The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook

Product Manager: Project Editor: Packaging design:

Maureen Aller Susan Fox Jonathan Pennell

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress. These files shall remain the sole and exclusive property of CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431. The contents are protected by copyright law and international treaty. No part of the Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook CRCnetBASE 1999 CD-ROM product may be duplicated in hard copy or machine-readable form without prior written authorization from CRC Press LLC, except that the licensee is granted a limited, non-exclusive license to reproduce limited portions of the context for the licensee’s internal use provided that a suitable notice of copyright is included on all copies. This CD-ROM incorporates materials from other sources reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright holder. Credit to the original sources and copyright notices are given with the figure or table. No materials in this CD-ROM credited to these copyright holders may be reproduced without their written permission. WARRANTY The information in this product was obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Every reasonable effort has been made to give reliable data and information, but the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their uses. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2145-X International Standard Series Number 1523-3014

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Preface

Introduction The purpose of Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook CRCnetBase 1999 is to provide a reference that is both concise and useful for engineers in industry, scientists, designers, managers, research personnel and students, as well as many others who have measurement problems. The CD-ROM covers an extensive range of topics that comprise the subject of measurement, instrumentation, and sensors. The CD-ROM describes the use of instruments and techniques for practical measurements required in engineering, physics, chemistry, and the life sciences. It includes sensors, techniques, hardware, and software. It also includes information processing systems, automatic data acquisition, reduction and analysis and their incorporation for control purposes. Articles include descriptive information for professionals , students ,and workers interested in measurement. Articles include equations to assist engineers and scientists who seek to discover applications and solve problems that arise in fields not in their specialty. They include specialized information needed by informed specialists who seek to learn advanced applications of the subject, evaluative opinions, and possible areas for future study. Thus, the CD-ROM serves the reference needs of the broadest group of users — from the advanced high school science student to industrial and university professionals.

Organization The CD-ROM is organized according to the measurement problem. Section I includes general instrumentation topics, such as accuracy and standards. Section II covers spatial variables, such as displacement and position. Section III includes time and frequency. Section IV covers solid mechanical variables such as mass and strain. Section V comprises fluid mechanical variables such as pressure, flow, and velocity. Section VI covers thermal mechanical variables such as temperature and heat flux. Section VII includes electromagnetic variables such as voltage and capacitance. Section VIII covers optical variables such as photometry and image sensors. Section IX includes radiation such as x rays and dosimetry. Section X covers chemical variables in composition and environmental measurements. Section XI includes biomedical variables such as blood flow and medical imaging. Section XII comprises signal processing such as amplifiers and computers. Section XIII covers display such as cathode ray tube and recorder. Section XIV includes control such as optimal control and motion control. The Appendix contains conversion factors to SI units.

Locating Your Topic To find out how to measure a given variable, do a word or phrase search, select the section and the chapters that describe different methods of making the measurement. Consider the alternative methods of making the measurement and each of their advantages and disadvantages. Select a method, sensor, © 1999 by CRC Press LLC

and signal processing method. Many articles list a number of vendors to contact for more information. You can also visit the http://www.sensorsmag.com site under Buyer’s Guide to obtain a list of vendors.

Acknowledgments I appreciate the help of the many people who worked on this handbook. David Beams assisted me by searching books, journals, and the Web for all types of measurements, then helped me to organize the outline. The Advisory Board made suggestions for revision and suggested many of the authors. Searching the INSPEC database yielded other authors who had published on a measurement method. At CRC Press, Felicia Shapiro, Associate Production Manager;Kristen Maus, Developmental Editor; Suzanne Lassandro, Book Group Production Director; and Susan Fox, Project Editor, produced the book.

John G. Webster Editor-in-Chief

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Editor-in-Chief

John G. Webster received the B.E.E. degree from Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, in 1953, and the M.S.E.E. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, in 1965 and 1967, respectively. He is Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. In the field of medical instrumentation he teaches undergraduate and graduate courses, and does research on RF cardiac ablation and measurement of vigilance. He is author of Transducers and Sensors, An IEEE/EAB Individual Learning Program (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, 1989). He is co-author, with B. Jacobson, of Medicine and Clinical Engineering (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977), with R. Pallás-Areny, of Sensors and Signal Conditioning (New York: Wiley, 1991), and with R. Pallas-Areny, of Analog Signal Conditioning (New York: Wiley, 1999). He is editor of Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation (New York: Wiley, 1988), Tactile Sensors for Robotics and Medicine (New York: Wiley, 1988), Electrical Impedance Tomography (Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger, 1990), Teaching Design in Electrical Engineering (Piscataway, NJ: Educational Activities Board, IEEE, 1990), Prevention of Pressure Sores: Engineering and Clinical Aspects (Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger, 1991), Design of Cardiac Pacemakers (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 1995), Design of Pulse Oximeters (Bristol, UK: IOP Publishing, 1997), Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design, Third Edition (New York: Wiley, 1998), and Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (New York, Wiley, 1999). He is co-editor, with A. M. Cook, of Clinical Engineering: Principles and Practices (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1979) and Therapeutic Medical Devices: Application and Design (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1982), with W. J. Tompkins, of Design of Microcomputer-Based Medical Instrumentation (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981) and Interfacing Sensors to the IBM PC (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988), and with A. M. Cook, W. J. Tompkins, and G. C. Vanderheiden, Electronic Devices for Rehabilitation (London: Chapman & Hall, 1985). Dr. Webster has been a member of the IEEE-EMBS Administrative Committee and the NIH Surgery and Bioengineering Study Section. He is a fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the Instrument Society of America, and the American Institute of Medical and Biological Engineering. He is the recipient of the AAMI Foundation Laufman-Greatbatch Prize and the ASEE/Biomedical Engineering Division, Theo C. Pilkington Outstanding Educator Award.

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Advisory Board

Gene Fatton

Dennis Swyt

Consultant Loveland, Colorado

National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, Maryland

Jacob Fraden

Peter H. Sydenham

Advanced Monitors Corporation San Diego, California

Honeywell Technology Center Minneapolis, Minnesota

University of South Australia Mawsons Lakes South Australia and University College, London London, UK

Ramón Pallás-Areny

Carsten Thomsen

Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya Barcelona, Spain

National Instruments Austin, Texas

James E. Lenz

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Contributors

Rene G. Aarnink

Marc J. Assael

William A. Barrow

University Hospital Nijmegen Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Faculty of Chemical Engineering Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Thessalonika, Greece

Planar Systems Beaverton, Oregon

Mushtaq Ali The National Grid Company Leatherhead, Surrey, England

Viktor P. Astakhov

Cipriano Bartoletti University of Rome “La Sapieriza” Rome, Italy

Pittsford, New York

Mechanical Engineering Department Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada

A. Ambrosini

Francesco Avallone

Dipartimento de Fisica Università di Genova Genova, Italy

Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy

Università di Napoli Federico II Naples, Italy

M.W. Bautz

Aldo Baccigalupi

Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

Jeff P. Anderson

Università di Napoli Federico II Naples, Italy

William H. Bayles

LTV Steel Corporation Independence, Ohio

William E. Baker

The Fredericks Company Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania

Joseph H. Altman

Kinetic Sciences, Inc. Vancouver, B.C., Canada

Mechanical Engineering Department University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico

John C. Armitage

W. John Ballantyne

Ottawa–Carleton Institute for Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Systems Engineering Department Spar Aerospace Ltd. Brampton, Ontario, Canada

Keith Antonelli

Pasquale Arpaia Università di Napoli Federico II Naples, Italy

Per Ask Department of Biomedical Engineering Linkoping University Linkoping, Sweden

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Amit Bandyopadhyay Department of Ceramic Science and Engineering Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey

Partha P. Banerjee Electrical and Computer Engineering Department University of Alabama – Huntsville Huntsville, Alabama

L. Basano

David M. Beams Department of Electrical Engineering University of Texas at Tyler Tyler, Texas

K. Beilenhoff Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany

B. Benhabib Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Michael Bennett Willison Associates Manchester, England

Vikram Bhatia

Barrett Caldwell

G. Mark Cushman

Virginia Tech Blacksburg, Virginia

University of Wisconsin–Madison Madison, Wisconsin

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland

Richard J. Blotzer

Robert B. Campbell

N. D’Amico

LTV Steel Corporation Independence, Ohio

Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, California

A. Bonen

Claudio de Capua

Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy

University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Università di Napoli Federico II Napoli, Italy

Larry S. Darken

C. Bortolotti

Kevin H.L. Chau

Oxford Instruments, Inc. Oak Ridge, Tennessee

Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy

Micromachined Products Division Analog Devices Cambridge, Massachusetts

Howard M. Brady The Fredericks Company Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania

Arnaldo Brandolini

Adam Chrzanowski University of New Brunswick Fredericton, N.B., Canada

Richard O. Claus

David Dayton ILC Data Device Corporation Bohemia, New York

Timothy R. DeGrado Duke University Medical Center Durham, North Carolina

Bradley Department of Electrical Engineering Virginia Tech Blacksburg, Virginia

Alfons Dehé

Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica Politecnico di Milano Milano, Italy

John C. Brasunas

Charles B. Coulbourn

Ronald H. Dieck

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland

Los Angeles Scientific Instrumentation Co. Los Angeles, California

Pratt & Whitney Palm Beach Gardens, Florida

Detlef Brumbi Krohue Messtechnik GmbH Diusburg, Germany

Christophe Bruttin Rittmeyer Ltd. Zug, Switzerland

Bert M. Coursey Ionizing Radiaiton Division, Physics Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, Maryland

Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany

Thomas E. Diller Virginia Polytechnic Institute Blacksburg, Virginia

Madhu S. Dixit

Robert F. Cromp

Centre for Research in Particle Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland

James T. Dobbins III

Los Angeles Scientific Instrumentation Los Angeles, California

Robert M. Crovella

Duke University Medical Center Durham, North Carolina

B.E. Burke

Brian Culshaw

Saps Buchman Stanford University Stanford, California

Wolfgang P. Buerner

Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

Jim Burns Burns Engineering Inc. Minnetonka, MN

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NVIDIA Corporation Plano, Texas

Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering University of Strathclyde Royal College Building Glasgow, England

Achim Dreher German Aerospace Center Wessling, Germany

Emil Drubetsky The Fredericks Company Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania

Jacques Dubeau

Mark Fritz

Steven M. Grimes

Centre for Research in Particle Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Denver Instrument Company Arvada, Colorado

Department of Physics and Astronomy Ohio University Athens, Ohio

Chun Che Fung

Maria Eklund

Curtin University of Technology Perth, WA, Australia

Nynas Naphthenics AB Nynashamn, Sweden

Alessandro Gandelli

M.A. Elbestawi Mechanical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

Halit Eren Curtin Unversity of Technology Perth, WA, Australia

Alessandro Ferrero Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica Politecnico di Milan Milano, Italy

Richard S. Figliola Department of Mechanical Engineering Clemson University Clemson, South Carolina

Michael Fisch Department of Physics John Carroll University University Heights, Ohio

Jacob Fraden Advanced Monitors Corporation San Diego, California

Randy Frank

Dipartimento di Elettrotecnica Politecnico di Milano Milano, Italy

John D. Garrison San Diego State University San Diego, California

Ivan J. Garshelis Magnova, Inc. Pittsfield, Massachusetts

Daryl Gerke Kimmel Gerke Associates, Ltd. Mesa, Arizona

W.A. Gillespie University of Abertay Dundee Dundee, Scotland

Paolo Giordano Rittmeyer Ltd. Zug, Switzerland

Olaf Glük Institut für Schicht-und Ionentechnik Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH Germany

G. Grueff Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy

J.Y. Gui General Electric Research and Development Center General Electric Company Schenectady, New York

Anthony Guiseppi–Elie Abtech Scientific, Inc. Yardley, Pennsylvania

Reinhard Haak Universitaet Erlangen–Nuernberg Erlangen, Germany

Sean M. Hames Duke University Medical Center Durham, North Carolina

R. John Hansman, Jr. Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts

Daniel Harrison

Semiconductor Products Sector Transporation Systems Group Motorola, Inc. Phoenix, Arizona

Ron Goehner The Fredericks Company Huntington Valley, Pennsylvania

Department of Physics John Carroll University University Heights, Ohio

Larry A. Franks

James Goh

H.L. Hartnagel

Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, California

Curtin University of Technology Perth, WA, Australia

Richard Frayne

J.A. Gregory

University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin

K. Fricke Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany

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Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

R.E. Griffiths Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany

Bruce H. Hasegawa University of California San Francisco, California

Emil Hazarian Denver Institute Company Arvada, Colorado

Michael B. Heaney

Roger Jones

Wei Ling Kong

Huladyne Research Palo Alto, California

Primary Children’s Medical Center Salt Lake City, Utah

Curtin Institute of Technology Perth, WA, Australia

Albert D. Helfrick

Brian L. Justus

M. Kostic

Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University Dayton Beach, Florida

Optical Science Department Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D.C.

Northern Illinois University DeKalb, Illinois

David A. Hill

Motohisa Kanda

National Institute of Standards and Technology U.S. Department of Commerce Boulder, Colorado

National Institute of Standards and Technology Boulder, Colorado

Thomas Hossle Rittmeyer Ltd. Zug, Switzerland

Mohammad A. Karim University of Tennessee, Knoxville Knoxville, Tennessee

Nils Karlsson

Air Force Institute of Technology Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio

National Defense Research Establishment Stockholm, Sweden

Zaki D. Husain

Sam S. Khalilieh

C.H. Houpis

Daniel Flow Products, Inc. Bellaire, Texas

Alan L. Huston Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D.C.

Robert M. Hyatt, Jr. Howell Electric Motors Plainfield, New Jersey

Stanley S. Ipson

Electrical Engineering Earth Tech Grand Rapids, Michigan

Andre Kholkine Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey

William Kimmel Kimmel Gerke Associates, Ltd. Mesa, Arizona

R.L. Kraft Penn State University University Park, Pennsylvania

V. Krozer Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany

Shyan Ku Kinetic Sciences Inc. Vancouver, B.C., Canada

H.L. Kwok Penn State University University Park, Pennsylvania

C.K. Laird School of Applied Chemistry Kingston University Kingston Upon Thames, England

Brook Lakew NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland

Carmine Landi Università de L’Aquila L’Aquila, Italy

Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering University of Bradford Bradford, W. Yorkshire, England

John A. Kleppe Electrical Engineering Department University of Nevada Reno, Nevada

Jacqueline Le Moigne

Rahman Jamal

H. Klingbeil

G.E. LeBlanc

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, Maryland

National Instruments Germany Applications Engineering Munchen, Germany

Institut für Hochfrequenztechnik, Technische Universität Darmstadt Muenchen, Germany

School of Geography and Geology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

Ralph B. James

James Ko

W. Marshall Leach, Jr.

Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, California

Kinetic Sciences Inc. Vancouver, B.C., Canada

Victor F. Janas

Hebert Köchner

Center for Ceramic Research Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey

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Universitaet Erlangen–Nuernberg Erlangen, Germany

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia

Kathleen M. Leonard

Steven A. Macintyre

John McInroy

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering The University of Alabama in Huntsville Huntsville, Alabama

Macintyre Electronic Design Herndon, Virginia

Tolestyn Madaj

Department of Electrical Engineering University of Wyoming Laramie, Wyoming

Technical University of Gdansk Gdansk, Poland

Douglas P. McNutt

Samsung Information Systems America HDD R & D Center San Jose, California

Kin F. Man

The MacNauchtan Laboratory Colorado Springs, Colorado

E. B. Loewenstein

Dimitris E. Manolakis

National Instruments Austin, Texas

Department of Automation Technological Education Institute Thessaloniki, Greece

Yufeng Li

Robert Lofthus Xerox Corporation Rochester, New York

Michael A. Lombardi Time and Frequency Division National Institute of Standards and Technology Boulder, Colorado

Michael Z. Lowenstein Harmonics Limited Mequou, Wisconsin

Albert Lozano–Nieto

Jet Propulsion Lab California Institute of Technology Pasadena, California

G.H. Meeten Department of Fluid Chemistry and Physics Schlumberger Cambridge Research Cambridge, England

Adrian Melling

Robert T. Marcus

Universitaet Erlangen–Nuernberg Erlangen, Germany

Datacolor International Middletown, New Jersey

Rajan K. Menon

S. Mariotti Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy

Wade M. Mattar The Foxboro Company Foxboro, Massachusetts

Laser Velocimetry Products TSI Inc. St. Paul, Minnesota

Hans Mes Centre for Research in Particle Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

John Mester

Commonwealth College Wilkes Barre Campus Penn State University Lehman, Pennsylvania

J.R. René Mayer Mechanical Engineering Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal Montreal, Quebec, Canada

W.W. Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory Stanford University Stanford, California

D.H. Lumb

Edward McConnell

Jaroslaw Mikielewicz

Penn State University University Park, Pennsylvania

Data Acquisition National Instruments Austin, Texas

Institute of Fluid Flow Machinery Gdansk, Poland

Christopher S. Lynch Mechanical Engineering Department The Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia

A.M. MacLeod School of Engineering University of Abertay Dundee Dundee, Scotland

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

P.F. Martin University of Abertay Dundee Dundee, Scotland

Robert T. McGrath Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

Harold M. Miller Data Industrial Corporation Mattapoisett, Massachusetts

Mark A. Miller Naval Research Laboratory Washington, D.C.

Jeffrey P. Mills Illinois Institute of Technology Chicago, Illinois

Devendra Misra

John A. Nousek

M. Pachter

Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

Air Force Institute of Technology Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio

William C. Moffatt

David S. Nyce

The National Grid Company Leatherhead, Surrey, England

Sandia National Laboratories Livermore, California

MTS Systems Corp. Cary, North Carolina

Ramón Pallás-Areny

Stelio Montebugnoli

Peter O’Shea

Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya Barcelona, Spain

Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Villa Fontano, Italy

Department of Computer and Electrical Engineering Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Roger Morgan School of Engineering Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, England

Behrooz Pahlavanpour

Ronney B. Panerai University of Leicester Leicester Royal Infirmary Leicester, U.K.

F. Gerald Oakham

Franco Pavese

Centre for Research in Particle Physics Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

CNR Instituto di Metrologia “G. Colonnetti” Torino, Italy

P. Åke Öberg

Peder C. Pedersen

Electronic Measurements Division Hewlett–Packard Colorado Springs, Colorado

Department of Biomedical Engineering Linkoping University Hospital Linkoping, Sweden

Electrical and Computer Engineering Worcester Polytechnic Institute Worcester, Massachusetts

Steven A. Murray

Chima Okereke

Teklic Ole Pedersen

Independent Consultant Formerly of Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering University of Bradford Bradford, W. Yorkshire, U.K

Linkoping Universitet Linkoping, Sweden

John G. Olin

Rekha Philip-Chandy

Sierra Instruments, Inc. Monterey, California

School of Engineering Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, England

Armelle M. Moulin University of Cambridge Cambridge, England

Jerry Murphy

SPAWAR Systems Center San Diego, California

Soe-Mie F. Nee Research and Technology Division U.S. Naval Air Warfare Center China Lake, California

Nam-Trung Nguyen Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center University of California at Berkeley Berkeley, California

J.V. Nicholas The New Zealand Institute for Industrial Research and Development Lower Hutt, New Zealand

Seiji Nishifuji Electrical and Electronic Engineering Yamaguchi University Ube, Japan

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

A. Orfei Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy

P. Ottonello Dipartimento di Fisica Universita di Genova Genova, Italy

B.W. Petley National Physical Laboratory Middlesex, U.K.

Thad Pickenpaugh AFRL/SNHI Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio

Charles P. Pinney Pinney Technologies, Inc. Albuquerque, New Mexico

Luca Podestà University of Rome “La Sapieriza” Rome, Italy

Rodney Pratt

Robert J. Sandberg

Kanai S. Sheh

University of South Australia Adelaide, S. Australia

Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc. Watertown, Massachusetts

Per Rasmussen

Mechanical Engineering Department University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin

GRAS Sound and Vibration Vedback, Denmark

Ravi Sankar

Proteun Services Albuquerque, New Mexico

Department of Electrical Engineering University of South Florida Tampa, Florida

Shyam Rithalia

Meyer Sapoff

Department of Rehabilitation University of Salford Salford, U.K.

MS Consultants Princeton, New Jersey

R.P. Reed

Gordon W. Roberts Department of Electrical Engineering McGill University Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Stephen B.W. Roeder Department of Chemistry San Diego State University San Diego, California

Herbert M. Runciman Pilkington Optronics Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.

Terry L. Rusch Marshfield Medical Research Foundation Tampa, Florida

Ricardo Saad University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Giancarlo Sacerdoti University of Rome “La Sapieriza” Rome, Italy

Ahmad Safari Department of Ceramic Science and Engineering Rutgers University Piscataway, New Jersey

Kalluri R. Sarma Advanced Displays Department Honeywell, Inc. Phoenix, Arizona

Michael J. Schöning Institut für Schicht-und Ionentechnik Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH Germany

Fritz Schuermeyer USAF Wright Laboratory Wright–Patterson AFB, Ohio

Norman F. Sheppard, Jr. Gamera Bioscience Corporation Medford, Massachusetts

Christopher J. Sherman Merrimack, New Hampshire

F. Greg Shinskey Process Control Consultant N. Sandwich, New Hampshire

K.C. Smith University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Michael R. Squillante Radiation Monitoring Devices, Inc. Watertown, Massachusetts

Jan Stasiek Mechanical Engineering Department Technical University of Gdansk Gdansk, Poland

Mark A. Stedham

Xerox Corporation Rochester, New York

Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Alabama at Huntsville Huntsville, Alabama

Patricia J. Scully

Robert Steer

Stuart Schweid

School of Engineering Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool, England

R.A. Secco The University of Western Ontario Ontario, Canada

James M. Secord Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering University of New Brunswick Fredericton, N.B., Canada

DeWayne B. Sharp Shape of Things San Luis Obispo, California

Frequency Devices Haverhill, Massachusetts

Robert J. Stephenson University of Cambridge Cambridge, England

T.J. Sumner Imperial College London, England

Haiyin Sun Coherent Auburn Group Auburn, California

Mark Sun NeoPath, Inc. Redmond, Washington

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Peter H. Sydenham

Michael F. Toner

William A. Wakeham

University of South Australia Mawsons Lakes, South Australia and University College, London London, UK

Nortel Networks Nepean, Ontario, Canada

Imperial College London, England

E.E. Uzgiris

Anbo Wang

General Electric Research and Development Center General Electric Company Schenectady, New York

Bradley Department of Electrical Engineering Virgina Tech Blacksburg, Virginia

Sander van Herwaarden

Donald J. Wass

Micha Szyper University of Mining and Metallurgy Cracow, Poland

Shogo Tanaka Electrical and Electronic Engineering Yamaguchi University Ube, Japan

Nitish V. Thakor Biomedical Engineering Department Johns Hopkins University Medical School Baltimore, Maryland

David B. Thiessen California Institute of Technology Pasadena, California

Richard Thorn School of Engineering University of Derby Derby, U.K.

Marion Thust Institut für Schicht-und Ionentechnik Forschungszentrum Julich GmbH Germany

Xensor Integration Delft, The Netherlands

Hans-Peter Vaterlaus Instrument Department Rittmeyer Ltd. Zug, Switzerland

Ramanapathy Veerasingam Penn State University University Park, Pennsylvania

Herman Vermariën Laboratory of Physiology Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Belgium

James H. Vignos The Foxboro Company Foxboro, Massachusetts

Gert J.W. Visscher Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering Wageningen, The Netherlands

G. Tomassetti

David Wadlow

Institute of Radioastronomy National Research Council Via Fiorentina Villa Fontano, Italy

Sensors Research Consulting, Inc. Basking Ridge, New Jersey

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Daniel Flow Products, Inc. Houston, Texas

Mark E. Welland University of Cambridge Cambridge, England

Grover C. Wetsel Erik Jonsson School of Engineering and Computer Science University of Texas at Dallas Richardson, Texas

Hessel Wijkstra University Hospital Nijmegen Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Jesse Yoder Automation Research Corporation Dedham, Massachusetts

Bernhard Günther Zagar Electrical Engineering Technical University Graz Graz, Austria

James A. Zagzebski Department of Medical Physics University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin

Contents

Section I

Measurement Characteristics

1

Charateristics of Instrumentation

2

Operational Modes of Instrumentation

3

Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instrumentation Peter H. Sydenham

4

Measurement Accuracy

5

Measurement Standards

Section II

6

R. John Hansman, Jr. Richard S. Figliola

Ronald H. Dieck DeWayne B. Sharp

Spatial Variables Measurement

Displacement Measurement, Linear and Angular 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

Resistive Displacement Sensors Keith Antonelli, James Ko, and Shyan Ku Inductive Displacement Sensors Halit Eren Capacitive Sensors—Displacement Halit Eren and Wei Ling Kong Piezoelectric Transducers and Sensors Ahmad Safari, Victor F. Janas, Amit Bandyopadhyay, and Andrei Kholkine 6.5 Laser Interferometer Displacement Sensors Bernhard Günther Zagar 6.6 Bore Gaging Displacement Sensors Viktor P. Astakhov 6.7 Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors Teklic Ole Pedersen and Nils Karlsson 6.8 Optical Encoder Displacement Sensors J. R. René Mayer 6.9 Magnetic Displacement Sensors David S. Nyce 6.10 Synchro/Resolver Displacement Sensors Robert M. Hyatt, Jr. and David Dayton 6.11 Optical Fiber Displacement Sensors Richard O. Claus, Vikram Bhatia, and Anbo Wang 6.12 Optical Beam Deflection Sensing Grover C. Wetsel

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

7

Thickness Measurement Lakew

8

Proximity Sensing for Robotics B. Benhabib

9

Distance

10

John C. Brasunas, G. Mark Cushman, and Brook R.E. Saad, A. Bonen, K.C. Smith, and

W. John Ballantyne

Position, Location, Altitude Measurement 10.1 Altitude Measurement Dimitris E. Manolakis 10.2 Attitude Measurement Mark A. Stedham, Partha B. Banerjee, Seiji Nishfuji, and Shogo Tanaka 10.3 Inertial Navigation Halit Eren and C.C. Fung 10.4 Satellite Navigation and Radiolocation Halit Eren and C.C. Fung 10.5 Occupancy Detection Jacob Fraden

11

Level Measurement

Detlef Brumbi

12

Area Measurement

Charles B. Coulbourn and Wolfgang P. Buerner

13

Volume Measurement

14

Angle Measurement

15

Tilt Measurement

16

Velocity Measurement

17

Acceleration, Vibration, and Shock Measurement

Section III

René G. Aarnink and Hessel Wijkstra Robert J. Sandberg

Adam Chrzanowski and James M. Secord Charles P. Pinney and William E. Baker

Time and Frequency Measurement

18

Time Measurement

19

Frequency Measurement

Section IV

Michael A. Lombardi Michael A. Lombardi

Mechanical Variables Measurement — Solid

20

Mass and Weight Measurement

21

Density measurement

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Halit Eren

Mark Fritz and Emil Hazarian

Halit Eren

22

Strain Measurement

Christopher S. Lynch

23

Force Measurement

M.A. Elbestawi

24

Torque and Power Measurement

25

Tactile Sensing

V

26

Ivan J. Garshelis

R.E. Saad, A. Bonen, K. C. Smith, and B. Benhabib

Mechanical Variables Measurement — Fluid Pressure and Sound Measurement 26.1 Pressure Measurement Kevin H.-L. Chau 26.2 Vacuum Measurement Ron Goehner, Emil Drubetsky, Howard M. Brady, and William H. Bayles, Jr. 26.3 Ultrasound Measurement Peder C. Pedersen

27 28

Acoustic Measurement Per Rasmussen Flow Measurement 28.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters Richard Thorn 28.2 Variable Area Flowmeters Adrian Melling, Herbert Köchner, and Reinhard Haak 28.3 Positive Displacement Flowmeters Zaki D. Husain and Donald J. Wass 28.4 Turbine and Vane Flowmeters David Wadlow 28.5 Impeller Flowmeters Harold M. Miller 28.6 Electromagnetic Flowmeters Halit Eren 28.7 Ultrasonic Flowmeters Hans-Peter Vaterlaus, Thomas Hossle, Paolo Giordano, and Christophe Bruttin 28.8 Vortex Shedding Flowmeters Wade M. Mattar and James H. Vignos 28.9 Thermal Mass Flow Sensors Nam-Trung Nguyen 28.10 Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters Jesse Yoder 28.11 Drag Force Flowmeters Rekha Philip-Chandy, Roger Morgan, Patricia J. Scully

29

Point Velocity Measurement 29.1 Pitot Probe Anemometry John A. Kleppe 29.2 Thermal Anemometry John G. Olin 29.3 Laser Anemometry Rajan K. Menon

30

Viscosity Measurement G. E. Leblanc, R. A. Secco, M. Kostic

31

Surface Tension Measurement David B. Thiessen, Kin F. Man

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

VI

32

Mechanical Variables Measurement — Thermal Temperature Measurement 32.1 Bimaterials Thermometers Robert J. Stephenson, Armelle M. Moulin, and Mark E. Welland 32.2 Resistive Thermometers Jim Burns 32.3 Thermistor Thermometers Meyer Sapoff 32.4 Thermocouple Thermometers R. P. Reed 32.5 Semiconductor Junction Thermometers Randy Frank 32.6 Infrared Thermometers Jacob Fraden 32.7 Pyroelectric Thermometers Jacob Fraden 32.8 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers J.V. Nicholas 32.9 Manometric Thermometers Franco Pavese 32.10 Temperature Indicators Jan Stasiek, Tolestyn Madaj, Jaroslaw Mikielewicz 32.11 Fiber-Optic Thermometers Brian Culshaw

33

Thermal Conductivity Measurement William A. Wakeham and Marc J. Assael

34

Heat Flux Thomas E. Diller

35

Thermal Imaging Herbert M. Runciman

36

Calorimetry Measurement Sander van Herwaarden

VII

Electromagnetic Variables Measurement

37

Voltage Measurement 37.1 Meter Voltage Measurement Alessandro Ferrero 37.2 Oscilloscope Voltage Measurement Jerry Murphy 37.3 Inductive Capacitive Voltage Measurement Cipriano Bartoletti, Luca Podestà, and Giancarlo Sacerdoti

38

Current Measurement Douglas P. McNutt

39

Power Measurement Pasquale Arpaia, Francesco Avallone, Aldo Baccigalupi, Claudio De Capua, Carmine Landi

40

Power Factor Measurement Michael Z. Lowenstein

41

Phase Measurement Peter O’Shea

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

42

Energy Measurement Arnaldo Brandolini and Alessandro Gandelli

43

Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity Michael B. Heaney

44

Charge Measurement Saps Buchman, John Mester, and T. J. Sumner

45

Capacitance and Capacitance Measurements Halit Eren and James Goh

46

Permittivity Measurement Devendra K. Misra

47

Electric Field Strength David A. Hill and Motohisa Kanda

48

Magnetic Field Measurement Steven A. Macintyre

49

Permeability and Hysteresis Measurement Jeff P. Anderson and Richard J. Blotzer

50

Inductance Measurement Michal Szyper

51

Immittance Measurement Achim Dreher

52

Q Factor Measurement

53

Distortion Measurement Michael F. Toner and Gordon W. Roberts

54

Noise Measurement W. Marshall Leach, Jr.

55

Microwave Measurement A. Dehé, K. Beilenhoff, K. Fricke, H. Klingbeil, V. Krozer, H. L. Hartnagel

VIII

56

Albert D. Helfrick

Optical Variables Measurement Photometry and Radiometry

56.1 Photoconductive Sensors Fritz Schuermeyer and Thad Pickenpaugh 56.2 Photojunction Sensors Michael R. Squillante and Kanai S. Shah 56.3 Charge-Coupled Devices J.A. Nousek, M.W. Bautz, B.E. Burke, J.A. Gregory, R.E. Griffiths, R.L. Kraft, H.L. Kwok, D.H. Lumb

57

Densitometry Measurement Joseph H. Altman

58

Colorimetry Robert T. Marcus

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

59

Optical Loss Halit Eren

60

Polarization Measurement Soe-Mie F. Nee

61

Refractive Index Measurement G. H. Meeten

62

Turbidity Measurement Daniel Harrison and Michael Fisch

63

Laser Output Measurement Haiyin Sun

64

Vision and Image Sensors Stanley S. Ipson and Chima Okereke

IX

Radiation Measurement

65

Radioactivity Measurement Bert M. Coursey

66

Radioactivity Measurement Larry A. Franks, Ralph B. James, and Larry S. Darken

67

Charged Particle Measurement John C. Armitage, Madhu S. Dixit, Jacques Dubeau, Hans Mes, and F. Gerald Oakham

68

Neutron Measurement Steven M. Grimes

69

Dosimetry Measurement Brian L. Justus, Mark A. Miller, and Alan L. Huston

X

Chemical Variables Measurement

70

Composition Measurement 70.1 Electrochemical Composition Measurement Michael J. Schöning, Olaf Glück, and Marion Thust 70.2 Thermal Composition Measurement Mushtaq Ali, Behrooz Pahlavanpour, and Maria Eklund 70.3 Kinetic Methods E.E. Uzgiris and J.Y. Gui 70.4 Chromatography Composition Measurement Behrooz Pahlavanpour, Mushtaq Ali, and C.K. Laird

71

pH Measurement Norman F. Sheppard, Jr. and Anthony Guiseppi–Elie

72

Humidity and Moisture Measurement Gert J.W. Vischer

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

73

Environmental Measurement 73.1 73.2 73.3 73.4

XI

Meteorological Measurement John D. Garrison and Stephen B. W. Roeder Air Pollution Measurement Michael Bennett Water Quality Measurement Kathleen M. Leonard Satellite Imaging and Sensing Jacqueline Le Moigne and Robert F. Cromp

Biomedical Variables Measurement

74

Biopotentials and Electrophysiology Measurement Nitish V. Thakor

75

Blood Pressure Measurement Shyam Rithalia, Mark Sun, and Roger Jones

76

Blood Flow Measurements Per Ask and P. Åke Öberg

77

Ventilation Measurement L. Basano and P. Ottonello

78

Blood Chemistry Measurement Terry L. Rusch and Ravi Sankar

79

Medical Imaging James T. Dobbins III, Sean M. Hames, Bruce H. Hasegawa, Timothy R. DeGrado, James A. Zagzebski, and Richard Frayne

XII

Signal Processing

80

Amplifiers and Signal Conditioners Ramón Pallás-Areny

81

Modulation David M. Beams

82

Filters Rahman Jamal and Robert Steer

83

Spectrum Analysis and Correlation 83.1 FFT Spectrum Analysis and Correlation Ronney B. Panerai 83.2 RF/Microwave Spectrum Analysis A. Ambrosini, C. Bortolotti, N. D’Amico, G. Grueff, S. Mariotti, S. Montebugnoli, A. Orfei, and G. Tomassetti

84

Applied Intelligence Processing Peter H. Sydenham and Rodney Pratt

85

Analog-to-Digital Converters E. B. Loewenstein

86

Computers A. M. MacLeod, P.F. Martin, and W.A. Gillespie

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

87

Telemetry Albert Lozano-Nieto

88

Sensor Networks and Communication Robert M. Crovella

89

Electromagnetic Compatibility 89.1 Grounding and Shielding in Industrial Electronic Systems Daryl Gerke, and William Kimmel 89.2 EMI and EMC Test Methods Jeffrey P. Mills

XIII Displays

90

Human Factors in Displays

Steven A. Murray, Barrett S. Caldwell

91

Cathode Ray Tube Displays

Christopher J. Sherman

92

Liquid Crystal Displays

93

Plasma-Driven Flat Panel Displays Robert T. McGrath, Ramanapathy Veerasingam, William C. Moffatt, and Robert B. Campbell

94

Electroluminescent Displays

95

Light-Emitting Diode Displays

96

Kalluri R. Sarma

William A. Barrow Mohammad A. Karim

Reading/Recording Devices 96.1 Graphic Recorders Herman Vermariën 96.2 Data Acquisition Systems Edward McConnell 96.3 Magnetic and Optical Recorders Yufeng Li

XIV

Control

97

PID Control

98

Optimal Control

99

Electropneumatic and Electrohydraulic Instruments: Modeling of Electrohydraulic and Electrohydrostatic Actuators M. Pachter and C. H. Houpis

100

F. Greg Shinskey Halit Eren

Explosion-Proof Instruments

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Sam S. Khalilieh

101

Measurement and Identification of Brush, Brushless, and dc Stepping Motors Stuart Schweid, Robert Lofthus, John McInroy

Appendix

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

Units and Conversions

B. W. Petley

. "Measurement Characteristics." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Measurement Characteristics 1 Characteristics of Instrumentation R. John Hansman, Jr. Simple Instrument Model

2 Operational Modes of Instrumentation

Richard S. Figliola

Null Instrument • Deflection Instrument • Analog and Digital Sensors • Analog and Digital Readout Instruments • Input Impedance

3 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Instrumentation Peter H. Sydenham Static Characteristics of Instrument Systems • Dynamic Characteristics of Instrument Systems • Calibration of Measurements

4 Measurement Accuracy Ronald H. Dieck Error: The Normal Distribution and the Uniform Distribution • Measurement Uncertainty Model • Calculation of Total Uncertainty • Summary

5 Measurement Standards DeWayne B. Sharp A Historical Perspective • What Are Standards? • A Conceptual Basis of Measurements • The Need for Standards • Types of Standards • Numbers, Dimensions, and Units • Multiplication Factors

. "Spatial Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Spatial Variables Measurement 6 Displacement Measurement, Linear and Angular Keith Antonelli, James Ko, Shyan Ku, Halit Eren, Wei Ling Kong, Ahmad Safari, Victor F. Janas, Amit Bandyopadhyay, Andrei Kholkine, Bernhard Gunther Zagar, Viktor P. Astakhov, Teklic Ole Pedersen, Nils Karlsson, J.R. Rene Mayer, David S. Nyce, Robert M. Hyatt, Jr., David Dayton, Richard O. Claus, Vikram Bhatia, Anbo Wang, Grover C. Wetsel Resistive Displacement Sensors • Inductive Displacement Sensors • Capacitive Sensors— Displacement • Piezoelectric Transducers and Sensors • Laser Interferometer Displacement Sensors • Bore Gaging Displacement Sensors • Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors • Optical Encoder Displacement Sensors • Magnetic Displacement Sensors • Synchro/Resolver Displacement Sensors • Optical Fiber Displacement Sensors • Optical Beam Deflection Sensing

7 Thickness Measurement John C. Brasunas, G. Mark Cushman, Brook Lakew Descriptions of the Relatively Mature Measuring Techniques • Future Directions in Thickness Measurement

8 Proximity Sensing for Robotics R.E. Saad, A. Bonen, K.C. Smith, B. Benhabib Proximity Defintion • Typical Sensor Characteristics • Technologies for Proximity Sensing

9 Distance W. John Ballantyne Basic Distinctions Between Range Measurement Techniques • Performance Limits of Ranging Systems • Selected Examples of Ranging, Range Imaging, and Motion Tracking Systems

10 Position, Location, Altitude Measurement Dimitris E. Manolakis, Seiji Nishifuji, Shogo Tanaka, Halit Eren, C.C. Fung, Jacob Fraden Altitude Measurement • Attitude Measurement • Inertial Navigation • Satellite Navigation and Radiolocation • Occupancy Detection

11 Level Measurement Detlef Brumbi Measurements Using the Effects of Density • Time-of-Flight Measurements • Level Measurements by Detecting Physical Properties • Instruments

12 Area Measurement Charles B. Coulbourn, Wolfgang P. Buerner Theory • Equipment and Experiment • Evaluation

13 Volume Measurement René G. Aarnink, Hessel Wijkstra Plethysmography Theory • Numberical Integration with Imaging • Indicator Dilution Methods • Water Displacement Volumetry • Equipment and Experiments • Evaluation

14 Angle Measurement Robert J. Sandberg Angle Gage Blocks • Clinometers • Optical Comparator • Protractor • Sine Bar • Sine Plate • Taper

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

15 Tilt Measurement Adam Chrzanowski, James M. Secord Tiltmeters or Inclinometers • Geodetic Leveling • Hydrostatic Leveling • Suspended and Inverted Plumb Lines • Integration of Observations

16 Velocity Measurement Charles P. Pinney, William E. Baker Introduction • Measurement of Linear Velocity • Veloicty: Angular • Conclusion

17 Acceleration, Vibration, and Shock Measurement Halit Eren Accelerometer Dynamics: Frequency Response, Damping, Damping Ratio, and Linearity • Electromechanical Force-Balance (Servo) Accelerometers • Piezoelectric Accelerometers • Piezoresistive Accelerometers • Differential-Capacitance Accelerometers • Strain-Gage Accelerometers • Seismic Accelerometers • Inertial Types, Cantilever, and Suspended-Mass Configuration • Electrostatic Force Feedback Accelerometers • Microaccelerometers • Cross-Axis Sensitivity • Selection, Full-Scale Range, and Overload Capability • Signal Conditioning

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Time and Frequency Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Time and Frequency Measurement 18 Time Measurement Michael A. Lombardi The Evolution of Clocks and Timekeeping • Atomic Oscillators • Time Scales and the SI Definition of the Second • Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) • Introduction to Time Transfer • Radio Time Transfer Signals • Computer Time Transfer Signals • Future Developments

19 Frequency Measurement Michael A. Lombardi Overview of Frequency Measurements and Calibration • The Specifications: Frequency Uncertainty and Stability • Frequency Standards • Transfer Standards • Calibration Methods • Future Developments

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Mechanical Variables Measurement--Solid." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Mechanical Variables Measurement — Solid 20 Mass and Weight Measurement Mark Fritz, Emil Hazarian Weighing Instruments • Weighing Techniques

21 Density Measurement Halit Eren Solid Density • Fluid Density

22 Strain Measurement Christopher S. Lynch . Fundamental Defintions of Strain • Principles of Operation of Strain Sensors

23 Force Measurement M. A. Elbestawi General Considerations • Hooke’s Law • Force Sensors

24 Torque and Power Measurement Ivan J. Garshelis Fundamental Concepts • Arrangements of Apparatus for Torque and Power Measurement • Torque Transducer Technologies • Torque Transducer Construction, Operation, and Application • Apparatus for Power Measurement

25 Tactile Sensing R. E. Saad Sensing Classification • Mechanical Effects of Contact • Technologies for Tactile Sensing

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Mechanical Variables Measurement--Fluid." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Mechanical Variables Measurement — Fluid 26 Pressure and Sound Measurement Kevin H.-L. Chau, Ron Goehner, Emil Drubetsky, Howard M. Brady, William H. Bayles, Jr., Peder C. Pedersen Pressure Measurement • Vacuum Measurement • Ultrasound Measurement

27 Acoustic Measurement Per Rasmussen The Wave Equation • Plane Sound Waves • Spherical Waves • Acoustic Measurements • Sound Pressure Level Measurements • Frequency Analyzers • Pressure-Based Measurements • Sound Intensity Measurements • Near-Field Acoustic Holography Measurements • Calibration

28 Flow Measurement Richard Thorn, Adrian Melling, Herbert Köchner, Reinhard Haak, Zaki D. Husain, Donald J. Wass, David Wadlow, Harold M. Miller, Halit Eren, Hans-Peter Vaterlaus, Thomas Hossle, Paolo Giordano, Christophe Bruttin, Wade M. Mattar, James H. Vignos, Nam-Trung Nguyen, Jesse Yoder, Rekha Philip-Chandy, Roger Morgan, Patricia J. Scully Differential Pressure Flowmeters • Variable Area Flowmeters • Positive Displacement Flowmeters • Turbine and Vane Flowmeters • Impeller Flowmeters • Electromagnetic Flowmeters • Ultrasonic Flowmeters • Vortex Shedding Flowmeters • Thermal Mass Flow Sensors • Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters • Drag Force Flowmeters

29 Point Velocity Measurement John A. Kleppe, John G. Olin, Rajan K. Menon Pitot Probe Anemometry • Thermal Anemometry • Laser Anemometry

30 Viscosity Measurement G. E. Leblanc, R. A. Secco, M. Kostic Shear Viscosity

31 Surface Tension Measurement David B. Thiessen, Kin F. Man Mechanics of Fluid Surfaces • Standard Methods and Instrumentation • Specialized Methods

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Mechanical Variables Measurement--Thermal." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Mechanical Variables Measurement — Thermal 32 Temperature Measurement Robert J. Stephenson, Armelle M. Moulin, Mark E. Welland, Jim Burns, Meyer Sapoff, R. P. Reed, Randy Frank, Jacob Fraden, J.V. Nicholas, Franco Pavese, Jan Stasiek, Tolestyn Madaj, Jaroslaw Mikielewicz, Brian Culshaw Bimaterials Thermometers • Resistive Thermometers • Thermistor Thermometers • Thermocouple Thermometers • Semiconductor Junction Thermometers • Infrared Thermometers • Pyroelectric Thermometers • Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers • Manometric Thermometers • Temperature Indicators • Fiber-Optic Thermometers

33 Thermal Conductivity Measurement William A. Wakeham, Marc J. Assael Fundamental Equations • Measurement Techniques • Instrumentation • Appraisal

34 Heat Flux Thomas E. Diller Heat Transfer Fundamentals • Heat Flux Measurement • Sensors Based on Spatial Temperature Gradient • Sensors Based on Temperature Change with Time • Measurements Based on Surface Heating • Calibration and Problems to Avoid • Summary

35 Thermal Imaging Herbert M. Runciman Essential Components • Thermal Imaging Wavebands • Emission from Source • Atmospheric Transmission • Detectors • Electronics • Optics and Scanning • Temperature References • Imager Performance • Available Imagers • Performance Trade-offs • Future Trends in Thermal Imaging

36 Calorimetry Measurement Sander van Herwaarden Heat and Other Thermal Signals • Calorimeters Differ in How They Relate to Their Surroundings • Adiabatic Calorimeters Often Measure Time-Dependent Temperature Differences • Typical Applications of Calorimeters • Thermal Analysis of Materials and Their Behavior with Temperature • Choosing the Proper Calorimeter for an Application • Can the Instrument of Choice Measure the Signals Desired? • Commercially Available Calorimeters • Advanced Topic: Modulated or Dynamic DSC Operation

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Electromagnetic Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Electromagnetic Variables Measurement 37 Voltage Measurement Alessandro Ferrero, Jerry Murphy, Cipriano Bartoletti, Luca Podestà, Giancarlo Sacerdoti Meter Voltage Measurement • Oscilloscope Voltage Measurement • Inductive Capacitive Voltage Measurement

38 Current Measurement Douglas P. McNutt Definition of the Ampere • Magnetics • Shunts • The Moving Magnet Meter • The D’Arsonval Meter • The Electrodynamometer • The RF Ammeter and True rms • The Current Transformer • Gapped Inductive Sensors • Hall Effect Sensor • Clamp-on Sensors • Magnetoresistive Sensors • The Magnetic Amplifier • Fluxgates • Optical Sensors • Fault Indicators • Other Schemes • Some Generalities and Warnings • Current Actuated Switches and Indicators • Where to Get Current Sensors

39 Power Measurement Pasquale Arpaia, Francesco Avallone, Aldo Baccigalupi, Claudio De Capua, Carmine Landi Power Measurements in dc Circuits • Power Measurements in ac Circuits • Pulse Power Measurements

40 Power Factor Measurement Michael Z. Lowenstein Reasons for Interest in Power Factor • Ac Electric Loads • Ac Power Relationships • Power Factor “Measurement” • Instrumentation

41 Phase Measurement Peter O’Shea Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase of a Sinusoidal Signal • The Phase of a Periodic Nonsinusoidal Signal • Phase Measurement Techniques • Phase-Sensitive Demodulation • Power Factor • Instrumentation and Components

42 Energy Measurement Arnaldo Brandolini, Alessandro Gandelli Dc Energy Measurement • Ac Induction Energy Meters • Static Energy Meters • Accuracy of Energy Meters

43 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity Michael B. Heaney Basic Concepts • Simple Model and Theory • Experimental Techniques for Measuring Resistivity

44 Charge Measurement Saps Buchman, John Mester, T. J. Sumner Electrostatic Voltmeters • Charge Amplifiers • Applications

45 Capacitance and Capacitance Measurements Halit Eren, James Goh Types of Capacitors • Characteristics of Capacitors

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

46 Permittivity Measurement Devendra K. Misra Measurement of Complex Permittivity at Low Frequencies • Measurement of Complex Permittivity Using Distributed Circuits

47 Electric Field Strength David A. Hill, Motohisa Kanda Electrostatic Fields • ELF and ULF Electric Fields • Radio-Frequency and Microwave Techniques • Three-Loop Antenna System • Broadband Dipole Antennas

48 Magnetic Field Measurement Steven A. Macintyre Magnetic Field Fundamentals • Low-Field Vector Magnetometers • High-Field Vector Gaussmeters • Scalar Magnetometers

49 Permeability and Hysteresis Measurement Jeff P. Anderson, Richard J. Blotzer Definition of Permeability • Types of Material Magnetization • Definition of Hysteresis • Core Loss • Measurement Methods • Validity of Measurements

50 Inductance Measurement Michal Szyper Definitions of Inductance • Equivalent Circuits and Inductive Element Models • Measurement Methods • Instrumentation

51 Immittance Measurement Achim Dreher Definitions • Ideal Lumped Components • Distributed Elements • Interconnections and Graphical Representations • Measurement Techniques • Instrumentation and Manufacturers

52 Q Factor Measurement Albert D. Helfrick Basic Calculation of Q • Bandwidth and Q • The Q-Meter • Other Q Measuring Techniques • Measuring Parameters Other than Q

53 Distortion Measurement Michael F. Toner, Gordon W. Roberts Mathematical Background • Intercept Points (IP) • Measurement of the THD • Conclusions

54 Noise Measurement W. Marshall Leach, Jr. Thermal Noise • Spectral Density • Fluctuation Dissipation Theorem • Equivalent Noise Resistance and Conductance • Shot Noise • Flicker Noise • Excess Noise • Burst Noise • Partition Noise • Generation–Recombination Noise • Noise Bandwidth • Noise Bandwidth Measurement • Spot Noise • Addition of Noise Voltages • Correlation Impedance and Admittance • The vn-in Amplifier Noise Model • Measuring v ni2 , v n2 , and in2 • Noise Temperature • Noise Reduction with a Transformer • The Signal-to-Noise Ratio • Noise Factor and Noise Figure • Noise Factor Measurement • The Junction Diode Noise Model • The BJT Noise Model • The FET Noise Model • Operation Amplifier Noise Models • Photodiode Detector Noise Model • Piezoelectric Transducer Noise Model • Parametric Amplifiers • Measuring Noise

55 Microwave Measurement A. Dehé, K. Beilenhoff, K. Fricke, H. Klingbeil, V. Krozer, H. L. Hartnagel Power Measurement • Frequency Measurement • Spectrum Analysis • Cavity Modes and Cavity Q • Scattering Parameter Measurements

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Optical Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Optical Variables Measurement 56 Photometry and Radiometry Fritz Schuermeyer, Thad Pickenpaugh, Michael R. Squillante, Kanai S. Shah, J.A. Nousek, M.W. Bautz, B.E. Burke, J.A. Gregory, R.E. Griffiths, R.L. Kraft, H.L. Kwok, D.H. Lumb Photoconductive Sensors • Photojunction Sensors • Charge-Coupled Devices

57 Densitometry Measurement Joseph H. Altman Introduction • Monochrome Transmission Density • Monochrome Reflection Density • Color Transmission Densitometry • Color Reflection Densitometry • Densitometry of Halftone Patterns • Summary

58 Colorimetry Robert T. Marcus Introduction • Standardized Light Sources • The CIE Standard Observers • Calculating Tristimulus Values • Reflectance Measurements • Transmittance Measurement • Color Difference Calculations • Special Cases • Instrument Manufacturers

59 Optical Loss Halit Eren Basic Concepts • Optical Loss Mechanisms in Optical Fibers • Optical Time Domain Reflectometry Method • Standard Field Fiber Optic Attenuation Test • Out-of-Plane Scattering and Polarization Methods

60 Polarization Measurement Soe-Mie F. Nee Basic Concepts of Polarization • Polarization of an Electromagnetic Wave • Polarization of Light • Principles of Polarimetry • Polarization Instrumentation and Experiments

61 Refractive Index Measurement G. H. Meeteen Introduction • Physical Principles • Techniques • Review of Refractometers

62 Turbidity Measurement Daniel Harrison, Michael Fisch Introduction • Extinction and Turbidity: Particles in a Nonabsorbing Medium • Turbidity Due to Density Fluctuations in Pure Fluids • Deisgn of Laboratory Instruments • Limitations

63 Laser Output Measurement Haiyin Sun Introduction • Measurement of Laser Power • Measurement of Laser Spectrum • Measurement of Laser Wavelength • Instrumentation and Components

64 Vision and Image Sensors Stanley S. Ipson, Chima Okereke Image Formation • Image Sensing • Image Intensifiers • Fiber-Optic Scopes • Components and Trends

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Radiation Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Radiation Measurement 65 Radioactivity Measurement Bert M. Coursey Radioactivity

66 Radioactivity Measurement Larry A. Franks, Ralph B. James, Larry S. Darken Gaseous Detectors • Germanium Detectors • Silicon Detectors • Room-Temperature Semiconductors • Prices and Availability

67 Charged Particle Measurement John C. Armitage, Madhu S. Dixit, Jacques Dubeau, Hans Mes, F. Gerald Oakham Introduction • Nuclear Emulsions • Gas-Filled Charged Particle Counters • Scintillation Counters • Solid-State Detectors

68 Neutron Measurement Steven M. Grimes Detector Types • Efficiency Calculations • Summary

69 Dosimetry Measurement Brian L. Justus, Mark A. Miller, Alan L. Huston Radiation Dosimetry Quantities and Units • Thermoluminescence Dosimetry • Ionization Chamber Dosimeters • Film Dosimetry • Track-Etch Dosimetry • Bubble Dosimetry • Electronic Personal Dosimeters

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Chemical Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Chemical Variables Measurement 70 Composition Measurement Michael J. Schöning, Olaf Glück, Marion Thust, Mushtaq Ali, Behrooz Pahlavanpour, Maria Eklund, E.E. Uzgiris, J.Y. Gui, Behrooz Pahlavanpour, Mushtaq Ali, C.K. Laird Electrochemical Composition Measurement • Thermal Composition Measurement • Kinetic Methods • Chromatography Composition Measurement

71 pH Measurement Norman F. Sheppard, Jr., Anthony Guiseppi–Elie Definition of pH • Electrochemical Methods of pH Measurement • Optical Methods of pH Measurement

72 Humidity and Moisture Measurement Gert J.W. Vischer Gases • Liquids and Solids • Formulae • Calibration • Developments

73 Environmental Measurement John D. Garrison, Stephen B. W. Roeder, Michael Bennett, Kathleen M. Leonard, Jacqueline Le Moigne, Robert F. Cromp Meteorological Measurement • Air Pollution Measurement • Water Quality Measurement • Satellite Imaging and Sensing

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Biomedical Variables Measurement." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Biomedical Variables Measurement 74 Biopotentials and Electrophysiology Measurement Nitish V. Thak or Introduction • The Origins of Biopotentials • Biopotentials • The Principles of Biopotential Measurements • Electrodes for Biopotential Recordings • The Biopotential Amplifier • Circuit Enhancements • Measurement Practices • Conclusions

75 Blood Pressure Measurement Shyam Rithalia, Mark Sun, Ro ger Jones Introduction • Measurement Techniques • Indirect Blood Pressure Measurement • Direct Blood Pressure Measurement • Reproducibility, Accuracy, and Reliability Issues and Recommendations for Corrective Measures • Blood Pressure Impact, Challenge, and Future

76 Blood Flow Measurements Per Ask, P. Åk e Öberg Doppler Measurements • Indicator Dilution Methods • Plethysmography • Radioisotopes • Thermal Convection Probes

77 Ventilation Measurement L. Basano Ventilation • Instrumentation: Principles and Description • Future Perspectives

78 Blood Chemistry Measurement Terry L. Rusch, Ravi Sankar Introduction • Background • Measurements and Techniques • Combined Analysis Techniques

79 Medical Imaging James T. Dobbins III, Sean M. Hames, Br uce H. Has e gawa, Timothy R. DeGrado, James A. Zagzebski, Richard Frayne Introduction • Image Information Content • X-Ray Imaging • Computed Tomography • Nuclear Medicine • Positron Emission Tomography • Ultrasound Imaging • Magnetic Resonance Imaging

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Signal Processing." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Signal Processing 80 Amplifiers and Signal Conditioners Ramón Pallás-Areny Introduction • Dynamic Range • Signal Classification • General Amplifier Parameters • Instrumentation Amplifiers • Single-Ended Signal Conditioners • Carrier Amplifiers • Lock-In Amplifiers • Isolation Amplifiers • Nonlinear Signal-Processing Techniques • Analog Linearization • Special-Purpose Signal Conditioners

81 Modulation David M. Beams Introduction • Generalized Modulation • Amplitude Modulation • Angle (Frequency and Phase) Modulation • Instrumentation and Components

82 Filters Rahman Jamal, Robert Steer Introduction • Filter Classification • The Filter Approximation Problem • Design Examples for Passive and Active Filters • Discrete-Time Filters • Digital Filter Design Process • FIR Filter Design • IIR Filter Design • Wave Digital Filters • Antialiasing and Smoothing Filters • Switched Capacitor Filters • Adaptive Filters

83 Spectrum Analysis and Correlation Ronney B. Panerai, A. Ambrosini, C. Bortolotti, N. D’Amico, G. Grueff, S. Mariotti, S. Montebugnoli, A. Orfei, G. Tomassetti FFT Spectrum Analysis and Correlation • RF/Microwave Spectrum Analysis

84 Applied Intelligence Processing Peter H. Sydenham, Rodney Pratt Introduction • Overview of Algorithmic Methods • Overview of Applied Intelligence Methods • Mapping, in General • Basics of Decision Theory • Principal AI Methods • Problems in Calibration of AI Processing Methods

85 Analog-to-Digital Converters E. B. Loewenstein Introduction • Sampling • Quantization • ADC Specifications • Types of ADCs • Instrumentation and Components

86 Computers A. M. MacLeod, P.F. Martin, W.A. Gillespie Introduction • Computer-Based Instrumentation Systems • Computer Buses • Personal Computer Buses • Peripherals • Software for Instrumentation Systems

87 Telemetry Albert Lozano-Nieto Introduction • Base-Band Telemetry • Multiple-Channel Telemetry

88 Sensor Networks and Communication Robert M. Crovella Introduction • Communication and Networking Concepts • Network Technologies • Applying Network Communications • Advanced Topics

89 Electromagnetic Compatibility Daryl Gerke, William Kimmel, Jeffrey P. Mills Grounding and Shielding in Industrial Electronic Systems • EMI and EMC Test Methods

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Displays." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Displays 90 Human Factors in Displays Steven A. Murray, Barrett S. Caldwell Introduction • Fundamentals of Light Measurement • Fundamentals of Vision • Visual Performance • Display Performance Considerations • Display Content Considerations • Cathode Ray Tube Displays • Liquid Crystal Displays • Plasma Displays • Electroluminescent Displays • Light-Emitting Diode Displays

91 Cathode Ray Tube Displays Christopher J. Sherman Introduction • History • Image Formation with a CRT • CRT Addressing: Raster Scanning vs. Stroke • The Phosphor Screen • Color CRTs Using Shadow Masks • Alternative Techniques for Realizing Color Using CRTs • Image Quality and Performance • CRT and Phosphor Lifetime • CRT Strengths and Weaknesses • CRT Selection • Future Trends in CRT Technology

92 Liquid Crystal Displays Kalluri R. Sarma Introduction • Types of Liquid Crystal Materials • Physical Properties of Liquid Crystals • LCD Materials and Fabrication Processes • Liquid Crystal Display Modes • Display Addressing

93 Plasma-Driven Flat Panel Displays Robert T. McGrath, Ramanapathy Veerasingam, Wllliain C. Moffatt, Robert B. Campbell An Introduction to Plasma-Driven Flat Panel Displays • Fundamentals of Plasma Pixel Operation • Pixel Electrical Properties • Display Priming, Addressing, Refresh, and Gray Scale • Color Plasma Flat Panel Displays • Inspection and Metrology

94 Electroluminescent Displays William A. Barrow Introduction • Device Structure and Operation • Device Fabrication • Device Operation • Standard Measurements • Time-Resolved Measurements • Test Dot Characterization • Characterization of Matrix-Addressed Displays • Excitation and Measurement Equipment • Measurement Instruments 95 Light-Emitting Diode Displays Mohammad A. Karim 96 Reading/Recording Devices Herman Vermariën, Edward McConnell, Yufeng Li Graphic Recorders • Data Acquisition Systems • Magnetic and Optical Recorders

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC

. "Control." Copyright 2000 CRC Press LLC. .

Control 97 PID Control F. Greg Shinskey Introduction • Open and Closed Loops • Mode Selection • Controller Hardware • Tuning Controllers

98 Optimal Control Halit Eren Introduction • Cost Function • Calculus of Variations • Riccati Equation • State Feedback Matrix

99 Electropneumatic and Electrohydraulic Instruments: Modeling of Electrohydraulic and Electrohydrostatic Actuators M. Pachter and C. H. Houpis Introduction • Background • Hydraulic Actuator Modeling • EHA Actuator Modeling • Actuator Compensator Design • Conclusion

100 Explosion-Proof Instruments Sam S. Khalilieh Introduction • Fundamentals of Explosion Protection • Classification of Hazardous Areas • Enclosure Types and Requirements • Protection Methodologies

101 Measurement and Identification of Brush, Brushless, and dc Stepping Motors Stuart Schweid, Robert Lofthus, John McInroy Introduction • Hybrid Stepping Motors • dc Brush and Brushless Motors

© 1999 by CRC Press LLC