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Product Manager: Project Editor: Packaging design:
Maureen Aller Susan Fox Jonathan Pennell
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress. These files shall remain the sole and exclusive property of CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431. The contents are protected by copyright law and international treaty. No part of the Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook CRCnetBASE 1999 CD-ROM product may be duplicated in hard copy or machine-readable form without prior written authorization from CRC Press LLC, except that the licensee is granted a limited, non-exclusive license to reproduce limited portions of the context for the licensee’s internal use provided that a suitable notice of copyright is included on all copies. This CD-ROM incorporates materials from other sources reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright holder. Credit to the original sources and copyright notices are given with the figure or table. No materials in this CD-ROM credited to these copyright holders may be reproduced without their written permission. WARRANTY The information in this product was obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Every reasonable effort has been made to give reliable data and information, but the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their uses. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2145-X International Standard Series Number 1523-3014
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Preface
Introduction The purpose of Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook CRCnetBase 1999 is to provide a reference that is both concise and useful for engineers in industry, scientists, designers, managers, research personnel and students, as well as many others who have measurement problems. The CD-ROM covers an extensive range of topics that comprise the subject of measurement, instrumentation, and sensors. The CD-ROM describes the use of instruments and techniques for practical measurements required in engineering, physics, chemistry, and the life sciences. It includes sensors, techniques, hardware, and software. It also includes information processing systems, automatic data acquisition, reduction and analysis and their incorporation for control purposes. Articles include descriptive information for professionals , students ,and workers interested in measurement. Articles include equations to assist engineers and scientists who seek to discover applications and solve problems that arise in fields not in their specialty. They include specialized information needed by informed specialists who seek to learn advanced applications of the subject, evaluative opinions, and possible areas for future study. Thus, the CD-ROM serves the reference needs of the broadest group of users — from the advanced high school science student to industrial and university professionals.
Organization The CD-ROM is organized according to the measurement problem. Section I includes general instrumentation topics, such as accuracy and standards. Section II covers spatial variables, such as displacement and position. Section III includes time and frequency. Section IV covers solid mechanical variables such as mass and strain. Section V comprises fluid mechanical variables such as pressure, flow, and velocity. Section VI covers thermal mechanical variables such as temperature and heat flux. Section VII includes electromagnetic variables such as voltage and capacitance. Section VIII covers optical variables such as photometry and image sensors. Section IX includes radiation such as x rays and dosimetry. Section X covers chemical variables in composition and environmental measurements. Section XI includes biomedical variables such as blood flow and medical imaging. Section XII comprises signal processing such as amplifiers and computers. Section XIII covers display such as cathode ray tube and recorder. Section XIV includes control such as optimal control and motion control. The Appendix contains conversion factors to SI units.
Locating Your Topic To find out how to measure a given variable, do a word or phrase search, select the section and the chapters that describe different methods of making the measurement. Consider the alternative methods of making the measurement and each of their advantages and disadvantages. Select a method, sensor, © 1999 by CRC Press LLC
and signal processing method. Many articles list a number of vendors to contact for more information. You can also visit the http://www.sensorsmag.com site under Buyer’s Guide to obtain a list of vendors.
Acknowledgments I appreciate the help of the many people who worked on this handbook. David Beams assisted me by searching books, journals, and the Web for all types of measurements, then helped me to organize the outline. The Advisory Board made suggestions for revision and suggested many of the authors. Searching the INSPEC database yielded other authors who had published on a measurement method. At CRC Press, Felicia Shapiro, Associate Production Manager;Kristen Maus, Developmental Editor; Suzanne Lassandro, Book Group Production Director; and Susan Fox, Project Editor, produced the book.
John G. Webster Editor-in-Chief
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Editor-in-Chief
John G. Webster received the B.E.E. degree from Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, in 1953, and the M.S.E.E. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, in 1965 and 1967, respectively. He is Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. In the field of medical instrumentation he teaches undergraduate and graduate courses, and does research on RF cardiac ablation and measurement of vigilance. He is author of Transducers and Sensors, An IEEE/EAB Individual Learning Program (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 1989). He is co-author, with B. Jacobson, of Medicine and Clinical Engineering (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977), with R. Pallás-Areny, of Sensors and Signal Conditioning (New York: Wiley, 1991), and with R. Pallas-Areny, of Analog Signal Conditioning (New York: Wiley, 1999). He is editor of Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation (New York: Wiley, 1988), Tactile Sensors for Robotics and Medicine (New York: Wiley, 1988), Electrical Impedance Tomography (Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger, 1990), Teaching Design in Electrical Engineering (Piscataway, NJ: Educational Activities Board, IEEE, 1990), Prevention of Pressure Sores: Engineering and Clinical Aspects (Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger, 1991), Design of Cardiac Pacemakers (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 1995), Design of Pulse Oximeters (Bristol, UK: IOP Publishing, 1997), Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design, Third Edition (New York: Wiley, 1998), and Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (New York, Wiley, 1999). He is co-editor, with A. M. Cook, of Clinical Engineering: Principles and Practices (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979) and Therapeutic Medical Devices: Application and Design (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982), with W. J. Tompkins, of Design of Microcomputer-Based Medical Instrumentation (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981) and Interfacing Sensors to the IBM PC (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988), and with A. M. Cook, W. J. Tompkins, and G. C. Vanderheiden, Electronic Devices for Rehabilitation (London: Chapman & Hall, 1985). Dr. Webster has been a member of the IEEE-EMBS Administrative Committee and the NIH Surgery and Bioengineering Study Section. He is a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the Instrument Society of America, and the American Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering. He is the recipient of the AAMI Foundation Laufman-Greatbatch Prize and the ASEE/Biomedical Engineering Division, Theo C. Pilkington Outstanding Educator Award.
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Advisory Board
Gene Fatton
Dennis Swyt
Consultant Loveland, Colorado
National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, Maryland
Jacob Fraden
Peter H. Sydenham
Advanced Monitors Corporation San Diego, California
Honeywell Technology Center Minneapolis, Minnesota
University of South Australia Mawsons Lakes South Australia and University College, London London, UK
Ramón Pallás-Areny
Carsten Thomsen
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya Barcelona, Spain
National Instruments Austin, Texas
James E. Lenz
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Contributors
Rene G. Aarnink
Marc J. Assael
William A. Barrow
University Hospital Nijmegen Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Faculty of Chemical Engineering Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Thessalonika, Greece
Planar Systems Beaverton, Oregon
Mushtaq Ali The National Grid Company Leatherhead, Surrey, England
Viktor P. Astakhov
Cipriano Bartoletti University of Rome “La Sapieriza” Rome, Italy
Pittsford, New York
Mechanical Engineering Department Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada
A. Ambrosini
Francesco Avallone
Dipartimento de Fisica Università di Genova Genova, Italy
Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy
Università di Napoli Federico II Naples, Italy
M.W. Bautz
Aldo Baccigalupi
Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania
Jeff P. Anderson
Università di Napoli Federico II Naples, Italy
William H. Bayles
LTV Steel Corporation Independence, Ohio
William E. Baker
The Fredericks Company Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania
Joseph H. Altman
Kinetic Sciences, Inc. Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Mechanical Engineering Department University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico
John C. Armitage
W. John Ballantyne
Ottawa–Carleton Institute for Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Systems Engineering Department Spar Aerospace Ltd. Brampton, Ontario, Canada
Keith Antonelli
Pasquale Arpaia Università di Napoli Federico II Naples, Italy
Per Ask Department of Biomedical Engineering Linkoping University Linkoping, Sweden
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Amit Bandyopadhyay Department of Ceramic Science and Engineering Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey
Partha P. Banerjee Electrical and Computer Engineering Department University of Alabama – Huntsville Huntsville, Alabama
L. Basano
David M. Beams Department of Electrical Engineering University of Texas at Tyler Tyler, Texas
K. Beilenhoff Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany
B. Benhabib Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Michael Bennett Willison Associates Manchester, England
Vikram Bhatia
Barrett Caldwell
G. Mark Cushman
Virginia Tech Blacksburg, Virginia
University of Wisconsin–Madison Madison, Wisconsin
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland
Richard J. Blotzer
Robert B. Campbell
N. D’Amico
LTV Steel Corporation Independence, Ohio
Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, California
A. Bonen
Claudio de Capua
Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy
University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Università di Napoli Federico II Napoli, Italy
Larry S. Darken
C. Bortolotti
Kevin H.L. Chau
Oxford Instruments, Inc. Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy
Micromachined Products Division Analog Devices Cambridge, Massachusetts
Howard M. Brady The Fredericks Company Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania
Arnaldo Brandolini
Adam Chrzanowski University of New Brunswick Fredericton, N.B., Canada
Richard O. Claus
David Dayton ILC Data Device Corporation Bohemia, New York
Timothy R. DeGrado Duke University Medical Center Durham, North Carolina
Bradley Department of Electrical Engineering Virginia Tech Blacksburg, Virginia
Alfons Dehé
Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica Politecnico di Milano Milano, Italy
John C. Brasunas
Charles B. Coulbourn
Ronald H. Dieck
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland
Los Angeles Scientific Instrumentation Co. Los Angeles, California
Pratt & Whitney Palm Beach Gardens, Florida
Detlef Brumbi Krohue Messtechnik GmbH Diusburg, Germany
Christophe Bruttin Rittmeyer Ltd. Zug, Switzerland
Bert M. Coursey Ionizing Radiaiton Division, Physics Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, Maryland
Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany
Thomas E. Diller Virginia Polytechnic Institute Blacksburg, Virginia
Madhu S. Dixit
Robert F. Cromp
Centre for Research in Particle Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland
James T. Dobbins III
Los Angeles Scientific Instrumentation Los Angeles, California
Robert M. Crovella
Duke University Medical Center Durham, North Carolina
B.E. Burke
Brian Culshaw
Saps Buchman Stanford University Stanford, California
Wolfgang P. Buerner
Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania
Jim Burns Burns Engineering Inc. Minnetonka, MN
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
NVIDIA Corporation Plano, Texas
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering University of Strathclyde Royal College Building Glasgow, England
Achim Dreher German Aerospace Center Wessling, Germany
Emil Drubetsky The Fredericks Company Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania
Jacques Dubeau
Mark Fritz
Steven M. Grimes
Centre for Research in Particle Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Denver Instrument Company Arvada, Colorado
Department of Physics and Astronomy Ohio University Athens, Ohio
Chun Che Fung
Maria Eklund
Curtin University of Technology Perth, WA, Australia
Nynas Naphthenics AB Nynashamn, Sweden
Alessandro Gandelli
M.A. Elbestawi Mechanical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Halit Eren Curtin Unversity of Technology Perth, WA, Australia
Alessandro Ferrero Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica Politecnico di Milan Milano, Italy
Richard S. Figliola Department of Mechanical Engineering Clemson University Clemson, South Carolina
Michael Fisch Department of Physics John Carroll University University Heights, Ohio
Jacob Fraden Advanced Monitors Corporation San Diego, California
Randy Frank
Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica Politecnico di Milano Milano, Italy
John D. Garrison San Diego State University San Diego, California
Ivan J. Garshelis Magnova, Inc. Pittsfield, Massachusetts
Daryl Gerke Kimmel Gerke Associates, Ltd. Mesa, Arizona
W.A. Gillespie University of Abertay Dundee Dundee, Scotland
Paolo Giordano Rittmeyer Ltd. Zug, Switzerland
Olaf Glük Institut für Schicht-und Ionentechnik Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH Germany
G. Grueff Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy
J.Y. Gui General Electric Research and Development Center General Electric Company Schenectady, New York
Anthony Guiseppi–Elie Abtech Scientific, Inc. Yardley, Pennsylvania
Reinhard Haak Universitaet Erlangen–Nuernberg Erlangen, Germany
Sean M. Hames Duke University Medical Center Durham, North Carolina
R. John Hansman, Jr. Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts
Daniel Harrison
Semiconductor Products Sector Transporation Systems Group Motorola, Inc. Phoenix, Arizona
Ron Goehner The Fredericks Company Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania
Department of Physics John Carroll University University Heights, Ohio
Larry A. Franks
James Goh
H.L. Hartnagel
Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, California
Curtin University of Technology Perth, WA, Australia
Richard Frayne
J.A. Gregory
University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin
K. Fricke Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania
R.E. Griffiths Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania
Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany
Bruce H. Hasegawa University of California San Francisco, California
Emil Hazarian Denver Institute Company Arvada, Colorado
Michael B. Heaney
Roger Jones
Wei Ling Kong
Huladyne Research Palo Alto, California
Primary Children’s Medical Center Salt Lake City, Utah
Curtin Institute of Technology Perth, WA, Australia
Albert D. Helfrick
Brian L. Justus
M. Kostic
Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University Dayton Beach, Florida
Optical Science Department Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D.C.
Northern Illinois University DeKalb, Illinois
David A. Hill
Motohisa Kanda
National Institute of Standards and Technology U.S. Department of Commerce Boulder, Colorado
National Institute of Standards and Technology Boulder, Colorado
Thomas Hossle Rittmeyer Ltd. Zug, Switzerland
Mohammad A. Karim University of Tennessee, Knoxville Knoxville, Tennessee
Nils Karlsson
Air Force Institute of Technology Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio
National Defense Research Establishment Stockholm, Sweden
Zaki D. Husain
Sam S. Khalilieh
C.H. Houpis
Daniel Flow Products, Inc. Bellaire, Texas
Alan L. Huston Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D.C.
Robert M. Hyatt, Jr. Howell Electric Motors Plainfield, New Jersey
Stanley S. Ipson
Electrical Engineering Earth Tech Grand Rapids, Michigan
Andre Kholkine Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey
William Kimmel Kimmel Gerke Associates, Ltd. Mesa, Arizona
R.L. Kraft Penn State University University Park, Pennsylvania
V. Krozer Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany
Shyan Ku Kinetic Sciences Inc. Vancouver, B.C., Canada
H.L. Kwok Penn State University University Park, Pennsylvania
C.K. Laird School of Applied Chemistry Kingston University Kingston Upon Thames, England
Brook Lakew NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland
Carmine Landi Università de L’Aquila L’Aquila, Italy
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering University of Bradford Bradford, W. Yorkshire, England
John A. Kleppe Electrical Engineering Department University of Nevada Reno, Nevada
Jacqueline Le Moigne
Rahman Jamal
H. Klingbeil
G.E. LeBlanc
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland
National Instruments Germany Applications Engineering Munchen, Germany
Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany
School of Geography and Geology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
Ralph B. James
James Ko
W. Marshall Leach, Jr.
Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, California
Kinetic Sciences Inc. Vancouver, B.C., Canada
Victor F. Janas
Hebert Köchner
Center for Ceramic Research Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Universitaet Erlangen–Nuernberg Erlangen, Germany
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia
Kathleen M. Leonard
Steven A. Macintyre
John McInroy
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering The University of Alabama in Huntsville Huntsville, Alabama
Macintyre Electronic Design Herndon, Virginia
Tolestyn Madaj
Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming
Technical University of Gdansk Gdansk, Poland
Douglas P. McNutt
Samsung Information Systems America HDD R & D Center San Jose, California
Kin F. Man
The MacNauchtan Laboratory Colorado Springs, Colorado
E. B. Loewenstein
Dimitris E. Manolakis
National Instruments Austin, Texas
Department of Automation Technological Education Institute Thessaloniki, Greece
Yufeng Li
Robert Lofthus Xerox Corporation Rochester, New York
Michael A. Lombardi Time and Frequency Division National Institute of Standards and Technology Boulder, Colorado
Michael Z. Lowenstein Harmonics Limited Mequou, Wisconsin
Albert Lozano–Nieto
Jet Propulsion Lab California Institute of Technology Pasadena, California
G.H. Meeten Department of Fluid Chemistry and Physics Schlumberger Cambridge Research Cambridge, England
Adrian Melling
Robert T. Marcus
Universitaet Erlangen–Nuernberg Erlangen, Germany
Datacolor International Middletown, New Jersey
Rajan K. Menon
S. Mariotti Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy
Wade M. Mattar The Foxboro Company Foxboro, Massachusetts
Laser Velocimetry Products TSI Inc. St. Paul, Minnesota
Hans Mes Centre for Research in Particle Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
John Mester
Commonwealth College Wilkes Barre Campus Penn State University Lehman, Pennsylvania
J.R. René Mayer Mechanical Engineering Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal Montreal, Quebec, Canada
W.W. Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory Stanford University Stanford, California
D.H. Lumb
Edward McConnell
Jaroslaw Mikielewicz
Penn State University University Park, Pennsylvania
Data Acquisition National Instruments Austin, Texas
Institute of Fluid Flow Machinery Gdansk, Poland
Christopher S. Lynch Mechanical Engineering Department The Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia
A.M. MacLeod School of Engineering University of Abertay Dundee Dundee, Scotland
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
P.F. Martin University of Abertay Dundee Dundee, Scotland
Robert T. McGrath Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania
Harold M. Miller Data Industrial Corporation Mattapoisett, Massachusetts
Mark A. Miller Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D.C.
Jeffrey P. Mills Illinois Institute of Technology Chicago, Illinois
Devendra Misra
John A. Nousek
M. Pachter
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania
Air Force Institute of Technology Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio
William C. Moffatt
David S. Nyce
The National Grid Company Leatherhead, Surrey, England
Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, California
MTS Systems Corp. Cary, North Carolina
Ramón Pallás-Areny
Stelio Montebugnoli
Peter O’Shea
Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya Barcelona, Spain
Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Villa Fontano, Italy
Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
Roger Morgan School of Engineering Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, England
Behrooz Pahlavanpour
Ronney B. Panerai University of Leicester Leicester Royal Infirmary Leicester, U.K.
F. Gerald Oakham
Franco Pavese
Centre for Research in Particle Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
CNR Instituto di Metrologia “G. Colonnetti” Torino, Italy
P. Åke Öberg
Peder C. Pedersen
Electronic Measurements Division Hewlett–Packard Colorado Springs, Colorado
Department of Biomedical Engineering Linkoping University Hospital Linkoping, Sweden
Electrical and Computer Engineering Worcester Polytechnic Institute Worcester, Massachusetts
Steven A. Murray
Chima Okereke
Teklic Ole Pedersen
Independent Consultant Formerly of Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering University of Bradford Bradford, W. Yorkshire, U.K
Linkoping Universitet Linkoping, Sweden
John G. Olin
Rekha Philip-Chandy
Sierra Instruments, Inc. Monterey, California
School of Engineering Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, England
Armelle M. Moulin University of Cambridge Cambridge, England
Jerry Murphy
SPAWAR Systems Center San Diego, California
Soe-Mie F. Nee Research and Technology Division U.S. Naval Air Warfare Center China Lake, California
Nam-Trung Nguyen Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center University of California at Berkeley Berkeley, California
J.V. Nicholas The New Zealand Institute for Industrial Research and Development Lower Hutt, New Zealand
Seiji Nishifuji Electrical and Electronic Engineering Yamaguchi University Ube, Japan
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
A. Orfei Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy
P. Ottonello Dipartimento di Fisica Universita di Genova Genova, Italy
B.W. Petley National Physical Laboratory Middlesex, U.K.
Thad Pickenpaugh AFRL/SNHI Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio
Charles P. Pinney Pinney Technologies, Inc. Albuquerque, New Mexico
Luca Podestà University of Rome “La Sapieriza” Rome, Italy
Rodney Pratt
Robert J. Sandberg
Kanai S. Sheh
University of South Australia Adelaide, S. Australia
Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc. Watertown, Massachusetts
Per Rasmussen
Mechanical Engineering Department University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin
GRAS Sound and Vibration Vedback, Denmark
Ravi Sankar
Proteun Services Albuquerque, New Mexico
Department of Electrical Engineering University of South Florida Tampa, Florida
Shyam Rithalia
Meyer Sapoff
Department of Rehabilitation University of Salford Salford, U.K.
MS Consultants Princeton, New Jersey
R.P. Reed
Gordon W. Roberts Department of Electrical Engineering McGill University Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Stephen B.W. Roeder Department of Chemistry San Diego State University San Diego, California
Herbert M. Runciman Pilkington Optronics Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
Terry L. Rusch Marshfield Medical Research Foundation Tampa, Florida
Ricardo Saad University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Giancarlo Sacerdoti University of Rome “La Sapieriza” Rome, Italy
Ahmad Safari Department of Ceramic Science and Engineering Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey
Kalluri R. Sarma Advanced Displays Department Honeywell, Inc. Phoenix, Arizona
Michael J. Schöning Institut für Schicht-und Ionentechnik Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH Germany
Fritz Schuermeyer USAF Wright Laboratory Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio
Norman F. Sheppard, Jr. Gamera Bioscience Corporation Medford, Massachusetts
Christopher J. Sherman Merrimack, New Hampshire
F. Greg Shinskey Process Control Consultant N. Sandwich, New Hampshire
K.C. Smith University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Michael R. Squillante Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc. Watertown, Massachusetts
Jan Stasiek Mechanical Engineering Department Technical University of Gdansk Gdansk, Poland
Mark A. Stedham
Xerox Corporation Rochester, New York
Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Huntsville Huntsville, Alabama
Patricia J. Scully
Robert Steer
Stuart Schweid
School of Engineering Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, England
R.A. Secco The University of Western Ontario Ontario, Canada
James M. Secord Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering University of New Brunswick Fredericton, N.B., Canada
DeWayne B. Sharp Shape of Things San Luis Obispo, California
Frequency Devices Haverhill, Massachusetts
Robert J. Stephenson University of Cambridge Cambridge, England
T.J. Sumner Imperial College London, England
Haiyin Sun Coherent Auburn Group Auburn, California
Mark Sun NeoPath, Inc. Redmond, Washington
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Peter H. Sydenham
Michael F. Toner
William A. Wakeham
University of South Australia Mawsons Lakes, South Australia and University College, London London, UK
Nortel Networks Nepean, Ontario, Canada
Imperial College London, England
E.E. Uzgiris
Anbo Wang
General Electric Research and Development Center General Electric Company Schenectady, New York
Bradley Department of Electrical Engineering Virgina Tech Blacksburg, Virginia
Sander van Herwaarden
Donald J. Wass
Micha Szyper University of Mining and Metallurgy Cracow, Poland
Shogo Tanaka Electrical and Electronic Engineering Yamaguchi University Ube, Japan
Nitish V. Thakor Biomedical Engineering Department Johns Hopkins University Medical School Baltimore, Maryland
David B. Thiessen California Institute of Technology Pasadena, California
Richard Thorn School of Engineering University of Derby Derby, U.K.
Marion Thust Institut für Schicht-und Ionentechnik Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH Germany
Xensor Integration Delft, The Netherlands
Hans-Peter Vaterlaus Instrument Department Rittmeyer Ltd. Zug, Switzerland
Ramanapathy Veerasingam Penn State University University Park, Pennsylvania
Herman Vermariën Laboratory of Physiology Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Belgium
James H. Vignos The Foxboro Company Foxboro, Massachusetts
Gert J.W. Visscher Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering Wageningen, The Netherlands
G. Tomassetti
David Wadlow
Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy
Sensors Research Consulting, Inc. Basking Ridge, New Jersey
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Daniel Flow Products, Inc. Houston, Texas
Mark E. Welland University of Cambridge Cambridge, England
Grover C. Wetsel Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science University of Texas at Dallas Richardson, Texas
Hessel Wijkstra University Hospital Nijmegen Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Jesse Yoder Automation Research Corporation Dedham, Massachusetts
Bernhard Günther Zagar Electrical Engineering Technical University Graz Graz, Austria
James A. Zagzebski Department of Medical Physics University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin
Contents
Section I
Measurement Characteristics
1
Charateristics of Instrumentation
2
Operational Modes of Instrumentation
3
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instrumentation Peter H. Sydenham
4
Measurement Accuracy
5
Measurement Standards
Section II
6
R. John Hansman, Jr. Richard S. Figliola
Ronald H. Dieck DeWayne B. Sharp
Spatial Variables Measurement
Displacement Measurement, Linear and Angular 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
Resistive Displacement Sensors Keith Antonelli, James Ko, and Shyan Ku Inductive Displacement Sensors Halit Eren Capacitive Sensors—Displacement Halit Eren and Wei Ling Kong Piezoelectric Transducers and Sensors Ahmad Safari, Victor F. Janas, Amit Bandyopadhyay, and Andrei Kholkine 6.5 Laser Interferometer Displacement Sensors Bernhard Günther Zagar 6.6 Bore Gaging Displacement Sensors Viktor P. Astakhov 6.7 Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors Teklic Ole Pedersen and Nils Karlsson 6.8 Optical Encoder Displacement Sensors J. R. René Mayer 6.9 Magnetic Displacement Sensors David S. Nyce 6.10 Synchro/Resolver Displacement Sensors Robert M. Hyatt, Jr. and David Dayton 6.11 Optical Fiber Displacement Sensors Richard O. Claus, Vikram Bhatia, and Anbo Wang 6.12 Optical Beam Deflection Sensing Grover C. Wetsel
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
7
Thickness Measurement Lakew
8
Proximity Sensing for Robotics B. Benhabib
9
Distance
10
John C. Brasunas, G. Mark Cushman, and Brook R.E. Saad, A. Bonen, K.C. Smith, and
W. John Ballantyne
Position, Location, Altitude Measurement 10.1 Altitude Measurement Dimitris E. Manolakis 10.2 Attitude Measurement Mark A. Stedham, Partha B. Banerjee, Seiji Nishfuji, and Shogo Tanaka 10.3 Inertial Navigation Halit Eren and C.C. Fung 10.4 Satellite Navigation and Radiolocation Halit Eren and C.C. Fung 10.5 Occupancy Detection Jacob Fraden
11
Level Measurement
Detlef Brumbi
12
Area Measurement
Charles B. Coulbourn and Wolfgang P. Buerner
13
Volume Measurement
14
Angle Measurement
15
Tilt Measurement
16
Velocity Measurement
17
Acceleration, Vibration, and Shock Measurement
Section III
René G. Aarnink and Hessel Wijkstra Robert J. Sandberg
Adam Chrzanowski and James M. Secord Charles P. Pinney and William E. Baker
Time and Frequency Measurement
18
Time Measurement
19
Frequency Measurement
Section IV
Michael A. Lombardi Michael A. Lombardi
Mechanical Variables Measurement — Solid
20
Mass and Weight Measurement
21
Density measurement
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Halit Eren
Mark Fritz and Emil Hazarian
Halit Eren
22
Strain Measurement
Christopher S. Lynch
23
Force Measurement
M.A. Elbestawi
24
Torque and Power Measurement
25
Tactile Sensing
V
26
Ivan J. Garshelis
R.E. Saad, A. Bonen, K. C. Smith, and B. Benhabib
Mechanical Variables Measurement — Fluid Pressure and Sound Measurement 26.1 Pressure Measurement Kevin H.-L. Chau 26.2 Vacuum Measurement Ron Goehner, Emil Drubetsky, Howard M. Brady, and William H. Bayles, Jr. 26.3 Ultrasound Measurement Peder C. Pedersen
27 28
Acoustic Measurement Per Rasmussen Flow Measurement 28.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters Richard Thorn 28.2 Variable Area Flowmeters Adrian Melling, Herbert Köchner, and Reinhard Haak 28.3 Positive Displacement Flowmeters Zaki D. Husain and Donald J. Wass 28.4 Turbine and Vane Flowmeters David Wadlow 28.5 Impeller Flowmeters Harold M. Miller 28.6 Electromagnetic Flowmeters Halit Eren 28.7 Ultrasonic Flowmeters Hans-Peter Vaterlaus, Thomas Hossle, Paolo Giordano, and Christophe Bruttin 28.8 Vortex Shedding Flowmeters Wade M. Mattar and James H. Vignos 28.9 Thermal Mass Flow Sensors Nam-Trung Nguyen 28.10 Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters Jesse Yoder 28.11 Drag Force Flowmeters Rekha Philip-Chandy, Roger Morgan, Patricia J. Scully
29
Point Velocity Measurement 29.1 Pitot Probe Anemometry John A. Kleppe 29.2 Thermal Anemometry John G. Olin 29.3 Laser Anemometry Rajan K. Menon
30
Viscosity Measurement G. E. Leblanc, R. A. Secco, M. Kostic
31
Surface Tension Measurement David B. Thiessen, Kin F. Man
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
VI
32
Mechanical Variables Measurement — Thermal Temperature Measurement 32.1 Bimaterials Thermometers Robert J. Stephenson, Armelle M. Moulin, and Mark E. Welland 32.2 Resistive Thermometers Jim Burns 32.3 Thermistor Thermometers Meyer Sapoff 32.4 Thermocouple Thermometers R. P. Reed 32.5 Semiconductor Junction Thermometers Randy Frank 32.6 Infrared Thermometers Jacob Fraden 32.7 Pyroelectric Thermometers Jacob Fraden 32.8 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers J.V. Nicholas 32.9 Manometric Thermometers Franco Pavese 32.10 Temperature Indicators Jan Stasiek, Tolestyn Madaj, Jaroslaw Mikielewicz 32.11 Fiber-Optic Thermometers Brian Culshaw
33
Thermal Conductivity Measurement William A. Wakeham and Marc J. Assael
34
Heat Flux Thomas E. Diller
35
Thermal Imaging Herbert M. Runciman
36
Calorimetry Measurement Sander van Herwaarden
VII
Electromagnetic Variables Measurement
37
Voltage Measurement 37.1 Meter Voltage Measurement Alessandro Ferrero 37.2 Oscilloscope Voltage Measurement Jerry Murphy 37.3 Inductive Capacitive Voltage Measurement Cipriano Bartoletti, Luca Podestà, and Giancarlo Sacerdoti
38
Current Measurement Douglas P. McNutt
39
Power Measurement Pasquale Arpaia, Francesco Avallone, Aldo Baccigalupi, Claudio De Capua, Carmine Landi
40
Power Factor Measurement Michael Z. Lowenstein
41
Phase Measurement Peter O’Shea
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
42
Energy Measurement Arnaldo Brandolini and Alessandro Gandelli
43
Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity Michael B. Heaney
44
Charge Measurement Saps Buchman, John Mester, and T. J. Sumner
45
Capacitance and Capacitance Measurements Halit Eren and James Goh
46
Permittivity Measurement Devendra K. Misra
47
Electric Field Strength David A. Hill and Motohisa Kanda
48
Magnetic Field Measurement Steven A. Macintyre
49
Permeability and Hysteresis Measurement Jeff P. Anderson and Richard J. Blotzer
50
Inductance Measurement Michal Szyper
51
Immittance Measurement Achim Dreher
52
Q Factor Measurement
53
Distortion Measurement Michael F. Toner and Gordon W. Roberts
54
Noise Measurement W. Marshall Leach, Jr.
55
Microwave Measurement A. Dehé, K. Beilenhoff, K. Fricke, H. Klingbeil, V. Krozer, H. L. Hartnagel
VIII
56
Albert D. Helfrick
Optical Variables Measurement Photometry and Radiometry
56.1 Photoconductive Sensors Fritz Schuermeyer and Thad Pickenpaugh 56.2 Photojunction Sensors Michael R. Squillante and Kanai S. Shah 56.3 Charge-Coupled Devices J.A. Nousek, M.W. Bautz, B.E. Burke, J.A. Gregory, R.E. Griffiths, R.L. Kraft, H.L. Kwok, D.H. Lumb
57
Densitometry Measurement Joseph H. Altman
58
Colorimetry Robert T. Marcus
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
59
Optical Loss Halit Eren
60
Polarization Measurement Soe-Mie F. Nee
61
Refractive Index Measurement G. H. Meeten
62
Turbidity Measurement Daniel Harrison and Michael Fisch
63
Laser Output Measurement Haiyin Sun
64
Vision and Image Sensors Stanley S. Ipson and Chima Okereke
IX
Radiation Measurement
65
Radioactivity Measurement Bert M. Coursey
66
Radioactivity Measurement Larry A. Franks, Ralph B. James, and Larry S. Darken
67
Charged Particle Measurement John C. Armitage, Madhu S. Dixit, Jacques Dubeau, Hans Mes, and F. Gerald Oakham
68
Neutron Measurement Steven M. Grimes
69
Dosimetry Measurement Brian L. Justus, Mark A. Miller, and Alan L. Huston
X
Chemical Variables Measurement
70
Composition Measurement 70.1 Electrochemical Composition Measurement Michael J. Schöning, Olaf Glück, and Marion Thust 70.2 Thermal Composition Measurement Mushtaq Ali, Behrooz Pahlavanpour, and Maria Eklund 70.3 Kinetic Methods E.E. Uzgiris and J.Y. Gui 70.4 Chromatography Composition Measurement Behrooz Pahlavanpour, Mushtaq Ali, and C.K. Laird
71
pH Measurement Norman F. Sheppard, Jr. and Anthony Guiseppi–Elie
72
Humidity and Moisture Measurement Gert J.W. Vischer
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
73
Environmental Measurement 73.1 73.2 73.3 73.4
XI
Meteorological Measurement John D. Garrison and Stephen B. W. Roeder Air Pollution Measurement Michael Bennett Water Quality Measurement Kathleen M. Leonard Satellite Imaging and Sensing Jacqueline Le Moigne and Robert F. Cromp
Biomedical Variables Measurement
74
Biopotentials and Electrophysiology Measurement Nitish V. Thakor
75
Blood Pressure Measurement Shyam Rithalia, Mark Sun, and Roger Jones
76
Blood Flow Measurements Per Ask and P. Åke Öberg
77
Ventilation Measurement L. Basano and P. Ottonello
78
Blood Chemistry Measurement Terry L. Rusch and Ravi Sankar
79
Medical Imaging James T. Dobbins III, Sean M. Hames, Bruce H. Hasegawa, Timothy R. DeGrado, James A. Zagzebski, and Richard Frayne
XII
Signal Processing
80
Amplifiers and Signal Conditioners Ramón Pallás-Areny
81
Modulation David M. Beams
82
Filters Rahman Jamal and Robert Steer
83
Spectrum Analysis and Correlation 83.1 FFT Spectrum Analysis and Correlation Ronney B. Panerai 83.2 RF/Microwave Spectrum Analysis A. Ambrosini, C. Bortolotti, N. D’Amico, G. Grueff, S. Mariotti, S. Montebugnoli, A. Orfei, and G. Tomassetti
84
Applied Intelligence Processing Peter H. Sydenham and Rodney Pratt
85
Analog-to-Digital Converters E. B. Loewenstein
86
Computers A. M. MacLeod, P.F. Martin, and W.A. Gillespie
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
87
Telemetry Albert Lozano-Nieto
88
Sensor Networks and Communication Robert M. Crovella
89
Electromagnetic Compatibility 89.1 Grounding and Shielding in Industrial Electronic Systems Daryl Gerke, and William Kimmel 89.2 EMI and EMC Test Methods Jeffrey P. Mills
XIII Displays
90
Human Factors in Displays
Steven A. Murray, Barrett S. Caldwell
91
Cathode Ray Tube Displays
Christopher J. Sherman
92
Liquid Crystal Displays
93
Plasma-Driven Flat Panel Displays Robert T. McGrath, Ramanapathy Veerasingam, William C. Moffatt, and Robert B. Campbell
94
Electroluminescent Displays
95
Light-Emitting Diode Displays
96
Kalluri R. Sarma
William A. Barrow Mohammad A. Karim
Reading/Recording Devices 96.1 Graphic Recorders Herman Vermariën 96.2 Data Acquisition Systems Edward McConnell 96.3 Magnetic and Optical Recorders Yufeng Li
XIV
Control
97
PID Control
98
Optimal Control
99
Electropneumatic and Electrohydraulic Instruments: Modeling of Electrohydraulic and Electrohydrostatic Actuators M. Pachter and C. H. Houpis
100
F. Greg Shinskey Halit Eren
Explosion-Proof Instruments
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Sam S. Khalilieh
101
Measurement and Identification of Brush, Brushless, and dc Stepping Motors Stuart Schweid, Robert Lofthus, John McInroy
Appendix
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
Units and Conversions
B. W. Petley
. "Measurement Characteristics." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Measurement Characteristics 1 Characteristics of Instrumentation R. John Hansman, Jr. Simple Instrument Model
2 Operational Modes of Instrumentation
Richard S. Figliola
Null Instrument • Deflection Instrument • Analog and Digital Sensors • Analog and Digital Readout Instruments • Input Impedance
3 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instrumentation Peter H. Sydenham Static Characteristics of Instrument Systems • Dynamic Characteristics of Instrument Systems • Calibration of Measurements
4 Measurement Accuracy Ronald H. Dieck Error: The Normal Distribution and the Uniform Distribution • Measurement Uncertainty Model • Calculation of Total Uncertainty • Summary
5 Measurement Standards DeWayne B. Sharp A Historical Perspective • What Are Standards? • A Conceptual Basis of Measurements • The Need for Standards • Types of Standards • Numbers, Dimensions, and Units • Multiplication Factors
. "Spatial Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Spatial Variables Measurement 6 Displacement Measurement, Linear and Angular Keith Antonelli, James Ko, Shyan Ku, Halit Eren, Wei Ling Kong, Ahmad Safari, Victor F. Janas, Amit Bandyopadhyay, Andrei Kholkine, Bernhard Gunther Zagar, Viktor P. Astakhov, Teklic Ole Pedersen, Nils Karlsson, J.R. Rene Mayer, David S. Nyce, Robert M. Hyatt, Jr., David Dayton, Richard O. Claus, Vikram Bhatia, Anbo Wang, Grover C. Wetsel Resistive Displacement Sensors • Inductive Displacement Sensors • Capacitive Sensors— Displacement • Piezoelectric Transducers and Sensors • Laser Interferometer Displacement Sensors • Bore Gaging Displacement Sensors • Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors • Optical Encoder Displacement Sensors • Magnetic Displacement Sensors • Synchro/Resolver Displacement Sensors • Optical Fiber Displacement Sensors • Optical Beam Deflection Sensing
7 Thickness Measurement John C. Brasunas, G. Mark Cushman, Brook Lakew Descriptions of the Relatively Mature Measuring Techniques • Future Directions in Thickness Measurement
8 Proximity Sensing for Robotics R.E. Saad, A. Bonen, K.C. Smith, B. Benhabib Proximity Defintion • Typical Sensor Characteristics • Technologies for Proximity Sensing
9 Distance W. John Ballantyne Basic Distinctions Between Range Measurement Techniques • Performance Limits of Ranging Systems • Selected Examples of Ranging, Range Imaging, and Motion Tracking Systems
10 Position, Location, Altitude Measurement Dimitris E. Manolakis, Seiji Nishifuji, Shogo Tanaka, Halit Eren, C.C. Fung, Jacob Fraden Altitude Measurement • Attitude Measurement • Inertial Navigation • Satellite Navigation and Radiolocation • Occupancy Detection
11 Level Measurement Detlef Brumbi Measurements Using the Effects of Density • Time-of-Flight Measurements • Level Measurements by Detecting Physical Properties • Instruments
12 Area Measurement Charles B. Coulbourn, Wolfgang P. Buerner Theory • Equipment and Experiment • Evaluation
13 Volume Measurement René G. Aarnink, Hessel Wijkstra Plethysmography Theory • Numberical Integration with Imaging • Indicator Dilution Methods • Water Displacement Volumetry • Equipment and Experiments • Evaluation
14 Angle Measurement Robert J. Sandberg Angle Gage Blocks • Clinometers • Optical Comparator • Protractor • Sine Bar • Sine Plate • Taper
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
15 Tilt Measurement Adam Chrzanowski, James M. Secord Tiltmeters or Inclinometers • Geodetic Leveling • Hydrostatic Leveling • Suspended and Inverted Plumb Lines • Integration of Observations
16 Velocity Measurement Charles P. Pinney, William E. Baker Introduction • Measurement of Linear Velocity • Veloicty: Angular • Conclusion
17 Acceleration, Vibration, and Shock Measurement Halit Eren Accelerometer Dynamics: Frequency Response, Damping, Damping Ratio, and Linearity • Electromechanical Force-Balance (Servo) Accelerometers • Piezoelectric Accelerometers • Piezoresistive Accelerometers • Differential-Capacitance Accelerometers • Strain-Gage Accelerometers • Seismic Accelerometers • Inertial Types, Cantilever, and Suspended-Mass Configuration • Electrostatic Force Feedback Accelerometers • Microaccelerometers • Cross-Axis Sensitivity • Selection, Full-Scale Range, and Overload Capability • Signal Conditioning
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Time and Frequency Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Time and Frequency Measurement 18 Time Measurement Michael A. Lombardi The Evolution of Clocks and Timekeeping • Atomic Oscillators • Time Scales and the SI Definition of the Second • Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) • Introduction to Time Transfer • Radio Time Transfer Signals • Computer Time Transfer Signals • Future Developments
19 Frequency Measurement Michael A. Lombardi Overview of Frequency Measurements and Calibration • The Specifications: Frequency Uncertainty and Stability • Frequency Standards • Transfer Standards • Calibration Methods • Future Developments
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Mechanical Variables Measurement--Solid." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Mechanical Variables Measurement — Solid 20 Mass and Weight Measurement Mark Fritz, Emil Hazarian Weighing Instruments • Weighing Techniques
21 Density Measurement Halit Eren Solid Density • Fluid Density
22 Strain Measurement Christopher S. Lynch . Fundamental Defintions of Strain • Principles of Operation of Strain Sensors
23 Force Measurement M. A. Elbestawi General Considerations • Hooke’s Law • Force Sensors
24 Torque and Power Measurement Ivan J. Garshelis Fundamental Concepts • Arrangements of Apparatus for Torque and Power Measurement • Torque Transducer Technologies • Torque Transducer Construction, Operation, and Application • Apparatus for Power Measurement
25 Tactile Sensing R. E. Saad Sensing Classification • Mechanical Effects of Contact • Technologies for Tactile Sensing
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Mechanical Variables Measurement--Fluid." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Mechanical Variables Measurement — Fluid 26 Pressure and Sound Measurement Kevin H.-L. Chau, Ron Goehner, Emil Drubetsky, Howard M. Brady, William H. Bayles, Jr., Peder C. Pedersen Pressure Measurement • Vacuum Measurement • Ultrasound Measurement
27 Acoustic Measurement Per Rasmussen The Wave Equation • Plane Sound Waves • Spherical Waves • Acoustic Measurements • Sound Pressure Level Measurements • Frequency Analyzers • Pressure-Based Measurements • Sound Intensity Measurements • Near-Field Acoustic Holography Measurements • Calibration
28 Flow Measurement Richard Thorn, Adrian Melling, Herbert Köchner, Reinhard Haak, Zaki D. Husain, Donald J. Wass, David Wadlow, Harold M. Miller, Halit Eren, Hans-Peter Vaterlaus, Thomas Hossle, Paolo Giordano, Christophe Bruttin, Wade M. Mattar, James H. Vignos, Nam-Trung Nguyen, Jesse Yoder, Rekha Philip-Chandy, Roger Morgan, Patricia J. Scully Differential Pressure Flowmeters • Variable Area Flowmeters • Positive Displacement Flowmeters • Turbine and Vane Flowmeters • Impeller Flowmeters • Electromagnetic Flowmeters • Ultrasonic Flowmeters • Vortex Shedding Flowmeters • Thermal Mass Flow Sensors • Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters • Drag Force Flowmeters
29 Point Velocity Measurement John A. Kleppe, John G. Olin, Rajan K. Menon Pitot Probe Anemometry • Thermal Anemometry • Laser Anemometry
30 Viscosity Measurement G. E. Leblanc, R. A. Secco, M. Kostic Shear Viscosity
31 Surface Tension Measurement David B. Thiessen, Kin F. Man Mechanics of Fluid Surfaces • Standard Methods and Instrumentation • Specialized Methods
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Mechanical Variables Measurement--Thermal." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Mechanical Variables Measurement — Thermal 32 Temperature Measurement Robert J. Stephenson, Armelle M. Moulin, Mark E. Welland, Jim Burns, Meyer Sapoff, R. P. Reed, Randy Frank, Jacob Fraden, J.V. Nicholas, Franco Pavese, Jan Stasiek, Tolestyn Madaj, Jaroslaw Mikielewicz, Brian Culshaw Bimaterials Thermometers • Resistive Thermometers • Thermistor Thermometers • Thermocouple Thermometers • Semiconductor Junction Thermometers • Infrared Thermometers • Pyroelectric Thermometers • Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers • Manometric Thermometers • Temperature Indicators • Fiber-Optic Thermometers
33 Thermal Conductivity Measurement William A. Wakeham, Marc J. Assael Fundamental Equations • Measurement Techniques • Instrumentation • Appraisal
34 Heat Flux Thomas E. Diller Heat Transfer Fundamentals • Heat Flux Measurement • Sensors Based on Spatial Temperature Gradient • Sensors Based on Temperature Change with Time • Measurements Based on Surface Heating • Calibration and Problems to Avoid • Summary
35 Thermal Imaging Herbert M. Runciman Essential Components • Thermal Imaging Wavebands • Emission from Source • Atmospheric Transmission • Detectors • Electronics • Optics and Scanning • Temperature References • Imager Performance • Available Imagers • Performance Trade-offs • Future Trends in Thermal Imaging
36 Calorimetry Measurement Sander van Herwaarden Heat and Other Thermal Signals • Calorimeters Differ in How They Relate to Their Surroundings • Adiabatic Calorimeters Often Measure Time-Dependent Temperature Differences • Typical Applications of Calorimeters • Thermal Analysis of Materials and Their Behavior with Temperature • Choosing the Proper Calorimeter for an Application • Can the Instrument of Choice Measure the Signals Desired? • Commercially Available Calorimeters • Advanced Topic: Modulated or Dynamic DSC Operation
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Electromagnetic Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Electromagnetic Variables Measurement 37 Voltage Measurement Alessandro Ferrero, Jerry Murphy, Cipriano Bartoletti, Luca Podestà, Giancarlo Sacerdoti Meter Voltage Measurement • Oscilloscope Voltage Measurement • Inductive Capacitive Voltage Measurement
38 Current Measurement Douglas P. McNutt Definition of the Ampere • Magnetics • Shunts • The Moving Magnet Meter • The D’Arsonval Meter • The Electrodynamometer • The RF Ammeter and True rms • The Current Transformer • Gapped Inductive Sensors • Hall Effect Sensor • Clamp-on Sensors • Magnetoresistive Sensors • The Magnetic Amplifier • Fluxgates • Optical Sensors • Fault Indicators • Other Schemes • Some Generalities and Warnings • Current Actuated Switches and Indicators • Where to Get Current Sensors
39 Power Measurement Pasquale Arpaia, Francesco Avallone, Aldo Baccigalupi, Claudio De Capua, Carmine Landi Power Measurements in dc Circuits • Power Measurements in ac Circuits • Pulse Power Measurements
40 Power Factor Measurement Michael Z. Lowenstein Reasons for Interest in Power Factor • Ac Electric Loads • Ac Power Relationships • Power Factor “Measurement” • Instrumentation
41 Phase Measurement Peter O’Shea Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase of a Sinusoidal Signal • The Phase of a Periodic Nonsinusoidal Signal • Phase Measurement Techniques • Phase-Sensitive Demodulation • Power Factor • Instrumentation and Components
42 Energy Measurement Arnaldo Brandolini, Alessandro Gandelli Dc Energy Measurement • Ac Induction Energy Meters • Static Energy Meters • Accuracy of Energy Meters
43 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity Michael B. Heaney Basic Concepts • Simple Model and Theory • Experimental Techniques for Measuring Resistivity
44 Charge Measurement Saps Buchman, John Mester, T. J. Sumner Electrostatic Voltmeters • Charge Amplifiers • Applications
45 Capacitance and Capacitance Measurements Halit Eren, James Goh Types of Capacitors • Characteristics of Capacitors
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
46 Permittivity Measurement Devendra K. Misra Measurement of Complex Permittivity at Low Frequencies • Measurement of Complex Permittivity Using Distributed Circuits
47 Electric Field Strength David A. Hill, Motohisa Kanda Electrostatic Fields • ELF and ULF Electric Fields • Radio-Frequency and Microwave Techniques • Three-Loop Antenna System • Broadband Dipole Antennas
48 Magnetic Field Measurement Steven A. Macintyre Magnetic Field Fundamentals • Low-Field Vector Magnetometers • High-Field Vector Gaussmeters • Scalar Magnetometers
49 Permeability and Hysteresis Measurement Jeff P. Anderson, Richard J. Blotzer Definition of Permeability • Types of Material Magnetization • Definition of Hysteresis • Core Loss • Measurement Methods • Validity of Measurements
50 Inductance Measurement Michal Szyper Definitions of Inductance • Equivalent Circuits and Inductive Element Models • Measurement Methods • Instrumentation
51 Immittance Measurement Achim Dreher Definitions • Ideal Lumped Components • Distributed Elements • Interconnections and Graphical Representations • Measurement Techniques • Instrumentation and Manufacturers
52 Q Factor Measurement Albert D. Helfrick Basic Calculation of Q • Bandwidth and Q • The Q-Meter • Other Q Measuring Techniques • Measuring Parameters Other than Q
53 Distortion Measurement Michael F. Toner, Gordon W. Roberts Mathematical Background • Intercept Points (IP) • Measurement of the THD • Conclusions
54 Noise Measurement W. Marshall Leach, Jr. Thermal Noise • Spectral Density • Fluctuation Dissipation Theorem • Equivalent Noise Resistance and Conductance • Shot Noise • Flicker Noise • Excess Noise • Burst Noise • Partition Noise • Generation–Recombination Noise • Noise Bandwidth • Noise Bandwidth Measurement • Spot Noise • Addition of Noise Voltages • Correlation Impedance and Admittance • The vn-in Amplifier Noise Model • Measuring v ni2 , v n2 , and in2 • Noise Temperature • Noise Reduction with a Transformer • The Signal-to-Noise Ratio • Noise Factor and Noise Figure • Noise Factor Measurement • The Junction Diode Noise Model • The BJT Noise Model • The FET Noise Model • Operation Amplifier Noise Models • Photodiode Detector Noise Model • Piezoelectric Transducer Noise Model • Parametric Amplifiers • Measuring Noise
55 Microwave Measurement A. Dehé, K. Beilenhoff, K. Fricke, H. Klingbeil, V. Krozer, H. L. Hartnagel Power Measurement • Frequency Measurement • Spectrum Analysis • Cavity Modes and Cavity Q • Scattering Parameter Measurements
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Optical Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Optical Variables Measurement 56 Photometry and Radiometry Fritz Schuermeyer, Thad Pickenpaugh, Michael R. Squillante, Kanai S. Shah, J.A. Nousek, M.W. Bautz, B.E. Burke, J.A. Gregory, R.E. Griffiths, R.L. Kraft, H.L. Kwok, D.H. Lumb Photoconductive Sensors • Photojunction Sensors • Charge-Coupled Devices
57 Densitometry Measurement Joseph H. Altman Introduction • Monochrome Transmission Density • Monochrome Reflection Density • Color Transmission Densitometry • Color Reflection Densitometry • Densitometry of Halftone Patterns • Summary
58 Colorimetry Robert T. Marcus Introduction • Standardized Light Sources • The CIE Standard Observers • Calculating Tristimulus Values • Reflectance Measurements • Transmittance Measurement • Color Difference Calculations • Special Cases • Instrument Manufacturers
59 Optical Loss Halit Eren Basic Concepts • Optical Loss Mechanisms in Optical Fibers • Optical Time Domain Reflectometry Method • Standard Field Fiber Optic Attenuation Test • Out-of-Plane Scattering and Polarization Methods
60 Polarization Measurement Soe-Mie F. Nee Basic Concepts of Polarization • Polarization of an Electromagnetic Wave • Polarization of Light • Principles of Polarimetry • Polarization Instrumentation and Experiments
61 Refractive Index Measurement G. H. Meeteen Introduction • Physical Principles • Techniques • Review of Refractometers
62 Turbidity Measurement Daniel Harrison, Michael Fisch Introduction • Extinction and Turbidity: Particles in a Nonabsorbing Medium • Turbidity Due to Density Fluctuations in Pure Fluids • Deisgn of Laboratory Instruments • Limitations
63 Laser Output Measurement Haiyin Sun Introduction • Measurement of Laser Power • Measurement of Laser Spectrum • Measurement of Laser Wavelength • Instrumentation and Components
64 Vision and Image Sensors Stanley S. Ipson, Chima Okereke Image Formation • Image Sensing • Image Intensifiers • Fiber-Optic Scopes • Components and Trends
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Radiation Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Radiation Measurement 65 Radioactivity Measurement Bert M. Coursey Radioactivity
66 Radioactivity Measurement Larry A. Franks, Ralph B. James, Larry S. Darken Gaseous Detectors • Germanium Detectors • Silicon Detectors • Room-Temperature Semiconductors • Prices and Availability
67 Charged Particle Measurement John C. Armitage, Madhu S. Dixit, Jacques Dubeau, Hans Mes, F. Gerald Oakham Introduction • Nuclear Emulsions • Gas-Filled Charged Particle Counters • Scintillation Counters • Solid-State Detectors
68 Neutron Measurement Steven M. Grimes Detector Types • Efficiency Calculations • Summary
69 Dosimetry Measurement Brian L. Justus, Mark A. Miller, Alan L. Huston Radiation Dosimetry Quantities and Units • Thermoluminescence Dosimetry • Ionization Chamber Dosimeters • Film Dosimetry • Track-Etch Dosimetry • Bubble Dosimetry • Electronic Personal Dosimeters
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Chemical Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Chemical Variables Measurement 70 Composition Measurement Michael J. Schöning, Olaf Glück, Marion Thust, Mushtaq Ali, Behrooz Pahlavanpour, Maria Eklund, E.E. Uzgiris, J.Y. Gui, Behrooz Pahlavanpour, Mushtaq Ali, C.K. Laird Electrochemical Composition Measurement • Thermal Composition Measurement • Kinetic Methods • Chromatography Composition Measurement
71 pH Measurement Norman F. Sheppard, Jr., Anthony Guiseppi–Elie Definition of pH • Electrochemical Methods of pH Measurement • Optical Methods of pH Measurement
72 Humidity and Moisture Measurement Gert J.W. Vischer Gases • Liquids and Solids • Formulae • Calibration • Developments
73 Environmental Measurement John D. Garrison, Stephen B. W. Roeder, Michael Bennett, Kathleen M. Leonard, Jacqueline Le Moigne, Robert F. Cromp Meteorological Measurement • Air Pollution Measurement • Water Quality Measurement • Satellite Imaging and Sensing
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Biomedical Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Biomedical Variables Measurement 74 Biopotentials and Electrophysiology Measurement Nitish V. Thak or Introduction • The Origins of Biopotentials • Biopotentials • The Principles of Biopotential Measurements • Electrodes for Biopotential Recordings • The Biopotential Amplifier • Circuit Enhancements • Measurement Practices • Conclusions
75 Blood Pressure Measurement Shyam Rithalia, Mark Sun, Ro ger Jones Introduction • Measurement Techniques • Indirect Blood Pressure Measurement • Direct Blood Pressure Measurement • Reproducibility, Accuracy, and Reliability Issues and Recommendations for Corrective Measures • Blood Pressure Impact, Challenge, and Future
76 Blood Flow Measurements Per Ask, P. Åk e Öberg Doppler Measurements • Indicator Dilution Methods • Plethysmography • Radioisotopes • Thermal Convection Probes
77 Ventilation Measurement L. Basano Ventilation • Instrumentation: Principles and Description • Future Perspectives
78 Blood Chemistry Measurement Terry L. Rusch, Ravi Sankar Introduction • Background • Measurements and Techniques • Combined Analysis Techniques
79 Medical Imaging James T. Dobbins III, Sean M. Hames, Br uce H. Has e gawa, Timothy R. DeGrado, James A. Zagzebski, Richard Frayne Introduction • Image Information Content • X-Ray Imaging • Computed Tomography • Nuclear Medicine • Positron Emission Tomography • Ultrasound Imaging • Magnetic Resonance Imaging
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Signal Processing." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Signal Processing 80 Amplifiers and Signal Conditioners Ramón Pallás-Areny Introduction • Dynamic Range • Signal Classification • General Amplifier Parameters • Instrumentation Amplifiers • Single-Ended Signal Conditioners • Carrier Amplifiers • Lock-In Amplifiers • Isolation Amplifiers • Nonlinear Signal-Processing Techniques • Analog Linearization • Special-Purpose Signal Conditioners
81 Modulation David M. Beams Introduction • Generalized Modulation • Amplitude Modulation • Angle (Frequency and Phase) Modulation • Instrumentation and Components
82 Filters Rahman Jamal, Robert Steer Introduction • Filter Classification • The Filter Approximation Problem • Design Examples for Passive and Active Filters • Discrete-Time Filters • Digital Filter Design Process • FIR Filter Design • IIR Filter Design • Wave Digital Filters • Antialiasing and Smoothing Filters • Switched Capacitor Filters • Adaptive Filters
83 Spectrum Analysis and Correlation Ronney B. Panerai, A. Ambrosini, C. Bortolotti, N. D’Amico, G. Grueff, S. Mariotti, S. Montebugnoli, A. Orfei, G. Tomassetti FFT Spectrum Analysis and Correlation • RF/Microwave Spectrum Analysis
84 Applied Intelligence Processing Peter H. Sydenham, Rodney Pratt Introduction • Overview of Algorithmic Methods • Overview of Applied Intelligence Methods • Mapping, in General • Basics of Decision Theory • Principal AI Methods • Problems in Calibration of AI Processing Methods
85 Analog-to-Digital Converters E. B. Loewenstein Introduction • Sampling • Quantization • ADC Specifications • Types of ADCs • Instrumentation and Components
86 Computers A. M. MacLeod, P.F. Martin, W.A. Gillespie Introduction • Computer-Based Instrumentation Systems • Computer Buses • Personal Computer Buses • Peripherals • Software for Instrumentation Systems
87 Telemetry Albert Lozano-Nieto Introduction • Base-Band Telemetry • Multiple-Channel Telemetry
88 Sensor Networks and Communication Robert M. Crovella Introduction • Communication and Networking Concepts • Network Technologies • Applying Network Communications • Advanced Topics
89 Electromagnetic Compatibility Daryl Gerke, William Kimmel, Jeffrey P. Mills Grounding and Shielding in Industrial Electronic Systems • EMI and EMC Test Methods
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
. "Displays." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .
Displays 90 Human Factors in Displays Steven A. Murray, Barrett S. Caldwell Introduction • Fundamentals of Light Measurement • Fundamentals of Vision • Visual Performance • Display Performance Considerations • Display Content Considerations • Cathode Ray Tube Displays • Liquid Crystal Displays • Plasma Displays • Electroluminescent Displays • Light-Emitting Diode Displays
91 Cathode Ray Tube Displays Christopher J. Sherman Introduction • History • Image Formation with a CRT • CRT Addressing: Raster Scanning vs. Stroke • The Phosphor Screen • Color CRTs Using Shadow Masks • Alternative Techniques for Realizing Color Using CRTs • Image Quality and Performance • CRT and Phosphor Lifetime • CRT Strengths and Weaknesses • CRT Selection • Future Trends in CRT Technology
92 Liquid Crystal Displays Kalluri R. Sarma Introduction • Types of Liquid Crystal Materials • Physical Properties of Liquid Crystals • LCD Materials and Fabrication Processes • Liquid Crystal Display Modes • Display Addressing
93 Plasma-Driven Flat Panel Displays Robert T. McGrath, Ramanapathy Veerasingam, Wllliain C. Moffatt, Robert B. Campbell An Introduction to Plasma-Driven Flat Panel Displays • Fundamentals of Plasma Pixel Operation • Pixel Electrical Properties • Display Priming, Addressing, Refresh, and Gray Scale • Color Plasma Flat Panel Displays • Inspection and Metrology
94 Electroluminescent Displays William A. Barrow Introduction • Device Structure and Operation • Device Fabrication • Device Operation • Standard Measurements • Time-Resolved Measurements • Test Dot Characterization • Characterization of Matrix-Addressed Displays • Excitation and Measurement Equipment • Measurement Instruments 95 Light-Emitting Diode Displays Mohammad A. Karim 96 Reading/Recording Devices Herman Vermariën, Edward McConnell, Yufeng Li Graphic Recorders • Data Acquisition Systems • Magnetic and Optical Recorders
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
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Control 97 PID Control F. Greg Shinskey Introduction • Open and Closed Loops • Mode Selection • Controller Hardware • Tuning Controllers
98 Optimal Control Halit Eren Introduction • Cost Function • Calculus of Variations • Riccati Equation • State Feedback Matrix
99 Electropneumatic and Electrohydraulic Instruments: Modeling of Electrohydraulic and Electrohydrostatic Actuators M. Pachter and C. H. Houpis Introduction • Background • Hydraulic Actuator Modeling • EHA Actuator Modeling • Actuator Compensator Design • Conclusion
100 Explosion-Proof Instruments Sam S. Khalilieh Introduction • Fundamentals of Explosion Protection • Classification of Hazardous Areas • Enclosure Types and Requirements • Protection Methodologies
101 Measurement and Identification of Brush, Brushless, and dc Stepping Motors Stuart Schweid, Robert Lofthus, John McInroy Introduction • Hybrid Stepping Motors • dc Brush and Brushless Motors
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC