The Rough Guide to Poland (Rough Guide Travel Guides)

THE ROUGH GUIDE TO

Poland “Rough Guides are consistently readable, informed and, most crucially, reliable.” Bill Bryson

About Rough Guides

The Times, London… The series provides the smooth as well as the rough. It gives expert advice on cheap travel but does not miss out on comfort, and is thorough and accurate on history and art. Sunday Herald Sun, Melbourne… A strong point of Rough Guides is their emphasis on the contemporary life of a place – politics, culture, people. Chicago Tribune… Authoritative and innovative, Rough Guides are practical, opinionated and refreshingly direct. Rough Guides are written and researched by a team of more than 200 authors, based in Europe, the US and Australia. As well as travel guides, we publish a unique series of indestructible maps, phrasebooks, music guides and Internet guides. Check them out at roughguides.com.

About the authors Jonathan Bousfield was introduced to the delights of Polish cooking over a decade ago and has been enjoying pierogi at every given opportunity since. He is author of the Rough Guides to Croatia and the Baltic States, and co-author of the Rough Guides to Austria and Bulgaria. Mark Salter first visited Poland in 1983 and has been returning regularly ever since. A teacher and journalist, in 1990 Mark moved to Stockholm, where he lives with his two children. These days he works for an intergovernmental organization supporting countries in the process of transition to democracy. Cover image: The Pieniny Mountains © Alamy

roughguides.com

Rough Guides started out in 1982, publishing typewritten manuscripts for travel on the cheap – hence our name. These days, however, there’s nothing rough about our books, and our listings range from shoestring to luxury. But don’t take our word for it. This is what the press say:

The Rough Guide to

Poland

written and researched by

Jonathan Bousfield and Mark Salter with additional contributions by

Thomas Brown, Taissa Csáky and Gordon McLachlan

NEW YORK • LONDON • DELHI www.roughguides.com

Ystad

Stockholm

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Baltic Sea Copenhagen

îeba

Sïupsk

E28

Gdaósk Koïobrzeg

Koszalin

Elblèg

òwinoujôcie 8

Rostock

E2

23

Szczecin 5

E2 61

11

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rO

Bydgoszcz

52

Ri

E65

Toruó

R

BERLIN E30

ßa

is

E261

5 E7

Gorzów Wielkopolski

rW ive

Hannover

E7

Poznaó E30

R

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14

ysa rN

E40

E67

KAR

Leipzig

E65

E36

i ve

KO

A4

N

OS

Jelenia Góra

MT

Wrocïaw E261

NS

Czìstochowa

Waïbrzych

A4

Opole E75

ZE

E75

GERMA NY

E75

ra r Od ve

Zielona Góra

5

E6

E67

PRAGUE

Katowice

Plzes

E75

E442

A4

BielskoBiaïa

CZECH REPUBLIC

Cieszyn E462

E4 62

E461

2

AUSTRIA Bratislava & Vienna

Bratislava

BESKID VL FSKI

Helsinki

Kaunas & Vilnius

Metres

Kaliningrad

A231

A2 26

1500 1000

200 51

Mazurian

Lakes Giêycko

Vilnius

500

100

Suwaïki

0 E77

Mrègowo

Augustów

below sea level

16

Olsztyn

A236

E77

R

PISKA FOREST

r Narew ive

A237

Biaïystok

BELARUS

18

10

Minsk

AUGUSTÓW FOREST

BIAÍOWIE^A FOREST 19

60

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2000

LITHUANIA

RU S S IA N FE D E R AT IO N

R iv er

Bu

Pïock

g Minsk

WARSAW

E30

Terespol

7

W er Riv

19

E6

83

E77

is ß a

Radom

A255

Lublin

17

19

Kielce

Kovel

E77

Cheïm

Zamoôë E77

17

Riv e an rS

E40

a is ß W er v i R

9

73

A2 56

E40

E77

Kraków

0 E4

Nowy Sècz

E77

TATRA MOUNTAINS Zakopane

Tarnów

Rzeszów Przemyôl Krosno Sanok BIESZCZADY M OUNTAINS

SLOVAKIA Budapest

L’viv A259

N

UKRAINE

0

Ko1ice & Budapest

100 km

3

Front section

1–24

Introduction ............................... 6 Where to go ............................. 10 When to go .............................. 14 Things not to miss ................... 16

Basics

25–74

Getting there ............................ 27 Visas and red tape ................... 36 Insurance ................................. 37 Health ...................................... 38 Costs, money and banks ......... 39 Information, websites and maps ............................ 40 Getting around ......................... 43 Accommodation ...................... 49 Eating and drinking .................. 54 Communication and the media ............................ 58 Opening hours and holidays .... 62 Festivals, entertainment and sports ........................... 63 Outdoor activities .................... 69 Police and trouble .................... 70 Work and study ........................ 71 Travellers with disabilities ........ 71 Directory .................................. 73

Guide

75–656

| CO NTENTS |

 St Mary’s Church, Kraków

Contents    

Warsaw and Mazovia .......... 77 Northeastern Poland ......... 165 Southeastern Poland ........ 285 Kraków, Małopolska and the Tatras ................. 379  Silesia ............................... 503  Wielkopolska and Pomerania ....................... 579

Contexts

657–704

History ................................... 659 Polish music .......................... 683 Books .................................... 692

Language

705–723

Pronunciation ......................... 707 Useful words and phrases .... 708 Food and drink ..................... 712 Glossaries .............................. 714

Advertisers

725–730

Small print & Index 731–744

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Introduction to

Poland In many ways, Poland is one of the success stories of the new Europe, transforming itself from communistbloc one-party state to parliamentary democracy and European Union member in a remarkably short period of time. More than a decade and a half of non-communist governments have wrought profound changes on the country, unleashing entrepreneurial energies and widening cultural horizons in a way that pre-1989 generations would have scarcely thought possible. Gleaming corporate skyscrapers have taken root in Warsaw, and private shops and cafés have established themselves in even the most provincial of rural towns. The country has a radically different look about it, having exchanged the greyish tinge of a state-regulated society for the anything-goes attitude of private enterprise – and all the billboards and window displays that go with it.

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All this may come as a shock to those who recall the Poland of the 1980s, when images of industrial unrest and anti-communist protest were beamed around the world. Strikes at the Lenin shipyards of Gdaksk and other industrial centres were the harbingers of the disintegration of communism in Eastern Europe, and, throughout the years of martial law and beyond, Poland retained a near-mythical status among outside observers as the country that had done most to retain its dignity in the face of communist oppression.

at St Mary’s Tower, Kraków

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 Trumpeter

For many Poles, the most important events in the movement towards a post-communist society were the visits in 1979 and 1983 of Pope John Paul II, the former archbishop of Krakow, for whose funeral in April 2005, televised live on huge video screens, crowds of almost a million massed in the city. Poland was never a typical communist state: Stalin’s verdict was that imposing communism on the nation was like trying to saddle a cow. Polish society in the postwar decades remained fundamentally traditional, maintaining beliefs, peasant life and a sense of nationhood to which the Catholic Church was integral. During periods of foreign oppression – oppression so severe that Poland as a political entity has sometimes vanished altogether from the maps of Europe – the Church was always the principal defender of the nation’s identity, so that the Catholic faith and the struggle for independence have become fused in the Polish consciousness. The physical presence of the Church is inescapable – in Baroque buildings, roadside shrines and images of the national icon, the Black Madonna of Czqstochowa – and the determination to preserve the memories of an often traumatic past finds expression in The sense of social fluidity, religious rituals that can both attract and of a country still in the repel onlookers. throes of major transitions, World War II and its aftermath remains a primary source profoundly influenced the character of Poland’s fascination of Poland: the country suffered at the

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Fact file • Poland occupies a vast swathe of territory in northcentral Europe, bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, and Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Russia to the east. • Much of northern and central Poland is made up of agricultural plainland and gently rolling countryside, although the Sudeten and Tatra mountains in the south provide a dramatic contrast. • Its population of 38.6 million is predominantly both Polish and devoutly Catholic, although, unsurprisingly for a country which has changed its borders many times in the past, significant pockets of Ukrainians, Belarusians, Bojks and Łemks exist in the east of the country. • Traditionally, Poland is known for its shipbuilding, coal and steel industries, although these days cosmetics, medicines and textile products – often made under licence for Western conglomerates – are increasingly important sources of foreign earnings.

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• The vast bulk of foreign visitors head for splendid old cities like Kraków, or the ski resorts of the Tatras, although Baltic beaches and inland lake resorts – both much patronized by the Poles themselves – help to complete a varied tourist picture.

hands of the Nazis as no other in Europe, losing nearly twenty percent of its population and virtually its entire Jewish community. In 1945 the Soviet-dominated nation was once again given new borders, losing its eastern lands to the USSR and gaining tracts of formerly German territory in the west. The resulting make-up of the population is far more uniformly “Polish” than at any time in the past, in terms of both language and religion, though there are still ethnic minorities of Belarusians, Germans, Lithuanians, Slovaks, Ukrainians and even Muslim Tatars. To a great extent, the sense of social fluidity, of a country still in the throes of major transitions, remains a primary source of Poland’s fascination. A decisive attempt to break with the communist past as well as tenacious adherence to the path of radical market economic reforms adopted in the late 1980s have remained the guiding tenets of Poland’s new political leadership – a course seemingly unaltered by the changing political complexion of successive governments. Few would question the economic and human toll reaped by Poland’s attempt to reach the El Dorado of capitalist prosperity – not least among the most vulnerable sectors of society: public sector employees, farmers, pensioners and the semi- or unemployed. Paradoxically, many of those who made the country’s democratic revolution possible – militant industrial workers and anti-communist

Folk music in Poland Polish folk music may hold a significant position in the general national consciousness, but it’s especially vibrant in the folk cultures found chiefly among the country’s minorities and in its southern and eastern parts. Thanks to Chopin, whose inspiration came in large part from his native Mazovia, music from here is probably the best known but there are other equally worthwhile traditions in Silesia, the Tatras and the Beskid Niski. The festivals in Zakopane and Kazimierz Dolny offer excellent opportunities for getting to grips with many of these rootsy rural styles, while along the Baltic coast the popularity of sea shanties is demonstrated in many an annual festival. For a more detailed look at Polish music see p.64 and p.683.

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intellectuals – have found themselves marginalized in a society in which street-smart businessmen and computer-literate youth are far better poised to take advantage of the brave new Poland’s burgeoning opportunities. Dramatically changed geopolitical circumstances have seen Poland join NATO, the US-led military alliance of which it was – officially at least – a sworn enemy only ten years previously. Perhaps even more significantly, Poland, along with neighbours the Czech Republic and Hungary, is now a fully-fledged member of the EU – a status which promises to transform the country more profoundly than anything since the advent of communism. Tourism is proving no exception to Poland’s general “all change” rule, but despite the continuing state of flux in the country’s tourist infrastructure, it is now easier to explore the country than anyone could have imagined only a few years back. This sea change is reflected in continuing and significant increases in the numbers of people visiting the country. Encounters with the people are at the core of any experience of Poland. On trains and buses, on the streets or in the village bar, you’ll never be stuck for opportunities for contact: Polish hospitality is legendary, and there’s a natural progression from a chance meeting to an introduction to the extended family.

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Where to go

P

oles delineate their country’s attractions as “the mountains, the sea and the lakes”, their emphasis firmly slanted to the traditional, rural heartlands. To get the most out of your time, it’s perhaps best to follow their preferences. The mountains – above all the Carpathian range of the Tatras – are a delight, with a well-established network of hiking trails; the lakes provide opportunities for canoeing and a host of other outdoor pursuits; and the dozen or so national parks retain areas of Europe’s last primeval forests, still inhabited by bison, elks, wolves, bears and eagles. Yet you will not want to miss the best of the cities – Kraków, especially – nor a ramble down rivers like the Wisła for visits to Teutonic castles, ancient waterside towns and grand, Polish country mansions, redolent of a vanished aristocratic order. Regions inhabited by ethnic minorities offer insights into cultures quite distinct from the Catholicism of the majority, while the former centres of the Jewish community, and the concentration camps in which the Nazis carried out their extermination, are the most moving testimony to the complexity and tragedy of the nation’s past. Unless you’re driving to Poland, you’re likely to begin your travels in one of the three major cities: Warsaw, Kraków or Gdaksk. Each provides an immediate immersion in the fast-paced changes of the last decade or so and a backdrop of monuments that reveal the twists and turns of  Willow

trees at sunset

10

 Old

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Town Square, Warsaw

the nation’s history. Warsaw, the capital, had to be rebuilt from scratch after World War II, and much of the city conforms to the stereotype of Eastern European greyness, but the reconstructed Baroque palaces, churches and public buildings of the historic centre, the burgeoning street markets and the bright shopfronts of Poland’s new enterprise culture are divertingenough. Kraków, however, the ancient royal capital, is the real crowd puller for Poles and foreign visitors alike, rivalling the central European elegance of Prague and Vienna. This is the city where history hits you most powerfully, in the royal Wawel complex, in the The real crowd puller for fabulous open space of the Rynek, in the Poles and foreign visitors one-time Jewish quarter of Kazimierz, alike, Kraków rivals the and in the chilling necropolis of nearby central European elegance Auschwitz-Birkenau, the bloodiest killing of Prague and Vienna field of the Third Reich. Gdaksk, formerly Danzig, the largest of the Baltic ports and home of the legendary shipyards, presents a dynamic brew of politics and commerce against a townscape reminiscent of mercantile towns in the Netherlands. German and Prussian influences abound in the north of the country, most notably in the austere castles and fortified settlements constructed by the Teutonic Knights at Malbork, Chełmno and other strategic points

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Seeing Poland’s Jewish heritage | INTR O D U CTIO N | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO 12

The history of Poland is inexorably linked to that of its Jewish population which, before World War II, comprised roughly ten percent (three million) of the country’s total, Europe’s largest Jewish community and the world’s second largest. Of the current world population of fifteen million, over half are thought to be related to Polish Jewry, but up until the late 1980s those travelling to their ancestral home remained few in number due largely to fear of anti-Semitism and apprehension about travelling in communist Eastern Europe. Nowadays, organized tours, particularly from Israel and the US, are common, visiting the traditional focal points of Polish-Jewish life and culture. Every effort has been made in the Guide to cover sites of interest to Jews, and many of the organizations on p.42 can provide further information. For more on Jewish heritage, see the “Books” section of Contexts, p.692.

along the River Wisła – as the Vistula is known in Poland. Toruk is one of the most atmospheric and beautiful of the old Hanseatic towns here. Over in the east, numerous minority communities embody the complexities of national boundaries in central Europe. The one-time Jewish centre of Białystok, with its Belarusian minority, is a springboard for the eastern borderlands, where onion-domed Orthodox churches stand close to Tatar mosques. Further south, beyond Lublin, a famous centre of Hassidic Jewry, and Zamoac, with its magnificent Renaissance centre, lie the homelands of Ukrainians, Łemks and Boyks – and a chance to see some of Poland’s extraordinary wooden churches. In the west, ethnic Germans populate regions of the divided province of Silesia, where Wrocław sustains the dual cultures of the former

 Near

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Mikołajki, Mazurian lakes

German city of Breslau and the Ukrainian city of L’viv, whose displaced citizens were moved here at the end of World War II. The other main city in western Poland is the quintessentially Polish Poznak, a vibrant and increasingly prosperous university town. Despite its much-publicized polluPolish vodka tion problems – problems it is now finally making a serious attempt to The tipple most associated with Poland, vodka is actually address – Poland has many regions in danger of being eclipsed in of unspoilt natural beauty, of which popularity by beer among young none is more pristine than the Poles, so it’s well worth seeking Białowiewa Forest, straddling the out the varieties you can’t find Belarusian border; the last virgin abroad before they disappear forest of the European mainland, it from Polish shops and bars is the habitat of the largest survivcompletely. Traditionally served chilled and neat – although ing herd of European bison. Along increasingly mixed with fruit juice the southern borders of the country – vodka can be clear or flavoured lie the wild Bieszczady mountains with anything from bison grass and the alpine Tatras and, further to mountain herbs to juniper west, the bleak Karkonosze mounberries or honey. There’s even tains – all of them excellent walking been a revival of kosher vodkas country – interspersed with less – although whether their rabbinic stamps of approval are kosher demanding terrain. North of the themselves or just a marketing central Polish plain, the wooded lakegimmick isn’t always obvious. lands of Mazury and Pomerania are

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Wawel

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as tranquil as any lowland region on the continent, while the Baltic coast can boast not just the domesticated pleasures of its beach resorts, but also the extraordinary desert-like dunes of the Słowikski national park – one of a dozen such parks.

When to go pring is arguably the ideal season for some serious hiking in Poland’s mountainous border regions, as the days tend to be bright – if showery – and the distinctive flowers are at their most profuse. Summer, the tourist high season, sees plenty of sun, particularly on the Baltic coast, where the resorts are crowded from June to August and temperatures are consistently around 24°C (75°F). Autumn is the best time to come if you’re planning to sample the whole spread of the country’s attractions: in the cities the cultural seasons are beginning at this time, and the pressure on hotel rooms is lifting. In the countryside, the golden Polish October is especially memorable, the

S



Stall at Easter fair

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GERMANY

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BELARUS

rich colours of the forests RUSSIAN Gdynia FEDERATION LITHUANIA heightened by brilliantly crisp sunshine, and it’s often warm enough for T-shirts. In winter the temperaPoznaó tures drop rapidly, icy WARSAW Siberian winds blanketing many parts of the N country with snow for anything from one to Kraków Przemyôl three months. Though CZECH UKRAINE the central Polish plain 0 100 km REPUBLIC SLOVAKIA is bleak and unappealing at the end of the year, in the south of the country skiers and other wintersports enthusiasts will find themselves in their element. By mid-December the slopes of the Tatras and the other border ranges are thronged with holiday-makers, straining the established facilities to the limit. Average maximum temperatures (˚F/°C) and rainfall Jan

March

May

July

Sept

Dec

max (ºF) max (ºC) Rainfall (mm)

32 0 28

45 7.2 35

67 19.4 46

76 24.4 111

67 19.4 62

38 3.3 36

max (ºF) max (ºC) Rainfall (mm)

35 1.7 33

40 4.4 27

59 15 42

70 21.1 84

64 17.8 59

38 3.3 46

max (ºF) max (ºC) Rainfall (mm)

33 0.6 24

45 7.2 26

67 19.4 47

76 24.4 82

67 19.4 45

38 3.3 39

max (ºF) max (ºC) Rainfall (mm)

32 0 27

43 6.1 25

67 19.4 57

76 24.4 105

67 19.4 58

38 3.3 43

max (ºF) max (ºC) Rainfall (mm)

32 0 27

41 5 27

67 19.4 46

76 24.4 96

67 19.4 43

36 2.2 44 15

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things not to miss

It’s not possible to see everything that Poland has to offer in one trip – and we don’t suggest you try. What follows is a selective taste of the country’s highlights: outstanding buildings and historic sites, natural wonders and vibrant festivals. They’re arranged in five colour-coded categories, which you can browse through to find the very best things to see and experience. All highlights have a page reference to take you straight into the guide, where you can find out more.

The Tatras Page 479 • Poland’s prime highland playground is a paradise for hikers of all abilities, with relaxing rambles in subalpine meadows for the easy-going, or hairraising mountain-ridge walks for the more experienced.

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Słowinski national park Page 630 • Trek across Sahara-like dunes just outside the seaside town of Łeba, pausing to sunbathe, bird-watch or explore World War II rocket installations along the way.

02

Lublin Page 290 • A jewel of an old town and a large student population make Lublin the liveliest and most rewarding of Poland’s eastern cities – and one that’s relatively undiscovered by tourists.

04

Vodka Pages 13 & 57 • The essential accompaniment to any social occasion. It has to be drunk neat and downed in one go if you want to do things properly.

05

Gdansk’s ulica Długa Page 176 • A stroll down one of Poland’s most beautiful set-piece streets will take you past a string of wonderfully restored town houses, recalling the mercantile dynasties that made Gdansk one of the great trading centres of northern Europe.

03

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Wooden churches Page 360 • An age-old form of folk architecture still preserved in rural corners of the country. Visit some of the best examples in Jaszczurówka near Zakopane, or in the remote villages of the Bieszczady.

06

Malbork Castle Page 203 • The Teutonic Knights lorded it over northern Poland for more than 200 years, and this – a rambling complex of fortifications on the banks of the Wisła – is their most imposing monument.

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Markets Pages 138 & 443 • In order to investigate the changes wrought by free-market economics in Poland, savour the street-level commerce of the country’s outdoor markets – often frequented by small-time traders from Poland’s eastern neighbours – where you’ll find everything from fresh fruit and veg, fake designer tracksuits and car parts to traditional smoked cheeses.

08

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Zamosc Page 323 • A model Renaissance town located deep in the countryside of eastern Poland, and stuffed with the palaces and churches built by the Zamoyskis, one of the country’s leading aristocratic families.

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Baltic beaches Page 70 • Experience the bracing sea breezes and mile upon mile of unspoilt sands in laid-back, old-fashioned seaside resorts like Hel (p.198), Miedzyzdroje (p.642) and Mielno (p.636).

10 Palace of Culture, Warsaw Page 115 • Love it or hate it, this soaring Art Deco monument to Stalinist ideology is still the outstanding feature of the downtown skyline.

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Milk bars Page 54 • A particularly Polish institution in which you can scoff heartily and cheaply on staples like bigos (sauerkraut stew), pierogi (dumplings stuffed with meat) and placki (potato pancakes) in unpretentious, canteen-style surroundings.

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19

Catholic festivals Page 63 • As well as understanding Poland’s politics it’s essential to appreciate the religious backdrop. Attending one of the big Church festivals like Easter, Corpus Christi or the Annunciation will give you a flavour of this deeply religious country.

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Białowiesa national park Page 277 • One of the most extensive areas of primeval forest in Europe, which you can explore on foot or by horse-drawn cart. Also famous for being home to a beast indigenous to Poland: the European bison.

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Open-air museums Pages 349, 372 & 619 • Poland’s rich tradition of folk crafts has been preserved in the open-air museums (or skansen) that gather together examples of vernacular architecture from around the country – often featuring the kind of timber-built farmhouses which have all but disappeared in the rest of Europe. Those in Nowy Sacz, Sanok and Lednica are particularly worth a visit.

15

Wawel Page 409 • One of the most striking royal residences in Europe and a potent source of national and spiritual pride, Wawel is to Poles what Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, Windsor Castle and Canterbury Cathedral are to the British – only all rolled into one.

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20

Auschwitz-Birkenau Page 445 • Poland was once home to one of the most vibrant Jewish communities in Europe, a presence that was all but snuffed out by the Nazis during World War II. The most notorious extermination camp of them all, AuschwitzBirkenau, offers the profoundest of insights into the nature of human evil, and demands to be visited – few who come here will be unchanged by the experience.

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Kazimierz Dolny Page 312 • One of the best-preserved small towns of Poland’s rural heartland, and an age-old centre of Jewish culture, now popular with the Warsaw arts-and-media set, who descend on Kazimierz en masse on summer weekends.

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Folk festivals Page 685 • July and August are the busiest months in Poland’s considerable calendar of traditional festivals. The International Festival of Highland Folklore in Zakopane is the main event to aim for, although there are numerous other regional events worth considering.

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Poznan Page 585 • Recharge your urban batteries in the down-to-earth, work-hard-and-play-hard city that epitomizes the invigorating mercantile bustle of the new Poland.

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Młoda Polska Page 405 • Get to grips with the belle époque art movement that transformed Polish culture by visiting the Wyspianski Museum in Kraków.

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Zalipie Page 478 • For an insight into the riches of Polish folk culture, visit the village whose householders are famous for their distinctive taste in interior design.

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Wrocław Page 528 • Wrocław’s historic core is an exhilarating mixture of architectural influences, from Flemish-style Renaissance mansions to the late Gothic monstrosity of its town hall. At its heart stands a typically vibrant, café-splashed Rynek.

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| AC TIVITIES | CONSUM E | E V E NTS | NATURE | S I GHTS | Rynek Glówny, Kraków Page 384 • A spectacular medieval market square, packed with fine architecture, in a country that’s famous for them. Settle down in one of the numerous pavement cafés and soak up the atmosphere.

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The Mazurian Lakes Page 233 • The central Mazurian Lakes are a hugely popular destination for Polish tourists in summer, but the further east you head into the lakeland, the closer you can get to the lakes’ essence as discovered by the first visitors here – beauty and solitude.

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Torun Page 209 • Birthplace of the astronomer Copernicus, and famous for the local gingerbread, Torun is a medieval university town with a satisfying jumble of historical monuments, and a laid-back, easy-going charm.

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Warsaw’s Old Town Page 94 • Lively pavement cafés, fine restaurants and exuberant street life in a historic town centre that was faithfully reconstructed after its almost total destruction by the Nazis. As strong a symbol as any of Poland’s struggle to rebuild in the aftermath of World War II.

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The Black Madonna of Czestochowa Page 456 • The world-famous Black Madonna should not be missed, although what you actually do get to see of the painting is limited as the figures of the Madonna and Child are always “dressed” in sets of richly decorated clothes. More impressive, perhaps, is the sense of wonder, excitement and devotion the icon inspires in the pilgrims who come here.

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"ASICS



Basics

26

Getting there

27

Visas and red tape

36

Insurance

37

Health

38

Costs, money and banks

39

Information, websites and maps

40

Getting around

43

Accommodation

49

Eating and drinking

54

Communications and the media

58

Opening hours and holidays

62

Festivals, entertainment and sports

63

Outdoor activities

69

Police and trouble

70

Work and study

71

Travellers with disabilities

71

Directory

73

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Guide

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Guide

76

1

Warsaw and Mazovia

77-164

2

Northeastern Poland

165-284

3

Southeastern Poland

285-378

4

Kraków, Malopolska and the Tatras

379-501

5

Silesia

503-577

6

Wielkopolska and Pomerania

579-655

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ARSAW HAS TWO ENDURING POINTS OF DElNITION THE 7IS‘A 2IVER RUNNING SOUTH TO NORTH ACROSS THE -AZOVIAN PLAINS AND THE -OSCOWn"ERLIN ROAD STRETCHING ACROSS THIS TERRAIN n AND THROUGH THECITYnEASTTOWEST3UCHALOCATION ANDFOURHUNDREDYEARSOF CAPITALSTATUS HAVEENSUREDAHISTORYWRITLARGEWITHOCCUPATIONSANDUPRISINGS INTRIGUESANDHEROISM7ARSAWSSUFFERINGS ABOVEALLTHE7ORLD7AR))UPRISING WHICHLEDTOTHECITYSNEAR TOTALOBLITERATION HAVELODGEDITINTHENATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS ALTHOUGH IN THE MOST RECENT ERA OF POLITICAL STRUGGLE7ARSAW WASATTIMESOVERSHADOWEDBYEVENTSIN'DAcSKANDTHEINDUSTRIALCENTRESOF THESOUTH)TSROLEHASALWAYSBEENAKEYONENONETHELESS ASAFOCUSOFPOPULAR ANDINTELLECTUALOPPOSITIONANDTHESITEOFPASTANDFUTUREPOWER ANDTODAY AS MEMORIESOFTHECOMMUNIST0OLANDRECEDEINTOTHEDISTANCE THECITYISAGAIN PRE EMINENTECONOMICALLY POLITICALLYANDCULTURALLY 4HE EXTENSIVE RENOVATION AND DEVELOPMENT THAT HAS COME IN TANDEM WITH 0OLANDSACCESSIONTOTHE%UROPEAN5NIONHAVELEFT7ARSAWLOOKINGBETTER THANATANYTIMEINTHELASTSIXTYYEARSnTHOUGHALLTHESAMENOONEISLIKELYTO CONFUSEITWITH0RAGUEOR6IENNACOMMUNISTPLANNINGLEFTTHECITYAWASHWITH CONCRETE ANDTHERESSOMETIMESAHOLLOWNESSTOTHEFAITHFULRECONSTRUCTIONSOF WHATWASDESTROYEDINTHEWAR4HEPACEOFSOCIALCHANGE HOWEVER ISTANGIBLE AND FASCINATING AND IN THE CITY CENTRE MIXED IN WITH7ESTERN COMMERCIAL BRASHNESSANDTHEREMNANTSOFTHE0OLISH0EOPLES2EPUBLIC YOULLlNDANEW GENERATIONOFRESTAURANTSANDNIGHTSPOTSWITHGENUINESTYLE 9OURELESSLIKELYTOlNDOUTWARDMANIFESTATIONSOFMODERNITYINTHEVILLAGES OF-AZOVIA n-AZOWSZEIN0OLISHnTHEPLAINWHICHSURROUNDSTHECAPITAL -AZOVIAISHISTORICALLYONEOFTHEPOORERREGIONSOF0OLAND ITSPEASANTPOPULA TIONEKINGAPRECARIOUSEXISTENCEFROMTHENOTORIOUSLYINFERTILESANDYSOIL)TIS NOTTHEMOSTARRESTINGOFLANDSCAPES BUTCONTAINSAHALF DOZENORSOREWARDING DAY TRIPSTOEASEYOURPASSAGEINTOTHERURAL0OLISHEXPERIENCE4HE0ARK.ARO DOWY 0USZCZA +AMPINOSKA +AMPINOSKI &OREST .ATIONAL 0ARK SPREADING NORTHWESTOF7ARSAW ISAREMNANTOFTHEPRIMEVALFORESTSTHATONCECOVEREDTHIS REGION WITH TRANQUIL VILLAGES DOTTED ALONG ITS SOUTHERN RIM .EARBY IS ELA ZOWA7OLA THEMUCH VISITEDBIRTHPLACEOF#HOPIN AND ONTHEOPPOSITESIDE OFTHERIVER THEHISTORICCHURCHCOMPLEXAT#ZERWIcSK NAD7IS‘A‹OWICZ ISWELLKNOWNFORITSFOLKCULTURE WHILETHEPALACEAT.IEBORØWISONEOFTHE lNESTARISTOCRATICMANSIONSINTHECOUNTRY!HUNDREDKILOMETRESSOUTHWESTOF THE CAPITAL LIES INDUSTRIAL ‹ØD% THE COUNTRYS SECOND CITY AND AN IMPORTANT CULTURAL CENTRE WHILE TO THE NORTH THERE ARE HISTORIC OLD -AZOVIAN CENTRES NOTABLYTHEMARKETTOWNOF0U‘TUSK&INALLY FANSOF3ECESSIONISTARTWONTWANT TOMISSTHEOUTSTANDINGMUSEUMAT0‘OCK WESTALONGTHERIVER

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-RGOWOS TRAIN STATION IS ON THE WESTERN FRINGES OF TOWN WALK DOWNHILL FROM HERE FOR TEN MINUTES TO lND THE BUS STATION WHERE YOU TURN LEFT TO REACHTHETOWNCENTREANOTHERMIN 4HERESATOURISTINFORMATIONOFlCE ONTHEMAINROADTHROUGHTOWNATUL+RØLEWIECKAA-ONn&RIAMnPM   WHEREYOUCANGETINFORMATIONONPRIVATEROOMS AND PENSJONATS  n  THE %DYTA AT UL ,ASKOWA        ONTHEFARSIDEOFTHELAKEFROMTHETOWNCENTRE ISONEOFTHENICERPENSIONS .OTFARAWAYATUL*ASZCZURCZA'ØRATHEHOTEL-AZURIA   ISAGOODMEDIUM RANGECHOICEWITHROOMSOVERLOOKINGTHELAKE4HEPLUSH -ERCURE -RONGOVIA ON THE EASTERN EDGE OF TOWN AT UL 'I&YCKA      WWWORBISPL  OFFERSJUSTABOUTEVERYFACILITYIMAGINABLE INCLUDING TWO SWIMMING POOLS TENNIS AND SPA TREATMENTS #AMPING #EZAR JUST BELOW THE-RONGOVIAATUL*ASZCZURCZA'ØRA  HASBUNGALOWS  "ESTOFTHERESTAURANTSISTHE3TAROMIEJSKIATUL-A‘Y2YNEK WHICHOFFERS ARANGEOFREASONABLYPRICED0OLISHSPECIALITIES WHILE,A3TALLA ALMOSTOPPOSITE ATUL-A‘Y2YNEK DOESARESPECTABLELINEINPIZZA PASTAANDCLASSIC)TALIAN MEATDISHES



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4WENTY KILOMETRES NORTH AND A FORTY MINUTE BUS RIDE FROM -RGOWO IS THE CHURCH AT 7) 4! ,)0+! PROBABLY THE COUNTRYS MOST FAMOUS "AROQUE SHRINE,ODGEDONATHINSTRIPOFLANDINBETWEENTWOLAKES THEMAGNIlCENT CHURCHISSTUCKOUTINTHEMIDDLEOFNOWHERE!SANAPPROACHAREASTUFFEDWITH SOUVENIRSTALLSANDLOCALSPEDDLINGhFOLKARTvATINmATEDPRICESSUGGESTS THEOUT OF THE WAYLOCATIONDOESNTSTOPTHETOURISTSTURNINGUPINDROVES THOUGH!S OFTENIN0OLAND THEDRAWOFTHECHURCHISNTPURELYITSARCHITECTURALQUALITIES WI TA,IPKAISALSOANIMPORTANTCENTREOFPILGRIMAGEAND-ARIANDEVOTION AND DURING RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS THE CHURCH IS ABSOLUTELY JAMMED WITH PILGRIMS CREATINGANINTENSEATMOSPHEREOFFERVENT#ATHOLICDEVOTION 4HE NAME WI TA ,IPKA n LITERALLYhHOLY LIME TREEv n DERIVES FROM A LOCAL MEDIEVAL LEGEND ACCORDING TO WHICH A 0RUSSIAN TRIBAL LEADER RELEASED FROM IMPRISONMENT BY THE4EUTONIC +NIGHTS IS SUPPOSED TO HAVE PLACED A STATUE OF THE6IRGIN IN A LIME TREE AS A TOKEN OF THANKS7ITHIN A FEW YEARS HEALING MIRACLESWEREBEINGREPORTEDATTHEPLACE ANDACHAPELWASEVENTUALLYBUILTON THESITEBYTHE+NIGHTSIN4HEFAMEANDSUPPOSEDCURATIVEPOWERSOFTHE SHRINEINCREASEDBYLEAPSANDBOUNDS TOSUCHANEXTENTTHATBYTHEENDOFTHE lFTEENTHCENTURYITHADBECOMEANIMPORTANTCENTREOFPILGRIMAGE&OLLOWING THEIRCONVERSIONTO,UTHERANISM THE4EUTONIC+NIGHTSDESTROYEDTHECHAPELIN  INCHARACTERISTICALLYBRUTALFASHIONPLACINGGALLOWSINFRONTOFTHESITEINA BIDTODETERPILGRIMS)N0OLESMANAGEDTOPURCHASETHERUINS ANDANOTHER CHAPELWASCONSTRUCTEDUNDERTHEDIRECTIONOF3TEFAN3ADORSKI +ING3IGISMUND ))SPRIVATESECRETARY ANDHANDEDOVERTO*ESUITSFROMTHE,ITHUANIANSECTIONOF THE/RDERINTHES7ITHPILGRIMSTURNINGUPINEVER INCREASINGNUMBERS THE*ESUITSDECIDEDTOBUILDANEWANDMOREAMBITIOUSSANCTUARY7ORKONTHE "AROQUEEDIlCEYOUSEETODAYWASBEGUNINUNDERTHEDIRECTIONOF*ERZY %RTLY ANARCHITECTFROM6ILNIUS SOTOANYONEFAMILIARWITHTHECHURCHESOFTHE ,ITHUANIANCAPITALANDITSSURROUNDINGS THEh%ASTERNv"AROQUEOFWI TA,IPKA WILLCOMEASNOSURPRISE 4HECHURCH



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0RACTICALITIES

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0RACTICALITIES

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Contexts

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Polish music

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(ISTORY

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4HEBEGINNINGS # /.4% 843

\(ISTORY

4HEGREATPLAINTHATISPRESENT DAY0OLAND STRETCHINGFROMTHE2IVER/DRAOR /DER INTHEWESTALLTHEWAYTOTHE2USSIANSTEPPES HASBEENINHABITEDSINCE THE3TONE!GE&ORTHOUSANDSOFYEARSITWASHOMETONUMEROUSTRIBESnSOME NOMADIC OTHERSSETTLERSnWHOSETRACESHAVEMADE0OLANDAPARTICULARLYFRUIT FULLANDFORARCHEOLOGISTS,YINGBEYONDTHEFRONTIERSOFTHE2OMAN%MPIRE ITDIDNOTSUSTAINANYTHINGMORESOCIALLYADVANCEDTHANATRIBALCULTUREUNTILA RELATIVELYLATEDATE 4HEEXACTPERIODWHENTHISPLAINWASlRSTSETTLEDBY3LAVTRIBESISUNCERTAIN BUTITMAYHAVEBEENASLATEASTHEEIGHTHCENTURY!LTHOUGHDIFFUSE THEVARIOUS 3LAVGROUPSSHAREDACOMMONCULTUREnCERTAINLYTOAFARGREATEREXTENTTHANIS TRUEOFTHE'ERMANICTRIBESTOTHEWESTnANDTHE0OLISHLANGUAGECANBESAID TOHAVEEXISTEDBEFORETHE0OLISHSTATE )TWASTHE0OLONIANSTHEhPEOPLEOFTHEOPENlELDSv BASEDONTHEBANKSOF THE2IVER7ARTABETWEEN0OZNAAND'NIEZNO WHOWEREULTIMATELYRESPONSI BLEFORTHEFORGINGOFARECOGNIZABLENATION WHICHTHEREAFTERBORETHEIRNAME &ROMTHEEARLYNINTHCENTURY THEYWERERULEDBYTHE0IASTDYNASTY WHOSEEARLY HISTORYISSHROUDEDINLEGENDBUTEMERGESINTOSOMETHINGMORESUBSTANTIALWITH THEBEGINNINGSOFRECORDEDHISTORYINTHESECONDHALFOFTHETENTHCENTURY )N THE0IAST-IESZKO)MARRIEDTHESISTEROFTHE$UKEOF"OHEMIAAND UNDERWENT PUBLIC BAPTISM THUS PLACING HIMSELF UNDER THE PROTECTION OF THE PAPACY -IESZKOS MOTIVES APPEAR TO HAVE BEEN POLITICAL /TTO THE 'REAT THE (OLY2OMAN%MPEROR HADEXTENDED'ERMANYSBORDERTOTHE/DRAANDWOULD HAVEHADLITTLEDIFlCULTYINJUSTIFYINGAPUSHEASTAGAINSTAPAGANSTATE"Y -IESZKOHADSUCCEEDEDINUNITINGHISTRIBALAREA HENCEFORTHKNOWNAS7IELKO POLSKA'REAT0OLAND WITHTHATOFTHE6ISTULANIANTRIBE WHICHTOOKTHENAME OF-A‘OPOLSKA,ITTLE0OLAND 3ILESIA SETTLEDBYYETANOTHER3LAVTRIBE BECAME THETHIRDCOMPONENTOFTHISEMBRYONIC0OLISHSTATE -IESZKOSPOLICIESWERECARRIEDTOTHEIRLOGICALCONCLUSIONBYHISWARRIORSON "OLES‘AW THE "RAVE )N  THE %MPEROR /TTO ))) WAS DISPATCHED BY THE POPETOPAYTRIBUTETOTHERELICSOFTHE#ZECHSAINT !DALBERT WHICH"OLES‘AW HAD ACQUIRED $URING HIS STAY THE EMPEROR CROWNED "OLES‘AW WITH HIS OWN CROWN THUS RENOUNCING 'ERMAN DESIGNS ON 0OLISH TERRITORY 3UBSEQUENTLY "OLES‘AW ESTABLISHED CONTROL OVER 0OMERANIA +UJAWY AND -AZOVIA HE ALSO GAINEDANDLOST"OHEMIAANDBEGAN0OLANDSOWNEASTERLYDRIVE PUSHINGASFAR AS+IEV4HENAMEh0OLANDvNOWCAMEINTOGENERALUSE ANDITSSTATUSASAFULLY mEDGEDKINGDOMWASUNDERLINEDBY"OLES‘AWSDECISIONTOUNDERGOASECOND CORONATIONIN



0IAST0OLAND

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\(ISTORY 

"YTHEMIDDLEOFTHEELEVENTHCENTURY -A‘OPOLSKAHADBECOMETHECENTRE OFTHENATIONSAFFAIRSAND+RAKØWHADREPLACED'NIEZNOASCAPITAL OWINGTO 7IELKOPOLSKASVULNERABILITYTOTHEEXPANSIONIST#ZECHSAND'ERMANS0OLITI CAL AUTHORITY WAS IN ANY CASE OVERSHADOWED BY THE POWER OF THE #HURCH WHEN"ISHOP3TANIS‘AWOF+RAKØWWASMURDEREDINONTHEORDERSOF "OLES‘AW THE 'ENEROUS THECLERGYNOTONLYGAINEDANATIONALSAINTWHOSE CULTQUICKLYSPREAD BUTALSOSUCCEEDEDINDETHRONINGTHEKING )NTHEEARLYTWELFTHCENTURY CENTRALIZEDMONARCHICALPOWERMADEACOMEBACK UNDER"OLES‘AWTHE7RYMOUTH WHOREGAINED0OMERANIAnWHICHHADBECOME ANINDEPENDENTDUCHYnANDREPULSED'ERMANDESIGNSON3ILESIA(OWEVER HE UNDIDHISLIFETIMESWORKBYADECISIONTODIVIDEHISKINGDOMAMONGHISSONS FORTHERESTOFTHECENTURYANDBEYOND 0OLANDLACKEDCENTRALAUTHORITYANDWAS RIVEN BY FEUDS AS SUCCESSIVE MEMBERS OF THE 0IAST DYNASTY JOSTLED FOR CONTROL OVERTHEKEYPROVINCES0OMERANIAFELLTO$ENMARK WHILE3ILESIABEGANALONG PROCESSOFFRAGMENTATION BECOMINGINCREASINGLY'ERMANIC )N$UKE +ONRAD OF -AZOVIA UNDERTHREATFROMTHEHEATHEN0RUS SIANS *ACWINGIANSAND,ITHUANIANSONHISEASTERNBORDER INVITEDTHE4EUTONIC +NIGHTS A QUASI MONASTIC 'ERMAN MILITARY ORDER TO HELP HIM SECURE HIS FRONTIERS4HEKNIGHTSDULYBASEDTHEMSELVESIN#HE‘MNO ANDBYTHEYHAD EFFECTIVELY ERADICATED THE 0RUSSIANS %MERGING AS THE PRINCIPAL MILITARY POWER INNORTHERN%UROPE THEKNIGHTSBUILTUPATHEOCRATICSTATEDEFENDEDBYSOME OFTHEMOSTAWESOMECASTLESEVERBUILT RUTHLESSLYTURNINGONTHEIRFORMERHOSTS IN THE PROCESS4HEY CAPTURED THE GREAT PORT OF 'DASK IN  RENAMING IT $ANZIGANDDEVELOPINGITINTOONEOF%UROPESRICHESTMERCANTILECITIES!TTHE SAMETIME 'ERMANPEASANTSWEREENCOURAGEDTOSETTLEONTHEFERTILEAGRICUL TURAL LAND ALL ALONG THE "ALTIC 0OLAND WAS LEFT CUT OFF FROM THE SEA WITH ITS TRADINGROUTESSEVERELYWEAKENEDASARESULT )FTHE4EUTONIC+NIGHTSBROUGHTNOTHINGBUTDISASTERTOTHE0OLISHNATION THE EFFECTS OF THE 4ATAR INVASIONS OF n WERE MORE MIXED!LTHOUGH THE 0OLESWEREDECISIVELYDEFEATEDATTHE"ATTLE OF ,EGNICA THE4ATARSCRUSHING OFTHE+IEV BASED2USSIANEMPIREPAVEDTHEWAYFOR0OLISHEXPANSIONEASTINTO 7HITE AND 2ED 2UTHENIA THE FORERUNNERS OF "ELARUS AND 5KRAINE WHOSE PRINCIPALITIESWEREOFTENLINKEDTO0OLANDBYDYNASTICMARRIAGES/NTHEDOWN SIDE THEDEFEATSPELTTHEBEGINNINGOFTHEENDFOR3ILESIAASPARTOF0OLAND)T GRADUALLYSPLITINTOEIGHTEENTINYDUCHIESUNDERTHECONTROLOF"OHEMIA THEN THEMOSTPOWERFULPARTOFTHE(OLY2OMAN%MPIRE )TWASONLYUNDERTHELAST0IASTKING +AZIMIERZTHE'REATn THAT CENTRALPOLITICALAUTHORITYWASlRMLYRE ESTABLISHEDIN0OLAND+RAKØWTOOKON SOMEASPECTSOFITSPRESENTAPPEARANCEDURINGHISREIGN BEINGEMBELLISHEDWITH ASERIESOFMAGNIlCENTBUILDINGSTOSUBSTANTIATEITSCLAIMTOBEAGREAT%UROPEAN CAPITAL )T WAS ALSO MADE THE SEAT OF A UNIVERSITY THE lRST IN THE COUNTRY AND BEFORELONGONEOFTHEMOSTPRESTIGIOUSONTHECONTINENT+AZIMIERZSACHIEVE MENTSINDOMESTICPOLICYWENTFARBEYONDTHESYMBOLICHECODIlED0OLANDS LAWS CREATEDAUNIlEDADMINISTRATIVESTRUCTUREWITHAGOVERNORRESPONSIBLEFOR EACHPROVINCE ANDINTRODUCEDANEWSILVERCURRENCY 7ITH REGARD TO 0OLANDS FRONTIERS +AZIMIERZ WAS A SUPREME PRAGMATIST (ESECUREDHISBORDERSWITHALINEOFSTONECASTLESANDFORMALLYRECOGNIZED "OHEMIAS CONTROL OVER 3ILESIA IN RETURN FOR A RENUNCIATION OF ITS CLAIM TO THE 0OLISH CROWN -ORE RELUCTANTLY HE ACCEPTED THE EXISTENCE OF THE

INDEPENDENTSTATEOFTHE4EUTONIC+NIGHTS EVENTHOUGHTHATMEANT0OLAND WAS NOW LANDLOCKED4O COMPENSATE HE EXTENDED HIS TERRITORIES EAST INTO 2ED 2UTHENIA AND 0ODOLIA WHICH MEANT THAT ALTHOUGH THE #ATHOLIC #HURCH RETAINED ITS PROMINENT ROLE THE COUNTRY NOW HAD SIZEABLE %ASTERN /RTHODOXAND!RMENIANMINORITIES %VENMORESIGNIlCANTWAS+AZIMIERZSENCOURAGEMENTOF*EWS WHOHADBEEN THE VICTIMS OF POGROMS ALL OVER %UROPE OFTEN BEING HELD RESPONSIBLE FOR THE "LACK$EATH!LAWOFSPECIlCALLYPROTECTEDTHEMAGAINSTPERSECUTIONIN 0OLANDANDWASAMAJORFACTORIN0OLANDSCENTURIES LONGPOSITIONASTHEHOME OFTHELARGESTCOMMUNITYOFWORLD*EWRY

\(ISTORY

/N+AZIMIERZSDEATH THECROWNPASSEDTOHISNEPHEW,OUISOF!NJOU KING OF (UNGARY BUT THIS ROYAL UNION WAS SHORT LIVED AS THE 0OLES CHOSE ,OUIS YOUNGERDAUGHTER*ADWIGATOSUCCEEDHIMIN WHILEHERSISTERASCENDED THE(UNGARIANTHRONE4HISEVENTWASIMPORTANTFORTWOREASONS&IRST ITWAS ANASSERTIONOFPOWERONTHEPARTOFTHEARISTOCRACYANDTHEBEGINNINGSOF THEMOVETOWARDSANELECTEDMONARCHY3ECOND ITLEDSOONAFTERWARDSTOTHE MOST IMPORTANT AND ENDURING ALLIANCE IN 0OLISH HISTORY n WITH ,ITHUANIA WHOSEGRANDDUKE *OGAILAHENCEFORTHKNOWNTOHISTORYBYHIS0OLISHNAME 7‘ADYS‘AW *AGIE‘‘O MARRIED*ADWIGAIN%UROPESLASTPAGANNATION ,ITHUANIAHADRESISTEDTHE4EUTONIC+NIGHTSANDDEVELOPEDINTOANEXPANSIONIST STATETHATNOWSTRETCHEDFROMITS"ALTICHOMELANDALLTHEWAYTOTHE#RIMEA !FTER*ADWIGASDEATHIN *AGIE‘‘OREIGNEDOVERTHETWONATIONSALONEFOR THE NEXT  YEARS FOUNDING THE *AGIELLONIAN DYNASTY n WHICH WAS TO REMAIN INPOWERUNTILnWITHTHEOFFSPRINGOFHISSUBSEQUENTMARRIAGE/NEOF THElRSTBENElTSOFTHEALLIANCEBETWEEN0OLANDAND,ITHUANIAWASAMILITARY STRENGTHCAPABLEOFTAKINGTHEOFFENSIVEAGAINSTTHE4EUTONIC+NIGHTS ANDATTHE "ATTLEOF'RUNWALDIN THEORDERWASDEFEATED BEGINNINGITSLONGAND SLOWDECLINE!MOREDECISIVEBREAKTHROUGHCAMEASARESULTOFTHE4HIRTEEN 9EARS7AROFn"YTHE4REATY OF4ORU THEKNIGHTSTERRITORYWAS PARTITIONED$ANZIGBECAMEANINDEPENDENTCITY STATE RUNBYAMERCHANTCLASS OFPREDOMINANTLY'ERMAN $UTCHAND&LEMISHORIGINS BUTACCEPTINGTHE0OLISH KING AS ITS NOMINAL OVERLORD THE REMAINDER OF THE KNIGHTS HEARTLANDS AROUND THE,OWER7IS‘A6ISTULA BECAMESUBJECTTO0OLANDUNDERTHENAMEOF2OYAL 0RUSSIAANDTHEORDERWASLEFTONLYWITHTHEEASTERNTERRITORYTHEREAFTERKNOWN AS $UCAL 0RUSSIA OR %AST 0RUSSIA WHERE IT ESTABLISHED ITS NEW HEADQUARTERS IN THECITYOF+ÚNIGSBERG 4OWARDS THE END OF THE lFTEENTH CENTURY 0OLAND AND ,ITHUANIA BEGAN TO FACENEWDANGERSFROMTHEEAST&IRSTTOTHREATENWERETHE#RIMEAN4ATARS WHOSEMENACEPROMPTEDTHECREATIONOFTHElRST0OLISHSTANDINGARMY!FAR MORESERIOUSTHREATnONEWHICHENDUREDFORSEVERALHUNDREDYEARSnCAME FROMTHE -USCOVITE TSARS THESELF STYLED PROTECTORSOFTHE/RTHODOXFAITH WHOAIMEDTOhLIBERATEvTHE2UTHENIANPRINCIPALITIESANDREBUILDTHE2USSIAN EMPIRE WHICH HAD BEEN DESTROYED BY THE -ONGOL4ATARS4HE *AGIELLONIANS COUNTERED BY BUILDING UP THEIR POWER IN THE WEST4HE "OHEMIAN CROWN WASACQUIREDBYCLEVERPOLITICKINGINAFTERTHERELIGIOUSSTRUGGLESOFTHE (USSITE7ARS THAT OF (UNGARY FOLLOWED IN  (OWEVER NEITHER OF THESE UNIONSMANAGEDTOLAST

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4HE*AGIELLONIANS



4HE2ENAISSANCEAND2EFORMATION

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\(ISTORY

4HESPREADOF2ENAISSANCEIDEASIN0OLANDnGREATLYFACILITATEDBYTHECOUN TRYS#HURCHCONNECTIONSWITH)TALYnWASMOSTVISIBLYMANIFESTEDINTHELARGE NUMBEROF)TALIANATEBUILDINGSCONSTRUCTEDTHROUGHOUTTHECOUNTRY BUTSCIENCE ANDLEARNINGALSOPROSPEREDUNDERNATIVE0OLISHPRACTITIONERSSUCHAS.ICOLAUS #OPERNICUS 4HIS PERIOD SAW A COLLECTIVE MUSCLE mEXING EXERCISE BY THE 0OLISH NOBILITY SZLACHTA  )N  THE PARLIAMENT OR 3EJM WAS ESTABLISHED GAINING THE SOLE RIGHT TO ENACT LEGISLATION IN  AND GRADUALLY MAKING ITSELF AN IMPORTANT CHECKONMONARCHICALPOWER 4HE2EFORMATIONHADAFARGREATERIMPACTON0OLANDTHANISOFTENADMIT TED BY #ATHOLIC PATRIOTS )TS MOST TELLING MANIFESTATION CAME IN  WITH THElNALCOLLAPSEOFTHE4EUTONIC/RDERWHENTHEGRANDMASTER !LBRECHTVON (OHENZOLLERN DECIDEDTOACCEPTTHENEW,UTHERANDOCTRINES4HEIRSTATEWAS CONVERTEDINTOASECULARDUCHYUNDERTHE0OLISHCROWNBUTWITHFULLINTERNAL AUTONOMY n AN ARRANGEMENT WHICH REMOVED ANY LINGERING MILITARY STRENGTH FROMTHEORDER,UTHERANISMALSOTOOKASTRONGHOLDIN$ANZIGANDTHE'ERMAN DOMINATED CITIES OF 2OYAL 0RUSSIA WHILE THE MORE RADICAL #ALVINISM WON MANY CONVERTS AMONG THE ,ITHUANIAN NOBILITY 0OLAND ALSO BECAME HOME FOR ANUMBEROFREFUGEESECTSALONGWITHTHEACCEPTANCEALREADYEXTENDEDTOTHE *EWISH AND /RTHODOX FAITHS THIS ADDED UP TO A DEGREE OF RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE UNPARALLELEDELSEWHEREIN%UROPE

4HE2EPUBLICOF.OBLES



,ACKINGANHEIR THELASTOFTHE*AGIELLONIANS 3IGISMUND!UGUST SPENTHIS lNALYEARSTRYINGTOFORGEANALLIANCESTRONGENOUGHTOWITHSTANDTHEEVER GROWINGMIGHTOF-OSCOW4HERESULTOFHISNEGOTIATIONSWASTHE5NION OF ,UBLIN WHEREBY 0OLAND AND ,ITHUANIA WERE FORMALLY MERGED INTO THE #OMMONWEALTHOFTHE4WO.ATIONS,ITHUANIA WHOSEARISTOCRACYWASBY NOWALMOSTWHOLLY0OLISH SPEAKING LOSTMANYOFITSAUTONOMOUSPRIVILEGES ANDITSHUGETERRITORIESINTHEEASTWEREINTEGRATEDMORECLOSELYINTOTHE0OLISH STATE)NTHESAMEYEARTHE3EJMMOVEDTO7ARSAW AMORECENTRALLOCATIONFOR THECAPITALOFTHISNEWAGGLOMERATIONITSCAPITALSTATUSBECAMEOFlCIALIN /N THE DEATH OF 3IGISMUND !UGUST IN  THE ROYAL CHANCELLOR *AN :AMOYSKI PRESIDED OVER NEGOTIATIONS WHICH LED TO THE CREATION OF THE SO CALLEDh2EPUBLIC OF .OBLESvnTHENCEFORTHKINGSWERETOBEELECTEDBYAN ASSEMBLYOFTHEENTIRENOBILITY FROMTHEGREATMAGNATESDOWNTOHOLDERSOFTINY IMPOVERISHEDESTATES/NTHEONEHANDTHISWASAMAJORDEMOCRATICADVANCE INTHATITENFRANCHISEDABOUTTENPERCENTOFTHEPOPULATION BYFARTHELARGEST PROPORTIONOFVOTERSINANY%UROPEANCOUNTRYBUTONTHEOTHERHANDITMARKED A STRENGTHENING OF A FEUDALISTIC SOCIAL SYSTEM #APITALISM THEN DEVELOPING IN OTHER%UROPEANCOUNTRIES EVOLVEDONLYINTHOSECITIESWITHASTRONG'ERMAN OR *EWISH BURGHER CLASS PREDOMINANTLY IN 2OYAL 0RUSSIA WHICH REMAINED ISOLATEDFROMTHEMAINPOWERSTRUCTURESOF0OLISHSOCIETY )N THE&RENCHMAN(ENRI6ALOISWASCHOSENASTHElRSTELECTEDMONARCH AND ASWASTHECASEWITHALLHISSUCCESSORS WASFORCEDTOSIGNADOCUMENTTHAT REDUCED HIM TO A MANAGERIAL SERVANT OF THE NOBILITY4HE NOBLES ALSO INSISTED ONTHEIR2IGHTOF2ESISTANCEnALICENCETOOVERTHROWAKINGWHOHADFALLEN FROM FAVOUR4HE 3EJM HAD TO BE CONVENED AT TWO YEARLY INTERVALS WHILE ALL

4HEFOREIGNPOLICYOFTHENEXTTHREEELECTEDMONARCHS ALLMEMBERSOFTHE 3WEDISH7AZADYNASTY WASLESSFORTUNATE3IGISMUND!UGUST7AZA THElRST OFTHETRIO WASA#ATHOLICBIGOTWHOSOONCAMEINTOCONmICTWITHTHEALMOST EXCLUSIVELY0ROTESTANTPOPULATIONOFHISNATIVELANDANDWASDEPOSEDFROMTHE 3WEDISHTHRONEIN4HOUGHHISHAM lSTEDNESSMEANTTHAT0OLANDNOW HADANEWANDINCREASINGLYPOWERFUL ENEMY HECONTINUEDASTHE0OLISHKING FORTHENEXTYEARS HAVINGFOUGHTOFFATHREE YEAR LONGINTERNALREBELLION )N  $UCAL 0RUSSIA WAS INHERITED BY THE ELECTOR OF "RANDENBURG *OHN 3IGISMUNDVON(OHENZOLLERN WHOSETABOUTWEAKENING0OLANDSHOLDON THE "ALTIC SEABOARD ! COUPLE OF DECADES LATER THE (OHENZOLLERNS INHERITED MUCH OF 0OMERANIA AS WELL WITH ANOTHER SECTION BEING ACQUIRED BY 3WEDEN 0OLAND MANAGED TO REMAIN NEUTRAL IN THE CALAMITOUS SERIES OF RELIGIOUS AND DYNASTIC CONmICTS KNOWN AS THE 4HIRTY 9EARS 7AR FROM WHICH 3WEDEN EMERGEDAS%UROPESLEADINGMILITARYPOWER 4HEREIGNOFTHETHIRDOFTHE7AZAS *AN +AZIMIERZ SAW0OLANDSFORTUNES PLUMMET)N THEYEAROFHISELECTION THE#OSSACKSREVOLTEDINTHE5KRAINE EVENTUALLYALLYINGTHEMSELVESWITHTHE2USSIANARMY WHICHCONQUEREDEASTERN 0OLANDASFARAS,WØW4HISDIVERSIONINSPIREDTHE3WEDESTOLAUNCHANINVASION OFTHEIROWN KNOWNIN0OLISHHISTORYASTHE3WEDISH$ELUGEh0OTOPv AND THEYSOONTOOKCONTROLOFTHEREMAINDEROFTHECOUNTRY!HEROIClGHTBACKWAS MOUNTED ENDING IN STALEMATE IN  WITH THE 4REATY OF /LIWA IN WHICH 0OLANDRECOVEREDITSFORMERTERRITORIESEXCEPTFOR,IVONIA4HREEYEARSEARLIER THE(OHENZOLLERNS HADWRESTED$UCAL 0RUSSIAFROMTHELASTVESTIGESOF0OLISH CONTROL MERGINGITWITHTHEIROTHERTERRITORIESTOFORMTHESTATEOF"RANDEN BURG 0RUSSIALATERSHORTENEDTO0RUSSIA  !SWELLASTHETERRITORIALLOSSESSUFFERED THESEWARSHADSEEN0OLANDSPOPULA TIONREDUCEDTOFOURMILLION LESSTHANHALFITSPREVIOUSTOTAL!FURTHERCRUCIAL DEVELOPMENTOFTHISPERIODHADBEENTHElRSTUSEINOFTHELIBERUMVETO WHEREBYASINGLEVOTEINTHE3EJMWASENOUGHTOSTALLANYPIECEOFLEGISLATION /NCE ESTABLISHED THE PRACTICE SOON BECAME WIDESPREAD IN THE PROTECTION OF PETTYINTERESTS AND0OLANDFOUNDITSELFONTHESLIPPERYSLOPETOWARDSUNGOVERN ABILITY4HISPROCESSWASHASTENEDWHENITWASDISCOVEREDTHATONEDISSENTERWAS CONSTITUTIONALLYEMPOWEREDTOOBJECTNOTONLYTOANYPARTICULARMEASURE BUT

\(ISTORY

4HE7AZADYNASTYANDITSAFTERMATH

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ROYALTAXES DECLARATIONSOFWARANDFOREIGNTREATIESWERESUBJECTTORATIlCATION BYTHENOBLES !LTHOUGHCANDIDATESFORTHEMONARCHYHADTOSUBSCRIBETO#ATHOLICISM THE RELIGIOUS FREEDOM THAT ALREADY EXISTED WAS UNDERPINNED BY THE #OMPACT OF7ARSAW OF  GUARANTEEING THE CONSTITUTIONAL EQUALITY OF ALL RELIGIONS (OWEVER THE#OUNTER 2EFORMATIONLEFTONLYAFEW0ROTESTANTSTRONGHOLDSIN 0OLAND A LARGE SECTION OF THE ARISTOCRACY WAS RECONVERTED WHILE OTHERS WHO HADRECENTLYSWITCHEDFROM/RTHODOXYTO#ALVINISMWEREPERSUADEDTOCHANGE ALLEGIANCE ONCE MORE4HE /RTHODOX #HURCH WAS FURTHER WEAKENED BY THE SCHISMOF LEADINGTOTHECREATIONOFTHE5NIATE#HURCH WHICHRECOGNIZED THE AUTHORITY OF 2OME4HUS 0OLAND GRADUALLY BECAME A FERVENTLY #ATHOLIC NATIONONCEMORE 4HE2EPUBLICOF.OBLESACHIEVEDSOMEOFITSMOSTSPECTACULARSUCCESSESEARLY ON PARTICULARLYUNDERTHESECONDELECTEDKING THE4RANSYLVANIANPRINCE3TEFAN "ATHORY(AVINGCARRIEDOUTATHOROUGHREFORMOFTHEARMY HEWAGEDABRIL LIANTCAMPAIGNAGAINSTTHE2USSIANSBETWEENAND NEUTRALIZINGTHIS PARTICULARTHREATTO0OLANDSEASTERNBORDERSFORSOMETIMETOCOME



TODISSOLVETHE3EJMITSELFnANDINTHEPROCESSREPEALALLTHELEGISLATIONITHAD PASSED-EANWHILE THEMINORARISTOCRACYGRADUALLYFOUNDTHEMSELVESSQUEEZED OUTOFPOWER ASAGROUPOFAHUNDREDORSOGREATMAGNATESGRADUALLYESTABLISHED ASTRANGLEHOLD

*AN3OBIESKI

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\(ISTORY

"EFOREREPEATEDUSEOFTHELIBERUMVETOLEDTOTHElNALCOLLAPSEOFPOLITI CALAUTHORITY 0OLANDHADWHATWASARGUABLYITSGREATESTMOMENTOFGLORYIN INTERNATIONALPOWERPOLITICSnACONSEQUENCEOFTHE/TTOMAN4URKSATTEMPTTO ADVANCEFROMTHE"ALKANSINTOCENTRAL%UROPE4HEYWEREEVENTUALLYBEATENBACK BYTHE0OLES UNDERTHECOMMANDOF*AN3OBIESKI ATTHE"ATTLEOF#HOCIM INSOUTHWESTERN5KRAINE INnASAREWARDFORWHICH3OBIESKIWASELECTED KINGTHEFOLLOWINGYEAR)NHEWASRESPONSIBLEFORTHESUCCESSFULDEFENCEOF 6IENNA WHICHMARKEDTHElNALREPULSEOFTHE4URKSFROMWESTERN%UROPE (OWEVER 0OLANDWASTOPAYAHEAVYPRICEFORTHEHEROISMOF3OBIESKI WHO HADCONCENTRATEDONTHE4URKISHCAMPAIGNTOTHEEXCLUSIONOFALLOTHERISSUES ATHOMEANDABROAD(ISRELIEFOF6IENNAEXHAUSTED0OLANDSMILITARYCAPACITY WHILEENABLING!USTRIATORECOVERASANIMPERIALPOWERITALSOGREATLYHELPEDTHE RISEOFTHEPREDATORYSTATEOF0RUSSIA WHICHHEHADINTENDEDTOKEEPlRMLYIN CHECK(ISNEGLECTOFDOMESTICPOLICYLEDTOTHELIBERUMVETOBEINGUSEDWITH IMPUNITY WHILE 0OLAND AND ,ITHUANIA GREW APART ASTHENOBILITYOFTHELATTER ENGAGEDINACIVILWAR

4HEDECLINEOF0OLAND



+NOWN ASh!UGUSTUS THE 3TRONGv OWING TO HIS FATHERING OF OVER THREE HUNDREDCHILDREN 3OBIESKISSUCCESSOR !UGUSTUS7ETTIN WASINFACTAWEAK RULER UNABLETOSHAKEOFFHISDEBTSTOTHE2USSIANSWHOHADSECUREDHISELEC TION )N  &RIEDRICH ))) OF "RANDENBURG 0RUSSIA OPENLY DElED HIM BY DECLARING$UCAL0RUSSIASRIGHTTOBEREGARDEDASAKINGDOM HAVINGHIMSELF CROWNED IN +ÚNIGSBERG &ROM THEN ON THE (OHENZOLLERNS PLOTTED TO LINK THEIRTERRITORIESBYOUSTING0OLANDFROMTHE"ALTICINTHISTHEYWEREAIDEDBY THEACQUISITIONOFMOSTOFTHERESTOF0OMERANIAIN!UGUSTUSSLACKOF TALENTFORPOWERPOLITICSWASEVENMOREEVIDENTINHISDEALINGSWITH3WEDEN AGAINSTWHOMHELAUNCHEDAWARFORCONTROLOF,IVONIA4HECONmICTSHOWED THECALAMITOUSDECLINEOF0OLANDSMILITARYSTANDING ANDTHEVICTORIOUS3WEDES DEPOSED!UGUSTUSIN SECURINGTHEELECTIONOFTHEIROWNFAVOUREDCANDI DATE 3TANIS‘AW,ESZCZYSKI INHISPLACE !UGUSTUS WAS REINSTATED IN  COURTESY OF THE 2USSIANS WHO EFFECTIVELY REDUCED0OLANDTOTHEROLEOFACLIENTSTATEINTHEPROCESS4HEh3ILENT3EJMv OF WHICHGUARANTEEDTHEEXISTINGCONSTITUTION MARKEDTHEENDOFEFFEC TIVEPARLIAMENTARYLIFE4HE2USSIANSNEVERHESITATEDTOIMPOSETHEIRAUTHORITY CYNICALLY UPHOLDING THE 2EPUBLIC OF .OBLES AS A MEANS OF ENSURING THAT THE LIBERALIDEALSOFTHE!GEOF2EASONCOULDNEVERTAKEROOTIN0OLANDANDTHATTHE COUNTRYREMAINEDABUFFERAGAINSTTHEGREATPOWERSOFWESTERN%UROPE7HEN ,ESZCZYSKI WON THE ELECTION TO SUCCEED!UGUSTUS THE 3TRONG IN  THEY INTERVENED ALMOST IMMEDIATELY TO HAVE HIM REPLACED BY THE DECEASED KINGS SON WHOPROVEDTOBEANEVENMOREINEPTCUSTODIANOF0OLISHINTERESTSTHANHIS FATHER,ESZCZYSKIWASFORCEDINTOEXILE SPENDINGTHELASTTHIRTYYEARSOFHISLIFE ASTHEDUKEOF,ORRAINE

4HE0ARTITIONS

\(ISTORY

2USSIAS 0OLISH POLICY WAS FINALLY RENDERED IMPOTENT BY THE REVOLT OF THE #ONFEDERACY OF "ARBETWEENAND!HEAVY HANDEDCRACKDOWN ONTHESEREFORMERSWOULDCERTAINLYHAVELEDTOWARWITH0RUSSIA PROBABLYIN ALLIANCEWITH!USTRIADOINGNOTHINGWOULDHAVEALLOWEDTHE0OLESTOREASSERT THEIRNATIONALINDEPENDENCE!SACOMPROMISE THE2USSIANSDECIDEDTOSUPPORT A0RUSSIANPLANFORTHE0ARTITIONOF0OLAND"YATREATYOF 0OLANDLOST ALMOSTTHIRTYPERCENTOFITSTERRITORY7HITE2UTHENIASEASTERNSECTORSWERE CEDEDTO2USSIA WHILE!USTRIARECEIVED2ED2UTHENIAPLUS-A‘OPOLSKASOUTH OF THE7IS‘A n A PROVINCE SUBSEQUENTLY RECHRISTENED 'ALICIA4HE 0RUSSIANS GAINEDTHESMALLESTSHAREOFTHECARVE UPINTHEFORMOFMOSTOF2OYAL0RUSSIA BUTTHISWASSTRATEGICALLYANDECONOMICALLYTHEMOSTSIGNIlCANT 3TUNGBYTHIS THE0OLESEMBARKEDONARADICALPROGRAMMEOFREFORM INCLUD ING THE PARTIAL EMANCIPATION OF SERFS AND THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF IMMIGRATION FROMTHETHREEEMPIRESWHICHHADUNDERTAKENTHE0ARTITION)N 0OLAND WAS GIVEN THE lRST CODIlED CONSTITUTION IN %UROPE SINCE CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY AND THE SECOND IN THE MODERN WORLD AFTER THE 5NITED 3TATES )T INTRODUCED THECONCEPTOFAPEOPLESSOVEREIGNTY THISTIMEINCLUDINGTHEBOURGEOISIE AND ADOPTED A SEPARATION OF POWERS BETWEEN EXECUTIVE LEGISLATURE AND JUDICIARY WITHGOVERNMENTBYACABINETRESPONSIBLETOTHE3EJM 4HISWASALLTOOMUCHFORTHE2USSIANS WHO BUYINGOFFTHE0RUSSIANSWITH THE PROMISE OF $ANZIG INVADED 0OLAND $ESPITE A TENACIOUS RESISTANCE UNDER 4ADEUSZ+OCIUSZKO ERSTWHILEHEROOFTHE!MERICAN7AROF)NDEPENDENCE THE0OLESWEREDEFEATEDTHEFOLLOWINGYEAR"YTHE3ECOND0ARTITIONOF THE CONSTITUTION WAS ANNULLED THE 2USSIANS ANNEXED THE REMAINING PARTS OF 7HITE AND 2ED 2UTHENIA WITH THE 0RUSSIANS GAINING7IELKOPOLSKA PARTS OF -AZURIAAND4ORUINADDITIONTOTHESTARPRIZEOF$ANZIG4HISTIMETHE!USTRI ANSHELDBACKANDMISSEDOUTONTHESPOILS )N  +OCIUSZKO LAUNCHED A NATIONAL INSURRECTION ACHIEVING A STUNNING VICTORY OVER THE 2USSIANS AT THE "ATTLE OF 2AC‘AWICE WITH A MILITIA LARGELY COMPOSED OF PEASANTS ARMED WITH SCYTHES (OWEVER THE REBELLION WAS PUT DOWN 0ONIATOWSKI FORCED TO ABDICATE AND 0OLAND WIPED OFF THE MAP BY THE 4HIRD0ARTITIONOF4HISGAVEALLLANDSEASTOFTHE"UGAND.IEMENRIVERS TO2USSIA THEREMAINDEROF-A‘OPOLSKATO!USTRIA ANDTHERESTOFTHECOUNTRY

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)N  &REDERICK THE 'REAT LAUNCHED THE 3ILESIAN7ARS WHICH ENDED IN WITH0RUSSIAINCONTROLOFALLBUTASMALLPARTOFTHEPROVINCE!SARESULT 0RUSSIA GAINED CONTROL OVER SUCH PARTS OF 0OLANDS FOREIGN TRADE AS WERE NOT SUBJECTTO2USSIA4HELONG CHERISHEDAMBITIONTOACQUIRE2OYAL0RUSSIAAND THUS ACHIEVE UNINTERRUPTED CONTROL OVER THE SOUTHERN COAST OF THE "ALTIC WAS &REDERICKSNEXTOBJECTIVE 7HENTHEYOUNGER!UGUSTUS7ETTINDIEDIN THE2USSIANSAGAININTER VENEDTOENSURETHEELECTIONOF3TANIS‘AW !UGUST0ONIATOWSKI THEFORMER LOVEROFTHEIREMPRESS #ATHERINETHE'REAT(OWEVER 0ONIATOWSKIPROVEDAN UNWILLINGSTOOGE EVENESPOUSINGTHECAUSEOFREFORM2USSIANSUPPORTOFTHE /RTHODOXMINORITYIN0OLANDLEDTOAGROWTHOF#ATHOLIC INSPIREDNATIONALISM ANDBYOBSTRUCTINGTHEMOSTMODERATELYLIBERALMEASURES 2USSIANPOLICYLEDTO ANOUTBREAKOFREVOLTS"YSENDINGARMIESTOCRUSHTHESE THEYENDANGEREDTHE DELICATEBALANCEOFPOWERIN%ASTERN%UROPE



INCLUDING7ARSAW TO0RUSSIA"YANADDITIONALTREATYOF THEPARTITIONING POWERSAGREEDTOABOLISHTHEVERYNAMEOF0OLAND

.APOLEONANDTHE#ONGRESSOF 6IENNA

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\(ISTORY

2EVOLUTIONARY&RANCEWASNATURALLYTHECOUNTRYTHAT0OLISHPATRIOTSLOOKED TOINTHEIRSTRUGGLETOREGAINNATIONALINDEPENDENCE AND0ARISBECAMETHE HEADQUARTERSFORASERIESOFEXILESANDCONSPIRATORIALGROUPS(OPESEVENTUALLY CRYSTALLIZEDAROUND.APOLEON"ONAPARTE WHOASSUMEDPOWERIN BUT WHENTHREE0OLISHLEGIONSWERERAISEDASPARTOFTHE&RENCHARMY +OCIUSZKO DECLINED TO COMMAND THEM REGARDING .APOLEON AS A MEGALOMANIAC WHO WOULDUSETHE0OLESFORHISOWNENDS )NITIALLY THESEFEARSSEEMEDUNFOUNDED&RENCHVICTORIESOVER0RUSSIALEDTOTHE CREATIONOFTHE$UCHYOF7ARSAWINOUTOF0OLISHTERRITORYANNEXEDBY THE0RUSSIANS!LTHOUGHNOMORETHANABUFFERSTATE THISSEEMEDANIMPORTANT lRSTSTEPINTHERE CREATIONOF0OLANDANDENCOURAGEDTHEHITHERTOUNCOMMIT TED*ØZEF0ONIATOWSKI NEPHEWOFTHELASTKINGANDONEOFTHEMOSTBRILLIANT MILITARYCOMMANDERSOFTHEDAY TOTHROWINHISLOTWITHTHE&RENCHDICTATOR!S ARESULTOFHISSUCCESSESIN.APOLEONS!USTRIANCAMPAIGNOF PARTOF'ALICIA WASCEDEDTOTHE$UCHYOF7ARSAW 0ONIATOWSKIAGAINPLAYEDAKEYROLEINTHEEVENTSOF WHICH.APOLEON DUBBED HISh0OLISH7ARv AND WHICH RESTORED THE HISTORIC BORDER OF 0OLAND ,ITHUANIA WITH 2USSIA4HE FAILURE OF THE ADVANCE ON -OSCOW LEADING TO A HUMILIATING RETREAT WAS THUS AS DISASTROUS FOR 0OLAND AS FOR &RANCE #ORNERED BYTHE0RUSSIANSAND2USSIANSNEAR,EIPZIG 0ONIATOWSKIREFUSEDTOSURRENDER PREFERRING TO LEAD HIS TROOPS TO A HEROIC SUICIDAL DEFEAT4HE CHOICE FACED BY 0ONIATOWSKIENCAPSULATEDTHENATIONSHOPELESSPLIGHT ANDHISACTOFSELF SACRIlCE WASTOSERVEASAPOTENTSYMBOLTO0OLISHPATRIOTSFORTHERESTOFTHECENTURY 4HE#ONGRESSOF6IENNAOFn SETUPTOORGANIZEPOST .APOLEONIC %UROPE DECIDEDAGAINSTTHERE ESTABLISHMENTOFANINDEPENDENT0OLAND MAINLY BECAUSETHISWASOPPOSEDBYTHE2USSIANS)NSTEAD THEMAINPARTOFTHE$UCHY OF 7ARSAW WAS RENAMED THE #ONGRESS +INGDOM AND PLACED UNDER THE DOMINIONOFTHE2USSIANTSAR4HE0OZNAAREAWASDETACHEDTOFORMTHE'RAND $UCHYOF0OSEN INREALITYNOMORETHANADEPENDENCYOF0RUSSIA!USTRIAWAS ALLOWED TO KEEP MOST OF 'ALICIA WHICH WAS GOVERNED FROM ,WØW RENAMED ,EMBERG !FTERMUCHDELIBERATION ITWASDECIDEDTOMAKE+RAKØWACITY STATE ANDhSYMBOLICCAPITALvOFTHEVANISHEDNATION

4HESTRUGGLEAGAINSTTHE 0ARTITIONS 

4HEMOSTLIBERALPARTOFTHE2USSIAN%MPIRE THE#ONGRESS+INGDOM ENJOYED A PERIOD OF RELATIVE PROSPERITY UNDER THE GOVERNORSHIP OF !DAM #ZARTO RYSKI PRESERVINGITSOWNPARLIAMENT ADMINISTRATION EDUCATIONALSYSTEMAND ARMY (OWEVER THIS COSY ARRANGEMENT WAS DISRUPTED BY THE ARCH AUTOCRAT

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\(ISTORY

.ICHOLAS ) WHOBECAMETSARINANDQUICKLYIMPOSEDHISPOLICIESON 0OLAND!NATTEMPTEDINSURRECTIONIN.OVEMBER CENTREDONABOTCHED ASSASSINATIONOFTHETSARSBROTHER PROVOKEDA2USSIANINVASION)NITIALLY THE 0OLISHARMYFAREDWELL BUTITWASHANDICAPPEDBYPOLITICALDIVISIONSNOTABLY OVERWHETHERTHESERFSSHOULDBEEMANCIPATED ANDLACKOFFOREIGNSUPPORT DESPITETHESUPPOSEDGUARANTEESPROVIDEDBYTHE6IENNASETTLEMENT"YTHE ENDOFTHEFOLLOWINGYEAR THE0OLESHADBEENDEFEATEDTHEIRCONSTITUTIONWAS SUSPENDEDANDAREIGNOFREPRESSIONBEGAN4HESEEVENTSLEDMANYTOABANDON ALLNATIONALISTHOPESTHElRSTGREATWAVEOF0OLISHEMIGRATION PRINCIPALLYTO !MERICA BEGANSOONAFTER !NATTEMPTEDINSURRECTIONAGAINSTTHE!USTRIANSINALSOBACKlRED LEAD INGTOTHEENDOF+RAKØWSINDEPENDENCEWITHITSREINCORPORATIONINTO'ALICIA 4HIS SETBACK WAS A FACTOR IN 0OLANDS FAILURE TO PLAY AN ACTIVE ROLE IN THE %UROPEAN WIDE REVOLUTIONS OF n THOUGH BY THIS TIME THE COUNTRYS PLIGHT HAD ATTRACTED THE SYMPATHY OF THE EMERGENT SOCIALIST MOVEMENTS +ARL -ARXAND&RIEDRICH%NGELSWENTSOFARASTODECLARETHAT0OLISHLIBERATIONSHOULD BETHESINGLEMOSTIMPORTANTIMMEDIATEOBJECTIVEOFTHEWORKERSMOVEMENT 4HELASTMAJORUPRISING AGAINSTTHE2USSIANSINn ATTRACTEDTHESUPPORT OF ,ITHUANIANS AND 'ALICIANS BUT WAS HOPELESSLY LIMITED BY 0OLANDS LACK OF A REGULARARMY)TSFAILURELEDTOTHEABOLITIONOFTHE#ONGRESS+INGDOMANDITS FORMALINCORPORATIONINTO2USSIAASTHEPROVINCEOFh6ISTULALANDv(OWEVER IT WASIMMEDIATELYFOLLOWEDBYTHEEMANCIPATIONOFTHESERFS GRANTEDONMORE FAVOURABLETERMSTHANINANYOTHERPARTOFTHETSARISTEMPIREnINORDERTOCAUSE MAXIMUMILL FEELINGBETWEENTHE0OLISHNOBILITYANDPEASANTRY &OLLOWING THE CRUSHING OF THE n REBELLION THE 2USSIAN SECTOR OF 0OLANDENTEREDAPERIODOFQUIETSTABILITY WITHTHEABOLITIONOFINTERNALTARIFFS OPENINGUPTHEVAST2USSIANMARKETTO0OLISHGOODS&ORTHENEXTHALF CENTURY 0OLISH PATRIOTS WHEREVER THEY LIVED WERE CONCERNED LESS WITH TRYING TO WIN INDEPENDENCETHANWITHKEEPINGADISTINCTIVECULTUREALIVE)NTHISTHEYWERE HANDICAPPEDBYTHEFACTTHATTHISWASANERAOFGREATEMPIRES EACHWITHMANY SUBJUGATEDMINORITIESWHOSEINTERESTSOFTENCONmICTED0OLESFOUNDTHEMSELVES VARIOUSLY UP AGAINST THE ASPIRATIONS OF ,ITHUANIANS 5KRAINIANS AND #ZECHS 4HEYHADTHEGREATESTSUCCESSIN'ALICIA BECAUSETHEYWERETHESECONDLARGEST ETHNICGROUPINTHE(ABSBURG%MPIRE ANDBECAUSETHE(ABSBURGSHADAMORE LAX ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE DIVERSITY OF THEIR SUBJECTS4HE PROVINCE WAS GIVEN POWERS OF SELF GOVERNMENT AND ALTHOUGH ECONOMICALLY BACKWARD AND RULED BYAREACTIONARYUPPERCLASS mOURISHEDONCEMOREASACENTREOFLEARNINGAND THEARTS !LTOGETHERDIFFERENTWASTHESITUATIONIN0RUSSIA THEMOSTEFlCIENTLYREPRES SIVEOFTHETHREEPARTITIONINGPOWERS)THADCLOSELYFOLLOWEDTHE"RITISHLEADIN FORGINGAMODERNINDUSTRIALSOCIETY AND0OLESMADEUPALARGEPERCENTAGEOFTHE WORKFORCEINSOMEOFITSTECHNOLOGICALLYMOSTADVANCEDAREAS NOTABLYTHERICH MINElELDS OF 5PPER 3ILESIA4HE 0RUSSIANS HAVING OUSTED THE!USTRIANS FROM THEIRCENTURIES LONGDOMINATIONOF'ERMANAFFAIRS PROCEEDEDTOEXCLUDETHEIR RIVALSALTOGETHERFROMTHEUNITED'ERMANYTHEYCREATEDBY WHICHTHEY ATTEMPTEDTOMOULDINTHEIROWN0ROTESTANTANDMILITARISTICTRADITION &OR THE 0OLES LIVING UNDER THE 0RUSSIAN YOKE THE PRICE TO BE PAID FOR THEIR RELATIVE PROSPERITY WAS A SEVERE CLAMPDOWN ON THEIR CULTURE SEEN AT ITS MOST EXTREMEINTHE+ULTURKAMPF WHOSEMAINAIMWASTOCRUSHTHEPOWEROFTHE #ATHOLIC#HURCH WITHASECONDARYINTENTIONOFESTABLISHINGTHEUNCHALLENGED SUPREMACYOFTHE'ERMANLANGUAGEINTHENEWNATIONSEDUCATIONALSYSTEM)T MISlREDBADLYIN0OLAND GIVINGTHECLERGYTHEOPPORTUNITYTOWHIPUPSUPPORT FORTHEIROWNFERVENTLYNATIONALISTICBRANDOF#ATHOLICISM



-EANWHILE ANUPTURNINPOLITICALLIFECAMEWITHTHEESTABLISHMENT INRESPONSE TOINTERNALPRESSURE OFREPRESENTATIVEASSEMBLIESIN"ERLIN 6IENNAAND3T0ETERS BURG4OWARDSTHEENDOFTHECENTURY THISLEDTOTHEFORMATIONOFVARIOUSNEW 0OLISHPOLITICAL PARTIESANDMOVEMENTS THEMOSTIMPORTANTOFWHICHWERE THE0OLISH3OCIALIST0ARTY003 ACTIVEMAINLYINTHECITIESOF2USSIAN0OLAND THE.ATIONALIST,EAGUE WHOSEPOWERBASEWASINTHEPERIPHERALPROVINCESTHE 0EASANT-OVEMENTOF'ALICIAANDTHE#HRISTIAN$EMOCRATS ADOMINANTFORCE AMONGTHE3ILESIAN#ATHOLICS

4HERESURRECTIONOF0OLAND # /.4% 843

\(ISTORY

7ORLD7AR)SMASHEDTHEMIGHTOFTHE2USSIAN 'ERMANAND!USTRIANEMPIRES ANDALLOWED0OLANDTORISEFROMTHEDEAD$ESPERATETORALLY0OLESTOTHEIRCAUSE BOTHALLIANCESINTHECONmICTMADEINCREASINGLYTEMPTINGOFFERSASEARLYAS!UGUST THE2USSIANSPROPOSEDA0OLANDWITHFULLRIGHTSOFSELF GOVERNMENT INCLUDING LANGUAGE RELIGIONANDGOVERNMENT ALBEITONESTILLULTIMATELYSUBJECTTOTHETSAR 7HENTHE'ERMANAND!USTRIANARMIESOVERRAN2USSIAN OCCUPIED0OLANDIN  THEYFELTOBLIGEDTOTRUMPTHISOFFER PROMISINGTOSETUPA0OLISHKINGDOM ONCETHEWARWASOVER4HEFOUNDATIONSOFTHISWERELAIDIMMEDIATELY WITHTHE INSTITUTION OF AN INTERIM ADMINISTRATION n KNOWN AS THE 2EGENCY #OUNCIL nANDTHEOFlCIALRESTORATIONOFTHE0OLISHLANGUAGE%VENTHOUGHCARRIEDOUTFOR CYNICALREASONS THESEINITIALSTEPSWEREOFCRUCIALIMPORTANCETOTHERELAUNCHOFA FULLYINDEPENDENT0OLAND ANOTIONWHICHHADSOONGAINEDTHESUPPORTOFTHE53 0RESIDENT7OODROW7ILSONANDOFTHENEW"OLSHEVIKGOVERNMENTIN-OSCOW -EANWHILE TWOBITTERRIVALSHADEMERGEDASTHELEADINGCONTENDERSFORLEADER SHIPOFTHE0OLISHNATION*ØZEF0I‘SUDSKI ANIMPOVERISHEDNOBLEFROM,ITHUANIA ANDFOUNDINGMEMBEROFTHE003 HADLONGCHAMPIONEDAMILITARYSOLUTIONTO 0OLANDSPROBLEMS$URINGTHEWAR HISLEGIONSFOUGHTONBEHALFOFTHE'ERMANS ASSUMING THAT THE DEFEAT OF THE 2USSIANS WOULD ALLOW HIM TO CREATE THE NEW 0OLISHSTATEONHISOWNTERMS)NTHIS HEFAVOUREDARETURNTOTHEGREATTRADITION OFETHNICANDRELIGIOUSDIVERSITYOFCENTURIESPAST2OMAN$MOWSKI LEADEROF THE.ATIONALIST,EAGUE REPRESENTEDTHEAMBITIONSOFTHENEWMIDDLECLASSAND HADAVISIONOFAPURELY0OLISHANDSTAUNCHLY#ATHOLICFUTURE INWHICHTHE*EWS WOULD ASFARASPOSSIBLE BEEXCLUDED(EOPTEDTOWORKFORINDEPENDENCEBY EXCLUSIVELYPOLITICALMEANS INTHEHOPETHATVICTORYOVER'ERMANYWOULDLEAD THE7ESTERNALLIESTOSETUPA0OLISHSTATEUNDERHISLEADERSHIP )N THE EVENT 0I‘SUDSKI CAME OUT ON TOP THE 'ERMANS HAVING HELD HIM IN INTERNMENTFORWELLOVERAYEAR RELEASEDHIMTHEDAYBEFORETHEARMISTICEOF .OVEMBER  ALLOWINGHIMTOTAKECOMMANDOFTHE2EGENCY#OUNCIL (EWASSWORNINASHEADOFSTATETHREEDAYSLATER$MOWSKIHADTOACCEPTTHE CONSOLATIONPRIZEOFHEADDELEGATETOTHE0ARIS0EACE#ONFERENCE THOUGHHIS ASSOCIATE THE CONCERT PIANIST )GNACY *AN 0ADEREWSKI BECAME THE COUNTRYS lRSTPRIMEMINISTER

0OLANDREDElNED 

4HENEW0OLANDLACKEDADElNEDTERRITORY)NITIALLY ITCONSISTEDOFTHE'ERMAN AND!USTRIANZONESOFOCCUPATION CENTREDON7ARSAWAND,UBLIN PLUS7ESTERN

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\(ISTORY

'ALICIA7IELKOPOLSKAWASADDEDAMONTHLATER FOLLOWINGAREVOLTAGAINSTTHE 'ERMANGARRISONIN0OZNA BUTTHEPRECISEFRONTIERSWEREONLYESTABLISHED DURING THE FOLLOWING THREE YEARS ON AN AD HOC BASIS9ET THOUGH THE 0ARIS #ONFERENCEPLAYEDONLYAMINORROLEINALLTHIS ITDIDTAKETHEKEYDECISIONTO GIVETHECOUNTRYACCESSTOTHESEABYMEANSOFTHE0OLISH#ORRIDOR ASTRIPOF LANDCUTTHROUGHTHEOLD2OYAL0RUSSIA WHICHMEANTTHAT%AST0RUSSIAWASLEFT CUTOFFFROMTHERESTOF'ERMANY$ESPITEINTENSELOBBYING ITWASDECIDEDTO EXCLUDE$ANZIGFROMTHECORRIDOR ONTHEGROUNDSTHATITSPOPULATIONWASOVER WHELMINGLY'ERMANINSTEAD ITREVERTEDTOITSFORMERTRADITIONASACITY STATE nANUNSATISFACTORYCOMPROMISETHATWASLATERTOHAVETRAGICCONSEQUENCES 4HE0OLISHn3OVIET7AROFnWASTHEMOSTSIGNIlCANTOFTHECONmICTS THAT CRUCIALLY DETERMINED THE COUNTRYS BORDERS 2EALIZING THAT THE "OLSHEVIKS WOULDWANTTOSPREADTHEIRREVOLUTIONTO0OLANDANDTHENTOTHEINDUSTRIALIZED 7EST 0I‘SUDSKIAIMEDTOCREATEAGROUPINGOFINDEPENDENTNATION STATESSTRETCH ING FROM &INLAND TO 'EORGIA TO HALT THIS NEW EXPANSIONIST 2USSIAN EMPIRE 4AKINGADVANTAGEOFTHECIVILWARBETWEENTHE3OVIETh2EDSvANDTHECOUNTER REVOLUTIONARYh7HITESv HISARMYMARCHEDDEEPINTO"ELARUSANDTHE5KRAINE (EWASSUBSEQUENTLYBEATENBACKTO7ARSAW BUTSKILFULLYREGROUPEDHISFORCESTO PULLOFFACRUSHINGVICTORYANDPURSUETHE2USSIANSEASTWARDS REGAININGASIZEABLE CHUNKOFTHEOLD0OLISH ,ITHUANIANCOMMONWEALTHSEASTERNTERRITORIESINTHE PROCESS ANACQUISITIONCONlRMEDBYTHE4REATYOF2IGAIN !T THE VERY END OF THE WAR 0I‘SUDSKI SEIZED HIS HOME CITY OF 7ILNO 6ILNIUS WHICHHADAMIXED0OLISHAND*EWISHPOPULATION BUTWASCLAIMEDBY THE,ITHUANIANSONTHEGROUNDSTHATITHADBEENTHEIRMEDIEVALCAPITAL/THER BORDERISSUESWERESETTLEDBYPLEBISCITESORGANIZEDBYTHE,EAGUEOF.ATIONS THE NEWINTERNATIONALBODYSETUPTORESOLVESUCHMATTERS)NTHEMOSTSIGNIlCANT OFTHESE 'ERMANYAND0OLANDCOMPETEDFOR5PPER3ILESIA4HE'ERMANSWON BUTTHEMARGINWASSONARROWTHATTHE,EAGUEFELTTHATTHEDISTRIBUTIONOFVOTES JUSTIlED THE PARTITION OF THE PROVINCE 0OLAND GAINED MOST OF THE +ATOWICE CONURBATION THUSENSURINGTHATTHECOUNTRYGAINEDASOLIDINDUSTRIALBASE

4HEINTERWARYEARS 4HEFRAGILITY OF THE NEW STATES POLITICAL INSTITUTIONSBECAMEOBVIOUSWHEN 0I‘SUDSKIREFUSEDTOSTANDINTHEPRESIDENTIALELECTIONSONTHEGROUNDSTHAT THEOFlCEWASINSUFlCIENTLYPOWERFUL7ORSE THEVICTOR 'ABRIEL.ARUTOWICZ WASHOUNDEDBYTHE.ATIONALISTSFORHAVINGWONASARESULTOFVOTESCASTBYhNON 0OLESv ANDWASASSASSINATEDSOONAFTERWARDS&ORTHENEXTFEWYEARS 0OLANDWAS GOVERNEDBYASERIESOFWEAKGOVERNMENTSPRESIDINGOVERHYPERINmATION FEEBLE ATTEMPTSATAGRARIANREFORMANDACONTEMPTUOUSARMYOFlCERCLASS )N -AY  0I‘SUDSKI STAGED A MILITARY COUP USHERING IN THE SO CALLED 3ANACJAREGIME NAMEDAFTERASLOGANPROPOSINGARETURNTOPOLITICALhHEALTHv 0I‘SUDSKIFUNCTIONEDASTHESTATESCOMMANDER IN CHIEFUNTILHISDEATHIN THOUGHHEHELDNOFORMALOFlCEAFTERANINITIALTWO YEARSTINTASPRIMEMINISTER 0ARLIAMENTARYLIFECONTINUED BUTOPPOSITIONWASEMASCULATEDBYTHECREATIONOF THESO CALLED.ON 0ARTY"LOCFOR#O OPERATIONWITHTHE'OVERNMENT ANDDISAFFECTEDGROUPSWEREBROUGHTTOHEELBYFORCEIFNECESSARY (AVING A COUNTRY LED BY 3TALIN ON ONE FRONTIER WAS BAD ENOUGH WHEN (ITLERSEIZEDPOWERIN'ERMANYIN 0OLANDWASASITTINGTARGETFORTWO RUTHLESSDICTATORS DESPITEMANAGINGTOSIGNTEN YEARNONAGGRESSIONPACTSWITH



EACH(ITLERHADALWAYSBEENOPENABOUTHISAMBITIONOFWIPING0OLANDOFFTHE MAPAGAIN REGARDINGTHE3LAVSASARACEWHOWERElTFORNOHIGHERROLETHANTO BESLAVESOFTHE!RYANS(EALSOWANTEDTOUNITEALLETHNIC'ERMANSUNDERHIS RULEAFOREIGNPOLICYOBJECTIVETHATWASQUICKLYPUTINTOEFFECTBYHISANNEXA TIONOF!USTRIAIN-ARCHANDOFPARTSOF#ZECHOSLOVAKIAnWITH"RITISH AND&RENCHCONNIVANCEnIN3EPTEMBEROFTHESAMEYEAR!S(ITLERSATTENTIONS TURNED TOWARDS 0OLAND HIS FOREIGN MINISTER *OACHIM VON 2IBBENTROP AND HIS 3OVIETCOUNTERPART6YACHESLAV-OLOTOVCONCLUDEDTHENOTORIOUS.AZIn3OVIET 0ACTIN!UGUST WHICHALLOWEDEITHERSIDETOPURSUEANYAGGRESSIVEDESIGNS WITHOUT THE INTERFERENCE OF THE OTHER )T ALSO INCLUDED A SECRET CLAUSE WHICH AGREED ON A FULL PARTITION OF 0OLAND ALONG THE LINES OF THE .AREW 7IS‘A AND 3ANRIVERS # /.4% 843

\(ISTORY 

7ORLD7AR)) /N3EPTEMBER  (ITLERINVADED0OLAND BEGINNINGBYANNEXINGTHEFREE CITYOF$ANZIG THEREBYPRECIPITATING 7ORLD7AR ))4HE0OLESFOUGHTWITH GREATCOURAGE INmICTINGHEAVYCASUALTIES BUTWERENUMERICALLYANDTECHNOLOGI CALLYINAHOPELESSPOSITION/N3EPTEMBER THE3OVIETSINVADEDTHEEASTERN PARTOFTHECOUNTRY CLAIMINGTHESHARE OUTAGREEDBYTHE.AZIn3OVIET0ACT4HE !LLIES WHOHADGUARANTEEDTOCOMETO0OLANDSDEFENCE INITIALLYFAILEDTODO SO ANDBYTHEENDOFTHElRSTWEEKIN/CTOBERTHECOUNTRYHADCAPITULATED! GOVERNMENT IN EXILEWASESTABLISHEDIN,ONDONUNDER7‘ADYS‘AW3IKORSKI -ILLIONSOFCIVILIANSnINCLUDINGVIRTUALLYEVERY*EWIN0OLANDnWERETOBE SLAUGHTEREDINTHE.AZICONCENTRATIONCAMPSTHATWERESOONBEINGSETUPIN THEOCCUPIEDTERRITORY!NDASTHISWASGOINGON 3OVIETPRISONERSWEREBEING TRANSPORTEDEASTTOTHE'ULAG WHILEWHOLESALEMURDERSOFTHEPOTENTIALLYTROU BLESOMEELEMENTSIN0OLISHSOCIETYWEREBEINGCARRIEDOUT SUCHASTHEMASSACRE OF+ATY WHEREOFlCERSWERESHOT .AZI CONTROL OF WESTERN 0OLAND ENTAILED FURTHER TERRITORIAL DISMEMBERMENT 3OMEPARTSOFTHECOUNTRYWERESIMPLYSWALLOWEDUPBYTHE2EICH WITHNORTH WESTERNDISTRICTSFORMINGPARTOFTHENEWLYCREATED2EICHGAUOF$ANZIG 7EST 0RUSSIA AND WEST CENTRAL TERRITORIES AROUND 0OZNA BEING ABSORBED INTO THE 7ARTHEGAU%VERYTHINGELSEn7ARSAWAND+RAKØWINCLUDEDnWASPLACEDUNDER A'ERMAN CONTROLLEDADMINISTRATIONKNOWNASTHE'OUVERNEMENT'ENERALE ANAD HOCSTRUCTUREDESIGNEDTOEXPLOITTHEECONOMICANDLABOURPOTENTIALOF 0OLAND WHILE THE WAR LASTED 0OLES EVERYWHERE WERE SUBJECTED TO DISLOCATION AND HARDSHIP4HOSE LIVING IN THE7ARTHEGAU WERE FORCED TO EMIGRATE TO THE 'OUVERNEMENT'ENERALEINANATTEMPTTO'ERMANIZETHEPROVINCEWHILETHOSE IN $ANZIG 7EST 0RUSSIA FARED SLIGHTLY BETTER AND WERE ALLOWED TO STAY WHERE THEYWEREPROVIDINGTHEYADOPTED'ERMANNAMESANDPASSPORTS 4HE.AZIINVASIONOFTHE3OVIET5NIONIN*UNEPROMPTED3TALINTOMAKE ANALLIANCEWITH3IKORSKI USHERINGINAPERIODOFUNEASYCO OPERATIONBETWEEN 3OVIETFORCESANDTHE0OLISHRESISTANCE WHICHWASLEDBYTHE(OME!RMY!+  4HE2ED!RMYSVICTORYAT3TALINGRADINMARKEDTHEBEGINNINGOFTHEEND FORTHE.AZIS BUTITENABLED3TALINTOBACKTRACKONPROMISESMADETOTHE0OLISH GOVERNMENT IN EXILE!TTHE4EHRAN#ONFERENCEIN.OVEMBERHECAMETOAN ARRANGEMENTWITH"RITAINAND!MERICAWITHREGARDTOFUTURESPHERESOFINmU ENCEIN%UROPE MAKINGITALMOSTINEVITABLETHATPOSTWAR0OLANDWOULDBEFORCED INTOTHE3OVIETCAMP(EALSOINSISTEDTHATTHE3OVIET5NIONWOULDRETAINTHE

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\(ISTORY TERRITORIESITHADANNEXEDIN!LLIEDSUPPORTFORTHISWASOBTAINEDBYREFER ENCETOTHECURRENTBORDERSVIRTUALCOINCIDENCEWITHTHESO CALLED#URZON,INE WHICHHADBEENDRAWNUPBYAFORMER"RITISH&OREIGN3ECRETARYININAN UNSUCCESSFULATTEMPTATMEDIATIONINTHE0OLISHn3OVIET7AR $URINGTHELIBERATIONOF0OLANDIN ANYPOSSIBILITYOFREASSERTINGGENU INE0OLISHCONTROLDEPENDEDONTHEOUTCOMEOFTHEUPRISINGIN7ARSAWAGAINST



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\(ISTORY

THE.AZIOCCUPIERS/N*ULY WITHTHE3OVIETSPOISEDONTHEOUTSKIRTSOFTHE CITY THE(OME!RMYWASFORCEDTOACT4HE2ED!RMYLAYINWAITDURINGTHE ENSUINGBLOODBATH7HENTHEINSURGENTSWERElNALLYDEFEATEDATTHEBEGINNING OF/CTOBER (ITLERORDEREDTHATTHECITYBERAZEDBEFORELEAVINGTHERUINSTOTHE 2ED!RMY)NEARLY ASTHE3OVIETSPUSHEDONTHROUGH0OLAND THE.AZIS SETUPLAST DITCHSTRONGHOLDSIN3ILESIA BUTTHESEWEREOVERRUNBYTHETIMEOF THElNALARMISTICEIN!PRIL .OCOUNTRYSUFFEREDSOMUCHFROM7ORLD7AR))AS0OLAND)NALL AROUND PERCENTOFTHEPOPULATIONDIED ANDTHEWHOLECOUNTRYLAYDEVASTATED-OREOVER ALTHOUGH THE!LLIES HAD ORIGINALLY GONE TO WAR ON ITS BEHALF IT FOUND ITSELF REDUCEDINSIZEANDSHIFTEDWESTACROSSTHEMAPOF%UROPEBYSOMEKILO METRES WITHITSWESTERNFRONTIERlXEDATTHELINESOFTHE/DRAAND.YSARIVERS 3TALINHADINEFFECTACHIEVEDHISTWINAIMSOFMOVINGHISFRONTIERSANDHISSPHERE OFINmUENCEWELLTOTHEWEST 4HE LOSSES IN THE EAST n INCLUDING ,WØW AND7ILNO BOTH GREAT CENTRES OF 0OLISH CULTURE n WERE PAINFUL AND INVOLVED THE TRANSFER OF MILLIONS OF PEOPLE ACROSS THE COUNTRY IN THE FOLLOWING TWO YEARS 4HERE WERE COMPENSATIONS HOWEVER0OMERANIAANDTHEINDUSTRIALLYVALUABLE3ILESIAWERERESTOREDAFTERA GAPOFSOMESEVENCENTURIESANDTHEMUCH COVETEDCITYOF$ANZIG WHICHHAD BEENDETACHEDSINCEITSSEIZUREBYTHE4EUTONIC+NIGHTS WASALSORETURNEDnAND AS'DASK ITWASLATERTOPLAYAMAJORROLEINPOSTWAR0OLISHHISTORY

4HERISEOF0OLISHCOMMUNISM



4HE0OLISHCOMMUNISTSTOOKPOWER NOTTHROUGHPOPULARREVOLUTION ASTHEIR 3OVIET COUNTERPARTS HAD n NOR EVEN WITH SIGNIlCANT PUBLIC SUPPORT AS THE #ZECHCOMMUNISTSHADnBUTTHROUGHTHEMILITARYANDPOLITICALDICTATEOFAN OCCUPYINGFORCE#ONTROLWASSEIZEDBYTHE:005NIONOF0OLISH0ATRIOTS AN ORGANIZATIONFORMEDBY3TALININFROM0OLISHEXILESAND2USSIANPLACE MENWITHPOLONIZEDNAMES!STHE2ED!RMYDROVETHE'ERMANSWEST THE :00ESTABLISHEDA#OMMITTEEFOR.ATIONAL,IBERATIONIN,UBLIN UNDERTHE LEADERSHIPOF"OLES‘AW"IERUT4HISWASTOFORMTHECOREOFTHE0OLISHGOVERN MENTOVERTHENEXTFEWYEARS 0OLITICALOPPOSITIONWASFRAGMENTEDANDINEFFECTUAL&ROMTHEGOVERNMENT IN EXILE ONLYASINGLEPROMINENTlGURERETURNEDTO0OLANDAFTERn3TANIS‘AW -IKO‘AJCZYK LEADER OF THE PREWAR 0EASANTS 0ARTY (E WAS TO LEAVE AGAIN IN  NARROWLYAVOIDINGIMPRISONMENT 4HE0OLISHCOMMUNISTSANDSOCIALISTSWHOHADREMAINEDIN0OLANDDURINGTHE WARNOWREGROUPED4HECOMMUNISTS THOUGHSUSPICIOUSOF-OSCOW JOINEDTHE :00TOFORMTHE0OLISH7ORKERS0ARTYUNDERGENERALSECRETARY7‘ADYS‘AW 'OMU‘KA ASTHESOCIALISTSATTEMPTEDTOESTABLISHASEPARATEPARTY-EANWHILE THE3OVIETSRANTHECOUNTRYASANOUTLYINGPROVINCE STRIPPINGFACTORIESOFPLANT AND MATERIALS INTIMIDATING POLITICAL OPPONENTS AND ORCHESTRATING THE BRUTAL SUPPRESSIONOFANATIONALISTUPRISINGINTHEWESTERN5KRAINEBYTHE0OLISHARMY INWHATISREFERREDTOASTHE#IVIL7ARn  4HE ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL FRAMEWORK OF 0OLAND WAS SEALED BY THE ELEC TIONSOF4HECOMMUNISTSANDSOCIALISTS ALLIEDASTHE$EMOCRATIC"LOC WON A DECISIVE VICTORY OVER THEIR REMAINING OPPONENTS THROUGH AN EXTENDED CAMPAIGN OF POLITICAL HARASSMENT AND MANIPULATION!FTER THE FORCIBLE MERGER OFTHESOCIALISTSANDCOMMUNISTSINASTHE0:020OLISH5NITED7ORKERS

0ARTY ITONLYREMAINEDFORTHEEXTERNALPRESSURESOFTHEEMERGING#OLD7AR TOLOCK0OLANDCOMPLETELYINTOTHE3OVIETSPHEREOFINmUENCEANDTHE3OVIET MODELOFECONOMICANDPOLITICALDEVELOPMENT)NTHEAUTHORITARIANCLIMATEOF THEERA EVEN0OLISHCOMMUNISTSWERECONSIDEREDSUSPECTIFTHEYFAILEDTODISPLAY UNSWERVINGLOYALTYTO3TALIN ANDIN&IRST3ECRETARY'OMU‘KAWASDEPOSED AND ARRESTED FOR SHOWING TOO MUCH INDEPENDENCE OF THOUGHT 5NLIKE OTHER DISGRACEDLEADERSIN%ASTERN%UROPE HOWEVER 'OMU‘KAWASNOTEXECUTEDnA SIGNTHATCOMMUNISTRULEIN0OLANDWASNOTASMERCILESSLYREPRESSIVEASINOTHER SATELLITESOFTHE3OVIET5NION

4HEBIRTHOFTHE02, # /.4% 843

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)NANEW#ONSTITUTIONENSHRINEDTHELEADINGROLEOFTHE0:02INEVERY ASPECTOF0OLISHSOCIETY DESIGNATINGTHECOUNTRYASTHE0OLISH0EOPLES2EPUBLIC OR0OLSKA2ZECZPOSPOLITA,UDOWAnNOWADAYSREMEMBEREDBYITSACRONYM 02,&URTHER WHILETHETRAPPINGSOFELECTIONSANDATWO HOUSEPARLIAMENT WERERETAINED THEOTHERPARTIESnTHE$EMOCRATIC0ARTY3$ ANDTHERECON STITUTED0EASANTS0ARTY:3, nWEREUNDERTHEEFFECTIVEPOLITICALCONTROLOF THE0:022EALPOWERLAYWITHTHE0OLITBURO #ENTRAL#OMMITTEEANDTHE NEWLYFORMEDECONOMICANDADMINISTRATIVEBUREAUCRACIES/NLYTHE #ATHO LIC #HURCH ALTHOUGHHARASSEDANDEXTENSIVELYMONITOREDBYTHEAUTHORITIES RETAINEDADEGREEOFINDEPENDENCEASAPOLITICALANDCULTURALORGANIZATIONnITS DElANCECHARACTERIZEDBYTHEPRIMATE #ARDINAL7YSZYSKI ARRESTEDIN FORhANTI STATEvACTIVITIESANDIMPRISONEDFORTHREEYEARS .ATIONALIZATIONCONTINUEDTHROUGHOUTTHISPERIOD ACCELERATEDTHROUGHTHElRST 4HREE9EAR0LANn ANDTHElRST3IX9EAR0LANn !LTHOUGH THEFORMERRETAINEDSOMEEMPHASISONTHEROLEOFPRIVATEOWNERSHIP THETHRUST OF BOTH WAS TOWARDS THE COLLECTIVIZATION OF AGRICULTURE AND THE CREATION OF A HEAVYINDUSTRIALBASE#OLLECTIVIZATIONPROVEDIMPOSSIBLEINTHEABSENCEOFTHE SORT OF FORCE USED BY 3TALIN AGAINST THE +ULAKS THE PROGRAMME SLOWED IN THE MID S AND WAS TACITLY ABANDONED THEREAFTER )NDUSTRIALLY THE PLANS PROVED MORESUCCESSFULMAJORIRONANDSTEELINDUSTRIESWEREESTABLISHED MININGEXTEN SIVELYEXPLOITEDIN3ILESIAANDANENTIRESHIPBUILDINGINDUSTRYDEVELOPEDALONG THE"ALTICCOASTnMOSTNOTABLYIN'DASK4HEREWERE INEVITABLY COSTSSTANDARDS OFLIVINGREMAINEDALMOSTSTATIC FOODWASSCARCE WORKWASLONG HARDANDOFTEN DANGEROUS AND UNRESTRAINED INDUSTRIALIZATION RESULTED IN TERRIBLE POLLUTION AND DESPOILATIONOFTHELAND0ERHAPSTHEMOSTSIGNIlCANTACHIEVEMENTOFTHEPERIOD WASTHECREATIONOFANURBANINDUSTRIALWORKINGCLASSFORTHElRSTTIMEIN0OLISH HISTORY 0ARADOXICALLY THESE VERY PEOPLE PROVED TO BE THE BACKBONE OF ALMOST EVERYPOLITICALSTRUGGLEAGAINSTTHE0ARTYINTHEFOLLOWINGDECADES

nTHE0OLISH/CTOBER )N0OLAND ASIN(UNGARY SAWTHElRSTMAJORPOLITICALCRISISOFTHECOMMU NISTERA&ACTIONANDDISSENSIONWEREALREADYRIFE WITHINTELLECTUALSCALLINGFOR FUNDAMENTALCHANGES SPLITSWITHINTHE0ARTYLEADERSHIPANDINCREASINGPOPULAR DISENCHANTMENTWITHTHEEXCESSESOF3TALINISM)N&EBRUARY+HRUSH CHEVMADEHISFAMOUShSECRETvSPEECHTOTHE4WENTIETH#ONGRESSOFTHE3OVIET



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#OMMUNIST0ARTY DENOUNCING3TALINANDHISCRIMESFOR"OLES‘AW"IERUT PRESI DENTANDlRSTSECRETARYOFTHE0:02 ASFOROTHER%ASTERN%UROPEANLEADERS THESPEECHWASABOMBSHELL UNMASKINGTHELIEOFTHEABSOLUTECORRECTNESSOF 3TALINSEVERYACT2EFORM MINDEDMEMBERSOFTHE0ARTYIN0OLANDWERETHE lRSTTOMAKECOPIESAVAILABLEINTHE7EST BUTFOR"IERUTANDTHEHARDLINELEAD ERSHIPITWASTHEEND"IERUTDIEDDIRECTLYAFTERTHE#ONGRESS MANYSUSPECTING THATHEHADCOMMITTEDSUICIDE 4HENIN*UNE WORKERSIN0OZNATOOKTOTHESTREETSOVERWORKINGCONDITIONS ANDWAGES4HEPROTESTRAPIDLYDEVELOPEDINTOAMAJORCONFRONTATIONWITHTHE AUTHORITIES ANDINTHEENSUINGSTREETBATTLESWITHTHEARMYANDSECURITYPOLICE UPTOEIGHTYPEOPLEWEREKILLEDANDMANYHUNDREDSOFOTHERSWOUNDED)NITIAL GOVERNMENTINSISTENCETHAThIMPERIALISTAGENTSvHADINSTIGATEDTHETROUBLESGAVE WAYTOANADMISSIONTHATSOMEOFTHEWORKERSGRIEVANCESWEREJUSTIlEDANDTHAT THE0ARTYWOULDTRYTOREMEDYTHEM 4HE0OZNARIOTSFURTHERDIVIDEDANALARMEDANDWEAKENED0ARTY(ARDLINERS PUSHEDFOR$EFENCE-INISTER'ENERAL2OKOSSOWSKITOTAKEOVERTHELEADERSHIP BUT IT WAS 'OMU‘KA WITH HIS EARNEST PROMISES OF REFORM WHO CARRIED THE DAY)N/CTOBER THE0ARTYPLENUMELECTED'OMU‘KAASTHENEWLEADER WITH OUT CONSULTING -OSCOW!N ENRAGED +HRUSHCHEV mEW TO7ARSAW TO DEMAND ANEXPLANATIONOFTHISUNPRECEDENTEDmOUTINGOFTHE+REMLINSAUTHORITY%AST 'ERMAN #ZECH AND 3OVIET TROOPS WERE MOBILIZED ALONG 0OLANDS BORDERS IN RESPONSETOWHICH0OLISHSECURITYFORCESPREPAREDTODEFENDTHECAPITAL0OLAND HELDITSBREATHAS'OMU‘KAAND+HRUSHCHEVENGAGEDINHEATEDDEBATEOVERTHE CRISIS )N THE END 'OMU‘KA ASSURED +HRUSHCHEV THAT 0OLAND WOULD REMAIN A LOYALALLYANDMAINTAINTHEESSENTIALSOFCOMMUNISTRULE+HRUSHCHEVRETURNED TO-OSCOW 3OVIETTROOPSWITHDREW ANDFOURDAYSLATER'OMU‘KAADDRESSEDA HUGECROWDIN7ARSAWASANATIONALHERO4HE3OVIETINVASIONOF(UNGARY TOCRUSHTHENATIONALUPRISINGTHEREINEARLY.OVEMBERPROVIDEDACLEAR REMINDERTO0OLESOFHOWCLOSETHEYHADCOMETODISASTER 4HE0OLISH/CTOBER ASITCAMETOBEKNOWN RAISEDHIGHHOPESOFANEW ORDER AND INITIALLY THOSE HOPES SEEMED JUSTIlED #ENSORSHIP WAS RELAXED #ARDINAL7YSZYSKI WAS RELEASED AND STATE HARASSMENT OF THE #HURCH AND CONTROLOVERTHEECONOMYEASED!CULTURALTHAWENCOURAGEDANEXPLOSION OFCREATIVITYINARTANDTHEATREnMUCHOFITWILDLYEXPERIMENTALnANDOPENED THE DOORS TOhDECADENTv7ESTERN PREOCCUPATIONS SUCH AS JAZZ AND ROCK AND ROLL"UTTHEIMPETUSFORPOLITICALREFORMQUICKLYFADED ANDTHESSAW APROGRESSIVERETURNTOCENTRALIZEDPLANNING ASTAGNANTECONOMYANDSPORADIC ATTEMPTSTOREASSERTSOMEMEASUREOFCONTROLOVERANINCREASINGLYDISAFFECTED POPULACE

nFROM'OMU‘KATO 'IEREK



4HE FINAL DAYS OF THE 'OMU‘KA YEARS WERE MARKED BY A CONTRAST BETWEEN TRIUMPHINFOREIGNPOLICYANDTHEHARSHIMPOSITIONOFECONOMICCONSTRAINT 0URSUING HIS POLICY OF /STPOLITIK 7EST 'ERMAN CHANCELLOR 7ILLY "RANDT VISITED0OLANDIN$ECEMBERTOSIGNTHE 7ARSAW4REATY RECOGNIZING 0OLANDSCURRENTBORDERSANDOPENINGFULLDIPLOMATICRELATIONS)NANEMPHATIC SYMBOLICGESTURE "RANDTKNELTINPENANCEATTHEMONUMENTTOTHOSEKILLEDIN THE7ARSAW'HETTO5PRISING

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! FEW DAYS LATER ON $ECEMBER  HUGE FOOD PRICE RISES WERE ANNOUNCED PROVOKING A SIMMERING DISCONTENT THAT WAS TO BREAK OUT IN STRIKES AND DEMONSTRATIONSALONGTHE"ALTICCOAST CENTRINGON'DASK7HENTROOPSlRED ONDEMONSTRATORS KILLINGMANY THEPROTESTSSPREADLIKEWILDlRE TOTHEPOINTOF OPENINSURRECTION'OMU‘KAS$EFENCE-INISTER ACERTAIN7OJCIECH*ARUZEL SKI WASTOBEPUTONTRIALFORTHEKILLINGSSOMETWENTYYEARSLATER !TRAUMA TIZED#ENTRAL#OMMITTEEMETlVEDAYSBEFORE#HRISTMAS HURRIEDLYBUNDLING 'OMU‘KA INTO RETIREMENT AND REPLACING HIM AS lRST SECRETARY WITH %DWARD 'IEREK A MEMBER OF THE 0ARTYS REFORMIST FACTION IN THE S 0RICE RISES WEREFROZENANDWAGEINCREASESPROMISED BUTDESPITEA#HRISTMASCALM STRIKES BROKE OUT THROUGHOUT *ANUARY  WITH DEMANDS FOR FREE TRADE UNIONS AND AFREEPRESSACCOMPANYINGTHEMOREUSUALECONOMICDEMANDS0EACEWASONLY RESTOREDWHEN'IEREKAND*ARUZELSKIWENTTOTHE'DASKSHIPYARDSBYTAXITO ARGUETHEIRCASEANDADMITTHEIRERRORSTOTHESTRIKERS 4HE'IEREKPERIODMARKEDOUTANALTERNATIVEROUTETOSOCIALSTABILITY'IVEN ACCESS TO 7ESTERN lNANCIAL MARKETS BY "RANDTS RECONCILIATION THE 'IEREK GOVERNMENT BORROWED HEAVILY THROUGHOUT THE EARLY S &OOD BECAME CHEAPER AND MORE PLENTIFUL AS INTERNAL SUBSIDIES WERE MATCHED BY PURCHASES FROMTHE7ESTANDTHE3OVIET5NION3TANDARDSOFLIVINGROSEANDAWIDERRANGE OF CONSUMER GOODS BECAME MORE FREELY AVAILABLE (OWEVER THE INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC RECESSION AND OIL CRISES OF THE MID 3EVENTIES DESTROYED THE 0OLISH BOOM AT A STROKE $EBTS BECAME IMPOSSIBLE TO SERVICE NEW LOANS HARDER TO OBTAIN ANDITBECAMEAPPARENTTHATEARLIERBORROWINGHADBEENSQUANDEREDIN UNSUSTAINABLERISESINCONSUMPTIONORWASTEDINLARGE SCALEPROJECTSOFLIMITED ECONOMICVALUE "Y  THE WHEEL HAD TURNED FULL CIRCLE WITH REMARKABLE RAPIDITY 4HE GOVERNMENT ANNOUNCED FOOD PRICE RISES OF ALMOST TREBLE THE MAGNITUDE OF THOSEPROPOSEDINTHEEARLY3EVENTIES4HISTIMETHEENSUINGSTRIKESWERElRMLY REPRESSEDANDMANYACTIVISTSIMPRISONED ANDITISFROMTHISPOINTTHATONECAN CHARTTHEEMERGENCEOFTHECOMPLEXALLIANCEBETWEEN0OLISHWORKERS INTELLECTUALS ANDTHE#ATHOLIC#HURCH)NRESPONSETOTHEIMPRISONMENTOFSTRIKERS THE+/2 #OMMITTEE FOR THE $EFENCE OF7ORKERS WAS FORMED #OMPRISING DISSIDENT INTELLECTUALS ITWASTOPROVIDENOTONLYVALUABLEPUBLICITYANDSUPPORTFORTHE OPPOSITIONTHROUGH7ESTERNCONTACTS BUTALSONEWCHANNELSOFPOLITICALCOMMU NICATIONTHROUGHUNDERGROUNDSAMIZDATPUBLICATIONS PLUSADEGREEOFSTRATEGIC SOPHISTICATIONTHATTHESPONTANEOUSUPRISINGSHADSOFARLACKED "UT PERHAPS EVEN MORE DECISIVE WAS THE ELECTION OF +AROL7OJTY‘A ARCH BISHOP OF +RAKØW AS 0OPE *OHN 0AUL )) IN ! lERCE OPPONENT OF THE COMMUNIST REGIME HE VISITED 0OLAND IN  AND WAS MET BY THE GREATEST PUBLICGATHERINGSTHAT0OLANDHADEVERSEEN&ORTHE0OLISHPEOPLEHEBECAME A SYMBOL OF 0OLISH CULTURAL IDENTITY AND INTERNATIONAL INmUENCE AND HIS VISIT PROVIDEDAPUBLICDEMONSTRATIONOFTHEIRPOTENTIALPOWER

n3OLIDARITY 'IEREKSANNOUNCEMENTOF PERCENTPRICERISESONFOODSTUFFSIN*ULY LED TO MORE STRIKES CENTRING ON THE 'DASK SHIPYARDS!TTEMPTS BY THE AUTHORITIESTOHAVEACRANEOPERATOR !NNA7ALENTYNOWICZ DISMISSEDFORPOLITI CALAGITATIONINTENSIlEDTHEUNREST,EDBYASHIPYARDELECTRICIAN ,ECH7A‘ZSA THESTRIKERSOCCUPIEDTHEYARDSANDWEREJOINEDBYAHASTILYCONVENEDGROUPOF



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OPPOSITIONINTELLECTUALSANDACTIVISTS INCLUDINGFUTUREPRIMEMINISTER4ADEUSZ -AZOWIECKI4OGETHERTHEYFORMULATEDASERIESOFDEMANDSnTHE4WENTY ONE0OINTSnTHATWERETOSERVENOTONLYASTHEPRINCIPALPOLITICALCONCERNSOF THE0OLISHOPPOSITION BUTTOPROVIDEANINTELLECTUALTEMPLATEFOREVERYOTHER OPPOSITIONALMOVEMENTIN%ASTERN%UROPE $EMANDS FOR POPULAR CONSULTATION OVER THE ECONOMIC CRISIS THE FREEING OF POLITICAL PRISONERS FREEDOM OF THE PRESS THE RIGHT TO STRIKE FREE TRADE UNIONSANDTELEVISED#ATHOLIC-ASSWEREDRAWNUP ALONGWITHDEMANDSFOR HIGHERWAGESANDANENDTO0ARTYPRIVILEGES9ETTHELESSONSOF(UNGARYIN AND#ZECHOSLOVAKIAINHADBEENLEARNT ANDTHEOPPOSITIONWAS CAREFUL TO REITERATE THAT THEYhINTENDED NEITHER TO THREATEN THE FOUNDATIONS OF THE 3OCIALIST 2EPUBLIC IN OUR COUNTRY NOR ITS POSITION IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONSv 4HE 0ARTY CAVED IN AFTER PROTRACTED NEGOTIATIONS SIGNING THE HISTORIC 'DASK!GREEMENTSIN!UGUST AFTERWHICHFREETRADEUNIONS COVER INGOVERPERCENTOF0OLANDSMILLIONWORKFORCE WEREFORMEDACROSS THE COUNTRY UNDER THE NAME 3OLIDARNOX n 3OLIDARITY 'IEREK AND HIS SUPPORTERSWERESWEPTFROMOFlCEBYTHE0ARTYIN3EPTEMBER BUTTHE LIMITS OF 3OLIDARITYS POWER WERE SIGNALLED BY AN UNSCHEDULED7ARSAW 0ACT MEETINGLATERINTHEYEAR/THER%ASTERN%UROPEANCOMMUNISTLEADERSPERCEP TIVELY ARGUED THAT 3OLIDARITYS SUCCESS WOULD THREATEN NOT ONLY THEIR 0OLISH COUNTERPARTSPOLITICALFUTURES BUTTHEIROWNASWELL!CCORDINGLY 3OVIETAND 7ARSAW 0ACT UNITS WERE MOBILIZED ALONG 0OLANDS BORDERS4HE 0OLES CLOSED RANKSTHE0ARTYREAFlRMEDITS,ENINISTPURITY WHILE3OLIDARITYANDTHE#HURCH PUBLICLYEMPHASIZEDTHEIRMODERATION 4HROUGHOUTDEADLOCKENSUED WHILETHEECONOMICCRISISGATHEREDPACE 3OLIDARITY LACKING ANY POSITIVE CONTROL OVER THE ECONOMY WAS ONLY CAPABLE OF BRINGING IT TO A HALT AND REPEATEDLY SHOWED ITSELF ABLE TO DO SO 'ENERAL *ARUZELSKI TOOK CONTROL OF THE 0ARTY IN *ULY  AND IN THE FACE OF THREATS OFAGENERALSTRIKE CONTINUEDTONEGOTIATEWITH3OLIDARITYLEADERS BUTREFUSED TORELINQUISHANYPOWER!WAVEOFSTRIKESINLATE/CTOBERWEREMETBY THEIMPOSITIONOFMARTIALLAWON$ECEMBER OCCUPATIONSANDSTRIKES WEREBROKENUPBYTROOPS 3OLIDARITYWASBANNED CIVILLIBERTIESSUSPENDEDAND UNION LEADERS ARRESTED (OWEVER THESE MEASURES SOLVED NOTHING FUNDAMENTAL AND IN THE FACE OF CREATIVE AND DETERMINED RESISTANCE FROM THE NOW UNDER GROUND3OLIDARITYMOVEMENT STILLACTIVELYSUPPORTEDBYLARGESEGMENTSOFTHE POPULACE MARTIALLAWWASLIFTEDINTHEWAKEOF0OPE*OHN0AUL))SSECONDVISIT TOHISHOMECOUNTRYIN 4HEPERIODTOWASMARKEDBYAlNALATTEMPTBYTHE*ARUZELSKI GOVERNMENTTODIG0OLANDOUTOFITSECONOMICCRISIS4HECOUNTRYSDEBTHAD RISENTOANASTRONOMICALBILLION WAGESHADSLUMPED ANDPRODUCTIONWAS HAMPERED BY ENDEMIC LABOUR UNREST THE CUTTING EDGE OF WHAT THROUGHOUT THE S REMAINED %ASTERN %UROPES MOST ORGANIZED AND BROADLY BASED OPPOSITION MOVEMENT )N  *ARUZELSKI SUBMITTED THE GOVERNMENTS PROGRAMME OF PRICE RISES AND PROMISED DEMOCRATIZATION TO A REFERENDUM 4HE GOVERNMENT LOST THE REAL MESSAGE OF THE VOTE BEING A REJECTION NOT MERELYOFTHEPROGRAMMEBUTOFTHENOTIONTHATTHE0ARTYCOULDLEAD0OLAND OUTOFITSCRISIS *ARUZELSKI lNALLY ACKNOWLEDGED DEFEAT AFTER A DEVASTATING WAVE OF STRIKES IN ANDCALLEDFORAhCOURAGEOUSTURNAROUNDvBYTHE0ARTY ACCEPTINGTHENEED FORTALKSWITH3OLIDARITYANDTHEPROSPECTOFREALPOWERSHARINGnANOPTIONOF POLITICALCAPITULATIONONLYMADEPOSSIBLEBYTHEELECTIONOF-IKHAIL'ORBACHEV ASSECRETARYGENERALINTHE+REMLIN

nTHENEW0OLAND

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4HEROUND TABLETALKSRANFROM&EBRUARYTO!PRIL GOVERNMENTREPRE SENTATIVESULTIMATELYAGREEINGTOTHEOPPOSITIONSDEMANDSFORTHELEGALIZATION OF3OLIDARITY THEESTABLISHMENTOFANINDEPENDENTPRESSANDTHEPROMISEOF WHATWERETERMEDhSEMI FREEvELECTIONS!LLHUNDREDSEATSOFARECONSTITUTED UPPERCHAMBER THE3ENATE WERETOBEFREELYCONTESTEDWHILEPERCENTOF SEATSINTHELOWERHOUSE THE3EJM WERETOBERESERVEDFORTHE0:02ANDITS ALLIEDPARTIES WITHTHERESTOPENLYCONTESTED 4HE COMMUNISTS SUFFERED A HUMILIATING AND DECISIVE DEFEAT IN THE CONSE QUENTELECTIONSHELDIN*ULY WHEREAS3OLIDARITYWONALMOSTEVERYSEATIT CONTESTED4HUSWHILETHENUMERICALBALANCEOFTHELOWERCHAMBERREMAINED WITH THE 0:02 THE UNTHINKABLE BECAME POSSIBLE n A 3OLIDARITY LED GOVERN MENT)NTHEEND THEPARTIESWHICHHADPREVIOUSLYBEENALLIEDTOTHE0:02 BROKE WITH THEIR COMMUNIST OVERLORDS AND VOTED TO ESTABLISH THE JOURNALIST 4ADEUSZ -AZOWIECKI AS PRIME MINISTER IN!UGUST  INSTALLING THE lRST NON COMMUNIST GOVERNMENT IN %ASTERN %UROPE SINCE7ORLD7AR )) 3UBSE QUENTLYTHE0:02RAPIDLYDISINTEGRATED VOTINGTODISSOLVEITSELFIN*ANUARY ANDTHENSPLITTINGINTOTWONOTIONALLYSOCIALDEMOCRATICCURRENTS 4HETASKSFACING0OLANDSNEWGOVERNMENTWEREFORMIDABLEECONOMICDISLO CATION POLITICAL VOLATILITY AND A RAPIDLY CHANGING SCENE IN THE REST OF %ASTERN %UROPE&ORTHEMOSTPART THEGOVERNMENTRETAINEDAHIGHDEGREEOFSUPPORT DESPITE AN AUSTERITY PROGRAMME FAR STIFFER THAN ANYTHING PROPOSED UNDER THE COMMUNISTREGIME

0RESIDENT7A‘ZSAANDTHElRST FREEELECTIONS !FTERALONGPERIODAWAYFROMTHEPOLITICALLIMELIGHT,ECH7A‘ZSAREEMERGED TOWINTHEPRESIDENTIALELECTIONSOF PROMISINGAFASTERPACEOFREFORM ANDTHEREMOVALOFTHEACCUMULATEDPRIVILEGESOFTHECOMMUNISTELITE)N*ANU ARYHEAPPOINTEDBUSINESS ORIENTEDLIBERAL*AN +RZYSZTOF "IELECKIAS PRIMEMINISTER"IELECKISHARD HEADEDlNANCEMINISTER,ESZEK"ALCEROWICZ EMBARKEDONATOUGHAUSTERITYPROGRAMME WITHSTEADILYRISINGPRICES ROCK ETINGUNEMPLOYMENTANDCONTINUEDGOVERNMENTSPENDINGCUTSMAKINGHEAVY INROADSINTOTHEPOCKETSANDLIVESOFORDINARY0OLES4HESEPOLICIESWONTHE CONlDENCEOF7ESTERNlNANCIALINSTITUTIONS HOWEVER RESULTINGINALANDMARK AGREEMENTWITHTHE)NTERNATIONAL-ONETARY&UND)-& ABOUTTHEREDUC TIONOF0OLANDSBILLIONDEBT %LECTIONSnTHElRSTFULLYFREEONESSINCE7ORLD7AR))nWEREHELDIN/CTOBER 4HECAMPAIGNITSELFWASAFAIRLYTAMEAFFAIR THEMOSTNOTABLEFEATUREBEING THESPECTACULARARRAYOFPARTIESNEARLYSEVENTYINTOTAL TAKINGPART INCLUDING EVERYONEFROMNATIONALMINORITIESLIKETHE3ILESIAN'ERMANSTOTHEJOKE"EER ,OVERS0ARTY !TOTALOFPARTIESENTEREDTHENEW3EJM THEHIGHESTSCORER THE$EMOCRATIC 5NION5$ GAININGAMEAGREPERCENTOFTHEALARMINGLYLOWPERCENT TURNOUT "IELECKI RESIGNED AND7A‘ZSA CALLED ON *AN /LSZEWSKI A LAWYER AND PROMINENTFORMERDISSIDENT TOFORMANEWCOALITIONGOVERNMENT



4HE NEW CENTRE RIGHT COALITION GOVERNMENT PUT TOGETHER BY /LSZEWSKI ADOPTEDANINCREASINGLYAGGRESSIVESTANCEONTHESUBJECTOFhDECOMMUNIZATIONv PUSHING FOR THE UNMASKING OF PUBLIC lGURES SUSPECTED OF HAVING COLLABORATED WITH THE SECURITY SERVICES DURING THE COMMUNIST ERA4HE QUESTION OF LUSTRA TIONnTHEEXCLUSIONFROMPUBLICLIFEOFTHOSEWHOHADCOMPROMISEDTHEMSELVES UNDERTHEPREVIOUSREGIMEnHASBEENACONTROVERSIALISSUEIN0OLANDEVERSINCE LARGELYBECAUSEOFTHEPOTENTIALLYHUGENUMBEROFPEOPLEWHOCOULDBETARGETED INTHISWAY)TCETAINLYCOST/LSZEWSKIHISJOB OUSTEDBYANO CONlDENCEVOTE IN*UNE

4HE3UCHOCKAGOVERNMENT # /.4% 843

\(ISTORY

/LSZEWSKISSUCCESSOR (ALINA 3UCHOCKA OFTHE$EMOCRATIC5NION PROVED SURPRISINGLYSUCCESSFULINKNITTINGTOGETHERAFUNCTIONINGCOALITIONFROMAN UNRULY BUNDLE OF FRACTIOUS RIGHT OF CENTRE PARTIES $OMESTICALLY HER MOST IMPORTANT ACHIEVEMENT WAS A SOCIAL PACT OVER WAGE INCREASES CONCLUDED BETWEENGOVERNMENTANDTRADEUNIONSTHEREMNANTSOFDECLINING3OLIDARITY INCLUDED INAUTUMNFOLLOWINGAMAJORWAVEOFSTRIKES/NTHEDARKER SIDE THEINCREASINGLYPOWERFULROLEOFTHE #HURCHIN0OLANDSPOLITICALAND SOCIALLIFECAMEWELLTOTHEFORE ABOVEALLINTHEHEATEDNATIONALDEBATESPARKED BYGOVERNMENTMOVESTOCRIMINALIZEABORTION AMOVESUPPORTEDSTRONGLYBY THE#ATHOLIC#HURCHBUTOPPOSEDBYMANYWITHINTHECOUNTRY ASWELLASBY 7ESTERNINSTITUTIONSLIKETHE#OUNCILOF%UROPE 4HEISSUETHATCAUSEDTHE3UCHOCKAGOVERNMENTMOSTTROUBLEWASTHEVEXED ISSUEOFLARGE SCALEPRIVATIZATION4HE3EJMTHREWOUTABILLDESIGNEDTOPRIVA TIZE OVER SIX HUNDRED MAJOR STATE ENTERPRISES IN -ARCH  AND DESPITE THE ADOPTIONOFACOMPROMISESOLUTIONAMONTHLATER THEWHOLETHINGWASDERAILED BY 3OLIDARITY -0S WHO LED A VOTE OF NO CONlDENCE OVER THE GOVERNMENTS HANDLINGOFECONOMICPOLICY 0RESIDENT7A‘ZSACALLEDFORFRESHELECTIONSIN3EPTEMBER WHICHRESULTED IN VICTORY FOR A COALITION BETWEEN THE FORMER COMMUNIST $EMOCRATIC ,EFT !LLIANCE 3,$ AND THE 0EASANTS 0ARTY 03, WHICH WON NEARLY  PERCENT OFTHEVOTE!SINMANYOTHERPOST COMMUNISTCOUNTRIES ADECLINEINPOPULAR LIVINGSTANDARDSBROUGHTABOUTBYECONOMICREFORMPROGRAMMESHADLEDTOA REFORMED COMMUNISTRETURNTOPOWER

nTHE3,$INPOWER



4HE NEW GOVERNMENT LED BY 03, LEADER 7ALDEMAR 0AWLAK AFlRMED ITS COMMITMENTTOCONTINUEDMARKETREFORMS BUTATTHESAMETIMEPLEDGEDTODO MORETOADDRESSITSNEGATIVESOCIALEFFECTS(OWEVER SERIOUSOUTBREAKSOF3,$ 03,INlGHTINGWEAKEND0AWLAKSAUTHORITY ANDANEWWAVEOFPUBLIC SECTOR STRIKES INITIATEDBYAREVIVED3OLIDARITYINTHEEARLYSPRINGOF DAMAGEDTHE GOVERNMENTSSTANDINGSTILLFURTHER 5LTIMATELY HOWEVER THECONmICTTHATMOSTUNDERMINED0AWLAKSGOVERNMENT WASAPROLONGEDTUSSLEWITH0RESIDENT,ECH7A‘ZSA&RUSTRATEDBYTHELEFTSELEC TORALSUCCESSANDHISOWNINCREASINGPOLITICALMARGINALIZATION 7A‘ZSAENGAGED THEGOVERNMENTINASERIESOFCONSTITUTIONALDISPUTES4HESHOWDOWNCAMEIN &EBRUARY WHEN7A‘ZSADEMANDED0AWLAKSRESIGNATIONANDTHREATENEDTO DISSOLVEPARLIAMENTIFHEWASNOTREPLACEDIMMEDIATELY)NCENSEDBYTHISBLATANT DISPLAY OF PRESIDENTIAL ARROGANCE THE 3EJM VOTED TO INITIATE IMPEACHMENT

PROCEEDINGSAGAINST7A‘ZSASHOULDHEMAKEGOODHISTHREATS!FULL SCALECRISIS WAS PREVENTED BY 0AWLAKS DECISION TO QUIT TO BE REPLACED IN -ARCH BY THE 3,$S*ØZEF/LEKSY SPEAKEROFTHE3EJM WHOPROCEEDEDTOFORMANEWGOVERN MENTBASEDONTHESAMECOALITIONOFTHE3,$ 03,ANDINDEPENDENTS

4HEPRESIDENTIALELECTIONS

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\(ISTORY

4HEFOCUSOFPOLITICALATTENTIONNOWSHIFTEDTOWARDSTHE.OVEMBERPRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS WITHOPINIONPOLLSSUGGESTINGTHATTHEPUBLICWEREWEARYOF7A‘ZSAS UNQUENCHABLEAPPETITEFORPOLITICALINTRIGUE4HISTIMEHISMAINRIVALWASTHE 3,$S!LEKSANDER +WANIEWSKI APOLISHED SMOOTH TALKINGCHARACTERWHO KNEWHOWTOWINOVERAUDIENCESPOTENTIALLYALIENATEDBYHISEX COMMUNIST POLITICALRECORD"YTALKINGOF0OLANDSFUTUREASASPEEDILYMODERNIZINGCOUNTRY +WANIEWSKIWONOVERBOTHTHEYOUNGANDTHEEMERGENTMIDDLECLASSES WHO CLEARLYPREFERREDCONSENSUSANDSTABILITYTOTHEDIVISIVELEADERSHIPSTYLEOF,ECH 7A‘ZSA &OLLOWING A lNAL CAMPAIGN MARKED BY SOME PRETTY GRUESOME MUDSLINGING +WANIEWSKICARRIEDTHEDAYBYASLIMMARGINOFPERCENTTO7A‘ZSAS ONA PERCENTVOTERTURNOUT!CHASTENED7A‘ZSAMADELITTLEEFFORTTOHIDEHISANGER ATTHERESULT ANDTHElNALWEEKSOFHISPRESIDENCYWEREMARKEDBYFURTHERCHAR ACTERISTICALLYINTEMPERATEOUTBURSTS NOTABLYHISREFUSALTOATTEND+WANIEWSKIS SWEARING INCEREMONYJUSTBEFORE#HRISTMAS )N $ECEMBER  0RIME -INISTER *ØZEF /LEKSY HAD TO STEP DOWN AMID ALLEGATIONSTHATHEWASAFORMERAGENTOFTHE+'" BUTTHINGSCONTINUEDPRETTY MUCH AS THEY WERE UNDER HIS SUCCESSOR AND 3,$ COLLEAGUE FORMER JUSTICE MINISTER7‘ODZIMIERZ#IMOSZEWICZ.EEDINGTOREGROUPINORDERTOSTAND ANYCHANCEOFWINNINGBACKPOWER THECENTRE RIGHTCAMETOGETHERTOFORMTHE 3OLIDARITY%LECTION!CTION!73 COALITIONIN*UNE4HISWASAMAKE SHIFTALLIANCEOFSOMEPARTIES COMPRISINGSUCHHEAVYWEIGHTSAS3OLIDARITY THE #ENTRE!GREEMENT0# ANDTHE#HRISTIAN.ATIONAL5NION:#H. ALONGSIDE ASTRINGOFMINORRIGHTISTGROUPINGS$ESPITEITSINHERENTFRACTIOUSNESS THE!73 SUCCEEDEDINMAKINGRAPIDPOLITICALHEADWAY NOTLEASTDUETOTHEASTUTELEAD ERSHIPOF3OLIDARITYCHAIRMAN-ARIAN+RZAKLEWSKI WHOSOONEMERGEDASTHE COALITIONSLEADINGlGURE 4HEFOCUSOFNATIONALATTENTIONSWUNGlRMLYAWAYFROMPOLITICSFOLLOWINGTHE SEVEREmOODSTHATSWEPTACROSSSOUTHERN0OLANDIN*ULY!TLEASTPEOPLE DIED OVER WEREEVACUATEDFROMTHEIRHOMESANDCITIESSUCHAS7ROC‘AW SUFFERED EXTENSIVE DAMAGE PROMPTING THE TEMPORARY ADOPTION OF EMERGENCY MEASURESANDANINmUXOFAIDFROMINTERNATIONALSOURCES4HEGOVERNMENTCAME INFOR SEVERECRITICISM FOR WHAT WAS PERCEIVED AS AFAILURETOACTDECISIVELYIN RESPONSETOTHEmOODS ANDIN!UGUSTITBARELYSURVIVEDA03, SPONSOREDVOTE OFNOCONlDENCE

4HERETURNOFTHECENTRE RIGHT 4HE3EPTEMBERELECTIONSHANDEDVICTORYTOTHE3OLIDARITY LED!73 BUTWITHPERCENTOFTHEVOTETHEYNEEDEDTOFORGEACOALITIONWITH,ESZEK "ALCZEROWICZSNEO LIBERAL&REEDOM5NION57 INORDERTOFORMAGOVERNMENT 4HENEWPRIMEMINISTERWAS*ERZY"UZEK AVETERAN3OLIDARITYACTIVISTFROM3ILESIA WHOOWEDHISELEVATIONTO+RZAKLEWSKISDECISIONTOFORGOTHEPREMIERSHIPAND CONCENTRATEINSTEADONTHEPRESIDENTIALELECTIONSSCHEDULEDFOR



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\(ISTORY 

4HE MAIN PLANKS OF THE GOVERNMENTS PROGRAMME WERE LITTLE DIFFERENT FROM THOSE OF ITS PREDECESSOR EMPHASIZING INTEGRATION INTO .!4/ AND THE %5 CONTINUING PRIVATIZATION ECONOMIC RETRENCHMENT /THER COMPONENTS NOTABLY "UZEKS PLEDGE TO PROMOTE #HRISTIAN BELIEFS ANDhFAMILY VALUESv n A FAMILIAR LEITMOTIF OF CONSERVATIVE #ATHOLIC AGITPROP n INDICATED REAL DIFFERENCES IN IDEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND AND APPROACH )N $ECEMBER THE NEW 3EJM ACCEPTED A #ONSTITUTIONAL4RIBUNAL RULING OVERTURNING THE LIBERALIZED ABORTION LAW PASSEDTHEPREVIOUSYEARINTHEFACEOFlERCE#HURCHCRITICISMANDWIDESPREAD CENTRE RIGHTPOLITICALOPPOSITION4HEFOLLOWINGMONTHTHE#ONCORDATWITHTHE 6ATICANREGULATING#HURCHn3TATERELATIONS WHOSEFORMALRATIlCATIONHADHITH ERTOBEENSTALLEDBYTHE3,$ANDITSALLIES WASlNALLYVOTEDINTOLAW $ESPITE THE CONCILIATORY CONlDENCE BUILDING STYLE OF "UZEK HIMSELF HIS GOVERNMENT WAS ULTIMATELY HAMSTRUNG BY THE SPLIT BETWEEN THE "ALCEROW ICZ FACTION WHICH WAS COMMITTED TO AN ONGOING PROGRAMME OF FREE MARKET REFORMSANDPUBLICSPENDINGCUTS ANDTHOSECLOSERTO3OLIDARITY WHOFAVOUREDA LESSRADICALSTYLE4HEECONOMICGROWTHOFTHEMID SWASBEGINNINGTOSLOW DOWNBYTHEENDOFTHEDECADE UNEMPLOYMENTWASRISING ANDTHOSEINWORK WEREFRUSTRATEDBYHAVINGTOPUTUPWITHNEGLIGIBLEPAYRISESFROMONEYEARTO THE NEXT )N THESE CONDITIONS THE 3,$ n GUIDED BY AFFABLE FORMER 0OLITBURO MEMBER,ESZEK-ILLERnBOUNCEDBACKINTOPOPULARAFFECTIONS

+WAhNIEWSKIWINSAGAIN 4HElRSTTESTOFTHE3,$SRESURGENTPOPULARITYCAMEWITHTHEPRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS OF /CTOBER 4HE INCUMBENT 3,$ SUPPORTED!LEKSANDER +WANIEWSKI HADREPRESENTEDTHEINTERESTSOFHISCOUNTRYWITHMUCHMORE DIGNITYTHANHISCROTCHETYPREDECESSOR,ECH7A‘ZSA ANDPOSSESSEDANACCESSIBLE BLOKEISHNESSTHATAPPEALEDSTRONGLYTOTHEAVERAGE0OLE-OSTIMPORTANTLY HE WASSEENASACONSENSUS BUILDINGNATIONALlGUREHEADWHORESISTEDTHETEMPTA TIONTOINTERFERETOOMUCHINDAY TO DAYPOLITICS%VEN+WANIEWSKISGAFFES SUCHASAPPEARINGTOMOCKTHEPOPEBYENCOURAGINGONEOFHISAIDESTOKISSTHE GROUNDINPAPALSTYLE FAILEDTODENTHISPOPULARITY +WANIEWSKISSUBSEQUENTLANDSLIDEVICTORYOVER!73CANDIDATE!LEKSANDER +RZAKLEWSKILEFTTHEGOVERNMENTINDISARRAY4HEUNPOPULARITYBROUGHTONTHE GOVERNMENTBYTHERADICALECONOMICREFORMESPOUSEDBYTHE&REEDOM5NION PROMPTEDMANYPROMINENTRIGHT WINGERSTODEFECTTOANEW MOREMODERATE CENTRE RIGHTPOLITICALGROUPINGCALLEDTHE#IVIC0LATFORM 4HE DEATH WARRANT OF THE!73 LED GOVERNMENT WAS DELIVERED BY THE VERY ORGANIZATION WHOSE INTERESTS IT HAD BEEN FORMED TO PROMOTE )N -AY  3OLIDARITYlNALLYFACEDUPTOTHEDILEMMATHATHADBEENDOGGINGITSLEADERS THROUGHOUT THE PREVIOUS DECADE HOW COULD A MOVEMENT FORMED TO DEFEND WORKERSRIGHTSCONTINUETOPARTICIPATEINRIGHT OF CENTREGOVERNMENTSWHOSE POLICIES REPEATEDLY CONmICTED WITH WORKERS INTERESTS $ESPERATE TO RETAIN THE CONlDENCE OF ITS CORE MEMBERSHIP 3OLIDARITY DECIDED TO WITHDRAW FROM THE !73INORDERTOCONCENTRATEONITSROLEASATRADEUNION 4HEVOLATILENATUREOFPARTYPOLITICSTHROUGHOUTTHEPOST COMMUNISTPERIODHAD LITTLEIMPACTONTHEMAINSTRATEGICGOALSOF0OLISHFOREIGNPOLICYMEMBERSHIPOF .!4/ANDTHE%UROPEAN5NION)NITIALLY MEMBERSHIPOF.!4/APPEAREDTO BETHELEASTLIKELYOFTHETWOAMBITIONSTOBEREALIZED BUTTHROUGHOUTTHESTHE WEAKINTERNATIONALPOSITIONOF2USSIAnTHECOUNTRYMOSTTHREATENEDBY.!4/ ENLARGEMENT n ALLOWED 0OLAND UNEXPECTED FREEDOM OF MANOEUVRE )N *ANUARY  0OLANDSIGNEDUPTOTHEORGANIZATIONSNEWLYFORMED0ARTNERSHIPFOR0EACE !GREEMENT ANDnTOGETHERWITHTHE#ZECH2EPUBLICAND(UNGARYnWASOFlCIALLY

INVITED TO JOIN THE ORGANIZATION THREE YEARS LATER DESPITE CONSIDERABLE 2USSIAN GRUMBLING!LLTHREEWEREFORMALLYACCEPTEDINTOTHEALLIANCEIN-ARCH ONE MONTHAHEADOF.!4/SlFTIETHANNIVERSARYCELEBRATIONS

4HEPOLITICALPRESENT

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\(ISTORY

0ROlTINGFROMGOVERNMENTMISTAKESRATHERTHANPRESENTINGARADICALLYDIFFERENT PROGRAMMEOFITSOWN THE3,$CRUISEDEFFORTLESSLYTOVICTORYINTHE PARLIA MENTARYELECTIONSOF3EPTEMBER ALTHOUGHWITHOFTHE3EJMS SEATSITSTILLNEEDEDTHESUPPORTOFTRADITIONALALLYTHE03,INORDERTOFORMA GOVERNMENT"OTHTHE!73ANDTHE&REEDOM5NIONWEREWIPEDOUTENTIRELY FAILINGTOACHIEVETHElVEPERCENTOFTHEVOTENECESSARYTOWINPARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION ANDWEREREPLACEDBYTHE#IVIC0LATFORMASTHEMAINVOICEOF RIGHT OF CENTRE0OLAND 4HE NEW ADMINISTRATION OF ,ESZEK -ILLER PROVED JUST AS INEFFECTUAL AS ITS PREDECESSORS IN FULlLLING THE HUGE PUBLIC EXPECTATIONS INVESTED IN IT $ESPITE CLEAREVIDENCETHAT0OLISHECONOMYWASBECOMINGMOREEFlCIENTANDATTRACT INGINCREASINGLEVELSOFFOREIGNINVESTMENT UNEMPLOYMENTREMAINEDHIGHAND AVERAGEWAGESREMAINEDLOW )NFOREIGNPOLICYTHE3,$REMAINEDTRUETOTHEPRO 7ESTERN PRO 53!LINE THATHADBEENACONSTANTFEATUREOF0OLISHSTATECRAFTSINCETHEFALLOFCOMMUNISM ANDSUPPORTEDTHE!MERICAN LEDINVASIONOF)RAQINSPRINGBYSENDING SEVERALTHOUSANDTROOPS0OLANDASSUMEDCOMMANDOFONEOFTHETHREEMILITARY ZONESINTOWHICH)RAQWASSUBSEQUENTLYDIVIDED ALTHOUGH0OLANDSPARTICIPATION INTHEVENTUREWASINCREASINGLYQUESTIONEDBYAPUBLICUNSUREOFHOWITSERVED NATIONALINTERESTS (OWEVER ITWASDOMESTICPOLICYnANDTHEGOVERNMENTSCOMMITMENTTOFREE MARKETECONOMICSnTHATLEDTOSERIOUSSTRAINSINTHERULINGCOALITION WITHTHE 03,WITHDRAWINGITSSUPPORTINANDAGROUPOF3$,-0SnLEDBYSPEAKER OF THE 3EJM -AREK "OROWSKI n LEAVING TO FORM A SEPARATE 3OCIAL $EMOCRATIC 0ARTY A YEAR LATER 'OVERNMENT PRESTIGE WAS FURTHER TARNISHED BY A WAVE OF CORRUPTIONSCANDALS CULMINATINGINTHECASEOF,EW2YWIN THEMOVIEPRODUCER WHOTOLDTOPNEWSPAPER'AZETA7YBORCZATHATHECOULDEASETHEIRENTRYINTOTHE SATELLITE46MARKETIFTHEYPAIDMILLIONTOHISASSOCIATESINTHERULINGPARTY 2YWINGOTTWOYEARSINPRISONSUPPORTFORTHE3,$WENTINTOFREEFALL,ESZEK -ILLERRESIGNEDASPRIMEMINISTERIN-ARCH TOBEREPLACEDBYECONOMIST -AREK"ELKAnACARETAKERlGUREWHOSEJOBITWASTOSTEADYTHE3,$SHIPIN PREPARATIONFORTHENEXTROUNDOFPARLIAMENTARYELECTIONSIN )RONICALLY-ILLERRESIGNEDONTHEEVEOFWHATSHOULDHAVEBEENHISGREATEST TRIUMPH 0OLANDSENTRYINTOTHE%UROPEAN5NIONIN-AY0OLANDSDRIVE TOGAINMEMBERSHIPOFTHE%5HADBEENFARFROMSTRAIGHTFORWARDnNOTLEAST BECAUSE OF THE EXISTENCE OF AN ANTI %5 LOBBY IN 0OLAND ITSELF n COMBINING EVERYONEFROMFARMERSWORRIEDABOUTEXPOSURETO%5AGRICULTURALCOMPETITION TOANATIONALISTnRELIGIOUSCOALITIONWARYOFTHEEFFECTSOFSECULAR7ESTERNVALUES ONTHENATIONSMORALlBRE!REFERENDUMON%5MEMBERSHIPHELDIN*UNE PRODUCEDAHUGEMAJORITYINFAVOUR HOWEVER THERESULTSYMBOLIZINGFOR MANY 0OLANDS EXTRAORDINARY POST COMMUNIST VOYAGE FROM 3OVIET SATELLITE TO EQUALMEMBEROFTHEWIDER%UROPEANFAMILY 4HEMAINBENElCIARYOFTHE3,$SDECLININGSUPPORTWASTHERIGHT OF CENTRE #ITIZENS 0LATFORM (OWEVER THE LACK OF IDEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN



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\(ISTORY 

0OLANDS MAIN POLITICAL GROUPINGS HAS ENCOURAGED THE EMERGENCE OF NEW POPULISTPARTIESEAGERTOEXPLOITTHOSEDISCONTENTSWHICHTHEMAINSTREAM PRO MARKET AND PRO %UROPEAN POLITICIANS SEEM UNABLE TO FACE HEAD ON7INNING THEIRlRST EVERSEATSINTHEPARLIAMENTARYELECTIONSOFWAS3AMOOBRONA 3ELF $EFENCE A PEASANTS RIGHTS PARTY LED BY !NDRZEJ ,EPPER A MAVERICK POPULIST NOTORIOUS FOR HIS TASTE IN STRIPY TIES AND HIS CONTROVERSIAL AND OFTEN ANTIDEMOCRATICOUTBURSTS-OREEXTREMESTILLISTHE,EAGUEOF0OLISH&AMILES ,02 AMUCHMOREOPENLYANTI %UROPEAN ANTI LIBERALPARTYWHICHCOMBINES ALEFT WINGSOCIALPROGRAMMEWITHARIGHT WINGMIXOFNATIONALISMANDREAC TIONARY MORAL VALUES4HE ,02 ACHIEVED  PERCENT OF THE VOTE IN THE %5 ELECTIONS OF *UNE  3AMOOBRONA GOT  PERCENT ALTHOUGH THE MISERABLY LOWTURN OUTSUGGESTEDTHATTHISMAYNOTHAVEBEENANACCURATEREmECTIONOF THEIRREALSUPPORT7ITHTRADITIONALLEFTnRIGHTDIVISIONSALSOBEINGCHALLENGEDBY NON IDEOLOGICAL GROUPINGS SUCH AS #ENTRUM THE PARTYOFMIDDLE OF THE ROAD TECHNOCRATSLEDBYHEARTSURGEON:BIGNIEW2ELIGA THE0OLISHPOLITICALLANDSCAPE LOOKSSETFORADRAWN OUTPROCESSOFRESTRUCTURINGANDCHANGE

0OLISH©MUSIC

4

RADITIONAL MUSIC IN 0OLAND ISNT EXACTLY A WIDESPREAD LIVING TRADITION 4HE COUNTRY HAS7ESTERNIZED RAPIDLY AND THE MEMORY OF COMMUNIST FAKELOREHASTAINTEDPEOPLESINTERESTINTHEGENUINEARTICLE"UTINCERTAIN POCKETS 0OLANDBOASTSSOMEOFTHEMOSTDISTINCTIVESOUNDSIN%UROPE ANDTHEEXPERIENCEOFAGØRALEHIGHLAND WEDDINGnlREDBYFURIOUSlDDLING GROUNDEDBYASAWINGCELLOANDSUPERCHARGEDWITHVODKAnISUNFORGETTABLE 3IMON"ROUGHTON EDITOROF3ONGLINESMAGAZINE OUTLINESTHEBACKGROUNDAND HIGHLIGHTSSOMEOFTHENEWDEVELOPMENTS

\0OLISHMUSIC

)N0OLAND ASELSEWHEREIN%ASTERN%UROPE ANINTERESTINFOLKLOREEMERGEDINTHE NINETEENTHCENTURY ALLIEDTOASPIRATIONSFORNATIONALINDEPENDENCEnFOLKMUSIC ANDPOLITICSINTHEREGIONOFTENHAVESYMBIOTICLINKS4HEPIONEERINGCOLLECTOR OFSONGSANDDANCESFROMALLOVERTHECOUNTRYWAS/SKAR+OLBERGn  (ISPRINCIPALINTERESTWASINSONG ANDITSTHOUGHTTHATDURINGTHENINETEENTH CENTURYINSTRUMENTALMUSICWASFAIRLYPRIMITIVE WITHDRAMATICDEVELOPMENTS OCCURRINGONLYINTHELASTONEHUNDREDANDlFTYYEARSORSO&ROMTHEEARLY YEARSOFTHISCENTURYGRAMOPHONERECORDINGSWEREMADE ANDBYSUBSTAN TIALARCHIVESHADBEENAMASSEDIN0OZNAAND7ARSAW"OTHCOLLECTIONSWERE COMPLETELYDESTROYEDDURING 7ORLD7AR ))ANDSCHOLARLYCOLLECTINGHADTO BEGINANEWIN4HEWARTIMEANNIHILATIONANDSHIFTINGOFETHNICMINORITIES IN0OLANDALSOSEVERELYDISRUPTEDTHECONTINUITYOFFOLKTRADITIONS4HEPOSTWAR COMMUNISTREGIMESTHROUGHOUT%ASTERN%UROPEENDORSEDFOLKCULTUREASFAR ASITCOULDBEPORTRAYEDASACHEERFULESPOUSALOFHEALTHYPEASANTLABOUR BUT EACHREGIMEADOPTEDADIFFERENTAPPROACH7HATSURVIVESTODAYISSOMETIMESIN SPITEOF BUTLARGELYARESULTOF THOSEPOLICIES!TONEEXTREME "ULGARIASTRONGLY ENCOURAGEDAMATEURGRASS ROOTSMUSICONTHEOTHER #ZECHOSLOVAKIAEFFECTIVELY SANITIZEDITSFOLKMUSICTOIRRELEVANCE0OLANDADOPTEDSOMETHINGCLOSETOTHE #ZECHAPPROACH BUTALLOWINGENOUGHSLACKFORAFEWLOCALBANDSTOKEEPSOME GENUINETRADITIONSGOING 4HEOFlCIALFACEOF0OLANDSFOLKCULTUREWASPRESENTEDBYPROFESSIONALFOLK TROUPESnMOSTFAMOUSLYTHE-AZOWSZEANDLVSK ENSEMBLESnWHOGAVE AND STILL GIVE HIGHLY ARRANGED AND POLISHED VIRTUOSO PERFORMANCES MIDDLE OF THE ROAD MASSED STRINGS AND HIGHLY CHOREOGRAPHED TWIRLS WHOOPS AND FOOT STAMPING4HEREPERTOIREWASBASICALLYCORE0OLISHWITH PERHAPS ASLIGHT REGIONALEMPHASISTHE-AZOWSZETERRITORYISAROUND7ARSAW THELVSKAROUND 7ROC‘AW BUTTHEOVERALLEFFECTWASHOMOGENIZATIONRATHERTHANLOCALIDEN TITY4HEGROUPSWEREREGULARLYFEATUREDONRADIOAND46ANDTHEYHADTHEIR AUDIENCE 3MALLER MORE SPECIALIZED GROUPS LIKE 3‘OWIANKI IN +RAKØW WERE ALSO SUPPORTED AND KEPT CLOSER TO THE ROOTS BUT FOR THE MOST PART THE REAL STUFFWITHEREDAWAYASTHEIMAGEOFFOLKMUSICBECAMETARNISHEDBYTHEBLAND OFlCIALENSEMBLES

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2OOTSANDDEVELOPMENT



0OLISHDANCES

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\0OLISHMUSIC

4HANKS TO #HOPIN THE MAZURKA AND POLONAISE POLONEZ OF CENTRAL 0OLAND ARE PROBABLY THE BEST KNOWN DANCE FORMS AND ARE AT THE CORE OF THE FOLK REPERTOIRE "OTH ARE IN TRIPLE TIME WITH THE POLONAISE GENERALLY SLOWERANDMORESTATELYTHANTHEMAZURKA)NFACTTHEREAREREALLYTHREETYPES OF MAZURKA THE SLOWER KUJAWIAK MEDIUM TEMPO MAZUR AND FASTER OBEREK 4HE POLONAISE IS PARTICULARLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE MORE CEREMONIAL AND SOLEMN MOMENTS OF A WEDDING PARTY )T WAS TAKEN UP BY THE ARISTOCRACY FROM A SLOW WALKING DANCE CHODZONY GIVEN A &RENCH NAME TO IDENTIFY IT ASADANCEOF0OLISHORIGINANDTHENlLTEREDBACKDOWNTOTHELOWERCLASSES )NADDITIONTOTHETRIPLE TIMEDANCESOFCENTRAL0OLAND THEREAREALSOSOME CHARACTERISTIC lVE BEAT DANCES IN THE NORTHEASTERNAREASOF-AZURY +URPIE AND0ODLASIE !S YOU MOVE SOUTH SOMEWHERE BETWEEN 7ARSAW AND +RAKØW THERE IS A TRANSITIONAL AREA WHERE THE TRIPLE TIME DANCES OF CENTRAL 0OLAND GIVE WAYTOTHEDUPLE TIMEDANCESOFTHESOUTHLIKETHEKRAKOWIAKANDPOLKA 'ENERALLY SPEAKING THE MUSIC OF CENTRAL 0OLAND IS MORE RESTRAINED AND SENTIMENTALTHANTHATOFTHESOUTH WHICHISWILDERANDMOREFULL BLOODED 4HE KRAKOWIAK IS NAMED AFTER THE CITY OF +RAKØW AND THE POLKA IS CLAIMED BY BOTH THE 0OLES AND THE "OHEMIANS AS THEIR OWN ALTHOUGH IT WAS IN "OHEMIA THAT IT BECAME MOST WIDELY KNOWN /F COURSE ALL THESE DANCES ARENOTCONlNEDTOTHEIRNATIVEAREAS BUTMANYHAVEBECOMESTAPLESACROSS THE COUNTRY AND ABROAD 7EDDINGS ARE THE MAIN OCCASION FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC BUTINANAGRARIANCOUNTRYWHEREBARELYEIGHTPERCENTOFTHELANDWAS COLLECTIVIZED IMPORTANT ANNUAL EVENTS LIKE THE HARVEST FESTIVAL DOZYNKI HAVEPERSISTEDASWELL

&OLKMUSICTODAY 4ODAY WITHTHENOTABLEEXCEPTIONOFTHE4ATRAREGIONANDAFEWOTHERPOCKETS TRADITIONALMUSICHASVIRTUALLYCEASEDTOFUNCTIONASALIVINGTRADITIONANDHAS BEENBANISHEDTOREGIONALFOLKFESTIVALS3EVERALOFTHESEAREVERYGOODINDEED WITHTHE+AZIMIERZ&ESTIVALATTHEENDOF*UNEFOREMOSTAMONGSTTHEMSEEBOX OPPOSITE  "UT THE BEST WAY TO HEAR THIS MUSIC IS AT THE SORT OF OCCASION IT WASDESIGNED FOR n FOR INSTANCE A WEDDINGWESELE WHERELIVELYTUNESARE PUNCHEDOUTBYAD HOCGROUPSCOMPRISINGNOWADAYS CLARINET SAXOPHONE ACCORDION KEYBOARDANDDRUMS!TCOUNTRYWEDDINGSTHEREISOFTENASETOF TRADITIONALDANCESPLAYEDFORTHEOLDERPEOPLE EVENWHENTHERESTOFTHEMUSIC ISMODERN)NTHERURALAREASPEOPLETENDTOBEHOSPITABLEANDWELCOMINGAND ONCEYOUVESHOWNAKEENINTEREST ANINVITATIONISOFTENEXTENDED4YPICALLY THEAREASWHERETHEMUSICHASSURVIVEDTENDTOBETHEREMOTERREGIONSONTHE FRINGESn+URPIEAND0ODLASIEINTHENORTHEAST AROUND2ZESZØWINTHESOUTH EASTWHERETHECIMBALYnHAMMERDULCIMERnISPOPULARINTHELOCALBANDS ANDTHE0ODHALEANDHIGHLANDREGIONSINTHE4ATRASALONGTHESOUTHERNBORDER "UTTHISISNTTHEWHOLESTORY 

0ODHALEMUSIC 0ODHALE THE DISTRICT AROUND :AKOPANE IS HOME TO THE GØRALE HIGHLAND PEOPLEANDHASTHEMOSTVIBRANTMUSICALTRADITIONINTHECOUNTRY)THASBEEN ONEOF0OLANDSMOSTPOPULARRESORTAREASFORYEARSANDISINNOWAYREMOTE ORISOLATED4HE0ODHALEMUSICIANSAREFAMILIARWITHMUSICFROMALLOVERTHE

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Accommodation price codes

LITHUANIA

2 BE L A RUS

6 GE RM A N Y

Accommodation in this book has been pricecoded according to the following scale. The prices quoted are for the cheapest available double room in high season. For more details see p.50.

1

5 N

3

4



Under 60zł

60–90zł

CZECH REPUBLIC UKRAINE



90–120zł

0

100 km

S L O VA K I A



120–160zł 1 AUSTRIA 2 3



160–220zł



220–300zł 

300–400zł

4 5 6

About this book



400–600zł

Rough Guides are designed to be good to read and easy to use. The book is divided into six main sections and you should be able to find whatever you need in one of them.



Over 600zł

The colour section is designed to give you a feel for Poland, suggesting when to go and what not to miss, and includes a full list of contents. Then comes basics, for pre-departure information and other practicalities.

52299

US $22.99/ CAN $31.99

ISBN 1-84353-488-6

9 781843 534884

The guide chapters cover Poland’s regions in depth, each starting with a highlights panel, introduction and a map to help you plan your route. The contexts section fills you in on history, traditional music and books, while language gives you an extensive menu reader and enough Polish to get by. The book concludes with all the small print, including details of how to send in updates and corrections, and a comprehensive index. This sixth edition published July 2005

Rough Guides - broaden your horizons