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# /.4% 843

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\(ISTORY 

4HE2OMANSIN7ALES ,IFEIN7ALES UNLIKETHATINMOSTOF%NGLAND WASNEVERFULLY2OMANIZED THE REGIONREMAININGUNDERLEGIONARYCONTROLTHROUGHOUTITSTHREE HUNDRED YEAR OCCUPATION*ULIUS#AESARMADESMALLCROSS #HANNELINCURSIONSINAND "# KICKINGOFFALENGTHYBUTLOW LEVELINFUSIONOF2OMANIDEASWHICHlLTERED ACROSSTO7ALES4HISm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mOOR HEATING4HROUGH THREE CENTURIES OF OCCUPATION THE #ELTIC PEOPLE SUSTAINED AN INDEPENDENT EXISTENCEWHILEDRAWINGMATERIALCOMFORTFROMTHEPROXIMITYOF2OMANCITIES AND AUXILIARY FORTS %LEMENTS OF 2OMAN LIFE lLTERED INTO THE #ELTIC CULTURE AGRARIANPRACTICESIMPROVED ANEWRELIGIONWASPARTLYADOPTEDFROMTHENEWLY #HRISTIANIZED2OMANS THELANGUAGEADOPTED,ATINWORDSPONTFORhBRIDGEv FFENESTRFORhWINDOWv ANDTHEPREVAILING,A4ÒNEARTISTICSTYLETOOKONCLASSICAL 2OMANELEMENTS 4HE 2OMAN %MPIRE WAS ALREADY IN DECLINE WHEN -AGNUS -AXIMUS -ACSEN7LEDIG LEDACAMPAIGNTOWRESTCONTROLOFTHEWESTERNEMPIREFROM %MPEROR'RATIANIN!$-AXIMUSRULEWASSHORTLIVEDBUT7ALESWASEFFEC TIVELYFREEOFDIRECT2OMANCONTROLBY

4HEAGEOFTHESAINTS

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(ISTORICALORTHODOXYVIEWSTHEDEPARTUREOFLITERATE,ATINHISTORIANS SKILLED STONEMASONSANDANALL POWERFULARMY ASHERALDINGTHE$ARK!GES)NFACT ACIVICSOCIETYPROBABLYmOURISHEDUNTILACENTURYLATER WHENTHECOLLAPSEOF TRADEROUTESWASHASTENEDBYTHEDRAMATICSPREADOF)SLAMAROUNDTHE-EDITER RANEAN AND2OMANIZEDSOCIETYGAVEWAYTOANON CLASSICALBUTNOLESSSTRUC TUREDFORMOF#ELTICSOCIETY &OR THE NEXT FEW CENTURIES 4EUTONIC BARBARIAN TRIBES WERE STRUGGLING FOR SUPREMACY IN THE POST 2OMAN POWER VACUUM IN SOUTHERN AND EASTERN %NGLAND HAVINGLITTLEINmUENCEIN7ALES WHERETHEMAINDYNASTICKINGDOMSSET TOSTEER7ALESNEXTSEVENHUNDREDYEARSWERETAKINGROOT4HECONFUSIONTHAT SURROUNDSTHEEARLYYEARSOFTHESEDYNASTIESWASFURTHERMUDDIEDIN WHEN 'EOFFREYOF-ONMOUTHPUBLISHEDHIS(ISTORYOFTHE+INGSOF"RITAIN PORTRAYING +ING!RTHURASAFEUDALKINGWITHHISCOURTAT#AERLEON6ICTORIAN2OMANTICS EMBELLISHED SUBSEQUENT HISTORIES MAKING IT PRACTICALLY IMPOSSIBLE TO EXTRACT MUCHTRUTHFROMTHISPERIOD )NTHElFTHCENTURY THE)RISH'WYDDYL WHOHADALONGTRADITIONOFMIGRAT INGTOTHE,L$NANDPARTSOFMID 7ALES ATTACKEDTHECOASTANDFORMEDDISTINCT COLONIES BUT WERE SOON EXPELLED FROM THE NORTH BY #UNEDDA7LEDIG THE LEADEROFA"RYTHONICTRIBEFROMNEAR%DINBURGH WHOWENTONTOFOUNDTHE ROYALHOUSEOF'WYNEDD CONSOLIDATINGTHE"RYTHONICLANGUAGEANDOSTENSIBLY NAMING REGIONS OF HIS KINGDOM n THE MODERN #EREDIGION AND -EIRIONYDD nAFTERHISSONS)NTHESOUTHWEST THE)RISHINmUENCEWASSUSTAINEDTHEKINGDOM OF$YFEDSHOWSCLEAR)RISHORIGINS 4HESECHANGESTOOKPLACEAGAINSTABACKGROUNDOFINCREASINGRELIGIOUSENERGY "ETWEENTHElFTHANDTHESIXTHCENTURIESTHE#ELTIC3AINTS ASCETICEVANGELICAL MISSIONARIES SPREADTHEGOSPELAROUND)RELANDANDWESTERN"RITAIN PROMOTING THE MIDDLE %ASTERN EREMITICAL TRADITION OF LIVING A RECLUSIVE LIFE7HERE THEIR MESSAGETOOKROOT THEYFOUNDEDSIMPLECHURCHESWITHINACONSECRATEDENCLO SURE ORLLAN WHICHOFTENTOOKTHESAINTSNAME HENCE,LANBERIS3AINT0ERIS ,LANDEILO 3AINT4EILO AND VERY MANY OTHERS )N SOUTH7ALES 3AINT $AVID $EWI3ANT WASTHEMOSTPOPULARANDSUBSEQUENTLY7ALESPATRONSAINT DYING AROUND  AFTER A MIRACLE lLLED LIFE DURING WHICH HE MADE A PILGRIMAGE TO *ERUSALEM AND ESTABLISHED THE RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY AT 3T $AVIDS WHICH HAD BECOMEAPLACEOFPILGRIMAGEBYTHETWELFTHCENTURY

4HE7ELSHKINGDOMS 4OWARDS THE END OF THE SIXTH CENTURY THE!NGLES AND 3AXONS IN EASTERN "RITAINBEGANTOENTERTAINDESIGNSONTHEWESTERNLANDS4HEINABILITYOFTHE INDEPENDENTWESTERNPEOPLESTOUNIFYAGAINSTTHISTHREATLEFTTHEMOSTPOWERFUL KINGDOM 'WYNEDD ASTHECENTREOFCULTURALANDPOLITICALRESISTANCE APOSITION ITHASRETAINEDTOTHISDAY4HEWEAKERGROUPSWEREUNABLETOHOLDTHEINVADERS ANDAFTERTHEBATTLEAT$YRHAM NEAR'LOUCESTERIN THE"RITONSIN#ORNWALL WERESEPARATEDFROMTHOSEIN7ALES WHOBECAMESIMILARLYCUTOFFFROMTHEIR NORTHERNKININ#UMBRIAAFTERTHEBATTLEOF#HESTERIN 4HOUGHSTILLGEOGRAPHICALLYINASTATEOFCHANGE 7ALESCOULDBYNOWBESAID TOEXIST!TTHISPOINTTHERACIALMIXIN7ALESWASPROBABLYLITTLEDIFFERENTFROM



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THATTOTHEEASTWHERE3AXONNUMBERSWERESMALL BUT7ALESWASHELDTOGETHER BYTHEPEOPLESRESISTANCETOTHE3AXONS4HE7ELSHSTARTEDTOREFERTOTHEMSELVES AS#YMRYFELLOW COUNTRYMEN RATHERTHANTHE3AXONTERMh7ELSHv USEDBY %NGLISH SPEAKERSTODAYANDWHICHISGENERALLYTHOUGHTTOMEANEITHERFOREIGN ERS OR 2OMANIZED PEOPLE4HE CONSTRUCTION OF /FFAS $YKE #LAWDD /FFA nALINEAREARTHWORKBUILTINTHEMIDDLEOFTHEEIGHTHCENTURYTOMARKRATHER THANDEFENDTHEBOUNDARYBETWEEN7ALESANDTHEKINGDOMOF-ERCIAnGAVE THE7ELSHAlRMEASTERNBORDERANDALLOWEDTHEMTOCONCENTRATEONAGRADUAL UNIlCATIONOFTHEPATCHWORKOFKINGDOMSASTHEIRCOASTSWEREBEINGHARRIEDBY .ORSEAND6IKINGINVADERS 2HODRI-AWR2HODRITHE'REAT KILLEDTHE6IKINGLEADEROFF!NGLESEY EARN INGHIMSELFTHEFORMALTHANKSOFTHE&RANKISHKING#HARLESTHE"ALD#HARLE MAGNE ANDHELPEDTHECOUNTRYSRISETOWARDSSTATEHOODTHROUGHHISUNIlCATION OFMOSTOF7ALES"YTHISSTAGE %NGLANDHADDEVELOPEDINTOASINGLEPOWERFUL KINGDOMFORTHElRSTTIMESINCETHEDEPARTUREOFTHE2OMANS ANDTHOUGHTHE VARIOUSBRANCHESOF2HODRISLINEWENTONTORULEMOSTOF7ALESDOWNTOTHE LATETHIRTEENTHCENTURY THEPRINCEDOMSWEREFREQUENTLYFORCEDTOSWEARFEALTYTO THE%NGLISHKINGS$EFENSIVEPROBLEMSWEREEXACERBATEDBYINTERNECINESTRUG GLESBORNEOFTHEPRACTICEOFPARTIBLEINHERITANCETHATLEFTEACHOF2HODRISSONS WITHANEQUALPARTOF7ALESTOCONTROL 2HODRI -AWRS GRANDSON (YWEL $DA (YWEL THE 'OOD LARGELY REUNIlED THE COUNTRY FROM $EHEUBARTH HIS POWER BASE IN SOUTHWEST7ALES (E ADDED 0OWYSAND'WYNEDDTOHISDOMAIN BUTHISMOSTVALUABLELEGACYISHISCODIl CATIONANDPROMULGATIONOFTHEMEDIEVAL,AWOF7ALES#YFRAITH(YWEL$DA IN AROUND  AT MODERN DAY7HITLAND SEE P CALLED (ENDY 'WYN AR $AF hTHE7HITE(OUSEONTHE4AF v2EGIONALCUSTOMSWEREFASHIONEDINTOA SINGLELEGALSYSTEMTHATWASFORCIBLYABANDONEDUNDERTHE!CTOF5NION WITH%NGLAND THOUGHMANYELEMENTSOFITSURVIVEDINCOMMON LAWPRACTICE %LEVENHUNDREDYEARSON THELAWSARESTILLBREATHTAKINGINTHEIRMODERNITYAND COMPASSIONWOMENWEREALLOWEDTOINITIATEDIVORCEPROCEEDINGS COULDINHERIT ANDOWNPROPERTYSOMETHINGNOTINTRODUCEDINTO%NGLISHLAWUNTIL AND HADTHERIGHTTOCOMPENSATIONIFBEATENBYTHEIRHUSBANDSCHILDRENBORNOUTOF WEDLOCKHADFULLPARITYWITHLEGITIMATEOFFSPRINGMEDICALTREATMENTWASLEGALLY AVAILABLEANDMOSTLYFREE TOALLANDTHEFTOFFOODWENTUNPUNISHEDIFITWAS TOKEEPPEOPLEALIVE4HISLASTLAWISINPAINFULCONTRASTTOTHE%NGLISHPOLICY LEGALINTOTHENINETEENTHCENTURY OFEXECUTINGPEOPLEFORSTEALINGSOMUCHAS ALOAFOFBREAD !FTER (YWELS DEATH IN  ANARCHY AND INTERNAL TURMOIL REIGNED UNTIL HIS GREAT GREAT GRANDSON 'RUFFYDD AP ,LYWELYN SEIZED POWER IN 'WYNEDD IN  (E UNIlED ALL OF7ALES TAKING THE CORONATION OF THE WEAK %NGLISH KING %DWARDTHE#ONFESSOR ASANOPPORTUNITYTOANNEXSOMEOFTHE-ARCHES IN -ERCIA %DWARDS SUCCESSOR (AROLD WASNT HAVING ANY OF THIS AND KILLED 'RUFFYDD HERALDINGANEWPHASEOFPOLITICALFRAGMENTATION

4HEARRIVALOFTHE.ORMANS 

)N THE.ORMANSSWEPTACROSSTHE%NGLISH#HANNEL KILLED(AROLD THE %NGLISHKING ANDSTORMED%NGLAND4HOUGH7ALESWASUNABLETOPRESENTA UNIlEDOPPOSITIONTOTHEINVADERS THE.ORMANKING 7ILLIAM DIDNTATTEMPT TOCONQUER7ALES4HE $OMESDAY "OOKnHISMASTERWORKOFSUBJUGATION

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COMMISSIONEDINTORECORDLANDOWNERSHIPASAFRAMEWORKFORTAXATION nINDICATESTHATHEONLYNIBBLEDATPARTSOF0OWYSAND'WYNEDD)NSTEAD HE INSTALLEDAHUGERETINUEOFBARONS THE,ORDS -ARCHER ALONGTHEBORDERTO BRINGASMUCH7ELSHTERRITORYUNDERTHEIROWNJURISDICTIONASPOSSIBLE$ESPITE GENERATIONSOFSQUABBLING THEBARONSMANAGEDTOHOLDONTOTHEIRPRIVILEGES UNTIL(ENRY6)))S!CTOF5NIONOVERFOURHUNDREDYEARSLATER 4HEPAYMENTOFHOMAGEBY2HYSAP4EWDWRTHEKINGOF$EHEUBARTH AND 'RUFFYDDAP#YNANTHEKINGOF'WYNEDD KEPTTHE7ELSHBORDERSSAFEUNTIL THEDEATHOF7ILLIAM)IN(ISSON7ILLIAM2UFUSMADETHREEUNSUCCESSFUL INVASIONSOF7ALESBUTlNALLYLEFTITTOHIS-ARCHERLORDSNOWNUMBERINGOVER  TO ADVANCE FROM THEIR CASTLES INTO SOUTH7ALES LEAVING ONLY 0OWYS AND 'WYNEDD INDEPENDENT! LACK OF %NGLISH COMMITMENT OR RESOURCES ALLOWED THE7ELSHTOCLAWBACKTHEIRTERRITORYTHROUGHYEARSWHENDISTINCTIONSBETWEEN %NGLISH .ORMANSAND7ELSHWEREBEGINNINGTOBLUR/NEPRODUCTOFTHISWAS THE QUARTER 7ELSH 'IRALDUS #AMBRENSIS SEE P WHO LEFT A VALUABLE RECORD OF TWELFTH CENTURY LIFE IN7ALES AND HIS OPINIONS ON7ELSH CHARACTER h4HEYAREQUICKERWITTEDANDMORESHREWDTHANANYOTHER7ESTERNPEOPLEv HE INFORMS US A QUALITY WHICH HELPED THEM FORM THREE STABLE POLITICAL ENTI TIES 0OWYS $EHEUBARTH AND 'WYNEDD4HE LATTER LED BY /WAIN 'WYNEDD FROMHISCAPITALAT!BERFFRAWON!NGLESEY NOWEXTENDEDBEYOND/FFAS$YKE AND PROGRESSIVELY GAINED HEGEMONY OVER THE OTHER TWO /WAIN 'WYNEDDS GRANDSON ,LYWELYNAP)ORWERTHTHE'REAT WHOEARNEDHISLAURELSTHROUGH SHREWD CAMPAIGNING PROGRESSIVELY INCORPORATED THE WEAKER TERRITORIES TO THE SOUTHINTOHISKINGDOMANDCAPTUREDSEVERAL.ORMANCASTLESTOREACHTHEPEAK OFTHE7ELSHFEUDALPYRAMID-ANIPULATINGTHEFAVOURSOFTHE%NGLISHKING*OHN ,LYWELYNMANAGEDTOEXTENDHISCONTROLOVERSOUTHERN0OWYSBEFOREAFEARFUL *OHN LED TWO DEVASTATING CAMPAIGNS INTO NORTH7ALES ,LYWELYN WAS HUMILI ATEDANDFORCEDINTORECOGNIZING*OHNASHISHEIRSHOULD,LYWELYNSUNIONWITH *OHNSILLEGITIMATEDAUGHTER*OANNOTPRODUCEASON#HANNELLINGANOWUNITED 7ELSH OPPOSITION AGAINST *OHN ,LYWELYN STRUCK BACK AND WON SOME DEGREE OF7ELSH AUTONOMY7ORRIED THAT HIS UNIlED7ALES WOULD DISINTEGRATE ON HIS DEATH ,LYWELYNENGINEEREDTHESMOOTHSUCCESSIONBYCOMMANDINGHISPRINCES TOASSEMBLEAT3TRATA&LORIDASEEP ANDPAYHOMAGENOTJUSTTOHIMASWAS NOWHISBYRIGHT BUTALSOTOHISSON $AFYDD4HISPLANSUCCEEDEDUNTILAFTERHIS DEATH WHEN7ALESBEGANTODISINTEGRATETOTHEPOINTWHEREAT$AFYDDSDEATH INTHECOUNTRYHADONLYNOMINALUNITY -OSTOFTHEWORKOFREGROUPING7ALESAROUNDONESTANDARDFELLTO,LYWELYN THE 'REATS GRANDSON AND $AFYDDS NEPHEW ,LYWELYN AP 'RUFFYDD ,LEWELLYN THE,AST 

%DWARD)SCONQUEST "Y  ,LYWELYN AP )ORWERTHS GRANDSON ,LYWELYN AP 'RUFFYDD THE ,AST HADWONCONTROLOF'WYNEDD$URINGTHENEXTTHREEYEARSHEPUSHED THE%NGLISHOUTOF'WYNEDD THENOUTOFMOSTOF7ALES4HE%NGLISHKING (ENRY)))WASFORCEDTORESPECT,LYWELYNSINmUENCEANDRATIlEDTHE4REATY OF-ONTGOMERYIN THEREBYRECOGNIZING,LYWELYNASh0RINCEOF7ALESv INRETURNFORHISHOMAGE4HE%NGLISHMONARCHYSWARWITHTHEBARONSALLOWED ,LYWELYNTIMETOPOLITICALLYCONSOLIDATEHISLANDS WHICHNOWSTRETCHEDOVERALL OFMODERN7ALESEXCEPTING0EMBROKESHIREANDPARTSOFTHE-ARCHES4HETABLES



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TURNEDWHEN%DWARD)SUCCEEDED(ENRY)))ANDBEGANACRUSADETOUNIFY"RIT AIN,LYWELYNHADFAILEDTOATTEND%DWARDSCORONATIONANDREFUSEDTOPAYHIM HOMAGEnATTHESAMETIME ,LYWELYNSDETERMINATIONTOMARRYTHEDAUGHTEROF 3IMONDE-ONTFORTLOSTHIMTHESUPPORTOFTHESOUTH7ELSHPRINCESANDSOME -ARCHERLORDS%DWARDWASASKILFULTACTICIANANDWITHEFFECTIVEUSEOFSEAPOWER HADLITTLETROUBLEFORCINGTHEALREADYWEAKENED,LYWELYNBACKINTO3NOWDONIA 0EACEWASRESTOREDWITHTHE4REATYOF!BERCONWY WHICHDEPRIVED,LYWELYN OFALMOSTALLHISLANDANDSTRIPPEDHIMOFHISlNANCIALTRIBUTESFROMTHEOTHER 7ELSHPRINCES BUTLEFTHIMWITHTHEHOLLOWTITLEOFh0RINCEOF7ALESv %DWARDNOWSETABOUTSURROUNDING,LYWELYNSLANDWITHCASTLESAT!BERYST WYTH "UILTH7ELLS &LINT AND 2HUDDLAN SEE P !FTER A RELATIVELY CORDIAL FOUR YEAR PERIOD ,LYWELYNS BROTHER $AFYDD ROSE AGAINST %DWARD INEVITABLY DRAGGING,LYWELYNALONGWITHHIM%DWARDDIDNTHESITATEANDSWEPTTHROUGH 'WYNEDD CRUSHING THE REVOLT AND LAYING THE FOUNDATIONS FOR THE REMAINING CASTLESINHIS)RON2ING THOSEAT#ONWY #AERNARFON (ARLECHAND"EAUMARIS ,LYWELYN ALREADY BATTERED BY %DWARDS FORCE WAS CAPTURED AND EXECUTED AT #ILMERISEEP AFTERmEEINGFROMTHEABORTIVE"ATTLEOF"UILTHIN$ECEM BER4HE3TATUTE OF 2HUDDLANINSETDOWNTHETERMSBYWHICH THE%NGLISHMONARCHWASTORULE7ALESMUCHOFITWASGIVENTOTHE-ARCHER LORDSWHOHADHELPED%DWARD THERESTWASDIVIDEDINTOADMINISTRATIVEANDLEGAL DISTRICTSSIMILARTOTHOSEIN%NGLAND4HOUGHTHETREATYISOFTENSEENASASYMBOL OF %NGLISH SUBJUGATION IT RESPECTED MUCH OF7ELSH LAW AND PROVIDED A BASIS FORCIVILRIGHTSANDPRIVILEGES-ANY7ELSHWERECONTENTTOACCEPTANDEXPLOIT %DWARDSRULEFORTHEIROWNBENElT BUTIN AREBELLIONLEDBY-ADOGAP ,LYWELYNGRIPPED7ALESANDWASONLYHALTEDBY%DWARDSSWIFTANDDEVASTATING RESPONSE -OST OF THE PRIVILEGES ENSHRINED IN THE 3TATUTE OF 2HUDDLAN WERE NOWRESCINDEDANDTHE7ELSHSEEMEDCRUSHEDFORACENTURY

/WAIN'LYND"R



4HROUGHOUT THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY FAMINE AND THE "LACK $EATH PLAGUED 7ALES4HE -ARCHERLORDSAPPROPRIATEDTHELANDSOFDEFAULTINGDEBTORSAND SQUEEZEDTHELASTPENNIESOUTOFTHEIRTENANTS WHILEROYALOFlCIALSCLAWEDIN ALLTHEINCOMETHEYCOULDFROMTHETOWNSAROUNDTHECASTLES4HESEFACTORS AND THE PENT UP RESENTMENT OF THE %NGLISH SOWED SEEDS OF A REBELLION LED BYTHETYRANNICALBUTCHARISMATIC7ELSHHERO/WAIN 'LYND"R#ITINGHIS DESCENTFROMTHEPRINCESOFBOTH0OWYSAND$EHEUBARTH HEDECLAREDHIMSELF h0RINCEOF7ALESvIN ANDWITHACREWOFLOCALSUPPORTERSATTACKEDTHE LANDS OF NEARBY BARONS SLAUGHTERING THE %NGLISH (ENRY )6 MISJUDGED THE POLITICALCLIMATEANDIMPOSEDRESTRICTIONSON7ELSHLANDOWNERSHIP SWELLING THE GENERAL SUPPORT 'LYND"R NEEDED TO TAKE #ONWY #ASTLE THE FOLLOWING YEAR"Y 'LYND"R WHOALREADYHADCONTROLOVERMOSTOFWESTERN7ALES AND SECTIONS OF THE -ARCHES TOOK THE CASTLES AT (ARLECH AND!BERYSTWYTH SUMMONEDAPARLIAMENTIN-ACHYNLLETH ANDHADHIMSELFCROWNED0RINCEOF 7ALES WITHENVOYS OF &RANCE 3COTLAND AND #ASTILEINATTENDANCE(ETHEN DEMANDED INDEPENDENCE FOR THE7ELSH #HURCH FROM #ANTERBURY AND SET ABOUT SECURING ALLIANCES WITH %NGLISH NOBLEMEN WHO HAD GRIEVANCES WITH (ENRY)64HISLASTAMBITIOUSMOVEHERALDED'LYND"RSDOWNFALL!SUCCES SION OF DEFEATS SAW HIS ALLIES DESERT HIM AND BY  WHEN THE CASTLES AT (ARLECHAND!BERYSTWYTHWERERETAKENFORTHE#ROWN THISLASTPROTESTAGAINST

%DWARD )S %NGLISH CONQUEST HAD LOST ITS MOMENTUM ,ITTLE IS KNOWN OF 'LYND"RSlNALYEARS THOUGHITISTHOUGHTHEDIEDIN POSSIBLYIN(ERE FORDSHIRE LEAVING7ALES TERRITORIALLY UNCHANGED BUT THE COUNTRYS NATIONAL PRIDEATANALL TIMEHIGH

4HE4UDORSANDUNIONWITH %NGLAND

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\(ISTORY

$URINGTHELATTERHALFOFTHElFTEENTHCENTURY THESUCCESSIONTOTHE%NGLISH THRONEWASCONTESTEDINTHE7ARSOFTHE2OSESBETWEENTHEHOUSESOF9ORK WHITEROSE AND,ANCASTERREDROSE 7ELSHALLEGIANCELAYBROADLYWITHTHE ,ANCASTRIANS WHOHADTHESUPPORTOFTHEASCENDANTNORTH7ELSH4EWDWROR 4UDOR FAMILY4HROUGHTHEEARLYPARTOFTHEWARS ONE(ENRY4UDORLIVEDWITH HISWIDOWED7ELSHMOTHER -ARGARET"EAUFORT ATTHEBESIEGED(ARLECH#ASTLE ESCAPINGTO"RITTANYWHEN9ORKIST2ICHARD)))TOOKTHE%NGLISHTHRONEIN &OURTEENYEARSLATER (ENRYRETURNEDTO7ALES LANDINGAT-ILFORD(AVEN AND DEFEATED2ICHARDATTHE"ATTLEOF"OSWORTH&IELD SOBECOMING(ENRY6))AND SEALINGTHE,ANCASTRIANASCENDANCY 7ELSHEXPECTATIONSOFTHENEWMONARCHWEREHIGH(ENRYLIVEDUPTOSOME OFTHEM REMOVINGMANYOFTHERESTRICTIONSONLANDOWNERSHIPIMPOSEDATTHE START OF 'LYND"RS UPRISING AND PROMOTING MANY7ELSHMEN TO HIGH OFlCE BUT ADMINISTRATION REMAINED PIECEMEAL #ONTROL WAS STILL SHARED BETWEEN THE #ROWNANDLARGELYINDEPENDENT-ARCHERLORDSUNTILAUNIFORMADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTUREWASACHIEVEDUNDER(ENRY6))) 7ALESHADBEENLARGELYCONTROLLEDBYTHE%NGLISHMONARCHSINCETHE3TATUTEOF 2HUDDLANIN BUTSOVEREIGNTYWASlNALLYlXEDIN(ENRY6)))S!CT OF5NIONANDASUBSEQUENTACTOF )TSAMISLEADINGTITLE ANDONETHATWAS NOTUSEDTODESCRIBETHEACTUNTILTHETWENTIETHCENTURY FORITIMPLIESALEVELOF EQUALITYBETWEENTHETWONATIONSTHATDIDNOTINFACTEXIST5NLIKETHE!CTSOF ANDTHATBROUGHT3COTLANDAND)RELANDINTOTHE5NIONnANDWERE THEDECISIONSOFINDEPENDENTPARLIAMENTSIN%DINBURGH $UBLINAND,ONDONTO MERGETHEIRIDENTITIESnTHE!CTWASAUNILATERALDECISIONBY7ESTMINSTER APARLIAMENTTHAT ATTHETIME HADNO7ELSHREPRESENTATIONINITATALL)TDECREED THAT%NGLISHWASTOBETHEONLYLANGUAGEOFTHECOURTSANDOTHEROFlCIALBODIES EFFECTIVELYCREATINGATWO TIER7ALESOF%NGLISH SPEAKINGLORDSANDMASTERSAND A7ELSH SPEAKINGPROLETARIAT!TTHESAMETIMETHE-ARCHESWEREREPLACEDBY SHIRESTHEEQUIVALENTOFMODERNCOUNTIES THE7ELSHLAWSCODIlEDBY(YWEL $DAWEREMADEVOID ANDPARTIBLEINHERITANCEEQUALAMONGSTALLOFFSPRING GAVE WAY TO PRIMOGENITURE THE ELDEST SON BECOMING THE SOLE HEIR )N MANY WAYS THISPERIODSETINSTONETHESTRUGGLESANDTHEINJUSTICESTHATARESTILLPLAYINGOUT NEARLYlVEHUNDREDYEARSLATER *UST AS (ENRY6)))S DECISION TO CONVERT HIS KINGDOM FROM #ATHOLICISM TO 0ROTESTANTISMWASBORNEMOREFROMHISDESIRETODIVORCEHISlRSTWIFE #ATHER INEOF!RAGON THANFROMANYRELIGIOUSCONVICTION ITWASHISNEEDFORMONEY NOTRECOGNITION WHICHBROUGHTABOUTTHE$ISSOLUTIONOFTHE-ONASTERIES IN-ONASTICLANDSWEREDIVIDEDAMONGSTTHELOCALGENTRY BUTSINCE#HRIS TIANITYHADALWAYSBEENARITUALWAYOFLIFERATHERTHANAPHILOSOPHICALCODEIN 7ALES #ATHOLICISMWASEASILYREPLACEDBY0ROTESTANTISM7HATTHE2EFORMATION DIDPROMOTEWASAMORESTUDIEDAPPROACHTORELIGIONANDLEARNINGINGENERAL 5NDERTHEREIGNOF%LIZABETH) *ESUS#OLLEGEWASFOUNDEDIN/XFORDFOR7ELSH



SCHOLARS ANDTHE"IBLEWASTRANSLATEDINTO7ELSHFORTHElRSTTIMEBYATEAMLED BY"ISHOP7ILLIAM-ORGANSEEP  7ITHNEWLANDOWNERSHIPLAWSENSHRINEDINTHE!CTSOF5NION THESTIMULUS PROVIDEDBYTHE$ISSOLUTIONHASTENEDTHEEMERGENCEOFTHE!NGLO 7ELSHGENTRY AGROUPEAGERTOCLAIMA7ELSHPEDIGREEWHILEPROMOTINGTHE%NGLISHLANGUAGE AND THE LEGAL SYSTEM HELPING TO PERPETUATE THEIR GRASP -EANWHILE LANDLESS PEASANTSCONTINUEDINPOVERTY ONLYGAININGSLIGHTLYFROMTHEINCREASEINCATTLE TRADEWITH%NGLANDANDTHESLOWDEVELOPMENTOFMININGANDORESMELTING

4HE#IVIL7ARANDTHERISEOF .ONCONFORMISM # /.4% 843

\(ISTORY

!DIRECTDESCENDANTOFTHE4UDORS *AMES )CAMETOTHETHRONEINTO GENERALPOPULARAPPROVALIN7ALES-ANYPRIVILEGESGRANTEDTOTHE7ELSHDURING THE4UDOR REIGN CAME TO AN END BUT THE IDEA OF COMMON CITIZENSHIP WAS RETAINED THE#OUNCILOF7ALESREMAININGASAFOCUSFOR7ELSHNATIONALISM*AMES FEARFULOFBOTH#ATHOLICISMANDTHENEWTHREATOF0URITANISMnANEXTREME FORMOF0ROTESTANTISMnCOURTEDASTAUNCHLY!NGLICAN7ALESANDCURRIEDTHE FAVOUR OF7ELSH MINISTERS IN THE INCREASINGLY POWERFUL 0ARLIAMENT4HOUGH WEAK IN7ALES 0URITANISM WAS GAINING A FOOTHOLD ESPECIALLY IN THE7ELSH BORDERS WHERE7ILLIAM7ROTHAND7ALTER#RADOCKSETUP7ALESlRSTDISSENTING CHURCHAT,LANFACHESIN-ONMOUTHSHIREIN 4HE MONARCHYS RELATIONS WITH THE7ELSH WERE STRAINED BY #HARLES ) WHO WASFORCEDTOLEVYHEAVYTAXESANDRECRUITTROOPS BUTTHEGENTRYWEREMOSTLY LOYALTOTHEKINGATTHEOUTBREAKOFTHE#IVIL7AR WHICHSAWTHE0ARLIAMENTARY FORCESINSTALLING/LIVER#ROMWELLASTHELEADEROFTHE#OMMONWEALTH4HE 0URITANSUPPORTFOR0ARLIAMENTDIDNTGOUNNOTICED ANDAFTER#HARLESEXECU TION THEYWEREREWARDEDWITHTHELIVINGSOFNUMEROUSPARISHESANDTHEROOTS OF 0URITAN .ONCONFORMISM SPREAD IN7ALES !S #ROMWELLS REGIME BECAME MOREOPPRESSIVE THE!NGLICANMAJORITYBECAMEDISAFFECTEDANDWELCOMEDTHE SUCCESSFUL RETURN OF THE EXILED #HARLES )) AND THE MONARCHY WAS RESTORED #HARLES REPLACED MANY OF THE CLERGY IN THEIR PARISHES AND PASSED THE!CT OF 5NIFORMITY REQUIRING ADHERENCE TO THE RITES OF THE %STABLISHED #HURCH AND SO SUPPRESSING .ONCONFORMITY4HE "APTISTS )NDEPENDENTS AND 1UAKERS WHO MADE UP THE BULK OF .ONCONFORMISTS CONTINUED TO WORSHIP IN SECRET UNTIL *AMES ))PASSEDTHE4OLERATION!CTIN lNALLYALLOWINGOPENWORSHIP BUT STILL BANNING THE EMPLOYMENT OF DISSENTERS IN MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT A LIMITATIONWHICHREMAINEDINFORCEUNTIL

4HERISEOF-ETHODISM



4HE PROPAGATION OF THE .ONCONFORMIST SEED IN THIS FERTILE SOIL WAS LESS A CONSCIOUS EFFORT TO CONVERT THE POPULACE FROM!NGLICANISM THAN TO BETTER EDUCATETHEMASSES4HELATESEVENTEENTHCENTURYSAWAWELTEROFNEWRELI GIOUSBOOKSIN7ELSH BUTWITHMOSTPEOPLESTILLILLITERATE RELIGIOUSOBSERVANCE REMAINEDANORALTRADITION)N THE3OCIETYFOR0ROMOTING#HRISTIAN +NOWLEDGE SETABOUTESTABLISHINGSCHOOLSWHERETHE"IBLE ALONGWITHREADING

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\(ISTORY

WRITINGANDARITHMETIC WERETAUGHTIN7ELSHASWELLAS%NGLISH4HISMETWITH CONSIDERABLESUCCESSAMONGSTTHEMIDDLECLASSESINANGLICIZEDTOWNS BUTFAILED TOREACHRURALAREASWHERECHILDRENCOULDNTBESPAREDFROMFARMDUTIES4HE NEXTBIGREFORMISTPUSHCAMEIN WHEN 'RIFlTH *ONESHELPEDORGAN IZEITINERANTTEACHERSTOHOLDREADINGCLASSESINTHEEVENINGSANDINTHEQUIETER WINTERSEASON SOFARMERSANDTHEIRFAMILIESCOULDATTEND7ITHINTHIRTYYEARS HALFTHE7ELSHPOPULATIONCOULDREAD!FTER*ONESDEATH 4HOMAS #HARLES OF"ALASEEP CONTINUEDHISWORK ESTABLISHING3UNDAYSCHOOLSANDEDIT INGTHElRST7ELSH"IBLETOBEDISTRIBUTEDBYTHE"RITISHAND&OREIGN"IBLE 3OCIETY "Y THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A RECEPTIVE AND LITERATE POPULACE WASREADYFORTHREEELOQUENTlGURESOFTHE-ETHODIST2EVIVAL ALLDRIVENBYA STRONGBELIEFINARESURGENT7ELSHNATION)NCONTRASTTOTHESTAID!NGLICANSERV ICES THE-ETHODISTSHELDEVANGELICALMEETINGS(OWEL(ARRISTOOKHISPREACH ING OUTSIDE OR INTO PEOPLES HOMES $ANIEL 2OWLANDS CONVERTED THOUSANDS WITHHISPOWERFULSERMONS AND7ILLIAM7ILLIAMSBECAMETHEMOSTIMPORTANT HYMNWRITERIN7ELSHHISTORY-EANWHILE IMPROVEDSCHOOLINGBROUGHTABOUT A LITERARY REVOLUTION AND7ALES RE ESTABLISHED ITSELF AS THE LANGUAGE FOR A VAST BODYOFLITERATURE 5NTILNOW -ETHODISMHADWORKEDWITHINTHEFRAMEWORKOF!NGLICANISM BUT IN THE#ALVINIST-ETHODISTSBROKEAWAY!STHEGENTRYREMAINEDWITHTHE %STABLISHED #HURCH -ETHODISM ASSOCIATED ITSELF WITH THE SPIRITUAL AND SOCIAL NEEDSOFTHEMASSES BECOMINGARALLYINGPOINTFORTHEGROWINGSENSEOFDISAFFEC TIONWITHTHETRADITIONALRULEOFTHEPARSONANDSQUIRE4HECHAPELBECAMETHE FOCUSOFSOCIALLIFE DISCOURAGINGFOLKTRADITIONSASINCOMPATIBLEWITHTHE0URI TANVIRTUESOFTHRIFTANDTEMPERANCE0OLITICALRADICALISMWASALSODISCOURAGED PERPETUATINGTHESTRANGLEHOLDONPARLIAMENTARYPOWEREXERCISEDBYTHEPOWER FULLANDEDELITE THE7ILLIAMS 7YNN -ORGANAND6AUGHANFAMILIESINPARTICULAR /NLYPROPERTYOWNERSWEREELIGIBLETOVOTEANDFEWWEREPREPAREDTOCHALLENGE ESTABLISHEDDYNASTIES EVENWHENTHERAREELECTIONSTOOKPLACE (UMANRIGHTSBECAMEANISSUEINWITHTHEPUBLICATIONOFTHE!MERICAN $ECLARATION OF )NDEPENDENCE AND A PIECE BY THE RADICAL7ELSH PHILOSOPHER 2ICHARD0RICE/BSERVATIONSONTHE.ATUREOF#IVIL,IBERTY4HESUBSEQUENTCALLS FORAGREATERDEGREEOFDEMOCRACYnUNIVERSALSUFFRAGEANDANNUALPARLIAMENTS nINCREASEDDURINGTHEEARLYDAYSOFTHE&RENCH2EVOLUTION BUTLITTLEWASACTU ALLYACHIEVEDUNTILTHENEXTCENTURY WHENRADICAL.ONCONFORMISTSWEREABLETO EXPLOITTHEINCREASINGPOLITICALCONSCIOUSNESSOFTHEWORKINGCLASS

7ALESANDTHE)NDUSTRIAL 2EVOLUTION 3MALL SCALEMININGANDSMELTINGHADTAKENPLACEIN7ALESSINCETHE"RONZE !GE BUTAGRICULTUREREMAINEDTHEMAINSTAYOFANECONOMYWITHADANGEROUSLY LIMITEDDIVERSITYMEAT WOOLANDBUTTERBEINGABOUTTHEONLYEXPORTS7ITHTHE ENORMOUSRISEINGRAINPRICESINTHEEARLYNINETEENTHCENTURY 7ELSHFARMERS BEGANTODIVERSIFYANDADOPTEDTHEMOREADVANCED%NGLISHFARMINGPRACTICES OFCROPROTATION FERTILIZINGANDSTOCKBREEDING!ROUNDTHESAMETIME ACTS OF0ARLIAMENTALLOWEDPREVIOUSLYCOMMONLANDTOBEhENCLOSEDv THEGRAZING RIGHTSOFTENBEINGASSIGNEDTOTHELARGESTLANDOWNERINTHEDISTRICT WHICHLEFT THEPREVIOUSOCCUPANTWITHFEWORNORIGHTSTOITSUSE)NEVITABLY THISFORCED



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\(ISTORY

SMALLHOLDERSTOMIGRATETOTHETOWNSWHEREEVERMOREWORKERSWEREREQUIRED TOMINETHESEAMSANDSTOKETHEFURNACES FUELLINGTHE)NDUSTRIAL2EVOLUTION )NTHENORTH *OHN7ILKINSONSTARTEDHISIRONWORKSAT"ERSHAMSEEP AND DEVELOPEDANEWMETHODOFBORINGCYLINDERSFORSTEAMENGINESWHILEINTHE SOUTH FOUNDRIESSPRANGUPINTHEVALLEYSAROUND-ERTHYR4YDlL WHEREMETHODS OFPURIFYINGIRONANDPRODUCINGHIGH QUALITYCONSTRUCTIONSTEELWEREPERFECTED UNDERTHEEYEOF%NGLISHIRONMASTERS'RADUALLYTHEUNDEREDUCATED IMPOVER ISHEDCHAPEL GOING7ELSHBEGANTOBEGOVERNEDBYRICH CHURCH GOING %NGLISH INDUSTRIALBARONS )MPROVEDMATERIALSANDWORKINGMETHODSENABLEDTHEEXPLOITATIONOFDEEPER COALSEAMS MOSTNOTABLYINTHESOUTH7ALESVALLEYS NOTJUSTTOSUPPLYTHEIRON SMELTERSBUTFORDOMESTICFUELANDTOPOWERLOCOMOTIVESANDSTEAMSHIPS3OUTH 7ALESWASTRANSFORMEDRURALVALLEYSWERERIPPEDAPARTANDQUIETHAMLETSTURNED INTOLONGUNPLANNEDROWSOFBACK TO BACKHOUSESSTRETCHINGUPTHEVALLEYSIDES ALLROOFEDINNORTH7ALESSLATEFROMQUARRIESDUGBYTHE0ENNANTAND!SSHETON 3MITHFAMILIES 4RANSPORTATIONOFHUGEQUANTITIESOFCOALANDSTEELWASCRUCIALFORCONTINUED ECONOMIC EXPANSION AND THE ROADS AND CANALS BUILT IN THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURYWEREDISPLACEDAROUNDASTHERAILBOOMTOOKHOLD'REATENGI NEERSMADETHEIRNAMESIN7ALES4HOMAS4ELFORDBUILTCANALAQUEDUCTSAND SUCCESSFULLYSPANNEDTHE-ENAI3TRAITWITHONEOF"RITAINSEARLIESTSUSPENSION BRIDGES )SAMBARD +INGDOM "RUNEL SURVEYED THE -ERTHYRn#ARDIFF TRAIN LINE THENPUSHEDHIS'REAT7ESTERNNETWORKALMOSTTO&ISHGUARDAND2OBERT 3TEPHENSONSPEEDEDTHEPASSAGEOFTRAINSBETWEEN,ONDONAND(OLYHEADON !NGLESEYFORTHE)RISHFERRYCONNECTION )NMININGTOWNS WORKINGCONDITIONSWEREATROCIOUS WITHMENTOILINGINCRED IBLYLONGHOURSINDANGEROUSCONDITIONSWOMENANDCHILDRENASYOUNGASSIX WORKEDALONGSIDETHEM UNTILTHISWASOUTLAWEDBYTHE-INES!CTIN0AY WASLOWANDOFTENINACURRENCYREDEEMABLEONLYATTHEPOORLYSTOCKED EXPEN SIVECOMPANY4RUCK SHOP4HE!NTI 4RUCK!CTOFIMPROVEDMATTERS BUTACOMBINATIONOFRISINGPOPULATION mUCTUATINGPRICESANDGROWINGAWARE NESSOFTHENEEDFORPOLITICALCHANGEBROUGHTCALLSFORREFORM7HENITCAMEIN  THE2EFORM"ILLFELLFARSHORTOFTHEDEMANDSFORUNIVERSALSUFFRAGEBY BALLOTANDTHEREMOVALOFPROPERTYREQUIREMENTFORVOTERS4HISSWELLEDTHERANKS OFTHE2EFORMIST#HARTISTMOVEMENT ANDWHENAPETITIONWITHOVERAMILLION SIGNATURESWASREJECTEDBY0ARLIAMENT THE#HARTIST2IOTSSEEP BROKEOUT INNORTHERN%NGLANDANDSOUTH7ALES4HE.EWPORTDEMONSTRATIONWASDISAS TROUS THEMARCHERSWALKINGSTRAIGHTINTOATRAPLAIDBYTROOPS WHOKILLEDOVER TWENTY MEN AND CAPTURED THEIR LEADER *OHN &ROST #HARTISM CONTINUED IN A WEAKENEDFORMFORTWENTYYEARS BUOYEDBYTHE2EBECCA2IOTSINn WHENGUERRILLATACTICSPUTANENDTOTOLLGATESONSOUTH7ELSHTURNPIKES

TO7ORLD7AR)



$URINGTHELATTERHALFOFTHENINETEENTHCENTURYTHERADICALREFORMISTMOVE MENTANDRELIGIONSLOWLYBECAMEENTWINED DESPITE.ONCONFORMISTDENIALOF POLITICALINTENTIONS2ECOGNIZINGTHATTHEIRmOCKDIDNTSHARETHESAMERIGHTSAS !NGLICANS THE.ONCONFORMISTSPETITIONEDFORDISESTABLISHMENTOFTHE#HURCH IN7ALESANDBEGANTOPOLITICIZETHEIRMESSAGE)NTHEELECTION TENANTSON LARGEFARMSTHEONLYONESPERMITTEDTOVOTE WEREJUSTIlABLYAFRAIDOFVOTING

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\(ISTORY

AGAINSTTHEIRLANDOWNERSOREVENABSTAININGFROMVOTING ANDTHECONSERVATIVE LANDOWNINGHEGEMONYHELD"UTASACONSEQUENCEOFTHE2EFORM!CT INDUSTRIALWORKERSANDSMALLTENANTFARMERSGOTTHEVOTE lNALLYGIVINGASTRONG WORKING CLASSELEMENTTOTHEELECTORATEANDSEEING(ENRY2ICHARDELECTEDAS ,IBERAL-0FOR-ERTHYR4YDlLTHEFOLLOWINGYEAR THElRST7ELSHMEMBEROF WHATSOONBECAMETHEDOMINANTPOLITICALFORCE"RINGINGTHEIDEASOF.ONCON FORMITYTO0ARLIAMENTFORTHElRSTTIME HESPOKEELOQUENTLYONLANDREFORM DISESTABLISHMENTANDTHEPRESERVATIONOFTHE7ELSHLANGUAGE 4HE3ECRET"ALLOT!CTAND2EFORM!CT ENFRANCHISINGFARMLABOUR ERS FURTHERFREEDUPTHEELECTORALSYSTEMANDGAVEWORKINGPEOPLETHECHANCE TO AIR THEIR RESENTMENT OF TITHES EXTRACTED BY A #HURCH THAT DIDNT REPRESENT THEIR RELIGIOUS VIEWS!LTHOUGH SEVERAL BILLS WERE TABLED IN 0ARLIAMENT IN THE S THE!NGLICANCHURCHWASONLYDISESTABLISHEDIN4HE.ONCONFORM IST 3UNDAY 3CHOOLS WERE MEANWHILE OFFERING THE BEST PRIMARY EDUCATION FOR THEMASSES SUPPLEMENTED AFTER(UGH/WENPUSHEDTHROUGHTHE7ELSH)NTER MEDIATE%DUCATION!CTIN BYANUMBEROFSECONDARYSCHOOLS/WENWAS ALSOAPRIMEMOVERINGETTING7ALESlRSTMAJORTERTIARYESTABLISHMENTSTARTEDIN !BERYSTWYTHINTHETINY3T$AVIDS5NIVERSITY#OLLEGEIN,AMPETERWAS ALREADYlFTYYEARSOLDBYTHEN SOONTOBEFOLLOWEDBYCOLLEGESAT#ARDIFF AND"ANGOR 5NTILTHEYWEREFEDERATEDINTOTHE5NIVERSITYOF7ALESIN  VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS GARNERED BY .ONCONFORMIST CHAPELS SUPPORTED THE COLLEGES4HE APOTHEOSIS OFh#HAPEL POWERv CAME IN  WITH THE PASS INGOFTHE7ELSH3UNDAY#LOSING!CT ENSHRINING.ONCONFORMISMSTHREEBASIC TENETSOBSERVANCEOFTHE3ABBATH SOBRIETYAND7ELSHNESS

4HERISEIN7ELSHCONSCIOUSNESS $URINGTHENINETEENTHCENTURY 7ELSHLANGUAGEANDCULTUREBECAMEWEAKENED LARGELYTHROUGHIMMIGRATIONTOTHECOALlELDSFROM%NGLAND%NGLISHBECAME THELANGUAGEOFCOMMERCEANDTHEROUTETOADVANCEMENT7ELSHBEINGRESERVED FORTHEHOMEANDCHAPELLIFEOFSEVENTYPERCENTOFTHEPOPULATION"UT7ELSH WASSTILLBEINGSPOKENIN.ONCONFORMISTSCHOOLSWHEN IN THEYWERE INSPECTEDBYTHREE%NGLISHBARRISTERSANDSEVEN!NGLICANASSISTANTS4HEINSPEC TORSREPORTnKNOWNAS4HE4REASON OF THE "LUE "OOKSnDECLAREDTHE STANDARDSDEPLORABLE LARGELYDUETOTHEUSEOFTHE7ELSHTONGUE hTHELANGUAGE OFSLAVERYv4HIS UNFAIR REPORT DID SOME GOOD INFOSTERINGFREE ELEMENTARY EDUCATIONATh"OARD3CHOOLSvAFTER THOUGHTHEPUBLICDEFENCEOF7ELSH THATENSUEDFAILEDTOPREVENTTHEINTRODUCTIONOFTHENOTORIOUSh7ELSH.OTv EFFECTIVELYABANONSPEAKING7ELSHINSCHOOL !S THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 2OMANTIC MOVEMENT TOOK HOLD THROUGHOUT "RITAIN THE ,ONDON7ELSH LOOKED TO THEIR HERITAGE4HE ANCIENT TALES OF4HE -ABINOGION WERE TRANSLATED INTO %NGLISH THE 7ELSH ,ANGUAGE 3OCIETY WAS STARTED IN  EISTEDDFODAU WERE REINTRODUCED AS PART OF RURAL LIFE AND THE ANCIENT BARDIC ORDER THE 'ORSEDD WAS REINVENTED "UT DISESTABLISHMENT REMAINED THE CAUSE CÏLÒBRE OF7ELSH NATIONALISM WHICH DESPITE THE FORMA TION OF THE #YMRU &YDD h4HE7ALES4O "Ev MOVEMENT IN  WITH ITS DEMANDS FOR HOME RULE ALONG THE LINES OF )RELAND WASNT GENERALLY SEPARATIST 0ERHAPS THE GREATEST ADVOCATE OF BOTH SEPARATISM AND7ELSH NATIONALISM WAS -ICHAEL$*ONES WHOHELPEDESTABLISHA7ELSHHOMELANDIN0ATAGONIAAND CAMPAIGNEDVOCIFEROUSLYAGAINSThTHE%NGLISHCAUSEvSEEP 



"Y7ALESHADANATIONALLIBRARYAT!BERYSTWYTH ANDANATIONALMUSEUM WASPLANNEDFOR#ARDIFF BYNOWTHELARGESTCITYIN7ALESANDLAYINGCLAIMTO BEINGITSCAPITALnONLYOFlCIALLYRECOGNIZEDASSUCHIN

)NDUSTRYANDTHERISEOFTRADE UNIONISM

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\(ISTORY

4HERISEIN7ELSHCONSCIOUSNESSPARALLELEDTHERISEINIMPORTANCEOFTHETRADE UNIONS4HESWEREAPROSPEROUSTIMEINTHE7ELSHCOALlELDS BUTBY THEENDOFTHESTHE!MALGAMATED5NIONOF-INERSWASFORCEDTOCALL ASTRIKEn WHICHRESULTEDINHIGHERWAGES!SECONDSTRIKEIN FAILEDANDTHEMINERSAGENT 7ILLIAM!BRAHAM -ABON USHEREDINTHE NOTORIOUShSLIDINGSCALEvWHICHlXEDWAGELEVELSACCORDINGTOTHESELLINGPRICE OFCOAL4HISBROUGHTCONSIDERABLEHARDSHIPTOTHE6ALLEYS WHICHBECAMEINSU LARWORLDSWITHSTRICTLYORDEREDSOCIALCODESANDARICHVIBRANCYBORNEFROM THEESSENTIALDICHOTOMYOFTHECHAPELANDTHEPUB-EANWHILE ANNUALCOAL PRODUCTIONDOUBLEDINTWENTYYEARSTOMILLIONTONSBY WHENAQUAR TEROFAMILLIONPEOPLEWEREEMPLOYED3IMILARLYPUNITIVEPAYSCHEMESWERE IMPLEMENTEDINTHENORTH7ALESSLATEQUARRIESWHEREMEMBERSHIPOF5NDEB #HWARELWYR'OGLEDD#YMRU4HE.ORTH7ALES1UARRYMENS5NION WAS ALLBUTOUTLAWEDBYTHESLATEBARONS4HISCAMETOAHEADINWHENTHE WORKERSAT,ORD0ENRHYNSQUARRYAT"ETHESDASTARTEDONEOF"RITAINSLONGEST EVERINDUSTRIALDISPUTES LASTINGTHREEYEARS &ROM  THE VAST MAJORITY OF7ELSH -0S WERE ,IBERALS WHO HELPED END THESLIDINGSCALEINANDBROUGHTINANEIGHT HOURDAYBY4HESTART OFTHETWENTIETHCENTURYHERALDEDTHEBIRTHOFANEWPOLITICALFORCEWHEN+EIR (ARDIEBECAME"RITAINSlRST,ABOUR-0 FOR-ERTHYR4YDlL

4HETWO7ORLD7ARS



7ORLD7AR ) n WAS A WATERSHED FOR7ELSH SOCIETY 3EEING PARALLELS WITHTHEIR OWN NATION THE7ELSH SYMPATHIZED WITHTHEPLIGHTOFDEFENCE LESS%UROPEANNATIONSANDRALLIEDTOlGHTALONGSIDETHE%NGLISHAND3COTS!T HOME THESTATEINTERVENEDINPEOPLESLIVESMORETHANEVERBEFOREAGRICULTURE WASCONTROLLEDBYTHESTATEWHILEFOODWASRATIONED ANDINDUSTRIES MINESAND RAILWAYSWEREUNDERPUBLICCONTROL4HENEEDFOR7ELSHFOODANDCOALBOOSTED THEECONOMYANDLIVINGSTANDARDSROSEDRAMATICALLY-ANYWEREPROUDTOBELED THROUGHTHEWARBY7ELSHLAWYER$AVID,LOYD'EORGESEEP WHOROSE TOTHEPOSTOF-INISTEROF-UNITIONS THENOF7AR BECOMING0RIME-INISTER BYBUTBYTHETIMECONSCRIPTIONWASINTRODUCED PATRIOTICFERVOURHAD WANED-ANYMINERS RELUCTANTTOBESLAUGHTEREDINTHETRENCHESANDRESENT FULOFMASSIVEWARTIMEPROlTS WELCOMEDTHE"OLSHEVIK2EVOLUTION AND THOUGH#OMMUNISMNEVERREALLYTOOKHOLD THESOCIALIST,ABOUR0ARTYWAS THERETOCATCHTHEPOSTWARFALLOUT 3IMILARDRAMATICCHANGESWERETAKINGPLACEINRURALAREAS WHERE7ELSHFARM ING WAS EMBRACING NEW MACHINERY AND COMING OUT OF NEARLY A CENTURY OF NEGLECT(IGHWARTIMEINmATIONOFLANDPRICESANDTHEFALLINRENTSFORCEDSOME

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\(ISTORY

LANDOWNERSTOSELLOFFPORTIONSOFMAJORESTATESTOTHEIRTENANTSINTHESO CALLED hGREENREVOLUTIONv BREAKINGTHEDOMINANCEOFARURALLANDEDGENTRY 4HEBOOMTIMEOF7ORLD7AR)CONTINUEDFORACOUPLEOFYEARSAFTER BUT SOON THE $EPRESSION CAME !LL OF7ALES MINING AND PRIMARY PRODUC TION INDUSTRIES SUFFERED AND UNEMPLOYMENT REACHED  PERCENT WORSE THAN IN %NGLAND AND 3COTLAND WHICH BOTH WEATHERED THE $EPRESSION BETTER4HE ,ABOURMOVEMENTASCENDEDINSTEPWITHTHERISEINUNEMPLOYMENT MAKING SOUTH7ALES ITS STRONGHOLD IN "RITAIN4HEIR STRANGLEHOLD WAS CHALLENGED BY ,LOYD'EORGESNEWLYRESURGENT,IBERAL0ARTY BUTHIS7ESTMINSTER CENTREDPOLI TICSWERENOLONGERTRUSTEDIN7ALESAND,ABOURHELDlRM SEEKINGTOIMPROVE WORKERSCONDITIONSTHESTATEOFHOUSINGWASSTILLDESPERATE ANDHEALTHCAREAND WELFARESERVICESNEEDEDBOOSTING4HE,ABOUR0ARTYEFFECTIVELYBECAMETHEHOPE THATHADPREVIOUSLYBEENENTRUSTEDTOTHECHAPELSANDLATERTHE,IBERALS !NEWSENSEOFNATIONALISMWASEMERGINGAND IN CHAMPIONSOF7ELSH NATIONALAUTONOMYFORMED0LAID'ENEDLAETHOL#YMRUTHE.ATIONAL0ARTY OF7ALES UNDER3AUNDERS,EWIS ITSPRESIDENTFORTENYEARS)NONEOFTHElRST MODERNSEPARATISTPROTESTS HEJOINEDTWOOTHER0LAIDMEMBERSANDSETlRETO BUILDING MATERIALS AT AN 2!& STATION ON THE ,L$N WAS IMPRISONED DISMISSED FROM HIS POST AND SPENT THE REST OF HIS LIFE IMMERSED IN THE WORLD OF LITER ARYCRITICISM BECOMINGONEOF7ALESGREATESTMODERNWRITERS3IMILARPUBLIC DISPLAYSANDPOWERFULNATIONALISTRHETORICWONOVERANINTELLECTUALMAJORITY BUT THEVOTINGMAJORITYCONTINUEDTOFUELTHE,ABOURASCENDANCYINBOTHLOCALAND NATIONALPOLITICS 3OMERELIEFFROMTHE$EPRESSIONCAMEWITHRE ARMAMENTINTHELEAD UPTO 7ORLD7AR)) BUTBYTHISSTAGEVASTNUMBERSHADMIGRATEDFROMSOUTH7ALES TO%NGLAND LEAVINGTHEALREADYINSULARCOMMUNITIESBANDINGTOGETHERINSELF RELIANTGROUPSCENTREDONLOCALCO OPSANDWELFAREHALLS 7HEN WAR BECAME INEVITABLE THE ,ABOUR 0ARTY WAS COMMITTED TO HALTING THE&ASCISTTHREATALONGWITHMOSTOF7ALES!SARESULTOFTHEDEMANDSOFTHE WAR UNEMPLOYMENTALLBUTDISAPPEAREDANDTHE7ELSHECONOMYWASGRADUALLY RESTRUCTURED MOREPEOPLESWITCHINGFROMEXTRACTIVEINDUSTRIESTOLIGHTMANU FACTURING APROCESSWHICHCONTINUESTODAY

 50LAID'ENEDLAETHOL#YMROPLAQUE

0LAID #YMRU WERE LESS ENTHUSIASTIC ABOUT THE WAR REMAINING NEUTRAL AND EXPRESSING UNEASE AT THE LARGE NUMBER OF %NGLISH EVACUEES POTENTIALLY WEAKENINGTHEFABRICOF7ELSHCOMMUNITIES4HEIRFEARSWERELARGELYUNGROUNDED ANDTHEWARSAWTHEFORMATIONOFA7ELSHELEMENTARYSCHOOLIN!BERYSTWYTH AND 5NDEB #YMRU &YDD A COMMITTEE DESIGNED TO DEFEND THE WELFARE OF7ALES

4HEPOSTWARPERIOD

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\(ISTORY 

!NYHOPESFORAGREATERNATIONALIDENTITYWEREDASHEDBYTHE!TTLEE,ABOUR GOVERNMENTFROMTO WHICHNATIONALIZEDTRANSPORTANDUTILITIESWITH NOREGARDFORNATIONALBOUNDARIES EXCEPTFORTHE7ALES'AS"OARD(OWEVER UNDERTHEDIRECTIONOF%BBW6ALE-0 !NEURIN "EVAN THEPOSTWAR,ABOUR GOVERNMENTINSTITUTEDTHE.ATIONAL(EALTH3ERVICE DRAMATICALLYIMPROVING HEALTHCAREIN7ALESANDTHERESTOF"RITAIN ANDPROVIDINGMUCH IMPROVED COUNCILHOUSING 4HENATIONALIZEDCOALINDUSTRY NOWEMPLOYINGLESSTHANHALFTHENUMBEROF TWENTY YEARS BEFORE WAS STILL THE MOST IMPORTANT EMPLOYER AT NATIONALIZATION BUTAGRADUALPROCESSOFCLOSINGINEFlCIENTMINESSAWTHENUMBEROFPITSDROP FROMINTOIN ANDJUSTONEIN3ADLY THESAMECOMMIT MENTWASNTDIRECTEDATCLEANINGUPTHESCARSOFOVERACENTURYOFMININGUNTIL AFTER WHENONEOFSOUTH7ALESMOSTTRAGICACCIDENTSLEFTASCHOOLAND CHILDRENBURIEDUNDERASLAGHEAPAT!BERFANSEEP  )NTHERURALAREAS THEPRICESTABILIZATIONTHATFOLLOWEDTHE!GRICULTURE !CTBROUGHTSOMERELIEFTOlNANCIALLYPRECARIOUSHILLFARMERS WHOWEREGIVEN FURTHERPROTECTIONWITHTHEFORMATIONOFTHE&ARMERS5NIONOF7ALESIN !MORECONTROVERSIALlLLIPCAMEFROMTHESITINGOFANALUMINIUMSMELTERAND TWO NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS IN NORTH7ALES DUBIOUS BENElTS SOON ERODED BY THECLOSUREOFMUCHOFTHERURALRAILSYSTEMFOLLOWINGTHE"EECHING2EPORTIN $ESPITETHESWITCHTOLIGHTMANUFACTURINGANDTHEIMPROVEDAGRICULTURAL METHODS UNEMPLOYMENTIN7ALESROSETOTWICETHE5+AVERAGE ANDWOMEN CONTINUEDTOBEGREATLYUNDER REPRESENTED !FTER ITS POSTWAR SUCCESSES THE ,ABOUR 0ARTY REMAINED IN OVERWHELMING CONTROL DURING THE S AND S THOUGH 0LAID #YMRU BECAME A SERIOUS OPPOSITIONFORTHElRSTTIME PARTLYDUETO,ABOURSRELUCTANCETOADDRESSNATION ALISTISSUES!TTLEEHADTHROWNOUTTHESUGGESTIONOFA7ELSH3ECRETARYOF3TATE IN ANDNOTUNTIL0LAID#YMRUWASlELDINGTWENTYNATIONALISTCANDIDATES INTHEELECTIONDIDTHE,ABOURMANIFESTOPROMISEACABINETPOSITIONFOR 7ALES4HE POSITION OF 3ECRETARY OF 3TATE FOR7ALES WAS lNALLY CREATED IN BYTHE,ABOURGOVERNMENT LEDBY(AROLD7ILSON WHOALSOCREATEDTHE 7ELSH $EVELOPMENT!GENCY AND MOVED THE 2OYAL -INT TO ,LANTRISANT IN SOUTH7ALES7ITH 0LAID #YMRUS APPEAL CONSIDERED TO BE RESTRICTED TO RURAL AREAS ,ABOURWASSHOCKEDBYTHE#ARMARTHENBY ELECTION WHEN'WYN FOR%VANSBECAMETHElRST0LAID-0)TWASNTUNTILTHAT0LAIDALSOWONIN THECONSTITUENCIESOF#AERNARFONAND-EIRIONYDD ANDSUDDENLYTHE0ARTYWAS ATHREAT FORCING,ABOURTOADDRESSTHEQUESTIONOFDEVOLUTION"Y,ABOUR HADTABLEDTHE7ALES!CT PROMISINGTHECOUNTRYANELECTEDASSEMBLYTOACTAS AVOICEFOR7ALES BUTWITHNOPOWERTOLEGISLATEORRAISEREVENUE)NTHESUBSE QUENTREFERENDUMIN EIGHTYPERCENTOFVOTERSOPPOSEDTHEPROPOSITION WITHEVENTHENATIONALISTSTRONGHOLDOF'WYNEDDVOTINGAGAINST

-ODERN7ALES

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\(ISTORY

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\(ISTORY 

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\#HRONOLOGYOF7ELSHHISTORY 

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\-ODERN7ELSHNATIONALISM

!LTHOUGH0LAID#YMRUnTHE7ELSHNATIONALISTPOLITICALPARTYnWASFORMED IN THEPOLITICALIMPETUSTHATGAVEBIRTHTOTHENEWMOVEMENTHADBEEN BUBBLINGFORDECADES IFNOTCENTURIES 4HE 7ELSH IDENTITY HAD ALWAYS BEEN CULTURALLY RICH BUT WAS POLITICALLY EXPRESSEDONLYASPARTOFTHEGREAT,IBERALTRADITIONINTHEDYINGYEARSOFTHE NINETEENTHCENTURY 7ELSH,IBERAL-0SORGANIZEDTHEMSELVESINTOALOOSECAUCUS ROUGHLY MODELLED ON 0ARNELLS )RISH PARLIAMENTARIANS AND ALTHOUGH THE7ELSH GROUPWASWITHOUTTHECLOUTORNUMBEROFTHE)RISH-0S OR-0SVOTING ENBLOCWASSERIOUSENOUGHTOBENOTICED$AVID,LOYD'EORGEn 0RIME -INISTER n lERY7ELSH PATRIOT AND ,IBERAL PREMIER OF 'REAT "RITAIN HADEMBODIEDMANYPEOPLESNATIONALISTBELIEFS ALTHOUGHHISESPOUSALOF GREATERINDEPENDENCEFOR7ALESCAMEUNSTUCKWHEN EVERTHEEXPEDIENTPOLITI CIAN HEREALIZEDTHEPOTENTIALDIFlCULTYOFTRANSLATINGTHISIDEALINTOHARDVOTES INTHEINDUSTRIALIZED ANGLICIZEDSOUTHOF7ALES$URING,LOYD'EORGESPREMIER SHIP THE)RISH&REE3TATEWASESTABLISHED DRAWINGINEVITABLECOMPARISONSWITH THE(OME2ULEDEMANDSBEINGLESSSTRIDENTLYARTICULATEDIN3COTLANDAND7ALES "UTTHE,IBERAL0ARTYWASINSHARPDECLINE NOWHEREMOREMARKEDLYTHANINTHE INDUSTRIALIZED6ALLEYS WHICHHADDESERTEDTHEMINFAVOUROFNEWSOCIALISTPARTIES 7ITHTHEURBANSLIDEOF,IBERALISM 7ELSHNATIONALISMWASGRADUALLYHONEDINTO THEEMBRYONIC0LAID#YMRU )NITIALLY THEPARTYACTEDMOREASAPRESSUREGROUP FOCUSEDINEVITABLYONTHE ISSUE OF THE WANING OF THE7ELSH LANGUAGE AND INEXTRICABLY SUFFUSED WITH A ROMANTICCULTURALAIR!SWARLOOMEDOVER%UROPEINTHELATTERHALFOFTHES 0LAID MAINTAINED A CONTROVERSIALLY PACIlST STANCE WINNING FEW NEW CONVERTS -OST SENSATIONALLY IN 3EPTEMBER  3AUNDERS ,EWIS AND TWO OTHER 0LAID LUMINARIES THE2EV,EWIS6ALENTINEAND$*7ILLIAMS SETlRETOTHECONSTRUC TION HUT OF A NEW AERODROME BEING BUILT ON THE ,L$N AS PART OF "RITAINS BUILD UP TO THE WAR4HEY IMMEDIATELY REPORTED THEMSELVES TO THE NEAREST POLICESTATION ATTRACTINGHUGEPUBLICITYINTHEPROCESS)NTERESTINTHEENSUING TRIALELECTRIlED7ALES CAUSINGHOWLSOFOUTRAGEWHENTHEGOVERNMENTDECIDED TODIVERTITFROMSYMPATHETIC#AERNARFONTOTHE/LD"AILEYIN,ONDON%VEN RECALCITRANT NATIONALIST ,LOYD 'EORGE WAS OUTSPOKENLY CRITICAL OF THE %NGLISH DECISION4HE THREE MEN WERE DULY IMPRISONED FOR NINE MONTHS BECOMING 0LAID#YMRUSlRSTHEROES

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AND 3/ $AVIES SPEARHEADED NEW PARLIAMENTARY DEMANDS FOR GREATER7ELSH INDEPENDENCE PRESENTING A  PETITION TO 0ARLIAMENT DEMANDING A7ELSH ASSEMBLY THAT WAS SIGNED BY A QUARTER OF A MILLION PEOPLE -ASSIVE POPULAR PROTESTSAGAINSTTHECONTINUEDmOODINGOF7ELSHVALLEYSANDVILLAGESTOPROVIDE WATERFOR%NGLANDSHOOKTHEESTABLISHMENT4HEFORMATIONOFTHEBOIS TEROUS #YMDEITHAS YR )AITH 'YMRAEG THE 7ELSH ,ANGUAGE 3OCIETY CREATED MANY HEADLINES AND ATTRACTED A NEW YOUTHFUL BREED OF CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC NATIONALISTSTOTHEFOLD4HERULING#ONSERVATIVESOFFEREDTOKENMEASURESINAN ATTEMPTTOLANCETHERISINGBOILOFNATIONALISMAPART TIME7ELSH-INISTERWAS APPOINTED #ARDIFF WAS CONlRMED AS CAPITAL AND THE7ELSH mAG AUTHORIZED AS OFlCIAL4HE,ABOURPARTY MEANWHILE WASBECOMINGMOREDISTINCTIVELYNATION ALISTIC HAVINGFORMEDA7ELSH#OUNCILWITHINTHEPARTY FROMWHERE-0S TRADE UNIONISTSANDORDINARYPARTYMEMBERSBEGANTOARTICULATETHENEEDFORGREATER INDEPENDENCE )N THE GENERAL ELECTION OF  THE PARTY STOOD ON A MORE NATIONALISTICPLATFORMTHANEVERBEFORE!SUSUAL THEYSWEPTTHEBOARDIN7ALES ANDlNALLYWONTHROUGHOUTTHE5+ASAWHOLE!SPROMISEDINTHEIRMANIFESTO THEPOSTOF3ECRETARYOF3TATEFOR7ALES BACKEDBYASEPARATE7ELSH/FlCE WAS CREATED ALTHOUGH WITH FEWER POWERS THAN THE 3COTTISH EQUIVALENT WHICH HADEXISTEDSINCEJUSTAFTERTHEWAR

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\-ODERN7ELSHNATIONALISM

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