CEPHALEXIN A M EDICAL D ICTIONARY , B IBLIOGRAPHY , AND A NNOTATED R ESEARCH G UIDE TO I NTERNET R E FERENCES
J AMES N. P ARKER , M.D. AND P HILIP M. P ARKER , P H .D., E DITORS
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ICON Health Publications ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, 4th Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Copyright 2003 by ICON Group International, Inc. Copyright 2003 by ICON Group International, Inc. All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No part of it may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Last digit indicates print number: 10 9 8 7 6 4 5 3 2 1
Publisher, Health Care: Philip Parker, Ph.D. Editor(s): James Parker, M.D., Philip Parker, Ph.D. Publisher's note: The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained in this book are not intended for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. As new medical or scientific information becomes available from academic and clinical research, recommended treatments and drug therapies may undergo changes. The authors, editors, and publisher have attempted to make the information in this book up to date and accurate in accord with accepted standards at the time of publication. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for errors or omissions or for consequences from application of the book, and make no warranty, expressed or implied, in regard to the contents of this book. Any practice described in this book should be applied by the reader in accordance with professional standards of care used in regard to the unique circumstances that may apply in each situation. The reader is advised to always check product information (package inserts) for changes and new information regarding dosage and contraindications before prescribing any drug or pharmacological product. Caution is especially urged when using new or infrequently ordered drugs, herbal remedies, vitamins and supplements, alternative therapies, complementary therapies and medicines, and integrative medical treatments. Cataloging-in-Publication Data Parker, James N., 1961Parker, Philip M., 1960Cephalexin: A Medical Dictionary, Bibliography, and Annotated Research Guide to Internet References / James N. Parker and Philip M. Parker, editors p. cm. Includes bibliographical references, glossary, and index. ISBN: 0-597-83855-0 1. Cephalexin-Popular works. I. Title.
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Disclaimer This publication is not intended to be used for the diagnosis or treatment of a health problem. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not engaging in the rendering of medical, psychological, financial, legal, or other professional services. References to any entity, product, service, or source of information that may be contained in this publication should not be considered an endorsement, either direct or implied, by the publisher, editors, or authors. ICON Group International, Inc., the editors, and the authors are not responsible for the content of any Web pages or publications referenced in this publication.
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Acknowledgements The collective knowledge generated from academic and applied research summarized in various references has been critical in the creation of this book which is best viewed as a comprehensive compilation and collection of information prepared by various official agencies which produce publications on cephalexin. Books in this series draw from various agencies and institutions associated with the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and in particular, the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), the Administration for Children and Families (ACF), the Administration on Aging (AOA), the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Healthcare Financing Administration (HCFA), the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), the Indian Health Service (IHS), the institutions of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Program Support Center (PSC), and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). In addition to these sources, information gathered from the National Library of Medicine, the United States Patent Office, the European Union, and their related organizations has been invaluable in the creation of this book. Some of the work represented was financially supported by the Research and Development Committee at INSEAD. This support is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, special thanks are owed to Tiffany Freeman for her excellent editorial support.
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About the Editors James N. Parker, M.D. Dr. James N. Parker received his Bachelor of Science degree in Psychobiology from the University of California, Riverside and his M.D. from the University of California, San Diego. In addition to authoring numerous research publications, he has lectured at various academic institutions. Dr. Parker is the medical editor for health books by ICON Health Publications. Philip M. Parker, Ph.D. Philip M. Parker is the Eli Lilly Chair Professor of Innovation, Business and Society at INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France and Singapore). Dr. Parker has also been Professor at the University of California, San Diego and has taught courses at Harvard University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and UCLA. Dr. Parker is the associate editor for ICON Health Publications.
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About ICON Health Publications To discover more about ICON Health Publications, simply check with your preferred online booksellers, including Barnes & Noble.com and Amazon.com which currently carry all of our titles. Or, feel free to contact us directly for bulk purchases or institutional discounts: ICON Group International, Inc. 4370 La Jolla Village Drive, Fourth Floor San Diego, CA 92122 USA Fax: 858-546-4341 Web site: www.icongrouponline.com/health
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Table of Contents FORWARD .......................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON CEPHALEXIN ............................................................................................. 3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 3 The Combined Health Information Database................................................................................. 3 Federally Funded Research on Cephalexin..................................................................................... 6 E-Journals: PubMed Central ......................................................................................................... 7 The National Library of Medicine: PubMed .................................................................................. 8 CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND CEPHALEXIN ................................................................................... 35 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 35 Finding Nutrition Studies on Cephalexin ................................................................................... 35 Federal Resources on Nutrition ................................................................................................... 37 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 38 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND CEPHALEXIN ............................................................. 39 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 39 National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.................................................. 39 Additional Web Resources ........................................................................................................... 41 General References ....................................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER 4. PATENTS ON CEPHALEXIN .......................................................................................... 43 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 43 Patents on Cephalexin.................................................................................................................. 43 Patent Applications on Cephalexin.............................................................................................. 58 Keeping Current .......................................................................................................................... 60 CHAPTER 5. BOOKS ON CEPHALEXIN ............................................................................................. 61 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 61 The National Library of Medicine Book Index ............................................................................. 61 Chapters on Cephalexin ............................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER 6. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON CEPHALEXIN................................................................ 63 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 63 News Services and Press Releases................................................................................................ 63 Academic Periodicals covering Cephalexin.................................................................................. 64 CHAPTER 7. RESEARCHING MEDICATIONS .................................................................................... 67 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 67 U.S. Pharmacopeia....................................................................................................................... 67 Commercial Databases ................................................................................................................. 68 APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES ............................................................................................ 71 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 71 NIH Guidelines............................................................................................................................ 71 NIH Databases............................................................................................................................. 73 Other Commercial Databases....................................................................................................... 78 APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES ................................................................................................. 79 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 79 Patient Guideline Sources............................................................................................................ 79 Finding Associations.................................................................................................................... 81 APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES .................................................................................. 83 Overview...................................................................................................................................... 83 Preparation................................................................................................................................... 83 Finding a Local Medical Library.................................................................................................. 83 Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada ................................................................................... 83 ONLINE GLOSSARIES.................................................................................................................. 89 Online Dictionary Directories ..................................................................................................... 89
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CEPHALEXIN DICTIONARY....................................................................................................... 91 INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 125
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FORWARD In March 2001, the National Institutes of Health issued the following warning: "The number of Web sites offering health-related resources grows every day. Many sites provide valuable information, while others may have information that is unreliable or misleading."1 Furthermore, because of the rapid increase in Internet-based information, many hours can be wasted searching, selecting, and printing. Since only the smallest fraction of information dealing with cephalexin is indexed in search engines, such as www.google.com or others, a non-systematic approach to Internet research can be not only time consuming, but also incomplete. This book was created for medical professionals, students, and members of the general public who want to know as much as possible about cephalexin, using the most advanced research tools available and spending the least amount of time doing so. In addition to offering a structured and comprehensive bibliography, the pages that follow will tell you where and how to find reliable information covering virtually all topics related to cephalexin, from the essentials to the most advanced areas of research. Public, academic, government, and peer-reviewed research studies are emphasized. Various abstracts are reproduced to give you some of the latest official information available to date on cephalexin. Abundant guidance is given on how to obtain free-of-charge primary research results via the Internet. While this book focuses on the field of medicine, when some sources provide access to non-medical information relating to cephalexin, these are noted in the text. E-book and electronic versions of this book are fully interactive with each of the Internet sites mentioned (clicking on a hyperlink automatically opens your browser to the site indicated). If you are using the hard copy version of this book, you can access a cited Web site by typing the provided Web address directly into your Internet browser. You may find it useful to refer to synonyms or related terms when accessing these Internet databases. NOTE: At the time of publication, the Web addresses were functional. However, some links may fail due to URL address changes, which is a common occurrence on the Internet. For readers unfamiliar with the Internet, detailed instructions are offered on how to access electronic resources. For readers unfamiliar with medical terminology, a comprehensive glossary is provided. For readers without access to Internet resources, a directory of medical libraries, that have or can locate references cited here, is given. We hope these resources will prove useful to the widest possible audience seeking information on cephalexin. The Editors
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From the NIH, National Cancer Institute (NCI): http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/ten-things-to-know.
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CHAPTER 1. STUDIES ON CEPHALEXIN Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to locate peer-reviewed references and studies on cephalexin.
The Combined Health Information Database The Combined Health Information Database summarizes studies across numerous federal agencies. To limit your investigation to research studies and cephalexin, you will need to use the advanced search options. First, go to http://chid.nih.gov/index.html. From there, select the “Detailed Search” option (or go directly to that page with the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html). The trick in extracting studies is found in the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Journal Article.” At the top of the search form, select the number of records you would like to see (we recommend 100) and check the box to display “whole records.” We recommend that you type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. Consider using the option “anywhere in record” to make your search as broad as possible. If you want to limit the search to only a particular field, such as the title of the journal, then select this option in the “Search in these fields” drop box. The following is what you can expect from this type of search: •
Erythromycin and Amoxicillin? Source: Journal of the Tennessee Dental Association. 81(1): 34-36. Winter 2001. Contact: Available from Journal of the Tennessee Dental Association. 2104 Sunset Place, Nashville, TN 37212. E-mail:
[email protected]. Summary: A large number of patients with odontogenic (arising in the teeth) infections are referred to the graduate and undergraduate oral surgery clinics at the University of Tennessee, College of Dentistry. These patients have often been placed on antibiotics by the referring dentist. Two of the more commonly prescribed antibiotics are erythromycin and amoxicillin. This article provides a brief review of the antibiotics most commonly used to treat odontogenic infections, and illustrates why erythromycin and amoxicillin may not be the best choice. Other drugs discussed include penicillin,
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cephalosporins, clindamycin, and metronidazole. The author concludes that two drugs that are effective alternatives in the penicillin allergic patient are cephalexin and clindamycin. They are bactericidal and effective against the oral streptococci and oral anaerobes that cause most odontogenic infections. 5 references. •
Drug/Nutrient Interactions Involving Twenty of the Most Commonly Prescribed Medications in the United States Source: Journal of Practical Hygiene. 9(1): 39-48. January-February 2000. Contact: Available from Montage Media Corporation. 1000 Wyckoff Avenue, Mahwah, NJ 07430-3164. (201) 891-3200. Summary: The increased use of prescribed medication in the United States has established the need for dental professionals to understand the possible interactions between medications and nutrients. This article discusses interactions between nutrients and the 20 most commonly prescribed medications in 1998: conjugated estrogen, levothyroxine, amoxicillin, hydrocodone, fluoxetine, omeprazole, azithromycin, atorvastin, amlodipine, loratine, digoxin, sertaline, aerosol, paroxetine, amoxicillin, lisinopril, enalapril, amoxicillin clavulanate potassium, and cephalexin. In addition, a discussion of practical considerations for the dental hygiene practice is provided. The authors stress that thoroughly completing and reviewing the dental patient's medical and drug history, as well as conducting a diet assessment, are methods by which the dental hygienist can determine if a patient's health is at risk due to drug and nutrient interactions. 3 figures. 2 tables. 38 references.
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Effective Postcoital Prophylaxis of Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections in Premenopausal Women: A Review Source: International Urogynecology Journal. 2(3): 156-160. September 1991. Summary: This article reports on a study of 77 sexually active premenopausal women, who were susceptible to recurrent urinary tract infections (UTI) but otherwise healthy. The subjects were administered postcoital prophylaxis consisting of a single oral dose of either cotrimoxazole, 50 mg nitrofurantoin macrocrystals, 500 mg nalidixic acid, 250 mg cinoxacin, or 250 mg cephalexin. Postcoital prophylaxis reduced the incidence of recurrent UTI from 5-8 UTI per patient/year prior to prophylaxis, to 0.03 UTI per patient/year following prophylaxis. The authors note that postcoital prophylaxis of recurrent UTI in premenopausal women is highly effective because of easy compliance, the high urinary concentration achieved, and the minimal induction of resistance in the introital Gram-negative bacterial flora, irrespective of the length of time this prophylaxis is used. 3 tables. 28 references. (AA-M).
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Clostridium Difficile Infection in Obstetric and Gynecologic Patients Source: Southern Medical Journal. 90(9): 889-892. September 1997. Contact: Available from Southern Medical Association. 35 Lakeshore Drive, Birmingham, AL 35209. (205) 945-1840. Summary: This article reports on a study undertaken to review Clostridium difficile in obstetric and gynecologic patients, with the goal of better characterizing the incidence and course of women with C. difficile infection. The authors reviewed hospital records of women who use obstetrics and gynecologic services and who had a diagnosis of antibiotic-associated diarrhea, pseudomembranous colitis, or C. difficile infection Cases were included if there was identification of C. difficile by culture or toxin or endoscopic
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verification of pseudomembranous colitis. Between January 1985 and June 1995, there were 74,120 admissions to the obstetrics and gynecology services at two tertiary level hospitals. Eighteen women were found to have documented C. difficile infection (0.02 percent). Diarrhea developed from 2 days to 30 days after antibiotics had been given (mean was 10 days). Nine patients had fever, six had nausea and vomiting, and five had abdominal pain. Antimicrobial agents given before infection included cephalexin, cefoxitin, imipenem, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim and sulfmethoxazole, ampicillin, gentamicin, and clindamycin. All patients were treated successfully with inpatient antimicrobial agents: 15 with metronidazole and 3 with vancomycin. There was one possible recurrence. 1 table. 14 references. (AA-M). •
Short Course of Antibiotics and Low Fluid Intake Promote Cure in Cystitis Source: Contemporary Urology. 7(5): 44-46, 48, 50-52, 55. May 1995. Contact: Available from Medical Economics Publishing. 5 Paragon Drive, Montvale, NJ 07645. (800) 432-4570 or (201) 358-7200. Summary: This article reviews how to manage acute cystitis with short course antibiotic therapy and notes the rationale for low fluid intake during treatment. Topics include the pathophysiology of uncomplicated urinary tract infection (UTI); diagnosis; treatment principles; antibiotic choices and courses of therapy; and optimal duration of treatment. Antibiotics discussed include trimethoprim, amoxicillin, cephalexin, nitrofurantoin monohydrate/macrocrystals, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin. The author notes that low fluid intake facilitates cure by increasing urinary concentration of antibacterial compounds. The article concludes with a discussion of self-treatment for recurrent, documented infections. 2 figures. 2 tables. 60 references.
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Saving Face: A Treatment Update for Acne Source: Patient Care. 33(11): 257-258,261-262,264-272,277. June 15, 1999. Summary: This journal article provides health professionals with updated information on evaluating and treating acne. Evaluation involves noting the extent to which the skin is affected, obtaining information on the current skin care regimen and use of acne and other medications, asking the patient about occupational and leisure activities, and determining the types of cosmetics and hair care products used. Monotherapy with resorcinol, salicylic acid, and sulfur is often sufficient for comedonal acne. However, none of these compounds is nearly as useful as the topical retinoid tretinoin. Other topical retinoids that are now available are adapalene and tazarotene. Benzoyl peroxide can also be used as monotherapy for comedonal acne. Azelaic acid 20 percent cream is available for topical treatment of mild to moderate inflammatory acne vulgaris. A very effective strategy is to prescribe benzoyl peroxide plus a topical retinoid. A somewhat gentler combination is benzoyl peroxide or a topical retinoid with a topical antibiotic. The most powerful topical approach for mild inflammatory acne is the gel combination of erythromycin-benzoyl peroxide and a retinoid. An oral antimicrobial, such as tetracycline and erythromycin, should be added to the topical regimen when papules and pustules outnumber comedones and there is some evidence of scarring. Trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole is an option when acne appears to be resistant to erythromycin or the tetracyclines. Other oral agents include cefadroxil, cephalexin, and ciprofloxacin. Isotretinoin can be prescribed for patients who have severe nodular or conglobate acne or those who have less severe inflammatory acne that does not respond to other agents. Adjunct skin care for acne prone skin includes washing the face twice a
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day, refraining from touching or squeezing lesions, and using oil free cosmetics and skin care products. 2 figures, 3 tables, and 7 references.
Federally Funded Research on Cephalexin The U.S. Government supports a variety of research studies relating to cephalexin. These studies are tracked by the Office of Extramural Research at the National Institutes of Health.2 CRISP (Computerized Retrieval of Information on Scientific Projects) is a searchable database of federally funded biomedical research projects conducted at universities, hospitals, and other institutions. Search the CRISP Web site at http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen. You will have the option to perform targeted searches by various criteria, including geography, date, and topics related to cephalexin. For most of the studies, the agencies reporting into CRISP provide summaries or abstracts. As opposed to clinical trial research using patients, many federally funded studies use animals or simulated models to explore cephalexin. The following is typical of the type of information found when searching the CRISP database for cephalexin: •
Project Title: DRUG EXCRETION IN TRANSPLANT PATIENTS Principal Investigator & Institution: Venkataramanan, Raman; University of Pittsburgh at Pittsburgh 350 Thackeray Hall Pittsburgh, Pa 15260 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001 Summary: The objective of this study is to access renal function in renal transplant patients. Here kidney function is determined by administering renal markers--PAH, Iothalamate and Cephalexin to renal transplant patients to study active tubular anionic secretion, filtration, and active tubular secretion. Twelve kidney transplant patients will be divided into two groups, six will receive Iothalamate (IOH) and PAH over a three hour period, the other six will receive Cephalexin as a bolus and studied over eight hours. Drugs will be assayed in plasma and urine collected, and results compared with six normals receiving Ioth/PAH. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
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Project Title: MUCOSAL CELL TRANSPORTERS & ENZYMES IN DRUG DELIVERY Principal Investigator & Institution: Amidon, Gordon L.; Professor of Pharmaceutics; None; University of Michigan at Ann Arbor 3003 South State, Room 1040 Ann Arbor, Mi 481091274 Timing: Fiscal Year 2001; Project Start 01-SEP-1986; Project End 01-MAR-2003 Summary: The long-term goal of the proposed research is to develop a mechanistic approach to enhancing drug membrane transport to improve drug delivery. We will focus on gastrointestinal transport, but also include membrane transport and transporter expression or over expression via transduction methods, e.g. plasmid or
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Healthcare projects are funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), and Office of Assistant Secretary of Health (OASH).
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viral gene hPEPT1 delivery to enhance drug efficacy. Our molecular understanding of membrane transport is evolving at a very rapid pace due to advances in molecular biology, human genetics, and bioinformatics. This proposed project is a continuation of the advances that have made in mucosal cell peptide and peptimdomimetic transport and metabolism and in the molecular understanding of mucosal cell transport based on the cloned human proton coupled peptide transport system (hPEPT1). This transporter is responsible for the intestinal absorption of di- and tri- peptides, and important peptidomimetic drugs include beta-lactum antibiotics and ACE inhibitors. Very recently we have demonstrated the exciting finding that nucleoside ester prodrugs e.g. valacyclovir and the valyl ester of AZT, utilize this transporter. This research project will extend and exploit this broad structural specificity for drug delivery through I) Synthesis of prodrugs of anti-viral and anticancer therapeutic agents, ii.) Determination of the structure transport and structure hydrolysis relationships for a diverse range of nucleosides and amino acid and di-peptide analogues, iii) Identification and cloning of the esterase enzymes responsible for ester prodrug hydrolysis and, iv.)In vivo human studies to establish the correlation between peptide transporter activity and absorption of carrier-mediated valacyclovir, cephalexin. A unique and important component of these human studies will be intestinal biopsy sampling to measure the levels of intestinal peptide transporter (hPEPT1) and, esterase enzyme levels. The correlation of these molecular determinants of absorption and systemic availability with intestinal drug permeability, Peff, and systemic plasma levels (Cmax, and AUC) will provide a fundamental molecular understanding of the factors responsible for in vivo drug absorption and absorption variation. This will guide the future design of drugs and prodrugs for optimal drug absorption and enhanced efficacy. Website: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/crisp/Crisp_Query.Generate_Screen
E-Journals: PubMed Central3 PubMed Central (PMC) is a digital archive of life sciences journal literature developed and managed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM).4 Access to this growing archive of e-journals is free and unrestricted.5 To search, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Pmc, and type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the search box. This search gives you access to full-text articles. The following is a sample of items found for cephalexin in the PubMed Central database: •
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Analysis of the Pharmacokinetic Interaction between Cephalexin and Quinapril by a Nonlinear Mixed-Effect Model. by Padoin C, Tod M, Perret G, Petitjean O.; 1998 Jun; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=exter nal&artid=105623
Adapted from the National Library of Medicine: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/about/intro.html.
With PubMed Central, NCBI is taking the lead in preservation and maintenance of open access to electronic literature, just as NLM has done for decades with printed biomedical literature. PubMed Central aims to become a world-class library of the digital age. 5 The value of PubMed Central, in addition to its role as an archive, lies in the availability of data from diverse sources stored in a common format in a single repository. Many journals already have online publishing operations, and there is a growing tendency to publish material online only, to the exclusion of print.
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Study of use of cefdinir versus cephalexin for treatment of skin infections in pediatric patients. The Cefdinir Pediatric Skin Infection Study Group. by Tack KJ, Keyserling CH, McCarty J, Hedrick JA.; 1997 Apr; http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstr act&artid=163785
The National Library of Medicine: PubMed One of the quickest and most comprehensive ways to find academic studies in both English and other languages is to use PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine.6 The advantage of PubMed over previously mentioned sources is that it covers a greater number of domestic and foreign references. It is also free to use. If the publisher has a Web site that offers full text of its journals, PubMed will provide links to that site, as well as to sites offering other related data. User registration, a subscription fee, or some other type of fee may be required to access the full text of articles in some journals. To generate your own bibliography of studies dealing with cephalexin, simply go to the PubMed Web site at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed. Type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” The following is the type of output you can expect from PubMed for cephalexin (hyperlinks lead to article summaries): •
A bioequivalence study of six brands of cephalexin. Author(s): Suleiman MS, Najib NM, el-Sayed YM, Abdulhameed ME. Source: Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics. 1988 February; 13(1): 65-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3360858&dopt=Abstract
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A comparison of the efficacy and safety of mupirocin cream and cephalexin in the treatment of secondarily infected eczema. Author(s): Rist T, Parish LC, Capin LR, Sulica V, Bushnell WD, Cupo MA. Source: Clinical and Experimental Dermatology. 2002 January; 27(1): 14-20. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11952661&dopt=Abstract
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A comparison of the efficacy of nalidixic acid and cephalexin in bacteriuric women and their effect on fecal and periurethral carriage of enterobacteriaceae. Author(s): Preiksaitis JK, Thompson L, Harding GK, Marrie TJ, Hoban S, Ronald AR. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1981 April; 143(4): 603-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7195414&dopt=Abstract
6 PubMed was developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The PubMed database was developed in conjunction with publishers of biomedical literature as a search tool for accessing literature citations and linking to full-text journal articles at Web sites of participating publishers. Publishers that participate in PubMed supply NLM with their citations electronically prior to or at the time of publication.
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A comprehensive study of cefadroxil and cephalexin in the treatment of soft tissue infections. Author(s): Ballantyne F. Source: J Int Med Res. 1980; 8(Suppl 1): 70-4. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7439509&dopt=Abstract
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A large population-based follow-up study of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, and cephalexin for uncommon serious drug toxicity. Author(s): Jick H, Derby LE. Source: Pharmacotherapy. 1995 July-August; 15(4): 428-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7479194&dopt=Abstract
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A multicenter comparison of related pharmacologic features of cephalexin and dicloxacillin given for two months to young children with cystic fibrosis. Author(s): Harrison CJ, Marks MI, Welch DF, Sharma BB, Baker D, Dice J. Source: Pediatr Pharmacol (New York). 1985; 5(1): 7-16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3921934&dopt=Abstract
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A multicenter, randomized parallel double-blind study comparing three antibiotics, cephemic-cofosfolactamine, fosfomycin and cephalexin, in the treatment of systemic infections. Author(s): Mangini P, Cicchetti M, Bottaro L, Messina V, Brancadoro MT, Puppo F. Source: Chemioterapia. 1985 June; 4(3): 222-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4028283&dopt=Abstract
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A new dosing regimen in renal insufficiency: application to cephalexin. Author(s): Hori R, Okumura K, Nihira H, Nakano H, Akagi K, Kamiya A. Source: Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 1985 September; 38(3): 290-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4028624&dopt=Abstract
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A pharmacokinetic comparison of cefadroxil and cephalexin after administration of 250, 500 and 1000 mg solution doses. Author(s): Barbhaiya RH. Source: Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition. 1996 May; 17(4): 319-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8743403&dopt=Abstract
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A pharmacokinetic comparison of cephalexin and cefadroxil using HPLC assay procedures. Author(s): Welling PG, Selen A, Pearson JG, Kwok F, Rogge MC, Ifan A, Marrero D, Craig WA, Johnson CA. Source: Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition. 1985 April-June; 6(2): 147-57. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4005394&dopt=Abstract
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A placebo-controlled trial of cephalexin therapy in the ambulatory management of patients with cystic fibrosis. Author(s): Loening-Baucke VA, Mischler E, Myers MG. Source: The Journal of Pediatrics. 1979 October; 95(4): 630-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=383934&dopt=Abstract
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A randomized double-blind investigation of cefroxadine (CGP 9000) versus cephalexin in urinary tract infection. Author(s): Hess J, Gammelgaard P, Holst B, Rasmussen F, Thomsen VF. Source: Infection. 1984 July-August; 12(4): 270-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6436182&dopt=Abstract
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A rapid first-derivative spectrophotometric analysis of cephalexin and cephradine in human urine. Author(s): Abdel-Hamid ME, Mahrous MS, Daabees HG, Beltagy YA. Source: Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics. 1992 April; 17(2): 91-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1583084&dopt=Abstract
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A review of the drug events reported by 12,917 patients treated with cephalexin. Author(s): Burt RA. Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1983; 59 Suppl 5: 47-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6364090&dopt=Abstract
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A study of the kinetics of cephapirin and cephalexin in pregnancy. Author(s): Creatsas G, Pavlatos M, Lolis D, Kaskarelis D. Source: Current Medical Research and Opinion. 1980; 7(1): 43-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7428412&dopt=Abstract
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Absorption and excretion of cephalexin in health and acute illness. Author(s): Dean S, Harding LK, Wise R, Wright N. Source: European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 1979 August; 16(1): 73-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=499304&dopt=Abstract
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Activity of cefroxadine and cephalexin in urinary tract infections: a double-blind comparative study. Author(s): Ahrens T, Naber KG. Source: Infection. 1983 January-February; 11(1): 25-30. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6341252&dopt=Abstract
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Acute tubular necrosis associated with cephalexin therapy. Author(s): Mocan H, Beattie TJ. Source: Clinical Nephrology. 1985 October; 24(4): 212. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4064379&dopt=Abstract
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Addition of rifampin to cephalexin therapy for recalcitrant staphylococcal skin infections--an observation. Author(s): Feder HM Jr, Pond KE. Source: Clinical Pediatrics. 1996 April; 35(4): 205-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8665754&dopt=Abstract
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Ampicillin and cephalexin in renal insufficiency. Author(s): Hori R, Okumura K, Kamiya A, Nihira H, Nakano H. Source: Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 1983 December; 34(6): 792-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6641095&dopt=Abstract
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An appraisal of cephalexin and clindamycin concentration in seminal plasma. Author(s): Milingos S, Creatsas G, Kallipolitis G, Lolis D, Pavlatos M, Kaskarelis D. Source: Acta Eur Fertil. 1981 December; 12(4): 319-21. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7342612&dopt=Abstract
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Analysis of cephalexin from canine skin biopsy by liquid chromatography with ultraviolet-visible photodiode-array detection. Author(s): Tyczkowska K, Aronson AL. Source: Journal of Chromatography. 1988 May 13; 427(1): 103-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3410890&dopt=Abstract
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Anaphylactic reaction to dermal exposure to cephalexin. Author(s): Nordt SP, Cantrell FL, Rodriguez GJ. Source: The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1999 September; 17(5): 492-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10496518&dopt=Abstract
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Antibacterial effects of cefroxadine, cephalexin and cephradine in a new in vitro pharmacokinetic model. Author(s): Schneider P, Tosch W, Maurer M, Zak O. Source: J Antibiot (Tokyo). 1982 July; 35(7): 843-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7174537&dopt=Abstract
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Augmentin (intravenous then oral) compared with cefuroxime followed by cephalexin for chest infections in hospitalised patients. Author(s): O'Donovan C, Rudd R, O'Neill S, Fitzgerald MX, McNicholas W, FlavellMatts SG, Howell F, McKenzie A, Whittaker J. Source: Br J Clin Pract. 1987 December; 41(12): 1044-52. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3332842&dopt=Abstract
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Azithromycin compared with cephalexin in the treatment of skin and skin structure infections. Author(s): Mallory SB. Source: The American Journal of Medicine. 1991 September 12; 91(3A): 36S-39S. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1656741&dopt=Abstract
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Bactericidal activity of cefadroxil, cephalexin, and cephradine in an in vitro pharmacokinetic model. Author(s): Leitner F, Goodhines RA, Buck RE, Price KE. Source: J Antibiot (Tokyo). 1979 July; 32(7): 718-26. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=541265&dopt=Abstract
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Bacteriuria in pregnancy treated with a single dose of cephalexin. Author(s): Campbell-Brown M, McFadyen IR. Source: British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 1983 November; 90(11): 1054-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6639900&dopt=Abstract
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Bioavailability of cephalexin in children: relationship to drug formulations and meals. Author(s): Tetzlaff TR, McCracken GH Jr, Thomas ML. Source: The Journal of Pediatrics. 1978 February; 92(2): 292-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=621611&dopt=Abstract
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Bullous pemphigoid induced by cephalexin. Author(s): Czechowicz RT, Reid CM, Warren LJ, Weightman W, Whitehead FJ. Source: The Australasian Journal of Dermatology. 2001 May; 42(2): 132-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11309039&dopt=Abstract
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Campylobacter pylori, hypertrophic erosive gastritis and hypoalbuminemia healed by cephalexin therapy. Author(s): Salmeron M, Desplaces N, Lavergne A, Houdart R. Source: Gastroenterologie Clinique Et Biologique. 1989 January; 13(1): 109-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2925040&dopt=Abstract
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Carrier-mediated transport system for cephalexin in human placental brush-border membrane vesicles. Author(s): Kudo Y, Urabe T, Fujiwara A, Yamada K, Kawasaki T. Source: Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 1989 January 30; 978(2): 313-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2914143&dopt=Abstract
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Carrier-mediated uptake of cephalexin in human intestinal cells. Author(s): Dantzig AH, Bergin L. Source: Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 1988 September 15; 155(2): 1082-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3421959&dopt=Abstract
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Cefaclor uptake by the proton-dependent dipeptide transport carrier of human intestinal Caco-2 cells and comparison to cephalexin uptake. Author(s): Dantzig AH, Tabas LB, Bergin L. Source: Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 1992 December 9; 1112(2): 167-73. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1457450&dopt=Abstract
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Cefadroxil. A review of its antibacterial, pharmacokinetic and therapeutic properties in comparison with cephalexin and cephradine. Author(s): Tanrisever B, Santella PJ. Source: Drugs. 1986; 32 Suppl 3: 1-16. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3542485&dopt=Abstract
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Cefatrizine (SK&F 60771), a new oral cephalosporin: serum levels and urinary recovery in humans after oral or intramuscular administration--comparative study with cephalexin and cefazolin. Author(s): Actor P, Pitkin DH, Lucyszyn G, Weisbach JA, Bran JL. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1976 May; 9(5): 800-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=949177&dopt=Abstract
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Cefazolin and cephalexin kinetics in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Author(s): Bunke CM, Aronoff GR, Brier ME, Sloan RS, Luft FC. Source: Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 1983 January; 33(1): 66-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6848301&dopt=Abstract
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Cefazolin and cephalexin levels in prostatic tissue and sera. Author(s): Litvak AS, Franks CD, Vaught SK, McRoberts JW. Source: Urology. 1976 May; 7(5): 497-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1274008&dopt=Abstract
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Cefdinir versus cephalexin for the treatment of skin and skin-structure infections. The Cefdinir Adult Skin Infection Study Group. Author(s): Tack KJ, Littlejohn TW, Mailloux G, Wolf MM, Keyserling CH. Source: Clinical Therapeutics. 1998 March-April; 20(2): 244-56. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9589816&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin and penicillin in the treatment of group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal throat infections. Author(s): Disney FA, Dillon H, Blumer JL, Dudding BA, McLinn SE, Nelson DB, Selbst SM. Source: Am J Dis Child. 1992 November; 146(11): 1324-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1415072&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin compared to ampicillin treatment of otitis media. Author(s): Stechenberg BW, Anderson D, Chang MJ, Dunkle L, Wong M, Van Reken D, Pickering LK, Feigin RD. Source: Pediatrics. 1976 October; 58(4): 532-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=787913&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin concentration in the human ejaculate following oral and parenteral administration. Author(s): Dalet F, Marina S, Gimeno E, Pomerol J. Source: Andrologia. 1978 March-April; 10(2): 142-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=646144&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin concentrations in human serum, gingiva, and mandibular bone following a single oral administration. Author(s): Akimoto Y, Uda A, Omata H, Shibutani J, Nishimura H, Komiya M, Kaneko K, Fujii A. Source: General Pharmacology. 1990; 21(5): 621-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2276582&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin concentrations in radicular granuloma following a single oral administration of 250- or 500-mg cephalexin. Author(s): Akimoto Y, Uda A, Omata H, Shibutani J, Nishimura H, Komiya M, Kawana T, Kaneko K, Fujii A, Kaneda T, et al. Source: General Pharmacology. 1994 December; 25(8): 1563-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7721029&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin for susceptible bacteriuria in afebrile, long-term catheterized patients. Author(s): Warren JW, Anthony WC, Hoopes JM, Muncie HL Jr. Source: Jama : the Journal of the American Medical Association. 1982 July 23; 248(4): 454-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7045440&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin for the oral treatment of CAPD peritonitis. Author(s): Drew PJ, Casewell MW, Desai N, Houang ET, Simpson CN, Marsh FP. Source: The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1984 February; 13(2): 153-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6368518&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin in chronic osteomyelitis. Author(s): Hughes SP, Nixon J, Dash CH. Source: Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. 1981 November; 26(6): 335-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7320969&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin in lower respiratory tract infections. Author(s): Raff MJ. Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1983; 59 Suppl 5: 32-9. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6364088&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin in the prevention of recurrent cystitis. Author(s): Mullinger BM, Eilon LA. Source: The Practitioner. 1978 November; 221(1325): 769-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=368752&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin in the therapy of infections of the urinary tract. Author(s): Weinstein AJ. Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1983; 59 Suppl 5: 40-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6664942&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin in the treatment of acute and chronic maxillary sinusitis. Author(s): Schaefer SD, Ronis ML. Source: Southern Medical Journal. 1985 January; 78(1): 45-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3871254&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin in the treatment of upper respiratory tract infections. Author(s): Disney FA. Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1983; 59 Suppl 5: 28-31. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6364087&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Author(s): Dave J, Heathcock R, Fenelon L, Bihari DJ, Simmons NA. Source: The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1991 September; 28(3): 477-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1960132&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin levels in serum, synovial fluid and joint tissues after oral administration. Author(s): Jalava S, Saarimaa H, Elfving R. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. 1977; 6(4): 250-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=607395&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin pharmacokinetics in patients with cystic fibrosis. Author(s): Nahata MC, Lubin AH, Visconti JA. Source: Dev Pharmacol Ther. 1984; 7(4): 221-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6468223&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin rash in infectious mononucleosis. Author(s): McCloskey GL, Massa MC. Source: Cutis; Cutaneous Medicine for the Practitioner. 1997 May; 59(5): 251-4. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9169264&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin suspension for the treatment of skin infection in children. Author(s): Ascher DP, Delaney RA. Source: Military Medicine. 1987 February; 152(2): 103. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3103014&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin therapy for infections complicated by age and concurrent diseases. A study in general practice. Author(s): Cooke DM. Source: Chemotherapy. 1979; 25(6): 356-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=520078&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin therapy for infections in the elderly and other vulnerable patients. Author(s): Cooke DM, Browning AK. Source: Current Medical Research and Opinion. 1980; 7(1): 62-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7428416&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin tolerated despite delayed aminopenicillin reactions. Author(s): Phillips E, Knowles SR, Weber EA, Blackburn D. Source: Allergy. 2001 August; 56(8): 790. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11488680&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin. Author(s): Gill CL. Source: The Journal of the American Dental Association. 1980 February; 100(2): 172-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6928143&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin. A nonthiol drug that may induce pemphigus vulgaris. Author(s): Wolf R, Dechner E, Ophir J, Brenner S. Source: International Journal of Dermatology. 1991 March; 30(3): 213-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1828061&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin: clinical and laboratory evaluation in infants and children. Author(s): Rudoy RC, Riley HD Jr. Source: Clinical Pediatrics. 1977 July; 16(7): 639-44. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=324691&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin: clinical effectiveness in geriatric patients. Author(s): Smith IM. Source: Geriatrics. 1977 March; 32(3): 91-5, 99. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=844692&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin-induced haemolytic anaemia. Author(s): Manoharan A, Kot T. Source: The Medical Journal of Australia. 1987 August 17; 147(4): 202. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3657639&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin-induced Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Author(s): Murray KM, Camp MS. Source: The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 1992 October; 26(10): 1230-3. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1421644&dopt=Abstract
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Cephalexin-supplemented Jones-Kendrick charcoal agar for selective isolation of Bordetella pertussis: comparison with previously described media. Author(s): Stauffer LR, Brown DR, Sandstrom RE. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1983 January; 17(1): 60-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6298274&dopt=Abstract
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Clinical comparison of cefadroxil, new oral cephalosporin, and cephalexin in uncomplicated urinary tract infection. Author(s): Bolding OT. Source: Urology. 1978 September; 12(3): 321-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=360561&dopt=Abstract
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Clinical comparison of cefuroxime axetil, cephalexin and cefadroxil in the treatment of patients with primary infections of the skin or skin structures. Author(s): Gooch WM 3rd, Kaminester L, Cole GW, Binder R, Morman MR, Swinehart JM, Wisniewski M, Yilmaz HM, Collins JJ. Source: Dermatologica. 1991; 183(1): 36-43. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1769413&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative double-blind study of cephalexin and co-trimoxazole in urinary tract infections. Author(s): Gower PE, Tasker PR. Source: British Medical Journal. 1976 March 20; 1(6011): 684-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1252882&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative evaluation of cefadroxil and cephalexin in children and adolescents with pyodermas. Cefadroxil Once Daily Pyoderma Study Group. Author(s): Linder CW, Nelson K, Paryani S, Stallworth JR, Blumer JL. Source: Clinical Therapeutics. 1993 January-February; 15(1): 46-56. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8458054&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative human oral clinical pharmacology of cefadroxil, cephalexin, and cephradine. Author(s): Pfeffer M, Jackson A, Ximenes J, de Menezes JP. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1977 February; 11(2): 331-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=848940&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative in vitro activities of amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, cefuroxime, cephalexin, and cephalothin against trimethoprim-resistant Escherichia coli isolated from stools of children attending day-care centers. Author(s): Singh KV, Reves RR, Pickering LK, Murray BE. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1990 November; 34(11): 2047-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2073095&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative pharmacokinetics of cefadroxil, cefaclor, cephalexin and cephradine in infants and children. Author(s): Ginsburg CM. Source: The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1982 September; 10 Suppl B: 27-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7142090&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative pharmacokinetics of cephalexin, cefaclor, cefadroxil, and CGP 9000. Author(s): Lode H, Stahlmann R, Koeppe P. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1979 July; 16(1): 1-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=475366&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative pharmacology of cefaclor and cephalexin. Author(s): Korzeniowski OM, Scheld WM, Sande MA. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1977 August; 12(2): 157-62. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=900915&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative study of amoxicillin-clavulanic acid and cephalexin in the treatment of bacteriuria during pregnancy. Author(s): Pedler SJ, Bint AJ. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1985 April; 27(4): 508-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4004191&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative study of cephalexin hydrochloride and cephalexin monohydrate in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. Author(s): Kumar A, Murray DL, Hanna CB, Kreindler TG, Jacobson KD, Bundy JM, Waxman K, Finnerty EF, Folan DW Jr, Drucker WR, et al. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1988 June; 32(6): 882-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3046484&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative study of the efficacy of co-trimoxazole and cephalexin in respiratory infections. Author(s): Phadtare JM, Rangnekar RY. Source: Pharmatherapeutica. 1988; 5(3): 183-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3258993&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative study: ampicillin and cephalexin in otitis media. Author(s): McLinn SE. Source: Pediatrics. 1978 January; 61(1): 149-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=263855&dopt=Abstract
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Comparative trials of doxycycline versus amoxicillin, cephalexin and enoxacin in bacterial infections in chronic bronchitis and asthma. Author(s): Chodosh S, Tuck J, Pizzuto D. Source: Scand J Infect Dis Suppl. 1988; 53: 22-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3047855&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison between cephalexin two- and four-time per day regimens in group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Author(s): Stillerman M, Aronovitz GH, Durnell MD, Rosenberg R. Source: Clinical Pediatrics. 1984 June; 23(6): 348-51. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6373094&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of bidirectional cephalexin transport across MDCK and caco-2 cell monolayers: interactions with peptide transporters. Author(s): Putnam WS, Pan L, Tsutsui K, Takahashi L, Benet LZ. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 2002 January; 19(1): 27-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11837697&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of cefadroxil and cephalexin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Author(s): Blaser MJ, Klaus BD, Jacobson JA, Kasworm E, LaForce FM. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1983 August; 24(2): 163-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6605713&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of cefadroxil and cephalexin therapies in the treatment of acute lower respiratory tract infections in children. Author(s): Kramer RI. Source: The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1982 September; 10 Suppl B: 105-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7142085&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of cepharadine and cephalexin in the treatment of respiratory and urinary tract infections. Author(s): Mogabgab WJ. Source: Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. 1976 April; 19(4): 421-32. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4284&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of oral cephalexin, topical mupirocin and topical bacitracin for treatment of impetigo. Author(s): Bass JW, Chan DS, Creamer KM, Thompson MW, Malone FJ, Becker TM, Marks SN. Source: The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 1997 July; 16(7): 708-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9239775&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of pharmacological and antimicrobial properties of cefadroxil and cephalexin. Author(s): Hartstein AI, Patrick KE, Jones SR, Miller MJ, Bryant RE. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1977 July; 12(1): 93-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=883822&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of pivmecillinam and cephalexin in acute uncomplicated urinary tract infection. Author(s): Menday AP. Source: International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2000 January; 13(3): 183-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10724022&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of the efficacy and safety of cefadroxil and cephalexin in treating acute urinary tract infections in woman. Author(s): Bolding OT. Source: J Int Med Res. 1980; 8(Suppl 1): 34-9. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7439503&dopt=Abstract
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Comparison of twice-daily cefadroxil with four-times-daily cephalexin in paediatric respiratory infections. Author(s): Windorfer A, Trujillo H, Bauer P. Source: The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1982 September; 10 Suppl B: 93-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7142100&dopt=Abstract
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Concentrations of cephalexin in mandibular alveolar bone, blood, and oral fluids. Author(s): Shuford GM. Source: The Journal of the American Dental Association. 1979 July; 99(1): 47-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=287727&dopt=Abstract
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Contact dermatitis to cephalexin. Author(s): Milligan A, Douglas WS. Source: Contact Dermatitis. 1986 August; 15(2): 91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2946528&dopt=Abstract
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Controlled study of brodimoprim and cephalexin in the treatment of patients with acute sinusitis in general practice. Author(s): Bockmeyer M, Riebenfeld D, Clasen B. Source: Clinical Therapeutics. 1994 July-August; 16(4): 653-61. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7982253&dopt=Abstract
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Correlation between epithelial cell permeability of cephalexin and expression of intestinal oligopeptide transporter. Author(s): Chu XY, Sanchez-Castano GP, Higaki K, Oh DM, Hsu CP, Amidon GL. Source: The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 2001 November; 299(2): 575-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11602669&dopt=Abstract
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Correlation between fluorimetric and microbiological methods for determination of cephalexin in urine and serum. Author(s): Plavsic F, Vrhovac B, Radosevic A, Dvorzak I. Source: J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1981 January; 19(1): 35-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7205158&dopt=Abstract
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Crystalluria following cephalexin overdose. Author(s): Clark RF. Source: Pediatrics. 1992 April; 89(4 Pt 1): 672-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1557251&dopt=Abstract
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Determination of ampicillin, amoxicillin, cephalexin, and cephradine in plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography using fluorometric detection. Author(s): Miyazaki K, Ohtani K, Sunada K, Arita T. Source: Journal of Chromatography. 1983 September 9; 276(2): 478-82. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6630399&dopt=Abstract
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Determination of cefsulodin, cefotiam, cephalexin, cefotaxime, desacetyl-cefotaxime, cefuroxime and cefroxadin in plasma and urine by high-performance liquid chromatography. Author(s): Lecaillon JB, Rouan MC, Souppart C, Febvre N, Juge F. Source: Journal of Chromatography. 1982 March 12; 228: 257-67. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6281285&dopt=Abstract
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Determination of cephalexin in oral suspensions by micellar electrokinetic chromatography. Author(s): Steppe M, Prado MS, Tavares MF, Kedor-Hackmann ER, Santoro MI. Source: J Capillary Electrophor. 2002; 7(3-4): 81-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12212913&dopt=Abstract
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Direct high-speed liquid chromatographic determination of cephalexin in urine. Author(s): Nakagawa T, Haginaka J, Yamaoka K, Uno T. Source: Journal of Chromatography. 1978 January 11; 147: 509-12. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=621261&dopt=Abstract
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Double-blind comparison of cephradine and cephalexin in the treatment of skin and soft-tissue infections due to Staphylococcus aureus. Author(s): Hubsher JA, Gadebusch HH, Itkin AG. Source: Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. 1976 June; 19(6): 579-88. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=819217&dopt=Abstract
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Double-blind, double-dummy comparison of azithromycin and cephalexin in the treatment of skin and skin structure infections. Author(s): Kiani R. Source: European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases : Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology. 1991 October; 10(10): 8804. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1662638&dopt=Abstract
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Effect of cephalexin on the pharmacokinetics of metformin in healthy human volunteers. Author(s): Jayasagar G, Krishna Kumar M, Chandrasekhar K, Madhusudan Rao C, Madhusudan Rao Y. Source: Drug Metabol Drug Interact. 2002; 19(1): 41-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=12222753&dopt=Abstract
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Effect of prophylactic, low dose cephalexin on fecal and vaginal bacteria. Author(s): Martinez FC, Kindrachuk RW, Thomas E, Stamey TA. Source: The Journal of Urology. 1985 June; 133(6): 994-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3999226&dopt=Abstract
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Effect of storage on the bioavailability of cephalexin from its capsules. Author(s): Molokhia AM. Source: Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 1984 August; 45(2): 219-24. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6484309&dopt=Abstract
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Effective prophylaxis of recurrent urinary tract infections in premenopausal women by postcoital administration of cephalexin. Author(s): Pfau A, Sacks TG. Source: The Journal of Urology. 1989 November; 142(5): 1276-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2810506&dopt=Abstract
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Effects of cephalexin, erythromycin and clindamycin on the aerobic Gram-negative faecal flora in man. Author(s): Hartley CL, Clements HM, Linton KB. Source: Journal of Medical Microbiology. 1978 May; 11(2): 125-35. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=660638&dopt=Abstract
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Efficacy of perioperative cefamandole with postoperative cephalexin in the primary outpatient treatment of open wounds of the hand. Author(s): Peacock KC, Hanna DP, Kirkpatrick K, Breidenbach WC, Lister GD, Firrell J. Source: The Journal of Hand Surgery. 1988 November; 13(6): 960-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3225427&dopt=Abstract
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Efficacy of two dosage schedules of cephalexin in dermatologic infections. Author(s): DiMattia AF, Sexton MJ, Smialowicz CR, Knapp WH Jr. Source: The Journal of Family Practice. 1981 April; 12(4): 649-52. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7205167&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of cefadroxil and cephalexin in oral prophylaxis of postoperative sepsis. Author(s): Sgarlato TE. Source: J Am Podiatry Assoc. 1984 November; 74(11): 538-40. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6501773&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of effect of food ingestion on bioavailability of cephalexin by moment analysis. Author(s): Haginaka J, Yamaoka K, Nakagawa T, Nishimura Y, Uno T. Source: Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 1979 December; 27(12): 3156-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=540339&dopt=Abstract
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Experience with cephalexin (ceporex) in paediatric practice at Kenyatta National Teaching Hospital Nairobi. Author(s): Amolo JG. Source: East Afr Med J. 1977 October; 54(10): 565-70. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=608427&dopt=Abstract
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Failure of charcoal-horse-blood broth with cephalexin to significantly increase rate of Bordetella isolation from clinical specimens. Author(s): Hoppe JE, Weiss A, Worz S. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1988 June; 26(6): 1248-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3384940&dopt=Abstract
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Failure of treatment with cephalexin for Lyme disease. Author(s): Nowakowski J, McKenna D, Nadelman RB, Cooper D, Bittker S, Holmgren D, Pavia C, Johnson RC, Wormser GP. Source: Archives of Family Medicine. 2000 June; 9(6): 563-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10862221&dopt=Abstract
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Fluorimetric assay of cephradine, cephalexin and cephaloglycin. Author(s): Barbhaiya RH, Turner P. Source: British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 1977 August; 4(4): 427-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=901733&dopt=Abstract
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Fluorometric determination of cephalexin in urine. Author(s): Aikawa R, Nakano M, Arita T. Source: Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 1976 October; 24(10): 2350-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1017081&dopt=Abstract
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Fluorometric determination of cephalexin, cephradine, and cephatrizine in biological fluids. Author(s): Miyazaki K, Ogino O, Arita T. Source: Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 1979 October; 27(10): 2273-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=527132&dopt=Abstract
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Generalized eruptive pustular drug rash due to cephalexin. Author(s): Jackson H, Vion B, Levy PM. Source: Dermatologica. 1988; 177(5): 292-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2977340&dopt=Abstract
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High performance liquid chromatographic analysis of cephalexin in serum and urine. Author(s): Najib NM, Suleiman MS, el-Sayed YM, Abdulhameed ME. Source: Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics. 1987 December; 12(6): 419-26. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3440814&dopt=Abstract
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High speed liquid chromatographic determination of cephalexin in human plasma and urine. Author(s): Nakagawa T, Haginaka J, Yamaoka K, Uno T. Source: J Antibiot (Tokyo). 1978 August; 31(8): 769-75. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=690010&dopt=Abstract
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High-performance liquid chromatographic assay of cephalexin in serum and urine. Author(s): Emm TA, Leslie J, Chai M, Lesko LJ, Perkal MB. Source: Journal of Chromatography. 1988 May 13; 427(1): 162-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3410897&dopt=Abstract
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High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of cephalexin in human plasma, urine and saliva. Author(s): Nahata MC. Source: Journal of Chromatography. 1981 October 9; 225(2): 532-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7298789&dopt=Abstract
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High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of loracarbef, a potential metabolite, cefaclor and cephalexin in human plasma, serum and urine. Author(s): Kovach PM, Lantz RJ, Brier G. Source: Journal of Chromatography. 1991 June 14; 567(1): 129-39. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1918240&dopt=Abstract
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Impetigo. Current etiology and comparison of penicillin, erythromycin, and cephalexin therapies. Author(s): Demidovich CW, Wittler RR, Ruff ME, Bass JW, Browning WC. Source: Am J Dis Child. 1990 December; 144(12): 1313-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2244610&dopt=Abstract
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Increased therapeutic failure for cephalexin versus comparator antibiotics in the treatment of uncomplicated outpatient cellulitis. Author(s): Madaras-Kelly KJ, Arbogast R, Jue S. Source: Pharmacotherapy. 2000 February; 20(2): 199-205. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10678298&dopt=Abstract
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Ineffectiveness of cephalexin in treatment of cephalexin-resistant bacteriuria in patients with chronic indwelling urethral catheters. Author(s): Warren JW, Hoopes JM, Muncie HL, Anthony WC. Source: The Journal of Urology. 1983 January; 129(1): 71-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6338253&dopt=Abstract
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Influence of ranitidine, pirenzepine, and aluminum magnesium hydroxide on the bioavailability of various antibiotics, including amoxicillin, cephalexin, doxycycline, and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. Author(s): Deppermann KM, Lode H, Hoffken G, Tschink G, Kalz C, Koeppe P. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1989 November; 33(11): 1901-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2610502&dopt=Abstract
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In-vitro activity of cefaclor, cephalexin and ampicillin against 2458 clinical isolates of Haemophilus influenzae. Author(s): Powell M, Williams JD. Source: The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1988 January; 21(1): 27-31. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3258594&dopt=Abstract
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Letter: Co-trimoxazole and cephalexin in urinary tract infection. Author(s): Greenwood D, O'Grady F. Source: British Medical Journal. 1976 May 1; 1(6017): 1073. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1268560&dopt=Abstract
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Liquid-chromatographic determination of five orally active cephalosporins--cefixime, cefaclor, cefadroxil, cephalexin, and cephradine--in human serum. Author(s): McAteer JA, Hiltke MF, Silber BM, Faulkner RD. Source: Clinical Chemistry. 1987 October; 33(10): 1788-90. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3665031&dopt=Abstract
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Mechanisms of transport of quinapril in Caco-2 cell monolayers: comparison with cephalexin. Author(s): Hu M, Zheng L, Chen J, Liu L, Zhu Y, Dantzig AH, Stratford RE Jr. Source: Pharmaceutical Research. 1995 August; 12(8): 1120-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7494822&dopt=Abstract
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Meningitis occurring during therapy for otitis media with cephalexin and cefaclor. Author(s): Raucher HS, Murphy RJ, Barzilai A. Source: Am J Dis Child. 1982 August; 136(8): 745-6. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6980588&dopt=Abstract
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Moxifloxacin versus cephalexin in the treatment of uncomplicated skin infections. Author(s): Parish LC, Routh HB, Miskin B, Fidelholtz J, Werschler P, Heyd A, Haverstock D, Church D. Source: Int J Clin Pract. 2000 October; 54(8): 497-503. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11198726&dopt=Abstract
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Mupirocin cream is as effective as oral cephalexin in the treatment of secondarily infected wounds. Author(s): Kraus SJ, Eron LJ, Bottenfield GW, Drehobl MA, Bushnell WD, Cupo MA. Source: The Journal of Family Practice. 1998 December; 47(6): 429-33. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9866667&dopt=Abstract
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Ofloxacin versus cephalexin for treating skin and soft tissue infections. Author(s): Lipsky BA, Yarbrough DR 3rd, Walker FB 4th, Powers RD, Morman MR. Source: International Journal of Dermatology. 1992 June; 31(6): 443-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1512105&dopt=Abstract
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Ofloxacin versus cephalexin in the treatment of skin, skin structure, and soft-tissue infections in adults. Author(s): Powers RD, Schwartz R, Snow RM, Yarbrough DR III. Source: Clinical Therapeutics. 1991 November-December; 13(6): 727-36. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1790547&dopt=Abstract
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Ototoxicity associated with cephalexin in two patients with renal failure. Author(s): Sennesael J, Verbeelen D, Lauwers S. Source: Lancet. 1982 November 20; 2(8308): 1154-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6128466&dopt=Abstract
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PepT1-mediated epithelial transport of dipeptides and cephalexin is enhanced by luminal leptin in the small intestine. Author(s): Buyse M, Berlioz F, Guilmeau S, Tsocas A, Voisin T, Peranzi G, Merlin D, Laburthe M, Lewin MJ, Roze C, Bado A. Source: The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2001 November; 108(10): 1483-94. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11714740&dopt=Abstract
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Pharmacokinetic comparison of cefroxadin (CGP 9000) and cephalexin by simultaneous administration to humans. Author(s): Lecaillon JB, Hirtz JL, Schoeller JP, Humbert G, Vischer W. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1980 November; 18(5): 656-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7447423&dopt=Abstract
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Pharmacokinetics of alafosfalin, alone and in combination with cephalexin, in humans. Author(s): Allen JG, Lees LJ. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1980 June; 17(6): 973-9. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7406481&dopt=Abstract
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Pharmacokinetics of cefaclor and cephalexin: dosage nomograms for impaired renal function. Author(s): Spyker DA, Thomas BL, Sande MA, Bolton WK. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1978 August; 14(2): 172-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=697345&dopt=Abstract
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Pharmacokinetics of cephalexin: an evaluation of one- and two-compartment model pharmacokinetics. Author(s): Greene DS, Flanagan DR, Quintiliani R, Nightingale CH. Source: Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 1976 May-June; 16(5-6): 257-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1262535&dopt=Abstract
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Pharmacokinetics of oral cephalosporins: cephradine cephalexin. Author(s): Finkelstein E, Quintiliani R, Lee R, Bracci A, Nightingale CH. Source: Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1978 October; 67(10): 1447-50. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=702300&dopt=Abstract
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Prevention of post-excisional wound infections: a comparison of oral cephalexin with topical mupirocin and topical cetrimide-chlorhexidine cream. Author(s): Czarnecki D, Meehan C, Nash C. Source: International Journal of Dermatology. 1992 May; 31(5): 359-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1587669&dopt=Abstract
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Prophylactic cephalexin ineffective in chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Author(s): Low DE, Vas SI, Oreopoulos DG, Manuel MA, Saiphoo MM, Finer C, Dombros N. Source: Lancet. 1980 October 4; 2(8197): 753-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6106868&dopt=Abstract
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Randomized comparative study of cefixime versus cephalexin in acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Author(s): Verghese A, Roberson D, Kalbfleisch JH, Sarubbi F. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1990 June; 34(6): 1041-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2118322&dopt=Abstract
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Randomized, comparative study of oral cefadroxil and cephalexin in lower respiratory infections in adults. Author(s): Weingarten C. Source: The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 1982 September; 10 Suppl B: 10913. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7142086&dopt=Abstract
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Serum and dialysate concentrations of cephalexin following repeated dosing in CAPD patients. Author(s): Davis GM, Forland SC, Cutler RE. Source: American Journal of Kidney Diseases : the Official Journal of the National Kidney Foundation. 1985 September; 6(3): 177-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=4036960&dopt=Abstract
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Serum sickness-like reactions to amoxicillin, cefaclor, cephalexin, and trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole. Author(s): Platt R, Dreis MW, Kennedy DL, Kuritsky JN. Source: The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1988 August; 158(2): 474-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3261315&dopt=Abstract
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Simple clinical evaluation of cephalexin in the treatment of uncomplicated gonococcal urethritis in males. Author(s): Aluoch JA, Odhiambo-Olel. Source: East Afr Med J. 1978 November; 55(11): 519-22. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=743924&dopt=Abstract
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Single-dose cephalexin therapy for acute bacterial urinary tract infections and acute urethral syndrome with bladder bacteriuria. Author(s): Cardenas J, Quinn EL, Rooker G, Bavinger J, Pohlod D. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1986 March; 29(3): 383-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3717940&dopt=Abstract
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Single-dose fosfomycin trometamol versus 5-day cephalexin regimen for treatment of uncomplicated lower urinary tract infections in women. Author(s): Elhanan G, Tabenkin H, Yahalom R, Raz R. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1994 November; 38(11): 2612-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7872756&dopt=Abstract
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Study of use of cefdinir versus cephalexin for treatment of skin infections in pediatric patients. The Cefdinir Pediatric Skin Infection Study Group. Author(s): Tack KJ, Keyserling CH, McCarty J, Hedrick JA. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1997 April; 41(4): 739-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9087480&dopt=Abstract
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Susceptibility of clinical isolates to cephalexin, cefazolin and cefotaxime. Author(s): Gupta BL, Tahlan A, Dogra V, Rattan A, Bhujwala RA, Shriniwas. Source: Indian Pediatrics. 1989 May; 26(5): 466-71. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2599615&dopt=Abstract
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Synergistic bactericidal effect of cephalexin and normal cord serum (NCS) against Escherichia coli K1 strains isolated from children with urinary tract infections (UTI). Author(s): Cisowska A, Jankowski S, Doroszkiewicz W. Source: Acta Microbiol Pol. 1999; 48(4): 381-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10756721&dopt=Abstract
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The comparative efficacy of cephalexin and sulfisoxazole in acute urinary tract infection in children. Author(s): Russo RM, Gururaj VJ, Laude TA, Rajkumar SV, Allen JE. Source: Clinical Pediatrics. 1977 January; 16(1): 83-4, 89-91. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=318609&dopt=Abstract
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The determination of cephradine and cephalexin by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Author(s): Carrol MA, White ER, Jancsik Z, Zarembo JE. Source: J Antibiot (Tokyo). 1977 May; 30(5): 397-403. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=885797&dopt=Abstract
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The efficacy of twice daily cephalexin. Author(s): Browning AK. Source: Pharmatherapeutica. 1981; 2(9): 559-64. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7267673&dopt=Abstract
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The extended microbiology of group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Observations during a double-blind controlled study of cephalexin twice versus four-times daily. Author(s): Tarpay MM, Chartrand S, Marks M, Cox A. Source: Infection. 1984 May-June; 12(3): 181-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6381314&dopt=Abstract
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The in vitro activity of ampicillin, amoxicillin, cephalexin, nitrofurantoin, sulphadiazine and trimethoprim against Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from urinary and other infections. Author(s): Brander P, Jokipii L, Jokipii AM. Source: Infection. 1982 September-October; 10(5): 299-302. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6757138&dopt=Abstract
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The pharmacokinetics of the oral cephalosporins cefaclor, cephradine and cephalexin. Author(s): Welling PG, Dean S, Selen A, Kendall MJ, Wise R. Source: Int J Clin Pharmacol Biopharm. 1979 September; 17(9): 397-400. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=500261&dopt=Abstract
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The pharmacology of cephalexin. Author(s): Griffith RS. Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1983; 59 Suppl 5: 16-27. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6364086&dopt=Abstract
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The role of cephalexin in the treatment of skin and soft-tissue infections. Author(s): Derrick CW Jr, Reilly K. Source: Postgraduate Medical Journal. 1983; 59 Suppl 5: 43-6. Review. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6364089&dopt=Abstract
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Therapeutic and prophylactic effects of cephalexin and bromhexine in respiratory tract complications of abdominal surgery. Author(s): Palmieri B, Monni S, Misella A, Cogni P. Source: Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol. 1983 March; 21(3): 143-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6853000&dopt=Abstract
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Three-day therapy with cephalexin for lower urinary tract infections in children. Author(s): Helin I. Source: Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1984; 16(3): 305-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6387892&dopt=Abstract
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Tobramycin-clindamycin versus cephalothin-cephalexin in the treatment of appendicular peritonitis. Author(s): Gripenberg L, Nuutinen P, Elo J, Tallgren LG. Source: Z Kinderchir. 1981 November; 34(3): 227-35. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7340274&dopt=Abstract
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Toxic epidermal necrolysis due to cephalexin. Author(s): Hogan DJ, Rooney ME. Source: Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 1987 November; 17(5 Pt 1): 852-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3680666&dopt=Abstract
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Transport characteristics of ceftibuten, cefixime and cephalexin across human jejunal brush-border membrane. Author(s): Sugawara M, Iseki K, Miyazaki K, Shiroto H, Kondo Y, Uchino J. Source: The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 1991 December; 43(12): 882-4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=1687593&dopt=Abstract
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Treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. A double-blind trial of cotrimoxazole and cephalexin. Author(s): Cooper J, McGillion FB. Source: The Practitioner. 1978 September; 221(1323): 428-32. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=366597&dopt=Abstract
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Treatment of acute uncomplicated urinary tract infections by cephalexin, with special reference to the antibody-coated bacteria. Author(s): Iravani A, Pryor N, Richard GA. Source: Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol. 1982 March; 20(3): 97-100. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7068290&dopt=Abstract
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Treatment of bacterial prostatitis. Comparison of cephalexin and minocycline. Author(s): Paulson DF, Zinner NR, Resnick MI, Childs SJ, Love T, Madsen PO. Source: Urology. 1986 April; 27(4): 379-87. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=3515737&dopt=Abstract
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Treatment of chronic prostatitis by consecutive per os administration of doxycycline, sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, and cephalexin. Author(s): Milingos S, Creatsas G, Messinis J, Lolis D, Kaskarelis D. Source: Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol. 1983 June; 21(6): 301-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6604038&dopt=Abstract
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Treatment of staphylococcal skin infections: a comparison of cephalexin and dicloxacillin. Author(s): Dillon HC Jr. Source: Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 1983 February; 8(2): 177-81. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6826814&dopt=Abstract
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Treatment of urinary tract infection with cephalexin. Author(s): Kostas CI, Mobley DF, Rous SN, Schneider RE, Burt RA. Source: The Journal of Family Practice. 1983 July; 17(1): 135, 138-40. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6864165&dopt=Abstract
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Twice daily dosage with cephalexin in children. Author(s): Browning AK. Source: The Practitioner. 1982 May; 226(1367): 981-3. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7100089&dopt=Abstract
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Uptake characteristics of loracarbef and cephalexin in the Caco-2 cell culture model: effects of the proton gradient and possible presence of a distinctive second component. Author(s): Hu M, Chen J, Zheng L, Dantzig AH, Stratford RE Jr. Source: Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1996 July; 85(7): 767-72. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8819004&dopt=Abstract
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Uptake of the cephalosporin, cephalexin, by a dipeptide transport carrier in the human intestinal cell line, Caco-2. Author(s): Dantzig AH, Bergin L. Source: Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 1990 September 7; 1027(3): 211-7. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=2397233&dopt=Abstract
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Use of cephalexin to treat glandular fever: pilot study. Author(s): Lakic J. Source: British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.). 1983 May 21; 286(6378): 1617-8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6405914&dopt=Abstract
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Use of cephalexin-aztreonam-arabinose agar for selective isolation of Enterococcus faecium. Author(s): Ford M, Perry JD, Gould FK. Source: Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1994 December; 32(12): 2999-3001. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7883889&dopt=Abstract
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CHAPTER 2. NUTRITION AND CEPHALEXIN Overview In this chapter, we will show you how to find studies dedicated specifically to nutrition and cephalexin.
Finding Nutrition Studies on Cephalexin The National Institutes of Health’s Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) offers a searchable bibliographic database called the IBIDS (International Bibliographic Information on Dietary Supplements; National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 1B29, 31 Center Drive, MSC 2086, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-2086, Tel: 301-435-2920, Fax: 301-480-1845, E-mail:
[email protected]). The IBIDS contains over 460,000 scientific citations and summaries about dietary supplements and nutrition as well as references to published international, scientific literature on dietary supplements such as vitamins, minerals, and botanicals.7 The IBIDS includes references and citations to both human and animal research studies. As a service of the ODS, access to the IBIDS database is available free of charge at the following Web address: http://ods.od.nih.gov/databases/ibids.html. After entering the search area, you have three choices: (1) IBIDS Consumer Database, (2) Full IBIDS Database, or (3) Peer Reviewed Citations Only. Now that you have selected a database, click on the “Advanced” tab. An advanced search allows you to retrieve up to 100 fully explained references in a comprehensive format. Type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click “Go.” To narrow the search, you can also select the “Title” field.
7
Adapted from http://ods.od.nih.gov. IBIDS is produced by the Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) at the National Institutes of Health to assist the public, healthcare providers, educators, and researchers in locating credible, scientific information on dietary supplements. IBIDS was developed and will be maintained through an interagency partnership with the Food and Nutrition Information Center of the National Agricultural Library, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
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The following information is typical of that found when using the “Full IBIDS Database” to search for “cephalexin” (or a synonym): •
A comparison of the efficacy and safety of mupirocin cream and cephalexin in the treatment of secondarily infected eczema. Author(s): Dermatology Clinical Research Center, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA. Source: Rist, T Parish, L C Capin, L R Sulica, V Bushnell, W D Cupo, M A Clin-ExpDermatol. 2002 January; 27(1): 14-20 0307-6938
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A two-step, one-pot enzymatic synthesis of cephalexin from D-phenylglycine nitrile. Author(s): Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Organic Chemistry, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 136, The Netherlands. Source: Wegman, M A van Langen, L M van Rantwijk, F Sheldon, R A BiotechnolBioeng. 2002 August 5; 79(3): 356-61 0006-3592
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Absorption kinetics and bioavailability of cephalexin in the dog after oral and intramuscular administration. Source: Carli, S. Anfossi, P. Villa, R. Castellani, G. Mengozzi, G. Montesissa, C. J-vetpharmacol-ther. Oxford, England : Blackwell Scientific Ltd. October 1999. volume 22 (5) page 308-313. 0140-7783
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Bullous pemphigoid induced by cephalexin. Author(s): Department of Dermatology, Royal Adelaide Hospital, South Australia, Australia.
[email protected] Source: Czechowicz, R T Reid, C M Warren, L J Weightman, W Whitehead, F J Australas-J-Dermatol. 2001 May; 42(2): 132-5 0004-8380
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Carrier-mediated transport system for cephalexin in human placental brush-border membrane vesicles. Author(s): Department of Biochemistry, Hiroshima University School of Medicine, Japan. Source: Kudo, Y Urabe, T Fujiwara, A Yamada, K Kawasaki, T Biochim-Biophys-Acta. 1989 January 30; 978(2): 313-8 0006-3002
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Comparison of oral cephalexin, topical mupirocin and topical bacitracin for treatment of impetigo. Author(s): Department of Pediatrica, Tripler Army Medical Center, Honolulu, HI 968595000, USA.
[email protected] Source: Bass, J W Chan, D S Creamer, K M Thompson, M W Malone, F J Becker, T M Marks, S N Pediatr-Infect-Dis-J. 1997 July; 16(7): 708-10 0891-3668
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Effect of amoxicillin, cephalexin, and tetracycline-HCl on intestinal L-leucine transport in the rat in vivo. Author(s): Depto Fisiologia Animal, Facultad de Farmacia, Universida de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain. Source: Barcina, Y Ilundain, A Larralde, J Drug-Nutr-Interact. 1988; 5(4): 283-8 0272-3530
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Influence of ranitidine, pirenzepine, and aluminum magnesium hydroxide on the bioavailability of various antibiotics, including amoxicillin, cephalexin, doxycycline, and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. Author(s): Medical Department, Klinikum Steglitz, Freie Universitat Berlin, Federal Republic of Germany. Source: Deppermann, K M Lode, H Hoffken, G Tschink, G Kalz, C Koeppe, P Antimicrob-Agents-Chemother. 1989 November; 33(11): 1901-7 0066-4804
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Mupirocin cream is as effective as oral cephalexin in the treatment of secondarily infected wounds. Author(s): Kanuai Medical Clinic, Hawaii, USA. Source: Kraus, S J Eron, L J Bottenfield, G W Drehobl, M A Bushnell, W D Cupo, M A JFam-Pract. 1998 December; 47(6): 429-33 0094-3509
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Neural modulation of cephalexin intestinal absorption through the di- and tripeptide brush border transporter of rat jejunum in vivo. Author(s): Pharmacie Clinique, Faculte de Pharmacie, Chatenay Malabry, France. Source: Berlioz, F Julien, S Tsocas, A Chariot, J Carbon, C Farinotti, R Roze, C JPharmacol-Exp-Ther. 1999 March; 288(3): 1037-44 0022-3565
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PepT1-mediated epithelial transport of dipeptides and cephalexin is enhanced by luminal leptin in the small intestine. Author(s): Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale Unite 410, Faculte de Medecine Xavier Bichat, Paris, France. Source: Buyse, M Berlioz, F Guilmeau, S Tsocas, A Voisin, T Peranzi, G Merlin, D Laburthe, M Lewin, M J Roze, C Bado, A J-Clin-Invest. 2001 November; 108(10): 1483-94 0021-9738
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Preparation, characterization and biological evaluation of copper(II) and zinc(II) complexes with cephalexin. Author(s): Himont Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals (Pvt) Limited, Lahore, Pakistan. Source: Iqbal, M S Ahmad, A R Sabir, M Asad, S M J-Pharm-Pharmacol. 1999 April; 51(4): 371-5 0022-3573
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Prevention of post-excisional wound infections: a comparison of oral cephalexin with topical mupirocin and topical cetrimide-chlorhexidine cream. Author(s): Repatriation General Hospital, Victoria, Australia. Source: Czarnecki, D Meehan, C Nash, C Int-J-Dermatol. 1992 May; 31(5): 359-60 00119059
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Variability in the renal clearance of cephalexin in experimental renal failure. Author(s): Department of Pharmacy, University of Manchester, United Kingdom. Source: Maiza, A Daley Yates, P T J-Pharmacokinet-Biopharm. 1993 February; 21(1): 1930 0090-466X
Federal Resources on Nutrition In addition to the IBIDS, the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provide many sources of information on general nutrition and health. Recommended resources include: •
healthfinder®, HHS’s gateway to health information, including diet and nutrition: http://www.healthfinder.gov/scripts/SearchContext.asp?topic=238&page=0
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The United States Department of Agriculture’s Web site dedicated to nutrition information: www.nutrition.gov
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The Food and Drug Administration’s Web site for federal food safety information: www.foodsafety.gov
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The National Action Plan on Overweight and Obesity sponsored by the United States Surgeon General: http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/
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The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition has an Internet site sponsored by the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Health and Human Services: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/
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Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.usda.gov/cnpp/
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Food and Nutrition Information Center, National Agricultural Library sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/
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Food and Nutrition Service sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.fns.usda.gov/fns/
Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering food and nutrition. The following is a representative sample: •
AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=174&layer=&from=subcats
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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_nutrition.html
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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Nutrition/
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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/
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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Nutrition/
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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Nutrition/
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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/nutrition
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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html
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CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE AND CEPHALEXIN Overview In this chapter, we will begin by introducing you to official information sources on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) relating to cephalexin. At the conclusion of this chapter, we will provide additional sources.
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) of the National Institutes of Health (http://nccam.nih.gov/) has created a link to the National Library of Medicine’s databases to facilitate research for articles that specifically relate to cephalexin and complementary medicine. To search the database, go to the following Web site: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html. Select “CAM on PubMed.” Enter “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the search box. Click “Go.” The following references provide information on particular aspects of complementary and alternative medicine that are related to cephalexin: •
Absorption kinetics and bioavailability of cephalexin in the dog after oral and intramuscular administration. Author(s): Carli S, Anfossi P, Villa R, Castellani G, Mengozzi G, Montesissa C. Source: Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 1999 October; 22(5): 30813. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10597534&dopt=Abstract
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Beyond the letter of the law: the US Federal Circuit interprets section 271(g)(1) Author(s): Tsao R, Hurley EA. Source: Nature Biotechnology. 1997 January; 15(1): 86-7. Erratum In: Nat Biotechnol 1997 April; 15(4): 299. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9035112&dopt=Abstract
•
Control of c-fos expression in STC-1 cells by peptidomimetic stimuli. Author(s): Murai A, Noble PM, Deavall DG, Dockray GJ.
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Source: European Journal of Pharmacology. 2000 April 7; 394(1): 27-34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10771030&dopt=Abstract •
EDTA-tromethamine lavage as an adjunct treatment for multiple fistulas in a dog. Author(s): Bjorling DE, Wooley RE. Source: J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1982 September 15; 181(6): 596-7. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=6815143&dopt=Abstract
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Evaluation of some antibiotics on Fusarium equiseti causing damping off in guar (Cyamopsis tetragonolobe (L.) Taub. Author(s): Dwivedi SK, Dwivedi SK. Source: Hindustan Antibiot Bull. 1993 August-November; 35(3-4): 216-8. No Abstract Available. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7960930&dopt=Abstract
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Expression and protein kinase C-dependent regulation of peptide/H+ co-transport system in the Caco-2 human colon carcinoma cell line. Author(s): Brandsch M, Miyamoto Y, Ganapathy V, Leibach FH. Source: The Biochemical Journal. 1994 April 1; 299 ( Pt 1): 253-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8166648&dopt=Abstract
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German shepherd dog pyoderma: a prospective study of 12 dogs. Author(s): Rosser EJ Jr. Source: Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association. 1997 July-August; 33(4): 355-63. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=9204474&dopt=Abstract
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Improving drug use: a case study of events which led to changes in use of flucloxacillin in Australia. Author(s): Roughead EE, Gilbert AL, Primrose JG. Source: Social Science & Medicine (1982). 1999 March; 48(6): 845-53. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10190645&dopt=Abstract
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In vitro and in vivo antibacterial activity of FR-31564, a phosphonic acid antimicrobial agent. Author(s): Neu HC, Kamimura T. Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1981 June; 19(6): 1013-23. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=7271270&dopt=Abstract
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Mechanism of synergy between epigallocatechin gallate and beta-lactams against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Author(s): Zhao WH, Hu ZQ, Okubo S, Hara Y, Shimamura T.
Alternative Medicine 41
Source: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2001 June; 45(6): 1737-42. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11353619&dopt=Abstract •
Potentiation of antibiotic activity by EDTA-tromethamine against three clinically isolated gram-positive resistant bacteria. An in vitro investigation. Author(s): Farca AM, Nebbia P, Re G. Source: Veterinary Research Communications. 1994; 18(1): 1-6. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8091636&dopt=Abstract
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Separation and identification of some cephalosporins on impregnated TLC plates. Author(s): Bhushan R, Parshad V. Source: Biomedical Chromatography : Bmc. 1996 September-October; 10(5): 258-60. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=8879536&dopt=Abstract
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Severe anaphylaxis after a chlorhexidine bath. Author(s): Snellman E, Rantanen T. Source: Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 1999 May; 40(5 Pt 1): 771-2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=10321611&dopt=Abstract
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The antibacterial activity of tea in vitro and in vivo (in patients with impetigo contagiosa). Author(s): Sharquie KE, al-Turfi IA, al-Salloum SM. Source: The Journal of Dermatology. 2000 November; 27(11): 706-10. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_ uids=11138536&dopt=Abstract
Additional Web Resources A number of additional Web sites offer encyclopedic information covering CAM and related topics. The following is a representative sample: •
Alternative Medicine Foundation, Inc.: http://www.herbmed.org/
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AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=169&layer=&from=subcats
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Chinese Medicine: http://www.newcenturynutrition.com/
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drkoop.com: http://www.drkoop.com/InteractiveMedicine/IndexC.html
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Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/med_altn.htm
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Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Alternative/
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Healthnotes: http://www.healthnotes.com/
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MedWebPlus: http://medwebplus.com/subject/Alternative_and_Complementary_Medicine
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Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/
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HealthGate: http://www.tnp.com/
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WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/drugs_and_herbs
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WholeHealthMD.com: http://www.wholehealthmd.com/reflib/0,1529,00.html
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Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Alternative_Medicine/
The following is a specific Web list relating to cephalexin; please note that any particular subject below may indicate either a therapeutic use, or a contraindication (potential danger), and does not reflect an official recommendation: •
Herbs and Supplements Antibiotics Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com Cephalosporins Source: Healthnotes, Inc.; www.healthnotes.com
General References A good place to find general background information on CAM is the National Library of Medicine. It has prepared within the MEDLINEplus system an information topic page dedicated to complementary and alternative medicine. To access this page, go to the MEDLINEplus site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alternativemedicine.html. This Web site provides a general overview of various topics and can lead to a number of general sources.
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CHAPTER 4. PATENTS ON CEPHALEXIN Overview Patents can be physical innovations (e.g. chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment) or processes (e.g. treatments or diagnostic procedures). The United States Patent and Trademark Office defines a patent as a grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the Patent and Trademark Office.8 Patents, therefore, are intellectual property. For the United States, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date when the patent application was filed. If the inventor wishes to receive economic benefits, it is likely that the invention will become commercially available within 20 years of the initial filing. It is important to understand, therefore, that an inventor’s patent does not indicate that a product or service is or will be commercially available. The patent implies only that the inventor has “the right to exclude others from making, using, offering for sale, or selling” the invention in the United States. While this relates to U.S. patents, similar rules govern foreign patents. In this chapter, we show you how to locate information on patents and their inventors. If you find a patent that is particularly interesting to you, contact the inventor or the assignee for further information. IMPORTANT NOTE: When following the search strategy described below, you may discover non-medical patents that use the generic term “cephalexin” (or a synonym) in their titles. To accurately reflect the results that you might find while conducting research on cephalexin, we have not necessarily excluded nonmedical patents in this bibliography.
Patents on Cephalexin By performing a patent search focusing on cephalexin, you can obtain information such as the title of the invention, the names of the inventor(s), the assignee(s) or the company that owns or controls the patent, a short abstract that summarizes the patent, and a few excerpts from the description of the patent. The abstract of a patent tends to be more technical in nature, while the description is often written for the public. Full patent descriptions contain much more information than is presented here (e.g. claims, references, figures, diagrams, etc.). We will tell you how to obtain this information later in the chapter. The following is an 8Adapted
from the United States Patent and Trademark Office: http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/doc/general/whatis.htm.
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example of the type of information that you can expect to obtain from a patent search on cephalexin: •
Agglomerates of.beta.-lactam antibiotics and processess for making agglomerates Inventor(s): Raneburger; Johannes (Woergl, AT), Zeisl; Erich (Jenbach, AT) Assignee(s): Biochemie Gesellschaft m.b.H. (Kundl, AT) Patent Number: 6,440,462 Date filed: September 2, 1998 Abstract: Agglomerates of.beta.-lactam antibiotics, such as penicilllin V potassium, amoxicillin trihydrate, cephalexin monohydrate, which are suitable for direct tablet formation. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to agglomerates of.beta.-lactam antibiotics, including e.g. penicillin V potassium, amoxicillin trihydrate, cephalexin monohydrate, which are suitable for direct tablet formation. The most important and most frequently used form for orally administrable.beta.-lactam antibiotics and mixtures, containing.beta.-lactam antibiotics beside a second pharmaceutically active agent and optionally beside auxiliaries, is a tablet or a film tablet. For the production of a tablet or a film tablet, there are at the moment two processes known, namely granulation and direct tablet formation. During granulation, generally very fine-grained, powdered, cohesive, non free-flowing and non-compressible pharmaceutically active agents are granulated in a multi-stage process to form coarser, free-flowing and compressible granules. In such a process, the pharmaceutically active agents are mixed in a first step with a binding agent, compacted whilst moist or dry and subsequently granulated in a second step through a sieve. The binding agent may, e.g. be dissolved in the moistening liquid used for moistening and granulating the powder. In a moist granulation process, drying of the granules is carried out including subsequent sieving to the final grain size. In a dry granulation process, after granulation it is generally necessary to separate the particles which are too coarse or too fine, and to recycle these particles, the coarse grain particles being pulverized again and the fine particles being compacted again. The granulates obtained may be mixed with auxiliaries which are preferably pharmaceutically acceptable required for tablet formation and compressed into tablets. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06440462__
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Cephalexin tablets Inventor(s): Marsden; Richard (Bisley, GB2) Assignee(s): Lilly Industries Limited (London, GB2) Patent Number: 4,143,129 Date filed: January 16, 1978 Abstract: A small tablet containing over 90% by weight of an orally active cephalosporin such as cephalexin and which utilizes as a binder polyvinyl pyrrolidone having a number average molecular weight of from 500,000 to 1,500,000. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to pharmaceutical formulations, more particularly to tablets containing an orally active cephalosporin such as cephalexin or cephradine. Both cephalexin (7-(D-.alpha.-amino-phenylacetamido)-3-methyl-3-cephem-4-carboxylic
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acid) and cephradine (7-[D-.alpha.-amino-(1,4-cyclohexadienyl)-acetamido]-3-methyl-3cephem-4-c arboxylic acid) are excellent broad spectrum antibiotics having low toxicity. However, for effective chemotherapy of bacterial infections in humans it has been found that quite high dosages are needed. Consequentially, heretofore, administration of these cephalosporins has necessarily taken the form of either rather large tablets or numerous small tablets. Both of these forms of administration have undesirable facets so far as patient acceptability, particularly in children and the elderly, is concerned. Thus, there has long been a need for smaller tablets containing adequate amounts of active ingredient. (d) will disintegrate in distilled water within 15 minutes at 37.degree. C. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04143129__ •
Crystalline cephalexin hydrochloride monohydrate Inventor(s): Engel; Gary L. (Greenwood, IN), Indelicato; Joseph M. (Greenwood, IN), Rose; Harry A. (Indianapolis, IN) Assignee(s): Eli Lilly and Company (Indianapolis, IN) Patent Number: 4,600,773 Date filed: December 1, 1983 Abstract: Crystalline cephalexin hydrochloride ethanol solvate converts to crystalline cephalexin hydrochloride monohydrate upon being exposed to moisture. Excerpt(s): Cephalexin is the generic term used to identify the chemical compound 7-(D.alpha.-aminophenylacetamido)-3-methyl-3-cephem-4-carboxylic acid. The compound is described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,507,861. While cephalexin is a potent antibacterial agent, it does not lend itself to convenient formulation for human therapy because of its physical characteristics. U.S. Pat. No. 3,655,656 describes a process for prreparing a unique form of cephalexin, namely a monohydrate, which is a highly crystalline dense form of cephalexin ideally suited to formulation into capsules and tablets for human therapy. While cephalexin monohydrate has enjoyed widespread commercial success as a two to four times-a-day treatment for diseases of bacterial origin, it heretofore has not been possible to formulate it into a slow-release rate controlled drug form. It is now recognized that controlling the blood concentrations of a therapeutic agent such as cephalexin over a prolonged period of time is a method of improving the selectivity of the agents' beneficial actions. Moreover, a once or twice-a-day administration of a slowrelease dosage form is much more convenient and preferred over the requirement of multiple dosings per day. A technology involving concepts of an elementary osmotic pump recently has been developed and has proven to be effective in permitting control of drug content and rate of drug delivery in vivo; see Theeuwes, F., "Elementary Osmotic Pump," J. Pharm. Sci., Vol. 64, 1975, pp 1987-1991. In order to function in such a delivery system, a pharmaceutical agent must be sufficiently soluble in water and body fluids to permit development of sufficient differential osmotic pressure to effect release of the active agent into the biological system being treated. The agent must also be of sufficient stability such that it retains its pharmacological potency throughout the entire release period, which may extend from about three to about twelve hours duration. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04600773__
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Deacetoxycephalosporins via penicillin sulfoxide rearrangement Inventor(s): Hatfield; Lowell D. (Indianapolis, IN) Assignee(s): Eli Lilly and Company (Indianapolis, IN) Patent Number: 3,953,440 Date filed: December 13, 1974 Abstract: Penicillin sulfoxides, notably the sulfoxides of penicillin V and penicillin G, are heated with amine salts of dichloromethane phosphonate in 1,1,2-trichloroethane to provide superior yields of deacetoxycephalosporins. The process is especially valuable in providing greater yields of the intermediate in the synthesis of the commercial antibiotic, cephalexin. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a process for the preparation of deacetoxycephalosporins. In particular, it relates to an improved process for the conversion of penicillin sulfoxide esters to deacetoxycephalosporin esters. In U.S. Pat. No. 3,275,626 Morin and Jackson describe the penicillin sulfoxide rearrangement reaction wherein the thiazolidine ring of a penicillin sulfoxide is expanded to the dihydrothiazine ring of the desacetoxycephalosporin. This process provided the first practical method for the preparation of the deacetoxycephalosporins, the 3-methyl-3cephem compounds, and also povided for the first time a method for the preparation of cephalosporin compounds which did not depend upon cephalosporin C as a starting material. In U.S. Pat. No. 3,647,787 Cooper describes an improved process for the conversion of penicillin sulfoxides to deacetoxycephalosporins which comprises heating the penicillin sulfoxide ester under acid conditions in a tertiary carboxamide, a urea derivative, and/or a sulfonamide. A further improved process is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 3,591,585 issued July 6, 1971. Therein the use of a sulfonic acid catalyst in a tertiary carboxamide solvent is described. More recently, U.S. Pat. No. 3,725,397 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,725,399 describe certain acid catalysts which can be employed in the ring expansion process. In the former patent, nitrogen base complexes formed with lower alkyl, phenyl lower alkyl, or phenyl dihydrogen phosphates are taught as useful acid catalysts in the rearrangement. The latter patent describes the use of certain amine salts of sulfonic acids, phosphorus acid, or trifluoroacetic acid in the ring expansion process. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US03953440__
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De-esterification process for cephalosporins Inventor(s): Hatfield; Lowell D. (Bargersville, IN) Assignee(s): Eli Lilly and Company (Indianapolis, IN) Patent Number: 4,091,214 Date filed: February 25, 1977 Abstract: p-Nitrobenzyl esters of cephalosporins are reductively cleaved with zinc and.alpha.-hydroxycarboxylic acids, e.g., the p-nitrobenzyl ester of the cephalosporin antibiotic, cephalexin, is reacted in an inert solvent with zinc and mandelic acid to provide the antibiotic, cephalexin, as the free acid in yields greater than 85 percent. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a process for the de-esterification of cephalosporin esters. In particular, it relates to a process for the de-esterification of p-nitrobenzyl esters of cephalosporins. Esters of cephalosporins are commonly employed intermediates in the synthesis of cephalosporin antibiotics in the free acid form. The ester function is
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generally employed to block or protect the acidic carboxylic acid function in the molecule while reactions at other sites in the molecule are carried out. For example, Garbrecht, U.S. Pat. No. 3,632,850 describes the use of the p-nitrobenzyl ester group in the synthesis of cephalexin. In the final step of the synthesis, this ester is cleaved via hydrogenolysis under acidic conditions. Garbrecht later describes in U.S. Pat. No. 3,781,282 the de-esterification of p-nitrobenzyl esters of cephalosporins with zinc and acid in an amide-type solvent, for example in dimethylformamide. Jackson, U.S. Pat. No. 3,799,924 describes the removal of the p-nitrobenzyl ester group of cephalosporins on treatment of the ester with sodium or potassium dithionite at a pH above about 7. More recently, in copending application Ser. No. 701,850, filed July 1, 1976, Hatfield describes a process for de-esterifying certain penicillin and cephalosporin esters including the pnitrobenzyl ester group which comprises a reductive cleavage employing zinc and organothiols, e.g., benzenethiol. Because of the importance of the p-nitrobenzyl esters of cephalosporin antibiotics in the synthesis of these antibiotics in the free acid antibiotic form, improved or alternative methods for the removal of this ester group continue to be the subject of investigation. p-Nitrobenzyl esters of cephalosporin compounds are deesterified in an inert solvent with zinc and an.alpha.-hydroxycarboxylic acid. The process comprises a reductive cleavage of the p-nitrobenzyl group wherein the.alpha.hydroxycarboxylic acid functions as a proton donor in the reduction and in addition forms insoluble zinc chelates which are readily separated from the reduction mixture. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04091214__ •
Halogenation of cephalexin with haloperoxidase from Rathayibacter biopuresis Inventor(s): Chen; Yung-Pin (Columbia, SC), Shen; Yong-Qiang (Revere, MA), Wong; Bing L. (Durham, NH) Assignee(s): Biopure Corporation (Cambridge, MA) Patent Number: 5,589,354 Date filed: December 20, 1994 Abstract: An enzyme preparation that exhibits cephalosporin haloperoxidase activity is isolatable from a microorganism species of the Rathayibacter genus. This enzyme preparation can convert cephalexin to a halogenated cephalosporin antibiotic in a single step. A particular, unique microorganism that can provide the cephalosporin haloperoxidase enzyme preparation is Rathayibacter biopuresis. Excerpt(s): Cefaclor (7-[phenylglycylamido]-3-chloro-3-cephem-4-carboxylic acid) is an antibiotic of the cephalosporin class. Its antibiotic activity is effective against a range of bacteria including Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Shigella sp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, Aerobacter aerogenes and Salmonella heidelberg. This antibiotic has been synthesized from parent compounds by synthetic organic techniques (see, e.g. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,925,372 and 4,064,343). A common synthetic technique is to protect the 4-carboxylate by esterification, proceed by a series of steps to modify the 3 position so that a sole chloride atom is eventually covalently bound at that position, and then remove the ester protecting group from the carboxylate. In this manner a variety of cephalosporin antibiotics have been synthesized. Another antibiotic in the cephalosporin family is cephalexin (7-[phenylglycylamido]-3-methyl-3-cephem-4carboxylic acid). This antibiotic compound differs from cefaclor by the substitution of a methyl for the chloride at the 3 position. The synthesis of cephalexin is more easily achieved than the synthesis of cefaclor. However, the usefulness of cefaclor as an antibiotic surpasses that of cephalexin. For these reasons, it would be desirable to easily
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convert cephalexin to cefaclor. Synthetic organic routes can be utilized but, when these synthetic schemes are invoked, several steps are required to achieve this conversion. A simple, one-step process would be more desirable. Certain microorganisms contain haloperoxidases that can halogenate a wide variety of organic compounds (Franssen, M. C. R. et al., Adv. Applied Microbiol. 37: 41-99 (1992)). At the present time, these haloperoxidases do not appear to have commercial application as peroxidases. However, their use as halogenating agents has been sought. Despite optimistic predictions for the use of chloroperoxidases and other halogenating enzymes in the production of particular chemicals, the potential for the use of the haloperoxidases for this purpose remains unrealized. The major obstacles to fulfillment of these predictions lie in the narrow pH range of operation for these enzymes, the use of high concentrations of H.sub.2 O.sub.2 which can be toxic to the source of the enzymes, and the short half-lives of the enzyme biocatalysts, to name a few. Most haloperoxidases concomitantly convert a peroxide to water in the course of oxidizing the halide. Following this process, an enzymatic addition reaction occurs. However, to convert cephalexin to cefaclor, a substitution reaction is required; specifically, the substitution of a chloride for a methyl group. It would be desirable to have an enzyme preparation that not only halogenates an organic compound but also substitutes a halide such as a chloride for a methyl group on the organic compound at the same time. It would be especially desirable to have an enzyme that performs this substitution reaction at the appropriate position on a cephalexin molecule, thereby producing a halogenated product such as cefaclor. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05589354__ •
Method for the production of 3-methyl cephem derivatives Inventor(s): Schreiber; Fred G. (Highland Park, NJ) Assignee(s): Biocraft Laboratories, Inc. (Fairlawn, NJ) Patent Number: 5,034,522 Date filed: August 27, 1990 Abstract: A method for obtaining improved cophalexin monohydrate or cephradine monohydrate yields and purities in the syntheses of such materials by the acylation of silyl esters of 7-ADCA, which involves admixing a cephalexin or cephradine-containing system with base to separate the acid acceptor employed during acylation from the product, and thereafter separating the aqueous phase containing the cephalosporin anion from the organin phase containing the acid acceptor, to thereby prevent contamination of the desired product by the acid acceptor. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to improvements in the synthesis of certain 3methyl cephem derivatives, viz., cephalexin or cephradine, by the acylation of silyl esters of 7-ADCA. In particular, it relates to an improved recovery technique for obtaining such materials in good yields and purities. Cephalexin and cephradine are antibacterial agents of the class of compounds commonly referred to as cephalosporins. Numerous disclosures of alternative methods for the production and purification of cephalexin and cephradine, their salts and hydrates, have appeared in the technical literature over the past twenty years. In accordance with one commercially important synthesis, cephalexin or cephradine may be prepared by silylating 7aminodesacetoxycephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA), reacting the resulting silyl ester with an appropriate acylating agent, cleaving the silyl protecting groups, and raising the pH of the reaction mixture to the isoelectric point to precipitate the desired product.
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Syntheses of this type are disclosed, for example, in British Patent No. 1,073,530; Japanese Patent Publication No. 41-3907 (1966); Weissenburger et al. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,499,909 and 3,575,970; and Jackson U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,671,449 and 3,694,437. Similar procedures have also been proposed for the synthesis of the related 3-methyl cephem, cefadroxil; see, for example, Bouzard et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,234,721 and Reissue Patent Re. 31730. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05034522__ •
Method of preparing a sparingly soluble complex of cephalexin Inventor(s): Faarup; Peter (Frederiksberg, DK) Assignee(s): Novo Industri A/S (DK) Patent Number: 4,003,896 Date filed: December 17, 1974 Abstract: Method of recovering high purity cephalexin in high yields from a solution containing cephalexin comprising the steps of reacting said solution with a nonsubstituted or substituted naphthalene to form a complex with cephalexin, isolating said complex, and decomposing said complex to recover cephalexin or a salt thereof. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a method of preparing novel sparingly soluble cephalexin complexes, and more particularly to a method of recovering high purity cephalexin in high yields from a solution containing cephalexin. When cephalexin, i.e. 7.beta.-(D(-)-.alpha.-phenylglycylamido)-3-methyl-ceph-3-em-4-carboxylic acid is recovered in crystalline form from an aqueous solution thereof, it tends to occlude undesired compounds and impurities originating from the reaction mixture used for the production of said cephalexin. Thus, when cephalexin has been prepared by acylating 7-amino-3-desacetoxy cephalosporanic acid (in the following referred to as 7-ADCA) or esters thereof with phenylglycyl chloride, hydrochloride, or with other forms of protected and activated phenylglycin derivative and the protecting groups, if any, have been removed by hydrogenation or hydrolysis, the solution obtained contains undesired products or impurities originating from the starting material or decomposition products thereof, e.g. 7-ADCA and phenylglycin. The presence of such undesired products or impurities impedes the purification of cephalexin, e.g. by disturbing the precipitation of cephalexin at its isoelectric point. Therefore, hitherto it has been difficult to prepare high purity cephalexin in high yields. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04003896__
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Modified release matrix formulation of cefaclor and cephalexin Inventor(s): Arora; Jagdish (Chaudlgarh, IN), Jain; Girish (Delhi, IN), Sen; Himadri (Haryana, IN) Assignee(s): Ranbaxy Laboratories Limited (New Delhi, IN) Patent Number: 5,948,440 Date filed: December 17, 1997 Abstract: A pharmaceutical composition in the form of a tablet for controlled release of an active ingredient comprises cefaclor, cephalexin, or their pharmaceutically acceptable hydrates, salts, or esters as active ingredient, and a mixture of hydrophilic
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polymers of different viscosity grades selected from the group consisting of at least one hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and at least one hydroxypropylcellulose. The composition optionally also contains one or more of a water soluble or water dispersible diluent. The quantities of the hydrophilic polymers and water soluble or water dispersible diluent are such that the therapeutically effective active ingredient is released at a rate suitable for twice daily administration of the pharmaceutical composition to human subjects. The tablets may also be coated with a rapidly dissolving water soluble polymeric film coat. In a preferred embodiment, the composition comprises about 50% to about 90% by weight of cefaclor, cephalexin, or their pharmaceutically acceptable hydrates, salts, or esters, and about 5% to about 35% of a mixture of hydrophilic polymers of different grades, wherein the hydrophilic polymers comprise about 0.1% to about 20% by weight of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and about 0.1% to about 20% by weight of hydroxypropyl cellulose. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition of modified release tablets comprising cefaclor or cephalexin, or their pharmaceutically acceptable hydrates, salts, or esters as active ingredient, and a mixture of hydrophilic polymers of different viscosity grades selected from the group consisting of at least one hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and at least one hydroxypropylcellulose. Optionally, the composition also contains one or more of a water soluble and/or water dispersible diluent, wherein the quantities of the hydrophilic polymers and water soluble and/or water dispersible diluents are such that the therapeutically effective active ingredient is released at a rate suitable for twice-daily administration of the pharmaceutical composition to human subjects. Optionally, the tablets may be coated with a rapidly dissolving water soluble polymer film coat. The use of hydrophilic polymers to produce sustained or modified release pharmaceutical compositions is known in the art. For modified release solid dosage forms comprising a drug dispersed uniformly in hydrophilic polymers, release of the drug is controlled primarily by diffusion of the drug, or by surface erosion of the hydrophilic polymers into the surrounding medium, or by a combination of the two processes. Control of the rate of release benefits therapy by producing constant blood levels of the active ingredient and by decreasing the frequency of administration, thereby improving patient compliance to the dosage regimen. The present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition of modified release tablets of cefaclor or cephalexin suitable for twice-daily administration to human subjects. Several controlled drug delivery system adapted for the delivery of cefaclor or cephalexin are known in the prior art. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05948440__ •
Penicillin G acylase immobilized with a crosslinked mixture of gelled gelatin and amino polymer Inventor(s): De Vroom; Erik (Leiden, NL) Assignee(s): Gist-Brocades B.V. (NL) Patent Number: 6,060,268 Date filed: January 15, 1998 Abstract: Penicillin G acylase is immobilized by covalent bonding to a crosslinked mixture of a gelled gelling agent such as gelatin and a polymer containing free amino groups such as alginate amine, chitosan or polyethylene imine. The immobilized penicillin G acylase provides a higher synthesis/hydrolysis ratio as compared to immobilizing with other carriers when producing.beta.-lactam derivatives by a
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condensing reaction of an amino.beta.-lactam with an acylating agent. The acylating agent may be a derivative of D-phenylglycine, a derivative of D-phydroxyphenylglycine or a derivative of D-2,5-dihydro-phenylglycine. Examples of.beta.-lactam derivatives that can be produced are amoxycillin, ampicillin, cephaclor, cephadroxil, cephprozil, cephalexin and cephradine. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to an improved immobilized Penicillin G acylase. Furthermore, the invention relates to the preparation of.beta.-lactam-antibiotics by enzymatic acylation of the parent amino.beta.-lactam nucleus with the corresponding acylating agent using said immobilized enzyme. Enzymatic production of semisynthetic.beta.-lactam antibiotics by acylation of the parent amino.beta.-lactam moiety with an activated side chain acid derivative, such as an amide or an ester, is known from Dutch patent 158847, European patent applications 339751 and 473008, international patent applications WO 92/01061 and WO 93/12250, U.S. Pat. No. 3,816,253, and West German patent documents 2163792 and 2621618. The enzymes used in the art are in most cases penicillin acylases obtained from Escherichia coli and are immobilized on various types of water-insoluble materials. A drawback of the known enzymatic methods for the production of amoxycillin, ampicillin, cephadroxil, cephalexin, and cephradine is the high cost due to the selectivity of the immobilized enzyme. Said immobilized enzymes are capable of condensing activated side chain derivatives such as D(-)-phenylglycine amide (PGA), D(-)-phenylglycine methyl ester (PGM), D(-)-4-hydroxyphenylglycine amide (HPGA), D(-)-4-hydroxyphenylglycine methyl ester (HPGM), D(-)-2,5-dihydro-phenylglycine amide (DPGA), and D(-)-2,5dihydrophenylglycine methyl ester (DPGM) with amino.beta.-lactams such as 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA), 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA), 7-amino-3-chloro-3cephem-4-carboxylic acid (7-ACCA), 7-aminodesacetoxycephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA) and 7-amino-3-[(Z)-1-propenyl]-3-cephem-4-carboxylic acid. On the other hand, said immobilized enzymes will also hydrolyse the activated side chain derivatives to worthless side chain acids. Also, the desired product hydrolyses to form side chain acid and the parent amino.beta.-lactam. A high ratio between synthesis and hydrolysis will lower the cost of activated side chain derivative. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06060268__ •
Process for preparing cephalexin monohydrate Inventor(s): Schreiber; Fred G. (Highland Park, NJ) Assignee(s): Biocraft Laboratories, Inc. (Fairlawn, NJ) Patent Number: 5,142,043 Date filed: May 10, 1990 Abstract: Cephalexin monohydrate prepared by the silylation of 7-ADCA is obtained in high yield and of improved purity when the silylation step is carried out by refluxing in a solvent having a boiling point of over 100.degree. C. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to an improved method of preparing cephalexin monohydrate. More particularly, this invention method produces cephalexin monohydrate in high yield and high purity. The silylation step has generally been carried out in solvents such as methylene chloride which has a boiling point of 40.degree. C. at reflux, with various silylating agents in the presence of a catalyst such as saccharin. Room temperature reaction in acetonitrile has been disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,694,437. The silylated intermediate (II) is then reacted with a mixed anhydride. The
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mixed anhydride (IV) is made by converting D-(alpha)-phenylglycine Dane salt potassium ethyl ester (III) with pivaloyl chloride catalyzed with 2,6-lutidine in a suitable solvent. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05142043__ •
Process for preparing cephalosporin compounds from 7-ADCA Inventor(s): Burton; Brian (Ruislip, EN), Graham; William (Gerrards Cross, EN) Assignee(s): Glaxo Laboratories Limited (Greenford, EN) Patent Number: 3,957,773 Date filed: July 2, 1974 Abstract: 7.beta.-Amino-3-methylceph-3-em-4-carboxylic acid is converted to cephalexin in high yield and relatively uncontaminated with unreacted 7.beta.-amino-3methylceph-3-em-4-carboxylic acid if it is silylated prior to acylation with phenyl glycyl chloride hydrochloride and if the acylation reaction is conducted in dimethylformamide at low temperature in the presence of certain weak tertiary nitrogen bases. Excerpt(s): This invention concerns improvements in or relating to cephalosporin compounds and is particularly concerned with a process for the preparation of cephalexin. More particularly the invention is concerned with an improved process for the preparation of cephalexin from 7.beta.-amino-3-methylceph-3-em-4-carboxylic acid, sometimes referred to as 7-aminodesacetoxy-cephalosporanic acid or, more simply, 7ADCA. Cephalexin [7.beta.-(D-2-amino-2-phenylacetamido)-3-methylceph-3-em-4carboxylic acid] is well known as a valuable orally-administrable cephalosporin antibiotic and may be prepared by acylation of 7-ADCA or a carboxylate derivative, e.g. a salt or ester, thereof to introduce the D-.alpha.-aminophenylacetyl group at the 7position, followed if necessary by de-esterification. 7-ADCA or the carboxylate derivative thereof employed as starting material may itself conveniently be obtained from a fermentation-produced penicillin compound, e.g. penicillin G or penicillin V, by methods involving ring expansion of a penicillin sulphoxide ester, for example as described in British Patent Specifications Nos. 1,299,734; 1,312,232 or 1,312,233 and subsequent N-deacylation (and de-esterification) of the resulting 7.beta.-acylamido-3methylceph-3-em-4-carboxylate ester, the deacylation being effected by, for example, the imide halide technique described in U.S. Patent No. 3,697,515 and British Patent Specifications Nos. 1,241,655 and 1,227,014. Existing industrial processes for the manufacture of cephalexin generally employ acylating agents such as D-phenylglycyl chloride as their N-protected derivatives, e.g. derivatives wherein the amino group is protected by substitution with a hydrolytically cleavable protecting group such as tbutoxy-carbonyl or a reductively cleavable protecting group such as 2,2,2trichloroethoxycarbonyl, in order to minimise undesirable side reactions involving the amino group during the acylation reaction. Where such acylating agents are employed, subsequent N-deprotection reactions are necessary in order to regenerate the amino group in the cephalexin 7-position side chain, and such subsequent reactions necessarily complicate a preparative sequence and add to its overall cost. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US03957773__
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•
Process for preparing desacetoxycephalosporanic acid Inventor(s): Vladuchick; William C. (Indianapolis, IN) Assignee(s): Eli Lilly and Company (Indianapolis, IN) Patent Number: 4,346,219 Date filed: June 29, 1981 Abstract: Process for preparing 7-ADCA and 7-(N,Ndisubstituted)aminodesacetoxycephalosporins which comprises reacting 7-ACA or an N,N-disubstituted derivative thereof with a tri-(C.sub.1 -C.sub.6 alkyl)silane in a highly acidic organic acid, e.g. trifluoroacetic acid, with a Lewis acid, preferably boron trifluoride, at a temperature of 20.degree. C. to 100.degree. C. E.g., 7-ADCA is readily prepared in high yield, is purified by isoelectric precipitation, and is useful for preparing cephalexin. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a process for the preparation of cephalosporin compounds. In particular, it relates to a process for the preparation of 7-(N,Ndisubstituted)-3-methyl-3-cephem compounds and 7-aminodesacetoxycephalosporanic acid hereinafter referred to by the commonly used abbreviation 7-ADCA. 7-ADCA is useful as an intermediate for the preparation of desacetoxycephalosporin antibiotic compounds, in particular, cephalexin. The N,N-disubstituted desacetoxycephalosporins can be converted to 7-ADCA. 7-ADCA has been obtained by the hydrogenolysis of the cephalosporin C nucleus 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA), Stedman, et al., J. Med. Chem. 7, 117 (1964); U.S. Pat. No. 3,124,576. 7-Amino- and 7-(N,Ndisubstituted)aminocephalosporanic acids are converted to the corresponding 3-methyl3-cephem-4-carboxylic acids by reacting the cephalosporanic acid with a tri(C.sub.1 C.sub.6 alkyl)silane in the presence of an organic acid having a pKa of <1.5 and a Lewis acid. For example, 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA) is reacted with triethylsilane in trifluoroacetic acid in the presence of boron trifluoride to provide 7aminodesacetoxycephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04346219__
•
Process for the manufacture of the antibiotic 7-(D-.alpha.-amino-.alpha.phenylacetamido)-3-methyl-3-cephem-4-carboxyl ic acid (cephalexin) and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof Inventor(s): Agrawal; Jyoti Rajesh (Gujarat, IN), Chowdhary; Anil Shankar (Gujarat, IN), Nair; Vellate Ravindranathan (Gujarat, IN) Assignee(s): Vitara Chemicals Limited (Maharashtra, IN) Patent Number: 5,908,929 Date filed: July 9, 1997 Abstract: A process for the manufacture of the antibiotic 7-(D-.alpha.-amino-.alpha.phenylacetamido)-3-methyl-3-cephem-4-carboxylic acid (cephalexin) and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. It consists of reacting an enamine protected potassium salt of D-(-)-.alpha.-phenyl glycine (Dane salt) with an acid chloride in a twin solvent mixture in the presence of a pyridine derived twin catalytic mixture at -20 to 65.degree. C. The resulting mixed anhydride is condensed with an alkyl guanidinium salt solution of 7-amino desacetoxy cephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA) at -10.degree. C. to 65.degree. C. followed by hydrolytic cleavage of the enamine derivative of the resulting
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compound with an aqueous mineral acid and precipitation of the antibiotic in the presence of an alcohol as co-solvent. If desired the cephalexin is converted into its pharmaceutically acceptable salts in a known manner. Excerpt(s): The antibiotic of the formula 1 is well known as perorally active antibacterial having broad spectrum activity. Several processes for the manufacture of the compound of the formula 1 are reported. European Patent No 0127541 relates to the preparation of salts of amino-beta-lactamic acids by reacting the amino-beta lactamic acids with stoichiometric amount of alkyl guanidines in a solvent at -50 to +25.degree. C. Experimental example 61 of the above European Patent relates to preparation of compound of the formula 1 by reacting potassium N-(1-ethoxycarbonyl propen-2-yl)alpha-aminophenylacetate (Dane salt) in methylene chloride with gamma-picoline hydrochloride or pyridine or beta-picoline in the presence of N-methylacetamide followed by pivaloyl chloride. The resulting mixed anhydride is condensed with 7ADCA in methylene chloride and tetramethylguanidine. The excess mixed anhydride was destroyed with diethyl amine. The resulting compound was hydrolysed with aqueous hydrochloric acid and treated with acetonitrile followed by cleavage of the acetonitrile solvate with water to obtain the compound of the formula 1. This process generates an acetonitrile solvate necessitating subsequent cleavage of the solvate with water. This process also uses the Dane salt in large excess (about 20% in excess of 7ADCA) necessitating destruction of the excess Dane salt with diethyl amine. This process is, therefore, tedious and difficult to carryout. It also results in large amount of unreacted 7 ADCA in the reaction leading to poor yields and is, therefore, uneconomical. An object of the invention is to provide a process for the manufacture of the antibiotic 7-(D-.alpha.-amino-.alpha.-phenylacetamido-3-methyl-3-cephem-4carboxylic acid (cephalexin) of the formula 1 and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof in high yield and purity. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05908929__ •
Process for the recovery of cephalexin Inventor(s): Boesten; Wilhelmus H. J. (Sittard, NL), Roos; Eric C. (Maastricht, NL), van den Tweel; Wilhelmus J. J. (Meerssen, NL) Assignee(s): Chemferm V.O.F. (Breda, NL) Patent Number: 5,874,571 Date filed: July 31, 1997 Abstract: The disclosed process is for the recovery of cephalexin from a mixture containing cephalexin and 7-aminodesacetoxy cephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA), wherein a mixture of cephalexin and 7-ADCA, with a pH higher than 7, which apart from any solid cephalexin being present is homogeneous at a pH between 7 and 8.5, is subjected to a pH modification until a pH lower than 7.8 is reached, and the solid substance is recovered. The disclosed process is particularly suited for application to a reaction mixture obtained after the enzymatic acylation reaction of 7-ADCA with a phenylglycine derivative as an acylation agent. Pure cephalexin can thus be recovered in a simple manner. Excerpt(s): This is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/NL96/00051 filed Feb. 1, 1996, which designated the U.S. The invention relates to a process for the recovery of cephalexin from a mixture containing cephalexin and 7-aminodesacetoxy cephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA). In the preparation of cephalexin with 7-ADCA being
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acylated with a D-phenyl glycine derivative, the recovery of the cephalexin and the working up of the reaction mixture are difficult in general. Thus in WO-A-93/12250 for instance it is described that the acylation reaction never runs to completion and the ultimate purification of the final product is hindered because the acid/base properties and solubilities of certain components (in particular 7-ADCA and phenylglycine as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,003,896) differ little from those of the final product. As a result, coprecipitation occurs, so that impure cephalexin is obtained. In WO-A-93/12250 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,003,896 the use of a complexing agent such as naphthol is proposed. However, this entails the drawback that an additional substance alien to the process has to be added. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US05874571__ •
Production of cephalosporins Inventor(s): Johnson; David A. (Fayetteville, NY), Sapino; Chester (East Syracuse, NY), Silvestri; Herbert H. (Dewitt, NY), Walker; Derek (Jamesville, NY) Assignee(s): Bristol-Myers Company (New York, NY) Patent Number: 4,223,135 Date filed: March 19, 1979 Abstract: In the preferred embodiment of the present invention trimethylsilyl 7trimethylsilyloxycarbonylaminodecephalosporanate was prepared by bubbling dry carbon dioxide into an anhydrous solution of trimethylsilyl 6trimethylsilylaminodecephalosporanate and found to be a useful intermediate in the production of cefadroxil and cephalexin by its acylation in anhydrous media with the appropriate 2-phenylglycyl chloride hydrochloride. Other cephalosporins are produced by acylation of 7-trimethylsilyloxycarbonylaminoceph-3-em-4-carboxylic acids or esters having a variety of substituents at the 3-position. Excerpt(s): The chemical processes of the present invention produce antibacterial agents of the class commonly called cephalosporins or intermediates for said production. The patent literature alone contains a large number of disclosures of the production of cephalosporins by the reaction with a silylated nucleus [such as 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA) or 7-aminodesacetoxycephalosporanic acid] of a sidechain acid in the form of its acid chloride. When that acid contains a free amino group such group is preferably blocked, as by protonation, and so use is made, for example, of 2-phenylglycylchloride hydrochloride to make cephalexin. The 4-carboxyl group of the nucleus may be blocked by silylation or by esterification. Some examples of such patents are U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,671,449, 3,694,437, 3,741,959, 3,957,773, 3,965,098, 4,051,131 and U.K. Pat. No. 1,073,530. In many instances the 3-acetoxy group of 7-ACA has been displaced before acylation by a heterocyclic thiol, e.g. ceforanide (U.S. Pat. No. 4,100,346 and see the description of prior art therein), cefatrizine (U.S. Pat. No. 3,867,380), cefaparole (U.S. Pat. No. 3,641,021), cefazolin (U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,516,997 and 3,819,623), cefazaflur (U.S. Pat. No. 3,828,037) and the like or by other types of thiols as reviewed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,928,336. Siloxycarbonylamino derivatives are indexed under silanol, carbamic acid and under Ncarboxy derivatives of compounds as the trimethylsilyl ester. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US04223135__
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Substituted N-(1,2-dihydro-2-oxonicotinyl)-cephalexins and -cephaloglycins Inventor(s): Doub; Leonard (Ann Arbor, MI), Kaltenbronn; James S. (Ann Arbor, MI) Assignee(s): Parke, Davis & Company (Detroit, MI) Patent Number: 3,948,903 Date filed: November 11, 1974 Abstract: Novel organic amide compounds which are substituted N-(1,2-dihydro-2oxonicotinyl)-ampicillins, -cephalexins and -cephaloglycins having broad spectrum antibacterial utility are provided by (a) reacting the free amino acid ampicillin, cephalexin or cephaloglycin or the acid salt or silylated derivative thereof with a reactive derivative of the corresponding 1,2-dihydro-2-oxonicotinic acid or (b) reacting the free amino acid 6-aminopenicillanic acid, 7-aminocephalosporanic acid or 7-amino3-methylceph-3-em-4-carboxylic acid or the acid salt or silylated derivative thereof with a reactive derivative of the corresponding N-(1,2-dihydro-2-oxonicotinyl)-2phenylglycine. Excerpt(s): Or a reactive derivative thereof; where R.sub.1, R.sub.2, R.sub.3 and Z all have the aforementioned significance. For the reaction the 1,2-dihydro-2-oxonicotinic acid can be employed in activated form by use in known manner of carbodiimide such as N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. Some examples of reactive derivatives of the 1,2dihydro-2-oxonicotinic acid compound suitable for the reaction are the acid halides, the imidazolide, mixed anhydrides (especially those formed from an alkyl chloroformate such as ethyl chloroformate and isobutyl chloroformate), and activated esters such as the pentachlorophenyl ester. The reactants are normally employed in approximate equimolar quantities, although an excess of either (oxonicotinic acid compound or amino acid compound) can be used if desired. The reaction can be carried out in any of a number of unreactive solvents. When using the silylated derivative for the reaction the solvent must be anhydrous and may include tertiary amides (such as N,Ndimethylacetamide, dimethylformamide, and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone), ethers (such as dioxane, tetrahydrofuran, and 1,2-dimethoxyethane), chlorinated hydrocarbons (such as chloroform and dichloromethane), and mixtures of these. In addition to any of these solvents, using ampicillin, cephalexin and cephaloglycin for the reaction in the free acid or salt form, aqueous solutions may be used for acylation with an acid halide or mixed anhydride under normal Schotten-Baumann conditions. The duration and temperature of the reaction are not critical. Temperatures in the range from -10.degree. to 25.degree. C. are commonly used for reaction times ranging from a few hours up to a day or more. The product may be isolated in any suitable way as the free acid or as a salt by appropriate adjustment of the pH. A preferred procedure is to extract the product in aqueous solution at a pH in the range from 2 to 2.5 with a suitable water-immiscible solvent such as ethyl acetate. In the case where the substituent R.sub.1 is pyridyl the extraction is best accomplished in the range from 2.7 to 3.5. As another example of the isolation of the product, the reaction mixture can be evaporated to dryness and the residue treated with acetone to separate and remove any insoluble material. The acetone solution containing the product is then evaporated to give a second residue, which is dissolved in water and the aqueous solution is acidified to a pH in the range from about 2 to 2.5. This acidic solution is extracted with ethyl acetate and the ethyl acetate solution may be evaporated to give the product in the form of the free acid. Alternatively, the ethyl acetate solution may be treated with potassium or sodium 2-ethylhexanoate and the product usually precipitates; if not, the solution then can be concentrated to small volume and treated with ether to precipitate a carboxylate salt. The 1,2-dihydro-2oxonicotinic acid compounds and their reactive derivatives which are required as
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starting materials in the foregoing process can be prepared according to any of a variety of methods as illustrated in greater detail hereinafter. The silylated amino acid starting materials can be prepared by reacting the amino acid (ampicillin, cephalexin or cephaloglycin, or a salt thereof) in anhydrous form with either one or two equivalents of a tri(lower alkyl) silyl chloride in the presence of triethylamine. The preferred silylating agent is trimethylsilyl chloride. When two equivalents of the silylating agent are used, both the amino and the carboxyl group become silylated. When one equivalent is used, only the carboxyl group is silylated. Both the mono- and disilylated products are fully reactive with the activated acids. The disilylated product is preferred over the monosilylated product as a starting material. After acylation the silyl groups are easily removed by treatment with water. or a reactive derivative thereof, where R.sub.1, R.sub.2, R.sub.3 and Z have the aforementioned significance. Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US03948903__ •
Synthesis of beta-lactam antibiotics with immobilized penicillin amidase Inventor(s): Ilhan; Ferhat (Atahesir, DE), Kraemer; Dieter (Mainz, DE) Assignee(s): Unifar Kimya Sanayi ve Ticaret A.S. (Istanbul, TM) Patent Number: 6,218,138 Date filed: May 26, 1999 Abstract: Beta-lactam antibiotics are synthesized by reacting an amino-beta-lactam component with a corresponding amino-group-containing acylating side-chain component in the presence of penicillin amidase from E. coli covalently immobilized on support particles. The resulting beta-lactam antibiotic product is solubilized by adding an acid such as sulfuric acid to lower the pH to 1.0 at a temperature in the range of 0.degree. C. to +5.degree. C. The immobilized penicillin amidase is substantially inactivated by the acid. After separating the beta-lactam antibiotic product, the immobilized penicillin amidase is substantially reactivated for reuse in antibiotic synthesis by treatment with a buffer having about a neutral pH. Antibiotics that can be produced include ampicillin, amoxicillin, cephalexin, cefaclor and cefadroxil. Support particles that can be used include particles having a macroporous structure and a particle diameter of 10-1000.mu.m, particles having oxirane groups, particles made of a synthetic polymer and inorganic particles such as porous glass particles. Excerpt(s): The present invention relates to a method of synthesis of.beta.-lactam antibiotics. It has long been known that beta-lactam antibiotics can be formed from their respective nucleus and side-chain components via enzymatic pathways (C. A. Claridge et al., Nature, Vol. 187;237, 1960). From more recent studies it is known that a betalactam antibiotic, for example amoxicillin, synthesized via enzymatic pathways, has higher purity and accordingly lower toxicity than amoxicillin synthesized by chemical pathways (PCT WO 94/17800). Web site: http://www.delphion.com/details?pn=US06218138__
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Patent Applications on Cephalexin As of December 2000, U.S. patent applications are open to public viewing.9 Applications are patent requests which have yet to be granted. (The process to achieve a patent can take several years.) The following patent applications have been filed since December 2000 relating to cephalexin: •
Antibiotics for treating biohazardous bacterial agents Inventor(s): Cassell, Gail Houston; (Carmel, IN), Nicas, Thalia Ioanna; (Indianapolis, IN) Correspondence: Eli Lilly And Company; Patent Division; P.O. Box 6288; Indianapolis; IN; 46206-6288; US Patent Application Number: 20030176327 Date filed: October 18, 2002 Abstract: The present invention is directed to methods for the control of strains of biohazardous bacterial agents. These agents include: Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia Pestis, Francisella tularensis, Clostridium botulinin, Clostridium Perfringens, Brucella abortis, B milletensis, B suis and Burkholderia mallei. These methods employ treating an infected warm-blooded animal with an antibiotics selected from: Cephalothin, Cefazolin, Cephalexin monohydrate, Cephalexin HCl, Cefaclor, Loracarbef, Erythromycin estolate, Dirithromycin, Cinoxacin, Vancomycin HCl, Tobramycin, Cefamandole, Cefuroxime, Daptomycin, and Oritavancin. Excerpt(s): Of the numerous bio-hazardous bacterial agents that may be used as weapons, there are a limited number of organisms that could cause disease and deaths in sufficient numbers to cripple a city or region. These organisms include: Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia Pestis, Francisella tularensis, Clostridium botulinin, Clostridium, Perfringens, Brucella abortis, B milletensis, B suis and Burkholderia mallei. Anthrax, attributable to infection with Bacillus anthracis, is among the most serious diseases that can be contracted from a bio-hazardous agent. Biological agents have seldom been dispersed in aerosol form, the exposure mode most likely to inflict widespread disease. Therefore, historical experience provides little information about the potential impact of a biological attack or the possible efficacy of postattack measures such as vaccination, antibiotic therapy, or quarantine. For centuries, anthrax has caused disease in animals and, uncommonly, serious illness in humans throughout the world. (see D. Lew , Bacillus anthracis (anthrax); in G. L. Mandell, J. E. Bennett, R. Dolin, eds.; Principles and Practices of Infectious Disease, New York, N.Y.; Churchill Livingstone Inc; 1885-1889 (1989)). Research on anthrax as a biological weapon began more than 80 years ago. (see G. W. Christopher, T. J. Cieslak, J. A. Pavlin, and E. M. Eitzen, "Biological warfare: a historical perspective," JAMA 278, 412-417 (1997)). Today, at least 17 nations are believed to have offensive biological weapons programs (see L. A. Cole, "The specter of biological weapons," Sci.Am., 60-65 (December 1996)); it is uncertain how many are working with anthrax. Iraq has acknowledged producing and weaponizing anthrax. (see R. A. Zalinskas, "Iraq's biological weapons: the past as future?," JAMA 278, 418-424 (1997)). Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html
9
This has been a common practice outside the United States prior to December 2000.
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•
Pharmaceutical composition for controlled release of an active ingredient Inventor(s): Bhamare, Shailesh Suresh; (Maharashtra, IN), Kandi, Chandrashekhar Shriram; (Maharashtra, IN), Kshirsagar, Rajesh Suresh; (Maharashtra, IN), Sen, Himadri; (Maharashtra, IN) Correspondence: Ladas & Parry; 26 West 61st Street; New York; NY; 10023; US Patent Application Number: 20020103181 Date filed: November 30, 2000 Abstract: A pharmaceutical composition in the form of a tablet for controlled release of an active ingredient comprises a betalactam antibiotic such as cephalexin, cefaclor or their pharmaceutically acceptable hydrates, salts or esters as active ingredient, and a mixture of hydrophilic polymers selected from the group consisting of at least one sodium alginate and at least one xanthan gum as controlled release matrix; and optionally probenecid as an antibiotic adjuvant as either immediate release or controlled release part. The composition may also contain one or more of a water soluble and/or water dispersible diluent, wherein the quantities of the hydrophilic polymers and water soluble and/or water dispersible diluents are such that the therapeutically effective active ingredient is released at a rate suitable for once or twice daily administration of the pharmaceutical composition. Inclusion of probenecid allows reduction in the amount of active incorporated in the hydrophilic polymer matrix but still provides the desired once a day profile. The resulting modified release matrix formulation not containing probenecid may be administered once or twice daily. The resulting modified release matrix formulation containing probenecid may be administered once daily. Excerpt(s): This invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition of modified release tablets comprising a betalactam antibiotic or their pharmaceutically acceptable hydrates, salts or esters as the active ingredient, and a mixture of hydrophilic polymers selected from the group consisting of at least one sodium alginate and at least one xanthan gum as controlled release matrix. More particularly the invention relates to pharmaceutical composition of modified release tablets in which the active material is selected from cephalexin, cefaclor or their pharmaceutically acceptable hydrates, salts or esters. The composition optionally comprises probenecid as an antibiotic adjuvant as either immediate release or controlled release part. Further optionally, the composition contains one or more of a water soluble and/or water dispersible diluent, wherein the quantities of the hydrophilic polymers and water soluble and/or water dispersible diluents are such that the therapeutically effective active ingredient is released at a rate suitable for once or twice daily administration of the pharmaceutical composition. Inclusion of probenecid allows reduction in the amount of active incorporated in the hydrophilic polymer matrix but still provides the desired once a day profile. Most drugs used to treat microbial infections are given more than once during a dosage regimen. The objectives during antimicrobial therapy are to maximize blood concentration, preferably several fold higher than the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for the particular agent, but to minimize both the risk of toxicity to the patient and of promoting microbial resistance. Although oral administration will be the preferred route, in the case of antibiotics this route is frequently unattractive because of their low or variable oral bioavailability. In addition extremely high plasma concentrations of antibiotics are frequently required to achieve their MIC values towards certain gramnegative bacteria. (Antibiotic and Chemotherapy: Anti-infective agents and their use in therapy, 7.sup.th edition, Ed. by O'grady F., Finch R. G., Lambert H. P., Greenwood D.; Churchill Livingstone, 1997). While many compounds are known to be useful as pharmacologically active substances, some of them have relatively short biological half-
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life and need to be administered several times a day in order to achieve desired therapeutic effect. However, a decrease in the frequency of administration will not only reduce the burden on the patient but will also increase compliance and thus provide greater therapeutic effect. It can be achieved by controlling the release of active ingredients, so that the effective level is maintained in the blood for a prolonged period of time or by reducing the elimination of the active from the body thereby increasing its concentration in blood resulting in its retention in blood for longer period. Web site: http://appft1.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/search-bool.html
Keeping Current In order to stay informed about patents and patent applications dealing with cephalexin, you can access the U.S. Patent Office archive via the Internet at the following Web address: http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. You will see two broad options: (1) Issued Patent, and (2) Published Applications. To see a list of issued patents, perform the following steps: Under “Issued Patents,” click “Quick Search.” Then, type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the “Term 1” box. After clicking on the search button, scroll down to see the various patents which have been granted to date on cephalexin. You can also use this procedure to view pending patent applications concerning cephalexin. Simply go back to http://www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html. Select “Quick Search” under “Published Applications.” Then proceed with the steps listed above.
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CHAPTER 5. BOOKS ON CEPHALEXIN Overview This chapter provides bibliographic book references relating to cephalexin. In addition to online booksellers such as www.amazon.com and www.bn.com, excellent sources for book titles on cephalexin include the Combined Health Information Database and the National Library of Medicine. Your local medical library also may have these titles available for loan.
The National Library of Medicine Book Index The National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health has a massive database of books published on healthcare and biomedicine. Go to the following Internet site, http://locatorplus.gov/, and then select “Search LOCATORplus.” Once you are in the search area, simply type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the search box, and select “books only.” From there, results can be sorted by publication date, author, or relevance. The following was recently catalogued by the National Library of Medicine:10 •
Cephalexin--twelve years of clinical and laboratory experiences: proceedings of a conference held in San Francisco, California, June 4 and 5, 1983 Author: Hoffbrand, B. I.; Year: 1983; London: Fellowship of Postgraduate Medicine, [1983]
Chapters on Cephalexin In order to find chapters that specifically relate to cephalexin, an excellent source of abstracts is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to book chapters and cephalexin using the “Detailed Search” option. Go to the following hyperlink: 10
In addition to LOCATORPlus, in collaboration with authors and publishers, the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is currently adapting biomedical books for the Web. The books may be accessed in two ways: (1) by searching directly using any search term or phrase (in the same way as the bibliographic database PubMed), or (2) by following the links to PubMed abstracts. Each PubMed abstract has a "Books" button that displays a facsimile of the abstract in which some phrases are hypertext links. These phrases are also found in the books available at NCBI. Click on hyperlinked results in the list of books in which the phrase is found. Currently, the majority of the links are between the books and PubMed. In the future, more links will be created between the books and other types of information, such as gene and protein sequences and macromolecular structures. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books.
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http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find book chapters, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” Select the dates and language you prefer, and the format option “Book Chapter.” Type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box.
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CHAPTER 6. PERIODICALS AND NEWS ON CEPHALEXIN Overview In this chapter, we suggest a number of news sources and present various periodicals that cover cephalexin.
News Services and Press Releases One of the simplest ways of tracking press releases on cephalexin is to search the news wires. In the following sample of sources, we will briefly describe how to access each service. These services only post recent news intended for public viewing. PR Newswire To access the PR Newswire archive, simply go to http://www.prnewswire.com/. Select your country. Type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the search box. You will automatically receive information on relevant news releases posted within the last 30 days. The search results are shown by order of relevance. Reuters Health The Reuters’ Medical News and Health eLine databases can be very useful in exploring news archives relating to cephalexin. While some of the listed articles are free to view, others are available for purchase for a nominal fee. To access this archive, go to http://www.reutershealth.com/en/index.html and search by “cephalexin” (or synonyms). The following was recently listed in this archive for cephalexin: •
Ranbaxy gets U.S. FDA nod for cephalexin tablets Source: Reuters Industry Breifing Date: September 16, 2003
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The NIH Within MEDLINEplus, the NIH has made an agreement with the New York Times Syndicate, the AP News Service, and Reuters to deliver news that can be browsed by the public. Search news releases at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/alphanews_a.html. MEDLINEplus allows you to browse across an alphabetical index. Or you can search by date at the following Web page: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/newsbydate.html. Often, news items are indexed by MEDLINEplus within its search engine. Business Wire Business Wire is similar to PR Newswire. To access this archive, simply go to http://www.businesswire.com/. You can scan the news by industry category or company name. Market Wire Market Wire is more focused on technology than the other wires. To browse the latest press releases by topic, such as alternative medicine, biotechnology, fitness, healthcare, legal, nutrition, and pharmaceuticals, access Market Wire’s Medical/Health channel at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/release_index?channel=MedicalHealth. Or simply go to Market Wire’s home page at http://www.marketwire.com/mw/home, type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the search box, and click on “Search News.” As this service is technology oriented, you may wish to use it when searching for press releases covering diagnostic procedures or tests. Search Engines Medical news is also available in the news sections of commercial Internet search engines. See the health news page at Yahoo (http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/News_and_Media/), or you can use this Web site’s general news search page at http://news.yahoo.com/. Type in “cephalexin” (or synonyms). If you know the name of a company that is relevant to cephalexin, you can go to any stock trading Web site (such as http://www.etrade.com/) and search for the company name there. News items across various news sources are reported on indicated hyperlinks. Google offers a similar service at http://news.google.com/. BBC Covering news from a more European perspective, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) allows the public free access to their news archive located at http://www.bbc.co.uk/. Search by “cephalexin” (or synonyms).
Academic Periodicals covering Cephalexin Numerous periodicals are currently indexed within the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed database that are known to publish articles relating to cephalexin. In addition to
Periodicals and News
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these sources, you can search for articles covering cephalexin that have been published by any of the periodicals listed in previous chapters. To find the latest studies published, go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed, type the name of the periodical into the search box, and click “Go.” If you want complete details about the historical contents of a journal, you can also visit the following Web site: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/jrbrowser.cgi. Here, type in the name of the journal or its abbreviation, and you will receive an index of published articles. At http://locatorplus.gov/, you can retrieve more indexing information on medical periodicals (e.g. the name of the publisher). Select the button “Search LOCATORplus.” Then type in the name of the journal and select the advanced search option “Journal Title Search.”
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CHAPTER 7. RESEARCHING MEDICATIONS Overview While a number of hard copy or CD-ROM resources are available for researching medications, a more flexible method is to use Internet-based databases. Broadly speaking, there are two sources of information on approved medications: public sources and private sources. We will emphasize free-to-use public sources.
U.S. Pharmacopeia Because of historical investments by various organizations and the emergence of the Internet, it has become rather simple to learn about the medications recommended for cephalexin. One such source is the United States Pharmacopeia. In 1820, eleven physicians met in Washington, D.C. to establish the first compendium of standard drugs for the United States. They called this compendium the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP). Today, the USP is a nonprofit organization consisting of 800 volunteer scientists, eleven elected officials, and 400 representatives of state associations and colleges of medicine and pharmacy. The USP is located in Rockville, Maryland, and its home page is located at http://www.usp.org/. The USP currently provides standards for over 3,700 medications. The resulting USP DI Advice for the Patient can be accessed through the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health. The database is partially derived from lists of federally approved medications in the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Drug Approvals database, located at http://www.fda.gov/cder/da/da.htm. While the FDA database is rather large and difficult to navigate, the Phamacopeia is both user-friendly and free to use. It covers more than 9,000 prescription and over-the-counter medications. To access this database, simply type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginformation.html. To view examples of a given medication (brand names, category, description, preparation, proper use, precautions, side effects, etc.), simply follow the hyperlinks indicated within the United States Pharmacopeia (USP). Below, we have compiled a list of medications associated with cephalexin. If you would like more information on a particular medication, the provided hyperlinks will direct you to ample documentation (e.g. typical dosage, side effects, drug-interaction risks, etc.). The
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following drugs have been mentioned in the Pharmacopeia and other sources as being potentially applicable to cephalexin: Cephalosporins •
Systemic - U.S. Brands: Ancef; Ceclor; Ceclor CD; Cedax; Cefadyl; Cefizox; Cefobid; Cefotan; Ceftin; Cefzil; Ceptaz; Claforan; Duricef; Fortaz; Keflex 20; Keftab 20; Kefurox; Kefzol; Mandol; Maxipime; Mefoxin; Monocid; Omnicef; Rocephin; Suprax; Tazicef; Tazidime; Vantin; Velo http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202119.html
Commercial Databases In addition to the medications listed in the USP above, a number of commercial sites are available by subscription to physicians and their institutions. Or, you may be able to access these sources from your local medical library.
Mosby’s Drug Consult Mosby’s Drug Consult database (also available on CD-ROM and book format) covers 45,000 drug products including generics and international brands. It provides prescribing information, drug interactions, and patient information. Subscription information is available at the following hyperlink: http://www.mosbysdrugconsult.com/.
PDRhealth The PDRhealth database is a free-to-use, drug information search engine that has been written for the public in layman’s terms. It contains FDA-approved drug information adapted from the Physicians’ Desk Reference (PDR) database. PDRhealth can be searched by brand name, generic name, or indication. It features multiple drug interactions reports. Search PDRhealth at http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/index.html. Other Web Sites Drugs.com (www.drugs.com) reproduces the information in the Pharmacopeia as well as commercial information. You may also want to consider the Web site of the Medical Letter, Inc. (http://www.medletter.com/) which allows users to download articles on various drugs and therapeutics for a nominal fee. If you have any questions about a medical treatment, the FDA may have an office near you. Look for their number in the blue pages of the phone book. You can also contact the FDA through its toll-free number, 1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332), or on the World Wide Web at www.fda.gov.
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APPENDIX A. PHYSICIAN RESOURCES Overview In this chapter, we focus on databases and Internet-based guidelines and information resources created or written for a professional audience.
NIH Guidelines Commonly referred to as “clinical” or “professional” guidelines, the National Institutes of Health publish physician guidelines for the most common diseases. Publications are available at the following by relevant Institute11: •
Office of the Director (OD); guidelines consolidated across agencies available at http://www.nih.gov/health/consumer/conkey.htm
•
National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS); fact sheets available at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/facts/
•
National Library of Medicine (NLM); extensive encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.) with guidelines: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html
•
National Cancer Institute (NCI); guidelines available at http://www.cancer.gov/cancerinfo/list.aspx?viewid=5f35036e-5497-4d86-8c2c714a9f7c8d25
•
National Eye Institute (NEI); guidelines available at http://www.nei.nih.gov/order/index.htm
•
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); guidelines available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/index.htm
•
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI); research available at http://www.genome.gov/page.cfm?pageID=10000375
•
National Institute on Aging (NIA); guidelines available at http://www.nia.nih.gov/health/
11
These publications are typically written by one or more of the various NIH Institutes.
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•
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); guidelines available at http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/publications.htm
•
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); guidelines available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/
•
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS); fact sheets and guidelines available at http://www.niams.nih.gov/hi/index.htm
•
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); guidelines available at http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm
•
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD); fact sheets and guidelines at http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/
•
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research (NIDCR); guidelines available at http://www.nidr.nih.gov/health/
•
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); guidelines available at http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health/health.htm
•
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); guidelines available at http://www.nida.nih.gov/DrugAbuse.html
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National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS); environmental health information available at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/facts.htm
•
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); guidelines available at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/practitioners/index.cfm
•
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS); neurological disorder information pages available at http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorder_index.htm
•
National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR); publications on selected illnesses at http://www.nih.gov/ninr/news-info/publications.html
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National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering; general information at http://grants.nih.gov/grants/becon/becon_info.htm
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Center for Information Technology (CIT); referrals to other agencies based on keyword searches available at http://kb.nih.gov/www_query_main.asp
•
National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM); health information available at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/
•
National Center for Research Resources (NCRR); various information directories available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov/publications.asp
•
Office of Rare Diseases; various fact sheets available at http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/html/resources/rep_pubs.html
•
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; various fact sheets on infectious diseases available at http://www.cdc.gov/publications.htm
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NIH Databases In addition to the various Institutes of Health that publish professional guidelines, the NIH has designed a number of databases for professionals.12 Physician-oriented resources provide a wide variety of information related to the biomedical and health sciences, both past and present. The format of these resources varies. Searchable databases, bibliographic citations, full-text articles (when available), archival collections, and images are all available. The following are referenced by the National Library of Medicine:13 •
Bioethics: Access to published literature on the ethical, legal, and public policy issues surrounding healthcare and biomedical research. This information is provided in conjunction with the Kennedy Institute of Ethics located at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_bioethics.html
•
HIV/AIDS Resources: Describes various links and databases dedicated to HIV/AIDS research: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/aidsinfs.html
•
NLM Online Exhibitions: Describes “Exhibitions in the History of Medicine”: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/exhibition.html. Additional resources for historical scholarship in medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/hmd.html
•
Biotechnology Information: Access to public databases. The National Center for Biotechnology Information conducts research in computational biology, develops software tools for analyzing genome data, and disseminates biomedical information for the better understanding of molecular processes affecting human health and disease: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
•
Population Information: The National Library of Medicine provides access to worldwide coverage of population, family planning, and related health issues, including family planning technology and programs, fertility, and population law and policy: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_population.html
•
Cancer Information: Access to cancer-oriented databases: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_cancer.html
•
Profiles in Science: Offering the archival collections of prominent twentieth-century biomedical scientists to the public through modern digital technology: http://www.profiles.nlm.nih.gov/
•
Chemical Information: Provides links to various chemical databases and references: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Chem/ChemMain.html
•
Clinical Alerts: Reports the release of findings from the NIH-funded clinical trials where such release could significantly affect morbidity and mortality: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/alerts/clinical_alerts.html
•
Space Life Sciences: Provides links and information to space-based research (including NASA): http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_space.html
•
MEDLINE: Bibliographic database covering the fields of medicine, nursing, dentistry, veterinary medicine, the healthcare system, and the pre-clinical sciences: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases_medline.html
12
Remember, for the general public, the National Library of Medicine recommends the databases referenced in MEDLINEplus (http://medlineplus.gov/ or http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/databases.html). 13 See http://www.nlm.nih.gov/databases/databases.html.
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•
Toxicology and Environmental Health Information (TOXNET): Databases covering toxicology and environmental health: http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/Tox/ToxMain.html
•
Visible Human Interface: Anatomically detailed, three-dimensional representations of normal male and female human bodies: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/research/visible/visible_human.html The Combined Health Information Database
A comprehensive source of information on clinical guidelines written for professionals is the Combined Health Information Database. You will need to limit your search to one of the following: Brochure/Pamphlet, Fact Sheet, or Information Package, and “cephalexin” using the “Detailed Search” option. Go directly to the following hyperlink: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For the publication date, select “All Years.” Select your preferred language and the format option “Fact Sheet.” Type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. The following is a sample result: •
Erythromycin and Amoxicillin? Source: Journal of the Tennessee Dental Association. 81(1): 34-36. Winter 2001. Contact: Available from Journal of the Tennessee Dental Association. 2104 Sunset Place, Nashville, TN 37212. E-mail:
[email protected]. Summary: A large number of patients with odontogenic (arising in the teeth) infections are referred to the graduate and undergraduate oral surgery clinics at the University of Tennessee, College of Dentistry. These patients have often been placed on antibiotics by the referring dentist. Two of the more commonly prescribed antibiotics are erythromycin and amoxicillin. This article provides a brief review of the antibiotics most commonly used to treat odontogenic infections, and illustrates why erythromycin and amoxicillin may not be the best choice. Other drugs discussed include penicillin, cephalosporins, clindamycin, and metronidazole. The author concludes that two drugs that are effective alternatives in the penicillin allergic patient are cephalexin and clindamycin. They are bactericidal and effective against the oral streptococci and oral anaerobes that cause most odontogenic infections. 5 references.
•
Drug/Nutrient Interactions Involving Twenty of the Most Commonly Prescribed Medications in the United States Source: Journal of Practical Hygiene. 9(1): 39-48. January-February 2000. Contact: Available from Montage Media Corporation. 1000 Wyckoff Avenue, Mahwah, NJ 07430-3164. (201) 891-3200. Summary: The increased use of prescribed medication in the United States has established the need for dental professionals to understand the possible interactions between medications and nutrients. This article discusses interactions between nutrients and the 20 most commonly prescribed medications in 1998: conjugated estrogen, levothyroxine, amoxicillin, hydrocodone, fluoxetine, omeprazole, azithromycin, atorvastin, amlodipine, loratine, digoxin, sertaline, aerosol, paroxetine, amoxicillin, lisinopril, enalapril, amoxicillin clavulanate potassium, and cephalexin. In addition, a discussion of practical considerations for the dental hygiene practice is provided. The
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authors stress that thoroughly completing and reviewing the dental patient's medical and drug history, as well as conducting a diet assessment, are methods by which the dental hygienist can determine if a patient's health is at risk due to drug and nutrient interactions. 3 figures. 2 tables. 38 references. •
Effective Postcoital Prophylaxis of Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections in Premenopausal Women: A Review Source: International Urogynecology Journal. 2(3): 156-160. September 1991. Summary: This article reports on a study of 77 sexually active premenopausal women, who were susceptible to recurrent urinary tract infections (UTI) but otherwise healthy. The subjects were administered postcoital prophylaxis consisting of a single oral dose of either cotrimoxazole, 50 mg nitrofurantoin macrocrystals, 500 mg nalidixic acid, 250 mg cinoxacin, or 250 mg cephalexin. Postcoital prophylaxis reduced the incidence of recurrent UTI from 5-8 UTI per patient/year prior to prophylaxis, to 0.03 UTI per patient/year following prophylaxis. The authors note that postcoital prophylaxis of recurrent UTI in premenopausal women is highly effective because of easy compliance, the high urinary concentration achieved, and the minimal induction of resistance in the introital Gram-negative bacterial flora, irrespective of the length of time this prophylaxis is used. 3 tables. 28 references. (AA-M).
•
Clostridium Difficile Infection in Obstetric and Gynecologic Patients Source: Southern Medical Journal. 90(9): 889-892. September 1997. Contact: Available from Southern Medical Association. 35 Lakeshore Drive, Birmingham, AL 35209. (205) 945-1840. Summary: This article reports on a study undertaken to review Clostridium difficile in obstetric and gynecologic patients, with the goal of better characterizing the incidence and course of women with C. difficile infection. The authors reviewed hospital records of women who use obstetrics and gynecologic services and who had a diagnosis of antibiotic-associated diarrhea, pseudomembranous colitis, or C. difficile infection Cases were included if there was identification of C. difficile by culture or toxin or endoscopic verification of pseudomembranous colitis. Between January 1985 and June 1995, there were 74,120 admissions to the obstetrics and gynecology services at two tertiary level hospitals. Eighteen women were found to have documented C. difficile infection (0.02 percent). Diarrhea developed from 2 days to 30 days after antibiotics had been given (mean was 10 days). Nine patients had fever, six had nausea and vomiting, and five had abdominal pain. Antimicrobial agents given before infection included cephalexin, cefoxitin, imipenem, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim and sulfmethoxazole, ampicillin, gentamicin, and clindamycin. All patients were treated successfully with inpatient antimicrobial agents: 15 with metronidazole and 3 with vancomycin. There was one possible recurrence. 1 table. 14 references. (AA-M).
•
Short Course of Antibiotics and Low Fluid Intake Promote Cure in Cystitis Source: Contemporary Urology. 7(5): 44-46, 48, 50-52, 55. May 1995. Contact: Available from Medical Economics Publishing. 5 Paragon Drive, Montvale, NJ 07645. (800) 432-4570 or (201) 358-7200. Summary: This article reviews how to manage acute cystitis with short course antibiotic therapy and notes the rationale for low fluid intake during treatment. Topics include the pathophysiology of uncomplicated urinary tract infection (UTI); diagnosis; treatment
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principles; antibiotic choices and courses of therapy; and optimal duration of treatment. Antibiotics discussed include trimethoprim, amoxicillin, cephalexin, nitrofurantoin monohydrate/macrocrystals, norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin. The author notes that low fluid intake facilitates cure by increasing urinary concentration of antibacterial compounds. The article concludes with a discussion of self-treatment for recurrent, documented infections. 2 figures. 2 tables. 60 references. •
Saving Face: A Treatment Update for Acne Source: Patient Care. 33(11): 257-258,261-262,264-272,277. June 15, 1999. Summary: This journal article provides health professionals with updated information on evaluating and treating acne. Evaluation involves noting the extent to which the skin is affected, obtaining information on the current skin care regimen and use of acne and other medications, asking the patient about occupational and leisure activities, and determining the types of cosmetics and hair care products used. Monotherapy with resorcinol, salicylic acid, and sulfur is often sufficient for comedonal acne. However, none of these compounds is nearly as useful as the topical retinoid tretinoin. Other topical retinoids that are now available are adapalene and tazarotene. Benzoyl peroxide can also be used as monotherapy for comedonal acne. Azelaic acid 20 percent cream is available for topical treatment of mild to moderate inflammatory acne vulgaris. A very effective strategy is to prescribe benzoyl peroxide plus a topical retinoid. A somewhat gentler combination is benzoyl peroxide or a topical retinoid with a topical antibiotic. The most powerful topical approach for mild inflammatory acne is the gel combination of erythromycin-benzoyl peroxide and a retinoid. An oral antimicrobial, such as tetracycline and erythromycin, should be added to the topical regimen when papules and pustules outnumber comedones and there is some evidence of scarring. Trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole is an option when acne appears to be resistant to erythromycin or the tetracyclines. Other oral agents include cefadroxil, cephalexin, and ciprofloxacin. Isotretinoin can be prescribed for patients who have severe nodular or conglobate acne or those who have less severe inflammatory acne that does not respond to other agents. Adjunct skin care for acne prone skin includes washing the face twice a day, refraining from touching or squeezing lesions, and using oil free cosmetics and skin care products. 2 figures, 3 tables, and 7 references.
The NLM Gateway14 The NLM (National Library of Medicine) Gateway is a Web-based system that lets users search simultaneously in multiple retrieval systems at the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). It allows users of NLM services to initiate searches from one Web interface, providing one-stop searching for many of NLM’s information resources or databases.15 To use the NLM Gateway, simply go to the search site at http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd. Type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the search box and click “Search.” The results will be presented in a tabular form, indicating the number of references in each database category.
14 15
Adapted from NLM: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?Overview.x.
The NLM Gateway is currently being developed by the Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications (LHNCBC) at the National Library of Medicine (NLM) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
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Results Summary Category Journal Articles Books / Periodicals / Audio Visual Consumer Health Meeting Abstracts Other Collections Total
Items Found 3410 4 830 7 0 4251
HSTAT16 HSTAT is a free, Web-based resource that provides access to full-text documents used in healthcare decision-making.17 These documents include clinical practice guidelines, quickreference guides for clinicians, consumer health brochures, evidence reports and technology assessments from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), as well as AHRQ’s Put Prevention Into Practice.18 Simply search by “cephalexin” (or synonyms) at the following Web site: http://text.nlm.nih.gov.
Coffee Break: Tutorials for Biologists19 Coffee Break is a general healthcare site that takes a scientific view of the news and covers recent breakthroughs in biology that may one day assist physicians in developing treatments. Here you will find a collection of short reports on recent biological discoveries. Each report incorporates interactive tutorials that demonstrate how bioinformatics tools are used as a part of the research process. Currently, all Coffee Breaks are written by NCBI staff.20 Each report is about 400 words and is usually based on a discovery reported in one or more articles from recently published, peer-reviewed literature.21 This site has new articles every few weeks, so it can be considered an online magazine of sorts. It is intended for general background information. You can access the Coffee Break Web site at the following hyperlink: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/.
16
Adapted from HSTAT: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/factsheets/hstat.html.
17
The HSTAT URL is http://hstat.nlm.nih.gov/.
18
Other important documents in HSTAT include: the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Consensus Conference Reports and Technology Assessment Reports; the HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service (ATIS) resource documents; the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Center for Substance Abuse Treatment (SAMHSA/CSAT) Treatment Improvement Protocols (TIP) and Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (SAMHSA/CSAP) Prevention Enhancement Protocols System (PEPS); the Public Health Service (PHS) Preventive Services Task Force's Guide to Clinical Preventive Services; the independent, nonfederal Task Force on Community Services’ Guide to Community Preventive Services; and the Health Technology Advisory Committee (HTAC) of the Minnesota Health Care Commission (MHCC) health technology evaluations. 19 Adapted from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Coffeebreak/Archive/FAQ.html. 20
The figure that accompanies each article is frequently supplied by an expert external to NCBI, in which case the source of the figure is cited. The result is an interactive tutorial that tells a biological story. 21 After a brief introduction that sets the work described into a broader context, the report focuses on how a molecular understanding can provide explanations of observed biology and lead to therapies for diseases. Each vignette is accompanied by a figure and hypertext links that lead to a series of pages that interactively show how NCBI tools and resources are used in the research process.
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Other Commercial Databases In addition to resources maintained by official agencies, other databases exist that are commercial ventures addressing medical professionals. Here are some examples that may interest you: •
CliniWeb International: Index and table of contents to selected clinical information on the Internet; see http://www.ohsu.edu/cliniweb/.
•
Medical World Search: Searches full text from thousands of selected medical sites on the Internet; see http://www.mwsearch.com/.
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APPENDIX B. PATIENT RESOURCES Overview Official agencies, as well as federally funded institutions supported by national grants, frequently publish a variety of guidelines written with the patient in mind. These are typically called “Fact Sheets” or “Guidelines.” They can take the form of a brochure, information kit, pamphlet, or flyer. Often they are only a few pages in length. Since new guidelines on cephalexin can appear at any moment and be published by a number of sources, the best approach to finding guidelines is to systematically scan the Internet-based services that post them.
Patient Guideline Sources The remainder of this chapter directs you to sources which either publish or can help you find additional guidelines on topics related to cephalexin. Due to space limitations, these sources are listed in a concise manner. Do not hesitate to consult the following sources by either using the Internet hyperlink provided, or, in cases where the contact information is provided, contacting the publisher or author directly. The National Institutes of Health The NIH gateway to patients is located at http://health.nih.gov/. From this site, you can search across various sources and institutes, a number of which are summarized below. Topic Pages: MEDLINEplus The National Library of Medicine has created a vast and patient-oriented healthcare information portal called MEDLINEplus. Within this Internet-based system are “health topic pages” which list links to available materials relevant to cephalexin. To access this system, log on to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html. From there you can either search using the alphabetical index or browse by broad topic areas. Recently, MEDLINEplus listed the following when searched for “cephalexin”:
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•
Other guides Bacterial Infections http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/bacterialinfections.html Dental Health http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/dentalhealth.html Gum Disease http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/gumdisease.html Heart Diseases http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/heartdiseases.html
You may also choose to use the search utility provided by MEDLINEplus at the following Web address: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/. Simply type a keyword into the search box and click “Search.” This utility is similar to the NIH search utility, with the exception that it only includes materials that are linked within the MEDLINEplus system (mostly patient-oriented information). It also has the disadvantage of generating unstructured results. We recommend, therefore, that you use this method only if you have a very targeted search. The NIH Search Utility The NIH search utility allows you to search for documents on over 100 selected Web sites that comprise the NIH-WEB-SPACE. Each of these servers is “crawled” and indexed on an ongoing basis. Your search will produce a list of various documents, all of which will relate in some way to cephalexin. The drawbacks of this approach are that the information is not organized by theme and that the references are often a mix of information for professionals and patients. Nevertheless, a large number of the listed Web sites provide useful background information. We can only recommend this route, therefore, for relatively rare or specific disorders, or when using highly targeted searches. To use the NIH search utility, visit the following Web page: http://search.nih.gov/index.html. Additional Web Sources A number of Web sites are available to the public that often link to government sites. These can also point you in the direction of essential information. The following is a representative sample: •
AOL: http://search.aol.com/cat.adp?id=168&layer=&from=subcats
•
Family Village: http://www.familyvillage.wisc.edu/specific.htm
•
Google: http://directory.google.com/Top/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/
•
Med Help International: http://www.medhelp.org/HealthTopics/A.html
•
Open Directory Project: http://dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/
•
Yahoo.com: http://dir.yahoo.com/Health/Diseases_and_Conditions/
•
WebMDHealth: http://my.webmd.com/health_topics
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Finding Associations There are several Internet directories that provide lists of medical associations with information on or resources relating to cephalexin. By consulting all of associations listed in this chapter, you will have nearly exhausted all sources for patient associations concerned with cephalexin. The National Health Information Center (NHIC) The National Health Information Center (NHIC) offers a free referral service to help people find organizations that provide information about cephalexin. For more information, see the NHIC’s Web site at http://www.health.gov/NHIC/ or contact an information specialist by calling 1-800-336-4797. Directory of Health Organizations The Directory of Health Organizations, provided by the National Library of Medicine Specialized Information Services, is a comprehensive source of information on associations. The Directory of Health Organizations database can be accessed via the Internet at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/Dir/DirMain.html. It is composed of two parts: DIRLINE and Health Hotlines. The DIRLINE database comprises some 10,000 records of organizations, research centers, and government institutes and associations that primarily focus on health and biomedicine. To access DIRLINE directly, go to the following Web site: http://dirline.nlm.nih.gov/. Simply type in “cephalexin” (or a synonym), and you will receive information on all relevant organizations listed in the database. Health Hotlines directs you to toll-free numbers to over 300 organizations. You can access this database directly at http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/hotlines/. On this page, you are given the option to search by keyword or by browsing the subject list. When you have received your search results, click on the name of the organization for its description and contact information. The Combined Health Information Database Another comprehensive source of information on healthcare associations is the Combined Health Information Database. Using the “Detailed Search” option, you will need to limit your search to “Organizations” and “cephalexin”. Type the following hyperlink into your Web browser: http://chid.nih.gov/detail/detail.html. To find associations, use the drop boxes at the bottom of the search page where “You may refine your search by.” For publication date, select “All Years.” Then, select your preferred language and the format option “Organization Resource Sheet.” Type “cephalexin” (or synonyms) into the “For these words:” box. You should check back periodically with this database since it is updated every three months.
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The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. The National Organization for Rare Disorders, Inc. has prepared a Web site that provides, at no charge, lists of associations organized by health topic. You can access this database at the following Web site: http://www.rarediseases.org/search/orgsearch.html. Type “cephalexin” (or a synonym) into the search box, and click “Submit Query.”
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APPENDIX C. FINDING MEDICAL LIBRARIES Overview In this Appendix, we show you how to quickly find a medical library in your area.
Preparation Your local public library and medical libraries have interlibrary loan programs with the National Library of Medicine (NLM), one of the largest medical collections in the world. According to the NLM, most of the literature in the general and historical collections of the National Library of Medicine is available on interlibrary loan to any library. If you would like to access NLM medical literature, then visit a library in your area that can request the publications for you.22
Finding a Local Medical Library The quickest method to locate medical libraries is to use the Internet-based directory published by the National Network of Libraries of Medicine (NN/LM). This network includes 4626 members and affiliates that provide many services to librarians, health professionals, and the public. To find a library in your area, simply visit http://nnlm.gov/members/adv.html or call 1-800-338-7657.
Medical Libraries in the U.S. and Canada In addition to the NN/LM, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) lists a number of libraries with reference facilities that are open to the public. The following is the NLM’s list and includes hyperlinks to each library’s Web site. These Web pages can provide information on hours of operation and other restrictions. The list below is a small sample of
22
Adapted from the NLM: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/psd/cas/interlibrary.html.
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libraries recommended by the National Library of Medicine (sorted alphabetically by name of the U.S. state or Canadian province where the library is located)23: •
Alabama: Health InfoNet of Jefferson County (Jefferson County Library Cooperative, Lister Hill Library of the Health Sciences), http://www.uab.edu/infonet/
•
Alabama: Richard M. Scrushy Library (American Sports Medicine Institute)
•
Arizona: Samaritan Regional Medical Center: The Learning Center (Samaritan Health System, Phoenix, Arizona), http://www.samaritan.edu/library/bannerlibs.htm
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California: Kris Kelly Health Information Center (St. Joseph Health System, Humboldt), http://www.humboldt1.com/~kkhic/index.html
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California: Community Health Library of Los Gatos, http://www.healthlib.org/orgresources.html
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California: Consumer Health Program and Services (CHIPS) (County of Los Angeles Public Library, Los Angeles County Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Library) - Carson, CA, http://www.colapublib.org/services/chips.html
•
California: Gateway Health Library (Sutter Gould Medical Foundation)
•
California: Health Library (Stanford University Medical Center), http://wwwmed.stanford.edu/healthlibrary/
•
California: Patient Education Resource Center - Health Information and Resources (University of California, San Francisco), http://sfghdean.ucsf.edu/barnett/PERC/default.asp
•
California: Redwood Health Library (Petaluma Health Care District), http://www.phcd.org/rdwdlib.html
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California: Los Gatos PlaneTree Health Library, http://planetreesanjose.org/
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California: Sutter Resource Library (Sutter Hospitals Foundation, Sacramento), http://suttermedicalcenter.org/library/
•
California: Health Sciences Libraries (University of California, Davis), http://www.lib.ucdavis.edu/healthsci/
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California: ValleyCare Health Library & Ryan Comer Cancer Resource Center (ValleyCare Health System, Pleasanton), http://gaelnet.stmarysca.edu/other.libs/gbal/east/vchl.html
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California: Washington Community Health Resource Library (Fremont), http://www.healthlibrary.org/
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Colorado: William V. Gervasini Memorial Library (Exempla Healthcare), http://www.saintjosephdenver.org/yourhealth/libraries/
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Connecticut: Hartford Hospital Health Science Libraries (Hartford Hospital), http://www.harthosp.org/library/
•
Connecticut: Healthnet: Connecticut Consumer Health Information Center (University of Connecticut Health Center, Lyman Maynard Stowe Library), http://library.uchc.edu/departm/hnet/
23
Abstracted from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/libraries.html.
Finding Medical Libraries
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Connecticut: Waterbury Hospital Health Center Library (Waterbury Hospital, Waterbury), http://www.waterburyhospital.com/library/consumer.shtml
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Delaware: Consumer Health Library (Christiana Care Health System, Eugene du Pont Preventive Medicine & Rehabilitation Institute, Wilmington), http://www.christianacare.org/health_guide/health_guide_pmri_health_info.cfm
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Delaware: Lewis B. Flinn Library (Delaware Academy of Medicine, Wilmington), http://www.delamed.org/chls.html
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Georgia: Family Resource Library (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta), http://cmc.mcg.edu/kids_families/fam_resources/fam_res_lib/frl.htm
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Georgia: Health Resource Center (Medical Center of Central Georgia, Macon), http://www.mccg.org/hrc/hrchome.asp
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Hawaii: Hawaii Medical Library: Consumer Health Information Service (Hawaii Medical Library, Honolulu), http://hml.org/CHIS/
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Idaho: DeArmond Consumer Health Library (Kootenai Medical Center, Coeur d’Alene), http://www.nicon.org/DeArmond/index.htm
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Illinois: Health Learning Center of Northwestern Memorial Hospital (Chicago), http://www.nmh.org/health_info/hlc.html
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Illinois: Medical Library (OSF Saint Francis Medical Center, Peoria), http://www.osfsaintfrancis.org/general/library/
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Kentucky: Medical Library - Services for Patients, Families, Students & the Public (Central Baptist Hospital, Lexington), http://www.centralbap.com/education/community/library.cfm
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Kentucky: University of Kentucky - Health Information Library (Chandler Medical Center, Lexington), http://www.mc.uky.edu/PatientEd/
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Louisiana: Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation Library (Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation, New Orleans), http://www.ochsner.org/library/
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Louisiana: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Medical LibraryShreveport, http://lib-sh.lsuhsc.edu/
•
Maine: Franklin Memorial Hospital Medical Library (Franklin Memorial Hospital, Farmington), http://www.fchn.org/fmh/lib.htm
•
Maine: Gerrish-True Health Sciences Library (Central Maine Medical Center, Lewiston), http://www.cmmc.org/library/library.html
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Maine: Hadley Parrot Health Science Library (Eastern Maine Healthcare, Bangor), http://www.emh.org/hll/hpl/guide.htm
•
Maine: Maine Medical Center Library (Maine Medical Center, Portland), http://www.mmc.org/library/
•
Maine: Parkview Hospital (Brunswick), http://www.parkviewhospital.org/
•
Maine: Southern Maine Medical Center Health Sciences Library (Southern Maine Medical Center, Biddeford), http://www.smmc.org/services/service.php3?choice=10
•
Maine: Stephens Memorial Hospital’s Health Information Library (Western Maine Health, Norway), http://www.wmhcc.org/Library/
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Manitoba, Canada: Consumer & Patient Health Information Service (University of Manitoba Libraries), http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/health/reference/chis.html
•
Manitoba, Canada: J.W. Crane Memorial Library (Deer Lodge Centre, Winnipeg), http://www.deerlodge.mb.ca/crane_library/about.asp
•
Maryland: Health Information Center at the Wheaton Regional Library (Montgomery County, Dept. of Public Libraries, Wheaton Regional Library), http://www.mont.lib.md.us/healthinfo/hic.asp
•
Massachusetts: Baystate Medical Center Library (Baystate Health System), http://www.baystatehealth.com/1024/
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Massachusetts: Boston University Medical Center Alumni Medical Library (Boston University Medical Center), http://med-libwww.bu.edu/library/lib.html
•
Massachusetts: Lowell General Hospital Health Sciences Library (Lowell General Hospital, Lowell), http://www.lowellgeneral.org/library/HomePageLinks/WWW.htm
•
Massachusetts: Paul E. Woodard Health Sciences Library (New England Baptist Hospital, Boston), http://www.nebh.org/health_lib.asp
•
Massachusetts: St. Luke’s Hospital Health Sciences Library (St. Luke’s Hospital, Southcoast Health System, New Bedford), http://www.southcoast.org/library/
•
Massachusetts: Treadwell Library Consumer Health Reference Center (Massachusetts General Hospital), http://www.mgh.harvard.edu/library/chrcindex.html
•
Massachusetts: UMass HealthNet (University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worchester), http://healthnet.umassmed.edu/
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Michigan: Botsford General Hospital Library - Consumer Health (Botsford General Hospital, Library & Internet Services), http://www.botsfordlibrary.org/consumer.htm
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Michigan: Helen DeRoy Medical Library (Providence Hospital and Medical Centers), http://www.providence-hospital.org/library/
•
Michigan: Marquette General Hospital - Consumer Health Library (Marquette General Hospital, Health Information Center), http://www.mgh.org/center.html
•
Michigan: Patient Education Resouce Center - University of Michigan Cancer Center (University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center, Ann Arbor), http://www.cancer.med.umich.edu/learn/leares.htm
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Michigan: Sladen Library & Center for Health Information Resources - Consumer Health Information (Detroit), http://www.henryford.com/body.cfm?id=39330
•
Montana: Center for Health Information (St. Patrick Hospital and Health Sciences Center, Missoula)
•
National: Consumer Health Library Directory (Medical Library Association, Consumer and Patient Health Information Section), http://caphis.mlanet.org/directory/index.html
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National: National Network of Libraries of Medicine (National Library of Medicine) provides library services for health professionals in the United States who do not have access to a medical library, http://nnlm.gov/
•
National: NN/LM List of Libraries Serving the Public (National Network of Libraries of Medicine), http://nnlm.gov/members/
Finding Medical Libraries
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Nevada: Health Science Library, West Charleston Library (Las Vegas-Clark County Library District, Las Vegas), http://www.lvccld.org/special_collections/medical/index.htm
•
New Hampshire: Dartmouth Biomedical Libraries (Dartmouth College Library, Hanover), http://www.dartmouth.edu/~biomed/resources.htmld/conshealth.htmld/
•
New Jersey: Consumer Health Library (Rahway Hospital, Rahway), http://www.rahwayhospital.com/library.htm
•
New Jersey: Dr. Walter Phillips Health Sciences Library (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.englewoodhospital.com/links/index.htm
•
New Jersey: Meland Foundation (Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood), http://www.geocities.com/ResearchTriangle/9360/
•
New York: Choices in Health Information (New York Public Library) - NLM Consumer Pilot Project participant, http://www.nypl.org/branch/health/links.html
•
New York: Health Information Center (Upstate Medical University, State University of New York, Syracuse), http://www.upstate.edu/library/hic/
•
New York: Health Sciences Library (Long Island Jewish Medical Center, New Hyde Park), http://www.lij.edu/library/library.html
•
New York: ViaHealth Medical Library (Rochester General Hospital), http://www.nyam.org/library/
•
Ohio: Consumer Health Library (Akron General Medical Center, Medical & Consumer Health Library), http://www.akrongeneral.org/hwlibrary.htm
•
Oklahoma: The Health Information Center at Saint Francis Hospital (Saint Francis Health System, Tulsa), http://www.sfh-tulsa.com/services/healthinfo.asp
•
Oregon: Planetree Health Resource Center (Mid-Columbia Medical Center, The Dalles), http://www.mcmc.net/phrc/
•
Pennsylvania: Community Health Information Library (Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey), http://www.hmc.psu.edu/commhealth/
•
Pennsylvania: Community Health Resource Library (Geisinger Medical Center, Danville), http://www.geisinger.edu/education/commlib.shtml
•
Pennsylvania: HealthInfo Library (Moses Taylor Hospital, Scranton), http://www.mth.org/healthwellness.html
•
Pennsylvania: Hopwood Library (University of Pittsburgh, Health Sciences Library System, Pittsburgh), http://www.hsls.pitt.edu/guides/chi/hopwood/index_html
•
Pennsylvania: Koop Community Health Information Center (College of Physicians of Philadelphia), http://www.collphyphil.org/kooppg1.shtml
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Pennsylvania: Learning Resources Center - Medical Library (Susquehanna Health System, Williamsport), http://www.shscares.org/services/lrc/index.asp
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Pennsylvania: Medical Library (UPMC Health System, Pittsburgh), http://www.upmc.edu/passavant/library.htm
•
Quebec, Canada: Medical Library (Montreal General Hospital), http://www.mghlib.mcgill.ca/
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South Dakota: Rapid City Regional Hospital Medical Library (Rapid City Regional Hospital), http://www.rcrh.org/Services/Library/Default.asp
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Texas: Houston HealthWays (Houston Academy of Medicine-Texas Medical Center Library), http://hhw.library.tmc.edu/
•
Washington: Community Health Library (Kittitas Valley Community Hospital), http://www.kvch.com/
•
Washington: Southwest Washington Medical Center Library (Southwest Washington Medical Center, Vancouver), http://www.swmedicalcenter.com/body.cfm?id=72
89
ONLINE GLOSSARIES The Internet provides access to a number of free-to-use medical dictionaries. The National Library of Medicine has compiled the following list of online dictionaries: •
ADAM Medical Encyclopedia (A.D.A.M., Inc.), comprehensive medical reference: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html
•
MedicineNet.com Medical Dictionary (MedicineNet, Inc.): http://www.medterms.com/Script/Main/hp.asp
•
Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary (Inteli-Health, Inc.): http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/
•
Multilingual Glossary of Technical and Popular Medical Terms in Eight European Languages (European Commission) - Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish: http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~rvdstich/eugloss/welcome.html
•
On-line Medical Dictionary (CancerWEB): http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/
•
Rare Diseases Terms (Office of Rare Diseases): http://ord.aspensys.com/asp/diseases/diseases.asp
•
Technology Glossary (National Library of Medicine) - Health Care Technology: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nichsr/ta101/ta10108.htm
Beyond these, MEDLINEplus contains a very patient-friendly encyclopedia covering every aspect of medicine (licensed from A.D.A.M., Inc.). The ADAM Medical Encyclopedia can be accessed at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/encyclopedia.html. ADAM is also available on commercial Web sites such as drkoop.com (http://www.drkoop.com/) and Web MD (http://my.webmd.com/adam/asset/adam_disease_articles/a_to_z/a).
Online Dictionary Directories The following are additional online directories compiled by the National Library of Medicine, including a number of specialized medical dictionaries: •
Medical Dictionaries: Medical & Biological (World Health Organization): http://www.who.int/hlt/virtuallibrary/English/diction.htm#Medical
•
MEL-Michigan Electronic Library List of Online Health and Medical Dictionaries (Michigan Electronic Library): http://mel.lib.mi.us/health/health-dictionaries.html
•
Patient Education: Glossaries (DMOZ Open Directory Project): http://dmoz.org/Health/Education/Patient_Education/Glossaries/
•
Web of Online Dictionaries (Bucknell University): http://www.yourdictionary.com/diction5.html#medicine
91
CEPHALEXIN DICTIONARY The definitions below are derived from official public sources, including the National Institutes of Health [NIH] and the European Union [EU]. Abdominal: Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs. [NIH] Abdominal Pain: Sensation of discomfort, distress, or agony in the abdominal region. [NIH] Abscess: Accumulation of purulent material in tissues, organs, or circumscribed spaces, usually associated with signs of infection. [NIH] Acantholysis: Separation of the prickle cells of the stratum spinosum of the epidermis, resulting in atrophy of the prickle cell layer. It is seen in diseases such as pemphigus vulgaris (see pemphigus) and keratosis follicularis. [NIH] Acceptor: A substance which, while normally not oxidized by oxygen or reduced by hydrogen, can be oxidized or reduced in presence of a substance which is itself undergoing oxidation or reduction. [NIH] Acetone: A colorless liquid used as a solvent and an antiseptic. It is one of the ketone bodies produced during ketoacidosis. [NIH] Acne: A disorder of the skin marked by inflammation of oil glands and hair glands. [NIH] Acne Vulgaris: A chronic disorder of the pilosebaceous apparatus associated with an increase in sebum secretion. It is characterized by open comedones (blackheads), closed comedones (whiteheads), and pustular nodules. The cause is unknown, but heredity and age are predisposing factors. [NIH] Acremonium: A mitosporic fungal genus with many reported ascomycetous teleomorphs. Cephalosporin antibiotics are derived from this genus. [NIH] Acute renal: A condition in which the kidneys suddenly stop working. In most cases, kidneys can recover from almost complete loss of function. [NIH] Acyl: Chemical signal used by bacteria to communicate. [NIH] Acylation: The addition of an organic acid radical into a molecule. [NIH] Adenosine: A nucleoside that is composed of adenine and d-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. Adenosine itself is a neurotransmitter. [NIH] Adipocytes: Fat-storing cells found mostly in the abdominal cavity and subcutaneous tissue. Fat is usually stored in the form of tryglycerides. [NIH] Adjustment: The dynamic process wherein the thoughts, feelings, behavior, and biophysiological mechanisms of the individual continually change to adjust to the environment. [NIH] Adjuvant: A substance which aids another, such as an auxiliary remedy; in immunology, nonspecific stimulator (e.g., BCG vaccine) of the immune response. [EU] Adverse Effect: An unwanted side effect of treatment. [NIH] Aerobic: In biochemistry, reactions that need oxygen to happen or happen when oxygen is present. [NIH] Aerosol: A solution of a drug which can be atomized into a fine mist for inhalation therapy.
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[EU]
Afferent: Concerned with the transmission of neural impulse toward the central part of the nervous system. [NIH] Affinity: 1. Inherent likeness or relationship. 2. A special attraction for a specific element, organ, or structure. 3. Chemical affinity; the force that binds atoms in molecules; the tendency of substances to combine by chemical reaction. 4. The strength of noncovalent chemical binding between two substances as measured by the dissociation constant of the complex. 5. In immunology, a thermodynamic expression of the strength of interaction between a single antigen-binding site and a single antigenic determinant (and thus of the stereochemical compatibility between them), most accurately applied to interactions among simple, uniform antigenic determinants such as haptens. Expressed as the association constant (K litres mole -1), which, owing to the heterogeneity of affinities in a population of antibody molecules of a given specificity, actually represents an average value (mean intrinsic association constant). 6. The reciprocal of the dissociation constant. [EU] Agar: A complex sulfated polymer of galactose units, extracted from Gelidium cartilagineum, Gracilaria confervoides, and related red algae. It is used as a gel in the preparation of solid culture media for microorganisms, as a bulk laxative, in making emulsions, and as a supporting medium for immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis. [NIH]
Albumin: 1. Any protein that is soluble in water and moderately concentrated salt solutions and is coagulable by heat. 2. Serum albumin; the major plasma protein (approximately 60 per cent of the total), which is responsible for much of the plasma colloidal osmotic pressure and serves as a transport protein carrying large organic anions, such as fatty acids, bilirubin, and many drugs, and also carrying certain hormones, such as cortisol and thyroxine, when their specific binding globulins are saturated. Albumin is synthesized in the liver. Low serum levels occur in protein malnutrition, active inflammation and serious hepatic and renal disease. [EU] Algorithms: A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task. [NIH] Alimentary: Pertaining to food or nutritive material, or to the organs of digestion. [EU] Allylamine: Possesses an unusual and selective cytotoxicity for vascular smooth muscle cells in dogs and rats. Useful for experiments dealing with arterial injury, myocardial fibrosis or cardiac decompensation. [NIH] Alternative medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used instead of standard treatments. Alternative medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Aluminum: A metallic element that has the atomic number 13, atomic symbol Al, and atomic weight 26.98. [NIH] Amber: A yellowish fossil resin, the gum of several species of coniferous trees, found in the alluvial deposits of northeastern Germany. It is used in molecular biology in the analysis of organic matter fossilized in amber. [NIH] Amebiasis: Infection with any of various amebae. It is an asymptomatic carrier state in most individuals, but diseases ranging from chronic, mild diarrhea to fulminant dysentery may occur. [NIH] Amine: An organic compound containing nitrogen; any member of a group of chemical compounds formed from ammonia by replacement of one or more of the hydrogen atoms by
Dictionary 93
organic (hydrocarbon) radicals. The amines are distinguished as primary, secondary, and tertiary, according to whether one, two, or three hydrogen atoms are replaced. The amines include allylamine, amylamine, ethylamine, methylamine, phenylamine, propylamine, and many other compounds. [EU] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins. [NIH] Amlodipine: 2-((2-Aminoethoxy)methyl)-4-(2-chlorophenyl)-1,4-dihydro-6-methyl-3,5pyridinedicarboxylic acid 3-ethyl 5-methyl ester. A long-acting dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker. It is effective in the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension. [NIH] Ammonia: A colorless alkaline gas. It is formed in the body during decomposition of organic materials during a large number of metabolically important reactions. [NIH] Amoxicillin: A broad-spectrum semisynthetic antibiotic similar to ampicillin except that its resistance to gastric acid permits higher serum levels with oral administration. [NIH] Ampicillin: Semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin that functions as an orally active broadspectrum antibiotic. [NIH] Ampulla: A sac-like enlargement of a canal or duct. [NIH] Anaemia: A reduction below normal in the number of erythrocytes per cu. mm., in the quantity of haemoglobin, or in the volume of packed red cells per 100 ml. of blood which occurs when the equilibrium between blood loss (through bleeding or destruction) and blood production is disturbed. [EU] Anaerobic: 1. Lacking molecular oxygen. 2. Growing, living, or occurring in the absence of molecular oxygen; pertaining to an anaerobe. [EU] Anaesthesia: Loss of feeling or sensation. Although the term is used for loss of tactile sensibility, or of any of the other senses, it is applied especially to loss of the sensation of pain, as it is induced to permit performance of surgery or other painful procedures. [EU] Analgesic: An agent that alleviates pain without causing loss of consciousness. [EU] Analog: In chemistry, a substance that is similar, but not identical, to another. [NIH] Anaphylaxis: An acute hypersensitivity reaction due to exposure to a previously encountered antigen. The reaction may include rapidly progressing urticaria, respiratory distress, vascular collapse, systemic shock, and death. [NIH] Angina: Chest pain that originates in the heart. [NIH] Angina Pectoris: The symptom of paroxysmal pain consequent to myocardial ischemia usually of distinctive character, location and radiation, and provoked by a transient stressful situation during which the oxygen requirements of the myocardium exceed the capacity of the coronary circulation to supply it. [NIH] Anhydrides: Chemical compounds derived from acids by the elimination of a molecule of water. [NIH] Anionic: Pertaining to or containing an anion. [EU] Anions: Negatively charged atoms, radicals or groups of atoms which travel to the anode or positive pole during electrolysis. [NIH] Anthrax: An acute bacterial infection caused by ingestion of bacillus organisms. Carnivores may become infected from ingestion of infected carcasses. It is transmitted to humans by
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contact with infected animals or contaminated animal products. The most common form in humans is cutaneous anthrax. [NIH] Antibacterial: A substance that destroys bacteria or suppresses their growth or reproduction. [EU] Antibiotic: A drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other microorganisms. [NIH]
Antibodies: Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the antigen that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially plasma cells), or with an antigen closely related to it. [NIH] Antibody: A type of protein made by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind to only a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies destroy antigens directly. Others make it easier for white blood cells to destroy the antigen. [NIH] Antidepressant: A drug used to treat depression. [NIH] Antifungal: Destructive to fungi, or suppressing their reproduction or growth; effective against fungal infections. [EU] Antigen: Any substance which is capable, under appropriate conditions, of inducing a specific immune response and of reacting with the products of that response, that is, with specific antibody or specifically sensitized T-lymphocytes, or both. Antigens may be soluble substances, such as toxins and foreign proteins, or particulate, such as bacteria and tissue cells; however, only the portion of the protein or polysaccharide molecule known as the antigenic determinant (q.v.) combines with antibody or a specific receptor on a lymphocyte. Abbreviated Ag. [EU] Anti-infective: An agent that so acts. [EU] Antimicrobial: Killing microorganisms, or suppressing their multiplication or growth. [EU] Antiseptic: A substance that inhibits the growth and development of microorganisms without necessarily killing them. [EU] Antiviral: Destroying viruses or suppressing their replication. [EU] Approximate: Approximal [EU] Aqueous: Having to do with water. [NIH] Aromatic: Having a spicy odour. [EU] Arterial: Pertaining to an artery or to the arteries. [EU] Arteries: The vessels carrying blood away from the heart. [NIH] Assay: Determination of the amount of a particular constituent of a mixture, or of the biological or pharmacological potency of a drug. [EU] Atypical: Irregular; not conformable to the type; in microbiology, applied specifically to strains of unusual type. [EU] Azithromycin: A semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic structurally related to erythromycin. It has been used in the treatment of Mycobacterium avium intracellulare infections, toxoplasmosis, and cryptosporidiosis. [NIH] Aztreonam: A monocyclic beta-lactam antibiotic originally isolated from Chromobacterium violaceum. It is resistant to beta-lactamases and is used in gram-negative infections, especially of the meninges, bladder, and kidneys. It may cause a superinfection with grampositive organisms. [NIH]
Dictionary 95
Bacillus: A genus of Bacillaceae that are spore-forming, rod-shaped cells. Most species are saprophytic soil forms with only a few species being pathogenic. [NIH] Bacteria: Unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. [NIH] Bacterial Infections: Infections by bacteria, general or unspecified. [NIH] Bactericidal: Substance lethal to bacteria; substance capable of killing bacteria. [NIH] Bacteriophage: A virus whose host is a bacterial cell; A virus that exclusively infects bacteria. It generally has a protein coat surrounding the genome (DNA or RNA). One of the coliphages most extensively studied is the lambda phage, which is also one of the most important. [NIH] Bacteriostatic: 1. Inhibiting the growth or multiplication of bacteria. 2. An agent that inhibits the growth or multiplication of bacteria. [EU] Bacterium: Microscopic organism which may have a spherical, rod-like, or spiral unicellular or non-cellular body. Bacteria usually reproduce through asexual processes. [NIH] Bacteriuria: The presence of bacteria in the urine with or without consequent urinary tract infection. Since bacteriuria is a clinical entity, the term does not preclude the use of urine/microbiology for technical discussions on the isolation and segregation of bacteria in the urine. [NIH] Base: In chemistry, the nonacid part of a salt; a substance that combines with acids to form salts; a substance that dissociates to give hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions; a substance whose molecule or ion can combine with a proton (hydrogen ion); a substance capable of donating a pair of electrons (to an acid) for the formation of a coordinate covalent bond. [EU] Benzoyl Peroxide: A peroxide derivative that has been used topically for burns and as a dermatologic agent in the treatment of acne and poison ivy. It is used also as a bleach in the food industry. [NIH] Beta-Lactamases: Enzymes found in many bacteria which catalyze the hydrolysis of the amide bond in the beta-lactam ring. Well known antibiotics destroyed by these enzymes are penicillins and cephalosporins. EC 3.5.2.6. [NIH] Biliary: Having to do with the liver, bile ducts, and/or gallbladder. [NIH] Biliary Tract: The gallbladder and its ducts. [NIH] Binding agent: A substance that makes a loose mixture stick together. For example, binding agents can be used to make solid pills from loose powders. [NIH] Bioavailability: The degree to which a drug or other substance becomes available to the target tissue after administration. [EU] Biological Transport: The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) across cell membranes and epithelial layers, usually by passive diffusion. [NIH] Biopsy: Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body. [NIH] Biotechnology: Body of knowledge related to the use of organisms, cells or cell-derived constituents for the purpose of developing products which are technically, scientifically and clinically useful. Alteration of biologic function at the molecular level (i.e., genetic engineering) is a central focus; laboratory methods used include transfection and cloning technologies, sequence and structure analysis algorithms, computer databases, and gene and protein structure function analysis and prediction. [NIH] Bladder: The organ that stores urine. [NIH]
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Blister: Visible accumulations of fluid within or beneath the epidermis. [NIH] Blood pressure: The pressure of blood against the walls of a blood vessel or heart chamber. Unless there is reference to another location, such as the pulmonary artery or one of the heart chambers, it refers to the pressure in the systemic arteries, as measured, for example, in the forearm. [NIH] Blood vessel: A tube in the body through which blood circulates. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. [NIH] Body Fluids: Liquid components of living organisms. [NIH] Bolus: A single dose of drug usually injected into a blood vessel over a short period of time. Also called bolus infusion. [NIH] Bolus infusion: A single dose of drug usually injected into a blood vessel over a short period of time. Also called bolus. [NIH] Boron: A trace element with the atomic symbol B, atomic number 5, and atomic weight 10.81. Boron-10, an isotope of boron, is used as a neutron absorber in boron neutron capture therapy. [NIH] Boron Neutron Capture Therapy: A technique for the treatment of neoplasms, especially gliomas and melanomas in which boron-10, an isotope, is introduced into the target cells followed by irradiation with thermal neutrons. [NIH] Branch: Most commonly used for branches of nerves, but applied also to other structures. [NIH]
Broad-spectrum: Effective against a wide range of microorganisms; said of an antibiotic. [EU] Bronchi: The larger air passages of the lungs arising from the terminal bifurcation of the trachea. [NIH] Bronchiseptica: A small, gram-negative, motile bacillus. A normal inhabitant of the respiratory tract in man, dogs, and pigs, but is also associated with canine infectious tracheobronchitis and atrophic rhinitis in pigs. [NIH] Bronchitis: Inflammation (swelling and reddening) of the bronchi. [NIH] Burns: Injuries to tissues caused by contact with heat, steam, chemicals (burns, chemical), electricity (burns, electric), or the like. [NIH] Calcium: A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. [NIH] Calcium channel blocker: A drug used to relax the blood vessel and heart muscle, causing pressure inside blood vessels to drop. It also can regulate heart rhythm. [NIH] Capsules: Hard or soft soluble containers used for the oral administration of medicine. [NIH] Carbon Dioxide: A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals. [NIH] Carboxy: Cannabinoid. [NIH] Carboxylic Acids: Organic compounds containing the carboxy group (-COOH). This group of compounds includes amino acids and fatty acids. Carboxylic acids can be saturated, unsaturated, or aromatic. [NIH] Carcinogen: Any substance that causes cancer. [NIH]
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Carcinoma: Cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. [NIH]
Cardiovascular: Having to do with the heart and blood vessels. [NIH] Catheters: A small, flexible tube that may be inserted into various parts of the body to inject or remove liquids. [NIH] Cefaclor: Semisynthetic, broad-spectrum antibiotic derivative of cephalexin. [NIH] Cefadroxil: Long-acting, broad-spectrum, water-soluble, cephalexin derivative. [NIH] Cefamandole: Semisynthetic wide-spectrum cephalosporin with prolonged action, probably due to beta-lactamase resistance. It is used also as the nafate. [NIH] Cefatrizine: Orally active semisynthetic cephalosporin antibiotic with broad-spectrum activity. [NIH] Cefazolin: Semisynthetic cephalosporin analog with broad-spectrum antibiotic action due to inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis. It attains high serum levels and is excreted quickly via the urine. [NIH] Cefixime: A third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic that is stable to hydrolysis by betalactamases. [NIH] Cefotaxime: Semisynthetic broad-spectrum cephalosporin. [NIH] Cefotiam: A cephalosporin antibiotic that has a broad spectrum of activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative microorganisms. It is the drug of choice for biliary tract infections and is a safe drug for perinatal infections. [NIH] Cefoxitin: Semisynthetic cephamycin antibiotic resistant to beta-lactamase. [NIH] Cefsulodin: A pyridinium-substituted semisynthetic, broad-spectrum antibacterial used especially for Pseudomonas infections in debilitated patients. [NIH] Cefuroxime: Broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic resistant to beta-lactamase. It has been proposed for infections with gram-negative and gram-positive organisms, gonorrhea, and haemophilus. [NIH] Cell: The individual unit that makes up all of the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells. [NIH] Cell Division: The fission of a cell. [NIH] Cellobiose: A disaccharide consisting of two glucose units in beta (1-4) glycosidic linkage. Obtained from the partial hydrolysis of cellulose. [NIH] Cellulitis: An acute, diffuse, and suppurative inflammation of loose connective tissue, particularly the deep subcutaneous tissues, and sometimes muscle, which is most commonly seen as a result of infection of a wound, ulcer, or other skin lesions. [NIH] Cellulose: A polysaccharide with glucose units linked as in cellobiose. It is the chief constituent of plant fibers, cotton being the purest natural form of the substance. As a raw material, it forms the basis for many derivatives used in chromatography, ion exchange materials, explosives manufacturing, and pharmaceutical preparations. [NIH] Central Nervous System: The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. [NIH] Cephalexin: A semisynthetic cephalosporin antibiotic with antimicrobial activity similar to that of cephaloridine or cephalothin, but somewhat less potent. It is effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. [NIH] Cephaloglycin: A cephalorsporin antibiotic. [NIH] Cephaloridine: A cephalosporin antibiotic. [NIH]
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Cephalosporins: A group of broad-spectrum antibiotics first isolated from the Mediterranean fungus Acremonium (Cephalosporium acremonium). They contain the betalactam moiety thia-azabicyclo-octenecarboxylic acid also called 7-aminocephalosporanic acid. [NIH] Cephalothin: A cephalosporin antibiotic. [NIH] Cephapirin: Cephalosporin antibiotic, partly plasma-bound, that is effective against gramnegative and gram-positive organisms. [NIH] Cephradine: A semi-synthetic cephalosporin antibiotic. [NIH] Character: In current usage, approximately equivalent to personality. The sum of the relatively fixed personality traits and habitual modes of response of an individual. [NIH] Chemotherapy: Treatment with anticancer drugs. [NIH] Chlorhexidine: Disinfectant and topical anti-infective agent used also as mouthwash to prevent oral plaque. [NIH] Chloroform: A commonly used laboratory solvent. It was previously used as an anesthetic, but was banned from use in the U.S. due to its suspected carcinogenecity. [NIH] Chromosomal: Pertaining to chromosomes. [EU] Chronic: A disease or condition that persists or progresses over a long period of time. [NIH] Chronic prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate gland, developing slowly and lasting a long time. [NIH] Cilastatin: A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, imipenem, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukeotriene E4. [NIH]
Cimetidine: A histamine congener, it competitively inhibits histamine binding to H2 receptors. Cimetidine has a range of pharmacological actions. It inhibits gastric acid secretion, as well as pepsin and gastrin output. It also blocks the activity of cytochrome P450. [NIH] Cinoxacin: Synthetic antimicrobial related to oxolinic and nalidixic acids and used in urinary tract infections. [NIH] Ciprofloxacin: A carboxyfluoroquinoline antimicrobial agent that is effective against a wide range of microorganisms. It has been successfully and safely used in the treatment of resistant respiratory, skin, bone, joint, gastrointestinal, urinary, and genital infections. [NIH] Clavulanic Acid: Clavulanic acid (C8H9O5N) and its salts and esters. The acid is a suicide inhibitor of bacterial beta-lactamase enzymes from Streptomyces clavuligerus. Administered alone, it has only weak antibacterial activity against most organisms, but given in combination with beta-lactam antibiotics prevents antibiotic inactivation by microbial lactamase. [NIH] Clindamycin: An antibacterial agent that is a semisynthetic analog of lincomycin. [NIH] Clinical trial: A research study that tests how well new medical treatments or other interventions work in people. Each study is designed to test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. [NIH] Cloning: The production of a number of genetically identical individuals; in genetic engineering, a process for the efficient replication of a great number of identical DNA molecules. [NIH] Codeine: An opioid analgesic related to morphine but with less potent analgesic properties
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and mild sedative effects. It also acts centrally to suppress cough. [NIH] Cofactor: A substance, microorganism or environmental factor that activates or enhances the action of another entity such as a disease-causing agent. [NIH] Colitis: Inflammation of the colon. [NIH] Collagen: A polypeptide substance comprising about one third of the total protein in mammalian organisms. It is the main constituent of skin, connective tissue, and the organic substance of bones and teeth. Different forms of collagen are produced in the body but all consist of three alpha-polypeptide chains arranged in a triple helix. Collagen is differentiated from other fibrous proteins, such as elastin, by the content of proline, hydroxyproline, and hydroxylysine; by the absence of tryptophan; and particularly by the high content of polar groups which are responsible for its swelling properties. [NIH] Collapse: 1. A state of extreme prostration and depression, with failure of circulation. 2. Abnormal falling in of the walls of any part of organ. [EU] Colloidal: Of the nature of a colloid. [EU] Complement: A term originally used to refer to the heat-labile factor in serum that causes immune cytolysis, the lysis of antibody-coated cells, and now referring to the entire functionally related system comprising at least 20 distinct serum proteins that is the effector not only of immune cytolysis but also of other biologic functions. Complement activation occurs by two different sequences, the classic and alternative pathways. The proteins of the classic pathway are termed 'components of complement' and are designated by the symbols C1 through C9. C1 is a calcium-dependent complex of three distinct proteins C1q, C1r and C1s. The proteins of the alternative pathway (collectively referred to as the properdin system) and complement regulatory proteins are known by semisystematic or trivial names. Fragments resulting from proteolytic cleavage of complement proteins are designated with lower-case letter suffixes, e.g., C3a. Inactivated fragments may be designated with the suffix 'i', e.g. C3bi. Activated components or complexes with biological activity are designated by a bar over the symbol e.g. C1 or C4b,2a. The classic pathway is activated by the binding of C1 to classic pathway activators, primarily antigen-antibody complexes containing IgM, IgG1, IgG3; C1q binds to a single IgM molecule or two adjacent IgG molecules. The alternative pathway can be activated by IgA immune complexes and also by nonimmunologic materials including bacterial endotoxins, microbial polysaccharides, and cell walls. Activation of the classic pathway triggers an enzymatic cascade involving C1, C4, C2 and C3; activation of the alternative pathway triggers a cascade involving C3 and factors B, D and P. Both result in the cleavage of C5 and the formation of the membrane attack complex. Complement activation also results in the formation of many biologically active complement fragments that act as anaphylatoxins, opsonins, or chemotactic factors. [EU] Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices are not considered standard medical approaches. CAM includes dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Complementary medicine: Practices not generally recognized by the medical community as standard or conventional medical approaches and used to enhance or complement the standard treatments. Complementary medicine includes the taking of dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, and herbal preparations; the drinking of special teas; and practices such as massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation. [NIH] Computational Biology: A field of biology concerned with the development of techniques for the collection and manipulation of biological data, and the use of such data to make biological discoveries or predictions. This field encompasses all computational methods and
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theories applicable to molecular biology and areas of computer-based techniques for solving biological problems including manipulation of models and datasets. [NIH] Conjugated: Acting or operating as if joined; simultaneous. [EU] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Connective Tissue: Tissue that supports and binds other tissues. It consists of connective tissue cells embedded in a large amount of extracellular matrix. [NIH] Constipation: Infrequent or difficult evacuation of feces. [NIH] Contamination: The soiling or pollution by inferior material, as by the introduction of organisms into a wound, or sewage into a stream. [EU] Contraindications: Any factor or sign that it is unwise to pursue a certain kind of action or treatment, e. g. giving a general anesthetic to a person with pneumonia. [NIH] Controlled study: An experiment or clinical trial that includes a comparison (control) group. [NIH]
Coronary: Encircling in the manner of a crown; a term applied to vessels; nerves, ligaments, etc. The term usually denotes the arteries that supply the heart muscle and, by extension, a pathologic involvement of them. [EU] Coronary Thrombosis: Presence of a thrombus in a coronary artery, often causing a myocardial infarction. [NIH] Cortex: The outer layer of an organ or other body structure, as distinguished from the internal substance. [EU] Co-trimoxazole: A combination of two anti-infection drugs, sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim. It is used to fight bacterial and protozoal infections. [NIH] Cryptosporidiosis: Parasitic intestinal infection with severe diarrhea caused by a protozoan, Cryptosporidium. It occurs in both animals and humans. [NIH] Culture Media: Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as agar or gelatin. [NIH] Curative: Tending to overcome disease and promote recovery. [EU] Cutaneous: Having to do with the skin. [NIH] Cysteine: A thiol-containing non-essential amino acid that is oxidized to form cystine. [NIH] Cystitis: Inflammation of the urinary bladder. [EU] Databases, Bibliographic: Extensive collections, reputedly complete, of references and citations to books, articles, publications, etc., generally on a single subject or specialized subject area. Databases can operate through automated files, libraries, or computer disks. The concept should be differentiated from factual databases which is used for collections of data and facts apart from bibliographic references to them. [NIH] Deamination: The removal of an amino group (NH2) from a chemical compound. [NIH] Decubitus: An act of lying down; also the position assumed in lying down. [EU] Decubitus Ulcer: An ulceration caused by prolonged pressure in patients permitted to lie too still for a long period of time. The bony prominences of the body are the most frequently affected sites. The ulcer is caused by ischemia of the underlying structures of the skin, fat, and muscles as a result of the sustained and constant pressure. [NIH]
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Density: The logarithm to the base 10 of the opacity of an exposed and processed film. [NIH] Dermal: Pertaining to or coming from the skin. [NIH] Dermatitis: Any inflammation of the skin. [NIH] Detergents: Purifying or cleansing agents, usually salts of long-chain aliphatic bases or acids, that exert cleansing (oil-dissolving) and antimicrobial effects through a surface action that depends on possessing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties. [NIH] Diagnostic procedure: A method used to identify a disease. [NIH] Dialysate: A cleansing liquid used in the two major forms of dialysis--hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. [NIH] Diarrhea: Passage of excessively liquid or excessively frequent stools. [NIH] Diffusion: The tendency of a gas or solute to pass from a point of higher pressure or concentration to a point of lower pressure or concentration and to distribute itself throughout the available space; a major mechanism of biological transport. [NIH] Digestive tract: The organs through which food passes when food is eaten. These organs are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and rectum. [NIH] Dipeptides: Peptides composed of two amino acid units. [NIH] Direct: 1. Straight; in a straight line. 2. Performed immediately and without the intervention of subsidiary means. [EU] Disinfectant: An agent that disinfects; applied particularly to agents used on inanimate objects. [EU] Dithionite: The dithionous acid ion and its salts. [NIH] Dosage Forms: Completed forms of the pharmaceutical preparation in which prescribed doses of medication are included. They are designed to resist action by gastric fluids, prevent vomiting and nausea, reduce or alleviate the undesirable taste and smells associated with oral administration, achieve a high concentration of drug at target site, or produce a delayed or long-acting drug effect. They include capsules, liniments, ointments, pharmaceutical solutions, powders, tablets, etc. [NIH] Dosage schedule: A scheme set up to determine and regulate size, frequency and number of doses. [EU] Doxycycline: A synthetic tetracycline derivative with a range of antimicrobial activity and mode of action similar to that of tetracycline, but more effective against many species. Animal studies suggest that it may cause less tooth staining than other tetracyclines. [NIH] Drug Interactions: The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug. [NIH] Drug Toxicity: Manifestations of the adverse effects of drugs administered therapeutically or in the course of diagnostic techniques. It does not include accidental or intentional poisoning for which specific headings are available. [NIH] Duodenal Ulcer: An ulcer in the lining of the first part of the small intestine (duodenum). [NIH]
Duodenum: The first part of the small intestine. [NIH] Dyes: Chemical substances that are used to stain and color other materials. The coloring may or may not be permanent. Dyes can also be used as therapeutic agents and test reagents in medicine and scientific research. [NIH] Eczema: A pruritic papulovesicular dermatitis occurring as a reaction to many endogenous and exogenous agents (Dorland, 27th ed). [NIH]
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Efficacy: The extent to which a specific intervention, procedure, regimen, or service produces a beneficial result under ideal conditions. Ideally, the determination of efficacy is based on the results of a randomized control trial. [NIH] Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions when fused or in solution, and thus becomes capable of conducting electricity; an ionic solute. [EU] Electrons: Stable elementary particles having the smallest known negative charge, present in all elements; also called negatrons. Positively charged electrons are called positrons. The numbers, energies and arrangement of electrons around atomic nuclei determine the chemical identities of elements. Beams of electrons are called cathode rays or beta rays, the latter being a high-energy biproduct of nuclear decay. [NIH] Electroplating: Coating with a metal or alloy by electrolysis. [NIH] Embryo: The prenatal stage of mammalian development characterized by rapid morphological changes and the differentiation of basic structures. [NIH] Emulsions: Colloids of two immiscible liquids where either phase may be either fatty or aqueous; lipid-in-water emulsions are usually liquid, like milk or lotion and water-in-lipid emulsions tend to be creams. [NIH] Enalapril: An angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor that is used to treat hypertension. [NIH]
Endocrinology: A subspecialty of internal medicine concerned with the metabolism, physiology, and disorders of the endocrine system. [NIH] Endoscope: A thin, lighted tube used to look at tissues inside the body. [NIH] Endoscopic: A technique where a lateral-view endoscope is passed orally to the duodenum for visualization of the ampulla of Vater. [NIH] Energy balance: Energy is the capacity of a body or a physical system for doing work. Energy balance is the state in which the total energy intake equals total energy needs. [NIH] Enoxacin: An orally administered broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibacterial agent active against most gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Its clinical efficacy has been confirmed in a variety of systemic infections and particularly in urinary tract infections. The drug is well tolerated by adults, but should not be used in children and pregnant women. [NIH]
Enterobacteriaceae: A family of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that do not form endospores. Its organisms are distributed worldwide with some being saprophytes and others being plant and animal parasites. Many species are of considerable economic importance due to their pathogenic effects on agriculture and livestock. [NIH] Environmental Health: The science of controlling or modifying those conditions, influences, or forces surrounding man which relate to promoting, establishing, and maintaining health. [NIH]
Enzymatic: Phase where enzyme cuts the precursor protein. [NIH] Enzyme: A protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. [NIH] Epidermal: Pertaining to or resembling epidermis. Called also epidermic or epidermoid. [EU] Epidermis: Nonvascular layer of the skin. It is made up, from within outward, of five layers: 1) basal layer (stratum basale epidermidis); 2) spinous layer (stratum spinosum epidermidis); 3) granular layer (stratum granulosum epidermidis); 4) clear layer (stratum lucidum epidermidis); and 5) horny layer (stratum corneum epidermidis). [NIH] Epithelial: Refers to the cells that line the internal and external surfaces of the body. [NIH] Erythrocytes: Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks
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containing hemoglobin whose function is to transport oxygen. [NIH] Erythromycin: A bacteriostatic antibiotic substance produced by Streptomyces erythreus. Erythromycin A is considered its major active component. In sensitive organisms, it inhibits protein synthesis by binding to 50S ribosomal subunits. This binding process inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with translocation of amino acids during translation and assembly of proteins. [NIH] Esophagus: The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach. [NIH]
Esterification: The process of converting an acid into an alkyl or aryl derivative. Most frequently the process consists of the reaction of an acid with an alcohol in the presence of a trace of mineral acid as catalyst or the reaction of an acyl chloride with an alcohol. Esterification can also be accomplished by enzymatic processes. [NIH] Estrogen: One of the two female sex hormones. [NIH] Ethanol: A clear, colorless liquid rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body. It has bactericidal activity and is used often as a topical disinfectant. It is widely used as a solvent and preservative in pharmaceutical preparations as well as serving as the primary ingredient in alcoholic beverages. [NIH] Ether: One of a class of organic compounds in which any two organic radicals are attached directly to a single oxygen atom. [NIH] Excisional: The surgical procedure of removing a tumor by cutting it out. The biopsy is then examined under a microscope. [NIH] Exfoliation: A falling off in scales or layers. [EU] Exogenous: Developed or originating outside the organism, as exogenous disease. [EU] Extracellular: Outside a cell or cells. [EU] Extraction: The process or act of pulling or drawing out. [EU] Faecal: Pertaining to or of the nature of feces. [EU] Family Planning: Programs or services designed to assist the family in controlling reproduction by either improving or diminishing fertility. [NIH] Fat: Total lipids including phospholipids. [NIH] Fatty acids: A major component of fats that are used by the body for energy and tissue development. [NIH] Feces: The excrement discharged from the intestines, consisting of bacteria, cells exfoliated from the intestines, secretions, chiefly of the liver, and a small amount of food residue. [EU] Fermentation: An enzyme-induced chemical change in organic compounds that takes place in the absence of oxygen. The change usually results in the production of ethanol or lactic acid, and the production of energy. [NIH] Fertilizers: Substances or mixtures that are added to the soil to supply nutrients or to make available nutrients already present in the soil, in order to increase plant growth and productivity. [NIH] Fibrin: A protein derived from fibrinogen in the presence of thrombin, which forms part of the blood clot. [NIH] Fibrosis: Any pathological condition where fibrous connective tissue invades any organ, usually as a consequence of inflammation or other injury. [NIH] Filtration: The passage of a liquid through a filter, accomplished by gravity, pressure, or vacuum (suction). [EU]
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Fistulas: An abnormal passage from one hollow structure of the body to another, or from a hollow structure to the surface, formed by an abscess, disease process, incomplete closure of a wound, or by a congenital anomaly. [NIH] Fluoxetine: The first highly specific serotonin uptake inhibitor. It is used as an antidepressant and often has a more acceptable side-effects profile than traditional antidepressants. [NIH] Fold: A plication or doubling of various parts of the body. [NIH] Food Technology: The application of knowledge to the food industry. [NIH] Fosfomycin: An antibiotic produced by Streptomyces fradiae. [NIH] Fungi: A kingdom of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that live as saprobes or parasites, including mushrooms, yeasts, smuts, molds, etc. They reproduce either sexually or asexually, and have life cycles that range from simple to complex. Filamentous fungi refer to those that grow as multicelluar colonies (mushrooms and molds). [NIH] Fungus: A general term used to denote a group of eukaryotic protists, including mushrooms, yeasts, rusts, moulds, smuts, etc., which are characterized by the absence of chlorophyll and by the presence of a rigid cell wall composed of chitin, mannans, and sometimes cellulose. They are usually of simple morphological form or show some reversible cellular specialization, such as the formation of pseudoparenchymatous tissue in the fruiting body of a mushroom. The dimorphic fungi grow, according to environmental conditions, as moulds or yeasts. [EU] Gallate: Antioxidant present in tea. [NIH] Gallbladder: The pear-shaped organ that sits below the liver. Bile is concentrated and stored in the gallbladder. [NIH] Gas: Air that comes from normal breakdown of food. The gases are passed out of the body through the rectum (flatus) or the mouth (burp). [NIH] Gastric: Having to do with the stomach. [NIH] Gastric Acid: Hydrochloric acid present in gastric juice. [NIH] Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach. [EU] Gastrointestinal: Refers to the stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gastrointestinal tract: The stomach and intestines. [NIH] Gelatin: A product formed from skin, white connective tissue, or bone collagen. It is used as a protein food adjuvant, plasma substitute, hemostatic, suspending agent in pharmaceutical preparations, and in the manufacturing of capsules and suppositories. [NIH] Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein. [NIH]
Gene Expression: The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of gene action. [NIH] Genetic Engineering: Directed modification of the gene complement of a living organism by such techniques as altering the DNA, substituting genetic material by means of a virus, transplanting whole nuclei, transplanting cell hybrids, etc. [NIH] Genetics: The biological science that deals with the phenomena and mechanisms of heredity. [NIH] Genital: Pertaining to the genitalia. [EU] Geriatric: Pertaining to the treatment of the aged. [EU]
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Giardiasis: An infection of the small intestine caused by the flagellated protozoan Giardia lamblia. It is spread via contaminated food and water and by direct person-to-person contact. [NIH] Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production. [NIH] Glandular fever: A highly contagious disease of rodents caused by Pasteurella (Francisella) tularensis which may infect farm animals. It is spread mechanically either by flies or ticks, or by direct inoculation. It is characterized by fever and tubercle-like nodule formations. [NIH] Glomerular: Pertaining to or of the nature of a glomerulus, especially a renal glomerulus. [EU]
Glottis: The vocal apparatus of the larynx, consisting of the true vocal cords (plica vocalis) and the opening between them (rima glottidis). [NIH] Glucose: D-Glucose. A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement. [NIH] Glycine: A non-essential amino acid. It is found primarily in gelatin and silk fibroin and used therapeutically as a nutrient. It is also a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter. [NIH] Gonorrhea: Acute infectious disease characterized by primary invasion of the urogenital tract. The etiologic agent, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, was isolated by Neisser in 1879. [NIH] Governing Board: The group in which legal authority is vested for the control of healthrelated institutions and organizations. [NIH] Gp120: 120-kD HIV envelope glycoprotein which is involved in the binding of the virus to its membrane receptor, the CD4 molecule, found on the surface of certain cells in the body. [NIH]
Gram-negative: Losing the stain or decolorized by alcohol in Gram's method of staining, a primary characteristic of bacteria having a cell wall composed of a thin layer of peptidoglycan covered by an outer membrane of lipoprotein and lipopolysaccharide. [EU] Gram-Negative Bacteria: Bacteria which lose crystal violet stain but are stained pink when treated by Gram's method. [NIH] Gram-positive: Retaining the stain or resisting decolorization by alcohol in Gram's method of staining, a primary characteristic of bacteria whose cell wall is composed of a thick layer of peptidologlycan with attached teichoic acids. [EU] Gram-Positive Bacteria: Bacteria which retain the crystal violet stain when treated by Gram's method. [NIH] Granuloma: A relatively small nodular inflammatory lesion containing grouped mononuclear phagocytes, caused by infectious and noninfectious agents. [NIH] Growth: The progressive development of a living being or part of an organism from its earliest stage to maturity. [NIH] Guanidines: A family of iminourea derivatives. The parent compound has been isolated from mushrooms, corn germ, rice hulls, mussels, earthworms, and turnip juice. Derivatives may have antiviral and antifungal properties. [NIH] Gynecology: A medical-surgical specialty concerned with the physiology and disorders primarily of the female genital tract, as well as female endocrinology and reproductive physiology. [NIH] Gyrase: An enzyme that causes negative supercoiling of E. coli DNA during replication.
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[NIH]
Haemophilus: A genus of Pasteurellaceae that consists of several species occurring in animals and humans. Its organisms are described as gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, coccobacillus or rod-shaped, and nonmotile. [NIH] Hair follicles: Shafts or openings on the surface of the skin through which hair grows. [NIH] Half-Life: The time it takes for a substance (drug, radioactive nuclide, or other) to lose half of its pharmacologic, physiologic, or radiologic activity. [NIH] Heart failure: Loss of pumping ability by the heart, often accompanied by fatigue, breathlessness, and excess fluid accumulation in body tissues. [NIH] Hemodialysis: The use of a machine to clean wastes from the blood after the kidneys have failed. The blood travels through tubes to a dialyzer, which removes wastes and extra fluid. The cleaned blood then flows through another set of tubes back into the body. [NIH] Hemoglobin: One of the fractions of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c. Glycosylated hemoglobin is formed when linkages of glucose and related monosaccharides bind to hemoglobin A and its concentration represents the average blood glucose level over the previous several weeks. HbA1c levels are used as a measure of long-term control of plasma glucose (normal, 4 to 6 percent). In controlled diabetes mellitus, the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin A is within the normal range, but in uncontrolled cases the level may be 3 to 4 times the normal conentration. Generally, complications are substantially lower among patients with Hb levels of 7 percent or less than in patients with HbA1c levels of 9 percent or more. [NIH] Hemolytic: A disease that affects the blood and blood vessels. It destroys red blood cells, cells that cause the blood to clot, and the lining of blood vessels. HUS is often caused by the Escherichia coli bacterium in contaminated food. People with HUS may develop acute renal failure. [NIH] Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver and liver disease involving degenerative or necrotic alterations of hepatocytes. [NIH] Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver. [NIH] Heredity: 1. The genetic transmission of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring. 2. The genetic constitution of an individual. [EU] Histamine: 1H-Imidazole-4-ethanamine. A depressor amine derived by enzymatic decarboxylation of histidine. It is a powerful stimulant of gastric secretion, a constrictor of bronchial smooth muscle, a vasodilator, and also a centrally acting neurotransmitter. [NIH] Homogeneous: Consisting of or composed of similar elements or ingredients; of a uniform quality throughout. [EU] Hormone: A substance in the body that regulates certain organs. Hormones such as gastrin help in breaking down food. Some hormones come from cells in the stomach and small intestine. [NIH] Hospital Records: Compilations of data on hospital activities and programs; excludes patient medical records. [NIH] Host: Any animal that receives a transplanted graft. [NIH] Hydrochloric Acid: A strong corrosive acid that is commonly used as a laboratory reagent. It is formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water. Gastric acid is the hydrochloric acid component of gastric juice. [NIH] Hydrocodone: Narcotic analgesic related to codeine, but more potent and more addicting by weight. It is used also as cough suppressant. [NIH]
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Hydrogen: The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight 1. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are protons. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope deuterium and the unstable, radioactive isotope tritium. [NIH] Hydrolysis: The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water. [NIH] Hydrophilic: Readily absorbing moisture; hygroscopic; having strongly polar groups that readily interact with water. [EU] Hygienic: Pertaining to hygiene, or conducive to health. [EU] Hypersensitivity: Altered reactivity to an antigen, which can result in pathologic reactions upon subsequent exposure to that particular antigen. [NIH] Hypertension: Persistently high arterial blood pressure. Currently accepted threshold levels are 140 mm Hg systolic and 90 mm Hg diastolic pressure. [NIH] Id: The part of the personality structure which harbors the unconscious instinctive desires and strivings of the individual. [NIH] Ileum: The lower end of the small intestine. [NIH] Imidazole: C3H4N2. The ring is present in polybenzimidazoles. [NIH] Imipenem: Semisynthetic thienamycin that has a wide spectrum of antibacterial activity against gram-negative and gram-positive aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, including many multiresistant strains. It is stable to beta-lactamases. Clinical studies have demonstrated high efficacy in the treatment of infections of various body systems. Its effectiveness is enhanced when it is administered in combination with cilastatin, a renal dipeptidase inhibitor. [NIH] Immune response: The activity of the immune system against foreign substances (antigens). [NIH]
Immunodiffusion: Technique involving the diffusion of antigen or antibody through a semisolid medium, usually agar or agarose gel, with the result being a precipitin reaction. [NIH]
Immunoelectrophoresis: A technique that combines protein electrophoresis and double immunodiffusion. In this procedure proteins are first separated by gel electrophoresis (usually agarose), then made visible by immunodiffusion of specific antibodies. A distinct elliptical precipitin arc results for each protein detectable by the antisera. [NIH] Immunology: The study of the body's immune system. [NIH] Impairment: In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical structure or function. [NIH] Impetigo: A common superficial bacterial infection caused by staphylococcus aureus or group A beta-hemolytic streptococci. Characteristics include pustular lesions that rupture and discharge a thin, amber-colored fluid that dries and forms a crust. This condition is commonly located on the face, especially about the mouth and nose. [NIH] In vitro: In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). [NIH] In vivo: In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). [NIH] Incubation: The development of an infectious disease from the entrance of the pathogen to the appearance of clinical symptoms. [EU] Incubation period: The period of time likely to elapse between exposure to the agent of the disease and the onset of clinical symptoms. [NIH] Induction: The act or process of inducing or causing to occur, especially the production of a
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specific morphogenetic effect in the developing embryo through the influence of evocators or organizers, or the production of anaesthesia or unconsciousness by use of appropriate agents. [EU] Infarction: A pathological process consisting of a sudden insufficient blood supply to an area, which results in necrosis of that area. It is usually caused by a thrombus, an embolus, or a vascular torsion. [NIH] Infection: 1. Invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues, which may be clinically unapparent or result in local cellular injury due to competitive metabolism, toxins, intracellular replication, or antigen-antibody response. The infection may remain localized, subclinical, and temporary if the body's defensive mechanisms are effective. A local infection may persist and spread by extension to become an acute, subacute, or chronic clinical infection or disease state. A local infection may also become systemic when the microorganisms gain access to the lymphatic or vascular system. 2. An infectious disease. [EU]
Infectious Mononucleosis: A common, acute infection usually caused by the Epstein-Barr virus (Human herpesvirus 4). There is an increase in mononuclear white blood cells and other atypical lymphocytes, generalized lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, and occasionally hepatomegaly with hepatitis. [NIH] Inflammation: A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. [NIH] Ingestion: Taking into the body by mouth [NIH] Inhalation: The drawing of air or other substances into the lungs. [EU] Inner ear: The labyrinth, comprising the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals. [NIH] Inorganic: Pertaining to substances not of organic origin. [EU] Intermittent: Occurring at separated intervals; having periods of cessation of activity. [EU] Interstitial: Pertaining to or situated between parts or in the interspaces of a tissue. [EU] Intestinal: Having to do with the intestines. [NIH] Intestine: A long, tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a large intestine and a small intestine. Also called the bowel. [NIH] Intracellular: Inside a cell. [NIH] Intramuscular: IM. Within or into muscle. [NIH] Intravenous: IV. Into a vein. [NIH] Ions: An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a positive charge are known as cations; those with a negative charge are anions. [NIH] Isoelectric: Separation of amphoteric substances, dissolved in water, based on their isoelectric behavior. The amphoteric substances are a mixture of proteins to be separated and of auxiliary "carrier ampholytes". [NIH] Isoelectric Point: The pH in solutions of proteins and related compounds at which the dipolar ions are at a maximum. [NIH] Jejunum: That portion of the small intestine which extends from the duodenum to the ileum; called also intestinum jejunum. [EU] Joint: The point of contact between elements of an animal skeleton with the parts that surround and support it. [NIH]
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Kb: A measure of the length of DNA fragments, 1 Kb = 1000 base pairs. The largest DNA fragments are up to 50 kilobases long. [NIH] Ketone Bodies: Chemicals that the body makes when there is not enough insulin in the blood and it must break down fat for its energy. Ketone bodies can poison and even kill body cells. When the body does not have the help of insulin, the ketones build up in the blood and then "spill" over into the urine so that the body can get rid of them. The body can also rid itself of one type of ketone, called acetone, through the lungs. This gives the breath a fruity odor. Ketones that build up in the body for a long time lead to serious illness and coma. [NIH] Kinetics: The study of rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems. [NIH] Large Intestine: The part of the intestine that goes from the cecum to the rectum. The large intestine absorbs water from stool and changes it from a liquid to a solid form. The large intestine is 5 feet long and includes the appendix, cecum, colon, and rectum. Also called colon. [NIH] Lavage: A cleaning of the stomach and colon. Uses a special drink and enemas. [NIH] Laxative: An agent that acts to promote evacuation of the bowel; a cathartic or purgative. [EU]
Leisure Activities: Voluntary use of free time for activities outside the daily routine. [NIH] Leptin: A 16-kD peptide hormone secreted from white adipocytes and implicated in the regulation of food intake and energy balance. Leptin provides the key afferent signal from fat cells in the feedback system that controls body fat stores. [NIH] Lesion: An area of abnormal tissue change. [NIH] Lethal: Deadly, fatal. [EU] Leucine: An essential branched-chain amino acid important for hemoglobin formation. [NIH] Levothyroxine: Levo isomer of the thyroid hormone thyroxine. It is used for replacement therapy in reduced or absent thyroid function. [NIH] Library Services: Services offered to the library user. They include reference and circulation. [NIH]
Lincomycin: (2S-trans)-Methyl 6,8-dideoxy-6-(((1-methyl-4-propyl-2pyrrolidinyl)carbonyl)amino)-1-thio-D-erythro-alpha-D-galacto-octopyranoside. An antibiotic produced by Streptomyces lincolnensis var. lincolnensis. It has been used in the treatment of staphylococcal, streptococcal, and Bacteroides fragilis infections. [NIH] Lipopolysaccharide: Substance consisting of polysaccaride and lipid. [NIH] Lipoprotein: Any of the lipid-protein complexes in which lipids are transported in the blood; lipoprotein particles consist of a spherical hydrophobic core of triglycerides or cholesterol esters surrounded by an amphipathic monolayer of phospholipids, cholesterol, and apolipoproteins; the four principal classes are high-density, low-density, and very-lowdensity lipoproteins and chylomicrons. [EU] Lisinopril: An orally active angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor that has been used in the treatment of hypertension and congestive heart failure. [NIH] Liver: A large, glandular organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile. [NIH] Localized: Cancer which has not metastasized yet. [NIH] Lymph: The almost colorless fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infection and disease. [NIH] Lymphadenopathy: Disease or swelling of the lymph nodes. [NIH]
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Lymphatic: The tissues and organs, including the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes, that produce and store cells that fight infection and disease. [NIH] Magnesium Hydroxide: Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2). An inorganic compound that occurs in nature as the mineral brucite. It acts as an antacid with cathartic effects. [NIH] Maxillary: Pertaining to the maxilla : the irregularly shaped bone that with its fellow forms the upper jaw. [EU] Maxillary Sinus: One of the paired paranasal sinuses, located in the body of the maxilla, communicating with the middle meatus of the nasal cavity. [NIH] Maxillary Sinusitis: Inflammation of the maxillary sinus. In most cases it is the result of infection by the bacteria Haemophilus influenzae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Staphylococcus aureus. This condition may be acute or chronic. [NIH] Meatus: A canal running from the internal auditory foramen through the petrous portion of the temporal bone. It gives passage to the facial and auditory nerves together with the auditory branch of the basilar artery and the internal auditory veins. [NIH] Mediate: Indirect; accomplished by the aid of an intervening medium. [EU] Medical Records: Recording of pertinent information concerning patient's illness or illnesses. [NIH] MEDLINE: An online database of MEDLARS, the computerized bibliographic Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System of the National Library of Medicine. [NIH] Membrane: A very thin layer of tissue that covers a surface. [NIH] Meninges: The three membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. [NIH] Menopause: Permanent cessation of menstruation. [NIH] Metabolite: Any substance produced by metabolism or by a metabolic process. [EU] Methionine: A sulfur containing essential amino acid that is important in many body functions. It is a chelating agent for heavy metals. [NIH] Methylcellulose: Methylester of cellulose. Methylcellulose is used as an emulsifying and suspending agent in cosmetics, pharmaceutics and the chemical industry. It is used therapeutically as a bulk laxative. [NIH] Methylene Chloride: A chlorinated hydrocarbon that has been used as an inhalation anesthetic and acts as a narcotic in high concentrations. Its primary use is as a solvent in manufacturing and food technology. [NIH] Metronidazole: Antiprotozoal used in amebiasis, trichomoniasis, giardiasis, and as treponemacide in livestock. It has also been proposed as a radiation sensitizer for hypoxic cells. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985, p133), this substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen (Merck, 11th ed). [NIH] MI: Myocardial infarction. Gross necrosis of the myocardium as a result of interruption of the blood supply to the area; it is almost always caused by atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, upon which coronary thrombosis is usually superimposed. [NIH] Microbe: An organism which cannot be observed with the naked eye; e. g. unicellular animals, lower algae, lower fungi, bacteria. [NIH] Microbiological: Pertaining to microbiology : the science that deals with microorganisms, including algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. [EU] Microbiology: The study of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, algae, archaea, and viruses. [NIH] Microorganism: An organism that can be seen only through a microscope. Microorganisms
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include bacteria, protozoa, algae, and fungi. Although viruses are not considered living organisms, they are sometimes classified as microorganisms. [NIH] Minocycline: A semisynthetic staphylococcus infections. [NIH]
antibiotic
effective
against
tetracycline-resistant
Mitochondrial Swelling: Increase in volume of mitochondria due to an influx of fluid; it occurs in hypotonic solutions due to osmotic pressure and in isotonic solutions as a result of altered permeability of the membranes of respiring mitochondria. [NIH] Modification: A change in an organism, or in a process in an organism, that is acquired from its own activity or environment. [NIH] Molecular: Of, pertaining to, or composed of molecules : a very small mass of matter. [EU] Molecule: A chemical made up of two or more atoms. The atoms in a molecule can be the same (an oxygen molecule has two oxygen atoms) or different (a water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, can be made up of many thousands of atoms. [NIH] Mononuclear: A cell with one nucleus. [NIH] Monotherapy: A therapy which uses only one drug. [EU] Motility: The ability to move spontaneously. [EU] Motion Sickness: Sickness caused by motion, as sea sickness, train sickness, car sickness, and air sickness. [NIH] Mucins: A secretion containing mucopolysaccharides and protein that is the chief constituent of mucus. [NIH] Mucociliary: Pertaining to or affecting the mucus membrane and hairs (including eyelashes, nose hair, .): mucociliary clearing: the clearance of mucus by ciliary movement ( particularly in the respiratory system). [EU] Mupirocin: A topically used antibiotic from a strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens. It has shown excellent activity against gram-positive staphylococci and streptococci. The antibiotic is used primarily for the treatment of primary and secondary skin disorders, nasal infections, and wound healing. [NIH] Myocardium: The muscle tissue of the heart composed of striated, involuntary muscle known as cardiac muscle. [NIH] Nalidixic Acid: Synthetic antimicrobial agent used in urinary tract infections. It is active against gram-negative bacteria but has little activity against gram-positive organisms or Pseudomonas. [NIH] Narcotic: 1. Pertaining to or producing narcosis. 2. An agent that produces insensibility or stupor, applied especially to the opioids, i.e. to any natural or synthetic drug that has morphine-like actions. [EU] Nausea: An unpleasant sensation in the stomach usually accompanied by the urge to vomit. Common causes are early pregnancy, sea and motion sickness, emotional stress, intense pain, food poisoning, and various enteroviruses. [NIH] Necrolysis: Separation or exfoliation of tissue due to necrosis. [EU] Necrosis: A pathological process caused by the progressive degradative action of enzymes that is generally associated with severe cellular trauma. It is characterized by mitochondrial swelling, nuclear flocculation, uncontrolled cell lysis, and ultimately cell death. [NIH] Need: A state of tension or dissatisfaction felt by an individual that impels him to action toward a goal he believes will satisfy the impulse. [NIH]
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Neoplasms: New abnormal growth of tissue. Malignant neoplasms show a greater degree of anaplasia and have the properties of invasion and metastasis, compared to benign neoplasms. [NIH] Nitrofurantoin: A urinary anti-infective agent effective against most gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. Although sulfonamides and antibiotics are usually the agents of choice for urinary tract infections, nitrofurantoin is widely used for prophylaxis and longterm suppression. [NIH] Nitrogen: An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight 14. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells. [NIH] Norfloxacin: Quinoline-derived synthetic antibacterial agent with a very broad spectrum of action. Oral administration yields highly bactericidal plasma, tissue, and urine levels. Norfloxacin inhibits bacterial DNA-gyrase and is used in gastrointestinal, eye, and urinary infections. [NIH] Nuclear: A test of the structure, blood flow, and function of the kidneys. The doctor injects a mildly radioactive solution into an arm vein and uses x-rays to monitor its progress through the kidneys. [NIH] Nucleic acid: Either of two types of macromolecule (DNA or RNA) formed by polymerization of nucleotides. Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and contain the information (genetic code) for the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next. [NIH] Nucleus: A body of specialized protoplasm found in nearly all cells and containing the chromosomes. [NIH] Obstetrics: A medical-surgical specialty concerned with management and care of women during pregnancy, parturition, and the puerperium. [NIH] Ocular: 1. Of, pertaining to, or affecting the eye. 2. Eyepiece. [EU] Ofloxacin: An orally administered broad-spectrum quinolone antibacterial drug active against most gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. [NIH] Ointments: Semisolid preparations used topically for protective emollient effects or as a vehicle for local administration of medications. Ointment bases are various mixtures of fats, waxes, animal and plant oils and solid and liquid hydrocarbons. [NIH] Osmosis: Tendency of fluids (e.g., water) to move from the less concentrated to the more concentrated side of a semipermeable membrane. [NIH] Osmotic: Pertaining to or of the nature of osmosis (= the passage of pure solvent from a solution of lesser to one of greater solute concentration when the two solutions are separated by a membrane which selectively prevents the passage of solute molecules, but is permeable to the solvent). [EU] Osteomyelitis: Inflammation of bone caused by a pyogenic organism. It may remain localized or may spread through the bone to involve the marrow, cortex, cancellous tissue, and periosteum. [EU] Otitis: Inflammation of the ear, which may be marked by pain, fever, abnormalities of hearing, hearing loss, tinnitus, and vertigo. [EU] Otitis Media: Inflammation of the middle ear. [NIH] Outpatient: A patient who is not an inmate of a hospital but receives diagnosis or treatment in a clinic or dispensary connected with the hospital. [NIH] Overdose: An accidental or deliberate dose of a medication or street drug that is in excess of
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what is normally used. [NIH] Oxidation: The act of oxidizing or state of being oxidized. Chemically it consists in the increase of positive charges on an atom or the loss of negative charges. Most biological oxidations are accomplished by the removal of a pair of hydrogen atoms (dehydrogenation) from a molecule. Such oxidations must be accompanied by reduction of an acceptor molecule. Univalent o. indicates loss of one electron; divalent o., the loss of two electrons. [EU]
Paediatric: Of or relating to the care and medical treatment of children; belonging to or concerned with paediatrics. [EU] Palliative: 1. Affording relief, but not cure. 2. An alleviating medicine. [EU] Pancreas: A mixed exocrine and endocrine gland situated transversely across the posterior abdominal wall in the epigastric and hypochondriac regions. The endocrine portion is comprised of the Islets of Langerhans, while the exocrine portion is a compound acinar gland that secretes digestive enzymes. [NIH] Paranasal Sinuses: Air-filled extensions of the respiratory part of the nasal cavity into the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary cranial bones. They vary in size and form in different individuals and are lined by the ciliated mucous membranes of the nasal cavity. [NIH]
Parenteral: Not through the alimentary canal but rather by injection through some other route, as subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraorbital, intracapsular, intraspinal, intrasternal, intravenous, etc. [EU] Paroxetine: A serotonin uptake inhibitor that is effective in the treatment of depression. [NIH]
Paroxysmal: Recurring in paroxysms (= spasms or seizures). [EU] Particle: A tiny mass of material. [EU] Parturition: The act or process of given birth to a child. [EU] Pathologic: 1. Indicative of or caused by a morbid condition. 2. Pertaining to pathology (= branch of medicine that treats the essential nature of the disease, especially the structural and functional changes in tissues and organs of the body caused by the disease). [EU] Pathophysiology: Altered functions in an individual or an organ due to disease. [NIH] Patient Compliance: Voluntary cooperation of the patient in following a prescribed regimen. [NIH] Pemphigus: Group of chronic blistering diseases characterized histologically by acantholysis and blister formation within the epidermis. [NIH] Penicillin: An antibiotic drug used to treat infection. [NIH] Penicillin Amidase: An enzyme catalyzing the hydrolysis of penicillin to penicin and a carboxylic acid anion. EC 3.5.1.11. [NIH] Peptide: Any compound consisting of two or more amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Peptides are combined to make proteins. [NIH] Peptide T: N-(N-(N(2)-(N-(N-(N-(N-D-Alanyl L-seryl)-L-threonyl)-L-threonyl) L-threonyl)L-asparaginyl)-L-tyrosyl) L-threonine. Octapeptide sharing sequence homology with HIV envelope protein gp120. It is potentially useful as antiviral agent in AIDS therapy. The core pentapeptide sequence, TTNYT, consisting of amino acids 4-8 in peptide T, is the HIV envelope sequence required for attachment to the CD4 receptor. [NIH] Perinatal: Pertaining to or occurring in the period shortly before and after birth; variously defined as beginning with completion of the twentieth to twenty-eighth week of gestation
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and ending 7 to 28 days after birth. [EU] Perioperative: Around the time of surgery; usually lasts from the time of going into the hospital or doctor's office for surgery until the time the patient goes home. [NIH] Peritoneal: Having to do with the peritoneum (the tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers most of the organs in the abdomen). [NIH] Peritoneal Cavity: The space enclosed by the peritoneum. It is divided into two portions, the greater sac and the lesser sac or omental bursa, which lies behind the stomach. The two sacs are connected by the foramen of Winslow, or epiploic foramen. [NIH] Peritoneal Dialysis: Dialysis fluid being introduced into and removed from the peritoneal cavity as either a continuous or an intermittent procedure. [NIH] Peritoneum: Endothelial lining of the abdominal cavity, the parietal peritoneum covering the inside of the abdominal wall and the visceral peritoneum covering the bowel, the mesentery, and certain of the organs. The portion that covers the bowel becomes the serosal layer of the bowel wall. [NIH] Peritonitis: Inflammation of the peritoneum; a condition marked by exudations in the peritoneum of serum, fibrin, cells, and pus. It is attended by abdominal pain and tenderness, constipation, vomiting, and moderate fever. [EU] Peroxide: Chemical compound which contains an atom group with two oxygen atoms tied to each other. [NIH] Pertussis: An acute, highly contagious infection of the respiratory tract, most frequently affecting young children, usually caused by Bordetella pertussis; a similar illness has been associated with infection by B. parapertussis and B. bronchiseptica. It is characterized by a catarrhal stage, beginning after an incubation period of about two weeks, with slight fever, sneezing, running at the nose, and a dry cough. In a week or two the paroxysmal stage begins, with the characteristic paroxysmal cough, consisting of a deep inspiration, followed by a series of quick, short coughs, continuing until the air is expelled from the lungs; the close of the paroxysm is marked by a long-drawn, shrill, whooping inspiration, due to spasmodic closure of the glottis. This stage lasts three to four weeks, after which the convalescent stage begins, in which paroxysms grow less frequent and less violent, and finally cease. Called also whooping cough. [EU] Pharmaceutical Preparations: Drugs intended for human or veterinary use, presented in their finished dosage form. Included here are materials used in the preparation and/or formulation of the finished dosage form. [NIH] Pharmaceutical Solutions: Homogeneous liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical substances dissolved, i.e., molecularly dispersed, in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents. For reasons of their ingredients, method of preparation, or use, they do not fall into another group of products. [NIH] Pharmacokinetic: The mathematical analysis of the time courses of absorption, distribution, and elimination of drugs. [NIH] Pharmacologic: Pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. [EU] Pharyngitis: Inflammation of the throat. [NIH] Phenyl: Ingredient used in cold and flu remedies. [NIH] Phosphates: Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid. [NIH] Phosphorus: A non-metallic element that is found in the blood, muscles, nevers, bones, and teeth, and is a component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP; the primary energy source for the body's cells.) [NIH]
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Physiologic: Having to do with the functions of the body. When used in the phrase "physiologic age," it refers to an age assigned by general health, as opposed to calendar age. [NIH]
Physiology: The science that deals with the life processes and functions of organismus, their cells, tissues, and organs. [NIH] Pilot study: The initial study examining a new method or treatment. [NIH] Pirenzepine: An antimuscarinic agent that inhibits gastric secretion at lower doses than are required to affect gastrointestinal motility, salivary, central nervous system, cardiovascular, ocular, and urinary function. It promotes the healing of duodenal ulcers and due to its cytoprotective action is beneficial in the prevention of duodenal ulcer recurrence. It also potentiates the effect of other antiulcer agents such as cimetidine and ranitidine. It is generally well tolerated by patients. [NIH] Plants: Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of the kingdom Plantae. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (meristems); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absense of nervous and sensory systems; and an alteration of haploid and diploid generations. [NIH] Plaque: A clear zone in a bacterial culture grown on an agar plate caused by localized destruction of bacterial cells by a bacteriophage. The concentration of infective virus in a fluid can be estimated by applying the fluid to a culture and counting the number of. [NIH] Plasma: The clear, yellowish, fluid part of the blood that carries the blood cells. The proteins that form blood clots are in plasma. [NIH] Plasmid: An autonomously replicating, extra-chromosomal DNA molecule found in many bacteria. Plasmids are widely used as carriers of cloned genes. [NIH] Poisoning: A condition or physical state produced by the ingestion, injection or inhalation of, or exposure to a deleterious agent. [NIH] Polyethylene: A vinyl polymer made from ethylene. It can be branched or linear. Branched or low-density polyethylene is tough and pliable but not to the same degree as linear polyethylene. Linear or high-density polyethylene has a greater hardness and tensile strength. Polyethylene is used in a variety of products, including implants and prostheses. [NIH]
Polymers: Compounds formed by the joining of smaller, usually repeating, units linked by covalent bonds. These compounds often form large macromolecules (e.g., polypeptides, proteins, plastics). [NIH] Polysaccharide: A type of carbohydrate. It contains sugar molecules that are linked together chemically. [NIH] Postoperative: After surgery. [NIH] Potassium: An element that is in the alkali group of metals. It has an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte and it plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the water-electrolyte balance. [NIH] Potentiates: A degree of synergism which causes the exposure of the organism to a harmful substance to worsen a disease already contracted. [NIH] Practice Guidelines: Directions or principles presenting current or future rules of policy for the health care practitioner to assist him in patient care decisions regarding diagnosis, therapy, or related clinical circumstances. The guidelines may be developed by government agencies at any level, institutions, professional societies, governing boards, or by the
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convening of expert panels. The guidelines form a basis for the evaluation of all aspects of health care and delivery. [NIH] Precipitation: The act or process of precipitating. [EU] Precursor: Something that precedes. In biological processes, a substance from which another, usually more active or mature substance is formed. In clinical medicine, a sign or symptom that heralds another. [EU] Premenopausal: Refers to the time before menopause. Menopause is the time of life when a women's menstrual periods stop permanently; also called "change of life." [NIH] Probenecid: The prototypical uricosuric agent. It inhibits the renal excretion of organic anions and reduces tubular reabsorption of urate. Probenecid has also been used to treat patients with renal impairment, and, because it reduces the renal tubular excretion of other drugs, has been used as an adjunct to antibacterial therapy. [NIH] Prodrug: A substance that gives rise to a pharmacologically active metabolite, although not itself active (i. e. an inactive precursor). [NIH] Progressive: Advancing; going forward; going from bad to worse; increasing in scope or severity. [EU] Promyelocytic leukemia: A type of acute myeloid leukemia, a quickly progressing disease in which too many immature blood-forming cells are found in the blood and bone marrow. [NIH]
Prone: Having the front portion of the body downwards. [NIH] Prophylaxis: An attempt to prevent disease. [NIH] Prospective study: An epidemiologic study in which a group of individuals (a cohort), all free of a particular disease and varying in their exposure to a possible risk factor, is followed over a specific amount of time to determine the incidence rates of the disease in the exposed and unexposed groups. [NIH] Prostate: A gland in males that surrounds the neck of the bladder and the urethra. It secretes a substance that liquifies coagulated semen. It is situated in the pelvic cavity behind the lower part of the pubic symphysis, above the deep layer of the triangular ligament, and rests upon the rectum. [NIH] Prostate gland: A gland in the male reproductive system just below the bladder. It surrounds part of the urethra, the canal that empties the bladder, and produces a fluid that forms part of semen. [NIH] Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate. [EU] Protein C: A vitamin-K dependent zymogen present in the blood, which, upon activation by thrombin and thrombomodulin exerts anticoagulant properties by inactivating factors Va and VIIIa at the rate-limiting steps of thrombin formation. [NIH] Protein S: The vitamin K-dependent cofactor of activated protein C. Together with protein C, it inhibits the action of factors VIIIa and Va. A deficiency in protein S can lead to recurrent venous and arterial thrombosis. [NIH] Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The specific sequence of amino acids determines the shape and function of the protein. [NIH] Protozoa: A subkingdom consisting of unicellular organisms that are the simplest in the animal kingdom. Most are free living. They range in size from submicroscopic to macroscopic. Protozoa are divided into seven phyla: Sarcomastigophora, Labyrinthomorpha, Apicomplexa, Microspora, Ascetospora, Myxozoa, and Ciliophora. [NIH] Protozoal: Having to do with the simplest organisms in the animal kingdom. Protozoa are
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single-cell organisms, such as ameba, and are different from bacteria, which are not members of the animal kingdom. Some protozoa can be seen without a microscope. [NIH] Pruritic: Pertaining to or characterized by pruritus. [EU] Pseudomembranous Colitis: Severe irritation of the colon. Caused by Clostridium difficile bacteria. Occurs after taking oral antibiotics, which kill bacteria that normally live in the colon. [NIH] Psoriasis: A common genetically determined, chronic, inflammatory skin disease characterized by rounded erythematous, dry, scaling patches. The lesions have a predilection for nails, scalp, genitalia, extensor surfaces, and the lumbosacral region. Accelerated epidermopoiesis is considered to be the fundamental pathologic feature in psoriasis. [NIH] Public Policy: A course or method of action selected, usually by a government, from among alternatives to guide and determine present and future decisions. [NIH] Publishing: "The business or profession of the commercial production and issuance of literature" (Webster's 3d). It includes the publisher, publication processes, editing and editors. Production may be by conventional printing methods or by electronic publishing. [NIH]
Puerperium: Period from delivery of the placenta until return of the reproductive organs to their normal nonpregnant morphologic state. In humans, the puerperium generally lasts for six to eight weeks. [NIH] Purulent: Consisting of or containing pus; associated with the formation of or caused by pus. [EU] Pustular: Pertaining to or of the nature of a pustule; consisting of pustules (= a visible collection of pus within or beneath the epidermis). [EU] Pyoderma: Any purulent skin disease (Dorland, 27th ed). [NIH] Pyogenic: Producing pus; pyopoietic (= liquid inflammation product made up of cells and a thin fluid called liquor puris). [EU] Radiation: Emission or propagation of electromagnetic energy (waves/rays), or the waves/rays themselves; a stream of electromagnetic particles (electrons, neutrons, protons, alpha particles) or a mixture of these. The most common source is the sun. [NIH] Radicular: Having the character of or relating to a radicle or root. [NIH] Radioactive: Giving off radiation. [NIH] Randomized: Describes an experiment or clinical trial in which animal or human subjects are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments. [NIH] Ranitidine: A non-imidazole blocker of those histamine receptors that mediate gastric secretion (H2 receptors). It is used to treat gastrointestinal ulcers. [NIH] Reabsorption: 1. The act or process of absorbing again, as the selective absorption by the kidneys of substances (glucose, proteins, sodium, etc.) already secreted into the renal tubules, and their return to the circulating blood. 2. Resorption. [EU] Reaction Time: The time from the onset of a stimulus until the organism responds. [NIH] Reagent: A substance employed to produce a chemical reaction so as to detect, measure, produce, etc., other substances. [EU] Receptor: A molecule inside or on the surface of a cell that binds to a specific substance and causes a specific physiologic effect in the cell. [NIH] Recurrence: The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission. [NIH]
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Red blood cells: RBCs. Cells that carry oxygen to all parts of the body. Also called erythrocytes. [NIH] Refer: To send or direct for treatment, aid, information, de decision. [NIH] Reflux: The term used when liquid backs up into the esophagus from the stomach. [NIH] Refraction: A test to determine the best eyeglasses or contact lenses to correct a refractive error (myopia, hyperopia, or astigmatism). [NIH] Regimen: A treatment plan that specifies the dosage, the schedule, and the duration of treatment. [NIH] Remission: A decrease in or disappearance of signs and symptoms of cancer. In partial remission, some, but not all, signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared. In complete remission, all signs and symptoms of cancer have disappeared, although there still may be cancer in the body. [NIH] Renal failure: Progressive renal insufficiency and uremia, due to irreversible and progressive renal glomerular tubular or interstitial disease. [NIH] Renal tubular: A defect in the kidneys that hinders their normal excretion of acids. Failure to excrete acids can lead to weak bones, kidney stones, and poor growth in children. [NIH] Respiration: The act of breathing with the lungs, consisting of inspiration, or the taking into the lungs of the ambient air, and of expiration, or the expelling of the modified air which contains more carbon dioxide than the air taken in (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed.). This does not include tissue respiration (= oxygen consumption) or cell respiration (= cell respiration). [NIH] Retinoid: Vitamin A or a vitamin A-like compound. [NIH] Risk factor: A habit, trait, condition, or genetic alteration that increases a person's chance of developing a disease. [NIH] Ristocetin: An antibiotic mixture of two components, A and B, obtained from Nocardia lurida (or the same substance produced by any other means). It is no longer used clinically because of its toxicity. It causes platelet agglutination and blood coagulation and is used to assay those functions in vitro. [NIH] Rod: A reception for vision, located in the retina. [NIH] Saccharin: Flavoring agent and non-nutritive sweetener. [NIH] Salicylic: A tuberculosis drug. [NIH] Saliva: The clear, viscous fluid secreted by the salivary glands and mucous glands of the mouth. It contains mucins, water, organic salts, and ptylin. [NIH] Salivary: The duct that convey saliva to the mouth. [NIH] Salivary glands: Glands in the mouth that produce saliva. [NIH] Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. [NIH] Sebaceous: Gland that secretes sebum. [NIH] Sebum: The oily substance secreted by sebaceous glands. It is composed of keratin, fat, and cellular debris. [NIH] Secretion: 1. The process of elaborating a specific product as a result of the activity of a gland; this activity may range from separating a specific substance of the blood to the elaboration of a new chemical substance. 2. Any substance produced by secretion. [EU] Segregation: The separation in meiotic cell division of homologous chromosome pairs and their contained allelomorphic gene pairs. [NIH]
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Semisynthetic: Produced by chemical manipulation of naturally occurring substances. [EU] Sepsis: The presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. [NIH] Sequence Homology: The degree of similarity between sequences. Studies of amino acid and nucleotide sequences provide useful information about the genetic relatedness of certain species. [NIH] Serotonin: A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (receptors, serotonin) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator. [NIH] Serum: The clear liquid part of the blood that remains after blood cells and clotting proteins have been removed. [NIH] Shock: The general bodily disturbance following a severe injury; an emotional or moral upset occasioned by some disturbing or unexpected experience; disruption of the circulation, which can upset all body functions: sometimes referred to as circulatory shock. [NIH]
Side effect: A consequence other than the one(s) for which an agent or measure is used, as the adverse effects produced by a drug, especially on a tissue or organ system other than the one sought to be benefited by its administration. [EU] Sinusitis: An inflammatory process of the mucous membranes of the paranasal sinuses that occurs in three stages: acute, subacute, and chronic. Sinusitis results from any condition causing ostial obstruction or from pathophysiologic changes in the mucociliary transport mechanism. [NIH] Skeleton: The framework that supports the soft tissues of vertebrate animals and protects many of their internal organs. The skeletons of vertebrates are made of bone and/or cartilage. [NIH] Skin Care: Maintenance of the hygienic state of the skin under optimal conditions of cleanliness and comfort. Effective in skin care are proper washing, bathing, cleansing, and the use of soaps, detergents, oils, etc. In various disease states, therapeutic and protective solutions and ointments are useful. The care of the skin is particularly important in various occupations, in exposure to sunlight, in neonates, and in decubitus ulcer. [NIH] Small intestine: The part of the digestive tract that is located between the stomach and the large intestine. [NIH] Sneezing: Sudden, forceful, involuntary expulsion of air from the nose and mouth caused by irritation to the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. [NIH] Soaps: Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids. These detergent substances are obtained by boiling natural oils or fats with caustic alkali. Sodium soaps are harder and are used as topical anti-infectives and vehicles in pills and liniments; potassium soaps are soft, used as vehicles for ointments and also as topical antimicrobials. [NIH] Sodium: An element that is a member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23. With a valence of 1, it has a strong affinity for oxygen and other nonmetallic elements. Sodium provides the chief cation of the extracellular body fluids. Its salts are the most widely used in medicine. (From Dorland, 27th ed) Physiologically the sodium ion plays a major role in blood pressure regulation, maintenance of fluid volume, and electrolyte balance. [NIH] Soft tissue: Refers to muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissue of
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the body. [NIH] Solvent: 1. Dissolving; effecting a solution. 2. A liquid that dissolves or that is capable of dissolving; the component of a solution that is present in greater amount. [EU] Spasmodic: Of the nature of a spasm. [EU] Specialist: In medicine, one who concentrates on 1 special branch of medical science. [NIH] Species: A taxonomic category subordinate to a genus (or subgenus) and superior to a subspecies or variety, composed of individuals possessing common characters distinguishing them from other categories of individuals of the same taxonomic level. In taxonomic nomenclature, species are designated by the genus name followed by a Latin or Latinized adjective or noun. [EU] Specificity: Degree of selectivity shown by an antibody with respect to the number and types of antigens with which the antibody combines, as well as with respect to the rates and the extents of these reactions. [NIH] Spectrum: A charted band of wavelengths of electromagnetic vibrations obtained by refraction and diffraction. By extension, a measurable range of activity, such as the range of bacteria affected by an antibiotic (antibacterial s.) or the complete range of manifestations of a disease. [EU] Splenomegaly: Enlargement of the spleen. [NIH] Staphylococcal Skin Infections: Infections to the skin caused by bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus. [NIH] Staphylococcus: A genus of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, coccoid bacteria. Its organisms occur singly, in pairs, and in tetrads and characteristically divide in more than one plane to form irregular clusters. Natural populations of Staphylococcus are membranes of warm-blooded animals. Some species are opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals. [NIH] Staphylococcus aureus: Potentially pathogenic bacteria found in nasal membranes, skin, hair follicles, and perineum of warm-blooded animals. They may cause a wide range of infections and intoxications. [NIH] Stimulus: That which can elicit or evoke action (response) in a muscle, nerve, gland or other excitable issue, or cause an augmenting action upon any function or metabolic process. [NIH] Stomach: An organ of digestion situated in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen between the termination of the esophagus and the beginning of the duodenum. [NIH] Streptococcal: Caused by infection due to any species of streptococcus. [NIH] Streptococci: A genus of spherical Gram-positive bacteria occurring in chains or pairs. They are widely distributed in nature, being important pathogens but often found as normal commensals in the mouth, skin, and intestine of humans and other animals. [NIH] Streptococcus: A genus of gram-positive, coccoid bacteria whose organisms occur in pairs or chains. No endospores are produced. Many species exist as commensals or parasites on man or animals with some being highly pathogenic. A few species are saprophytes and occur in the natural environment. [NIH] Stress: Forcibly exerted influence; pressure. Any condition or situation that causes strain or tension. Stress may be either physical or psychologic, or both. [NIH] Subacute: Somewhat acute; between acute and chronic. [EU] Subclinical: Without clinical manifestations; said of the early stage(s) of an infection or other disease or abnormality before symptoms and signs become apparent or detectable by clinical examination or laboratory tests, or of a very mild form of an infection or other
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disease or abnormality. [EU] Subcutaneous: Beneath the skin. [NIH] Subspecies: A category intermediate in rank between species and variety, based on a smaller number of correlated characters than are used to differentiate species and generally conditioned by geographical and/or ecological occurrence. [NIH] Substance P: An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of pain, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses. [NIH]
Suction: The removal of secretions, gas or fluid from hollow or tubular organs or cavities by means of a tube and a device that acts on negative pressure. [NIH] Sulfisoxazole: One of the antibacterial sulfonamides generally used for treatment of infections. It is bacteriostatic against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms, but acquired resistance is common. [NIH] Sulfonic Acids: Inorganic or organic oxy acids of sulfur which contain the RSO2(OH) radical. [NIH] Sulfur: An element that is a member of the chalcogen family. It has an atomic symbol S, atomic number 16, and atomic weight 32.066. It is found in the amino acids cysteine and methionine. [NIH] Sulfuric acid: A strong acid that, when concentrated is extemely corrosive to the skin and mucous membranes. It is used in making fertilizers, dyes, electroplating, and industrial explosives. [NIH] Superinfection: A frequent complication of drug therapy for microbial infection. It may result from opportunistic colonization following immunosuppression by the primary pathogen and can be influenced by the time interval between infections, microbial physiology, or host resistance. Experimental challenge and in vitro models are sometimes used in virulence and infectivity studies. [NIH] Suppositories: A small cone-shaped medicament having cocoa butter or gelatin at its basis and usually intended for the treatment of local conditions in the rectum. [NIH] Suppression: A conscious exclusion of disapproved desire contrary with repression, in which the process of exclusion is not conscious. [NIH] Suppurative: Consisting of, containing, associated with, or identified by the formation of pus. [NIH] Suspensions: Colloids with liquid continuous phase and solid dispersed phase; the term is used loosely also for solid-in-gas (aerosol) and other colloidal systems; water-insoluble drugs may be given as suspensions. [NIH] Synovial: Of pertaining to, or secreting synovia. [EU] Synovial Fluid: The clear, viscous fluid secreted by the synovial membrane. It contains mucin, albumin, fat, and mineral salts and serves to lubricate joints. [NIH] Synovial Membrane: The inner membrane of a joint capsule surrounding a freely movable joint. It is loosely attached to the external fibrous capsule and secretes synovial fluid. [NIH] Systemic: Affecting the entire body. [NIH] Teichoic Acids: Bacterial polysaccharides that are rich in phosphodiester linkages. They are the major components of the cell walls and membranes of many bacteria. [NIH] Teratogenic: Tending to produce anomalies of formation, or teratism (= anomaly of formation or development : condition of a monster). [EU]
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Tetracycline: An antibiotic originally produced by Streptomyces viridifaciens, but used mostly in synthetic form. It is an inhibitor of aminoacyl-tRNA binding during protein synthesis. [NIH] Therapeutics: The branch of medicine which is concerned with the treatment of diseases, palliative or curative. [NIH] Threonine: An essential amino acid occurring naturally in the L-form, which is the active form. It is found in eggs, milk, gelatin, and other proteins. [NIH] Thrombosis: The formation or presence of a blood clot inside a blood vessel. [NIH] Thyroid: A gland located near the windpipe (trachea) that produces thyroid hormone, which helps regulate growth and metabolism. [NIH] Thyroxine: An amino acid of the thyroid gland which exerts a stimulating effect on thyroid metabolism. [NIH] Ticks: Blood-sucking arachnids of the order Acarina. [NIH] Tinnitus: Sounds that are perceived in the absence of any external noise source which may take the form of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of cochlear diseases; vestibulocochlear nerve diseases; intracranial hypertension; craniocerebral trauma; and other conditions. [NIH] Tissue: A group or layer of cells that are alike in type and work together to perform a specific function. [NIH] Topical: On the surface of the body. [NIH] Toxic: Having to do with poison or something harmful to the body. Toxic substances usually cause unwanted side effects. [NIH] Toxicity: The quality of being poisonous, especially the degree of virulence of a toxic microbe or of a poison. [EU] Toxicology: The science concerned with the detection, chemical composition, and pharmacologic action of toxic substances or poisons and the treatment and prevention of toxic manifestations. [NIH] Toxins: Specific, characterizable, poisonous chemicals, often proteins, with specific biological properties, including immunogenicity, produced by microbes, higher plants, or animals. [NIH] Toxoplasmosis: The acquired form of infection by Toxoplasma gondii in animals and man. [NIH]
Trace element: Substance or element essential to plant or animal life, but present in extremely small amounts. [NIH] Transduction: The transfer of genes from one cell to another by means of a viral (in the case of bacteria, a bacteriophage) vector or a vector which is similar to a virus particle (pseudovirion). [NIH] Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA into cells, usually eukaryotic. It is analogous to bacterial transformation. [NIH] Translation: The process whereby the genetic information present in the linear sequence of ribonucleotides in mRNA is converted into a corresponding sequence of amino acids in a protein. It occurs on the ribosome and is unidirectional. [NIH] Translocation: The movement of material in solution inside the body of the plant. [NIH]
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Trauma: Any injury, wound, or shock, must frequently physical or structural shock, producing a disturbance. [NIH] Tretinoin: An important regulator of gene expression, particularly during growth and development and in neoplasms. Retinoic acid derived from maternal vitamin A is essential for normal gene expression during embryonic development and either a deficiency or an excess can be teratogenic. It is also a topical dermatologic agent which is used in the treatment of psoriasis, acne vulgaris, and several other skin diseases. It has also been approved for use in promyelocytic leukemia. [NIH] Trichomoniasis: An infection with the protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. [NIH] Trifluoroacetic Acid: A very strong halogenated derivative of acetic acid. It is used in acid catalyzed reactions, especially those where an ester is cleaved in peptide synthesis. [NIH] Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole: An antibiotic drug used to treat infection and prevent pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. [NIH] Tubercle: A rounded elevation on a bone or other structure. [NIH] Tuberculosis: Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of Mycobacterium. [NIH] Ulcer: A localized necrotic lesion of the skin or a mucous surface. [NIH] Unconscious: Experience which was once conscious, but was subsequently rejected, as the "personal unconscious". [NIH] Urea: A compound (CO(NH2)2), formed in the liver from ammonia produced by the deamination of amino acids. It is the principal end product of protein catabolism and constitutes about one half of the total urinary solids. [NIH] Uremia: The illness associated with the buildup of urea in the blood because the kidneys are not working effectively. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, weakness, and mental confusion. [NIH] Ureters: Tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. [NIH] Urethra: The tube through which urine leaves the body. It empties urine from the bladder. [NIH]
Urethritis: Inflammation of the urethra. [EU] Uricosuric: 1. Pertaining to, characterized by, or promoting uricosuria (= the excretion of uric acid in the urine). 2. An agent that promotes uricosuria. [EU] Urinary: Having to do with urine or the organs of the body that produce and get rid of urine. [NIH] Urinary tract: The organs of the body that produce and discharge urine. These include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. [NIH] Urinary tract infection: An illness caused by harmful bacteria growing in the urinary tract. [NIH]
Urine: Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra. [NIH] Urticaria: A vascular reaction of the skin characterized by erythema and wheal formation due to localized increase of vascular permeability. The causative mechanism may be allergy, infection, or stress. [NIH] Vaccination: Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis. [NIH] Vaccine: A substance or group of substances meant to cause the immune system to respond
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to a tumor or to microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses. [NIH] Vagina: The muscular canal extending from the uterus to the exterior of the body. Also called the birth canal. [NIH] Vaginal: Of or having to do with the vagina, the birth canal. [NIH] Vancomycin: Antibacterial obtained from Streptomyces orientalis. It is a glycopeptide related to ristocetin that inhibits bacterial cell wall assembly and is toxic to kidneys and the inner ear. [NIH] Vascular: Pertaining to blood vessels or indicative of a copious blood supply. [EU] VE: The total volume of gas either inspired or expired in one minute. [NIH] Vector: Plasmid or other self-replicating DNA molecule that transfers DNA between cells in nature or in recombinant DNA technology. [NIH] Vein: Vessel-carrying blood from various parts of the body to the heart. [NIH] Venous: Of or pertaining to the veins. [EU] Vertigo: An illusion of movement; a sensation as if the external world were revolving around the patient (objective vertigo) or as if he himself were revolving in space (subjective vertigo). The term is sometimes erroneously used to mean any form of dizziness. [EU] Veterinary Medicine: The medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases in animals. [NIH] Viral: Pertaining to, caused by, or of the nature of virus. [EU] Virulence: The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. [NIH] Virus: Submicroscopic organism that causes infectious disease. In cancer therapy, some viruses may be made into vaccines that help the body build an immune response to, and kill, tumor cells. [NIH] Viscosity: A physical property of fluids that determines the internal resistance to shear forces. [EU] Vitro: Descriptive of an event or enzyme reaction under experimental investigation occurring outside a living organism. Parts of an organism or microorganism are used together with artificial substrates and/or conditions. [NIH] Vivo: Outside of or removed from the body of a living organism. [NIH] Vulgaris: An affection of the skin, especially of the face, the back and the chest, due to chronic inflammation of the sebaceous glands and the hair follicles. [NIH] White blood cell: A type of cell in the immune system that helps the body fight infection and disease. White blood cells include lymphocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, and others. [NIH]
Whooping Cough: A respiratory infection caused by Bordetella pertussis and characterized by paroxysmal coughing ending in a prolonged crowing intake of breath. [NIH] Whooping Cough: A respiratory infection caused by Bordetella pertussis and characterized by paroxysmal coughing ending in a prolonged crowing intake of breath. [NIH] Wound Healing: Restoration of integrity to traumatized tissue. [NIH] Wound Infection: Invasion of the site of trauma by pathogenic microorganisms. [NIH]
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INDEX A Abdominal, 5, 31, 75, 91, 113, 114 Abdominal Pain, 5, 75, 91, 114 Abscess, 91, 104 Acantholysis, 91, 113 Acceptor, 48, 91, 113 Acetone, 56, 91, 109 Acne, 5, 76, 91, 95, 123 Acne Vulgaris, 5, 76, 91, 123 Acremonium, 91, 98 Acute renal, 91, 106 Acyl, 91, 103 Acylation, 48, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 91 Adenosine, 91, 114 Adipocytes, 91, 109 Adjustment, 56, 91 Adjuvant, 59, 91, 104 Adverse Effect, 91, 101, 119 Aerobic, 23, 91, 107 Aerosol, 4, 58, 74, 91, 121 Afferent, 92, 109 Affinity, 92, 119 Agar, 17, 33, 92, 100, 107, 115 Albumin, 92, 121 Algorithms, 92, 95 Alimentary, 92, 113 Allylamine, 92, 93 Alternative medicine, 64, 92 Aluminum, 26, 36, 92 Amber, 92, 107 Amebiasis, 92, 110 Amine, 46, 50, 54, 92, 106 Amino Acids, 93, 96, 103, 113, 116, 121, 122, 123 Amlodipine, 4, 74, 93 Ammonia, 92, 93, 123 Amoxicillin, 3, 4, 5, 18, 19, 22, 26, 29, 31, 36, 44, 57, 74, 76, 93 Ampicillin, 5, 11, 14, 19, 22, 26, 31, 51, 56, 57, 75, 93 Ampulla, 93, 102 Anaemia, 17, 93 Anaerobic, 93, 102, 106, 107, 120 Anaesthesia, 93, 108 Analgesic, 93, 98, 106 Analog, 93, 97, 98 Anaphylaxis, 41, 93 Angina, 93
Angina Pectoris, 93 Anhydrides, 56, 93 Anionic, 6, 93 Anions, 92, 93, 108, 116 Anthrax, 58, 93 Antibodies, 94, 107 Antibody, 32, 92, 94, 99, 107, 108, 120 Antidepressant, 94, 104 Antifungal, 94, 105 Antigen, 92, 93, 94, 99, 107, 108 Anti-infective, 59, 94, 98, 112, 119 Antimicrobial, 5, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 29, 30, 40, 41, 59, 75, 76, 94, 97, 98, 101, 111 Antiseptic, 91, 94 Antiviral, 94, 105, 113 Approximate, 56, 94 Aqueous, 48, 49, 54, 56, 94, 95, 102 Aromatic, 94, 96 Arterial, 92, 94, 107, 116 Arteries, 94, 96, 100, 110 Assay, 9, 24, 25, 94, 118 Atypical, 94, 108 Azithromycin, 4, 12, 22, 74, 94 Aztreonam, 33, 94 B Bacillus, 58, 93, 95, 96 Bacterial Infections, 19, 45, 80, 95 Bactericidal, 4, 12, 30, 74, 95, 103, 112 Bacteriophage, 95, 115, 122 Bacteriostatic, 95, 103, 121 Bacterium, 95, 106 Bacteriuria, 12, 15, 19, 26, 29, 95 Base, 46, 48, 55, 95, 101, 109 Benzoyl Peroxide, 5, 76, 95 Beta-Lactamases, 94, 95, 97, 107 Biliary, 95, 97 Biliary Tract, 95, 97 Binding agent, 44, 95 Bioavailability, 12, 23, 24, 26, 36, 39, 59, 95 Biological Transport, 95, 101 Biopsy, 7, 11, 95, 103 Biotechnology, 7, 8, 39, 61, 64, 73, 95 Bladder, 29, 94, 95, 100, 116, 123 Blister, 96, 113 Blood pressure, 96, 107, 119 Blood vessel, 96, 97, 106, 119, 122, 124 Body Fluids, 45, 96, 119
126 Cephalexin
Bolus, 6, 96 Bolus infusion, 96 Boron, 53, 96 Boron Neutron Capture Therapy, 96 Branch, 87, 96, 110, 113, 120, 122 Broad-spectrum, 93, 96, 97, 98, 102, 112 Bronchi, 96 Bronchiseptica, 96, 114 Bronchitis, 19, 29, 32, 96 Burns, 95, 96 C Calcium, 93, 96, 99 Calcium channel blocker, 93, 96 Capsules, 23, 45, 96, 101, 104 Carbon Dioxide, 55, 96, 118 Carboxy, 55, 96 Carboxylic Acids, 53, 55, 96 Carcinogen, 96, 110 Carcinoma, 40, 97 Cardiovascular, 97, 115, 119 Catheters, 26, 97 Cefaclor, 13, 18, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 47, 49, 50, 57, 58, 59, 97 Cefadroxil, 5, 9, 12, 13, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24, 26, 29, 49, 55, 57, 76, 97 Cefamandole, 23, 58, 97 Cefatrizine, 13, 55, 97 Cefazolin, 13, 30, 55, 58, 97 Cefixime, 26, 29, 32, 97 Cefotaxime, 22, 30, 97 Cefotiam, 22, 97 Cefoxitin, 5, 75, 97 Cefsulodin, 22, 97 Cefuroxime, 12, 18, 22, 58, 97 Cell Division, 95, 97, 115, 118 Cellobiose, 97 Cellulitis, 26, 97 Cellulose, 50, 97, 104, 110, 115 Central Nervous System, 97, 115, 119 Cephaloglycin, 24, 56, 97 Cephaloridine, 97 Cephalosporins, 4, 26, 28, 31, 41, 42, 45, 46, 48, 55, 68, 74, 95, 98 Cephalothin, 18, 32, 58, 97, 98 Cephapirin, 10, 98 Cephradine, 10, 11, 12, 13, 18, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 44, 48, 51, 98 Character, 93, 98, 117 Chemotherapy, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 29, 30, 40, 41, 45, 59, 98 Chlorhexidine, 28, 37, 41, 98 Chloroform, 56, 98
Chromosomal, 98, 115 Chronic, 15, 19, 26, 29, 32, 91, 92, 98, 108, 110, 113, 117, 119, 120, 124 Chronic prostatitis, 32, 98 Cilastatin, 98, 107 Cimetidine, 98, 115 Cinoxacin, 4, 58, 75, 98 Ciprofloxacin, 5, 75, 76, 98 Clavulanic Acid, 18, 19, 26, 36, 98 Clindamycin, 4, 5, 11, 23, 32, 74, 75, 98 Clinical trial, 6, 73, 98, 100, 117 Cloning, 7, 95, 98 Codeine, 98, 106 Cofactor, 99, 116 Colitis, 5, 75, 99 Collagen, 99, 104 Collapse, 93, 99 Colloidal, 92, 99, 121 Complement, 99, 104 Complementary and alternative medicine, 39, 42, 99 Complementary medicine, 39, 99 Computational Biology, 73, 99 Conjugated, 4, 74, 100 Connective Tissue, 97, 99, 100, 103, 104 Constipation, 100, 114 Contamination, 48, 100 Contraindications, ii, 100 Controlled study, 21, 31, 100 Coronary, 93, 100, 110 Coronary Thrombosis, 100, 110 Cortex, 100, 112 Co-trimoxazole, 18, 19, 26, 100 Cryptosporidiosis, 94, 100 Culture Media, 92, 100 Curative, 100, 122 Cutaneous, 16, 94, 100 Cysteine, 100, 121 Cystitis, 5, 15, 75, 100 D Databases, Bibliographic, 73, 100 Deamination, 100, 123 Decubitus, 100, 119 Decubitus Ulcer, 100, 119 Density, 101, 109, 115 Dermal, 11, 101 Dermatitis, 21, 101 Detergents, 101, 119 Diagnostic procedure, 43, 64, 101 Dialysate, 29, 101 Diarrhea, 4, 75, 92, 100, 101 Diffusion, 50, 95, 101, 107
Index 127
Digestive tract, 101, 119 Dipeptides, 28, 37, 101 Direct, iii, 22, 44, 67, 101, 105, 118 Disinfectant, 98, 101, 103 Dithionite, 47, 101 Dosage Forms, 50, 101 Dosage schedule, 23, 101 Doxycycline, 19, 26, 32, 36, 101 Drug Interactions, 68, 101 Drug Toxicity, 9, 101 Duodenal Ulcer, 101, 115 Duodenum, 101, 102, 108, 120 Dyes, 101, 121 E Eczema, 8, 36, 101 Efficacy, 7, 8, 19, 21, 23, 30, 36, 58, 102, 107 Electrolyte, 102, 115, 119 Electrons, 95, 102, 108, 113, 117 Electroplating, 102, 121 Embryo, 102, 108 Emulsions, 92, 102 Enalapril, 4, 74, 102 Endocrinology, 102, 105 Endoscope, 102 Endoscopic, 4, 75, 102 Energy balance, 102, 109 Enoxacin, 19, 102 Enterobacteriaceae, 8, 102 Environmental Health, 72, 74, 102 Enzymatic, 36, 48, 51, 54, 57, 96, 99, 102, 103, 106 Enzyme, 7, 47, 48, 51, 102, 103, 105, 109, 113, 124 Epidermal, 16, 32, 102 Epidermis, 91, 96, 102, 113, 117 Epithelial, 21, 28, 37, 95, 102 Erythrocytes, 93, 102, 118 Erythromycin, 3, 5, 23, 26, 58, 74, 76, 94, 103 Esophagus, 101, 103, 118, 120 Esterification, 46, 47, 52, 55, 103 Estrogen, 4, 74, 103 Ethanol, 45, 103 Ether, 56, 103 Excisional, 28, 37, 103 Exfoliation, 103, 111 Exogenous, 101, 103 Extracellular, 100, 103, 119 Extraction, 56, 103 F Faecal, 23, 103 Family Planning, 73, 103
Fat, 91, 100, 103, 109, 118, 119, 121 Fatty acids, 92, 96, 103, 119 Feces, 100, 103 Fermentation, 52, 103 Fertilizers, 103, 121 Fibrin, 103, 114 Fibrosis, 9, 10, 16, 92, 103 Filtration, 6, 103 Fistulas, 40, 104 Fluoxetine, 4, 74, 104 Fold, 59, 104 Food Technology, 104, 110 Fosfomycin, 9, 30, 104 Fungi, 94, 104, 110, 111 Fungus, 98, 104 G Gallate, 40, 104 Gallbladder, 91, 95, 104 Gas, 93, 96, 101, 104, 107, 112, 121, 124 Gastric, 93, 98, 101, 104, 106, 115, 117 Gastric Acid, 93, 98, 104 Gastritis, 12, 104 Gastrointestinal, 6, 98, 103, 104, 112, 115, 117, 119, 121 Gastrointestinal tract, 103, 104, 119 Gelatin, 50, 100, 104, 105, 121, 122 Gene, 7, 61, 95, 104, 118, 123 Gene Expression, 104, 123 Genetic Engineering, 95, 98, 104 Genetics, 7, 104 Genital, 98, 104, 105 Geriatric, 17, 104 Giardiasis, 105, 110 Gland, 105, 113, 116, 118, 120, 122 Glandular fever, 33, 105 Glomerular, 105, 118 Glottis, 105, 114 Glucose, 97, 105, 106, 117 Glycine, 53, 55, 105 Gonorrhea, 97, 105 Governing Board, 105, 115 Gp120, 105, 113 Gram-negative, 4, 23, 59, 75, 94, 96, 97, 98, 102, 105, 106, 107, 111, 112 Gram-Negative Bacteria, 59, 105, 111 Gram-positive, 41, 94, 97, 98, 102, 105, 107, 111, 112, 120, 121 Gram-Positive Bacteria, 102, 105, 112 Granuloma, 14, 105 Growth, 94, 95, 100, 103, 105, 112, 115, 118, 122, 123 Guanidines, 54, 105
128 Cephalexin
Gynecology, 5, 75, 105 Gyrase, 105, 112 H Haemophilus, 26, 97, 106, 110 Hair follicles, 106, 120, 124 Half-Life, 60, 106 Heart failure, 106, 109 Hemodialysis, 101, 106 Hemoglobin, 103, 106, 109 Hemolytic, 14, 106, 107 Hepatitis, 106, 108 Hepatomegaly, 106, 108 Heredity, 91, 104, 106 Histamine, 98, 106, 117 Homogeneous, 54, 106, 114 Hormone, 106, 109, 122 Hospital Records, 4, 75, 106 Host, 95, 106, 121, 123, 124 Hydrochloric Acid, 54, 106 Hydrocodone, 4, 74, 106 Hydrogen, 91, 92, 95, 106, 107, 111, 113 Hydrolysis, 7, 49, 50, 51, 95, 97, 107, 113 Hydrophilic, 49, 50, 59, 101, 107 Hygienic, 107, 119 Hypersensitivity, 93, 107 Hypertension, 93, 102, 107, 109, 122 I Id, 38, 41, 80, 86, 88, 107 Ileum, 107, 108 Imidazole, 106, 107, 117 Imipenem, 5, 75, 98, 107 Immune response, 91, 94, 107, 121, 123, 124 Immunodiffusion, 92, 107 Immunoelectrophoresis, 92, 107 Immunology, 91, 92, 107 Impairment, 107, 116 Impetigo, 20, 26, 36, 41, 107 In vitro, 11, 12, 18, 31, 40, 41, 107, 118, 121 In vivo, 7, 36, 37, 40, 41, 45, 107 Incubation, 107, 114 Incubation period, 107, 114 Induction, 4, 75, 107 Infarction, 100, 108, 110 Infectious Mononucleosis, 16, 108 Ingestion, 24, 93, 108, 115 Inhalation, 91, 108, 110, 115 Inner ear, 108, 124 Inorganic, 57, 108, 110, 114, 121 Intermittent, 108, 114 Interstitial, 108, 118 Intestinal, 7, 13, 21, 33, 36, 37, 100, 108
Intestine, 108, 109, 120 Intracellular, 108, 115 Intramuscular, 13, 36, 39, 108, 113 Intravenous, 12, 108, 113 Ions, 95, 102, 107, 108 Isoelectric, 48, 49, 53, 108 Isoelectric Point, 48, 49, 108 J Jejunum, 37, 108 Joint, 16, 98, 108, 121 K Kb, 72, 109 Ketone Bodies, 91, 109 Kinetics, 10, 13, 36, 39, 109 L Large Intestine, 101, 108, 109, 119 Lavage, 40, 109 Laxative, 92, 109, 110 Leisure Activities, 5, 76, 109 Leptin, 28, 37, 109 Lesion, 105, 109, 123 Lethal, 95, 109 Leucine, 36, 109 Levothyroxine, 4, 74, 109 Library Services, 86, 109 Lincomycin, 98, 109 Lipopolysaccharide, 105, 109 Lipoprotein, 105, 109 Lisinopril, 4, 74, 109 Liver, 91, 92, 95, 103, 104, 106, 109, 123 Localized, 108, 109, 112, 115, 123 Lymph, 108, 109, 110 Lymphadenopathy, 108, 109 Lymphatic, 108, 109, 110 M Magnesium Hydroxide, 26, 36, 110 Maxillary, 15, 110, 113 Maxillary Sinus, 15, 110 Maxillary Sinusitis, 15, 110 Meatus, 110 Mediate, 110, 117 Medical Records, 106, 110 MEDLINE, 73, 110 Membrane, 6, 13, 32, 36, 99, 105, 110, 111, 112, 121 Meninges, 94, 97, 110 Menopause, 110, 116 Metabolite, 25, 110, 116 Methionine, 110, 121 Methylcellulose, 50, 110 Methylene Chloride, 51, 54, 110 Metronidazole, 4, 5, 74, 75, 110
Index 129
MI, 9, 22, 32, 56, 89, 110 Microbe, 110, 122 Microbiological, 21, 110 Microbiology, 17, 22, 23, 24, 31, 33, 94, 95, 110 Microorganism, 47, 99, 110, 124 Minocycline, 32, 111 Mitochondrial Swelling, 111 Modification, 54, 104, 111 Molecular, 7, 44, 73, 77, 92, 93, 95, 100, 111 Molecule, 47, 48, 91, 93, 94, 95, 99, 105, 107, 111, 113, 115, 117, 124 Mononuclear, 105, 108, 111 Monotherapy, 5, 76, 111 Motility, 111, 115, 119 Motion Sickness, 111 Mucins, 111, 118 Mucociliary, 111, 119 Mupirocin, 8, 20, 27, 28, 36, 37, 111 Myocardium, 93, 110, 111 N Nalidixic Acid, 4, 8, 75, 98, 111 Narcotic, 106, 110, 111 Nausea, 5, 75, 101, 111, 123 Necrolysis, 16, 32, 111 Necrosis, 11, 108, 110, 111 Need, 3, 4, 45, 60, 61, 74, 81, 91, 111 Neoplasms, 96, 112, 123 Nitrofurantoin, 4, 5, 31, 75, 76, 112 Nitrogen, 46, 52, 92, 112 Norfloxacin, 5, 76, 112 Nuclear, 102, 111, 112 Nucleic acid, 112 Nucleus, 51, 53, 55, 57, 111, 112 O Obstetrics, 4, 12, 75, 112 Ocular, 112, 115 Ofloxacin, 5, 27, 76, 112 Ointments, 101, 112, 119 Osmosis, 112 Osmotic, 45, 92, 111, 112 Osteomyelitis, 15, 112 Otitis, 14, 19, 27, 112 Otitis Media, 14, 19, 27, 112 Outpatient, 23, 26, 112 Overdose, 22, 112 Oxidation, 91, 113 P Paediatric, 21, 24, 113 Palliative, 113, 122 Pancreas, 91, 113 Paranasal Sinuses, 110, 113, 119
Parenteral, 14, 113 Paroxetine, 4, 74, 113 Paroxysmal, 93, 113, 114, 124 Particle, 57, 113, 122 Parturition, 112, 113 Pathologic, 95, 100, 107, 113, 117 Pathophysiology, 5, 75, 113 Patient Compliance, 50, 113 Pemphigus, 17, 91, 113 Penicillin, 3, 14, 26, 44, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 57, 74, 93, 113 Penicillin Amidase, 57, 113 Peptide, 7, 20, 40, 109, 113, 116, 123 Peptide T, 7, 20, 113 Perinatal, 97, 113 Perioperative, 23, 114 Peritoneal, 13, 29, 101, 114 Peritoneal Cavity, 114 Peritoneal Dialysis, 13, 29, 101, 114 Peritoneum, 114 Peritonitis, 15, 32, 114 Peroxide, 5, 48, 76, 95, 114 Pertussis, 17, 114, 124 Pharmaceutical Preparations, 97, 103, 104, 114 Pharmaceutical Solutions, 101, 114 Pharmacokinetic, 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 28, 114 Pharmacologic, 9, 106, 114, 122 Pharyngitis, 19, 31, 114 Phenyl, 46, 52, 53, 55, 114 Phosphates, 46, 114 Phosphorus, 46, 96, 114 Physiologic, 106, 115, 117 Physiology, 102, 105, 115, 121 Pilot study, 33, 115 Pirenzepine, 26, 36, 115 Plants, 96, 105, 115, 122 Plaque, 98, 115 Plasma, 6, 7, 11, 22, 25, 59, 92, 94, 98, 104, 106, 112, 115 Plasmid, 6, 115, 124 Poisoning, 101, 111, 115 Polyethylene, 50, 115 Polymers, 50, 59, 115, 116 Polysaccharide, 94, 97, 115 Postoperative, 23, 24, 115 Potassium, 4, 44, 47, 52, 53, 54, 56, 74, 115, 119 Potentiates, 115 Practice Guidelines, 77, 115 Precipitation, 49, 53, 54, 116 Precursor, 102, 116
130 Cephalexin
Premenopausal, 4, 23, 75, 116 Probenecid, 59, 116 Prodrug, 7, 116 Progressive, 105, 111, 116, 118 Promyelocytic leukemia, 116, 123 Prone, 5, 76, 116 Prophylaxis, 4, 23, 24, 75, 112, 116, 123 Prospective study, 40, 116 Prostate, 98, 116 Prostate gland, 98, 116 Prostatitis, 32, 116 Protein C, 92, 95, 109, 116, 123 Protein S, 61, 95, 103, 116, 122 Proteins, 93, 94, 99, 103, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 117, 119, 122 Protozoa, 110, 111, 116 Protozoal, 100, 116 Pruritic, 101, 117 Pseudomembranous Colitis, 4, 75, 117 Psoriasis, 117, 123 Public Policy, 73, 117 Publishing, 5, 7, 75, 117 Puerperium, 112, 117 Purulent, 91, 117 Pustular, 25, 91, 107, 117 Pyoderma, 18, 40, 117 Pyogenic, 112, 117 R Radiation, 93, 110, 117 Radicular, 14, 117 Radioactive, 106, 107, 112, 117 Randomized, 9, 10, 29, 102, 117 Ranitidine, 26, 36, 115, 117 Reabsorption, 116, 117 Reaction Time, 56, 117 Reagent, 106, 117 Receptor, 94, 105, 113, 117, 119 Recurrence, 5, 75, 115, 117 Red blood cells, 102, 106, 118 Refer, 1, 99, 104, 118 Reflux, 51, 118 Refraction, 118, 120 Regimen, 5, 9, 30, 50, 59, 76, 102, 113, 118 Remission, 117, 118 Renal failure, 27, 37, 118 Renal tubular, 116, 118 Respiration, 96, 118 Retinoid, 5, 76, 118 Risk factor, 116, 118 Ristocetin, 118, 124 Rod, 95, 102, 106, 118
S Saccharin, 51, 118 Salicylic, 5, 76, 118 Saliva, 25, 118 Salivary, 115, 118 Salivary glands, 118 Screening, 98, 118 Sebaceous, 118, 124 Sebum, 91, 118 Secretion, 6, 91, 98, 106, 111, 115, 117, 118 Segregation, 95, 118 Semisynthetic, 51, 93, 97, 98, 107, 111, 119 Sepsis, 24, 119 Sequence Homology, 113, 119 Serotonin, 104, 113, 119 Serum, 13, 14, 16, 21, 25, 26, 29, 30, 92, 93, 97, 99, 114, 119 Shock, 93, 119, 123 Side effect, 67, 91, 119, 122 Sinusitis, 21, 119 Skeleton, 108, 119 Skin Care, 5, 76, 119 Small intestine, 28, 37, 101, 105, 106, 107, 108, 119 Sneezing, 114, 119 Soaps, 119 Sodium, 47, 56, 59, 117, 119 Soft tissue, 9, 19, 27, 119 Solvent, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 91, 98, 103, 110, 112, 114, 120 Spasmodic, 114, 120 Specialist, 81, 120 Species, 47, 92, 95, 101, 102, 106, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124 Specificity, 7, 92, 120 Spectrum, 45, 54, 56, 97, 107, 112, 120 Splenomegaly, 108, 120 Staphylococcal Skin Infections, 11, 33, 120 Staphylococcus, 22, 40, 107, 110, 111, 120 Staphylococcus aureus, 22, 40, 107, 110, 120 Stimulus, 117, 120 Stomach, 91, 101, 103, 104, 106, 109, 111, 114, 118, 119, 120 Streptococcal, 14, 19, 31, 109, 120 Streptococci, 4, 74, 107, 111, 120 Streptococcus, 31, 47, 110, 120 Stress, 4, 75, 111, 120, 123 Subacute, 108, 119, 120 Subclinical, 108, 120 Subcutaneous, 91, 97, 113, 121 Subspecies, 120, 121
Index 131
Substance P, 103, 110, 118, 121 Suction, 103, 121 Sulfisoxazole, 30, 121 Sulfonic Acids, 46, 121 Sulfur, 5, 76, 110, 121 Sulfuric acid, 57, 121 Superinfection, 94, 121 Suppositories, 104, 121 Suppression, 112, 121 Suppurative, 97, 121 Suspensions, 22, 121 Synovial, 16, 121 Synovial Fluid, 16, 121 Synovial Membrane, 121 Systemic, 7, 9, 68, 93, 96, 102, 108, 121 T Teichoic Acids, 105, 121 Teratogenic, 121, 123 Tetracycline, 5, 36, 76, 101, 111, 122 Therapeutics, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18, 21, 25, 27, 39, 68, 122 Threonine, 113, 122 Thrombosis, 116, 122 Thyroid, 109, 122 Thyroxine, 92, 109, 122 Ticks, 105, 122 Tinnitus, 112, 122 Topical, 5, 20, 28, 36, 37, 76, 98, 103, 119, 122, 123 Toxic, iv, 16, 32, 48, 122, 124 Toxicity, 45, 57, 59, 101, 118, 122 Toxicology, 74, 122 Toxins, 94, 108, 122 Toxoplasmosis, 94, 122 Trace element, 96, 122 Transduction, 6, 122 Transfection, 95, 122 Translation, 103, 122 Translocation, 103, 122 Trauma, 111, 122, 123, 124 Tretinoin, 5, 76, 123 Trichomoniasis, 110, 123 Trifluoroacetic Acid, 46, 53, 123
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, 9, 29, 123 Tubercle, 105, 123 Tuberculosis, 118, 123 U Ulcer, 97, 100, 101, 115, 123 Unconscious, 107, 123 Urea, 46, 123 Uremia, 118, 123 Ureters, 123 Urethra, 116, 123 Urethritis, 29, 123 Uricosuric, 116, 123 Urinary tract, 4, 5, 10, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 75, 95, 98, 102, 111, 112, 123 Urine, 6, 10, 21, 22, 24, 25, 95, 97, 109, 112, 123 Urticaria, 93, 123 V Vaccination, 58, 123 Vaccine, 91, 123 Vagina, 124 Vaginal, 23, 124 Vancomycin, 5, 58, 75, 124 Vascular, 92, 93, 108, 123, 124 VE, 57, 124 Vector, 122, 124 Vein, 108, 112, 124 Venous, 116, 124 Vertigo, 112, 124 Veterinary Medicine, 73, 124 Viral, 7, 122, 124 Virulence, 121, 122, 124 Virus, 95, 104, 105, 108, 115, 122, 124 Viscosity, 50, 124 Vitro, 26, 124 Vivo, 7, 124 Vulgaris, 17, 91, 124 W White blood cell, 94, 108, 124 Whooping Cough, 114, 124 Wound Healing, 111, 124 Wound Infection, 28, 37, 124
132 Cephalexin
