International Law. Учебно-методическое пособие

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ ЯДЕРНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ «МИФИ» ИНСТИТУТ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ (ИМО НИЯУ МИФИ)

Е.А. Цывкунова

INTERNATIONAL LAW Учебно-методическое пособие

Москва 2010

УДК 802.0(07) ББК 81.2Англ я 7 Ц 93 Цывкунова Е.А. International Law. Учебно-методическое пособие. М.: НИЯУ МИФИ, 2010. — 168 с. Настоящее учебно-методическое пособие по международному праву International Law предназначено для студентов 4 курса Института международных отношений НИЯУ МИФИ (специальность 030701 «Международные отношения», специализация «Международное научно-технологическое сотрудничество»). В пособие включены аутентичные профессиональноориентированные материалы по международному праву (статьи, интервью, выступления, тексты конвенций, договоров и т.д.), а также современные по содержанию аудио- и видеоматериалы, которые позволяют овладеть правовой лексикой и развить столь необходимые для специалиста-международника умения и навыки анализа информации и ведения дебатов. Пособие будет полезно студентам, изучающим английский язык в области международных отношений и международного права, а также всем тем, кто хочет повысить свой уровень владения современным английским языком. Рекомендовано редсоветом НИЯУ МИФИ к изданию в качестве учебно-методического пособия. Рецензенты: Т.А. Баловнева, доцент, кандидат филологических наук, преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков Московской государственной академии водного транспорта (МГАВТ); Е.М. Морозов, заведующий кафедрой № 55 «Международные отношения» Института международных отношений Национального исследовательского ядерного университета «МИФИ». ISBN 978-5-7262-1281-4

© Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ», 2010.

Contents

Предисловие .......................................................................................... 4  Unit I. Section 1 The Application of International Law ........................ 8  Unit I. Section 2 Historical Overview of the Development of International Law .................................................................................. 12  Unit I. Section 3 The International Law of Treaties ............................. 17  Unit I. Section 4 The 1986 Reykjavik Summit ................................... 27  Unit II. Section 1 International Organizations ...................................... 37  Unit II. Section 2 The United Nations: Purposes and Principles .......... 44  Unit II. Section 3 The Structure of the United Nations......................... 53  Unit II. Section 4 The International Court of Justice ............................ 71 Unit II. Section 5 The Future of the United Nations..............................79 Unit III. Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.. 87  Unit IV. Section 1 State boundaries. State Coastal Zones. ................... 98  Unit IV. Section 2 Statehood and Recognition .................................. 104  Unit IV. Section 3 International Responsibility.................................. 113  Unit V. Section 1 Diplomatic Relations. Diplomatic Corps ............... 122  Unit V. Section 2 Diplomatic Documents........................................... 128  Unit V. Section 3 The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations . 137  Unit V. Section 4 Privileges and Immunities enjoyed by Diplomatic Agents ................................................................................................. 147  Unit V. Section 5 Consular Relations ................................................ 154  List of References ............................................................................... 166

3

Предисловие Настоящее учебно-методическое пособие соответствует учебному курсу «Правовая лексика» на английском языке. Данный курс рассчитан на два семестра. Пособие состоит из пяти блоков, изучение которых может проходить как последовательно, так и в произвольном порядке. Unit 1 — Понятие международного права. Право международных договоров. Unit 2 — Международные организации: история и роль в современном мире. Организация Объединенных Наций. Способы разрешения споров. Unit 3 — Международное право и права человека. Всеобщая декларация прав человека. Unit 4 — Государство как субъект международного права. Государственные границы. Права и обязанности государств. Unit 5 — Дипломатическое право. Дипломатический корпус. Венская конвенция о дипломатических сношениях. Консульское право. Венская конвенция о консульских сношениях. Необходимо отметить, что данное учебно-методическое пособие имеет ряд особенностей. Во-первых, в него включены профессиональноориентированные материалы из аутентичных учебников по международному праву (статьи, интервью, выступления, тексты конвенций, договоров). Кроме того, при составлении пособия были использованы неадаптированные статьи из известных британских и американских периодических изданий за последние три года (“The Economist”, “The Time”, “The Scientific American”, “The Moscow Time”, etc.), а также аутентичные статьи из интернет-ресурсов (www.bbc.co.uk.com; www.cnn.com; www.russiatoday.com; www.economist.com; www.mondediplo.com; www.euronews.net; etc.). Во-вторых, каждый блок пособия предназначен для отработки навыков чтения, прослушивания и говорения. В каждом разделе имеется ряд упражнений, рассчитанный на освоение и закрепление нового лексического материала (Focus on Words; Focus on the Vocabulary; Focus on Definitions), вопросы для обсуждения, таблицы

4

для заполнения, а также серия упражнений на перевод с русского языка на английский. Работа с текстами построена таким образом, что перед прочтением студенты актуализируют имеющиеся у них по данной тематике знания (Brush up your knowledge). В-третьих, в пособие включены аудио- и видеоматериалы, профессионально ориентированные и посвященные актуальным темам. В-четвертых, в конце каждого блока имеется список лексического материала на русском языке (Revision of the Vocabulary Items), дополнительные упражнения на повторение, представляющие собой перевод с русского на английский, а также список тем (topics) для обсуждения. В-пятых, проверка лексического материала каждого блока проводится в два этапа: 1) в устной форме и 2) в письменной форме. Проверка лексического материала в письменной форме проходит в мультимедийном обучающем классе с использованием программы Net Class Pro. Каждый тест рассчитан на 20 минут. В случае неудачной сдачи теста студенты имеют право на несколько попыток. Хотелось бы также отметить, что каждое занятие по курсу «Правовая лексика» целесообразно начинать со сводки новостей (Round-up of International News). Это пятиминутное сообщение студента, которое оценивается по следующим критериям: 1. Content: news relating to international law matters (using different sources) 2. Language: grammar, logical structure, pronunciation 3. Analysis: presentation of the news providing your own comments 4. Presentation: presenting in an easy smooth manner (fluency) using only some key words on a piece of paper (reading the news is prohibited!), eye contact with the audience

1 point 3 points 3 points 3 points

9 - 10 points – отлично; 7 - 8 points – хорошо; 6 points – удовлетворительно. В качестве особых методических указаний по работе в рамках курса «Правовая лексика» хотелось бы остановиться на следующих моментах.

5

В начале работы над темой того или иного блока студентам рекомендуется прежде всего просмотреть уже изученный на втором курсе материал (курс лекций «Международное право»), так как многие темы, рассматриваемые в рамках курса на английском языке, уже обсуждались студентами на семинарских занятиях на русском языке. Далее следует подбирать тематический вокабуляр (как на английском, так и на русском языке) по изучаемой проблематике, который в конце работы над темой студентам предстоит систематизировать на основе самостоятельно разработанных принципов и представить в качестве контрольного задания по окончании изучения темы. Программа курса «Правовая лексика» предусматривает проведение уроков-презентаций. Студентам необходимо учитывать следующие моменты во время подготовки презентации: • правильность грамматического оформления слайда: 1) отсутствие предложений; 2) отсутствие вспомогательных глаголов в пунктах слайда; 3) отсутствие артиклей, отсутствие двоеточия в заголовке; • структура слайда: 1) наличие заголовка; 2) соответствие пунктов слайда заголовку; 3) соответствие картинок пунктам слайда; • анимация: 1) единство стиля анимации текста и картинок; 2) анимация каждого пункта в отдельности; 3) показ пункта и представление комментария к нему, далее показ следующего пункта и т.д.; • структура презентации: 1) наличие слайда заголовка; 2) наличие плана презентации; 3) наличие заголовков слайдов, соответствующих пунктам плана презентации; 4) наличие слайдазаключения; 5) наличие списка использованных источников; • наличие глоссария, оформленного отдельным word-файлом, вложенным в папку презентации; • правильность оформления глоссария (дается пример с типичным контекстом для данного словосочетания). Выступающему студенту рекомендуется иметь перед собой распечатку собственных слайдов, чтобы вовремя показывать нужный пункт соответствующего слайда. Читать текст презентации запрещается!

6

Хотелось бы также отметить, что в предлагаемом пособии имеется рубрика «Famous Quotations». Это цитаты, высказывания знаменитых политических деятелей, дипломатов, специалистов в области международного права на затрагиваемые в учебном пособии проблемы. Особого внимания заслуживают рубрики «Famous people» (краткая информация о том или ином политическом деятеле, который способствовал развитию современного международного права), а также «It’s interesting to know», «International Relations: News» и «International Relations: Speeches» (аутентичные статьи, выступления политических деятелей, интересная информация на затрагиваемые международные проблемы). Данные рубрики рассчитаны на самостоятельное ознакомление студентов с ними и использование данной информации во время обсуждения тем или проведения дебатов.

7

Unit I. Section 1 The Application of International Law BRUSH UP YOUR KNOWLEDGE •

Law, laws, international law

What is your understanding of these words? Give examples.

Task 1. a) Peer work. Provide English or Russian equivalents for the following expressions: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

to govern relations between states; to deem, to be deemed; субъекты международного права; the conduct of states; физическое или юридическое лицо; relations inter se; ООН; Министерство иностранных дел; to enjoy capacity to do something; to enter into treaty relations; to be binding (upon); judicial proceeding; нарушать нормы международного права; международные суды; to operate hand in glove with diplomacy.

b) Read the text about the application of international law. Think of the heading for each section of the text. International law used to be defined as the law that governs relations between states. Under the traditional definition, only states were subjects of international law, that is, only states were deemed to have rights and obligations that international law recognized.

8

Contemporary international law, although still considered to be principally the law governing relations between states, is no longer deemed to be exclusively limited to those relations. It has a wide reach and is more properly defined as law that deals "with the conduct of states and of international organizations and with their relations inter se, as well as with some of their relations with persons, whether natural or juridical." Today intergovernmental international organizations and even individuals, albeit to a much more limited extent, are and can be the subjects of rights and obligations under international law. The United Nations, for example, enjoys the legal capacity to enter into treaty relations, governed by and binding under international law, with states and other international organizations. The direct responsibility of individuals for war crimes and the development of the international law on human rights indicate furthermore that in certain circumstances individuals may have rights and obligations under international law. International law is routinely applied by international tribunals as well as by domestic courts. But international law is not relevant solely in judicial proceedings. It operates hand in glove with international politics and diplomacy. Its most potent field of operations is, in fact, in the Foreign Offices and legal departments of the world’s governments and in international organizations. States rely on international law in their diplomatic relations and negotiations. States defend their actions and policies by reference to international law. Although there may be considerable disagreement in a particular case about the nature or scope of a given rule of international law, states rarely admit to violating international law. International law is needed in order to ensure a stable and orderly international society. Task 2. Focus on Words. Use the following words to complete the sentences. One word can be used more than once. to bind (bound); binding ; non-binding; law-abiding; to abide by something

9

• • • • • • • • •

The contract is ________________on everyone who signed it. You have to ____________ the referee’s decision. We all know why so many ______________ citizens own guns. Two nations ______________ together by a common history. It is set out in a legally ____________ protocol which forms an integral part of the treaty. They ___________ him to remain silent. The law allows the president to appoint a three-member presidential emergency board to examine the contract dispute and produce ______________ recommendations. Nations agreed on international rules – rules they ___________ themselves to observe in a convention. They promised to ______________ the rules of the contest.

Task 3. Choose one of the statements and comment on it. 1) Law means good order. (Aristotle) 2) Laws are made in order that people in authority may not remember them. (O. Wilde) 3) The execution of laws is more important than the making of them. (Thomas Jefferson) 4) Laws are like sausages. It is better not to see them being made. (Otto Von Bismarck)

10

Famous people Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was the third president of the United States and one of the leading Founding Fathers of the United States. He was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), the first Secretary of State (1789-1793), the founder of one of the world's two first political parties, the Republican Party (1793). Jefferson has been consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest of U.S. presidents. Biographer James Parton said Thomas Jefferson could "calculate an eclipse, survey an estate, tie an artery, plan an edifice, try a cause, break a horse, dance a minuet, and play the violin."

11

Unit I. Section 2 Historical Overview of the Development of International Law

BRUSH UP YOUR KNOWLEDGE • Name the forerunner of the United Nations. • What qualifications does a state as a subject of international law possess? • Explain the difference between Catholicism and Protestantism.

Task 1. Complete the text using the words from the box. the League of Nations; Protestantism; an integral part; Switzerland; Roman law; 58; the Peace of Westphalia; the Renaissance; pacta sunt servanda; 1945;

the Treaty of Versailles; obsolete; the sovereign

state; the Permanent Court of International Justice; the exchange of diplomatic emissaries; World War I.

International law came into its own as a separate legal system or discipline with the emergency of the modern nation-state in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Of course, practices such as _____________________, the conclusion of peace treaties, etc., and some of the rules, applicable to them can be traced back far into antiquity. But it was not until modern times that the rules governing relations between states came to be seen as a distinct body of law. Many of these rules were derived either from _____________ or Canon law, which drew heavily on principles of natural law. These two sources of law also formed the basis of much of the domestic law of the nation-

12

states that came into being in Europe as the medieval period drew to a close with the dawn of ________________. Roman law and Canon law exerted great influence on the European statesmen and legal scholars of the period who created and systematized what became modern international law. A number of events or historical milestones mark the development of modern international law. Among these are ______________________, the Congress of Vienna, the establishment of __________________ and the adoption of the Charter of the United Nations. The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and established a treaty-based system or framework for peace and cooperation in Europe, which endured for more than a hundred years. The Peace of Westphalia established __________________ as the principal political actor in the system of states. It provided, inter alia, for the coexistence in certain parts of Europe of Catholicism and __________________, thus planting early seeds of religious freedom in Europe. The foundations for multi-state diplomatic congresses and negotiations were laid at the conferences that produced the two basic treaties comprising the Peace of Westphalia. These agreements also proclaimed the doctrine of ____________________ (treaties are to be observed) and established a machinery for the settlement of disputes arising between the signatories. The Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (1815) formally ended the Napoleonic Wars and fashioned a sophisticated multilateral system of political and economic cooperation in Europe. The major aspects of this system survived until the outbreak of the First World War. The Congress adopted the first comprehensive set of rules governing diplomatic protocol, it formally condemned the slave trade, and it established the principle of free and unimpeded navigation on international rivers traversing the region. The Congress laid the foundation for the recognition of the neutrality of ____________________ and its guarantee by the principal European powers. The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of _________________ in 1919–1920. The League's primary

13

goals as stated in its Covenant included preventing war through collective security, disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. The Covenant formed ____________of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended _______________. Although the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II is a well-known historical fact, it is important to remember that this organization constituted the first serious effort by states to create a permanent inter-governmental institutional framework for the resolution of political disputes and the preservation of peace. At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had _______ members. It was the League that established ________________, the first such international tribunal open to all states. The machinery created by the League for the protection of the rights of minorities in eastern and southeastern Europe and for the supervision of certain non selfgoverning territories constituted the first international attempt to establish international institutions for the protection of human rights. The League contributed in numerous other ways to the development and codification of international law. Moreover, the modern law of international organizations came into being with the establishment of the League of Nations. The United Nations was founded in __________. The UN has been called everything from “the best hope of mankind” to “irrelevant” and “_____________.” Here it needs to be emphasized only that the mere existence of the UN, whatever its weaknesses, constitutes a further advance in the efforts of the international community to make international law a more effective tool, for the preservation of international peace and the improvement of the human condition throughout the world. Task 2. Focus on Definitions. Find in the text the words that mean the following: • a person who is sent with an official message or to do special work; • a formal solemn agreement between two or more people or groups;

14

• • • • •

to express very strong disapproval of something; forming a necessary part of something (adj.); concerning or including more than two groups or nations; among other things (Latin); no longer useful because something newer and better has been invented; out-of-date; • to officially accept that an organization, document etc has legal or official authority; • most important, main. Task 3. Focus on Words. Study the definitions and translate the following sentences from English into Russian. •

to impede – to make it difficult for someone or something to move forward or make progress

1) Progress has been impeded by a number of economic factors. 2) War is one of the greatest impediments to human progress. 3) Shortage of money was not the only impediment to higher education. 4) We observed that you were movingly slowly on a wide road, unimpeded by any other traffic. 5) In May the Soviet Union proposed the abolition of 75 percent of the existing stocks of weapons and offered unimpeded inspection. •

outbreak - if there is an outbreak of fighting or disease in an area, it suddenly starts to happen

1) The day I arrived in Texas, the war broke out. 2) Late last night, fighting broke out between gangs of rival football fans. 3) The only effective means of controlling outbreaks of this disease are mass vaccination campaign. 4) The recent outbreak of street violence and protests reflect the frustration of young people unable to find jobs. •

multilateral - involving several different countries or groups

15

1) EU ministers proposed a multilateral agreement on arms control. 2) The talks were due to include discussions of measures to reduce tensions between the two states and to promote bilateral exchanges. 3) Not so long ago that representative was strongly committed to unilateral disarmament. Task 4. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following expressions: Европейские державы, естественное право, церковное право, оказывать существенное влияние, исторические вехи, Вестфальский мир, сохранение мира, Лига Наций, способствовать развитию, Устав ООН, Заключительный акт Венского конгресса, договоры должны выполняться, подписавшая сторона, нейтралитет Швейцарии, международные суды, государственные деятели, начало первой мировой войны, урегулирование спора, разрешение спора, принимать устав, внутригосударственное право. Task 5. Answer the following questions: 1) What are the origins of the modern system of international law? 2) Enumerate the historical milestones which marked the development of modern international law. 3) Why can we call the Peace of Westphalia an early international human rights law? What is the importance of the doctrine pacta sunt servanda? 4) How did the Vienna Congress contribute to the development of modern international law? 5) Why did the League of Nations fail? What was its contribution to the development of international law?

16

Unit I. Section 3 The International Law of Treaties Task 1. Read the text and write down Russian equivalents for the word combinations in bold type. The law of treaties is the name given to that body of international law which deals with the procedural and substantive rules governing the use of treaties as a source of international law. The term "treaty", as used on the international plane, describes international agreements in general, whether they are denominated conventions, pacts, covenants, charters or protocols, etc. These different names have no legal significance; the same legal rules apply to one as to the other. The choice of this or that name may at times be prompted by the belief that a given designation implies greater or lesser solemnity or importance. But as a matter of international law, a treaty by whatever name is still a treaty, it is an instrument governed by international law and, once it enters into force, the parties thereto have legally binding obligations in international law. Treaties perform a variety of functions on the international plane that in domestic law are performed by many different types of legal acts and instruments, including constitutions, laws of general applicability, contracts, corporate charters, etc. Treaties, by contrast, serve as the constitutions of international organizations, they can be a source of general international law, they are used to transfer territory, to regulate commercial relations, to settle disputes, to protect human rights, to guarantee investments, and so on. The international law of treaties has been codified to a large extent in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969). The Convention entered into force in 1985 and has been ratified by many countries. The Convention defines a treaty as "an international agreement concluded between States in written form and governed by international law, whether embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments and whatever its particular designation" (Article 2). The

17

scope of the Convention is limited. It applies only to treaties concluded between states (Article 1), excluding treaties between states and international organizations or between international organizations themselves. These are governed by the 1986 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations. Additionally, the Convention only applies to written agreements, but does not limit the application of oral agreements (Article 3). Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1) What does the term “treaty” mean? What functions do treaties perform? 2) When was the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties adopted? 3) Why is the scope of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties limited? Task 3. What are the Russian equivalents for the following international agreements? • • • • • • • • • •

the Warsaw Pact the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons the Covenant of the League of Nations the Treaty of Lisbon the 1966 UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights the Universal Declaration of Human Rights the Kyoto Protocol the Helsinki Act of 1975 START

18

Task 4. Translate the following articles of the VCLT into Russian. •

(the Preamble to the VCLT) The States Parties to the present Convention, Noting that the principles of free consent and of good faith and pacta sunt servanda rule are universally recognized, Affirming that the rules of customary international law will continue to govern questions not regulated by the provisions of the present Convention Have agreed as follows… • Article 6. Capacity of States to conclude treaties Every State possesses capacity to conclude treaties. • Article 19. Formulation of reservations A State may, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to a treaty, formulate a reservation unless: (a) the reservation is prohibited by the treaty… • Article 26. Pacta sunt servanda Every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith. • Article 53. Treaties conflicting with a peremptory norm of general international law (jus cogens) A treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law. For the purposes of the present Convention, a peremptory norm of general international law is a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character. • Article 54. Termination of or withdrawal from a treaty under its provisions or by consent of the parties The termination of a treaty or the withdrawal of a party may take place: (a) in conformity with the provisions of the treaty; or

19

(b) at any time by consent of all the parties after consultation with the other contracting States • Article 57. Suspension of the operation of a treaty under its provisions or by consent of the parties The operation of a treaty in regard to all the parties or to a particular party may be suspended: (a) in conformity with the provisions of the treaty; or (b) at any time by consent of all the parties after consultation with the other contracting States. • Article 63. Severance of diplomatic or consular relations The severance of diplomatic or consular relations between parties to a treaty does not affect the legal relations established between them by the treaty except in so far as the existence of diplomatic or consular relations is indispensable for the application of the treaty. • Article 82. Ratification The present Convention is subject to ratification. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary General of the United Nations. • Article 84. Entry into force 1. The present Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of the thirty-fifth instrument of ratification or accession. 2. For each State ratifying or acceding to the Convention after the deposit of the thirty-fifth instrument of ratification or accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after deposit by such State of its instrument of ratification or accession. • Article 85 Authentic texts The original of the present Convention, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary General of the United Nations. In witness whereof the undersigned Plenipotentiaries, being duly author-

20

ized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed the present Convention. Done at Vienna, this twenty-third day of May, one thousand nine hundred and sixty-nine. Task 5. Read the text about the treaty process and write down Russian equivalents for the word combinations in bold type. Although the same legal rules apply to multilateral and bilateral treaties, the process by which these treaties are negotiated and concluded may differ. Bilateral treaties tend to originate in the foreign ministry of one of the two interested parties. Following discussions, usually involving the respective embassies and exchanges of diplomatic notes, one or more draft texts will be prepared by the respective legal advisers. These texts will be the subject of negotiations until an acceptable draft has emerged. Multilateral treaties between only a few states tend to be negotiated much the same way as bilateral treaties. Treaties designed to have a large number of states parties are as a rule drafted at diplomatic conferences where the participating states are represented by diplomatic delegations that include legal advisers. The conference will usually have before it various working papers or draft proposals, prepared by some states or international organizations in advance of the meeting. These documents serve as the basis for the negotiations and bargaining that ultimately result in the text of a treaty. The negotiating and drafting process at these diplomatic conferences resembles that of national legislatures. Here amendments to different provisions of the working papers are presented, drafting committees are established, alternative texts are proposed and debated, etc. The conference records are a valuable source of information on the drafting history of the treaty. The formal results of the conference are frequently summarized in a so-called Final Act, which usually contains the text of the treaty.

21

The Final Act can and often does serve to authenticate the text of the treaty (Article 10). But the adoption of the Final Act is not as a rule designed to bring the agreement into force. Bilateral treaties enter into force on the international plane when both states indicate their intention to be bound by the agreement as of a certain date. Multilateral treaties often contain a provision indicating how many states have to accept the treaty before it will be in force as between them (Article 24). Consent to be bound by treaty. Article 11 of the Convention declares that "the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty may be expressed by signature, exchange of instruments constituting a treaty, ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, or by any other means if so agreed." Under international law any of the above mentioned methods may be utilized by a state to indicate its acceptance of the treaty. Often, of course, the treaty will specify the method, and if it declares, for example, that the states will be bound upon signing the treaty, their signature will have that effect (Article 12). It is more common for a treaty to provide that it shall become binding upon ratification (Article 14(1). On the international plane, ratification is an act whereby a state, through its head of state, foreign minister, or duly authorized diplomatic agent, declares that it considers itself bound by the treaty. The declaration is usually contained in a so-called instrument of ratification. These instruments are either exchanged between the parties or deposited with a previously designated depository government or organization, which performs various custodial functions relating to the treaty. Treaties which call for signature and subsequent ratification usually also have a provision permitting accession. Such treaties might contain a provision that reads as follows, for example: "This treaty may be ratified by all states signatories thereto. Any other state wishing to become a party to it, may do so by depositing an instrument of accession [adherence]. ..." Under such a clause, a signatory state becomes a party by ratification of the agreement; accession is reserved for states that were unable to or did not sign. Once a state becomes a party, however, it matters not whether it did so by ratification, accession or any other method allowed under the treaty.

22

Task 6. As a general rule, states are free to adhere to a treaty with reservations. Let us assume a multilateral treaty with a large number of states parties that contains no prohibition regarding reservations. Let us assume further that State A seeks to ratify with a reservation modifying article 5, paragraph 2, of the treaty. What will be the treaty relations of State A, if State B accepts the reservation, State C rejects it but does not object to A becoming a party, and State D objects to the reservation and does not want the treaty to enter into force between it and State A? Task 7. Comment on the following quotations. •

Treaties, you see, are like girls and roses: they last while they last. (Charles de Gaulle)

•

Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. (John F. Kennedy)

•

One of the things I learnt when I was negotiating was that until I changed myself I could not change others. (Nelson Mandela)

•

But peace does not rest in the charters and covenants alone. It lies in the hearts and minds of all people. So let us not rest all our hopes on parchment and on paper, let us strive to build peace, a desire for peace, a willingness to work for peace in the hearts and minds of all of our people. I believe that we can. I believe the problems of human destiny are not beyond the reach of human beings. (John F. Kennedy)

23

Task 8. Fill in the blanks. Describe the stages of a treaty process.

 

 

 

24

Task 9. What does it mean “to ratify a convention”? How are international agreements ratified in the Russian Federation? Make use of the following words: executive branch, legislative bodies, judicial branch, the Head of State, the Federal Assembly, the Federation Council, the State Duma, the upper House of the Parliament, the lower House of the Parliament, to exercise the right of veto, to sign the instruments of ratification, to approve, to disapprove, national legislature, to convene the Duma, to disband the Duma Task 10. Render into English. Москва, 29 октября 2008 – РИА Новости. Госдума в среду единогласно ратифицировала договоры о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимопомощи РФ с Абхазией и Южной Осетией. В документах отражено желание стран укреплять дружественные отношения, развивать политическое, экономическое, военнотехническое и гуманитарное сотрудничество. Россия 26 августа признала независимость Южной Осетии и Абхазии, 9 сентября между государствами были установлены дипломатические отношения, а 17 сентября РФ подписала с республиками договоры о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимной помощи. Президент России Дмитрий Медведев внес договоры о дружбе и сотрудничестве с Абхазией и Южной Осетией для ратификации в Госдуму 20 октября. Парламент Абхазии уже ратифицировал договор о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимопомощи с РФ 24 сентября, а парламент Южной Осетии – 2 октября.

25

International Relations: News Germany: ‘Lisbon’ legal but ratification held up Euronews, June 2009 The highest court in Germany ruled that the EU’s Treaty of Lisbon is compatible with German law – then promptly suspended the process to ratify it. The court said new domestic legislation is needed to protect the power of the German parliament. The Treaty of Lisbon was drawn up to streamline the institutions of the EU. Critics say it gives too much power to Brussels. The German parliament, the Bundestag, has already given its approval, but the Treaty still has to be signed by the President. Today’s court statement said Germany’s ratification document may not be adopted until there’s sufficient legal groundwork for parliamentary participation. Most of the 27 countries have ratified the Treaty. Eurosceptic presidents of the Czech Republic and Poland are waiting for the outcome of the Irish referendum before they sign. •

Provide some background information about the Treaty of Lisbon. (When was it adopted? Was it subject to ratification? Did it enter into force?)

26

Unit I. Section 4 The 1986 Reykjavik Summit Interview with Pavel Palazchenko Task 1. Focus on Words. a) Analyze the following vocabulary items: The Clive Anderson show – popular British television talk show INF Treaty – Intermediary Nuclear Force Treaty – Соглашение о сокращении ракет средней дальности Heavy (land-based / sea-launched) missiles – ракеты большой мощности (наземного / морского) базирования SDI (“Star Wars” Program) – СОИ (стратегическая оборонная инициатива) in a kind of whimper (an allusion to T.S.Eliot’s “This is the way the world ends / Not with a bang, but a whimper.”) b) Find in the interview the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations: (1) говорить на одном языке; (2) рассудительный человек; (3) давать интервью; (4) взаимодействие, хороший контакт; (5) доверяй, но проверяй; (6) человек, которого переводят; (7) политикпрагматик, «не летающий в облаках»; (8) совместное заявление; (9) стенографист; (10) хорошо осведомленный; (11) неровно, с трудом; (12) отстаивать свои позиции; (13) острый вопрос; (14) набирать скорость, силу; (15) явиться на работу (после отпуска); (16) встреча с глазу на глаз; (17) не достичь цели. Task 2. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations. Provide your own context in which they may be used. evermore crucial, unobtrusive, blast of fresh air, hiatus, adversary, it’s a must, to trace back to, nuts and bolts, bean counting, to eliminate (to abolish), consistent with something, to have a good grasp of foreign affairs, to be inclined to, to talk somebody out, to back out of something,

27

attempted coup (d’etat), facelift, contested election, it’s common knowledge. Task 3. Interview in numbers. Explain which event is meant by the following dates and numbers. 1974 10

50

6

April, 1985 8

August 19

1986

December, 1987 August 20

5

January 15, 1986 December, 1989 May, 1988

Task 4. Answer the following questions: 1) What do we come to know about Pavel Palazchenko’s ‘big experience in interpreting’? 2) What was so different about Gorbachev versus all previous Soviet leaders? 3) What information is provided about R. Reagan? 4) What did Mr. Palazchenko reveal about the summits at Geneva, Reykjavik and Malta? 5) Where and how did the Cold War end? 6) How did the 1991 coup affect Mr. Gorbachev? Task 5. Read some extracts from the book of Ambassador James E. Goodby (At the Borderline of Armageddon—How American Presidents Managed the Atom Bomb (2006), who was vice chair of the U.S. START delegation during 1982-1983. a) Give Russian equivalents for the expressions in bold type. b) Answer the following questions: • What additional information is provided about the Reykjavik summit? • Do you consider the elimination of nuclear weapons a ‘possible dream’?

28

•

Do you find Reagan’s ideas about nuclear weapons as salient today as they were then?

******************* The story of the 1986 Reykjavik summit meeting is a tale of two visionary leaders and an “impossible dream.” It was the most remarkable summit ever held between U.S. and Soviet leaders. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev seriously discussed the elimination of all ballistic missiles held by their two countries and aired the possibility of eliminating all nuclear weapons. As Gorbachev said in these pages, “[T]he 1986 U.S.-Soviet summit in Reykjavik, seen by many as a failure, actually gave an impetus to reduction by reaffirming the vision of a world without nuclear weapons and by paving the way toward concrete agreements on intermediaterange nuclear forces and strategic nuclear weapons.” The world has changed since those heady days, but it is clearer than ever that the twin challenges of nuclear proliferation and nuclear terrorism must be addressed “by reaffirming the vision of a world without nuclear weapons.” At a time when the international community is struggling to prevent a cascade of decisions by more and more states to acquire nuclear weapons, the ideas that briefly occupied center stage at Reykjavik look like the best answer we have. Reagan and Gorbachev brought two great nations close to the end of the era of the Cold War. Two revolutionaries, each in his own way, became history’s catalysts for change. Gorbachev realized that the Soviet Union needed radical economic reform, and that to do it, he had to end the ideological confrontation with the West. Reagan was unlike any other U.S. president in his revulsion against the immorality of nuclear war, his willingness to do something about it, and his ability to act on his instincts. Turning away from classical arms control, he insisted on nuclear disarmament and succeeded to a remarkable degree. Reagan and Gorbachev found common ground at their first summit in Geneva in

29

1985; the two leaders declared that “a nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought.” *********** The final session was a scene of high drama. Gorbachev said he wanted to eliminate all strategic forces, not just ballistic missiles. Reagan said, “It would be fine with me if we eliminated all nuclear weapons.” The break point began to appear when Gorbachev, following the script laid out in his initial presentation, insisted that all research and testing of space-based ballistic missile systems be restricted to laboratories. In the final minutes at Reykjavik, Reagan, as reported by Secretary of State George Shultz, re-read the key clause to Gorbachev: “Listen once again to what I have proposed: during that 10-year period [of nonwithdrawal from the ABM treaty], while continuing research, testing, and development which is permitted by that treaty. It is a question of one word.” Reagan did not want to enter into a negotiation that he viewed as amending the treaty. He had accepted a “broad” interpretation of the treaty, under which wide latitude was allowed for space-based testing, although the treaty’s original negotiators, the Soviets, and the Senate supported a more restrictive interpretation. Gorbachev insisted on the word “laboratories.” Over this one word, the negotiations broke off. Washington read Gorbachev’s proposal as an attack on the missile defense program, the Strategic Defense Initiative. That one word, “laboratories,” obviously rang alarm bells in the minds of those who had been operating under tense conditions for two days. So ended “the highest stakes poker game ever played,” as Shultz described it. In Reagan’s words, “We proposed the most sweeping and generous arms control proposal in history. We offered the complete elimination of all ballistic missiles—Soviet and American—from the face of the earth by 1996. While we parted company with this American offer still on the table, we are closer than ever before to agreements that could lead to a safer world without nuclear weapons.”

30

One of the great imponderables of history is what would have happened if Gorbachev had dropped the word “laboratories” and his objections to testing in space or if Reagan had accepted the limitation that Gorbachev sought? With the hindsight of history, it seems likely that the deployment of an effective ballistic missile defense system would not have been affected one way or the other. What we do not know is whether a treaty of the kind discussed at Reykjavik would have released Russia and United States from the nuclear deterrence relationship in which they are still entrapped. *********** Nonetheless, Reagan and Gorbachev achieved a great deal at Reykjavik. They had stretched the envelope of thinking about reducing the nuclear danger. They had clearly distinguished between nuclear weapons and all other weapons and had stigmatized nuclear weapons as immoral, their use unacceptable in conflicts among nations. They reinforced the tradition of the non-use of nuclear weapons, and despite the famous word “laboratories,” the Reykjavik meeting led to the signing of the U.S.Soviet treaty on banning intermediate-range nuclear forces and to a draft treaty on reducing strategic-range nuclear forces that was almost complete by the time Reagan left office. The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), signed in 1991, is still in force. The first treaty to cut strategic nuclear arms significantly, it also provides the basis for verification of the 2002 Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT) concluded by Presidents George W. Bush and Vladimir Putin, which endorsed further strategic weapons cuts. Reykjavik was a long stride toward one part of Reagan’s dream, the elimination of nuclear weapons. As things stand, however, each country is still hedging in its nuclear weapons programs so as to be prepared for an adverse turn of events in the other. Nuclear weapons are still a major factor in international relations. Rather than pursuing Reagan’s genuine interest in eliminating all nuclear weapons, the Bush administration, for example, has conflated

31

nuclear and conventional weapons in its definition of offensive forces in its new “strategic triad” and refused to consider further reductions in operationally deployed nuclear forces, below SORT levels, even in response to appeals from non-nuclear-weapon states. These policies contrast sharply with Reagan’s thinking about nuclear weapons. Of course, the world has changed since Reagan left office, and new threats have emerged. Iranian and North Korean nuclear weapons programs were not the problems in the 1980s that they are in 2006. Nuclear-armed terrorist groups were imaginable then but not the real possibility that they are today. I would argue, however, that Reagan’s ideas about nuclear weapons are as salient today as they were then. There is no doubt that national decisions to acquire nuclear weapons are motivated by regional rivalries, a desire to have an equalizer against the conventional weapons superiority of a global adversary, and by prestige and a sense of entitlement. Iran and North Korea are motivated by these considerations. U.S. policies have to be targeted on local and regional specifics in each case. Task 6. Do you agree with the following statements? •

The way to win an atomic war is to make certain it never starts. (Omar Nelson Bradley, American general, Speech on Armistice Day, 10 Nov. 1948)

•

There is no evil in the atom; only in men’s souls. (Adlai Ewing Stevenson, American Democratic politician, diplomat, lawyer. Speech in Hartford, 18 Sept.1952)

32

Revision of the Vocabulary Items of Unit I Task 1. Provide English equivalents for the following items: субъекты международного права; международные суды; обладать правоспособностью заключать договоры; заключать договор (3 варианта); физическое или юридическое лицо (2 варианта); быть обязательным (для выполнения); нарушать нормы международного права; судебное разбирательство; законопослушный гражданин; соблюдать (подчиняться) нормы (нормам) международного права (2 варианта); Министерство иностранных дел; регулировать отношения между государствами; международные организации и отношения между ними; в тесной связи, сотрудничестве; исторические вехи; Вестфальский мир; Лига Наций, Устав Лиги Наций, Устав ООН; обмен эмиссарами; церковное право, внутригосударственное право; оказывать существенное влияние на …; в числе прочего, в частности (лат.); государственные деятели; договоры должны выполняться; урегулирование споров, разрешение споров; подписавшая сторона; осуждать работорговлю; составлять неотъемлемую часть чего-либо; содействовать, способствовать развитию международного права; начало первой мировой войны; признавать (независимость страны), признание; принимать устав; сохранение мира;

33

международный договор, (не)имеющий силу договор; Венская конвенция о праве международных договоров (1969); в международном плане; документ; дополнительное международное соглашение (протокол); принципы свободного согласия и добросовестности; выполнять договор добросовестно; быть несовместимым с чем-либо; стать участником договора; наименование международного соглашения; государства — участники договора; договаривающееся государство; двусторонний, многосторонний договор; законодательный орган, законодательная власть; исполнительная власть; судебная власть; Федеральное собрание, Совет Федерации, Государственная дума; созвать Думу, распустить Думу; наложить вето на …; сфера применения конвенции; переговоры, обсуждение; обмен документами, образующими договор; принятие текста конвенции; установление аутентичности текста; заключение соглашения; ратификация, ратифицировать, ратификационные грамоты; подлежать ратификации; поправка, вносить поправки; оговорка, одностороннее заявление; выразить согласие на обязательность; вступление договора в силу, вступить в силу; присоединение (к договору), присоединяться к договору, документы о присоединении; должным образом уполномоченный; в соответствии с положениями договора; императивная норма; приостанавливать (действие договора), приостановление; прекращать, прекращение (действия договора);

34

выход из договора, выходить из договора; разрыв дипломатических (консульских) отношений; разрывать (2 варианта) дипломатические отношения; государство-депозитарий; сдавать на хранение Генеральному секретарю ООН; полномочный представитель; совместное заявление; уничтожить ядерное оружие; ядерное разоружение; система противоракетной обороны; Договор о сокращении стратегических наступательных вооружений; стратегическая оборонная инициатива; противник; найти общий язык (взаимопонимание); распространение ядерного оружия; разбираться во всех тонкостях внешней политики; государственный переворот; подготовить почву для чего-либо; ядерное сдерживание; оглядываясь на прошлое. Task 2. Give either Russian or English equivalents for the following chunks: Венская конвенция о праве международных договоров, nuclear deterrence, обязательный для государств — участников настоящего договора, подписавшая сторона, to suspend a treaty, to amend a bilateral treaty, в соответствии с принципом свободного согласия, СОИ, to disband the Parliament, присоединиться к многостороннему договору, inter alia, in good faith, законодательная власть, to accede to the convention, authentication of a treaty, исторические вехи, странадепозитарий, прекратить действие договора, proliferation of nuclear weapons, физическое лицо, judicial power, полномочный представитель, разрыв дипломатических отношений, исполнительная власть, СНВ, coup d’etat.

35

Task 3. Translate the following sentences into English: • Венская конвенция о праве международных договоров вступила в силу 27 января 1980 года. Грамота о присоединении СССР к Венской конвенции о праве международных договоров от 23 мая 1969 г. сдана на хранение Генеральному секретарю ООН 29 апреля 1986 г. со следующими оговорками… Конвенция вступила в силу для СССР 29 мая 1986 г. • Каждый имеющий силу договор обязателен для участников и должен выполняться ими добросовестно. Каждое государство обладает правоспособностью заключать договоры. • Согласие государства на обязательность для него договора может быть выражено подписанием договора, обменом документами, образующими договор, ратификацией договора, его принятием, утверждением, присоединением к нему или любым другим способом, о котором условились. • Естественное и церковное право оказали существенное влияние на развитие современного международного права. Вестфальский мир способствовал развитию сотрудничества в Европе. Task 4. Speak about each of the topics: • • • • • • •

International law (definition, subjects, application, role). Historical milestones of the development of international law. The international law of treaties: sources, the term ‘treaty’, functions of treaties. The stages of a treaty process: bilateral and multilateral treaties. Ways to express consent to be bound by a treaty: signature, accession, ratification. The 1986 Reykjavik Summit. Nuclear proliferation.

36

Unit II. Section 1 International Organizations Task 1. Read the following text and write down Russian equivalents for the words and expressions in bold type. International organizations were first created in the nineteenth century as a means of conducting international relations and fostering cooperation between States. They evolved from the ad hoc multilateral conferences convened by States to deal with particular situations—such as the Congress of Vienna (1815) which settled issues arising from the end of the Napoleonic wars—into institutions in which member States not only met regularly but which also possessed organs that functioned on a permanent basis. The early international organizations dealt with technical, non-political matters and included Commissions regulating European rivers such as the Rhine, the International Telegraphic Union (1865) and the Universal Postal Union (1874). The League of Nations, created after the First World War, was the forerunner of the United Nations and was the first international organization established to deal with general political and other relations between States and which aspired to universal membership. International organizations now play a significant role in international affairs generally and in the development of international law specifically. They exist in practically all fields of endeavor ranging from general political cooperation to protection of the environment, defense, provision of humanitarian and development assistance, promotion of trade, etc. Within their diverse fields of operation, international organizations perform a number of functions. These include: - Providing a forum for identifying and deliberating upon matters of common interests. - Acting as vehicles for taking action on international or transnational problems.

37

- Providing a forum for developing rules on matters of common interest. Providing mechanisms for promoting, monitoring and supervising State’s compliance with agreed rules and policies as well as for gathering information regarding the conditions in and practices of States. - Providing a forum for the resolution of international disputes. The key factor distinguishing international intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), such as the UN or the World Trade Organization, from international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), such as Greenpeace or the World Organization of the Scout Movement, is that the former are composed predominantly of States (and other intergovernmental organizations) whilst the latter are composed of private entities though they operate in more than one country. International public corporations or joint inter-State enterprises are entities jointly created by a number of States for the performance of commercial functions. Examples include the European Company for the Financing of Railway Rolling Stock (EUROFIMA) or Air Afrique (an airline established by 11 West African States). Whilst international organizations are entities created under international law and have international legal personality, joint inter-State enterprises are formally established under the corporate law of one of the member States, even though the enterprise may have its roots in a treaty. Despite sharing a common definition, there are many differences between international organizations. The most obvious differences concern membership and functions. Membership may either be universal (open) or closed. Universal organizations are open to all States and examples include the UN and its specialized agencies. Closed organizations limit membership to those States fulfilling certain criteria. Examples based on geographic criteria include regional organizations such as the Organization of American States (OAS) and the African Union (AU). Other examples based on

38

economic criteria include the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Some international organizations, such as the UN, have general functions within broad areas whereas the functions of others are restricted to particular fields, such as telecommunications, labor, health or trade. Membership and function can be combined in various ways: some closed regional organizations exercise general functions (e.g., the OAS), whilst some universal organizations only have competence in limited field (e.g., the UN specialized agencies and the International Labor Organization (ILO). Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1) When were the first international organizations created? What fields did they operate in? 2) What functions do international organizations perform nowadays? 3) What are the key factors distinguishing intergovernmental organizations from non-governmental organizations? 4) Can you name some international organizations with universal membership and restricted functions? Task 3. Focus on Words. Translate the following sentences from English into Russian. •

to comply with – to do what you have to do or are asked to do

1) Companies can be prosecuted for non-compliance with the law. 2) A committee on compliance was set up comprising representatives of all 15 Security Council member countries. 3) The moves are in compliance with the Montreal Protocol. 4) Failure to comply with the regulations will result in prosecution. •

to deliberate on/ about /over - to think about something very carefully

1) They are supposed to return to closed session to deliberate over punishment.

39

2) When the evidence is completed a report is drafted and the subcommittee deliberates on it until agreement is reached. 3) The truth is that electors are not a deliberative group like representatives or senators. 4) Our argument is that two legislative houses ensure more careful deliberation on issues and laws. Task 4. Give the Russian equivalents for the following abbreviations. What fields do these organizations operate in? Define their membership (universal or closed) and functions (general or restricted). Choose one of the international organizations mentioned below and prepare a presentation. • • • •

OSCE SCO NATO ASEAN

• • • •

UNESCO IAEA AI WTO

• • • •

ICAO ICPO NAFTA EU

Task 5. Read the text paying special attention to the vocabulary items in bold type. What privileges and immunities do international organizations enjoy? International organizations require certain privileges and immunities for the effective performance of their tasks. These immunities are granted to preserve the independence of the organization from its member States and to secure the international character of the organization. They ensure that no member State is able to unilaterally interfere through its legislative, executive or judicial branches with the workings of an international organization set up to act in the common interests of members. The five main privileges and immunities conferred on international organizations are considered in the following sections.

40

1) Immunity from jurisdiction International organizations are usually granted absolute immunity from the judicial jurisdiction of States. For example, Article II, Section 2 of the 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations provides that: The United Nations, its property and assets wherever located and by whomsoever held, shall enjoy immunity from every form of legal process except insofar as in any particular case it has expressly waived its immunity. It is, however, understood that no waiver of immunity shall extend to any measure of execution. Similar provisions exist in many treaties setting out the immunities of international organizations. 2) Immunity from execution International organizations also enjoy immunity from measures of execution. This prevents the seizure of its property or other assets. 3) Inviolability of premises, property, and archives Practically all relevant treaties provide that the premises of an international organization are to be inviolable and that its property and assets are to be immune from search, requisition, confiscation or other forms of interference by State authorities. Thus, national authorities may not enter such premises without the consent of the international organization, even when a crime has been committed on the premises or a criminal is sheltering there. The treaties also impose an obligation on the national authorities to exercise due diligence in protecting those premises from acts of third parties. The archives (documents) of an international organization are usually inviolable wherever located. This ensures the confidentiality of communications within and with the international organization, enabling it to function effectively and independently. Consequently, international organizations are not obliged to produce their official documents, or other documents held by them, in proceedings before national courts.

41

4) Currency and fiscal privileges Since many international organizations exercise their functions in a number of countries they will need to transfer funds. Several treaties provide that such transactions are to be free from financial restrictions. For example, the UN Convention provides that the organizations (a) 'may hold funds, gold or currency of any kind and operate accounts in any currency' and (b) may freely transfer their 'funds, gold or currency form one country to another or within any country and to convert any currency held by them into any other currency.' International organizations are usually exempt from direct taxation of their assets, income and property as well as from custom duties and other import and export restrictions in respect of articles for official use. However, this does not extend to charges for public utility services or sales taxes. 5) Freedom of communication It is commonly provided that official communications by international organizations shall be accorded treatment at least as favorable as that accorded to foreign governments. In addition it is sometimes provided that no censorship shall be applied to official communications of the organization and that the organization shall have the power to use codes as well as couriers and bags having the same status as diplomatic couriers and bags. International organizations should not use their privileges and immunities to circumvent either the domestic laws of States or their responsibility towards third parties. Finally, it must be remembered that international organizations remain responsible in international law for breaches of their obligations even if they are immune from process before domestic courts.

42

Task 6. Focus on Definitions. Find in the text the words that mean the following: • • • • • •

an action that breaks a law, rule or agreement; to avoid a problem or rule that restricts you, especially in a clever or dishonest way; the buildings and land that a shop, restaurant, company etc uses; to state officially that a right, a rule etc can be ignored; the practice or system of examining books, films, letters etc to remove anything that is considered offensive, morally harmful or politically dangerous; not affected by something, or not having to do it or pay it.

Famous quotations 1) We must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly, we shall all hang separately. (Benjamin Franklin at singing of the Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776.) 2) “A house divided against itself cannot stand.” I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved – I do not expect the house to fall – but I do expect that it will cease to be divided. (Abraham Lincoln, Speech at the Republican Convention, 16 June 1858.)

43

Unit II. Section 2 The United Nations: Purposes and Principles

BRUSH UP YOUR KNOWLEDGE • When was the UN established? • Where are the headquarters of the UN situated? Name the regional headquarters. • Can you name the incumbent UN Secretary General? Whom did he succeed? • How many states are considered to be the members of the UN? • What are the official languages of the UN?

Task 1. What is a preamble? Read the Preamble to the UN Charter. WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED • to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and • to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and • to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and • to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, AND FOR THESE ENDS •

to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and

44

•

to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and • to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and • to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations. Task 2. What guiding motives and underlying goals does the Preamble set forth? Find in the Preamble the English equivalents for the following word combinations: • • • • • • • •

основные права человека; поддерживать международный мир и безопасность; в должной форме и надлежащем порядке; проявлять терпимость; источники международного права; грядущие поколения; предъявлять полномочия; вооруженные силы.

Task 3. Translate into English: • Основные положения Устава ООН были выработаны на конференции представителей СССР, США, Великобритании, а

45

также Китая, состоявшейся в 1944 г. в Вашингтоне. Здесь были определены название Организации, структура ее Устава, цели и принципы и т.д. Но некоторые важные вопросы (о первоначальных членах Организации, о процедуре голосования в Совете Безопасности) были урегулированы позднее, на Крымской конференции руководителей трех держав. Окончательный текст Устава был согласован на Конференции Объединенных Наций в Сан-Франциско в 1945 г. с участием представителей 50 государств. • Торжественная церемония подписания Устава состоялась 26 июня 1945 г. Устав подлежал ратификации подписавшими его государствами в соответствии с их конституционной процедурой. Ратификационные грамоты сдавались на хранение Правительству США, выполнявшему функцию депозитария. Предусматривалось, что Устав вступит в силу после сдачи на хранение ратификационных грамот СССР, США, Великобританией, Китаем и Францией, т.е. государствами, получившими статус постоянных членов Совета Безопасности, и большинством других государств, подписавших Устав. Таким днем явилось 24 октября 1945 г. Дата вступления в силу Устава ООН считается днем учреждения ООН, и отмечается ежегодно как День Объединенных Наций. Task 4. a) Read Article 1 and Article 2 of the UN Charter. Give Russian equivalents for the vocabulary items in bold type. b) What are the four purposes of the UN described in Article 1? Speak of the principles for the UN and its members. Article 1 The Purposes of the United Nations are: 1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjust-

46

ment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace; 2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace; 3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and 4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends. Article 2 The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article 1, shall act in accordance with the following Principles. 1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members. 2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter. 3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered. 4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.

47

5. All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. 6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security. 7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII. Task 5. Choose one of the following topics and make reports: • The Secretary-General of the United Nations: functions, selection, role, interesting facts.

It’s interesting to know The first UNSG, the Norwegian Trygve Lie, summed up the difficulties of the post when passing the job to the Swede Dag Hammarskjöld in 1953: “Welcome to the most difficult job on earth.”

•

The UN Charter in brief.

e.g. The UN Charter consists of a preamble and a series of articles divided into chapters. Chapter 1 sets forth … Chapter 2 defines … The

48

bulk of the document is contained in chapters 3 through 15, which describe … The Charter was subject to ratification … It entered into force … •

The Millennium Development Goals: an ambitious development agenda for the new century?

Task 6. Listening Comprehension: The world’s coming authority deficit (interview with Peter David, foreign editor of The Economist) a) Focus on Words. The word AUTHORITY has the following meanings in Russian: • власть e.g. supreme authority, to have / to exercise authority • полномочие, право, права, компетенция e.g. unrestricted authority, excessive authority, to abuse one’s authority • pl. власти, начальство, администрация e.g. local authorities, law-enforcement authorities / agencies • авторитет, вес, влияние e.g. to undermine somebody’s authority • авторитет, крупный специалист e.g. he is an authority on law • авторитетный источник e.g. to quote one’s authorities b) How would you translate the title of the interview – The world’s coming authority deficit? c) Provide Russian equivalents for the following word combinations. Provide the context in which they are mentioned.

49

oddly enough; the sole surviving superpower; a multi-polar world; to reinforce international rules of the game; to assert its own strength and power; to look to the UN; an asymmetrical world; at the end of the day; to act in its own interests; to act in contravention of the UN Charter; reluctance to take responsibility; obsolete; to find a new lease of life; likeminded countries; standing (military) alliance; their main selling point; a begging bowl; to go with the flow; to re-inject some sense of order and control; the ebbing of authority. Task 7. Answer the following questions: 1) What historical perspective on authority deficit does Peter David provide? 2) How does the speaker explain that the UN has done a much less good job at restoring international order after the Cold War? 3) What does the speaker think about NATO’s authority in the world? 4) What should we do about the erosion of authority according to the speaker? 5) Do you agree with the speaker that the world is facing authority deficit nowadays? Prove your point of view.

International Relations: Speeches Barack Obama Speech at the 64th General Assembly Session (September 23, 2009) …This body was founded on the belief that the nations of the world could solve their problems together. Franklin Roosevelt, who died before he could see his vision for this institution become a reality, put it this way - and I quote: “The structure of world peace cannot be the work of one man, or one party, or one Nation…. It cannot be a peace of large nations - or of small nations. It must be a peace which rests on the cooperative effort of the whole world.”

50

The cooperative effort of the whole world. Those words ring even more true today, when it is not simply peace - but our very health and prosperity that we hold in common. Yet I also know that this body is made up of sovereign states. And sadly, but not surprisingly, this body has often become a forum for sowing discord instead of forging common ground; a venue for playing politics and exploiting grievances rather than solving problems. After all, it is easy to walk up to this podium and to point fingers and stoke division. Nothing is easier than blaming others for our troubles, and absolving ourselves of responsibility for our choices and our actions. Anyone can do that. Responsibility and leadership in the 21st century demand more. In an era when our destiny is shared, power is no longer a zero sum game. No one nation can or should try to dominate another nation. No world order that elevates one nation or group of people over another will succeed. No balance of power among nations will hold. The traditional division between nations of the south and north makes no sense in an interconnected world. Nor do alignments of nations rooted in the cleavages of a long gone Cold War. The time has come to realize that the old habits and arguments are irrelevant to the challenges faced by our people. They lead nations to act in opposition to the very goals that they claim to pursue, and to vote often in this body - against the interests of their own people. They build up walls between us and the future that our people seek, and the time has come for those walls to come down. Together, we must build new coalitions that bridge old divides - coalitions of different faiths and creeds; of north and south, east and west; black, white, and brown. The choice is ours. We can be remembered as a generation that chose to drag the arguments of the 20th century into the 21st; that put off hard choices, refused to look ahead, and failed to keep pace because we defined ourselves by what we were against instead of what we were for. Or, we can be; that comes together to serve the common interests of human beings, and finally gives meaning to the promise embedded in the name given to this institution: the United Nations.

51

That is the future America wants - a future of peace and prosperity that we can only reach if we recognize that all nations have rights, but all nations have responsibilities as well. That is the bargain that makes this work. That must be the guiding principle of international cooperation. • Express your opinion on the issue of “the cooperative effort of the whole world” in the 21st century. • Comment on the following statements: “Responsibility and leadership in the 21st century demand more...” “We can be a generation that chooses to see the shoreline beyond the rough waters ahead…”

It’s interesting to know

In an interview with Time magazine in the summer of 1955, Dag Hammarskjöld expressed his frustration over the UN’s public image. He worried, in particular, that many people considered the organization – at the time barely ten years old – as a bureaucratic monstrosity incapable of addressing the real concerns of real people. Equally important, Hammarskjöld thought that such disaffection was distancing the UN from the very people it was designed to serve. There was but one solution. As Hammarskjöld explained: “Everything will be all right – you know hen? When people, just people, stop thinking of the United Nations as a weird Picasso abstraction and see it as a drawing they made themselves.” (From: Jussi M. Hanhimäki “The United Nations: A Very Short Introduction”.)

52

Unit II. Section 3 The Structure of the United Nations Task 1. Read the text about the United Nations organs paying special attention to the words and word combinations given in bold type. Like all international organizations, the UN is composed of a number of organs. In addition, the UN system comprises a family of international organizations which share certain common institutions and practices. Article 7 of the UN Charter identifies two types of organs within the United Nations: principal organs and subsidiary organs. Article 7(1) lists the six principal organs of the United Nations: the General Assembly; the Security Council; the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC); the Trusteeship Council; the International Court of Justice; and the Secretariat. The structure and powers of each of these organs shall be discussed below. Article 7(2) provides that 'such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be established in accordance with the present Charter'. Whilst the list of principal organs is exhaustive and no additional organs may be established except by amendment of the Charter, subsidiary organs can always be created by the principal organs. Their lifespan is determined by the principal organ that has established them. The powers, functions and composition of the principal organs are determined by the Charter, whilst those of subsidiary organs are determined by the principal organ that establishes them. Subsidiary organs established by the General Assembly include the International Law Commission, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UNICEF, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the UN Administrative Tribunal (UNAT). Subsidiary organs set up the Security Council include peace-keeping missions, Sanctions Committees, the International Criminal Tribunals

53

for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, and the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC). In most cases, a principal organ will confer some of its powers on a subsidiary organ that it creates. However, a principal organ may be entitled to confer on the subsidiary organ powers which it does not itself possess where the power to establish such a subsidiary organ is necessary for the performance of the functions of the principal organ. Thus, both the General Assembly and the Security Council have established subsidiary organs that have judicial powers even though they themselves do not have such powers. The Charter also refers to another type of body known as specialized agencies. Unlike the subsidiary organs, these are international organizations in their own right. They are established by separate treaties and brought into relationship with the UN by agreement (Articles 57 and 63). They operate in particular technical fields and, like the UN, are open organizations with worldwide membership and responsibilities. Although they are independent international organizations, the UN Charter provides that the UN may coordinate their activities (Articles 57-60), principally through ECOSOC. In practice, coordination and cooperation are achieved through the United Nations System Chief Executives Board (CEB) for Coordination (formerly the Administrative Committee on Coordination) and its High Level Committees. Development assistance is coordinated by UNDP. In other words, the specialized agencies operate under the aegis of the United Nations. Task 2. a) Find in the text the English equivalents for the following vocabulary items: • • • • •

главные органы ООН; вспомогательные органы; специализированные учреждения; в соответствии с чем-либо, согласно чему-либо; Совет по опеке;

54

• • • • • • • •

Международный уголовный трибунал по бывшей Югославии (МТБЮ); Программа ООН по окружающей среде; включать в себя, состоять из…; Детский фонд ООН; Управление комиссара ООН по правам беженцев; исчерпывающий; судебные полномочия; под эгидой ООН.

b) Name two types of organs within the United Nations. What are the key factors distinguishing the types? Give the examples of the subsidiary bodies set up by the General Assembly. Which subsidiary bodies did the Security Council establish? Task 3. What do the abbreviations of the following specialized agencies stand for? What fields do these organizations operate in? ILO ______________________

IMF _____________________

ICAO ____________________

FAO ____________________

IMO______________________

UPU ____________________

WMO ____________________

UNESCO ________________

UNIDO ___________________

WHO ____________________

WIPO ____________________

UNWTO _________________

Task 4. Focus on the General Assembly. a) Watch the video about the UN General Assembly. b) Read the following test about the composition, voting procedure and competence of the UNGA paying special attention to the words and expressions in bold type. c) Sum up the information about the UNGA.

55

The General Assembly is the plenary organ of the United Nations and is the only principal organ composed of all member States (Article 9). It is a deliberative not a legislative body and unlike the Security Council, is not in permanent session but meets annually in regular sessions which usually take place between September and December (Article 20). It may also meet in special session outside its regular sessions. At its regular sessions, agenda items are allocated to one of the six main committees, where substantive discussion and decision-taking occurs: • • • • • •

First Committee (Disarmament and International Security); Second Committee (Economic and Financial); Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian and Cultural); Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization); Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary); Sixth Committee (Legal).

The Assembly has competence to discuss and make recommendations upon the very broad range of matters falling within the scope of Charter (Article 10). However, it can only make binding decisions on internal administrative matters. Articles 11-17 of the Charter specifically provide that General Assembly has competence with regard to peace and security, promoting human rights, and international cooperation in political, economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields. However, the Assembly may not make recommendations concerning disputes or situations in respect of which the Security Council is exercising its functions unless requested to do so by the Council (Article 12) and, together with UN as a whole, it may not intervene 'in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any State' (Article 2(7)). Voting in the Assembly is on the basis of one member one vote. Decisions on important questions must be adopted by two thirds of members present and voting. There is a non-exhaustive list of such important questions. Other decisions are to be taken by simple majority (Article 18).

56

Task 5. Read the following extracts from the book of Jussi M. Hanhimäki “The United Nations: A Very Short Introduction”. Express your opinion on the question of effectiveness of such a forum as the UNGA. … Each member state, regardless of its size, has one vote. This arrangement seems to make the GA much alike the U.S. Senate, where each of the fifty states is represented by two senators regardless of the size of the population or landmass of a given state. The situation is in some ways absurd: the tiny island of Tuvalu with its 11,6000 citizens has equal representation with the People’s Republic of China and India, each with more than 1 billion. … The very size of the GA means that its effectiveness is limited. The annual meetings – or regular sessions – that usually open in September have become ritualistic and tend to make news only in connection with a possible high-profile appearance, by the U.S. president, for instance. … Its very inclusiveness is the GA’s – and in a nutshell the UN’s – greatest weakness: with so many members represented, contentious issues have little chance of being affirmatively decided. … In many ways, the General Assembly functions like a national parliament. It has a president and twenty-one (!) vice presidents. Task 6. Focus on the Security Council. a)

Watch the video about the Security Council.

b)

Read the following test about the composition, voting procedure and competence of the Security Council paying special attention to the words and expressions in bold type.

c)

What is meant by mediation and good offices?

d)

Sum up the information about the UNSC.

The Security Council is composed of 15 member States of the UN. There are five permanent members of the Council (USA, Russia, UK,

57

France and China) and 10 which are elected by the Assembly for twoyear terms (Article 23). Its competence is mainly (though not exclusively) limited to issues concerning the maintenance of international peace and security, for which it bears primary responsibility within the UN system (Article 24). Although each member has one vote, decisions on non-procedural matters must be adopted by the affirmative vote of nine members and include the concurring vote of the permanent members who therefore possess a veto with respect to substantive decisions. Abstentions, however, are not deemed to be vetoes. It suffices here to note that the Council has the power to adopt decisions which are binding on members of the UN (Articles 24 and 25). When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it, the Council's first action is to recommend the parties to reach agreement by peaceful means. In some cases, the Council itself undertakes investigation and mediation. It may dispatch a mission, appoint special representatives or request the Secretary General to use his good offices. When a dispute leads to fighting, the Council's first concern is to bring it to an end as soon as possible. The Council may issue ceasefire directives, dispatch military observers or a peacekeeping force to help reduce tensions. Under Chapter VII of the Charter, the Council may decide on enforcement measures, including economic sanctions, arms embargoes or collective military action. Task 7. Choose one of the topics and make reports: •

The Economic and Social Council: composition, functions, recent events. • The Secretariat. • The Trusteeship Council. • The UN operating budget. Task 8. Focus on Enforcement measures: Sanctions.

58

a) Read the article “Sanctions punish and inflame the innocent.” (Andrew Reding wrote this article for Pacific News Service in 2002.) Developments in Palestine, Iraq, and Haiti are again demonstrating that economic sanctions and other forms of collective punishment are at best counterproductive and at worst often more murderous than military strikes. Remember when a schoolteacher would punish the whole class for the misbehavior of one or two anonymous students? Did it work? If your experience was like mine, most of the time it did not. The misbehavers were usually among the more aggressive and popular students. They were not about to incriminate themselves. And usually no one else wanted to turn them in, because that would be “ratting” and could lead to being beaten up. The outcome was that everyone ended up hating the teacher. Collective punishment is no more effective when exercised against entire nations. Yet that is exactly the approach being taken by the United Nations, the United States and Israel against “terrorists” and “rogue states,” with equally dubious results. When Israel responds to suicide bombings by rolling tanks into major Palestinian cities and imposing round-the-clock curfews, it antagonizes the entire population. All residents — regardless of political sympathies — are barred from going to work or even obtaining food and medical care. The Palestinian middle class, Israel’s best hope for moderation, is being thrust into poverty. Even when such operations yield a handful of “terrorists,” their overall effect is to generate far greater numbers of recruits to extremist causes and a new round of suicide bombings. Though justified in the name of “security,” collective punishments only lead to greater insecurity.

59

U.N. economic sanctions against Iraq have proven equally ineffective. They have failed to compel Saddam Hussein to allow inspections of sites where weapons of mass destruction may be stored or under development. Instead, the most devastating impact has been on Iraqi children. Resigning his post in 1998, the head of the United Nations’ humanitarian workers in Iraq said that sanctions “are starving to death 6,000 Iraqi infants every month, ignoring the human rights of ordinary Iraqis and turning a whole generation against the West.” The sanctions were recently fine-tuned, but that has neither improved their effectiveness, nor altogether eliminated the harm done to ordinary Iraqis. For several years, the United States and European countries have been withholding economic aid from Haiti, in an effort to compel President Jean-Bertrand Aristide to privatize state-owned utilities and to strike a deal with his political adversaries. Yet there is no sign that either Aristide or his opposition are any more ready to compromise now than before. The people paying the price are — once again — the innocent. In desperation, some Haitians are now eating clay seasoned in bouillon. Polio is reappearing. In the slums, teenagers lie on sheets spread over concrete porches, dying of tuberculosis. The justification for economic sanctions and aid boycotts is that they are more humane than military actions. But as Americans should realize after four decades of the Cuban embargo, they do not work. And, as Iraqis are quick to point out, even the much-publicized “collateral damage” of modern “smart” weaponry has proved to be a lot less destructive to civilian populations than economic sanctions. South Africa is often cited as a case where economic sanctions worked. But other factors helped bring down Apartheid, including diplomatic isolation, splits among whites and between whites and South Asians, a growing threat from guerrilla bases harbored by neighboring countries,

60

and the demographic reality of an enormous and fast-growing Black majority. Elsewhere, as in Serbia, they clearly failed. It was only after the Clinton administration moved to military action that the “ethnic cleansing” of Kosovo ceased. The basic problem is that economic sanctions, like other forms of collective punishment, are indiscriminate. They strike the innocent along with the guilty. And they often strike the most vulnerable — including children — especially hard. They also offend basic notions of justice, under which only those who cause offenses should be punished. Were domestic police forces to resort to collective punishments, respect for law and order would soon break down. It is time to renounce collective punishment in international relations, just as we renounce it in domestic affairs. Where absolutely necessary, it is a lot more ethical to use targeted military force than to inflict serious harm on an entire civilian population. b) Focus on Definitions. Find in the article the words that mean the following: • • • • • • • • • • •

tending to work against a desired aim; having an opposite effect from the one intended; causing doubt; to deliver to the police, to hand over; to expose, to show to be guilty of a crime or fault; a rule that all people should remain indoors at stated times; to give up (a job or position); to make (a person or thing) do something by force or orders that must be obeyed; an opponent, enemy; the system established by the government of keeping different races separate, esp. so as to give advantage to white people; to officially prevent someone from entering a place or from doing something; to forbid; not showing the ability to see a difference in value between two people, groups, things, etc.;

61

•

to give up (a claim); to say formally that one has no more connection with.

Task 9. Answer the following questions: 1) Do you espouse the view that collective punishment is counterproductive? 2) Has the author managed to persuade you that economic sanctions, like other forms of collective punishment, are indiscriminate? 3) How does Andrew Reding oppose the view that sanctions in South Africa worked? 4) Do you agree with the author that it is time to renounce collective punishment in international relations? Can you suggest ways to improve the UN’s capacity to anticipate and manage sanctions regimes?

International Relations: News

UN sanctions against Iran (BBC News, 2009) Iran has been subjected to three rounds of United Nations Security Council sanctions in relation to its nuclear program. In spite of this, it has continued its uranium enrichment operations and there is growing pressure for sanctions to be tightened further. The following are the UN resolutions relating to Iran's nuclear program. Demand to End Enrichment – Resolution 1696 In March 2006, the issue was discussed at the UN Security Council, which called for a report by the IAEA to establish Iran's compliance with the terms of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty (NPT). The treaty allows for the use of nuclear technology for peaceful energy purposes,

62

as long as countries can demonstrate that their programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons. In July 2006, the Security Council said it was "seriously concerned" that the IAEA was unable to provide assurances about Iran's undeclared nuclear material. It demanded that Iran "suspend all enrichment-related and reprocessing activities, including research and development", giving it one month to do so. Failing that, it would face the possibility of economic and diplomatic sanctions. Iran asserted that its nuclear program was for civilian use permitted by the NPT. On this basis it said it rejected the validity of the Security Council's calls. It claimed that while subscribers to the NPT were being punished, those who had not signed up to the agreement were being rewarded by generous nuclear cooperation agreements. First Round of Sanctions – Resolution 1737 The deadline for Iranian compliance with the Security Council's demands passed without being heeded. In December 2006, the Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1737 (2006). This called on states to block Iran's import and export of "sensitive nuclear material and equipment" and to freeze the financial assets of those involved in Iran's nuclear activities. The Council decided that all countries should prevent the supply or sale of equipment and technology that would aid Iran's nuclear program in any way. Second and Third Round of Sanctions With Iran's nuclear program ongoing, in March 2007 the Security Council voted to toughen sanctions (Resolution 1747). It banned all of Iran's arms exports. It also froze the assets and restricted the travel of people it deemed involved in the nuclear program. Further restrictions imposed in March 2008 encouraged scrutiny of the dealings of Iranian banks. It also called upon countries to inspect cargo planes and ships entering or leaving Iran if there were "reasonable grounds" to believe they were goods prohibited by previous resolutions (Resolution 1803). On 24 September 2009 the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1887 calling for the creation of "conditions for a world without nuclear weapons..."

63

•

Provide some background information about the NPT.

•

Sum up the information about Iran’s nuclear program. Did the sanctions imposed on Iran prove to be counterproductive?

International Relations: Speeches Barack Obama Speech at the 64th General Assembly Session (September 23, 2009) Today, I put forward four pillars that are fundamental to the future that we want for our children: non-proliferation and disarmament; the promotion of peace and security; the preservation of our planet; and a global economy that advances opportunity for all people. First, we must stop the spread of nuclear weapons, and seek the goal of a world without them. This institution was founded at the dawn of the atomic age, in part because man’s capacity to kill had to be contained. For decades, we averted disaster, even under the shadow of a superpower stand-off. But today, the threat of proliferation is growing in scope and complexity. If we fail to act, we will invite nuclear arms races in every region, and the prospect of wars and acts of terror on a scale that we can hardly imagine. A fragile consensus stands in the way of this frightening outcome - the basic bargain that shapes the Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty. It says that all nations have the right to peaceful nuclear energy; that nations with nuclear weapons have the responsibility to move toward disarmament; and those without them have the responsibility to forsake them. The next twelve months could be pivotal in determining whether this compact will be strengthened or will slowly dissolve. America will keep our end of the bargain. We will pursue a new agreement with Russia to substantially reduce our strategic warheads and launchers. We will move forward with ratification of the Test Ban Treaty, and work with others to bring the Treaty into force so that nuclear testing is permanently prohibited. We will complete a Nuclear

64

Posture Review that opens the door to deeper cuts, and reduces the role of nuclear weapons. And we will call upon countries to begin negotiations in January on a treaty to end the production of fissile material for weapons. I will also host a Summit next April that reaffirms each nation’s responsibility to secure nuclear material on its territory, and to help those who can’t - because we must never allow a single nuclear device to fall into the hands of a violent extremist. And we will work to strengthen the institutions and initiatives that combat nuclear smuggling and theft. All of this must support efforts to strengthen the NPT. Those nations that refuse to live up to their obligations must face consequences. This is not about singling out individual nations - it is about standing up for the rights of all nations that do live up to their responsibilities. Because a world in which IAEA inspections are avoided and the United Nation’s demands are ignored will leave all people less safe, and all nations less secure. In their actions to date, the governments of North Korea and Iran threaten to take us down this dangerous slope. We respect their rights as members of the community of nations. I am committed to diplomacy that opens a path to greater prosperity and a more secure peace for both nations if they live up to their obligations. But if the governments of Iran and North Korea choose to ignore international standards; if they put the pursuit of nuclear weapons ahead of regional stability and the security and opportunity of their own people; if they are oblivious to the dangers of escalating nuclear arms races in both East Asia and the Middle East - then they must be held accountable. The world must stand together to demonstrate that international law is not an empty promise, and that Treaties will be enforced. We must insist that the future not belong to fear. • What are the fundamental pillars for our future that Barack Obama mentions in his speech? • What actions must be taken to strengthen the NPT?

65

Revision of the Vocabulary Items of Unit II, Section 1, 2, 3 Task 1. Provide English equivalents for the following items: созывать конференцию; специальный, для данного случая (Latin), временный комитет; предшественник / преемник; способствовать сотрудничеству; обсуждать вопросы, обсуждение (обдумывание) вопросов; подчиняться решениям; предоставлять (2 варианта) привилегии и иммунитеты; отказываться (отказ) от привилегий и иммунитетов; неприкосновенность помещений; освобождаться от таможенных пошлин; нарушение закона; обходить закон (договор); ОБСЕ, ВТО, МАГАТЭ, ШОС, НАТО; поддерживать международный мир и безопасность; проявлять терпимость; жить вместе, в мире друг с другом, как добрые соседи; грядущие поколения; в согласии с (3) принципами международного права; с этой целью принимать меры для устранения угрозы миру; улаживание или разрешение международных споров; нарушение мира; развивать дружеские отношения между государствами; укреплять всеобщий мир; согласовывать действия; достижение общих целей; добросовестно выполнять обязательства; подвергать угрозе международный мир и безопасность; воздерживаться от оказания помощи кому-либо; вмешиваться во внутренние дела государства; многополярный мир; превышать полномочия;

66

подрывать чей-то авторитет; излишние права; правоохранительные органы; действовать в своих интересах; действовать в противоречие Уставу ООН; страны, придерживающиеся одинаковых взглядов; постоянно действующий военный альянс; ослабление власти; в конечном счете, по большому счету; нежелание подчиняться решениям; структура ООН – главные органы, вспомогательные органы, специализированные учреждения; главные органы – Генеральная Ассамблея, Совет Безопасности, ЭКОСОС, Международный Суд, Совет по опеке, Секретариат; нынешний Генеральный секретарь ООН; очередное (внеочередное) заседание Генеральной Ассамблеи ООН; совещательный орган; пленарные заседания; пункты повестки дня; большинство в две трети голосов; простое большинство; вспомогательные органы Генеральной Ассамблеи – Программа ООН по окружающей среде (ЮНЕП), Детский фонд (ЮНИСЕФ); постоянные (непостоянные) члены Совета Безопасности; избираться на двухгодичный срок; совпадающий голос постоянных членов Совбеза; воздерживаться (в голосовании); принудительные меры – налагать экономические санкции, запрет на ввоз оружия; силы по поддержанию мира (миротворческие силы); принимать директиву о прекращении огня; посредничество, добрые услуги; приводящий к обратным результатам, неэффективный; документ, вызывающий сомнение;

67

придерживаться взгляда; ввести комендантский час / отменить комендантский час; противник, враг; государство-изгой; запрещать делать что-либо; отказываться от коллективных санкций; специализированные учреждения – ВМО, ВОЗ, ВОИС, ВПС, ЮНВТО, МОТ, МВФ, ЮНЕСКО, ИКАО, ИМО, ЮНИДО, ФАО. Task 2. Translate the following sentences into English using the active vocabulary of Unit II, Section 1, 2, 3). Practice their back translation. • ООН поддерживает международный мир и безопасность. • Грядущие поколения должны жить вместе, в мире друг с другом, как добрые соседи. • Устав ООН подлежал ратификации. • Ратификационные грамоты сдавались на хранение правительству США. • Грядущие поколения должны проявлять терпимость. • Вчера состоялось очередное заседание Генеральной Ассамблеи ООН. • Члены ООН должны подчиняться Уставу ООН. • По большому счету, все страны должны согласовывать действия. • Специализированные учреждения развивают дружеские отношения между государствами. • Генеральная Ассамблея уполномочена обсуждать любые вопросы, относящиеся к поддержанию международного мира и безопасности. • МАГАТЭ укрепляет всеобщий мир. • НАТО - это постоянно действующий военный альянс. • Международный Суд разрешает споры, которые могут привести к нарушению мира. • Он считает, что правоохранительные органы обладают излишними полномочиями.

68

• Государство, которое действует в противоречие Уставу ООН, подрывает свой авторитет. • Штаб-квартира ООН находится в Нью-Йорке. • Совет по опеке приостановил свою работу в 1994. • Нынешний Генеральный секретарь ООН принимает меры для устранения угрозы миру. • Его предшественник превышал полномочия. • ШОС способствует сотрудничеству между странами. • Совет Безопасности уполномочен принимать директивы о прекращении огня. • ЮНИСЕФ – это вспомогательный орган Генеральной Ассамблеи. • Непостоянные члены Совета Безопасности избираются на двухгодичный срок. • Страны, придерживающиеся одинаковых взглядов, действуют в своих интересах. • ВМО, ВОЗ, ВОИС, ИКАО – специализированные учреждения ООН. • Для принятия решения требуется совпадающий голос постоянных членов Совбеза. • ЮНИДО, ФАО, МОТ - специализированные учреждения ООН. • Данное государство-изгой подвергает угрозе международный мир и безопасность. • Он придерживается взгляда, что экономические санкции приводят к обратным результатам. • Давайте откажемся от коллективных санкций. • Члены ООН воздерживаются от оказания помощи государству, которое не желает подчиняться решениям Совета Безопасности. • Если государство А вмешивается во внутренние дела государства Б, государство А действует в противоречие Уставу ООН. • Одним из пунктов повестки дня являлся вопрос ослабления власти в мире. • Посредничество и добрые услуги являются мирными методами разрешения конфликта. • В Ираке был введен комендантский час. • В Израиле отменили комендантский час.

69

Task 3. Speak about each of the topics: • International organizations: definitions, differences, historical background, their current role on the international plane. •

The privileges and immunities of international organizations.

• The adoption of the UN Charter as a historical milestone of the development of international law. • What are the purposes of the UN described in Article 1 of the UN Charter? Comment on them. • What are the principles for the UN and its members (Article 2)? Comment on them. • Name two types of organs within the United Nations. What are the key factors distinguishing the types? •

The General Assembly: composition, powers, voting procedure.

•

The Security Council: composition, powers, voting procedure.

• Do you espouse the view that collective punishment is counterproductive? Should we renounce it in international relations? Provide your grounds. •

IAEA: background information, its mission and current role.

• The current role of the UN. Comment on the problem of the authority deficit in the world.

70

Unit II. Section 4 The International Court of Justice BRUSH UP YOUR KNOWLEDGE • Do you know some methods of non-judicial dispute resolution? • Name some international courts and tribunals.

Task 1. a) Read the following text and find the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations: главный судебный орган ООН, Статут Международного Суда, постоянно действующий суд, принятие консультативных заключений (мнений), Секретариат (Международного Суда), секретарь (Международного Суда), в соответствии с (согласно), свидетели, правонарушение, иметь решающий голос в случае равного распределения голосов, подчиняться решениям Международного Суда, трехлетний, преемник, дело по спору, беспристрастность судей, имеющий силу, слушания, судебное разбирательство, доказательство, Гаага, Нидерланды,.

b) Speak about the composition, functions and powers of the ICJ. The International Court of Justice (ICJ), the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, is a standing tribunal to which States bring their disputes.

71

The Court was established by the UN Charter, and came into existence with the election of the first members in February 1946. It was however created as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice, established pursuant to Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations in 1921, and was modeled closely on that body. The Court consists of 15 judges, elected by the Security Council and the General Assembly for terms of nine years; the elections are staggered so that five judges complete their terms of office every three years. Judges are elected as individuals, not as representatives of their countries, and are required to make a solemn declaration in open court of impartiality in the exercise of their functions. They may not engage in any other occupation during their period of office. The seat of the Court is at the Hague, in the Peace Palace, where the Court occupies premises under an agreement between the UN and the Carnegie Foundation, the owner of the building. The President of the Court (elected triennially by his colleagues) is to ‘direct the work and supervise the administration of the Court’ (Rules, Article 12). The dayto-day administration of the Court is the responsibility of the Registry, headed by a Registrar, elected by the Court for a seven-year term. The official languages of the Court are French and English. It is important to mention that only States are eligible to appear before the Court in contentious cases. At present, this basically means the 192 United Nations Member States. The Court has no jurisdiction to deal with applications from individuals, nongovernmental organizations, corporations or any other private entity. It cannot provide them with legal counseling or help them in their dealings with the authorities of any State whatever. However, a State may take up the case of one of its nationals and invoke against another State the wrongs which its national claims to have suffered at the hands of the latter; the dispute then becomes one between States. The hearing is open to the public; the Court has power to hold a closed hearing (Statute, Article 46), but has done so only on two occasions. The written pleadings are normally made available to the public (in par-

72

ticular, on the Court’s website) at the time of the opening of the oral proceedings. Evidence is normally submitted in the form of documents, though it may of course take other forms (e.g. photographs, physical object); witnesses may give written evidence, or appear at the hearing to give their evidence orally. The decision of the Court is adopted by majority vote, the President of the Court having a casting vote in the event of a tie. A judgment of the Court is binding upon the parties to the case in which it is given. Under Article 60 of the Statute, the judgment is ‘final and without appeal’. Furthermore, under Article 94 (1), of the Charter, ‘Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice in any case to which it is a party’. In addition to its function of settling international disputes in accordance with international law, The Court is empowered by its Statute to give advisory opinions. The essence of an advisory opinion is that it is advisory, not determinative; it expresses the view of the Court as to the relevant international legal principles and rules, but does not oblige any State, to take or refrain from any action. Today, the Court is busier than it has ever been before. Disputes have been submitted to it not only by its more established ‘clients’, but by States of Latin America, Eastern Europe, Asia and Africa. It has also seen increasing use of the possibility of requesting an advisory opinion. All in all, the prospects for the future role of the Court in the settlement of international disputes are encouraging. Task 2. Work in small groups: “Habeas Corpus Act”. Task 3. Watch the video about Kosovo’s secession. Sum up the information. Comment on it. Task 4. a) Prepare an oral summary of the article “Court clears Serbia of genocide” (2007). b) Find in the article the English equivalents for the following expressions:

73

оправдывать; бойня (резня); возбуждать судебное дело; обвинять в чем-либо; придерживаться чего-либо (соблюдать); подстрекать; постановление (решение) суда; приговор. The UN's highest court at The Hague has cleared Serbia of direct responsibility for genocide during the Bosnian war of the 1990s. But the International Court of Justice also said Serbia violated international law by failing to prevent the 1995 massacre at Srebrenica. Bosnia brought the case and would have sought billions of dollars from Serbia in compensation if successful. The case was the first of a state being charged with genocide. At least 100,000 people died in the 19921995 war, triggered by the break-up of the former Yugoslavia. Bosnia's Muslims and Croats wanted to cut ties with Belgrade, a move opposed by Bosnian Serbs. The reading of the complex judgment began at 0900GMT and has taken more than two hours to deliver. The president of the court, Judge Rosalyn Higgins, said: "The court finds that the acts of genocide at Srebrenica cannot be attributed to the respondent's (Serbia) state organs." Earlier Judge Higgins had rejected Serbia's argument that the court had no jurisdiction. The court can only rule on disputes between UN member states and as Yugoslavia's membership was suspended in 1992, with Serbia-Montenegro admitted in 2001, Serbia said its actions could not be covered. Serbia and Montenegro have since split into sovereign states. Judge Higgins said Serbia was obliged to abide by the 1948 Genocide Convention. She also said Serbia had assumed the "legal identity" of the former Yugoslavia and that Montenegro was no longer part of the case. A number of survivors of the Bosnian conflict demonstrated outside the court as the ruling was read out, carrying a banner reading "Serbia is guilty". One demonstrator, Hedija Krdzic, who lost her husband, father

74

and grandfather in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre, said: "A ruling that Serbia committed genocide in Bosnia means everything to me." The court's ruling that Srebrenica did constitute genocide confirmed an earlier ruling in the UN war crimes tribunal. Bosnia said Belgrade incited ethnic hatred, armed Bosnian Serbs and was an active participant in the killings. Belgrade said the conflict was an internal war between Bosnia's ethnic groups and denied any state role in genocide. The case, Bosnia and Herzegovina versus Serbia and Montenegro, began a year ago and a panel of judges has been deliberating since hearings ended in May 2006. Their ruling is binding. The war crimes tribunal in The Hague has already found individuals guilty of genocide in Bosnia and established the Srebrenica massacre as genocide. Bosnia, under a 1995 peace accord, is split into a Muslim-Croat federation and a Bosnian Serb state. The latter's Prime Minister Milorad Dodik has already said it "will not accept the verdict and will not implement it". The ruling also comes with Serbia still facing challenges linked to the break-up of the former Yugoslavia. Its passage into the European Union has stalled over its failure to hand over war crimes suspects for trial.

75

International Relations: News

Kosovo: to recognize or not to recognize? (Paul Reynolds, World affairs correspondent, BBC News) The declaration of independence by Kosovo has provoked a worldwide debate about the merits of recognizing it as a state. Several governments with breakaway movements of their own are refusing to do so. They are anxious about setting a precedent and argue against recognition on the grounds that there was no agreement between Serbia and Kosovo and no clear UN Security Council mandate. Others have endorsed the declaration as a unique and justified move for freedom and the inevitable outcome to Kosovo's history, in which Serb troops were forced out after NATO waged war in 1999 and the province was handed over to UN control. The numbers matter. There needs to be a critical mass of countries recognizing Kosovo to enable it to develop and prosper. The United States, which made its own declaration of independence in 1776, and whose support for Kosovo has not been in doubt, led the way in recognizing Kosovo. President Bush said: "The Kosovars are now independent." The European Union Several major European Union member states have also swung behind Kosovo, giving it powerful support. The EU as a whole has a key role in supervising the limited form of independence that a UN report recommended for Kosovo and which Kosovo has accepted. Britain, France, Germany and Italy all see the Kosovo move as a oneoff and as the last piece of the old Yugoslav jigsaw being slotted into its new place.

76

However, the EU, which has no common foreign policy except by agreement, is not unified. Cyprus, Romania and Slovakia are in the No camp. So is Spain, with its own separatist Basque movement. Foreign Minister Miguel Angel Moratinos said: "Spain is not going to recognize this unilateral declaration of independence... because it does not consider that this respects international law." Russia Beyond the EU, Russia is opposing independence, as it always has, again arguing that such a move should depend on there being an agreement with Serbia first. "We are talking here of the disruption of all the basic fundamentals of international law in Europe, which is a result of years of suffering and wars and strife," said the Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov. "It would undermine the basics of security in Europe... It would inevitably result in a chain reaction in many parts of the world, including Europe and elsewhere." One question is whether Russia will now more actively support the demands of two regions of Georgia for secession. South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoyty said: "Both South Ossetia and Abkhazia have more political and legal grounds for their independence than Kosovo... we can clearly see a policy of double standards." China China indicated its opposition, perhaps with Taiwan in mind. "China expresses its deep concern about Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence," the Foreign Ministry spokesman Liu Jianchao said. Taiwan spoke in favour of Kosovo. "Our consistent position is that we want to develop relations with any free and democratic country," spokeswoman Phoebe Yeh said. To which the Chinese spokesman re-

77

plied: "It is known to all that Taiwan, as a part of China, has no right and qualification at all to make the so-called recognition." Israel, with negotiations for a neighboring state of Palestine ongoing, was cautious, refusing to give an immediate position. Israel itself declared its independence in 1948. Precedent? Regions with aspirations of independence of their own are using the Kosovo declaration as a potential precedent for them. "I salute the independence of Kosovo. No people can be forced to live under the rule of another," said Mehmet Ali Talat, leader of the Turkish Cypriots. Kosovo is "a lesson in how to resolve conflicts of identity and membership, peacefully and democratically," said Miren Askarate, spokeswoman for the Basque regional government in northern Spain. The chairman of the breakaway Transdniester region of Moldova, Yevgeny Shevchuk, said: "We believe that a new era started and a new system of international relations was formed the moment part of a country, based on a series of historical developments, decided to live independently, and this country can gain recognition." •

Provide some background information about Kosovo’s declaration of independence.

•

To recognize or not to recognize? That is the question. Name the countries which recognized the independence of Kosovo. What is the position of Russia and China about the issue in question?

78

Unit II. Section 5 The Future of the United Nations Task 1. Watch the video. What do the speakers think about the current role of the UN? Present their arguments. Make use of the phrases below to express opinion and (dis)belief. In his view / in his opinion / from his point of view / to his mind He’s (absolutely) convinced / he considers / he reckons / he shares the viewpoint that, of… She refuses to accept / she is strongly against / she has (no) doubts about… Task 2. Divide into two groups – pro and con, and conduct a debate on the role and importance of the UN today. Appoint the ‘Chair’ of the debate who will give the floor to the speakers of both teams. First of all, state the problem and express your opinion: My point is … My position is …. I have a hunch … I hold that … I espouse the view that Secondly, evaluate the position of your counterpart and try to find the points you can share: I share your view/concern…. I found your argument well-grounded /compelling /convincing… Could you prioritize /rank / list your ideas? Is there any evidence to suggest…? Thirdly, frame your arguments and focus on a key one: It’s not to my knowledge … Common sense suggests… I argue that… I am open to objections...

79

The point I want to make has to do with… The thing we need to look at is… Then challenge the arguments of your opponents and compare approaches: Your position does not seem quite convincing… I can’t fully agree.. It needs investigation. It is controversial… The thing I question is… We might try another approach… It sounds like a good idea, still there is not much evidence of its effectiveness… Finally, summarize what you have said: To sum up… Let’s summarize briefly what we’ve looked at… In short… To wrap it up… To conclude… In conclusion… At the end of the day… In the final analysis… Task 3. In pairs practice the back translation of the following phrases: • • • • • • • • • • •

I declare open the 64th meeting of the subcommittee. The provisional agenda for this meeting in contained in document 134. Unless I hear any objection, I shall consider the agenda adopted. The agenda is adopted. The first item on the agenda is consideration of the draft report on… The first speaker inscribed on my list is the representative of Germany to whom I give the floor. I thank the distinguished representative of France for his statement. Those in favor of my proposal, please signify by pressing the green button. Those against, the red button. And those abstaining, the yellow button. The result of the vote is as follows: In favor ….; Against ….; Abstentions ….. . My proposal is / is not adopted. Our next meeting will be… The meeting is adjourned.

80

Task 4. Read the extracts of the speech delivered by Barack Obama at the 64th General Assembly session. a) What does he think about the future of the United Nations? b) Give Russian equivalents for the words and word combinations in bold type. The United Nations was born of the belief that the people of the world can live their lives, raise their families, and resolve their differences peacefully. And yet we know that in too many parts of the world, this ideal remains an abstraction. We can either accept that outcome as inevitable, and tolerate constant and crippling conflict. Or we can recognize that the yearning for peace is universal, and reassert our resolve to end conflicts around the world. That effort must begin with an unshakeable determination that the murder of innocent men, women and children will never be tolerated. On this, there can be no dispute. The violent extremists who promote conflict by distorting faith have discredited and isolated themselves. They offer nothing but hatred and destruction. In confronting them, America will forge lasting partnerships to target terrorists, share intelligence, coordinate law enforcement, and protect our people. We will permit no safe-haven for al Qaeda to launch attacks from Afghanistan or any other nation. We will stand by our friends on the front lines, as we and many nations will do in pledging support for the Pakistani people tomorrow. And we will pursue positive engagement that builds bridges among faiths, and new partnerships for opportunity…. Sixty-five years ago, a weary Franklin Roosevelt spoke to the American people in his fourth and final inaugural address. After years of war, he sought to sum up the lessons that could be drawn from the terrible suffering and enormous sacrifice that had taken place. “We have learned,” he said, “to be citizens of the world, members of the human community.” The United Nations was built by men and women like Roosevelt from every corner of the world - from Africa and Asia; form Europe to the Americas. These architects of international cooperation had an idealism that was anything but naïve - it was rooted in the hard-earned lessons of

81

war, and the wisdom that nations could advance their interests by acting together instead of splitting apart. Now it falls to us - for this institution will be what we make of it. The United Nations does extraordinary good around the world in feeding the hungry, caring for the sick, and mending places that have been broken. But it also struggles to enforce its will, and to live up to the ideals of its founding. I believe that those imperfections are not a reason to walk away from this institution - they are a calling to redouble our efforts. The United Nations can either be a place where we bicker about outdated grievances, or forge common ground; a place where we focus on what drives us apart, or what brings us together; a place where we indulge tyranny, or a source of moral authority. In short, the United Nations can be an institution that is disconnected from what matters in the lives of our citizens, or it can be indispensable in advancing the interests of the people we serve. We have reached a pivotal moment. The United States stands ready to begin a new chapter of international cooperation - one that recognizes the rights and responsibilities of all nations. With confidence in our cause, and with a commitment to our values, we call on all nations to join us in building the future that our people deserve. Thank you.

It’s interesting to know Woodrow Wilson was once asked how long he took to prepare a ten-minute speech. He said, “Two weeks.” “How long for an hour speech?”- “One week.” “How long for a two hour speech?” - “I am ready now.”

82

Task 5. Role-play. Let us convene a meeting! One of the agenda items is consideration of the draft report “Fundamental reforms within the UN”. a) Appoint the President of the meeting and the speakers (representatives of different states). b) Adopt the agenda. c) Let each speaker take the floor. d) Put a question to a vote. (Proceed to a vote) e) Adopt the decision. f) Close the meeting.

Famous quotations • “This organization is created to prevent you from going to hell. It isn’t created to take you to heaven.” (Henry Cabot Lodge, the US ambassador to the UN from 1953 to 1969.) • “If the United Nations is to survive, those who represent it must bolster it; those who advocate it must submit to it; and those who believe in it must fight for it.” (Norman Cousins, a prominent journalist and peace advocate, 1956.)

83

Revision of the Vocabulary Items of Unit II, Section 4, 5 Task 1. Provide English equivalents for the following items: Международный Суд – главный судебный орган ООН, г. Гаага (Нидерланды); Статут Международного Суда; постоянно действующий суд; функции Суда – разрешение споров между государствами и принятие консультативных заключений (мнений); секретариат (Международного Суда), секретарь (Международного Суда); иметь решающий голос в случае равного распределения голосов; подчиняться (2) решениям (2) Международного Суда; беспристрастность судей; беспристрастный; открытые слушания; закрытые слушания; дело по спору; имеющий право; правонарушение; судебное разбирательство; доказательство; временный (специальный) судья; мировой судья; ордер на арест; свидетели; массовое убийство; резня, бойня; предъявлять иск в суд; обвинять (3) кого-либо в чем-либо; дать начало чему-либо (спускать курок); выносить приговор; истец / ответчик; виновный / невиновный; судебное решение, постановление; подстрекать; подозреваемый в совершении военных преступлений;

84

приговор; распад (страны); выход (из союза, федерации), раскол; выходить (из союза, федерации); оправдывать (3 варианта); проект доклада; пункт повестки дня; уважаемый представитель; предоставлять слово кому-либо; принимать решение; закрыть заседание; возражать, возражения; воздержаться (в голосовании); оправдывать (надежды); жить, действовать согласно (принципам). Task 2. Translate the following sentences into English: Хабеас Корпус Акт – это важнейшая гарантия гражданских прав и свобод в Англии. Международный Суд является главным судебным органом Организации Объединенных Наций. Местопребыванием Суда является Дворец Мира в Гааге (Нидерланды). Статут Международного Суда является неотъемлемой частью Устава ООН. Согласно статье 96 Устава ООН, Генеральная Ассамблея или Совет Безопасности могут запрашивать у Международного Суда консультативные заключения по любому юридическому вопросу. Суд начал работу в 1946 году, заменив собой Постоянную палату международного правосудия, которая была учреждена в 1920 году под эгидой Лиги Наций. 31 января 1946 года судьи ППМС ушли в отставку. 5 февраля 1946 года Генеральная Ассамблея и Совет Безопасности ООН избрали первых членов Международного суда. В апреле 1946 года ППМС была официально распущена, и Суд,

85

собравшись на первое заседание, избрал своим Председателем судью Хосу Густава Герроро (Сальвадор), который был последним председателем ППМС. Первое заседание было проведено 18 апреля 1946. Самый длительный срок исполнения полномочий судьи принадлежит Манфреду Ляхсу (Польша), который являлся судьей 26 лет; самый короткий (19 месяцев) - Ричарду Бакстеру (США). Task 3. Speak about each of the topics: • • • •

The International Court of Justice: composition, functions. Habeas Corpus Act. Kosovo: to recognize or not to recognize? The United Nations: to reform or not to reform?

86

Unit III. Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Famous quotations •

What men value in this world is not rights but privileges. (Henry Louis Mencken, 1880-1956, an American journalist, editor, essayist, linguist)

Task 1. Read the texts paying special attention to the expressions in bold type. (1) Human rights refer to the "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." ‘First generation’ rights comprise those civil and political rights that are now at the core of most human rights treaty regimes. ‘Second generation’ human rights relate to matters of social and economic significance, such as the right to work, the right to social security etc. ‘Third generation’ human rights may include general concepts such as rights of development, the right to a protected environment, rights of peace and a wide right of self-determination. Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood”. (2) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (10 December 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris). The Guinness Book of Records describes the UDHR as the "Most Translated Document" in the world. The Declaration arose directly from the experience of the Second

87

World War and represents the first global expression of rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled. It consists of 30 articles which have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions and laws. The International Bill of Human Rights consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols. In 1966 the General Assembly adopted the two detailed Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights; and in 1976, after the Covenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations, the Bill took on the force of international law. (3) The international Covenant on Civil and Political Rights “include the rights to life, liberty, security of the person, privacy and property; the right to marry and found a family; the right to a fair trial; freedom from slavery, torture and right to a nationality; freedom of thought, conscience and relation; freedom of opinion and expression; freedom of assembly and association; and the right to free elections, universal suffrage and participation in public affairs.” The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights “include the right to work and a just reward; the right to form and join trade unions; the right to rest and leisure; and to periodic holidays with pay; the right to a standard of living adequate to health and well-being; the right to social security; the right to education; and the right to participation in the cultural life of a community.” (4) On 10 December 2007, Human Rights Day, the Secretary-General launched a year-long campaign in which all parts of the United Nations family were taking part in the lead up to the 60th birthday of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on Human Rights Day 2008. With more than 360 language versions to help them, UN organizations around the globe were using the year to focus on helping people

88

everywhere to learn about their human rights. The UDHR was the first international recognition that all human beings have fundamental rights and freedoms and it continues to be a living and relevant document today. The theme of the campaign, “Dignity and justice for all of us,” reinforced the vision of the Declaration as a commitment to universal dignity and justice and not something that should be viewed as a luxury or a wish-list. (5) The concept of human rights has existed under several names in European thought for many centuries, at least since the time of King John of England (Иоанн Безземельный, 1199-1216). After the king violated a number of ancient laws and customs by which England had been governed, his subjects forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which enumerated a number of what later came to be thought of as human rights. Among them were the right of the church to be free from the governmental interference, the rights of all free citizens to own and inherit property and be free from excessive taxes. Magna Carta established principles of due process and equality before the law and it also contained provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct. The political and religious traditions in other parts of the world also proclaimed what have come to be called human rights, calling on rulers to rule justly and compassionately. The women’s rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. Many people who supported the human rights movement were politically inactive, not interested in acceding to a political movement, not ideologically motivated. They were simply outraged that any government dared abuse, imprison, torture, and often kill human beings whose only crime was in believing differently from their government and saying so in public. They took to writing letters to governments and publicizing the plights of these people in hopes of persuading or embarrassing abusive governments into better behavior.

89

Task 2. Answer the following questions: 1) When did the concept of human rights appear in Europe? How did it evolve throughout the world? 2) What ancient laws and customs were enumerated in the Magna Carta that later came to be thought as human rights? 3) What new principles were invented by the modern human rights movement? Provide some background information about the UDHR. Task 3. a) What is the role of international human rights organizations in contemporary world? b) Choose one of the topics and make reports: • • •

The UN Human Rights Council. Amnesty International. The International Criminal Court.

Task 4. Render the following text into English: Генассамблея ООН учредила "Международный день Нельсона Манделы", который отныне будет отмечаться ежегодно в день его рождения 18 июля. Такое решение единогласно приняла Генеральная Ассамблея Организации Объединенных Наций. Тем самым международное сообщество отметило выдающийся вклад южноафриканского лидера в дело мира и свободы. Н. Мандела считается одним из самых известных активистов в борьбе за права человека в период существования апартеида. За это Н. Мандела 27 лет провел в кейптаунской тюрьме. После освобождения он стал первым чернокожим президентом ЮАР и правил страной с 1994 по 1999 гг. Покинув политический Олимп в 1999 г., Н. Мандела до сих пор ведет борьбу за права обездоленных – в том числе больных детей.

90

В 1993 г. южноафриканский лидер был удостоен Нобелевской премии мира (радиостанция «Эхо», 2009).

Famous people

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (born 18 July 1918), served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, the first South-African president to be elected in a fully representative democratic election. Before his presidency, Mandela was an anti-apartheid activist, and the leader of the African National Congress's armed wing. The South African courts convicted him on charges of sabotage, as well as other crimes committed while he led the movement against apartheid. In accordance with his conviction's sentence, Mandela served 27 years in prison, spending many of these years on Robben Island. Following his release from prison on 11 February 1990, Mandela supported reconciliation and negotiation, and helped lead the transition towards multi-racial democracy in South Africa. Task 5. Listening Comprehension: “The woes of statelessness”. Give the Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations. Provide the context in which they are used. in limbo, to cope with the flotsam and jetsam, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, in the course of 2006, to be stranded, to flee, to naturalize, to vary, law-abiding (country), ramshackle place, to alleviate the problem, to exacerbate the situation, outside the purview of the state, to ease the problem, the alter the law, to fall far short of something, the quirks of history.

91

Task 6. Answer the following questions: 1. How does the speaker describe stateless people? 2. Why do people become stateless? 3. What information is provided about the stateless Biharis of Bangladesh? 4. Explain the notion “degrees of statelessness”. 5. What is the story of Bedoons of Kuwait? 6. What is a happy story of Nepal? 7. Why does the speaker mention Egypt, Morocco and Algeria? 8. What legal instruments are mentioned to tackle the problem of statelessness?

International Relations: News

Ex-detainees allege Bagram abuse (BBC News, June 2009) Former detainees have alleged they were beaten, deprived of sleep and threatened with dogs at the Bagram military base. The BBC interviewed 27 former inmates of Bagram around the country over a period of two months. The Pentagon has denied the charges and insisted that all inmates in the facility are treated humanely. All the men were asked the same questions and they were all interviewed in isolation. Ill-treatment They were held at various times between 2002 and 2008. They were all accused of belonging to or helping al-Qaeda or the Taliban. BAGRAM AIR BASE • Base built by the Soviet military in the 1980s

92

• •

Around 600 people are held Prisoners are classified as "unlawful enemy combatants'

None were charged with any offence or put on trial - some even received apologies when they were released. Just two of the detainees said they had been treated well. Many allegations of ill-treatment appear repeatedly in the interviews: physical abuse, the use of stress positions, excessive heat or cold, unbearably loud noise, being forced to remove clothes in front of female soldiers. In four cases detainees were threatened with death at gunpoint. "They did things that you would not do against animals let alone to humans," said one inmate known as Dr Khandan. "They poured cold water on you in winter and hot water in summer. They used dogs against us. They put a pistol or a gun to your head and threatened you with death," he said. "They put some kind of medicine in the juice or water to make you sleepless and then they would interrogate you." The findings were shown to the Pentagon. Lt Col Mark Wright, a spokesman for the US Secretary of Defense, insisted that conditions at Bagram "meet international standards for care and custody". Col Wright said the US defense department has a policy of treating detainees humanely. "There have been well-documented instances where that policy was not followed, and service members have been held accountable for their actions in those cases," he said. 'Legal black hole' Bagram has held thousands of people over the last eight years and a new detention centre is currently under construction at the camp. Some of the inmates are forcibly taken there from abroad, especially Pakistanis and at least two Britons. Since coming to office US President Barack Obama has banned the use of torture and ordered a review of policy on detainees, which is expected to report next month. But unlike its detainees at the US naval

93

facility at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba, the prisoners at Bagram have no access to lawyers and they cannot challenge their detention. The inmates at Bagram are being kept in "a legal black-hole, without access to lawyers or courts", according to Tina Foster, executive director of the International Justice Network, a legal support group representing four detainees. She is pursuing legal action that, if successful, would grant detainees at Bagram the same rights as those still being held at Guantanamo Bay. But the Obama administration is trying to block the move. Last year, the US Supreme Court ruled that detainees at Guantanamo should be given legal rights. Speaking on the presidential campaign trail, Barack Obama applauded the ruling: "The court's decision is a rejection of the Bush administration's attempt to create a legal black hole at Guantanamo. This is an important step toward re-establishing our credibility as a nation committed to the rule of law, and rejecting a false choice between fighting terrorism and respecting habeas corpus." •

Provide some background information about the Bagram military base and the prison at Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. What problems are these “legal black holes facing?

•

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights declares that “all persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person”. What problems do prison inmates face? Can you suggest any measures necessary to improve the present prison system?

94

Revision of the Vocabulary Items of Unit III Task 1. Provide English equivalents for the following items: основные права человека; право на свободу мысли, совести и религии; право на вступление в брак и право основывать семью; Всеобщая декларация прав человека (1948); Международный пакт о гражданских и политических правах (1966); Международный пакт об экономических, социальных и культурных правах (1966); Великая хартия вольностей (1215); Управление Комиссара ООН по делам беженцев; Международная Амнистия; люди, не имеющие гражданства (так называемые «бродяги»); оказаться на мели, без средств; находиться в подвешенном состоянии, в состоянии неопределенности; законопослушное государство; обострять, осложнять, усиливать (кризис, недовольство); облегчать (2 варианта), успокаивать, уменьшать (напряжение); не достигать, терпеть неудачу; изменять, вносить изменения; лицо, содержащееся под стражей (заключенный); тюремное заключение (лишение свободы); задерживать; задержание; задержанный, находящийся под арестом; допрашивать; допрос.

95

Task 2. Translate the following sentences into English: (1)

Право на жизнь есть неотъемлемое право каждого человека.

(2)

Каждый человек имеет право на свободу и личную неприкосновенность.

(3)

Никто не может быть подвергнут (to be subjected to) произвольному аресту или содержанию под стражей.

(4)

Никто не должен подвергаться пыткам или жестокому обращению или наказанию.

(5)

Каждый человек имеет право на гражданство.

(6)

Каждый человек имеет право свободно передвигаться и выбирать себе местожительство в пределах каждого государства.

(7)

Все люди равны перед законом и имеют право (to be entitled), без всякого различия, на равную защиту закона.

96

Progress Test (Unit I, II, III) 1. Translate the following chunks either into Russian or into English: … сфера применения Венской конвенции о праве международных договоров, to advocate the Magna Carta, иметь решающий голос в случае равного распределения голосов, разрыв консульских отношений, совпадающий голос постоянных членов Совета Безопасности, to abide by the rulings of the ICJ, договаривающиеся государства и отношения между ними, устав Лиги Наций, to condemn arbitrary arrest and detention, consent to be bound by a treaty, судебное разбирательство, а именно, OSCE, to alleviate the problem, inherent right to life, в соответствии с пунктами повестки дня, to foster cooperation, беспристрастность временного судьи, совместное заявление, NPT, правоохранительные органы. 2. Translate the following sentences into English: • Международный пакт о гражданских и политических правах является обязательным для государств - участников этого соглашения. • В прошлом году эта страна присоединилась к договору о нераспространении ядерного оружия. • Данный двусторонний договор оказал существенное влияние на достижение общих целей грядущих поколений. • Ситуация обостряется тем фактом, что данное физическое лицо, как утверждают свидетели, подвергалось пыткам.

97

Unit IV. Section 1 State boundaries. State Coastal Zones. Air and Outer space Task 1. Work in groups: arrange the vocabulary items. Put the following words or word combinations under one of the headings below. contracting states, NASA, contiguous zone, the 1944 Chicago Convention, high seas, satellite, internal waters, cannon-shot rule, weightlessness flight, subsoil, to be used for peaceful purposes, warships, space debris, right of innocent passage, baseline, ICAO, nautical mile, ISS, hot pursuit, EEZ, geostationary orbit, complete and exclusive sovereignty, free of national appropriation, ITLOS, shuttle, territorial waters, hijacking, civil aircraft, sea bed, celestial bodies, Inmarsat, breadth, not to be prejudicial to the security of the coastal state, continental shelf, common heritage of mankind, IMO, land-locked state, LOS 1982, res communis. Air Space

Outer Space

Coastal Zones

Task 2. State Coastal Zones. a). Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Прибрежное государство имеет полный и исключительный суверенитет над своими внутренними водами и портами. Прибрежное государство осуществляет (to exercise) полный суверенитет над территориальным морем. Указанный суверенитет распространяется (to extend to) на воздушное пространство, равно как на его дно и недра. Суда всех стран пользуются правом мирного прохода через территориальное море. Проход яв-

98

ляется мирным, если им не нарушается безопасность прибрежного государства. Прилежащая зона не может простираться за пределы 24 морских миль от исходных линий, от которых отмеряется ширина территориального моря. 2) В соответствии с Конвенцией ООН по морскому праву 1982 г., открытое море свободно для всех государств, как прибрежных, так и не имеющих выхода к морю. Свобода открытого моря включает, в частности (в числе прочего), свободу судоходства, свободу полетов, свободу рыболовства и свободу прокладывания (to lay) подводных кабелей и трубопроводов (a pipeline). 3) Право преследования по горячим следам прекращается, как только преследуемое судно входит в территориальное море своего государства или третьего государства. b) Match the state coastal zones with the following numbers. Define the legal regime of each coastal zone.

99

Task 3. a) Watch the video about World Piracy paying special attention to the following words and word combinations: … hot spot, impunity, safe haven, daring attacks, ransom, concerted efforts, crew, the Gulf of Aden, strait, to roam freely, to thrive, to crack down (+on), to fall apart (a country), to deploy, to decline markedly, to quell (piracy). b) The following numerals are mentioned in the video. What do they refer to? 240

1990s

30

2009

2006

130

15

960

c) Answer the following questions: • • • • • •

Where do pirates’ attacks occur? Where did pirates use to operate? Where do the majority of attacks occur now? What are the notorious piracy havens? Whose ships patrol the Indian Ocean? What is required to solve the problem of world piracy?

Task 4. Air Space and Outer Space. Translate the following sentences into English: 1) Первым многосторонним договором, установившим общие принципы международного воздушного права, стала Парижская конвенция 1919 г. Она признала полный и исключительный суверенитет государства над своим воздушным пространством. 2) Конвенция о Международной гражданской авиации применяется только к гражданским воздушным судам. Чикагская конвенция не применяется к государственным воздушным судам. Воздушные суда, используемые на военной, таможенной и поли-

100

цейской службах, рассматриваются как государственные воздушные суда. 3) Захват судна означает применение или угрозу применения силы в целях осуществления контроля (to exercise control) над воздушным судном. 4) Космическим пространством считается орбитальный минимум (в настоящее время - примерно 100-110 км). Космическое пространство, включая Луну и другие небесные тела, не подлежит национальному присвоению. Луна и другие небесные тела являются достоянием всего человечества. Космическое пространство используется всеми государствами – участниками договора исключительно в мирных целях. Task 5. Focus on the Vocabulary. Fill in the gaps with the following vocabulary items. One item can be used twice. Don’t forget to add the appropriate prepositions if necessary. Translate the sentences into Russian. sovereignty

prejudicial hot pursuit (space) debris subject

applicable

•

The cops and the dogs set out after them in _________________ .

•

One of the specific topics of concern is the deliberate explosion of satellites as part of space weapons testing, which has been a major source of ________________ .

•

The directors consider that such disclosures would be seriously ______________ the interests of the group.

•

The moon and other celestial bodies are not ___________ national appropriation.

•

Coastal states exercise ______________ their territorial sea up to 12 nautical miles in breadth, but foreign vessels are allowed innocent passage through the waters.

101

•

The offer is only _____________ bookings for double rooms.

•

A resident of Brown Road expressed the fear that the new infirmary might be _______________ his property.

•

Emergency teams are still clearing __________ from the plane crash.

Task 6. Choose one of the following topics and prepare a presentation: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5)

Space tourism. Virgin Galactic. NASA. Space debris. ISS.

Task 7. Space Quiz: Check your knowledge. 1. If you go to the gym ‘once in a blue moon’, how often do you go there? a) often b) very rarely c) once a week d) once a month 2. Pluto is __________ planet from the Sun. a) the most far b) the farest c) the furthest d) the nearest 3. If you are ‘over the moon’ about something, how do you feel? a) very happy b) stressed c) very sad d) bored 4. The Sun is the center of our _________ system. a) sunny b) sun c) solar d) sunshine

102

5. On stepping on the moon, Neil Armstrong said, “That’s one small step for man, one _______ leap for mankind”. a) enormous b) giant c) huge d) long 6. Do you believe in _______? You know, creatures from another planet. a) strangers b) aliens c) foreigners d) outsiders 7. U.F.O. stands for “unidentified flying object”, but what’s another name for this type of spaceship? a) flying saucer b) flying plate c) flying hat d) flying cup 8. “Everyone is a moon and has a dark side which he never shows to anybody”, said _________ a) Mark Twain b) Neil Armstrong c) Ernest Hemingway d) Oscar Wilde 9. The Agreement governing activities of states on the Moon and other celestial bodies (the Moon Agreement) _________ in 1979. a) is adopted b) has been adopted c) was adopted d) adopted

103

Unit IV. Section 2 Statehood and Recognition The Rights and Duties of States Task 1. Complete the text using the words from the box: "Yankee imperialism”; a permanent population; armed intervention; Franklin D. Roosevelt; customary international law; states; predecessor; Cordell Hull; a government; the Montevideo Convention; subject to; Brazil; Herbert Hoover. A subject of international law is a body or entity that is capable of possessing and exercising rights and duties under international law. _____________ are the most important and most powerful of the subjects of international law. Article 1 of ____________________ on the Rights and Duties of States 1933 says that the ‘state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) __________________; (b) a defined territory; (c) __________________; and (d) a capacity to enter into relations with other states.’ The Convention was a treaty (which was later accepted as part of ________________ ) signed at the Seventh International Conference of American States. At the conference, United States President _______________ and Secretary of State _________________declared the so-called Good Neighbor Policy, which opposed U.S. ____________________ in inter-American affairs. This was a diplomatic attempt of the US President to reverse the perception of _________________ , brought about by policies instituted (largely) by his _______________ , President _______________. The convention was signed by 19 states. The acceptance of three of the

104

signatories was ____________ minor reservations. Those states were ________ , Peru and the United States. Task 2. The recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia will have repercussions both in Russia and around the world. a) Read the article “How Russian decision will affect world’s unrecognized states” (Russia Today, August, 2008) and write down Russian equivalents for the words and expressions in bold type. Provide your comments on the issue in question. b)

What is the voting procedure in the Security Council?

With 192 member states, the global world order is firmly wedded to the United Nations. So before any aspiring state can be formally recognized, it has to meet the approval of the UN General Assembly. And there are a couple of key hurdles to overcome. It needs the consent of the Security Council, comprised of 15 countries and most importantly, the five permanent members of the Council. Today, there are a number of regions which are not recognized at all or only partially so. Kosovo is the most recent example, having been recognized by more than 40 states, including the US, Canada and most of the European Union. When Kosovo unilaterally declared independence this year, the veto exercised by permanent members Russia and China showed how the obstacles for full international recognition can be insurmountable. The Republic of Somaliland, located in north east Africa, has not been recognized by any state since it declared independence from Somalia in 1991. Despite its fragile status, Somaliland is in a territorial dispute with Somalia, claiming the entire area of the former British Somaliland protectorate. Meanwhile, the north eastern region of Maakhir has in turn declared a separate, unrecognized autonomous state within Somalia. Yet another separatist movement in the western Awdal province makes the international recognition for either of them virtually unachievable. If any of the breakaway regions is officially recognized, the whole of Somalia will collapse like a house of cards.

105

Four more regions, all parts of former Soviet republics, unilaterally proclaimed independence in the early 1990s. They are Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Nagorno-Karabakh and Transdniester. They acknowledge each other's status but this is not shared by the rest of the world. Transdniester is located in a strip between the Dniester River and Ukraine. After the dissolution of the USSR, Transdniester declared independence, leading to a four-month long conflict with Moldova. Although the ceasefire has held, the territory's political status remains unresolved, and Transdniester de facto independent since then. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, also known as the Artsakh Republic, is de facto independent, located about 270 km west of the Azerbaijani capital Baku, close to the border with Armenia. The predominantly Armenian-populated region was long disputed between Armenia and Azerbaijan. However, while the Soviet Union had control over the area, the situation was relatively calm. In the final years of the Soviet Union, the region re-emerged as a source of dispute between Armenia and Azerbaijan, culminating in conflict fought from 1988 to 1994. On December 10, 1991, as the Soviet Union was collapsing, a referendum held in Nagorno-Karabakh and the neighboring Shahumian region resulted in a declaration of independence from Azerbaijan. Since the ceasefire in 1994, most of Nagorno-Karabakh, as well as a number of regions of Azerbaijan in close proximity, remain under joint Armenian and Nagorno-Karabakh military control. There is another group of countries which have been accepted as sovereign states by UN member-countries, but not by the UN itself. They therefore cannot be considered fully independent states. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, situated in the former Spanish colony of Western Sahara, proclaimed independence almost 40 years ago from Morocco. Since then it has remained a partially recognized

106

state. It claims sovereignty over the entire territory of Western Sahara, parts of which are controlled by Morocco and Mauritania. Taiwan – formed after the Chinese Civil War – has essentially been independent for half a century. But China still regards it as a rebel region which must be reunited. It only has diplomatic relations with around two dozen countries and lost its UN seat in 1971. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus declared independence in 1983, nine years after a Greek Cypriot coup - which was attempting to annex the island to Greece - triggered an invasion by Turkey. Northern Cyprus has only been recognized by Turkey, on which it is fully dependent. Israel, whose own status is itself disputed by some of its neighbours, has a breakaway region of its own: The Palestinian National Authority. It was formed in 1994, created to administer a limited form of selfgovernment in the Palestinian territories for a period of five years, during which final-status negotiations would take place. The interim period expired in 1999, leaving the parties without any kind of solution. The situation has been a political stalemate since. Task 3. Focus on the Vocabulary. a) Match each word and expression on the left with the appropriate definition on the right. 1) to overcome a hurdle 2) repercussions 3) stalemate 4) to be wedded to 5) to trigger 6) to annex 7) to veto

a situation in which it seems impossible to settle an argument or disagreement to refuse to allow it to happen to deal successfully with the problem to take control of a country or area next to your own the effects of the action or event, especially bad effects that continue for some time to believe strongly in a particular idea or way of doing things to make something happen very quickly, especially a series of events

107

b) Translate the following sentences from English into Russian in writing. In small groups, practice the translation of these sentences from Russian into English. •

repercussion

(1) It was a major economic crisis with serious social and political repercussions. (2) The collapse of these two leading houses will have repercussions for the whole industry. (3) The disaster has already had serious political repercussions. •

hurdles

(1) But administration faces two major hurdles in efforts to get the treaty ratified. (2) They are hoping to enlist the minister’s help in overcoming the financial hurdles. •

stalemate

(1) It looks like the long-running dispute could end in stalemate. (2) The proposal was aimed at ending the stalemate between the environmentalists and business groups. (3) Because of the budget stalemate, the $ 175 million only became available in May, Lockhart said. •

to be wedded to something

(1) The Republicans were wedded to conservative fiscal views that stressed the importance of balancing the budget and cutting taxes. (2) On the whole the working class is still wedded to the Labour Party. •

to trigger

(1) A vicious circle has triggered her problems. (2) Disagreeing on seven out of ten occasions triggers a defensive reaction or even further disagreement. (3) His action triggered a massive response from the government.

108

•

to annex

(1) A separate agreement between the eleven is annexed to the treaty. (2) In 1783 she proceeded to annex the nominally independent Crimea and to construct a large Black Sea fleet. Task 4. Listening Comprehension. Listen to the interview with Daniel Franklin who is speaking about democracy. a) Explain in English the meaning of the following expressions and provide the context in which they are used in the interview. … to reconcile, anarchy, entrenched, to be confined to, to have ups and downs, to be prone to, bastions of democracy, a steep decline in voting, a bid to secure democracy, to be better off, vigorous debates, to have advances and reversals, complacency, civil liberties, to assert one’s views, a genuine choice of candidates. b) Answer the following questions: 1) What are the main points about democracy according to the speaker? 2) Is democracy determined to some extent by culture or by geography? 3) Where is democracy most deeply entrenched? 4) In what respect does the speaker provide an example of China and Thailand? 5) What elements of democracy are suffering in the USA and Great Britain? Task 5. Read the following provisions taken from “The Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation Among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.” Write down Russian equivalents for the words and expressions in bold type. Every State has the duty to refrain in its international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political inde-

109

pendence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations. Such a threat or use of force constitutes a violation of international law and the Charter of the United Nations and shall never be employed as a means of settling international issues. States have the duty to refrain from acts of reprisal involving the use of force. Every State has the duty to refrain from organizing or encouraging the organization of irregular forces or armed bands, including mercenaries, for incursion into the territory of another State. No State may use or encourage the use of economic, political or any other type of measures to coerce another State in order to obtain from it the subordination of the exercise of its sovereign rights and to secure from it advantages of any kind. Also, no State shall organize, assist, foment, finance, incite or tolerate subversive, terrorist or armed activities directed towards the violent overthrow of the regime of another State, or interfere in civil strife in another State. All States shall pursue in good faith negotiations for the early conclusion of a universal treaty on general and complete disarmament under effective international control and strive to adopt appropriate measures to reduce international tensions and strengthen confidence among States. Every State has the duty to promote through joint and separate action universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms in accordance with the Charter. Every State has an inalienable right to choose its political, economic, social and cultural systems, without interference in any form by another State. Every State has the duty to fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by it in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

110

Task 6. Work in groups. You are members of some governing body. Come up with your own Convention on the Rights and Duties of States. Try to preserve the appropriate composition and the style of such an instrument. Make use of the following sample: Convention on the Rights and Duties of States THE STATES PARTIES to this Convention, Bearing in mind the importance of maintaining and strengthening international peace and security, Considering that the faithful observance of ______________________ is the greatest importance for _______________________ and for the implementation of other purposes of the ______, Convinced that there is an urgent need to _____________ for the prevention of ____________, Believing that ____________________________________ Have agreed as follows: ARTICLE 1 ARTICLE 2 ……….. ARTICLE 10 The present Convention shall be open for signature by all States, until __________ at United Nations Headquarters in New York. ARTICLE 11 The present Convention is subject to ratification. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited with _____________ ARTICLE 12 The present Convention shall remain open for accession by any State. The instruments of accession _________________________

111

ARTICLE 13 The present Convention shall enter into force on the ________ day following the date of deposit of the twenty-second instrument of ratification or accession with ___________ ARTICLE 14 The original of the present Convention, of which the Russian, English _______ are equally authentic, shall be deposited with _______ who shall send certified copies thereof to all States. IN WHITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned, being duly authorized thereto by their respective Governments, have signed the present Convention at (city)______ on (date) _______________.

112

Unit IV. Section 3 International Responsibility Task 1. Match the following verbs with their definitions: to extradite to bar to imperil to preclude to set forth to award to comply with to give rise to

to forbid, prohibit (by legal action) to prevent; make impossible to send (someone who may be guilty of a crime and who has escaped to another country or state) back for trial to be the cause of; lead to (something bad or undesirable) to give, esp. as a result of an official decision to act in accordance with a demand , rule, etc; to abide by to declare to put in danger; to endanger

Task 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian: •

The temporary cease-fire agreement does not preclude possible retaliatory attacks later. Human rights treaties often preclude necessity as a defense.

•

The whole project is imperiled by lack of funds. It goes without saying that any infringements of these new restrictions will imperil what is already an extremely sensitive access agreement.

•

The English murderer was caught by the French police and extradited to Britain. Is there an extradition treaty between these two countries?

•

Even these companies are barred from selling to the domestic market. They seized his passport and barred him from leaving the country.

113

•

She has been awarded a scholarship to study at Oxford. A Nobel Prize was awarded to Waksman in 1952.

•

The concept of legal equality is set forth in the Statute of the International Court of Justice.

Task 3. Breach of international obligations may give rise to an appropriate remedy, including collective sanctions, restitution, indemnity and satisfaction. Explain in a nutshell the idea of each remedy. Task 4. Read about the circumstances precluding wrongfulness (the extracts were taken from the book International Law (2001) by Antonio Cassesse and from the lecture The Nature and Forms of International Responsibility (2006) by James Crawford and Simon Olleson. Can you think of your own examples of their implementation by States? A state’s violation of international law may be justified on the grounds of consent of the State injured, self-defense, countermeasures, force majeure, distress, state of necessity. Consent to carry out activities that would otherwise be prohibited by international law renders those activities lawful. A State may consent to station foreign troops on national territory, to allow foreign military aircraft to cross the airspace, to authorize a foreign state to fish in territorial waters, etc. However, consent is not valid if it is directed to permitting activities contrary to jus cogens (such as consent for foreign armed forces to enter the territory to massacre civilians or a specific ethnic group). In certain circumstances, a State may permissibly disregard other international obligations whilst acting in self-defense in accordance with Article 51 of the UN Charter which says: Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defense shall be imme-

114

diately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and responsibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore international peace and security. It should be stated that the failure of the UN collective system for enforcing peace resulted, among other things, in an expansion of resort to self-defense; in other words, it led to the invocation by states of Article 51 in cases which hardly amounted to self-defense or even in cases that were clearly not covered by the provision at issue. Thus, one may mention the US attack on Libya carried out on 14 April 1986. This attack, which caused the death of 37 persons, almost all civilians, was made in response to the bombing, in West Berlin, on 5 April, of a disco, allegedly carried out by Libyans. The US justified their bombing as follows: ‘Over a considerable period of time Libya has openly targeted American citizens and US installations. The most recent instance was in West Berlin on 5 April, where Libya was directly responsible for a bombing which resulted in the death of one US soldier and injury to a large number of American servicemen and other persons’. On 20 August 1998, US submarines fired missiles against a military training camp in Afghanistan and a chemical plant in Sudan. This attack was in response to terrorist attacks organized by the group led by Osama bin Laden, including the shelling of the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. The justification for the US action was given by the US President on 21 August 1998 as follows: ‘The US acted in exercise of our inherent right of self-defense consistent with Article 51 of the UN Charter. These strikes were necessary and proportionate response to the imminent threat of further terrorist attacks against US personnel and facilities. These strikes were intended to prevent and deter additional attacks by a clearly identified terrorist threat. The targets were selected because they served to facilitate directly the efforts of terrorists specifically identified with attacks on US personnel and facilities and posed continuing threat to US lives’. Countermeasures taken by a State in response to an international wrongful act of another State are not wrongful acts, but are recognized

115

as a valid means of self-help as long as certain conditions are respected. Countermeasures as described in the ILC Articles only cover the suspension of performance by a State of one or more of its obligations. Certain obligations, such as that to refrain from the use of force, those of humanitarian character prohibiting the taking of reprisals, and those under other peremptory norms may not be suspended by way of countermeasures. It may suffice to mention that the current international practice of states includes cases where countries, individually or jointly, have decided to react against gross violations of basic international norms by other States by adopting economic measures against the delinquent State. Thus, for example, the USA put into effect economic countermeasures (suspension of deliveries of corn, withholding of industrial goods, etc.) against the USSR as a consequence of the Soviet ‘invasion’ of Afghanistan in 1979. Force majeure is defined as follows in Article 24(1) of International Law Commission Draft (2000): ‘the occurrence of an irresistible force or of an unforeseen event, beyond the control of the State, making it materially impossible in the circumstances to perform the obligation’. In the Rainbow Warrior case France claimed that urgent medical reasons had imposed repatriation to France, without the consent of New Zealand, of a French agent, Major Mafart, from a French military facility on the island of Hao. For France those medical reasons amounted to force majeure. The Arbitral Tribunal rejected the French claim. Quoting the works of the ILC, it held that force majeure ‘is generally invoked to justify involuntary, or at least unintentional conduct’ and relates to ‘an irresistible force or unforeseen event’ against which the State has no remedy and which makes it ‘materially impossible’ for the State to act in conformity with this obligation. The Tribunal went on to note that the test for applying the doctrine of force majeure was one of ‘absolute and material impossibility’, whereas a ‘circumstance rendering performance [of the obligation] more difficult or burdensome’ did not constitute such a circumstance precluding wrongfulness.

116

According to the ILC, illustrations of distress are the unauthorized entry of an aircraft into foreign territory to save the life of passengers, or the entry of a military ship into a foreign port without authorization due to a storm (this happened in the case of The Creole). In the Rainbow Warrior case the Tribunal held that France’s violation of the obligation to obtain the prior consent of new Zealand to the removal to mainland France of Major Mafart was justified by distress, namely ‘the existence of very exceptional circumstances of extreme urgency’ involving medical considerations. However, the Tribunal found that France incurred responsibility in not returning Major Mafart to the island of Hao once the medical reasons had terminated. State of necessity has been defined in Article 26 (1) of ILC Draft (2000) as the condition where an otherwise unlawful act is performed and such act ‘(a) is the only condition for the State to safeguard an essential interest against a grave and imminent peril; (b) does not seriously impair an essential interest of the State or States towards which the obligation exists, or of the international community as a whole’. The case of Torrey Canyon can be mentioned. In 1967, the Liberian oil tanker had run aground on the high seas off the British coast. To avoid further damage to the British and French coasts and the sea environment, and as salvage operations were hindered by rough seas, the UK bombed the vessel so as to open the cargo tanks and burn the oil therein. The British authorities invoked necessity and no concerned State protested. The ILC also relied upon the case as an instant of necessity. In 1969 the International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in cases of Oil Pollution Casualties was made: it among other things authorized States parties ‘to take such measures on the high seas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave and imminent dangers to their coastline’ from oil pollution. The two circumstances of distress and necessity have much in common in that they both excuse conduct which would otherwise be wrongful because of extreme circumstances. Distress and necessity are to be distinguished from force majeure in that violation of the obligation in question is theoretically avoidable, although absolute compliance of the State with its international obligation is not required; a State is not required to

117

sacrifice human life or to suffer inordinate damage to its interests in order to fulfill its international obligations. Task 5. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following expressions: • • • • • • • • • • •

устраивать резню, бойню; перебивать; ущемлять (нарушать) неотъемлемое право; совместимый, согласующийся с чем-либо; неминуемая угроза; удерживать (от чего-либо), отпугивать; обременительный, тягостный; а именно; смягчать; смягчающие обстоятельства; императивные нормы; ответное действие; отместка; виновное государство (государство- правонарушитель).

118

Revision of the Vocabulary Items of Unit IV Task 1. Provide English equivalents for the following items: договаривающиеся государства; обладать полным и исключительным суверенитетом над воздушным пространством; Конвенция о Международной гражданской авиации, 1944; ИКАО; захват судна, угон судна; космическое пространство; подлежать национальному присвоению; исследовать космическое пространство; небесные тела; достояние всего человечества; геостационарная орбита; космический мусор; общая вещь (лат.); Конвенция ООН по морскому праву, 1982; ИМО; измерять в морских милях; государство, не имеющее выхода к морю; прибрежное государство; свобода судоходства, свобода полетов; пользоваться правом мирного прохода; внутренние воды; территориальное море; прилежащая зона; континентальный шельф; исключительная экономическая зона; открытое море; морское дно и недра; пролив, залив; преследование по горячим следам; ущемляющий, наносящий ущерб чьей-либо собственности; совместные усилия; опасный район, «горячая точка»;

119

выкуп, требовать выкуп; процветать, преуспевать; пристанище, укрытие, прибежище; сломить сопротивление кого-либо, принять крутые меры; международное обычное право; субъекты международного права; государственные границы; постоянное население; вступать в официальные отношения с другими государствами; подписавшая сторона; оговорка (в международном договоре); признание государства (частичное признание государства); преодолевать барьеры, препятствия; непреодолимые препятствия; наложить вето на решение; заявить (2 варианта) о своей независимости в одностороннем порядке; прекращение огня; присоединять (включать в состав государства) территорию; аннексия, присоединение, включение в состав; вызывать, давать начало (государственному) перевороту; безвыходное положение, тупик; иметь серьезные экономические последствия; право на суверенитет; равенство государств; право на оборону; право на осуществление внешних сношений; воздерживаться от актов репрессалий; наемник; вторжение, набег на территорию другого государства; разжигать гражданскую войну, подрывную деятельность; выполнять обязательства добросовестно; быть несовместимым с целями ООН; вмешиваться во внутренние дела государства; уважение и соблюдение прав человека;

120

угроза миру; подстрекать террористическую деятельность; вмешиваться в гражданскую войну; принуждать государство делать что-либо; стремиться уменьшить напряжение; полное разоружение; неотъемлемое право; выдавать (арестованного другому государству), проводить экстрадицию; предотвращать, пресекать; препятствовать; устраивать резню, бойню; перебивать; излагать, формулировать, изъяснять; подвергать опасности; препятствовать, запрещать; ущемлять (нарушать) неотъемлемое право; неминуемая угроза; удерживать (от чего-либо), отпугивать; обременительный, тягостный; смягчать; смягчающие обстоятельства; форс-мажор (непреодолимые обстоятельства); императивные нормы; ответное действие; отместка; виновное государство (государство – правонарушитель); средство правовой защиты; реституция; денежная компенсация; сатисфакция; репарация; нарушение международных обязательств.

121

Unit V. Section 1 Diplomatic Relations. Diplomatic Corps Task 1. Choose one of the statements and comment on it: •

Diplomacy: the ability to tell someone to go to Hell so that he’ll look forward to making the trip.

•

Diplomacy without arms is like music without instruments.

•

Diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between the governments of independent states.

Task 2. a) Study the following definitions. Provide their Russian equivalents. •

gunboat diplomacy - the practice of threatening to use force against another country to make them agree to your demands

•

shuttle diplomacy – international talks in which someone travels between countries and talks to members of the government, for example to make a peace agreement

b) Translate the sentences paying special attention to the words and expressions in bold type. Practice their back translation. 1) The car was unmarked, there were no military or diplomatic plates, no official driver, no bodyguard. 2) He joined the diplomatic service and was posted to Ankara. 3) Robson was trying to be as diplomatic as possible - he didn't want to risk losing a promotion. 4) The governments of Britain and Syria are anxious to re-establish diplomatic relations. 5) Stories, however, have circulated that the Bush administration may be more open than was President Clinton to resuming diplomatic relations.

122

6) Bonn has not cut official diplomatic relations with Baghdad but it withdrew all diplomatic personnel long ago. 7) It was an outrageous action, the worst violation of the basic principle of diplomatic immunity in modern history. Task 3. a) Translate the following chunks either into Russian or into English: … дипломатическое право, глава государства, глава дипломатического представительства, ambassador, the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, to comprise, in relation to privileges and immunities, правительство, министр иностранных дел, премьер-министр, государственный секретарь (США), посольство, sending State, receiving State, to be in charge of the current administrative affairs, to designate a member of the administrative or technical staff, consular relations, дипломатический корпус. b) Render the following passage into English: Венская конвенция о дипломатических сношениях была принята на международной конференции, проходившей в Вене со 2 марта по 18 апреля 1961 г. Конвенция подлежала ратификации. Ратификационные грамоты должны быть сданы на хранение Генеральному секретарю Организации Объединенных Наций. СССР подписал Конвенцию 18 апреля 1961 г. В 1964 году Конвенция была ратифицирована и вступила в силу. На 1 января 2001 г. Конвенцию ратифицировали, или сдали документы о присоединении 185 государств. Task 4. Read the following information paying special attention to the words and word combinations in bold type. Define the categories of the staff of the mission. The Vienna Convention, in Article 1, divides the staff of the mission into the following categories:

123

1) The diplomatic staff, namely, members of the mission having diplomatic rank as counselors, diplomatic secretaries, or attachés. 2) The administrative and technical staff, such as clerical assistants and archivists. 3) The service staff, who are the other employees of the mission itself, such as drivers and kitchen staff, referred to in the Convention as ‘in the domestic service of the mission’. Article 14 1. Heads of mission are divided into three classes - namely: a) That of ambassadors or nuncios accredited to Heads of State, and other heads of mission of equivalent rank; b) That of envoys, ministers and internuncios accredited to Heads of State; c) That of chargés d' affaires accredited to Ministers for Foreign Affairs. 2. Except as concerns precedence and etiquette, there shall be no differentiation between heads of mission by reason of their class. Article 19 1. If the post of head of the mission is vacant, or if the head of the mission is unable to perform his functions a chargé d'affaires ad interim shall act provisionally as head of the mission. The name of the chargé d'affaires ad interim shall be notified, either by the head of the mission or in case he is unable to do so, by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the sending State to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the receiving State or such other ministry as may be agreed. 2. In cases where no member of the diplomatic staff of the mission is present in the receiving State, a member of the administrative and tech-

124

nical staff may, with the consent of the receiving State, be designated by the sending State to be in charge of the current administrative affairs of the mission. Task 5. Read the text about the diplomatic corps. Write down Russian equivalents for the expressions in bold type. The term diplomatic corps denotes the entirety of all diplomatic representatives, ambassadors and ministers (in case of the Vatican, nuncios and internuncios), as well as charges d'affaires. However, in a broader sense, the diplomatic corps includes not only heads of missions but also the diplomatic personnel headed by them, i.e. counselors, ministerscounselor, first, second, third secretaries and attachés, and those persons who enjoy diplomatic status: trade representatives and their deputies, military, air force, and naval attachés and their assistants appointed to diplomatic posts, various kinds of experts on economic relations, scientific and technical cooperation (in the absence of a trade representative), culture and agriculture, etc. The diplomatic corps includes also family members of the above-mentioned officials. The diplomatic corps has no status of a political organization or a body based on the norms of international law. However, it allows more effective solutions of certain protocol and ceremonial questions of concern to all diplomatic missions in the receiving state, makes it easier to brief them on all the aspects of the country's political course, and facilitates the contacts with the country's official circles and among the missions themselves. The diplomatic corps is headed by the doyen. Usually, it is the head of a diplomatic mission with longer term of stay in the given country. It should be mentioned that only a high-ranking diplomatic officer may become a doyen. In some countries, primarily catholic ones, papal nuncio is always considered the doyen regardless of the date of his accreditation. Though the doyen is in no position to give orders to other members of the diplomatic corps, this post has always been most respected. From

125

time to time the doyen holds unofficial consultative meetings with heads of diplomatic missions on different matters of protocol or of a ceremonial nature, usually in the course of a luncheon or dinner organized for heads of missions for that purpose. Such receptions, including farewell parties held in the honor of a head of a diplomatic mission leaving the country, are financed from the contributions of the missions themselves. The collection of contributions to the fund of the diplomatic corps is entrusted to the treasurer who is elected, on his consent, from among the heads of missions. Periodically, the treasurer reports to the diplomatic corps on how the resources are spent. As the head of the mission who has been in office longer than the others the doyen may brief his colleagues just arriving to the host country on customs and protocol practice of that country, though his recommendations are not considered obligatory. The doyen often speaks on behalf of the diplomatic corps at festive events in the host country. (From: E.N. Mouratov. Diplomatic Documents and Diplomatic Correspondence in English, 2005.)

126

Task 6. Match the diplomatic representatives with their proper definitions paying special attention to the words in bold type. 1) ambassador

1) the lowest ranking official of the diplomatic service, this rank being abolished in many countries and replaced by the 'third secretary'; 2) a senior diplomatic official attached to a mission for specialized services, e.g.: military (naval, air or commercial)

2) nuncio

a diplomatic representative inferior in rank to an ambassador or minister who is sent to another country and accredited to the minister for foreign affairs; head of the mission (3rd class). a papal permanent diplomatic representative in another country

3) internuncio 4) chargé d’affaires

a top-ranking diplomat accredited to a foreign government or to the head of state as a resident representative

5) envoy

a senior officer of the diplomatic corps

6) attaché

a senior secretary to an embassy. At important embassies, such as those in Paris, Washington, he is given the rank of Minister. It is he who, in the absence of the head of a mission, acts as ‘chargé d’affaires’. a papal representative ranking below a nuncio

7) counselor 8) doyen

a diplomatic agent, esp. one who ranks immediately below an ambassador

9) chargé d’affaires ad interim

the counselor or secretary of an embassy or legation who automatically assumes charge of a diplomatic mission in the temporary absence of an ambassador or minister. This official becomes, for the time being, head of the mission, conducts negotiations with the foreign government, and reports to his own government.

127

Unit V. Section 2 Diplomatic Documents Letters of Credence. Letters of Recall Task 1. a) Read the information about the Letters of Credence and Letters of Recall. b) Translate the following exhibits into English. Comment on their lexical and stylistic peculiarities. The new head of mission should be provided by his government with official letters called "letters of credence", or, colloquially, "credentials". A letter of credence formally grants diplomatic accreditation to a named individual to be their ambassador in the country of the head of state receiving the letter. A letter of recall is the opposite, a letter sent from one head of state to another head of state recalling an ambassador, either as a means of diplomatic protest or because the diplomat is being reassigned elsewhere and is being replaced by another envoy. These letters are placed in an envelope sealed with wax, and must, in principle, be opened by the head of state at the time of presentation. These letters of credence (as well as letters of recall) are traditionally somewhat ornate in style. Here are some examples: 1.

Letters of Credence

Exhibit 1 William Jefferson Clinton President of the United States of America To His Excellency Boris Yeltsin, President of the Russian Federation Excellency, I have appointed Thomas R. Pickering, a distinguished citizen of the United States, to represent me before your Government as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the United States of America.

128

He is well aware of the mutual interests of our two countries and shares my sincere desire to preserve and enhance the long friendship between us. My faith in his high character and ability gives me complete confidence that he will carry out his duties in a manner fully acceptable to you. Accordingly, I entrust him to your confidence. I ask that you receive him favorably and give full credence to what he shall say on the part of the United States as well as to the assurances which he bears of my best wishes for the prosperity of the Russian Federation. Very truly yours, (Signed) William Clinton (Countersigned)

Warren Christopher, Secretary of State

Washington, May 12, 1993 Exhibit 2 (Государственный герб Российской Федерации) ПРЕЗИДЕНТ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ ЕГО ПРЕВОСХОДИТЕЛЬСТВУ ГОСПОДИНУ ТАБО МВУЙЕЛВЕ МБЕКИ, ПРЕЗИДЕНТУ ЮЖНО-АФРИКАНСКОЙ РЕСПУБЛИКИ Ваше Превосходительство, следуя политике укрепления сотрудничества между народами и желая способствовать развитию дружественных отношений между Российской Федерацией и Южно-Африканской Республикой, я решил аккредитовать при Вас, Ваше Превосходительство, гражданина Андрея Анатольевича Кушакова в качестве своего Чрезвычайного и Полномочного Посла.

129

Аккредитуя гражданина Андрея Анатольевича Кушакова настоящей грамотой, прошу Вас, Ваше Превосходительство, принять его с благосклонностью и верить всему тому, что он будет иметь честь излагать Вам от моего имени и от имени Правительства Российской Федерации. В. Путин Москва, Кремль " " 2000 года Скрепил И. Иванов Министр иностранных дел Российской Федерации 2. Letters of Recall Exhibit 3 William Jefferson Clinton President of the United States of America To His Excellency Boris Yeltsin, President of the Russian Federation Excellency, Mr. Robert S. Strauss, who served as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the United States of America to your Government, has resigned his mission. Because he is unable to present his letter of recall in person, I have asked his successor to present it to you. I am confident that Mr. Strauss, in fulfilling the trust imposed upon him, dedicated himself to strengthening the good understanding and friendly relations existing between our two Governments. I sincerely hope that he succeeded in gaining your esteem and good will. Very truly yours, (Signed) William Clinton (Countersigned)

Warren Christopher, Secretary of State

Washington, May 12, 1993

130

Exhibit 4 (Государственный герб Российской Федерации) ПРЕЗИДЕНТ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ ЕГО ПРЕВОСХОДИТЕЛЬСТВУ ГОСПОДИНУ ТАБО МВУЙЕЛВЕ МБЕКИ, ПРЕЗИДЕНТУ ЮЖНО-АФРИКАНСКОЙ РЕСПУБЛИКИ Ваше Превосходительство, мною принято решение дать иное назначение гражданину Вадиму Борисовичу Лукову, отозвав его с поста Чрезвычайного и Полномочного Посла Российской Федерации в ЮжноАфриканской Республике. В уверенности, что гражданин Вадим Борисович Луков неизменно способствовал сохранению дружественных отношений между Российской Федерацией и Южно-Африканской Республикой, прошу Вас, Ваше Превосходительство, принять его отзывные грамоты. В. Путин Москва, Кремль " " 2000 года Скрепил И. Иванов Министр иностранных дел Российской Федерации

131

Task 2. Complete the text about diplomatic documents using the words from the box. Explain the difference between verbal and personal notes. memoranda, entry visas, a mastic official seal, stationery, F.D. Roosevelt, diplomatic missions, condolences, in the third person, the exchange of personal notes.

The generally accepted forms of diplomatic documents often used in correspondence between ____________________, as well as in contacts with the Foreign Ministry of the receiving state, are notes, _______________ , communiqués, aides-mémoires and personal letters. There are mainly two kinds of diplomatic notes: verbal notes (or notes verbale, or notes) and personal notes. They differ in their form. Verbal notes have a number; they are written _______________ (singular or plural) and, as a rule, are unsigned although each verbal note has at its end the seal of the issuing office and, in many states, has the sender’s initials. The verbal note is a rather popular and common form of diplomatic documents. As any other document it may pertain to a serious question or refer to everyday routine matters – informing the Foreign Ministry of the receiving state about the arrival of a new staff-member of the mission or a delegation, asking for _______________, etc. The personal note may also refer both to a very important matter of principle and to a relatively minor problem, or simply contain a piece of information. For example, it is a fact that diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and the United States of America were established through ___________________ between the President of the United States ___________________ and the USSR People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs, M.M. Litvinov.

132

At the same time, the personal note can be sent, for instance, by the ambassador to the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the receiving state, informing him that the ambassador is leaving the country for vacation. Personal notes are sent by ambassadors to their colleagues, the heads of other diplomatic missions. They may convey congratulations on the appointment or election to an important state post, express ___________________, etc. Both personal and verbal notes are typed on special ________________. The form always carries a painted, printed, or engraved national emblem and the name of the sender (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, mission, etc). The verbal note has _____________, while the personal note has none; the verbal note bears the number, and sometimes the index attributed to it by the sender, while the personal note has none. The personal note must be signed by the sender. Task 3. Translate the following notes into Russian. Find in the documents the English equivalents for the complimentary beginning and the complimentary closing: •

пользуется случаем, чтобы возобновить… уверения в своем весьма высоком уважении;

•

свидетельствует свое уважение;

•

имеет честь сообщить. Verbal Notes

Exhibit 1

(State Emblem of Sweden)

MINISTRY FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS No … The Ministry for Foreign Affairs presents its compliments to the Embassy of the Russian Federation and with reference to article 10 of

133

the Agreement between the Kingdom of Sweden and the Russian Federation on Fisheries, signed at Stockholm on 11 December 1992, has the honor to inform the Embassy that the Swedish constitutional requirements for the entry into force of that Agreement have been complied with. The Ministry would appreciate information about the fulfillment of the constitutional requirements of the Russian Federation for the coming into force of the Agreement. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs avails itself of this opportunity to renew to the Embassy of the Russian Federation the assurances of its highest consideration. Stockholm, 15 July, 19…. (Seal of the Ministry) Ryska Federationens Ambassad STOCKHOLM Personal Notes Exhibit 2

New Zealand Embassy MOSCOW 9 October, 19…

Sir, I have the honor to inform you that I am leaving Moscow today upon the termination of my mission as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of New Zealand to the Russian Federation. Until the arrival of my successor, Mr Trevor Hughes, Counsellor, will be in charge of the Embassy in the capacity of Chargé d’Affaires a.i. I should like to take this opportunity to express to Your Excellency my sincere appreciation of the friendly relations, both official and personal, which exist between our two countries and missions. Please accept, Sir, the assurances of my highest consideration. (Signed) Gerald McGhie

134

Ambassador The Chargé d’Affaires a.i. Embassy of Bulgaria MOSCOW Exhibit 3 AUSTRALIAN EMBASSY MOSCOW 4 June, 19… Excellency, I have the honor to inform that I shall be leaving the Russian Federation on Sunday 8 June, 19…, and shall return to the Russian Federation on Wednesday 18 June, 19 … . During my absence from the Russian Federation, the Embassy will be in charge of Mr. (Name), Counsellor, in the capacity of Chargé d’Affaires a.i. Please accept, Excellency, the assurances of my highest consideration. (Signed) (Name) His Excellency Mr. … Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation MOSCOW Task 4. Translate the following communiqué into Russian. Comment on its lexical and stylistic peculiarities. Communiqué is a specific form of a diplomatic document. This is a French term which is used to indicate an official announcement by two or more sides.

135

Colombian Mission to the United Nations 140 East 5-7th Street New York, N.Y. 10022 JOINT COMMUNIQUÉ The Government of the Republic of Colombia and the Government of Fiji, desirous of promoting a spirit of mutual understanding and of developing bonds of friendship and cooperation between the peoples of the two countries, have decided to establish diplomatic relations at Ambassadorial level as of 10 September, 19… . The Governments of both countries are confident that such agreement will contribute to the further reciprocal development of commercial, economic, cultural and other ties, aimed at strengthening international peace and cooperation and promoting the principles of international law in the relations between States. New York, 10 September, 19…. (Signed) Carlos Alban Holguin

(Signed) Winston Thompson

Ambassador Extraordinary and Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Plenipotentiary Permanent Representative of the Permanent Representative of Fiji Republic of Colombia to the to the United Nations United Nations

136

Famous quotations

•

Diplomats write Notes, because they wouldn’t have the nerve to tell the same thing to each other’s face. (William Penn Adair, 1879-1935, an American political satirist.)

Unit V. Section 3 The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations Task 1. Read the text about the VCDR. Give Russian equivalents for the words and word combinations in bold type. From the earliest times international society has recognized the need to protect diplomatic agents so as to enable diplomatic exchange. The rules of international law which govern the establishment and maintenance of such diplomatic relations are now codified in the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. With over 180 parties, the VCDR is amongst the most widely ratified of all international conventions. The VCDR has thus been extraordinarily successful in its aim to create a comprehensive legal framework for the conduct of diplomatic relations. The VCDR seeks to establish a proper balance of the rights of sending and receiving States. The founding principle set out in Article 2 is that diplomatic relations take place by mutual consent. Article 3 then sets out the primary functions of a diplomatic mission: (a) to represent the sending State; (b) to protect the interests of the sending State and its nationals; (c) to negotiate with the government of the receiving State;

137

(d) to ascertain and report to the government of the sending State the conditions and developments within the receiving State; (e) to promote friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and to develop their relations in economic, cultural and scientific fields. The next part of the Convention (Articles 4-19) deals with various procedural questions in relation to the establishment of diplomatic relations, and in particular the appointment and accreditation of diplomatic agents. The consent of the receiving State is required in the form of a prior agrément for the appointment of the head of mission. Article 4 1. The sending State must make certain that the agrément of the receiving State has been given for the person it proposes to accredit as head of the mission to that State. 2. The receiving State is not obliged to give reasons to the sending State for a refusal of agrément. In relation to other diplomatic agents (except defense attachés) the sending State does not have to obtain the prior consent of the receiving State (Article 7). Nevertheless the sending State must provide notification (and as far as possible prior notification) to the receiving State of the arrival and final departure (or termination of the functions) of all members of missions (Article 10). Article 7 Subject to the provisions of articles 5, 8, 9 and 11, the sending State may freely appoint the members of the staff of the mission. In the case of military, naval or air attachés, the receiving State may require their names to be submitted beforehand, for its approval. Furthermore, the receiving State is at any time (including before their arrival in the receiving State), entitled to inform the sending State that the head of the mission or any other member of a mission is persona

138

non grata, or unacceptable, without giving reasons for doing so (Article 9). In such cases the sending State must recall the person or terminate his functions. If the sending State fails to respond the receiving State may after a 'reasonable period' treat the person as no longer enjoying diplomatic privileges and immunities. Task 2. Complete the following statements: • • • • •

The establishment of diplomatic relations осуществляется по …. The functions of a diplomatic mission consist, inter alia, in …….. The agrément means ….. The names of defence attachés are …… If a diplomatic agent is declared persona non grata , he …

Task 3. Analyze Articles 20-28 which concern the privileges and facilities which the sending State must grant to the mission itself. a) Outline the privileges enjoyed by the mission itself. b) Find the English equivalents for the following words and word combinations: • • • • • • • • •

средства передвижения главы представительства; оказывать содействие в приобретении помещений для представительства; помещения представительства неприкосновенны; вторжение; вторгаться; нарушение спокойствия представительства; оскорбление его достоинства; пользоваться иммунитетом от обыска, реквизиции, ареста и исполнительных действий; освобождаться от государственных, районных и муниципальных налогов; архивы представительства неприкосновенны; предоставлять возможности для выполнения функций;

139

• • • • • • • • •

свобода передвижения; консульства аккредитующего государства; закодированные или зашифрованные сообщения (депеши); дипломатическая почта не подлежит ни вскрытию, ни задержанию; пользоваться личной неприкосновенностью; дипломатический курьер не подлежит аресту или задержанию в какой бы то ни было форме; назначать специальных дипломатических курьеров; иммунитеты прекращаются; вознаграждения и сборы, взимаемые представительством при выполнении своих официальных обязанностей, освобождаются от всех налогов, сборов и пошлин.

Article 20 The mission and its head shall have the right to use the flag and emblem of the sending State on the premises of the mission, including the residence of the head of the mission, and on his means of transport. Article 21 1. The receiving State shall either facilitate the acquisition on its territory, in accordance with its laws, by the sending State of premises necessary for its mission or assist the latter in obtaining accommodation in some other way. 2. It shall also, where necessary, assist missions in obtaining suitable accommodation for their members. Article 22 1. The premises of the mission shall be inviolable. The agents of the receiving State may not enter them, except with the consent of the head of the mission. 2. The receiving State is under a special duty to take all appropriate steps to protect the premises of the mission against any intrusion or damage and to prevent any disturbance of the peace of the mission or impairment of its dignity.

140

3. The premises of the mission, their furnishings and other property thereon and the means of transport of the mission shall be immune from search, requisition, attachment or execution. Article 23 1. The sending State and the head of the mission shall be exempt from all national, regional or municipal dues and taxes in respect of the premises of the mission, whether owned or leased, other than such as represent payment for specific services rendered. 2. The exemption from taxation referred to in this Article shall not apply to such dues and taxes payable under the law of the receiving State by persons contracting with the sending State or the head of the mission. Article 24 The archives and documents of the mission shall be inviolable at any time and wherever they may be. Article 25 The receiving State shall accord full facilities for the performance of the functions of the mission. Article 26 Subject to its laws and regulations concerning zones entry into which is prohibited or regulated for reasons of national security, the receiving State shall ensure to all members of the mission freedom of movement and travel in its territory. Article 27 1. The receiving State shall permit and protect free communication on the part of the mission for all official purposes. In communicating with the Government and the other missions and consulates of the sending State, wherever situated, the mission may employ all appropriate means, including diplomatic couriers and messages in code or cipher. However, the mission may install and use a wireless transmitter only with the consent of the receiving State.

141

2. The official correspondence of the mission shall be inviolable. Official correspondence means all correspondence relating to the mission and its functions. 3. The diplomatic bag shall not be opened or detained. 4. The packages constituting the diplomatic bag must bear visible external marks of their character and may contain only diplomatic documents or articles intended for official use. 5. The diplomatic courier, who shall be provided with an official document indicating his status and the number of packages constituting the diplomatic bag, shall be protected by the receiving State in the performance of his functions. He shall enjoy personal inviolability and shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention. 6. The sending State or the mission may designate diplomatic couriers ad hoc. In such cases the provisions of paragraph 5 of this Article shall also apply, except that the immunities therein mentioned shall cease to apply when such a courier has delivered to the consignee the diplomatic bag in his charge. 7. A diplomatic bag may be entrusted to the captain of a commercial aircraft scheduled to land at an authorized port of entry. He shall be provided with an official document indicating the number of packages constituting the bag but he shall not be considered to be a diplomatic courier. The mission may send one of its members to take possession of the diplomatic bag directly and freely from the captain of the aircraft. Article 28 The fees and charges levied by the mission in the course of its official duties shall be exempt from all dues and taxes.

142

Task 4. Render the following passage into English. Give your own estimation of the incident referring to the appropriate articles of the VCDR. 31 октября 1997 г. сотрудниками нью-йоркской полиции был спровоцирован дипломатический инцидент. Постоянный представитель Российской Федерации в ООН С.В. Лавров был на время лишен физической возможности на своем служебном автомобиле проехать к зданию ООН, куда он направлялся для выполнения своей официальной миссии – участия в заседании Совета Безопасности этой организации. В связи с этим инцидентом МИД России заявил временному поверенному в делах США в Москве, что российская сторона возмущена вторжением американских полицейских в автомашину указанного дипломата (у водителя был отнят ключ зажигания) и серьезно обеспокоена бездеятельностью компетентных официальных властей США, фактически попустительствующих подобным преследованиям российских представителей. Было также заявлено, что из происшедшего может сложиться впечатление, что грубое нарушение Венской конвенции о дипломатических сношениях 1961 г. совершено в Нью-Йорке сознательно, причем Государственный департамент США делает вид, что ничего заслуживающего внимания с его стороны не происходит.

International Relations: News Britain and Iran's fraught history (P. Reynolds, World affairs correspondent, BBC News, June 2009) The mutual expulsion of diplomats by Iran and Britain shows that relations between these two old antagonists are alive and bad. The expulsions started on the Iranian side when two British diplomats were expelled with the usual claim of "activities incompatible with their status".

143

This often means spying but it could mean anything and the Iranians did not explain. More out of routine than anger, Britain retaliated in kind. It all followed the speech last Friday by Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei, who called Britain the most "evil" of the "hungry wolves in ambush" on Iran. The expulsions tell us quite a bit about the Iranian government - how paranoiac it remains and how ready to blame foreigners for its troubles. 'Devious' But why has it singled out Britain? There is a history to this. "There is a deep-rooted belief in Iran that Britain is always up to something, is never passive and always devious," said Rosemary Hollis, Middle East analyst at City University in London. "I meet it all the time with Iranians. It is a combination of history and current British involvement with Iran. One issue is the setting up of the BBC Persian TV channel. Another is the presence in the UK of the Iranian opposition group MKO." (The MKO is the People's Mujahedin Organisation, which was taken off the list of terrorist groups by the EU in January.) "But it is also possible that the Iranians are labelling the Brits as meddlers in order to avoid attacking the United States and to leave the door open to Obama," Ms Hollis adds. US President Barack Obama has made an offer of talks with Iran to which Iran has not yet formally responded. Humiliation As for the history, it depends on how far back you want to go. You could go back to 1813 and the Treaty of Gulistan, under which Persia was forced to concede territory to Russia. The treaty was put together by British diplomat Sir Gore Ouseley and is regarded as a humiliation in Iran. The myth - or reality - of the devious British was established. Britain was also instrumental in setting Iran's borders with India in the 1860s. Then in the 1920s, British forces in Iran under General Edmund

144

Ironside (later British land forces commander in World War II after Dunkirk) helped put Reza Shah on the Peacock throne. His son was Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, the Shah overthrown in the Islamic revolution of 1979, so there is a direct link back to British actions decades ago. 'Great Satan' In more modern times, the event that really led to the mistrust of Britain - and the US - was the coup against the elected government of Mohammed Mossadeq in 1953. Mossadeq had wanted to nationalise the AngloIranian Oil Company in which the British had a majority share. The British and Americans organised a coup, put Mossadeq under house arrest and placed Pahlavi firmly in control as Shah. After the Shah himself was removed, the Islamic revolutionaries turned their attention more to the "Great Satan", the US, than the UK. Hostages were taken at the US embassy and President Carter launched a disastrous operation to try to free them. There followed many barren years. There have been brief rapprochements now and then. An alliance of convenience between the Reagan administration and Iran saw the US get arms to Iran in exchange for the freeing of western hostages in Lebanon. During the Iran-Iraq war, which the Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein started, western support for Iraq was deeply resented in Iran. Business as usual More recently, Iran released 15 Royal Navy personnel after seizing them in the Gulf. But that turned out to be a gesture not a new policy of friendship. The British Museum even tried to do its bit with an exhibition this year about the reign of Shah Abbas in the 16th and 17th Centuries, and for which it got the cooperation of the Iranian authorities. But nothing has ever really been resolved and the antagonism brought about by suspicions surrounding Iran's nuclear programme and the sanctions imposed by the Security Council (pressed for by the US and UK) only made relations more tense.

145

It is ironic that in the current crisis, the British government tried to keep a low profile, not wanting its "historical baggage", as one official put it, to be used as an excuse by Iran to blame it for interference. This has happened anyway. It is business as usual. ******************************** (1) Focus on Definitions. Find in the article the words that mean the following: • • • •

to give something (e.g. territory) to someone as a right or privilege, often unwillingly; to force a foreigner to leave a country, especially because they have broken the law or for political reasons; to do something bad to someone because they have done something bad to you; someone who is kept as a prisoner by an enemy so that the other side will do what the enemy demands.

(2) What is so ‘fraught’ about the relations between Britain and Iran? Provide your comments on the issue in question.

Famous quotations •

An ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country. (Henry Wotton, 1568-1639, an English poet, diplomat.)

146

Unit V. Section 4 Privileges and Immunities enjoyed by Diplomatic Agents Task 1. Read the text and outline the privileges and immunities enjoyed by diplomatic agents. International customary law grants a host of privileges and immunities to diplomatic agents. They are laid down in the VCDR, Articles 29-39. Personal immunities accorded to diplomatic agents comprise the following: (1) Personal inviolability. Immunity from arrest and detention. If a diplomatic agent engages in criminal activity, the host State may notify the sending State that he or she is persona non grata. Article 29 The person of a diplomatic agent shall be inviolable. He shall not be liable to any form of arrest or detention. The receiving State shall treat him with due respect and shall take all appropriate steps to prevent any attack on his person, freedom or dignity. (2) Immunity from criminal jurisdiction. (3) Immunity from civil and administrative jurisdiction of the receiving State.

147

Article 31 1. A diplomatic agent shall enjoy immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving State. He shall also enjoy immunity from its civil and administrative jurisdiction, except in the case of: (a) a real action relating to private immovable property situated in the territory of the receiving State, unless he holds it on behalf of the sending State for the purposes of the mission; (b) an action relating to succession in which the diplomatic agent is involved as executor, administrator, heir or legatee as a private person and not on behalf of the sending State; (c) an action relating to any professional or commercial activity exercised by the diplomatic agent in the receiving State outside his official functions. 2. A diplomatic agent is not obliged to give evidence as a witness. 3. No measures of execution may be taken in respect of a diplomatic agent except in the cases coming under sub-paragraphs (a), (b) and (c) of paragraph 1 of this Article, and provided that the measures concerned can be taken without infringing the inviolability of his person or of his residence. 4. The immunity of a diplomatic agent from the jurisdiction of the receiving State does not exempt him from the jurisdiction of the sending State.

However, diplomatic agents are not exempt from administrative or civil proceedings whenever they voluntarily submit to jurisdiction; for instance, after initiating proceedings before a local court, thus waiving their right to immunity from jurisdiction.

148

(4) Inviolability of the diplomatic agent’s private residence, papers, correspondence, and property. Article 30 1. The private residence of a diplomatic agent shall enjoy the same inviolability and protection as the premises of the mission. 2. His papers, correspondence and, except as provided in paragraph 3 of Article 31, his property, shall likewise enjoy inviolability

(5) Exemption from all dues and taxes, personal or real, national, regional, or municipal. Article 34 A diplomatic agent shall be exempt from all dues and taxes, personal or real, national, regional or municipal, except: (a) indirect taxes of a kind which are normally incorporated in the price of goods or services; (b) dues and taxes on private immovable property situated in the territory of the receiving State, unless he holds it on behalf of the sending State for the purposes of the mission; (c) estate, succession or inheritance duties levied by the receiving State, subject to the provisions of paragraph 4 of Article 39; (d) dues and taxes on private income having its source in the receiving State and capital taxes on investments made in commercial undertakings in the receiving State; (e) charges levied for specific services rendered; (f) registration, court or record fees, mortgage dues and stamp duty, with respect to immovable property, subject to the provisions of Article 23.

149

Task 2. Speak about the duties of diplomatic agents towards the receiving State and termination of their functions using the information below. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following word combinations: • • • • • • •

услуга за услугу, компенсация, в обмен на …; вмешиваться во внутренние дела государства; быть несовместимым с чем-либо; разрыв дипломатических отношений; разрывать дипломатические отношения; вверять охрану помещений представительства третьему государству; в частности.

It is important to emphasize that the rights and privileges are not granted for the personal benefit of the individuals concerned, but to ensure the efficient performance of the functions of the diplomatic mission. By way of quid pro quo for the enjoyment of privileges and immunities, members of diplomatic missions owe certain duties towards the receiving State. These are: (a) the duty to respect the laws and regulations of the receiving State (Article 41(1)); (b) the duty not to interfere in the internal affairs of the receiving State (Article 41(1)); (c) all official business of the communication by the mission with the receiving State should be through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the receiving State, or with such other ministries as may be agreed (Article 41(2)); (d) the premises of the mission must be not be used in any manner incompatible with the functions of the mission (Article 41(3)); (e) a diplomatic agent must not carry out any professional or commercial activity for personal profit in the receiving State (Article 42).

150

Finally in Articles 43-46 the convention deals with arrangements on the termination of diplomatic functions and on severance of diplomatic relations.

Article 43 The function of a diplomatic agent comes to an end, inter alia: (a) on notification by the sending State to the receiving State that the function of the diplomatic agent has come to an end; (b) on notification by the receiving State to the sending State that, in accordance with paragraph 2 of Article 9, it refuses to recognize the diplomatic agent as a member of the mission. Article 45 If diplomatic relations are broken off between two States, or if a mission is permanently or temporarily recalled: (a) the receiving State must, even in case of armed conflict, respect and protect the premises of the mission, together with its property and archives; (b) the sending State may entrust the custody of the premises of the mission, together with its property and archives, to a third State acceptable to the receiving State; (c) the sending State may entrust the protection of its interests and those of its nationals to a third State acceptable to the receiving State.

151

Task 3. Case studies. Work in small groups.

International Relations: News US envoy William Burns in Syria visit (BBC News, February, 2010) A top US diplomat has met Syria's President Bashar Assad, as part of a US move to improve ties with Damascus. The visit of Under-Secretary of State William Burns comes after President Barack Obama nominated the first US ambassador to Syria in five years. Mr Burns is also due to meet Syria's Foreign Minister Walid Muallem in Damascus, as part of a regional tour. Analysts say the visit is aimed at loosening Syria's ties with Iran while pushing for a Middle East peace accord. Syrian-American relations have been troubled during the past five years, but bridges are slowly being built, the BBC's Lina Sinjab reports from Damascus. In 2005, the US withdrew its ambassador following the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri. Damascus was blamed for the killing, an accusation Syria has always denied. Our correspondent says relations were strained even before Mr Hariri's assassination. Syria has been on Washington's list of state sponsors of terrorism since 1979. In 2004, the US Congress passed the Syria Accountability Act - which prohibits most American goods from being sold to Syria - and imposed financial sanctions. The US remains concerned about Syria's support for the Lebanese militant group Hezbollah and wants Damascus to help in stabilizing Iraq and influence Iran over its nuclear programme, our correspondent says. In return, the US could end its sanctions against Syria and put pressure on Israel to return the Golan Heights - seized in the 1967 war. Resolving

152

the Israeli-Syrian standoff could give a major push to a peace accord between Israel and the Palestinians, analysts say. The appointment of a new American ambassador, Robert Ford, to Damascus has been in the works since the middle of last year, says the BBC's Washington correspondent Steve Kingstone. "His appointment represents President Obama's commitment to use engagement to advance US interests by improving communication with the Syrian government and people," the White House said in a statement. If the appointment is confirmed by the US Senate, Mr Ford would "engage the Syrian government on how we can enhance relations, while addressing areas of ongoing concern", the White House added. But Republicans criticized the nomination as rewarding an enemy. "With this nomination, our foreign policy again risks sending the message that it is better to be an intractable enemy than a co-operative, loyal US ally," said the top Republican on the House of Representatives foreign affairs committee, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen. •

Translate the following expressions into Russian. Provide your own examples of their usage.

to improve ties to enhance relations to loose ties relations are troubled relations are strained to resolve a standoff to nominate, to withdraw an ambassador

•

Provide some background information about Syrian-American relations.

153

Unit V. Section 5 Consular Relations The Vienna Convention on Consular Relations Task 1. Sum up the information about consuls versus diplomats, establishment of consular relations, consular functions. The title consul is used for the official representatives of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul’s own country, and to facilitate trade and friendship between the receiving and sending states. While there is but one ambassador representing a nation’s head of state to another, and his or her duties revolve around diplomatic relations between the two countries, there may be several consuls providing assistance with bureaucratic issues to both the nationals of the sending state traveling or living abroad and to the citizens of the receiving state who wish to travel to or trade with the consul’s country. Article 2. Establishment of consular relations 1. The establishment of consular relations between States takes place by mutual consent. 2. The consent given to the establishment of diplomatic relations between two States implies, unless otherwise stated, consent to the establishment of consular relations. 3. The severance of diplomatic relations shall not ipso facto involve the severance of consular relations.

154

Article 5. Consular functions Consular functions consist in: (a) protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, both individuals and bodies corporate, within the limits permitted by international law; (b) furthering the development of commercial, economic, cultural and scientific relations between the sending State and the receiving State and otherwise promoting friendly relations between them in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention; (c) ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and developments in the commercial, economic, cultural and scientific life of the receiving State, reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State and giving information to persons interested; (d) issuing passports and travel documents to nationals of the sending State, and visas or appropriate documents to persons wishing to travel to the sending State; (e) helping and assisting nationals, both individuals and bodies corporate, of the sending State; (f) acting as notary and civil registrar and in capacities of a similar kind, and performing certain functions of an administrative nature, provided that there is nothing contrary thereto in the laws and regulations of the receiving State; ……. Article 9. Classes of heads of consular posts 1. Heads of consular posts are divided into four classes, namely: (a) consuls-general; (b) consuls; (c) vice-consuls; (d) consular agents.

155

Article 12. The exequatur 1. The head of a consular post is admitted to the exercise of his functions by an authorization from the receiving State termed an exequatur, whatever the form of this authorization. 2. A State which refuses to grant an exequatur is not obliged to give to the sending State reasons for such refusal. 3. Subject to the provisions of Articles 13 and 15, the head of a consular post shall not enter upon his duties until he has received an exequatur. Task 2. Read the interview with V.A. Pavlovsky (2009), director of the Consular Department of the Foreign Ministry of Russia. Summarize his answers. (Q) How are the relations between your Department and your colleagues in the consulates-general and other consular establishments in Moscow and other Russian cities? What is the number of these consulates and the size of their staff? What are the trends in the development of consular relations between Russia and other countries? (A) At the moment, there are more than 80 consulates of foreign countries on the territory of the Russian Federation. Strictly speaking, it is these establishments that are consulates in the sense of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations of 1963. Apart from the consulates mentioned, there are 147 consular divisions of embassies as well as 76 honorary consular officers of foreign states performing corresponding functions. The total number of staff members of consular establishments alone is over 1,000 people. We feel that our interaction with foreign consulates promotes friendly relations and mutually beneficial cooperation of the Russian Federation with other states as well as the expansion of economic, trade, scientifictechnical, cultural and sport ties and tourism.

156

The Department takes an active part in providing a contractual and legal framework of consular relations between the Russian Federation and foreign states. Over the last eight years, for instance, 39 accords on the regime of reciprocal trips of citizens were concluded. A short time ago, an agreement on visa-free reciprocal trips of citizens of the two countries was signed with Israel. The signing of a similar agreement with Brazil is being worked on. Our agreement with the European Communities on simplifying the process of getting a visa should be particularly noted among international agreements concluded by Russia. That agreement made it possible to go from a dialog on how to step by step reach the stage of visa-free trips of Russian and EU nationals to a practical discussion of the problem. Fighting illegal immigration is one of the priorities of consulates. Readmission, a relatively new institution in domestic legal practice, will, in our view, be of special importance in the consular area. Readmission is to ensure the receiving, return and transit of foreigners staying in this country and breaking the law. The coming into force of an agreement on readmission with the European Communities was a landmark on this road. In the last 10—15 years, the amount of Russia’s economic interaction with other countries has grown dramatically. Naturally, this growth has resulted in a greater number of Russian entrepreneurs and technical specialists going abroad and more of their counterparts coming to this country. (Q) Does the Consular Department have any new ways of interacting with the business community now? (A) Indeed, domestic businesses are consistently gaining ground around the world. To defend the legal interests of businesses, the Consular Department, in compliance with current legislation, provides extensive information and consulting services to Russian and foreign entrepreneurs in order to help them get objective information on their prospective business partners, on foreign tax regulations, on currency and customs

157

laws, on the procedures for the registration of subsidiaries and representative offices of domestic companies, and on the prospects for the export of goods and services. Of great importance is the support the Department gives in getting visas for international forums and sports events held in Russia. We also provide assistance to citizens of the RF in getting visas of foreign countries when going to them for work or business purposes. The growing well-being of Russian citizens has led to an unprecedented increase in the number of citizens going abroad on vacation, for educational purposes, to see relatives or on business. However, the structure and staff of the Russian consulates have not undergone any substantial changes, as far as I know. (Q) Can we expect significant changes in the work of the domestic consular service that will improve the services provided to Russian nationals when abroad? (A) In 2007, some 30 million citizens of the Russian Federation went abroad. It would be no exaggeration to say that we are witnessing a phenomenal increase in the number of applications of Russian and foreign nationals turning to consular officers for legal advice, citizenship, registration, and the notarization of and request for documents. There are special requirements for a consular officer: he is supposed to have a basic knowledge of practically all fields of law, be able to promptly make responsible and proper decisions, act occasionally as a defense lawyer and sometimes be a psychologist. As you quite rightly noted, we will have a hard time handling the swelling flow of requests unless we dramatically increase the staff of consulates. Upgrading the automated information systems that are used in processing visas, passports and invitations to foreign nationals to enter Russia as well as in the consideration of citizenship remain a pressing problem of the Russian Foreign Ministry’s consular activities. Work on introducing web technologies is under way. It will help speed up the processing of documents and eventually improve the quality of consular services provided applicants.

158

Information technologies are being introduced that will make it possible to issue next-generation passports increasing the trustworthiness and protection of the data on the holders of ICs and, consequently, ensuring freer movement of Russian citizens abroad, which is of special importance now. (Q) What do you think of the category of honorary consuls, will the number of Russian honorary consuls abroad increase? (A) Russia began to actively make use of the category of honorary consuls in the early 1990s when it was decided – for objective reasons – to close quite a few consulates. At present, 73 honorary consuls operating in 51 countries already represent the Russian Federation in other countries. There is no doubt that honorary consuls are making a sizable contribution to strengthening Russia’s friendly relations with other states, to developing mutually advantageous trade, economic and humanitarian ties as well as to protecting the rights and interests of citizens and legal entities of the Russian Federation. At the same time, the potential of this public institution has, in our view, not yet been fully realized. The continued expansion of tourism, economic and cultural cooperation with other countries will inevitably result in the establishment of a wider network of Russia’s honorary consuls. Task 3. Choose one of the topics and make reports: •

Immunities and privileges of consular agents.

•

Honorary consuls: functions, their role.

159

Revision of the Vocabulary Items of Unit V Section 1, 2 Task 1. Peer work. Practice the translation from Russian into English: дипломатические представители: Чрезвычайный и Полномочный Посол, (папский) нунций, интернунций, посланник, поверенный в делах, временный поверенный в делах, советник, военный атташе, военно-морской атташе, военно-воздушный атташе, торговый представитель и его заместители; назначать (2 варианта) члена дипломатического персонала, административно-технического персонала, обслуживающего персонала, казначея; дипломатическое представительство (2 варианта), посольство; МИД России, министр иностранных дел; Государственный департамент США, государственный секретарь; временно выполнять функции главы представительства; способствовать развитию (сохранению) дружественных отношений между аккредитующим государством и страной пребывания; челночная дипломатия дипломатия канонерок дипломатический иммунитет разрывать дипломатические отношения восстанавливать (2 варианта) дипломатические отношения отозвать дипломатического представителя говорить от лица (от имени) дипломатического корпуса на торжественных событиях; в отношении привилегий и иммунитетов дипломатических агентов; отвечать за ведение текущих административных дел; содействовать налаживанию контактов; ознакомить коллег с традициями страны пребывания (ввести в курс дела);

160

верительные грамоты; отзывные грамоты; обмен нотами; памятная записка; совместное коммюнике. Task 2. Translate into English: Главы дипломатического представительства подразделяются на три класса, а именно… Глава государства подписывает верительные грамоты, а министр иностранных дел их скрепляет. Дипломатический корпус, в широком смысле слова, включает в себя … Венская конвенция о дипломатических сношениях была принята в 1961 году и подлежала ратификации. Согласно статье 49, ратификационные грамоты сдаются на хранение Генеральному секретарю ООН. На 1 января 2002 г. Конвенцию ратифицировали, или сдали документы о присоединении 185 государств. Task 3. Comment on the following notions: • • • • • •

Diplomacy. Gunboat diplomacy. Shuttle diplomacy. Diplomatic corps. Doyen. Diplomatic documents. Verbal and Personal notes. Diplomatic documents. Letters of Credence; Letters of Recall. Nuncios and internuncios. Chargé d’affaires ad interim.

Section 3 Task 1. Peer work. Practice the translation from Russian into English: отозвать дипломатического представителя; прекращение функций сотрудников представительства; вторжение в средства передвижения дипломатического представительства; нарушение спокойствия представительства, оскорбление его достоинства;

161

оказывать содействие в приобретении помещений для представительства; заранее сообщать имена военных, военно-морских или военновоздушных атташе; использовать закодированные или зашифрованные сообщения (депеши); пользоваться иммунитетом от обыска, реквизиции, ареста и исполнительных действий; освобождаться (освобождение) от государственных, районных и муниципальных налогов; иммунитеты прекращаются; во время выполнения своих официальных обязанностей; Постоянный представитель Российской Федерации при ООН. Task 2. Translate into English: Установление дипломатических отношений осуществляется по взаимному согласию. Одна из функций дипломатического представительства заключается в защите интересов граждан аккредитующего государства. Помещения представительства неприкосновенны. Архивы представительства тоже неприкосновенны. Специальный дипломатический агент пользуется личной неприкосновенностью. Государство пребывания должно предоставлять все возможности для выполнения функций представительства. Российская сторона возмущена вторжением полицейских в автомашину дипломата. Грубое нарушение Венской конвенции о дипломатических сношениях 1961 года.

162

Task 3. Comment on the following notions: •

Agréman.

•

Persona non grata.

•

Premises of the mission, accommodation for the members.

•

Privileges enjoyed by the mission itself.

Section 4, 5 Task 1. Peer work. Practice the translation from Russian into English: предоставлять привилегии и иммунитеты дипломатам (2 варианта); обширный перечень иммунитетов; срок действия привилегий и иммунитетов; пользоваться личной неприкосновенностью, нарушать неприкосновенность дипломата; пользоваться иммунитетом от уголовной, гражданской и административной юрисдикции; осуществлять любую деятельность за пределами своих официальных функций; отказаться от иммунитета; сборы, взимаемые за конкретные виды обслуживания; услуга за услугу, компенсация, в обмен на …; вмешиваться во внутренние дела государства (2 варианта); разрыв дипломатических отношений, разрывать дипломатические отношения; в частности; консул; почетный консул; консульство; архивариус; экзекватура; способствовать развитию.

163

Task 2. Translate into English: Государство пребывания должно относиться к дипломатическому представителю с должным уважением. Иммунитет дипломатического агента от юрисдикции государства пребывания не освобождает его от юрисдикции аккредитующего государства. Дипломатический представитель не обязан давать показания в качестве свидетеля. Дипломатический агент освобождается от всех налогов, сборов и пошлин, личных и имущественных, государственных, районных и муниципальных. Помещения представительства не должны использоваться в целях, несовместимых с функциями представительства. Государство пребывания должно, даже в случае вооруженного конфликта, уважать и охранять помещения представительства вместе с его имуществом и архивами. Аккредитующее государство может вверить охрану помещений своего представительства третьему государству. Task 3. Speak about each of the topics: •

Privileges and immunities enjoyed by members of diplomatic missions.

•

Duties of members of diplomatic missions towards the receiving State.

•

Termination and severance of diplomatic relations.

•

Consular relations. Privileges and immunities of consular agents.

164

Progress Test Task 1. Translate the following chunks either into Russian or into English: … достояние всего человечества; VCCR; давать начало государственному перевороту; обладать полным суверенитетом над; разрыв консульских отношений; ICAO; денежная компенсация; совместное заявление, to refrain from acts of reprisal, средство правовой защиты; разжигать подрывную деятельность; право мирного прохода; отозвать временного поверенного в делах; обширный перечень иммунитетов; exemption from; верительные грамоты; вмешиваться во внутренние дела государства; совместные усилия; to end in stalemate. Task 2. Translate the following sentences into English: • 20 апреля 2008 года договаривающиеся государства подписали многосторонний договор в отношении мирного использования космического пространства. Одна сторона выразило согласие на обязательность договора с двумя оговорками. • Сам факт, что данное государство в одностороннем порядке заявило о своей независимости и частично было признано двумя другими государствами, имеет серьезные политические последствия. • Оскорбление достоинства посольства, а также любое вторжение в средства передвижения дипломатических представителей являются грубым нарушением Венской конвенции о дипломатических сношениях. • Статья 62 Венской конвенции 1961 г. предусматривает возможность отказа от дипломатического иммунитета. Важно подчеркнуть, что от иммунитета могут отказываться не сами дипломатические агенты, а только аккредитующие их государства.

165

List of References 1. Dixon M. Textbook on International Law. – Oxford University Press, New York, 2007. 2. International Law edited by Malcolm D. Evans. – Oxford University Press, New York, 2006. 3. Jussi M. Hanhimaki. The United Nations: A Very Short Introduction. – Oxford University Press, New York, 2008. 4. The Best of Just English. / Ю.Л. Гуманова, В.А. КоролеваМакАри, М.Л. Свешникова, Е.В. Тихомирова – М.: ЗЕРЦАЛО, 2004. 5. Петренко К., Чужакин А. Мир перевода – 4. Аудиокурс по устному переводу. – М.: Р.Валент, 2001. 6. Федотова И.Г., Толстопятенко Г.П. Юридические понятия и категории в английском языке. Legal terminology. Учебное пособие. – Обнинск, 2000. 7. Buergenthal Th. Public International Law in a nutshell. – West Publishing Co, 1990. 8. Cassese A. International Law. – Oxford University Press, New York, 2001. 9. Mouratov E.N. Diplomatic Documents and Diplomatic Correspondence in English. – Мoscow, 2005.

166

Елена Александровна Цывкунова

INTERNATIONAL LAW Учебно-методическое пособие

Корректор Е.Е. Шумакова Подписано в печать 12.04.2010. Формат 60х84 1/16. Печ. л. 10,5. Уч.-изд. л. 10,5. Тираж 150 экз. Изд. № 023-1. Заказ № 153.

Национальный исследовательский ядерный университет «МИФИ». Типография НИЯУ МИФИ. 115409, Москва, Каширское ш., д. 31.