields k e e p i n g w a t c h o v e r their flock; m a r k i n g t h e t u m u l t ( . . . ) t h e y w e r e e x t r e m e l y frightened a n d said to e a c h other: ' ( . . . ) L e t u s m a k e o u r w a y to the hill a n d s e e w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d " ' (Sab.

27 [111,6-11]). T h e extremely close

v e r b a l similarity w i t h the s c e n e o f t h e s h e p h e r d s in the fields o f B e t h l e h e m in the G o s p e l o f L u k e 2 : 8 - 1 5 c a n n o t e s c a p e o n e ' s n o t i c e a n d it is clear that pur­ posefully Cyril h a s s h a p e d the narrative after this biblical m o d e l . T h e s e c o n d e x a m p l e is quite different. T h e o p e n i n g line o f the Life of Sabas

(Prol. [85,12])

r u n s , " B l e s s e d b e t h e G o d a n d F a t h e r o f o u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , " w h i c h is a literal q u o t e o f the o p e n i n g line o f b o t h P a u l ' s S e c o n d L e t t e r to the C o r i n t h i a n s (1:3) a n d his E p i s t l e to the E p h e s i a n s (1:3). S o right from t h e start o f this w o r k on C y r i l ' s favorite saint a biblical or a p o s t o l i c n o t e is s o u n d e d . L e t us n o w h a v e a c l o s e r look at s o m e o f t h e p a s s a g e s in t h e Life of

Sabas

w h e r e C y r i l q u o t e s explicitly from S c r i p t u r e to see h o w biblical m a t e r i a l func­ tions in this i m p o r t a n t d o c u m e n t . T h e first p a s s a g e is s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s since h e r e Cyril d o e s explicitly refer to the B i b l e b u t it is n o t a real q u o t e . T h e p a s s a g e r u n s as f o l l o w s : " S a b a s [was] p r e d e s t i n e d b y G o d from t h e w o m b a n d f o r e k n o w n before his creation like the great p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h " (2 [ 8 7 , 2 1 - 2 3 ] ) . T h e r e is little verbal o v e r l a p here w i t h the G r e e k text o f Jer. 1:5, but the reference is m a d e explicit e n o u g h , as if Cyril w a n t s to m a k e s u r e that t h e r e a d e r will t a k e n o t i c e o f t h e parallel b e t w e e n S a b a s a n d ' t h e great p r o p h e t J e r e m i a h . ' M a y b e , h o w e v e r , the i m p l i c a t i o n is also that, j u s t as the a p o s t l e P a u l d r a w s a parallel b e t w e e n his o w n v o c a t i o n a n d that o f J e r e m i a h in G a l . 1:15, the s a m e c a n b e c l a i m e d for S a b a s as w e l l .

3 3

B e that as it m a y , h e r e a g a i n w e o b s e r v e " t h e i m p o r ­

t a n c e o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g that the lives o f the saints c o n f o r m to biblical m o d e l s . "

3 4

T h i s m o t i f is also clearly to b e s e e n in the story o f S a b a s ' h e a l i n g o f the w o m a n w i t h a h a e m o r r h a g e (Sab. 6 2 [ 1 6 3 , 1 4 - 1 6 4 , 1 0 ) w h i c h is so e v i d e n t l y p a t t e r n e d o n t h e G o s p e l story of J e s u s ' h e a l i n g o f the w o m a n w h o suffered from the s a m e a i l m e n t ( M a t . 9 : 2 0 - 2 2 ) . T h e s a m e a p p l i e s to the story o f E u t h y m i u s ' successful p r a y e r for rain d u r i n g a long p e r i o d o f d r o u g h t (Euth. 25 [ 3 8 , 1 - 3 9 , 1 7 ) w h i c h is m o d e l l e d u p o n t h e story o f E l i a h ' s p r a y e r for rain in 1 K i n g s 18:41—45. 3 2

35

Binns, Ascetics and Ambassadors of Christ 62. Cf. the references to the birth o f Samuel in the birth stories of Euthymius (Euth. 2 [ 8 - 9 ] ) and Sabas (Sab. 1 [87,4]), with the comments by Flusin, Miracle et histoire 9 1 - 9 2 . Binns, Ascetics and Ambassadors of Christ 61. Krueger, "Typological Figuration in Theodoret o f Cyrrhus's Religious History" 3 9 3 - 3 9 4 , states: "Theodoret's primary tool for placing the local saints into a context comprehensible to his readers was the device of biblical typology, the linking o f his modern-day heroes with biblical figures." See Flusin, Miracle et histoire 1 5 5 - 1 5 8 . 3 3

3 4

3 5

The Role of Scripture

in Cyril of

213

Scythopolis

In t h e s a m e c h a p t e r Cyril h a s S a b a s t h i n k o f " t h e G o s p e l s a y i n g o f the L o r d (ten euangeliken

apophasin

tou Kyriou)

w h o says, ' N o o n e w h o puts his hand

to t h e p l o u g h a n d t u r n s b a c k is fit for t h e k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n , ' " w h i c h is from 36

the G o s p e l o f L u k e 9 : 6 2 (albeit w i t h s o m e v a r i a n t s ) , a n d S a b a s also t h i n k s : " I a m afraid ( . . . ) o f e a r n i n g t h e c u r s e o f the p r o p h e t that r u n s , ' A c c u r s e d a r e t h e y w h o turn from T h y c o m m a n d m e n t s ' " ( 2 [ 8 8 , 8 - 1 5 ] ) , a c u r s e w h i c h is a q u o t e not from a p r o p h e t i c b o o k b u t from a P s a l m ( P s . 118[119]:21). H o w e v e r , on the v e r y n e x t p a g e Cyril m e n t i o n s D a v i d b y n a m e a s t h e a u t h o r o f t h e P s a l m s , w h e r e P s . 2 4 [ 2 5 ] : 1 8 is i n t r o d u c e d a s a ' D a v i d i c s o n g ' (Davitike Sab.

melodia,

in

4 [ 8 9 , 8 ] ; further Sab. 12 [ 9 5 , 1 3 ] , Cyr. 10 [ 2 2 8 , 3 0 ] ) , s o either h e m i s t a k e n l y

t h i n k s that t h e p a s s a g e d e r i v e s from o n e o f t h e p r o p h e t i c b o o k s o f the B i b l e or, m o r e probably, h e r e g a r d s D a v i d a s a p r o p h e t , w h i c h is also a N e w T e s t a m e n t motif: for i n s t a n c e , in A c t s 2 : 3 0 D a v i d is explicitly called ' a p r o p h e t , ' a n d in M a r k 12:36 (cf. M a t . 2 2 : 4 3 ^ - 5 ) D a v i d is said t o h a v e s p o k e n ' t h r o u g h t h e H o l y Spirit,' w h i c h qualifies h i m a s a p r o p h e t .

37

A g a i n s o m e c h a p t e r s later, w h e n

Cyril d e s c r i b e s S a b a s ' solitary life in t h e C o u t i l a a n d R o u b a desert, P s . 5 4 [ 5 5 ] : 8 ( " B e h o l d , I h a v e w a n d e r e d afar a n d l o d g e d in t h e d e s e r t " ) is i n t r o d u c e d a s a ' D a v i d i c s a y i n g ' (Davitikon c h a p t e r P s . 4 5 [46]:

logion),

w h e r e a s s o m e lines further o n in t h e s a m e

11 ( " B e still a n d k n o w that I a m G o d " ) is j u s t called ' w h a t is

w r i t t e n ' (to gegrammenon;

12 [ 9 5 , 1 3 - 1 7 ] ) . A s t o t h e latter c a s e , h o w e v e r , it h a s

to b e r e m a r k e d that t h e L X X text o f Ps. 5 4 d o e s m e n t i o n t h e n a m e o f D a v i d in v . l , w h e r e a s that n a m e is l a c k i n g in P s . 4 5 . Still in t h e s a m e p a r a g r a p h there is a g a i n a q u o t e from L u k e , n o w n o t i n t r o d u c e d a s a ' G o s p e l s a y i n g o f t h e L o r d ' b u t a s s o m e t h i n g " G o d h a s s a i d " (ho theos

... eipon),

w h e r e a s w h a t follows is

Jesus' word, "Behold, I have given y o u authority to tread underfoot snakes and s c o r p i o n s a n d ( a u t h o r i t y ) o v e r all t h e p o w e r o f the e n e m y " ( L u k e 10:19 in Sab. 12 [ 9 5 , 2 5 - 2 7 ] ) . N o w J e s u s is m o r e often called G o d b y C y r i l , s o ' G o d ' m a y refer to J e s u s h e r e , b u t it is also p o s s i b l e t o s e e h e r e a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i d e a that G o d h i m s e l f is t h e o n e w h o inspired t h e biblical a u t h o r s . A l l this e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r , also s e e m s t o p o i n t t o a certain p e n c h a n t for stylistic v a r i a t i o n w i t h Cyril. B e that a s it may, w h a t is c o m m o n t o all t h e s e q u o t e s a n d their c o n t e x t s is t h e e m i n e n t l y practical o r i e n t a t i o n in t h e u s e that is m a d e o f S c r i p t u r e . E x e g e t i c a l d e b a t e s a r e a v o i d e d , interpretive subtleties e s c h e w e d , theoretical e x e r c i s e s r e ­ j e c t e d , for the o n l y t h i n g that c o u n t s is a strong practical a n d ethical c o m m i t m e n t to Scripture, " d o i n g t h e W o r d . "

3 8

A s B u r t o n - C h r i s t i e h a s said: " I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

for t h e desert fathers a l w a y s i n v o l v e d t h e possibility o f p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l

3 6

Schwartz prints the following text o f the quote in Cyril: ou&Eig Ejupodcbv tf)v %£IQO. avxov Ejf OQOTQOV xod axoacpEig Eig i d omaco evOexog EOXLV Eig TTJV paaiAEiav xcov ouoavcov, whereas Luke 9:62 according to the Nestle-Aland reconstruction runs: ov6eLg em|3aX(iov xrrv XEZQO. en' aooxoov xai (3A.EJT0OV Eig i d omaco Ei39Ex6g EOXIV xfi PaaiAeLq TOXJ GeoC. 3 7

3 8

On David as a prophet see also Barnabas 12:10. Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 .

214

The Role of Scripture

in Cyril of

Scythopolis

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . H o l i n e s s in t h e desert w a s defined, finally, b y h o w d e e p l y a p e r s o n a l l o w e d h i m s e l f or h e r s e l f to b e t r a n s f o r m e d b y t h e w o r d s o f S c r i p t u r e . "

39

T h a t is w h a t S c r i p t u r e w a s m e a n t for first a n d foremost. T h e h e r m e n e u t i c s o f the desert fathers also i m p l i e d that " o n l y t h o s e w i t h e x p e r i e n c e c o u l d a d e q u a t e l y interpret the sacred texts. ( . . . ) B e c a u s e the texts are holy, o n l y a h o l y o n e - the o n e w i t h e x p e r i e n c e - c a n p r o p e r l y interpret t h e m . " T h i s is w e l l illustrated b y the role Scripture p l a y s in the Life of Sabas.

4 0

Most of

t h e biblical q u o t e s s e e m to a i m at m a k i n g t h e solitary a n d often d a n g e r o u s life in t h e desert p o s s i b l e as a p r o f o u n d spiritual e x p e r i e n c e , a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e it is this e x p e r i e n c e that m a k e s it p o s s i b l e to d i s c o v e r the r i c h e s o f t h e w o r d s o f S c r i p t u r e . F o r e x a m p l e , after h a v i n g fought t h e d e m o n s for m a n y y e a r s a n d d e f e a t e d t h e m , S a b a s r e c e i v e d the insight that t h e w o r d o f Isaiah 2:4, " B e a t y o u r s w o r d s into p l o w s h a r e s a n d y o u r s p e a r s into p r u n i n g h o o k s , " w a s to b e i m p l e m e n t e d as f o l l o w s : " H e w a s n o w ( . . . ) e n t r u s t e d b y G o d w i t h t h e c h a r g e o f s o u l s ; h e w a s p e r s u a d e d b y the w o r d o f G o d n o t to d e v o t e t i m e p o i n t l e s s l y to e n e m i e s w h o h a d b e e n defeated b u t to transfer his spiritual e n e r g i e s from a w a r ­ like d i s p o s i t i o n to h u s b a n d i n g t h o s e w h o h a d g r o w n r a n k w i t h evil t h o u g h t s , for t h e benefit o f the m a n y " (Sab.

16 [ 9 9 : 1 0 - 1 5 ] ) . B u t later, in o n e o f the conflicts

a b o u t t h e G r e a t L a u r a , it is the o p p o s i t e w o r d from the p r o p h e t Joel (3:1 O L X X ) , " B e a t y o u r p l o w s h a r e s into s w o r d s a n d y o u r p r u n i n g h o o k s into s p e a r s , " that is a p p l i e d as follows b y S a b a s to t h o s e w h o w a n t to found a laura o f their o w n : " W h a t is t h e a d v a n t a g e in a g r i c u l t u r e w h e n t h e land is in t h e grip o f w a r ? H o w c a n y o u , w h o h a v e not y e t o v e r c o m e the p a s s i o n s o f flesh a n d soul, u n d e r t a k e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f o t h e r s , w h e n y o u are still u n d e r the s w a y o f p l e a s u r e a n d v a i n ­ g l o r y ? " (Sab. 3 9 [ 1 2 9 , 2 1 - 2 3 ] ) . It is his o w n long ascetic struggle that h a s o p e n e d his e y e s for w h a t h e sees as the d e e p e r s e n s e o f t h e s e w o r d s o f S c r i p t u r e a n d its v a l u e for the spiritual f o r m a t i o n o f a m o n k . A m o n g t h e desert fathers a n d their b i o g r a p h e r s t h e r e is a p e r v a d i n g s e n s e o f t h e n e e d to a p p l y Scripture to o n e ' s o w n life in t h e d e s e r t a n d also a s t r o n g c o n v i c t i o n that that w a s w h a t Scripture w a s written for. S a b a s did not a l l o w n e w ­ c o m e r s to live in a cell in the laura, b u t h a d t h e m first stay in a s m a l l c e n o b i u m , until t h e y h a d learnt the psalter a n d r e c e i v e d a strict m o n a s t i c formation. H e said: " A m o n k e n c l o s e d in a cell m u s t b e gifted w i t h d i s c e r n m e n t a n d b e z e a l o u s , a c o m b a t a n t , sober, self-controlled a n d disciplined, a t e a c h e r n o t n e e d i n g t e a c h i n g , c a p a b l e o f c u r b i n g all t h e m e m b e r s o f his b o d y a n d o f k e e p i n g a s e c u r e w a t c h o n h i s m i n d . I k n o w that such a m a n is called s i n g l e - m i n d e d b y the scriptural s a y i n g , " T h e L o r d g i v e s the s i n g l e - m i n d e d a h o m e to d w e l l i n " ( P s . 6 7 [ 6 8 ] : 7 , in 3 9

Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert 23. Cf. Dorries, "Die Bibel" 218: "Die Schriftauslegung der Wiiste miiht sich ja nicht um den urspriinglichen Sinn eines Schriftworts, gar in seinem geschichtlichen Zusammenhang, sondern paBt es seinem Verstandnis an, darin freilich bestrebt, es im eigenen Leben zu voller Geltung zu bringen." Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert 23. 4 0

The Role of Scripture

Sab.

in Cyril of

215

Scythopolis

2 8 [ 1 1 3 , 1 5 - 1 6 ] ) . ' T h e text o f this P s a l m - v e r s e is here reinterpreted in a v e r y

characteristic way. In its original setting, as t h e c o n t e x t m a k e s u n a m b i g u o u s l y clear, t h e p a s s a g e in this P s a l m p r a i s e d G o d for b e i n g the h e l p e r o f p e r s o n s w h o a g a i n s t their will h a d c o m e to live in solitude, for i n s t a n c e o r p h a n s , w i d o w s , p r i s o n e r s , a n d o t h e r a b a n d o n e d p e o p l e . G o d will see to it, the P s a l m says, that t h e y will g e t a h o m e a g a i n so as to m a k e an e n d to their s o l i t u d e . N o w t h e H e b r e w text o f P s . 6 8 : 7 s p e a k s a b o u t t h e s e l o n e l y p e r s o n s as yechidim

w h o are

g i v e n a h o m e b y G o d to d w e l l in. T h e text that Cyril u s e d , t h e L X X , r e n d e r s 41

this by monotropos,

w h i c h is also a c o m m o n t e r m in p r e - C h r i s t i a n G r e e k for a

p e r s o n w h o lives a l o n e . In C h r i s t i a n G r e e k the w o r d b e g i n s to d e v e l o p t h e s e n s e o f ' s i n g l e - m i n d e d p e r s o n , ' as a g l a n c e in L a m p e ' s l e x i c o n s h o w s .

4 2

It is this

s e m a n t i c d e v e l o p m e n t , fruitfully c o m b i n e d w i t h his o w n ' d e s e r t h e r m e n e u t i c s , ' that e n a b l e s S a b a s (or Cyril for that m a t t e r ) to r e a d this v e r s e in a strikingly n e w w a y : It is n o t a b o u t p e r s o n s w h o are a l o n e against

their will, it is a b o u t p e r s o n s

w h o are g i v e n by G o d a h o m e , /. e. a cell in a laura, b e c a u s e t h e y really want to live a solitary life a n d t h e y are c o m p l e t e l y s i n g l e - m i n d e d in that respect, b e c a u s e it's all t h e y h a v e learned to w a n t . O n l y if o n e h a s r e a c h e d that s t a g e o f discipline, o n e is d e e m e d w o r t h y o f a G o d - g i v e n cell. To u s m o d e r n r e a d e r s it m a y s e e m as if the original s e n s e o f the text is s t o o d u p o n its h e a d h e r e , b u t that h a s a l w a y s b e e n the fate o f the B i b l e a n d w e s h o u l d not b l a m e the d e s e r t fathers for t h a t .

43

" T h e y s a w the s a c r e d texts as p r o j e c t i n g w o r l d s o f p o s s i b l e m e a n i n g that t h e y w e r e called u p o n to enter. ( . . . ) It also m e a n t o p e n i n g o n e s e l f to the n e w possibili­ ties o f m e a n i n g offered by t h e s e texts, r e a l i z i n g this m e a n i n g w i t h i n oneself, a n d b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d b y this realization. ( . . . ) T h e u l t i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f the desert h e r m e n e u t i c w a s a person,

o n e w h o e m b o d i e d the s a c r e d texts a n d w h o d r e w

o t h e r s out o f t h e m s e l v e s into a w o r l d o f infinite p o s s i b i l i t i e s . " the Monks

4 1

of Palestine

44

C y r i l ' s Lives

of

illustrates this v e r y w e l l .

6 Geos xaxoixi^Ei [IOVOTQOJIOUS ev ol'xco. Monotropos

is a hapax legomenon in the Greek

Bible. 4 2

G.W.H. Lampe, A Patristic Greek Lexicon, Oxford 1968, 884a. See also M. Harl, La langue deJaphet, Paris 1992, 207 (= REG 73 [1960] 468). Bacht, "Vom Umgang mit der Bibel" 5 6 1 , rightly notes that the basic conviction of the desert fathers was that the addressees o f the Bible are we. Burton-Christie, The Word in the Desert 299, 300. 4 3

4 4

Twenty-Five Questions to Corner the Jews A Byzantine Ant i-Jewish Document from the Seventh Century

Introduction P r o b a b l y in the s e c o n d q u a r t e r o f the s e v e n t h c e n t u r y C E , in the t i m e that wit­ n e s s e d the rise o f I s l a m , an a n o n y m o u s C h r i s t i a n s o m e w h e r e in t h e B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e w r o t e a s m a l l m a n u a l a i m e d at h e l p i n g his c o r e l i g i o n i s t s t o g a i n t h e u p p e r h a n d o v e r J e w s in r e l i g i o u s d i s p u t a t i o n s . T h e m a n u a l h a s the form o f 2 5 a r g u m e n t s p h r a s e d as q u e s t i o n s . T h i s little treatise h a d g o n e entirely u n n o t i c e d 1

until it w a s r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d b y a F r e n c h s c h o l a r . T h e m o d e s t a i m o f this c o n t r i b u t i o n is to p r e s e n t an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f the G r e e k text ( w i t h o u t c o m m e n t a r y ) , a n d thereafter t o a t t e m p t to situate this d o c u m e n t in its historical context. T h e title o f t h e treatise is n o t e a s y to t r a n s l a t e : 'EjtajtoQTyrixd xecpdAma x a x d TOOV

'Iov&aiarv. It is c l e a r that it is a treatise a g a i n s t ( x a x d ) the J e w s w h i c h is

i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g t h e m into an ' a p o r e t i c ' situation (Ejtajroor|Tixd), /. e., a situation from w h i c h t h e r e is n o w a y o u t ( h e n c e the v e r b ' t o c o r n e r ' in the title). B u t w h a t e x a c t l y is m e a n t b y xecpdAma? T h e c u r r e n t m e a n i n g o f the w o r d is ' c h a p t e r s , ' b u t it c a n a l s o b e u s e d for p a r t s or c o m p o n e n t s o f a c h a p t e r , h e n c e ' t o p i c s ' or 2

' s u b j e c t s ' or ' p a s s a g e s from S c r i p t u r e ' e t c . In certain c o n t e x t s xecpdkxiov c a n d e v e l o p t h e s e n s e o f ' a r g u m e n t o n a specific s u b j e c t , ' as h e r e .

Translation Arguments

to corner

the

Jews

(1) If the L a w is a u n i v e r s a l g o o d , w h y t h e n w a s it n o t g i v e n to e v e r y n a t i o n b u t t o o n l y o n e ? A n d if it is n o t a u n i v e r s a l g o o d , t h e n o b v i o u s l y it is a partial g o o d . 1

e

e

V. Deroche, "La polemique anti-juda'ique au V I et au V I I siecle: Un memento inedit, Les Kephalaia," Travaux et Memoires 11 (1991) 2 7 5 - 3 1 1 . This edition is based upon nine textual witnesses from the 10th-14th centuries. It is on account o f the publication date o f this edition (1991) that one does not find a reference to this treatise in the otherwise comprehensive work by H. Schreckenberg, Die christlichen Adversus-Judaeos-Texte und ihr literarisches und historisches Umfeld (l.-ll. Jh.), Frankfurt 1990 (2. Aufl.). See G.W.H. Lampe, A Patristic Greek Lexicon, Oxford 1968, 748, and H.D. Saffrey & A.-Ph. Segonds, Marinus: Proclus ou sur le bonheur, Paris 2 0 0 1 , 6 4 note 15. 2

Twenty-Five

Questions

217

to Corner the Jews

A n d if it is a partial g o o d , it is clear that it w a s g i v e n b e c a u s e o f a certain n e e d , I m e a n b e c a u s e o f the o n e w h o w a s to arise from the p e o p l e o f Israel. If the p r o m i s e to A b r a h a m , "In y o u a n d in y o u r offspring all n a t i o n s will b e b l e s s e d , "

3

is n o t a u n i v e r s a l g o o d , is it not o b v i o u s t h e n that t h e p r o m i s e to the n a t i o n s will n o t b e r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h t h e L a w but t h r o u g h the c o m i n g o f h i m w h o w a s e x p e c t e d , n a m e l y C h r i s t ? S o it is o f n e c e s s i t y that the L a w c o m e s to an e n d a n d the p r o m i s e b e c o m e s reality w h e n C h r i s t a p p e a r s . (2) If G o d is the G o d o f all p e o p l e a n d w a n t s all p e o p l e to b e s a v e d ,

4

whereas

a c c o r d i n g to y o u it is t h r o u g h the L a w that s a l v a t i o n h a s b e e n g i v e n to all, w h y t h e n h a s H e n o t g i v e n the L a w to e v e r y n a t i o n instead o f o n l y to o n e ? 5

(3) If the A n o i n t e d O n e , /'. e. the C h r i s t , is, a s is w r i t t e n , " t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f the 6

n a t i o n s , " then it is o b v i o u s l y t h r o u g h h i m that there will b e b l e s s i n g for the n a t i o n s . B u t if it is t h r o u g h h i m , then it is n o t t h r o u g h t h e L a w ; a n d if that is the c a s e , t h e n w i t h the c o m i n g o f t h e A n o i n t e d O n e t h e L a w a n d t h e J e w i s h w a y o f life n e c e s s a r i l y c o m e to an e n d . (4) If it is i m p o s s i b l e for the n a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y for t h o s e w h o live far a w a y , to 7

c o m e thrice y e a r l y to J e r u s a l e m , as the L a w d e c r e e s , is it n o t e v i d e n t then that the L a w is u n a b l e to b l e s s t h e n a t i o n s b u t r a t h e r d e c l a r e s t h e m to b e c u r s e d ? F o r ( S c r i p t u r e ) s a y s , " C u r s e d is e v e r y o n e w h o d o e s n o t r e m a i n in all that is written in the b o o k o f t h e L a w in o r d e r to d o t h a t . "

8

(5) If it is i m p o s s i b l e that all t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d , from E a s t a n d West, from N o r t h a n d S o u t h , s h o u l d live in the p r o m i s e d c o u n t r y from D a n to B e r s e b a , is it n o t o b v i o u s t h e n that the n a t i o n s c a n n o t live in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e L a w ? A n d if that is the c a s e , is it not o b v i o u s as well that t h e p r o m i s e for t h e n a t i o n s is n o t r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h t h e L a w b u t t h r o u g h a w a y o f life in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h C h r i s t ? (6) If the A n o i n t e d O n e w h o m y o u a w a i t - w h o e v e r h e m a y b e - a g a i n p r o c l a i m s the L a w o f M o s e s at his c o m i n g , is h e n o t b o u n d to b e a figure less than M o s e s to w h o m the L a w w a s g i v e n ? In w h i c h r e s p e c t d o e s this figure, w h o has b e e n p r o c l a i m e d b y so m a n y p r o p h e t s , differ from the m a n w h o is n o w y o u r teacher, 9

w h o e x p l a i n s a n d p r o c l a i m s t h e L a w , but w h o h a s n e v e r b e e n a b l e to s a v e or b l e s s a n y o f y o u or o f the n a t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e L a w ?

3

Gen. 12:3 L X X with some modifications, notably the addition of 'and in your offspring.' See 1 Tim. 2:4. The first Greek word is 'HtemnEvog, the second one Xqioxoq. Gen. 49:10 LXX. The Greek has eOvr], SO the semantic aspect of 'gentiles' is present as well. In what follows, though, E9VT) will consistently be translated by 'nations.' Deut. 16:16. Deut. 27:26, freely quoted. Who is meant here is unclear. Deroche surmises it is the Babylonian exilarch of the Jews (308). 4

5

6

7

8

9

218

Twenty-Five

Questions

to Corner the Jews

(7) If at e v e r y b a n i s h m e n t G o d h a s o r d a i n e d a fixed p e r i o d for t h e exile o f t h e J e w s , s u c h as 2 1 5 y e a r s in E g y p t , 7 0 y e a r s in B a b y l o n , a n d - let u s say - s o m e three a n d a h a l f y e a r s d u r i n g the reign o f A n t i o c h u s ,

1 0

p e r i o d s in w h i c h t h e y

w o u l d suffer terrible t h i n g s b u t w e r e still c o n s i d e r e d w o r t h y (to r e c e i v e ) t h e p r o p h e t s a n d d i v i n e o r a c l e s , w h a t is it that w o u l d n o w p r e v e n t G o d from p r o m i s ­ ing y o u to call b a c k y o u r c o m p a t r i o t s ? B u t lo, 6 0 0 y e a r s a n d m o r e h a v e p a s s e d s i n c e y o u w e r e d r i v e n from t h e p r o m i s e d land d u r i n g w h i c h y o u r e m a i n bereft of prophets and divine oracles.

11

(8) If it is n e c e s s a r y that at the c o m i n g of the A n o i n t e d O n e the L a w s h o u l d d i s a p ­ p e a r a n d ' t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f the n a t i o n s '

1 2

c o m e true, h o w t h e n is it p o s s i b l e that

at the c o m i n g o f the o n e w h o is called the Christ a m o n g y o u - 1 m e a n Z e r u b b a b e l - h e h i m s e l f (re)built the t e m p l e a n d v a l i d a t e d the J e w i s h l a w s w h e r e a s n o ' e x ­ p e c t a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n s ' c a m e true at all b u t r a t h e r h e h i m s e l f p u t his h o p e in t h e n a t i o n s b y r e q u e s t i n g t h e m to (help h i m ) (re)build the t e m p l e ?

1 3

(9) If M o s e s a n n o u n c e s , " G o d will raise u p for y o u from a m o n g y o u r b r e t h r e n a p r o p h e t like m e , "

1 4

w h o is that p r o p h e t like M o s e s , I m e a n a p r o p h e t a n d

l a w g i v e r a n d m i r a c l e w o r k e r from the p e o p l e o f Israel? T h o s e w h o say it is Z e r u b b a b e l are m i s t a k e n , for h e w a s n e i t h e r a p r o p h e t n o r a m i r a c l e w o r k e r n o r a lawgiver, e v e n t h o u g h h e w a s a Jew. ( 1 0 ) If M o s e s a n n o u n c e s , " G o d will raise u p for y o u from a m o n g y o u r b r e t h r e n a p r o p h e t like m e ; listen to h i m in e v e r y t h i n g that h e will say to y o u , "

1 5

how could

t h e o n e w h o d o e s n o t a c c e p t this p r o p h e t n o t b e a s i n n e r ? (11) If M o s e s a n n o u n c e s , " E v e r y o n e w h o will n o t listen to this p r o p h e t will b e e x t i r p a t e d from the n a t i o n , "

16

h o w is it p o s s i b l e that a p e o p l e that p r e - e m i n e n t l y

h a s n o t listened to Isaiah, J e r e m i a h a n d t h e o t h e r p r o p h e t s , h a s n o t b e e n extir­ p a t e d , w h e r e a s in t h e t i m e o f o u r C h r i s t t h o s e w h o did n o t b e l i e v e in h i m w e r e e x t i r p a t e d , all o f t h e m i n d e e d ? T h e y h a v e b e e n d e p r i v e d o f their country, their city, their t e m p l e , their p r i e s t s , their sacrifices, their p r o p h e t s , their s c h o l a r s ,

17

a n d o f all o t h e r institutions o f their l a w s , so m u c h so that t h e y c o u l d not d e m ­ o n s t r a t e in a n y r e s p e c t a n y m o r e that t h e y w e r e J e w s . S o s o b e r u p a n d learn b y

1 0

Antiochus IV Epiphanes; the author refers to the years 1 6 7 - 1 6 4 BCE. Probably the author reckons the expulsion from the promised country to have taken place not after the fall of Jerusalem in 70 but after the crucifixion of Jesus in 30, as was often done in Byzantine literature. Gen. 49:10 LXX. Cf. Ezra 6. Deut. 18:15. Deut. 18:15, with a very free rendering o f the final words (the L X X only has d k o i j dxoiioeaOe). Deut. 18:19, again very freely quoted. Or: scribes. 11

1 2

1 3

1 4

15

1 6

1 7

Twenty-Five

Questions

219

to Corner the Jews

w h a t c a u s e y o u h a v e b e e n bereft o f t h e s e t h i n g s , instead o f fooling y o u r s e l v e s w i t h idle h o p e s . (12) If G o d d e c l a r e s u n d e r o a t h , w h o e v e r it m a y b e H e is t a l k i n g t o , " Y o u are a priest for eternity a c c o r d i n g to t h e o r d e r o f M e l c h i z e d e k , "

18

a n d not a c c o r d i n g

to the o r d e r o f A a r o n , h o w c o u l d t h e o r d e r o f A a r o n b e a n y t h i n g b u t t e m p o r a r y a n d that o f M e l c h i z e d e k e t e r n a l ?

19

( 1 3 ) If t h e n the p r i e s t h o o d a c c o r d i n g to M e l c h i z e d e k a n d the o n e a c c o r d i n g to A a r o n are different in k i n d , let t h e m e x p l a i n to u s h o w it is p o s s i b l e that the t w o are identical. A n d since that is i m p o s s i b l e , let t h e m e x p l a i n to u s w h i c h o f the t w o is t e m p o r a r y a n d w h i c h is eternal. It is o f c o u r s e o b v i o u s that t h e p r i e s t h o o d a c c o r d i n g to A a r o n , w h i c h b y r e a s o n o f its h e r e d i t a r y n a t u r e w a s p r e s e r v e d a m o n g the s o n s o f p r i e s t s , w a s o f a t e m p o r a r y n a t u r e b e c a u s e o f the d y i n g out o f t h o s e to w h o m (this task) w a s e n t r u s t e d ; w h e r e a s the p r i e s t h o o d a c c o r d i n g to M e l c h i z e d e k w a s p r o m i s e d to o n l y o n e p e r s o n b e c a u s e o f its eternal n a t u r e .

20

(14) If it is i m p o s s i b l e that G o d s h o u l d lie a n d if it is p o s s i b l e to h e a r h i m s a y i n g u n d e r oath, " Y o u are a priest for e v e r a c c o r d i n g to the o r d e r o f M e l c h i z e d e k , " w h e r e a s the p r i e s t h o o d a c c o r d i n g to A a r o n is d e r i v e d from t h e L a w , i s n ' t it a b ­ solutely i n e v i t a b l e then that a c h a n g e o f p r i e s t h o o d n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l i e s a c h a n g e o f t h e L a w as w e l l ? (15) If G o d d e c l a r e s to D a v i d , a g a i n u n d e r oath, that his offspring a n d t h e t h r o n e o f his k i n g s h i p are e t e r n a l ,

21

then s h o w u s o r tell u s w h e r e w e h a v e to look for

D a v i d ' s offspring a n d t h r o n e so that, after s u c h a long t i m e , w e will not s u r m i s e that this p r e d i c t i o n w a s a lie. (16) If, as y o u say, all n a t i o n s will p e r i s h w i t h G o g

2 2

in t h e final d a y s before the

c o m i n g o f the C h r i s t y o u e x p e c t , w h i c h t h e n are t h e n a t i o n s w h o s e e x p e c t a t i o n is the C h r i s t for their s a l v a t i o n ,

23

a n d n o t for their p e r d i t i o n ?

( 1 7 ) If, b e c a u s e o f I s r a e l ' s e x o d u s from E g y p t , the E g y p t i a n s w e r e d e s t r o y e d b y the s u p r e m e l y h e a v y p u n i s h m e n t o f d r o w n i n g , a n d if y o u , after h a v i n g r e c e i v e d t h e L a w , h a v e totally extirpated m a n y n a t i o n s as w e l l , a n d if y o u h a v e d o n e the s a m e t h i n g a g a i n d u r i n g t h e r e i g n s o f H i z k i a a n d Z e r u b b a b e l a n d also d u r i n g the rule o f the M a c e d o n i a n s a n d the M a c c a b e e s a n d on m a n y o t h e r o c c a s i o n s w i t h v e r y m a n y n a t i o n s , a p p a r e n t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e c u s t o m s in y o u r L a w a n d traditions, is it n o t overly clear on the b a s i s o f such d e e d s that it is n o t so m u c h

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

Ps. 110:4 (109:4 LXX). Cf. Hebr. 7:11. Ps. 110[109]:4 with Hebr. 7:23. Ps. 89:4. Ezek. 38. Cf. Gen. 49:10.

220

Twenty-Five

Questions

to Corner the Jews

a p r o m i s e that is r e a l i z e d for the n a t i o n s t h r o u g h the L a w but r a t h e r a m u l t i t u d e of torments? (18) If G o d h a s o r d e r e d that in the desert there w o u l d c o m e a first a n d a s e c o n d tabernacle,

24

a n d the first o n e is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

o n e a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the h e a v e n l y w o r l d ,

26

25

o f this w o r l d but the s e c o n d

t h e n is it not o b v i o u s that w h e n t h e

first o n e d i s a p p e a r s the s e c o n d w o u l d a p p e a r that h a d a l w a y s r e m a i n e d i n a c c e s ­ sible a n d invisible for the priests o f the L a w ? ( 1 9 ) If all i m p i e t y a n d injustice d o n e b y p e o p l e is d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t either G o d or o n e ' s n e i g h b o u r , is it not o b v i o u s t h e n that t h e c o m m a n d m e n t s in the L a w w h i c h d o n o t p e r t a i n to t h i s

2 7

- for e x a m p l e , c i r c u m c i s i o n , a b s t e n t i o n from w o r k o n

t h e s a b b a t h , t h e rules for food a n d d r e s s , p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s , sacrifices a n d the like - h a v e b e e n g i v e n for a n o t h e r p u r p o s e ? A n d if that is true, w h i c h it is, it is o b v i o u s that t h e y w e r e not g i v e n b e c a u s e o f G o d or o n e ' s n e i g h b o u r s b u t - as h a s a l r e a d y b e e n said - in o r d e r to confine a n d s a f e g u a r d t h e n a t i o n until the c o m i n g o f t h e o n e w h o is e x p e c t e d to arise from its m i d s t . N o w that h e h a s c o m e , o f n e c e s s i t y t h o s e rules o f the L a w stop b e i n g valid a n d o n l y faith a n d love o f G o d and one's neighbour remain,

28

that is to say, all that is m o r e p l e a s i n g to G o d a n d

d o e s not a b o l i s h a life in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h Christ. (20) If the C h r i s t w h o h a d b e e n p r o p h e s i e d b y t h e L a w a n d the p r o p h e t s , is t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f the nations a n d their r u l e

2 9

a n d h o p e , h o w is it p o s s i b l e that y o u d o

n o t see that n o w all the n a t i o n s h a v e b o w e d d o w n before the C h r i s t w o r s h i p p e d b y u s , t h r o w n a w a y their idols b e c a u s e o f h i m w h i l e s e n d i n g up their A m e n to G o d , s i n c e all o f t h e m r e g a r d A b r a h a m as their father a n d - in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h a t is w r i t t e n , " T h e w h o l e w o r l d is filled w i t h t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e L o r d "

3 0

- r e a d M o s e s a n d the p r o p h e t s , a n d on the b a s i s o f t h e s e w r i t i n g s d e p e n d on C h r i s t s i n c e t h e y h a v e d i s t a n c e d t h e m s e l v e s from their old s u p e r s t i t i o n ? (21) If in e v e r y o f y o u r captivities e a c h o f y o u r tribes h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d , h o w is it p o s s i b l e that n o w , after the c o m i n g o f h i m w h o m w e b e l i e v e to b e the Christ,

2 4

Ex. 26:33; Lev. 16. Gr. typos. Hebr. 8 - 9 . The Greek has xa jteyixxct xov vouou, which is hard to render adequately. The adjective perittos can mean 'superfluous, unnecessary,' hence Deroche's translation "les superfluites de la Loi" (306). But that is not what the author wants to say here, for he immediately adds that these laws served to safeguard the people of Israel till Christ's coming. What he means is that these rules do not pertain to, and hence go beyond, the sins people commit against God or their fellow humans. Only after Christ's coming do they become 'superfluous' indeed. At the background is Gal. 3 : 2 3 - 2 9 . Cf. 1 Cor. 13:13. Here a.Qyr\ is abstractum pro concreto in the sense of UQXOVXEC;, rulers. Is. 11:9, quoted freely. 2 5

2 6

2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

Twenty-Five

Questions

221

to Corner the Jews

not a s i n g l e o n e ( o f y o u r tribes) h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d a n d y o u h a v e also lost all the institutions o f y o u r L a w ? (22) If a c c o r d i n g to y o u t h e C h r i s t from the tribe o f J u d a h w h o w a s p r o c l a i m e d b y the L a w a n d the p r o p h e t s

31

h a s not c o m e , w h y d o y o u g o on e x p e c t i n g h i m

n o w that not e v e n o n e tribe h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d or c a n b e p r e s e r v e d a n y m o r e ? (23) If it is i m p o s s i b l e for m u l e s to k n o w b y t h e m s e l v e s to w h i c h d o n k e y a n d w h i c h h o r s e they o w e their e x i s t e n c e , t h e n similarly y o u c a n n o t k n o w ( w h o y o u r forebears are) after h a v i n g b e e n fused a n d m i x e d for thirty or m o r e g e n e r a ­ tions. ( 2 4 ) If it is b e c a u s e o f y o u r individual sins that y o u h a v e b e e n m a d e bereft o f y o u r country, city, t e m p l e , priests, p r o p h e t s , sacrifices, a n d the w h o l e w o r s h i p a c ­ c o r d i n g to the L a w , h o w t h e n c o u l d it b e that p r e v i o u s l y , w h e n y o u - a s i d e from o t h e r individual sins - s u r r e n d e r e d y o u r s e l v e s to idolatry, b o t h privately a n d collectively, a n d o p e n l y d e m o n s t r a t e d y o u r i m p i e t y t o w a r d s G o d b y s l a u g h t e r i n g y o u r o w n children for idols, y o u w e r e not t h e n d e p r i v e d c o m p l e t e l y o f all t h e s e t h i n g s , b u t o n l y partially a n d t e m p o r a r i l y , w h e r e a s n o w , n o w that y o u n o l o n g e r s l a u g h t e r y o u r c h i l d r e n n o r m u r d e r e a c h o t h e r or c o m m i t idolatry, y o u h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e l y d e p r i v e d o f t h e s e t h i n g s b e c a u s e o f y o u r i n d i v i d u a l sins? (25) If w e h a v e b e e n led to C h r i s t b y t h e L a w a n d the p r o p h e t s as if b y a p e d a ­ gogue,

3 2

then it is a g o o d t h i n g that t h e L a w h a s b e e n g i v e n b y a g o o d G o d w h o

h a s t u r n e d out to b e a p e d a g o g u e for l e a d i n g the J e w s t o w a r d s t h e o n e w h o h a s been raised from their m i d s t a n d w h o t u r n e d o u t to b e the s a l v a t i o n n o t o n l y for the n a t i o n s but for the w h o l e w o r l d .

3 3

Context T h i s is not the p l a c e for an i n - d e p t h s t u d y o f this d o c u m e n t , but s o m e p r o v i s i o n a l r e m a r k s are in o r d e r h e r e . T h e h e y - d a y o f early C h r i s t i a n Adversus literature w a s the t h r e e c e n t u r i e s b e t w e e n 150 a n d 4 5 0 C E . from J u s t i n ' s Dialogus Simonem 3 1

Judaeum

cum

Try phone

et Theophilum

Judaeo 35

Christianum,

3 4

Judaeos

In t h o s e c e n t u r i e s ,

to E v a g r i u s ' Altercatio

inter

a n t i - J e w i s h p o l e m i c s is v e r y

Gen. 49:10 and Micah 5:1. Gal. 3 : 2 4 - 2 5 . I.e., including the Jews. See on this, apart from Schreckenberg's magnum opus (note 1), also the still fundamental study by Marcel Simon, Verus Israel. A Study of the Relations Between Christians and Jews in the Roman Empire (AD 135-425), Oxford 1986 (French original: Paris 1948), esp. 1 3 5 - 1 7 8 . The first important instance of this type o f literature is of course Justin's Dialogue with the Jew Trypho. See on this author (not to be confused with Evagrius Ponticus or Evagrius o f Antioch) C. Kasper, "Evagrius, antijiidischcr Polemiker," in S. Dopp & W. Geerlings (eds.), Lexikon der 3 2

3 3

3 4

3 5

222

Twenty-Five

Questions

to Corner the Jews

m u c h in the air. Thereafter, w h e n Christianity h a s b e c o m e the d o m i n a n t p o w e r in the l a t e - a n t i q u e a n d early B y z a n t i n e w o r l d , t h e c h u r c h c a n afford to b e less w o r ­ ried a b o u t the J e w s w h o s e rights h a d in the m e a n t i m e b e e n drastically curtailed a n d w h o s e p o s i t i o n h a d for that r e a s o n b e c o m e m u c h w e a k e r . p o l e m i c s then d e c r e a s e s ( a l t h o u g h it n e v e r d i s a p p e a r s ) .

36

Anti-Jewish

37

T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , a clearly d i s c e r n i b l e revival o f Christian a n t i - J e w i s h litera­ ture in the s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e sixth a n d the first h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t h century, t h e p e r i o d to w h i c h o u r Kephalaia the Dialogus Athanasii gentii

Timothei

et Zacchaei

cum Herbano

Dialogus

Judaeos Papisci

( s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e sixth cent.), t h e

Judaeo

( p r o b a b l y a b o u t 6 0 0 ) , t h e Disputatio Jacobi

nuper baptizati

Gre-

de

religione

(circa 6 3 5 ) , the

Apologia

w r i t t e n b y L e o n t i u s o f N e a p o l i s on C y p r u s (circa 6 4 0 ) , et Philonis

3 8

the

(the m i d d l e o f the s e v e n t h c e n t . ) , a n d several o t h e r

less w e l l - k n o w n w o r k s o f a similar n a t u r e .

39

It h a s , m o r e o v e r , to b e k e p t in m i n d

that p r o b a b l y for the m o s t part this literature h a s not b e e n p r e s e r v e d . the Sitz im Leben

Dialogus

(also s e c o n d half o f t h e sixth cent.), the Disputatio

(also a b o u t 6 0 0 ) , the Doctrina contra

b e l o n g . F r o m that p e r i o d w e h a v e , for i n s t a n c e ,

et Aquilae

40

W h a t is

of these writings?

It s h o u l d not b e a s s u m e d that t h e s e texts, m o s t l y d i a l o g u e s , are v e r b a t i m r e p o r t s o f d i s p u t a t i o n s that h a d really t a k e n p l a c e . W h a t m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t that a s s u m p t i o n is, inter alia, t h e e n d l e s s repetition in all t h e s e w o r k s o f the s a m e a r g u m e n t s a n d the s a m e biblical ' p r o o f t e x t s . ' T h e s e are m a n u a l s or t e x t b o o k s for interreligious p o l e m i c s , in this c a s e o f C h r i s t i a n s a g a i n s t J e w s , a l t h o u g h it h a s to b e a d d e d that the e v e r r e c u r r i n g a r g u m e n t s a n d prooftexts m u s t i n e v i t a b l y h a v e d e r i v e d from the p r a c t i c e o f really c o n d u c t e d d e b a t e s if s u c h m a n u a l s w e r e to m a k e a n y s e n s e . G i v e n that the later w o r k s s t e m from t h e s e c o n d q u a r t e r a n d the m i d d l e o f t h e s e v e n t h century, o n e c o u l d s u r m i s e their b a c k g r o u n d to h a v e b e e n the d e c r e e antiken christlichen Literatur, Freiburg 1998, 2 2 3 . See A. Linder, The Jews in Roman Imperial Legislation, Detroit-Jerusalem 1987, and K.L. Noethlichs, DieJuden im christlichen Imperium Romanum (4.-6. Jahrhundert), Berlin 2 0 0 1 . It is illustrative of the changed situation that in Schreckenberg's large survey (see note 1) the discussion o f anti-Jewish literature from the three centuries between 150 and 4 5 0 takes more than 2 0 0 pages whereas the discussion of this literature in the three centuries between 4 5 0 and 750 takes less than 100 pages. This is the only work in this series o f which w e know the author. In his Introduction to the edition of the Greek text Deroche gives a much more detailed enumeration with bibliography (for the latter see also H.G. Beck, Kirche und Theologische Literatur im hyzantinischen Zeitalter, Miinchen 1959, 3 3 2 - 3 3 3 n. 1). Information also in S. Krauss & W. Horbury, The Jewish-Christian Controversy, vol. 1, Tubingen 1996, 4 6 - 5 0 . Schreckenberg's work (note 1) is more informative than most other works. The later character of these works in comparison with earlier ones is most apparent in the greater role of Jewish polemics against veneration of the cross, o f relics, of tombs o f saints, of icons etc., which was regarded by Jews as idolatry (graven images). See B. Blumenkranz, "Vie et survie de la polemique anti-juive," Studia Patristica 1,1, Berlin 1957, 460^176. 3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

Twenty-Five

Questions

223

to Corner the Jews

w h i c h the E m p e r o r H e r a c l i u s ( w h o ruled from 6 1 0 - 6 4 1 ) i s s u e d in 6 3 2 to the effect that all J e w s h a d to b e b a p t i z e d a n d c o n v e r t to C h r i s t i a n i t y .

41

In s u c h a

situation m a n y C h r i s t i a n s inevitably c a m e into c o n t a c t with J e w s w h o , after their c o m p u l s o r y b a p t i s m , still h a d to b e t a l k e d out o f their old beliefs a n d p r a c t i c e s (in fact m a n y o f t h e m b e c a m e M a r r a n o s avant

42

la date).

B u t that d o e s not e x ­

plain the i n s t a n c e s o f a n t i - J e w i s h d i s p u t e s from the p e r i o d b e f o r e H e r a c l i u s . It is i m p o r t a n t to state that at the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p e r i o d d i s c u s s e d here, n a m e l y in 5 5 3 C E , the E m p e r o r J u s t i n i a n issued his f a m o u s Novella tled De Hebraeis).

146 (enti­

In this edict Justinian d e c r e e s that in their s y n a g o g u e services

the J e w s are a l l o w e d , y e s e v e n e n c o u r a g e d , to u s e G r e e k B i b l e translations instead o f t h e H e b r e w original, p r e f e r a b l y t h e S e p t u a g i n t s i n c e t h e s e transla­ tors w e r e h e r a l d s o f the c o m i n g o f Christ, b u t if n e e d b e , a l s o t h e translation by Aquila.

43

M o r e o v e r the E m p e r o r p r o h i b i t s t h e u s e o f t h e p r i m a r y text o f the

r a b b i n i c m o v e m e n t , the M i s h n a h ( h e r e called deuterdsis,

w h i c h p r o b a b l y also

i n c l u d e d the T a l m u d , w h i c h w a s b a s e d u p o n the M i s h n a h ) , a n d in o t h e r edicts h e also d e p r i v e d t h e m o f their few r e m a i n i n g rights w i t h i n t h e state. U n d e r the e m p e r o r s after J u s t i n i a n , " t h e J e w s w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y r e d u c e d to the p o s i t i o n o f a v e r y m a r g i n a l i s e d social a n d cultural e l e m e n t w i t h i n a p r e d o m i n a n t l y Christian society."

44

T h e s e m e a s u r e s c o u l d n o t b u t p r o v o k e a s t r o n g reaction, if not a

c o u n t e r a t t a c k , o n the part o f t h e J e w s (as t h e y did on t h e p a r t o f t h e S a m a r i t a n s as w e l l ) . F r o m several s o u r c e s o f this p e r i o d w e learn that i n d e e d it w a s often J e w s w h o initiated d e b a t e s in w h i c h C h r i s t i a n s w e r e c h a l l e n g e d , e s p e c i a l l y as r e g a r d s their u n t e n a b l e interpretations o f t h e J e w i s h B i b l e . E x a c t l y in the p e r i o d in w h i c h the C h u r c h , b y m e a n s o f the C h r i s t i a n E m p e r o r s , curtailed the J e w s more and more and cornered them, the Jews launched a counterattack. A s early as t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e fifth c e n t u r y C E , J e r o m e a l r e a d y p o i n t e d out t h e intensity o f J e w i s h a t t a c k s on Christian e x e g e s i s o f t h e J e w i s h B i b l e in Isaiam

(Comm.

7.14), for e x a m p l e w h e n it c o n c e r n e d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t i c

text a b o u t t h e ' v i r g i n ' (parthenos)

w h o w o u l d b e a r a son, w h e r e a c c o r d i n g to the

J e w s the original text s i m p l y s p o k e a b o u t a ' y o u n g w o m a n ' ( ' a l m a h ) . A n d not l o n g after t h e C o u n c i l o f C h a l c e d o n , in 4 5 2 C E , the E m p e r o r M a r c i a n u s issued a d e c r e e that the d e c i s i o n s t a k e n at that c o u n c i l s h o u l d not b e c o m e a m a t t e r o f 4 1

See A.N. Stratos, Byzantium in the Seventh Century, vol. 1: 602-634, Amsterdam 1968, 3 0 5 - 3 0 7 ; G. Dagron & V. Deroche, "Juifs et Chretiens dans l'Orient du V i l e siecle," Travaux et Memoires 11 (1991) 2 8 - 3 2 . cf. A. Sharf, Byzantine Jewry from Justinian to the Fourth Crusade, London 1 9 7 1 , 5 3 - 5 6 . Maximus Confessor (c. 5 8 0 - 6 6 2 ) already stated clearly in his Epistula 8 (in fine) that he feared that this compulsory baptism would lead to very insincere 'conversions' on the part of the Jews. Text, translation and commentary in Linder, Jews 4 0 2 - 4 1 1 . See also M. Avi-Yonah, Geschichte der Juden im Zeitalter des Talmud in den Tagen von Rom und Byzanz, Berlin 1962, 250. J.F. Haldon, Byzantium in the Seventh Century. The Transformation of a Culture, Cam­ bridge 1990, 346. 4 2

4 3

4 4

224

Twenty-Five

Questions

to Corner the Jews

p u b l i c d e b a t e b e c a u s e s u c h d i s c u s s i o n s w o u l d o n l y lead to p r o f a n i z a t i o n o f the C h r i s t i a n m y s t e r i e s b y the J e w s .

4 5

It is also in t h e p e r i o d u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n h e r e ( s i x t h - s e v e n t h cent.) that o n e finds v e r y o u t s p o k e n anti-Christian p o l e m i c s in J e w i s h liturgical p o e t r y .

46

The

c o n t i n u o u s a t t a c k s on ' E d o m ' in t h e s e s y n a g o g a l p o e m s a r e v e r y clearly m e a n t as p o l e m i c s a g a i n s t t h e c h u r c h o f R o m e (= E d o m = C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ) . A l s o s o m e p a s s a g e s in r a b b i n i c literature p o i n t in the d i r e c t i o n o f n o t o n l y a c t i v e J e w i s h p a r t i c i p a t i o n b u t also o f initiation o f d e b a t e s w i t h C h r i s t i a n s .

47

T h e T a l m u d tells

u s that a rabbi in C a e s a r e a M a r i t i m a said to his C h r i s t i a n fellow c i t i z e n s , in a setting o f a d e b a t e a b o u t the m e a n i n g o f biblical texts, that h e a n d his c o r e l i g i o n ­ ists h a d so m u c h to d o w i t h C h r i s t i a n s that they studied t h o r o u g h l y the C h r i s t i a n interpretation o f the H o l y S c r i p t u r e s .

48

T h a t C h r i s t i a n s did n o t a l w a y s p r e v a i l

in s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s s t a n d s to r e a s o n , in spite o f w h a t t h e C h r i s t i a n

Adversus

Jwflfaeos-tractates w o u l d h a v e u s b e l i e v e . A t the b e g i n n i n g o f the s e v e n t h century, J o h n M o s c h u s tells in his f a m o u s Pratum

spirituale,

ch. 172, that the A l e x a n d r i a n m o n k C o s m a s S c h o l a s t i c u s ,

w h o o w n e d the g r e a t e s t p r i v a t e library in the city, s p e n t his d a y s in w r i t i n g p o ­ lemical treatises a g a i n s t the J e w s , b u t J o h n r e m a r k s that C o s m a s h i m s e l f n e v e r e m b a r k e d u p o n or e x p o s e d h i m s e l f to actual d e b a t e s w i t h J e w s in t h e city b u t sent o u t o t h e r s to p e r f o r m this task, in w h i c h t h e y c o u l d gratefully m a k e u s e o f the a r g u m e n t s p e n n e d b y C o s m a s . T h i s m a n c o u l d in t h e o r y h a v e b e e n the a u t h o r o f o u r Kephalaia.

T h e B y z a n t i n e patriarch P h o t i u s r e c o r d s that in t h e s a m e city

e v e n S a m a r i t a n s e n g a g e d in d e b a t e w i t h C h r i s t i a n s w i t h a n array o f a n t i - C h r i s ­ tian a r g u m e n t s .

49

This and other material

50

s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s that it w a s e x a c t l y

the w e a k e n e d p o s i t i o n o f the J e w s w i t h i n the C h r i s t i a n B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e that i n d u c e d t h e m to c h a l l e n g e the C h r i s t i a n s in m a t t e r s o f interpretation o f the B i b l e . It is in this f r a m e w o r k that o u r little treatise w i t h 2 5 q u e s t i o n s to c o r n e r t h e J e w s gets a c r e d i b l e c o n t e x t , certainly if it c o u l d b e d a t e d to the y e a r s after H e r a c l i u s ' e d i c t o f 6 3 2 . It c a n n o t b e p r o v e d , b u t n o r is it to b e e x c l u d e d , that the p r o b l e m o f the a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f t h e J e w i s h religion, as w e k n o w it so w e l l e s p e c i a l l y from

4 5

Text and translation in Linder, Jews 3 3 7 - 3 5 5 . See W.J. van Bekkum, "Anti-Christian Polemics in Hebrew Liturgical Poetry (Piyyut) o f the Sixth and Seventh Centuries," in J. den Boeft & A. Hilhorst (eds.), Early Christian Poetry, Leiden 1993, 2 9 7 - 3 0 8 ; and idem, "Jewish Messianic Expectations in the A g e o f Heraclius," in G.J. Reinink & B.H. Stolte (eds.), The Reign of Heraclius (610-641): Crisis and Confrontation, Leuven 2 0 0 2 , 9 5 - 1 1 2 . Simon, Verus Israel 1 7 9 - 2 0 1 . B. Avoda Zara 4a. Photius, Bibliotheca cod. 230 (= vol. V, pp. 6 0 - 6 4 Henry). See R. Pummer, Early Chris­ tian Authors on Samaritans and Samaritanism, Tubingen 2002, 425^129. Inter alia from writings of the famous abbott of the St. Catharina monastery in the Sinai, Anastasius Sinaita (seventh cent.); see Deroche, 'La polemique' 2 8 4 - 2 8 5 . 4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

Twenty-Five

Questions

225

to Corner the Jews

the a n t i - J e w i s h s e r m o n s J o h n C h r y s o s t o m held in A n t i o c h in t h e y e a r s 3 8 6 - 3 8 7 CE,

5 1

still p l a y e d a significant role in t h e d e c a d e s a r o u n d 6 0 0 C E .

Further, it has to b e n o t e d that, e v e n if t h e a n t i - J e w i s h p o l e m i c s in t h e s e trea­ tises did n o t s e r v e the practical p u r p o s e o f b e a t i n g the J e w s in d e b a t e , t h e y w e r e useful w i t h i n h e C h u r c h , specifically s e r v i n g to confirm the beliefs a n d identity o f C h r i s t i a n s w h o c a m e into c o n t a c t w i t h J e w s . D e m a r c a t i o n is, a n d w a s , a l w a y s essential for self-identification.

52

T h e d o c u m e n t d i s c u s s e d h e r e , ' u n petit m a n u e l o f f e n s i f , '

53

m a k e s clear that

C h r i s t i a n s tried to b e as well p r e p a r e d as t h e y c o u l d for p o s s i b l e c o n t r o v e r s i e s w i t h J e w s . It is u n i q u e in so far as it is the only treatise k n o w n to us in w h i c h only t h e q u e s t i o n s n o t t h e a n s w e r s are g i v e n . T h i s feature is telling, for t h e implica­ tion is o f c o u r s e that there are n o p o s s i b l e a n s w e r s ( N . B . : epaporetika\).

That

is also i n d i c a t e d b y t h e frequently r e c u r r i n g f o r m u l a that i n t r o d u c e s t h e actual q u e s t i o n : " . . . , is it n o t o b v i o u s t h e n t h a t . . . ? "

5 4

T h e G r e e k f o r m u l a t i o n indicates

e v e n m o r e clearly (by m e a n s o f the n e g a t i v e particle ou) than t h e E n g l i s h transla­ tion that a n y o t h e r a n s w e r t h a n ' y e s ' is i m p o s s i b l e : the C h r i s t i a n is 1 0 0 % right, the J e w c a n o n l y say A m e n a n d c o n v e r t . T h e q u e s t i o n s d o n o t d i s p l a y a clear p r i n c i p l e o f o r d e r i n g , b u t t h e r e is a cer­ tain clustering. Q u e s t i o n s 1-5 deal w i t h t h e inability o f the L a w to realize the s a l v a t i o n that w a s p r o m i s e d to t h e gentiles. Q u e s t i o n s 6 - 1 1 a r g u e that it is o n l y C h r i s t w h o m e e t s t h e definition o f ' a p r o p h e t like M o s e s . ' Q u e s t i o n s 1 2 - 1 5 posit that t h e t e m p o r a r y p r i e s t h o o d o f A a r o n a n d t h e eternal o n e o f M e l c h i z e d e k are m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . Q u e s t i o n s 1 6 - 2 0 e m p h a s i z e a g a i n that the L a w d o e s n o t b r i n g salvation to the g e n t i l e s w h e r e a s C h r i s t i a n faith d o e s . Q u e s t i o n s 2 1 - 2 4 state that in its p r e s e n t situation the p e o p l e o f Israel c a n n o t fulfill t h e L a w a n y l o n g e r a n d that the M e s s i a h c a n n o t arise from the tribe o f J u d a h b e c a u s e that tribe c a n n o t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from o t h e r Israelite tribes a n y m o r e . Q u e s t i o n 2 5 is the c r o w n i n g c o n c l u s i o n . Biblical v e r s e s from the O l d T e s t a m e n t p l a y i n g a k e y r o l e are G e n . 4 9 : 1 0 , D e u t . 1 8 : 1 5 , 18 a n d Ps. 110:4. ( F r o m t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t e s p e c i a l l y P a u l a n d the Letter to the H e b r e w s play a n i m p o r t a n t role.) T h e w e l l - k n o w n S h i l o h - p a s s a g e in G e n . 4 9 : 1 0 a b o u t the ruler from J u d a h that will not fail a n d will b e the ' e x p e c ­ 55

tation o f t h e G e n t i l e s ' (thus t h e S e p t u a g i n t v e r s i o n that w a s u s e d b y t h e a u t h o r )

5 1

See P.W. van der Horst, 'Jews and Christians in Antioch at the End of the Fourth Century,' in S.E. Porter & B.W.R. Pearson (eds.), Jewish-Christian Relations Through the Centuries, Sheffield 2 0 0 0 , 2 2 8 - 2 3 8 . The author of the Kephalaia borrowed heavily for his anti-Jewish argumentation from Chrysostom's sermons. The invariable conversion of the Jewish interlocutor at the end of the debates serves of course exactly that purpose. Deroche, "La polemique" 297. Greek: pos ouprodelon hoti...; a real 'bluff formula.' For the significant differences between the Hebrew and the Greek text here see M. Had 5 2

5 3

5 4

5 5

226

Twenty-Five

Questions

to Corner the Jews

w a s interpreted in a m e s s i a n i c s e n s e b y b o t h J e w s a n d C h r i s t i a n s in antiquity, a n d t h e s a m e a p p l i e d to D e u t . 1 8 : 1 5 - 1 8 (a p r o p h e t like M o s e s ) a n d P s a l m 110[109]:4 (You are a priest for e v e r a c c o r d i n g to the o r d e r o f M e l c h i z e d e k ) . It is n o w o n d e r that e x a c t l y t h o s e texts that b o t h parties interpreted as p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e m e s s i a h b e c a m e a s o u r c e o f c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n w h o this m e s s i a h w a s . In q u e s t i o n s 8 a n d 9 the a u t h o r a s s u m e s , r a t h e r u n e x p e c t e d l y , that from t h e J e w i s h p o i n t o f v i e w Z e r u b b a b e l w o u l d turn out to b e the m e s s i a h or the p r o p h e t like M o s e s in D e u t . 18. T h i s interpretation o f t h e figure o f Z e r u b b a b e l , b a s e d u p o n H a g g a i 2 : 2 2 - 2 4 , is not to b e found explicitly in J e w i s h s o u r c e s , b u t the fifth-century C h r i s t i a n e x e g e t e T h e o d o r e t o f C y r r u s a l s o p o l e m i c i z e s a g a i n s t the J e w i s h o p i n i o n that (a s e c o n d ) Z e r u b b a b e l w o u l d turn out to b e t h e m e s s i a h .

56

A n d it will c e r t a i n l y not b e s h e e r c o i n c i d e n c e that p r e c i s e l y in t h e s e v e n t h c e n ­ tury a B y z a n t i n e J e w w r o t e t h e Sefer Zerubbabel n o t a m e s s i a h , is a great a p o c a l y p t i c v i s i o n a r y ,

in w h i c h Z e r u b b a b e l , t h o u g h 57

w h i c h c o u l d b e interpreted b y

m a l e v o l e n t a n d ill-informed C h r i s t i a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s as b e i n g a b o u t a p e r s o n w i t h a g r e a t r o l e in the e s c h a t o n , that is, a m e s s i a h . S i n c e , h o w e v e r , the a u t h o r o f o u r treatise s e e m s to b e rather w e l l - i n f o r m e d , w e certainly c a n n o t e x c l u d e t h e possibility, c o n f i r m e d b y T h e o d o r e t u s , that this i d e a w a s f a v o u r e d in certain Jewish circles.

58

M u c h m o r e r e m a i n s to b e said a b o u t t h e Kephalaia

epaporetika.

In fact t h e

s t u d y o f this treatise is still in its infancy. In this c o n t r i b u t i o n , m y m o d e s t a i m w a s to e n a b l e r e a d e r s w h o m a y n o t b e familiar w i t h this text to m a k e a first a c ­ q u a i n t a n c e w i t h a small b u t fascinating c h a p t e r in the history o f J e w i s h - C h r i s t i a n r e l a t i o n s in t h e early B y z a n t i n e era.

e.a., La Bible d'Alexandrie, I: La Genese, Paris 1986, 3 0 8 - 3 0 9 , and J.W. Wevers, Notes on the Greek Text of Genesis, Atlanta 1993, 826. See, e.g., his Comm. inlsaiam 11.10 (PG 8 1 , 1 8 7 2 ) . Other passages from his and Jerome's works are mentioned by R.L. Wilken, "The Restoration of Israel in Biblical Prophecy: Christian and Jewish Responses in the Early Byzantine Period," in J. Neusner & E.S. Frerichs (eds.), "To See Ourselves As Others See Us. " Christians, Jews, 'Others' in Late Antiquity, Chico 1985, 4 5 4 note 17. See M. Himmelfarb, "Sefer Zerubbabel," in D. Stern & M.J. Mirsky (eds.), Rabbinic Phantasies. Imaginative Narratives from Classical Hebrew Literature, Philadelphia-New York 1990, 6 7 - 9 0 . Further Wilken, "The Restoration of Israel," 4 4 3 ^ 1 7 1 , esp. 453—461; R.L. Wilken, The Land Called Holy. Palestine in Christian History and Thought, N e w Haven-London 1992, 2 0 7 - 2 1 4 ; and Van Bekkum, "Jewish Messianic Expectations" 1 0 4 - 1 0 6 . That the interpretation of Gog and Magog plays a role in both our document (Question 16) and the Sefer Zerubbabel, as well as in other Jewish and Christian sources from this period, cor­ roborates the impression that the themes broached by the anonymous author of the Kephalaia played a role in real life debates. See also on this Wilken, "The Restoration o f Israel," 459. 5 6

5 7

5 8

"The Most Superstitious and Disgusting of All Nations" Diogenes of Oenoanda on the Jews

S o m e t i m e d u r i n g H a d r i a n ' s reign, p r o b a b l y in t h e t w e n t i e s o f the 2

n d

century

C E , a w e a l t h y i n h a b i t a n t o f t h e city o f O e n o a n d a (in Lycia) called D i o g e n e s h a d t h e h u g e w a l l o f the S t o a o n t h e A g o r a inscribed w i t h a g i g a n t i c inscription (ca. 8 0 x 4 m e t e r ) . H i s intention w a s to instruct his fellow-citizens, p r o b a b l y shortly before h i s d e a t h , in E p i c u r u s ' p h i l o s o p h y in o r d e r to dispel their fear o f d e a t h a n d o f the g o d s . A b o u t a c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f later this b u i l d i n g w a s d i s m a n t l e d a n d m a n y b l o c k s o f the inscription w e r e r e - u s e d for t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n e w fortification w a l l a n d o t h e r b u i l d i n g s . In 1884 the first f r a g m e n t s o f this i n s c r i p ­ tion w e r e d i s c o v e r e d in t h e city. T h e e x c a v a t i o n s h a v e c o n t i n u e d at that site since t h e n , albeit v e r y intermittently, for s o m e 120 y e a r s , a n d t i m e a n d a g a i n n e w f r a g m e n t s o f this c u r i o u s text w e r e found. T h e b y t h e n c o m p l e t e a n d w e l l k n o w n T e u b n e r edition o f 1967 b y C. W. C h i l t o n i n c l u d e d 88 f r a g m e n t s . B u t British i n v e s t i g a t i o n s at O e n o a n d a from 1968 till 1983 m o r e t h a n d o u b l e d the n u m b e r o f k n o w n f r a g m e n t s , i n c r e a s i n g it from 88 to n o less t h a n 2 1 2 . (It s h o u l d b e a d d e d in p a r e n t h e s e s , h o w e v e r , that t h e 8 8 f r a g m e n t s a l r e a d y k n o w n c o n t a i n s o m e 3 5 5 0 w o r d s , w h e r e a s the 124 n e w f r a g m e n t s h a v e o n l y s o m e 2 3 5 0 ) . T h e s e n e w f r a g m e n t s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d a n d p u b l i s h e d in a l o n g series o f articles b y M a r t i n F. S m i t h . H e finally p u b l i s h e d a n e w edition o f all the f r a g m e n t s , t h e fullest ever, in 1 9 9 3 . ' Ten y e a r s later, in 2 0 0 3 , S m i t h p u b l i s h e d a s u p p l e m e n t b e c a u s e , d u e to his o w n i n d u s t r i o u s search for n e w f r a g m e n t s , h e w a s a b l e to p r e s e n t e l e v e n m o r e 2

n e w p i e c e s , i n c l u d i n g the largest p i e c e found so far. M o s t o f t h e s e n e w frag­ m e n t s yield little n e w i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t N [ e w ] F [ r a g m e n f ] 126 is o f i m p o r t a n c e . N F 126, the m o s t substantial a n d b e s t p r e s e r v e d o f all t h e f r a g m e n t s , is e n g r a v e d

1

M. F. Smith, Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean Inscription, edited with introduction, translation and notes, Napoli 1993 (see my review in Mnemosyne 48 (1995) 1 0 1 - 1 0 3 ) . In this book one also finds the remarkable story of the gradual discovery o f the text of this treatise on stone. M. F. Smith, Supplement to Diogenes of Oinoanda, The Epicurean Inscription, Napoli 2003. A s a matter of fact Smith had already published most of this new material, which was discovered in 1997, in 1998; see his 'Excavations at Oinoanda 1997: The N e w Epicurean Texts,' Anatolian Studies 48 (1998) 1 2 5 - 1 7 0 . The full commentary on these new fragments is to be found in the 1998 article, not in the book o f 2003. 2

228

Diogenes

of Oenoanda

on the Jews

o n a b l o c k o f m a r b l e w i t h a w i d t h o f 165 c m . a n d it h a s 5 c o l u m n s o f text. It d i s c u s s e s m a t t e r s o f t h e o l o g y a n d religion such as that ' t h e E p i c u r e a n c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e g o d s as living a life o f c o m p l e t e self-sufficiency a n d tranquillity a n d n o t c o n c e r n i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h o u r w o r l d is beneficial to h u m a n b e i n g s , w h e r e a s t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e m as b e i n g s w h o c r e a t e d the w o r l d a n d h u m a n b e i n g s a n d interfere w i t h o u r affairs, p u n i s h i n g the w i c k e d a n d r e w a r d i n g t h e r i g h t e o u s , is 3

h a r m f u l . ' All o f this is w e l l - k n o w n , o f c o u r s e , but o n e o f the m o r e n o v e l a s p e c t s o f N F 126 is that D i o g e n e s h e r e attacks the J e w s a n d E g y p t i a n s . H e states the following: A clear indication o f the inability o f the g o d s to prevent w r o n g d o i n g s is provided b y the nations o f the J e w s and Egyptians, w h o , as w e l l as b e i n g the m o s t superstitious aimonestatoi)

o f all p e o p l e s , are also the m o s t disgusting (miardtatoi)

(deisid-

o f all p e o p l e s ( N F

126 III 8 - 1 V 1). 4

S o m e r e m a r k s are in o r d e r h e r e . L e t m e b e g i n b y s a y i n g s o m e t h i n g m o r e a b o u t t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t o f the s t a t e m e n t w i t h i n the d o c u m e n t itself a n d t h e n a d d s o m e o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t the w i d e r c o n t e x t in t e r m s o f G r e e k a n d R o m a n v i e w s o f J u d a i s m . N F 126 b e l o n g s to the section o n E p i c u r e a n p h y s i c s o f w h i c h t h e o l ­ 5

o g y w a s a p a r t . D i o g e n e s h e r e a r g u e s that e v i l - d o e r s a p p a r e n t l y are n o t afraid o f the g o d s , o t h e r w i s e they w o u l d n o t c o m m i t their evil acts. R e a l l y r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e , o n the o t h e r h a n d , are n o t r i g h t e o u s out o f fear o f t h e g o d s b u t b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e the right set o f ideas; it is their ethical c o n v i c t i o n s that k e e p t h e m from d o i n g evil. E v e n o r d i n a r y p e o p l e are r i g h t e o u s , ' i n so far as they are r i g h t e o u s ' (II 7 - 8 ) , on a c c o u n t o f the l a w s a n d the p e n a l t i e s i m p o s e d b y the l a w s ; a n d e v e n if s o m e o f t h e m d o k e e p a w a y from evil on a c c o u n t o f t h e g o d s , t h e y form o n l y a handful. ' H a r d l y t w o or three ( o f s u c h ) i n d i v i d u a l s are to b e found a m o n g great s e g m e n t s o f the m a s s e s , a n d not e v e n t h e s e are steadfast in acting righteously, for t h e y a r e n o t fully p e r s u a d e d a b o u t P r o v i d e n c e ' (II 13 - III 7). T h e n follow t h e lines a b o u t the J e w s a n d E g y p t i a n s q u o t e d a b o v e , a n d after that a vacat

indicates

the b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w p a r a g r a p h . First it h a s to b e said that this r e m a r k a b o u t J e w s a n d E g y p t i a n s h a s n o p a r a l ­ lels in E p i c u r e a n literature. In spite o f the m a n y critical r e m a r k s on traditional r e l i g i o u s beliefs in the w r i t i n g s o f E p i c u r u s a n d his followers, w e d o n o t find

3

Smith, Supplement to Diogenes of Oinoanda 75. 'Excavations at Oinoanda 1 9 9 7 / 1 4 0 - 1 4 2 , has some useful comments on these lines, but Diogenes' remarks deserve closer investigation. For some additional comments see also W. Ameling, Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis II: Kleinasien, Tubingen 2004, 4 7 2 - 4 7 7 , who reprints part o f the new fragment, offers a German translation, and adds two pages of com­ ments. See J.M. Rist, Epicurus. An Introduction, Cambridge 1972, 1 4 0 - 1 6 3 ; A.A. Long, Helle­ nistic Philosophy, London 1974, 4 1 - 4 9 . A good selection o f Epicurean texts on the gods is to be found in A.A. Long & D.N. Sedley, The Hellenistic Philosophers, vol. 1, Cambridge 1987, 139-149. 4

5

Diogenes

of Oenoanda

on the Jews

229

6

s u c h s n i d e r e m a r k s o n t h e J e w s ( o r E g y p t i a n s ) , a s far a s t h e f r a g m e n t a r y s t a t e of preservation of Epicurean literature permits us to see. A s both Smith and A m e l i n g r e m a r k , it c a n n o t b e r u l e d o u t t h a t t h e g r e a t J e w i s h r e v o l t o f 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 C E in E g y p t a n d t h e C y r e n a i c a a n d a l s o t h e B a r K o c h b a w a r o f 1 3 2 - 1 3 5 C E 7

h a d a n e g a t i v e influence u p o n D i o g e n e s ' a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e J e w s . T h a t m a y b e t h e c a s e , b u t t h e r e is n o w a y o f c o n f i r m i n g t h a t ( b u t s e e further b e l o w ) . W e w i l l n o w h a v e t o t a k e a c l o s e r l o o k at t h e t w o q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e J e w s as b o t h panton

deisidaimonestatoi

a n d panton

A s t o t h e u s e o f deisidaimon

miardtatoi.

for J e w s , w e h a v e t o k e e p in m i n d t h e s e m a n t i c

r a n g e o f t h a t w o r d . A s is w e l l - k n o w n , deisidaimon

has the dual aspect of 're­

l i g i o u s , d e v o u t ' o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d o f ' e x c e s s i v e l y s c r u p u l o u s in r e l i g i o u s matters, superstitious' on the other.

8

Both the positive and the negative con­

n o t a t i o n s o f t h e w o r d w e r e in e v i d e n c e a l r e a d y in c l a s s i c a l t i m e s , a s is c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a c o m p a r i s o n of, e . g . , A r i s t o t l e ' s u s e o f t h e t e r m in a c o n t e x t o f w o r d s d e n o t i n g r e s p e c t for t h e g o d s (in Pol. 5.11.25 [ 1 3 1 5 a l - 3 ] ) , a n d T h e o p h r a s t u s ' u s e o f it in a c o n t e x t o f w o r d s d e n o t i n g fear a n d c o w a r d i c e (in h i s f a m o u s Character

16). T h a t t h e s a m e s e m a n t i c d u a l i t y still a p p l i e d in t h e p e r i o d

m u c h c l o s e r t o t h e t i m e o f D i o g e n e s o f O e n o a n d a is p r o v e d by, for e x a m p l e , D i o d o r u s S i c u l u s 1.70.8, w h e r e deisidaimonia 9

is e q u a t e d t o a theophiles

(a g o d - l o v i n g l i f e ) o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d P l u t a r c h ' s critical t r e a t i s e Peri aiminias 6

(De superstitione)

on the other.

1 0

bios deisid-

T h e u s a g e in t h e J e w i s h h i s t o r i a n

I will leave the Egyptians out o f account here in order to focus on the Jews. I am aware o f the risk that, by doing so, I create the impression that Diogenes singles out the Jews for vitupera­ tion, which he does not, and the reader is requested to keep this in mind. That both Jews and Egyptians (and others) were often the victims o f ethnic biases and stereotypes is well illustrated by G. Bohak, 'The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient "Anti-Semitism" in Historical Per­ spective,' in M. Mor et al. (eds.), Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishnah and the Talmud, Jerusalem 2 0 0 3 , 27^13. For Greek and Roman criticism of the Egyptian religion see, e.g., K.A.D. Smelik & E.A. Hemelrijk, '"Who Knows Not What Monsters Demented Egypt Worships?" Opinions on Egyptian Animal Worship in Antiquity as Part o f the Ancient Conception o f Egypt,' in Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt II 17, 4, Berlin 1984, 1 8 5 2 - 2 0 0 0 . Smith, 'Excavations at Oinoanda 1997,' 142; Ameling, Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis II474 n. 14. See the t w o books of 75 years ago by m y fellow-countrymen H. Bolkestein, Theophrastos' Charakter der deisidaimonia als religionsgeschichtliche Urkunde, Giessen 1929, and P.J. Koets, Deisidaimonia. A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Religious Terminology in Greek, Purmerend 1929. For more recent literature see P.B. Colera, & J.R. Somolinos, Repertorio bibliogrdfico de la lexicografia griega, Madrid 1998, 2 3 1 . A very useful short dis­ cussion is C. Spicq, Notes de lexicographic neotestamentaire. Supplement, Fribourg: Editions universitaires - Gottingen 1982, 113—117. B y far the most extensive recent treatment to date is D.B. Martin, Inventing Superstition: from the Hippocratics to the Christians, Cambridge M A - London 2004. But Diodorus uses it occasionally also in a negative sense; see Martin, Inventing Supersti­ tion 7 9 - 9 2 . For references to passages in the works o f Plutarch apart from De superstitione see Spicq, Notes de lexicographic neotestamentaire 114-115, and Martin, Inventing Superstition 7

8

9

1 0

230

Diogenes

of Oenoanda

on the Jews

F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s , a n e a r - c o n t e m p o r a r y o f D i o g e n e s , is illustrative in t h a t h e e m p l o y s the w o r d deisidaimonia

in b o t h s e n s e s : for ' r e l i g i o n , s y s t e m o f cultic

b e l i e f a n d p r a c t i c e , faithfulness' (referring to the J e w i s h faith) on t h e o n e h a n d , a n d for ' r e l i g i o u s fanaticism, bigotry, s u p e r s t i t i o n ' o n the o t h e r .

11

Even though

the d e n i g r a t i n g s e n s e b e c o m e s d o m i n a n t in later antiquity, t h e p o s i t i v e or n e u t r a l s e n s e is still alive in the t i m e o f D i o g e n e s .

1 2

B u t in w h a t s e n s e did D i o g e n e s u s e t h e w o r d deisidaimonl

C o n t r a r y to w h a t

o n e w o u l d e x p e c t , t h e r e are n o o t h e r o c c u r r e n c e s o f this w o r d (or o f monia)

deisidai­

in t h e e x t a n t f r a g m e n t s , so that o n e will h a v e to t a k e a d e c i s i o n a b o u t

t h e s e n s e o f t h e w o r d solely on the b a s i s o f this p a s s a g e . O n e m i g h t a r g u e that a p o s i t i v e s e n s e w o u l d e n h a n c e the c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n piety a n d d i s g u s t i n g or e v e n c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o u r . B u t o n e m i g h t a r g u e as w e l l that it is e x a c t l y a n e x t r e m e s c r u p u l o s i t y in t h i n g s r e l i g i o u s that w o u l d lead o n e to e x p e c t that t r a n s g r e s s i o n s o f g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d rules o f c o n d u c t will b e a v o i d e d by t h e p e r s o n s c o n c e r n e d out o f fear o f d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t . It m a y b e helpful in this r e s p e c t to cast a g l a n c e at G r e e k attitudes t o w a r d s J e w i s h religion a n d see h o w the deisidaimonia

motif

is u s e d in the traditions c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e attitudes. All the r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l h a s b e e n helpfully c o l l e c t e d b y t h e late M e n a c h e m Stern ( o f the H e b r e w U n i v e r s i t y in J e r u s a l e m ) in his m a s s i v e a n d m a g i s t e r i a l t h r e e - v o l u m e w o r k Greek and Latin Authors 12

GLAJJ).

on Jews and Judaism

(henceforth

T h e first a n c i e n t a u t h o r to b e m e n t i o n e d h e r e is t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y

B C E historian A g a t h a r c h i d e s of C n i d u s w h o , in o r d e r to illustrate the stupidity o f all sorts o f superstition, m e n t i o n s the fact that b y a b s t a i n i n g from w o r k o n e v e r y s a b b a t h the J e w s o n c e lost the city o f J e r u s a l e m d u r i n g a w a r b e c a u s e they w e r e u n w i l l i n g to d e f e n d it d u r i n g the s e v e n t h day. H e ridicules their b e h a v i o u r as a g l a r i n g c a s e o f deisidaimonia A 8 6 F 2 0 a - b = GLAJJ

(ap. J o s e p h u s , Contra Apionem

no. 3 0 ) .

1 4

1.205-11 =

FGH

A b o u t a c e n t u r y later t h e g e o g r a p h e r S t r a b o

c a s t i g a t e s M o s e s ' s u c c e s s o r s (not M o s e s himself; see Geogr.

16.2.35-36)

1 5

for

h a v i n g i n t r o d u c e d a w i d e variety o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s p r a c t i c e s , such as c i r c u m c i ­ sion a n d a b s t a i n i n g from the m e a t o f certain a n i m a l s (Geogr.

16.2.37 =

GLAJJ

93-108. See K.H. Rengstorf (ed.), A Complete Concordance to Flavius Josephus, vol. 1, Leiden 1973,418. See also the material collected in F.W. Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature (based on W. Bauer), third ed., Chicago 2 0 0 0 , 216. M. Stern, Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, 3 vols., Jerusalem 1974—1984. In vol. 3, 156, one finds the references to passages with the deisidaimonia motif. The motif of 'Jewish superstition' is discussed also by P. Schafer, Judeophohia. Attitudes Towards the Jews in the Ancient World, Cambridge MA 1997, index s.v. The same story is also to be found in Josephus, Ant. Jud. 12.6. Contrast Quintilian, Inst. 3.7.21: 'Founders of cities are detested for concentrating a race which is a curse to others, as for example the founder of the Jewish superstition [ = M o s e s ] ' (GLAJJ no. 230). 11

1 2

1 3

1 4

15

Diogenes

of Oenoanda

231

on the Jews

n o . 115). E r o t i a n u s , a first c e n t u r y C E g l o s s a t o r o f H i p p o c r a t e s , also m e n t i o n s a b s t e n t i o n from p o r k as a sign o f J e w i s h deisidaimonia s e n s e (GLAJJ

no. 196). In P l u t a r c h ' s De superstitione

t w i c e as e x a m p l e s o f a r e p r e h e n s i b l e deisidaimonia:

in a clearly d e r o g a t o r y the J e w s are m e n t i o n e d

in 3 ( 1 6 6 A ; GLAJJ no. 2 5 5 )

their k e e p i n g o f the s a b b a t h is s i n g l e d out as such; in 8 ( 1 6 9 C ; GLAJJ

no. 2 5 6 )

it is said that ' b e c a u s e it w a s the s a b b a t h , t h e J e w s sat i m m o v a b l e in their p l a c e s w h i l e t h e e n e m y w e r e p l a n t i n g l a d d e r s a g a i n s t the w a l l s a n d c a p t u r i n g the d e ­ fenses, a n d t h e y did not g e t u p but r e m a i n e d t h e r e , b o u n d in deisidaimonia o n e g r e a t n e t . ' In Stoic,

repugn.

3 8 ( 1 0 5 0 E ; GLAJJ

as in

no. 2 5 7 ) the o p i n i o n s held

by J e w s a n d S y r i a n s a b o u t g o d s are c a t e g o r i z e d b y P l u t a r c h as

deisidaimonia.

M o r e i n s t a n c e s c o u l d b e g i v e n , b u t t h e s e few m a y suffice to s h o w that J e w i s h deisidaimonia

in G r e e k e y e s w a s a l m o s t a l w a y s s o m e t h i n g to b e d e s p i s e d or

ridiculed. M o s t o f t h e G r e e k ( a n d R o m a n )

1 6

intellectuals h a d little or n o a p p r e ­

ciation for the religious ideas a n d c u s t o m s o f the J e w s ; t h e y c o u l d see little else than superstition in w h a t t h e y r e g a r d e d as t h e e x c e s s i v e s c r u p u l o s i t y that this religion entailed. In their e y e s , J u d a i s m w a s r e l i g i o n carried to its e x t r e m e s . It is v e r y p r o b a b l e that D i o g e n e s o f O e n o a n d a s t a n d s in this t r a d i t i o n . B u t w h y d o e s D i o g e n e s s a y o f the J e w s : panton

eisi miarotatoP.

17

S e v e r a l ear­

lier a u t h o r s d o state that t h e J e w i s h religion is a s p e c i m e n o f deisidaimonia,

but

e v e n so they refrain from d e s c r i b i n g the J e w s in s u c h n e g a t i v e t e r m s as D i o g e n e s d o e s . W h a t is the m e a n i n g o f miarotatoi

h e r e ? Miaros

c a n b e said o f a n y t h i n g or

a n y o n e stained, defiled, or p o l l u t e d in t h e literal s e n s e , b u t m o r e often it d e n o t e s i m m o r a l b e h a v i o u r or it p e r t a i n s to ' s o m e t h i n g that [or s o m e o n e w h o ] v i o l a t e s cultic or m o r a l c a n o n s to s u c h an e x t e n t as to invite r e v u l s i o n , [hence] a b o m i n a ­ 8

b l e , w r e t c h e d , foul, d e p r a v e d , d i s g u s t i n g . " P a r k e r s a y s a b o u t t h e related w o r d miaino

that 'it c a n b e u s e d for the p o l l u t i o n o f a r e p u t a t i o n t h r o u g h u n w o r t h y

d e e d s , or o f truth t h r o u g h d i s h o n e s t y ; j u s t i c e , law, a n d p i e t y are in d a n g e r o f defilement.' miarotes

19

T h e a u t h o r w h o e m p h a s i z e s the m o t i f o f the J e w s ' miaria

or

m o r e than a n y o n e e l s e is t h e G r a e c o - E g y p t i a n priest M a n e t h o (ca.

3 0 0 B C E ) . T h i s early r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f J e w - h a t r e d pictures the J e w s as originally a b u n c h o f lepers a n d o t h e r w i s e p o l l u t e d (miaroi)

p e r s o n s in E g y p t w h o h a d to

b e e x p e l l e d from the c o u n t r y at d i v i n e c o m m a n d b e c a u s e t h e y ritually defiled the country, w h e r e a f t e r they f o u n d e d their r o g u e - s t a t e in a n d a r o u n d J e r u s a l e m (ap. J o s e p h u s , Contra Apionem

1 . 2 2 8 - 2 5 2 = FGH C 6 0 9 F 1 0 = GLAJJ

no. 2 1 ) . T h a t

this a n t i - J e w i s h v e r s i o n o f J e w i s h b e g i n n i n g s , a p e r v e r t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e e x o d u s story w i t h a s t r o n g e m p h a s i s on J e w i s h i m p u r i t y a n d defilement, s u r v i v e d till the

1 6

For similar Roman views on Jewish superstitio see Schafer, Judeophohia 180-195. This conclusion is corroborated by Dale Martin's observation that since Theophrastus, in philosophical writings deisidaimonia is always used in a negative sense; see Inventing Superstition 2 1 - 3 5 . See Danker (Bauer), Greek-English Lexicon 650. R. Parker, Miasma. Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion, Oxford 1983, 3. 1 7

1 8

1 9

232

Diogenes

of Oenoanda

on the Jews

t i m e o f D i o g e n e s is p r o v e d b y the spiteful caricature o f the J e w s a n d their origins in T a c i t u s , Hist. 5 . 3 - 5 (GLAJJ

no. 2 8 1 ) .

2 0

H o w e v e r , in the d e v e l o p m e n t o f this

a n t i - J e w i s h story b e t w e e n M a n e t h o a n d Tacitus the e m p h a s i s is p u t m o r e a n d m o r e on the i m m o r a l c h a r a c t e r o f the J e w s .

2 1

T h e y are i n c r e a s i n g l y b l a c k e n e d

in a p r o c e s s o f d e m o n i z a t i o n that finds its ( p r o v i s i o n a l ) c l i m a x in the w o r k o f t h e first c e n t u r y C E A l e x a n d r i a n g r a m m a r i a n A p i o n .

2 2

H e tells a story a b o u t an

a n n u a l c a n n i b a l i s t i c ritual in w h i c h the J e w s slaughter, sacrifice a n d eat a G r e e k w h o h a s b e e n fattened for that v e r y p u r p o s e (ap. J o s e p h u s , Contra 2 . 9 1 - 9 6 = FGH C 6 1 6 F4i = GLAJJ

no. 171).

23

Apionem

T h i s utter m o r a l d e p r a v i t y w i t h

its e x t r e m e l y d i s g u s t i n g m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , a w i d e s p r e a d m o t i f in the a n t i - J e w i s h literature o f H e l l e n i s t i c a n d early R o m a n t i m e s , a n y t h i n g else c a l l i n g t h e J e w s miaroi,

2 4

is w h a t justified m o r e than

or r a t h e r miarotatoi

pantdn.

Acts of can­

n i b a l i s m , a n d e a t i n g a G r e e k at that, p r o v e d b e y o n d d o u b t that the J e w s w e r e t h e m o s t a b o m i n a b l e a n d d e p r a v e d o f all n a t i o n s , so it w a s b e l i e v e d .

25

M o r e than o n e

a n c i e n t author, therefore, c o n d e m n s t h e J e w s as the w o r s t p o s s i b l e atheists a n d m i s a n t h r o p e s . E v e n t h o u g h t h e w o r d miaros

d o e s not o c c u r often in this c o n t e x t ,

t h e i d e a is e x p r e s s e d in a w i d e variety o f o t h e r d e r o g a t o r y t e r m s as w e l l . It is h i g h l y unlikely, in m y view, that D i o g e n e s o f O e n o a n d a w a s w h o l l y u n a w a r e o f all this, a n d for that r e a s o n it s e e m s v e r y p r o b a b l e that w h a t h e h a d in m i n d w a s e x a c t l y t h e m o r a l d e p r a v i t y o f the J e w s . T h i s also fits in w i t h t h e c o n t e x t , in w h i c h h e s p e a k s a b o u t his c o n v i c t i o n that t h e g o d s d o n o t p u n i s h e v i l d o e r s . In a d d i t i o n to that, if the a b o v e m e n t i o n e d s u g g e s t i o n that D i o g e n e s ' attitude t o w a r d s the J e w s m a y h a v e b e e n influenced b y r e p o r t s a b o u t the w a r b e t w e e n J e w s a n d R o m a n s a n d G r e e k s in C y r e n e a n d E g y p t in the y e a r s 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 h a s a n y m e r i t s , it m a y b e the following. L e s s t h a n a c e n t u r y after D i o g e n e s , t h e h i s t o r i a n C a s s i u s D i o relates that the J e w s o f C y r e n e h a d p u t a certain A n d r e a s at their h e a d in 115 C E a n d w e r e d e s t r o y i n g G r e e k s a n d R o m a n s . ' T h e y w o u l d eat the flesh o f their v i c t i m s , m a k e belts for t h e m s e l v e s o f their entrails, a n o i n t t h e m s e l v e s w i t h their b l o o d , a n d w e a r their skins for c l o t h i n g ; m a n y t h e y s a w e d in t w o , from t h e h e a d d o w n w a r d s ; others they g a v e to w i l d b e a s t s , a n d still o t h e r s they forced to fight as g l a d i a t o r s ' (Hist.

6 8 . 3 2 . 1 - 2 = GLAJJ

no. 437).

H o w e v e r m u c h o f this r e p o r t m a y h a v e b e e n e x a g g e r a t e d , as is to b e e x p e c t e d

2 0

On which see now esp. R.S. B\och,Antike Vorstellungen vom Judentum. Der Judenexkurs des Tacitus im Rahmen der griechisch-romischen Ethnographie, Stuttgart 2 0 0 2 . For a brief sketch of this development see P.W. van der Horst, Philo s Flaccus. The First Pogrom. Introduction, Translation and Commentary, Leiden 2 0 0 3 , 1 8 - 3 4 . See the chapter 'Who Was Apion?' in RW. van der Horst, Japheth in the Tents of Shem. Studies on Jewish Hellenism in Antiquity, Leuven 2 0 0 2 , 2 0 7 - 2 2 2 . Note that miaros often has the connotation of 'defiled by blood;' see Parker, Miasma 104-143. Tacitus, Hist. 5.5.1, speaks about the pravitas of the Jewish ritus. See Schafer, Judeophobia 58, 203. Also E. Bickermann, 'Ritualmord und Eselskult,' in his Studies in Jewish and Christian History, vol. 2, Leiden 1980, 2 2 5 - 2 5 5 . 2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

2 5

Diogenes

of Oenoanda

on the Jews

233

o f w a r t i m e r u m o r s , if e v e n part o f this kind o f stories h a d r e a c h e d the inhabitants o f O e n o a n d a , D i o g e n e s w o u l d h a v e seen r e a s o n s e n o u g h to m a k e his s t a t e m e n t a b o u t the miaria

o f the J e w s . A s S m i t h s a y s , if the n e w s o f this revolt ' w e r e

fresh in D i o g e n e s ' m i n d w h e n h e w a s w r i t i n g the p r e s e n t p a s s a g e , a n d reports a b o u t atrocities, i n c l u d i n g acts o f c a n n i b a l i s m , a l l e g e d l y c o m m i t t e d by the r e b e l s , h a d b e e n part o f the n e w s , this w o u l d h e l p to e x p l a i n his s t r o n g w o r d s about the J e w s . '

2 6

T h i s b e c o m e s e v e n m o r e p r o b a b l e if o n e t a k e s into a c c o u n t

that t h e s e w a r r u m o r s fitted in w i t h a tradition o f s t e r e o t y p e s o f t h e J e w s as cruel cannibals.

27

E v e n t h o u g h w e d o not h a v e a n y e v i d e n c e o f J e w i s h p r e s e n c e in O e n o a n d a it­ self, it s h o u l d b e b o r n e in m i n d that in the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d A s i a M i n o r h a r b o u r e d a great m a n y J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s .

28

Lycia, t o o , h a d J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s as early

as t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E a c c o r d i n g to a literary s o u r c e (see 7

Maccabees

15.23), a n d there is also e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for J e w s in Lycia, in b o t h L i m y r a a n d T l o s , from the early R o m a n p e r i o d .

29

S o t h e r e is s o m e r e a s o n to b e l i e v e that

D i o g e n e s h a d s o m e , e v e n if o n l y a distant, a c q u a i n t a n c e o f J e w s . A s w e all k n o w from m o d e r n e x p e r i e n c e , ' k n o w i n g ' s o m e J e w s n e v e r suffices to rid p e o p l e o f l o n g - s t a n d i n g a n t i - S e m i t i c s t e r e o t y p e s a n d p r e j u d i c e s . S o e v e n if D i o g e n e s h a d k n o w n J e w s himself, it is fully w i t h i n the r a n g e o f w h a t is p o s s i b l e that h e still r e g a r d e d t h e m as the m o s t s u p e r s t i t i o u s a n d a b o m i n a b l e o f all n a t i o n s . N o n e t h e ­ less, it is r e v e a l i n g that s u c h an e m i n e n t l y rational a n d o t h e r w i s e s y m p a t h e t i c p e r s o n a l i t y as D i o g e n e s w a s not a b l e to rise a b o v e the level o f the w o r s t antiJ e w i s h cliches o f his t i m e .

2 6

3 0

'Excavations at Oinoanda 1997,' 142. Pagan critics o f early Christianity repeated the same motif; see A. McGowen, 'Eating People: Accusations of Cannibalism Against Christians in the Second Century,'./ECS 2 (1994) 413^142. See P.R. Trebilco, Jewish Communities in Asia Minor, Cambridge 1991. All the relevant evidence is collected in Ameling, Inscriptiones Judaicae Orientis II 470-480. The same applies to Tacitus and other ancient (and modern!) intellectuals. 2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

The Shadow in Hellenistic Popular Belief F r o m cultural a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w e learn that it is a well k n o w n fact that in m a n y c u l t u r e s the s h a d o w p l a y s a m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t role than in o u r m o d e r n s o c i ­ ety, e s p e c i a l l y in w h a t u s e d to b e called ' p r i m i t i v e ' c u l t u r e s , b u t n o t o n l y t h e r e .

1

T h e s h a d o w is n o t so m u c h t h e p l a c e w h e r e the light c a n n o t p e n e t r a t e , so n o t j u s t privatio,

b u t it h a s a v e r y specific m e a n i n g a n d function o f its o w n : t h e s h a d o w

o f a h u m a n b e i n g or an a n i m a l ( s o m e t i m e s also o f a n object s u c h as a tree) is his/her/its soul, vital p o w e r , d o u b l e , or alter ego?

It is p o t e n t e n o u g h to e x e r t

a p o w e r f u l influence u p o n w h o m it falls or w i t h w h o m it c o m e s into contact. O n e c a n h a r m or d a m a g e s o m e o n e if o n e d e a l s w i t h his s h a d o w v i o l e n t l y ; a n d it c a n b e d a n g e r o u s , or beneficial, if o n e is ' t o u c h e d ' b y the s h a d o w o f certain h u m a n s or a n i m a l s . S h a d o w a n d life are seen as identical to s u c h a d e g r e e that m a n y are afraid o f n o o n t i m e b e c a u s e at that m o m e n t o n e ' s s h a d o w is at its smallest. W h e n o n e ' s s h a d o w d i s a p p e a r s , o n e d i e s . M a n y m a g i c a l p r a c t i c e s are b a s e d u p o n this belief. T h e c h i l d r e n ' s g a m e in w h i c h t h e y try to t r a m p l e u p o n e a c h o t h e r ' s s h a d o w h a s its b a c k g r o u n d in this b e l i e f (often c h i l d r e n ' s g a m e s retain e l e m e n t s o f old p o p u l a r beliefs). In m a n y cultures a n d a m o n g n u m e r o u s n a t i o n s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e o b s e r v e d this p h e n o m e n o n a n d d e s c r i b e d it, a n d

1

See J.G. Frazer, The Golden Bough III: Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, London 1911 ( 3 ed.), 7 7 - 1 0 0 ('The Soul as a Shadow and a Reflection'); J. von Negelein, 'Bild, Spiegel und Schatten im Volksglauben,' Archiv fur Religionswissenschaft 5 (1902) 1-37; F. Pradel, 'Der Schatten im Volksglauben,' Mitteilungen der schlesischen Gesellschaft fur Volkskunde 12 (1904) 1-36; B. Ankermann, 'Totenkult und Seelenglaube bei afrikanischen Volkern,' Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 50 (1918) 8 9 - 1 5 3 ; M. Bieler, 'Schatten,' Handworterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens 9, Berlin 1940, 1 2 6 - 1 4 2 ; H. Fischer, Studien iiber Seelenvorstellungen in Ozeanien, Miinchen 1965, passim; for Western Europe sec the chapter 'Ohne Schatten, ohne Scele' in E.L. Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch im Spiegel der heidnischen Vorzeit I, Berlin 1867, 5 9 - 1 3 0 . One also finds some relevant material in H.B. Alexander, 'Soul (Primi­ tive),' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics 11 (1920) 727; W. Brede Kristensen, The Meaning of Religion, The Hague 1 9 6 0 , 4 1 0 - 1 ; G. van der Leeuw, Phdnomenologie der Religion, Tubin­ gen 1956 ( 2 ed.), 3 2 4 - 5 , 3 2 8 - 9 . I. Levy-Bruhl, L'dmeprimitive, Paris 1927, 161: "Tres souvent, dans les representations collectives des primitives, le 'principe vital' ou 'vie' de l'individu ne se distingue pas de son ombre, de son image ou de son reflet (reflection). Les observateurs rapportent constamment qu' au dire des indigenes leur ombre est leur 'ame.'" Bieler, 'Schatten' 127: "Der Schatten gilt einer Person odcr Sachc als wesentlich zugehorig. Das aussert sich in dem Glauben, der Schatten habe dieselbe Macht zu wirken wie sein Trager, umgckehrt aber widerfahre dem Menschen, was seinem Schatten widerfahrt." rd

n d

2

The Shadow in Hellenistic

Popular

235

Belief

also for a n c i e n t c u l t u r e s s c h o l a r s h a v e b e e n a b l e to p o i n t t o literary s o u r c e s w h i c h testify to this belief. F o r a n c i e n t G r e e k a n d R o m a n c u l t u r e , h o w e v e r , the 3

r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l h a s n e v e r b e e n c o l l e c t e d , as far as I k n o w . S o m e y e a r s a g o I p u b l i s h e d a m o d e s t c o l l e c t i o n o f this e v i d e n c e , b u t that w a s d o n e from a v e r y specific a n g l e a n d at a p l a c e w h e r e classical p h i l o l o g i s t s are n o t likely to look 4

for it. In this s h o r t c o n t r i b u t i o n , I will p r e s e n t this m a t e r i a l a n e w , b u t n o w b o t h sifted a n d w i t h s o m e n e w m a t e r i a l a d d e d , a n d hopefully in a p l a c e that is m o r e a c c e s s i b l e to classicists a n d h i s t o r i a n s o f r e l i g i o n . L e t u s b e g i n w i t h a series o f t e x t s that all deal w i t h t h e c u r i o u s topic o f the hyena's shadow:

5

A r i s t o t l e , fr. 3 6 9 R o s e ( = A e l i a n , Nat. anim.

6:14): xoig xvoi be emxiOexai r\

avxr\ (sc. f| ijaiva) xov X Q O J I O V exeivov oxav f| jrAr|Qr|g 6 xfjg a£X.r|vr|g xtixA,og, xaxojtiv Xau.|3dv£i xr)v avyr\v xai xr|V auxfjg oxidv emfiaXkei xoig xuai, xai Jiaoaxofjua

amove,

xaxeoiyaoe x a i xaxayor)xei)aaaa obg al cpac>u,axi&eg eixa djtdyei aiamurvxag xai xexQnxai 6 xi xai (3oxiXexai axixoig. P s - A r i s t o t l e , De mirab.

6

auscult.

145: hi 5e xfj 'Aoa|3iq iiaivaW xi yevog cpaaiv

eivai, 6 EJiei5dv jtQoidr] xo BnQiov f| dvOQomov, BJti(3fj em xrjv a x i d v dqpcoviav epyd^exai x a i Jtfj^iv xo\,avxr\v waxe ur) 6 i ) v a a 0 a i xiveiv xo acbu.a.

7

TOIJXO

5e jroieiv

xai em xebv xnvoov. P l i n y t h e Elder, Nat. hist. 8:106 . . . umbrae obmutescere vestigio

et quibusdam

artibus

eius (sc. hyaenae) omne

animal

quod

contactu

canes

ter lustravit

in

haerere.

S o l i n u s , Coll. sequuntur

magicis

2 7 : 2 4 qui forte

contigerint,

Geoponica

latrare

si venantes

nequeant

umbram

voce

eius (sc. hyaenae)

dum

perdita.

15, 1, 10 (p. 4 3 3 ed. B e c k h ) : tiaiva qpuaixw xivi Xoyw xfj djto aeA.r|vr|g

vuxxEQivfj axiq xoD xuvog ejtipdaa (homo bia o%oivov and vtyovc, xaxdyei axixov. P r o c l u s , In Rempublicam

I ( p . 2 9 0 ed. K r o l l ) : xai ydo al axiai, aig xd ei&aAa

au^Dyeiv qpr|ai ( s c . P l a t o ) , xoiai3xr|v kxovoi q^ijaiv x a i yag ai)xai ato^dxeov eiai xai

3

One finds some short remarks in Frazer, Golden Bough III (see n. 1); M.P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion, Miinchen 1955 ( 2 ed.), 398 n. 3; E. Stemplinger, Antiker Volksglaube, Stuttgart 1948, 182. J. C. Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion. A Study in Survivals, N e w York 1964 (=1910), 289. In the great encyclopaedias (e. g., Pauly-Wissowa), however, one will look in vain for an entry on the shadow [Der Neue Pauly does not contain one either]. The book by V. Holzer, Umbra. Vorstellung und Symbol im Leben der Romer, diss. Marburg 1965 (typewritten), is disappointing in that the evidence is treated unsatisfactorily and from too rationalistic an angle. P.W. van der Horst, 'Peter's Shadow. The Religio-Historical Background o f Acts V 15,' New Testament Studies 23 (1976/77) 2 0 4 - 2 1 2 . [See now also my entry 'Shadow' in the Anchor Bible Dictionary 5 (1992) 1148-1150.] See also Steier in Pauly-Wissowa Suppl. IV (1924) 765. In Nat. anim. 3:7, Aelius draws on the same tradition: xuvag be acpoovoug cutocpcuveiv tatc; {icdvaig f| ami] nageoxe (sc, f| cpiioig). There is a varia lectio here: ... xdg vaivac, OTOV aiixatg xfjv axidv em|3dX.T). The text is somewhat uncertain here, but that does not affect the meaning o f the passage. n d

4

5

6

7

The Shadow in Hellenistic

236

Popular

Belief

o x n ^ d x w v e i x o v e g , x a i JtaujtoM/nv e'xouoi ngog x d dcp' cbv EXJtiJtxovoiv aiifXJidGeiav, wg br\kol x a i o a a u.dyo)v x s x v a i JtQog K a i xl keyoi xdg

EXELVCDV

XE

x d ei'&a)X.a

6QOV

ejtayy£XA,ovxai

KOU

&uvdu.£ig; a x a i xoTg dA,6yoig fjSr] c^cboig vnagxei

j t a v x o g EVEpyelv. f| y a p { j a i v a , qpaoi, xrjv xot3 x u v o g a x i d v em|3d^A,ei x a i Ooivnv jtoieixai x o v x u v a .

E V UIJJEI

xdg a x i d g . KQO

koyov

xaGnnevou jraxr|oaoa

8

T i m o t h e u s o f G a z a , in M . H a u p t , Opuscula

III, L e i p z i g 1 8 7 6 , 2 7 9 : o x i ev

oekr]vr] eo%o\ievr\ eav x u v o g o v x o g eni oxEyoug A.d(3r|xai xdxwGEV xfjg aiixoti a x i d g , avxbv xaxaqpEQEi dvcoGev x o v x i j v a .

9

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e m i n o r v a r i a n t s in this h y e n a t r a d i t i o n - s o m e t i m e s t h e h y e n a t r a m p l e s u p o n t h e d o g ' s s h a d o w , s o m e t i m e s it c a s t s its o w n s h a d o w u p o n t h e d o g - o n e n e v e r t h e l e s s s e e s h e r e a m o r e o r less u n i n t e r r u p t e d c h a i n o f t r a d i ­ t i o n s o n t h e m a g i c a l p o w e r o f a n a n i m a l ' s s h a d o w from t h e 4

t h

c e n t u r y B C E till

far i n t o t h e M i d d l e A g e s . We also have unambiguous testimonies about the powers of h u m a n shadows from t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n p e r i o d s : E n n i u s , ap. C i c e r o , Tusc. s e r i o u s c r i m e , s a y s : ) Nolite, bonis

umbrave

obsit.

Disp.

3 , 12, 2 6 ( T h y e s t e s , w h o h a s c o m m i t t e d a

hospites,

ad me adire,

Tanta vis sceleris

P l i n y t h e E l d e r , Nat. hist. 2 8 : 6 9 magi que nudari

aut umbram

cuiusquam

in corpore vetant

ilico istic, ne contagio

eius causa

ab ipso respergi

mea

10

haeret.

contra

solem

lunam-

(one should not urinate on

someone's shadow). In t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t w e find in A c t s 5:15 ( o n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f J e r u s a l e m ) : ...

WOXE

x a i eig xdg jtX,axEiag £X(peQ£iv xoiig doGEVEig x a i xiGsvai e m xXxvaQioov x a i

xQa|3dxxtt>v i v a E o x o u i v o u riEXQOu x d v r| a x i d EJtioxidar) xivl atjxcbv. Defixionum vobis

cerebrum,

8

Tabellae

commendo fruntem,

illius

11

190, 4ff. (ed. A . A u d o l l e n t , P a r i s 1 9 0 4 , 2 4 9 ) : Dii membra,

supercilia,

colorem,

figuram,

caput,

capillos,

inferi, umbram,

os etc.

See the short note in A.-J. Festugiere, Proclus. Commentaire sur la Republique II, Paris 1970, 9 8 - 9 n. 3. Timotheus is also the source o f the Aristophanis Historiae Animalium Epitome (ed. Sp. Lambros, Supplementum Aristotelicum I, Berlin 1885) 2:320 where w e find a very similar story. See H.D. Jocelyn, The Tragedies of Ennius, Cambridge 1967, 4 2 1 . In this connection, another passage in the works o f Luke deserves our attention as well, although it is not about a shadow o f a human being but o f God. In Luke 1:35, the angel Ga­ briel answers Mary's question o f how she could become pregnant without a man as follows: nveaj^a ctyiov ene^eiiaeTca em oe, xai 6tiva(iig viplaxov emoxidaei aor 616 xai xo yevvcbuevov dyiov xA.T)0T|aeTai, vibe, 0eoO. This is to say that Mary's pregnancy is due to her being overshadowed by God's shadow. For this idea there is no parallel in the immediate 'Umwelt' o f the NT, but there is one in ancient Egypt: an old Egyptian text speaks o f the seminal emission o f a deity's shadow(!); see the text and translation in B. George, Zu den altdgyptischen Vorstellung vom Schatten als Seele, Bonn 1970, 113-6. See on this text also my essay in NTS 23 (1976/77) 204-212. 9

1 0

11

The Shadow

in Hellenistic

Popular

Belief

237

A c u r i o u s p a s s a g e is D i o C h r y s o s t o m 6 7 : 4 - 5 , b e c a u s e h e r e D i o d e s c r i b e s a s t o o r i d i c u l o u s for w o r d s t h e b e l i e f t h a t s o m e o n e ' s h e a l t h a n d p o w e r are d e p e n d ­ e n t u p o n t h e l e n g t h o f h i s s h a d o w , w h i c h a s a m a t t e r o f fact is a c o n c e p t i o n t h a t is c u r r e n t a m o n g m a n y n a t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k s . H e s a y s : ei o u v xig

EIT]

x o i o u x o g d v O p o m o g o l o g £fjv jtoog x o a u x o i ) a x i d v ,

OJOXE

at>^ou.evr|g u.ev

aajxfjg e j r a i o e a S a i x a i u.£yaA,aux£io"0ai x a i xoig Geoig Qvziv a u x o g T E x a i xovc, cpiXxrug XEA-EIIEIV,

PoaxuxEoag 6e y i y v o u i v r i g Xim£ia0ai t e x a i 6 o a a 0 a i xajtEivoxEQog, x a i

ToaoTJtq) yioXKov

OOWJTEQ

d v eXdxtoov y i y v n x a i , xaOdjtEQ aiixog qp0iva)v, 0auu.aaxf]v

d v , oi'um, JiaQEXOi &iaxQi|3r|v

xfjg yag auxfjg f|U£Qag OXE U,EV tamoix' d v , OXE 6 E

Xaigoi. JtQwi u i v EJtEiSdv lbr\ TT)V a x i d v £a)0ivr]v jtdvu uxxxodv, xcov T E xamaoixxtov x a i xarv

EV

xoig

XEIXEOI

Jtuoyarv

OXEOOV UEI^W,

6fjXov oxi xaipoi, d v cbg a u x o g E^ajtivng

yEyovcbg xoig 'AX.q)d6aig i'aog x a i Eig XT]V d y o o d v |3a&i£oi d v x a i Eig x d 0 £ a x p a x a i j t a v x a x d a e xfjg Jt6X.£0)g oncog d v vno Jtdvxcov pAijtoixo. d o x o i x ' d v axu0QO)Ji6x£Qog avxov

TIEO'I

5E JihqQovoav

dyoodv

y i y v £ a 0 a i x a i dvaxwQoir). Tfjg 6e u.ear)u,|3cuag

aiaxiJvoix' d v 6qp0fjvai dvOodmu) xivi x a i ev&ov u i v o i d v EyxX£iadu.Evog, £jr.£i&dv EV xoig j t o a i PA.ejtr| xrjv a x i d v . ITd^iv 6 E jt£Qi &£iX/nv dvaA.au,|3dvoi d v a u x o v x a i y a u p o x E o o g cpdvoix' d v aei Jtpog EOJtEoav.

12

In t h i s c o n t e x t o n e c o u l d a l s o list t h o s e t e x t s w h i c h , a l t h o u g h t h e y d o n o t m e n t i o n s h a d o w s explicitly, e x p r e s s t h e fear o f n o o n o r t h e m i d d a y h o u r ( w h e n t h e s h a d o w is s m a l l ) , e . g . , L u c a n , Phars. P o r p h y r y , De antro nymph.

26; e t c .

3 : 4 2 3 f f ; P h i l o s t r a t u s , Heroicus

1:3;

1 3

T h e r e are four p a s s a g e s w h i c h a r e s o m e t i m e s a d d u c e d in t h i s c o n n e c t i o n b u t o f w h i c h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is a m a t t e r o f d e b a t e .

1 4

T h e s e t e x t s all state t h a t ( t h e r e

is a t r a d i t i o n t o t h e effect t h a t ) o n e l o s e s o n e ' s s h a d o w t h e m o m e n t o n e e n t e r s t h e t e m p l e o f Z e u s o n M o u n t L y k a i o n in A r c a d i a : P o l y b i u s 16, 12, 7: x o y d o cpdaxEiv s v i a xoov aoouaxwv

EV

cpooxi xi0EU£va ui]

JTOIEIV

a x i d v djtr|Xyr|XTjiag eaxi iptixfJS- o Jte:n;oir|X£ ©EOJtoujtog, (pf)aag xoiig Eig x o xot3 A i o g d(3axov £u(3dvxag x a x ' ' A Q x a 6 i a v d a x i o u g yi.v£a0ai. P a u s a n i a s 8, 3 8 , 6: x o 6 E o p o g jrao£X£tcu x o A u x a i o v x a i ak~ka eg Qav\ia udX,iaxa x66e- xefxevog e a x i ev a i i x w A u x a i o u Aiog, eao6og 5 E dv0QO)jtoig- vnsQibovxa

O U X EOXIV

be xov vouov x a i EOEXOovxa d v d y x n j i d a a avxov

jiooaco uf| (3icbvai. K a i xd&£

EXI EXEYEXO,

xai

Eg avxb eviavxov

x d rvxog xoij x E u i v o u g y£vou.£va ofxoicog

j t d v x a x a i 0r|Qia x a i d v O o d m o u g oi) jtao£X£O0ai axidv. K a i 6id x o u x o Eg x o x £ U £ v o g

12

On this passage see Frazer, Golden Bough III 87: 'The rhetorician w h o thus thought to expose the vanity o f fame as an object o f human ambition by likening it to an ever-changing shadow, little dreamed that in real life there were men w h o set almost as much store by their shadows as the fool w h o m he had conjured up in his imagination to point a moral. So hard is it for the straining wings o f fancy to outstrip the folly o f mankind.' More passages in W. Drexler, 'Meridianus Daemon,' in W.H. Roscher (ed.), Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der griechischen und romischen Mythologie 11(1897) 2832 ff. (who, however, proposes a different interpretation). Nilsson, Geschichte I 398 n. 3; also Th. H. Gaster, Myth, Legend, and Custom in the Old Testament, N e w York 1969, 7 9 1 . 13

14

238

BTIQLOTJ

The Shadow in Hellenistic

Popular

Belief

xaxacpeTjyovxog ox>x eGeXei ovveomjtxeiv 6 xxivnyexrig akka xmou.evcov e x x o g

x a i ogoiv

TO

GrjQiov ovSeuiav ait' avxov Gedxai oxidv.

XQOVOV

u.ev Sf| xov I'aov ejcetoi

xe 6 fjXxog xov ev xco oiiQavco xapxlvov xai ev 2ur|vr| xfj nob AiGiomag oike and 6EV6Q(OV

oike djr.6 xcov c^tocov yeveoGai oxidv eoxi. To 6e ev xco Auxaicp xeu.evog xo

ai)xo eig xdg oxidg del xe x a i e;tl Jtaacov jteTtovGe xcov P l u t a r c h , Quaest.

COQCOV.

Graec. 39 ( 3 0 0 C ) : xo uivxoioxidv u.f| jtiJtxeiv djtoxoti eu.|3dvxog

eig xo Axwaiov Xiyexai \iev oux dXnOcog, eoxrixe 6e Jtloxiv laxuQdv. rioxepov xoxj degog eig vecpr] XQE^Ofxevot) x a i axuGQCojtdt^ovxog ejrixolg eiaiotjoiv, f\ oxi 9avaxot3xai \iev 6 e^i(3dg, xcov 6' djroGavovxcov ol n^GayoQixol Xiyouai xdg xp^xdg \ir\ Ttoielv axidv ^r|6e oxaQ6a[i.t)xxeiv. Finally, a s c h o l i o n to C a l l i m a c h u s ' Hymn

to Zeus

( 1 : 1 3 , p . 4 2 ed. Pfeiffer):

jtdv £cpov eioiov exet (into Z e u s ' t e m p l e ) u.eu,oXuou.evov dyovov eylvexo x a i oxidv xo otofxa ax)xoi) oiixexi ejtoiei. In n o n e o f t h e s e four t e x t s is it stated u n a m b i g u o u s l y that it w a s t h e loss o f o n e ' s s h a d o w that c a u s e d t h e n o x i o u s effects m e n t i o n e d . It m i g h t b e , t h e r e f o r e , that w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h t w o different t r a d i t i o n s h e r e , o n e a b o u t t h e h a r m f u l ef­ fects o f e n t e r i n g this t e m p l e o f Z e u s ( d e a t h , infertility), a n o t h e r a b o u t t h e loss o f o n e ' s s h a d o w u p o n e n t e r i n g this sanctuary. N e v e r t h e l e s s it s e e m s m o r e logical to a s s u m e a c e r t a i n i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o e l e m e n t s , s o that w h a t is m e a n t is that t h e loss o f o n e ' s s h a d o w c o n s e q u e n t u p o n e n t e r i n g Z e u s ' t e m p l e e n t a i l e d s u c h d i s a s t r o u s effects as d e a t h or infertility. A p p a r e n t l y e n t e r i n g this t e m p l e w a s b e l i e v e d to c a u s e a p e r s o n to b e r o b b e d o f his o r h e r vital p o w e r . T h e s h a d o w l e s s c r e a t u r e w o u l d , o n this s h o w i n g , b e t h e h u m a n b e i n g o r a n i m a l a l r e a d y m a r k e d o u t for d e a t h . ' B u t , if t h e u l t i m a t e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s h a d o w l e s s p r e c i n c t o n M o u n t L y k a i o n lies in t h e c o n n e x i o n o n c e t h o u g h t to e x i s t b e t w e e n s h a d o w a n d s o u l , it b y n o m e a n s f o l l o w s that this w a s t h e e x p l a n a t i o n g i v e n b y t h e G r e e k s o f t h e classical p e r i o d . T h e y m a y w e l l h a v e forgotten t h e real m e a n ­ ing o f a b e l i e f to w h i c h t h e y still c l u n g a n d h a v e a t t r i b u t e d it to s o m e i r r e l e v a n t cause.'

1 5

T h e r e a r e s o m e o t h e r p a s s a g e s o f w h i c h it is u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y b e l o n g in this c o n t e x t . I refer to t h o s e t e x t s w h i c h s p e a k o f t h e f a v o u r a b l e o r u n f a v o u r a b l e influence o f t h e s h a d o w o f certain t r e e s . P l i n y t h e Elder, Nat.

hist.

1 7 : 1 8 , e x t e n s i v e l y d i s c u s s e s t h e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e s h a d o w s o f v a r i o u s t r e e s , in w h i c h t h e ' L e i t p r i n z i p ' is: umbra nat. 6 : 7 8 3 - 5 , s a y s : arboribus capitis faciant

15

ut saepe

aut nutrix

primum

dolores

aut noverca

certis gravis

/ siquis

eas subter

umbra

est. L u c r e t i u s , De rer. tributa

/usque

iacuit prostratus

in

adeo, herbis.

A . B . Cook, Zeus. A Study of Ancient Religion I, Cambridge 1914, 67. See also the discus­ sion by W.H. Roscher, 'Die Schattenlosigkeit des Zeus-Abatons auf dem Lykaion,' Jahrbucher fur classische Philologie 38 [145] (1892) 7 0 1 - 7 0 9 (702: 'hier w e i c h t . . . der schutzende damon von der person des gottentweihenden eindringlings und uberlasst ihn den schrecken des todes'). It should be borne in mind that many Arcadians regarded Mount Lykaion as the Olympos (Pausanias VIII 38, 2).

The Shadow

O n e m a y c o m p a r e Virgil, Ecloga bus umbra,

/ iuniperi

gravis

in Hellenistic

Popular

1 0 : 7 5 - 6 : surgamus,

umbra,

nocent

et frugibus

239

Belief

solet esse gravis b

umbrae}

cantanti-

In the light o f

t h e texts a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d , it is n o t i m p l a u s i b l e that t h e s a m e m a g i c a l ideas are in t h e b a c k g r o u n d h e r e as w e l l , a l t h o u g h I a m n o t w h o l l y c e r t a i n .

17

T h e r e are three o t h e r texts that stricto sensu d o not b e l o n g h e r e b u t d o m e n t i o n a oxid in an u n u s u a l s e n s e . First, Papyrus

Maspero

II 6 7 1 8 8 jtaoacpi>A.a§6v u,e

djto Jtavxog Jtovr|QoiJ Jxvei>u.axos, xmoxa^ov uxru Jtdv Jtv£v\ia &aiu.ovi,cov qpGeiQOJtoicov . . . x a i Jtdoa(v) a x i d ( v ) . jtQog jtaOn 5idcpoQa xai

18

Cf. a l s o Hippiatrica

JTQOC; T O

Berolinensia

1 3 0 : 1 3 5 Por|Gr)u.a

oxidg ex xcov axd|3A,cov &ico§ai. P r o b a b l y , in t h e s e

t w o c a s e s oxid m e a n s ' e v i l spirit,' a s e n s e that d e r i v e s from t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e d e c e a s e d as ' s h a d o w s ' as found in H o m e r .

1 9

T h e s h a d o w as t h e (evil) spirit

o f t h e d e c e a s e d h a s , h o w e v e r , a different b a c k g r o u n d from t h e s h a d o w c o n c e p t that is t h e t o p i c o f this article. Finally, t h e r e is a c u r i o u s p a s s a g e in P h i l o s t r a t u s , Vita Apoll.

3:15 ( o n the B r a h m a n s ) : xmaiBQioi . . . &oxoi3vxec; ai))ac;eo0ai oxidv

Te iiJteQaiQODaiv auxtov, xai uovxog oil xpexd^ovxai, xai i m o xco f|)aq) eloiv, ejtei&dv auxoi, pouXovrai. It is v e r y h a r d to i m a g i n e w h a t is m e a n t b y their r a i s i n g their o w n s h a d o w a b o v e t h e m s e l v e s (as a c o v e r ) s o that t h e y d o n o t get w e t w h e n it rains.

2 0

T h e r e l e v a n t G r a e c o - R o m a n m a t e r i a l , as far as it is k n o w n t o m e ,

2 1

has been

p r e s e n t e d n o w . It can still b e s u p p l e m e n t e d s o m e w h a t from J e w i s h s o u r c e s o f t h e H e l l e n i s t i c - R o m a n p e r i o d . T h e O l d T e s t a m e n t h a s s o m e e l e m e n t s , albeit v e r y few, that s e e m to reflect t h e idea o f t h e s h a d o w as p o w e r .

2 2

In m o s t O T p a s ­

s a g e s t h e H e b r e w w o r d for s h a d o w (tsel) s i m p l y m e a n s ' p r o t e c t i o n , ' also w h e n it is u s e d o f p e r s o n s . B u t w h e n in N u m . 14:9 t h e Israelites a r e s p o k e n to a b o u t t h e C a n a a n i t e s , " D o n o t fear t h e p e o p l e o f t h e land, for t h e y a r e b r e a d for u s ; their s h a d o w h a s b e e n r e m o v e d from t h e m , " it p r o b a b l y m e a n s that their p o w e r 1 6

Other Latin passages in Holzer, Umbra 6 1 - 3 . See also Plutarch, Quaest. Conv. 3:1 (647F). But see Pradel, 'Schatten' 2 9 - 3 1 , and Bieler, 'Schatten' 1 2 9 - 1 3 3 . Quoted from J.H. Moulton & G. Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament, London 1930, 578. E.g., Od. 10:495, 11:207. Cf. Pradel, 'Schatten' 3 - 5 . Another enigmatic passage is Herondas, Mime 1:15-6 xo yao yf\Qac, rpeag xaBiXxti xf| oxnf) jraoeaxrixev. Perhaps the idea is here one o f a shadow as protective spirit (as in modern Greek folklore; see Pradel, 'Schatten'13-4), for which one can also have fear; cf. the expression 'to fear one's shadow' in Plato, Phaedo lOld; Aristophanes, fragm. 77 (more passages in Pradel 13). [The reader should realize that the search for this material was done in the mid-seventies when the CD-ROM o f the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae was not yet available.] A s such the OT does not stand isolated in the Ancient Near East. The role o f this shadowconcept in the Babylonian-Assyrian Empires can be seen in the entry tsillu in The Assyrian Dictionary 16 (1962) 1 8 9 - 1 9 2 . The Old-Egyptian material has been collected in George, Zu den altdgyptischen Vorstellungen (see n. 11). All OT passages about the tsalmawet (shadow o f death) are left out o f account here because this expression means 'deep darkness.' See D. Winton Thomas, 'Salmawet in the Old Testament,' Journal of Semitic Studies 7 (1962) 1 9 1 - 2 0 0 . 17

18

19

2 0

21

2 2

240

The Shadow in Hellenistic

Popular

Belief

h a s g o n e ( a l t h o u g h the m e a n i n g o f ' p r o t e c t i o n ' c a n definitely n o t b e ruled out; they hang together a n y w a y ) .

2 3

A t a n y rate, it is interesting to see that t w o early

T a r g u m s ( A r a m a i c B i b l e translations) translate this p a s s a g e e x a c t l y in this w a y a n d h e n c e w e r e familiar w i t h this c o n c e p t : B o t h O n k e l o s a n d P s e u d o - J o n a t h a n r e n d e r this v e r s e as follows: " T h e i r strength is d e p a r t e d from t h e m . "

2 4

It is also striking that the L X X v e r s i o n o f J o b 15:29 ( w h e r e t h e H e b r e w text is q u i t e u n c l e a r ) s a y s a b o u t the w i c k e d , w h o will n o t flourish: oi> ycx\ |3dX/n k t XTJV

yf\v axidv. H e r e , t o o , o n e m a y s u r m i s e that the c o n c e p t u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n

is in t h e b a c k g r o u n d .

25

P e r h a p s a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p o w e r a n d s h a d o w is

also p r e s u p p o s e d in L X X P s a l m 139:8:

XTJQIE

xvoie, dvvauxg xfjg aarniQiac; \xov,

sjtsaxiaaag tni xr\v xe(paXf)v \iov ev r|u,eQqi JtoXeuxru. H e r e o n e finds a l m o s t t h e s a m e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n Sijvauxc; a n d ejuaxidi;eiv that o n e sees in L u k e 1:35 ( q u o t e d a b o v e ) . W h e t h e r the e l e m e n t o f p o w e r or r a t h e r that o f o f p r o t e c t i o n is d o m i n a n t in p a s s a g e s s u c h as D e u t . 3 3 : 1 2 (6 0e6g axid^ei ejt' avx(b utdaag xdg f|u.eoas), is h a r d to say. In r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s o n e d o e s not find v e r y m u c h o f r e l e v a n c e . In t h e M i s h n a h treatise Avodah

Zarah 3:8, it is said that o n e is n o t a l l o w e d to sit in t h e s h a d o w o f

an A s h e r a (i. e. a tree that is w o r s h i p p e d as the statue o f a female divinity); a n d in the G e m a r a (the r a b b i n i c d i s c u s s i o n o f this p a s s a g e in t h e B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d ) , this t o p i c is e l a b o r a t e d u p o n {Avodah

Zarah

4 8 b - 4 9 a ) . B u t the v e r y s a m e text

also states that the o n e w h o d o e s sit there d o e s not b e c o m e ritually i m p u r e , w h i c h m a k e s it u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r this p a s s a g e b e l o n g s h e r e . A n y w a y it is striking that in M i s h n a h Oholoth

ch. 2 (cf. also c h s . 5 a n d 11) it is said that e v e r y o n e w h o is

o v e r s h a d o w e d b y s o m e t h i n g that also o v e r s h a d o w s a c o r p s e , b e c o m e s i m p u r e ; so a s h a d o w c a n m a k e o n e i m p u r e after a l l .

26

W h a t m a k e s the difference b e t w e e n

s t a n d i n g in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f a c o r p s e in the o p e n air on the o n e h a n d a n d t h e s a m e situation in a tent o n the o t h e r is t h e fact that via its shadow c r e a t e s c o n t a c t b e t w e e n the p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d a n d t h e c o r p s e .

2 3

the tent

27

SeeGaster, Myth 301 See A. Diez Macho (ed.), Biblia Polyglotta Matritensia. Series IV: Targum Palaestinense in Pentateuchum, L. 4, Numeri, Madrid 1977, 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 . Thus at least Gaster, Myth 7 9 1 . The underlying principle is formulated as follows by H. Danby, 77ze Mishnah, Oxford 1933, 649 note 3: "From Num. 19,14 it is inferred that all (men and utensils) w h o are under the same tent or roof as a corpse (i. e. a dead human body or a part o f it), or w h o are overshadowed by something which also overshadows a corpse (...) suffer corpse-uncleanness and remain unclean for seven days." [For further discussion see my essay 'Two Short Notes on Josephus,' in my Hellenism - Judaism - Christianity: Essays on Their Interaction, Louvain 1998 ( 2 ed.), 6 0 - 6 2 . A l s o J. Finkel, 'The Guises and Vicissitudes of a Universal Folk-Belief in Jewish and Greek Tradi­ tion,' in H. A. Fischel (ed.), Essays in Greco-Roman and Related Talmudic Literature, N e w York 1977, 3 4 4 - 3 6 5 , with some dubious interpretations (but Finkel rightly stresses the Greek influence upon the rabbis in this matter)]. 2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

n d

The Shadow

in Hellenistic

Popular

In T a l m u d B a v l i there are p a s s a g e s (Horayoth Yevamoth

241

Belief

12a, Keritoth

5 b - 6 a ; cf. also

122a) w h e r e it is stated explicitly or implicitly that t h e loss o f o n e ' s

s h a d o w indicates the loss o f o n e ' s soul. In the m i d r a s h i c w o r k Mekhilta, yassa'

Wa-

on E x . 15:22, the text s a y s that ' w h e n a v i p e r looks u p o n the s h a d o w o f

a flying bird, this bird i m m e d i a t e l y is w h i r l e d a r o u n d a n d falls in p i e c e s ' (vol. II p . 8 8 ed. L a u t e r b a c h ) , t h u s rivaling the p a r a d o x o g r a p h i c a c c o u n t s in G r a e c o R o m a n literature. A l s o in t h e T a l m u d , Pesachim

111b, there is a p a s s a g e on the

harmful effects o f the s h a d o w o f certain t r e e s , a g a i n p a r a l l e l e d in p a g a n s o u r c e s (see t h e p a s s a g e from P l i n y ' s Nat. hist., a b o v e ) . T h o u g h few in n u m b e r , t h e s e J e w i s h texts d o n o t l e a v e u s in a n y d o u b t that in a n c i e n t J u d a i s m , t o o , this c o n ­ cept o f the s h a d o w as an influential p o w e r w a s w e l l k n o w n .

2 8

T h e fact that m o s t

o f the J e w i s h e v i d e n c e is from the p o s t - b i b l i c a l p e r i o d strongly s u g g e s t s that H e l l e n i s t i c influence is at w o r k h e r e . It w o u l d t a k e u s t o o far to also p r e s e n t h e r e the m a t e r i a l o n s h a d o w c o n c e p t s in G n o s t i c i s m . Suffice it to say that t h e idea o f the s h a d o w as a n alter ego p l a y s a role h e r e as w e l l ; see, e. g., t w o p a s s a g e s in t h e Hypostasis 137,23 ff a n d 142,11 ff.

29

of the

Archons

T h e G n o s t i c m a t e r i a l , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e N a g H a m m a d i

c o d i c e s , d e s e r v e s a c l o s e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n in this r e s p e c t t h a n is p o s s i b l e h e r e . T h e material from G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d J e w i s h s o u r c e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e h a s m a d e sufficiently clear that t h e c o n c e p t o f a s h a d o w as a vital p o w e r , w i d e s p r e a d as it is all o v e r the w o r l d , w a s also c u r r e n t in the H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n p e r i o d s in b o t h p a g a n , J e w i s h , a n d C h r i s t i a n c i r c l e s .

2 8

30

This is confirmed by the N T text in Acts 5:15 (quoted above) which speaks about the beliefs o f the inhabitants of Jerusalem. For material in later (medieval) rabbinic texts see J.D. Eisenstein, 'Death,' Jewish Encyclopedia IV (1903) 486; also M. Gaster in Germania 26 (1881) 21 Off. (non vidi). See R. Bullard, The Hypostasis of the Archons, Berlin 1970, 2 4 - 5 , 3 4 - 5 . For some remarks (though insufficient) see J.R Culianu, 'La femme celeste et son ombre,' Numen 23 (1976) 1 9 1 - 2 0 9 . The texts cited from Polybius and Plutarch demonstrate that there was also strong criti­ cism o f this idea. 2 9

3 0

The First Atheist There w a s a time w h e n the life o f human beings w a s disordered and beastly, and life w a s ruled by force, w h e n there w a s n o reward for the virtuous nor any punishment for the w i c k e d . It w a s then, I think, that humans d e c i d e d to establish l a w s to punish [ w r o n g d o ­ ers] s o that justice m i g h t rule and b e master over crime and v i o l e n c e . A n d they punished a n y o n e w h o did w r o n g . Then, since the l a w s held public d e e d s in c h e c k and prevented m e n from o p e n acts o f v i o l e n c e , but they c o m m i t t e d them secretly, then it w a s , I b e l i e v e , that a shrewd and c l e v e r - m i n d e d man invented for mortals fear o f the g o d s , so that there might b e a deterrent for the w i c k e d , e v e n if they act or say or think anything in secret. H e n c e from this source the divine w a s introduced [with the c l a i m ] that there is a deity w h o e n j o y s imperishable life, hearing and s e e i n g with his m i n d , his thought and attention o n all things, his nature so divine that he will hear w h a t e v e r is said a m o n g mortals and be able to s e e w h a t e v e r is done. If ever y o u plot s o m e evil d e e d in silence, e v e n this will not e s c a p e the g o d s , for they h a v e k n o w l e d g e . It w a s such stories that he told w h e n he introduced this m o s t delightful teaching and hid the truth with a false tale. H e said the g o d s d w e l l there and p l a c e d them w h e r e they m i g h t m a k e the greatest impression upon human b e i n g s , there w h e r e he k n e w that fears c o m e to mortals and benefits also [to relieve] the miseries o f life, from the vault o n high, w h e r e they b e h e l d the shafts o f lightning and fearful b l o w s o f thunder and star-filled g l e a m o f h e a v e n , the beautiful d e s i g n o f T i m e , that clever builder, parade-ground for the brilliant m a s s o f the sun and source o f rainfall m o i s t e n i n g the earth b e l o w . Such w e r e the fears with w h i c h he surrounded humans and by w h i c h this c l e v e r man established the deity in the proper place, with a h a n d s o m e story, and e x t i n g u i s h e d l a w l e s s n e s s b y m e a n s o f laws. ( . . . ) It w a s thus, I think, that s o m e o n e first persuaded mortals to b e l i e v e that there is a race o f g o d s .

1

t h

th

T h i s striking atheist m a n i f e s t o d o e s not c o m e from an 1 8 or 1 9 c e n t u r y intel­ lectual, as o n e m i g h t b e inclined to e x p e c t . N o , it is from the s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e fifth c e n t u r y B C E ! A s a m a t t e r o f fact, this text is o n e o f t h e earliest atheist d o c u m e n t s in w o r l d history, if n o t the v e r y first. In this short c o n t r i b u t i o n I w a n t to e l u c i d a t e the historical c o n t e x t o f this text fragment in o r d e r to s h e d s o m e light o n a lasting c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e to m o d e r n c u l t u r e . For, w h e t h e r o n e

1

Greek text in H. Diels & W. Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, II, Berlin 1960 (10th ed.), 3 8 6 - 3 8 9 (fr. 88B25; henceforth the abbreviation D - K will be used to refer to this work); also, with an improved text, in B. Snell (ed.), Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta 1, Gottingen 1971, 1 8 0 - 1 8 2 (fr. 43F19). The translation is by Ch. H. Kahn, "Greek Religion and Philosophy in the Sisyphus Fragment," Phronesis 4 2 [1997] 2 4 7 - 2 6 2 , at 2 4 7 - 8 (slightly modified by me); Kahn translates SnelPs text. The Greek text consists of 4 2 iambic trimeters.

The First

243

Atheist

rejects or a c c e p t s a t h e i s m , n o o n e c a n d e n y that in the p h e n o m e n o n o f a t h e i s m 2

w e h a v e r e c e i v e d a lasting c h a l l e n g e from classical A t h e n s . F o r it is in A t h e n s that w e h a v e to situate the o r i g i n o f this f r a g m e n t a n d p r o b a b l y also o f a t h e i s m . I will n o w s k e t c h briefly the historical situation in w h i c h this text c a m e into being. 3

T h e a u t h o r o f the text is C r i t i a s . Critias w a s b o r n in the fifties of the fifth c e n t u r y 4

B C E into a family that b e l o n g e d to t h e aristocratic circles o f A t h e n s . H e w a s a n e p h e w o f P l a t o ' s mother. A n t i - d e m o c r a t i c s e n t i m e n t s w e r e part o f t h e family tradition - his father a n d h e h i m s e l f p a r t i c i p a t e d in 411 in the o l i g a r c h i c r e v o l u ­ 5

tion o f the C o u n c i l o f F o u r H u n d r e d . T h e gifted b o y r e c e i v e d a v e r y g o o d e d u ­ cation, w i t h a h e a v y a c c e n t o n (the b y that t i m e still relatively n e w ) p h i l o s o p h y , 6

a n d h e b e c a m e a pupil o f S o c r a t e s a n d the S o p h i s t s . H e w a s also artistically gifted; h e p l a y e d the flute v e r y w e l l . After t h e fall o f t h e o l i g a r c h i c c o u n c i l , h e m a n a g e d to stay in A t h e n s for s o m e t i m e t h a n k s to his political s h r e w d n e s s , but a c o u p l e o f y e a r s later, in 4 0 6 , h e w a s d r a g g e d a l o n g in t h e d o w n f a l l o f his friend, the o p p o r t u n i s t i c politician A l c i b i a d e s , a n d h e w e n t into exile (in T h e s s a l y ) . After the c a p i t u l a t i o n o f A t h e n s in 4 0 4 (the e n d o f the P e l o p o n n e s i a n W a r w i t h S p a r t a ) , h e r e t u r n e d to his h o m e t o w n a n d w a s e v e n m a d e a m e m b e r o f the g o v e r n i n g c o u n c i l o f t h e Thirty, w h i c h w a s p r e s i d e d o v e r b y t h e S p a r t a n c o n q u e r o r o f A t h e n s , Lysander. D u r i n g the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e f o r m a t i o n o f the city h e v e r y s o o n t u r n e d out to b e o n e o f t h e m o s t rabid a d v e r s a r i e s o f d e m o c r a c y

2

For that reason A. Lesky, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur, Bern-Munchen 1963 (2. Aufl.), 393 rightly calls our text "ein geistesgeschichtlich wichtiges Fragment." Much ink has been spilled over the question of whether or not Euripides was the author of this so-called Sisyphus-fragment since in antiquity some aired that v i e w (see Aetius I 7,2); on that matter M. Winiarczyk, "Nochmals das Satyrspiel 'Sisyphos'," Wiener Studien 100 (1987) 35^15, is very informative. For several reasons this seems unlikely. For a balanced discussion (and refutation) of Euripidean authorship see especially M. Davies, "Sisyphus and the Invention o f Religion," Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 36 (1989) 1 6 - 3 2 . Charles Kahn's recent attempt to defend again Euripides' authorship has not convinced me (see his "Greek Religion and Philosophy in the Sisyphus Fragment," Phronesis 4 2 [1997] 2 4 7 - 2 6 2 ) ; cf. now also D.T. Runia, "Atheists in Aetius," Mnemosyne 49 (1996) 554 ( 5 4 2 - 5 7 6 ) . One of the most elaborate studies of Critias is still W. Nestle, "Kritias. Eine Studie," Neue Jahrhiicher fur das klassische Altertum 11 (1903) 8 1 - 1 0 7 and 1 7 8 - 1 9 9 , reprinted in his Griechische Studien. Untersuchungen zur Religion, Dichtung und Philosophic der Griechen, Stuttgart 1948, 2 5 3 - 3 2 0 ; from the same author also Vom Mythos zum Logos. Die Selhstentfaltung des griechischen Denkens von Homer bis auf die Sophistik und Sokrates, Aalen - Stuttgart 1966 (reprint of the edition Stuttgart 1942), 400^120; see also M. Untersteiner, The Sophists, Oxford 1954, 3 1 3 - 3 2 0 ; B. Zimmermann, "Kritias," NP 6 (1999) 8 5 1 - 2 . See, e.g., J.B. Bury, A History of Greece, London 1963, 489^493. The fact that Critias was a student of Socrates was not favourable for the latter in the trial of Socrates in 399. See W . K . C . Guthrie, Socrates, Cambridge 1971, 6 0 - 6 3 , 9 4 - 9 5 . A contemporary called Critias "the layman among the philosophers and the philosopher among the laymen" (fragm. 88A3 D - K ) . 1

4

5

6

244

The First

Atheist

7

a n d h e h a d h u n d r e d s o f his political o p p o n e n t s m u r d e r e d . W h e n , in 4 0 3 , h e w a s e n g a g e d in battle with o n e o f t h e m ( T h r a s y b u l u s ) at M o u n i c h i a , h e h i m s e l f w a s killed. H e w a s h a t e d by a l m o s t e v e r y o n e as a c a l c u l a t i n g , i n h u m a n t y r a n t w i t h a r u t h l e s s personality. In spite of all that, P l a t o h a d a g r e a t a d m i r a t i o n for his u n c l e ( h e e v e n n a m e d o n e o f his d i a l o g u e s after h i m ) , a n d Aristotle followed h i m in that r e s p e c t .

8

9

Critias w a s also a m a n y - s i d e d a n d fairly g o o d w r i t e r . H e c o m p o s e d elegies a n d w r o t e p h i l o s o p h i c a l a p h o r i s m s a n d treatises (inter alia on e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s ) , e v e n a w o r k o n the n a t u r e o f love(!), as w e l l as d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the v a r i o u s forms o f g o v e r n m e n t (Politeiai),

a n d t r a g e d i e s , t o o . O f all t h e s e w o r k s ,

h o w e v e r , v e r y little has b e e n p r e s e r v e d , only a few d o z e n o f fragments. T h e frag­ m e n t t r a n s l a t e d at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f this article - a c t u a l l y o n e o f the largest w e h a v e - c o m e s from C r i t i a s ' satyr p l a y Sisyphus, author w h o quotes it.

10

at least a c c o r d i n g to the a n c i e n t

In G r e e k m y t h o l o g y , S i s y p h u s w a s a s h r e w d a n d sly

a r c h v i l l a i n w h o often o u t w i t t e d the g o d s b u t e v e n so e n d e d u p in H a d e s , w h e r e b y w a y o f p u n i s h m e n t h e h a d to roll a h e a v y b o u l d e r uphill a n d e v e r y t i m e h e h a d a l m o s t r e a c h e d the hilltop, the b o u l d e r rolled d o w n so that h e h a d to start all o v e r a g a i n .

11

T h i s is the o n l y f r a g m e n t w e h a v e o f C r i t i a s ' p l a y ,

12

so w e d o

n o t h a v e the c o n t e x t o f t h e f r a g m e n t a n d d o not e v e n k n o w w h o t h e s p e a k e r is, a l t h o u g h it is n o t i m p r o b a b l e that it is S i s y p h u s h i m s e l f w h o s p e a k s h e r e . B e that as it m a y , the ideas in the text h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d w r i t t e n d o w n b y Critias a n d it is r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e that t h e y reflect his o w n c o n v i c t i o n s .

13

The ques­

tion that arises then is h o w it c a n b e e x p l a i n e d that s o m e o n e in the final d e c a d e s o f the fifth c e n t u r y B C E c o u l d d e v e l o p such ideas. W h a t w a s t h e cultural c o n t e x t in w h i c h such t h e o r i e s a b o u t the i n v e n t i o n o f religion c o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d ?

7

In the less than eight months of their terror regime the Thirty killed some 1500 citizens, all o f them advocates of democracy; see Nestle, Griechische Studien 262 with n. 51. For references see Nestle, Vom Mythos zum Logos 400^101 nn. 5 - 7 , Griechische Studien 2 5 4 n. 5, and Untersteiner, Sophists 3 1 6 - 3 1 7 . In Xcnophon's Memorabilia Socratis and Hellenica, however, Critias gets a very negative press (e.g.. Mem. I 2,12 jtdvxcov xXejtxioxaxog xe xai fhaioxaxoc; xai cpovixobxaxoq kyivEio; cf. also Hell. II 3,47); see Nestle, Mythos 4 0 0 n. 4 and Griechische Studien 2 5 3 . Critias' later biographer Philostratus calls him xdxioxoc; dvGocbjtcov ^u^jrdvxcov (Vitaesophistarum I 16). The famous orator Lysias also has nothing positive to say about Critias. See A. von Blumenthal, Der Tyrann Kritias als Dichter und Schriftsteller, Berlin 1923. Cf. also W. Schmid & O. Stahlin, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur 1/3, Munchen 1940, 1 7 0 - 1 8 5 , and Lesky, Geschichte der griechischen Literatur 3 9 3 - 3 9 4 . Sextus Empiricus, Adversus Mathematicos IX 54. For references see P. Grimal, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Oxford 1986, 510. It is also unknown in which year he wrote the play, although it must have been between 415 and 405 BCE. P. Decharme, La critique des traditions religieuses chez les Grecs, Paris 1904 (repr. Brussel 1966), 123: "Sisyphe (...) avait plus d'une fois exprime les idees personnclles du poete." Nestle, Griechische Studien 279: "... die offenbar seine eigene Uberzeugung wiedergeben." 8

9

1 0

11

1 2

1 3

The First

245

Atheist

T h e history o f p h i l o s o p h y h a s from t h e b e g i n n i n g a l w a y s b e e n a h i s t o r y o f criticism o f religion as w e l l . In t h e w r i t i n g s o f a l m o s t all P r e s o c r a t i c s w e find implicit or explicit criticism o f t h e traditional, often all t o o h u m a n c o n c e p t i o n s o f the g o d s in G r e e k m y t h o l o g y a n d r e l i g i o n .

14

F r o m t h e sixth c e n t u r y B C E

o n w a r d s , the g o d s o f p o p u l a r religion w e r e subjected to a p r o c e s s o f drastic reinterpretation b y t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s , but all t h e s e early t h i n k e r s m a i n t a i n e d o n e form or a n o t h e r o f d i v i n e p r i n c i p l e . A radical or f u n d a m e n t a l a t h e i s m is not yet found a m o n g t h e m .

1 5

B u t w h e n in the c o u r s e of t h e fifth c e n t u r y the m o v e ­

m e n t o f t h e S o p h i s t s (originally chiefly a rhetorical m o v e m e n t that focused on t h e art o f d e b a t i n g a n d p e r s u a d i n g ) b e g a n to s p r e a d a n d to b e influenced by the I o n i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s o f n a t u r e , m a t t e r s b e g a n to c h a n g e . T h e S o p h i s t s w e r e not in a n d o f t h e m s e l v e s e n e m i e s o f religion, but their s t r o n g l y relativizing a p p r o a c h to ethics a n d l a w

1 6

e x t e n d e d also to religion in the long run.

T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f the S o p h i s t s , P r o t a g o r a s , b e c a m e w e l l - k n o w n , e v e n n o t o ­ r i o u s , for his b o o k On the gods in w h i c h t h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e a l r e a d y d e c l a r e s that o n e c a n n o t k n o w w h e t h e r or n o t g o d s exist a n d , if g o d s did exist, o f w h a t n a t u r e t h e y w o u l d b e , b e c a u s e it is t o o difficult to find that o u t a n d life is t o o short for it (fr. 8 0 B 4 D - K ) .

1 7

H e r e w e s e e a l r e a d y a form o f a g n o s t i c i s m that

r e s u l t e d from t h e insight that h a d b e e n g a i n e d b y the P r e s o c r a t i c p h i l o s o p h e r s to the effect that the traditional g o d s (and, for that matter, r e l i g i o n ) w e r e c r e a t e d b y h u m a n s after their o w n i m a g e . If the t h e o r y o f a ' c o n t r a t s o c i a l ' w h i c h the S o p h i s t s h a d d e v e l o p e d on t h e b a s i s o f their p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g the o r i g i n s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f l a w s w a s e x t r a p o l a t e d to religion, w h i c h is w h a t w e see h a p p e n in t h e f r a g m e n t o f Critias, t h e n the step from an a g n o s t i c to an atheistic p o i n t o f v i e w s e e m s i n e v i t a b l e . It w a s , h o w e v e r , not a n e c e s s a r y step. F o r w e s e e that, d e s p i t e their s c e p t i c i s m a n d r e l a t i v i s m , o n l y v e r y few o f t h e S o p h i s t s b e c a m e radical atheists. O f c o u r s e that m a y b e d u e to t h e fact that p o s s i b l y m a n y a sceptic w a s careful n o t to p r o c l a i m his c o n v i c t i o n loudly, for a l a w s u i t b a s e d on a c h a r g e o f asebeia

w a s easily incurred, as a n u m b e r

of Athenians had experienced (Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Diagoras, Socrates

1 4

Decharme, La critique des traditions religieuses 3 9 - 1 7 9 . W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. Ill, Cambridge 1969, 2 2 6 - 2 4 9 ; W. Fahr, 0 E O Y Z NOMIZEIN. Zum Problem der Anfdnge des Atheismus bei den Griechen, Hildesheim 1969, passim. See R.C.T. Parker, "Atheism," The Oxford Classical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Oxford 1996, 2 0 1 , and Kahn, "Greek Religion and Philosophy in the Sisyphus Fragment" 250. Xenophanes of Colophon (ca. 5 7 0 - 4 7 0 BCE) combated the polytheism o f his day and advocated a doctrine with one god, as did a century later Socrates' pupil Antisthenes, although perhaps these ideas should be seen as henotheistic rather than monotheistic. See the so-called physis-nomos controversy, on which F. Heinimann, Nomos undPhysis. Herkunft und Bedeutung einer Antithese im griechischen Denken des 5. Jahrhunderts, Basel 1945, is still the standard work . See Guthrie, History of Greek Philosophy III 2 3 4 - 2 3 5 . 15

1 6

1 7

246 etc.).

The First

18

Atheist

B u t w e d o i n d e e d see that in t h e last d e c a d e s o f t h e fifth c e n t u r y u n b e l i e f

b e c a m e m o r e w i d e s p r e a d in intellectual circles, e s p e c i a l l y in A t h e n s .

1 9

The

p o e t C i n e s i a s e v e n s e e m s to h a v e f o u n d e d a c l u b o f infidels w h o c o n v e n e d o n a r e g u l a r b a s i s in o r d e r to ridicule t h e g o d s d u r i n g their s y m p o s i a ,

20

a n d several

G r e e k a u t h o r s from the d e c a d e s a r o u n d the y e a r 4 0 0 m a k e clear that t h e y k n e w p e r s o n s w h o c h e r i s h the c o n v i c t i o n that g o d s d o n o t exist at all (see, e. g., P l a t o , Leges

X 9 0 8 b - e ) . S c h o l a r s h a v e also r e p e a t e d l y p o i n t e d at the striking fact that

t h e great historian T h u c y d i d e s (a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f Critias) b a n i s h e d e a c h a n d e v e r y s u p e r n a t u r a l e l e m e n t from his h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , u n l i k e all his p r e d e c e s s o r s . A n d his f a m o u s fellow t o w n s m a n , the t r a g e d i a n E u r i p i d e s , h a s a l w a y s b e e n s u s p e c t e d to h a v e b e e n a c r y p t o - a t h e i s t .

21

T h e c o m e d i a n A r i s t o p h a n e s did not

fail to c a r i c a t u r i z e this p h i l o s o p h i c a l - t h e o l o g i c a l m o d e r n i s m , e s p e c i a l l y in his p l a y The Clouds

(from 4 2 3 ) . If this t o p i c w a s e v e n r a i s e d in s u c h p o p u l a r s t a g e

f o r m s as t h e c o m e d y , it is clear that a t h e i s m w a s in the air. T h e political a n d social c i r c u m s t a n c e s in A t h e n s w e r e c o n d u c i v e to it. T h e l o n g a n d d e v a s t a t i n g w a r w i t h Sparta, the c a t a s t r o p h i c Sicilian e x p e d i t i o n ,

22

the outbreak of a plague

in A t h e n s , a n d o t h e r factors, c r e a t e d s c e p t i c i s m as r e g a r d s the traditional beliefs, so a t t a c k s o n t h e s e beliefs w e r e well r e c e i v e d b y m a n y .

2 3

It m a y b e clear n o w that Critias did not w r i t e in a cultural v a c u u m . E v e n so h e differs from his rationalist allies. W h i l e P r o t a g o r a s v i e w s religion as a p r o d u c t that h a s b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t g r a d u a l l y b u t i n e v i t a b l y b y the i m p e r f e c t h u m a n b r a i n , w h i l e P r o d i c u s sees religion as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l result o f h u m a n g r a t i t u d e for t h e gifts o f life, a n d w h i l e D e m o c r i t u s e x p l a i n s the p h e n o m e n o n o f r e l i g i o n as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f h u m a n fear o f natural p h e n o m e n a ,

2 4

Critias t a k e s up a m u c h

m o r e m a l i c i o u s a n d c y n i c a l m o d e l of e x p l a n a t i o n .

1 8

See Nestle, Mythos 476^185. Fahr, 0 E O Y 2 NOMIZEIN 1 8 1 - 1 8 2 , enumerates at least 12 lawsuits for asebeia between 433 and 350. See M.P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion, vol. I, Munchen 1967 ( 3 ed.), 770. P. A. Meijer, "Philosophers, Intellectuals and Religion in Hellas," in H. Versnel (ed.), Faith, Hope and Worship. Aspects of Religious Mentality in the Ancient World, Leiden 1981, 2 1 6 - 2 3 2 . J. N. Bremmer, Greek Religion, Oxford 1994, 9 0 - 9 1 . R. Parker, Athenian Religion, Oxford 1996, 208 with n. 37. Rich bibliography in M. Winiarczyk, Bibliografie zum antiken Atheismus 1700-1990, Bonn 1994. See E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, Berkeley 1966, 1 8 8 - 1 8 9 . E.g., M. Lefkowitz, "Was Euripides an Atheist?," Studi italiani di filologia classica 5 (1987) 1 4 9 - 1 6 6 . See Bury, History of Greece 466^189. W. Nestle, Griechische Religiositdt vom Zeitalter des Perikles bis auf Aristoteles, BerlinLeipzig 1933, 7 9 - 8 3 . Fahr, 0 E O Y S NOMIZEIN 9 2 - 1 0 1 . Decharme, La critique des traditions religieuses 113-120. On Prodicus especially Guthrie, History III 2 3 8 - 2 4 2 . Democritus' theory was elabo­ rated later by Epicurus and reaches its apotheosis in the great didactic poem De rerum natura of the Latin poet Lucretius. But note that Critias' views were criticized in Epicurean circles; see K. Kleve, Gnosis Theon. Die Lehre von der natiirlichen Gotteserkenntnis in der epikureischen Theologie, Oslo 1963, 1 0 4 - 1 0 8 . 1 9

2 0

2 1

2 2

2 3

2 4

r d

The First

247

Atheist

H e v i e w s r e l i g i o n as a deceitful i n v e n t i o n o f a p e r s o n w h o w a n t s to k e e p the m a s s e s in c h e c k . It is a t h e o r y that suits Critias better t h a n o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s , for he himself

c o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e d e v i s e r o f this ' n o b l e l i e ' (the y£vvaiov ipetj&og o f

the c l o s i n g p a r a g r a p h s of P l a t o ' s Respublica

III) in his a n t i d e m o c r a t i c m i n d s e t

a n d heartfelt d i s d a i n for c o m m o n p e o p l e . H e c o m b i n e d e l e m e n t s o f t h e t h e o r i e s o f his p r e d e c e s s o r s a n d c o n t e m p o r a r i e s w i t h t h e cold p s y c h o l o g i c a l calculation that w a s part o f his o w n character. H e w a s s o m e o n e for w h o m his a i m , t h e r e p r e s s i o n o f t h e m a s s e s , justified a n y m e a n s . T h e sly i n v e n t o r o f r e l i g i o n in t h e S i s y p h u s f r a g m e n t a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y s t a n d s for Critias himself. T h e r e is h e r e a u n i t y o f life a n d d o c t r i n e that e v e n i n d u c e d W i l h e l m N e s t l e to s p e a k in this c a s e " v o n e i n e m in seiner A r t h a r m o n i s c h e n G a n z e n . "

2 5

W a s it i n d e e d Critias h i m s e l f w h o t h o u g h t u p this t h e o r y on t h e i n v e n t i o n o f r e l i g i o n ? I raise this q u e s t i o n b e c a u s e W i l h e l m N e s t l e h a s a r g u e d that Critias b o r r o w e d this t h e o r y from D i a g o r a s o f M e l o s . N e s t l e ' s r e a s o n i n g is as follows. C i c e r o s a y s that " t h e r e are p e o p l e w h o h a v e a s s e r t e d that t h e w h o l e i d e a of i m ­ m o r t a l g o d s w a s i n v e n t e d b y w i s e m e n in the interest o f the state, so that p e o p l e w h o are i m p e r v i o u s to r e a s o n c o u l d b e b r o u g h t to the fulfillment o f their duties b y m e a n s o f r e l i g i o n " (De natura

deorum

I 118.)

26

The phrase 'people w h o

h a v e a s s e r t e d ' c o u l d o f c o u r s e b e a v a g u e reference to Critias a n d t h o s e w h o s h a r e his o p i n i o n b u t it c o u l d also b e that C i c e r o h a s m o r e p e r s o n s in m i n d w h o h a v e f o r m u l a t e d s u c h t h e o r i e s . In t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h (I 117), C i c e r o m e n t i o n s D i a g o r a s o f M e l o s a n d T h e o d o r u s o f C y r e n e , the t w o m o s t p r o v e r b i a l atheists in antiquity, the first of w h o m - like Critias - lived in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e fifth c e n t u r y .

27

O n e a n d a h a l f c e n t u r i e s after C i c e r o , Plutarch

w r i t e s in a d i s c u s s i o n of C a r t h a g i n i a n child sacrifices, " W o u l d it n o t h a v e b e e n far b e t t e r for the C a r t h a g i n i a n s to h a v e t a k e n Critias or D i a g o r a s to d r a w u p their l a w c o d e at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , a n d so n o t to b e l i e v e in a n y d i v i n e p o w e r or g o d , r a t h e r than to offer s u c h sacrifices as t h e y u s e d to offer to C r o n o s ? " (De 2 5

Mythos 419. Cf. also his Griechische Studien 319. In both publications by Nestle on Critias one can discern a somewhat reserved but certainly present admiration for this tyrant who regarded himself as an Ubermensch. Elsewhere Nestle calls him "ein geborener Herrenmensch" (written in 1944!); see his Griechische Geistesgeschichte von Homer bis Lukian, Stuttgart 1944, 195. On Nestle's outspoken sympathy for Nazism see now the revealing opening paragraph in J. N. Bremmer, "Rationalization and Disenchantment in Ancient Greece: Max Weber among the Pythagoraeans and Orphics?," in R. Buxton (ed.), From Myth to Reason? Studies in the Development of Greek Thought, Oxford 1999, 7 1 - 8 3 . See the excellent commentary on this passage in A.S. Pease, M. Tulli Ciceronis de natura deorum libri tres, Darmstadt 1968 (=1955), 513^1. The few fragments of their lost works and the ancient testimonia about both authors have been conveniently collected in a new Teubncr edition by the greatest expert on ancient athe­ ism: M. Winiarczyk, Diagoras Melius. Theodorus Cyrenaeus, Leipzig 1981. Theodorus lived sometime between 350 and 2 5 0 BCE. The best monograph on Diagoras is still F. Jacoby, Di­ agoras 6 aOeog, Abhandlungen der deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1959:3, Berlin 1959, now to be supplemented by M. Winiarczyk, "Diagoras von Melos - Wahrheit und Legende," Eos 67 (1979) 191 - 2 1 3 and 68 (1980) 51 - 7 5 . 2 6

2 7

248 superstitione

The First Atheist

12, 1 7 1 C ) . N e s t l e s a y s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o b o t h o f t h e s e p a s s a g e s :

" W e n n n u n s o Critias u n d D i a g o r a s in d e r U b e r l i e f e r u n g n e b e n e i n a n d e r s t e h e n , s o w e r d e n w i r a n n e h m e n diirfen, dafj sie n i c h t n u r in i h r e m A t h e i s m u s , s o n d e r a u c h in d e s s e n B e g r u n d u n g e i n i g w a r e n . "

2 8

N e s t l e t h e n a s s u m e s that C r i t i a s

h a s b o r r o w e d s e v e r a l a r g u m e n t s from a w o r k b y D i a g o r a s w i t h the e n i g m a t i c title 'Ajiojivpyi^ovTeg \6yoi.

' E n t f e s t i g e n d e n R e d e n ' is N e s t l e ' s t r a n s l a t i o n . T h e

v e r b djtojtxjQYi^eiv d o e s n o t o c c u r e l s e w h e r e , n e i t h e r d o e s the s i m p l e x jruQYi^eiv, b u t the related v e r b J T V Q Y O X J V m e a n s ' t o fortify, d e f e n d , fence r o u n d , ' (litt. ' t o s u r r o u n d w i t h t o w e r s ' ) . In N e s t l e ' s view, t h e n e o l o g i s m djiojruQYi^et.v m u s t h a v e the o p p o s i t e m e a n i n g , so in this c o n t e x t 'AjtojruQYi^ovTEg Xoyoi m u s t m e a n s o m e t h i n g like ' d e s t r u c t i v e a r g u m e n t s ' or ' c o n q u e r i n g r e a s o n i n g s , ' o r the l i k e .

2 9

A n o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n is p o s s i b l e as w e l l , h o w e v e r . F e l i x J a c o b y interprets t h e e x p r e s s i o n as ' " F o r t i f y i n g A r g u m e n t s ' - h a v i n g as their object e i t h e r m a n k i n d or g o d s a n d m e a n i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y either ' d e f e n d i n g m a n k i n d b y (a w a l l w i t h ) t o w e r s ' or ' i n c l o s i n g the g o d s , h e m m i n g t h e m in, b l o c k a d i n g t h e m b y (a w a l l with) t o w e r s ' . "

3 0

B e that as it m a y , this m u c h s e e m s t o b e c l e a r that in that w o r k D i a g o r a s , p r o b a b l y as the first b u t in a n y c a s e as o n e o f t h e v e r y first in history, p r e s e n t e d a s y s t e m a t i c a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t beliefs in g o d ( s ) . T h e w o r k is lost ( a p a r t from five lines that d o n o t e x h i b i t a n y a t h e i s m ) , b u t o n t h e b a s i s o f a n c i e n t t e s t i m o n i e s a b o u t the a u t h o r ( a n d w e h a v e m o r e t h a n h u n d r e d o f t h e s e ) w e c a n c o n c l u d e that D i a g o r a s , b e c a u s e o f the total a r b i t r a r i n e s s a n d g r e a t injustice in the ins a n d o u t s o f w o r l d h i s t o r y as h e s a w it, c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e l i e v e in t h e g o v e r n i n g h a n d o f a d e i t y or o f g o d s a n d , for that v e r y r e a s o n , a l s o n o t in their e x i s t e n c e . led to a n asebeia

31

His ideas

l a w s u i t a g a i n s t h i m in 4 1 5 in A t h e n s in w h i c h , b e c a u s e h e h a d

a l r e a d y fled t h e city, h e w a s s e n t e n c e d b y default a n d o u t l a w e d .

32

Also, a price

w a s p u t o n his h e a d b e c a u s e h e w a s said to h a v e d e s e c r a t e d the E l e u s i n i a n m y s ­ teries ( s e e Tatian, Oratio

ad Graecos

27). That Diagoras and Critias k n e w each

o t h e r c a n n o t b e d o u b t e d . F o r a l o n g t i m e t h e y w e r e fellow t o w n s m e n - b e t w e e n 4 3 5 a n d 4 1 5 D i a g o r a s s p e n t m a n y y e a r s in A t h e n s - a n d t h e y lived a n d w o r k e d in t h e s a m e m i l i e u s . B u t that d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e a n y p r o o f that D i a g o r a s w a s the auctor 2 8

intellectualis

o f C r i t i a s ' t h e o r y o n the i n v e n t i o n o f religion. It w o u l d

Nestle, Mythos 416. See also Winiarczyk's edition p. 30. Jacoby, Diagoras 30. That the riddle of the prosperity o f the wicked (the theme o f Psalm 73) could in this period bring people to atheism is apparent from fragment 2 8 6 o f Euripides' Bellerophon, on which see Guthrie, History III 229, and C. Riedweg, "The 'Atheistic' Fragment from Euripides' Bellerophontes" Illinois Classical Studies 15 (1990) 3 9 - 5 3 . One should keep in mind that in 4 1 6 BCE, the total male population o f Melos, the island where Diagoras was born, was slaughtered by the Athenian army because the Melians refused to become members o f the Attic sea-league led by Athens H. Dorrie, "Diagoras," DerKleine Pauly I (1975) 1507; Fahr, 0 E O Y Z NOMIZEIN 8 9 - 9 2 ; Winiarczyk, "Diagoras von Melos," passim. 2 9

3 0

3 1

3 2

The First

Atheist

249

s e e m t o m e t h a t t h e m o t i v e s o f D i a g o r a s ' a t h e i s m w e r e different from

those

of Critias. Diagoras w a s a deeply disillusioned m a n , Critias an unscrupulous cynic.

3 3

B o t h o f t h e m did n o t b e l i e v e in t h e g o d s , b u t it is n e v e r said o f D i a g o r a s

in t h e a n c i e n t s o u r c e s t h a t a p o l i t i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d d e c e i t i n t e n d e d t o i n t i m i d a t e t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e p l a y e d a r o l e in h i s t h e o r y , n o t e v e n in t e x t s w h e r e b o t h m e n a r e m e n t i o n e d in o n e b r e a t h , a s in P l u t a r c h ( s e e a b o v e ) .

A s far a s t h i s first h i s t o r i c a l g e n e r a t i o n o f a t h e i s t s is c o n c e r n e d , w e c a n c a u ­ t i o u s l y d r a w t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s . E v e n t h o u g h D i a g o r a s w a s t h e first outspoken atheist,

34

it w a s in all p r o b a b i l i t y C r i t i a s w h o first i n v e n t e d a t h e o r y o f

t h e o r i g i n o f r e l i g i o n t h a t w a s b a s e d o n a c y n i c a l lust for p o w e r ,

3 5

an explanation

t h a t w o u l d p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t in l a t e r h i s t o r y , a l b e i t o n l y after t h e M i d d l e Ages.

3 3

3 6

I agree with Schmid, Geschichte 180 n. 6: "D[iagoras]' Gottesleugnung hatte einen ganz personlichen Grund, und wie er sich positiv die Entstehung der Religion dachte, dariiber wissen wir nichts." Also Guthrie, History 111 2 4 4 n. 3 , disagrees with Nestle in this respect. Cf. Jacoby, Diagoras 26: "The book o f Diagoras was o f a purely negative (or, perhaps, w e had better say polemical) character, confining itself to attacking the belief in the existence o f god(s), and not developing a theory o f his o w n about the origin o f this belief." Winiarczyk, "Diagoras v o n Melos," is here too sceptic. Schmid, Geschichte 180: "Der erste, der es wagte, nicht im Affekt, sondern in kiihler Uberlegung die cpxioig der Gotter in Frage zu stellen, war der Verfasser des Sisyphos." Kahn, "Greek Religion and Philosophy" 2 5 9 , speaks o f an 'atmosphere o f moral cynicism' in the fragment o f Critias. S e e Nestle, Mythos 4 1 9 , Griechische Geistesgeschichte 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 ; Fahr, 0 E O Y Z NOMIZEIN 101; and esp. Davies, "Sisyphus" 3 0 - 3 2 . One could think of, e.g., Machiavelli, Hume, Gibbon, Holbach and Fichte. On the reasons why atheism could not be developed further in antiquity see J. N. Bremmer, "Literacy and the Origins and Limitations o f Greek Atheism," in J. den Boeft & A. H. M. Kessels (edd.), Actus. Studies in Honour o/H. L. W. Nelson, Utrecht 1982, 4 3 - 5 5 , e s p . 5 1 - 5 2 . I thank Jan Bremmer (Groningen) and David Runia (Leiden) for their valuable criticisms o f the first draft o f this article. To Charles Kahn (Philadelphia) I am grateful for sending me a copy o f his recent article on the Sisyphus fragment (see note 3). 3 4

3 5

3 6

Subtractive Versus Additive Composite Numerals in Ancient Languages 1.

Introduction

T h e n u m e r a l s y s t e m s all o v e r t h e w o r l d h a v e t h e c o m m o n characteristic that t h e l o w e s t n u m b e r s are referred to b y a b a s i c set o f (different) w o r d s w h i c h b e a r n o formal l i k e n e s s to o n e another, b u t w h i c h c a n b e g r o u p e d in a series in such a w a y that t h e m i n i m a l difference in m e a n i n g b e t w e e n t h e s u c c e s s i v e n u m b e r s is ' o n e . ' T h i s b a s i c set m a y r u n to ' t e n ' or ' f i v e , ' e v e n to ' t w o ' o r ' t h r e e ' only, but o n c e it is e x h a u s t e d , the u n i v e r s a l m e t h o d to m a k e further n u m e r a l s is to c o m b i n e t h e m e m b e r s o f the b a s i c series or to form d e r i v a t i v e s o f t h e m . In t h e I n d o - E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s , this p r o c e d u r e starts w i t h n u m b e r s h i g h e r than ' t e n , ' or c a n b e s h o w n to h a v e started there in f o r m e r t i m e s , b e c a u s e p h o ­ netic c h a n g e m a y h a v e b l u r r e d the original c o h e r e n c e : ' e l e v e n ' a n d ' t w e l v e ' were once derivatives of ' o n e ' and ' t w o , ' but these pairs have phonetically drifted apart. T h e c o n n e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , b e t w e e n , e . g . , ' s i x , ' ' s i x t e e n , ' ' s i x t y ' a n d ' s e v e n , ' ' s e v e n t e e n , ' ' s e v e n t y ' is clear: C o m p o u n d s like ' s i x t e e n ' h a v e a m e a n i n g in w h i c h the n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s ' s i x ' a n d ' t e e n ' (a v a r i a n t form o f ' t e n ' ) h a v e b e e n a d d e d t o g e t h e r a n d are therefore t e r m e d ad­ ditive

n u m e r a l s , w h i l e in the multiplicative

n u m e r a l ' s i x t y ' the v a l u e o f ' s i x ' is

m u l t i p l i e d b y ' t e n ' ( ' - t y ' b e i n g originally a v a r i a n t form o f ' t e n ' ) . O n the o t h e r h a n d , there are l a n g u a g e s in w h i c h the b a s i c set o f n u m e r a l s is m u c h earlier e x h a u s t e d . In Wolof, a l a n g u a g e s p o k e n in m o d e r n S e n e g a l , ' s i x ' is ' f i v e - o n e , ' ' s e v e n ' is ' f i v e - t w o , ' etc., ' t e n ' b e i n g a totally different w o r d ; a n d the s a m e h o l d s g o o d o f a n c i e n t S u m e r i a n .

1

A d d i t i o n a n d m u l t i p l i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , are n o t the o n l y a r i t h m e t i c a l p r o c e ­ d u r e s u s e d in f o r m i n g further n u m e r a l s from the b a s i c set. A third m e t h o d is subtraction.

In Y o r u b a , o n e o f the l a n g u a g e s o f m o d e r n N i g e r i a , ' e l e v e n ' u p to

' f o u r t e e n ' are referred to b y c o m p o u n d s m e a n i n g ' o n e o v e r t e n , ' ' t w o o v e r t e n ' etc., ' t w e n t y ' b y a n e w w o r d w h i c h b e a r s n o l i k e n e s s to a n y m e m b e r s o f t h e b a s i c set o f n u m e r a l s , w h i l e 'fifteen' u p to ' n i n e t e e n ' are c o m p o u n d s m e a n i n g 1

A. Falkenstein, Das Sumerische, Leiden 1959, 4CMU. The notable instance of languages not having numerals other than the basic set are those o f the natives o f the Australian Conti­ nent. They either count 'one, two, many' or 'one, two, three, many.' See R.M.W. Dixon, The Languages of Australia, Cambridge 1980, 1 0 7 - 8 , 120.

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

251

literally 'five short o f t w e n t y , ' ' f o u r short o f t w e n t y ' etc. T h e s e latter five are, then, subtractive

n u m e r a l s T h i s s u b t r a c t i v e p r o c e d u r e is f o l l o w e d n o t o n l y in 25

to 2 9 , 35 to 3 9 , b u t also for t h e u n e v e n tens 5 0 , 7 0 , 9 0 u p to 170, w h i c h c a n b e 2

a n a l y z e d as 10 short o f three t i m e s 2 0 , 10 short o f four t i m e s 2 0 e t c . Just as the a d d i t i o n a l m e t h o d , s u b t r a c t i o n is in s o m e l a n g u a g e s o p e r a t i v e a l r e a d y b e t w e e n ' f i v e ' a n d ' t e n . ' In m o d e r n F i n n i s h , the n u m e r a l s for ' e i g h t ' a n d ' n i n e ' are deriva­ tives o f the w o r d s for ' t w o ' a n d ' o n e ' respectively, a n d are therefore s u b t r a c t i v e from t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e o f 10. In the m o d e r n G e r m a n i c , R o m a n c e , a n d S l a v i c l a n g u a g e s , s u b t r a c t i o n is not e m p l o y e d , b u t t h e E n g l i s h w a y o f i n d i c a t i n g the t i m e c o m b i n e s a d d i t i o n a n d subtraction: ' A quarter past n i n e ' and 'half past nine' are additive, but 'a quarter to t e n ' is s u b t r a c t i v e . In t h e f o l l o w i n g s u r v e y o f the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d b e s t k n o w n a n c i e n t lan­ g u a g e s a r o u n d the M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a , w e shall also i n t r o d u c e a further d i s t i n c ­ tion b e t w e e n s y s t e m a t i c a l a n d incidental s u b t r a c t i v e s , for it is clear that the a d ­ ditive ' t w e n t y n i n e ' is part o f t h e n u m e r a l s y s t e m o f the E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e , w h i l e s u b t r a c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s like ' t h i r t y less o n e ' a n d ' o n e short o f t h i r t y ' are not.

2.

Latin

The numeral systems of the R o m a n s contained both additives and subtractives: undecim,

duodecim

deviginti

on t h e other; viginti-unus

detriginta

u p to septendecim

o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d duodeviginti,

u p to viginti-septem,

then duodetriginta,

unun-

a n d so on in the further t e n s , t h e h i g h e s t s u b t r a c t i v e actually r e c o r d e d

b e i n g undecentum

(Pliny, Nat. hist. 7 . 2 1 4 ) .

T h e R o m a n figures u s e d to indicate t h e s e s u b t r a c t i v e n u m e r a l s d o n o t nor­ m a l l y c o r r e s p o n d w i t h the linguistic p e c u l i a r i t y o f the latter. Duodeviginti

is

w r i t t e n as X V I I I or X I I X (so CIL V 4 2 9 9 ) w h i c h are a d d i t i o n s o f X a n d VIII or I I X . Undeviginti

is X V I I I I or X I X ( D e s s a u n o s . 1999 a n d 2 0 0 0 ) , l i k e w i s e

a d d i t i o n s o f X a n d V i l l i or I X . A n e x a m p l e o f a R o m a n s u b t r a c t i v e figure actu­ ally reflecting t h e s u b t r a c t i v e v a l u e o f t h e n u m e r a l for w h i c h it s t a n d s is IIL for duodequinquaginta

in CIL X 3 4 2 7 . N o t e that the b a s i c n u m e r a l s quattuor

and

sex u p to novem are l i k e w i s e i n c o n g r u o u s l y r e p r e s e n t e d b y the subtractive a n d / o r a d d i t i v e figures IV, V I , V I I , V I I I / I I X , V I I I I / I X .

2

3

E.C. Rowlands, Yoruba, London 1969, 1 0 6 - 7 . The word for 2 0 0 is a new word and not 20 x 10; consequently, 190 is 'ten short of 2 0 0 . ' This shows by the way the danger of making inferences about the linguistic nature of a numeral system from its graphic representation by numerical symbols. In the same way the Maya figures for 6, 7, 8, 9 are combinations o f a horizontal stroke and one dot, two dots etc. The corresponding numerals, however, are four mutually different prefixes which in their turn bear no formal likeness to those for 'five and one,' 'five and two' etc. either; see A.M. Tozzer, A Maya Grammar, N e w York 1977, 9 8 - 9 9 . 3

252

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

T h i s r a t h e r striking characteristic o f Latin, w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s it from m o s t o f t h e o t h e r I n d o - E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s , is not c o m m e n t e d on b y L e u m a n n in his 4

historical g r a m m a r , a l t h o u g h S a n s k r i t offers a c l o s e parallel. F o r b y t h e side o f the a d d i t i v e navadasa,

19, there also o c c u r r e d the s u b t r a c t i v e

' t w e n t y less o n e , ' in w h i c h una- is short for ekona,

unavimsatih,

'less one.' This alternative

m e t h o d c o u l d b e u s e d for all t h e tens p l u s n i n e u p to 9 9 , a n d h a s s u r v i v e d , a p ­ p a r e n t l y as t h e o n l y m e t h o d , in a n u m b e r o f m o d e r n I n d i a n l a n g u a g e s . Incidentally, L a t i n a u t h o r s u s e d , instead o f t h e a d d i t i v e undecim tendecim

a n d t h e s u b t r a c t i v e duodeviginti

a n d undeviginti.

5

u p to sep-

numerals formed

in a different way. A s t h e series 1 1 - 1 9 w a s in itself h e t e r o g e n e o u s , there w e r e a t t e m p t s to r e p l a c e the t w o s u b t r a c t i v e s (18 a n d 19) b y n u m e r a l s f o r m e d on the a n a l o g y o f undecim (tetrachma (usque

Attica

- septendecim;

centum

octodecim

dum filia mea annos

a n d so L i v y u s e s octodecim

in 3 9 . 5 . 1 4

milia) as d o e s S c a e v o l a in Digesta

impleat

T h e Latin d i c t i o n a r y o f L e w i s a n d S h o r t also c o n t a i n s a l e m m a w i t h r e f e r e n c e s to L i v y 3 . 2 4 a n d Livy, Epitome haberet.

33.2.37

octodecim). novendecim

18: cum annos

H o w e v e r , at 3 . 2 4 the e d i t i o n s h a v e undeviginti,

novendecim

w h i l e the 1 8

th

periocha

th

d o e s n o t c o n t a i n the p a s s a g e q u o t e d . It is found in t h e 1 1 9 , in w h i c h it is said that O c t a v i a n w a s a p p o i n t e d c o n s u l cum XVIIII l o n g e r p r e s e n t in G l a r e ' s n e w

annos haberet.

T h e l e m m a is n o

6

OLD.

M o r e often t h e w h o l e series 1 1 - 1 9 w a s r e p l a c e d b y n u m e r a l s o f t h e t y p e s decern (et) ... or ... (et) decern, b o t h b e i n g u s e d , for i n s t a n c e , by C i c e r o in his Pro Roscio Amerino

decern et tris a n d 3 5 . 9 9 tribus et decern fundis.

Most

p r o b a b l y t h e s e n u m e r a l s w e r e formed in imitation o f the c o m p o u n d s w i t h

viginti,

triginta viginti

7.20 fundos

etc., such as viginti

et septem

... tabulas

( P l a u t u s , Merc. 4 3 0 ) , tres et viginti pondo

( C i c , Verr. 4 . 1 2 3 ) , septem (Varro, De re rustica

et

2.4.11).

F u r t h e r i n s t a n c e s u p to 19 a r e : 13: decern

tres/tria

however, he uses

17: decern septemque septem

in L i v y 2 9 . 2 . 1 7 ; 3 7 . 3 0 . 8 ; 3 7 . 4 6 . 3 ; 4 5 . 4 3 . 5 (at 3 6 . 4 5 . 3 ,

tredecim). in N e p o s , Cato

1.2; V u l g . 2 C h r o n . 12.13; decern

in Vulg. 3 R e g . 14.21; 4 R e g . 13.1 etc.; decern septem

L a t i n - G r e e k inscription from E p h e s u s o f A D 103/4: sestertia milia

nummum;

et

in a b i l i n g u a l decern

septem

t h e a m o u n t is e x p r e s s e d o t h e r w i s e in the G r e e k part: SnvdQia

TETQaxioxeilia 5iaxoaia jtevxr|xovTa ( D e s s a u n o . 7 1 9 3 ) ; septem

decern in A u l u s

G e l l i u s 10.28, p e r h a p s q u o t e d from T u b e r o , Hist. I.

4

M. Leumann, J.B. Hofmann & A. Szantyr, Lateinische

Grammatik,

I, Munchen 1963,

293. 5

M. Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford 1964, 221a. Cf. J. Beames, A Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages, to Wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Oriya and Bangali, Delhi 1966, vol. II, 36. Ch.T. Lewis & Ch. Short, A Latin Dictionary, Oxford 1962 (= 1879), 1219b; P.G. W. Glare, Oxford Latin Dictionary, Oxford 1982, 1194c, 2092a s.v. undeviginti (Livy 3.24.10). 6

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

253

Languages

18: decern et octo in C a e s a r , Bell. Gall. 4 . 1 9 . 4 (but duodeviginti

at 2.5); E u -

t r o p i u s 1.1; V u l g . J u d i c e s 3.14; 10.8; 2 0 . 2 5 etc.; L u k e 13.4, 11, 16. 19: decern et novem

in L i v y 4 0 . 4 0 . 1 3 ; 4 5 . 4 3 . 5 (he u s e s undeviginti,

however,

at 3 . 2 4 . 1 0 ; 2 3 . 4 6 . 4 ; 3 4 . 1 0 . 4 ) ; Vulg. J o s . 1 9 . 3 8 ; 2 S a m . 2 . 3 0 ; etc. decern novem C a e s a r , Bell. Gall.

1.8; Tacitus, Hist. 2 . 5 9 (but undeviginti

at Ann.

in

12.56).

It is difficult to say to w h a t e x t e n t the m a n u s c r i p t s r e p r e s e n t in this r e s p e c t the original w o r d i n g o f the a u t h o r s . D u r i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t tradition, fully writ­ ten n u m e r a l w o r d s m a y h a v e b e e n c o p i e d as figures or v i c e v e r s a , b u t if t h e m a n u s c r i p t s w e r e reliable h e r e , o u r i n s t a n c e s s e e m to i n d i c a t e that s o m e a u t h o r s u s e d different t y p e s side b y side. T h e r e a s o n for d o i n g so m a y h a v e b e e n their d e s i r e o f stylistic variation. O n e p a s s a g e , h o w e v e r , p o i n t s r a t h e r to t h e o p p o s i t e inclination: in 4 5 . 4 3 . 5 L i v y c o m b i n e s w i t h i n o n e p a s s a g e decern tria, decern novem

a n d viginti etseptem,

d i s s i m i l a r tredecim,

undeviginti

a n d viginti

et

septem.

T h e n e w f o r m a t i o n s did n o t s u c c e e d in s u p p l a n t i n g the series undecim quindecim,

et

p r o b a b l y for u n i f o r m i t y ' s s a k e , instead o f the rather u p to

w h i c h h a v e s u r v i v e d , b e it in a modified form, in Italian, F r e n c h ,

S p a n i s h , a n d P o r t u g u e s e , sedecim a n d b o t h s u b t r a c t i v e s duodeviginti

also in Italian a n d F r e n c h . O n l y a n d undeviginti

septendecim

a r e n o l o n g e r e x t a n t in the

R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s a n d w e r e definitely r e p l a c e d b y t h e n e w e r c o m p o u n d s . T h e V u l g a t e v e r s i o n o f t h e B i b l e h a s undecim 1

decern et octo, decern et novem,

u p to sedecim,

t h e n decern et

septem,

a n d in old F r e n c h l i k e w i s e dis e set, dis e uit, dis

e nuef (ca. 1190 C E ) occur. A p p a r e n t l y t h e s e n e w f o r m a t i o n s w e r e n o t p o p u l a r for 11 to 15/16; t h e y m a y h a v e s o u n d e d s o m e w h a t l e a r n e d b e c a u s e o f their like­ n e s s to G r e e k t o e i a x a i & e x a (classical A t t i c ) o r S e x a x a i xgelc, a n d dexaxoeic; (both 8

H e l l e n i s t i c ) . It is, h o w e v e r , difficult to say w h y t h e n e x a c t l y septendecim,

which

is n o l o n g e r p r e s e n t in the V u l g a t e , w a s the e x c e p t i o n . O n l y in R u m a n i a n the c o m p l e t e series 1 1 - 1 9 h a s b e e n g i v e n u p a n d r e p l a c e d b y c o m p o u n d s m e a n i n g ' o n e a b o v e t e n , ' ' t w o a b o v e t e n ' etc., w h i c h are, m o r e o v e r , u s u a l l y s h o r t e n e d to ' o n e a b o v e , ' ' t w o a b o v e ' etc. T h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f the s u b t r a c t i v e s for 2 8 , 3 8 ,

98, and 29, 39,

99

is certainly to b e e x p l a i n e d from t h e a n a l o g y o f the n u m e r i c a l l y p r e c e d i n g viginti-unus

... viginti-septem

etc. A n i n s t a n c e o u t s i d e o f t h e V u l g a t e is p r e s e n t

in S e n e c a , Epist.

7 7 . 2 0 (Sattia)

nonaginta

vixisse,

novem

quae

inscribi

w h e r e a s undecentum

monumento

suo iussit

annis

se

is u s e d o n c e b y his c o n t e m p o r a r y

7

Duodeviginti at 2 Sam. 8.13 is present only in the edition of the Abbey o f St. Jerome (Biblia sacra iuxta latinam vulgatam versionem ad codicum fidem cura et studio monachorum Pont. Abbatiae S. Hieronymi in urbe, Rome 1 9 2 6 - 1 9 7 2 ) . The Sixto-Clementina has decern et octo; see B. Fischer, Novae concordantiae Stuttgart - Bad Cannstatt 1977, 1669. E. Schwyzer & A. Debrunner, Griechische Grammatik, Miinchen 1968 ( 4 ed.), 594; F. Blass & A. Debrunner, Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch, Gottingen 1965 ( 1 2 ed.), § 63. 8

th

th

254

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Pliny t h e E l d e r (Nat. hist. 1.2\4). between 20 and 100.

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

T h e V u l g a t e d o e s n o t contain a n y s u b t r a c t i v e s

9

A n o t h e r k i n d o f s u b t r a c t i v e s c o u l d b e u s e d w h e n o n e w a n t e d to e x p r e s s that a specific n u m b e r , u s u a l l y a ' r o u n d n u m b e r , ' that is a m u l t i p l e o f t e n s , w a s a l m o s t but not wholly involved. These were n o compounds but word groups as appears from t h e v a r y i n g o r d e r o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t e l e m e n t s , a n d c o n s i s t e d o f ( a ) t h e n u m e r a l n o t attained, ( b ) t h e w o r d minus,

a n d (c) a s e c o n d n u m e r a l e x p r e s s i n g

the shortage. A w e l l - k n o w n instance is found in t h e V u l g a t e v e r s i o n o f P a u l ' s S e c o n d L e t t e r to t h e C o r i n t h i a n s 11.24: A Iudaeis

quinquies

quadragenas

una minus

accept,

' F i v e t i m e s I h a v e r e c e i v e d at t h e h a n d s o f the J e w s t h e forty [lashes] less o n e . ' A s this i n s t a n c e g o e s b a c k v i a t h e G r e e k t o a H e b r e w - A r a m a i c e x p r e s s i o n e n s u i n g from a r a t h e r specific m o t i v e , it will b e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w in § 5.2. O v i d , h o w e v e r , offers a less c o m p l e x e x a m p l e in Met. 1 2 . 5 5 3 - 5 , w h e r e N e s t o r , t h e s o n o f N e l e u s , relates that h i s e l e v e n b r o t h e r s h a d all b e e n killed b y H e r c u l e s , but does so as follows: Bis sex Nelidae fuimus, Bis sex Herculeis

conspecta

ceciderunt

iuventus!

me minus

uno

Viribus T h i s is a p o e t i c a l w a y o f s a y i n g w h a t A p o l l o d o r u s e l s e w h e r e p h r a s e d in p r o s e as: ' H e killed N e l e u s a n d h i s s o n s , e x c e p t N e s t o r ' (Bibl.

2.7.3.). T h e p h e n o m ­

e n o n c a n b e p a r a l l e l e d b y m a n y m o d e r n i n s t a n c e s . B u t w h y is it d o n e ? B e c a u s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y it is n o t t h e s a m e to s a y ' n i n e t y - n i n e ' o r ' a h u n d r e d less o n e . ' T h e f o r m e r is c e r t a i n l y less i m p r e s s i v e , a s s h o p k e e p e r s k n o w b y instinct that a n article sells m o r e easily at t h e p r i c e o f 9 9 cents t h a n for o n e d o l l a r .

10

F o r that

r e a s o n a l o n e it is less c o r r e c t to translate t h e p a s s a g e from Paul q u o t e d a b o v e as t h e N e w E n g l i s h B i b l e d o e s : ' F i v e t i m e s t h e J e w s h a v e g i v e n m e

thirty-nine

s t r o k e s ' ; b u t s e e § 5.2.

3.

Greek

A b o u t t h e n u m e r a l s in t h e oldest G r e e k that w e h a v e - M y c e n a e a n - n o t h i n g c a n b e said b e c a u s e in t h e L i n e a r B script all n u m b e r s ( a n d there a r e m a n y o f t h e m ) a r e w r i t t e n in figures. A s s o o n a s n u m b e r s w e r e w r i t t e n as w o r d s , t h a t is in H o m e r , it a p p e a r s that t h e r e a r e a d d i t i v e s for n u m b e r s b e t w e e n t e n s , n o t o n l y for t h e l o w e r u p t o ' s e v e n a n d . . . ' (ev&exa //. 2 . 7 1 3 ; 6co6exa / / . 1.25; Suto&exa / / . 2 . 6 3 7 ; & u o x a i & e x a / / . 2 . 5 5 7 ; exxai&Exd&cuQog / / . 4 . 1 0 9 ; ejrrd be x a i & s x a

5 . 2 7 8 ; sv x a i e i x o o i / / . 2 . 7 4 8 ;

KIOVQEC,

Od.

xe x a i e i x o o i Od. 1 6 . 2 4 9 ; etc.), b u t also

9

See Fischer, Novae concordantiae 1669 and 5293. See the remarks by J. Gonda,' Varia over indonesische telwoorden,' Bijdragen land- en volkenkunde 109 (1953) 2 5 - 2 7 . 1 0

tot de taal-,

Subtractive

Versus Additive

for t h o s e that c o n t a i n ' e i g h t a n d

Composite

Numerals in Ancient

'nine and

Languages

255

(dxxooxai&exdxri Od. 5.279;

Evvsaxai&exa //. 2 4 . 4 9 6 ) . P e r h a p s the latter i n s t a n c e s h o u l d b e r e a d as evvea x a i 5 e x a s i n c e o n e m a y i n d e e d ask the q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r c o m p o s i t e c a r d i n a l s in H o m e r are c o m p o u n d w o r d s a l r e a d y or w o r d g r o u p s yet. P a s s a g e s like Od. 5.278—9 (ejtxd be x a i &exa uev nkeev fju-axa JtovtocpoQettcov, oxxooxai&exdxr] 5' eqjdvr) ooea axioevxa) r a t h e r s e e m to indicate the latter (cf. Od. 16.249). S u b t r a c t i v e s a r e , o n the o t h e r h a n d , w h o l l y l a c k i n g in H o m e r , a n d so l i k e w i s e in H e s i o d , Pindar, the T r a g e d i a n s , a n d A r i s t o p h a n e s . T h i s d o e s n o t imply, h o w ­ ever, that t h e y did n o t exist, b e c a u s e p o e t s a b a n d o n s o m e t i m e s t h e c u r r e n t w a y s o f e x p r e s s i n g n u m b e r s b y u s i n g c i r c u m s c r i p t i o n s . H e s i o d , for i n s t a n c e , u s e s TQiaEivd&a, ' 2 7

t h

d a y , ' i n s t e a d o f ejtxaxaieixoaxr|v (Op. 8 1 4 ; cf. xoeiaxaiSexdxriv

Op. 7 8 0 ) . A e s c h y l u s p a r a p h r a s e s xoiaxooiai b y xoiaxd8ac; &exa a n d &iaxoaiai x a i ejtxd b y exaxov 615 ejtxd 9' ( P e r s . 3 3 9 , 3 4 3 ) . S o w h e n P i n d a r u s e s xeaaaodxovxa x a i oxxd) (Pyth. 9.113),

this m a y b e the n u m e r a l h e u s e d in his s p o k e n l a n g u a g e ,

b u t it is a l s o p o s s i b l e that h e h a s r e p h r a s e d h e r e a s u b t r a c t i v e n u m e r a l , a n d the s a m e m a y b e said h e r e for H o m e r ' s evveaxai&exa (//. 2 4 . 4 9 6 ) , for as s o o n as w e t u r n to p r o s e w r i t e r s it a p p e a r s that s u b t r a c t i v e n u m e r a l s did exist as w e l l . If w e l e a v e a s i d e s u b t r a c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s w h i c h c o n t a i n indefinite e l e m e n t s , s u c h as ' 1 0 0 0 d r a c h m a e b u t for a trifle' ( I s a e u s 11.43), ' a l l b u t o n e ' ( H e r o d o t u s 1.202), ' a l l b u t a f e w ' ( P l u t a r c h , Caesar

3 0 . 3 ) , w e m a y d i s c e r n w i t h i n the e x a c t

s u b t r a c t i o n s t h r e e t y p e s w h i c h differ a little in m e a n i n g : (A) pure s u b t r a c t i v e s : 'forty ships less o n e ' : t h e t h i n g s s u b t r a c t e d a n d t h o s e from w h i c h t h e y are s u b t r a c t e d b e l o n g to the same (B) impure

kind.

s u b t r a c t i v e s : ' t h r e e d r a c h m a e less t w o o b o l s ' : t h e t h i n g s s u b t r a c t e d

are o f a different (C) combinations

kind.

o f A a n d B : e . g . , H e r o d o t u s 9.30 evSexa uupid5es rjaav, uafjg

yykmboc, jtooc; be oxxaxoaiarv dv&Qwv 5eoi)aai, ' t h e r e w e r e e l e v e n m y r i a d s o f m e n less o n e t h o u s a n d a n d e i g h t h u n d r e d . ' T h i s s u b t r a c t i o n is p u r e b e c a u s e u l t i m a t e l y m e n are s u b t r a c t e d from m e n , b u t i m p u r e b e c a u s e f o r m a l l y a chiliad is s u b t r a c t e d from m y r i a d s w h i c h are different t h i n g s , a l t h o u g h the w h o l e is s e m a n t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o ' 110.000 less ( 1 . 0 0 0 + 8 0 0 ) . ' In the m a j o r i t y o f t h e c a s e s , e x c e p t t h o s e o f c l a s s B , t h e s u b t r a c t e d n u m e r a l (e. g. 2 ) is s m a l l e r than t h e o n e that o t h e r w i s e w o u l d h a v e h a d t o b e a d d e d (8 in this c a s e ) . O n l y o n c e , in ' 3 0 0 less 8 ' ( T h u c y d i d e s 4 . 3 8 . 5 ) , is t h e s u b t r a c t e d n u m b e r larger, a n d in ' 1 2 0 less 5 ' ( D i o d o r u s Sic. 13.14.4) t h e n u m b e r s w o u l d b e e q u a l . In all c a s e s , h o w e v e r , t h e s p e a k e r / a u t h o r t a k e s c a r e to m e n t i o n p r o v i ­ s i o n a l l y a r o u n d n u m b e r w h i c h is h i g h e r t h a n the o n e h e w o u l d h a v e m e n t i o n e d o t h e r w i s e , a c c o r d i n g to the a d d i t i v e m e t h o d , that is. B u t this d o e s n o t i m p l y that in the s e n t e n c e the r o u n d n u m b e r a l w a y s p r e c e d e s the s u b t r a c t e d n u m b e r . B o t h o r d e r s o c c u r : in A r i s t o t l e , Rhet. 2 . 1 4 . 4 jieoixd evog 6e!v jtevxf)xovxa (sc. exn) the r o u n d n u m b e r follows the s m a l l s u b t r a c t e d o n e .

256

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

F o r m a l l y , t h a t is, a c c o r d i n g to t h e t e r m i n o l o g y w h i c h is u s e d , t h e s u b t r a c t i v e s s h o w the following diversity: 1. Verbs (djto-, xaxa-)6elv, almost a l w a y s a participle with the shortage in the genitive case, e. g. Plutarch, Pomp. 19 A e^r|xovxa u.ev evog 6eovxa pefhcoxcbc; exr|. Aristotle, Rhet. 2 . 1 4 . 4 , quoted a b o v e , is the only instance o f an infinitive construction. 2. Verb 6et>eiv: A p o l l o n i u s Rhod. 2.974—5 xexodxic; eig exaxov &ei)oixo xev el' xig exaoxa jteujtd^oi (sc. QeeOoa), 'four times w o u l d o n e m i s s in a hundred if o n e w o u l d count each o f the streams.' 3. Verbs (djio-)XeijteLv, participles, but in different constructions. With genitive in D i o dorus S i c . 1 3 . 1 4 . 4 XQITIQEIC; \IEV enXxiQcooav Jtevxe Xemovaac, xwv exaxov eixooi, 'they m a n n e d triremes five m i s s i n g o f the 1 2 0 ' (the s a m e in Isocrates 1 2 . 2 7 0 yeyovcbg \IEV exT) xoia uovov ajto^ebtovxa xcov exaxov). With dative in Josephus, Ant. 4 . 2 3 8 Kkr\yaq \xiq Xeinovoaq, xeooaodxovxa, litt. ' 4 0 stripes falling short b y o n e ' (the s a m e in Ant. 4.248). 4. Preposition nhr\v Herodotus 1.202 xd jtdvxa nXr\v evog. 5. Preposition jraod with accusative: Paul, 2 Cor. 1 1 . 2 4 vnb 'Iou5aicov jtevxdxic; xeaoeodxovxa ( s c . jtlnydg) jtaod ^uav ekafiov, 'five times I have received at the hands o f the J e w s the forty (lashes) less o n e . ' A l t h o u g h this p a s s a g e will b e dealt with in a special paragraph ( 5 . 2 ) b e c a u s e o f its Jewish background - together with Josephus, Ant. 4 . 2 3 8 and 2 4 8 quoted a b o v e - s o m e remarks are to b e m a d e here as to the w a y it is treated in Walter Bauer's l e x i c o n to the N e w Testament." T h e parallel material there adduced consists o f quotations from classical authors w h i c h are impure e x a m p l e s b e c a u s e ' d a y s ' are subtracted from 'years' etc. (Herodotus 9 . 3 3 ; Josephus, Ant. 4 . 1 7 6 ; P.Oxy. 2 6 4 . 4 [see b e l o w ] ) ; or there are n o definite cardinal numerals involved (Plutarch, Caes. 3 0 . 3 ; s e e a b o v e ) . O f course, they d o illustrate the u s e o f jraod in subtractive constructions, but there is a better parallel w h i c h matches Paul's w o r d i n g in every respect: C a s s i u s D i o 5 8 . 2 0 . 5 xco yovv ejuovxi exei,(...), Jtevxexai6exa oxoaxnyol eyevovxo x a i xofixo x a i era, noXka exr\ o w e p n , toaxe eoxi u.ev oxe exxai.6exa, eoxi 6' Sxe Jtao' eva r\ x a i 5i3o xeiQoxoveloOai, 'next year there were 15 praetors, ( . . . ) , and for m a n y years the f o l l o w i n g also happened, ( n a m e l y ) that at o n e time 16 praetors but at another time o n e or e v e n t w o f e w e r w e r e c h o s e n . ' A comparable remarks is m a d e b y D i o at 5 9 . 2 0 . 5 , but there it runs: eoxi 6' oxe evl jtXeiovg fi x a i eXaxxovq. -

W i t h r e g a r d to t h e m o t i v a t i o n o f t h e s u b t r a c t i o n , t h e different k i n d s t h a t w e d i s t i n g u i s h e d a b o v e (indefinite, p u r e , i m p u r e , c o m b i n e d ) a r e n o t a l i k e . T h e c a s e s in w h i c h e i t h e r t h e r o u n d n u m b e r o r t h e s u b t r a c t e d n u m b e r o r b o t h a r e r e n d e r e d b y a n indefinite n u m e r a l o r a d j e c t i v e a r e a l w a y s c l e a r l y m o t i v a t e d : ' a l l b u t a f e w ' ( P l u t a r c h , Caes.

3 0 . 3 ) , ' o n e t h o u s a n d d r a c h m a e b u t for a trifle' ( I s a e u s

11.43), 'fifteen t a l e n t s b u t for a trifle' ( L y s i a s 1 9 . 4 3 ) , ' n o t m u c h s h o r t o f n i n e t y y e a r s ' ( P o l y b i u s 1 2 . 1 6 . 1 3 ) . In t h e s e latter t h r e e t h e s h o r t a g e is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e so insignificant t h a t it is n o t d e e m e d w o r t h t o b e specified. L i k e w i s e , w h e n d i s s i m i l a r t h i n g s a r e s u b t r a c t e d ( c l a s s B ) , t h e s e t h i n g s are a l w a y s in t h e m s e l v e s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l fractions o f t h e units from w h i c h t h e y a r e 11

W. Bauer, Griechisch-Deutsches Worterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments, Berlin 1958 ( 5 ed.), s.v. naod. English version in W. Bauer, W.F. Arndt, F.W. Gingrich, F.W. Danker, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, Chicago & London 1979. t h

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient Languages

257

s u b t r a c t e d , s o that the m o t i v a t i o n o f the s u b t r a c t i o n is self-evident. H e r o d o t u s 2 . 1 3 4 ' H e ( P h a r a o h M y c e r i n u s ) left a p y r a m i d as well but o n e m u c h s m a l l e r than that o f his father ( C h e o p s ) ; e a c h o f its sides falls 2 0 feet s h o r t o f t h r e e p l e t h o r a (/. e. 3 0 0 feet).' J o s e p h u s , Ant. 4 . 1 7 6 ' W h e n forty y e a r s b u t for thirty d a y s h a d p a s s e d , . . . ' E s p e c i a l l y in G r a e c o - E g y p t i a n a c c o u n t s a n d c o n t r a c t s o n p a p y r u s t h e s e s u b t r a c t i o n s - u s u a l l y b y j t a o d w i t h a c c u s a t i v e - are v e r y frequent: T a g r e e that I h a v e sold to y o u t h e w e a v e r ' s l o o m b e l o n g i n g to m e m e a s u r i n g t h r e e w e a v e r ' s cubits less t w o p a l m s ' (P.Oxy. 2 6 4 . 2 - 4 ; 5 4 C E ) ; this cubit, y e p S i a x o g

jrfjxvs,

p r o b a b l y e q u a l l e d five p a l m s .

1 2

T h e m e t h o d is a l m o s t n o r m a l in the

B y z a n t i n e p e r i o d in p r i c e s e x p r e s s e d in (x) vou.iou.aTa

(XQTJOOIJ)

j r a p d (y) x e o a T i a ,

' ( x ) g o l d e n solidi less (y) s i l i q u a e ' ( i . e . 1/24 s o l i d u s ) , o f w h i c h P r e i s i g k e listed selection-wise over a hundred instances.

13

T h e keration

w a s b o t h a coin a n d a

w e i g h t , a n d at least in a n u m b e r o f t h e s e c a s e s t h e s u b t r a c t i o n is not so m u c h m o t i v a t e d b y the w i s h to m e n t i o n an a m o u n t in r o u n d n u m b e r s as by the fact that n o m i n a l l y the n u m b e r o f solidi w a s c o r r e c t i n d e e d b u t that t h e s e g o l d e n c o i n s t h r o u g h a b r a s i o n n o l o n g e r h a d their c o r r e c t w e i g h t . T h i s a p p e a r s from P.Cairo M a s p . 7 0 . 2 w h i c h c o n t a i n s the line, ' t h e solidi w e r e f o u n d t o b e s e v e n keratia less' ( 6

t h

cent. C E ) .

A v e r y special i n s t a n c e o f d i s s i m i l a r s u b t r a c t i o n , a l s o q u o t e d b y Bauer, is H e r o d o t u s 9.33 d a x e w v 8s jtevTaeB^ov J t a o d ev jtdX.aiau,a eSoau.8 v i x a v '0?a>umd5a.

A t first sight this s e e m s to s u g g e s t that the m a n w o n in four e v e n t s ( j u m p i n g , r u n n i n g , t h r o w i n g the d i s c u s a n d the j a v e l i n ) b u t lost in the w r e s t l i n g a n d h e n c e w a s n o O l y m p i c victor. T h e parallel v e r s i o n in P a u s a n i a s 3 . 1 1 . 6 - 8 , h o w e v e r , states clearly that h e ( T e i s a m e n o s ) h a d w o n in t w o e v e n t s ( r u n n i n g a n d j u m p i n g ) , w h i c h i m p l i e s that his o p p o n e n t ( H i e r o n y m u s ) h a d w o n in t h e o t h e r t w o . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it is k n o w n that in the final e v e n t , t h e w r e s t l i n g , o n e h a d to b e

floored

thrice to b e the looser, a n d s i n c e p a l a i s m a a l s o m e a n s ' w r e s t l i n g b o u t ' t h e m e a n ­ ing o f the w h o l e is not so m u c h that h e w o n in t w o e v e n t s , like his o p p o n e n t , a n d lost in the final o n e , but r a t h e r that h e w o n in t w o e v e n t s a n d t w o w r e s t l i n g b o u t s , like his o p p o n e n t , b u t lost o n l y t h e third d e c i s i v e w r e s t l i n g b o u t . T h e p a s s a g e s in w h i c h n u m e r i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e s are s u b t r a c t e d from n u m e r i ­ cal s u b s t a n t i v e s or from n u m e r a l s (class C ) a r e formally not different from t h e k i n d w h i c h w e h a v e j u s t d i s c u s s e d , b u t a s , for i n s t a n c e , u i a x^idg a n d x&ioi are s e m a n t i c a l l y h a r d l y different, w e shall d i s c u s s t h e s e c a s e s t o g e t h e r w i t h the p u r e s u b t r a c t i o n s (class A ) . T h e m o t i v a t i o n o f the f o l l o w i n g s u b t r a c t i o n s o f s m a l l n u m b e r s from large n u m b e r s in c l a s s e s A a n d C s e e m s e v i d e n t , a l s o to o u r m o d e r n m i n d : 110.000 but for 1.800 ( H e r o d o t u s 9.30); 2 0 . 0 0 0 less 2 . 0 0 0 ( D i o n y s i u s H a l i c . 7.3.2.); 1 2

That is, if it was the same as the linen weaver's cubit; see F. Preisigke, Fachworter des offentlichen Verwaltungsdienstes Agyptens, Gottingen 1915, 118. F. Preisigke, Worterbuch der griechischen Papyrusurkunden v o l . 3 , Berlin 1931, 348a-b. 13

258

Subtractive

Versus Additive Composite

Numerals in Ancient

Languages

1 0 . 0 0 0 less 3 0 0 ( T h u c y d i d e s 2.13.3.); 1.500 less 15 ( H e r o d o t u s 2.7); 3 0 0 less 8 ( T h u c y d i d e s 4 . 3 8 . 5 ) ; 160 less 2 ( A r i s t o t l e in D i o g e n e s L a e r t . 5.27); 130 less 2 ( H e r o d o t u s 1.130); 120 less 5 ( D i d o d o r u s Sic. 13.14.4); 100 less 4 ( A p o l l o n i u s R h o d . 2 . 9 7 4 - 5 ) ; 100 less 3 ( I s o c r a t e s 12.270). T h e m o s t natural m o t i v a t i o n is, o f c o u r s e , a l w a y s that o n e w h i c h is p r o v i d e d b y t h e c o n t e x t itself, as in H e r o d o t u s 9 . 7 0 , ' t h e G r e e k s w e r e in a p o s i t i o n t o kill in s u c h a w a y that o f the 3 0 0 . 0 0 0 m e n o f t h e ( P e r s i a n ) a r m y - less the 4 0 . 0 0 0 w i t h w h o m A r t a b a z u s h a d fled - n o t e v e n 3 . 0 0 0 o f the r e m a i n i n g s o l d i e r s sur­ v i v e d . ' T h e a b o v e q u o t e d i n s t a n c e o f ' 1 3 0 less 2 ' ( H e r o d o t u s 1.130), a l t h o u g h its m o t i v a t i o n s e e m s clear, m a y n e v e r t h e l e s s b e l o n g r a t h e r to the c a t e g o r y w i t h w h i c h w e will deal n o w , that o f ' t e n s less t w o / o n e . ' F o r a l t h o u g h the total n u m b e r o f o c c u r r e n c e s is r a t h e r s m a l l , H e r o d o t u s - in c o m p o u n d n u m e r a l s a b o v e 2 0 - a p p e a r s t o h a v e a slight p r e d i l e c t i o n for u s i n g s u b t r a c t i v e s w i t h 'less two/one,' of which he has nine instances,

14

instead o f a d d i t i v e s w i t h ' a n d

e i g h t / n i n e ' w h i c h h e u s e s o n l y five t i m e s . If w e a s s u m e the s u b t r a c t i v e s to b e t h e r u l e h e r e , w e c a n offer r e a s o n a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s for at least four o u t o f t h e s e five ' a d d i t i v e e x c e p t i o n s . ' T w o o f the o c c u r r e n c e s o f oxxco x a i ei'xoai e x e a ( 1 . 1 0 6 ; 4.1) h a p p e n to refer to t h e s a m e s p a n o f t i m e in history, to w i t the n u m b e r o f y e a r s that t h e S c y t h i a n s w e r e r u l i n g in t h e N e a r East. In 1.106, w h e r e h e m e n t i o n s t h o s e 2 8 y e a r s for t h e first t i m e , h e e x p r e s s e s t h e m b y an a d d i t i v e n u m e r a l b e c a u s e t h e i r m e n t i o n h a p p e n s c o n s c i o u s l y in a n t i c i p a t i o n o f 4.1 - t h e first p a r a g r a p h o f his Skythikos

Logos

- w h e r e t h e 2 8 y e a r s will g e t a v e r y specific illustration. H e m e n t i o n s

t h e s e y e a r s t w i c e t h e r e , first b y u s i n g the s u b t r a c t i v e e x e a &v(hv 8eovxa xoinxovxa, w i t h t h e r e f e r e n c e cog x a i jtooxeoov u.oi eionxai b a c k to 1.106, n e x t b y u s i n g a g a i n the a d d i t i v e oxxco x a i eixoai exea, a n d telling u s w h a t w a s so c u r i o u s a b o u t t h e s e y e a r s , n a m e l y that the S c y t h i a n w i v e s , w h o h a d s t a y e d at h o m e , h a d m e a n w h i l e h a d i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h their s l a v e s a n d g i v e n birth to a n e w g e n e r a t i o n o f m e n ; a n d w h e n the S c y t h i a n s r e t u r n e d from A s i a , t h e y w e r e m e t b y an a r m y c o n s i s t i n g o f these y o u n g men. The alternating use of subtractive and additive constructions h e r e is n o c o i n c i d e n c e ; n o t e a l s o the shift in the p o s i t i o n o f the s u b s t a n t i v e e x e a in t h e s e t h r e e p h r a s e s . A c o m p a r a b l e situation is p r e s e n t in 6.27, w h e r e h e tells that t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f C h i o s h a d sent a c o m p a n y o f a h u n d r e d y o u n g m e n to D e l ­ phi of w h o m only t w o returned. N e x t he goes on to explain what had happened to the e v e v r | x o v x a x a i oxxco, an a d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n b e c a u s e the s u b t r a c t i v e is a l r e a d y i m p l i e d in the f o r e g o i n g . T h e s e c a s e s t h e n b e t r a y a r e l u c t a n c e to r e p e a t identical e x p r e s s i o n s , w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e for the v a r y i n g o r d e r o f xeoaeodxovxa x a i XQinxoaia x a i yykia exea v e r s u s uuoioiai xe exeat x a i x ^ i o i a i x a i jiQog xoirixoaioiai xe x a i xeoaeodxovxa in 2 . 1 4 2 , a n d o f e^r|xovxa x a i xoir|x6aioi v e r s u s xoinxoaia x a i e^fjxovxa in 3.90. In short, it s e e m s that in the c o n t e x t o f

14

1.14, 16, 130, 214; 2.157; 4 . 1 , 90; 5.52; 6.57.

Subtractive

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Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

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259

t h e s e s u b t r a c t i v e s it is stylistic variation that w a s r e s p o n s i b l e for the u s e o f t h e additives. In 7 . 1 8 6 , h o w e v e r , this e x p l a n a t i o n d o e s n o t w o r k . W e r e a d there that the total n u m b e r o f the Persian a r m y r e s u l t i n g from t h e f o r e g o i n g a d d i t i o n a m o u n t e d to jtevxaxooiag xe u,uoid∾ x a i el'xooi x a i oxxcb xai xi^-td∾ xpeig xai exaxovxdSag 6i)o x a i &exd&ag bvo dv&Qcov, or 5 . 2 8 3 . 2 2 0 m e n . A l t h o u g h it w o u l d h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e to u s e h e r e xai Sucov 6eoi3oag xpidxovxa, this s u b t r a c t i o n is p r o b a b l y a v o i d e d b e c a u s e the result w o u l d n o t b e a r o u n d n u m b e r - as in 9.30 - since there are still t h r e e a d d i t i o n s to b e m a d e h e r e . N o e x p l a n a t i o n at all c a n b e g i v e n for 8.48 aQtOfxog 6e eyevexo 6 Jtag xcov vecov, jidoe^ xcov jtevxnxovxeQcov, xQinxooiai x a i ep&ouT|xovxa xai oxxcb. T h e e x c e p t i o n i n t r o d u c e d b y jtdQe^ did certainly not p r e v e n t the s u b t r a c t i o n h e r e b e c a u s e Jtdge^ a n d s u b t r a c t i o n are found t o g e t h e r e l s e w h e r e ( 1 . 1 3 0 ) ; this p a s s a g e m u s t r e m a i n a n e x c e p t i o n .

15

W i t h ' 1 8 , ' h o w e v e r , the u s a g e s e e m s to b e the o p p o s i t e o f the foregoing: H e r o ­ 16

d o t u s u s e s six t i m e s oxxcoxai&exa, w h i l e &ucov &eovxa el'xoai is found o n l y o n c e ( 1 . 9 4 ) . N e i t h e r t h e a d d i t i v e s n o r t h e s u b t r a c t i v e s s e e m to b e u s e d for a special r e a s o n , e x c e p t p e r h a p s oxxcoxai&exa axa&ioug f| eixooi in 1.126, w h e r e variation m a y h a v e b e e n the r e a s o n for s u p p r e s s i n g a n o t h e r el'xooi (&ucov

beovxaq).

In t h e w o r k o f his y o u n g e r c o n t e m p o r a r y T h u c y d i d e s , t h e u s e o f s u b t r a c t i v e s is still m o r e p r o n o u n c e d . A d d i t i v e s w i t h ' e i g h t ' or ' n i n e ' are not found at all, a n d instead s u b t r a c t i v e s w i t h ' t w o ' or ' o n e ' are u s e d e l e v e n t i m e s , six o f w h i c h are ' 2 0 less t w o / o n e ; '

1 7

' 3 0 0 less 1' (in 4 . 1 0 2 . 3 ) is o f c o u r s e an i n s t a n c e w h i c h

is v e r y clearly m o t i v a t e d . F u r t h e r i n s t a n c e s from p r o s e are: H i p p o c r a t e s , Aff. 9 a n d Loc. horn. 6, both ' 2 0 less 2 ; ' / G 1 3 7 4 . 4 0 5 - 1 7 (=CIA 1 3 2 5 ) ' 2 0 less 1,' ' 3 0 less 1,' a l t h o u g h t h e figures a d d e d h a v e an a d d i t i v e s t r u c t u r e ; X e n o p h o n , Hell.

1.1.5 ' 2 0 less 2 , ' a l t h o u g h o n

t h e b a s i s o f T h u c . 8 . 1 0 8 . 1 - 2 o n e w o u l d e x p e c t here ' 2 2 ' instead, so there m a y b e an error h e r e ; X e n o p h o n h a s oxxcoxai&exa in Anab.

3.4.5 a n d 7 . 4 . 1 6 ; Plato, Leg.

5, 7 3 8 a h a s ' 6 7 0 less 1,' b u t oxxcoxai&exa in Leg. 2 , 6 6 6 a a n d 8, 8 3 3 d (the latter, h o w e v e r , in the c l o s e vicinity o f eixooi; cf. on H e r o d o t u s 1.126 a b o v e ) ; Aristotle, Rhet. 2 . 1 4 . 4 ( 1 3 9 0 M 0 - 1 ) ' 5 0 less \? Hist, anim.

3.20 ( 5 2 2 a 3 0 - l ) ' 2 0 less 1,'

Polit. 5.9.23 ( 1 3 1 5 b 3 6 ) &uoTv 6eovxa eixooi is p r e c e d e d in t h e s a m e p a r a g r a p h b y oxxcoxai&exa (cf. H e r o d o t u s 4 . 1 . a b o v e ) ; P l u t a r c h , Pomp.

19 A ' 6 0 less 1.'

A s c o m p a r e d to the l a n g u a g e o f t h e p o e t s , in w h i c h as far as ' 1 8 ' a n d ' 1 9 ' are c o n c e r n e d a d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u r right from t h e start a n d s u b t r a c t i v e s are a b s e n t , it is a r e m a r k a b l e fact that so m a n y o f the latter are found in p r o s e , a n d

15

Herodotus 3.89: 70 <+ 8> ixveag has been left out because it is a conjecture; it rather had to be <8 +> 70; cf. J. Enoch Powell, A Lexicon to Herodotus, Hildesheim 1960, 100 s.v. eixooi. 1.126; 2.100, 111, 175; 3.50; 8.1; the numeral for 19 does not occur. 5.16.3; 7.31.4; 7.53.3; 8.6.5; 8.17.3; 8.102.1; the remaining are found at 2.2.1; 5.68.3; 8.7.1; 8.25.1. 1 6

17

260

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

that s o m e o f t h e a d d i t i v e c o m p e t i t o r s c a n b e s h o w n to o c c u r t h e r e in stylistic o p p o s i t i o n to s u b t r a c t i v e s . T h i s r a i s e s , o f c o u r s e , the q u e s t i o n o f w h i c h o f the t w o is to b e c o n s i d e r e d to r e p r e s e n t the m o r e original situation. In v i e w o f t h e r a t h e r l o w f r e q u e n c y o f a d d i t i v e s for ' 1 8 ' a n d ' 1 9 ' etc., o n e w o n d e r s at least w h y s o m a n y g r a m m a r s in their s u r v e y t a b l e s o f the n u m e r a l s s u g g e s t that a d d i t i o n w a s t h e n o r m h e r e a n d s u b t r a c t i o n the e x c e p t i o n . O n l y J a n n a r i s p r e s e n t s b o t h as e q u i v a l e n t p o s s i b i l i ­ ties for o l d e r G r e e k , language.

1 8

b u t a d d s that s u b t r a c t i o n f o r m e d n o part o f t h e s p o k e n

1 9

E s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d to s u b t r a c t i o n s from l o w e r t e n s s u c h as ' 2 0 ' a n d ' 3 0 , ' o f w h i c h the m o t i v a t i o n is n o l o n g e r a p p a r e n t in c o n t e x t s w h e r e m u c h h i g h e r n u m ­ b e r s p l a y a r o l e , w e m a y a l s o r e c k o n w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y that in p r o s e s o m e o f t h e m w e r e r e p l a c e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e l o n g m a n u s c r i p t tradition, first b y figures w h i c h w e r e later r e w o r d e d as a d d i t i v e s , or i m m e d i a t e l y b y t h e latter. T h i s a s ­ s u m p t i o n s e e m s q u i t e p l a u s i b l e in v i e w o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f n u m e r a l v e r s u s figure w h i c h o c c u r s , for i n s t a n c e , in the m a n u s c r i p t s o f the G r e e k N e w T e s t a m e n t . A n i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e is to b e seen in IG I 3 7 4 , in w h i c h the s u b t r a c t i o n s ' 2 0 less 1' a n d ' 3 0 less 1' are a c c o m p a n i e d b y figures w h i c h in G r e e k a l w a y s h a v e a n a d d i t i v e s t r u c t u r e . F o r that r e a s o n w e b e l i e v e that s o m e c a s e s o f 6xxcoxai,8exa a n d evvEaxcu&sxa in earlier p r o s e are n o t o r i g i n a l b u t d u e to the r e p l a c e m e n t p r o c e s s j u s t s k e t c h e d , either i m m e d i a t e l y or indirectly v i a the s t a g e o f figure n o ­ tation. O n l y w h e n a s u b t r a c t i v e w a s m o t i v a t e d , as in 2 Cor. 11.24, c o u l d it resist s u c h a r e w o r d i n g , a n d at best the h i g h e r n u m e r a l w a s w r i t t e n as a figure, in this c a s e in m s s . F a n d G: ji j t a o d uiav. In o t h e r c a s e s , h o w e v e r , r e p l a c e m e n t s are n o t e x c e p t i o n a l in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . A t J o h n 5.5, t h e r e a d i n g s o f the n u m e r a l v a r y b e t w e e n xoidxovxa x a i oxxco, xoidxovxa oxxco, a n d hr\', a n d instead o f the frequent 5co8exa, s o m e m s s . h a v e dexaoiio at L u k e 9.17, A c t s 19.7; 24.11 e t c .

2 0

A l t h o u g h this c a n n o t b e p r o v e d b y t e x t u a l v a r i a n t s , it s e e m s n o t farfetched t o a s s u m e that in early p r o s e t h e s e l o w e r s u b t r a c t i v e s w e r e slightly m o r e frequent t h a n it a p p e a r s from t h e p r e s e n t state o f the m s s . , also b e c a u s e t h e u n c i a l ( s t a g e o f t h e ) t r a d i t i o n o f t h e s e w o r k s m u s t h a v e b e e n t w i c e as l o n g as that o f the N e w Testament writings. W i t h r e g a r d to t h e s u b t r a c t i v e s in C l a s s i c a l A t t i c , J a n n a r i s r e m a r k s : ' T h i s c l u m s y c i r c u m l o c u t i o n w a s h a r d l y p r o p e r to p o p u l a r s p e e c h e v e n in A [/. e., C l a s s i c a l A t t i c ] t i m e s . A s a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e it is u n k n o w n to N [/'. e., N e o h e l -

1 8

A.N. Jannaris, An Historical Greek Grammar Chiefly of the Attic Dialect, Hildesheim 1968 (= 1898) §§ 6 4 2 , 6 4 3 , 645 (pp. 172-3). Historical Greek Grammar § 643. Xenophon has the Koine form 5exa jtevxe only in Anab. 7.8.26, elsewhere he uses jievTexa£6exa (4.7.16 etc.). Anab. 7.8.25-6, however, is generally considered to be an appendix added by a later editor. 19

2 0

Subtractive

lenic].'

2 1

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

261

T h i s c o n c l u s i o n d o e s n o t s e e m to follow w i t h n e c e s s i t y from t h e facts

as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e a n d is t h e r e f o r e n o t v e r y c o n v i n c i n g . It is e q u a l l y w e l l p o s s i ­ ble that t h e u s e o f s u b t r a c t i v e s for ' 1 8 , " 1 9 ' e t c . w a s t h e o r i g i n a l situation w h i c h w a s k e p t u p in t h e e v e r y d a y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e a n d in p r o s e u p t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the fourth c e n t u r y B C E , parallel to t h e situation in L a t i n u p t o t h e P r i n c i p a t e . T h e m o t i v a t i o n for t h e s e s u b t r a c t i o n s from 2 0 m a y o r i g i n a l l y h a v e b e e n t h e s a m e a s that illustrated a b o v e for o t h e r n u m e r a l s . In a v e r y s i m p l e society, ' 2 0 ' m a y h a v e b e e n at first a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h n u m b e r ; n o t m a n y p e r s o n s o w n e d that m u c h cattle. B u t ' 2 0 ' lost this c o n n o t a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , as s o o n a s situations a r o s e in w h i c h h i g h e r n u m b e r s w e r e i n v o l v e d . T h e s u b t r a c t i v e s o n c e f o r m e d m a y h a v e p e r s i s t e d for a v e r y l o n g t i m e , a s L a t i n s h o w s . T h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e as w e l l a s p r o s e w r i t i n g w a s p r o b a b l y m u c h m o r e c o n ­ s e r v a t i v e in this r e s p e c t t h a n t h e p o e t s , w h o c a n b e s h o w n to h a v e b e e n i n n o v a ­ tive in specific a r e a s o f style a n d l a n g u a g e . T h e y i n c r e a s e d , for i n s t a n c e , their m e a n s o f v a r y i n g their u s a g e b y a d m i t t i n g e l e m e n t s from o t h e r d i a l e c t s , s u c h as A e o l i c mouoeg b y t h e s i d e o f I o n i c x e o o a Q s g , a n d t h e y w e r e a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e birth o f m a n y n e w c o m p o u n d s , like t h o s e b e g i n n i n g w i t h T t o i x d o - , e t c . T h e y m a y h a v e b e e n t h e first to r e p l a c e t h e ' c l u m s y ' s u b t r a c t i v e s , a n d t h e n it is n o c o i n c i d e n c e that, for all w e k n o w , t h e first a d d i t i v e s w i t h ' 8 ' a n d ' 9 ' o c c u r in p o e t r y : xEooEQdxovxa x a i oxxcb in Pindar, Pyth. 9.113 ( 4 7 4 B C E ) , a n d e v v e a x a i 6exa in H o m e r , / / . 2 4 . 4 9 6 . T h e g r a d u a l s u b s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s u b t r a c t i v e s , w h i c h is h a l f w a y in H e r o d o t u s , w o u l d t h e n b e c o m p a r a b l e to w h a t h a p p e n e d to t h e o r d i n a l n u m e r a l s . In t h e A t t i c i n s c r i p t i o n s u p to t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s ,

2 2

the compound ordinals con­

sisted o f t w o o r d i n a l s w i t h i n t e r v e n i n g x a i : xoixog x a i 6sxaxog, ' t h i r t e e n t h . ' T h i s , t o o , is a r a t h e r ' c l u m s y ' w a y o f f o r m u l a t i n g , w h i c h a g a i n h a d its e x a c t parallel in Latin tertius

decimus

etc. and w a s henceforward substituted by the

t y p e x g e i o x a i d E x a x o g . T h i s latter t y p e , h o w e v e r , w a s a l r e a d y u s e d b y H o m e r , Od. 5 . 2 7 9 oxxcoxai&Exdxr). H e r o d o t u s m a d e u s e o f b o t h t y p e s , at least a c c o r d i n g to t h e m s s . tradition: in 3 . 9 3 - 4 h e h a s in a series t h e o r d i n a l s from xgixog x a i &£xaxog u p to Etvaxog x a i &£xaxog, b u t e l s e w h e r e x £ a a £ Q £ o x a i & £ x a x o g ( 1 . 8 4 ) a n d

Exxai&exaxog ( 2 . 1 4 3 t w i c e ) . T h u c y d i d e s l i k e w i s e h a s t h e d o u b l e o r d i n a l s , n i n e times,

2 3

a n d ejrcaxai&Exaxog o n l y t w i c e , at 4 . 1 0 1 . 1 a n d 7 . 2 8 . 3 , b u t h e r e s e v e r a l

e d i t i o n s n e v e r t h e l e s s r e a d E|3&6UTI x a i &£xdxrj a n d £|3&6u.co x a i 6exdxcp, j u s t as elsewhere, following Kriiger's conjecture; these t w o exceptions m a y indeed be d u e t o later c o p y i s t s . S o if w e a s s u m e that t h e ' c l u m s y ' d o u b l e o r d i n a l t y p e w a s the original c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h w a s k e p t u p in t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e , in p r o s e 21

Historical Greek Grammar 172. At least according to K. Meisterhans & E. Schwyzer, Grammatik der attischen Inschriften, Berlin 1900 ( 3 ed.), 163. We are, o f course, waiting for Threatte'svolume on morphology to appear. 1.87.6; 2.2.1; 5.56.5; 5.81.2; 5.83.4; 6.7.4; 6.93.4; 7.18.4; 8.58.1. 2 2

r d

2 3

262

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

w r i t i n g s a n d in i n s c r i p t i o n s , it a g a i n s e e m s likely that t h e t y p e Toeiaxai5exaTos w a s i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e p o e t s ; P i n d a r ' s e(3&6u.q avv x a i 6exdrn (Pyth. 4 . 1 0 ) s h o w s , h o w e v e r , that t h e y c o u l d u s e t h e o l d e r t y p e a s w e l l . H e r o d o t u s ' u s e o f b o t h t y p e s o f o r d i n a l s , like h i s u s e o f b o t h s u b t r a c t i v e s a n d a d d i t i v e s , either reflects a transitory s t a g e in t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e , or it is a c o n s c i o u s e n l a r g e m e n t o f his stylistic r e p e r t o i r e .

4.

Coptic

D u r i n g t h e g r e a t e r part o f its literary e x i s t e n c e , t h e E g y p t i a n l a n g u a g e w a s writ­ ten in v a r i o u s c o n s o n a n t scripts. First in t h e p i c t u r e - l i k e h i e r o g l y p h s , later also in h i e r a t i c , t h e c u r s i v e form o f the h i e r o g l y p h s , still later also in d e m o t i c , w h i c h in its turn w a s a m o r e c u r s i v e form o f hieratic. T h e s e three w r i t i n g s y s t e m s w e r e u s e d side b y side a s late as t h e R o m a n p e r i o d . O n l y w h e n , b y t h e side o f t h e s e , a fourth s y s t e m , t h e G r e e k a l p h a b e t , also b e g a n t o b e u s e d for w r i t i n g E g y p t i a n , w h i c h p r o b a b l y w a s t h e c a s e a l r e a d y in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E , this l a n g u a g e s h o w e d for t h e first t i m e its v o w e l s . It is therefore o n l y from C o p t i c , a s E g y p t i a n in G r e e k letters is called, that o n e c a n g e t a clear v i s i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e numeral system. T h e b a s i c set o f n u m e r a l s r a n from ' o n e ' t o ' t e n ' a n d i n c l u d e d also t h e t e n s for ' t w e n t y , ' ' t h i r t y , ' a n d ' f o r t y ' a s t h e y b e a r n o l i k e n e s s at all to ' t w o , ' ' t h r e e , ' a n d ' f o u r ; ' t h e t e n s for 'fifty' to ' n i n e t y , ' it is t r u e , b e a r s o m e l i k e n e s s to t h e n u m e r a l s from ' f i v e ' u p to ' n i n e ' b u t n o t systematically, a n d it is best, therefore, t o c o n s i d e r t h e m a s b a s i c n u m e r a l s , t o o , j u s t a s t h e w o r d s for ' 1 0 0 , ' ' 1 . 0 0 0 , ' a n d ' 1 0 . 0 0 0 . ' A l t e r n a t i v e l y , ' 8 0 ' w a s s o m e t i m e s e x p r e s s e d o r c i r c u m s c r i b e d as ' 4 ( x ) 2 0 ' (cf. q u a t r e - v i n g t s ) o r ' 5 0 ( + ) 3 0 ' (cf. s o i x a n t e - d i x ) a n d ' 1 0 0 ' a s ' 5 ( x ) 2 0 . '

2 4

T h e n u m b e r s b e t w e e n t h e tens w e r e f o r m e d in t w o different w a y s . First, t h e r e w e r e c o m p o u n d s c o n s i s t i n g o f a ten ( 1 0 - 9 0 ) a n d a b a s i c n u m e r a l ( 1 - 9 ) ; in t h e s e f o r m a t i o n s t h e t e n s 10, 2 0 , 3 0 , 8 0 , 9 0 a n d t h e b a s i c n u m e r a l s 1-8 h a d special v a r i a n t f o r m s . F o r instance, ' t e n ' w a s met, a n d ' s e v e n ' w a s sashf, b u t ' s e v e n t e e n ' w a s mnt-sashfe.

S e c o n d , it w a s also p o s s i b l e to m a k e w o r d g r o u p s c o n s i s t i n g o f

a t e n + ' a n d ' + a unit, such as maabe mabpsite.

mn psite,

' 3 9 , ' b y t h e side o f t h e c o m p o u n d

In t h e s e w o r d g r o u p s t h e c o n s t i t u e n t n u m e r a l s h a d n o special v a r i a n t

f o r m s . A third, a l t e r n a t i v e m e t h o d w a s to j u x t a p o s e a t e n a n d a c o m p o u n d . In this w a y w e r e f o r m e d ' 5 0 ( + ) 2 2 ' for ' 7 2 , ' a n d ' 5 0 ( + ) 2 9 ' for ' 7 9 ' (cf. ' 5 0 ( + ) 3 0 ' for ' 8 0 ' a b o v e ) .

2 5

O f t h e O l d - E g y p t i a n n u m e r a l s o n l y t h e b a s i c u n i t s a s w e l l a s t h o s e for ' 1 0 0 , ' ' 1 . 0 0 0 , ' ' 1 0 . 0 0 0 , ' a n d ' 1 0 0 . 0 0 0 ' w e r e s o m e t i m e s spelled in full a n d a r e therefore k n o w n t o u s , that is to s a y o f c o u r s e , o n l y their c o n s o n a n t a l s k e l e t o n . A l l o t h e r See W.C. Till, Koptische Till, Kopt. Gramm. 84.

Grammatik,

Leipzig 1955, 84 (§ 167).

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient Languages

263

n u m b e r s w e r e indicated b y figures, ' 9 3 ' for instance b y r e p e a t i n g 9 t i m e s t h e sign for ' 1 0 ' f o l l o w e d b y t h r e e vertical s t r o k e s for ' 3 . ' T h e historical g r a m m a r of C o p t i c m a k e s it clear, h o w e v e r , that t h e O l d - E g y p t i a n w o r d s to b e p o s t u l a t e d for ' 5 0 ' u p to ' 9 0 ' w e r e d e r i v a t i o n s o f s o m e k i n d from t h e b a s i c n u m e r a l s for ' 5 ' u p to ' 9 , ' p o s s i b l y p l u r a l s from the formal p o i n t o f view, as in the S e m i t i c languages.

26

T h e n u m e r a l s y s t e m of the C o p t i c l a n g u a g e did not c o n t a i n a n y subtractive f o r m a t i o n s ; o f O l d - E g y p t i a n n o t h i n g is k n o w n in this r e s p e c t . Incidentally, h o w e v e r , there o c c u r in C o p t i c s u b t r a c t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s , o n e o f t h e m b e i n g , as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , 2 Cor. 11.24, w h i c h is p r e s e n t in b o t h m a j o r C o p t i c v e r s i o n s o f the N e w T e s t a m e n t (in t h e S a h i d i c a n d B o h a r i c dialects). W e refer again to § 5.2 for t h e t r e a t m e n t of this p a s s a g e . In the G r e e k p a p y r i found in E g y p t , p r i c e s , w e i g h t s , a n d o t h e r m e a s u r e s are t h

often e x p r e s s e d as a w h o l e w i t h a s h o r t a g e , e s p e c i a l l y p r i c e s in t h e 5 - 8

t h

cen­

turies. Lists a n d a c c o u n t s d r a w n u p in C o p t i c s h o w this p h e n o m e n o n t o o . T w o i n s t a n c e s are found o n o s t r a c a u n e a r t h e d at W a d i S a r g a a n d d a t i n g from a b o u t t h

the s a m e p e r i o d , the 6 - 7

t h

centuries.

27

T h e first is a s h i p m e n t a c c o u n t o f w i n e a n d r u n s as f o l l o w s : ' T h e list o f t h e w i n e s . W e s h i p p e d from T u h o ten hands h u n d r e d a n d s e v e n t y less o n e . '

2 8

a n d six simpula,

which m a k e seven

A p p a r e n t l y the ' h a n d s ' a n d ' s i m p u l a ' w e r e

larger w i n e m e a s u r e s , a d d i n g u p to a l m o s t the r o u n d n u m b e r o f 7 7 0 o f a m u c h s m a l l e r m e a s u r e , w h i c h n u m b e r w a s then preferred to t h e less s u r v e y a b l e 7 6 9 , or else ' 7 7 0 less 1' m i g h t indicate t h e p r i c e , a n d in that c a s e ' o n e ' p r o b a b l y r a t h e r r e p r e s e n t s a s m a l l e r unit o f c u r r e n c y s u b t r a c t e d from an a m o u n t e x p r e s s e d in larger u n i t s , c o m p a r a b l e to w h a t h a p p e n s in o u r s e c o n d o s t r a c o n . T h i s is l i k e w i s e an a c c o u n t o f a s h i p m e n t , this t i m e o f fodder a n d b a r l e y : ' L o , n i n e t e e n artabae

o f fodder less o n e oipe, a n d n i n e t e e n artabae th

oipe h a v e I sent s o u t h w a r d . W r i t t e n 1 0 o f M e s o r e , 6

t h

o f w h e a t less t w o

Indiction.'

29

O f the s a m e

k i n d are t w o m o r e i n s t a n c e s : 'Fifteen y e a r s less three m o n t h s ' (RNC ' s e v e n holokottina

(i. e. solidi) less o n e trimesion

40) and

( i . e . 1/3 s o l i d u s ) ' (P. J k o w ) .

3 0

T h e s e four i n s t a n c e s all b e t r a y t h e s a m e p r e f e r e n c e for m e n t i o n i n g r a t h e r a h i g h e r n u m b e r less s o m e t h i n g than a l o w e r n u m b e r p l u s s o m e t h i n g .

2 6

r d

A. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar, Oxford 1957 ( 3 ed.), § 260; E. Edel, Altdgyptische Grammatik, Rome 1 9 5 5 - 1 9 6 4 , § 395; C E . Sander-Hansen, Agyptische Grammatik, Wiesbaden 1 9 6 3 , § 219. F. Preisigke, Worterbuch der griechischen Papyrusurkunden ...II, Berlin 1927, 2 3 2 b 233a, s.v. naga. W.E. Crum & H.I. Bell, Wadi Sarga. Coptic and Greek Texts, Copenhagen 1922, 118 (no. 133). Crum & Bell, Wadi Sarga 150 (no. 191). Both instances taken over from W.E. Crum, A Coptic Dictionary, Oxford 1939, 593. 2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

264 5. Hebrew

Subtractive

and

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

Aramaic

T h e n u m e r a l s y s t e m s o f the W e s t - S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s ( H e b r e w a n d the v a r i o u s A r a m a i c d i a l e c t s , i n c l u d i n g S y r i a c ) w e r e all o f the s a m e structure. T h e b a s i c set o f n u m e r a l s ran u p to ' t e n ; ' the w o r d s for ' e l e v e n ' to ' n i n e t e e n ' w e r e a d d i t i v e c o m p o u n d s o f the basic n u m e r a l s a n d ' t e n ; ' ' t w e n t y ' w a s formally t h e m a s c u l i n e p l u r a l o f ' t e n , ' w h i c h is s u p p o s e d to h a v e r e p l a c e d an earlier d u a l o f ' t e n . '

3 1

The

further t e n s w e r e formally m a s c u l i n e p l u r a l s o f the b a s i c n u m e r a l s from ' t h r e e ' to ' n i n e ; ' t h e n u m e r a l s in b e t w e e n w e r e a d d i t i v e w o r d g r o u p s c o n s i s t i n g o f a ten + ' a n d ' + a b a s i c , in w h i c h the ' h i g h e r ' u s u a l l y p r e c e d e d t h e ' l o w e r ' e l e m e n t . A p p a r e n t l y t h e s y s t e m did n o t c o n t a i n s u b t r a c t i v e f o r m a t i o n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , in p o s t - b i b l i c a l H e b r e w a n d J e w i s h A r a m a i c literature o n e d o e s find a n u m b e r o f instances of subtractive numerals, mostly with the formula 'less one.' These i n s t a n c e s c a n b e d i v i d e d into t w o c a t e g o r i e s : (1) C a s e s in w h i c h t h e r e is a d e v i a ­ tion, in the s e n s e o f a d i m i n u t i o n , from a r o u n d n u m b e r g i v e n in t h e B i b l e or from an o t h e r w i s e n o r m a t i v e c o u n t . (2) C a s e s b a s e d u p o n the p r i n c i p l e o f t h e ' f e n c e a r o u n d the L a w ' (seyag

la-Torah),

d e v e l o p e d in p o s t - b i b l i c a l J u d a i s m .

5 . 1 . C l e a r i n s t a n c e s o f d e v i a t i o n s from a biblical n u m b e r : In E x o d . 16.35, N u m . 1 3 . 3 3 ^ 4 , D e u t . 8.2, 2 9 . 5 , a n d J o s h u a 5.6, it is stated that after t h e e x o d u s the p e o p l e o f Israel w a n d e r e d t h r o u g h the desert for forty y e a r s . In t h e B a b y l o ­ nian T a l m u d ( = B a v l i ) , Zevahim

118b, the r a b b i s say: ' T h e d u r a t i o n of the Tent

o f M e e t i n g (/. e. the T a b e r n a c l e ) in the w i l d e r n e s s w a s forty y e a r s less o n e . H o w d o w e k n o w t h a t ? B e c a u s e a m a s t e r said: In the first y e a r (sc. o f the e x o d u s ) M o s e s m a d e the T a b e r n a c l e ; ( o n l y ) in the s e c o n d y e a r t h e T a b e r n a c l e w a s set u p ' (cf. the s i m i l a r p a s s a g e ibid. 1 1 9 a ) .

32

A c o m p a r a b l e c a s e is B a v l i ,

Arakhin

13a: ' W h e n c e d o w e k n o w that it t o o k s e v e n y e a r s to c o n q u e r t h e l a n d ? C a l e b said: " F o r t y y e a r s old w a s I w h e n M o s e s , t h e s e r v a n t o f the L o r d , sent m e from K a d e s h - B a r n e a to s p y o u t the land ( J o s h u a 14.7) . . . a n d n o w lo, I a m this d a y four-score a n d five y e a r s old ( J o s h u a 1 4 . 1 0 ) . " A n d a m a s t e r said: " I n t h e first y e a r M o s e s built the T a b e r n a c l e , in the s e c o n d the T a b e r n a c l e w a s p u t u p , t h e n h e sent o u t the spies. W h e n C a l e b p a s s e d o v e r the J o r d a n , h o w old therefore w a s h e ? H e w a s t w o y e a r s less than e i g h t y y e a r s o l d .

33

W h e n he distributed

the i n h e r i t a n c e s , h e said: " N o w lo, I a m this d a y four-score a n d five y e a r s o l d " ( J o s h u a 14.10). W h e n c e it follows that it took s e v e n y e a r s for t h e m to c o n q u e r the l a n d . '

3 1

H. Bauer & P. Leander, Historische Grammatik der hebraischen Sprache des Alten Testa­ ments, Hildesheim 1965, vol. I, 626. Cf.Josephus,/4«f. 4.176xd)v68T£ooeQdxovxa8Ta)VKaQdTQidxovTa^eQagoaj^KEJiXTiQa)uevu)v xxL Allowing forty years for the sojourn of Israel in the wilderness. It should be noted here that when the same passage recurs in Zev. 118b the printed editions have '78' but codex Munich reads 'eighty less two.' 3 2

3 3

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

265

A n i n s t a n c e o f d e v i a t i o n from a r o u n d n u m b e r w i t h i n S c r i p t u r e itself is m e n ­ tioned by the rabbis in T a l m u d B a v l i , Bava Bathra

123a: ' W h y d o y o u find the

n u m b e r s e v e n t y in their total (sc. o f J a c o b ' s s o n s a n d g r a n d s o n s in G e n . 4 6 . 2 7 ) a n d o n l y s e v e n t y less o n e in their detailed e n u m e r a t i o n (in G e n . 4 6 . 8 ff.)?' T h i s p r o b l e m w a s s o l v e d b y later r a b b i s as follows. Pirqe de-Rabbi

Eliezer

39 reads:

' W h e n they (sc. J a c o b a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s ) c a m e to t h e b o r d e r o f E g y p t , all the m a l e s w e r e e n r o l l e d (in g e n e a l o g i c a l t a b l e s , to the n u m b e r of) sixty-six; J o s e p h a n d his t w o s o n s in E g y p t ( m a d e a total of) s i x t y - n i n e .

34

B u t it is written: " W i t h

s e v e n t y p e r s o n s y o u r father w e n t d o w n into E g y p t " ( D e u t . 10.22). W h a t did the H o l y O n e , b l e s s e d b e H e , d o ? H e e n t e r e d into the n u m b e r w i t h t h e m a n d t h e total b e c a m e seventy, to fulfil t h a t w h i c h is said: ' I will g o d o w n w i t h t h e e into E g y p t ' ( G e n . 4 6 . 4 ) . W h e n Israel c a m e u p from E g y p t , all the m i g h t y m e n w e r e e n r o l l e d ( a m o u n t i n g to) six h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d less o n e . W h a t did t h e H o l y O n e , b l e s s e d b e H e , d o ? H e entered into t h e n u m b e r w i t h t h e m a n d their total a m o u n t e d to six h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d , to fulfil that w h i c h is said: T will g o d o w n w i t h t h e e into E g y p t a n d I will also surely b r i n g t h e e u p a g a i n ' ( G e n . 4 6 . 4 ) . '

3 5

I n s t a n c e s w i t h d e v i a t i o n s from r o u n d n u m b e r s not from S c r i p t u r e b u t from tradition i n c l u d e T a l m u d B a v l i . Yevamoth

6 4 a : ' T h e d i v i n e p r e s e n c e d o e s not

rest o n less t h a n t w o t h o u s a n d a n d t w o m y r i a d s o f Israelites. S h o u l d the n u m b e r o f Israelites h a p p e n to b e t w o t h o u s a n d a n d t w o m y r i a d s less o n e , a n d a n y p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n h a s not e n g a g e d in the p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e r a c e , d o e s h e not t h e r e b y c a u s e the d i v i n e p r e s e n c e to d e p a r t from I s r a e l ? ' (cf. a v e r y similar p a s ­ s a g e in Bava Qamma

8 3 a ) . A l s o T a l m u d B a v l i , Sotah 3 6 b : '(It w a s stated a b o v e

that o n the s t o n e s o f the e p h o d ) there w e r e fifty letters, b u t t h e r e w e r e fifty less o n e ! R a b b i Isaac said: O n e letter w a s a d d e d to the n a m e o f J o s e p h , as it is said: " H e a p p o i n t e d it in J o s e p h for a t e s t i m o n y , w h e n h e w e n t o u t o v e r the land o f E g y p t " ( P s a l m 8 1 . 6 , w h e r e J o s e p h ' s n a m e is spelt w i t h five letters instead o f the u s u a l four: yhwsp

instead ofywsp).

T a l m u d B a v l i , Nedarim

3 8 a : 'Fifty g a t e s o f

u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e r e c r e a t e d in the w o r l d , all b u t o n e w e r e g i v e n to M o s e s . ' Very c u r i o u s is T a l m u d , Sanhedrin

9 5 b : ' T h e length o f his ( S a n h e r i b ' s ) a r m y w a s

four h u n d r e d p a r a s a n g s , t h e h o r s e s s t a n d i n g n e c k to n e c k f o r m e d a line forty p a r a s a n g s long, a n d the g r a n d total o f his a r m y w a s t w o m i l l i o n six h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d less o n e . A b a y e inquired: L e s s o n e ribbo (ten t h o u s a n d ) , o n e t h o u s a n d , o n e h u n d r e d , or o n e ? T h e q u e s t i o n s t a n d s o v e r . ' N o t in e v e r y c a s e it is clear h o w a tradition o f t h e s e r o u n d n u m b e r s ( 2 2 . 0 0 0 ; 5 0 ; 2 . 6 0 0 . 0 0 0 ) h a s c o m e into b e i n g , b u t for o u r p u r p o s e s that is not i m p o r t a n t .

3 4

36

So the extant mss.; the early editions, however, read 'seventy less one' probably on the basis o f mss. now lost. G. Friedlander's translation of Pirke de-Rabbi Eliezer, London 1916, 304, slightly re­ vised. For other instances see b.Niddah 30a (sixty less one) and Eruvin 83a (seventy less one). 3 5

3 6

266

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

It s h o u l d b e a d d e d h e r e that in s o m e isolated i n s t a n c e s in the A r a m a i c dialect o f t h e J e r u s a l e m T a l m u d (Yerushalmi) s u b t r a c t i v e m e a n i n g . Eruvin me'at:

the G r e e k l o a n w o r d j t a o d is u s e d in its

2 0 b shov 'in min shov 'in chamishah

7 0 x 7 0 = 5.000 - 100. Demai

little bit. Cf. Ketuvoth

30d.

2 4 c chada'para'tsivchad:

'alafin

para'

one minus a

3 7

In g e n e r a l t h e p r i n c i p l e is clear: a g i v e n r o u n d n u m b e r , m o s t l y either b i b l i ­ cal o r traditional, is the p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e , a n d d e v i a t i o n s from it to b e l o w are i n d i c a t e d by a s u b t r a c t i v e w a y o f c o u n t i n g . 5.2. T h e s a m e h o l d s for the c a t e g o r y to b e d i s c u s s e d n o w , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s it is dealt w i t h s e p a r a t e l y b e c a u s e t h e r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l is c o n c e r n e d w i t h the p r i n c i p l e o f ' a fence a r o u n d the T o r a h . ' T h i s p r i n c i p l e ( f o r m u l a t e d in M i s h n a h , Avot 1.1) c a n b e d e s c r i b e d as follows: In o r d e r to a v o i d that a c o m m a n d m e n t in the T o r a h b e t r a n s g r e s s e d , rules are d e v e l o p e d that c r e a t e a m a r g i n o f safety (a ' f e n c e ' ) a r o u n d the c o m m a n d m e n t s .

3 8

T h i s c a n b e s t b e illustrated b y p r e s e n t i n g

t h e m a t e r i a l u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n . In the Torah, in D e u t e r o n o m y 2 5 . 3 , it is said: ' T h e y m a y g i v e h i m forty strokes, but not m o r e . O t h e r w i s e , if they g o further a n d e x c e e d this n u m b e r , y o u r f e l l o w - c o u n t r y m a n will h a v e b e e n p u b l i c l y d e g r a d e d . ' T h e explicit a n d e m p h a t i c injunction ' n o t m o r e , ' a n d the r e a s o n s g i v e n for it, m a d e p e o p l e b e a w a r e that it w o u l d constitute a s e r i o u s t r a n s g r e s s i o n if t h e per­ s o n c o n c e r n e d w o u l d r e c e i v e m o r e t h a n forty s t r o k e s . H e n c e , as a ' f e n c e ' it w a s o r d a i n e d in p o s t - b i b l i c a l J u d a i s m that, for safety's s a k e , the p u n i s h m e n t w o u l d c o n s i s t o f 'forty less o n e ' s t r o k e s , so that, e v e n if t h e e x e c u t o r w o u l d m a k e a m i s t a k e in c o u n t i n g a n d inflict a stroke t o o m u c h , the m a n or w o m a n w o u l d n o t g e t m o r e t h a n forty s t r o k e s or stripes. H e n c e t h e M i s h n a h , Makkot

3.10, states:

' H o w m a n y stripes d o t h e y inflict on a m a n ? F o r t y less o n e ('arba'im 'achat),

F o r the s a m e r e a s o n the a p o s t l e Paul w r i t e s in 2 Cor. 11.24: imo Jtevxdxig T e a a e o d x o v T a H a o d uiav eXaftov,

3 7

chaser

for it is written: " b y n u m b e r forty,"(that is) a n u m b e r n e a r to f o r t y . ' 40

39

'lovbaiwv

w h i c h s h o w s that t h e p r i n c i p l e is

See G. Dalman, Grammatik des judisch-paldstinischen Aramdisch, Leipzig 1905 (repr. Darmstadt 1960), 134.. G.F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, 3 vols., Cambridge M A 1 9 2 7 , 1 259: 'Avoth I 1, "Make a fence for the Law," that is, protect it by surrounding it with cautionary rules to halt a man like a danger signal before he gets within breaking distance o f the divine statute itself.' This 'by number forty' is arrived at by the rabbis by linking up the final word of Deut. 25.2 b mispar, 'by number,' with the first word of Deut. 25.3 'arba 'im, 'forty.' Thus they tried to give a biblical basis to their deviation from the biblical number. See S. Krauss, Sanhedrin - Makkot (Die Mischna IV 4 - 5 ) , Giessen 1933, 3 6 9 - 7 0 . Cf. the Talmudic discussion of this mishnah in Makkot 22b: 'If it were written "forty in number," I should have said it means forty in number, but as the wording is "by number forty," it means a number coming up to the forty' (Soncino translation). On the question o f how Paul could have incurred this maximum penalty see A.E. Harvey, 'Forty Strokes Save One,' in A.E. Harvey (ed.), Alternative Approaches to New Testament Studies, London 1985, 7 9 - 9 6 . 3 8

3 9

e

4 0

Languages

267

o l d e r than t h e M i s h n a h , a s c a n a l s o b e inferred from J o s e p h u s , Ant.

4.238 6

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

Se jtaQtx x a u x a jtoir|aag JiX/nyac; u.iq \zmovoac,

in Ancient

xeoocxQaxovxa xco 6r|u.oaico oxuxei

Xa(3cbv xxA.. Cf. ibid. 4 . 2 4 8 Kh^yac, xeooaQdxovxa uiq Xemovoac, ( a n d n o t e that in Ant.

10.77 a n d Bell.

Xau,pdvcov xxL

6.270 Josephus uses xQiaxovxasvvEa!).

T a r g u m P s e u d o - J o n a t h a n (an A r a m a i c p a r a p h r a s t i c translation o f the H e b r e w B i b l e ) r e n d e r s D e u t . 2 5 . 3 as f o l l o w s : ' F o r t y (stripes) m a y b e laid u p o n h i m , but w i t h o n e less shall h e b e flogged, (the full n u m b e r ) shall n o t b e c o m p l e t e d , lest h e flog h i m m o r e than t h e s e t h i r t y - n i n e ( l a s h e s ) , excessively, a n d h e b e in d a n g e r a n d y o u r b r o t h e r b e d e s p i s e d w h i l e y o u see h i m . '

4 1

T h e r e is a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e in t h e M i s h n a h that is s o m e t i m e s referred to in this c o n t e x t , w r o n g l y in o u r o p i n i o n .

42

In Shabbath

7.2 the c o n t e x t is a d i s c u s s i o n

o f the t y p e s o f w o r k forbidden on S a b b a t h . T h e text r u n s as follows: ' T h e m a i n c l a s s e s o f w o r k are forty less o n e ( ' a r b a 'im chaser is found in the M i d r a s h , Numbers

Rabba

'achat).'

T h e s a m e tradition

1 8 . 2 1 : ' T h e principal c a t e g o r i e s o f

w o r k (forbidden o n S a b b a t h ) are forty less o n e . ' A t first sight o n e w o u l d e x p e c t that t h e r e is a fixed n u m b e r 4 0 in either S c r i p t u r e or tradition relating to this issue. B u t t h e r e is n o s u c h n u m b e r , a n d if it w e r e t h e r e , t h e M i s h n a h w o u l d m a k e n o s e n s e , for the p r i n c i p l e o f ' a fence a r o u n d the T o r a h ' w o u l d d e m a n d in that c a s e more, not less than 4 0 k i n d s o f f o r b i d d e n w o r k . S o this p r i n c i p l e c a n n o t b e at w o r k h e r e , a n d it is v e r y h a r d to say w h a t is the r e a s o n for this specific w a y of counting here. S i d n e y H o e n i g ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' T h e 4 0 m e n t i o n e d biblically in the c a s e o f malkot

( p u n i s h m e n t b y lashes) w a s utilized for a p p l i c a t i o n in a parallel m a n n e r

for the sabbatical p r o h i b i t i o n s , '

43

is n o t a n d c a n n o t b e p r o v e d . E v e n if that w o u l d

a p p l y to t h e u s e o f t h e n u m b e r 4 0 , it definitely d o e s not a p p l y to the f o r m u l a ' 4 0 less 1,' since the ' f e n c e - p r i n c i p l e ' is o p e r a t i v e in o n l y o n e o f t h e t w o c a s e s , not in b o t h . O n e m i g h t , h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t that the u s e o f ' 4 0 less 1' instead o f 'thirtyn i n e ' in the c a s e o f forbidden k i n d s o f w o r k m a y h a v e b e e n a r a t h e r m e c h a n i c a l transfer o f t e r m i n o l o g y w h i c h existed a l r e a d y l o n g e r (for the 3 9 s t r o k e s ) to a dif4 1

See also H.L. Strack & P. Billerbeck, Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch III, Munchen 1926, 5 2 7 - 8 . J. le Moyne, Les Sadduceens, Paris 1972, 239. G.F. Moore, Judaism II-III, Cambridge M A 1 9 2 7 - 3 0 , II 2 7 - 8 , III 171. Characteristically, the later Syriac version (Peshitta) of 2 Cor. 11.24 uses about the same words as the Mishnah ('arba 'in chasir chada'). It is uncertain whether the terminology in Acta Pilati (Evang. Nicodemi) 4.3 (Xiyovaiv oi 'Iou6cooi xco FIiAdxcp- 6 v6|K>g fpcov jtEQiexei' dvOocojrog eig dvBocojrov edv du«Qxr|crn, cx^iog EOXLV )i.a(i(3dv£iv xeaaaodxovxa Jiaod [iiav, 6 6e eig Oeov p^aaqprjucov X.i6oPo?dq Xi9oPoX.elaGai cmxov) depends upon 2 Cor. 11.24 or shows independent knowledge of Jewish usage. E. g., W.H. Roscher, Die Zahl 40 im Glauben, Brauch und Schrifttum der Semiten (Abh. der phil.-hist. Klasse der kon. sachs. Akad. der Wiss. 27:4), Leipzig 1909, 25. This study by Roscher is a supplement to his Die Tessarakontaden und Tessarakontadenlehren der Griechen und anderer Volker (Berichte iiber die Verhandl. der kon. sachs. Ges. der Wiss., phil.-hist. Klasse 61), Leipzig 1909. S.B. Hoenig, 'The Designated Number of Kinds of Labor Prohibited on the Sabbath,' Jewish Quarterly Review 68 (1978) 205. 4 2

4 3

268

Subtractive

Versus Additive

Composite

Numerals

in Ancient

Languages

ferent situation in w h i c h t h e s a m e n u m b e r (39) p l a y e d a role, albeit w i t h o u t the s a m e b a c k g r o u n d . It is, therefore, interesting to see that in the m i d r a s h i c w o r k Mekhilta

de-Rabbi

Yishmael,

S h a b b a t a 2 (III p . 2 0 6 ed. L a u t e r b a c h ) , it is stated

in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h E x o d . 35.1 ( ' A n d h e said to t h e m : T h e s e are the w o r d s e t c . ' ) : ' R a b b i s a y s : T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e l a w s a b o u t the t h i r t y - n i n e (sheloshim

we-tesha)

c a t e g o r i e s o f w o r k p r o h i b i t e d on the s a b b a t h w h i c h M o s e s g a v e t h e m orally.' T h e fact that in this p a s s a g e t h e usual a d d i t i v e n u m b e r is u s e d m a k e s clear that 'forty less o n e ' h a d n o t b e c o m e a fixed e x p r e s s i o n in relation to the t y p e s o f w o r k forbidden o n the S a b b a t h , u n l i k e the forty less o n e s t r o k e s . A l s o clear is t h e fact that t h e forty less o n e t y p e s o f w o r k are later t h a n t h e forty less o n e s t r o k e s ( P a u l p r e c e d e s t h e M i s h n a h b y at least o n e a n d a h a l f c e n t u r y ) . O n e m i g h t s u g g e s t that the n u m b e r of types of work prohibited on the Sabbath - performance of which m a d e o n e liable to b e a t i n g

4 4

- w a s w o r k e d o u t to m a t c h the n u m b e r o f b l o w s

in the b e a t i n g a n d therefore the s a m e form o f n u m e r a l w a s u s e d . B u t this is n o m o r e than an e d u c a t e d g u e s s .

4 5

It s e e m s to b e i m p o s s i b l e to state w i t h certainty

w h a t w a s the b a c k g r o u n d in this c a s e .

6.

Conclusion

It m a y h a v e b e c o m e clear that the p r i n c i p l e s o p e r a t i v e b e h i n d t h e u s e o f s u b tractive n u m e r a l s are definitely not the s a m e in all l a n g u a g e s d i s c u s s e d in this article. F o r Latin it w a s a l r e a d y k n o w n that s u b t r a c t i v e s w e r e v e r y old e l e m e n t s that r e m a i n e d in u s e for a l o n g t i m e (till t h e first c e n t u r i e s o f o u r era) b u t t h e n g r a d u a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d a n d h e n c e are n o l o n g e r part o f the R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s . A s to G r e e k , s u b t r a c t i v e s h a v e either b e e n totally n e g l e c t e d b y m o d e r n s c h o l a r s or c o n s i d e r e d to b e a rare a n d c l u m s y irregularity in the o t h e r w i s e a d d i t i v e s y s ­ t e m . N o w , h o w e v e r , it t u r n s out to h a v e b e e n a u s a g e o f m u c h w i d e r c u r r e n c y t h a n h a s a l w a y s b e e n a s s u m e d . M o s t p r o b a b l y it w a s , as in Latin, a n e l e m e n t o f the early s p o k e n l a n g u a g e that h a s p e r s i s t e d in p r o s e w r i t i n g s till t h e e n d o f t h e C l a s s i c a l p e r i o d . C o n t r a r y to the classical l a n g u a g e s , in S e m i t o - H a m i t i c languages (Egyptian, Coptic, Hebrew, Aramaic) subtractives have never been part o f t h e n u m e r a l s y s t e m . H e n c e there are c o n s i d e r a b l y fewer i n s t a n c e s , but, as far as H e b r e w a n d A r a m a i c are c o n c e r n e d , in a l m o s t all t h e s e c a s e s it c o u l d b e d e m o n s t r a t e d that the u s e o f s u b t r a c t i v e s w a s c a u s e d b y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n o r m a t i v e r o u n d n u m b e r from w h i c h there is a d e v i a t i o n to below. To this cat­ egory, a n d o n l y to this, b e l o n g s t h e o n l y p a s s a g e in t h e B i b l e w h e r e a s u b t r a c t i v e n u m e r a l is u s e d , 2 Cor. 11.24. 4 4

Flogging is the punishment for all kinds of violation, by overt act, of negative biblical injunctions (Mishnah, Makkot 3 . 1 - 9 ) ; see H.H. Colin in Encyclopaedia Judaica 6 (1972) 1349; Z.W. Falk, Introduction to the Jewish Law of the Second Commonwealth II, Leiden 1978, 160. We o w e this suggestion to Prof. Morton Smith (letter o f Sept. 25, 1985). 4 5

The Great Magical Papyrus of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible T h e so-called ' G r e a t M a g i c a l P a p y r u s o f P a r i s ' or P ( a p y r u s ) G ( r a e c a ) M ( a g i c a ) IV is a G r e e k m a n u s c r i p t in t h e B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e , w h e r e it is c a t a l o g u e d as Supplement

grec 5 7 4 (or A n a s t a s i 1073). It is a large m a n u s c r i p t , c o n t a i n i n g 3 6 1

l e a v e s from a c o d e x , a n d its text runs to 3 2 7 4 lines in total. It w a s a c q u i r e d in E g y p t in the early 19th c e n t u r y b y t h e f a m o u s collector o f a n t i q u i t i e s , G i o v a n n i A n a s t a s i , a n d b o u g h t b y t h e B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e at a n a u c t i o n in Paris in 2

1 8 5 7 . T h i s a n d the o t h e r A n a s t a s i p a p y r i p r o b a b l y c o m e from T h e b e s w h e r e they w e r e d i s c o v e r e d in a g r a v e s o m e t i m e a r o u n d 1825, as A n a s t a s i w a s told, a l t h o u g h w e c a n n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y certain a b o u t this. B e that as it m a y , it w a s certainly w r i t t e n in E g y p t in t h e R o m a n period. T h e p a p y r u s c o n t a i n s a h a n d ­ b o o k for a p r a c t i c i n g m a g i c i a n that w a s ' c o m p i l e d from m a n y s o u r c e s . '

3

As

H a n s - D i e t e r B e t z h a s s u g g e s t e d , the c o m p i l e r p r o b a b l y travelled a r o u n d E g y p t to visit t e m p l e libraries w h i c h often s e r v e d as d e p o s i t o r i e s o f m a g i c o - r e l i g i o u s 4

l i t e r a t u r e , a n d to e x c h a n g e m a t e r i a l s w i t h o t h e r m a g i c i a n s ; h e a s s e m b l e d d o c u ­ m e n t s o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e a n d s u c c e s s i v e l y or finally c o p i e d t h e m all into a handbook.

5

W i t h its m o r e t h a n 5 0 d o c u m e n t s P G M I V is t h e single m o s t

c o m p r e h e n s i v e h a n d b o o k for m a g i c a l p r a c t i c e s k n o w n from t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d .

6

P a p y r o l o g i s t s a g r e e that t h e m a n u s c r i p t w a s w r i t t e n in t h e early fourth century, b u t t h e d o c u m e n t s c o n t a i n e d in it m a y o f c o u r s e b e older, s o m e o f t h e m e v e n m u c h older. It is clear that e a c h a n d e v e r y d o c u m e n t or tradition found in this c o m p i l a t i o n h a s a p r e h i s t o r y o f its o w n , a n d it is n o w g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d that 1

In Karl Preisendanz's edition the Greek text covers 57 pages; see K. Preisendanz (hrsg.), Papyri Graecae magicae. Die griechischen Zauberpapyri, vol. 1, Stuttgart 1973 (reprint o f the Leipzig 1928 edition, revised by A. Henrichs), 6 6 - 1 8 0 . The present author examined the manuscript in the Bibliotheque Nationale on April 1 2 - 1 3 , 2000. Almost 30 years earlier, Anastasi had sold a larger lot of these papyri to the Dutch ar­ chaeologist C.J.C. Reuvens, the founder and first director o f the Oudheidkundig Museum in Leiden. H.D. Betz, The 'Mithras Liturgy,' Tubingen 2 0 0 3 , 7. See G. Fowden, The Egyptian Hermes. A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind, Cambridge 1986, 5 7 - 5 8 . Betz, The 'Mithras Liturgy' 7 - 8 . For the wide variety of practices dealt with in PGM IV see W. Brashear, 'The Greek Magi­ cal Papyri: An Introduction and Survey; Annotated Bibliography (1928-1994),M/W?JFII 18,5, Berlin & N e w York 1995, 3 4 9 7 - 3 4 9 8 . 2

3

4

5

6

270

The Great Magical Papyrus

of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible

P G M I V c o n t a i n s m a t e r i a l that h a s a c h r o n o l o g i c a l r a n g e from t h e first t h r o u g h the third c e n t u r i e s C E . T h e scribe is certainly n o t t h e a u t h o r b u t h e is n o t j u s t a m e c h a n i c a l c o m p i l e r either. H e m a k e s it clear that h e h a s s o m e t i m e s e x a m i n e d m o r e than o n e c o p y o f his d o c u m e n t s a n d h e n c e n o t e s textual v a r i a n t s , a n d h e 7

also inserts m a r g i n a l c o m m e n t s a n d c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s , b u t h e m a k e s n o effort to edit o r r e w r i t e t h e p r o c e d u r e s collected, o n t h e contrary, h e w a s c o n c e r n e d a b o u t a c c u r a c y . P G M I V is t h e best p o s s i b l e illustration o f t h e k i n d o f b o o k s that, a c c o r d i n g t o A c t s 19:19, w e r e p u b l i c l y b u r n e d in E p h e s u s after t h e a p o s t l e Paul h a d u n m a s k e d t h e J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s in that city. After t h e editio princeps

8

b y Carl W e s s e l y in 1 8 8 8 , t h e w h o l e d o c u m e n t w a s

r e p r i n t e d w i t h several n e c e s s a r y c o r r e c t i o n s a n d e m e n d a t i o n s b y P r e i s e n d a n z 9

in 1 9 2 8 a s nr. I V in his PGM,

a c c o m p a n i e d b y a G e r m a n translation. T h e first

E n g l i s h translation, b y a t e a m o f A m e r i c a n s c h o l a r s , w a s p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 8 6 in The Greek

Magical

Papyri

in Translation,

1987 a S p a n i s h translation a p p e a r e d .

11

edited by Hans-Dieter B e t z .

1 0

In

A n a n o n y m o u s F r e n c h translation w a s

1 2

p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 9 5 . A n d I m y s e l f p u b l i s h e d p a r t s o f t h e p a p y r u s text in a D u t c h t r a n s l a t i o n in 1 9 9 7 .

1 3

T h e s e c o n d a r y literature o n this p a p y r u s is e n o r m o u s . In a

b o o k - l e n g t h article o f m o r e t h a n 3 0 0 p a g e s p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 9 5 , t h e late W i l l i a m B r a s h e a r lists h u n d r e d s o f p u b l i c a t i o n s ( b e t w e e n 1928 a n d 1994) d e a l i n g either w i t h P G M I V a s a w h o l e or w i t h d o c u m e n t s c o n t a i n e d in it o r w i t h i n d i v i d u a l passages.

14

A c e n t u r y a g o t h e study o f t h e G r e e k m a g i c a l p a p y r i still h a d t o b e

justified a n d d e f e n d e d a g a i n s t t h e s c o r n o f w o r t h i e s s u c h a s W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l lendorff,

15

b u t in t h e m e a n t i m e t h e c l i m a t e h a s c h a n g e d drastically: t h e s t u d y

o f a n c i e n t m a g i c is n o w n o t o n l y a r e s p e c t e d s c h o l a r l y enterprise, it h a s e v e n b e c o m e p a r t a n d p a r c e l o f the study o f a n c i e n t r e l i g i o n s . M o s t o f the c o m p i l a t i o n s or a n t h o l o g i e s o f G r a e c o - R o m a n m a g i c a l formular­ ies w e r e p r o d u c e d in t h e first t h r e e c e n t u r i e s C . E . , a l t h o u g h t h e p a p y r i w h i c h p r e s e r v e d t h e m m o s t l y d a t e from t h e third t o sixth c e n t u r i e s . T h e i r d i s p a r a t e 7

Betz, ibid. 8 for examples. See, e.g., lines 5 0 0 and 2427. Many more examples in A . D . Nock, 'Greek Magical Papyri,' in his Essays on Religion and the Ancient World, vol. I, Oxford 1972, 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 . C. Wessely, 'Griechische Zauberpapyri von Paris und London,' Denkschrift der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Phil.-hist. Klasse 36 (1888) 4 4 - 1 2 6 . It is a rather sloppy edition with many errors. See note 1. Chicago 1 9 8 6 , 3 6 - 1 0 1 . " J.L.C. Martinez & M.D.S. Romero, Testos de magia en papiros griegos, Madrid 1987 (non vidi). 8

9

1 0

12

13

Manuel de magie egyptienne: Le papyrus magique de Paris, Paris 1995. P.W. van der Horst, Bronnen voor de studie van de wereld van het vroege Christendom, 2

vols., Kampen 1997, II 100-112. W. Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri: A n Introduction and Survey; Annotated Bibli­ ography ( 1 9 2 8 - 1 9 9 4 ) , ' ANRWII 18,5, Berlin & N e w York 1995, 3 3 8 0 - 3 6 8 4 , esp. 3 5 1 6 - 3 5 2 7 on PGM IV. See Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3410. 1 4

15

The Great Magical Papyrus

of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible

271

c o n t e n t s b e t r a y their c h e c k e r e d d e v e l o p m e n t e v e r y few lines, as B r a s h e a r h a s n o t i c e d : " R e c i p e s a n d instructions for m a k i n g g e m s , c h a r m s , a m u l e t s , figurines, a n d p o t i o n s are i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h d i v i n a t i o n b y n u m b e r s , d i c e or H o m e r i c v e r s e s . A m a t o r y m a g i c follows hard o n e x e c r a t i o n , e x o r c i s m or m a g i c o - m e d i cal r e c i p e . H e c a t e , K o r e , A p o l l o , A p h r o d i t e , a n d A t h e n a are i n v o k e d a l o n g w i t h E r e s c h i g a l , A d o n a i , J e h o v a h a n d J e s u s . S u d d e n l y there a p p e a r s a s n a t c h o f c l a s ­ sical G r e e e k poetry, b u t it is interlarded w i t h voces magicae.

A C o p t i c section

s u c c e e d s a G r e e k o n e . It is s o m e t i m e s difficult to find a n y unifying p r i n c i p l e whatsoever."

16

A l t h o u g h this is m e a n t as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f G r e e k m a g i c a l f o r m u ­

laries in g e n e r a l , it a p p l i e s perfectly to P G M IV. T h a t t h e r e c i p e s a n d p r e s c r i p t i o n s o f P G M I V w e r e i n d e e d p u t into p r a c t i c e is s h o w n b y several r e c e n t finds. F o r i n s t a n c e , a find in E g y p t o f a j a r c o n t a i n i n g a lead foil inscribed w i t h a c h a r m a n d a clay figurine of a k n e e l i n g w o m a n w i t h h e r h a n d s b o u n d b e h i n d h e r b a c k a n d h e r b o d y p i e r c e d by thirteen nails c o r r e s p o n d s r a t h e r closely to t h e p r o c e d u r e s p r e s c r i b e d in P G M I V 296—434, in spite o f a n u m b e r o f d e v i a t i o n s in b o t h the praxis

a n d the logos. A l s o o t h e r love c h a r m s

on lead lamellae

17

follow p a r t s o f this t e x t .

T h e fact that o f s o m e formularies w e

h a v e parallel v e r s i o n s in t w o or t h r e e different l a n g u a g e s ( e . g . , G r e e k , C o p t i c and A r a m a i c )

1 8

is also an i n d i c a t i o n that t h e y w e r e m e a n t for practical p u r p o s e s

a n d that a diversified clientele w a s s e r v e d w i t h t h e m .

1 9

A n interesting feature o f P G M IV (and of other m a g i c a l p a p y r i ) is the insertion of metrical h y m n i c p a s s a g e s into the formularies. S o w e find a h y m n to the M o o n ( 2 2 4 1 - 2 3 4 7 ) , to t h e S u n ( 4 3 6 - 4 6 1 a n d 1 9 5 7 - 1 9 8 1 ) , to A p h r o d i t e ( 2 9 0 2 - 2 9 3 9 ) a n d several m o r e (in total 15 h y m n s ) .

2 0

T h e s o m e t i m e s p o o r linguistic a n d

m e t r i c a l qualities o f t h e s e h y m n s are i n d i c a t i v e o f a n o n - c l a s s i c a l p r o v e n a n c e a n d n o w a d a y s m o s t s c h o l a r s a s s u m e that t h e y o r i g i n a t e d in t h e early imperial p e r i o d , i.e., in t h e first t w o c e n t u r i e s C.E., m a y b e s o m e o f t h e m s o m e w h a t earlier. A l t h o u g h m u c h in t h e m a g i c a l p a p y r i h a s an E g y p t i a n or o t h e r w i s e O r i ­ ental b a c k g r o u n d , t h e s e h y m n s are certainly o f G r e e k p r o v e n a n c e . A s B r a s h e a r s a y s , " T h e y h e a r k e n b a c k to t h e d a y s w h e n the O l y m p i a n a n d c h t h o n i a n deities r e i g n e d s u p r e m e , w h e n l a o , B a a l , E r e s c h i g a l , N e b u t o s u a l e t h a n d their likes w e r e h u n d r e d s o f m i l e s a w a y a n d still u n h e a r d of."

21

In earlier s c h o l a r s h i p it w a s

often a s s u m e d that the m a g i c a l p a p y r i w e r e , apart from s o m e G r e e k influence, 1 6

Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3414. Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3 4 1 6 - 1 7 with notes, and cf. 3446. Also Nock, 'Greek Magical Papyri' 1 7 9 - 8 0 . Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3 4 0 5 , 3419. Cf. also the almost identical text on the lead tablet SB IV 7452 and the formulae prescribed in PGM IV 341 ff. On the magical papyri as "the actual working copies of practical magicians" see Nock, 'Greek Magical Papyri' 177. For a complete survey see A. Henrichs (following E. Heitsch, Die griechischen Dichterfragmente der romischen Kaiserzeit, Gottingen 1963) in PGM, vol. 2, 266. Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3 4 2 1 . 1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

2 1

272

The Great Magical Papyrus

of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible

" a h o d g e - p o d g e o f oriental, G n o s t i c , M i t h r a i c a n d B a b y l o n i a n e l e m e n t s . "

22

But

in o u r d a y s it is o n l y G r e e k , E g y p t i a n , a n d J e w i s h (with p e r h a p s s o m e C h r i s t i a n ) e l e m e n t s that are s e e n as t h e m a i n c o m p o n e n t s .

2 3

A s is w e l l - k n o w n , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f J e w i s h e l e m e n t s in the G r e e k m a g i c a l p a p y r i s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r r a t e d : in a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e third o f t h e rites a n d c h a r m s J e w i s h e l e m e n t s are d e t e c t a b l e .

24

N o t o n l y are Iao a n d A d o n a i a n d

S a b a o t h i n v o k e d m o r e frequently t h a n m o s t o t h e r deities e x c e p t H e l i o s , b u t also M o s e s , S o l o m o n a n d t h e P a t r i a r c h s A b r a h a m , I s a a c , a n d J a c o b figure in several p a s s a g e s in the p a p y r i , a n d " a n g e l s , a r c h a n g e l s , c h e r u b i m a n d s e r a p h i m abound."

2 5

All t h e s e biblical n a m e s s e e m to h a v e b e c o m e e l e m e n t s o f a " t r a n s -

cultural m a g i c a l l i n g o , " as M o r t o n S m i t h h a s d u b b e d i t . s t r a n g e s o u n d i n g voces magicae Aramaic background.

28

or nomina

barbara,

21

26

A l s o m a n y o f the

m a y h a v e a H e b r e w or

E v e n if that is not the c a s e , s o m e t i m e s alliterative h o c u s -

p o c u s o f several h u n d r e d w o r d s long is s i m p l y called H e b r e w b y t h e m a g i c i a n s themselves.

29

T h i s h a s to d o w i t h the great r e p u t a t i o n o f J e w i s h m a g i c i a n s a n d

m a g i c in late a n t i q u i t y .

30

J e w i s h a n d biblical e l e m e n t s , n a m e s , m o t i v e s a n d

f o r m u l a s w e r e b o r r o w e d freely b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e b e l i e v e d to b e e x c e p t i o n a l l y p o t e n t a n d effective. It is, therefore, n o t s t r a n g e that, if o n e m o v e s from p a g a n m a g i c a l texts to J e w i s h o n e s , o n e often d o e s not h a v e the feeling o f m o v i n g to a different w o r l d . If s y n c r e t i s m is to b e found a n y w h e r e , it is in t h e w o r l d o f ancient m a g i c .

2 2

3 1

Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3422. On the paucity of Latin and Roman elements see Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3425-3426. Sec M. Smith, 'The Jewish Elements in the Magical Papyri,' in his Studies in the Cult of Yahweh, vol. 2, Leiden 1996, 2 4 6 - 2 4 7 . Note that this implies that in two thirds o f the material no Jewish influence at all is to be detected. See on the importance of Jewish elements also Th. Hopfner, Griechisch-dgyptischer Offenbarungszauber, 2 vols., Amsterdam 1 9 7 4 - 1 9 8 3 (cor­ rected reprint of the edition of 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 2 4 ) , II 3 1 - 3 3 . Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3427. On the patriarchs also M. Rist, 'The God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob: A Liturgical and Magical Formula,' JBL 57 (1938) 2 8 9 - 3 0 3 . Smith, 'The Jewish Elements' 245. For an extensive list see Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3 5 7 6 - 3 6 0 3 . For instances see C. Bonner, Studies in Magical Amulets, Chiefly Graeco-Egyptian, Ann Arbor 1950, 187. In PGM V 115-6 even the Egyptian name Osoronnophris (= Osiris Wennefer) is said to be 'the true name which has been transmitted to the prophets of Israel'! For Hebrew in Coptic magical papyri see M. Kropp, Ausgewdhlte Koptische Zaubertexte, vol. 3, Brussels 1930, 218. See for literature Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3426 note 222. M. Simon, Verus Israel. A Study of the Realtions Between Christians and Jews in the Roman Empire (AD 135-425), Oxford 1986, 3 3 9 - 3 6 8 . J. Gager, Moses in Greco-Roman Paganism, Nashville 1972, 134-161. Sometimes it is impossible to decide whether a magical papyrus is of Christian or Jewish provenance; e.g., P.IFAO iii 50 in R.W. Daniel & F. Maltomini (eds), Supplementum Magicum I, Opladen 1990, 4 9 - 5 2 (no. 19). 2 3

2 4

2 5

2 6

2 7

2 8

2 9

3 0

3 1

The Great Magical Papyrus

273

of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible

In this f r a m e w o r k it is w o r t h w i l e to t a k e a c l o s e r look at a f a m o u s p a s s a g e in P G M IV, the so-called ' H e b r e w f o r m u l a ' {logos hebraikos,

3007-3086).

3 2

It is

a c h a r m o f 80 lines in w h i c h a spell to b e u s e d in c a s e o f d e m o n i c p o s s e s s i o n is p r e s e n t e d . A l t h o u g h the r e c i p e is attributed to the l e g e n d a r y E g y p t i a n m a g i c i a n P i b e c h i s , it t e e m s w i t h J e w i s h e l e m e n t s . After h a v i n g listed the i n g r e d i e n t s o f a m a g i c p o t i o n , t h e text states it s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d w h i l e s a y i n g a f o r m u l a that b e g i n s w i t h t h e w o r d Joel, a c o m p o s i t e o f the H e b r e w J e h o - ( = Y H W H ) a n d -El ( G o d ) , that w e find e l s e w h e r e in t h e form Jael a n d J a o e l .

33

In the s a m e f o r m u l a

also t h e v a r i a n t forms J a b a , J o e a n d J a e o o c c u r ( e l s e w h e r e w e find J a b e , J a o u e , Jao, Jaou, Ja e t c . ) .

34

T h i s i n d i c a t e s h o w i m p o r t a n t the i n v o c a t i o n o f t h e n a m e

o f the G o d o f Israel w a s c o n s i d e r e d , nomina

barbara

35

e v e n t h o u g h it is h e r e part o f a string o f

that c o n c l u d e s w i t h the n a m e o f the E g y p t i a n c r e a t o r g o d P t a h .

It s h o u l d also b e n o t e d that in the n e x t line w e find t h e w e l l - k n o w n string o f the s e v e n v o w e l s o f the G r e e k a l p h a b e t (a, e, e, i, o, u, 6 ) ,

3 6

of which Eusebius,

a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f t h e scribe o f the p a p y r u s , s a y s that its p o w e r is t h o u g h t to b e e q u i v a l e n t to that o f t h e T e t r a g r a m m a t o n Y H W H (PE

11.6.36); a n d h e is

right, as is testified b y several p a s s a g e s in o t h e r m a g i c a l p a p y r i a n d in the N a g H a m m a d i c o d i c e s as w e l l . N N " ( 3 0 1 3 : exelthe

3 7

T h e f o r m u l a e n d s w i t h the i m p e r a t i v e " c o m e o u t o f

apo tou deinos),

u s i n g t h e s a m e t e r m i n o l o g y as in the story

o f J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m in L u k e 4 : 3 5 (exelthe o u t t h e nomina

barbara

ap' autou).

f o r m u l a "terrifying e v e r y d e m o n " ( 3 0 1 7 : pantos

3 2

A n d after h a v i n g spelled

to b e written on t h e a m u l e t , t h e a u t h o r a d d s that it is a daimonos

phrikton),

w h i c h is

For bibliography see Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3 5 2 6 - 3 5 2 7 . I single out for mention A. Deissmann, Licht vom Osten, Tubingen 1923, 2 1 4 - 2 2 8 ; W.L. Knox, 'Jewish Liturgical Exorcism,' HTR 31 (1938) 1 9 1 - 2 0 3 ; S. Eitrem, Some Notes on the Demonology in the New Testament, Oslo 1966, 1 5 - 3 0 ; for parallels in Jewish mystical texts see J.-H. N i g g e meyer, Beschworungsformel aus dem "Buch der Geheimnisse", Hildesheim 1975,passim; P.S. Alexander, 'Jewish Elements in Gnosticism and Magic c. CE 70 - c. CE 2 7 0 , ' in W. Horbury a. o. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, Cambridge 1999, 1 0 7 3 - 1 0 7 4 . Further the publications mentioned in notes 1 0 - 1 3 are relevant. See, e.g., Vita Adae et Evae (Greek version) 29:4; 33:5; Apoc. Abraham 10:3; 13:1 etc. with the comments in R. Rubinkiewicz, L 'Apocalypse d'Abraham en vieux slave, Lublin 1987, 127-129. See on these and other transcriptions of the Tetragrammaton A. Deissmann, Bibelstudien, Hildesheim - N e w York 1977 (repr. of the Marburg 1895 ed.), 1-20 ('Griechische Transskriptionen des Tetragrammaton'). Note that sometimes Iao is equated with Aion; see H. Lewy, Chaldaean Oracles and Theurgy, new ed. by M. Tardieu, Paris 1978, 4 0 9 n. 32. Quite popular is the palindrome iaoai. See D. Aune, 'Iao,' RAC 17 (1996) 1-12, esp. 5 - 6 . See H. Leclercq, 'Amulettes,' Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de liturgie I 2 (1907) 1 7 9 4 - 9 5 ( 1 7 8 4 - 1 8 6 0 ) ; F. Dornseiff, Das Alphabet in Mystik und Magie, Leipzig 1925, 3 5 - 6 0 ('Die Vokalreihen im Zauber'). See for the evidence P. Cox Miller, 'In Praise of Nonsense,' in A.H. Armstrong (ed.), Clas­ sical Mediterranean Spirituality: Egyptian, Greek, Roman, London 1 9 8 6 , 4 8 1 - 5 0 5 , esp. 4 8 2 - 4 . Also R. Kotansky, Greek Magical Amulets, Opladen 1993, 4 1 - 5 3 , no. 9. 3 3

3 4

3 5

3 6

3 7

274

The Great Magical

Papyrus of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible

o f c o u r s e s t r o n g l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f J a m e s 2 : 1 9 , " T h e d e m o n s t o o b e l i e v e this a n d they are terrified

1

(phrissousin).' ''

T h e conjuration itself b e g i n s w i t h the striking o p e n i n g line, ' I c o n j u r e y o u b y t h e G o d o f t h e H e b r e w s , J e s u s ! ' ( 3 0 1 9 - 2 0 ) . T h e fact that the G o d o f t h e Hebrews

3 8

is i n v o k e d is n o t in itself s o m e t h i n g extraordinary, as w e h a v e a l r e a d y

seen. A deity w h o liberates his p e o p l e from b o n d a g e , w h o splits t h e sea for that v e r y r e a s o n a n d d e s t r o y s their e n e m i e s by that v e r y m e a s u r e , is w i t h o u t d o u b t a g o d w h o is a b l e to c h a s e out a d e m o n from a p o s s e s s e d p e r s o n . B u t w h y is that g o d called J e s u s , o f all n a m e s ? T h i s s o u n d s as u n - J e w i s h as it c o u l d b e . A n d , o f c o u r s e , several s c h o l a r s , a m o n g w h i c h e v e n P r e i s e n d a n z , h a v e s u g g e s t e d that the w o r d ' J e s u s ' is a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n .

39

B u t that is a futile o b s e r v a t i o n , for e v e n

it that w e r e true, it still s h o u l d b e said that the scribe o f t h e p a p y r u s - if h e w a s the interpolator, o t h e r w i s e it w a s his p r e d e c e s s o r - found it suitable to g i v e the g o d o f t h e H e b r e w s the n a m e o f J e s u s . T h i s is r e m a r k a b l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f the p a s s a g e in t h e B o o k o f A c t s ( 1 9 : 1 3 ) w h e r e it is J e w s in E p h e s u s , the s o n s o f t h e h i g h - p r i e s t S c e v a , w h o conjure evil spirits in t h e n a m e o f J e s u s ; a n d t h e y are not C h r i s t i a n s ! In that story, h o w e v e r , t h e evil spirit s a y s : T d o n ' t k n o w J e s u s ' , a n d h e d o e s n o t l e a v e his v i c t i m ( A c t s 19:16). B u t o n e c o u l d also refer to the freelance J e w i s h e x o r c i s t s w h o d r i v e out d e m o n s in t h e n a m e o f J e s u s in M a r k 9:38 a n d Lk. 9:49, w h o w e r e a p p a r e n t l y m o r e s u c c e s s f u l .

40

B e that as it m a y ,

I r e n a e u s informs us that b y the e n d o f the s e c o n d c e n t u r y C E J e w s w e r e still u s i n g t h e n a m e o f J e s u s in e x o r c i s m s (Adv. Haer. 2.6.2). T h e text g o e s on b y s a y i n g a b o u t this G o d that h e " a p p e a r s in fire" ( 3 0 2 3 ) , w h i c h s e e m s to b e a reference to the role o f fire in t h e o p h a n i e s as t h e y are d e p i c t e d in O l d T e s t a m e n t texts s u c h as E x . 3:2, 1 3 : 2 1 , 19:18 etc. T h i s deity is told to s e n d d o w n an i m p l a c a b l e a n g e l " t o b i n d [litt. ' c a u s e to e n t e r into its p r o p e r p l a c e ' ] the d e m o n flying a r o u n d this c r e a t u r e that G o d f o r m e d in his h o l y p a r a d i s e " ( 3 0 2 6 - 2 7 ) . It is interesting to s e e that the d e m o n that w a s first o r d e r e d to g o out o f the p o s s e s s e d is n o w said to b e flying a r o u n d h i m . A c c o r d i n g to L u k e 1 1 : 2 4 - 2 6 , J e s u s said that w h e n a n u n c l e a n spirit (a d e m o n ) h a s g o n e o u t o f a m a n , h e p a s s e s t h r o u g h w a t e r l e s s a r e a s ( n o d o u b t flying a r o u n d t h e r e ) a n d finding

n o rest so that finally it s a y s , "I will r e t u r n to m y h o u s e from w h i c h I

c a m e , " a n d t h e n t h i n g s g e t e v e n w o r s e . S u c h a d e m o n h a s to b e b o u n d in o r d e r to p r e v e n t it from c a u s i n g g r e a t e r d a m a g e to t h e h u m a n c r e a t u r e . 3 8

41

This creature

For this biblical expression see Exod. 3:18; 7:16; 9:1. For a discussion o f this issue see J.M. Hull, Hellenistic Magic and the Synoptic Tradition, London 1974, 7 1 . Hull compares a passage earlier in the same papyrus where w e find, "Hail, God of Abraham, hail, God o f Isaac, hail, God of Jacob, Jesus Chrestus [sic] etc." (PGM IV 1228-29). See D.E. Aune, 'Magic in Early Christianity,' ANRW II 23,2 (1980) 1 5 4 5 - 1 5 4 9 (The Magical Use of the Name of Jesus). Ph. S. Alexander in E. Schiirer, The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, III/1, Edinburgh 1986, 357 compares this passage to Tobith 8 : 2 - 3 : when Tobias had 3 9

4 0

4 1

The Great Magical

Papyrus

of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible

275

" G o d f o r m e d in his h o l y p a r a d i s e , " a n u n m i s t a k a b l e r e f e r e n c e to G e n e s i s 2 o f w h i c h w e find a n o t h e r o n e later o n in the p h r a s e " w h o f o r m e d from d u s t the race o f h u m a n s " ( 3 0 4 7 ) . T h e function o f this e l e m e n t is that o f a

historiola,

a reference to a p i e c e o f ( u s u a l l y foreign) m y t h o l o g y that s e r v e s to u n d e r l i n e t h e i n v i n c i b l e p o w e r o f the deity i n v o k e d a n d h e n c e to frighten t h e d e m o n .

4 2

W e find s u c h a reference a g a i n s o m e lines further w h e n t h e spell g o e s on: "I c o n j u r e y o u b y t h e o n e w h o a p p e a r e d to I s r a e l

43

in a s h i n i n g pillar a n d a c l o u d

b y day, w h o s a v e d his p e o p l e from t h e P h a r a o h a n d b r o u g h t u p o n P h a r a o h the ten p l a g u e s b e c a u s e o f his d i s o b e d i e n c e " ( 3 0 3 3 - 3 8 ) . In this historiola

the m o s t

p o w e r f u l s c e n e s from I s r a e l ' s h i s t o r y are e v o k e d a n d the idea b e h i n d it is that s u c h a r c h e t y p a l e v e n t s " r e t a i n their s u p e r n a t u r a l force a n d c a n b e r e a c t i v a t e d at a n y g i v e n t i m e b y the s i m p l e act o f r e c o u n t i n g t h e m . "

4 4

It is interesting to notice

that in the m i d d l e o f the third c e n t u r y C E the great C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r O r i g e n r e m a r k s that " ' t h e G o d o f I s r a e l , ' a n d ' t h e G o d o f the H e b r e w s , ' a n d ' t h e G o d w h o d r o w n e d the k i n g o f E g y p t a n d t h e E g y p t i a n s in the R e d S e a ' are f o r m u l a e w h i c h are often u s e d [by n o n - J e w s ] to o v e r c o m e d e m o n s or certain evil p o w e r s " (Contra

Celsum

4.34).

45

T h e spell c o n t i n u e s b y o r d e r i n g t h e d e m o n to reveal its identity a n d to tell w h a t e v e r sort it is (lalesai

hopoion

kai an eis),

w h e t h e r it is " h e a v e n l y or

aerial, terrestrial or s u b t e r r a n e a n , or n e t h e r w o r l d l y or E b o u s a e u s or C h e r s a e u s or P h a r i s a e u s " ( 3 0 4 3 - 4 4 ) . T h i s firstly r e m i n d s u s o f t h e story o f t h e G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c in w h i c h J e s u s ' q u e s t i o n , " W h a t is y o u r n a m e ? " ( M k . 5:9; Lk. 8:30), is a n s w e r e d w i t h the n a m e Legion.

K n o w l e d g e o f the n a t u r e or n a m e o f t h e d e m o n

is a p r e r e q u i s i t e for its e x p u l s i o n . B u t p e r h a p s a b e t t e r interpretation is to t a k e lalesai

( 3 0 3 8 ) a n d laleson

( 3 0 4 2 , 3 0 4 4 ) as u s e d absolutely, w i t h o u t c o m b i n i n g

it w i t h the f o l l o w i n g hopoion

ktl. T h e s e n s e t h e n is that t h e d e m o n h a s m a d e its

victim d u m b and w e should translate as, "speak, of whatever nature you m a y be."

4 6

T h i s w o u l d constitute a striking parallel to the story o f t h e pneuma

alalon,

the m u t e spirit w h o r o b s p e r s o n s o f their s p e e c h , in M a r k 9:17. T h e d e m o n m u s t b e m a d e to speak, a n d its v i c t i m will follow s u i t .

47

S e c o n d l y , the ' h e a v e n l y or

a e r i a l ' d e m o n s u g g e s t s c o m p a r i s o n w i t h w h a t P s e u d o - P a u l w r i t e s o n the evil spirits w h i c h h e calls ' t h e p r i n c e o f the p o w e r o f the a i r ' a n d ' p o w e r s in the

smoked the demon out of his bridal chamber, the angel Raphael pursued it to Upper Egypt and bound it to stop it from returning. Cf. Jub. 10:5. On historiolae see Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3 4 3 8 - 4 0 ; F. Graf, 'Historiola,' NP 5 (1998) 642. Aune, 'Magic in Early Christianity' 1547, coined the term 'magical Heilsgeschichte' in this connection. The papyrus has 'Osrael' but the context leaves no doubt about the correct reading. Brashear, 'The Greek Magical Papyri' 3439. Cf. Knox, 'Jewish Liturgical Exorcism' 195. Aune, 'Magic in Early Christianity' 1547. [See my "The God Who Drowned the King of Egypt," the next essay in this volume.] Eitrem, Some Notes 1 8 - 1 9 . See Hull, Hellenistic Magic 6 8 - 6 9 . 4 2

4 3

4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

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h e a v e n l y p l a c e s ' ( E p h . 2:2; 3:10). T h e m o s t interesting feature h e r e , h o w e v e r , is t h e t h r e e n a m e s or c a t e g o r i e s at t h e end. T h e r e is n o d o u b t that t h e s e are bor­ r o w e d from G e n . 1 5 : 2 0 - 2 1 , w h e r e the ten n a t i o n s living in C a n a a n in A b r a h a m ' s d a y s are m e n t i o n e d , a m o n g w h i c h are the J e b u s i t e s , the G i r g a s h i t e s , a n d the P e r i z z i t e s . In t h e t h e L X X v e r s i o n t h e s e h a v e b e c o m e Iebousaioi, a n d Pherezaioi. Chersaios

T h e s e h a v e here b e e n garbled into Ebusaios

( p o s s i b l y an a m a l g a m o f Gergesaios

the list), a n d Pharisaios,

Gergesaioi

(well r e c o g n i z a b l e ) ,

a n d Chettaios,

Hittite, also in

' P h a r i s e e ' t h u s b e c o m i n g the n a m e o f a d e m o n c l a s s !

T h e latter d e s i g n a t i o n o f c o u r s e also s u g g e s t s familiarity w i t h N e w T e s t a m e n t stories a b o u t i n i m i c a l P h a r i s e e s .

48

A n o t h e r interesting feature is that the m a g i c i a n tries to force the d e m o n to r e v e a l its identity b e conjuring it " b y t h e seal w h i c h S o l o m o n p l a c e d o n the t o n g u e o f J e r e m i a h " ( 3 0 3 9 ^ 4 0 ) . T h e Seal of Solomon

w a s the n a m e o f a f a m o u s

a m u l e t in antiquity, often in the form o f a signet r i n g .

4 9

Of course Solomon's

r e p u t a t i o n as m a g i c i a n w a s w i d e s p r e a d in antiquity, as the stories a b o u t h i m in J o s e p h u s (Ant. 8 . 4 4 - 4 9 ) a n d the Testament

of Solomon

demonstrate,

50

b u t the

story o f the seal or r i n g b e i n g p l a c e d o n J e r e m i a h ' s t o n g u e is an o t h e r w i s e u n ­ known haggadic motive. Deissmann

5 1

s u r m i s e s that it d e r i v e s from Jer. 1:6-10

L X X w h e r e t h e p r o p h e t p r o t e s t s to the L o r d that h e is t o o y o u n g for his task a n d that h e c a n n o t s p e a k , w h e r e u p o n the L o r d stretches out his h a n d , t o u c h e s J e r e m i a ' s m o u t h , a n d s a y s , " L o o k , I h a v e p u t m y w o r d s into y o u r m o u t h " (1:9). T h i s p a s s a g e c e r t a i n l y h a s s o m e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e r e m a r k in o u r p a p y r u s , b u t t h e r e is still a l o n g w a y b e t w e e n t h e L o r d t o u c h i n g the p r o p h e t ' s m o u t h a n d S o l o m o n p u t t i n g his seal on the p r o p h e t ' s t o n g u e . Non liquet,

but a g a i n w e c a n

o b s e r v e h o w biblical or post-biblical J e w i s h m o t i v e s are h e r e t a k e n into s e r v i c e by a non-Jewish magician. T h e m a g i c i a n c o n t i n u e s c o n j u r i n g the d e m o n b y the o n e " w h o m e v e r y h e a v ­ enly p o w e r o f a n g e l s a n d a r c h a n g e l s p r a i s e s " ( 3 0 5 0 - 5 2 ) , w h i c h m a y b e a v a g u e e c h o o f Isaiah 6 or r a t h e r a m o t i f taken o v e r from J e w i s h m y s t i c a l traditions as w e find t h e m in the earliest strata o f H e k h a l o t literature. H e also calls the divinity " t h e g r e a t g o d S a b a o t h " ( 3 0 5 2 ) , t a k i n g t h e s e c o n d e l e m e n t in YHWH

Tseva 'oth

to b e a d i v i n e n a m e , as w a s (and still is) so often d o n e . T h e n follows a n o t h e r 4 8

Deissmann, Licht vom Osten 223 n. 12. Cf. Knox, 'Jewish Liturgical Exorcism' 196: "The change o f Perizzites to Pharisees suggests that the papyrus has been edited by someone w h o knew that the Pharisees figure as the villains of the N T . " Eitrem, Some Notes 2 3 , suggests that John 8:48 ("are you a Samaritan and do you have a demon?") implies that 'Samaritan' may also have become a designation of a class of demons. Many ancient amulets are inscribed with sphragis Solomdnos. See K. Preisendanz, 'Salomo,' PW Suppl. 8 (1965) 6 6 0 - 7 0 4 (on the Seal 6 7 0 - 6 7 6 ) . Also A. Jacoby, 'Clavicula Salomonis,' Handworterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens 2 (1930) 8 8 - 9 3 . See, apart from Prcisendanz's article in Pauly-Wissowa, A.B. Kolenkow, 'Relationships Between Miracle and Prophecy in the Greco-Roman World and Early Christianity,' ANRW II 2 3 , 2 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , 1 4 7 1 - 1 5 0 6 , esp. 1 4 8 9 - 9 1 . Deissmann, Licht vom Osten 223 n. 11. 4 9

5 0

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Papyrus

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of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible

w h e n he calls this g o d the o n e " t h r o u g h w h o m t h e J o r d a n river d r e w

b a c k a n d the R e d Sea, w h i c h Israel c r o s s e d , b e c a m e i m p a s s a b l e " ( 3 0 5 3 - 5 5 ) , w i t h clear r e f e r e n c e s to J o s h u a 3 a n d E x o d u s 14, a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s P s . 114:3 ( " T h e sea l o o k e d a n d fled, t h e J o r d a n t u r n e d b a c k " ) is a m o r e likely c a n d i d a t e b e c a u s e o f the c o l l o c a t i o n o f the t w o e v e n t s . T h e s e i m p r e s s i v e m i r a c l e s testify to s u c h a great p o w e r in the d i v i n i t y that the d e m o n c a n n o t b u t surrender. G o d is then called " t h e o n e w h o r e v e a l e d the 140 l a n g u a g e s a n d distributed t h e m b y his o w n c o m m a n d " ( 3 0 5 6 - 5 8 ) . T h i s is a n i c e e x a m p l e o f m a g i c a l bluffing out a d e m o n . T h e J e w i s h tradition r e c o g n i z e s 7 0 l a n g u a g e s (on t h e basis o f the table o f 7 0 n a t i o n s in G e n . 10), b u t t h e m a g i c i a n d o u b l e s the n u m b e r in o r d e r to i m p r e s s the evil spirit. O r - a n o t h e r i n t r i g u i n g possibility - did the a u t h o r k n o w a b o u t a n o t h e r J e w i s h tradition, that o n e finds o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y in r a b b i n i c literature ( e . g . , Sifre Deut.

3 1 1 ) , to t h e effect that t h e r e w e r e 140 n a t i o n s in the w o r l d ?

5 2

T h a t w o u l d i m p l y an e v e n m o r e intimate k n o w l e d g e o f J e w i s h traditions than w e h a v e seen h i t h e r t o . T h e r e m a r k that G o d is t h e o n e " w h o m t h e w i n g s o f t h e c h e r u b i m p r a i s e " ( 3 0 6 1 ) b e t r a y s k n o w l e d g e o f E z e k . 10:5 or, m o r e probably, o f a H e k h a l o t tradi­ tion,

53

b u t the u n e x p e c t e d c o m b i n a t i o n tou cheruhin

( s i n g u l a r article w i t h the

n o u n in a H e b r e w or A r a m a i c p l u r a l ) s u g g e s t s that it is a distant a c q u a i n t a n c e . T h e text g o e s o n : "I conjure y o u by the o n e w h o p u t the m o u n t a i n s a r o u n d t h e sea [or] a w a l l o f s a n d a n d c o m m a n d e d the sea n o t to overflow; a n d the a b y s s o b e y e d " ( 3 0 6 2 - 6 4 ) . H e r e w e s e e clear e c h o e s of Jer. 5:22 a n d J o b 3 8 : 1 0 - 1 1 , a n d it s h o u l d b e n o t i c e d that " t h e p o w e r o f G o d to set b o u n d s to the sea is a g a i n suitable to o v e r a w e d e m o n s w h o are afraid of w a t e r . "

54

In the f o l l o w i n g lines w e

r e a d a b o u t " t h e o n e in h o l y J e r u s a l e m b e f o r e w h o m the u n q u e n c h a b l e fire b u r n s for all t i m e , w i t h his h o l y n a m e " ( 3 0 6 9 - 7 0 ) . T h e fact that the n a m e o f J e r u s a l e m is in t h e u n u s u a l s p e l l i n g o f Hierosolymos

(instead o f Hierosolyma)

suggests

a g a i n that t h e a u t h o r o f the spell is not a J e w himself, a n d the m e n t i o n o f the ner tamid

in t h e J e r u s a l e m t e m p l e

5 5

d o e s not c o n t r a d i c t that s u g g e s t i o n since that

u n d y i n g light " w a s l e g e n d a r y in a n t i q u i t y , "

56

a n d w e find it m e n t i o n e d several

t i m e s b y p a g a n a u t h o r s (in P G M IV it is also m e n t i o n e d in line 1 2 1 9 ) .

57

At the

e n d t h e a u t h o r urges t h e m a g i c i a n s w h o w a n t to p u t this spell into p r a c t i c e n o t to eat p o r k a n d to k e e p t h e m s e l v e s p u r e , "for this c h a r m is H e b r a i c (ho estin Hebraikos) 5 2

logos

a n d is p r e s e r v e d a m o n g p u r e m e n " ( 3 0 8 4 - 8 6 ) . H e r e o n e o f t h e

Sec L. Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, vol. 5, Philadelphia 1925, 195 for further references. See Alexander in Schurer, The History of the Jewish People 357 n. 27 Knox, 'Jewish Liturgical Exorcism' 199. Deissmann, Licht vom Osten 2 2 4 n. 11, thinks the reference is to the never ending burnt offering mentioned in Lev. 6 : 8 - 1 3 , which is less likely. W.C. Grese in Betz (ed.), Greek Magical Papyri 97 n. 407. E. Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ, vol. 2, Edinburgh 1979, 297 n. 18. 5 3

5 4

5 5

5 6

5 7

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Papyrus

of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible

m o s t i m p o r t a n t dietary rules o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e is i n c u l c a t e d b e c a u s e t h e spell is J e w i s h , s a y s t h e author. Is that really t r u e ?

5 8

It is t e m p t i n g to say y e s b e c a u s e o f the a b u n d a n c e o f biblical a n d p o s t - b i b l i ­ cal J e w i s h motifs in this d o c u m e n t . B u t w e s h o u l d not lose sight o f the fact that t h e d o c u m e n t also c o n t a i n s i n d i c a t i o n s o f a relatively distant a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s , as w e h a v e seen. E v e n t h o u g h t h e n a m e o f J e s u s c o u l d b e u s e d b y J e w s for exorcistic p u r p o s e s , that is still a far cry from calling J e s u s t h e G o d o f t h e H e b r e w s . T h a t s e e m s to b e far t o o m u c h a g a i n s t the v e r y n a t u r e o f J u d a i s m for u s to b e a b l e to m a i n t a i n a J e w i s h a u t h o r s h i p . B u t w h a t , t h e n , o f t h e J e w s in E l e p h a n t i n e , w h o w o r s h i p p e d several G o d s a l o n g s i d e Y H W H ? O n e c o u l d also say that m a k i n g P h a r i s e e s into a class o f d e m o n s is t o o m u c h o f a n a n t i - J e w i s h s t a t e m e n t to m a k e J e w i s h a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e spell p o s s i b l e . B u t t h e n , c o u l d w e e x p e c t a J e w i s h m a g i c i a n o f t h e E g y p t i a n c o u n t r y s i d e in t h e s e c o n d or third c e n t u r y C E to k n o w w h a t a P h a r i s e e is? H e w o u l d certainly h a v e n e v e r m e t o n e ! E v e n so, I a m inclined to think that w e h a v e h e r e a r a t h e r e x t r e m e c a s e o f p a g a n b o r r o w i n g o f J e w i s h m o t i f s . P e r h a p s w e h a v e h e r e the p r o d u c t o f a c l o s e cooperation between a pagan and a Jewish magician. The reputation of Jewish m a g i c i a n s w a s so great, as w e k n o w from several s o u r c e s ,

59

that o n e can i m a g i n e

v e r y w e l l that a p a g a n m a g i c i a n tried to i n c o r p o r a t e as m a n y J e w i s h e l e m e n t s in his o w n spells as p o s s i b l e , p o s s i b l y w i t h t h e h e l p o f a J e w i s h c o l l e a g u e . B u t it c a n n o t b e r u l e d out entirely that, after all, the spell w a s written i n d e e d b y a s y n c r e t i s t i c J e w w h o h a d n o q u a l m s a b o u t calling J e s u s the g o d o f the J e w s .

6 0

T h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t m a t t e r e d to h i m w a s that his spell w o r k e d . It is fitting to c o n c l u d e w i t h t w o characteristic q u o t e s from the late a n d unforgettable M o r t o n S m i t h ' s s t u d y o f t h e J e w i s h e l e m e n t s in the m a g i c a l p a p y r i : To speak o f the J e w i s h e l e m e n t s in the magical papyri is to b e g the question, what w a s Judaism in the t i m e s and p l a c e s w h e r e the papyri w e r e written? This question cannot b e a n s w e r e d precisely. We k n o w from preserved e v i d e n c e that Judaism took m a n y different forms, s o m e o f t h e m surprising (primitive Christianity, for instance), but w e don't k n o w w h a t more surprising forms m a y have b e e n represented by the great majority o f the e v i d e n c e - that [is] n o w l o s t .

61

A n d on o u r spell ( 3 0 0 7 - 3 0 8 6 ) M o r t o n S m i t h s a y s :

5 8

See for the following Smith, 'The Jewish Elements' 2 4 2 - 2 5 6 . The same applies to Samaritans. That he composed the charm originally in Hebrew is untenable; contra M. Gaster, 'The Logos Ebraikos in the Magical Papyrus of Paris and the Book of Enoch,' in his Studies and Texts, vol. I, N e w York 1971 (repr. of 1928), 3 5 6 - 3 6 4 . It must be conceded, however, that "knowledge of Hebrew was surely behind this stuff, though far behind" (Smith, 'The Jewish Elements' 249). For a comparable case from Hadrumetum (near Carthage) see A. Bernand, Sorciers grecs, Paris 1991, 2 9 9 - 3 0 2 . Smith, 'The Jewish Elements' 242. 5 9

6 0

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279

T h e conjuration is probably the work o f a pagan w h o u s e s a J e w i s h text - carelessly. "The g o d o f the H e b r e w s , J e s u s " s e e m s unlikely for either a Jew or a Christian, and the m a n y historical mistakes also favor pagan authorship, though o n l y slightly; the biblical ignorance o f both J e w s and Christians should not be underestimated. A g a i n the u n q u e n c h e d fire in Jerusalem s u g g e s t s a date prior to 7 0 for the text the pagan u s e d .

6 2

So

d o e s the description o f Jesus, reflecting a pagan's impression o f Christianity in its first appearance, and so d o e s the favorable attitude o f an Egyptian towards J e w s , unlikely after 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 .

6 3

It is n o t difficult to a g r e e . M u c h m o r e c o u l d a n d s h o u l d b e said o f this c h a r m a n d its relation to biblical m a t e r i a l s , b u t t i m e a n d s p a c e forbid. H o p e f u l l y t h e few d a t a p r e s e n t e d suffice to g i v e an a d e q u a t e i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m s involved.

6 2

Further on the same page Smith suggests that "its extinction would have been a consider­ able embarrassment and would have discouraged reference to it after it had been so conspicu­ ously discredited." Nock, 'Greek Magical Papyri' 183, says, "the writer's Jerusalem may well be a Jerusalem o f the imagination," which I find less convincing. Smith, 'The Jewish Elements' 250. Cf. also R. Kotansky, 'Greek Exorcistic Amulets,' in M. Meyer & P. Mirecki (eds.), Ancient Magic and Ritual Power, Leiden 1995, 2 6 2 - 2 6 6 . 6 3

"The God Who Drowned the King of Egypt" A Short Note on an Exorcistic Formula

In the m i d d l e o f t h e third c e n t u r y C E , the C h r i s t i a n s c h o l a r O r i g e n w r o t e in his a p o l o g e t i c w o r k Contra

Celsum

that ' t h e f o r m u l a " t h e G o d o f A b r a h a m ,

t h e G o d o f Isaac, a n d t h e G o d o f J a c o b " is u s e d n o t o n l y b y m e m b e r s o f the J e w i s h n a t i o n in their p r a y e r s to G o d a n d in their e x o r c i s m s o f d e m o n s , b u t also b y a l m o s t all o t h e r s w h o deal in m a g i c a n d spells. F o r in m a g i c a l treatises it is 1

often to b e found that G o d is i n v o k e d b y this f o r m u l a ' ( 4 . 3 3 ) . H e then g o e s o n to s a y that ' f u r t h e r m o r e , " t h e G o d o f I s r a e l , " a n d " t h e G o d o f t h e H e b r e w s , " a n d " t h e G o d w h o d r o w n e d t h e k i n g o f E g y p t a n d the E g y p t i a n s in the R e d S e a , " are f o r m u l a e w h i c h are often u s e d to o v e r p o w e r d e m o n s a n d certain evil p o w e r s ' 2

( 4 . 3 4 ) . P a g a n use o f originally biblical or J e w i s h f o r m u l a e , i n c l u d i n g the a b o v e 3

m e n t i o n e d , is i n d e e d w i d e l y a t t e s t e d . It is u p o n the f o r m u l a last m e n t i o n e d b y O r i g e n , ' t h e G o d w h o d r o w n e d t h e k i n g o f E g y p t a n d the E g y p t i a n s in t h e R e d S e a , ' that I w a n t to focus h e r e . To b e g i n w i t h , it is to b e o b s e r v e d that this is n o t a literal q u o t e from Scripture. In E x . 15:4 L X X w e r e a d that G o d ' c a s t P h a r a o h ' s chariots a n d his a r m y into the sea, h e s u n k (xaTEJtovTioEv) his p i c k e d officers in t h e R e d S e a . ' A n d in D e u t . 1 1 : 3 - 4 L X X M o s e s s a y s to the p e o p l e o f Israel that t h e y h a v e to r e m e m b e r 'all [ G o d ' s ] s i g n s a n d t h e m i r a c l e s that h e did in E g y p t to P h a r a o h , the k i n g o f E g y p t , a n d to all his land, a n d w h a t h e did to the a r m y o f the E g y p t i a n s , to

1

A s a matter of fact, the formula "the God of Abraham, the God o f Isaac, and the God of Jacob" indeed occurs more often in the Greek Magical Papyri than the other formulae men­ tioned by Origen (see below in the text). For references and literature see R. Kotansky, Greek Magical Amulets. The Inscribed Gold, Silver, Copper, and Bronze Lamellae; Part I: Published Texts of Known Provenance, Opladen 1993, 2 9 1 . Translation (slightly modified) by H. Chadwick, Origen: Contra Celsum, Cambridge 1965, 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 . On Origen's own belief in the efficacy of magic see G. Bardy, 'Origene et la magie,' Recherches de science religieuselS (1928) 1 2 6 - 1 4 2 , and N. Brox, 'Magie und Aberglauben an den Anfangen des Christentums,' Trierer Theologische Zeitschrift 83 (1974) 1 5 7 - 1 8 0 , esp. 1 6 1 - 1 6 6 . See, inter multos alios, W.L. Knox, 'Jewish Liturgical Exorcism,' Harvard Theological Review3>\(1938) 1 9 1 - 2 0 3 , a n d idem, St. Paul and the Church of the Gentiles, Cambridge 1939, 2 0 8 - 2 1 1 ('Jewish Influences on Magical Literature') and M. Smith, 'The Jewish Elements in the Magical Papyri,' in his Studies in the Cult ofYahweh, vol. 2 (ed. by S.J.D. Cohen), Leiden 1996, 2 4 2 - 2 5 6 . 2

3

A Short Note on an Exorcistic

281

Formula

their c h a r i o t s a n d their cavalry, h o w h e m a d e t h e w a t e r o f the R e d S e a flow o v e r (8jt£xX,uaev) t h e m as t h e y p u r s u e d y o u . ' All t h e i n g r e d i e n t s o f t h e f o r m u l a are found in t h e s e t w o biblical p a s s a g e s , s o a l t h o u g h it is n o t a q u o t e , t h e c o n t e n t s are t h e r e . T h e w o r d i n g o f the f o r m u l a - 6 0e6g 6 xaxajtovxcoaag ev xfj eovBoq OaXdaarj xov Aiyimxicov (3aaiXea x a i xovc, Alyimxioug - is r e m i n i s c e n t o f b o t h p a s ­ s a g e s , xaxajtovxcoaag b e i n g c l o s e r to xaxejtovxiaev in E x . 15:4 t h a n t o ejtexXuoev in D e u t . 11:4, b u t ' t h e k i n g o f t h e E g y p t i a n s ' b e i n g c l o s e r to ' t h e k i n g o f E g y p t ' in D e u t . 11:3 t h a n to ' P h a r a o h ' in E x . 15:4. B e that as it m a y , t h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g is that t h e f o r m u l a c a p t u r e s in a n u t s h e l l the e s s e n c e o f t h e m o s t d r a m a t i c story o f I s r a e l ' s past, its liberation b y G o d from E g y p t a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f its e n e m i e s . In t h e f r a m e w o r k o f a m a g i c a l spell s u c h a f o r m u l a h a s the function o f a historiola,

4

a m i n i - h i s t o r y a b o u t the g r e a t d e e d s o f a d e i t y in t h e past, told in

o r d e r t o i n d u c e t h e deity c o n c e r n e d to r e m a i n true to its r e p u t a t i o n a n d r e p e a t its p o w e r f u l act(s) in the p r e s e n t . A s Fritz G r a f h a s aptly said a b o u t

historiolae,

t h e y are ' i n m a g i s c h e R e z e p t e e i n g e b a u t e k n a p p e E r z a h l u n g e n ( . . . ) , die e i n e n m y t h i s c h e n P r a z e d e n z f a l l fur e i n e m a g i s c h w i r k s a m e H a n d l u n g l i e f e r n . ' in the s a m e f r a m e w o r k D a v i d F r a n k f u r t e r w r i t e s a b o u t historiolae

5

And

in t e r m s

o f ' t h e i d e a that the m e r e r e c o u n t i n g o f certain stories situates or directs their 6

" n a r r a t i v e " p o w e r into this w o r l d . ' O f this p h e n o m o n e o n w e h a v e m a n y p a g a n , Jewish, and Christian instances.

7

In t h e f a m o u s e x o r c i s t i c c h a r m called the Hebrai'kos

logos in t h e g r e a t m a g i ­

cal p a p y r u s from P a r i s ( P G M I V 3 0 0 7 - 3 0 8 6 ) , w e find t h e f o l l o w i n g adjuration: T adjure y o u b y t h e g r e a t g o d S a b a o t h , t h r o u g h w h o m t h e J o r d a n river d r e w b a c k a n d the R e d Sea, w h i c h Israel c r o s s e d , b e c a m e i m p a s s a b l e ' ( 3 0 5 3 - 3 0 5 5 ) .

8

T h i s p a s s a g e m a k e s r e f e r e n c e t o b o t h J o s h u a 3 : 1 3 - 1 4 (or P s . 113:3) a n d E x o d . 14:27. H e r e w e d o n o t find t h e e x a c t f o r m u l a ' t h e g o d w h o d r o w n e d the k i n g o f E g y p t ' b u t the idea is i m p l i e d clearly in the w o r d s a b o u t t h e R e d S e a b e c o m i n g i m p a s s a b l e . In spite o f the biblical l a n g u a g e a n d e c h o e s , this spell m o s t p r o b a b l y 9

is n o t o f J e w i s h origin b u t is a c a s e o f p a g a n b o r r o w i n g o f J e w i s h m o t i f s . T h i s 4

D. Aune, 'Magic in Early Christianity,' Aufstieg und Niedergang der Romischen Welt II 23, 2 (1980) 1547, aptly calls it a 'mini-aretalogy.' F. Graf, 'Historiola,' NP 5 (1998) 6 4 2 . D. Frankfurter, 'Narrating Power: The Theory and Practice o f the Magical Historiola in Ritual Spells,' in M. Meyer & P, Mirecki (eds.), Ancient Magic and Ritual Power, Leiden 1995, 4 5 7 - 4 7 6 , here 457. See Th. Hopfher, 'MagQia; Pauly-Wissowa 14,1 (1928) 3 4 3 , and A . A . Barb, 'The Survival of Magic Arts,' in A. Momigliano (ed.), The Conflict Between Paganism and Christianity in the Fourth Century, Oxford 1963, 122. Frankfurter's is the best treatment to date. Translation by W.C. Grese in H.D. Betz (ed.), The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, Chicago & London 1986, 97. For the Greek text see K. Preisendanz (& A. Henrichs), Papyri Graecae Magicae. Die griechischen Zauberpapyri, vol. 1, Stuttgart 1973, 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 . See my 'The Great Magical Papyrus o f Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible' (forthcoming [elsewhere in this volume]), and Smith, 'Jewish Elements' 250. 5

6

7

8

9

282

A Short Note on an Exorcistic

Formula

p a g a n m a g i c i a n h a d n o q u a l m s a b o u t e v o k i n g p o w e r f u l biblical s c e n e s ; t h e o n l y t h i n g that m a t t e r e d to h i m w a s that his spell w a s effective. W h a t c o u l d b e m o r e effective in c h a s i n g a w a y a d e m o n than i n v o k i n g t h e deity w h o m a d e t h e R e d S e a i m p a s s a b l e to t h e k i n g o f E g y p t a n d d r o w n e d h i m in it? O n e c a n o b s e r v e that in g e n e r a l the i m a g e r y o f t h e p l a g u e s o f t h e e x o d u s is s t r o n g l y e m p h a s i z e d in this spell. T h i s s h o u l d n o t surprise u s . M o r t o n S m i t h h a s figured out that out o f t h e r o u g h l y 5 6 0 spells found in t h e c o r p u s o f p a g a n G r e e k m a g i c a l p a p y r i , s o m e 2 0 0 s h o w biblical or J e w i s h m a t e r i a l o n e w a y or a n o t h e r .

10

T h i s is s t r o n g

e v i d e n c e o f the p e r v a s i v e influence o f biblical a n d p o s t - b i b l i c a l J e w i s h tradi­ tions in the international a n d i n t e r d e n o m i n a t i o n a l w o r l d o f late a n c i e n t m a g i c . A s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e , w h i c h is v e r y similar to the c a s e u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , is P G M X X X V I 2 9 5 - 3 1 1 , a l o v e spell in w h i c h the m a g i c i a n e v o k e s the i m a g e o f t h e a n g e l s o f G o d d e s c e n d i n g a n d o v e r t u r n i n g the five cities o f S o d o m , G o m o r r a h , A d m a h , Z e b o i m , a n d Segor, a n d o f t h e G o d w h o r a i n e d d o w n s u l p h u r on t h e s e cities. H e r e G e n e s i s 19 is t a k e n into service in o r d e r that t h e w o m a n d e s i r e d b y t h e client m a y c o m e to h i m a n d 'fulfil the m y s t e r y rite o f A p h r o d i t e ' ( 3 0 6 ) , i. e., h a v e sex w i t h h i m ! A l t h o u g h it is to b e e x p e c t e d that the m a g i c a l u s e o f t h e m o t i f o f ' t h e G o d w h o d r o w n e d the k i n g o f E g y p t ' started its c a r e e r in J e w i s h circles, t h e r e are h a r d l y a n y J e w i s h e x a m p l e s p r i o r to t h e p a g a n o n e s attested b y O r i g e n (third c e n t . ) .

11

F r o m the third c e n t u r y C E w e h a v e a J e w i s h lead tablet from H a d r u m e t u m in T u n i s i a c o n t a i n i n g a love c h a r m in w h i c h the s o r c e r e r casts a spell in t h e n a m e o f h i m ' w h o c r e a t e d t h e h e a v e n a n d the s e a ' (10) a n d ' w h o split t h e sea w i t h his staff ( 1 2 ) .

1 2

In v i e w o f t h e p a r a l l e l l i s m w i t h ' w h o c r e a t e d t h e h e a v e n a n d

t h e s e a , ' t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t that the subject o f ' w h o split . . . t h e s e a ' is h e r e G o d , n o t M o s e s . H e r e w e d o not find t h e d r o w n i n g o f the p h a r a o h explicitly m e n t i o n e d , b u t it is certainly implied. A l s o from later c e n t u r i e s w e o n l y find 1 0

Smith, 'Jewish Elements' 2 4 6 - 7 . The only 'purely Jewish' spell found in PGM is nr. XXIIb 1-26, the 'Prayer of Jacob.' Those scholars w h o regard the 'Hebrew logos' as a Jewish document dating from before 70 CE, will o f course take exception to this. On that matter see my forthcoming 'The Great Magical Papyrus of Paris (PGM IV) and the Bible' [see the previous chapter]. For the text see G. Maspero, 'Sur deux tabellae devotionis de la necriopole romaine d'Hadrumete,' Bibliotheque Egyptologique 2 (1893) 3 0 3 - 3 1 1 . It is also to be found in A. Deissmann, 'Ein epigraphisches Denkmal des alexandrinischen Alten Testaments,' in his Bibelstudien, Marburg 1895 (repr. 1977), 29; L. Blau, Das altjudische Zauberwesen, Westmead 1970 (= Budapest 1898), 97; A. Audollent, Defixionum tabellae, Paris 1904, 3 7 3 - 3 7 7 , no. 271 (cf. ibid. 3 2 3 , no. 2 4 1 , line 26 chorisas ten thalassan lad); and R. Wunsch, Antike Fluchtafeln, Bonn 1912, 2 1 - 2 6 , no. 5. For an English translation and commentary see J.G. Gager, Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World, N e w York - Oxford 1992, 112-115 (no. 36). Gager doubts its Jewish provenance, unrightly so; see R. Kotansky, 'Greek Exorcistic Amulets,' in M. Meyer & P, Mirecki (eds.), Ancient Magic and Ritual Power, Leiden 1 9 9 5 , 2 7 4 . Literally the text reads, 'who split his staff with the sea,' but this is obviously an error; so rightly Deiss­ mann 38, and P.S. Alexander, 'Jewish Elements in Gnosticism and Magic,' in W. Horbury a.o. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Judaism, vol. 3, Cambridge 1999, 1075 with note 51. 11

1 2

A Short Note on an Exorcistic

283

Formula

i n s t a n c e s that d o contain t h e m o t i f b u t n o t the e x a c t w o r d i n g o f the formula, as w a s also the c a s e in P G M I V (4th cent.). A m o n g t h e m a g i c b o w l s from late a n c i e n t B a b y l o n i a w e find a few i n s t a n c e s . In b o w l 21 p u b l i s h e d by N a v e h a n d S h a k e d ,

13

w e r e a d the f o l l o w i n g adjuration:

' H e w h o p l a c e s a c r o w n for t h e k i n g s h i p , a n d m a k e s d o m i n i o n in t h e sky, a n d w h o h a s s u b d u e d G o l i a t h b y t h e h a n d o f D a v i d , a n d P h a r a o h b y the h a n d o f M o s e s , a n d E g y p t b y t h e h a n d o f J o s e p h , a n d the wall o f J e r i c h o b y the h a n d of Joshua bar Nun, may he

( 1 0 - 1 1 ) . T h i s string o f historiolae

briefly lists

s o m e o f t h e m a i n m i g h t y d e e d s o f the G o d o f Israel, o f w h i c h the d r o w n i n g o f t h e k i n g o f E g y p t is o n l y o n e in a series. In the s e c o n d i n s t a n c e , the largest A r a m a i c incantation b o w l k n o w n so f a r ,

14

the e x o r c i s m starts w i t h the w o r d s , ' I n

the fulness o f thy t r i u m p h t h o u o v e r t h r o w e s t thy a d v e r s a r i e s , t h o u s e n d e s t forth t h y fury, it c o n s u m e s t h e m like s t u b b l e ' ( E x o d . 15:7). To b e sure t h e p h a r a o h a n d his a r m y are not m e n t i o n e d h e r e explicitly, but t h e s e w o r d s , q u o t e d from the S o n g at the Sea, are a l m o s t a direct c o n t i n u a t i o n o f the w o r d s ' P h a r a o h ' s c h a r i o t s a n d his a r m y h e cast into the s e a ' ( E x o d . 15:4), a n d there is n o d o u b t that it w a s e x a c t l y t h e s e a d v e r s a r i e s the m a g i c i a n h a d in m i n d . S o a g a i n w e see h o w i m p o r t a n t the e v o c a t i o n o f this m i g h t y d e e d o f G o d w a s for e x o r c i s t s , j u s t as O r i g e n m e n t i o n e d , the parallel b e t w e e n t h e t w o - e x o r c i s m a n d e x o d u s - o f c o u r s e r e s i d i n g in the e l e m e n t o f liberation from a n evil p o w e r .

15

N o w o n d e r that in C h r i s t i a n circles, b o t h in E g y p t a n d e l s e w h e r e , m a n y o f t h e s e o r i g i n a l l y J e w i s h e l e m e n t s w e r e a d o p t e d for e x o r c i s t i c p u r p o s e s .

1 6

Typi­

cally C h r i s t i a n e l e m e n t s w e r e a d d e d , h o w e v e r , the cross a n d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f c o u r s e f o r e m o s t a m o n g t h e m , b e i n g t h e C h r i s t i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s o f the e x o d u s from E g y p t . H e n c e they c o u l d s e r v e t h e s a m e p u r p o s e . Trypho

1 7

In his Dialogue

from a n e x o r c i s t i c formula, as K n o x h a s c o n v i n c i n g l y a r g u e d . Celsum

with

85.2 Justin q u o t e s a s u m m a r y o f t h e C r e e d w h i c h h a s b e e n t a k e n o v e r 18

A n d in

Contra

1.6, O r i g e n s a y s that C h r i s t i a n e x o r c i s t s s u b d u e d e m o n s ' b y the n a m e

o f J e s u s w i t h the recital o f t h e histories a b o u t h i m . ' W h a t else is the C r e e d t h a n

1 3

J. Naveh & Sh. Shaked, Magic Spells and Formulae. Aramaic Incantations of Late Antiquity, Jerusalem 1993, 1 2 7 - 1 3 0 . J. Naveh & Sh. Shaked, Amulets and Magic Bowls. Aramaic Incantations of Late Antiq­ uity, Jerusalem - Leiden 1985, 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 , nr. 13 line 2. I did not find any instances in the three volumes Magische Texte aus der Kairoer Geniza edited by P. Schafer & Sh. Shaked, Tubingen 1 9 9 4 - 1 9 9 9 . E.g, the death of the Egyptians at the exodus is mentioned (as part of a long series of megaleia tou theou, all from the OT) in an exorcistic formula said to have been composed by Gregory Thaumatourgos; see for the Greek text Th. Schermann, Griechische Zauherpapyri und das Gemeinde- und Dankgebet im 1. Klemensbrief Leipzig 1909, 20. Note that the motif occurs also in Hebrews 11:29; and cf. Justin, Dialogus 131.3, and the prayer in Constitutions Apostolicae 8.12.12. See K. Thraede, 'Exorzismus,' RAC 7 (1969) 4 4 - 1 1 7 , esp. 1 0 9 - 1 1 4 . St. Paul 209. After the quote it is added that in this name (sc. o f Jesus Christ whose life has just been summarized) every demon will be defeated and conquered. 1 4

15

1 6

1 7

18

284

A Short Note on an Exorcistic

a recital o f t h e histories (historiolae)

Formula

a b o u t J e s u s ? ' T h e s e credal e x o r c i s m s are

surely f o r m e d on the earlier J e w i s h m o d e l o f r e c i t i n g the historia

of the God of

9

I s r a e l . " T h e r e is a b u n d a n t e v i d e n c e indeed that in exorcistic f o r m u l a e C h r i s t i a n historiolae them.

1 9

2 0

v e r y s o o n b e g a n to b e a d d e d to t h o s e o f J e w i s h origin, or to s u p p l a n t

B u t that is a n o t h e r story.

Kotansky, 'Greek Exorcistic Amulets,' in Meyer & Mirecki (eds.), Ancient Magic and Ritual Power, 263 n. 47. Also Kotansky, Greek Magical Amulets 1 7 4 - 1 8 0 . See Aune, 'Magic' 1 5 4 7 - 8 . See also W. Heitmuller, "Im Namen Jesu ": Eine sprach- und religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung zum Neuen Testament, speziell zur altchristlichen Taufe, Gottingen 1903, 3 3 4 - 3 3 6 ('Die Entstehung des Tauf-Symbols'). 2 0

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publication

'Jacques B a s n a g e ( 1 6 5 3 - 1 7 2 3 ) on the Samaritans. Or: H o w m u c h did o n e k n o w about the Samaritans three centuries a g o in the Netherlands?' (unpublished) ' O n c e More: the Translation o f ol hi in M a t t h e w 2 8 : 1 7 , ' Journal for the Study of the Testament

New

27 (1986) 2 7 - 3 0

'Abraham's B o s o m , the Place Where H e B e l o n g e d . A Short N o t e o n djtevexOfjvai in Luke 1 6 : 2 2 , ' New Testament

Studies

5 2 ( 2 0 0 6 ) [forthcoming]

'"Snorting Threat and Murder." T h e Hellenistic Background o f A c t s 9 : 1 , ' German original in Novum

Testamentum

12 ( 1 9 7 0 ) 2 5 7 - 2 6 9

'"Only T h e n Will A l l Israel B e Saved": A Short N o t e o n the M e a n i n g o f x a i otixcog in R o m a n s 11:26,' Journal

of Biblical

Literature

119 ( 2 0 0 0 ) 5 2 1 - 5 2 5

'Macarius M a g n e s and the U n n a m e d Anti-Christian P o l e m i c i s t . A R e v i e w Article,' Vigiliae

Christianae

58 ( 2 0 0 4 ) 3 3 2 - 3 4 1

' A N e w Early Christian P o e m o n the Sacrifice o f Isaac (Pap. B o d m e r 3 0 ) , ' in A . Hurst & J. Rudhardt (eds.), Le Codex

des

Visions

( R e c h e r c h e s et rencontres 18), G e n e v e :

Librairie D r o z , 2 0 0 2 , 1 5 5 - 1 7 2 'The R o l e o f Scripture in Cyril o f S c y t h o p o l i s ' Lives Patrich ( e d . ) , The Sabaite the Present,

Heritage

in the Orthodox

of the Monks Church from

of Palestine,'

in J.

the Fifth Century

to

L e u v e n : Peeters, 2 0 0 1 [published in 2 0 0 2 ] , 1 2 7 - 1 4 5

' T w e n t y - F i v e Q u e s t i o n s to Corner the Jews: A B y z a n t i n e A n t i - J e w i s h D o c u m e n t from the S e v e n t h Century,' in E.G. C h a z o n , D . Satran & R.A. C l e m e n t s (eds.), Things Studies

in Early Jewish

and Christian

Literature

in Honor

of Michael

Revealed.

E. Stone

(Sup­

p l e m e n t s to the Journal for the Study o f Judaism 8 9 ) , Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 4 , 2 8 9 - 3 0 2 " T h e M o s t Superstitious and D i s g u s t i n g o f All N a t i o n s . " D i o g e n e s o f O e n o a n d a o n the J e w s ' in: A . P. M . H. Lardinois e. a. (edd.), Land of Dreams. Honour

ofA.H.

M. Kessels,

Greek and Latin Studies

in

Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 6 , 2 9 1 - 2 9 8

'The S h a d o w in Hellenistic Popular Belief.' G e r m a n original in M . J. Vermaseren (ed.), Studies

in Hellenistic

Religions

(Etudes Preliminaires des R e l i g i o n s Orientales dans

l'Empire R o m a i n 7 8 ) , Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 9 , 2 7 - 3 6 ' T h e First A t h e i s t . ' D u t c h original in Nederlands

Theologisch

Tijdschrift

53 (1999)

42-49 'Subtractive Versus A d d i t i v e C o m p o s i t e N u m e r a l s in Antiquity,' Illinois

Classical

Studies

13(1988)183-202 'The Great M a g i c a l Papyrus o f Paris ( P G M IV) and the B i b l e ' (unpublished) '"The G o d W h o D r o w n e d the K i n g o f Egypt." A Short N o t e on an Exorcistic Formula,' in A . Hilhorst & G.H. van K o o t e n (eds.), The Wisdom stian,

and Gnostic

135-140

Studies

in Honour

of Gerard

of Egypt.

P. Luttikhuizen,

Jewish,

Early

Chri­

Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 5 ,

Bibliography of Pieter W. van der Horst, 1970-2005 A . Articles

and

books

1970 1. ' D r o h u n g und M o r d s c h n a u b e n d ( A c t a I X 1),' Novum

Testamentum

12 ( 1 9 7 0 )

257-269 1971 2. ' A Pagan Platonist and a Christian Platonist o n S u i c i d e , ' Vigiliae

Christianae

25

(1971)282-288 1972 3. 'Can a B o o k End With TAP?,' Journal

of Theological

Studies

n.s. 2 3 ( 1 9 7 2 ) 1 2 1 -

124 4. ' A Wordplay in 1 John 4 : 1 2 ? , ' Zeitschrift

fur die neutestamentliche

Wissenschaft

63

(1972)280-282 1973 5. 'Observations o n a Pauline E x p r e s s i o n , ' New

Testament

Studies

19 ( 1 9 7 2 / 7 3 ) 1 8 1 -

187 6. 'Macrobius and the N e w Testament. A Contribution to the Corpus H e l l e n i s t i c u m , ' Novum

Testamentum

15 ( 1 9 7 3 ) 2 2 0 - 2 3 2

1974 7. (with J. Mansfeld) An Alexandrian Treatise

"Critique

and Notes,

Platonist

of the Doctrines

Against

of Manichaeus

Dualism.

Alexander

" Translated

of

with an

Lycopolis' Introduction

Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 4 ; 9 9 pp.

8. ' M u s o n i u s Rufus and the N e w Testament. A Contribution to the Corpus H e l l e ­ n i s t i c u m , ' Novum

Testamentum

16 ( 1 9 7 4 ) 3 0 6 - 3 1 5

1975 9. ' H i e r o c l e s the Stoic and the N e w Testament. A Contribution to the Corpus H e l l e ­ n i s t i c u m , ' Novum

Testamentum

1 7 ( 1 9 7 5 ) 156—160

7976 10. 'Peter's Shadow. T h e Religio-Historical B a c k g r o u n d o f A c t s V 15,' New Studies

23 (1976/77) 2 0 4 - 2 1 2

Testament

288

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of Pieter

W. van der Horst,

1970-2005

1977 11. 'Rabbi D o w Marmur over het Christendom,' Ter Herkenning 12. ' A Classical Parallel to Isaiah 5 : 8 , ' The Expository

5 (1977) 125-127

Times 8 9 ( 1 9 7 7 / 7 8 ) 1 1 9 - 1 2 0

1978 13. 'In M e m o r i a m Prof. Dr. W. C. van U n n i k , ' Areopagus 14. The Sentences

of Pseudo-Phocylides

11,3 (1978) 24

with Introduction

and Commentary

(Studia in

Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha 4 ) , Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 8 ; 2 9 6 pp. 15. 'Is Wittiness Unchristian? A N o t e o n dhpajteMa in Eph. V 4 , ' in T. Baarda, A.F.J. Klijn, W.C. v a n Unnik (edd.), Miscellanea

Neotestamentica

II, Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 8 ,

163-177 16. ' P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s and the N e w Testament,' Zeitschrift Wissenschaft

fur die

neutestamentliche

69 (1978) 187-202

17. ' S e v e n M o n t h s ' Children in J e w i s h and Christian Literature from Antiquity,' rides

Theologicae

Lovanienses

Epheme-

54 (1978) 3 4 6 - 3 6 0

7979 18. ' H e t ' g e h e i m e M a r k u s e v a n g e l i e ' . O v e r e e n n i e u w e vondst,' Nederlands Tijdschrift

Theologisch

33 (1979) 2 7 - 5 1

19. ' D e r Schatten im hellenistischen Volksglauben,' in M . J. Vermaseren (ed.), Studies Hellenistic

Religions,

in

E P R O 7 8 , Leiden: Brill, 1 9 7 9 , 2 7 - 3 6

2 0 . 'Jezus in d e j o o d s e literatuur v a n d e o u d h e i d , ' Kerk

en Theologie

30 (1979) 1 0 5 -

114 2 1 . ' S o m e Late Instances of Inceptive A E , ' Mnemosyne

(ser. I V ) 3 2 ( 1 9 7 9 ) 3 7 7 - 3 7 9

1980 22. Aelius

Aristides

and the New Testament

(Studia ad Corpus H e l l e n i s t i c u m N o v i

Testamenti 6 ) , Leiden: Brill, 1 9 8 0 , X + l 15 pp. 2 3 . ' N o t e s o n the Aramaic B a c k g r o u n d o f Luke II 4 1 - 5 2 , ' Journal New Testament

for

the Study

of the

7 (1980) 6 1 - 6 6

1981 2 4 . 'Cornutus and the N e w Testament. A Contribution to the Corpus H e l l e n i s t i c u m , ' Novum

Testamentum

23 (1981) 165-172

2 5 . ' C h a e r e m o n , E g y p t i s c h priester en antisemitisch Stoicijn in d e tijd v a n het N i e u w e Testament,' Nederlands

Theologisch

Tijdschrift

35 (1981) 2 6 5 - 2 7 2

1982 2 6 . ' D e j o o d s e toneelschrijver E z e c h i e l , ' Nederlands

Theologisch

Tijdschrift

36 (1982)

97-112 2 7 . ' T h e Secret H i e r o g l y p h s in Classical Literature,' in J. d e n B o e f t and A . H . M . K e s s e l s (edd.), Actus.

Studies

in Honour

of H.L. W. Nelson,

Utrecht: Instituut v o o r K l a s s i e k e

Talen, 1 9 8 2 , 1 1 5 - 1 2 3 2 8 . ' D e correspondentie v a n Hans Lietzmann,' Kerk & Theologie

33 (1982) 2 9 1 - 3 0 0

2 9 . ' T h e W a y o f Life o f the Egyptian Priests A c c o r d i n g to C h a e r e m o n , ' in M . H e e r m a van Voss e.a. (edd.), Studies Leiden: Brill, 1 9 8 2 , 6 1 - 7 1

in Egyptian

Religion

in Honour

of Professor

Jan

Zandee,

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3 0 . (with T. Baarda) De spreuken ander,

of Pieter

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van Pseudo-Phocylides.

289

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van

Pseudo-Men-

K a m p e n : Kok, 1 9 8 2 , 9 0 pp.

1983 3 1 . 'Het eerste c o n g r e s van de European A s s o c i a t i o n for J e w i s h Studies,' Ter

Herkenning

11,2 ( 1 9 8 3 ) 2 8 - 2 9 3 2 . ' M o s e s ' Throne V i s i o n in E z e k i e l the Dramatist,' Journal

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34 (1983)

21-29 3 3 . 'Hellenistic Parallels to the A c t s o f the A p o s t l e s : I 1 - 2 6 , ' Zeitschrift mentliche

Wissenschaft

fur die

neutesta-

74 (1983) 17-26

3 4 . 'Openbaring,' Moderne

Encyclopedic

3 5 . 'Philo van Alexandria,' Moderne

van de Wereldliteratuur Encyclopedic

1 (1983) 78

van de Wereldliteratuur

1 (1983)

228-229 36. 'Chariton and the N e w Testament. A Contribution to the Corpus H e l l e n i s t i c u m , ' Novum

Testamentum

25 ( 1 9 8 3 ) 3 4 8 - 3 5 5

1984 3 7 . Chaeremon, Translated

Egyptian

Priest

with Explanatory

and Stoic Notes

Philosopher.

The Fragments

Collected

and

( E P R O 101), Leiden: Brill, 1984; X X + 8 0 pp.

3 8 . ' N i e u w e K e u l s e en W e e n s e publicaties o v e r het v r o e g e j o d e n d o m , ' Kerk en

Theologie

35 ( 1 9 8 4 ) 1 2 9 - 1 3 7 3 9 . ' S o m e N o t e s o n the Exagoge

o f E z e k i e l , ' Mnemosyne

(ser. I V ) 3 7 ( 1 9 8 4 ) 3 5 4 - 3 7 5

4 0 . ' H i e r o g l i e f e n in de o g e n van Grieken en R o m e i n e n , ' Phoenix

30 (1984) 4 4 - 5 3

1985 4 1 . 'Het h e i d e n s e antisemitisme in de o u d h e i d , ' Ter Herkenning 4 2 . 'Korte notities o v e r v r o e g - j o o d s e e p i e k , ' Nederlands

13,1 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 4 5 - 5 3

Theologisch

Tijdschrift

39

(1985) 102-109 4 3 . ' P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e s , ' in J. H. Charlesworth (ed.), The Old Testament

Pseudepigrapha

II, N e w York: D o u b l e d a y , 1 9 8 5 , 5 6 5 - 5 8 2 4 4 . 'Hellenistic Parallels to the A c t s o f the A p o s t l e s ( 2 : 1 - 4 7 ) , ' Journal the New Testament

for

the Study

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25 (1985) 4 9 - 6 0

4 5 . 'Schriftgebruik bij drie v r o e g e j o o d s - h e l l e n i s t i s c h e historici: D e m e t r i u s , Artapanus, E u p o l e m u s , ' Amsterdamse

Cahiers

voor

exegese

en bijbelse

theologie

6 (1985)

144-161 1986 4 6 . (with A . H . M . K e s s e l s ) 'Het V i s i o e n van D o r o t h e u s (Papyrus B o d m e r X X I X ) , ' lands

Theologisch

Tijdschrift

Neder­

40 (1986) 97-111

4 7 . 'Het Christendom in het R o m e i n s e rijk in d e eerste e e u w : E n k e l e s o c i a l e en g o d s diensthistorische aspecten,' Hermeneus

58 (1986) 5 8 - 6 7

4 8 . ' O n c e More: T h e Translation o f oi Se in M a t t h e w 2 8 : 1 7 , ' Journal for the Study of the New Testament

21 ( 1 9 8 6 ) 2 7 - 3 0

4 9 . 'The R o l e o f W o m e n in the Testament o f Job,' Nederlands

Theologisch

Tijdschrift

40

5 0 . 'Het oorlogsvraagstuk in het Christendom van de eerste drie e e u w e n , ' Lampas

19

(1986) 2 7 3 - 2 8 9 (1986)405-420

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1987 5 1 . ' D e Birkat

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5 2 . '"Lord, H e l p the Rabbi." T h e Interpretation o f S E G X X X I 1 5 7 8 b , ' Journal Studies

3& (19*1)

5 3 . 'Profetisch charismaticus met farizeese inslag,' in: Wie is Jezus? Rondom

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5 5 . ' A d d e n d a et Corrigenda to the first edition,' in P. W. van der Horst, Egyptian

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5 6 . ' E e n merkwaardige anti-joodse l e g e n d e in e e n m i d d e l e e u w s l e x i c o n , ' Ter

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15 ( 1 9 8 7 ) 1 8 5 - 1 9 2 57. 'The Measurement o f the Body. A Chapter in the History o f A n c i e n t Jewish M y s t i c i s m , ' in D . van der Plas (ed.), Effigies

Dei. Essays

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to N u m e n 5 1 ) , Leiden: Brill, 1 9 8 7 , 5 6 - 6 8 5 8 . (with A . H . M . K e s s e l s ) 'The V i s i o n o f D o r o t h e u s (Pap. B o d m e r 2 9 ) . Edited with Introduction, Translation and N o t e s , ' Vigiliae

Christianae

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1988 5 9 . ' N o v u m Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus. N o t i t i e s bij e e n n i e u w e serie,' Theologisch

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god. Essays

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en hellenistische

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vroege

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2 8 5 pp. 6 1 . ' D e Samaritaanse diaspora in de oudheid,' Nederlands

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(1988) 134-144 6 2 . ' H o e leesbaar m o e t e e n wetenschappelijke publicatie zijn?,' Areopagus

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11-12 6 3 . ' T h e U n k n o w n G o d ( A c t s 17:23),' in R. van den Broek, T. Baarda, J. M a n s f e l d (edd.), Knowledge

of God in the Graeco-Roman

World ( E P R O 112), Leiden: Brill, 1 9 8 8 ,

19-42 6 4 . ' T h e Interpretation o f the B i b l e by the M i n o r Hellenistic J e w i s h Authors,' in M . J. Mulder ( e d . ) , Mikra. Bible

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ad N o v u m Testamentum II 1), A s s e n - Philadelphia: Van G o r c u m - Fortress, 1 9 8 8 , 519-546 6 5 . ' T h e J e w s o f A n c i e n t Crete,' Journal

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6 6 . ' E z e c h i e l Tragicus en A n o n y m u s , ' in H. Warren, M . M o l e g r a a f (edd.), Spiegel Griekse

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6 7 . 'Gustaaf A d o l f van den Bergh van Eysinga,' Biografisch van het Nederlandse

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tot heden, A m s t e r d a m : Meulenhof, 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 5 - 1 9 7

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III, K a m p e n : Kok, 1 9 8 8 , 3 7 - 3 9

6 8 . ( w i t h G. M u s s i e s ) 'Subtractive Versus A d d i t i v e C o m p o s i t e N u m e r a l s in Antiquity,' Illinois

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1989 6 9 . 'Mijn vijf favoriete r o m a n s , ' Areopagus

22, 1 (1989)48-50.

7 0 . 'Hellenistic Parallels to A c t s (Chapters 3 and 4 ) , ' Journal Testament

35 (1989) 37^16

for

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New

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291

1970-2005

7 1 . ' J e w s and Christians in Aphrodisias in the Light o f Their Relations in Other Cities o f A s i a M i n o r , ' N e d e r l a n d s Theologisch

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43 (1989) 106-121

7 2 . ' D e reis van A l e x a n d e r de Grote naar het Paradijs. E e n m i d d e l e e u w s - j o o d s e l e g e n d e o v e r A l e x a n d e r de Grote,' Ter Herkenning

17 ( 1 9 8 9 ) 1 6 - 2 4

7 3 . 'The Altar o f the ' U n k n o w n G o d ' in A t h e n s ( A c t s 17:23) and the Cult o f U n k n o w n G o d s ' in the Hellenistic and R o m a n Periods,' in Aufstieg mischen

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[appeared in 1 9 8 9 ] ) 3 - 3 0 7 5 . ' N i e u w e literatuur o v e r het)odex\Aom,'' Nederlands

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229-236 7 6 . 'Introduction,' in M. A . Knibb and P. W. van der Horst (edd.), Studies

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93-116

7 8 . ' G e e n ander e v a n g e l i e ? N o t i t i e s o v e r verdeeldheid in het oudste Christendom,' in A . H o u t e p e n (ed.), Breekpunten factoren

in het oecumenische

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8 1 . 'Sara's zaad,' MARA 3 ( 1 9 9 0 ) 4 4 - 5 2 8 2 . De Bijbelse

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pag8 3 . Essays

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Universitatsverlag - V a n d e n h o e c k & Ruprecht, 1990; 2 5 5 pag. 8 4 . ' Z o e k d e Wijsheid. Een n i e u w v r o e g - j o o d s Wijsheidsgeschrift uit het H e b r e e u w s vertaald,' Ter Herkenning

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87. 'Juden und Christen in A p h r o d i s i a s im Licht ihrer B e z i e h u n g e n in anderen Stadten K l e i n a s i e n s , ' in J. van Amersfoort - J. van Oort (edd.), Juden Antike,

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8 9 . ' N i m r o d in Early J e w i s h H a g g a d a , ' in A . Kuyt - E.G.L. Schrijver - N . A . van U c h e l e n (edd.), Variety of Forms.

Dutch

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1991 9 1 . ' " D e waarachtige en niet met handen gemaakte God": naar aanleiding van e e n n i e u w e inscriptie,' Nederlands 9 2 . Ancient Jewish Epigraphy

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Survey ofa Millennium

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Testament

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(Utrechtse T h e o l o g i s c h e R e e k s 12), Utrecht: Rijksuniversiteit, 1 9 9 1 ; 3 0 pag. 9 4 . 'Jacob Frank: de bizarre ware Jacob,' Trouw 10 d e c e m b e r 1 9 9 1 , 10 9 5 . ' W i l l e m Cornells van Unnik,' Random

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1992 9 6 . ' D i d Sarah H a v e a Seminal E m i s s i o n ? , ' Bible Review

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9 7 . 'Israel, d e Bijbel en de hellenistische culruur en instituties,' Schrift

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26-30 9 8 . ' A N e w Altar o f a Godfearer?,' Journal

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9 9 . 'Notifies bij het thema: v r o u w e n in het v r o e g e j o d e n d o m , ' Kerk

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(1992)113-129 100. 'Gij zult van g o d e n g e e n k w a a d spreken.' D e Septuaginta-vertaling van E x o d u s 2 2 : 2 7 ( 2 8 ) , haar achtergrond en i n v l o e d , ' Nederlands

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(1992)192-198 101. ' J e w i s h Funerary Inscriptions: M o s t are in Greek,' Biblical

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59 61,62

15:4 L X X

280, 281

15:7

282

64

16:35

264

2:17

119, 121, 1 2 2

19:18

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3:3

119 122

20:17 23:4-5

146

3:9

220

Genesis 1:27 1:28 1:31

111

4:7

60

4:15

123

26:33 32:10-2

5:24

125

34:7

84

6:3

66-70

35:1

268

6:5

60

8:21

60

128

Leviticus 6:8-13

277

12:3 ( L X X )

217

15:1

113

20:2

119

21:4

203

21:6

201

13:33^1

264

22

191-6

14:9

239

203

19:14

240

22:11

194

22:22

128

22:11-12

195

23:19

131, 132

22:13

204

25:3^1

128

22:3^1

16

220

Numbers

22:17

193

25:8

207, 209

26:8

201,205

4:26

112

46:4

265

6:5

60, 65

46:27

265

8:2

264

49:9

51

8:5

132

10:17 10:22

112 265

11:3^1 L X X

280,281

49:10

217,218,219, 221,225

Exodus

Deuteronomy

3:2

274

11:13

60, 65

3:20

141

16:16

217

4:8

124

18:15

218, 225

4:14

128

18:15-8

21

13:21

274

18:19

218, 225

Index of

322

passages

25:3

266-7

17:27-8

135

27:4

146, 156

17:29

135,

27:26

217

17:30

136

28

84

17:34

157

29:5

264

17:40-1

135

30:19

112

22:14-20

87

31:21

60

22:15

89

31:28

112

24:19-20

128

32:1-3

39

34:6

125

3

34:7

66

14:21 (Vulg.)

Kings

4

Joshua 3

277

3:13^

281

252

Kings

13:1 ( V u l g . )

5:6

264

I

7:1

128

21:1

7:26

128

252

Chronicles 129,

10:40

173

2

14:7

264

12:13 (Vulg.)

Chronicles 252

14:10

264

34:22-28

87

19:38 ( V u l g . )

253 Ezra

Judges

6

3:8

128

218

3:14 (Vulg.)

253

Ne hernia

4:4

90

13:28-29

4:6

89

139

Job

10:7

128

10:8 (Vulg.)

253

15:29 ( L X X )

240

20:25 (Vulg.)

253

38:10-1

277

2

Psalms

Samuel 2:30 (Vulg.)

253

2:5

6:7

128

2:12

129

8:13 (Vulg.)

253

4:8

207

7:10

60

22:16

171

24:1

129,133

/

Kings

129

18:16

171

25:18 ( L X X )

213

27:10

62

18:41-5

212

27:12

171

19:18

158

39:7 ( L X X )

198

46:11 ( L X X )

213

2

Kings

51:5

62

125

55:8 ( L X X )

213

13:21

87

68:7 ( L X X )

214

17

156

265

17:25

135

81:6 82:1

2:11

112

New

Testament

89:4

219

Jeremiah

95:3

112 60

1:5 1:6-10 (LXX)

212

103:14 109:4 ( L X X )

219,225

1:9

276

113:3

281

5:22

277

114:3

277

119:21 ( L X X )

213

138:7-8

203

10:5

139:8 ( L X X )

240

21:36

171

145:9 ( L X X )

207,211

24:16

126

36:26

61

38

219

Ezekiel

Proverbs 6:5 ( L X X )

276

277

211

12:17

171

Joel

24:17-8

111

3:10

30:16 (LXX)

63

214

Obadiah Song of Songs 1:6

20

44

171

Micah Isaiah

5:1

221

2:4

214

5:14

129

6:5-7

141

7:15

20

11:9

220

13:3

129

Zephania

13:5

129

2-3

13:9

129

13:13

129

Haggai

35:1

209

2:22-24

51:3

209

53:7

204

New Matthew

129

226

Testament 28:16

161

28:17

161-3

5:26

164

6:1

164

6:2 6:5

164 164

5:9

275

6:16

164

9:17

275

212

9:38

274

20:8

164

12:36

213

22:43-5

213

25:26-7

210

26:67

161

1:35

236, 240

27:5

101

2:8-15

212

4:35

273

9:20-22

Mark

Luke

324

Index of

passages

6:20

166

24:11

260

7:42

164

27:17

179

8:30

275

27-8

103

9:17

260

28:4

107

9:49

274 Romans

9:51-3

134

9:62

213

2:6

164

10:19

213

7:13-25

61

11:24-6

274

13: 4 (Vulg.)

253

13:11 (Vulg.)

253

1

16:22

164-6

10:1-2

194

18:14

211

13:8

211

22:24

163

13:13

220

15:28

200

11:26

176-180

Corinthians

John 4:9

134

2

4:20

145

1:3

Corinthians 212

4:22

158

11:24

254,

5:5

260

8:56

197

20:24

163

266-8 Galatians 212

1:15 Acts 2:9-11

16

3:23-29

220

3:24-25

221

2:11

107

2:12-3

163

2:30

213

1:3

4:36

30

2:2

275-6

5:15

236,241

3:10

275-6

6:9

103

7:8

179

Colossians

9:1

167-175

4:11

Ephesians 212

172

11:19-20

30

12:2-3

100

/

12:22-3

100,101

4:16-7

13:5

78

13:5-6

30

I

15:39

30

2:4

217

16:13

106

5:4

164

16:13^4

84

Thessalonians 179

Timothy

17:18

163

Philemon

19:7

260

24

19:13

274

19:16

274

Hebrews

19:19

270

7:11

219

20:11

179

8-9

220

22:3

107

11:29

282

172

25(

Jewish

Literature

James

5:5

2:19

1

274

8

:

51

6

1

6

4

Apocalypse 2:17

173

Pre-Rabbinic

Jewish

Literature

A p o c r y p h a and Pseudepigrapha

Martyrium

Ben

3:1-12

141

5:1-14

141

Sira

21:11

61

50:26

140

51:12

113

Isaiae

Paralipomena

Jeremiae

8 Epistle

of

142

Aristeas

305

107

Ps-Eupolemos 146

fr.3 Esther

(additions

C23

in LXX) 112

Ps-Phocylides 100-1

94

Jubilees

102

94

5:8

103-115

93

103^1

93-5

104b

94

67

Liber Antiquitatum

Biblicarum

18:5

194

105-8

30-33

90

106

96

32:2-3

194

111

96 96 63

33:4

92

115

40:2

194

193^1

40:6

196

48:1

69

Testament

96

of Abraham

7:11 1

16-20

Maccabees 3:10

178 96

140

15:15

28

Testament

15:17

13

1:3-9

15:22-23

13,28

of

60

Testament 2

140

9

101

5:25

of

Solomon

4:1

Maccabees

6:2

3

Asher

Maccabees 110

Vitae

172 Prophetarum

Jeremiah 6

179

Isaiah 8

91

D e a d Sea Scrolls 1QS 3 : 1 3 ^ 1

60

4Q252 I 2-3

67

(rec.

326

Index of

passages Contra

Josephus Antiquitates

Judaicae

Apionem

1.205-11

230

1:75

68

1:228-252

231

1:98-9

69

2:91-6

232

1:152 1:232

69 194-5

Vita

4:40

110

427

4:176

256,257

4:238

256, 267

Philo A l e x a n d r i n u s

256, 267

De

4:305

146

202

5:200-9

90

5:203

90

De 108

4:248

15

Abrahamo 131 Congressu 170

8:44-49

276

9:277-291

136, 137, 139

9:278

137

9:290

137

26

102, 103 103 107

In

Flaccum

137,138

31

10:77

267

41

11:302-347

138

53

103

138

56

106

82

100

9:291

11:346 12:7-10

144

12:148-152

44

124

112-3

13:74-79

144

101

99

13:78

144

102-3

99

13:284

29

103

100, 103

13:287

29

104

107

13:324-333

29

116

100

14:223-7

45

121-124

108-113

14:258

106

122

106

14:259-61

45

125

110

14:260

46

138

107

18:85-7

21

152-6

102

18:131

29

158

107

19:343-52

101

170

109

20:97-8

21

190

112

191

110

20:142

29

20:167-172

21

20:188

21

De

Josepho

21 Bellum

170

Judaicum

2:101-116

15

Legatio

6:270

267

3

ad

6:285

21

261-348

100

7:437-^1

21

282

15, 3 0

De mutatione 215

Gaium 110

nominum 170

Rabbinic

Quaestiones 1:16

in Genesim 120

327

Literature

De somniis 1:107

170

1:35

121

2:177-9

131

1:45

122

2:234-7

132

1:75-6

123

1:82

125

De specialibus

1:86

125

2:165

1:91

68

4:60

119

legibus 112

VitaMosis

Quod deus sit immutabilis

1:6

131

1:55

170 112

59

131

1:113

60

131

2:34

106

61-9

131-2

2:37

112

170

2:240

170

174 De

sacrificiis

95-6

131

Rabbinic

literature

Mishnah

Shabbat

Avoda

7:2

Zara

3:8

267

240 Yevamot

1:1

266

3:15

59

4:1

62

6:6

Avot

61

Tosefta Bava

Bathra

1:11 Berakhot 7:1

147

Nega 'im

9:5

6 0 , 65

6:2

266

4:14

Terumot

Makkot 3:10

147, 148

B a b y l o n i a n Talmud

Middot

Arakhin

1:3

264

13a Oholot 240

Avoda

5

240

4a

224

11

240

5a

62

2

Sanhedrin 10:1

148

Zara

5b

61

9a-b

20

31a-b

149

48b-49a

240

328 Bava

Index of

Bathra

passages

95b

265

16a

61

97a-b

20

123a

265

99a

20

Bava

Qamma

Shabbat

82b

88

83a

265

61

105b Sotah

Berakhot

36b

5a

61

265

17a

61

Sukkot

24b

106

52a

61

61a

60,61

52a-b

60,61

Gittin 56b

Yevamot 101

64a

265

122a

241

Horayoth 12a

241

Hullin 6a

Zevahim 118b

264

119a

264

149 Jerusalem Talmud

Keritot 5b-6a

Avoda 241

44d

Megillah

Berakhot

14a

lib

Zara 149

147

14b Demai Nedarim

24c

20b

63

38a

265

266

Eruvin 20b

266

Niddah 56b

137, 147

Gittin 43c

137, 147

Pesachim 111b

241

Ketuvot 30d

266

Qiddushin 30b

61

Nazir

75a-76a

149

57d

75b

136, 137, 147

76a

147

Nedarim 41b

Sanhedrin 85b

137, 147

61

Rabbinic Ta 'anit

329

literature

Pirqe de-R.

66c

60

Midrashim Canticles

Si/re Rabba

1.2.4

265 Deuteronomium

33 61

Ecclesiastes

Eliezer

39

61

45

60,61

311

277

Rabba

9:7

61

Tanhuma

B

Wayyikra 12 Exodus

61

Rabba 61

41:17

Targumim Neofiti

Genesis

Rabba

G e n 6:3

9:7

67

61,64

10:7

101

Onkelos

16:6

119

G e n 6:3

68

19:3

121

N u m 14:9

240

19:9

122

22:12

123

Ps-Jonathan

22:13

124

G e n 3:9

122

22:6

61

G e n 6:3

68

25:1

125

Gen 22:7-11

195

27:4

60

N u m 14:9

240

Deut 25:3

267

Rabba

Deut 30:6

61

Lamentations 1.16.45

31 N o n - T a l m u d i c Rabbinic treatises

Leviticus

Rabba

14:5

Avoth de-Rabbi 62

1

Ishmael

35:1

Nathan 122

16 Mekhilta

de-R.

Beshallach 5

68

Shabbata 2

267

Wayassa 3

241

Numbers

Kuthim 1:1

134

2:9

149

Rabba

18:21

267

Megillat

22 Pesiqta

2 26:1-2

62

Ta 'anit 147

Rabbati 91

Semachot

89

14:10

88

(rec. A)

330

Index of

Early Augustine De civitate 15:24

Christian

Literature 70

209

75

210

70

90

209

200

2

Dei

1 Clement 31:3

passages

Theodosius 209

C l e m e n t o f Alexandria

Cyril o f Jerusalem

Paedagogus

Catechesis 201

5:6

1.21.141

116

De

4.11.68.3

132

16:7-9

1.5.22.2-3

Epiphanius

Stromateis

73.73.73

203

mensibus 148

203 Eusebius

Constitutiones A p o s t o l i c a e 8.12.12 20.20

282

Historia

Ecclesiastica

3:2

31

188 Praeparatio

Ev

angelica

Cyril o f S c y t h o p o l i s

9.17.5-6

146

Cyriacus

9.19.4

116

3 10

210

9.21.1-19

116

210,213

3.3.3-3

116

9.29.15

116

Euthymius 25

212

35

210

39

209,211

16.16.16

116

11.6.36

273

Eutychius A l e x a n d r i n u s Annales

Sabas Prol.

2:220-3

32

212

2

210,212,213

Gregory the Great

4

213

Epistulae

6

209

6.33

12

210,213

8.21

41 41

15

211

9.38

41

16

210,214

23

211

Irenaeus

27

212

Adversus

28

210,214-5

1.30.14

179

33-8

207

2.6.2

274

39

210,214

4.5.4-5

197

40

210

47

210

62

212

Haereses

Early Christian

Jerome

Literature

Melito

Comm.

in Is.

7:14

223

Quaest.

204

fragm. 10

204

Origenes

in Gen.

6:3

Contra

69

Johannes M o s c h u s Pratum

fragm. 9

spirituale

172

Celsum

1:6

282

4:33

280

4:34

275

4:71-2

224

133

Horn. 8 in Julius Africanus fragm.

1

Horn.

197

inJer.

18-20

69

133

Orosius

Justin Martyr Dialogus

Gen.

cum Tryphone

85:2

282

131:3

282

Judaeo

Historia

adv.

paganos

7.12.8

31

Photius Justinian Novella

Bibliotheca 146

105,223

Lactantius De mortibus

cod.

224

32

Romanos Melodos persecutorum

50:1

101

Kontakion 3.14

200

Macarius M a g n e s

Socrates S c h o l a s t i c u s

Monogenes

Historia

(Apokritikos)

2.7.10

184

2.16.26-9

184

Ecclesiastica

7:38

18

3.42.6

186

Sophronius

4.5.1

184

Laudatio

4.5.2

184

55

Cyr. et Joh. 31-2

Tatian

Malalas

Oratio

Chronographia 10.20

55

15.15

55

16.6

55-6

ad

Graecos

27

248

Z e n o o f Verona De 1.43

Abrahamo 198,:

332

Index of

Pagan Aelian De natura

Greek

passages

and Latin

Literature

Apollodorus animalium

3:7

235

6:14

235

Bibliotheca 2.7.3

254

Apollonius Rhodius Aeschylus

Argonautica 2:974-5

Agamemnon

256,

187

168

219

168

Aristophanes

374-5

168

Aves

1206

169

1121

1235

169

169

Ranae 1016

Choephoroi 391-2

169

952

169

169

Aristaenetus Epist.

1:5

171

Eumenides 840

169

Aristotle Historia

animalium

3:20 ( 5 2 2 a 3 0 -

Persae 339

255

343

255

1062

193

31)

259

Poetica 17(1455bl)

178

Septem 169

52-3

Politica 5.9.23 (1315b36)

Supplices

1-1

169

259

5.11.25 (1315al-3)

229

Andocides De

Mysteriis

38 105

Rhetorica 162 162-3

2.14.4 (1390bl0-ll) fragm. 3 6 9 R o s e

255, 235

A n t h o l o g i a Palatina 2:233

170

Aulus Gellius

2:451

170

Nodes

5:259

170

10:28

7:25

170

9:159

170, 174

Caesar

174

De Bello

11:240 Antiphon fragm. 4 9

170

Atticae 252

Gallico

1:8

253

2:5

253

4:19

253

Pagan Greek and Latin Cassius Dio

Literature

D i o g e n e s Laertius

58.20.5

256

68.32.1-2

31,232

Lives of the eminent philosophe 5:27 258

Chion

D i o n y s i u s o f Halicarnassus

Epistula

Antiquitates

3:3

170, 174

Romanae

7.3.2

257

7.51.3

170

Cicero De natura

Epictetus

deorum

1.17.45

130

Dissertationes

1:117

247

2.15.8

178

1:118

247

3.23.1-2

178

171

Andromache

In

Euripides

Catilinam

2:1 In

Verrem

189-90

169

326-7

169, 174

252

4:123

Bacchae Pro Roscio

Amerino

620

169

7:20

252

640

169

35:99

252

1348

130

Tusculanae

disputationes

3.12.26

236

Cornutus

Bellerophon fragm. 2 8 6

248

Hecuba

Compendium

162

1161-3

35

97 Hercules

Critias

635-6

fr. 8 8 A 3 D - K

243

fr. 8 8 B 2 5 D - K

242

Iphigeneia 458-9

furens 162 Aulensis 196

Digesta 252

37.37.37

Iphigeneia 288

Taurensis 169

Dio Chrysostom Oratio

Phoenissae

67:4-5

237

454

169

876

169

D i o d o r u s Siculus Bibliotheca

historica

1.1.1.1

229

4.4.4

255, 256, 258

Rhesus 785

169

334

Index of

passages Hippocrates

Eutropius 1:1

253

De

affectibus

9

259

Geoponica 15.1.10

235

Homer Iliad

Heliodorus

1:25

254

Aethiopica

1:297

168

170

1.2.1

2:356

168

2:557

254

Herodotus

2:637

254

Historiae

2:713

254 254

1:84

261

2:748

1:94

259

3:8

168

1:106

258

4:109

254

1:126

259

11:508

168

1:130

258, 259

21:386

167

1:196

165

21:395

168

1:202

255,256

24:364

168

2:7

258

24:496

255

2:134

257

24:496

261

2:142

258

2:143

261

Odyssee

3:90

258

5:278

54, 255

3:93^1

261

5:279

255,261

4:1

258

10:495

239

4:35

65

11:207

239

5:84

165

16:249

254, 255

6:27

258

19:138-9

168

7:186

259

8:48

259

9:30

255,257

Carmina

9:33

256, 257

4.13.19

9:70

258

Horatius 171

Isaeus Herondas

Orationes

Mimiambe 8:58

170

255 256

Isocrates

Hesiod Opera

11:43 12:270

et

dies

Orationes

780

255

814

255

12:270

258

Livy Hippiatrica 130:135

Berolinensia 239

History 3:24

252

3.24.10

253

Pagan Greek and Latin

Literature

23.46.4

253

Vitae

29.2.17

252

1:16

34.10.4

253

36.45.3

252

Pindar

37.30.8

252

Nemean

3.3.3

252

3:41-2

14.14.14

252

40.40.13

253

Pythian

45.43.3

253

4:10

262

45.43.5

252

9:113

255,261

Lucian

Sophistarum 244

Odes 170 Odes

10:44

169, 174

11:29-30

169

Lexiphanes

2

163

Plato Gorgias

Lucretius De rerum

177-8

457d natura

5:392

171

Leges

6:783-5

238

666a

Lysias Orationes 12:18

165

19:43

256

259

828b-c

162

833d

259

908b-e

246

910c

165

Phaedo Nepos

58b

165

Cato 1:2

252

Protagoras 177

314c Nonnus Respublica

Dionysiaca 48:650

171

178

368d Plautus

Ovid

Mercator

Metamorphoses 12:553-5

254

252

430

Pausanias

Pliny the Elder

Descriptio

Naturalis

Graeciae

Historia

3.11.6-8

257

7:214

8.38.6

237

7:214

251 254

8:106

235

Philostratus

17:18

Heroicus

19.1.3

102

28:69

236

30:11

35

1:3 Vita 3:15

237 Apollonii 239

238

336

Index

ofpassages

Plutarch

Ps-Callisthenes

De sera numinis

vindicta

Historia

12

130

46

20

130

Alexandri

Magni 170

Ps-Hesiod De Stoicorum

repugnantiis

Aspis

231

23-5

3,166A

231

Institutiones

8,169C

231

3.7.21

38, 1050E De

Quintilian

superstitione

12.171C

168,174

230

247-8 Sappho

Quaestiones

Graecae

39,300C

fragm. 4 7

168

238 Scholion on Callimachus Hymn to Zeus

Caesar 255,256

1:13

Pompeius

Sextus Empiricus

79:4

256, 259

Pyrrhoneiai

30:3

238

1:162

Hypotyposeis 130

Polybius Solinus

Historia 12.16.13

256

Collectanea

16.12.7

237

27:24 Sophocles

Porphyry De antro

nympharum

26

237

Proclus In

237

Antigone 806-8

196

30-30

169

1177

174

Rempublicam

I p . 2 9 0 (Kroll)

235

Electra 169

610 Propertius Strabo

Elegiae

Geographica 1.3.7

171

Protagoras

6.3.7

102

16.2.35-6

230

16.2.37

230

fragm. 8 0 B 4 D - K 2 4 5 Tabula 19:1

Ps-Aristotle De mirabilibus

auscultationibus

145

235

Cebetis 178

rec.A

Inscriptions

De re 253

2.4.11

253

Aeneid

5.2.1-3

16-7

7:510

5.3-5

232

5.5.1

232

rustica 252

Virgil

Historiae 2.59

337

Papyri

Varro

Tacitus Annates 12:56

and

253

Eclogae 10:75-6

239

Themistius Xenophon

Oratio 1:7

171

Anabasis 1.3.14

165

Theocritus

1.10.3

162

Idylle

2.3.10

162

3.4.5

259

5.4.31

162

18:54-5

170

22:82

170

Theophrastus Characteres 16

229

18

177

7.1.4

178

7.4.16

259

7.5.2

162

Cyropaedia

Thucydides

2.1.1

178

3.2.12

162

Historiae 1.37.1

177

Hellenica

2.13.3

258

1.1.5

1.1.1.1

177

1.2.14

162

4.38.5

255,258

2.3.47

244

4.101.1

261

7.5.12

170

4.102.3

259

5:31

165

7.28.3

261

8.108.1-2

259

259

Memorabilia 1.2.12

Inscriptions

and

Socratis 244

Papyri

CIJ718

105

CIL 5 : 4 2 9 9

251

CIJ725

110

CIL 10:3427

251

CD 731c

25

CPJ513

75

CIJ735

33

DF 82

33

CIJ736

32

D F 83

32

CIJ737

34

DF 84

34

CIJ754

105

D F 85

33

338

Index of

passages

GMA32

39-41

IJO II 7 7

IG 1.374

259, 260

IJO II 7 8

83

IG II 2 . 6 5 2

162

IJO II 8 0 - 8 5

83

IJO I A c h 1^1

76

IJO II 129

83

D O I A c h 15

73

IJO II 131

83

IJO I A c h 3 0

77

IJO II 156

84

IJO I A c h 3 5

75

IJO II 180

84

IJO I A c h 3 6

75

IJO II 191

84

IJO I A c h 3 7

75

IJO II 2 0 9 - 2 9 7

81

IJOIAch41

75

IJO II 2 1 3

84

IJO I A c h 5

76

IJO II 2 1 8

84

IJO I A c h 6

76

IJO II 2 2 2

85

IJOIAch8-14

76

IJO II 2 2 4

85

IJO I A c h 5 0

73

IJO II 2 4 0

85

IJO I A c h 6 0 - 6 4

76

IJO III C y p 3

78

IJO I A c h 6 6 - 6 7

76

IJO III C y p 6 - 8

78

IJO I A c h 6 7

13

IJO III Syr3

78

IJO I A c h 6 8

76

IJO III S y r 5 - 8

79

IJO I A c h 7 2

77

IJO III Syr6

78

IJO I A c h 7 3

77

IJO III Syr 10

79

IJOIBS16

77

IJO III S y r l l

78

IJO I B S 2 0

77

IJO III Syr 1 7 - 1 9

79

IJO I Cre3

25

IJO III S y r 2 5 - 2 6

79

IJO I D a l 2

75

IJO III S y r 3 2

79

IJO I D a l 4

75

IJO III S y r 5 1 - 5 2

79

IJO I M a c l

75

IJO III S y r 5 3 - 7 2

79

IJO I M a c 8

75

IJO III Syr58

79

IJO I M a c 9

75

IJO III S y r 6 1 - 7 1

79

IJO I Pan 1

75

IJO III Syr 121

79

IJO I Pan2

75

IJO III Syr 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 7 9

IJO I Thr3

81

IK M i l e t 7 4 0 h

54

IJO I Thr4

81

I n s c r C r e t 1:5,17

24

IJO II 5a

81

Inscr Cret 2:8

23

IJO II 12

81

Inscr Cret 2 : 2 4 , 1 2

23

IJO II 13

81

Inscr Cret 4 : 5 0 9

22, 77

IJO II 15

54

JIWE I 3 6

80

IJO II 16

54

JIWE I 143

37

IJO II 3 2

82

JIWE I 144

37

IJO II 3 3

82

JIWE I 145

37,40,41

IJO II 35

82

JIWE I 146

38

IJO II 3 7

82

JIWE I 147

38

IJO II 4 0

82

JIWE I 148

38,41

IJO II 41

82

JIWE I 149

38,41

IJO II 5 3 - 1 4 3

47-52

JIWE I 150

38

IJO II 6 3

83

JIWE I 151

38

IJO II 6 9

83

JIWE I 152

38,40

IJO II 7 0 - 1 2 3

81

J I W E I 153

38,41

IJO II 71

83

JIWE I 154

38

83

Inscriptions

and

339

Papyri

J I W E I 155

38

JIWE II 5 7 7

104

J I W E I 156

38, 40

JIWE II 5 7 8

105

J I W E I 157

38,41

JIWE II 5 7 9

105

J I W E I 158

38

JIWE II 5 8 4

104

J I W E I 159

38

KAI 260

44

J I W E I 160

38

N a v e h - S h a k e d I 13

283

J I W E I 161

38,41

Pap. M a s p e r o 7 0 : 2

257

JIWE II 1

104

Pap. M a s p e r o 6 7 1 8 8

239

JIWE II 2

105

Pap. Oxyrrhynchus

JIWE II 3 3

105

JIWE II 6 9

104

Pap. B o d m e r 3 0

190-205

J I W E II 9 6

104

P G M IV

269-279

JIWE II 9 8

104

P G M IV 2 9 6 - 4 3 4

271

JIWE II 100

7 6 , 104

P G M IV 4 3 6 - 4 6 1

271

JIWE II 106

105

P G M IV 1219

277

JIWE II 113

104

P G M IV 1 9 5 7 - 1 9 8 1

271

JIWE II 114

105

P G M IV 2 2 4 1 - 2 3 4 7

271

JIWE II 117

105

P G M IV 2 9 0 2 - 2 9 3 9

271

JIWE II 1 3 0

104

P G M IV 3 0 0 7 - 3 0 8 6

273,281

JIWE II 163

104

PGM IV 3013

273

JIWE II 165

104

P G M IV 3 0 1 7

274

JIWE II 166

104

P G M IV 3 0 1 9 - 2 0

274

JIWE II 167

104

P G M IV 3 0 2 3

274

JIWE II 169

104

P G M IV 3 0 2 6 - 7

274

J I W E II 170

104

P G M IV 3 0 3 3 - 8

275

JIWE II 189

104

P G M IV 3 0 3 8

275

JIWE II 194

104

P G M IV 3 0 3 9 - 4 0

276

JIWE II 2 8 8

7 6 , 104

P G M IV 3 0 4 2

275

JIWE II 3 3 8

104

P G M IV 3 0 4 3 - *

275

JIWE II 4 0 6

104

P G M IV 3 0 4 4

275

JIWE II 4 2 8

104

P G M IV 3 0 4 7

275

JIWE II 4 5 1

104

P G M IV 3 0 5 0 - 1

276

JIWE II 4 5 2

104

P G M IV 3 0 5 2

276

JIWE II 4 8 8

104

P G M IV 3 0 5 3 - 5

277, 281

JIWE II 5 2 7

104

P G M IV 3 0 5 6 - 8

277

JIWE II 5 4 0

105

P G M IV 3 0 6 1

277

JIWE II 5 4 2

104

P G M IV 3 0 6 2 ^ 1

277

JIWE II 5 4 7

104

P G M IV 3 0 6 9 - 7 0

277

JIWE II 5 4 9

104

P G M IV 3 0 8 4 - 6

277

JIWE II 5 5 7

104

PGM X X X V I 295-311

282

JIWE II 5 5 8

104

PGM X X X V I 306

282

JIWE II 5 6 0

104

S E G 8:269

13

JIWE II 5 7 6

104

264:2-4

256, 257

Index of modern authors Accorinti, D . 6, 7 9 Adler,W.

70

B e k k u m , W.J. van 2 2 4 , 2 2 6 B e l k i n , S.

Alexander, H . B .

234

116

B e l l , H.I. 2 6 3

Alexander, Ph. S. 126, 2 7 3 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 2

B e n S a s s o n , H.

Alexiou, M.

B e n k o , S.

196

A m e l i n g , W. 4 3 , 5 1 , 7 1 , 7 4 , 8 0 - 8 5 , 2 2 8 , 229, 233

19

181

Benoit, A. 27 Berard, F. 7 2

A n k e r m a n n , B.

234

Bernand, A .

A p p l e b a u m , S.

17,29

Bernhardt, K . H .

Armstrong, A . H .

273

278

B e t t e n s o n , H.

19

70

Athanassiadi, P. 3 5 , 7 4

Betz, H.D.

Aune, D. 273, 274, 275, 280, 284

B i c k e r m a n n , E. 116, 2 3 2

A v e m a r i e , F. 4

Bie,J.P. de

A v i g a d , N . 71

Bieler,M.

Avi-Yonah, M.

223

166

Bacht, H. Baldelli, R.

206

Bandy, A . C . Barb, A . A .

281

Bardy, G.

Brass, F.

180 161,253

Blau, L. 2 8 2

22,24,25

Barclay, J.G.M.

206,207,209,211,212,

Blaise, A .

208,210,215

152 234,239

Billerbeck, P. 146, 148, 2 6 7 B i n n s , J.

Baarda,T.

269,270

Bleeker, C.J. Bloch, R.S.

6,43,45

116,280

20 232

B l o e d h o r n , H. BlondehCh.

22,71,73 182

Barnett, P.W. 2 0

B l o w e r s , P.M.

Baron, S.W.

Blumenkranz, B .

19,41

133 18,222

Barr, J. 9 3

Blumenthal, A . v o n

Barrett, C.K. 9 8 , 1 0 1 - 2 , 105, 177

B o e f t , J . den

Bartelink, G.J.M. 2 0 8

Bogaert, M.

B a s n a g e , J.

Bohak,G.

Bauer, H.

151-160 264

92 229

B o h m , M . 136, 137

Bauer, W. 2 5 6 Baumann, U.

244

191,224,249

B o i d , R. 12

149

B o l k e s t e i n , H. 2 2 9

Baumgartel, F. 171

Bonnard, P. 161

Baumgartner, W.

Bonner, C. 2 7 2

171

B e a m e s , J. 2 5 2

B o r g e n , P. 109, 114

Beatrice, P.F.

B o u s s e t , W. 9 6

181

B e c k , H.-G.

206,222

B o x , H. 106, 112

Becking, B.

136

Boyarin, D.

61,62-5

Bozzo, G.B.

181

Bees, N.A.

27

Index of modern

341

authors

Bradshaw, P.F. 2 1 0

Cox, D.H.

Brashear, W.

Crater, T.W.

269-273

Braun, H.E.

29 183

Cranfield, C.E.B.

191

177

B r e d e Kristensen, W. 2 3 4

Creed, J.L.

Bremmer, J.N. 7, 1 9 1 , 2 4 6 , 2 4 7 , 2 4 9

Cross, F.M. 4 7

Brock, S.P. 196, 199, 2 0 0 , 2 0 3 , 2 0 4

C r o w n , A . D . 4 , 1 4 , 3 8 , 134, 139, 154

Bronner, L.L. 8 9 Brooten, B.J.

25-26,55

Crum, W.E. 2 6 3 C u m o n t , F. 9 7

B r o w n , P. 6 0 , 9 2 Brox,N.

101

280

Bruneau, Ph. 1 3 - 1 4 , 2 8 , 145

Dagron,G.

Bullard, R. 2 4 1

D a l m a n , G.

Bunte,W.

Danby, H.

91

Burton-Christie, D . 2 0 8 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 3 ,

266 88,240

D a n i e l , R.W.

273

D a n i e l o u , J. 2 0 3

214,215 Bury,J.B.

56,223

Danker, F.W.

243,246

B u x t o n , R. 2 4 7

230,231

D a t e m a , C.

199

D a v i e s , M.

243

Cadbury, H.

172

Debrunner,A.

161, 1 7 4 , 2 5 3

Cameron, A .

53-56

D e c h a r m e , P.

244,245,246

Camp,C.V.

D e i n e s , R.

87

5,9

Cancik, H. 8

Deissmann, A.

Canivet, P.

184,208

D e l l i n g , G.

C a s s o n , L.

103

D e n n i s t o n , J.D. 9 4 , 9 7 , 162

164, 2 7 3 , 2 7 6 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 2

139

Cavallin, H . C . C . 9 3

D e P a l m a Digeser, E.

C a z e a u x , J.

Derda, T. 7 7

Cerny, G.

122 152-155

Charlesworth, J.H. C h a z o n , E.

Deroche,V. 7,67

10

Chesnut, G.F.

56,216,220,223,224

Dexinger,F.

134,136,138,139,146,

148, 158 18

Di Berardino, A .

208

Chirat, H.

180

D i S e g n i , L.

147

C h u v i n , P.

6,79

D i b e l i u s , M.

16

ClauBen, C. 3 4 , 105, 106

DiezMacho,A.

C l e m e n t s , R.

10

D i l l o n , J. 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 ,

C o g g i n s , R.J.

136

C o h e n Stuart, G. Cohen, A.

Dinur, B.

59

D o d d s , E.R.

C o h e n , J. 6 2

240

152

D i x o n , R.M.W.

134

250

246

Dolger, F.J. 2 0 6

C o h e n , S.J.D. C o h n , H.H.

185

32,33

268

D o p p , S. 2 2 1 Dornseiff, F. 2 7 3

Cohn-Sherbock, D.

117

Dorrie, H.

114,248

Colera,P.B.

229

Dorries, H.

Collins, J.J.

93-7

Dragona-Monachou, M. 48

Colson,F.H.

Ill

C o n z e l m a n n , H. Cook,A.B.

114,209,214

Drexler,W. 16

238

Dreyer,0.

237 115, 1 2 9

D r o n k e , P. 196

C o o k , J.G. 133, 1 8 1 , 189

Dunn,J.D.G.

C o x Miller, P. 2 7 3

During, I.

174

177

342

Index of modern

E b e l i n g , H.

authors

Gardiner, A . 2 6 3

174

Edel, E. 2 6 3

Gartner, H . A .

Egger, R. 14, 138, 145

Gaster, M.

Eisenstein, J.D. 241

Gaster,T.H.

Eissfeldt, 0 .

Geerlings, W. 2 2 1

Eitrem, S.

16 273,275,276

Elior, R.

E v a n s , C.A.

237,240

Geiger, B. 7 9 George, B.

126

115

278

236,239

G e r s c h m a n n , K.H.

96

E y n d e , C. van den

G i b s o n , E.L. Fahr,W.

245,246,248

Falk,Z.W.

110

Gerth, B. 162, 174, 178

199

72,77

Gildersleeve, B.L.

268

Gill, D.W.J.

161

30

250

Ginzberg, L. 5 4 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 8 7 , 8 8 , 196,

Feldman, D.M.

65

Glare, P.W. 2 5 2

F e l d m a n , L.H.

51,68,90

Falkenstein, A .

276

Fauth, W. 17

Fernandez M a r c o s , N .

39

Glempf, C. 3 0 Glenth0j, J.B. 2 0 5

Festugiere, A.-J. 2 0 6 , 2 0 7 , 2 3 6

GleBmer,U.

Fine, S. 51

Goldin,J.

67

Finkel, J. 2 4 0 Fischel, H . A . 2 4 0

Goldstein, J.A.

62

GondaJ.

13,28

254

Fischer, B .

253,254

G o o d m a n , M.

12

Fischer, H.

234

Gordon, R.L.

109

Fitzgerald, J.T.

178

Fitzmyer, J.A. Flusin, B.

147

206,212

F o s s u m , J.

Goulet, R.

181-189

Grabbe, L.L. 135, 136, 140 Graf, F. 2 7 5 , 2 8 1 Grayston, K.

149

161

Foucart, P. 182

Grese,W.C.

F o w d e n , G.

G r e s s m a n n , H. 9 6

Fram, E.

269

277,281

Grimal, P. 2 4 4

117

Frankfurter, D . 281

G r o s s , K.

Fraser, P.M.

Grossfeld, B . 6 7

12

110, 195

Frazer, J.G. 2 3 4 , 2 3 5 , 2 3 7

Grundmann, W.

Frede,M.

Guarducci, M.

12, 2 2 115,117

35,74

Freedman, H.

120

Gudemann, A.

Frerichs, E.S.

226

G u l k o w i t s c h , L.

Frey, J.-B. 6 , 3 2 , 7 1 , 104,

161

134

Guthrie, W . K . C . 2 4 3 , 2 4 5 , 2 4 6 , 2 4 8 , 249

Frick, P. 109 Friedlander, G.

265

Frohnhofen, H.

128

Haag, E.

152

Fuks, A . 71

Haas, L.

117

Fuks,L.

153

Hachlili,R.

9 6 , 195

Fuks,R.

153

Hackett, J.

172

Hagner, D .

163

Gager,J.G.

35,282

Haldon,J.F.

Galling, K.

104

HalfB.W.

G a m b l e , H.Y.

209,210

Garcia Martinez, F. 7, 6 7 , 9 3

223 146, 148, 149

Hamilton, A .

155

H a m o n v i l l e , D . M . d' 6 3

Index of modern

Hansen, G.C.

18

Horsley, R.A.

Hanson, J.S. 2 0 Hargis,J.W. Harl,M.

181

33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 4 1 , 47, 49, 59, 62, 63, 71, 73, 75, 77, 8 1 - 8 5 , 9 0 - 9 5 , 98,

Harnack, A . ( v o n )

182

Harrington, D.J. Harvey, G. Hay, D .

147

266

1 0 3 - 5 , 107, 108, 113, 116, 126, 139, 1 4 3 , 145, 190, 192, 2 0 7 , 2 0 8 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 2 , 235,240

76

Hauser, A.J.

20-21

Horst, RW. van der 1 - 1 1 , 2 6 , 2 8 , 3 2 ,

66,225

Harvey, A . E .

343

authors

Hospers-Jansen, A . M . A .

117

17

Howard, W.F. 1 6 1 , 165

114

HulLJ.M. 2 7 4 , 2 7 5

Hayward, C.T.R. 6 9 , 195

Humbert, J.

H e i n e , R.

Hunt, E . D .

133

H e i n e , S. 2 5

174 102

Hurst, A . 9, 190, 191

H e i n e m a n n , I.

Ill

H e i n i m a n n , F. 2 4 5

Hussey, R.

18

H y m a n , N . M . 8 9 , 121

Heitmuller, W. 2 8 4 Heitsch, E. 271 Helbing, R.

Isaac, B. 4 8

173

Hemelrijk, E.A. Hempel,Ch.

229

126

Hengel,M.

271

Herion, G . A .

168

Jacobs, L. 61

13,20,31,

Henrichs,A.

Jackson, F.

Jacobson, H. 2 0 , 6 9 , 194 Jacoby, A .

129

276

Jacoby, F. 2 4 7 , 2 4 8 , 2 4 9

Hermann, A . 53

James, M.R.

Herrmann, P. 5 4

Jamin, H.

Herzer,J.

Jannaris, A . N .

142-143

Heubner, H.

17

Heurtebize, B .

27

155

152

Jeffreys, M . 55

Hezser, C. 8 4

Jellinek,A.

Hilgert, E.

Jensen, R.M.

114

Hilhorst,A. Hill, G.

10,224

28,29 226

Hirschberg, H.Z.

17

Hirschfeld, Y. 2 0 9

H o e n i g , S.B.

267

Hoffmann, R.J.

181

H o f m a n n , J.B. 2 5 2 Holladay, C.R.

14, 116, 146

117

H o l t z m a n n , O. 8 8 Holwerda,D. H6lzer,V.

177, 179

235,239

Hopfner,Th.

272,281

Horbury,W.

32,71,91,110,222,273,

282

196

Jeremias, J. 2 1 , 8 7 , 9 1 , 147 Johnson, E. Jones, S.

236 129

106

Juster, J. 2 0 , 3 4

196

H j e l m , I. 134, 140

Holtz, B.W.

54

Jocelyn, H . D .

Himmelfarb, M.

Hirshman, M.

260,261

Jeffreys, E. 55

Kahn, Ch. H. 2 4 2 , 2 4 3 , 2 4 5 , 2 4 9 Kaibel, G.

172

K a m e s a r , A . 6 6 , 7 0 , 115, 116, 117 Karlin-Hayter, P. 5 6 Kartveit, M.

141

K a s e m a n n , E. Kasper,C.

177

221

Kessels, A.H.M. Kessler, E.

10, 1 9 0 , 2 4 9

197

Kiley.M. 7 Kippenberg, H. 147, 148 Kirchbaum, E. 2 0 3

344

Index of modern

K l e i n , M.

Lesky,A.

68

Kleinknecht, H. K l e v e , K.

authors

243,244

L e u m a n n , M.

168

252

L e v i , I. 21

246

K n o x , L.W. 2 7 3 , 2 7 6 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 3

L e v i n e , L.I.

K o c h , H.

L e v i n s k a y a , I. 6, 7 2

131

Koehler, L.

33,41,45

L e v y - B r u h l , I. 2 3 4

171

K o e t s , P.J. 2 2 9

L e w i s , Ch. T. 2 5 2

Kolenkow,A.

L e w i s , D . M . 71

276

K o n d o l e o n , Ch. 55

L e w y , H. 2 7 3

K o o t e n , G.H. van

Lichtenberger, H. 8, 6 0

Korpel, M . C . A .

10

Lichtenstein, H.

136

Kotansky, R. 3 7 - 8 , 3 9 , 2 7 3 , 2 7 9 , 2 8 0 , 282, 284

147

Lieberman, S. 91 Lifshitz, B. 6, 2 2 - 3 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 4 7 , 5 1 , 71

Kraabel, A.T. 14, 2 7 , 4 3 , 4 6 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 145 Kraeling, C H .

7 9 , 195

Lightstone, J.N. 91 Linder, A . 2 0 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 , 2 2 4

Kraemer, R . S . 2 2 , 2 5 , 3 4 , 73

Lipinski, E.

Kraft, R.A.

Livrea, E.

134

44 191

Krauss, S.

31,32,34,222,266

L o h m e i e r , E.

Kroll, J.H.

43,47,49,51,52,72

L6hr,H.

Kropp, M.

272

Krueger,D.

209,212

Kuchler, M .

26

161

7

Long, A.A.

228

L o o s j e s , J.

152

Louth, A . 6 9 , 122, 123

K u g e l , J.L. 7 , 6 7 , 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 , 125

L u c c h e s i Palli, E.

Kuhner, R.

Liideritz, G. 71

162, 174, 178

Kundert, L.

194

Luttikhuizen, G.P. 6 7 , 93

Kushnir-Stein, A . Labrousse, E. Lake, K.

102-3

152

Lamberton, R.

Luz, U.

177

M a a s , P. 177

168, 172

L a m b r o s , S.

M a c d o n a l d , J. 141

115

M a g e n , Y.

236

139

Maher, M. 6 8 , 195

Lampe,G.W.H.

83,215,216

Maier, J. 6 7

Lankhorst, O.S.

153

Malherbe, A.J.

Larson, C.W. Latte.K.

203

113

208

M a l t o m i n i , F. 2 7 3

177, 179, 180

Mansfeld,J.

123

L a w s o n , J.C. 2 3 5

Maraval, P. 18

Layton, B.

M a r c u s , R. 4 5 , 120

180

L e B o h e c , Y. 71

Marcus, S.

L e D e a u t , R. 6 8

Martin, D . B .

LeMoyne,J.

Masaracchia, E.

148,267

12 229,231 181

Leander, P. 2 6 4

M a s p e r o , G.

Leclercq, H. 2 7 3

M a t t h e w s , E.G.

L e e u w , G. van der 2 3 4

Mazar, B.

L e f k o w i t z , M.

McArthur, H. 6 2

246

McGowen, A.

Leonhardt, J. 4 6 , 106

M c K a y , K.L.

196

Leroy-Molinghen, A.

204

71,87

L e o n , H.J. 71 Lerch, D .

282

233 161

M c L e a n , B.H. 6 208

M c N a m a r a , M.

67

Index of modern McVey,K.

208

Measson, A.

122

Meijer, P.A.

246

Meisterhans, K. 261

OrcibalJ.

151

Osborn, E.

133

Panayotov, A . 2 2 , 7 1 , 7 3

M e l e z e - M o d r z e j e w s k i , J. Menken, M.

345

authors

31,108

166

Parker, R.

231,245,246

Parmentier, M.F.G. 9, 196

Mercier, Ch. 6 8 , 120

Patrich,J.

9,209

Meredith, A .

Pearce, S.

106

181

Meyer, M.

279,281,284

Pearson, B.W.R. 2 2 5

M i c h e l , O.

177

Pease, A . S .

247

Millar, F. 1 2 , 2 8 , 4 4 , 104,

Pelletier,A.

108

Milligan, G.

Perichon, P. 18

239

Perrot, Ch. 9 2

Miranda, E. 7 2 Mirecki, P.

279,281,284

P e s c h , R. Petit, F.

Mirsky, M.J.

226

Mitchell, S.

35,74

16 114,204

Popkin, R.H.

Mitford, T.B. 2 8 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 , 3 5

Porter, F.C.

Mittmann-Richert, U. 4

Porter, S.E.

M o n i e r - W i l l i a m s , M.

Porton,G.

M o n t g o m e r y , J.A. M o o r e , G.F. Mor, M .

252

145

60-2,266,267

155 59-61 225

117

P o w e l l , J.E. 2 5 9 Pradel, F.

234,239

Preisendanz, K.

229

269,276,281

Preisigke, F. 2 5 7 , 2 6 3

Morabito, V. 141 Mortari, L. 2 0 6

Preuschen, E. 1 7 2 , 173

M o u l t o n , J.H. 1 6 1 , 1 6 5 , 2 3 9

Price, J. 8 6

M u s s i e s , G. 4 , 1 7 , 5 0

Price, R . M .

206

Pulleyn, S.

110

Naveh,J.

283

Pummer, R. 14, 3 8 , 134, 139, 140, 145,

N e g e l e i n , J. v o n

234

N e s t l e , W. 1 0 1 , 1 7 2 , 2 4 3 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 5 , 2 4 6 ,

154,224 Purvis, J.D. 134, 136, 140

247, 248, 249 N e w m a n , J.H. 7

Rabello,A.M.

Nickelsburg, G . W . E . 1 3 4

Radt, S.

Niebuhr, K.-W.

5,9

20

180

Rahmani, L.Y.

72,96

N i g g e m e y e r , J.-H. 2 7 3

Rajak,T.

N i k i p r o w e t z k y , V. 110, 111, 114

R a m s e y , B. 2 0 8

N i l s s o n , M.P. 2 3 5 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 6

Regnault, L. 2 0 8

Nobbs,A.

Rehkopf, F. 161

30

Nock,A.D.

93,270,271,279

N o e t h l i c h s , K.

32,222

46,48,52

Reifenberg, A . Reinink, G.J.

28,31,32,34 224

N o y , D . 2 2 , 2 3 , 3 7 , 4 0 , 5 0 , 7 1 - 8 6 , 104

Reland,A.

N y s t r o m , B. 2 3

Rengstorf, K.H.

155

Reverdin, O. Odeberg, H.

124

O e g e m a , G.S. O l s s o n , B.

4

106

Onians, R . B .

167-8

Oppenheimer, A . 4 8

230

190

R e y - C o q u a i s , J.-P. 5 4 R e y n o l d s , J.

48,54,81

R i e d w e g , C. 2 4 8 Rinaldi, G. Rist,J.M.

181 228

346 Rist, M.

Index of modern

272

R i z z o , S.

Segonds, A.-Ph.

181

Robert, L.

authors

Seligsohn, M.

24,43,47,50-1

Robertson, A.T.

161

R o c h h o l z , E.L.

216

18

Shaked, Sh. 2 8 3 Shanks, H. 88

234

Sharf, A .

56,223

R o m e r o P o s e , E. 2 0 8

Sherif, M.

R o m p a y , L. van

Short, Ch. 2 5 2

199

57-8

Roscher, W.H. 2 3 7 , 2 3 8 , 2 6 7

Silver, A . H .

19

Roth, L.

Silvera, M.

152

29,78

R o u e c h e , Ch.

54,57-8,82

S i m o n , M.

20,35,221,224

R o w l a n d s , E.C. 2 5 1

S i m o n , R.

154

R u b i n k i e w i c z , R. 2 7 3

S i m o n s o h n , S. 3 7

Rudhardt, J. 9, 190, 191

Sirinjan, M.

18

Ruiten, J.T.A.G.M.

Sjoberg, E.

129

Runesson, A.

67

106

Skard, E. 177, 179

Runia, D.T. 5, 114, 120, 125, 130, 132,

Sly, D .

133, 2 4 3 Saffrey, H . D . Safrai, S.

216

12 62

Salvesen, A.

29,31,36 229

Sanders, I.F.

115, 182 39,46,91,268,272,278-9,

280, 282

Sander-Hansen, C E .

Sauer, G.

S m a l l w o o d , M. Smelik, K . A . D . Smith, M.

123

114

123

Smith, A .

Saldarini, A.J.

Satran, D .

Skarsten, R.

263

12,25,26

10,90,91 129

Smith, M.F. 8 5 , 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 3 Snell,B.

242

Solin,H.

23

S o m o l i n o s , J.R.

Sawyer, J.F.A.

209

Sperber, A .

229

68

Schafer, P. 8, 10, 8 5 , 108, 2 3 0 , 2 3 2 , 2 8 3

Speyart van Woerden, I.

Schechter, S.

Speyer, W.

Schenkl, H.

59-61

Spicq, C.

178

16,229

Schermann, Th. 2 8 3

S p i e g e l , S.

Schiffman, L.H.

Stahlin,G.

129 244

136,147,149,150

195

S c h m i d , W.

244,249

Stahlin,0.

Schmidt, F.

179

Stanton, G.N. Starr, J.

Schnabel, E.J. 5 0 Schneider, G.

110

32,58

Stein, E. 2 0 6

16

Schreckenberg, H.

196

101

32,216,222

Stemberger, G. 19, 117, 148

Schurer, E. 1 2 , 3 1 , 4 2 , 2 7 4 , 2 7 7

Stemplinger, E. 2 3 5

S c h w a b e , M. 71

Sterling, G.E. 5 , 6 4 , 9 8 , 114

Schwartz, D . 9 9 , 100, 102, 103

Stern, D . 2 2 6

Schwartz, E.

Stern, E.

206,207,213

S c h w a r z f u c h s , S. 21 Schwemer, A.M. S c h w y z e r , E.

174,253,261

12,14,17,23,29,31,35,42,

71,230 S t i e g m a n n , E. Stolte, B.H.

Scott, R. 55 Seager,A.R.

43

Sedley, D . N .

228

Segal, A.F.

31,90,179

139

Stern, M .

195

59,62,65

224

Stone, M . E . 4 6 Stratos,A.N.

223

Stroumsa, G.G.

110

Index of modern S w e t n a m , J.

195

347

authors

Wagenaar, W.A. Wander, B. 4 8

58

Swidler, L. 2 6 Szantyr, A .

Washburn, D . L .

118

252

Watson, D.F.

117

Tabory, J. 5, 8, 113

Weinberger, L.J. 21

Tal, A .

Wendt,H.H.

154

173

Tannenbaum, R. 4 8 , 5 4 , 81

Wessely, C. 2 7 0

Tardieu, M.

Wevers,J.W.

225

White, L.M.

178

Wigoder,G.

117

273

Tcherikover, V.A. Terian, A .

14,22,71

114

Tevel,J.M.

198,202

W i l a m o w i t z - M o e l l e n d o r f f , U. v o n

T h o m s e n , P. 2 0 6

Wilckens,U.

Thornhill,R.

Wilken, R.

142

Thraede, K.

283

181,226

Wilkinson, J. 9 2

Thurn, J. 55

Williams, M.H. 55, 72, 77, 86

Tiede, D . L . 21

W i l l i a m s o n , R. 9 8

Till,W.C.

Wineland, J.D. 4 4

262

Tonneau, R.M. 2 0 4 Tournay, R. 146

Winiarczyk, M. 2 4 3 , 2 4 6 , 2 4 7 , 2 4 8 ,

Tozzer, A . M .

Winston, D . 6 4 , 131

251

249

Trafton, J.L. 6 7

Winter, B.W.

Trebilco, P.R.

Winton T h o m a s , D .

Turner, N . Unger, D.J.

162

176

43,44,51,233

161

98

Wolff, H.W.

44

W u n s c h , R.

282

239

180

Unnik, W.C. van 2

Yadin,Y.

Untersteiner, M. 2 4 3 , 2 4 4

Yardeni, M.

87 154, 155

Urbach, E.E. 2 0 , 5 9 , 121 Zahn,Th.

177, 186

Van der Horst, s e e Horst, van der

Z a m a g n i , C. 4

VanderKam, J.C.

Zangenberg, J. 137, 140, 1 4 1 , 144, 146,

Verdenius, W.J. Vermes, G.

126 168

12, 195

147 Zeller, D .

124

Versnel, H. 2 4 6

Zgusta, L. 8 0

Ville-Patlagean, E. 5 4

Z i m m e r m a n n , B. 2 4 3

V6geli,A.

Z w i Werblowski, R.J.

172

Volgers, A . 4 Voste,J.-M.

199

20,117

Index of names and subjects 120 years

66-70

Abraham

190-205,209

Abu'lFath

Asia Minor 8 0 - 8 5

acrostichon

131

Assyrians

191

atheism

A c t s o f the A p o s t l e s

135

242-249

98-105

122

BarKochbawar

additive numerals afterlife

157

a s s u m p t i o n s (in J e w i s h e x e g e s i s )

accommodation

Adam

Asima

155

250-68

93-7

229

Barnabas 3 0 B a s i l i u s o f Seleucia

Agrippa I 3 0 , 9 9 - 1 0 3

198,202

B a s n a g e , Jacques 151 - 1 6 0

air 9 6 - 7 , 2 7 5

B a y l e , Pierre

'al tiqre

beach ( w o r s h i p o n the)

123

A l e x a n d e r the Great Alexandria allusions

138-9

99-105

211-2

151-2

Beliar

141-2

Belkira

141

B e n j a m i n o f Tudela 4 2 , 157

alphabet 2 7 3

Beth Alpha

alter ego

biblical interpretation

234-5

195

Amidah

113

biblical quotes 2 0 6 - 1 5

amulets

39-10,85

blowing

anagnostes

106-7

84

116-20

167-175

Blues 5 3 - 8 , 79

A n a s t a s i u s Sinaita 2 2 4

B o d m e r papyri

anthropomorphism

bouleutai

49

breathing

167-175

128-33

anti-Christian p o l e m i c s anti-Jewish p o l e m i c s

181-9

216-26,227-33

190

bridal c h a m b e r

196

A n t i o c h 55 A n t i o c h u s III 4 4

Caecilius o f Calacte 4 2

apenthesia

Cain

82

123-4

Aphrodisias 4 6 , 4 8 , 8 1 - 2 ,

Caligula

Aphrodite 2 8 2

cannibalism

Apollinaris

Cassian 2 0 8

186

apopyrgizein apple

Aqedah Aqiva

248

203-4 191

CUP 86 Cinesias 2 4 6 circus factions

124

Aristophanes Ashera 2 4 0

185

charms 271

Aquila 39, 223 archisynagogos

231-2

C h a l c e d o n , Council o f 2 2 3

147

Aramaic

Celsus

99-103

25,33,81 246

53-8

Cleopatra III 2 9 C n o s s o s 14, 145 condescensio

131

118-20

Index of names and

349

subjects

corpse impurity 2 4 0

evil inclination

Crete

e x o d u s 21

12-27

Critias 2 4 3 - 9

exorcism

cryptic nature o f the B i b l e Cyprus

59-65

273-8,280-4

118

28-36,78

fear (in d i v i n e p e d a g o g y )

Cyrene 232

132-3

Felix 2 9

Cyril o f S c y t h o p o l i s

206-215

fence around the Torah

121-2,264-8

Flaccus 9 9 D a p h n e 55

Flood

David 213

forty less one

death, t w o kinds o f Deborah

266-8

freedmen 1 0 3 , 105

89-91

deisidaimon Delos

120

66-70

85,229-31

Garizim ( M o u n t )

145

Genesis

D e m e t r i u s (the chronographer) Democritus

115-6

246

genitive Ge'ula

172^4 113

demon 63

goat

demonic possession 2 7 3 - 8 , 2 8 0 - 4

Godfearers

Diagoras

245,247-9

grain transport

diakonos

79

Greens

dignumdeo Dike

129,130

107

14,142-4,156

207-9

203-4 48-9 102-3

53-8

Gregory o f N y s s a 2 0 2 Gregory the Great 41

Diogenes o f Oenoanda 85, 2 2 7 - 2 3 3 disputations 2 2 2 divine authorship Doctrina

Jacobi

Dorotheus

Hades 119 56

190 79-80

195,203

hands (stretched out in prayer) hazzan

Drusilla 2 9 Dura Europos

96-7

hand o f G o d

110

79

hebra'ike

33—\, 7 8

hebraikos

logos

273-9,281

H e b r e w 3 7 , 4 0 , 4 7 , 7 5 - 6 , 105, 2 7 2 Ebal

Hekhalot 2 7 7

146

Egypt 2 6 9 , 2 8 0 , 2 8 2

Henri IV 151

Egyptians 2 2 9

heptamyxion

elements

Heraclius

elpizein

112 95

Herman van der Horst 83

enemies of God Enoch

50 32,223

100-1

125-6

hermeneutics

Entolios 3 4

Hesiod

129

Ephraim the Syrian 156, 2 0 4

hiereus

49

Epicurus 8 5 , 130, 2 2 7 - 9

Hierocles

Epimenides

Historia

16

epitaphs 3 7 - 8

185

monachorum

historiola

eros 6 3 erotapokriseis

H o m e r 115, 129 114-6

houtos

207

275,281,283-4 176-180

e s c h a t o l o g y 95

Huguenots

Euripides 2 4 6

Huldah

151-3

87-92

Euthymius 211

hyena

Eve

h y m n s 271

120-2

214-5

Herod the Great 2 9 , 8 7

235-6

350 Iao

Index of names and

subjects

magic bowls 283

271,272,273

idolatry 1 4 2 ^ 1 , 1 4 8 - 9 , 158

magical papyri

image o f God 59, 64

magicians 29, 30, 3 4 - 5 , 2 6 9 - 2 8 4

inscriptions

m a l i c i o u s pleasure

13-4,22-6,32^,37-9,

4 7 - 5 2 , 5 4 , 7 1 - 8 6 , 145, 2 2 7 - 2 3 3 intergroup relations

57-8

intermarriage 7 6 , 1 3 9 - 4 0 Isaac

110-1

Manetho 231 manumission

77

Marcianus 2 2 3 Marinus o f N e a p o l i s

190-205

Isaiah

269-284

Mamas

141,207-8

Isho'dad o f Merv

Marranos 2 2 3

199

Matthew Jephtha's daughter

207-9

Mediterranean S e a

194

102-3

Jeremiah 8 9 , 1 4 2 , 2 7 6

mellopresbyteros

Jerusalem

M e n a s s e h ben Israel

148,277

76

Jewish magic

m e s s i a n i c impostors

278-9

J e w i s h n e s s ( o f inscriptions) 2 2 , 7 3 , 7 4

Messianism

Joel 2 7 3

Methodius 137-140

Judah ha-Nasi Julius Africanus

186

miaros 116, 185

231-3

m i d d a y hour, fear o f 2 3 7 millenarianism

69

Julius Caesar 4 5

Mishnah 223

Justinian 2 2 3

mnema

216

215

m o s a i c s (in s y n a g o g u e s )

Kidron Valley 8 8 K i n g o f the g o d s

195

M o s c h u s , Johannes 2 2 4 112

M o s e s (as a J e w i s h n a m e ) 7 7

134, 136, 1 4 8 - 9

lamellae

154

81

monotropos

Kuthim

18-21

18-21

metrical epitaphs 8 4

148

Julian (the Emperor)

kephalaia

154

menorah 5 0

Jesus 2 7 4

Josephus

157

17

M o s e s 126, 132, 1 4 1 , 2 7 2

271 names o f synagogues

Latin 4 0

N a n t e s , Edict o f

laura 2 1 4

navigation

lector

ner tumid

84

Leontii

Nero

50-1,83

102-3 277

156

Leontius o f N e a p o l i s 3 2

nomina

Levite 85

nomophylakion

barbara

272 4 7 - 8 , 83

normative count 2 6 4

libraries 2 0 9 lion proselytes

103-5

151

numerals

137

250-68

lions 5 0 - 1 liturgical poetry (Jewish) 2 2 4 Louis X I V

151

O e n o a n d a 85 omnisignificance o f the Bible

Luke

98-107

Origen

lungs

167-8

ossuaria 9 6

186

Lykaion, M o u n t 2 3 7 - 8 Palladius 2 0 8 Macarius o f M a g n e s i a magic 2 6 9 - 2 8 4

181-9

particles (Greek) 9 4 patellas

82

119

Index of names and

Patriarchs

37,209

persecution

351

subjects

revolt o f 1 1 5 - 1 1 7 31

99-101

R o m e 1 9 , 4 5 , 1 0 2 - 3 , 104

Pharaoh 2 8 0 - 3 Pharisees

276,278

philargyria Philistines Philo

Sabaoth 2 7 6

82

Sabas

17

207-14

sabbath

98-133

37,267-8

Sacrifice o f Isaac

190-205

Photius 2 2 4

sacrifices 4 6 , 4 9

Phylactery o f M o s e s 39—10

Sadducees

piafraus

Salamis (at Cyprus) 3 0 , 31

133

pilgrimage

92

Samaritan Chronicles

Plato 115, 130, 1 3 2 , 2 4 3 Plutarch pneo

130 alalon

Sambathion 2 3 275

Sarah 1 9 2 - 3 , 1 9 8 - 2 0 0

p o g r o m 9 9 , 108

Sarapion

polytheism

Sardis 4 3 - 5 2 , 8 3 ^ 1

112

13-4

Porphyry 116, 1 8 5 - 7

Schadenfreude

prayer

scholastikos

108-113

presbytera

2 5 , 81

presbyteros

110-1

76

sea ( w o r s h i p near the)

3 8 , 4 1 , 4 9 , 81

principles o f e x e g e s i s

118-20

Seal of Solomon Sefer Zerubbabel

pronoia

Sepharad 4 4

4 8 , 83 88-9

106-7

276

seat-markers 5 4

Prodicus 2 4 6 prophetesses

156,157

Samaritans 1 3 - 4 , 3 8 - 9 , 4 1 , 7 5 , 7 6 , 7 8 , 8 1 , 134-160, 224

167-175

pneuma

148

226

Septuagint 2 2 3

prophets 8 9 - 9 0 , 141

sexual desire 5 9 - 6 5

Protagoras

seyag

245,246

la-Torah

121,264-8

Prounikios 8 2

s h a d o w 234—41

p r o v i d e n c e 4 8 , 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 , 113

Shield o f Abraham

Psalms

S h i m o n ben G a m l i e l

207-210

Pseudo-Eupolemos

145-6

Shomea'

Tefillah

Pseudo-Phocylides

93-97

Sicily 37^12

113 147

113

Ptah 2 7 5

sign o f Cain

P t o l e m y VI 12, 13

S i m o n the M a c c a b e e 2 8

124-5

P t o l e m y IX 2 9

Sisyphus 2 4 4

purity 106, 1 3 9 ^ 1 0 , 143

snorting

167-175

Puteoli

Socrates

243,245

102

Solomon quaestiones

literature

quotations

206-211

114-6

54,272,276

Sophia ( o f Gortyn) sophodidaskalos

rabbinic e x e g e s i s

116-120

rabbis 3 2 - 3 , 1 1 6 - 1 2 6 , 1 4 6 - 1 5 0 , 2 4 0 Red Sea 2 8 0 - 3 Reds 53

49

Sophronius 31 soul 9 6 spirit 9 6 spiritual death

Reland, Adriaan

155

Stobi

120

75

religion, invention o f 2 4 2

subtractive numerals

resurrection

superstition

94-6

25-6

Sophists 2 4 5

229-31

250-268

352

Index of names and

subjects

synagogues 4 1 , 4 3 , 4 6 - 7 , 103-6

trading v e s s e l s

synkatabasis

trees, s h a d o w o f 2 3 8 - 9

131

S y n o d o f the Oak Syria

102-3

183 Valens

78-80

184

Vision o f D o r o t h e u s tacha

Voltaire

Tacitus 2 3 2 Temple

152

87-8

temple, Samaritan 1 3 8 - 9 , 1 4 4 - 6 , 147

water ( w o r s h i p near)

Tetragrammaton

W h i t e s 53

273

Theodoret ofCyrrus

w o m e n 2 5 - 6 , 123

207

wrath ( G o d ' s )

Theodorus o f Cyrene 247

128-33

T h e o d o s i u s II 19 theomachos

101

theophoric n a m e s theoprepes

14

129-30

Thucydides

246

t o m b s ( o f biblical persons) 50,51,61

Torah-shrine 5 1 , 83

Xenophanes

129

yetserhara'

59-65

yetsertov

Theos Hypsistos 35, 76

Torah

190-1

vital p o w e r 2 3 4

95

59-65

Z e n o (emperor) 55 87-92

Zerubbabel zetemata

226

115

Z e u s Cretagenes

17

106-7

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Alphabetical Index of the First and Second Series

Adna, Jostein:

Jesu Stellung zum Tempel.

2 0 0 0 . Volume

11/119.

Adna, Jostein (Ed.): The Formation o f the Early Church. 2005. Volume 183. - and Kvalbein, Hans (Ed.): The Mission of

the Early Church to Jews and Gentiles. 2000. Volume 127. Alkier, Stefan: Wunder und Wirklichkeit in

den Briefen des Apostels Paulus. 2001. Volume 134. Anderson, Paul N.: The Christology o f the

Fourth Gospel. 1996. Volume 11/78. Appold, Mark L.: The Oneness Motif in the Fourth Gospel. 1976. Volume 11/1. Arnold, Clinton E.: The Colossian Syncretism. 1995. Volume 11/77.

Conflicts As Juridical Controversy. 2001. Die Tauferzahlungen der

Apostelgeschichte. 2002. Volume Avemarie,

Friedrich

and

139.

Hermann

Lichtenberger (Ed.): Auferstehung Ressurection. 2001. Volume 135. - Bund und Tora. 1996. Volume 92. Baarlink, Heinrich: Verkiindigtes Heil. 2004. Volume

Bachmann,

Sunder oder Obertreter.

1992. Volume 59. Bachmann, Michael (Ed.):

Lutherische

und Neue Paulusperspektive. 2005. Volume

182.

Back, Frances: Verwandlung durch Offenbarung bei Paulus. 2002. Volume 11/153. Baker, William R.: Personal Speech-Ethics in the Epistle of James. 1995. Volume 11/68. Bakke, OddMagne: 'Concord and Peace'. 2 0 0 1 . Volume Baldwin, Matthew 2 0 0 5 . Volume

Balla,

Peter:

11/143. C: Whose Acts of Peter"? 11/196.

Challenges to N e w Testament

Theology. 1997. Volume

-

11/95.

The Child-Parent Relationship in the N e w Testament and its Environment. 2 0 0 3 . Volume

Bammel,

155.

Ernst:

Volume

37.

11/92.

Baum,

Armin

Daniel:

Pseudepigraphie und

literarische Falschung im friihen Christentum. 2 0 0 1 . Volume Bayer, Hans Friedrich:

11/138. Jesus' Predictions o f

Vindication and Resurrection. 1986. Volume 11/20. Becker, Eve-Marie and Peter

Pilhofer

(Ed.):

Biographie und Personlichkeit des Paulus. 2005. Volume 187. Becker, Michael: Wunder und Wundertater Volume 11/144. Becker, Michael and Markus

Ohler

(Ed.):

Apokalyptik als Herausforderung neutestamentlicher Theologie. 2006. Volume 194. Bell, Richard H.: The Irrevocable Call of God. 2005. Volume 184. - N o One Seeks for God. 1998. Volume 106. - Provoked to Jealousy. 1994. Volume 11/63. Bennema, Cornells: The Power o f Saving Wisdom. 2 0 0 2 . Volume 11/148. Bergman,

Bergmeier,

Jan: see Kieffer,

Roland:

Rene

Das Gesetz im Romerbrief

und andere Studien zum Neuen Testament.

168.

Michael:

Volume

Bauernfeind, Otto: Kommentar und Studien zur Apostelgeschichte. 1980. Volume 22.

im friih-rabbinischen Judentum. 2002.

Ascough, RichardS.: Paul's Macedonian Associations. 2 0 0 3 . Volume 11/161. Asiedu-Peprah, Martin: Johannine Sabbath Volume 11/132. Avemarie, Friedrich:

- Volume II 1997. Volume 91. Bash, Anthony: Ambassadors for Christ. 1997.

Judaica. Volume I 1986.

2 0 0 0 . Volume 121. Betz, Otto: Jesus, der Messias Israels. 1987. Volume

42.

- Jesus, der Herr der Kirche. 1990. Volume 52. Beyschlag, Karlmann: Simon Magus und die christliche Gnosis. 1974. Volume 16. Bittner, Wolfgang J.: Jesu Zeichen im Johannesevangelium. 1987. Volume

Bjerkelund, Volume Blackburn,

11/26.

Carl J.: Tauta Egeneto. 1987. 40. Barry

Lee: Theios Ane- r and the

Markan Miracle Traditions. 1991. Volume

Bock,

Darrell

11/40.

L.: Blasphemy and Exaltation in

Judaism and the Final Examination of Je­ sus. 1998. Volume 11/106. Bockmuehl, Markus N.A.: Revelation and

Mystery in Ancient Judaism and Pauline Christianity. 1990. Volume

11/36.

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Bee, Sverre: Gog and Magog. 2 0 0 1 . Volume 11/135. Bohlig, Alexander: Gnosis und Synkretismus. Volume 1 1989. Volume 47-Volume

2

1989. Volume 48. Bohm, Martina: Samarien und die Samaritai bei Lukas. 1999. Volume 11/111. Bottrich, Christfried: Weltweisheit - Menschheitsethik - Urkult. 1992. Volume 11/50. Bolyki, Jdnos: Jesu Tischgemeinschaften. 1997. Volume 11/96. Bosman, Philip: Conscience in Philo and Paul. 2003. Volume 11/166. Bovon, Francois: Studies in Early Christiani­

ty. 2 0 0 3 . Volume 161. Brocke, Christoph vom: Thessaloniki - Stadt des Kassander und Gemeinde des Paulus.

2001. Volume 11/125. Brunson, Andrew: Psalm 118 in the Gospel of John. 2 0 0 3 . Volume II/158. Biichli, Jorg: Der Poimandres - ein paganisiertes Evangelium. 1987. Volume 11/27. Buhner, Jan A.: Der Gesandte und sein Weg im

4. Evangelium. 1977. Volume II/2. Burchard, Christoph: Untersuchungen zu Jo­ -

seph undAseneth. 1965. Volume 8. Studien zur Theologie, Sprache und Umwelt des Neuen Testaments. Ed. by D. San­

ger. 1998. Volume 107. Burnett, Richard: Karl Barth's Theological

Exegesis. 2 0 0 1 . Volume 11/145. Byron, John: Slavery Metaphors in Early Judaism and Pauline Christianity. 2003.

Volume 11/162. Byrskog, Samuel: Story as History - History as Story. 2000. Volume 123.

Cancik, Hubert (Ed.): Markus-Philologie. 1984. Volume 33. Capes, David B.: Old Testament Yaweh Texts

in Paul's Christology. 1992. Volume 11/47. Caragounis, Chrys C: The Development of Greek and the New Testament. 2004.

Volume 167. - T h e S o n o f M a n . 1986. Volume38. - see Fridrichsen, Anton. Carleton Paget, James: The Epistle of Barnabas. 1994. Volume 11/64. Carson, D.A., O'Brien, Peter T. and Mark Seifrid (Ed.): Justification and Variegated Nomism. Volume 1: The Complexities of Second

Temple Judaism. 2 0 0 1 . Volume 11/140. Volume 2: The Paradoxes of Paul. 2004.

Volume 11/181. Ciampa, Roy E.: The Presence and Function of Scripture in Galatians 1 and 2. 1998.

Volume 11/102.

Classen, Carl Joachim: Rhetorical Criticsm of the N e w Testament. 2000. Volume 128. Colpe, Carsten: I r a n i e r - A r a m a e r - H e b r a e r Hellenen. 2 0 0 3 . Volume 154.

Crump, David: Jesus the Intercessor. 1992. Volume 11/49. Dahl, Nils Alstrup: Studies in Ephesians. 2000. Volume 131. Deines, Roland: Die Gerechtigkeit der Tora -

im Reich des Messias. 2004. Volume 177. Jiidische SteingefaBe und pharisaische

Frommigkeit. 1993. Volume 11/52. - Die Pharisaer. 1997. Volume 101. Deines, Roland and Karl- Wilhelm Niebuhr (Ed.): Philo und das Neue Testament.

2004. Volume 172. Dettwiler, Andreas and Jean Zumstein (Ed.): Kreuzestheologie im Neuen Testament.

2002. Volume 151. Dickson, John P.: Mission-Commitment in Ancient Judaism and in the Pauline

Communities. 2003. Volume 11/159. Dietzfelbinger, Christian: DerAbschied des Kommenden. 1997. Volume 95. Dimitrov, Ivan Z., James D.G. Dunn, Ulrich Luz and Karl-Wilhelm Niebuhr (Ed.): Das Alte Testament als christliche Bibel in orthodoxer und westlicher Sicht. 2004.

Volume 174. Dobbeler, Axel von: Glaube als Teilhabe. 1987. Volume 11/22. Dryden, J. de Waal: Theology and Ethics in 1 Peter. 2006. Volume 11/209. Du Toit, DavidS.: Theios Anthropos. 1997. Volume 11/91. Dubbers, Michael: Christologie und Existenz im Kolosserbrief. 2005. Volume 11/191. Dunn, James D.G: The New Perspective on Paul. 2 0 0 5 . Volume 185. Dunn , James D.G. (Ed.): Jews and Christians.

1992. Volume 66. -

Paul and the Mosaic Law. 1996. Volume 89.

- see Dimitrov, Ivan Z. -, Hans Klein, Ulrich Luz and Vasile Mihoc (Ed.): Auslegung der Bibel in orthodoxer und westlicher Perspektive. 2000. Volume 130. Ebel, Eva: Die Attraktivitat friiher christlicher Gemeinden. 2004. Volume 11/178.

Ebertz, Michael N.: Das Charisma des Gekreuzigten. 1987. Volume 45. Eckstein, Hans-Joachim: Der Begriff Syneidesis bei Paulus. 1983. Volume 11/10. - VerheiBung und Gesetz. 1996. Volume 86. Ego, Beate: Im Himmel wie auf Erden. 1989.

Volume 11/34. Ego, Beate, Armin Lange and Peter Pilhofer (Ed.): Gemeinde ohne Tempel - C o m m u ­ nity without Temple. 1999. Volume 118.

Wissenschaftliche

-

and Helmut

Merkel

Untersuchungen

(Ed.): Religioses Ler-

nen in der biblischen, fruhjudischen und fruh-christlichen Uberlieferung. 2005. Henning.

Ensor, Peter Eskola,

11/142.

Theodicy and Predestination in Pauline Soteriology. 1998. Volume

11/100.

Fatehi, Mehrdad: The Spirit's Relation to the Risen Lord in Paul. 2000. Volume 11/128. Feldmeier, Reinhard: Die Krisis des Gottessohnes. 1987. Volume

-

Gemiinden, Annette.

Reinhard

and Ulrich

Die Heiden. 1994. Volume Fletcher-Louis,

Forster,

Crispin

Volume

-

Heckel

Green,

(Ed.):

70.

Das Vermachtnis des Apostels.

Volume

Volume

11/33.

11/207.

Andrew:

The Reception of Luke and

Acts in the Period before Irenaeus. 2003. Volume

Inspired Speech in Early Christianity and its Hellenistic Environment. 1995.

137.

Brian Han: The Historical Jesus and

Gregory,

Prophecy and

35.

the Final Judgment Sayings in Q. 2005.

H. T.: Luke-Acts: An­

Brian:

11/99.

Joel B.: The Death of Jesus. 1988.

Gregg,

Marcus Magus. 1999.

Volume 114. Forbes, Christopher

Weissenrieder,

Forschungen zur Apostelgeschichte. 2001. Volume

64.

11/94.

Niclas:

von (Ed.): see

Gheorghita, Radu: The Role of the Septuagint in Hebrews. 2003. Volume 11/160. Grabe, Petrus J.: The Power of God in Paul's Letters. 2000. Volume 11/123. Grafter, Erich: Der Alte Bund im Neuen. 1985.

gels, Christology and Soteriology. 1997. Volume

Petra

Gese, Michael:

11/21.

Die Christen als Fremde. 1992. Volume

Feldmeier,

79.

1997. Volume

Timo: Messiah and the Throne. 2 0 0 1 .

11/38.

Faith, Obedience, and Perseverance. 1994.

Garnet, Paul: Salvation and Atonement in the Qumran Scrolls. 1977. Volume 11/3.

11/85.

Volume

-

11/62.

76.

Faith'. 1991. Volume

-

Volume

W.: Jesus and His 'Works'. 1996.

Volume

Exegetical Writings.

Gackle, Volker: Die Starken und die Schwachen in Korinth und in Rom. 2005. Volume 200. Garlington, Don B.: 'The Obedience of

54.

Creation and Christology. 149. Die 'Minor Agreements'.

1994. Volume

Anton:

1994. Volume

The Old Testament in Early Christianity. 1991. Volume

125.

Fridrichsen,

CD.: Life after Death in Early

Endo, Masanobu: 2 0 0 2 . Volume Ennulat, Andreas:

Sean: Galilee and Gospel. 2000.

Volume

Judaism. 2006. Volume 11/208. Ellis, E. Earle: Prophecy and Hermeneutic in Early Christianity. 1978. Volume 18.

-

Freyne,

Testament

Edited by C.C. Caragounis and T. Fornberg.

Volume 180. Eisen, Ute E.: see Paulsen,

Elledge,

zum Neuen

Grindheim,

11/169.

Sigurd:

2 0 0 5 . Volume

Gundry,

Robert

The Crux of Election. 11/202.

H.: The Old is Better. 2005.

Volume 11/75. Fornberg, Tord: see Fridrichsen, Anton. Fossum, Jarl E.: The Name of God and the

Volume 178. Gundry Volf, Judith M.: Paul and Persever­ ance. 1990. Volume 11/37.

Angel of the Lord. 1985. Volume 36. Foster, Paul: Community, Law and Mission in Matthew's Gospel. Volume 11/177. Fotopoulos, John: Food Offered to Idols in Roman Corinth. 2 0 0 3 . Volume 11/151.

Haufier, Detlef: Christusbekenntnis und Jesusiiberlieferung bei Paulus. 2006. Volume 210. Hafemann, Scott J.: Suffering and the Spirit.

Frenschkowski,

Marco:

Offenbarung und

Epiphanie. Volume 1 1995. Volume 11/79 Volume 2 1997. Volume 11/80. Frey, Jorg: Eugen Drewermann und die biblische Exegese. 1995. Volume 11/71.

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Die johanneische Eschatologie. Volume I. 1997. Volume 96. - Volume II. 1998. Volume 110. - Volume III. 2000. Volume 117.

Frey, Jorg

-

and Lido Schnelle

(Ed.):

Kontexte

des Johannesevangeliums. 2004. Volume 175. and Jens Schroter (Ed.): Deutungen des

Todes Jesu im Neuen Testament. 2005. Volume

181.

1986. Volume

-

11/19.

Paul, Moses, and the History of Israel. 1995. Volume

Hahn,

81.

Ferdinand:

Studien zum Neuen Testa­

ment. Volume I: Grundsatzfragen, Jesusforschung, Evangelien. 2006. Volume 191. - Volume II: Bekenntnisbildung und Theolo­ gie in urchristlicherZeit. 2006. Volume 192. Hahn,

Johannes

(Ed.):

Zerstorungen des Jeru-

salemer Tempels. 2002. Volume 147. Hamid-Khani, Saeed: Relevation and Con­ cealment of Christ. 2000. Volume 11/120. Hannah, Darrel D.: Michael and Christ. 1999. Volume

11/109.

Wissenschaftliche

Harrison;

James

Untersuchungen

R.: Paul's Language of Grace

in Its Graeco-Roman Context. 2003. Volume

Hartman,

11/172.

Lars:

zum Neuen

Testament

Hoegen-Rohls, Christina: Der nachosterliche Johannes. 1996. Volume 11/84. Hoffmann, Matthias Reinhard: The Destro­

yer and the Lamb. 2005. Volume

Text-Centered N e w Testa­

11/203.

ment Studies. Ed. von D. Hellholm. 1997.

Hofius,

Volume

-

Der Vorhang vor dem Thron Gottes. 1972.

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Der Christushymnus Philipper 2,6-11.

Hartog,

102.

Paul:

Volume

Polycarp and the N e w Testa­

ment. 2 0 0 1 . Volume

11/134.

Otfried:

Katapausis. 1970. Volume

14. 2

-

1 9 7 6 , 1 9 9 1 . Volume 17. Paulusstudien. 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 4 . Volume

Vom Evangelium des Markus zum vierge-

-

Neutestamentliche Studien. 2000.

staltigen Evangelium. 1999. Volume 120. Heckel, Ulrich: Kraft in Schwachheit. 1993.

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Paulusstudien II. 2002. Volume

-

and Hans-Christian

Heckel,

Theo K.: Der Innere Mensch. 1993.

Volume

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11/53.

11/56.

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Der Segen im Neuen Testament. 2002.

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Volume 150. see Feldmeier,

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see Hengel,

Reinhard. Martin.

Heiligenthal,

Roman:

Werke als Zeichen.

Hemer,

Volume

Horbury,

Lars.

Setting o f Hellenistic History. 1989.

Judaica et Hellenistica.

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Judaica, Hellenistica et Christiana.

Kleine Schriften I. 1996. Volume

90.

Kleine Schriften II. 1999. Volume

109.

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Paulus und Jakobus. Kleine Schriften III. 2002. Volume 141.

-

and Anna Maria

Horst,

32.

William:

Pieter

Schwemer:

Paulus zwi-

Volume

Hvalvik,

Herodian Judaism and New

193.

W. van der: Jews and Christians in

108.

Der messianische Anspruch Jesu und die Anfange der Christologie. 2001.

Volume 138. Hengel, Martin and Ulrich

196.

Reidar:

The Struggle for Scripture

and Covenant. 1996. Volume 11/82. Jauhiainen, Marko: The Use o f Zechariah in

Revelation. 2005. Volume 11/199. Johns, Loren L.: The Lamb Christology of the Apocalypse o f John. 2 0 0 3 . Volume 11/167. Joubert, Stephan: Paul as Benefactor. 2000. Volume

11/124.

Jungbauer,

schen Damaskus und Antiochien. 1998.

Harry:

2 0 0 2 . Volume

„Ehre Vater und Mutter". 11/146.

Kahler, Christoph: Jesu Gleichnisse als Poesie undTherapie. 1995. Volume 78. Kamlah,

Ehrhard:

Die Form der

katalogischen Paranese im Neuen Testa­ Heckel

ment. 1964. Volume

(Ed.):

Paulus und das antike Judentum. 1991. Volume

143.

Kammler:

Their Graeco-Roman Context. 2006.

-

Volume

132.

Testament Study. 2006. Volume

49.

Hengel, Martin: Judentum und Hellenismus. 1969, M988. Volume 10. - Die johanneische Frage. 1993. Volume 67.

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51.

Johannesstudien. 1996. Volume 88. Holtz, Traugott: Geschichte und Theologie des Urchristentums. 1991. Volume 57. Hommel, Hildebrecht: Sebasmata. Volume 1 1983. Volume 31 - V o l u m e 2 1984.

Colin J.: The Book of Acts in the

Volume

2

Volume

1983. Volume 11/9. Hellholm, D.: see Hartman,

11.

Kammler,

Hans-Christian:

7. Christologie und

Eschatologie. 2000. Volume

58.

126.

Lohr (Ed.): Schriftauslegung

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Kreuz und Weisheit. 2003. Volume 159.

im antiken Judentum und im Urchristen-

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herrschaft Gottes und himm-lischer Kult.

Kelhoffer, James A.: The Diet o f John the Baptist. 2005. Volume 176. Miracle and Mission. 1999. Volume 11/112.

1991. Volume

Kieffer,

-

and Hermut

-

(Ed.): Konigs-

55.

-

Die Septuaginta. 1994. Volume

72.

-,

Siegfried

Maria

Schwemer

Mittmann

and Anna

1990. Volume

Herzer,

Jens:

Volume

11/41.

Paulus oder Petrus? 1998. 103.

Hill, Charles E.: From the Lost Teaching o f Polycarp. 2005. Volume 186.

Rene and Jan Bergman

(Ed.):

La Main

de Dieu / Die Hand Gottes. 1997. Volume 94. Kim,

Seyoon: The Origin o f Paul's Gospel. 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 4 . Volume II/4.

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Paul and the N e w Perspective. 2002.

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"The 'Son of Man'" as the Son of God.

(Ed.): La Cite de Dieu / Die Stadt

Gottes. 2000. Volume 129. Herrenbruck, Fritz: Jesus und die Zollner.

Otfried.

2

Volume

140.

1983. Volume

30.

Klauck, Hans-Josef: Religion und Gesellschaft im friihen Christentum. 2003. Volume 152. Klein,

Hans:

see Dunn,

James

D. G.

Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament Kleinknecht, Karl Th.: Der leidende Gerechtfertigte. 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 8 8 . Volume 11/13.

Lau, Andrew: Manifest in Flesh. 1996.

Klinghardt, Matthias: Gesetz und Volk Gottes.

Lawrence, Louise: An Ethnography of the

Volume 11/86.

2

1988. Volume 11/32. Kloppenborg, John S.: The Tenants in the

Gospel of Matthew. 2003. Volume 11/165. Lee, Aquila H.I.: From Messiah to Preexistent

Son. 2005. Volume 11/192.

Vineyard. 2006. Volume 195.

Koch, Michael: Drachenkampf und Sonnenfrau. 2004. Volume 11/184. Koch, Stefan: Rechtliche Regelung von Kon-

Lee, Pilchan: The N e w Jerusalem in the Book

of Relevation. 2000. Volume 11/129. Lichtenberger, Hermann: Das Ich Adams und

flikten im friihen Christentum. 2004.

Volume 11/174. Kohler, Wolf-Dietrich: Rezeption des Matthausevangeliums in der Zeit vor

Irenaus. 1987. Volume 11/24. Kohn, Andreas: Der Neutestamentler Ernst Lohmeyer. 2004. Volume 11/180. Kooten, George H. van: Cosmic Christology in Paul and the Pauline School. 2003.

das Ich der Menschheit. 2004. Volume 164.

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see Avemarie, Friedrich.

Herman, John: The N e w Testament Moses. 2004. Volume 11/173. Lieu, Samuel N.C.: Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China. 2

1 9 9 2 . Volume 63.

Lindgdrd, Fredrik: Paul's Line of Thought in 2 Corinthians 4:16-5:10. 2004.

Volume 11/171.

Volume 11/189.

Korn, Manfred: Die Geschichte Jesu in veran-

Loader, William R.G.: Jesus'Attitude Towards

derterZeit. 1993. Volume 11/51. Koskenniemi, Erkki: Apollonios von Tyana in

Lohr, Gebhard: Verherrlichung Gottes durch

der neutestamentlichen Exegese. 1994.

Volume 11/61. The Old Testament Miracle-Workers in Early Judaism. 2 0 0 5 . Volume 11/206. Kraus, Thomas J.: Sprache, Stil und historischer Ort des zweiten Petrusbriefes. 2 0 0 1 .

the Law. 1997. Volume 11/97. P h i l o s o p h i c 1997. Volume 97. Lohr, Hermut: Studien zum fruhchristlichen

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Volume 11/136.

und fruhjudischen Gebet. 2003. Volume 160.

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see Hengel, Martin.

Lohr, Winrich Alfried: Basilides und seine Schu-

le. 1995. Volume 83.

Kraus, Wolfgang: Das Volk Gottes. 1996.

Luomanen, Petri: Entering the Kingdom of Heaven. 1998. Volume 11/101.

Volume 85. Kraus, Wolfgang and Karl-Wilhelm Niebuhr

Mackay, Ian D.: John's Raltionship with

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Luz, Ulrich: see Dunn, James D.G. Mark. 2004. Volume 11/182.

(Ed.): Friihjudentum und Neues Testament im Horizont Biblischer Theologie. 2003.

Maier, Gerhard: Mensch und freier Wille.

Volume 162. see Walter, Nikolaus.

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Kreplin, Matthias: Das Selbstverstandnis Jesu.

2001. Volume 11/141. Kuhn, Karl G.: Achtzehngebet und Vaterunser u n d d e r R e i m . 1950. Volume 1.

1971. Volume 12. Die Johannesoffenbarung und die Kirche.

1981. Volume 25. Markschies, Christoph: Valentinus Gnosticus?

1992. Volume 65.

Kvalbein, Hans: see Adna, Jostein.

Marshall, Peter: Enmity in Corinth: Social Conventions in Paul's Relations with the

Kwon, Yon-Gyong: Eschatology in Galatians. 2004. Volume 11/183.

Corinthians. 1987. Volume 11/23. Mayer, Annemarie: Sprache der Einheit im

Laansma, Jon: I Will Give You Rest. 1997.

Volume 11/98.

Epheserbrief und in der Okumene. 2002.

Volume 11/150.

Labahn, Michael: Offenbarung in Zeichen und Wort. 2 0 0 0 . Volume 11/117.

Mayordomo, Moises: Argumentiert Paulus

Lambers-Petry, Doris: see Tomson, Peter J. Lange, Armin: see Ego, Beate.

McDonough, Sean M.: Y H W H at Patmos:

Lampe, Peter: Die stadtromischen Christen in

Setting. 1999. Volume 11/107. McGlynn, Moyna: Divine Judgement and

den ersten beiden Jahrhunderten. 1987, 2

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Jiingerberufung und Zuwendung zu Gott.

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logisch? 2005. Volume 188. Rev. 1:4 in its Hellenistic and Early Jewish

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Volume 11/115. Ostmeyer, Karl-Heinrich: Taufe und Typos. 2000. Volume 11/118. Paulsen, Henning: Studien zur Literatur und von Ute E. Eisen. 1997. Volume 99. Pao, David W.: Acts and the Isaianic New Exo­

dus. 2000. Volume 11/130. Park, Eung Chun: The Mission Discourse in Matthew's Interpretation. 1995.

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Pate, C. Marvin: The Reverse of the Curse. 2000. Volume 11/114. Peres, Imre: Griechische Grabinschriften und

Das Verstandnis der Siinde im Johannesevangelium. 2000. Volume 122.

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Pokorny, Petr and Jan Roskovec (Ed.): Philosophical Hermeneutics and Biblical Exegesis. 2002. Volume 153.

Popkes, Enno Edzard: Die Theologie der Liebe Gottes in den johanneischen Schriften.

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