Friendship and Benefaction in James
Emory Studies in Early Christianity
Editors V e r n o n K. R o b b i n s & David B . G o w l e r E m o r y University, Georgia
Associate
Editor
Robert von Thaden Mercyhurst College, Pennsylvania
Editorial
Board
R i c h a r d S. Ascough, Q u e e n ' s Theological College, Kingston, Ontario L. Gregory Bloomquist, St. Paul University, O t t a w a Peder Borgen, Emeritus, University of T r o n d h e i m , N o r w a y J J . Bernard C o m b r i n k , Emeritus, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa David A. deSilva, Ashland Theological Seminary, O h i o Anders Eriksson, L u n d University, Sweden T h o m a s H . Olbricht, Emeritus, Pepperdine University, California Russell B . Sisson, U n i o n College, Kentucky D u a n e F. Watson, M a l o n e College, O h i o
FRIENDSHIP and BENEFACTION in JAMES
Alicia Batten
deo PUBLISHING
BLANDFORD
FORUM
E m o r y Studies i n Early Christianity, 15
Publication of this volume was made possible by the generous support of the Pierce Program in Religion of Oxford College of Emory University.
Published by D e o Publishing P . O . B o x 6 2 8 4 , Blandford F o r u m , D o r s e t D T I 1 1 A Q , U K Copyright © 2010 D e o Publishing C o v e r design b y B e r n a r d M a d d e n , after a r t w o r k b y R i c k A. R o b b i n s All rights reserved. N o part o f this p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , translated, stored i n a retrieval system, o r transmitted in a n y f o r m o r b y a n y m e a n s , electronic, m e c h a n i c a l , p h o t o c o p y i n g , r e c o r d i n g o r o t h e r w i s e , w i t h o u t p r i o r w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n from t h e publisher. T h e Odyssea G r e e k font used i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f this w o r k is available from Linguist's Software, Inc., w w w . l i n g u i s t s o f t w a r e . c o m , P . O . B o x 5 8 0 , E d m o n d s , W A 9 8 0 2 0 - 0 5 8 0 U S A , tel. (425) 7 7 5 - 1 1 3 0 . P r i n t e d i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m b y H e n r y L i n g Ltd, at t h e D o r s e t Press, D o r c h e s t e r , D T I 1HD. British Library C a t a l o g u i n g - i n - P u b l i c a t i o n data A catalogue r e c o r d for this b o o k is available from t h e British Library
ISBN 978-1-905679-10-2
Contents Acknowledgments Chapter 1 Introduction Stnicture and M e t h o d
vii
1 4
Chapter 2 Friendship in Antiquity Introduction Virtues of Friends
9 9 17
"One Mind/Soul" "All in C o m m o n " Friendship and Fictive Kinship Language Friendship w i t h G o d
42 44 47 48
Conclusion
54
Chapter 3 Friendship, Patronage and Benefaction
56
Introduction Friendship, Politics and Society
56 59
Benefaction
68
Patronage Patronage, Friendship and Flattery
75 79
Conclusion
88
Chapter 4 T h e E x o r d i u m : J a m e s 1:2-18
90
Introduction
90
James as a Letter
91
James and R h e t o r i c
93
James 1:2-18 A. C o m m o n Features of t h e E x o r d i u m B . James 1:2-18 as an E x o r d i u m C . Friendship and Benefaction w i t h i n t h e E x o r d i u m
99 101 107
vi
Friendship and Benefaction in James
Conclusion Chapter 5 A Challenge to Patronage
119
122
Introduction James 2 : 1 - 1 3 A. R h e t o r i c a l Structure B . Friendship, Patronage and Benefaction in James 2 : 1 - 1 3 James 2:14-26 A. R h e t o r i c a l Structure B . Friendship and Benefaction in James 2:14-26
122
Conclusion
144
Chapter 6 Friendship with G o d : James 3:13-4:10
145
Introduction
145
123 127 135 136
James 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 A. R h e t o r i c a l Structure B . Friendship, Patronage and Benefaction in James 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0
145 169
Conclusion
176
Chapter 7 Conclusion Introduction Patronage as an Exigence
178 178 180
Audience R h e t o r i c a l Constraints Conclusion
181 184 185
Bibliography
186
I n d e x of M o d e r n A u t h o r s I n d e x of Biblical and O t h e r References
210 214
Acknowledgments T h i s b o o k b e g a n as a d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s o m e y e a r s a g o i n T o r o n t o . It is w i t h g r a t i t u d e t h a t I a c k n o w l e d g e t h e w i s d o m a n d g e n e r o s i t y o f m y s u p e r v i s o r , J o h n K l o p p e n b o r g , w h o sets a n e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e o f a s c h o l a r / t e a c h e r a n d from w h o m I c o n t i n u e to learn a great deal. O t h e r readers of t h e dissertation: T e r r y D o n a l d s o n , D o r c a s G o r d o n , S t e p h e n Patterson and Leif Vaage, p r o v i d e d valuable c o m m e n t s . T h e transformation of t h e dissertation i n t o a b o o k o c c u r r e d t h r o u g h t h e h e l p o f several p e o p l e , m o s t n o t a b l y V e r n o n R o b b i n s , w h o
pro
v i d e d c o n c r e t e g u i d a n c e for r e v i s i o n a n d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d a c c e p t e d t h e s u b s e q u e n t m a n u s c r i p t f o r this series. M a n y t h a n k s g o t o
Todd
P e n n e r for s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e Emory
series
Studies
in Early
Christianity
c o u l d b e a p o s s i b l e v e n u e for p u b l i c a t i o n a n d t o D a v i d O r t o n , e d i t o r at D e o P u b l i s h i n g , for his assistance. M u c h o f t h e w r i t i n g o f this b o o k o c c u r r e d d u r i n g part o f a sabbati cal f r o m Pacific L u t h e r a n U n i v e r s i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n S t a t e , w h e r e
I
t a u g h t f r o m 2 0 0 0 to 2 0 0 8 . A l t h o u g h I h a v e since r e t u r n e d to C a n a d a , I r e m a i n grateful t o P L U for t h e s a b b a t i c a l a n d for t h e g e n e r a l c a m a r a d e rie of m y colleagues in t h e R e l i g i o n d e p a r t m e n t t h e r e . Particular m e n t i o n g o e s t o D o u g l a s O a k m a n f o r his s u p p o r t . T h a n k s a r e also d u e t o t h e A m e r i c a n C o u n c i l o f L e a r n e d S o c i e t i e s for a G r a v e s A w a r d w h i c h provided supplementary funding. I a p p r e c i a t e t h e s u p p o r t for s c h o l a r s h i p at m y c u r r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S u d b u r y , a n d t h e c o l l e g i a l i t y o f p e o p l e t h e r e a n d at t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t c o m p r i s e its f e d e r a t e d p a r t n e r s . G r a t i t u d e also g o e s t o m e m b e r s o f t h e C o n t e x t G r o u p for t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d for t h e meetings that the g r o u p organizes every year. O n a m o r e p e r s o n a l n o t e , t h a n k s t o m y family for t h e i r o n g o i n g interest i n m y w o r k a n d overall m o r a l s u p p o r t . M a n y friends a n d specific c o l leagues at a v a r i e t y o f institutions h a v e b e e n helpful i n a r a n g e o f w a y s . Finally, I a m i n d e b t e d t o T e r r y R o t h w e l l for his c o n t i n u e d e n c o u r a g e m e n t , curiosity, a n d "frank s p e e c h . " I t h i n k t h a t T e r r y e m b o d i e s s o m e o f t h e characteristics o f a friend t h a t t h e s u b s e q u e n t pages s e e k t o d e s c r i b e a n d it is w i t h l o v e a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n t h a t I d e d i c a t e this b o o k t o h i m .
1 Introduction A f t e r m a n y y e a r s o f r e l a t i v e n e g l e c t , t h e r e is a r e s u r g e n c e o f i n t e r e s t i n 1
t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s . D e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t c o n s e n s u s o n m a n y h i s t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e l e t t e r — s u c h as its d a t e , a u t h o r s h i p ,
and
p r o v e n a n c e - c a n n o t b e f o u n d , t h e array o f m e t h o d s n o w used to a n a lyze ancient literature, m a n y of w h i c h d o n o t seek to answer primarily h i s t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s , h a v e f o u n d p l e n t y i n J a m e s t o e x p l o r e . N o r is it a c c e p t a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t J a m e s is s o m e h o w
theologically
marginal
b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t m e n t i o n t h e d e a t h a n d r e s u r r e c t i o n o f J e s u s ; f o r t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e r e w a s s o m e sort o f early C h r i s t i a n " c o r e " t h e o l o g y o r c e n t r a l " g o s p e l " m e s s a g e is w i d e o p e n . I n d e e d , t h e p o t e n t i a l relationship b e t w e e n James and the Pauline corpus does n o t comprise t h e chief area o f interest; rather, studies o f James's literary g e n r e a n d rhetorical structures,
as w e l l as t h e social, c u l t u r a l a n d
theological
t h e m e s it a d d r e s s e s a r e p l e n t i f u l , s o m e t i m e s w i t h n o m e n t i o n o f P a u l at all. C o n t i n u a l r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e v a r i e t i e s o f a n c i e n t J u d a i s m , t h e n a t u r e o f H e l l e n i s m , a n d t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e o r i g i n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y h a v e all c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e r e c o g n i t i o n that J a m e s deserves m u c h m o r e atten t i o n t h a n it h a d p r e v i o u s l y e a r n e d , l a n g u i s h i n g as it d i d f o r m a n y y e a r s o n t h e e d g e s o f b i b l i c a l s t u d i e s . J a m e s is n o w s t u d i e d o n its o w n t e r m s , i n its o w n r i g h t . Scholarship focused u p o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e literature o f early C h r i s tianity
in
flourished,
the
context
of
Hellenistic
moral
philosophy
has
long
h o w e v e r . T e x t s s u c h as P a u l ' s l e t t e r s a n d L u k e - A c t s h a v e
received t h e m o s t attention h e r e , b u t others, including James, are n o t far b e h i n d . I n r e c e n t d e c a d e s p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t has b e e n p a i d t o t h e H e l l e n i s t i c topos o f f r i e n d s h i p , a n d h o w t h e l a n g u a g e a n d i d e a s a s s o c i ated w i t h 1
this
topos
were
significant
to
ancient Judaisms,
Graeco-
See t w o recent survey articles o n scholarship o n James, b y T o d d C . P e n n e r ( " T h e
Epistle o f James in C u r r e n t R e s e a r c h , " CurBS
7 [1999] 257-308), and M a r k E . Taylor
( " R e c e n t Scholarship o n t h e Structure of J a m e s , " CurBS
3.1 [2004] 86-115) respectively.
2
Friendship and Benefaction in James
R o m a n c u l t u r e , a n d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f early Christianity.
T h e litera
t u r e o n a n c i e n t f r i e n d s h i p is m a s s i v e ; t h e u s e o f f r i e n d s h i p l a n g u a g e is p e r v a s i v e i n a v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s , a n d t h u s it is h a r d t o i m a g i n e
how
a n y o n e i n t h e first c e n t u r y G r e e k - s p e a k i n g M e d i t e r r a n e a n , i n c l u d i n g t h e a u t h o r o f J a m e s , w o u l d b e u n f a m i l i a r w i t h this o f t e n i d e a l i z e d f o r m of relationship.
3
A s this b o o k w i l l a r g u e , J a m e s is i n d e e d c o n v e r s a n t w i t h t r a d i t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p , a n d uses t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e l e t t e r ' s a r g u m e n t a t i o n . 2
T w o very significant volumes are J o h n T . Fitzgerald, ed., Friendship, Flattery and
Frankness of Speech: Studies on Friendship in the New Testament World (Leiden, N e w Y o r k , Koln: E.J. Brill, 1996), and J o h n T . Fitzgerald, ed., Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship (SBLRBS; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997). In addition t o these, a variety of scholars have discussed t h e function and i m p o r t a n c e of friendship language in t h e N e w Testament. For example, see H a n s D i e t e r Betz, Galatians
(Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979);
Benjamin Fiore, "Friendship in t h e E x h o r t a t i o n of R o m a n s 1 5 : 1 4 - 3 3 , " Proceedings of the EGL
and MWBS
7 (1987) 9 5 - 1 0 3 ; F. H a u c k , " D i e Freundschaft bei d e n G r i e c h e n u n d
i m N e u e n T e s t a m e n t , " in Festgabefiir Theodor Zahn (Leipzig: A. Deichertsche, 1928) 2 1 1 28; Hans-Josef Klauck, " K i r c h e als Freundesgemeinschaft? A u f Spurensuche i m N e u e n T e s t a m e n t , " MTZ
42 (1991) 1-14; A b r a h a m J. Malherbe, Paul and the Popular Philosophers
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1989); Paul and the Thessalonians:
The Philosophical Tradition of
Pastoral Care (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987); Peter Marshall, Enmity
at Corinth: Social
Conventions in PauVs Relations with the Corinthians ( W U N T 2.23; T u b i n g e n : J . C . B . M o h r [Paul Siebeck], 1987); Alan C . Mitchell, " T h e Social F u n c t i o n o f Friendship in Acts 2:4447 and 4 : 3 2 - 3 7 , " JBL
111 (1992) 2 5 5 - 7 2 ; P h e m e Perkins, "Christology, Friendship and
Status: T h e R h e t o r i c o f Philippians," Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers (SBLSP 26; ed. K e n t H a r o l d Richards; Atlanta: Scholars, 1987) 509-20; Stanley K. Stowers, "Friends and E n e m i e s in the Politics of H e a v e n : R e a d i n g T h e o l o g y in Philippians," in Pauline Theology, Volume 7(ed. J . M . Bassler; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991) 1 0 5 - 2 1 . F o u r i m p o r t a n t and easily accessible histories of friendship in antiquity are L. Dugas, UAmitie
Antique
(2nd ed., Paris: Librairie Felix Alcan, 1914); J e a n - C l a u d e Fraisse, Philia:
La notion d'amitie dans la philosophic antique. Essai sur un probleme perdu et retrouve (Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1974); Luigi Pizzolato, L'idea di amicizia: nel mondo antico classico e cristiano (Turin: Giulio Einaudi, 1993); David Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World (Key T h e m e s in A n c i e n t History; C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1997). Franz Dirlmeier's dissertation,
(Munich,
1931) is also significant. See also the collection of articles edited b y Michael Peachin, Aspects of Friendship in the Graeco-Roman
World. Proceedings of a conference held at the Seminar
fur Alte Geschichte, Heidelberg, on 10-11 June, 2000 (Journal of R o m a n Archaeology S u p plementary Series 4 3 ; P o r t s m o u t h , R I : J o u r n a l o f R o m a n Archaeology, 2001). I have explored this topic w i t h regard t o the figure of G o d in James: " G o d in the Letter of James: P a t r o n or Benefactor?" NTS
50 (2004) 2 5 7 - 7 2 . L u k e J o h n s o n ("Friend
ship w i t h t h e W o r l d / F r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d : A Study of Discipleship in J a m e s , " in Discipleship in the New Testament [ed. F. Segovia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985] 166-83) has given s o m e attention to friendship in James b u t he limits his discussion to Jas 2:23 and 4:4 and focuses m o r e o n discipleship than friendship. J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g Verbin ("Patron age Avoidance in J a m e s , " HTS
55 [1999] 755-94) and Leif E. Vaage ("Ciudad la boca: la
palabra indicada, u n a subjectividad alternativa y la formacion social de los primeros cris-
1.
Introduction
3
A l t h o u g h it refers e x p l i c i t l y t o a cplXog o n l y t w i c e , l a n g u a g e a n d t h e m e s used in G r a e c o - R o m a n discussions o f friendship a p p e a r w i t h an i n t r i g u i n g d e n s i t y . F o r e x a m p l e , I w i l l a r g u e t h a t G o d is p o r t r a y e d as a f r a n k f r i e n d a n d b e n e f a c t o r ; a n d t h a t A b r a h a m p r o v e s his
friendship
w i t h G o d t h r o u g h t e s t i n g a n d t h e o f f e r i n g o f h o s p i t a l i t y . J a m e s also uses t h e l a n g u a g e a n d i d e a s o f f r i e n d s h i p
i n his i n s t r u c t i o n s
c o m m u n i t y life. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a d e r s a r e e x h o r t e d t o
about
withstand
t e s t i n g a n d trials — o f t e n a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a t r u e f r i e n d ; t h e y a r e n o t t o b e c o v e t o u s a n d t h e y s h o u l d s u p p o r t o n e a n o t h e r - b o t h aspects o f t h e e x p e c t e d b e h a v i o u r o f f r i e n d s . J a m e s also i n c o r p o r a t e s s o m e
conven
t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p i n t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h h e c o m m u n i c a t e s w i t h his a u d i e n c e , for e x a m p l e , i n his u s e o f affectionate l a n g u a g e , r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e a u d i e n c e as b r o t h e r s , a n d e m p l o y m e n t o f frank s p e e c h , o r 7tappY)ala. T h i s s t u d y also j o i n s a n u m b e r o f o t h e r s i n a r g u i n g t h a t J a m e s u r g e s his a u d i e n c e t o resist d e p e n d e n c e u p o n w e a l t h y p a t r o n s i n f a v o u r r e l i a n c e u p o n G o d as a f r i e n d a n d b e n e f a c t o r , a n d t h r o u g h
of
assisting
o t h e r s i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . It is w e l l k n o w n t h a t a n c i e n t p a t r o n - c l i e n t liaisons m a s k e d
their relationship
with
the language
of
friendship.
J a m e s , h o w e v e r , will n o t stand for s u c h a camouflage, a n d deliberately e x p o s e s p a t r o n a g e for w h a t it is: a t h r e a t t o t h e c o m m u n i t y , a n d a v i o lation of Jewish law.
D i m e n s i o n s o f friendship, for J a m e s ,
function
i m p o r t a n t l y i n his a d d r e s s t o h i s a u d i e n c e t o f o r m a m o r a l p a r a d i g m
6
that contributes to an overall resistance to w e a l t h a n d p a t r o n a g e . I t h i n k t h a t J a m e s d e l i b e r a t e l y uses t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p i n o r d e r t o a p p e a l t o t h e a u d i e n c e b e c a u s e h e k n o w s t h a t s u c h l a n g u a g e is u s e d r e g u l a r l y for p a t r o n - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s . J a m e s w a n t s t o c r a c k t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n o f p a t r o n a g e a n d f r i e n d s h i p a p a r t , e x p o s e p a t r o n - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s as d i v i s i v e t o c o m m u n i t y life a n d c o n t r a r y t o r e l i a n c e u p o n G o d , a n d ally friendship m u c h m o r e closely w i t h benefaction, w h i c h m a n y a n c i e n t persons, particularly in eastern parts of t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , u n d e r s t o o d t o b e d i s t i n c t f r o m p a t r o n a g e . I assert t h a t t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h b e n e f a c t i o n in opposition
tianos segun Santiago 3 , 1 - 4 , 1 7 , " RIBLA
to p a t r o n a g e e m e r g e s i n t h e t e x t ,
and
31 [1998] 110-21) b o t h discuss t h e "friendship
w i t h the w o r l d vs. friendship w i t h G o d " n o t i o n b u t d o n o t focus u p o n t h e language of friendship m o r e broadly t h r o u g h o u t James. 5
This is o n e o f t h e arguments of W e s l e y H i r a m W a c h o b in his b o o k , The Voice of Jesus
in the Social Rhetoric of James ( S N T S M S 106; N e w Y o r k : C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2000). 6
For a v i e w o f friendship as a m o r a l paradigm in t h e "Christ H y m n " o f Philippians,
see L. Michael W h i t e , "Morality B e t w e e n T w o W o r l d s : A Paradigm o f Friendship in Philippians," in Greeks, Romans and Christians (ed. D a v i d L. Balch, E v e r e t t Ferguson, & W a y n e A. M e e k s ; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990) 2 0 1 - 1 5 .
Friendship and Benefaction in James
4
p r o v i d e s g r o u n d i n g for m u c h o f t h e ethical e x h o r t a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e letter. T h i s s t u d y w i l l e x p l o r e h o w a n d w h y J a m e s a p p e a l s t o f r i e n d s h i p at t h r e e levels: b e t w e e n t h e a u t h o r a n d his a u d i e n c e ; a m o n g c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s ; and b e t w e e n the c o m m u n i t y and G o d . I a m n o t suggesting that James understands every relationship in the same w a y n o r in i d e n tical t e r m s , b u t t h a t a l l u s i o n s , if n o t d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s , t o f r i e n d s h i p at e a c h o f t h e s e levels s e r v e t o s t r e n g t h e n his o v e r a l l a r g u m e n t . T h e p r e s e n c e o f f r i e n d s h i p at e a c h l e v e l aids J a m e s as h e a d v o c a t e s r e s i s t a n c e t o wealth, and in particular, avoidance of patronage b y t h e rich.
Structure and M e t h o d B e f o r e e n t e r i n g i n t o a c l o s e s t u d y o f s e c t i o n s o f J a m e s , it is i m p o r t a n t to p r o v i d e an examination of friendship in a variety of ancient
con
texts, i n c l u d i n g early C h r i s t i a n literature. B y offering s o m e discussion o f friendship in the J e w i s h a n d G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d , w e can better observe to what extent James borrows from Jewish and G r a e c o - R o m a n n o t i o n s o f this topos. C h a p t e r 2 t h u s c e n t r e s o n a n c i e n t f r i e n d s h i p , w i t h t h e c a v e a t t h a t t h e c h a p t e r is b y n o m e a n s a n e x h a u s t i v e s t u d y o f t h e topos,
but
concentrates
instead
on
those
aspects
of friendship
that
e m e r g e in J a m e s . T h e s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r will focus m o r e closely o n t h e relations b e t w e e n friendship, patronage and benefaction in antiq u i t y , as t o m y m i n d J a m e s is i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h i s c o m p l i c a t e d m i x . S c h o l a r s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t p a t r o n a g e a n d f r i e n d s h i p a r e v e r y similar, a n d o f t e n for g o o d r e a s o n b e c a u s e p a t r o n s a n d c l i e n t s w o u l d , at least i n R o m a n t i m e s , refer t o o n e a n o t h e r as " f r i e n d " a n d s o m e t i m e s p r e t e n d t h a t t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s o n e o f f r i e n d s h i p w h e n it w a s n o t . M o r e o v e r , as s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y a u t h o r s h a v e c o n c l u d e d t h a t p a t r o n a g e a n d b e n e f a c t i o n a r e t h e s a m e i n a n t i q u i t y , it is i m p o r t a n t t o clarify t h e dif ferences b e t w e e n these latter t w o concepts. T h u s t h e intricate k n o t in w h i c h patronage, friendship and benefaction w e r e entangled m u s t b e u n t i e d such that James's strategy o f i n v o k i n g friendship a n d benefaction to u n d e r m i n e patronage can b e understood. C h a p t e r s 4—6 w i l l e x p l o r e t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f J a m e s ' s s t r a t e g y . H e r e I j o i n o t h e r a u t h o r s w h o t h i n k t h a t J a m e s is a crafted l e t t e r d i s p l a y i n g familiarity w i t h H e l l e n i s t i c epistolary a n d r h e t o r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s .
7
7
Scholars
O n epistolary techniques, see F . O . Francis, " T h e F o r m and F u n c t i o n o f the O p e n i n g
and Closing Paragraphs of James and 1 J o h n , " ZNW
61 (1970) 110-26; and J o h n L.
W h i t e , " N e w T e s t a m e n t Epistolary Literatures in the F r a m e w o r k o f A n c i e n t Epistolo g r a p h y , " ANRW
2.25.2 (1984) 1 7 5 5 - 5 6 . O n specific rhetorical and stylistic techniques,
1.
Introduction
5
d o n o t agree w i t h every conclusion m a d e b y Fred O .
Francis i n his
g r o u n d b r e a k i n g article that s h o w e d h o w J a m e s a n d 1 J o h n c o n f o r m , in m a n y w a y s , t o H e l l e n i s t i c letters, b u t his w o r k d i d o p e n t h e d o o r t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f J a m e s as a letter, a n d s u b s e q u e n t s t u d i e s h a v e p a r e d J a m e s t o J e w i s h diaspora letters, in particular.
8
to
com
T o illustrate this:
m a n y , u s i n g a r a n g e o f m e t h o d s , a c c e p t J a s 5 : 7 - 2 0 as a p e r f e c t l y a c c e p t able closing to t h e text.
9
In addition,
despite the l o n g - h e l d v i e w
of
J a m e s as a l o o s e j u m b l e o f t e a c h i n g s l a c k i n g o v e r a l l c o h e r e n c e , s c h o l a r s are increasingly e x a m i n i n g J a m e s according to the c o n v e n t i o n s of a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c , e i t h e r as a w h o l e o r i n u n i t s .
Although authors do not
agree a b o u t the overall rhetorical structure of the letter, o r e v e n w h e t h e r o n e can b e found,
t h e r e are sections o f J a m e s w h e r e
on they
h a v e a r r i v e d at a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f c o n s e n s u s , s u c h as J a s 2 : 1 - 1 3 , w h i c h
such as diatribe a n d alliteration, see R o p e s , A Critical and Exegetical Commentary
on the
Epistle of St. James, 10-16; M a r t i n Dibelius, Der Brief des Jakobus (ed. H e i n r i c h G r e e v e n . Kritisch-exegetischer K o m m e n t a r iiber das N e u e T e s t a m e n t [MeyerK]. G o t t i n g e n : V a n d e n h o e c k & R u p r e c h t , 1964); E T : James: A Commentary
on the Epistle of James, ed.
H e i n r i c h G r e e v e n ; trans. Michael A . Williams (Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976) 38; A b r a h a m J. M a l h e r b e , "Hellenistic Moralists a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , "
ANRW
2.26.7 (1992) 3 1 4 . 8
O n James as a diaspora letter, see M a n a b u Tsuji, Glaube zwischen Vollkommenheit
und
Verweltlichung: Eine Untersuchung zur literarischen Gestalt und zur inhaltlichen Koharenz des Jakobusbriefes ( W U N T 2 / 9 3 ; T u b i n g e n : J . C . B . M o h r [Siebeck] 1997) a n d K a r l - W i l h e l m N i e b u h r , " D e r Jakobusbrief i m Licht fruhjudischer Diasporabriefe," NTS 4 4 (1998) 4 2 0 43. 9
F o r example, H u b e r t Frankenmolle, " D a s semantische N e t z des Jakobusbriefes. Z u r
E i n h e i t eines umstrittenen Briefes," BZ 3 4 (1990) 175; M a r t i n Klein, Ein Werk.
Volkommenheit,
Gesetz,
und Gericht
als theologische
Themen
vollkommenes
des Jakobusbriefes
( B W A N T 139; Stuttgart: K o h l h a m m e r , 1995); James R e e s e , " T h e E x e g e t e as Sage: H e a r i n g t h e Message of J a m e s , " BTB 12 (1982): 8 2 - 8 5 ; R o b e r t Wall, Community
of the
Wise: The Letter of James ( N e w T e s t a m e n t in C o n t e x t ; Valley Forge, P A : T r i n i t y Press International, 1998); W i l h e l m W u e l l n e r , " D e r Jakobusbrief i m Licht d e r P J i e t o r i k u n d T e x t p r a g m a t i k , " LB 4 3 (1978) 3 6 . 10
F o r example, see Ernst Baasland, "Literarische F o r m , T h e m a t i k u n d geschichtliche
E i n o r d n u n g des Jakobusbriefes," ANRW
2.25.2 (1988) 3 6 4 6 - 8 4 ; J o h n H . Elliott, " T h e
Epistle o f James in R b e t o r i c a l a n d Social Scientific Perspective: Holiness-Wholeness a n d Patterns o f R e p l i c a t i o n , " BTB 2 3 (1993) 7 1 - 8 1 ; Lauri T h u r e n , " R i s k y P J i e t o r i c in J a m e s ? " NovT
37 (1995) 2 6 2 - 8 4 ; W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus; D u a n e F. W a t s o n , " T h e
P J i e t o r i c of James 3:1-12 a n d a Classical Pattern o f A r g u m e n t a t i o n , " NovT
35 (1993) 4 8 -
64; D u a n e F. W a t s o n , "James 2 in Light o f G r e c o - R o m a n Schemes o f A r g u m e n t a t i o n , " NTS 11
3 9 (1993) 9 4 - 1 2 1 ; W i l h e l m H . W u e l l n e r , " D e r Jakobusbrief." See D u a n e F. W a t s o n , " A Reassessment o f the P J i e t o r i c o f the Episde of James a n d
Its Implications for Christian O r i g i n s , " in Reading James with New Eyes.
Methodological
Reassessments of the Letter of James (ed. R o b e r t L. W e b b & J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g ; Library o f N e w T e s t a m e n t Studies 342; L o n d o n : T & T Clark, 2007), 9 9 - 1 2 0 .
Friendship and Benefaction in James
6
s e v e r a l u n d e r s t a n d t o c o n f o r m t o t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a t h e m e e x e r c i s e as outlined in ancient rhetorical handbooks. C h a p t e r 4 b e g i n s t h e analysis o f J a m e s ' s s t r a t e g y b y e x a m i n i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o r e x o r d i u m , o f J a m e s , w h i c h a p p e a r s , as w i l l b e a r g u e d , i n 1 : 2 - 1 8 . A s t h e s t u d y o f a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c i n d i c a t e s , t h e e x o r d i u m is a k e y c o m p o n e n t o f a n a r g u m e n t , as it c a n o f t e n i n t r o d u c e k e y t h e m e s t h a t t h e w r i t e r w i l l d e v e l o p as w e l l as t h e e t h o s o r c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s p e a k e r . It sets t h e t o n e f o r t h e e n t i r e t e x t . T h e r e f o r e , if l a n g u a g e a n d i d e a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p e m e r g e i n this p a r t o f t h e l e t t e r , t h e y m u s t b e s i g n i f i c a n t for t h e l e t t e r as a w h o l e . I w i l l e x plore to w h a t extent friendship and the related c o n c e p t of benefaction a p p e a r i n t h e e x o r d i u m at t h e t h r e e levels o f a u t h o r t o h e a r e r s / r e a d e r s , t h e desired attributes o f c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , a n d t h e description
of
God. Chapter
5 focuses u p o n Jas 2 : 1 - 2 6 , w h i c h
several scholars
have
d e e m e d a discrete unit of t h e letter that can b e divided into 2 : 1 - 1 3 and 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 respectively. E a c h sub-section can b e u n d e r s t o o d to b e a c o m p l e t e a r g u m e n t . A f t e r r e v i e w i n g w h y this is t h e case, t h e b o o k a g a i n discusses f r i e n d s h i p at t h e l e v e l o f t h e v o i c e o f t h e a u t h o r , t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r c o m m u n i t y life, a n d t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f G o d , o r , i n t h e case o f 2:14-26, of the t w o famous
figures,
A b r a h a m a n d R a h a b . It is i n 2 : 1 -
1 3 t h a t J a m e s ' s o p p o s i t i o n t o p a t r o n a g e a p p e a r s m o s t clearly, w i t h t h e illustration of the rich m a n a n d t h e p o o r m a n w h o enter the gathering; a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y r e s p o n s e t o t h e i r e n t r a n c e is i m p o r t a n t i n J a m e s ' s l a r g e r d i s c u s s i o n o f faith a n d w o r k s . I n C h a p t e r 6, w e t u r n t o Jas 3:13—4:10, w h i c h a g a i n c o n f o r m s t o t h e r h e t o r i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f a n e l a b o r a t i o n e x e r c i s e . A f t e r e x p l a i n i n g h o w it does so, t h e chapter turns to t h e presence o f friendship a n d benefaction at t h e t h r e e levels o f a u t h o r t o a u d i e n c e , c o m m u n i t y b e h a v i o u r ,
and
the description of G o d . T h i s chapter will argue, further, that the state m e n t i n J a s 4 : 4 is a r e p h r a s i n g o f a t e a c h i n g o f J e s u s , b u t d e l i b e r a t e l y r e w o r d e d i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f G o d as a f r i e n d . C h a p t e r 7 r e t u r n s t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f p a t r o n a g e as o n e o f t h e r h e t o r i cal e x i g e n c i e s t h a t t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s a d d r e s s e s , r e v i e w i n g b o t h s o m e o f t h e i d e a s d i s c u s s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k , a n d briefly e n g a g i n g
other
passages i n J a m e s t h a t s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n t h a t p a t r o n a g e c o u l d b e o n e o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t J a m e s is t a c k l i n g . T h i s c h a p t e r also p r o v i d e s s u m m a r y c o n c l u s i o n s t o t h e v o l u m e as a w h o l e . O v e r a l l , o u r w o r k t h u s c o m b i n e s r h e t o r i c a l analysis o f J a m e s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e social a n d c u l t u r a l m o d e l s o f f r i e n d s h i p , p a t r o n a g e a n d
12
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus; W a t s o n , "James 2 . "
1.
Introduction
7
b e n e f a c t i o n . O f t e n this m a n n e r o f a p p r o a c h i n g a t e x t is c a l l e d s o c i o rhetorical criticism, a m e t h o d p i o n e e r e d b y V e r n o n K. R o b b i n s .
1 3
This
approach explores the multiple textures of a text, focusing u p o n a vari ety
of
levels
including
the
text
itself
and
how
it
attempts
to
c o m m u n i c a t e , t h e social a n d c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e t e x t is p r o d u c e d , as w e l l as t h e i d e o l o g i c a l t e x t u r e s o f b o t h t h e w o r l d f r o m w h i c h t h e t e x t e m e r g e s a n d t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h it is i n t e r p r e t e d . A n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t itself e x a m i n e s its " i n n e r t e x t u r e " o r s t r u c t u r e , as w e l l as its " i n t e r t e x t u r e " - t h a t is, h o w it uses a n t e c e d e n t o r a l a n d w r i t t e n m a t e r i als, a n d h o w it i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e c o m m u n i t y o f d i s c o u r s e f r o m w h i c h it e m e r g e s .
1 4
S t u d y o f t h e social a n d c u l t u r a l t e x t u r e s o f t e x t s e m p l o y s
s o c i a l - s c i e n t i f i c w o r k a n d a p p l i e s it t o v a r i o u s d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e t e x t is i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h t h e l a r g e social a n d c u l t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f t h a t w o r l d . S e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e fact t h a t t h e t e x t s o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n i t y , for e x a m p l e , w e r e p r o d u c e d i n a w o r l d v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y N o r t h A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y , is c r u c i a l h e r e ; t h e i n t e r p r e t e r m u s t b e careful n o t t o i m p o s e h e r o r his v a l u e s o n t e x t s t h a t s i m p l y d o n o t s h a r e t h e m . Finally, this a p p r o a c h t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g literature involves a t t e n t i o n to t h e interests a n d p o w e r d y n a m i c s o f t h e author, text and readers of texts.
15
Socio-rhetorical criticism a c k n o w l
edges that n o author, text n o r interpreter (nor interpretive c o m m u n i t y ) is c o m p l e t e l y n e u t r a l , b u t has a set o f i n t e r e s t s , p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , t h a t h e , s h e o r it w a n t s t o p r o m o t e . It t h u s tries t o a r t i c u l a t e h o w t h e i d e o l o g y is at w o r k i n a u t h o r s , t e x t s a n d r e a d e r s , i n h o p e s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f t e x t a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w i t h m o r e clarity. S o c i o - r h e t o r i c a l analyses d o n o t a l w a y s e x a m i n e e v e r y " t e x t u r e " o f a particular text b u t t h e y are interdisciplinary in that t h e y r e q u i r e a t t e n tion to m o r e than o n e d i m e n s i o n of a text. This v o l u m e does e x a m i n e t h e i d e o l o g i c a l t e x t u r e o f J a m e s , for e x a m p l e ,
1 6
not
not because
i d e o l o g y is n o t i m p o r t a n t , b u t s i m p l y b e c a u s e this is b e y o n d t h e a i m s o f 13
V e r n o n K. R o b b i n s , Tapestry of Early Christian Discourse. Rhetoric, Society and Ideology
( L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k : R o u t l e d g e , 1996). 14
See R o b b i n s , Tapestry, 115.
15
F o r a concise discussion of w h a t n o w is k n o w n as "ideological criticism," see Gale
A. Y e e , "Ideological Criticism," in Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation (ed. J o h n H . Hayes; Nashville: A b i n g d o n , 1999) 5 3 4 - 3 7 . 16
F o r recent analyses of ideology in James, see W e s l e y H . W a c h o b , " T h e Epistle of
James and the B o o k o f Psalms: A S o c i o - R b e t o r i c a l Perspective of Intertexture, C u l t u r e and Ideology in Religious Discourse," in Fabrics of Discourse. Essays in Honor of Vernon K. Robbins (ed. D a v i d B . G o w l e r , L. G r e g o r y Bloomquist, & D u a n e F. W a t s o n ; Harrisburg, L o n d o n , N e w Y o r k : Trinity Press, 2003) 2 6 4 - 8 0 ; Alicia Batten, "Ideological Strategies in J a m e s , " in Reading James with New Eyes. Methodological Reassessments of the Letter of James (Library of N e w T e s t a m e n t Studies 342; L o n d o n : T & T Clark, 2007) 6-26.
8
Friendship and Benefaction in James
t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s t u d y . H e r e , t h e f o c u s is p r i m a r i l y o n t h e social a n d c u l t u r a l t e x t u r e s o f t h e l e t t e r ' s c o n t e x t , a n d specifically o n t h e c o n c e p t s o f p a t r o n a g e , f r i e n d s h i p , a n d b e n e f a c t i o n , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f w h i c h is w e l l d o c u m e n t e d i n t h e first c e n t u r y M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d . H o w e v e r ,
and
as d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , t h e b o o k also e x a m i n e s t h e " i n n e r t e x t u r e "
of
J a m e s insofar as it deals w i t h t h e r h e t o r i c a l s t r u c t u r e a n d a r g u m e n t a t i o n o f s e v e r a l u n i t s i n t h e l e t t e r , as w e l l as t h e v o i c e o f t h e i m p l i e d a u t h o r . F u r t h e r , t h e r e is a t t e n t i o n t o t h e " i n t e r t e x t u r e " i n t h e s a m e u n i t s i n s o far as t h e y a r e u s i n g p r e v i o u s , a n d p r i m a r i l y scribal, t r a d i t i o n s Judaism and the G r a e c o - R o m a n world. Friendship, benefaction
from and
p a t r o n a g e therefore b e c o m e t h e "lenses" t h r o u g h w h i c h these literary d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e t e x t a r e e x a m i n e d . W h a t I h o p e w i l l b e c o m e c l e a r is t h a t J a m e s n o t o n l y s p e a k s as a t r u s t w o r t h y a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e f r i e n d t o h i s a u d i e n c e , b u t t h a t h e a d v o c a t e s aspects o f f r i e n d s h i p a n d b e n e f a c tion a m o n g m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u n i t y such that they will n o t seek t h e p a t r o n a g e o f t h e w e a l t h y . I n stressing s o m e o f t h e v i r t u e s i n t r i n s i c t o t r u e f r i e n d s h i p , J a m e s e x p o s e s t h e "false f r i e n d s h i p " o f p a t r o n - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s . C e n t r a l t o his m e s s a g e is r e l i a n c e u p o n G o d , a f r i e n d
and
b e n e f a c t o r w h o offers g e n e r o u s b e n e f i t s w i t h o u t r e p r o a c h . I n e m p h a s i z i n g t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r aspects o f G o d , J a m e s i m p l i c i t l y u n d e r m i n e s t h e " f r i e n d s h i p s " t h e c o m m u n i t y h a s , o r desires t o h a v e , w i t h rich p a t r o n s , w h o also r e c e i v e d i r e c t c r i t i c i s m t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e t t e r . F o r J a m e s , a life e m b o d y i n g s o m e o f t h e g r e a t v i r t u e s o f f r i e n d s h i p is also o n e i n w h i c h f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d is a p o s s i b i l i t y . T h u s his m o r a l e x h o r t a t i o n a n d his t h e o l o g i c a l m e s s a g e a r e i n t r i c a t e l y c o n n e c t e d as h e a t t e m p t s t o p r o v i d e g u i d a n c e i n t h i s p o t e n t little t e x t .
2 Friendship in Antiquity
Introduction A s w i t h a n y a n c i e n t " c o n c e p t , " t h e s t u d y o f f r i e n d s h i p i n a n t i q u i t y is a c o m p l i c a t e d e n t e r p r i s e , for n o t i o n s o f w h a t it m e a n t t o b e friends a n d d i s c u s s i o n s o f with whom o n e c o u l d b e f r i e n d s , w e r e v a r i e d . A l t h o u g h many
authors
spent
considerable
energies
in
explaining
how
true
f r i e n d s s h o u l d b e h a v e , it is difficult t o f o r m a u n i v e r s a l d e f i n i t i o n friendship
in
the ancient
Mediterranean.
Rather,
we
must
of
remain
c o n t e n t w i t h a s p e c t r u m o f v i e w s , j u s t as d i f f e r e n t a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e c o n c e p t h a v e e m e r g e d in s u b s e q u e n t ages. S c r u t i n y o f a n c i e n t friendship m u s t also b e s u b j e c t t o t h e c a v e a t t h a t w e s h o u l d n o t i m p o s e m o d e r n a s s u m p t i o n s u p o n early ideas. If w e r e a d ily a d m i t
that
there
are
disparities b e t w e e n
contemporary
Western
p e r c e p t i o n s o f p e r s o n h o o d a n d t h e g o o d life, a n d t h o s e o f a n t i q u i t y , t h e n w e m u s t also a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t o u r p r e d e c e s s o r s u n d e r s t o o d associations b e t w e e n h u m a n b e i n g s differently.
2
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e m o d e r n a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l self, t h e i n n e r and private "real m e , " defined in opposition to or in alienation from 3
4
s o c i e t y at l a r g e , w o u l d b e i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o a n c i e n t s . As C h r i s t o p h e r
1
A v o l u m e edited b y O l i v e r Leaman, Friendship East and West. Philosophical Perspectives
( R i c h m o n d , U K : C u r z o n , 1996), offers an array of studies o n friendship ranging from Plato's views to m o d e r n Japanese perceptions, s h o w i n g to w h a t extent definitions o f friendship d e p e n d in large part o n the cultures from w h i c h t h e y e m e r g e . 2
This is n o t to say that there are n o continuities in t h o u g h t b e t w e e n m o d e r n s a n d a n
cients, b u t they are difficult to d e t e r m i n e . For s o m e discussion of t h e challenges of
finding
correspondences b e t w e e n ancient ideas and m o d e r n ones, see Bernard Williams,
Shame
and Necessity (Sather Classical Lectures, 57; Berkeley, Los Angeles, L o n d o n : University o f California Press, 1993). 3
A famous a c c o u n t o f the d e v e l o p m e n t o f sincerity as key c o m p o n e n t o f this i n d i
vidualism
is Lionel
Trilling's
Sincerity
and
Authenticity
(Cambridge,
MA:
Harvard
Friendship and Benefaction in James
10
Gill h a s carefully e x p l a i n e d , w h e n a n c i e n t w r i t e r s d o discuss
euthumia,
o r t h e n o t i o n o f b e i n g c o n t e n t w i t h o r t r u e t o oneself, t h e y d o n o t p o r t r a y t h e d e e p e r self as asocial, o r d e t a c h e d f r o m e n g a g e m e n t w i t h the community. Building on the work
o f Alasdair M a c l n t y r e ,
Gill
p o i n t s o u t t h a t for a n c i e n t t h i n k e r s , virtue cannot be understood w i t h o u t reference to the performance social roles
and
practices.
In
s o far
as e t h i c a l life
requires
g r o u n d i n g , t h i s is t o b e f o u n d i n a c o n c e p t i o n o f h u m a n n a t u r e , derstood
as
a
focus
for
shared
ethical
aspirations,
rather
c o n c e p t i o n o f a p u r e l y p r i v a t e ( a n d s u p p o s e d l y " t r u e " ) self.
T h i s is n o t t o say t h a t a n c i e n t p e o p l e d i d n o t h a v e thoughts,
or
were
not
critical
of
their
societies
and
of
further un
than
a
5
independent institutions
( s o m e t i m e s t o t h e p o i n t o f r e p u d i a t i n g p u b l i c life, as w a s t h e case w i t h s o m e philosophical schools), b u t that their understanding of the person w a s significantly s h a p e d b y a n a w a r e n e s s o f a s h a r e d h u m a n i t y .
"Self-
r e a l i z a t i o n " i n a n t i q u i t y w o u l d n o t b e a p u r e l y p r i v a t e s e l f - c r e a t i n g act d i v o r c e d f r o m a n y s e n s e o f c o m m o n h u m a n i t y , as p r o m o t e d b y s o m e post-Enlightenment
thinkers,
most
notably
Friedrich
Nietzsche.
6
It
w o u l d t a k e for g r a n t e d t h e b o n d s w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d n o t a s s u m e , as is s o m e t i m e s t h e case t o d a y , t h a t w e a r e all s e p a r a t e f r o m o n e a n o t h e r . Feelings o f separation w h i c h c o n t e m p o r a r y p e o p l e can
experience
h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d significantly t o m o d e r n i d e a s o f f r i e n d s h i p .
Some
a r g u e that isolation p r o d u c e s a l o n e l y angst w h i c h u n d e r c u t s p e o p l e ' s ability t o m a k e friends. n e e d for s e l f - d i s c l o s u r e .
7
8
Certainly, such individualism promotes
the
Friends n e e d to trust o n e a n o t h e r a n d t h e y
p r o v e t h e i r t r u s t b y r e v e a l i n g aspects o f t h e i r p r i v a t e lives, t h e i r p e r -
University Press, 1972). See also Charles Taylor's magisterial Sources of the Self The Making of the Modern Identity (Cambridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1989). 4
T h e application o f cultural a n t h r o p o l o g y to biblical studies has b r o u g h t the contrast
b e t w e e n m o d e r n individualism and ancient dyadism to the fore. See B r u c e J. Malina, The New Testament World. Insights from Cultural Anthropology (Louisville: J o h n K n o x , 1981) 5 1 70. 5
C h r i s t o p h e r Gill, "Peace o f M i n d and B e i n g Yourself: Panaetius to Plutarch,"
ANRWll.36.7 6
How
(1994) 4 6 0 1 .
Gill ("Peace o f M i n d , " 4634, n.143) thus notes the subtitle o f Nietzsche's Ecce Homo: One Becomes What
One Is. For further discussion of this aspect o f Nietzsche's
t h o u g h t , see Alisdair M a c l n t y r e , After
Virtue. A Study in Moral Theory (2nd ed.; N o t r e
D a m e : University of N o t r e D a m e Press, 1984) 113-14. 7
Stuart Miller (Men and Friendship [Los Angeles: J e r e m y P . Tarcher, 1983] 21-22)
claims that m o d e r n philosophy, w i t h its emphasis u p o n the individual, has contributed to t h e demise o f friendships a m o n g m e n . T h i s aspect o f m o d e r n friendship is a c k n o w l e d g e d b y m o s t sociologists and p s y c h o l o gists w r i t i n g o n t h e subject.
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
11
s o n a l i n t e r e s t s , a n d o f t e n t h e i r fears a n d i n s e c u r i t i e s . I n a n t i q u i t y , h o w e v e r , s u c h a c o n f e s s i o n a l s t a n c e w a s n o t a r e q u i r e m e n t for f r i e n d s h i p . H o n e s t y a n d frankness o f speech w e r e i m p o r t a n t , to b e sure, b u t t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t friends h a d t o d i v u l g e t h e i r i n m o s t secrets t o o n e a n o t h e r . As D a v i d K o n s t a n writes, "plainspokenness a n d t h e liberty to e x p r e s s d a n g e r o u s v i e w s ... a r e n o t t h e s a m e as t h e i n j u n c t i o n t o self9
disclosure." N o r does o n e receive the impression from ancient litera t u r e t h a t f r i e n d s h i p w a s a n a n t i d o t e t o l o n e l i n e s s , as if o n l y a t r u e f r i e n d c o u l d r e s c u e a n o t h e r p e r s o n f r o m h e r o r his s o l i t u d e . Secondly, the socio-political, e c o n o m i c and cultural
dissimilarities
b e t w e e n m o d e r n W e s t e r n life a n d t h a t o f t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d h a v e n a t u rally
had
a
powerful
impact
upon
the
complexion
of
human
r e l a t i o n s h i p s . All o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s c a n n o t b e d e t a i l e d h e r e , b u t o n e c o n t r a s t w h i c h m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s e a r c h e r s o n f r i e n d s h i p n o t e is t h e shift f r o m t h e essentially p r e - i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y o f t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d to the highly industrialized present. Agriculture was o n e of the m a i n sources of wealth in antiquity whereas industry, although an important part o f t h e ancient e c o n o m y , was n o t large-scale and c o u l d n o t g e n e r ate a large profit for further
investment.
T h e r e was n o
"class
of
e n t r e p r e n e u r s w h o [ w e r e ] b o t h c a p a b l e o f p e r c e i v i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s for profit in large-scale organization o f m a n u f a c t u r e a n d p r e p a r e d to u n d e r g o t h e risks e n t a i l e d i n m a k i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y i n v e s t m e n t . "
Thus,
t h e m a r k e t w a s n o t t h e vast a n o n y m o u s e n t i t y t h a t it is i n capitalist societies today. S o m e t h i n k e r s h a v e d e t e r m i n e d that this c h a n g e f r o m p r e - i n d u s t r i a l to
industrialized,
commercial
society
has
improved
the
nature
of
friendship. C e r t a i n 1 8 t h - c e n t u r y Scottish E n l i g h t e n m e n t writers u n d e r stood the p u r p o s e o f friendship in p r e - c o m m e r c i a l society to b e simply t h a t o f h e l p i n g friends a n d h a r m i n g e n e m i e s . W h e r e vital resources are n o t created a n d distributed i m p e r s o n a l l y b y m a r k e t s a n d b u r e a u c r a c i e s , o n e has n o c h o i c e b u t t o b e i n [ A d a m ] F e r g u s o n ' s d i s a p p r o v i n g p h r a s e , " i n t e r e s t e d a n d s o r d i d " i n all i n t e r a c t i o n s , c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h w h e t h e r t h e y " e m p t y [or] fill t h e p o c k e t , "
9
10
be-
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 15. See M . I . Finley, The Ancient Economy (rev. ed.; Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1985). 11
P e t e r Garnsey and R i c h a r d Sailer, The Roman Empire. Economy,
(London: D u c k w o r t h , 1987) 4 3 .
Society and
Culture
Friendship and Benefaction in James
12
cause in such settings vital resources are obtained largely t h r o u g h w h a t m o d e r n culture and t h e o r y see as personal relations. A c c o r d i n g to these Scots, t h e onset of c o m m e r c i a l society p r o v i d e d a clear contrast b e t w e e n
the world
of business relations; a w o r l d
of
s t r a n g e r s o r , at t h e m o s t , a c q u a i n t a n c e s , i n w h i c h o n e w a s e x p e c t e d t o act e q u i t a b l y b u t o u t o f s e l f - i n t e r e s t , a n d t h e p r i v a t e w o r l d o f f a m i l y and friendship,
where
one
offered
unconditional
service a n d
love.
C o m m e r c i a l s o c i e t y w a s b e n e f i c i a l , t h e y a r g u e d , p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it m a d e this d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f o r m a l a n d i m p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s o f t h e b u s i n e s s w o r l d a n d t h e i n f o r m a l a n d i n t i m a t e s p h e r e s o f friends a n d family. It t h u s p r o m o t e d " p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s t h a t [ w e r e ]
normatively
free o f i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d c a l c u l a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n s . " C r i t i c s o f c o m m e r c i a l capitalist s o c i e t y h a v e v i e w e d its i m p a c t u p o n personal relations in a n o t h e r w a y . M a r x and others have argued that "commodification corrupt."
renders
personal
relations
alienated
and
morally
A person's w o r t h becomes determined m o r e by her eco
n o m i c v a l u e , t h a t is, b y h o w s h e c a n b e n e f i t t h e f a c t o r y o r t h e b u s i n e s s , t h a n b y o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h i s v i e w o f a p e r s o n as a c o m m o d i t y s p r e a d s a n d infects o t h e r f o r m s o f h u m a n a s s o c i a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g f a m i lies, r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s a n d c l u b s . W h e t h e r o n e is a s u p p o r t e r o r a critic o f capitalist s o c i e t y , o n e n e e d s to appreciate that friendship existed in m a n y forms in
pre-industrial
c i v i l i z a t i o n s . It is i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t e r e o t y p e a n c i e n t f r i e n d s h i p as a purely
" h e l p friends a n d h a r m e n e m i e s " c o n c e p t ,
n o r as a r e l a t i o n s h i p
e n t i r e l y free o f i n s t r u m e n t a l i s m , w h i c h c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y h a v e s u b s e q u e n t l y c o r r u p t e d . F r i e n d s h i p " i n a n y s o c i e t y is b o u n d e d b y a set
12
Allan Silver, "Friendship in C o m m e r c i a l Society: E i g h t e e n t h - C e n t u r y Social T h e o r y
and M o d e r n Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990) 1484. Silver notes Plato's Meno 71.E, in w h i c h M e n o says that a m a n ' s virtue is "that h e b e c o m p e t e n t t o m a n a g e t h e affairs o f his city, and t o m a n a g e t h e m so as to benefit his friends and h a r m his e n e mies, as to take care to avoid suffering h a r m himself." Silver, "Friendship in C o m m e r c i a l Society," 1474. See also Allan Silver, "Friendship and Trust as M o r a l Ideals: A n Historical A p p r o a c h , " European Journal of Sociology 30 (1989) 274-97. 14
15
Silver, "Friendship and C o m m e r c i a l Society," 1477. Stuart Miller (Men and Friendship, 20) argues that intimacy and friendship are r e
morselessly u n d e r c u t b y m o d e r n civilization. 16
H o w e v e r , t h e n o t i o n that o n e w o u l d support one's friends and rejoice in t h e ruin of
one's enemies is a consistent presupposition in G r e e k t h o u g h t . As M a r y W h i t l o c k B l u n dell (Helping
Friends
and Harming
Enemies:
A
Study
in Sophocles and
Greek
Ethics
[Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1989] 27) states, " u n l i k e most o f us, [the Greeks] realistically a c k n o w l e d g e d that it is also h u m a n to b e pained b y o u r enemies' success and take pleasure in their downfall."
2. Friendship in Antiquity
13
o f a l t e r n a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t m a r k off its specific d i m e n s i o n s properties,"
and
b u t these alternative relationships are m a n y a n d c o m p l e x
i n all p e r i o d s o f h i s t o r y . T h e r e is n o s i n g l e n a r r a t i v e o r d e v e l o p m e n t o f f r i e n d s h i p ; r a t h e r , it e b b s a n d f l o w s w i t h t h e c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f the h u m a n community. This chapter will explore s o m e of t h e ways in w h i c h Greek,
Ro
m a n , J e w i s h and Christian writers u n d e r s t o o d friendship. T h e language o f friendship has a l o n g a n d rich history a m o n g t h e a n c i e n t G r e e k s , r e a c h i n g far b a c k i n t o t h e A r c h a i c p e r i o d a n d p o s s i b l y e v e n
earlier.
A l t h o u g h it w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o e x a m i n e this e n t i r e h i s t o r y h e r e , a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f s o m e o f this b a c k g r o u n d is essential for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o n t o u r s o f f r i e n d s h i p i n t h e first c e n t u r y . W e w i l l f o c u s o n t h e appearance a n d use o f k e y terms associated w i t h friendship, s o m e o f t h e v i r t u e s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f r i e n d s , as w e l l as t h e n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d , as t h i s i d e a is significant t o t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s .
H o m e r ' s p o e t r y is t h e o l d e s t e x t a n t e v i d e n c e o f f r i e n d s h i p l a n g u a g e a n d ideas,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e is g r e a t d i s a g r e e m e n t a m o n g classical s c h o l a r s as
t o precisely h o w t h e p o e t u n d e r s t o o d this t y p e o f relationship. H e d o e s n o t u s e t h e w o r d cpiXioc, b u t h e d o e s e m p l o y cpfkoq i n b o t h t h e a n d t h e Odyssey.
M a n y a r g u e t h a t h e uses cpikoc, i n o n e o r b o t h o f t h e
f o l l o w i n g w a y s : in t h e possessive sense o f referring t o o n e ' s a n d / o r as a n e m o t i v e a d j e c t i v e , as i n " d e a r " o r " l o v i n g . " 17
18
Iliad own,
W h e n it
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 6. As H o m e r ' s w o r k s contain materials that predate t h e poetry's present form, w h i c h
was established a r o u n d t h e 8th century BCE, the friendships and friendship language w h i c h appear in t h e m m a y reach far back into t h e dark age. 19
For a survey of t h e scholarly positions o n the use of cp'ikoq, see J o h n T . Fitzgerald,
"Friendship in t h e G r e e k W o r l d prior to Aristotle," Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship, 13-34; James H o o k e r , " H o m e r i c
^U(JLO?,"
'Owls to
Essays on Classical Subjects Presented to Sir Kenneth Dover [ed. E . M . Craik; Oxford:
C l a r e n d o n , 1990] 97-108) takes a different view, stating that H o m e r i c cpikoc, is n e v e r possessive, b u t either e m o t i v e o r used t o describe one's Y]Top, idjp, and Svyioc, as friends. A r t h u r W . H . Adkins ("Friendship and 'Self-Sufficiency' in H o m e r and Aristotle," C Q 13 [1963] 33) emphasizes t h e possessive nature o f cpikoc, although h e grants that there is s o m e degree of affection for things that are cplXot (yet h e will n o t accept t h e English w o r d s " d e a r " o r "friend," and all that they entail, as accurate equivalents). Adkins writes that for t h e ancient G r e e k in H o m e r ' s w o r l d , t h e 9 1 X 0 1 "are his [the Greeks'] o w n : all else is hostile o r indifferent, and the possessive affection h e feels for w h a t is 9 1 X 0 V is based o n the
Friendship and Benefaction in James
14
c o m e s t o H o m e r ' s s u b s t a n t i v e u s e o f t h e w o r d , d i s a g r e e m e n t falls a l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s . S c h o l a r s w h o i n t e r p r e t t h e a d j e c t i v e cpiXo^ i n a p o s s e s s i v e sense u n d e r s t a n d it s u b s t a n t i v e l y t o b e s o m e o n e w h o is e i t h e r o n e ' s o w n , o n e ' s r e l a t i v e o r a m e m b e r o f o n e ' s g r o u p . O t h e r classicists w h o a t t r i b u t e a n e m o t i v e s e n s e t o t h e a d j e c t i v e cpfkoq l i k e w i s e t h i n k t h a t t h e n o u n means "friend,"
20
c o n t r a r y t o t h e first set o f i n t e r p r e t e r s
c l a i m t h a t t h i s n o t i o n o f a cplXo^ o n l y e m e r g e d l a t e r w i t h i n
who Greek
literature. Regardless, Archaic G r e e k literature, including H e s i o d and T h e o g nis, u s e s o t h e r t e r m s f o r " f r i e n d " s u c h as e r a l p o ^
2 1
a n d it is n o t u n t i l
t h e classical a n d l a t e r p e r i o d s t h a t cpiXoQ b e c o m e s t h e " s t a n d a r d " w o r d u s e d . D u r i n g t h e classical p e r i o d , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is d e b a t e a b o u t t o w h a t t y p e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p t h e w o r d refers, a n d w h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
22
<£t,Xia c a n exist b e t w e e n h u m a n s , b u t also b e t w e e n g o d s a n d h u m a n s , as w e w i l l s e e . It c o n n o t e s n e i t h e r a n e x c l u s i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p n o r t h a t c a n o n l y exist b e t w e e n
non-kin. Many w h o
examine
one
ancient
f r i e n d s h i p t h i n k t h a t cpiXo^ is l i k e w i s e a p p l i c a b l e t o a w i d e v a r i e t y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h a t is, n o t o n l y c a n a l o y a l f r i e n d b e a cpiXo^, b u t a b r o t h e r o r a sister, o r a m o t h e r o r a father. T h u s cpiXo^ a n d
of
meanings. For example, in explaining w h y the help friends/harm e n e m i e s c o d e is m u c h b r o a d e r t h a n it m a y first s e e m t o m o d e r n s , B l u n d e l l states t h a t the G r e e k philos (translated as 'friend,' 'beloved' or 'dear') and philia (translated as 'rriendship' or 'love'), go well b e y o n d o u r concept of
n e e d and desire for self-preservation." J e a n - C l a u d e Fraisse (Philia. La Notion de
VAmitie
dans la Philosophie Antique, 39) states this m o r e emphatically: "Est philon ce qui n e p e u t etre separe d e m o i sans q u e j e cesse d'exister, o u d u m o i n s de m e n e r l'existence qui est m a raison d ' e t r e . " F o r an outline of t h e scholarly positions, see Fitzgerald, "Friendship in t h e G r e e k World," 16-18. 21
See Hesiod, Works and Days, 7 0 7 - 1 3 ; T h e o g n i s , Eleg. 1.95. Konstan (Friendship, 33),
h o w e v e r , argues that d u r i n g t h e Archaic period, the t e r m yikoc, is reserved for t h e m o s t intimate circle of friends. Classicists disagree a b o u t the level o r even presence of e m o t i o n a l o r affectionate feel ings b e t w e e n those in a
2. Friendship in Antiquity
15
friendship to cover a complex w e b of personal, political, business and family relationships, each of w h i c h w h e n violated may turn to enmity. 23
Similarly, i n his dissertation o n cptAloc a n d yoipis
m
Euripidean drama,
S.E. Scully talks a b o u t cpiXLa a n d cpi'koc, i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y , a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e y refer t o t h e s a m e d o m a i n o f associations.
24
R e c e n t l y , K o n s t a n h a s c h a l l e n g e d t h e p r e v i o u s c o n s e n s u s t h a t this b r e a d t h o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s is signified b y b o t h n o u n s . H e
argues
that
cpiAioc c a n d e n o t e affection b e t w e e n b o t h k i n a n d n o n - k i n b u t t h a t t h e " c o n c r e t e n o u n philos
( d i s t i n g u i s h e d m o r e o r less u n a m b i g u o u s l y f r o m
t h e adjective m e a n i n g 'dear' w h e n modified b y t h e definite a p p l i e s specifically t o t h e m o r e n a r r o w b o n d o f f r i e n d s h i p . "
25
article)
Even the
a d j e c t i v e , cpiAo^, c a n a p p l y t o a w i d e v a r i e t y o f k i n a n d n o n - k i n w h o are " d e a r " to o n e another, b u t w h e n t h e n o u n appears, indicated b y t h e a r t i c l e i n f r o n t o f it, it d e n o t e s a m u c h m o r e specific a s s o c i a t i o n w h i c h c a n o n l y exist b e t w e e n n o n - k i n .
K o n s t a n has a n a l y s e d a v a r i e t y
o f classical s o u r c e s a n d f o u n d t h a t t h e a u t h o r s w e r e v e r y careful m a k e distinctions b e t w e e n family m e m b e r s a n d those w h o
are
to not
biologically related. " W h e r e k i n a n d acquaintances u n r e l a t e d b y family ties a r e c o n t r a s t e d , philoi
clearly d e s i g n a t e s t h e class o f f r i e n d s . "
He
p o i n t s o u t t h a t A r i s t o t l e , w h o as far as w e k n o w w a s t h e first t o p r o d u c e a m e t h o d i c a l study of friendship, includes m a n y types of b o n d s , familial a n d o t h e r w i s e , w i t h i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f cpcAia, b u t w h e n h e d i s cusses m o t h e r - c h i l d cpiAia h e a v o i d s t h e n o u n cptXo^ a l t o g e t h e r : As has been said, there are three kinds of philia, according to virtue, utility, and pleasure, and these in turn are divided into t w o , the one set according to equality, the other according to surplus. B o t h sets are philiai, but friends [philoi] are those according to equality; for it w o u l d be absurd for a father to be a friend {philos] to his child, but of course he loves \philei] him and is loved \phileitai] by h i m (Eth. Eud. 7.4.1-2 [LCL]). 28
T h u s cpiAia c a n e n c o m p a s s a d i v e r s i t y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b u t when
used
as a n o u n ,
g e n e r a l l y refers
to
a biologically
(piXoq,
unrelated
23
Blundell, Helping Friends and Harming Enemies, 3 9 .
24
See S.E. Scully, Philia and Charis in Euripidean Tragedy ( P h . D . dissertation; University
o f T o r o n t o , 1973) 1 5 - 5 1 . F o r a discussion of o t h e r writers w h o take this approach, see D a v i d Konstan, " G r e e k Friendship," AJP 117 (1996) 7 1 - 7 2 . 25
26
Konstan, " G r e e k Friendship," 7 5 . See also Konstan, TJie Emotions,
170.
Konstan ("Greek Friendship," 84, n . 3 1) acknowledges that occasionally there are
exceptions. 27
28
Konstan, "Greek Friendship," 73; cf Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 53-56. Translated b y H . R a c k h a m (London: H e i n e m a n n ; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n i
versity Press, 1935). See Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 6 8 .
Friendship and Benefaction in James
16
p e r s o n . S o m e t i m e s family m e m b e r s can p r o v e to b e t r u e 9 1 X 0 1 , that
does
not
mean
that
the
noun
cplAo<; n o r m a l l y
includes
but
kin.
2 9
A l t h o u g h t h i s s t u d y w i l l i n c l u d e a d i s c u s s i o n o f cpiAloc, it f o c u s e s o n t h e m o r e n a r r o w l y d e f i n e d i d e a o f a cplXog. B y t h e first c e n t u r y cpLAo<; is t h e p r i m a r y w o r d for " f r i e n d " a n d is u s e d i n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s , i n c l u d i n g official d o c u m e n t s , l e t t e r s , inscriptions, philosophical literature, Hellenistic J e w i s h texts, t h e
New
T e s t a m e n t a n d o t h e r early C h r i s t i a n literature. W i t h i n t h e past d e c a d e , increasing attention to the use o f friendship language in a range
of
s c r i p t u r a l c o n t e x t s s u g g e s t s t h a t cpiXoq a n d its c o g n a t e s w e r e m o r e s i g nificant
for s o m e J e w i s h
acknowledged.
and Christian writers than was
previously
A l t h o u g h classical H e b r e w h a d n o c o n s i s t e n t v o c a b u
l a r y for f r i e n d s h i p ,
t h e translation o f H e b r e w biblical texts into G r e e k
a n d t h e creation a n d a d d i t i o n o f o t h e r d o c u m e n t s reveals that H e l l e n i s t i c J e w s e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n f r i e n d s h i p as a t o p i c t o b e d i s c u s s e d . T h e word
cpfkoq
appears
91
times
in
the
apocryphal/deuterocanonical
b o o k s , w i t h 6 2 o f t h o s e o c c u r r e n c e s as t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f a original.
Some
Hellenistic Jewish
b o o k s , r e f e r t o cpLAo<; q u i t e o f t e n ,
texts,
such
as t h e
Hebrew
Maccabbean
a n d B e n Sira discusses f r i e n d s h i p at
l e n g t h . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t , it h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t cpiAeco a n d cpikoq
were
more
significant
for s o m e
early
Christian g r o u p s t h a n has p r e v i o u s l y b e e n r e c o g n i z e d . M a n y h a v e s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e a n c i e n t C h r i s t i a n s u n d e r s t o o d aya7raco t o b e a h i g h e r f o r m o f l o v e t h a n cpiAeco, a s u p p o s i t i o n l a r g e l y b a s e d u p o n t h e fact t h a t P a u l uses ayaTiaco so o f t e n , a n d o n l y uses cpiAect) o n c e . H o w e v e r , L u k e A c t s uses cpiAeco-related w o r d s m o r e t h a n c o g n a t e s o f ayocTcaco, a n d t h e latter o n l y o c c u r in Acts. T h e r e are several examples o f L u k a n Q m a t e rial w h i c h u s e t h e w o r d 9LA01 w h i l e t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l i n does not.
Matthew
T h e G o s p e l o f J o h n e m p l o y s aya^ac*) m o r e t h a n cpiAeco, b u t
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 59. 30
See, for example, J e r e m y Corley, Ben Sira's Teaching on Friendship (BJS 316; Atlanta:
Scholars, 2002), t h e essays in Friendship, Flattery and Frankness of Speech, as well as C a r o linne W h i t e ' s Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1992). 31
Pizzolato, L'idea di amicizia, 2 2 2 . See G r e g o r y E. Sterling, " T h e B o n d o f H u m a n i t y : Friendship in Philo o f A l e x a n
dria," Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship, 204. n. 5. 33
See G. Stahlin, "yikot;, 91XV),
34
A n n G r a h a m B r o c k ( " T h e Significance o f cptXeto and 9 1 X 0 ^ in t h e Tradition o f Jesus
(1974) 1 5 4 - 5 5 .
Sayings a n d in t h e Early Christian C o m m u n i t i e s , " HTR
90 [1997] 396-401) identifies
these examples: M a t t 10:28 and L u k e 12:4-5; M a t t 8:8 and L u k e 7:6; M a t t 18:12-13 and L u k e 15:4-6. Also c o m p a r e M a r k 13:12 a n d L u k e 21:16, in w h i c h L u k e contains a refer-
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
17
d o e s n o t resist cpiAeco n o r cplAo<;, s o m e i n s t a n c e s o f w h i c h a p p e a r
to
h a v e e m e r g e d f r o m source material o r tradition, w h i l e others likely served the author's objectives.
P e r h a p s t h i s e m p h a s i s u p o n ayocTraco
h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e n e g l e c t o f cplAog a n d its c o g n a t e s i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e . B e t h a t as it m a y , s t u d i e s o n t h e r o l e o f
friendship,
p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h i n P a u l ' s l e t t e r s a n d Luke—Acts, a r e i n c r e a s i n g .
Virtues o f Friends An
e x a m i n a t i o n o f friendship i n antiquity reveals a c o m m o n
set
of
v i r t u e s r e g u l a r l y associated w i t h friends. T h e s e v i r t u e s , t o s o m e e x t e n t , transcend linguistic a n d religious b o u n d a r i e s . G u s t a v S t a h l i n states t h a t " t h e v e r y fact t h a t cplAo<; a n d (piklon o c c u r p r e d o m i n a n t l y in t h e originally G r e e k texts o f t h e L X X s h o w s that w e h a v e h e r e a c o n c e p t w h i c h is f u n d a m e n t a l l y alien t o t h e O T
world."
3 6
W h e n
37
The
most
c o m m o n H e b r e w o r i g i n a l is s n b u t this w o r d is o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o G r e e k as TTAYJCJIOV, w h i c h "neighbour,"
"another,"
can c o n n o t e a variety of things "friend,"
"companion,"
and
including
"paramour."
3 8
O t h e r H e b r e w o r i g i n a l w o r d s i n c l u d e nntf (e.g. E s t h 5 : 1 0 ) , ST)E ( P r o v 1 2 : 2 6 ) *fb* ( P r o v 1 6 : 2 8 ) , a n d n a n ( D a n 2 : 1 3 , 1 7 ) .
39
A l t h o u g h H e b r e w had n o consistent vocabulary of friendship, does n o t m e a n that t h e idea o f an intimate a n d loyal b o n d
this
between
p e o p l e d i d n o t exist f o r t h e a n c i e n t Israelites. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n J o n a t h a n a n d D a v i d r a n k s as a g r e a t f r i e n d s h i p , c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t b e t w e e n o t h e r f a m o u s p a i r s o f f r i e n d s b e c a u s e o f its i n t e n s i t y . 1 S a m 1 8 : 1 states t h a t t h e " s o u l ($33) o f J o n a t h a n w a s b o u n d t o t h e s o u l ($33) o f D a v i d a n d J o n a t h a n l o v e d h i m as his o w n s o u l (2733)." T h i s l a t t e r s t a t e m e n t is r e p e a t e d a f e w t i m e s i n 1 S a m u e l (1 S a m 1 8 : 3 ; 2 0 : 1 7 ) , a n d is r e m i n i s c e n t o f D e u t 1 3 : 7 , w h i c h refers t o " y o u r f r i e n d (sn) w h o is as
e n c e to cptXcov, w h i l e M a r k makes n o m e n t i o n o f it.
lXoi occurs 9 m o r e times in L u k e (11:5, 6, 8; 14:10, 12; 15:9; 23:2) and 3 times in Acts (10:24; 19:31; 27:3). 35
B r o c k , " T h e Significance," 3 9 9 , 4 0 5 - 4 0 6 .
36
Stahlin, "91X0^," See also, T r e u , "Freundschaft," RAC
37
8, 4 2 3 - 2 6 .
G r e g o r y E. Sterling, ( " T h e B o n d o f H u m a n i t y , " 2 0 4 , n. 5) has p r o v i d e d a very
helpful tabulation o f t h e n u m b e r o f times in w h i c h cp'ikoc, appears in t h e LXX a n d t h e different H e b r e w w o r d s from w h i c h it has b e e n translated. 38
J o h a n n e s Fichtner, "TTXYJCTIOV in t h e LXX and t h e N e i g h b o u r in t h e O T , "
TDNTVl
(1968) 3 1 2 - 1 4 . 39
T h e T h e o d o t i o n text o f D a n i e l uses 91X0^ for "DJ7 b u t t h e LXX does n o t . F o r dis
cussion o f t h e translation o f H e b r e w w o r d s i n t o 9iXo<;, see Stahlin, "91X0^," 1 5 4 - 5 6 .
Friendship
18
and Benefaction
in James
y o u r o w n s o u l ($23)." J o n a t h a n gives D a v i d his o w n r o b e , a r m o u r a n d w e a p o n s , t h e r e b y , i n S t a h l i n ' s v i e w , m a k i n g D a v i d t h e " a l t e r e g o o f his friend [Jonathan]." than,
he
W h e n D a v i d laments t h e deaths o f Saul a n d J o n a
says o f J o n a t h a n ,
"I
am
distressed
for
you,
my
brother
J o n a t h a n ; g r e a t l y b e l o v e d w e r e y o u t o m e ; y o u r l o v e (mnN) t o m e w a s w o n d e r f u l , p a s s i n g t h e l o v e o f w o m e n " (2 S a m 1:26). S u c h a s t r o n g p r o f e s s i o n o f l o v e for a f r i e n d recalls t h e i n t e n s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n H o m e r ' s Achilles a n d Patroclus, such that Achilles r e t u r n e d to a battle i n w h i c h P a t r o c l u s h a d b e e n k i l l e d , n o t b e c a u s e o f t h e call o f d u t y , b u t t o a v e n g e t h e d e a t h o f his f r i e n d . I n a n u m b e r o f i n s t a n c e s , t h e H e b r e w B i b l e associates t h e q u a l i t y o f "ion, w h i c h has b e e n t r a n s l a t e d as " l o v i n g l o y a l t y "
41
o r "faithful l o v e , "
w i t h friendships b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d G o d . T h i s is t r u e o f t h e friendship b e t w e e n J o n a t h a n a n d D a v i d , for w h e n t h e y m a k e a c o v e n a n t o f friendship, J o n a t h a n says: " I f I a m still alive, s h o w m e t h e faithful l o v e ("ion) o f t h e L o r d ; b u t if I d i e , n e v e r c u t off y o u r
faithful
l o v e ("ion) f r o m m y h o u s e " (1 S a m 1 0 : 1 4 - 1 5 a ) . N o r m a n H a b e l t h u s s u g gests t h a t " i n D a v i d ' s b o n d o f friendship w i t h J o n a t h a n t h e r e w a s a s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n hesed a n d t h e d i v i n e hesed o f Y a h w e h e x pressed t h r o u g h a h u m a n b e i n g towards a friend."
T h e b o o k o f J o b also
links "ion with f r i e n d s h i p , a l t h o u g h n o t t h e "JOn o f G o d . M a r v i n H . P o p e has translated J o b 6 : 1 4 as " A sick m a n s h o u l d h a v e t h e l o y a l t y ("ion) f r o m his friend (sn), t h o u g h h e forsake fear o f S h a d d a i , "
43
which
indicates
h o w , for t h e a u t h o r o f J o b , h u m a n loyalty w a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e for f r i e n d ship, e v e n i n m o m e n t s o f a l i e n a t i o n f r o m t h e d i v i n e .
Unfortunately
J o b ' s friends c a n n o t live u p t o this r e q u i r e m e n t , a n d refuse t o c o m m i s e r ate w i t h J o b i n his a n g e r a n d frustration at G o d . T h r o u g h o u t P r o v e r b s t h e r e are various statements a b o u t friendship, i n c l u d i n g references t o those w h o o n l y p r e t e n d to b e friends. P r o v e r b s 1 8 : 2 4 states: " S o m e friends p l a y at f r i e n d s h i p b u t a t r u e f r i e n d (DJ1K) sticks c l o s e r t h a n o n e ' s n e a r e s t k i n . " Fair w e a t h e r friends a r e p l e n t i f u l d u r i n g p r o s p e r i t y (19:6) b u t w h e n p e o p l e face d e s t i t u t i o n , t h e i r friends
40
Stahlin, "cpiXo?," 156.
41
See William H u g h B r o w n l e e , The Dead Sea Manual of Discipline ( B A S O R S u p 10-12;
N e w H a v e n : A m e r i c a n Schools of Oriental Research, 1951) 4 8 . N o r m a n H a b e l , ' " O n l y the Jackal is m y Friend.' O n Friends and R e d e e m e r s in J o b , " Int 31 (1977) 230. 43
M a r v i n H . P o p e , Job. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary
(AB 15;
N e w Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1965) 4 9 . 44
H a b e l ( " ' O n l y the Jackal is m y F r i e n d , ' " 230) writes that for the a u t h o r of J o b , " t o
b e a friend is to b e c o h u m a n in a d e h u m a n i z e d situation w h e r e a despairing m a n has lost his religion as a source of i n n e r support."
2.
Friendship
in
Antiquity
19
d i s a p p e a r ( 1 9 : 7 ) . T h e t r u e f r i e n d , h o w e v e r , w i l l s t a n d fast d e s p i t e t h e h a r d t i m e s t h a t t h e o t h e r e n c o u n t e r s . T o h a t e a f r i e n d ($n) is e v e n t o sin (Kton) a c c o r d i n g t o P r o v 1 4 : 2 1 a w h i l e t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e p r o v e r b states t h a t t o h a v e c o m p a s s i o n o n t h e p o o r is t o b e b l e s s e d . S u c h a p a i r i n g o f ideas s t r o n g l y suggests t h a t t o b e a f r i e n d is t o h a v e c o m p a s s i o n for o t h e r s especially w h e n t h e y face p o v e r t y a n d d e s p a i r .
45
T u r n i n g t o t h e o l d e s t e x t a n t G r e e k s o u r c e for f r i e n d s h i p , t h e
Iliad,
w e see a b o n d b e t w e e n A c h i l l e s a n d P a t r o c l u s t h a t m a n i f e s t s a n a s s o c i a tion
between
two
people
which
far
exceeds
in
intensity
their
associations w i t h others. H o m e r describes these t w o characters p r i m a r ily as s x a l p o i , w h i c h c a n m e a n a v a r i e t y o f t h i n g s , i n c l u d i n g c o m r a d e s and shipmates,
46
a n d t h u s t h e m e r e d e s i g n a t i o n sxodpoc d o e s n o t d i s t i n
guish Achilles's a n d Patroclus's friendship f r o m their associations w i t h o t h e r w a r r i o r s . H o w e v e r , H o m e r d o e s d e s c r i b e P a t r o c l u s as A c h i l l e s ' s TCOXU (piXxocTOQ ircdpoq
" d e a r e s t c o m p a n i o n b y far" ( 1 7 . 4 1 1 , 6 5 5 ) ,
4 7
and
as m a n y h a v e o b s e r v e d , t h e r e is p l e n t i f u l e v i d e n c e o f t h e d e p t h o f f e e l i n g b e t w e e n A c h i l l e s a n d P a t r o c l u s , f r o m A p o l l o ' s w o n d e r at A c h i l l e s ' s l o v e for P a t r o c l u s ( 2 4 . 4 4 - 5 2 ) ,
t o t h e " m e t a p h o r i c a l a s s i m i l a t i o n " (for
e x a m p l e , P a t r o c l u s dies i n A c h i l l e s ' s a r m o u r ) b e t w e e n t h e t w o w h i c h "calls t o m i n d A r i s t o t l e ' s i m a g e o f t h e f r i e n d as a n o t h e r self,"
49
a notion
w h i c h w e w i l l e x p l o r e later. A l s o o f n o t e h e r e is t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e w o r d niGToq companions,
5 0
appears in the context of describing one's
to the point of
KIOTOC,
dearest
b e c o m i n g a standard w o r d associ
a t e d w i t h friends i n this l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s e m p h a s i s u p o n l o y a l t y c o n t i n u e s i n T h e o g n i s , w h o offers a s u b stantial n u m b e r o f c o m p l a i n t s a n d p i e c e s o f a d v i c e a b o u t friends
who
h a v e b e e n d u p l i c i t o u s o r disloyal. I n fact, it a p p e a r s t h a t for T h e o g n i s , f r i e n d s h i p has b r o k e n d o w n . " F e w philoi
h a v e a t r u s t w o r t h y m i n d ...
[and] t h e p o e t seeks i n v a i n for a pistos hetairos free o f d e c e p t i o n
45
(dobs)
A . S . Aglen ("Friend" in Dictionary of the Bible [ed. James Hastings; E d i n b u r g h : T & T
Clark, 1903]) 6 8 . 46
See Franz Dirlmeier, OlAo<; und iXla im vorhellenistischen Griechentum,
47
See Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 3 3 .
48
See D a v i d M . Halperin, One Hundred
Years of Homosexuality
22.
(New York, London:
R o u t l e d g e , 1990) 84. 49
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 42. For m o r e of a discussion of the "assimi
lation" b e t w e e n Meaning
Sprachwissenschaft 50
Achilles
and Patroclus,
see Dale S. Sinos, Achilles,
of Philos (Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenschaft
Patroklos
and
the
29; Innsbruck: Institut fur
der Universitat Innsbruck, 1980) 5 5 - 6 8 .
See C h r i s t o p h e Ulf, Die homerische Gesellschaft: Materialen zur analytischen
und historischen Lokalisierung
( M u n i c h : C . H . Beck, 1990) 136.
Beschreibung
20
Friendship
like himself."
51
and Benefaction
in James
S o o f t e n d o e s T h e o g n i s d e c r y t h e disloyalty o f t h e s e p e r
sons t h a t it c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t l o y a l t y m u s t h a v e o n c e b e e n a p r i z e d feature o f t r u e f r i e n d s h i p . N o w , a c c o r d i n g t o T h e o g n i s , s u c h faithfulness is a rarity. A s F i t z g e r a l d o b s e r v e s , T h e o g n i s ' s v i e w s likely c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t o n e c o u l d o n l y h a v e a f e w loyal friends, as o p p o s e d t o t h e larger groups o f c o m r a d e s a n d shipmates w h o appear in H o m e r ' s epics.
52
A n e m p h a s i s u p o n t r u s t a n d faithfulness c o n t i n u e s i n G r e e k t r a g e d y . A l t h o u g h A e s c h y l u s deals w i t h f r i e n d s h i p t h e least, h e d o e s t h i n k t h a t friends h a v e c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n s t o o n e a n o t h e r . F o r e x a m p l e , i n
Prome
theus Bound, P r o m e t h e u s , l a s h e d t o t h e r o c k s as a p u n i s h m e n t for s a v i n g humanity from
Zeus's plan to annihilate the h u m a n
race,
laments
Z e u s ' s d o i n g s , f o r h e , P r o m e t h e u s , h a d assisted i n s e c u r i n g Z e u s ' s v i c t o r y as t h e k i n g o f h e a v e n . A l t h o u g h
P r o m e t h e u s is a w a r e o f his
w r o n g d o i n g i n t h w a r t i n g Z e u s ' s d e s t r u c t i v e p l a n , h e is still e n r a g e d t h a t h e , a cpiAo^ o f Z e u s ( 3 0 6 ) , s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d so h a r s h l y . H i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t h e is a f r i e n d o f Z e u s m a y b e i r o n i c ,
b u t it r e v e a l s t h e p r e s u p p o s i
t i o n t h a t friends h a d a n o b l i g a t i o n t o h e l p , n o t p u n i s h , o n e
another.
A f t e r Z e u s has d o o m e d h i m t o e t e r n a l suffering, P r o m e t h e u s cries o u t in agony u p o n the rocks, [s]uch profit did the tyrant of H e a v e n have of m e and w i t h such foul r e t u r n as this did h e m a k e requital; for it is a disease that s o m e h o w i n heres in tyranny to have n o faith in friends (cp'ikoioi) 2 2 3 - 2 8 [LCL]).
(Prometheus
Bound
54
T h u s it a p p e a r s t h a t Z e u s ' s a c t i o n s a r e p r o o f t h a t t h e k i n g o f t h e g o d s d i d n o t p l a c e sufficient t r u s t i n his friends. F r i e n d s w e r e s u p p o s e d to
be
reliable,
and
to
offer
support
which
was
expected
to
be
r e c i p r o c a t e d . I n this case, Z e u s is so a n g e r e d b y P r o m e t h e u s ' s c a r e for h u m a n i t y that h e disregards t h e help that P r o m e t h e u s h a d e x t e n d e d to h i m i n t h e past a n d t h u s fails, at least i n P r o m e t h e u s ' s v i e w , t o b e a p r o p e r friend. T h e i d e a t h a t friends s h o u l d a i d o n e a n o t h e r is p l a i n i n E u r i p i d e s ' s plays as w e l l , n o t a b l y i n Orestes.
I n this t r a g e d y , O r e s t e s m a k e s s t a t e
m e n t s a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m u t u a l a i d b e t w e e n friends i n t i m e s o f t r o u b l e . H e tells M e n e l a u s t h a t " i n d e s p e r a t e n e e d , o u g h t friends
to
help
of
51
their friends.
When
Fortune
gives h e r b o o n s , w h a t
need
W a l t e r D o n l a n , "Pistos Philos Hetairos" Theognis of Megara: Poetry and Polis (ed. T h o m a s
J. Figueira & Gregory N a g y : Baltimore and L o n d o n : J o h n s H o p k i n s , 1985) 227. 52
Fitzgerald, "Friendship in the G r e e k W o r l d , " 3 1 . Scully, Philia and Charis in Euripidean Tragedy, 24.
54
Translated b y H e r b e r t W e i r S m y t h e (Cambridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press;
L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1922).
2. friends."
55
Friendship in Antiquity
21
T h e t r u e test o f f r i e n d s h i p is w h e t h e r t h e y w i l l h e l p w h e n
n e e d e d m o s t . A s J e a n - C l a u d e Fraisse states, f o r E u r i p i d e s , "si T a m i est u n b i e n , il Test a u m o m e n t o u t o u s les a u t r e s b i e n s
disparaissent."
F r i e n d s s h o u l d g o t o t h e l i m i t , e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f g i v i n g t h e i r life for t h e s a k e o f t h e i r f r i e n d . O r e s t e s refers t o A g a m e m n o n , w h o s o l d his life for t h e e [ M e n e l a u s ] , as friends f r i e n d s (cplAoug)"
57
"verily
(^iXocac) s h o u l d d o
T h i s s t a t e m e n t reveals that a family m e m b e r
for may
i n d e e d act as a f r i e n d , a l t h o u g h t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a f r i e n d , as d i s c u s s e d earlier, d o e s n o t n o r m a l l y i n c l u d e k i n . T h e l a t t e r p o i n t is u n d e r l i n e d i n t h e p l a y w h e n O r e s t e s c e l e b r a t e s t h e l o y a l t y o f his f r i e n d , P y l a d e s , w h o arrives t o h e l p O r e s t e s after t h e l a t t e r h a d b e e n c o n d e m n e d t o d e a t h for t h e m u r d e r o f his m o t h e r , Clytemnestra. W h e n Pylades indicates that h e wishes to stand b y O r e s tes, O r e s t e s d e c l a r e s , " H e r e i n t r u e is t h a t o l d s a y i n g — 'Get [ e x a l p o u g ] not kin alone.'
thee friends
H e w h o s e soul to thy soul cleaveth, t h o u g h
h e b e n o t b e t t e r t h a n a t h o u s a n d k i n s f o l k this is for t h y f r i e n d [cpiAo^] to win."
5 8
O r e s t e s is i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a t r u e f r i e n d , s o m e o n e w h o w i l l
p r o v e r e l i a b l e i n a t i m e o f n e e d , is m o r e l i k e l y n o t r e l a t e d b y b l o o d . A l t h o u g h f r i e n d s h i p is a s s u m e d t o b e a n o b l e b o n d i n E u r i p i d e s ' s w o r k , h e also r e v e a l s t h e d a r k s i d e o f s u c h l o y a l t y . I n Orestes,
Pylades
a n d O r e s t e s m a y b e r e m a r k a b l y loyal t o o n e a n o t h e r , b u t this
fidelity
b e c o m e s " p a t h o l o g i c a l " w h e n it is " e l e v a t e d a b o v e all o t h e r ties a n d obligations."
59
I n t h i s case, t h e p a i r p l a n t o m u r d e r O r e s t e s ' s
aunt,
H e l e n , take Menelaus's daughter hostage and destroy the Argos palace, all b e c a u s e t h e s e p e o p l e refuse t o s u p p o r t t h e m . F o r O r e s t e s a n d P y l a d e s , p e r s o n a l b o n d s o f f r i e n d s h i p e x c e e d all o t h e r b o n d s . M o v i n g to t h e philosophical realm, X e n o p h o n ' s defense o f Socrates, t h e Memorabilia,
presents a conversation that the teacher had
friendship. W h e t h e r
o r n o t t h e discussion t o o k place, t h e
about
dialogue
r e v e a l s s o m e o f t h e i d e a s c u r r e n t at t h e t i m e . F o r o n e t h i n g , it is c l e a r t h a t f r i e n d s h i p is a n i m p o r t a n t b o n d , for as S o c r a t e s states, " . . . s u r e l y t h e r e is n o o t h e r p o s s e s s i o n t h a t c a n c o m p a r e w i t h a g o o d f r i e n d (cpikoc, aya&o^)."
6 0
S o c r a t e s m a k e s this s t a t e m e n t b e c a u s e h e is d i s m a y e d b y
p e o p l e w h o n e g l e c t t h e i r friends. H e l a m e n t s t h e fact t h a t p e o p l e d o
55
Euripides, Orest. 6 5 5 - 5 7 (LCL; trans. A r t h u r S. W a y : L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m
bridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1912). 56
57
58
59
60
J e a n - C l a u d e Fraisse, Philia, 7 7 . Orest. 652. Orest. 8 0 4 - 8 0 6 . Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 60. X e n o p h o n , Mem.
2.4.5 (LCL; trans. E . C . M a r c h a n t ; L o n d o n , C a m b r i d g e , M A :
H a r v a r d University Press, 1923).
Friendship and Benefaction in James
22
n o t t a k e p r o p e r c a r e o f t h e i r friends a n d f o r g e t t h e m i n t i m e s o f n e e d . A g o o d f r i e n d is o n e w h o offers a i d a n d s u p p o r t , n o m a t t e r w h a t t h e situation. I f g e n e r o s i t y is c a l l e d f o r , h e d o e s h i s p a r t : i f f e a r h a r a s s e s , h e c o m e s t o t h e rescue, shares expenses, helps to p e r s u a d e , bears d o w n
opposition:
h e is f o r e m o s t i n d e l i g h t i n g h i m w h e n h e is p r o s p e r o u s a n d r a i s i n g h i m u p w h e n h e falls (Mem.
2.4.6).
I n this sense, X e n o p h o n ' s
report
concurs with
t h e tragic
poets'
r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t friends b e faithful a n d l o y a l . X e n o p h o n t h e n c o n t i n u e s o n to describe a c o n v e r s a t i o n h e claims S o c r a t e s h a d w i t h C r i t o b u l u s o v e r h o w t o d e t e r m i n e o r test t h e q u a l i ties w h i c h m a k e a m a n w o r t h h a v i n g as a f r i e n d . A d e s i r a b l e m u s t b e a g o o d p e r s o n ; h e m u s t b e s e l f - c o n t r o l l e d , l o y a l a n d fair.
friend 61
m u s t also e x a m i n e h o w t h e p o t e n t i a l f r i e n d treats o t h e r p e o p l e w h a t h e says, b u t w h a t h e has d o n e (noisa).
One not
If t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o v e s
w o r t h y , t h e n o n e m u s t set a b o u t p r o c u r i n g his f r i e n d s h i p , n o t b y flat tering h i m
(which w o u l d repel him) but by being a g o o d
person
oneself. S o c r a t e s t h u s says t o C r i t o b u l u s , " C o u r a g e , C r i t o b u l u s ; t r y t o b e g o o d , a n d w h e n y o u h a v e a c h i e v e d t h a t , set a b o u t c a t c h i n g y o u r gentleman."
6 2
T w o friends, therefore, m u s t b o t h b e v i r t u o u s p e o p l e . A
b a d p e r s o n c a n n o t b e friends, e v e n w i t h a g o o d p e r s o n . X e n o p h o n g r a n t s t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e a n a t u r a l p r o p e n s i t y for evil, b u t d e s p i t e t h e i r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o strife, e n v y , j e a l o u s y , a n g e r a n d h a t r e d , f r i e n d s h i p still slips i n , a n d " u n i t e s t h e g e n t l e n a t u r e s . "
In
c l u d e d i n this s e c t i o n o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n is a w o n d e r f u l d e s c r i p t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p i n w h i c h friends s h a r e t h e i r f o o d , d r i n k a n d w e a l t h , d o n o t a l l o w a n g e r t o g e t o u t o f c o n t r o l , r e j e c t j e a l o u s y (6 cp&ovog) a n d s u p p l y one another's needs.
6 4
H o w e v e r , t h a t o n e is e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y m o r a l i n
o n e ' s t r e a t m e n t o f friends d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t o n e c a n n o t h a v e e n e mies. T h e
notion
o f h e l p i n g friends
and harming
e n e m i e s is v e r y
p r e s e n t . S o c r a t e s , p l a n n i n g t o a i d C r i t o b u l u s i n o b t a i n i n g f r i e n d s , tells h i m that h e m u s t let Socrates i n f o r m t h e prospective friend that C r i t o b u l u s has m a d e u p his m i n d " t h a t a m a n ' s v i r t u e consists i n o u t d o i n g his friends i n k i n d n e s s a n d his e n e m i e s i n m i s c h i e f . "
T h u s , despite the
o u t p o u r i n g o f g o o d n e s s t h a t is r e q u i r e d for friends, X e n o p h o n r e m a i n s in a w o r l d w h i c h enthusiastically p r o m o t e s the d e c e p t i o n of enemies.
61
Mem. 2.6.5.
62
Mem. 2.6.28.
63
Mem. 2.6.21-22. For a brief discussion o f this section, see Fraisse, Philia, 113-14.
64
Mem. 2 . 6 . 2 2 - 2 3 .
65
Mem. 2.6.35.
2. Another
defender
23
o f Socrates, Plato, presents a different
p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h e Lysis, Memorabilia.
Friendship in Antiquity
Socratic
a l t h o u g h t h e r e is s o m e c o n t i n u i t y w i t h
the
I n this d i a l o g u e , Socrates observes that h e d o e s n o t k n o w
h o w o n e p e r s o n b e c o m e s a friend o f another, a l t h o u g h h e
acknowl
e d g e s t h a t t h e r e a r e p e o p l e , l i k e t h e t w o b o y s Lysis a n d M e n e x e n u s , w h o are friends.
W h a t e n s u e s is a n i n q u i r y i n t o h o w p e o p l e b e c o m e
f r i e n d s i n w h i c h S o c r a t e s b e g i n s b y l e a d i n g M e n e x e n u s t h r o u g h a series o f q u e s t i o n s c e n t r i n g o n t h e a d j e c t i v e cpfkoq,
w h i c h can have
a c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e senses, " l o v i n g " a n d " l o v e d . " S o c r a t e s r e j e c t s
both the
n o t i o n t h a t cpiAioc c a n exist w h e n o n l y o n e side o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p is l o v i n g o r b e i n g l o v e d as w e l l as a r e l a t i o n s h i p i n w h i c h t h e r e is r e c i p r o c a l l o v e . T h e l a t t e r r e j e c t i o n o f m u t u a l l o v e as a basis for f r i e n d s h i p is n o t clearly a r g u e d ,
b u t S o c r a t e s d i s c a r d s it all t h e s a m e a n d at t h i s
p o i n t , t h e discussion flounders. H o w e v e r , the dialogue continues on, resorting to the notion
that
l i k e is a t t r a c t e d t o l i k e a n d i n m o r a l t e r m s , i n w h i c h t h e g o o d a r e a t t r a c t e d t o t h e g o o d . T h e b a d c a n n o t b e friends w i t h t h e b a d , a r g u e s S o c r a t e s , for t h e y s i m p l y d o h a r m t o o n e a n o t h e r . T h e r e f o r e , o n l y t h e g o o d can b e friends,
an idea reminiscent o f X e n o p h o n a n d possibly an
a u t h e n t i c o p i n i o n of t h e historical Socrates. self-sufficient,
H o w e v e r , if t h e g o o d a r e
as S o c r a t e s t h i n k s t h e y a r e , h o w
can they be
friends
w h e n t h e y d o n o t n e e d o n e a n o t h e r n o r miss o n e a n o t h e r w h e n a b sent?
70
T h i s s t a t e m e n t is f o l l o w e d b y a series o f c o m p l i c a t e d a r g u m e n t s
i n w h i c h S o c r a t e s a t t e m p t s t o s o l v e this d i l e m m a . It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h r o u g h o u t these a r g u m e n t s e7a(k>ula " t w i c e accompanies t h e philia,
as i f it m a d e little d i f f e r e n c e w h i c h [was] u s e d . "
d i s t i n g u i s h t h e s e t e r m s , as h e d o e s i n o t h e r w r i t i n g s ,
7 2
7 1
term
Plato does not a n d at a c e r t a i n
p o i n t a p p e a r s t o c o n f l a t e spwg, S7Utk)[jaa a n d cpiAia w h e n h e states t h a t t h e a i m o f t h e s e t h r e e t h i n g s is t o a c q u i r e w h a t is o l x e l o g , " o n e ' s o w n " o r " a k i n " to o n e . B u t t h e n h e again focuses u p o n friendship, c l a i m i n g t h a t if Lysis a n d M e n e x e n u s a r e f r i e n d s t o o n e a n o t h e r , o r cpiAoi, t h e n they must be olxeloi to one another. This "akin-ness" must be recip-
66
Plato, Lysis 2 1 2 A (LCL; trans. W . R . M . Lamb; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; N e w Y o r k :
P u t n a m , 1930). 67
W . R . M . L a m b (Lysis, 3 9 , n.2) notes that "Plato cannot b e said to have disposed o f
this third proposition [mutual love as a basis for friendship]." 68
Plato, Lysis 214E.
69
J o n a t h a n Powell, "Friendship and its Problems in G r e e k and R o m a n
Thought"
(Ethics and Rhetoric, ed. H . H i n e , C . Pelling and D . Innes; Oxford: Clarendon, 1995) 3 5 . 70
Plato, Lysis 2 1 5 B .
71
A . W . Price, Love and Friendship in Plato and Aristotle (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989) 7.
72
See W . J o s e p h C u m m i n s , "Eros, Epithumia, and Philia in Plato," Apeiron 15 (1981) 10-18.
Friendship and Benefaction in James
24
r o c a l ; h o w e v e r , w h i c h w o u l d m e a n t h a t l i k e w o u l d b e friends
with
like, o r t h e g o o d w i t h t h e g o o d . Socrates h a d already rejected this n o t i o n e a r l i e r o n , a n d t h u s t h e d i s c u s s i o n e n d s i n failure, for " w h a t a ' f r i e n d ' is, w e h a v e n o t y e t s u c c e e d e d i n d i s c o v e r i n g . " D e s p i t e t h e d i s a p p o i n t i n g e n d o f t h e Lysis,
Plato has p r e s e n t e d a
n u m b e r o f features o f friendship w h i c h w e r e i m p o r t a n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s . T h e n o t i o n t h a t o n l y g o o d
people
c o u l d b e f r i e n d s , w h i c h w a s also r a i s e d b y X e n o p h o n , b e c a m e
com
m o n , as d i d t h e i d e a t h a t f r i e n d s h a v e a c e r t a i n " a k i n - n e s s " o r affinity, a l t h o u g h o t h e r writers d o n o t use the t e r m o l x e l o ^ . M o r e o v e r , Plato has r a i s e d t h e i m p o r t a n t p r o b l e m o f w h a t f r i e n d s h i p c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o s o m e o n e w h o h a s a c h i e v e d eOSoafxovia, a w o r d t h a t is difficult t o t r a n s late b u t
approaches
something
like
"happiness"
o p t i m a l c o n d i t i o n for h u m a n b e i n g s . "
7 4
Why
or the
"objective,
should such a person
n e e d friends? A s w e shall s e e , t h i s issue w a s n o t a p r o b l e m f o r P l a t o ' s successor, Aristotle. A r i s t o t l e w a s t h e first t o offer a s y s t e m a t i c analysis o f cptXia, o r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f r e c i p r o c a l ties b e t w e e n p e o p l e .
7 5
O n e o f t h e varieties o f
91X10C t h a t h e discusses is t h a t b e t w e e n friends o r 9 1 X 0 1 . H e this s u b j e c t i n b o o k 7 o f t h e Eudemian s u b s e q u e n t Nicomachean
Ethics
explores
Ethics, b o o k s 8 a n d 11 o f t h e
a n d p a r t s o f t h e Magna
Moralia,
the
Rhetoric a n d t h e Politics. T h u s , as t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f 9 1 X 1 0 C a b s o r b s s i g nificant
sections
of Aristotle's
ethical writings,
77
there
is t o d a y
a b u n d a n c e o f s e c o n d a r y literature o n t h e t o p i c a n d t h e r e are
an
many
points of swirling debate. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f b o o k 8 o f t h e Nicomachean
Ethics, A r i s t o t l e states
t h a t f r i e n d s h i p "is o n e o f t h e m o s t i n d i s p e n s a b l e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f life. F o r n o o n e w o u l d c h o o s e t o live w i t h o u t friends..." Aristotle, h u m a n
beings are political creatures
78
According to
(TTOXLTLXOV) a n d
are
7 3
Plato, Lysis 2 2 3 B .
7 4
Powell, "Friendship and its P r o b l e m s , " 34. G l e n n Lesses, "Austere Friends: T h e S t o
ics and Friendship," Apeiron
2 6 (1993) 59, n. 10. For m o r e o n this w o r d , see
Richard
Kraut, " T w o C o n c e p t i o n s of H a p p i n e s s , " The Philosophical Review 88 (1979) 167-97. 75
O f n o t e is the p o i n t that for Aristode, cpcXia is n o t an abstract idea that can b e sepa
rated from each friend's love. See Konstan, The Emotions, T h e c o m m o n v i e w is that the Eudemian later replaced b y the Nicomachean
178.
Ethics is the earlier set of lectures and was
Ethics (Julia Annas, "Plato a n d Aristode o n
Friendship
and Altruism," Mind 86 [1977] 532). 7 7
J o h n M . C o o p e r ("Aristode o n the Forms o f Friendship," Review
of Metaphysics
[1977] 619) notes that friendship takes u p approximately o n e fifth o f b o t h the Ethics and t h e Nicomachean
30
Eudemian
Ethics.
Aristotle, Eth. Nic. 8.1 (LCL; trans. H . R a c k h a m ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; M A : Harvard University Press, 1934).
Cambridge,
2. Friendship in Antiquity m e a n t t o s h a r e t h e i r lives w i t h o n e a n o t h e r .
7
25
Like m a n y ancients prior
t o t h e rise o f C h r i s t i a n m o n a s t i c i s m , A r i s t o t l e p r o b a b l y w o u l d
have
p e r c e i v e d life i n i s o l a t i o n , s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e rest o f s o c i e t y , t o b e " t h e e x t r e m e o f suffering."
E s s e n t i a l t o a h a p p y life is t o l i v e w i t h o t h e r
p e o p l e , to care a b o u t t h e m , receive their care, and to participate in b u i l d i n g a g o o d s o c i e t y . F r i e n d s h i p figures i m p o r t a n t l y i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f s u c h a life: " t h e h a p p y m a n r e q u i r e s f r i e n d s . " A r i s t o t l e m a d e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h r e e k i n d s (elSos) o f f r i e n d s h i p b a s e d u p o n t h e g r o u n d s for t h e f r i e n d s h i p . T w o p e o p l e c o u l d h a v e a friendship r o o t e d in utility, in pleasure o r in character. T h e s e
three
t y p e s all r e q u i r e m u t u a l i t y b u t t h e r e is a c e r t a i n h i e r a r c h y a m o n g t h e m i n t h a t c h a r a c t e r f r i e n d s h i p is t h e p e r f e c t f o r m , for it exists b e t w e e n persons of virtuous character.
Friendships based u p o n utility or pleas
u r e s c e n t r e u p o n h o w useful o r p l e a s i n g o n e f r i e n d c a n b e t o a n o t h e r . T h e friends " d o n o t l o v e e a c h o t h e r i n t h e m s e l v e s , b u t insofar as s o m e benefit accrues to t h e m from each o t h e r . "
Character friendship,
on
t h e o t h e r h a n d , g r o u n d s itself i n w i s h i n g t h e b e s t for t h e f r i e n d for t h e friend's sake, a n d n o t for t h e sake o f w h a t t h e friend can d o for y o u . I n d e e d , a c h a r a c t e r f r i e n d s h i p b r i n g s m u t u a l usefulness a n d p l e a s u r e t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t t h e s e b e n e f i t s a r e n o t t h e basis for t h e t i e . T h u s for A r i s t o t l e , t h e b e s t f r i e n d s h i p is t h a t b e t w e e n t w o
good
p e o p l e . H o w e v e r , o n e m i g h t ask, c o u l d s u c h a f r i e n d s h i p exist b e t w e e n a n y t w o g o o d p e o p l e , o r is t h e r e s o m e t h i n g m o r e specific w h i c h d r a w s particular h u m a n
b e i n g s t o g e t h e r ? A r i s t o t l e states q u i t e clearly
that
c h a r a c t e r f r i e n d s h i p is r a r e , for t h e r e a r e n o t m a n y v i r t u o u s p e o p l e , b u t h e also says t h a t o n e c a n n o t h a v e t o o m a n y friends as s u c h a s i t u a t i o n w o u l d inevitably lead to conflicting loyalties. M o r e o v e r , h e argues that t h e i n t i m a c y p r e s e n t w i t h i n friendships o f character takes t i m e t o d e v e l o p a n d is a difficult t h i n g t o o b t a i n .
Presumably then, one could
n o t s i m p l y b e c o m e i n t i m a t e friends w i t h t h e n e x t g o o d p e r s o n
who
c o m e s a l o n g , for s u c h a f r i e n d s h i p w o u l d r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e a n d effort t o d e v e l o p .
79
Eth. Nic. 9.9.3.
80
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 16.
81
Eth. Nic. 9.9.3.
82
Eth. Nic. 8.3.6.
83
Eth. Nic. 8.3.1
84
Eth. Eud. 7.6.3.
85
Eth. Nic. 8.6.2.
86
As Konstan (Friendship in the Classical World, 76) writes: " T h e idea that o n e m i g h t
transfer one's love to the n e x t m o r e virtuous person w h o comes along is n o t Aristotelian, t h o u g h such a m a n will normally b e the object of g o o d will o n the part of o t h e r s . "
Friendship and Benefaction in James
26
A r i s t o t l e is fully a w a r e o f t h e issue P l a t o r a i s e d c o n c e r n i n g w h e t h e r a h a p p y , self-sufficient p e r s o n has n e e d o f friends, f o r h e raises it e x p l i c itly i n b o t h o f his m a j o r e t h i c a l t r e a t i s e s .
87
H o w e v e r , this issue is n o t
p r o b l e m a t i c for A r i s t o t l e as his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a h a p p y p e r s o n is a p e r s o n w h o has friends. H e writes: B u t it s e e m s s t r a n g e t h a t i f w e a t t r i b u t e all g o o d t h i n g s t o t h e h a p p y m a n (euSoclfJiovi) w e s h o u l d n o t a s s i g n h i m f r i e n d s , w h i c h w e
consider
t h e g r e a t e s t o f e x t e r n a l g o o d s . A l s o i f it b e m o r e t h e m a r k o f a f r i e n d t o g i v e t h a n t o r e c e i v e b e n e f i t s , a n d i f b e n e f i c e n c e is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e g o o d m a n a n d o f v i r t u e , a n d it is n o b l e r t o b e n e f i t f r i e n d s t h a n s t r a n g e r s , t h e g o o d m a n w i l l n e e d f r i e n d s as t h e o b j e c t s o f h i s b e n e f i c e n c e (Eth. Nic.
9.9.1).
F o r A r i s t o t l e , h a v i n g friends pleasures,
it
facilitates
mutual
n o t o n l y proffers benefaction.
g o o d n e s s i n p e o p l e for t h e y h a v e s o m e o n e
obvious joys
Friendship to he good
and
promotes
to. J o n a t h a n
P o w e l l suggests t h a t for A r i s t o t l e t h e r e m a y b e " a p a r t i c u l a r dpexiQ t h a t goes w i t h friendship, friends."
t h e quality of b e i n g a g o o d friend
F r i e n d s h i p is t h u s n o t i n c o n g r u o u s w i t h a
to
one's
self-sufficient,
g o o d life b u t a n essential c o m p o n e n t o f t h a t life. T h i s e m p h a s i s u p o n v i r t u e s , especially l o y a l t y , faithfulness, g e n e r o s ity, a w i l l i n g n e s s t o suffer for o n e ' s f r i e n d , a n d a d e s i r e for t h e b e s t for t h e f r i e n d for the friend's
sake, r e m a i n s s t r o n g i n w r i t i n g s o n f r i e n d s h i p
u p t o , d u r i n g a n d after t h e e m e r g e n c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n d crosses l i n g u i s t i c a n d r e l i g i o u s b o u n d a r i e s . G r e e k n o v e l i s t s , s u c h as
Chariton,
n a r r a t e t h e c o u r a g e o u s c o m m i t m e n t s o f friends s u c h as P o l y c h a r m u s i n Chaereaa
and Callirhoe.
A l t h o u g h t h e tale focuses u p o n t h e l o v e s t o r y
b e t w e e n a y o u n g m a n , C h a e r e a s , a n d his w i f e C a l l i r h o e , the
entire story,
Chaeareas
is c o n t i n u a l l y p r o t e c t e d
throughout
and
repeatedly
s a v e d b y his f r i e n d , P o l y c h a r m u s . W h e n C h a e r e a s b e l i e v e s t h a t h e has a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l e d his w i f e ( t h i n k i n g , w r o n g l y , t h a t s h e h a d c o m m i t t e d a d u l t e r y ) a n d w a n t s t o c o m m i t s u i c i d e , P o l y c h a r m u s , " h i s closest f r i e n d [(pfkoQ s ^ a i p e x o ^ ] , as i n H o m e r P a t r o c l u s w a s o f A c h i l l e s , "
prevents
h i m f r o m d o i n g so. T h r o u g h o u t t h e entire n o v e l , P o l y c h a r m u s s h o w s all t h e signs o f a t r u e f r i e n d : h e a c c o m p a n i e s C h a e r e a s o n expeditions,
he
protects
Chaereas
from
external
harm,
dangerous continually
87
Eth. Eud. 7.12.1; Eth. Nic. 9.9.1.
88
Powell, "Friendship and its P r o b l e m s , " 37.
89
C h a r i t o n , Chaer. 1.5.2 (LCL; trans. G.P. Goold; C a m b r i d g e , M A , L o n d o n : H a r v a r d
University Press, 1995). This text is cited b y R o n a l d F. H o c k , " A n Extraordinary Friend in Chariton's Callirhoe: T h e I m p o r t a n c e of Friendship in the G r e e k R o m a n c e s , " GrecoRoman Perspectives on Friendship, 148.
2. Friendship in Antiquity
27
c o m f o r t s h i m , a n d o n m o r e t h a n o n e occasion restrains t h e distraught y o u n g m a n f r o m k i l l i n g himself.
P o l y c h a r m u s also e x p r e s s e s his w i l l
ingness t o die w i t h Chaereas, a characteristic o f friendship discussed b y Aristotle and other authors. M o r e o v e r , "that only P o l y c h a r m u s a m o n g C h a e r e a s ' s f r i e n d s s h a r e d his m a n y reversals i n f o r t u n e ( 8 . 8 . 7 )
under
s c o r e s t h e r a r i t y o f t r u e f r i e n d s h i p , a n o t h e r familiar c o n v e n t i o n . "
At
t h e e n d o f t h e story, h a v i n g r e s c u e d C a l l i r h o e from B a b y l o n , P o l y c h a r mus,
Chaereas a n d Callirhoe r e t u r n to their h o m e in Syracuse, w h e r e
P o l y c h a r m u s is p u b l i c l y d e c l a r e d a " l o y a l f r i e n d "
(cpiXog TCI
92
of
C h a e r e a s a n d C h a e r e a s p r e s e n t s his friend w i t h gifts ( i n c l u d i n g C h a e r e a s ' s sister for a w i f e ! ) . Various philosophical groups prized such virtues of friendship
as
w e l l . E p i c u r u s r e p u t e d l y said t h a t t h e w i s e m a n is n o t m o r e p a i n e d w h e n b e i n g t o r t u r e d [ h i m s e l f , t h a n w h e n seeing] his friend [tortured]: [but if his friend d o e s h i m w r o n g ] , his w h o l e life w i l l b e c o n f o u n d e d b y d i s t r u s t a n d c o m p l e t e l y u p s e t
(Sent. Vat. l v i - l v i i ) . As well, Epicurus understands friendship to b e a source o f practical aid: " H e is n o f r i e n d w h o is c o n t i n u a l l y a s k i n g for h e l p , o r h e n e v e r associates h e l p w i t h f r i e n d s h i p , "
93
who
a l t h o u g h usefulness is n o t t h e
basis f o r f r i e n d s h i p : " A l l f r i e n d s h i p is d e s i r a b l e i n itself, t h o u g h it starts from
the
need
of help."
9 4
Moreover,
Diogenes
Laertius
attributes
E p i c u r u s w i t h s a y i n g t h a t o n o c c a s i o n , t h e w i s e m a n w i l l d i e for a friend. T h e c h i e f a i m o f life a m o n g t h e S t o i c s w a s t o a c h i e v e eu&oafzovla, as it w a s a m o n g m a n y o t h e r a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s . H o w e v e r , i n a d d i t i o n t o w h o l e n e s s a n d self-sufficiency, t h e S t o i c s p l a c e d p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s u p o n v i r t u e as a n essential r e q u i r e m e n t for euSoajJiovia, for " v i r t u e is t h e state o f m i n d w h i c h t e n d s t o m a k e t h e w h o l e o f life h a r m o n i o u s . " T h e h a p p y p e r s o n , t h e n , m u s t b e a v i r t u o u s p e r s o n for w h o m all o t h e r t h i n g s , i n c l u d i n g h e a l t h , b e a u t y , w e a l t h , f a m e e t c . ... a r e a m a t t e r o f
90
H o c k ("An Extraordinary Friend, "148-57) details all o f these aspects o f P o l y c h a r -
mus's friendship w i t h Chaereas. 91
92
H o c k , " A n Extraordinary F r i e n d , " 156. Chaer. 8.8.12; H o c k , " A n Extraordinary F r i e n d , " 155.
93
Epicurus, Sent. Vat. xxxix.
94
Epicurus, Sent. Vat. xxiii.
95
D i o g e n e s Laertius, Lives of Emminent
Philosophers 10.120 (LCL; trans. R . D . Hicks;
L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; N e w Y o r k : G . P . P u t n a m , 1925). 96
D i o g e n e s Laertius, Lives 7.89.
Friendship
28
indifference.
97
and Benefaction
in James
T h e s e latter things are n o t rejected b y t h e Stoics; rather,
t h e y s i m p l y d o n o t r a n k as p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r su&oafjiovia i n t h e m a n n e r t h a t v i r t u e d o e s . F o r t h e S t o i c , t h e w i s e p e r s o n m u s t b e self-sufficient a n d as s u c h , d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l c h a n g e s i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t life i n e x o r a b l y b r i n g s . A l t h o u g h t h e S t o i c s a c c e p t a n d p r o m o t e f r i e n d s h i p , it is also u l t i mately a matter of indifference in comparison to virtue. O n l y
those
w h o a r e v i r t u o u s , t h e w i s e , c a n h a v e a n d b e friends as t h e y a r e t h e sole p e o p l e capable o f t h e m o r a l c o m m i t m e n t r e q u i r e d for friendship. F r i e n d s h i p , t h e y [ t h e Stoics] d e c l a r e , exists o n l y b e t w e e n t h e w i s e a n d g o o d , b y reason o f their likeness t o o n e another. A n d b y
friendship
t h e y m e a n a c o m m o n u s e o f all t h a t h a s t o d o w i t h life, w h e r e i n w e t r e a t o u r f r i e n d s as w e s h o u l d o u r s e l v e s . T h e y a r g u e t h a t a f r i e n d is w o r t h h a v i n g f o r h i s o w n s a k e a n d t h a t i t is a g o o d t h i n g t o h a v e m a n y f r i e n d s . B u t a m o n g t h e b a d t h e r e is, t h e y h o l d , n o s u c h t h i n g as f r i e n d s h i p , a n d t h u s n o b a d m a n h a s a f r i e n d (Lives
7.124).
T h e S t o i c s , as is c l e a r f r o m D i o g e n e s , e c h o m a n y o f t h e t y p i c a l characteristics o f friendship, i n c l u d i n g t h e n o t i o n o f similarity b e t w e e n friends ( t h e y b o t h m u s t b e v i r t u o u s ) a n d t h e i d e a t h a t o n e m u s t t r e a t o n e ' s friends j u s t as o n e w o u l d t r e a t o n e ' s self, e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f d y i n g for t h e friend. one
to
reconcile
98
Y e t t h e r e is a s e e m i n g c o n u n d r u m h e r e . H o w is
the notion
o f friendship
with
t h e austere
self-
sufficiency o f t h e S t o i c sages? " W o u l d s o m e o n e as free f r o m affect as t h e sage c a r e sufficiently a b o u t o t h e r s t o b e a real f r i e n d o r b e l i k e l y t o have others take h i m to b e a friend?" Glen
Lesses
argues
that
these
two
things,
friendship
and
self-
sufficiency, c a n a c c o m m o d a t e o n e a n o t h e r w i t h i n S t o i c t h o u g h t . B e c a u s e f r i e n d s h i p r e q u i r e s t h a t b o t h friends a r e v i r t u o u s , " o n e c o u l d infer t h a t w h a t a sage v a l u e s i n f r i e n d s h i p is t h e m o r a l v i r t u e o f a n other."
1 0 0
T h u s , n o t o n l y c o u l d a n y m o r a l p e r s o n b e friends
with
another moral person, " t h e individual and concrete personality of the f r i e n d b e c o m e s r e l a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t for f r i e n d s h i p . "
F r i e n d s h i p is
r e n d e r e d i m p e r s o n a l b e c a u s e its basis is m o r a l v i r t u e , a n d n o t p o w e r f u l 97
Lives 7.102-107.
98
Epictetus, Diatr. 2.7.3. F o r m o r e comparison b e t w e e n t h e Stoics a n d o t h e r G r e e k
notions o f friendship, see H u t t e r , Politics as Friendship, 124-25. Lesses, "Austere Friends," 6 3 . 100
101
Lesses, "Austere Friends," 70. H o r s t H u t t e r , Politics as Friendship: The Origins of Classical Notions of Politics in the
Theory and Practice of Friendship (Waterloo: Wilfred Laurier University Press), 128. T h e Stoics, unlike Aristotle a n d others, argue that o n e can have m a n y friends if there are m a n y virtuous p e o p l e .
2. Friendship in Antiquity affection
29
a n d a t t r a c t i o n for a n o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r h u m a n b e i n g . S u c h a
f o u n d a t i o n for f r i e n d s h i p
therefore reduces the threat to one's
self-
sufficiency b e c a u s e (1) o n e f r i e n d c a n n o t h a r m a n o t h e r as b o t h m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y b e v i r t u o u s ; a n d (2) w h e n o n e d o e s s o m e t h i n g for a f r i e n d it is n o different t h a n " a c t i n g f r o m a s e t t l e d d i s p o s i t i o n t o b e v i r t u o u s "
1 0 2
— o n e is n o m o r e v u l n e r a b l e i n a c t i n g o n b e h a l f o f a f r i e n d t h a n w h e n acting f r o m a sense o f m o r a l d u t y . W h a t a b o u t w h e n friends die? F o r t h e S t o i c s , a w i s e p e r s o n is a g a i n i n d i f f e r e n t t o life a n d d e a t h .
T h e sage is n o t v u l n e r a b l e t o p a s s i o n a t e
e m o t i o n s ; h e o r s h e is i m m u n e t o g r i e f " s e e i n g t h a t g r i e f is i r r a t i o n a l 104
c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e s o u l , as A p o l l o d o r u s says i n his Ethics."
Moreover,
g r i e f is less l i k e l y t o o v e r c o m e a S t o i c b e c a u s e t h e basis o f his o r h e r f r i e n d s h i p for a n o t h e r is a g a i n , n o t t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e o t h e r p e r s o n , n o t a result o f s p e n d i n g t i m e t o g e t h e r a n d n u r t u r i n g t h e f r i e n d s h i p , as A r i s t o t l e w o u l d h a v e it, b u t a p r o c l i v i t y for m o r a l v i r t u e . It m a y s e e m h a r s h i n o u r c o n t e x t , b u t for t h e S t o i c s , w h e n f r i e n d a dies, h e o r s h e c a n b e easily r e p l a c e d b y a n o t h e r v i r t u o u s p e r s o n .
1 0 5
As
Lesses a p t l y titles his a r t i c l e , t h e S t o i c s w e r e " a u s t e r e f r i e n d s . " N e o p y t h a g o r e a n s e x p e c t e d friends t o b e l o y a l a n d t o p r o v i d e a i d i n t i m e s o f n e e d . I a m b l i c h u s , On the Pythagorean
Life
06
u p o n t h e 4 t h c e n t u r y B C E s o u r c e , On the Pythagorean enus)
describes
the
friendships
between
C l e i n i a s a n d P r o r u s , as e x e m p l a r y .
1 0 7
Phintias
( w h i c h h e r e relies Life, b y A r i s t o x Damon,
and
According to Iamblichus,
and
Py
t h a g o r a s e n c o u r a g e d f r i e n d s h i p o f all w i t h all: friendship o f g o d s for h u m a n s , t h r o u g h p i e t y a n d w o r s h i p b a s e d u p o n knowledge,
... f r i e n d s h i p
o f p e o p l e for o n e a n o t h e r :
fellow-citizens
t h r o u g h a h e a l t h y respect for law, different p e o p l e s t h r o u g h a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f n a t u r e , a m a n w i t h his wife a n d c h i l d r e n a n d b r o t h e r s a n d intimates t h r o u g h u n s w e r v i n g partnership; in short, friendship
of
all f o r all, i n c l u d i n g s o m e o f t h e n o n - r a t i o n a l a n i m a l s t h r o u g h j u s t i c e a n d natural c o n n e c t i o n a n d association; e v e n t h e m o r t a l b o d y ' s pacifi-
102
Lesses, "Austere Friends," 7 1 .
103
Lesses, "Austere Friends," 7 1 , w h o refers to Lives 7.102.
104
Lives 7.118.
105
In contrast to this Stoic perspective is the v i e w of G e o r g e O r w e l l ("Reflections o n
G a n d h i , " The Penguin Essays of George Orwell [London: P e n g u i n , 1984] 469), w h o in his critique of G a n d h i , w r o t e that part of t h e essence of b e i n g h u m a n is "that o n e does n o t seek perfection ... and that o n e is prepared in the e n d to b e defeated and b r o k e n u p b y life, w h i c h is the inevitable price of fastening one's love u p o n o t h e r h u m a n individuals." 106
I a m using the translation of Iamblichus's On the Pythagorean Life b y Gillian Clark
(Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1989). 107
Iamblichus, VP 2 3 4 - 2 4 0 .
Friendship and Benefaction in James
30 cation
and
reconciliation
of opposite
powers
hidden
within
t h r o u g h h e a l t h a n d a lifestyle a n d p r a c t i c e o f t e m p e r a n c e ... (VP
R e g a r d i n g this p o i n t , J o h a n T h o r n has m a d e t h e v e r y
itself, 229).
significant
o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t i n e a c h case, cpiXla r e q u i r e s specific v i r t u e s , w h e t h e r it b e p i e t y , r e s p e c t , j u s t i c e o r t e m p e r a n c e , a n d t h a t cpiAia h a s t r a n s c e n d e d all l i m i t s a n d b e c o m e " t r u l y c o s m i c . "
1 0 8
F o r t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s , this c o s m i c friendship did n o t translate i n t o c o n c r e t e friendships w i t h e v e r y o n e . T h e y did t h i n k that o n e
should
c h o o s e o n e ' s friends carefully, after w e i g h i n g t h e p e r s o n ' s c h a r a c t e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , stories s u r v i v e w h i c h r e v e a l a s t r o n g e l e m e n t o f e x c l u s i v ity a m o n g P y t h a g o r e a n s i n t h a t t h e y w o u l d o n l y b e f r i e n d t h o s e w h o shared
their unconventional
lifestyle.
Iamblichus
and Porphyry
(in
part)
r e l a t e t h e tale o f t w o P y t h a g o r e a n s , M y l l i a s a n d T i m y c h a , a
h u s b a n d a n d wife, w h o are c a p t u r e d b y t h e tyrant D i o n y s i o s . D i o n y s i o s offers t h e m t h e j o i n t r u l e o f his k i n g d o m if t h e y w i l l tell h i m w h y P y t h a g o r e a n s w o u l d r a t h e r d i e t h a n t r e a d o n b e a n s . T h e t w o refuse t o tell h i m and Dionysios orders Myllias to b e taken away a n d the p r e g n a n t T i m y c h a t o b e t o r t u r e d , t h i n k i n g t h a t s h e w i l l easily r e l e n t w i t h o u t h e r h u s b a n d t o p r o t e c t h e r . T i m y c h a , h o w e v e r , b i t e s h e r o w n t o n g u e off so t h a t s h e w i l l n o t "spill t h e b e a n s , " so t o s p e a k , a n d t h e m o r a l o f t h e tale is t h a t t h e s e P y t h a g o r e a n s w o u l d risk a n y t h i n g i n o r d e r t o refuse friendship w i t h outsiders, e v e n kings. S u c h a n e c d o t e s s u p p o r t claims that P y t h a g o r e a n friendship m a y h a v e consisted m o r e of "sectarian solidarity"
t h a n p e r s o n a l affection.
Cer
t a i n l y , if t h e o t h e r c l a i m s a b o u t P y t h a g o r e a n s a r e t r u e - t h a t t h e y m a d e a f i v e - y e a r v o w o f s i l e n c e , w e r e strict v e g e t a r i a n s , a n d s h a r e d all t h e i r g o o d s — it m u s t h a v e b e e n difficult t o e x t e n d b o n d s o f f r i e n d s h i p o u t side o f t h e c i r c l e , for e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y t h r e a t e n t h e s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e g r o u p . It c o u l d b e , as has b e e n s u g g e s t e d , t h a t t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s ' lofty n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p o f all f o r all w a s i n r e a l i t y o n l y i n t e n d e d for m e m b e r s o f t h e i r c o t e r i e .
112
P l u t a r c h , i n c o n t r a s t , d i d n o t t h i n k o n e c o u l d b e friends w i t h e v e r y o n e i n e i t h e r t h e o r y o r p r a c t i c e . T r u e friends are r a r e , h e t h i n k s , for t h e y m u s t b e c o n s t a n t a n d loyal. It is n o t possible t o h a v e m a n y friends, for
108
J o h a n C . T h o r n , ' " H a r m o n i o u s Equality': T h e T o p o s o f Friendship in N e o -
pythagorean W r i t i n g s , " Greco-Roman Perspectives, 9 7 - 9 9 . 109
110
See T h o r n , " H a r m o n i o u s Equality," 87, w h o refers to the Sentences of Clitarchus 88. Iamblichus, VP 192-94. F o r Porphyry's Life of Pythagoras, see the translation b y
E d o u a r d des Places (Collection des universites de France; Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1982). 111
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 115.
1
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 15.
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
31
o n e c a n n o t share so m u c h w i t h so m a n y p e o p l e w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g l i k e a c h a m e l e o n o r cuttlefish, w h i c h takes o n t h e c o l o u r o f w h a t e v e r r o c k t o w h i c h it c l i n g s .
113
B e c a u s e friendship " s e e k s for a fixed a n d steadfast c h a r
a c t e r w h i c h d o e s n o t shift a b o u t , " a g e n u i n e friend is " s o m e t h i n g r a r e 114
and hard to
find."
I n this sense, P l u t a r c h is q u i t e similar t o t h e classical
w r i t e r s , especially A r i s t o t l e . I n d e e d , a m o n g his lists o f t r u e friends, pairs s u c h as Achilles a n d P a t r o c l u s , P h i n t i a s a n d D a m o n , a n d O r e s t e s a n d Pylades, appear.
115
P l u t a r c h o b j e c t s t o specific vices s u c h as e n v y (cp&ovo^)
a n d criticizes t h o s e w h o fall i n t o e m u l a t i o n (£yjAo^),
116
for t r u e friends
s h o u l d b e a r o n e a n o t h e r ' s successes a n d failures w i t h e q u a n i m i t y .
117
In
fact, as T r o e l s E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n a r g u e s , P l u t a r c h a p p e a r s t o r e g a r d t r u e , h o n e s t f r i e n d s h i p as t h e " a p o g e e " o f a m o r a l system; " t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h a t s y s t e m is r e a l i z e d . " Cicero's
fictional
118
d i a l o g u e , t h e Laelius,
tics o f G r e e k f r i e n d s h i p .
119
Stoics' c o n v i c t i o n that friendship virtuous people.
draws u p o n these characteris
For example, he echoes X e n o p h o n ' s and the c a n n o t exist e x c e p t a m o n g
good,
F o r C i c e r o , f r i e n d s h i p is b a s e d u p o n g o o d w i l l : " i f
y o u r e m o v e g o o d w i l l f r o m f r i e n d s h i p t h e v e r y n a m e o f f r i e n d s h i p is
113
Plutarch, Amic. mult. 96F.
114
Amic. mult.
115
Amic. mult. 93E.
116
Adul. amic. 5 4 C . Earlier authors, such as Aristotle, h o w e v e r , t h o u g h t that emulation
97B.
(ffikoc) was virtuous for g o o d p e o p l e should w a n t to possess w o r t h y goods (Rhet.
2.11).
See Christina Viano, " C o m p e t i t i v e E m o t i o n s and Thumos in Aristotle's R h e t o r i c , "
Envy,
Spite and Jealousy.
The Competitive Emotions in Ancient Greece (ed. D a v i d Konstan and N .
K e i t h R u t t e r ; E d i n b u r g h Leventis Studies 2; E d i n b u r g h : E d i n b u r g h University Press, 2003) 8 5 - 9 7 . T h i s v i e w changes in the 4 t h century BCE, h o w e v e r , w h e n authors b e g i n to characterize emulation as a vice along w i t h envy. C h r i s t o p h e r Gill ("Is Rivalry a Virtue o r a Vice?" Envy,
Spite, Jealousy, 49) argues that this shift is in part d u e to changes in t h e
n o t i o n of t h e h u m a n g o o d or happiness: " w h e n h u m a n happiness is identified w i t h ' e x ternal g o o d s ' (or a c o m b i n a t i o n o f ' i n t e r n a l ' and 'external' goods), c o m p e t i t i o n for these — inevitably limited - goods is assumed to b e the n o r m a l h u m a n state and the correlated rivalrous e m o t i o n s are regarded as, in principle, normal, t h o u g h they take virtuous o r defective forms. W h e r e happiness is located in solely in 'internal goods', w h i c h are s o m e times seen as universally available, c o m p e t i t i o n and the rivalrous e m o t i o n s are presented as necessarily misguided." 117
118
Adul. amic. 5 4 C . Troels E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n , "Plutarch to Prince Philopappus o n H o w to Tell a Flat
terer from a Friend," Friendship, Flattery and Frankness of Speech, 2 3 5 . 119
For a brief discussion o f s o m e of t h e connections b e t w e e n the Laelius and G r e e k
philosophy, see J . G . F . Powell, Cicero: Laelius, On Friendship and the Dream of Scipio ( W a r minster: Aris and Phillips, 1990) 2 - 5 . 120
Lael. 18 (LCL; trans. William Armistead Falconer; L o n d o n , C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r
vard University Press, 1923).
Friendship and Benefaction in James
32
g o n e , " a n d " w i t h o u t v i r t u e f r i e n d s h i p c a n n o t exist at a l l . "
Like m a n y
philosophers before h i m , C i c e r o grants that such virtuous
friendships
are r a r e ,
122
for t h e r e is a " d e a r t h " o f p e o p l e w h o a r e " f i r m , steadfast a n d
c o n s t a n t , " all r e q u i r e d f e a t u r e s o f a g e n u i n e f r i e n d . l o y a l t y (fides) a n d c o n s t a n c y (constantia)
123
T h e s e virtues of
a r e significant C i c e r o n i a n
in
g r e d i e n t s for a f r i e n d s h i p , a n d h e refers t o t h e s e q u a l i t i e s o n a n u m b e r o f occasions t h r o u g h o u t his d i a l o g u e . T e s t i n g is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t
element that determines w h e t h e r
a
f r i e n d is g e n u i n e o r n o t . A p e r s o n m a y initially a p p e a r t o b e a f r i e n d t h r o u g h t h e i r g e n e r o u s offerings o f g o o d w i l l a n d s u p p o r t , b u t i n t h e e n d t h e y m a y p r o v e h i g h l y u n r e l i a b l e . A s C i c e r o e x p l a i n s : " H e n c e it is t h e p a r t o f w i s d o m t o c h e c k t h e h e a d l o n g r u s h o f g o o d w i l l as w e w o u l d t h a t o f a c h a r i o t , a n d t h e r e b y so m a n a g e f r i e n d s h i p t h a t w e m a y i n s o m e d e g r e e p u t t h e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f friends, as w e o f t e n d o t h o s e o f horses, to a preliminary test."
125
T h e p h i l o s o p h e r is n o t n a i v e ; h e k n o w s
that m a n y m a y deliver sweet w o r d s b u t are ultimately unreliable, e v e n d e c e i t f u l . It c o m e s as n o s u r p r i s e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t h e h a s a p a r t i c u l a r counterfeit
and
fickle: " n o t h i n g is t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a g r e a t e r b a n e o f f r i e n d s h i p
dislike f o r flatterers,
whom
than
f a w n i n g , cajolery, o r flattery."
he
thinks hypocritical,
H e refers t o this v i c e m o r e t h a n o n c e ,
a n d u s u a l l y w h e n h e is p r o v i d i n g a c o n t r a s t t o t h e h o n e s t a n d f o r t h r i g h t s p e e c h t h a t is r e q u i r e d o f f r i e n d s . C i c e r o c o n s i d e r s f r a n k c r i t i c i s m , i n t e n d e d for t h e b e t t e r m e n t o f o n e ' s f r i e n d , t o b e " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t r u e friendship"
a n d flattery its n e m e s i s .
T u r n i n g to ancient Jewish writers, an important contributor to the d i s c u s s i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p is B e n Sira. T h i s a u t h o r d e p e n d s u p o n a v a r i e t y of sources, including n o n - J e w i s h literature,
b u t h e also
vigorously oppose [s] any compromise of Jewish values and traditions (cf. 2:12) and pronounce[s] w o e to those w h o forsook Israel's Law (4:18), w i t h w h i c h w i s d o m itself, in his view, [is] to be identified (24:23). 129
121
Lael
122
Lael 64.
20,21.
123
Lael 6 2 .
124
See, for example, Lael 6 5 .
125
Lael 6 3 .
126
Lael 9 1 .
127
Lael 9 1 .
128
See T h e o p h i l M i d d e n d o r p , Die Stellung Jesu Ben Siras zwischen Judentum
und Hellen-
ismus (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973); Jack T . Sanders, Ben Sira and Demotic Wisdom (SBLMS 28; C h i c o , C A : Scholars, 1983). 129
Patrick W . Skehan and Alexander A. D i Leila, The Wisdom of Ben Sira (AB 39; N e w
Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1987) 46.
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
33
S o m e o f B e n Sira's s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t f r i e n d s h i p l i k e l y d i d n o t e m e r g e from Jewish traditions,
130
b u t j u d g i n g from t h e attention h e pays to t h e
t o p i c , it is e n t i r e l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h his J e w i s h i d e n t i t y a n d c o n v i c t i o n s . B e n Sira's a d v i c e a b o u t f r i e n d s h i p , at least as it h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o G r e e k b y his g r a n d s o n , e x h i b i t s a n u m b e r o f similarities t o G r e e k v i e w s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . First, as w i t h m a n y o f t h e w r i t i n g s o n f r i e n d s h i p t h a t w e h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d so far, B e n Sira refers t o t h e r a r i t y o f faithful f r i e n d s . A faithful f r i e n d (cpiXog niaxoc,)
is p r e c i o u s , p r o v i d e s
s h e l t e r a n d is t h e m e d i c i n e o f life (yapjjwcxov ^coife) ( 6 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . A t r u e friend will n e v e r betray t h e confidence of his
131
f r i e n d , for if h e d o e s ,
h e h a s d e s t r o y e d t h e f r i e n d s h i p ( 2 7 : 1 6 - 2 1 ) . M o r e o v e r , B e n Sira c o u n sels t h a t o n e s h o u l d r e m a i n t r u e t o a f r i e n d w h e n h e is p o o r o r i n t r o u b l e , f o r w h e n h e is p r o s p e r o u s , h e w i l l s h a r e his w e a l t h ( 2 2 : 1 3 - 2 6 ) . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e a u t h o r h a s s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d r e a s o n s for r e m a i n i n g t r u e t o t h e f r i e n d ; as P a t r i c k S k e h a n a n d A l e x a n d e r A . D i Leila c o m m e n t , t h e " a d v i c e B e n Sira gives o n f r i e n d s h i p is q u i t e p r a g matic a n d self-serving." Genuine
friendship
for B e n
Sira d o e s r e q u i r e ,
however,
m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . H e states t h a t firm f r i e n d s h i p w i l l b e
shared between
t w o p e o p l e w h o b o t h fear t h e L o r d ( 6 : 1 7 ) . H e g i v e s i n s t r u c t i o n s n o t o n l y a b o u t l o y a l t y t o friends b u t o n h o w o n e s h o u l d s p e a k t o a f r i e n d . O n e s h o u l d s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y q u e s t i o n a f r i e n d if t h e r e is r e a s o n
to
t h i n k t h a t h e h a d d o n e s o m e t h i n g w r o n g , o r said s o m e t h i n g i n j u r i o u s . I f h e h a d , t h e q u e s t i o n i n g w o u l d p r e v e n t h i m f r o m d o i n g it o r s a y i n g it again ( 1 9 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . O n e thus has a responsibility t o give a friend a c h a n c e t o d e f e n d h i m s e l f a n d t o i m p r o v e u p o n his b e h a v i o u r , w h i l e at t h e s a m e t i m e t o " m a k e a l l o w a n c e s for t h e f r i e n d ' s f a i l u r e , "
f o r w h o has
n o t s i n n e d w i t h his t o n g u e ( 1 9 : 1 6 b ) ? F r i e n d s s h o u l d also b e realistic a n d h o n e s t in t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e y deal w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , a n d r e m e m b e r t h a t e v e n if t h e y " o p e n t h e i r m o u t h a g a i n s t a f r i e n d " ( 2 2 : 2 2 ) , t h e y can b e reconciled. B u t o n e should n o t m a k e promises to a friend (sTcayyeXXo^evo^
130
134
enmity
n o r s h o u l d o n e display c o n t e m p t t o w a r d o r b e t r a y a friend,
Sanders (Ben Sira and Demotic
Wisdom,
29-38) argues that B e n Sira's sections o n
drinking and friendship s h o w d e p e n d e n c e u p o n T h e o g n i s . 131
B e n Sira is referring t o exclusively male relationships.
132
Skehan and D i Leila, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, 3 1 7 .
133
Daniel J. H a r r i n g t o n , "Sage Advice a b o u t Friendship," TBT 32 (1994) 82.
134
Ingrid K r a m m e r ("Scham i m Z u s a m m e n h a n g m i t Freundschaft," Freundschaft bei
Ben Sira [ B Z A W 244; ed. Friedrich V. R e i t e r e r ; Berlin, N e w Y o r k : W a l t e r de Gruyter, 1996] 198-99) has observed h o w B e n Sira brings together the concepts o f s h a m e and friendship several times t h r o u g h o u t his w o r k . She argues that for B e n Sira there is a c o n -
Friendship and Benefaction in James
34
for t h e n t h e f r i e n d w i l l l e a v e ( 2 2 : 2 2 ) . A l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y refer t o 7tappY)(j(,a, B e n
Sira s o u n d s a little s i m i l a r t o
Philodemus,
w h o m w e w i l l discuss i n a l a t e r c h a p t e r , a n d w h o e m p h a s i z e s t h e c o r r e c t i o n o f friends, b u t n o t t o t h e p o i n t o f insult a n d alienation. R e t u r n i n g t o t h e e m p h a s i s u p o n t e s t i n g , as r a i s e d b y C i c e r o , B e n Sira t o o , is d e e p l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t o n e n o t m a k e f r i e n d s t o o hastily. A p e r s o n s h o u l d test a n e w f r i e n d , a n d p u t h i m t h r o u g h a p e r i o d o f trial (neipoLOiLoc)
b e f o r e t r u s t i n g h i m (6:7). P r o b a b l y t h e o p t i m a l test
of
f r i e n d s h i p is t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e p r o s p e c t i v e f r i e n d w i l l b e s u p p o r t i v e i n a d v e r s i t y , for B e n
Sira states t h a t w e
cannot k n o w
our
friends i n o u r p r o s p e r i t y ( 1 2 : 8 ) . T h e sage is a w a r e o f t h o s e w h o b e h a v e as friends w h e n o n e is successful b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y d i s a p p e a r w h e n d i s aster strikes ( 6 : 8 ; 1 2 : 9 ) ; i n o t h e r w o r d s , h e is q u i t e familiar w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f a "fair w e a t h e r f r i e n d " a n d h e n c e c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t i m m e d i ately placing c o n f i d e n c e in p e o p l e w h o a p p r o a c h w i t h friendly w o r d s . S c h o l a r s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t f r i e n d s h i p is h i g h l y significant for s o m e o f B e n Sira's social, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y his t h e o l o g i c a l , c o n v i c t i o n s . F r i e d r i c h V . R e i t e r e r , f o r e x a m p l e , is c o n v i n c e d t h a t a l t h o u g h f r i e n d s h i p is s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e t h e m e s o f t h e w i s d o m o f t h e a g e d , a n d fear o f G o d , it is c e n t r a l t o B e n Sira's n o t i o n o f a g o o d s o c i e t y .
135
William H.
Irwin,
m o r e o v e r , h a s a r g u e d t h a t h u m a n f r i e n d s h i p is a n a n a l o g y t o B e n Sira's c o n c e p t o f t h e fear o f G o d . I r w i n d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w B e n Sira's i d e a s o f right relationship w i t h G o d a n d right relationship w i t h a friend
are
p r e s e n t e d a l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s , t h e r e b e i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f faithful ness, t r u s t , a n d a p e r i o d o f t e s t i n g i n b o t h t y p e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s . F u r t h e r m o r e , J e r e m y C o r l e y has o b s e r v e d that " a l t h o u g h t h e
sage's
friendship pericopes d o n o t often m e n t i o n G o d , t h e y have a t h e o l o g i cal u n d e r p i n n i n g w h i c h relates his t e a c h i n g s o n t h e t o p i c t o Israel's faith."
F r i e n d s h i p is o b v i o u s l y o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e for B e n Sira, j u s t
as it is f o r his n o n - J e w i s h c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . M o r e o v e r , it is t h e o l o g i c a l l y g r o u n d e d i n faith i n G o d . B e n Sira is n o t t h e o n l y J e w i s h w r i t e r t o stress t h e v i r t u e s o f f r i e n d s . T h e Sentences
of Pseudo-Phocylides,
for e x a m p l e , states t h a t o n e s h o u l d
cept o f " r e c h t e S c h a m " o r p r o p e r shame w h i c h represents the loyalty and trust w h i c h o n e should have in order to preserve a friendship, as well as "falsche S c h a m " w h i c h is faithless and only serves to destroy relationships. 1 5
Friedrich V. R e i t e r e r , " G e l u n g e n e Freundschaft als tragende Saule einer Gesell-
schaft," Freundschaft bei Ben Sira, 1 3 3 - 6 9 . 136
William H . Irwin, "Fear of G o d , the Analogy of Friendship and B e n Sira's
T h e o d i c y , " Bib 7 6 (1995) 5 5 1 - 5 9 . 137
J e r e m y Corley, Ben Sira's Teaching on Friendship (BJS 316; P r o v i d e n c e : B r o w n U n i
versity, 2002) 2 1 8 .
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
35
" l o v e y o u r friends u n t i l d e a t h , f o r faithfulness is a g o o d t h i n g , " T h e Testament
of Dan
1 3 8
while
criticizes a n g e r , s t a t i n g t h a t t h e a n g r y p e r s o n is
n o t able to a c k n o w l e d g e a friend.
139
R e f e r e n c e s t o friends a n d f r i e n d
ship are f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t Josephus's writings.
Thus while Jewish
t e x t s d o n o t e l a b o r a t e o n f r i e n d s h i p as m u c h as G r a e c o - R o m a n o n e s , t h e y display familiarity a n d general a d m i r a t i o n for t h e qualities that friends w e r e t o m a n i f e s t . T u r n i n g t o t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t a n d early C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e , P a u l ' s l e t t e r t o t h e P h i l i p p i a n s h a s b e e n m i n e d t h e m o s t for f r i e n d s h i p
lan
g u a g e a n d i d e a s , a l t h o u g h o t h e r t e x t s , s u c h as G a l a t i a n s a n d R o m a n s , are t h o u g h t to allude to t h e virtues o f f r i e n d s h i p .
4 1
In particular, t h e
Christ h y m n in Phil 2:6-11, although probably pre-Pauline, embodies t h e i d e a l o f f r i e n d s h i p , w h i c h is a w i l l i n g n e s s t o suffer a n d d i e for o t h e r s . T h e o r d e a l w h i c h t h e h y m n d e s c r i b e s , s u g g e s t s L. M i c h a e l W h i t e , "is b e i n g p o r t r a y e d , at least i n p a r t , as a n a l l - s u r p a s s i n g act o f selfless l o v e t h a t is, t h e s u p r e m e v i r t u e o f f r i e n d s h i p . " p l o r e s P a u l ' s n o t i o n s o f self-sufficiency
142
A b r a h a m J. M a l h e r b e e x
a n d friendship in
Philippians
a n d a r g u e s t h a t P a u l ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f his o w n self-sufficiency
in Phil
4 : 1 1 recalls G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l n o t i o n s t h a t t r u e f r i e n d s h i p d o e s n o t emerge from need but from virtue.
1 4 3
T h e m o s t s t r i k i n g r e f e r e n c e t o f r i e n d s h i p i n t h e G o s p e l o f J o h n is t h e s t a t e m e n t i n 1 5 : 1 3 t h a t t h e r e is n o g r e a t e r l o v e t h a n t o lay d o w n o n e ' s life f o r o n e ' s cpfkoq. A g a i n , t h i s a s p e c t o f f r i e n d s h i p h a s s u r f a c e d in various ancient texts, Johannine community,
138
139
144
b u t it s e e m s e s p e c i a l l y significant f o r
v a n der Horst, The Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, 2 5 2 . F o r translation and c o m m e n t a r y , see H . W . H o l l a n d e r and M . de J o n g e , The Testa
ments of the Twelves Patriarchs. A Commentary 140
the
as this is t h e b e h a v i o u r e x p e c t e d o f t h e G o o d
( S V T P 8: Leiden: Brill, 1985) 2 7 8 - 8 0 .
See Karl H e i n r i c h Rengstorf, A Complete Concordance to Flavius Josephus, vol. IV
(Leiden: Brill, 1983) 3 0 3 - 3 0 7 . 141
For Paul's use of friendship topoi in Galatians, see H a n s D i e t e r Betz, Galatians ( H e r -
meneia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979) 2 2 0 - 3 7 . Hans-Josef Klauck ("Kirche als F r e u n d e s gemeinschaft? A u f Spurensuche i m N e u e n T e s t a m e n t " MTZ
4 2 [1991] 10) has noticed
t h e t h e m e of dying for one's friend in R o m 5:6-8, although h e thinks that Paul has al tered this b y claiming that Christ died even for sinners and t h e ungodly. 142
L. M i c h a e l W h i t e , "Morality b e t w e e n T w o W o r l d s , " 2 1 3 .
143
A b r a h a m J. M a l h e r b e , "Paul's Self-Sufficiency," Friendship, Flattery and Frankness of
Speech, 136-37. 144
For example, Aristode, Eth. Nic. 9.8.9; Epictetus, Diatr. 2.7.3; Plutarch, Adv.
Col.
8.111b. 145
F o r an evaluation of this t h e m e in J o h n , see J o s e p h i n e Massyngbaerde Ford, Re
deemer, Friend and Mother: Salvation in Antiquity Fortress, 1997) 168-86.
and in the Gospel of John
(Minneapolis:
Friendship and Benefaction in James
36
S h e p h e r d ( 1 0 : 1 1 , 1 5 , 1 7 - 1 8 ) a n d t h e n it is p r e s e n t e d a g a i n i n 1 J o h n 3 : 1 6 , as s o m e t h i n g c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s m u s t b e w i l l i n g t o d o for o n e a n o t h e r . M i t c h e l l o b s e r v e s h o w t h e stress u p o n l o v e for
community
m e m b e r s , r e p r e s e n t e d b y a w i l l i n g n e s s t o d i e for o n e a n o t h e r , is q u i t e different f r o m t h e c o m m a n d t o l o v e o n e ' s e n e m i e s . T h i s e m p h a s i s m a y h a v e e m e r g e d f r o m t h e s e c t a r i a n n a t u r e o f this c o m m u n i t y a n d
the
t h r e a t o f p e r s e c u t i o n w h i c h m a y h a v e r e q u i r e d m e m b e r s t o d i e for o n e another.
1 4 6
E a r l y C h r i s t i a n n o n - b i b l i c a l l i t e r a t u r e also displays a h i g h r e g a r d for t h e virtues associated w i t h friendship, a l t h o u g h d u r i n g t h e fourth c e n t u r y a n d l a t e r , s o m e C h r i s t i a n s t e n d e d t o a v o i d t h e classical w o r d s for friendship,
a n d amicitia,
i n f a v o u r o f a y a ^ a n d caritas.
Despite
t h i s d e c l i n e o f classical w o r d s f o r f r i e n d s h i p , aspects o f G r e e k n o t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p still surface a m o n g C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s , b u t t h e y a r e s o m e t i m e s m a d e secondary to Christian ideas. F o r e x a m p l e , C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a is s t r i k i n g i n his e m p h a s i s u p o n f r i e n d s h i p as a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f Christian discipleship, a n d h e accepted Aristotle's t a x o n o m y o f friend ships.
He
writes,
"the
Lord
did
not
say,
'give,' 9
' b e n e f i t , ' o r ' h e l p , ' b u t ' m a k e a f r i e n d (tpikoq); not from ship."
1 4 8
o n e gift, b u t f r o m
or
'provide,'
or
a n d a f r i e n d is m a d e
c o m p l e t e relief a n d l o n g
companion
F o r t h i s early C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r , f r i e n d s h i p (at least, f r i e n d s h i p
w i t h o t h e r C h r i s t i a n s ) c l o t h e d i n classical p h i l o s o p h i c a l g a r b w a s n o t o n l y a c c e p t a b l e , it w a s p r e c i o u s . B y t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , aspects o f t h e so-called " p a g a n " c o n c e p t o f f r i e n d s h i p h a d b e c o m e p r o b l e m a t i c for s o m e C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s , w h i l e others w e r e able to integrate friendship i n t o their Christian u n d e r s t a n d ing
of human
relationships.
There
is n o
evidence
that
Christian
doctrine directly clashed w i t h G r e e k n o t i o n s of friendship; rather, s o m e
146
Mitchell, " G r e e t t h e Friends b y N a m e , " Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship, 2 5 8 -
59. Sharon H . R i n g e (Wisdom's
Friends. Community
and Christology in the Fourth
Gospel
[Louisville: W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x , 1999] 64-83) has also observed h o w friendship is related t o the ecclesiology of the J o h a n n i n e c o m m u n i t y . 147
R o b e r t Joly, Le Vocabulaire chretien de Vamour est-il original? OcXecv et aya7iav dans le
grec antique (Brussels: Presses Universitaires, 1968) has studied t h e history o f the w o r d 9cXew a n d found that it declines in usage in n o n - C h r i s t i a n literature before the rise of t h e church. Konstan ("Problems," 102 n. 39) notes, h o w e v e r , that despite this decline, s o m e early Christian writers "perceived a tension b e t w e e n the abstract n o u n s agape and philia in ways foreign t o pagan texts, and that these same writers t e n d e d to avoid the t e r m philos (or amicus) in contexts relating to Christian love. C l e m e n t o f Alexandria, Quis div. salv. 3 2 (LCL; trans. G . W . B u t t e r w o r t h ; C a m bridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1968).
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
37
t e n s i o n s a r o s e o v e r specific v a l u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r i e n d s h i p a n d t h e ideas a n d s e n t i m e n t s that s o m e Christians w i s h e d t o e m p h a s i z e . T h e w o r d " s o m e " is i m p o r t a n t h e r e , as C h r i s t i a n s
from
1 4 9
the same
t i m e a n d r e g i o n d i d n o t a l w a y s s h a r e similar v i e w s . S o m e o f t h e c h u r c h fathers w h o l e h e a r t e d l y e m b r a c e d f r i e n d s h i p . A g o o d e x a m p l e is t h e c o n t r a s t i n i d e a s o f t w o C a p p a d o c i a n s , Basil o f C a e s a r e a a n d G r e g o r y o f N a z i a n z u s , w h o s e friendship b e c a m e a m o d e l for s u b s e q u e n t B y z a n t i n e writers.
G r e g o r y uses cplXo^ r e g u l a r l y a n d refers t o " p a g a n " s o u r c e s as
authorities o n friendship w i t h n o c o m p u n c t i o n . phronios,
1 5 2
1 5 1
In a letter to S o -
h e c e l e b r a t e s t h e fact, as d i d t h e S t o i c s , t h a t friends
are
u n i t e d b y v i r t u e , w h i l e i n his l e t t e r t o P a l l a d i o s h e says " I f s o m e o n e asked m e ,
' W h a t is t h e b e s t t h i n g i n t h i s life?' I w o u l d
'Friends.'"
respond,
G r e g o r y also discusses f r i e n d s h i p i n C h r i s t i a n t e r m s . I n a
l e t t e r w h i c h w a s p r o b a b l y a d d r e s s e d t o G r e g o r y o f N y s s a , h e states t h a t all w h o l i v e a c c o r d i n g t o G o d a n d w h o f o l l o w t h e s a m e g o s p e l a r e f r i e n d s (tpLkoi)
and relations.
4
N o r d i d G r e g o r y see a n y i n c o n g r u i t y
b e t w e e n the Christian emphasis u p o n loving everyone and an intimate personal relationship
between
two
particular individuals.
Carolinne
W h i t e s u m s u p this d i m e n s i o n o f G r e g o r y ' s p e r s p e c t i v e v e r y well: E v e n [Gregory's] belief that it was possible and legitimate to love s o m e m e n m o r e strongly than others is expressed in Christian terms and h e appears n o t to have seen any conflict b e t w e e n man's duty to love all m e n and his desire for close friendships. In E p . 147 h e justifies his spe cial love for N i c o b o u l o s b y saying that h e is following G o d ' s example, for did n o t G o d , t h e creator of all, choose o n e race as his o w n b u t was n o t d e e m e d unjust for so doing? Such special love could co-exist w i t h a m o r e general, extensive philanthropy w h i c h t h e very nature o f Christ, t h e m e m b e r s of w h o s e b o d y all Christians are, teaches us to 155
practice.
149
150
Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 104. R a y m o n d V a n D a m , " E m p e r o r , Bishops, and Friends in Later A n t i q u e C a p p a d o -
cia," JTS
n.s. 3 7 (1986) 7 3 n. 99, w h o refers to F. Tinnefeld, "Freundschaft in d e n
Briefen des M i c h a e l Psellos. T h e o r i e u n d Wirklichkeit,'' JOEByz 151
22 (1973) 1 5 1 - 6 8 .
W h i t e (Christian Friendship, 70-72) traces the influence of classical authors, including
H o m e r , Hesiod, and T h e o g n i s , u p o n Gregory's views of friendship, w h i l e K o n s t a n ( " P r o b l e m s , " 104) demonstrates t h e Aristotelian and Stoic influences u p o n Gregory. 152
G r e g o r y of Nazianzus, Ep. 39.1 (Saint Gregoire de Nazianze.
trans. Paul Gallay; Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1964, 1967). 153
Ep. 103.1.
154
Ep. 11.2.
155
W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century, 7 2 .
Lettres (2 vols.; ed. a n d
Friendship and Benefaction in James
38
G r e g o r y w a s t h u s a b l e t o fuse b o t h classical a n d C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t s t o g e t h e r i n his v i e w o f f r i e n d s h i p . Basil also d r a w s u p o n s o m e o f t h e classical n o t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p , as w e w i l l see b e l o w , b u t h e w a s a little m o r e s u s p i c i o u s o f c l o s e f r i e n d ships as h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y m i g h t i n t e r f e r e w i t h C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t y life. T h i s m a y h a v e b e e n a f a c t o r i n t h e s o m e t i m e s difficult r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Basil a n d G r e g o r y . Basil w a s s u s p i c i o u s o f c l o s e f r i e n d s h i p s i n the coenobitic communities because he t h o u g h t that they could "lead t o a loss o f e q u a l i t y a m o n g t h e m e m b e r s o f t h a t c o m m u n i t y a n d a c o n sequent g r o w t h of mistrust and jealousy, even of hatred."
Although
Basil a p p e a r s t o h a v e m a i n t a i n e d a s i n c e r e affection f o r G r e g o r y , G r e g o r y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t Basil p r o p o s e d t h i n g s t o h i m n o t for
Gregory's
s a k e a l o n e , b u t for t h e s a k e o f t h e c h u r c h . T h i s l e a d t o feelings o f b e trayal i n G r e g o r y , as if Basil d i d n o t g i v e p r i o r i t y t o t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p , a n d G r e g o r y , i n t u r n , d i d t h i n g s w h i c h p r o v o k e d Basil's r e s e n t m e n t . T h e r e a s o n s for all o f Basil's a n d G r e g o r y ' s b a t t l e s m a y n e v e r b e e n t i r e l y clear, b u t it s e e m s l i k e l y t h a t at least o n e w a s t h i s
differing
a t t i t u d e t o w a r d f r i e n d s h i p , a n d its i m p o r t a n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e c o m m u n i t y o f C h r i s t i a n s as a w h o l e . M o r e o v e r , it is o f n o t e t h a t Basil o f t e n uses t h e l a n g u a g e o f b r o t h e r h o o d i n s t e a d o f t h a t o f f r i e n d s h i p , a n d s u b s t i t u t e s aydcTtY) f o r 9 1 A l a . T h i s is l i k e l y b e c a u s e
Basil
w o u l d p r e f e r t o b e i d e n t i f i e d as a b r o t h e r i n t h e faith, r a t h e r t h a n as a f r i e n d w h o has e a r n e d his status b e c a u s e o f his o w n m e r i t s . sical n o t i o n
o f friendship
emphasized
the virtuous
T h e clas
nature
of
each
f r i e n d , b u t for Basil, s u c h a n e m p h a s i s m a y h a v e c l a s h e d w i t h his n o tion o f Christian h u m i l i t y a n d thus h e w i s h e d to avoid an association with friendship.
159
Like G r e g o r y of Nazianzus, other famous Christians from the fourth c e n t u r y d i d n o t resist classical n o t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p . H o w e v e r , t h e y d i d n o t allow theories of friendship
to jeopardize their c o m m i t m e n t
to
C h r i s t a n d t o t h e C h u r c h . A m b r o s e o f M i l a n ' s De qfficiis
ministrorum
m o d e l s itself u p o n C i c e r o ' s De qfficiis a n d Laelius,
Ambrose
although
also uses b i b l i c a l t e x t s t o s u p p o r t his v i e w s o f h o w C h r i s t i a n
clergy
should b e h a v e . T h e bishop devotes considerable space t o friendship in
156
See also, D a v i d Konstan, " H o w to Praise a Friend. St. G r e g o r y o f Nazianzus's F u
neral O r a t i o n for St. Basil the G r e a t , " in Greek Biography and Panegyric in Late
Antiquity
(eds. T o m a s H a g g and Philip R o u s s e a u ; Transformation o f t h e Classical Heritage 3 1 ; Berkeley and Los Angeles: University o f California Press, 2000) 1 6 0 - 7 9 . W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century, 82. Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 1 6 1 . As Basil (Ep. 56) writes:
" a n d if w e are filled w i t h the conceit o f e m p t y pride and
arrogance, t h e n w e are fallen i n t o t h e sin o f t h e devil from w h i c h there is n o escape."
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
39
t h i s d o c u m e n t , a n d h e refers t o it w i t h t h e w o r d s amicitia a n d caritas, as if t h e t w o t e r m s w e r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . H e also e n c o u r a g e s
openness
a n d e v e n t h e disclosure o f personal intimacies a m o n g friends,
which
w o u l d p r o m o t e "a h a r m o n y of sentiment a n d collective loyalty w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y organized a r o u n d a shared vision of life,"
160
again r e m i
n i s c e n t o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s . H o w e v e r , A m b r o s e is v e r y c l e a r that o n e ' s friendships s h o u l d " n e v e r interfere w i t h o n e ' s l o v e o f a n d service t o G o d . T h e claims o f G o d m u s t always take p r e c e d e n c e . " T h u s d e s p i t e his r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a d m i r a t i o n for t h e classical d e s c r i p t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p , A m b r o s e p l a c e s a l i m i t u p o n s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s if t h e y threaten one's allegiance a n d love of G o d , or, o n e w o u l d surmise, if t h e y d i s r u p t e d c o m m u n i t y life. J o h n C h r y s o s t o m displays a w a r e n e s s a n d a c c e p t a n c e o f f r i e n d s h i p as e v i d e n c e d i n his t r e a t i s e , De g e n u i n e a n d t r u e friends
Sacerdotio,
w h i c h begins: "I had
many
(cplAoi), m e n w h o u n d e r s t o o d t h e l a w s
f r i e n d s h i p , a n d faithfully o b s e r v e d t h e m . "
1 2
I n his s e c o n d h o m i l y
of on
1 T h e s s 2 , C h r y s o s t o m praises t r u e f r i e n d s h i p , w h i c h is o b t a i n e d b e tween
those w h o
possess " o n e
soul"
(OJXO^U^OL), a n d w h o
would
w i l l i n g l y d i e f o r o n e a n o t h e r . H o w e v e r ( a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y after h e j o i n e d t h e p r i e s t h o o d ) , f r i e n d s h i p is still s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e s p i r i t u a l l o v e o f G o d , for " i t a l o n e is i n d i s s o l u b l e . "
163
T h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f J e r o m e ' s life a n d w r i t i n g s u n d e r t h e r u b r i c o f friendship leads t o s o m e almost b i t t e r s w e e t observations. H e r e w a s a p e r s o n w h o placed a high value u p o n friendship, b u t t h e n c a m e
to
d i s t r u s t it b e c a u s e h e b e l i e v e d t h a t his friends h a d failed h i m . H e m a y h a v e o n l y h a d a "superficial k n o w l e d g e " o f G r e e k literature,
but he
was probably well acquainted with and admiring of Cicero and other L a t i n w r i t e r s , as h e p a r a p h r a s e s t h e Laelius
with the words, " A friend
s h i p w h i c h c a n cease is n e v e r g e n u i n e , " a n d H o r a c e , w h e n h e refers t o a f r i e n d as b e i n g a " p a r t o f m y s o u l . "
1 6 5
J e r o m e did have
numerous
c l o s e f r i e n d s h i p s t h r o u g h o u t his life a n d a p p e a r s t o h a v e t r u l y n e e d e d
160
161
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 152. Elizabeth Clark, Jerome, Chrysostom,
and Friends. Essays and Translations (Studies in
W o m e n and R e l i g i o n 1; N e w Y o r k and T o r o n t o : E d w i n Mellen, 1979) 4 2 , w i t h refer e n c e to A m b r o s e , De off. min. 3.132. See also, W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century, 162
127.
C h r y s o s t o m , De Sac. 1.1 ( T h e N i c e n e and P o s t - N i c e n e Fathers, first series, vol. 9
[ed. Philip SchafF; trans. W . R . W . Stephens & T . P . B r a n d r a m ; N e w Y o r k :
Christian
Literature C o m p a n y , 1889]). 163
164
165
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 162. Clark, Jerome, Chrysostom, and Friends, 4 3 . J e r o m e , Ep. 3 ; cited b y W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century,
139.
Friendship and Benefaction in James
40
p e o p l e , as m a n y o f his l e t t e r s reflect s i n c e r e a f f e c t i o n for t h e i r r e c i p i ents.
T h e p r o b l e m w a s t h a t J e r o m e , a n o t o r i o u s l y difficult
person,
m i s t r u s t e d t h o s e w h o d i d n o t a g r e e w i t h h i m , a fact w h i c h , i n t u r n , alienated his friends.
W h e n h e i n c r e a s i n g l y s o u g h t a n ascetic life o f
s o l i t u d e , h e b e c a m e m o r e d i s p a r a g i n g o f f r i e n d s h i p . T h u s , t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t J e r o m e specifically r e p u d i a t e d classical d e f i n i t i o n s
and
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p ; r a t h e r , h e r e g a r d e d h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s , at least i n t h e o r y , as u n r e l i a b l e a n d s e c o n d a r y t o a life o f s o l i t a r y a s c e t i cism. A u g u s t i n e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n h i s l a t e r w r i t i n g s , e m p h a s i z e d caritas m o r e t h a n amicitia, b u t t h i s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t classical d e s c r i p t i o n s o f amicitia c o u l d n o t i n f o r m his v i e w o f caritas, n o r t h a t h u m a n f r i e n d s h i p w a s n o t i m p o r t a n t t o h i m . E o i n C a s s i d y h a s s h o w n t h a t a s p e c t s o f classical f r i e n d s h i p i n f l u e n c e d A u g u s t i n e ' s v i e w o f C h r i s t i a n caritas.
Although
A u g u s t i n e ' s v i s i o n o f C h r i s t i a n l o v e w a s e x t e n d e d t o all, a n d r e q u i r e d n o m e r i t o r testing, t h e intimacy, reciprocity a n d equality characteristic o f G r e e k a n d R o m a n p o r t r a y a l s o f f r i e n d s h i p w e r e k e y e l e m e n t s i n his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f caritas.
F o r A u g u s t i n e , s u c h i n t i m a c y w a s also e x
t e n d e d t o C h r i s t , w i t h a n d t h r o u g h w h o m all C h r i s t i a n s w e r e j o i n e d . A s h e w r o t e t o his f r i e n d M a r c i a n u s , " I d i d n o t really h a v e y o u as a f r i e n d (amicus) u n t i l I c l o v e t o y o u i n C h r i s t . "
1 7 0
T h e p e r s o n w h o h a d t h e g r e a t e s t difficulty r e c o n c i l i n g a n d Christianity was t h e late fourth
N o l a . In a letter to P a m m a c h i u s , Paulinus contrasts their (amicitia), usually
friendship
century Christian, Paulinus
of
friendship
w h i c h K o n s t a n i n t e r p r e t s t o m e a n , " o u r v e r s i o n o f w h a t is called
friendship,"
with
their
spiritual
friendship
(caritas)
" w h i c h is p r o d u c e d b y G o d as its s o u r c e a n d is j o i n e d i n a b r o t h e r h o o d of souls."
172
S i m i l a r l y i n his 5 1 s t e p i s t l e , P a u l i n u s w r i t e s : " W e
have
b e c o m e k n o w n to each o t h e r n o t b y h u m a n friendship b u t b y divine g r a c e a n d it is b y joined."
166
1 7 3
the inner
depths
of Christ's love
that w e
T h e classical n o t i o n t h a t t r u e f r i e n d s h i p w a s b a s e d
are upon
See W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century, 130. W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century, 129.
168
E o i n Cassidy, " T h e R e c o v e r y o f Classical Ideal o f Friendship in Augustine's P o r
trayal of Caritas," The Relationship between Neoplatonism and Christianity (ed. T h o m a s Finan & V i n c e n t T w o m e y ; D u b l i n : F o u r C o u r t s , 1992) 127-40. 169
See also, W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century, 1 8 5 - 2 1 7 . Augustine, Ep. 258.1 (LCL; trans. James H o u s t o n Baxter; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d
University Press; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1930). Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 158. Translation of Paulinus's 13th episde is by Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 158. Translation b y W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century, 155.
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
41
v i r t u e m a y also h a v e b e e n p r o b l e m a t i c for P a u l i n u s , j u s t as it w a s for Basil. M u t u a l a d m i r a t i o n f o r o n e a n o t h e r ' s fine c h a r a c t e r w a s t h o u g h t t o b e typical o f G r e e k a n d R o m a n n o b l e friendships, for s u c h v i r t u e b o u n d friends t o g e t h e r a n d m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r b o n d . F o r P a u l i n u s , h o w ever, the Christian should b e m o d e s t and h u m b l e , and to p r e s u m e to b e v i r t u o u s w o u l d b e a r r o g a n t . H e p o r t r a y s h i m s e l f as a s i n n e r i n his letters, a n d consistently declares himself u n w o r t h y o f t h e love that o t h ers h a v e f o r h i m .
1 7 4
S u c h a n e m p h a s i s is c o n s i s t e n t , h o w e v e r , w i t h t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f C h r i s t i a n caritas, w h i c h is o f f e r e d t o p e o p l e r e g a r d l e s s of their achievements. I n s u m , w e o b s e r v e t h a t u p t o , d u r i n g a n d after t h e first c e n t u r y , q u a l i t i e s s u c h as l o y a l t y , g e n e r o s i t y , reliability, e q u a n i m i t y , a n d s o m e t i m e s a w i l l i n g n e s s t o suffer a n d d i e for a f r i e n d a r e fairly c o n s i s t e n t l y valued in t h e writings o n friendship, w h e t h e r t h e y are f o u n d in Archaic G r e e c e , t h e classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c ages, t h e H e b r e w B i b l e , H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m , t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t o r early Christianity. T h e n o t i o n
that
t r u e friends m u s t b e v i r t u o u s p e o p l e a n d t h a t f r i e n d s h i p is n o t easy — t h a t it r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n p e r i o d o f t e s t i n g - also e m e r g e s . H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s s u c h as P a u l a p p e a l e d t o t h e v i r t u e s o f f r i e n d s h i p i n his l e t t e r s p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e h e k n e w t h a t t h i s w o u l d b e a n
effective
m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h his c h u r c h e s . M a n y p a t r i s t i c w r i t e r s , m o r e o v e r , e m b r a c e d classical n o t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p , b u t b y t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , t h e r e is s o m e h e s i t a n c y i n p l a c i n g t o o m u c h e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e s e v i r t u e s . S o m e C h r i s t i a n clerics, s u c h as Basil, t h o u g h t t h a t i n t i mate
friendships
b a s e d u p o n v i r t u e s c o u l d u p s e t c o m m u n i t y life, o r , as
w i t h P a u l i n u s , t h e y c o u l d d i s t r a c t f r o m a life o f h u m i l i t y . B u t o v e r a l l , t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f r i e n d s h i p w e r e sufficiently w i d e s p r e a d s u c h t h a t it w o u l d n o t b e s t r a n g e o r u n r e a s o n a b l e t o t h i n k t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f James, wherever he was writing from
in the Mediterranean
basin,
w o u l d b e familiar w i t h s u c h v i r t u e s . O n e aspect o f friendship closely related t o these virtues w a s
frank
s p e e c h . H o w e v e r , g i v e n that t h e c o n t e x t s for discussing this particular a s p e c t o f f r i e n d s h i p w a s o f t e n t h a t o f flattery a n d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f c l i ents in p a t r o n - c l i e n t relationships, I will address t h e topic o f
frank
speech in a subsequent chapter that explores the relationships b e t w e e n friendship, patronage and benefaction. B u t before m o v i n g to that c h a p t e r , it is i m p o r t a n t t o discuss a f e w o t h e r aspects o f f r i e n d s h i p e m e r g e reasonably consistently in antiquity.
174
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 160.
that
42
Friendship and Benefaction in James
"One
Mind/Soul"
First, a n i n t r i g u i n g e x p r e s s i o n t h a t e m e r g e s o f t e n is t h a t t r u e U
s h a r e " o n e s o u l " o r " o n e m i n d " ((Jila ^ X ^ ) - J
u s t
a s
friends
friends
share similar
v i r t u e s , t h e y a r e u n d e r s t o o d t o t h i n k t h e s a m e . T h i s is a n t i c i p a t e d i n H o m e r i c literature, although the precise phrase does n o t appear. In the Iliad,
Agamemnon
tells O d y s s e u s
( 4 . 3 6 0 - 6 1 ) , w h i l e i n t h e Odyssey
that
they
think
the
same
things
N e s t o r d e s c r i b e s his f r i e n d s h i p
O d y s s e u s as o n e i n w h i c h t h e y w e r e o f o n e m i n d ( 3 . 1 2 6 - 2 9 ) .
with
7 5
The
i d e a is also a l l u d e d t o i n t h e H e b r e w B i b l e , w h e r e , as w e h a v e s e e n , t h e n o t i o n o f s h a r i n g a life o r a s o u l
w i t h a friend existed for t h e
biblical writers, witnessed m o s t explicitly in t h e description o f D a v i d a n d J o n a t h a n , w h o s e souls w e r e b o u n d t o g e t h e r (1 S a m 1 8 : 1 ) . T h e G r e e k phrase does e m e r g e , h o w e v e r , w i t h Aristotle. Aristotle uses s t r o n g l a n g u a g e t o d e s c r i b e friends: a f r i e n d is a n o t h e r self (aXXo^ a n d a p e r s o n s h o u l d feel " t o w a r d s his f r i e n d i n t h e s a m e w a y as
OLUTOQ)
towards himself." soul
(fjaoc
known.
7
^ujpq)
176
Aristotle quotes the proverb, "Friends have between
I n t h e Eudemian
them,"
Ethics,
which
was
apparently
one well-
this p h r a s e u n d e r l i n e s t h e fact t h a t a
m a n s h o u l d r e l a t e t o his f r i e n d j u s t as h e relates t o himself: A n d wishing for t h e o t h e r t o exist, and associating together, and shar ing j o y and grief, and ' b e i n g o n e spirit' ([xla tyvyyi) d b e i n g unable even to live w i t h o u t o n e a n o t h e r b u t dying t o g e t h e r - for this is the case w i t h t h e single individual, and h e associates w i t h himself in this way, - all these characteristics t h e n b e l o n g to t h e g o o d m a n in relation t o himself (Eth. Eud. 7.6.8-13). a n
S u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f f r i e n d s h i p has m a n y r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r h o w friends s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d .
179
F o r e x a m p l e , a f r i e n d m u s t f o r g o m o n e y if
it m e a n s t h a t his f r i e n d w i l l g a i n , h e m u s t g i v e u p h o n o u r s a n d offices
175
See Fitzgerald, "Friendship in t h e G r e e k W o r l d , " 2 1 - 2 3 .
176
Eth. Nic. 9.4.5.
177
Eth. Nic. 9.8.2; Eth. Eud. 7.6.10.
178
Electra describes h e r b r o t h e r , Orestes, as h e r fjtla tyuyyi in Euripides's Orest. 1046. T h e n o t i o n o f a friend as a n o t h e r self also has consequences for the understanding of
Aristode's m o r a l philosophy as a w h o l e . S o m e scholars argue that ultimately, Aristode is interested in each person achieving his o r h e r o w n euSaifxovla and thus that his moral t h e o r y is egoistic, whereas others t h i n k that Aristode is interested n o t only in personal euSaifjiovla b u t t h e euSoajxovla o f friends as well. This interpretation understands Aristode as an altruist a n d the idea that a friend is a n o t h e r self and thus should b e treated as well as o n e treats one's o w n self is often used to support it. See D e n n i s M c K e r l i e , "Friendship, Self-Love, a n d C o n c e r n for O t h e r s in Aristotle's Ethics," Ancient Philosophy 11 (1991) 8 5 100.
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
43
f o r h i s f r i e n d ' s s a k e , a n d i n d e e d , f r i e n d s s h o u l d s u r r e n d e r t h e i r lives f o r o n e a n o t h e r , j u s t as t h e y s h o u l d for t h e i r c o u n t r y .
1 8 0
L i k e w i s e , P l u t a r c h says t h a t i n f r i e n d s h i p , t h e r e " m u s t b e n o e l e m e n t u n l i k e , u n e v e n , o r u n e q u a l , b u t all m u s t b e a l i k e t o e n g e n d e r a g r e e m e n t i n w o r d s , c o u n s e l s , o p i n i o n s , a n d f e e l i n g s , a n d it m u s t b e as i f o n e s o u l (fiia ^ujpq)
w
e
r
e
apportioned among two or more bodies."
1 8 1
P h i l o also refers t o t h e i d e a . H e cites D e u t 1 3 : 7 w h e n h e states t h a t " i n M o s e s ' v i e w a f r i e n d is so n e a r t h a t h e differs n o t a w h i t f r o m o w n s o u l , for h e says, ' t h e f r i e n d , w h o is e q u a l t o t h y s o u l . ' "
one's
1 8 2
Paul
also refers t o t h e n o t i o n o f b e i n g " o n e s o u l " ( u x a <J>U5pq) w i t h t h e P h i l i p p i a n s ( 1 : 2 7 ) , h e asks t h e m t o b e " f e l l o w s o u l s " ( a u j i ^ u ^ o i ) i n 2 : 2 a n d h e ascribes t o T i m o t h y t h e status o f b e i n g " o f e q u a l s o u l " ( l a o ^ u ^ o ^ ) w i t h himself (2:20).
R e l a t e d t o t h e " s a m e n e s s o f s o u l " c o n c e p t is t h e
n o t i o n t h a t f r i e n d s t h i n k t h e s a m e t h i n g , a n d P a u l uses t h i s i d e a t w i c e , i n 2 : 2 w h e n h e asks t h e P h i l i p p i a n s t o c o m p l e t e his j o y b y b e i n g o f t h e same m i n d , and in 4:2, w h e n h e requests the same of E u o d i a and S y n t y c h e . " I n b o t h cases, h e is u s i n g t h e c u l t u r a l i d i o m t o e x h o r t
the
Philippians in general, a n d E u o d i a and Syntyche in particular, to b e friends."
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p h r a s e appears i n Acts t o describe t h e early
b e l i e v e r s , w h o w e r e ^ujpf) (iiot ( 4 : 3 2 ) . F i n a l l y , G r e g o r y o f N a z i a n z u s d e p i c t s his f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Basil as t w o b o d i e s b o u n d b y " o n e (uia
5
tyvxh)™
a
n
soul"
d e v e n Basil, w h o m w e s a w w a s less at ease w i t h i n d i
v i d u a l f r i e n d s h i p s , c o m m e n t s t h a t t h e s a y i n g " t h e f r i e n d is a n o t h e r self" 186
was wise. T h e n o t i o n o f s h a r i n g a s o u l also a p p e a r s i n L a t i n l i t e r a t u r e . C i c e r o w r i t e s t h a t t h e f r i e n d is " a n o t h e r s e l f " a n d t h a t " t h e effect o f f r i e n d s h i p is t o m a k e , as it w e r e , o n e s o u l [unus animus]
out of many."
1 8 7
He ob
j e c t s t o fickleness a n d c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f c h a r a c t e r precisely b e c a u s e s u c h i n c o n s i s t e n c y w o u l d p r e v e n t t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f s o u l s , as t h e r e w o u l d b e no
e n d u r i n g l o y a l t y o r s i n c e r i t y (veritas),
"without which the
180
Eth. Nic. 9.8.9.
181
Adul. amic. 96E.
182
Her. 8 3 .
183
See Fitzgerald, "Philippians," 145.
184
Fitzgerald, "Philippians," 146.
185
G r e g o r y o f Nazianzus, Or. 43.20 (Gregoire de Nazianze,
Discours 42-43
word
[SC 3 4 8 ; ed.
a n d trans. J e a n Bernardi; Paris: Editions d u Cerf, 1992]). 186
Basil, Ep. 8 3 . F o r Basil's letters I a m using t h e translation b y R o y J. Defferrari (LCL;
L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; N e w Y o r k : P u t n a m : C a m b r i d g e , M A ; H a r v a r d University Press, 1926-34). 187
Lael. 80; 92.
Friendship and Benefaction in James
44
friendship can have n o m e a n i n g . "
1 8
Like Aristotle and Plutarch, C i c e r o
t h o u g h t t h a t t w o friends c o u l d m i n g l e t h e i r souls, s u c h t h a t o n e s o u l could be made out of two.
1 8 9
M i n u c i u s F e l i x reflects u p o n t h e p o s i t i v e
aspects o f f r i e n d s h i p w h e n h e t h i n k s a b o u t his d e p a r t e d f r i e n d ,
Octa-
v i u s . M i n u c i u s r e m e m b e r s h o w h e a n d his c h e r i s h e d f r i e n d
shared
s i m i l a r l i k e s a n d dislikes as if " a s i n g l e m i n d " (unam divided into two.
1 9 0
mentem)
had been
A m b r o s e o f M i l a n calls t h e f r i e n d a " s e c o n d s e l f
a n d states t h a t it is n a t u r a l f o r o n e t o s e a r c h for a n o t h e r w i t h .
•
whom
191
-I
o n e c a n j o i n souls. T h u s this m i n g l i n g o f m i n d s o r souls b e c o m e s a significant i d e a b y t h e first c e n t u r y , a n d c o n t i n u e s o n i n t o t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n d e p i c t i o n s o f f r i e n d s h i p . A l t h o u g h it d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s , t h i s p h r a s e is significant b a c k g r o u n d f o r e x p l o r i n g w h a t t h e a u t h o r m i g h t b e g e t t i n g at w i t h t h e u s e o f t h e p h r a s e S i ^ u ^ o ^
("double-souled"),
w h i c h a later chapter will address. "All in
Common"
L i n k e d t o t h e n o t i o n o f friends s h a r i n g a m i n d o r s o u l , is t h e i d e a t h a t friends w o u l d s h a r e m a t e r i a l g o o d s i n c o m m o n . T h e s a y i n g a t t r i b u t e d to Pythagoras — "friends h a v e e v e r y t h i n g in c o m m o n " — circulated widely in antiquity classical a n d
b u t m o s t o f t h e s o u r c e s for h i s w o r d s a r e f r o m
Hellenistic
sources.
Philo
refers
description o f t h e Essenes a n d t h e T h e r a p e u t a e ,
to
the
phrase
in
his
a n d Paul, especially in
P h i l i p p i a n s , e m p h a s i z e s xoivwvloc, u s i n g t h e w o r d o r o n e o f its c o g n a t e s six t i m e s ( 1 : 5 , 7 ; 2 : 2 ; 3 : 1 0 ; 4 : 1 4 - 1 5 ) t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e t t e r . N a z i a n z u s refers t o t h e p r o v e r b , c o m m o n " (xoiva x a
TCOV
194
Gregory of
" t h e p o s s e s s i o n s o f friends
cpiXwv) as t h e " r u l e o f
195
friendship."
are
in
Likewise,
w h e n h e w r i t e s o f friends g i v i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g , D i o C h r y s o s t o m q u o t e s t h e p r o v e r b ' " C o m m o n are t h e possessions o f friends'" a n d c o n c l u d e s
188
Lael
189
Lael 8 1 .
190
M i n u c i u s Felix, Oct. 1.3 (LCL; trans. Gerald H . R e n d a l l [based o n t h e unfinished
92.
version b y W . C . A . Kerr] C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1960). 191
A m b r o s e , Off.
3.22.133 (Omnia quae extant opera 7 [Collectio SS. Eccleisiae P a t r u m
60; ed. D . A . B . Caillau; Paris: A p u d Parent Desbarres, 1839]). 192
D i o g e n e s Laertius (Lives 8.10) claims that the historian T i m a e u s o f T a u r o m e n i u m
(4th-3rd cent. BCE) attributes these sayings t o Pythagoras. For the Essenes, see Prob. 8 5 - 8 7 ; for t h e T h e r a p e u t a e , see Contempt. 194
See Fitzgerald, "Philippians, " 1 4 6 .
195
Bp. 3 1 . 1 .
13-17.
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
45
that " w h e n t h e g o o d have g o o d things, these will certainly b e held in ,,196
common. T h e a u t h o r o f Acts has p e r h a p s o n e o f t h e m o s t famous references t o t h i s p h r a s e , as t h e e a r l y b e l i e v e r s a r e said t o h a v e s h a r e d "all t h i n g s i n c o m m o n " (a7i<xvT<x x o i v a ) ( 2 : 4 4 ; 4 : 3 2 ) . I n a c l o s e s t u d y o f f r i e n d s h i p traditions in Luke-Acts Alan Mitchell concludes that the
evangelist
d e p l o y e d t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s as a v e h i c l e " t o e n c o u r a g e u p p e r status p e o p l e in the c o m m u n i t y to benefit those beneath t h e m . "
1 9 7
Luke promoted
friendship w i t h i n t h e early c h u r c h c o m m u n i t i e s t o t h e e x t e n t that h e w a n t e d t h o s e o f d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s o f w e a l t h a n d status t o b r i d g e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s a n d b e c o m e friends w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . C o n c r e t e l y f o r L u k e , friendship m e a n t that those of greater m e a n s w o u l d have to give u p s o m e o f t h e i r w e a l t h for t h e s a k e o f t h e e n t i r e C h r i s t i a n Such
a practice was n o t
unheard
of,
but
as h a s b e e n
community. mentioned,
a 7 r a v T a x o i v a , d e s p i t e its w i d e c i r c u l a t i o n , d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m a n i f e s t itself i n t h e f o r m o f r e n o u n c i n g o n e ' s w e a l t h for t h e s a k e o f a n o t h e r . P h i l o s o p h e r s s u c h as A r i s t o t l e , C i c e r o , S e n e c a a n d P l u t a r c h
invoked
t h e s a y i n g x o i v a x a (pLAwv, a n d a d v o c a t e d g e n e r o s i t y t o w a r d o t h e r s , b u t n o t t o t h e e x t e n t that t h e y w o u l d forsake their o w n
personal
w e a l t h , n o r i n o r d e r t o o b l i t e r a t e t h e status d i v i s i o n s w h i c h e x i s t e d i n their society. Theirs was an ethic o f friendship, b u t o n e largely limited t o a w o r l d o f e d u c a t e d elites w h o w a n t e d t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r a b i l i t y t o h e l p t h e i r friends, a n d t h u s m a i n t a i n t h e i r rights t o private p r o p e r t y . M i t c h e l l p r o v i d e s s e v e n r e a s o n s i n s u p p o r t o f his thesis t h a t L u k e is g o i n g farther than t h e philosophers referred to above, and advocating a friendship status.
199
community
which
destroys
distinctions
in
wealth
and
First, L u k e e x p e c t s w e a l t h i e r C h r i s t i a n s t o h e l p t h e less f o r t u
nate with n o
expectation
of a return
(Lk 6 : 3 4 - 3 5 ;
14:12-14;
Acts
20:35). N e x t , in the t w o summaries in Acts 2:44-47 and 4:32-37, L u k e uses e g a l i t a r i a n f r i e n d s h i p l a n g u a g e , s u c h as t h e m a x i m s a b o u t s h a r i n g a soul o r m i n d , a n d sharing possessions, t o e m p h a s i z e u n i t y a n d h a r m o n y in t h e Christian c o m m u n i t y . T h i r d , i n these s u m m a r i e s L u k e alludes t o t r a d i t i o n s f r o m t h e L X X , for e x a m p l e , t h e u n i o n o f h e a r t a n d
soul
( D e u t 4 : 2 9 ; cf. A c t s 4 : 3 2 ) w h i c h w o u l d p l a c e " t h e e q u a l i t y o f t h e 196
D i o Chrysostom, De Regn.
3.110 (trans. J . W . C o h o o n ; L C L ; C a m b r i d g e , M A :
H a r v a r d University Press; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1961). 197
Alan C . Mitchell, ' " G r e e t t h e Friends b y N a m e ' : N e w T e s t a m e n t E v i d e n c e for t h e
G r e c o - R o m a n Topos o n Friendship," Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship, 239. 198
T h e s e philosophers' positions are sketched b y Mitchell, " ' G r e e t t h e Friends b y
N a m e , ' " 2 4 4 - 4 6 and also in his article, " T h e Social F u n c t i o n of Friendship in Acts 2 : 4 4 47 a n d 4 : 3 2 - 3 7 , " J B L 111 (1992) 2 6 2 - 6 4 . 199
Mitchell, ' " G r e e t t h e Friends b y N a m e , ' " 2 4 8 - 5 7 .
Friendship and Benefaction in James
46
friendship ideal in terms o f religious obligation."
T h e n , L u k e uses t h e
i m a g e o f B a r n a b a s (Acts 4 : 3 6 - 3 7 ) , a l a n d o w n e r , l a y i n g t h e m o n e y
he
m a d e f r o m t h e sale o f h i s field at t h e a p o s t l e s ' feet. T h i s is a s t r i k i n g i m a g e o f status r e v e r s a l , f o r B a r n a b a s w a s l i k e l y a w e a l t h y p e r s o n w h i l e t h e apostles w e r e p o o r
fishers
w h o h a d given u p their possessions t o
f o l l o w J e s u s (Lk 1 8 : 2 8 ) . M i t c h e l l ' s fifth p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e is t h e e x a m ple
of Ananias
and
Sapphira,
who,
contrary
to
Barnabas,
secretly
a t t e m p t t o k e e p a p o r t i o n o f t h e p r o c e e d s f r o m t h e i r sale o f l a n d a n d d i e as a r e s u l t (Acts 5 : 1 - 1 1 ) . It is h e r e , M i t c h e l l s u g g e s t s , t h a t L u k e m a y b e l e v e l i n g a c r i t i q u e at t h o s e w h o , s u c h as t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , j u s t i f i e d t h e i r p e r s o n a l w e a l t h b y s t a t i n g t h a t t h e y n e e d e d it i n o r d e r t o h e l p t h e i r f r i e n d s . T h i s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n is n o t a c c e p t a b l e
to
L u k e . S i x t h , P e t e r p e r f o r m s w h a t is d e s c r i b e d as a n a c t o f b e n e f a c t i o n (Acts 4:9) i n A c t s 3 : 1 - 1 0 w h e n h e h e a l s a c r i p p l e , b u t u n l i k e a t y p i c a l benefactor, h e expects n o t h i n g in return. This behaviour conforms well to L u k e ' s description o f believers in L k 2 2 : 2 5 - 2 6 w h i c h contrasts a u thoritative
benefactors
with
community
leaders,
who,
rather
than
c o n t r o l o t h e r s , m u s t s e r v e t h e rest o f t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s . F i n a l l y , L u k e p r o v i d e s various e x a m p l e s o f p e o p l e traversing social b o u n d a r i e s i n A c t s . A s M i t c h e l l p o i n t s o u t , " t h e p i c t u r e is o n e o f p e o p l e
from
d i f f e r i n g statuses j o i n i n g t o g e t h e r , a n d , o f t e n , t h o s e o f a h i g h e r status aiding those of a lower o n e . "
2 0 1
T h u s , if M i t c h e l l is c o r r e c t , L u k e p r o
m o t e d t h e f r i e n d s h i p e t h i c t o s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t it c o u l d e x t e n d across social d i v i s i o n s , a n d , m o r e o v e r , r e q u i r e d t h e w e a l t h i e r f r i e n d s t o forfeit their o w n p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y for t h e sake o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f friends.
Friendship and Fictive Kinship Language Attention
to
papyri
and
to
inscriptions
from
ancient
associations
i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n a d d i t i o n t o cpiXo^ a n d 9 1 X 0 1 , f r i e n d s w o u l d u s e kinship l a n g u a g e to refer t o o n e a n o t h e r . H e r e P e t e r
fictive
Arzt-Grabner's
analysis o f G r e e k p a p y r i is v e r y i n f o r m a t i v e . H e o b s e r v e s t h a t aSeXcp6<; refers r e g u l a r l y i n l e t t e r s t o p e o p l e w h o a r e n o t b i o l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d s u c h as b u s i n e s s p a r t n e r s , officials a n d f r i e n d s . H e cites first c e n t u r y l e t t e r s t h a t c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e " b r o t h e r " is t h e s e n d e r ' s f r i e n d , o n e i n particular referring to m e m b e r s o f t h e recipient's biological family thus
200
Mitchell, ' " G r e e t t h e Friends b y N a m e , " ' 2 5 2 .
201
Mitchell, ' " G r e e t t h e Friends b y N a m e , ' " 2 5 6 - 5 7 .
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
47
suggesting a close relationship b e t w e e n t h e s e n d e r a n d receiver.
202
After
examining a w i d e spectrum of papyri, Arzt-Grabner concludes that the u s e o f " b r o t h e r " o r " s i s t e r " w a s n o t a " s t a n d a r d " f e a t u r e o f a specific social r e l a t i o n s h i p o r t h a t t h e r e w a s a specific causal r e l a t i o n s h i p
from
o n e g r o u p to a n o t h e r for using these t e r m s . R a t h e r , business partners, officials a n d f r i e n d s s e e m t o h a v e u s e d "closeness,
solidarity
and
some
kind
fictive of
kinship terms to express
bond
of
engagement."
" B r o t h e r " n e v e r e m e r g e s as a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o " f r i e n d " b u t " i t is used sometimes for a close f r i e n d o r p a r t n e r o r c o l l e a g u e . "
A r z t - G r a b n e r also
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e " a l m o s t n o c e r t a i n e x a m p l e s for a m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e o f d&eAcpTQ."
205
T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is i n t e r e s t i n g w h e n w e t u r n
to
J a m e s , f o r J a s 2 : 1 5 c l e a r l y refers t o a n a$eX97] i n a m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e . K i n s h i p l a n g u a g e a p p e a r s i n i n s c r i p t i o n s for a n c i e n t a s s o c i a t i o n s as well. Philip H a r l a n d ' s studies o f G r e e k inscriptions reveal that often t h e a s s o c i a t i o n ' s m e m b e r s w o u l d r e f e r t o t h e m s e l v e s as 9 1 X 0 1 , a n d "friends" and "brothers" w e r e used "almost interchangeably" t h e e v i d e n c e for E g y p t i a n g r o u p s .
6
that
within
F o r H a r l a n d , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f fa
m i l i a l l a n g u a g e w i t h i n a s s o c i a t i o n s o f t h e G r e e k E a s t (e.g. " b r o t h e r s " f o r t h e m e m b e r s o r " f a t h e r " for t h e b e n e f a c t o r o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n ) a n d t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f its u s e i n p a p y r i a n d o t h e r s o u r c e s i n d i c a t e s
that
groups did n o t use such language purely formally o r w o o d e n l y , b u t that " w h e n a m e m b e r o f a guild called a fellow ' b r o t h e r , ' that m e m b e r w a s (at t i m e s ) affection,
expressing in d o w n - t o - e a r t h
terms relations o f solidarity,
o r friendship, indicating that the association was a s e c o n d
home." T h e q u e s t i o n o f w h y fictive k i n s h i p l a n g u a g e is s o m e t i m e s p r e f e r a b l e to ancient writers w h e n t h e y are w r i t i n g to o r o f a "friend" remains. W h y n o t s i m p l y u s e 91X01; all t h e t i m e ? H e r e , H a r l a n d refers t o t h e
202
P e t e r A r z t - G r a b n e r , " ' B r o t h e r s ' and 'Sisters' in D o c u m e n t a r y Papyri a n d in Early
Christianity," RivB 50 (2002) 1 9 2 - 9 5 . Papyri using " b r o t h e r " for "friend" include
BGU
VIII 1874; POxy VII 2 1 4 8 ; SB V 7 6 6 1 ; POxy X L I I 3057; SB X I V 11644. 203
Arzt-Grabner, '"Brothers,"' 202.
204
Arzt-Grabner, '"Brothers,"' 202.
205
A r z t - G r a b n e r , ' " B r o t h e r s , " ' 187.
206
Philip A. Harland, "Familial D i m e n s i o n s o f G r o u p Identity: 'Brothers' (ASeX^oL) in
Associations o f t h e G r e e k East," JBL 124 (2005) 500. In n. 27 Harland provides a list o f associations from t h e G r e e k East (especially Asia M i n o r ) that use
3 2 1 ; IDidyma 502; IMylasa 5 7 1 - 7 5 ; TAMV
III 5 8 0 , 7 8 0 , 7 8 8 ; IPontBithM
57; IPrusaOlymp
24; IAsMinLyk
9 3 ; ISmyma
IGLAM 720;
I 69. This listing
also appears in Harland's earlier b o o k - l e n g t h study (Associations, Synagogues, and Congrega tions. Claiming a Place in Ancient Mediterranean Society [Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003] 3 3 n. 4 [285] w h e r e h e points o u t that t h e association w o u l d often designate itself as " t h e friends." 207
Harland, "Familial," 5 1 3 .
Friendship and Benefaction in James
48
w o r k o f R e i d a r A a s g a a r d , w h o i n t u r n , relies u p o n P l u t a r c h for a n e x p l a n a t i o n o f w h y s i b l i n g l a n g u a g e m i g h t b e m o r e effective t h a n t h a t of friendship.
A l t h o u g h friendship
was a very important form
of
relationship for P l u t a r c h , " m o s t friendships are in reality s h a d o w s a n d i m i t a t i o n s a n d i m a g e s o f t h a t first f r i e n d s h i p w h i c h N a t u r e i m p l a n t e d i n children toward parents and in brothers toward
brothers."
2 0 9
Plutarch
distinguishes b e t w e e n friendship a n d siblingship. T h i s distinction helps us u n d e r s t a n d w h y m a n y g r o u p s i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g e a r l y Christian
ones, w o u l d
employ
family
language
alternately
or
as a
s u p p l e m e n t t o t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p : it w o u l d f u r t h e r t h e b o n d s o f solidarity a n d s u p p o r t that s u c h g r o u p s sought.
Friendship with
God
T h u s far w e h a v e d e a l t w i t h f r i e n d s h i p o n t h e h u m a n p l a n e , b u t g i v e n t h e fact t h a t J a m e s m a k e s a d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t t h a t " f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d is e n m i t y w i t h G o d "
(Jas 4 : 4 ) , a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
of
h u m a n / d i v i n e f r i e n d s h i p i n a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e is r e q u i s i t e . W e s e e t h a t this i d e a a p p e a r s i n a v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s a l t h o u g h it d o e s n o t r e c e i v e n e a r l y as m u c h a t t e n t i o n as f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n s . H o m e r , for e x a m p l e , d o e s n o t l i m i t feelings o f a f f e c t i o n t o h u m a n beings. C e r t a i n individuals in t h e epics, particularly kings a n d
other
l e a d e r s , e n j o y e d a s p e c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e g o d s , as F r a n z D i r l m e i e r has s h o w n .
S u c h figures e a r n e d t h e title A i l (piXog. T h i s is n o t t o say
t h a t t h e y w e r e friends i n t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h A c h i l l e s a n d P a t r o c l u s w e r e , b u t simply that they w e r e m o r e "dear" or m o r e " l o v e d " b y cer tain gods t h a n m o s t p e o p l e . O f t e n , those m o r e dear to t h e gods h a d semi-divine gods.
parentage
or
had
made
considerable
sacrifices
to
the
M a u r i c e V i d a l , m o r e o v e r , a r g u e s t h a t t h e title w a s g i v e n t o
H o m e r i c h e r o e s n o t to indicate s o m e sort o f mystical b o n d
between
t h e g o d a n d t h e h u m a n , b u t t o u n d e r l i n e specific q u a l i t i e s o f t h e h e r o , s u c h as s t r e n g t h o r b e a u t y o r w i s d o m . D e s lors, t o u t h o m m e superieur p a r q u e l q u e c o t e a u x autres mortels s e r a p a r la s e m b l a b l e a u x d i e u x (&£oei8iQ£ dqjiTO&eo^, l a o & e o g ) , lui-meme
divin
(&e!o£), d e r a c e d i v i n e ( S i o y s v T ^ , Sioxpecpufe) e t a i m e
des
See R e i d a r Aasgaard, 'My Beloved Brothers and Sisters!' Christian Siblingship in Paul (Early Christianity in C o n t e x t ; L o n d o n / N e w Y o r k : T & T Clark, 2004) ch. 6. 209
Plutarch, Frat. Amor 479 D (LCL; trans. W . C . H e m b o l d ; C a m b r i d g e , M A , L o n d o n :
H a r v a r d University Press, 1939). 210
See Franz Dirlmeier, " 0 E O O I A I A - O I A O 0 E I A , " Philohgus 90 (1935) 57-77, 176-93.
211
See Scully, Philia and Charis in Euripidean Tragedy, 27.
2. dieux
(Ad
Friendship in Antiquity
cpiXo^): tels
Paris
et
Helene
49 pour
leur
beaute,
don
d ' A p h r o d i t e , A g a m e m n o n o u Achille p o u r leur force et leur royale »212
prestance ... T h e r e c o u l d b e great affection b e t w e e n gods a n d h u m a n s , b u t s u c h affection
did
not
constitute
a friendship
o f equals
nor
even
like-
m i n d e d n e s s b e t w e e n t h e t w o . I n d e e d , i n m o s t cases b e i n g l o v e d b y t h e gods reflected t h e particular o u t s t a n d i n g characteristics o f t h e h e r o in question. T h e n o t i o n o f h u m a n friendship w i t h G o d does appear, h o w e v e r , in t h e H e b r e w B i b l e . E x o d 3 3 : 1 1 states t h a t G o d w o u l d s p e a k face t o face w i t h M o s e s , " a s o n e s p e a k s t o a f r i e n d " (sn), a n d 2 C h r o n 2 0 : 7 refers t o A b r a h a m as G o d ' s f r i e n d (nnK), as d o e s Isa 4 1 : 8 (nnK is also u s e d h e r e in reference to A b r a h a m ) . T h e E x o d u s reference to friendship
may
s e r v e t o e m p h a s i z e M o s e s ' r o l e as a p e r s o n a l m e d i a t o r b e t w e e n
God
a n d Israel, as t h r o u g h o u t E x o d u s 32—34, " t h e t w o f o l d c o n n e c t i o n
[of
M o s e s ] w i t h Y a h w e h , as i n t i m a t e f r i e n d a n d as d e s i g n a t e d m e d i a t o r , is exhibited
and
exploited."
2 1 3
The
designation
of Abraham
as
God's
f r i e n d m a y find its o r i g i n s i n G e n 1 8 : 1 7 w h i c h d e s c r i b e s t h e " e x c e p tional character of Abraham's relationship to G o d . "
2 1 4
A b r a h a m is also
a n e x e m p l a r o f t r u s t a n d faith i n G o d , a n d it is l i k e l y for t h i s r e a s o n t h a t t h e e p i t h e t " f r i e n d o f G o d " is a p p l i e d t o h i m m o r e o f t e n i n l a t e r J e w i s h a n d s o m e early C h r i s t i a n literature.
215
T h e G r e e k translators o f t h e H e b r e w texts a n d Hellenistic J e w i s h a u thors found such a n o t i o n entirely acceptable. O n the o n e hand, they t r a n s l a t e t h e E x o d 3 3 : 1 1 p a s s a g e w i t h t h e w o r d cpiXo^ - G o d s p o k e t o M o s e s as o n e s p e a k s t o a f r i e n d , b u t e v e n m o r e c o m p e l l i n g is W i s 7 : 2 7 , w h i c h says t h a t i n e v e r y g e n e r a t i o n w i s d o m passes i n t o h o l y
souls
a n d m a k e s t h e m f r i e n d s o f G o d (cp'ikovq o k o u ) a n d p r o p h e t s
(^V/AQ)
( T r p o ^ x a g ) . T h e p a s s a g e c o n t i n u e s : " f o r G o d l o v e s n o t h i n g so m u c h as t h e p e r s o n w h o lives w i t h w i s d o m " ( W i s 7 : 2 8 ) . T o b e a f r i e n d o f G o d is t o b e b e l o v e d b y G o d , b u t w h y d o e s t h e p a s s a g e i n c l u d e a m e n t i o n of m a k i n g p e o p l e prophets? For D a v i d W i n s t o n , the reference indicates t h a t w i s d o m is t h e s o u r c e o f p r o p h e c y ; t h a t " i n e a c h g e n e r a t i o n [ w i s -
212
M a u r i c e Vidal, "La Theophilia dans la Pensee religieuse des Grecs," RSR
47 (1959)
164-65. 213
W a l t e r B r u e g g e m a n n , Theology of the Old Testament.
Testimony,
Dispute,
Advocacy
(Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997) 5 7 1 . 214
Claus W e s t e r m a n n , Isaiah 40-66.
A Commentary
Stalker; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969) 70. 215
See A . R . Millard, " A b r a h a m , " ABD I (1992) 3 5 .
( O T L 19; trans. D a v i d M . G .
Friendship and Benefaction in James
50
d o m is] g u i d i n g t h e friends o f G o d a n d i n s p i r i n g his p r o p h e t s . "
The
e m p h a s i s is u p o n t h e p o w e r o f w i s d o m ; s h e c a n d o e v e r y t h i n g , i n c l u d i n g m a k i n g s o m e h u m a n s friends o f G o d a n d e m p o w e r i n g o t h e r s t o s p e a k as p r o p h e t s . A p a r t f r o m i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t o b e a f r i e n d o f G o d is t o b e l o v e d b y G o d , t h e W i s d o m p a s s a g e d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a n y o t h e r details a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n fact, m o s t t e x t s w h i c h refer t o f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d d o n o t e l a b o r a t e a g r e a t d e a l o n t h e s u b j e c t . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is s o m e q u e s tion whether
non-Jewish
and non-Christian
Greek
thinkers
would
h a v e a c c e p t e d s u c h a n i d e a at all. Is t h e n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d t h e n c o n f i n e d t o t h e J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n r e a l m o f ideas? T h e classic s t u d y o n t h e t o p i c o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d is t h e 1 9 2 3 a r ticle b y E r i k P e t e r s o n , a n d his i d e a s h a v e b e e n u s e d b y authors.
2 1 7
subsequent
P e t e r s o n traced the idea o f friendship w i t h G o d t h r o u g h the
classical G r e e k w r i t i n g s , t h e b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , a n d o t h e r J e w i s h
and
early C h r i s t i a n texts. H e a r g u e d that that t h e r e w e r e t w o streams o f i d e a s i n G r e e k classical a n t i q u i t y , o n e a c c e p t i n g f r i e n d s h i p
between
people and gods, and another, exemplified by Aristotle, w h i c h rejected it. P h i l o a n d l a t e r C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s , h e says, w e r e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e G r e e k classical t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h s u p p o r t e d t h e n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d , as w e l l as b y t h e b i b l i c a l t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h e n d o r s e d i t .
218
P e t e r s o n ' s thesis h a s b e e n c h a l l e n g e d b y D a v i d K o n s t a n , w h o has of f e r e d a d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e G r e e k classical t e x t s u p o n w h i c h P e t e r s o n d e p e n d s t o b u i l d his a r g u m e n t . K o n s t a n c o n t e n d s t h a t P e t e r s o n has b a s e d his d i s c u s s i o n u p o n a n e r r o n e o u s r e a d i n g o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e : P e t e r s o n h a s failed t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e a d j e c t i v a l a n d s u b s t a n t i v e u s e o f t h e w o r d cpcXog. I n H o m e r i c t i m e s , w e recall, m o r t a l s c o u l d b e " d e a r " t o t h e g o d s ( A t I
Timaeus
5 3 D (OQ a v exsLVWL cpfkoQ yji) as a n i n s t a n c e o f f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n a man and God,
216
2 1 9
b u t as K o n s t a n e x p l a i n s , t h e passage refers t o " w h o s o -
D a v i d W i n s t o n , The Wisdom of Solomon (AB 4 3 ; G a r d e n City, N Y : D o u b l e d a y ,
1979) 4 2 - 4 3 . 217
Erik Peterson, " D e r Gottesfreund: Beitrage zur Geschichte eines religiosen T e r m i
n u s , " ZKG
42 (1923) 161-202. L u k e J o h n s o n ' s c o m m e n t a r y o n James (The Letter of James,
244) follows Peterson as does Jiirgen M o l t m a n n ( " O p e n Friendship: Aristotelian and Christian C o n c e p t s of Friendship," The Changing Face of Friendship [ed. Leroy S. R o u n e r ; N o t r e D a m e : University o f N o t r e D a m e Press, 1994] 36). 218
Peterson, " D e r Gottesfreund," 1 6 4 - 6 5 , 172-87.
219
Peterson, " D e r Gottesfreund," 163.
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
51
e v e r m a y b e dear to that o n e [the g o d ] , " n o t a "friend"
of God.
S i m i l a r l y , P e t e r s o n cites a p a s s a g e f r o m X e n o p h o n ' s Symposium,
which
refers t o oiixot x o i v u v o l r c a v x a fjiv e l S o v x e ^ , r c a v x a Se Suvafxevot ouxco [lot (4.47-48).
2 2 0
$eoi
9E.X01 e l a l v coaxe Sea x o erccfJLeXela&ac {xou OUTCOXS XTQ&CO 2 2 1
B u t a g a i n , this p a s s a g e , as K o n s t a n p o i n t s o u t , d o e s n o t
r e f e r t o t h e g o d s as f r i e n d s , b u t t o t h e fact t h a t t h e y a r e f r i e n d l y t o t h e s p e a k e r ; t h a t t h e s p e a k e r , H e r m o g e n e s , is l o v e d b y t h e g o d s . P e t e r s o n cites s o m e s i m i l a r e x a m p l e s t h a t a r e easily r e f u t e d b y K o n s t a n , as w e l l as s o m e t r i c k i e r o n e s , w h i c h a r e also a n a l y s e d a n d r e j e c t e d b u t o n d i f f e r e n t g r o u n d s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e p h r a s e 91X05 &eou a p p e a r s in M a x i m u s of Tyre,
b u t Konstan and others charge that the expres
s i o n is a m a r g i n a l gloss t h a t w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y a d d e d b y a c o p y i s t w h o was comfortable w i t h such an idea.
224
Konstan does grant
Peterson's
p o i n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t a m o n g t h e S t o i c s t h e r e w a s s o m e talk o f f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n g o d s a n d m o r t a l s , f o r as a t e x t f r o m
Pseudo-Plutarch's
"Li f e o f H o m e r " states: " t h e S t o i c s , w h o i n d i c a t e t h a t g o o d m e n a r e f r i e n d s o f g o d s (9C.X0U5 &ecov x o u g a y a & o u g a v S p a ; ) , t o o k this t o o f r o m Homer." the Gods:
K o n s t a n also a l l o w s for t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m P h i l o d e m u s ' s
xtov ao9tov,
w h i c h i n his v i e w a l l o w s for t h e e x p r e s s i o n " f r i e n d s
the g o d s " "in a restricted sense."
2 2 7
2 2 8
of
B u t h e goes o n to q u o t e m o r e of
P h i l o d e m u s , w h o says " w e d o n o t s e e m t o call s u c h t h i n g s ship,"
On
x a X s i x t o x a l xou<; (70901*5 xtov Qecov (pi'kovQ x a l xou<; &£ou<;
friend
as if it is v e r y u n u s u a l t o call m o r t a l s a n d g o d s friends. K o n s t a n
also deals w i t h P e t e r s o n ' s r e f e r e n c e s t o E p i c t e t u s ' s u s e o f 9IX05 x o u &eou. I n E p i c t e t u s ' s Discourses
2 . 1 7 . 1 9 , a h y p o t h e t i c a l y o u n g m a n says
t h a t h e shall b e satisfied if h e c a n " l o o k u p t o h e a v e n as a f r i e n d o f G o d (co; 91X05 x o u & e o u ) "
2 2 0
229
t h e n i n 4 . 3 . 9 E p i c t e t u s c l a i m s t h a t h e is a " f r e e
D a v i d Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 92.
2 2 1
C i t e d in Peterson, " D e r Gottesfreund,"
2 2 2
Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 92.
2 2 3
Peterson, " D e r Gottesfreund,"
2 2 4
Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 94.
2 2 5
Pseudo-Plutarch,
162.
168.
Vit. Foes. Horn. 143 (ed.; trans. J.J. K e a n e y and R o b e r t
Lamber-
t o n ; A m e r i c a n Philological Association. A m e r i c a n Classical Studies 40; Atlanta: Scholars, 1996). See Peterson, " D e r Gottesfreund," 1 6 1 , and Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 94. 2 2 6
C o l . 1.17-18; text in H . Diels, Philodemus
Text, in Abhandlungen
Uber die Gotten Drittes Buch, I. Griechischer
der koniglich preussischen Akademie
der koniglichen A k a d e m i e der Wissenschaften,
der Wissenschaften
(Berlin: Verlag
1917) 16; cited in Konstan,
"Problems,"
9 4 n. 2 1 . 2 2 7
Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 94.
2 2 8
C o l . l . 19-20. C i t e d in Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 9 4 - 9 5 .
2 2 9
Translated b y W . A . Oldfather (LCL; C a m b r i d g e , M A : Harvard University Press;
London: Heinemann,
1967).
Friendship and Benefaction in James
52
m a n a n d a f r i e n d o f G o d (cpl'koQ TOU & £ O U ) . " P e t e r s o n cites t h e s e e x a m ples as c l e a r e v i d e n c e f o r G r e e k a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i d e a o f f r i e n d s h i p with God,
2 3 0
b u t K o n s t a n a r g u e s t h a t i n t h e first case E p i c t e t u s p l a c e s w<;
b e f o r e t h e e x p r e s s i o n , t h e r e b y s o f t e n i n g it, w h i l e i n t h e s e c o n d e x a m p l e K o n s t a n a r g u e s t h a t t h e S t o i c is u s i n g v e r y s t r o n g l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e h e is " p l a y i n g h e r e o n h i s status as a f o r m e r s l a v e . " I n m y v i e w , K o n s t a n h a s n o t sufficiently r e f u t e d P e t e r s o n ' s e v i d e n c e for t h e G r e e k a c c e p t a n c e o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d . I n d e e d P e t e r s o n m a y h a v e o v e r s t a t e d his c l a i m s for t h e classical G r e e k a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i d e a , b u t t h a t t h e r e w e r e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s , especially t h e S t o i c s , w h o s a n c t i o n e d t h e c o n c e p t is clear.
Epictetus may be using strong language
b e c a u s e h e is f r e e d f r o m slavery, b u t all t h e s a m e , h e c l e a r l y says t h a t h e is a f r i e n d o f G o d , m e a n i n g , as t h e passage c o n t i n u e s , t h a t h e "shall o b e y H i m o f [his] o w n free w i l l " ( 4 . 3 . 9 ) . M o r e o v e r ,
Pseudo-Plutarch
was a w a r e that s o m e Stoics a c c e p t e d t h e idea o f friendship w i t h G o d , a n d P h i l o d e m u s a l l o w e d for it, e v e n if o n l y i n a n a r r o w l y d e f i n e d w a y . T h e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e c o n c e p t o n l y a p p e a r s solidly i n a f e w
Greek
t e x t s , K o n s t a n is n o t e n t i r e l y c o n v i n c i n g t h a t t h e " C h r i s t i a n i n t e r e s t i n friendship w i t h G o d derives w h o l l y f r o m Biblical passages."
233
Early
Christian writers m a y have b e e n influenced b y a variety of traditions, and o n e must study each of t h e m individually to determine to w h a t extent biblical o r G r e e k sources m a y have b e e n influential. L i k e t h e b i b l i c a l w r i t e r s , P h i l o is c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e i d e a o f a h u m a n - d i v i n e f r i e n d s h i p . H e says t h a t t h e w i s e a r e friends o f G o d (91X01 9eou),
2 3 4
a n d h e refers t o specific i n d i v i d u a l s , s u c h as A b r a h a m
M o s e s , w h o a r e friends w i t h G o d .
2 3 5
and
A n important attribute of those
w o r t h y o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d is faithfulness. I n t h e c o n t e x t o f w r i t i n g a b o u t o a t h s , P h i l o states: S o m e have said, that it was inappropriate for H i m to swear; for an oath is added to assist faith, and only G o d and o n e w h o is God's friend is faithful (TZMJTOQ
8e fjiovo^ 6 Qsoc, x a l et
TIQ
&ea) cpLXo^), even as Moses is said to
have b e e n found "faithful in all his house " (Leg. 3.204).
230
Peterson, " D e r Gottesfreund," 1 7 0 - 7 1 . Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 9 5 . It is interesting that in his subsequent b o o k , Konstan (Friendship in the Classical
World, 168) is a little less strong in his criticism of Peterson, claiming that Peterson "gready overstated t h e case for friendship w i t h the gods in early classical sources." In his earlier article ("Problems," 91) Konstan had bluntly stated that "Peterson ... is w r o n g about the classical materials." 2 3 3
Konstan, " P r o b l e m s , " 96.
234
Her. 2 1 .
235
Sobr. 56; Somn.
1.193-95.
2.
Friendship in Antiquity
53
F u r t h e r m o r e , P h i l o w r i t e s : " F o r if, as t h e p r o v e r b says, w h a t b e l o n g s t o friends is c o m m o n , a n d t h e p r o p h e t is c a l l e d t h e f r i e n d o f
God
(tpikoQ ... & e o u ) , it w o u l d f o l l o w t h a t h e shares also G o d ' s p o s s e s s i o n s , so far as it is s e r v i c e a b l e " uted
to Diogenes
the
T h i s e x c e r p t is s i m i l a r t o a s y l l o g i s m a t t r i b
Cynic,
2 3 7
a n d its p r e s e n c e i n P h i l o
may
be
evidence that h e was aware that there was a n o t i o n o f friendship w i t h G o d i n n o n - J e w i s h circles. S t e r l i n g m a i n t a i n s t h a t for P h i l o , f r i e n d s h i p is a n i m p o r t a n t p h i l o s o phical c o n c e p t w h i c h enabled t h e ancient w r i t e r to express a J e w i s h universal understanding of humanity: w h e n "Philo's t h o u g h t b e c o m e s u n i v e r s a l h e uses t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p . "
O t h e r a u t h o r s , s u c h as
J. M a s s y n g b a e r d e F o r d , h a v e n o t i c e d that P h i l o m a k e s a "clear associa tion
between
redemption."
friendship
and
the
covenant
and,
implicitly,
N e i t h e r of these dimensions of Philo's perception and
a p p l i c a t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p l a n g u a g e w i l l b e e x p l o r e d h e r e , b u t t h e fact that scholars h a v e o b s e r v e d such things confirms t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h this Hellenistic J e w i s h a u t h o r t h o u g h t friendship w a s a crucial aspect o f h u m a n and divine interaction. T h e n o t i o n o f friendship w i t h G o d appears in various o t h e r J e w i s h t e x t s . J o s e p h u s w r i t e s o f J o h s u a ' s final s p e e c h t o t h e p e o p l e i n w h i c h h e recalls G o d ' s b e n e f a c t i o n s t o t h e m , a n d e x h o r t s t h e m t o m a i n t a i n G o d ' s g o o d w i l l , for " p i e t y a l o n e c o u l d t h e y r e t a i n t h e f r i e n d s h i p o f t h e D e ity."
T h e b o o k o f Jubilees states t h a t t h o s e w h o d o n o t c o m m i t sin o r
b r e a k t h e c o v e n a n t " w i l l b e w r i t t e n d o w n as f r i e n d s " i n t h e h e a v e n l y tablets.
241
S i m i l a r l y , A b r a h a m w a s f o u n d faithful b y G o d a n d f o r t h a t
r e a s o n w a s r e c o r d e d i n t h e h e a v e n l y tablets as a f r i e n d o f G o d i n Jub. 1 9 . 9 . I n t h e Testament of
God,
[God]," loved"
236
presumably
2 4 2
of Abraham, because
w h i l e i n t h e Apocalypse
by
God
because
he
A b r a h a m is c a l l e d t h e f r i e n d he
"did
all
of Abraham
"desired
to
pleasing
things
(tpikoQ) before
A b r a h a m is c a l l e d " b e search
for
[God]"
and
Mos. 1.157 (LCL; trans. F . H . Colson; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r
vard University Press, 1935). 237
D i o g e n e s Laertius, Lives 6.27. See Konstan, " P r o b l e m s in the History," 9 5 - 9 6 .
238
Sterling, " T h e B o n d o f H u m a n i t y , " 2 2 2 .
239
F o r d , Redeemer — Friend and Mother, 9 2 .
240
Ant.
5.116 (trans. H.St.J. T h a c k e r a y & R a l p h M a r c u s ; L C L ; C a m b r i d g e , M A :
H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1988). 241
Jub.
3 0 . 2 1 (trans. O . S . W i n t e r m u t e i n The Old Testament
Pseudepigrapha
2 [ed.
J a m e s H . C h a r l e s w o r t h ; G a r d e n C i t y : D o u b l e d a y , 1985] 1 1 3 - 1 4 ) . 242
Test. Abr. A 15 (trans. M i c h a e l E . S t o n e ; S B L T T 2 P s e u d e p i g r a p h a Series 2; M i s
soula: SBL, 1 9 7 2 , 41).
Friendship and Benefaction in James
54
s u b s e q u e n t l y h e is a d d r e s s e d as " f r i e n d o f G o d " b y a n a n g e l . b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e also refers t o A b r a h a m as a f r i e n d o f G o d , u n d e r t h e influence o f t h e biblical texts. Qumran,
moreover,
has b e e n
Rab probably
T h e D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n t at
t r a n s l a t e d t o refer t o A b r a h a m
" f r i e n d [DrTK]" o f G o d f o r k e e p i n g G o d ' s p r e c e p t s a n d n o t
as a
following
t h e d e s i r e o f his s p i r i t . " L i k e w i s e Isaac a n d J a c o b " w e r e w r i t t e n u p as friends o f G o d " b e c a u s e t h e y also k e p t G o d ' s p r e c e p t s .
2 4 5
Obedience
a n d c o m p l e t e faith i n G o d a r e t h e r e c u r r i n g q u a l i t i e s w h i c h e a r n v a r i ous persons the epithet "friend"
o f G o d i n this l i t e r a t u r e ,
although
A b r a h a m r e c e i v e s it m o s t o f t e n , o w i n g t o its e x p l i c i t a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h h i m in t h e biblical texts. A b r a h a m ' s friendship w i t h G o d appears w i t h s o m e regularity w i t h i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s . 1 C l e m e n t refers t o A b r a h a m t w i c e as b e i n g c a l l e d " t h e F r i e n d " (6
247
as if this title w e r e
246
common
M o r e o v e r , the n o t i o n of h u m a n friendship w i t h
God
w a s a c c e p t a b l e w i t h i n s o m e C h r i s t i a n circles. C l e m e n t o f A l e x a n d r i a m a k e s r e f e r e n c e t o it t h r o u g h o u t his w r i t i n g s ,
w h i l e at t h e s a m e t i m e
h e a c c e p t s A r i s t o t l e ' s t h r e e classes o f f r i e n d s h i p , t h e h i g h e s t o f w h i c h is based u p o n virtue.
This idea o f a human—divine friendship was to
c o n t i n u e t o exist a m o n g f o u r t h c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s a n d o n i n t o the Middle Ages.
43
Apoc. Abr.
9 - 1 0 (trans. R . R u i n k i e w i c z in The Old Testament
Pseudepigrapha
1
[ed. J a m e s H . C h a r l e s w o r t h : G a r d e n C i t y : D o u b l e d a y , 1983] 693). 244
T h i s is t h e v i e w o f F l o r e n t i n o Garcia M a r t i n e z , " T h e H e a v e n l y Tablets in t h e
B o o k o f J u b i l e e s , " Studies
in the Book of Jubilees
(ed. Matthias Albani, J o r g Frey &
A r m i n Lang; T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 1997) 2 4 6 . R a b b i n i c references t o A b r a h a m (and others) as a friend o f G o d i n c l u d e b. Menah. Deut. 3 5 2 ; Mek.
5 3 b ; t. Ber. 7 . 1 3 ; Sifre Num.
115; Sifre
Bo. 18.22. In s o m e cases, o t h e r biblical h e r o e s are i n c l u d e d as friends
o f G o d . See also Louis G i n z b e r g , The Legends of the Jews V (Philadelphia: J e w i s h P u b l i cation Society o f A m e r i c a , 1929) 2 0 7 - 2 0 8 . 245
Translation o f C D 3.2 is b y F l o r e n t i n o Garcia M a r t i n e z & E i b e r t J . C . Tichelaar,
The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition I (Leiden, N e w Y o r k , C o l o g n e : Brill, 1997) 5 5 3 . 246
F o r text a n d translation of 1 & 2 Clement a n d t h e Shepherd of Hermas see The
Ap
ostolic Fathers (LCL; trans. K i r s o p p Lake; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1917). 247
Tertullian, Adv.Jud.
248
See also Pizzolato, L'idea di amicizia,
249
C l e m e n t , Al. Prot. 1 2 . 1 2 . 3 ; Al. Strom. 7 . 6 8 . 1 . 3 .
250
C l e m e n t , Al. Strom. 2.19; see K o n s t a n , Friendship in the Classical World, 156.
2.7; Irenaeus, Adv. Haer. 4.14.4; 16.2. 239-40.
2 . Friendship in Antiquity
55
Conclusion T h i s c h a p t e r has o n l y t o u c h e d u p o n s o m e o f t h e k e y characteristics o f f r i e n d s h i p i n a n t i q u i t y , b u t it p r o v i d e s t h e r e a d e r w i t h sufficient b a c k g r o u n d against w h i c h
to compare some of the language and
ideas
associated w i t h friendship in t h e letter of J a m e s . W e h a v e seen that q u a l i t i e s s u c h as l o y a l t y , faithfulness, b e i n g o f " o n e m i n d / o n e
soul,"
s h a r i n g p o s s e s s i o n s , as w e l l as p r o v i n g o n e ' s f r i e n d s h i p t h r o u g h trials, were
commonly
associated
with
friendship,
R o m a n , Jewish and Christian sources. Sira, t h e a u t h o r W i s d o m ,
appearing
in
Graeco-
For some writers, notably B e n
P h i l o , P a u l a n d a few patristic
authors,
friendship takes o n a decidedly theological d i m e n s i o n , w h e t h e r t h e y are referring explicitly to friendship w i t h G o d , o r g r o u n d i n g a friendship m o r a l i t y i n faithfulness t o G o d . F o r L u k e - A c t s , t h e m e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h friendship shape t h e a u t h o r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o r ideal vision o f t h e early c h u r c h , w h e t h e r o r n o t it fully m a t e r i a l i z e d . T h u s w e see t h a t t h e topos o f f r i e n d s h i p w a s b o t h w i d e s p r e a d a n d q u i t e m e a n i n g f u l for a d i v e r s e r a n g e o f w r i t e r s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s . B e f o r e a n a l y z i n g h o w it m a y h a v e b e e n u s e d w i t h i n t h e r h e t o r i c o f J a m e s , h o w e v e r , w e n e e d t o clarify s o m e of the distinctions b e t w e e n friendship, benefaction a n d p a t r o n a g e , as t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p w a s r e g u l a r l y e m p l o y e d i n t h e l a t t e r t w o forms of relationships.
251
J o s e p h A. Marchal (Hierarchy, Unity and Imitation: A Feminist Rhetorical Analysis
of
Power Dynamics in Paul's Letter to the Philippians [Academia Biblica 24; Adanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2006] 35-50) is certainly correct in p o i n t i n g to the aristocratic, elitist and male nature of m o s t ancient discussions of friendship (which I take as a given), yet his t r e a t m e n t of friendship is rather brief (very little discussion o f Hellenistic J e w i s h uses o f t h e c o n c e p t appear) and t h e purpose of his w o r k seems m o r e oriented towards usefulness for feminist and liberationist interpretations.
3
Friendship, Patronage and Benefaction
Introduction The
previous
chapter
e x p l o r e d primarily literary a n d
philosophical
a u t h o r s w h o discuss a s p e c t s o f i d e a l friends a n d f r i e n d s h i p s . G i v e n t h e w i d e r a n g e o f discussions o f this ideal, a n d t h e pervasive use o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f friendship, o n e can confidently c o n c l u d e that this n o b l e i d e a l h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e r h e t o r i c a l a p p e a l a m o n g m a n y g r o u p s b y t h e first century
CE. However,
friendships
it is i m p o s s i b l e
to
know
to
what
degree
a c t u a l l y e m b o d i e d t h e s e ideals, a n d , d e s p i t e t h e l o v e a n d
affection
that
friendships
these
included
texts
indicate
economic
are
and
expected
political
of
friends,
benefits
that
many surely
motivated people to develop and maintain them. Although plenty of writers
stress
the
sacrifices
friends
should
make
for
one
another,
n u m e r o u s if n o t m o s t f r i e n d s h i p s i n a n t i q u i t y l i k e l y h a d i n s t r u m e n t a l d i m e n s i o n s t o t h e m , a l b e i t t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , as is p r o b a b l y t h e case w i t h m a n y friendships today. We
also m u s t
centrality
remember
of reciprocity
for
to
consider friendship
interpersonal
relations
in light in
of
antiquity,
the a
1
c e n t r a l i t y t h a t h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d f o r s o m e t i m e . R e c i p r o c i t y consists o f t h e e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s a n d / o r services, m o d e s t o r great, b e t w e e n p e r s o n s , families o r g r o u p s . I n t h e i r social h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r l y J e s u s m o v e m e n t , E k k e h a r d a n d W o l f g a n g S t e g e m a n n discuss t h r e e f o r m s o f r e c i p r o c i t y : familial o r b a l a n c e d r e c i p r o c i t y , w h i c h i n v o l v e s p e r s o n s o f r o u g h l y t h e s a m e social status a n d i n w h i c h friends p a r t i c i p a t e ; g e n e r a l reciprocity b e t w e e n unequal partners, and negative reciprocity b e t w e e n
1
See Karl Polanyi, Primitive, Archaic and Modem Economy: Essays of Karl Polanyi (ed. G.
Dalton; G a r d e n City, N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1968) and subsequendy, Marshal Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (Chicago: A l d i n e - A t h e r t o n , 1972).
3.
Friendship,
strangers a n d e n e m i e s . friend
Patronage
and
57
Benefaction
W h e t h e r t h e offer o f f a v o u r s f r o m f r i e n d
was motivated by love and concern
or more
to
self-interested
motives, generosity and a response of gratitude to that generosity w e r e k e y i n g r e d i e n t s t o f r i e n d s h i p , a n d a i d e d its l o n g e v i t y .
Even though the
m o t i v e s f o r f r i e n d s h i p v a r y , it p r o v i d e s b o t h e m o t i o n a l a n d p r a c t i c a l benefits. As K o e n r a a d V e r b o v e n writes: So although e m o t i o n a l friendship can (and should) b e distinguished from instrumental friendship from a conceptual and motivational p o i n t of v i e w , from a n o r m a t i v e p o i n t o f v i e w affection and utility coincide in t h e institution of friendship as it emerges in t h e G r e e k and R o m a n world. Descriptions
and
narrations
of
ideal
friendship
from
antiquity
i n d i c a t e t o w h a t e x t e n t this relationship e m b o d i e d virtues a n d n o b l e feats, b u t t h e fact t h a t f r i e n d s h i p s c o u l d b r i n g m a t e r i a l a n d / o r social r e w a r d s m u s t b e a c k n o w l e d g e d . A n d g i v e n this " e x c h a n g e "
element
w i t h i n friendship, o n e understands h o w s o m e friendships c o u l d b e g i n as o r b e c o m e
purely instrumental,
possibly
descend into forms
of
m a n i p u l a t i o n , o r , as w e w i l l e x p l o r e s u b s e q u e n t l y , p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s as f r i e n d s h i p s w h e n i n r e a l i t y t h e y a r e p u r e l y e c o n o m i c a n d
social
a r r a n g e m e n t s . J u s t as t h e w o r d " f r i e n d " is u s e d casually a m o n g p e r s o n s t o d a y , e v e n w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h o s e t o w h o m o n e is n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c l o s e , a n c i e n t p e o p l e w o u l d u s e cpiXoq l i b e r a l l y t o i n c l u d e r e l a t i o n s h i p s that reflected f e w if a n y o f t h e characteristics described in t h e p r e v i o u s chapter. More
5
specifically,
t h e patron—client relationship, a n
asymmetrical
liaison in w h i c h t h e p a t r o n often h e l d sway o v e r his o r h e r clients,
2
W o l f g a n g S t e g e m a n n and E k k e h a r d W . S t e g e m a n n , The Jesus Movement:
A Social
History of Its First Century (trans. O . C . D e a n Jr.; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1999) 3 4 - 3 7 . 3
K o e n r a a d V e r b o v e n (The Economy of Friends. Economic Aspects of Amicitia and Patron
age in the Late Republic [Collection Latomus 269; Bruxelles: Editions Latomus, 2002] 3 5 45) describes h o w R o m a n amicitia was ideologically constructed a r o u n d t h e ethical values of liberalitas o r benignitas, gratia, fides and beneuolentia o r amor. 4
5
V e r b o v e n , The Economy of Friends, 44. As M i c h a e l Peachin ("Introduction and A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s " Aspects of Friendship in
the Graeco-Roman
World [Journal o f R o m a n Archaeology Supplementary Series 4 3 ; A n n
Arbor: C u s h i n g - M a l l o y , 2001] 8) has w r i t t e n o f the debate a b o u t w h e t h e r ancient G r e e k a n d R o m a n notions o f friendship w e r e primarily emotional o r political: "Perhaps, in t h e end, it w o u l d b e best to p r e s u m e w h a t seems logical, namely, that there w e r e m a n y relationships a m o n g t h e Greeks and R o m a n s w h i c h w e w o u l d readily recognize as p r o p e r friendships. Simultaneously, h o w e v e r , there w e r e m a n y interpersonal b o n d s , w h i c h c o u l d b e labeled w i t h t h e w o r d s amicitia o r cpiXla, b u t w h i c h w e w o u l d n o t find particularly friendly."
58
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
w o u l d o f t e n m a s k itself as f r i e n d s h i p . S u c h a n a t t e m p t at c a m o u f l a g e caused considerable dismay to those authors w h o held friendship
in
h i g h e s t e e m , a n d p r o v i d e d f o d d e r for satirical w r i t e r s . A n d g i v e n t h e fact t h a t p a t r o n a g e w o u l d u s e t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p so r e g u l a r l y , s o m e h a v e supposed that p a t r o n a g e and friendship w e r e o n e a n d the s a m e . W e t h u s n e e d t o s o r t o u t w h a t t h e differences b e t w e e n a p a t r o n client relationship a n d a friendship,
o r i d e a l f r i e n d s h i p , a r e . T h i s is
significant t o t h e s t u d y o f J a m e s , f o r as e x p l a i n e d i n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h e l e t t e r w r i t e r is a t t e m p t i n g t o c h a l l e n g e t h e a u d i e n c e ' s t e m p t a t i o n t o r e l y u p o n w e a l t h y p a t r o n s , a n d d o i n g so b y a p p e a l i n g t o f r i e n d s h i p . D e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t t h e w o r d " f r i e n d " is u s e d f o r p e o p l e i n a p a t r o n client
relationship,
the
author
of James,
along w i t h
other
ancient
writers, did n o t t h i n k that friendship and patronage w e r e o n e and the s a m e , a n d i n fact u n d e r s t a n d s t h e r e t o b e a significant g a p b e t w e e n t h e two. A n o t h e r form of exchange, namely that b e t w e e n a benefactor and an association, city o r individual beneficiary, w o u l d use t h e language o f friendship t o s o m e e x t e n t (and m e m b e r s o f an association w o u l d refer t o t h e i r g r o u p as " t h e f r i e n d s " as w e h a v e s e e n ) . A g a i n , s c h o l a r s h i p has often
treated
benefaction
as t h e
same
as p a t r o n a g e ,
because
the
r e l a t i o n s h i p is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e t w e e n e q u a l s b u t b e t w e e n a w e a l t h y a n d p o w e r f u l benefactor, a n d a g r o u p o f recipients o r a single p e r s o n o f a different
social status. H o w e v e r ,
those that examine
studies o f benefaction,
a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d cities i n t h e
Greek
especially east,
have
c o n c l u d e d t h a t G r e e k s o f t h e east d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d b e n e f a c t i o n t o b e identical to patronage, t h e latter e m e r g i n g w i t h t h e
rising
power
R o m e . T h u s w e w i l l discuss t h e differences b e t w e e n p a t r o n a g e
of and
benefaction. T h i s c o m p a r i s o n should reveal that t h e rhetoric o f ideal benefaction
w a s m u c h m o r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e v a l u e s a n d activities
associated w i t h t h e ideal o f friendship t h a n p a t r o n a g e was. This
chapter
thus
explores
the
practice
of benefaction,
how
it
compares to friendship, and h o w benefaction can b e distinguished from p a t r o n a g e as w e l l as t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n p a t r o n a g e a n d f r i e n d s h i p . S u c h a s o r t i n g o u t o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s is c r u c i a l b e f o r e e n t e r i n g i n t o analysis o f J a m e s , for t h e l e t t e r a p p e a l s t o t h e a n c i e n t i d e a l o f f r i e n d s h i p , especially t h e b e n e f a c t i o n
and friendship
o f G o d , i n its a t t e m p t s
a r g u e a g a i n s t t h e p o t e n t i a l o r r e a l i n f l u e n c e o f t h e rich, i n c l u d i n g
6
to rich
Please n o t e that I distinguish b e t w e e n t h e ideal forms of benefaction that m a n y of o u r
ancient writers discuss, a n d t h e concrete reality of benefaction, w h i c h is harder t o ascer tain. As m a n y scholars observe, t h e rhetorical thrust of any text does n o t necessarily reflect lived reality.
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
59
Benefaction
p a t r o n s . B e f o r e b e g i n n i n g this c o n c e p t u a l discussion, w e will p a y s o m e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r o l e o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h i n t h e social a n d p o l i t i c a l w o r l d o f a n t i q u i t y m o r e g e n e r a l l y . T h i s is c r u c i a l , f o r it b e t t e r e n a b l e s u s t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y s o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y scholars m a y v i e w p a t r o n a g e a n d friendship to b e o n e a n d the same.
Friendship, Politics and Society A p a r t f r o m t h e b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f h o w f r i e n d s h i p ideals m a y h a v e h a d an
impact
on
the
community
in
Acts,
we
have
been
exploring
f r i e n d s h i p p r i m a r i l y o n a n i n d i v i d u a l basis. B u t t h e l a n g u a g e o f a n d p r a c t i c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r i e n d s h i p w e r e also u s e d w i t h i n l a r g e r social a n d political
contexts.
For
example,
Homer
recognizes
a form
of
f r i e n d s h i p w h i c h d i d n o t r e q u i r e affection c a l l e d cpiAo^evioc, o r " g u e s t friendship." S u c h a friendship could b e f o r m e d b e t w e e n p e o p l e o f very d i f f e r e n t social s t a t i o n s a n d b e t w e e n s t r a n g e r s , o r £SVOL, a n d it h a d v e r y p r a g m a t i c goals, i n c l u d i n g p o l i t i c a l a n d f a m i l y alliances t h a t c o u l d last for
generations.
As
indicated
above,
f o r m e d a c e n t r a l social i n s t i t u t i o n "
8
"reciprocity
and
gift-giving
in the w o r l d of H o m e r , and thus
the giving and receiving o f hospitality and friendship w e r e Such
relationships
affection,
and
practices
were
b u t t h e y w e r e also n o t
built
not
necessarily
on affection,
expected. devoid
rather, o n
of the
m u t u a l p r a c t i c a l b e n e f i t s t h a t s u c h ties c o u l d b r i n g . L i k e w i s e H e s i o d , a peasant
farmer,
realized
the
need
for
cooperation
and
mutual
aid
a m o n g n e i g h b o u r s , especially w h e n t h e y faced t h e pressures o f t h e w e a l t h y aristocracy a b o v e t h e m . H e thus generally tends to v i e w b o n d s between
people
from
a
practical
perspective,
akin
to
Homer's
portrayals o f guest-friendship. T h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r loyalty t o a friendship c o u l d conflict w i t h l o y a l t y t o t h e state w a s also significant for s o m e a u t h o r s . It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a t r a g i c p o e t s u c h as E u r i p i d e s , w h o p o r t r a y s f r i e n d s h i p s t h a t g o t o o far s u c h t h a t t h e friends p l o t evil a n d d e s t r u c t i v e c r i m e s a g a i n s t k i n a n d state, m a y b e r e f l e c t i n g s o m e o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n l a t e fifth c e n t u r y A t h e n i a n p o l i t i c s w h e r e b y y o u n g e r m e m b e r s o f t h e
7
F o r m o r e discussion o f the differences b e t w e e n friendship and guest-friendship,
or
"ritualised friendship," see G. H e r m a n , Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City ( C a m b r i d g e and N e w Y o r k : C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1987) 2 9 - 3 1 , and S i m o n Goldhill,
Reading
Greek Tragedy (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1986) 8 1 - 8 2 . 8
T . Gallant, Risk and Survival in Ancient Greece: Reconstructing the Rural Economy
(Cam
bridge: Polity, 1991), 146. 9
Pizzolato (L'idea di amicizia, 16-18) particularly emphasizes the e c o n o m i c d i m e n s i o n
o f Hesiod's concerns a b o u t friendship.
Friendship
60 aristocracy
were
vying
and Benefaction
for
more
in James
political
power.
However,
one
s h o u l d n o t assume that g r o u p s o f 91X01 r e p r e s e n t e d t h e small c o n s p i r a t o r i a l o l i g a r c h i e s w h i c h a t t e m p t e d t o o v e r t h r o w t h e demos d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . D e s p i t e o f t h e claims o f H o r s t H u t t e r , w h o argues that friends f o r m e d p o l i t i c a l g r o u p s a n d t h a t t h e " m e a n i n g o f p o l i t i c s lay i n t h e fulfillment o f f r i e n d s h i p s , "
11
t h e r e is n o t m u c h e v i d e n c e f o r 9 1 X 0 1 p l a y
i n g a f o r m a l r o l e i n p o l i t i c s at t h i s t i m e . T h i s is n o t t o say t h a t p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t e r s c o u l d n o t b e friends w i t h a leader, o r that t h o s e w h o p l o t t e d t o d e s t r o y a d e m o c r a c y c o u l d n o t v i e w o n e a n o t h e r as f r i e n d s .
The
n o t i o n of help friends/harm enemies was indeed a central presupposi t i o n o f classical G r e e k s o c i e t y . E u r i p i d e s ' s Electra, f o r e x a m p l e , d e p i c t s t h o s e w h o a r e s u p p o r t i v e o f t h e r e b e l l i o u s c h i l d r e n o f A g a m e m n o n as 91X01,
1 2
w h i l e i n Orestes,
as w e s a w , t h o s e a g a i n s t O r e s t e s a n d P y l a d e s
a r e e n e m i e s . B u t it d o e s n o t f o l l o w f r o m t h e s e e x a m p l e s t h a t p o l i t i c s w a s r u n b y s m a l l g r o u p s o f official 9 1 X 0 1 . H u t t e r e q u a t e s a
1 3
the
They continued
t o e x i s t i n t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y , b u t at t h i s t i m e t h e y s e r v e d p r i m a r i l y as social c l u b s w h i c h f o s t e r e d m u t u a l a i d b e t w e e n p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s . D e s p i t e t h e w e a l t h o f classical p h i l o s o p h i c a l w r i t i n g s o n t h e r e is little e v i d e n c e t h a t it w a s primarily t h o u g h it c o u l d s e r v e p o l i t i c a l e n d s .
14
friendship,
a political c o n c e p t
even
1 5
O n e m i g h t t h i n k t h a t S o p h o c l e s ' s Antigone
c o u l d challenge this latter
statement. I n this play, C r e o n , t h e ruler o f T h e b e s , declares, ... I c o n d e m n t h e m a n w h o sets his friend (
10
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 6 1 .
11
H u t t e r , Politics as Friendship, 2 5 .
12
See D a v i d Konstan, "Philia in Euripides' Electra," Philologus 129 (1985) 1 7 6 - 8 5 .
13
Hypereides,
Eux. 3.7-8. See M . H . H a n s e n , The Athenian
Democracy in the Age of
Demosthenes: Structure, Principles and Ideology (trans. J.A. C r o o k ; Oxford: O x f o r d University Press, 1991) 2 8 1 ; cf. Lynette G. Mitchell a n d P.J. R h o d e s , "Friends a n d E n e m i e s in A t h e n i a n Politics," Greece and Rome 6 3 (1996) 11-30. 14
15
D e m o s t h e n e s , Con. 54.7, 14-20, 3 0 - 4 0 . P o w e l l ("Friendship a n d its P r o b l e m s , " 32) writes that t h e function o f o n e - t o - o n e
political friendships " d o e s n o t seem t o receive so m u c h emphasis o r a t t e n t i o n " in d e m o c ratic A t h e n s as it does in Archaic G r e e c e .
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
Benefaction
61
k n o w i n g that t h e State is t h e g o o d ship that holds o u r fortunes all: farewell to friendship, if she suffers w r e c k (Ant. 1 8 2 - 8 8 [LCL]). 16
I n t h i s i n s t a n c e C r e o n is w o r r i e d t h a t friends o f t h e d e a d P o l y n e i c e s w i l l b a n d t o g e t h e r a n d r e t u r n t o sack T h e b e s . H e has s t a t e d s u c c i n c t l y t h a t c i v i c l o y a l t y lies far a n d a b o v e l o y a l t y t o cplXoi, as if f r i e n d s h i p could
be
a
threat
to
state
stability.
"Such
suspicion
of
personal
a t t a c h m e n t s a m o n g o n e ' s s u b j e c t s is p a r t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e t y r a n t , w h o sees p l o t s b r e w i n g i n all a s s o c i a t i o n s n o t d i r e c t l y u n d e r his control."
Creon's
a n x i e t y is n o t e v i d e n c e t h a t p o c k e t s o f
friends
r e g u l a r l y a t t e m p t e d t o u s u r p t h e state, b u t a t e s t i m o n y t o his t y r a n n i c a l paranoia. A c c o r d i n g to Aristotle, friendship did n o t pose a threat to t h e politi cal w o r l d o f his d a y . F o r A r i s t o t l e , friendship appears to b e t h e b o n d of t h e state; and lawgivers seem to set m o r e in store b y it t h a n they d o b y justice, for to p r o m o t e c o n c o r d , w h i c h seems akin to friendship, is their chief aim, w h i l e faction, w h i c h is enmity, is w h a t they are most anxious to banish. A n d if m e n are friends, there is n o n e e d of justice b e t w e e n t h e m ; whereas merely to b e just is n o t e n o u g h - a feeling of friendship is also necessary. I n d e e d t h e highest form o f justice seems to have an element of friendly feeling in it (Eth. Nic. 8.1.4). O i X l a , w e h a v e o b s e r v e d , c a n i n c l u d e all k i n d s o f m u t u a l affection, i n c l u d i n g k i n s h i p ties, c i v i c ties, a n d i n t i m a t e b o n d s b e t w e e n
ally c o u l d b e c a l l e d a
1 9
f o r feelings o f affinity
promoted
j u s t i c e a n d fairness. H e c o u l d n o t e n v i s a g e f r i e n d s h i p i n c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e state b e c a u s e i n his v i e w , o n e w a s c o e x t e n s i v e w i t h t h e Political
authority
"institutionalized disinterested
in
in will
the
Aristotle's of
the
general
day
SYJU/X;," will
was 2 0
of the
and
understood not
populace.
a
to
other. be
remote
the
force,
If a m a n
was
d e l i n q u e n t i n his d u t i e s t o t h e state, h e w a s l i k e l y n e g l e c t f u l o f his f r i e n d s as w e l l . P o l i t i c a l conflicts w e r e n o t c a u s e d b y a l l e g i a n c e s
16
Translated b y F. Storr (Cambridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press; L o n d o n : H e i n e -
m a n n , 1912). 17
to
D a v i d Konstan, "Friendship and t h e State," Hyperboreus 2 (1994/95) 10.
18
Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 8 3 .
19
Eth. Nic. 8.9.3.
20
Konstan, "Friendship and t h e State," 8.
62
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
personal friendships, b u t b y a deficiency of m o r a l substance.
Indeed,
A r i s t o d e t h o u g h t t h a t " c i v i c , a n d n o t j u s t p e r s o n a l , f r i e n d s h i p [was] a n essential c o m p o n e n t i n t h e flourishing h u m a n l i f e "
22
and c o m m e n t s that a
g o o d l e a d e r is o n e w h o p r o m o t e s friendship a m o n g citizens o f t h e s t a t e . N o t all m e m b e r s o f t h e state are equals a n d A r i s t o t l e grants t h a t
23
cpikia
m a y exist b e t w e e n u n e q u a l s , as is t h e case i n cpiAla b e t w e e n a father a n d s o n , for e x a m p l e , o r b e t w e e n a h u s b a n d a n d w i f e .
A r i s t o d e states at o n e
p o i n t t h a t t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f f r i e n d s h i p b e t w e e n cpiAot, w h i c h h e has d i s t i n g u i s h e d , n a m e l y t h o s e b a s e d o n utility, p l e a s u r e o r c h a r a c t e r , a r e friendships o f e q u a l i t y , " f o r b o t h parties r e n d e r t h e s a m e b e n e f i t a n d w i s h the same g o o d to each other."
H o w e v e r , h e also r e c o g n i z e s t h a t d i s p a r i
ties arise b e t w e e n friends a n d t h a t friends m a y n o t always b e
equal,
b e c a u s e o n e friend m a y g i v e m u c h m o r e t h a n h e r e c e i v e s a n d v i c e versa. A r i s t o t l e t h u s s p e n d s c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e discussing p r o p o r t i o n a l f r i e n d s h i p a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e l a w , p r o m p t i n g F r e d e r i c M . S c h r o e d e r
to
c o m m e n t t h a t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r " p a v e s t h e w a y for t h e o b l i g a t i o n b e t w e e n p a t r o n a n d c l i e n t a n d a r e d e f i n i t i o n o f friendship a l o n g t h e s e lines i n t h e postclassical p e r i o d . "
2 6
H o w e v e r , this is n o t t o say t h a t p a t r o n a g e a n d
f r i e n d s h i p w e r e c o n f u s e d , at least i n r h e t o r i c , at t h e t i m e o f t h e A t h e n i a n d e m o c r a c y , for as P a u l M i l l e t has w r i t t e n : It seems a plausible hypothesis that t h e democratic ideology, w i t h its emphasis o n political equality, was hostile to t h e idea o f personal p a tronage, w h i c h d e p e n d e d o n the exploitation of inequalities in wealth and status. 27
21
As Konstan ("Friendship and t h e State," 7) notes, "a g o o d person will b e responsive
to obligations w h e r e v e r 91XI0C obtains, w h e t h e r in personal friendships o r in the realm o f civic society." 22
C o o p e r , "Aristotle o n t h e F o r m s o f Friendship," 6 4 8 . See also J o h n M . C o o p e r ,
"Political Animals and Civic Friendship," in Aristoteles'
"Politik"
(ed. G u n t h e r Patzig;
Gottingen: V a n d e n h o e c k & R u p r e c h t , 1990) 2 2 0 - 4 1 . 23
24
Eth. Nic. 8.1.4. Aristode reflects t h e standard v i e w o f w o m e n as inferior t o m e n . Julie K. W a r d ,
h o w e v e r , thinks that Aristotle's views o n friendship, despite his obvious sexism, have the potential to inform c o n t e m p o r a r y feminism. See h e r article, "Aristotle o n Philia: T h e B e g i n n i n g of a Feminist Ideal o f Friendship?" Feminism and Ancient Philosophy, 1 5 5 - 7 1 . 25
Eth. Nic. 8.6.7.
26
Frederic M . Schroeder, "Friendship in Aristotle and S o m e Peripatetic Philosophers,"
Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship, 4 5 . Paul Millett, "Patronage and Its A v o i d a n c e in Classical A t h e n s , " Patronage in Ancient Society, 17. Millett does grant, h o w e v e r , that patronage and friendship could b e confused in practice for friendship was " o n e o f t h e obvious ways in w h i c h patronage could b e disguised in o r d e r t o m a k e it acceptable" (p. 33).
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
63
Benefaction
F o r A r i s t o t l e , if a h u g e d i s p a r i t y e m e r g e s b e t w e e n 9LX0L, w h e t h e r it is e c o n o m i c o r i n t h e r e a l m o f c h a r a c t e r , t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p w i l l i n e v i t a b l y b r e a k . L i k e w i s e , h u m a n s c a n n o t b e friends w i t h g o d s , w h o superior, stature.
and
princes
cannot
be
friends
with
people
a r e far
below
their
A l t h o u g h A r i s t o t l e m a y h a v e s o m e w o n d e r f u l t h i n g s t o say
a b o u t f r i e n d s h i p , his i d e a s o f w i t h w h o m o n e c a n b e friends a r e l i m i t e d b y his d e e p l y h i e r a r c h i c a l s o c i e t y . N o t surprisingly, A r i s t o t l e ' s s t u d e n t , T h e o p h r a s t u s , m i r r o r s m a n y o f his t e a c h e r ' s ideas. F o r e x a m p l e , h e a c c e p t e d A r i s t o t l e ' s t a x o n o m y o f f r i e n d s h i p , t h a t is, t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f f r i e n d s h i p s u c h as c h a r a c t e r
friendship,
p l e a s u r e f r i e n d s h i p a n d utility f r i e n d s h i p . H o w e v e r , T h e o p h r a s t u s
did
argue that these types o f
friend
was
Aristotle h a d rejected character friendship
be
superior to the other.
friendships
c o u l d exist w h e n o n e
t w e e n a p r i n c e a n d his subjects, w h e r e a s T h e o p h r a s t u s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e ruler and t h e ruled m a y also b e c o m e virtuous friends, and in o t h e r respects they will b e friends, b u t w h i l e b e i n g friends t h e y will maintain w h a t is lawful, t h e o n e b e i n g inferior to t h e extent dictated b y law, a n d t h e o t h e r b e i n g superior. Similarly, friendships
based u p o n pleasure o r utility c o u l d
occur
b e t w e e n superior a n d inferior p e o p l e - even a h u s b a n d and wife could b e friends! U n l i k e his t e a c h e r , T h e o p h r a s t u s h a d a b u r n i n g c o n c e r n f o r w h a t t o d o if o n e ' s a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e l a w - t o t h e state, c o n f l i c t e d w i t h l o y a l t y t o a friend. F o r T h e o p h r a s t u s , t h e r e was n o simplistic answer; rather, o n e m u s t u s e p r a c t i c a l w i s d o m i n e a c h set o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e advantages to t h e friend o u t w e i g h t h e d a m a g e one's reputation.
3 1
to
I f t h e y d i d , t h e n o n e s h o u l d s u p p o r t t h e f r i e n d ; if
t h e y d i d n o t , o n e ' s " h o n o u r has w i t h o u t d o u b t t h e g r e a t e r w e i g h t . "
3 2
T h e o p h r a s t u s ' s r e a s o n i n g h e r e is n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r i k i n g o r s u r p r i s i n g b u t w h a t is significant is t h e fact t h a t h e a d d r e s s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s u c h a s c e n a r i o at all. It c o u l d b e t h a t h e t h o u g h t A r i s t o t l e h a d left t h i s issue u n d e v e l o p e d , a n d t h u s a t t e m p t e d a n e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m ;
3 3
h o w e v e r , c h a n g e s i n t h e p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e o f G r e e c e l i k e l y h a d a signifi-
28
Eth. Nic. 8.7.3-6.
29
See Schroeder, "Aristode and S o m e Peripatetic Philosophers," 4 5 .
30
See W . W . F o r t e n b a u g h , P . M . H u b y , R . W . Sharpies, & D . Gutas, eds., Theophrastus
of Eresus: Sources for his Life, Writings, Thought and Influence, vol. II (PhilAnt 54,2; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1992) 3 5 5 . 31
Pizzolato, L'idea di amicizia, 6 8 .
32
F o r t e n b a u g h , H u b y , Sharpies, Gutas, Theophrastus of Eresus, 359.
3 3
Konstan, "Friendship and the State," 8, n. 18.
64
Friendship
and Benefaction
in
James
c a n t i m p a c t as w e l l . W e r e m e m b e r t h a t for A r i s t o t l e , f r i e n d s h i p ties a n d l o y a l t y t o t h e state w e r e g e n e r a l l y c o t e r m i n o u s . " S o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g f r i e n d s h i p , w e r e n o t s e p a r a t e d off f r o m p o l i t i c a l o b l i g a t i o n s i n classical A t h e n s b e c a u s e t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s o c i e t y a n d t h e state w a s , l i k e t h e state itself, i n c h o a t e . "
3 4
Theophrastus, however, lived o n
t h e c u s p b e t w e e n t h e classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s , a t i m e o f m o m e n t o u s political changes in A t h e n s . A t the e n d of t h e fourth century B C E , t h e A t h e n i a n &YJ(JIO<; h a d l o s t its p o w e r t o M a c e d o n i a n s u p p o r t e d powers, and in 3 1 7 / 1 6 Demetrius of Phaleron, a "Macedonian-backed puppet dictator,"
3 5
w h o h a d s t u d i e d w i t h T h e o p h r a s t u s at t h e L y c e u m ,
c a m e t o p o w e r . N o l o n g e r c o u l d all w e l l - t o - d o A t h e n i a n s e n g a g e i n p o l i t i c s , r a t h e r , m a n y felt d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d f r o m t h e w o r l d o f t h e state, as it w a s n o w h e l d u p b y f o r e i g n m i g h t . P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s w a s n o t p e r c e i v e d b y all as a n a t u r a l e n d e a v o u r b u t m o r e o f a d u t y , a n d t h e f o c u s o f m a n y lives b e c a m e t h e p e r s o n a l as o p p o s e d t o t h e p u b l i c . As P e t e r G r e e n suggests, " t h e m o v e m e n t t o w a r d a p r i v a t e r a t h e r t h a n a p u b l i c e x i s t e n c e m a y h a v e b e e n i n t e n s i f i e d b y t h e r e m o v a l o f full p o litical f r e e d o m , b y s u b s e r v i e n c e t o a u t o c r a t i c ( a n d m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t , external) g o v e r n m e n t ..."
G r e e n goes o n to point out that there w e r e
m a n y factors c o n t r i b u t i n g t o s u c h a m o v e m e n t a n d t h a t it w a s n o t u n i versal — n o t e v e r y o n e felt a l i e n a t e d f r o m p o l i t i c s . H o w e v e r , t h e shifts i n authority n o d o u b t played a role in discouraging m a n y from the politi cal r e a l m . M o r e o v e r , w i t h t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e SYJJJIO^, s e p a r a t e i n s t i t u t i o n a l d o mains,
such
as
the
museum
and
the
law
courts,
emerged
and
represented "instances o f distinct realms o f k n o w l e d g e a n d a u t h o r i t y . "
3 7
F o r m e r l y , t h e oTJfxog h a d e x p r e s s e d t h i s a u t h o r i t y a n d l a w s a n d art h a d b e e n s u b s e r v i e n t t o it, b u t d u r i n g t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a n d R o m a n p e r i o d s this " c e n t r e " h a d d i s a p p e a r e d , t o b e r e p l a c e d b y m u l t i p l e s p h e r e s o f a u t h o r i t y a n d c u l t u r e . L i k e w i s e f r i e n d s h i p " c a m e t o b e r e p r e s e n t e d as a s e p a r a t e d o m a i n o f r e l a t i o n s i n p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t w i t h d u t y a n d ... w i t h obligations to the state."
8
Although
T h e o p h r a s t u s was likely
quite
sympathetic to D e m e t r i u s ( r e m e m b e r that Aristotle h a d t u t o r e d Philip o f M a c e d o n ) , h e m u s t h a v e sensed that civic loyalty n o l o n g e r c a m e
34
Konstan, "Friendship and t h e State," 8.
35
P e t e r G r e e n , Alexander
to Actium.
The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age ( B e r k e
ley, Los Angeles: University o f California Press, 1990) 36. 36
G r e e n , Alexander
to Actium,
40.
Konstan, "Friendship and t h e State," 14. Konstan, "Friendship and the State," 15.
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
65
Benefaction
easily t o all. I n s u c h a n a t m o s p h e r e , a n t a g o n i s m b e t w e e n l o y a l t y
to
f r i e n d s a n d d u t y t o t h e state c o u l d r e a d i l y e m e r g e . Historians have observed h o w t h e decline of Athens, political t u r moil,
and
the
displacement
of peoples
affected
the way
in
which
i n d i v i d u a l s p e r c e i v e d t h e g o o d life d u r i n g t h e H e l l e n i s t i c a g e . W i t h less p o l i t i c a l a n d f i n a n c i a l f r e e d o m , it c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t s o m e sought "freedom of the soul."
3 9
people
T h i s quest w a s n o t solely caused b y t h e
c h a n g e d p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , b u t t h e y w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t , as m a n y w e r e d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h p o l i t i c a l life a n d s a w n o o p p o r t u n i t i e s for p a r t i c i p a tion
in
government.
position which flourishing,
Civic
ties n o
l o n g e r possessed
t h e y h a d h e l d for Aristotle's
a n d space o p e n e d
the
important
conception
u p for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
of of
human intimate
friendships w i t h i n t h e various philosophical schools, o f w h i c h w e h a v e already seen s o m e examples. D e s p i t e t h e p o t e n t i a l rifts b e t w e e n f r i e n d s h i p a n d p o l i t i c a l life, dif f e r e n t t y p e s o f e v i d e n c e r e v e a l t h a t tpikoc,
c o n t i n u e d t o b e u s e d as b o t h
a n official a n d a n o n - o f f i c i a l t e r m . K a t h e r i n e G . E v a n s h a s s u r v e y e d a r a n d o m s a m p l i n g o f G r e e k d o c u m e n t a r y p a p y r i a n d inscriptions for t h e u s e o f t h e w o r d s cpiAoi a n d (piXlcc. O u t o f a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f 1 8 , 0 0 0 d o c u m e n t s , only 2 0 3 used friendship t e r m i n o l o g y , a n d s o m e o f these texts w e r e c o m p o s e d well b e y o n d t h e Hellenistic period.
However,
E v a n s d i d f i n d e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e w o r d cpikoc, w a s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e offi cials i n P t o l e m a i c E g y p t i n t h e last t h r e e c e n t u r i e s B C E . T h e s e officials i n c l u d e d "first f r i e n d s " a n d " f r i e n d s " o f t h e k i n g w h o s e r v e d as a d v i s o r s a n d i n various administrative capacities t h r o u g h o u t t h e E g y p t i a n
do
m i n i o n . E v a n s also f o u n d e v i d e n c e f o r t h e R o m a n u s e o f cpl'koQ as a n official p o s i t i o n . T h r e e p a p y r i m e n t i o n t h e " f r i e n d s " o f t h e
Roman
p r e f e c t , e a c h o f w h i c h i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
h a s also c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o h o n o r a r y d e c r e e s
in
w h i c h specific p e r s o n s at c o u r t a r e r e f e r r e d t o as 9 1 A 0 1 . H e r m a n p o i n t s o u t t h a t it is n o t a l w a y s c l e a r w h a t cpfkoq
m e a n s w h e n it a p p e a r s i n
t h e s e d e c r e e s ; d o e s it r e f e r t o a n e q u a l p e r s o n , w h i c h cpikoc, implies, o r t o an inferior w h o p e r f o r m s services for t h e r u l e r ? t o H e r m a n t h a t s o m e t i m e s (pikoq
4 1
usually It s e e m s
is u n d e r s t o o d t o b e a t e c h n i c a l t e r m ,
r e f e r r i n g t o a s e r v a n t o r official o f t h e k i n g , w h i l e at o t h e r t i m e s it m a y
39
40
G r e e n , Alexander to Actium, 5 3 . K . G . Evans, "Friendship in G r e e k D o c u m e n t a r y Papyri and Inscriptions," Greco-
Roman Perspectives on Friendship, 188-89. 41
H e r m a n , " T h e 'Friends' o f t h e Early Hellenistic R u l e r s , " 1 1 1 .
66
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
b e a n i n f o r m a l f r i e n d . T h e official n o t i o n o f cptXog a p p e a r e d i n e v i d e n c e from the Hellenistic k i n g d o m s , and was often applied to ethnic Greeks, w h o ,
finding
themselves in foreign
lands, w e r e
dependent
u p o n t h e i r leaders for t h e i r survival: t h e philoi
... held their w e a l t h and status almost entirely at t h e rulers'
discretion; for t h e G r e e k deracines in particular, it was a m a t t e r of life and death to maintain a ruler's favour.
42
M a n y G r e e k s w e r e h i g h l y critical o f this hierarchical relationship i n w h i c h t h e cplAoi w o u l d d o t h e i r b e s t t o k e e p t h e i r r u l e r s h a p p y , a n d t h u s m u c h p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d satirical l i t e r a t u r e l a m p o o n s t h e s e cplAoi as flatterers a n d p a r a s i t e s . T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n f r i e n d s h i p a n d flattery w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n m o r e d e t a i l f u r t h e r o n , b u t it is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e for t h e t i m e b e i n g t h a t t h e s a m e p e o p l e w h o a r e h o n o u r e d i n d e c r e e s as cpiAoi o f r u l e r s a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c a r i c a t u r e d a n d r i d i c u l e d b y o t h e r G r e e k w r i t e r s . T h e s e 9 I A 0 1 m a y b e h i g h r a n k i n g officials a n d g e n e r a l s , b u t t h e y still r e c e i v e b i t i n g c r i t i c i s m f r o m m a n y a u t h o r s . A s H e r m a n c o m m e n t s : "to have a high rank in a king's court m e a n t to be rated low in Greek public opinion." disapproved
of
the
C e r t a i n t h i n k e r s , s u c h as P l u t a r c h ,
designation
themselves to their superiors.
4 4
cplAoi
to
those
who
ingratiated
B u t despite this criticism, t h e
official
r a n k o f f r i e n d is t o b e f o u n d i n m a n y H e l l e n i s t i c c o u r t s . T u r n i n g t o R o m e , C i c e r o w a s fully a w a r e t h a t a d v a n t a g e s , o f t e n p o litical a d v a n t a g e s , w e r e g a i n e d f r o m f r i e n d s h i p , b u t g a i n o r p r i v i l e g e w a s n o t t h e s o l e p u r p o s e o f s u c h a b o n d , as t h e p r e v i o u s e x c e r p t s f r o m t h e Laelius s h o u l d h a v e m a d e c l e a r . H o w e v e r , t h e Laelius is p r i n c i p a l l y a discussion of t h e highest f o r m of friendship - that b e t w e e n virtuous people - whereas Cicero was aware that other, "ordinary"
friendships
c o u l d exist. T h e s e " o r d i n a r y " a s s o c i a t i o n s o f t e n m a t e r i a l i z e d w i t h i n t h e political arena, in w h i c h v i r t u o u s friendships w e r e e x t r e m e l y r a r e ,
4 6
and
could break d o w n w h e n the persons involved changed their disposi t i o n s o r tastes, o r , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , w h e n d i s a g r e e m e n t s a r o s e a b o u t
42
the
H e r m a n , " T h e 'Friends' o f t h e Early Hellenistic R u l e r s , " 115. H e r m a n , " T h e 'Friends' of Early Hellenistic R u l e r s , " 122. Plutarch, Adul. amic. 5 I D . Frank W a l b a n k , " M o n a r c h i e s a n d M o n a r c h i c Ideas," Cambridge Ancient History 7.1
(eds. F . W . W a l b a n k , A . E . Astin, M . W . Frederiksen, & R . M . Olgivie; C a m b r i d g e : C a m bridge University Press, 1984) 69. W a l b a n k discusses o n e o f t h e earliest references t o a friend as an official o f t h e king, w h i c h is in a letter from Lysimachus t o t h e city o f Priene, w h i c h W a l b a n k dates t o c. 2 8 5 BCE. 46
Lael. 64.
3.
state.
7
Friendship,
Patronage
and
67
Benefaction
T h e l a t t e r issue s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n
to
C i c e r o , j u s t as it w a s t o T h e o p h r a s t u s . W h a t w a s o n e t o d o w h e n o n e ' s state a l l e g i a n c e c l a s h e d w i t h o n e ' s f r i e n d s h i p s ? A l t h o u g h h e discusses t h e p r o b l e m w i t h r e s p e c t t o o r d i n a r y f r i e n d ships,
Cicero
was
deeply
familiar
with
Roman
politics
and
u n d o u b t e d l y witnessed m e n destroying deep b o n d s of friendship
be
c a u s e o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a m b i t i o n s a n d l o y a l t i e s . T h e assassination
of
J u l i u s C a e s a r o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e last y e a r o f C i c e r o ' s life, a n d w a s probably another reason w h y he meditated u p o n the nature of friend s h i p d u r i n g t h a t y e a r , a n d as a r e s u l t c o m p o s e d t h e Laelius.
Ultimately,
f o r C i c e r o , l o y a l t y t o f r i e n d s c o u l d n o t j u s t i f y a c r i m e against t h e s t a t e . T o v i o l a t e o r sin a g a i n s t o n e ' s c o u n t r y w a s d i s h o n o u r a b l e a n d e v i n c e d a l a c k o f v i r t u e . H e w r i t e s : " T h e r e f o r e it is n o j u s t i f i c a t i o n w h a t e v e r o f y o u r sin t o h a v e s i n n e d o n b e h a l f o f a f r i e n d ; for, s i n c e his b e l i e f i n y o u r v i r t u e i n d u c e d t h e f r i e n d s h i p , it is h a r d f o r t h a t f r i e n d s h i p t o r e m a i n if y o u h a v e f o r s a k e n v i r t u e . " A n d t h e n : T h e r e f o r e let this law b e established in friendship: neither ask d i s h o n ourable things, n o r d o t h e m , if asked. A n d dishonourable it certainly is, and n o t to b e allowed, for a n y o n e to plead in defence of sins in general and especially of those against t h e State, that h e c b m m i t t e d t h e m for t h e sake of a friend (Lael. 3 8 ; 40). A u l u s G e l l i u s tells u s t h a t C i c e r o h a d r e a d T h e o p h r a s t u s ' s t r e a t i s e , On Philia, b u t h a d n o t d e a l t as t h o r o u g h l y w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f l o y a l t y t o f r i e n d s v e r s u s l o y a l t y t o t h e state as h a d T h e o p h r a s t u s . grant
that
a person
may
overlook
certain
kinds
of
4 8
Cicero does
dishonourable
b e h a v i o u r in friends, b u t t h e r e are limits t o such allowances.
Here
Gellius wishes that C i c e r o w o u l d b e clearer a b o u t w h a t these limits are. W e k n o w t h a t C i c e r o is against p l a c i n g t h e v a l u e o f a f r i e n d s h i p faithfulness t o t h e state,
over
b u t h e d o e s n o t spell o u t i n d e t a i l t h e t y p e s o f
m i s d e m e a n o r s w h i c h h e w o u l d tolerate in a friend. T h e q u e s t i o n o f conflict b e t w e e n loyalty t o friends a n d loyalty t o t h e state t h u s h a d b e c o m e a significant issue b y t h e t i m e t h a t R o m e
had
c o m e to p o w e r . Aristotle's v i e w that the t w o naturally w e n t together w a s b y n o m e a n s t h e n o r m , f o r n o w i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s h i p s c o u l d exist
47
Lael. 77f.
48
Aulus Gellius, Noct. Att.
49
1.2.3.10-20.
Lael. 6 1 . B r u n t ("Amicitia"
380-81) points o u t that C i c e r o was representing t h e
R o m a n tradition: " t h e g o o d m a n was true to his friends, b u t n o t to the extent that h e was b o u n d to assist t h e m in d o i n g w r o n g , and above all n o t in dereliction o f the s u p r e m e duty to t h e fatherland, t h a n w h i c h there could b e n o graver example than t h e imposition o f despotic r u l e . "
68
Friendship
and Benefaction
in
James
a m o n g p e o p l e w h o w e r e a l i e n a t e d i n s o m e w a y f r o m t h e state. A u t h o r s s u c h as C i c e r o d o n o t p l a c e l o y a l t y t o friends a b o v e l o y a l t y t o t h e state b u t t h e y c o u l d easily i m a g i n e h o w a c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e t w o c o u l d emerge. T h e use o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f friendship in political c o n t e x t s t o refer t o officials o r g e n e r a l s w h o c a t e r e d t o t h e w i s h e s o f w e a l t h y p r o v i d e r s , and the simultaneous ridiculing o f these same individuals, indicates that b y t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , yikoq
was regularly used t o refer t o p e o p l e
w h o w e r e n o t f r i e n d s i n t h e i d e a l s e n s e . T h a t is, t h e y w o u l d n o t qualify as f r i e n d s for a u t h o r s s u c h as P l u t a r c h , o r t h e t r a g i c p o e t s , for t h e y d i d not
uphold
the
types
of virtues
that
were
discussed
earlier
on.
H o w e v e r , s u c h a n e m p l o y m e n t o f f r i e n d s h i p l a n g u a g e i n d i c a t e s t h a t it must
have
economic
had
significant
contexts.
This
rhetorical is
especially
power
within
significant
political
with
regard
and to
benefaction and patronage.
Benefaction B y t h e first c e n t u r y , t h e p r a c t i c e o f b e n e f a c t i o n
("euergetism")
deeply e m b e d d e d w i t h i n ancient M e d i t e r r a n e a n society. fitted
firmly
was
Benefaction
into the reciprocity system of the ancient w o r l d w h e r e b y a
b e n e f a c t o r p r o v i d e d finances o r o t h e r t y p e s o f assistance t o i n d i v i d u a l s o r g r o u p s , usually i n e x c h a n g e for s o m e t y p e o f g r a t i t u d e a n d h o n o u r s .
5 0
E v i d e n c e o f b e n e f a c t i o n is w i d e s p r e a d , f r o m p h i l o s o p h i c a l w r i t i n g s t o p u b l i c m o n u m e n t s . I n s c r i p t i o n s r e g u l a r l y d e l i n e a t e d t h e t y p e a n d size o f b e n e f a c t i o n s p r o v i d e d , a n d p r a i s e d t h e g i v e r for his o r h e r v a r i o u s v i r t u e s . For example, an inscription
from
D e l o s set u p b y a n association
D i o n y s i a c artists praises t h e b e n e f a c t o r K r a t o n for his a n d for
displaying
(suosfisioL).
"love
of goodness"
financial
(xaAoxayaSta)
and
of
assistance "piety"
T h e inscription indicates, m o r e o v e r , that K r a t o n will b e
c r o w n e d e a c h y e a r a n d t h a t statues o f h i m w i l l b e set u p a n d c r o w n e d as w e l l . T h i s s t r o n g l y suggests t h a t K r a t o n is c o n t i n u i n g t o p r o v i d e for t h e artists as t h e y are h o n o u r i n g h i m y e a r after y e a r .
51
T h e above inscription indicates that h u m a n benefactors did n o t i n e v i t a b l y p l a c e t h e i r b e n e f i c i a r i e s i n a s u b m i s s i v e r o l e , for i n s c r i p t i o n s o f t e n state h o w t h e r e c i p i e n t s h a v e fulfilled t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s t o
50
Ideas from this section appear in m y article, " G o d in t h e Letter o f James: P a t r o n o r
Benefactor?" NTS 51
the
50 (2004) 2 5 7 - 7 2 .
See IG X I / 4 1061 in F. Hiller Gaertringen et al. (eds.), Inscriptiones graecae, consilio et
auctoritate Acadaemiae Litterarum Borussicae editae (14 vols.; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1873-).
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
69
Benefaction
benefactor, thus indebting their benefactor to t h e m .
5
The
benefactor
w a s u n d e r p r e s s u r e t o m a i n t a i n his o r h e r h o n o u r b y r e p e a t e d d o n a tions to
the
receiving
g r o u p . As Philip
Harland
has p o i n t e d
out,
" f a i l u r e t o m e e t e x p e c t a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y at critical t i m e s , c o u l d r e s u l t i n shame
and,
more
concretely,
angry mobs
seeking revenge
against
wealthier inhabitants ... Publicized contributions by the wealthy to the p o l i s a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s e n s u r e d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f a p e r s o n ' s p o s i t i o n a n d p r e s t i g e w i t h i n t h e c i t y , w h i l e also s t a v i n g off t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r s u c h conflicts."
A l t h o u g h certainly benefaction o c c u r r e d w i t h i n a system,
i n t h i s case, o f g e n e r a l i z e d r e c i p r o c i t y w h e r e b y t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e n o t o f t h e s a m e social status, t h e e x c h a n g e w a s n o t c o m p l e t e l y
con
trolled b y the m o r e powerful party because the recipients, in
their
ability t o u p h o l d their part o f t h e bargain t h r o u g h h o n o u r s etc., are a b l e t o e x e r t p r e s s u r e o n t h e b e n e f a c t o r insofar as s h e o r h e is c o n cerned
about
her
or
his
overall
status
within
the
community.
M o r e o v e r , a n d as H a r l a n d has i n d i c a t e d , c o n t i n u e d d o n a t i o n s w e r e a m e a n s of maintaining one's security. In
addition,
the
public
proclamation
of
the
benefactor's
tributions and " g o o d will" enabled groups to jostle other
con
potential
benefactors to o p e n u p their wallets. A n inscription f r o m A t h e n s ,
5 4
for
e x a m p l e , h o n o u r s an i n d i v i d u a l n a m e d S o p h r o n w h o has a p p a r e n t l y f o u n d e d t h e thiasos a n d h a s p r o v i d e d for it. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n m a k e s it clear, h o w e v e r , t h a t o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s w h y t h e g r o u p w i l l S o p h r o n is t o p r o v o k e a r i v a l r y a m o n g o t h e r p o t e n t i a l
crown
benefactors.
P r o s p e c t i v e d o n o r s w o u l d k n o w that t h e y w o u l d receive t h a n k s for their c o n t r i b u t i o n s , a n d this p u b l i c p r o c l a m a t i o n o f their
generosity
w o u l d i m p e l t h e m t o p r o v i d e . T h u s t h e fulfilment o f obligation b y a group
to
its b e n e f a c t o r
was
not
only
a means
of preserving
the
b e n e f a c t i o n , b u t also a m e t h o d o f a t t r a c t i n g assistance f r o m e l s e w h e r e . I n s o m e o f t h e philosophical discussions o f benefaction, the
ideal
benefactor
is
someone
not
spurred
on
by
however, wishes
for
r e c o g n i t i o n o f his o r h e r g e n e r o s i t y . S e n e c a , f o r e x a m p l e , says t h a t t h e b e n e f a c t o r s h o u l d n o t b e m o t i v a t e d b y a desire for r e p a y m e n t , for " t o h e l p , t o b e o f s e r v i c e , is t h e p a r t o f a n o b l e a n d c h i v a l r o u s s o u l ; h e w h o gives benefits
the gods, he w h o
seeks a r e t u r n ,
money-lenders,"
a l t h o u g h t h e ideal beneficiary should u n d o u b t e d l y w a n t t o r e t u r n t h e
52
S e e S E G 26.1282.
53
Harland, Associations, Synagogues and Congregations, 100.
54
IG
55
I P 1297.
Seneca, Ben. 3.15.4.
70
Friendship
benefit.
56
and Benefaction
in
James
Earlier on, Aristotle had written about a m a g n a n i m o u s m a n ,
w h o is d i s p o s e d t o b e s t o w b e n e f i t s , a n d w h o r e p a y s a b e n e f i t interest
because
beneficiary.
he
does
not
want
to
be
placed
in
the
with
role
of
57
Whether manifested
or
not
by
human
this
ideal
image
beings,
it
of the forms
benefactor
the
was
backdrop
often
for
the
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f b o t h h u m a n a n d d i v i n e b e n e f a c t o r s . S u c h figures a r e o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o as " f a t h e r " as t h e y parallel t h e selfless b e h a v i o u r
of
p a r e n t s w h o c o n t i n u e t o raise c h i l d r e n d e s p i t e t h e risk o f i n g r a t i t u d e o r other disappointments from their offspring.
58
Indeed benefaction was a
k e y attribute of parents, a n d various philosophers praise t h e benefaction of parents and r e m i n d children of their responsibility to s h o w gratitude for t h e r e c e i p t o f p a r e n t a l b e n e f i c e n c e . I a m b l i c h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , says t h a t " o u r p a r e n t s a l o n e a r e t h e first i n b e n e f a c t i o n s " a n d t h a t cannot
go w r o n g
parents."
if w e
show
the
gods that w e
do
good
to
S u c h selfless p r o v i d e r s s h o w e d c o n c e r n (7rp6voca) f o r
"we our the
g o o d o f e i t h e r c h i l d r e n o r f o r c o m m u n i t i e s a n d a r e r e g u l a r l y p r a i s e d for such thoughtfulness a n d care. with
some
regularity
in
" F a t h e r " imagery in particular appears
tributes
to
founders
and
saviours,
in
c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h e p i t h e t s s u c h as aoroqp, euepyeTY)^ a n d X T L C F T T ^ ,
61
a n d as T . R . S t e v e n s o n p o i n t s o u t , t h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a h u m a n o r divine
benefactor
"rests
upon
the
recognition
of
the
p r o c r e a t i v e / t u t e l a r y p o w e r a n d entails t h e selfless u s e o f t h a t p o w e r . " G o d s a r e r e g u l a r l y d e s c r i b e d as b e n e f a c t o r s . S e n e c a w r i t e s o f t h e c o n t i n u a l a n d lavish b e n e f i c e n c e o f t h e g o d s , mans
are deficient
benefaction.
6
in
comparison
to
the
and complains that h u gods w h e n
it c o m e s
to
I n s c r i p t i o n a l e v i d e n c e also r e g u l a r l y p o i n t s t o t h e g o d s as
p r o v i d e r s o f g o o d t h i n g s . A n i n s c r i p t i o n f r o m P h i l a d e l p h i a for a p r i v a t e c u l t o f Z e u s asks t h e g o d s t o p r o v i d e " h e a l t h , s a l v a t i o n , p e a c e " a m o n g o t h e r b e n e f i t s f o r t h e c u l t l e a d e r , D i o n y s i u s , a n d his f a m i l y . E a r l i e r i n
56
Ben. 1.4.3.
57
Eth. Nic. 4.3. If.
58
See Seneca, Ben. 1.1.10.
5 9
Iamblichus, VP 38.
6 0
See J . R . Harrison, "Benefaction Ideology and Christian Responsibility for W i d
o w s , " NewDocs 8 (1997) 106-16. 61
See T . R . Stevenson, " T h e Ideal Benefactor and the Father A n a l o g y in G r e e k and
R o m a n T h o u g h t , " C Q 4 2 (1992) 430. 62
T . R . Stevenson, "Social a n d Psychological Interpretations of G r a e c o - R o m a n R e l i g
ion: S o m e T h o u g h t s o n t h e Ideal B e n e f a c t o r , " Antichthon 30 (1996) 18. 63
Ben. 4.3.3.
64
Ben. 1.10.5; 4 . 2 6 . 1 : 7 . 3 1 . 2 .
3.
Friendship,
Patronage and
71
Benefaction
t h e i n s c r i p t i o n it m a k e s it clear, h o w e v e r , t h a t if t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s v i o l a t e certain purity regulations t h e gods will curse t h e m . As t h e inscription states: " T h e g o d s w i l l b e g r a c i o u s t o t h o s e w h o o b e y , a n d a l w a y s g i v e t h e m all g o o d t h i n g s , w h a t e v e r g o d s g i v e t o m e n w h o m t h e y l o v e . B u t s h o u l d a n y t r a n s g r e s s , t h e y shall h a t e s u c h p e o p l e a n d inflict u p o n t h e m great p u n i s h m e n t s . "
This emphasis u p o n h o n o u r i n g the gods a p p r o
p r i a t e l y t h r o u g h p r o p e r b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n t h e c u l t is a r e m i n d e r o f t h e importance
of viewing benefaction
usually generalized reciprocity,
within a context of
reciprocity,
g i v e n t h a t t h e e x c h a n g e is
between
p e o p l e o f d i f f e r i n g social status o r b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d g o d s . T h e g o d s w i l l c e r t a i n l y p r o v i d e g e n e r o u s b e n e f i t s , b u t t h e r e is a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g that the h u m a n s will respond w i t h requisite recognition, h o n o u r s , or in t h i s case, t h e o b s e r v a n c e o f g o o d c o n d u c t a n d p u r i t y r e g u l a t i o n s . Texts found in b o t h the Septuagint and a m o n g Hellenistic Jewish w r i t e r s a r e at ease i n r e f e r r i n g t o G o d as a b e n e f a c t o r . F r e d e r i c k D a n k e r has n o t i c e d t h a t o f t h e 2 2 t i m e s t h a t t h e euerg- w o r d f a m i l y a p p e a r s i n the
Septuagint,
Maccabeus's
14
of
them
refer
to
God.
6 6
In
2
Maccabees,
s o l d i e r s bless G o d w i t h h y m n s a n d t h a n k s g i v i n g s
after
G o d b e n e f i t s ( e u e p y e T e o ) ) Israel a n d g r a n t s t h e m v i c t o r y . M a n y
other
instances of L X X references to euergetism e m e r g e in w i s d o m literature, five o f w h i c h a r e i n t h e W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n ,
6 7
a t e x t w h i c h , as w e s a w
i n t h e p r e v i o u s chapter, speaks o f friendship w i t h G o d . W i s d o m 3:5, for e x a m p l e , refers t o t h e souls o f t h e r i g h t e o u s t h a t w i l l r e c e i v e g r e a t g o o d (euepY£TY)9iQaovToa) b e c a u s e G o d t e s t e d ( e T t e i p a a e v ) t h e m . L a t e r
(x<*p^)
i n t h e s a m e c h a p t e r , it also refers t o t h e b e n e f i t o r gift
t h a t is
u p o n G o d ' s h o l y o n e s ( 3 : 9 ) , a n d as h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a v a r i e t y o f scholars, faction.
x*P ? L
*
s
a
standard t e r m associated w i t h ancient 1
I n t h i s i n s t a n c e t h o s e w h o r e c e i v e X&P ^ d °
s
o
bene
because they
trust in G o d . J o s e p h u s refers t o G o d as a b e n e f a c t o r as w e l l . i n his Antiquities
6 9
W e already saw h o w ,
of the Jews, J o s e p h u s relates a s p e e c h o f J o s h u a w h i c h
recalls G o d ' s b e n e f a c t i o n s ( e u e p y e a l a g ) t o t h e p e o p l e a n d i n s t r u c t s t h e m
65
SIG 9 8 5 . Translation b y S t e p h e n B a r t o n a n d G . H . R . Horsley, " A Hellenistic C u l t
G r o u p a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t C h u r c h e s , " JAC
2 4 (1981) 7 - 4 1 .
66
F . W . D a n k e r , "Benefactor," AB 1 (1992) 670.
67
W i s 3:5; 7:23; 11:5; 16:2, 1 1 .
68
See Z e b a A . C r o o k , Reconceptualising Conversion. Patronage, Loyalty, and Conversion in
the Religions of the Ancient Mediterranean ( B Z N W 130; Berlin, N e w Y o r k : W a l t e r de Gruyter, 2004); D a n k e r , Benefactor, James R . Harrison, Paul's Language of Grace in its Graeco-Roman Context ( W U N T 172; T u b i n g e n : J . C . B . M o h r [Paul Siebeck] 2003). 69
F o r listing o f t h e n u m b e r of times euerg w o r d s appear in Josephus, see Karl H e i n r i c h
Rengstorf, A Complete Concordance to FlaviusJosephus (5 vols.; Leiden: Brill, 1973).
72
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
t o m a i n t a i n G o d ' s g o o d w i l l , for " b y p i e t y a l o n e c o u l d t h e y r e t a i n t h e friendship
of the Deity"
(
Siafxevelv
OLUTOIC,
TO
9-elov)
(Ant.
5 . 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 ) . T h e latter is a clear e x a m p l e o f h o w G o d as a b e n e f a c t o r a n d G o d as friend c a n c o - e x i s t for J o s e p h u s , j u s t as t h e y d o for t h e a u t h o r o f t h e W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n (7:27). S u c h a c o m b i n a t i o n s e e m s possible o n t h e h u m a n l e v e l as w e l l , for i n Antiquities
3.65 Josephus writes of the
p e o p l e ' s g r a t i t u d e (sujpcpiaTia) t o M o s e s a n d o f R a g u e l ' s a d m i r a t i o n for M o s e s , w h o h a d d e v o t e d h i m s e l f t o s a v i n g his friends (
comfortably
describes G o d
with
benefaction
l a n g u a g e . Z e b a A . C r o o k has o b s e r v e d h o w for P h i l o , " G o d is, i n d e e d m u s t b e , t h e s u p r e m e b e n e f a c t o r b e c a u s e all t h i n g s are G o d ' s n o t h i n g else, o r n o o n e else, has a n y t h i n g t o g i v e , " particular
a passage
from
Legum
allegoriae 1
r e f e r e n c e s t o G o d as p r o v i d i n g x&P ^
o
r
3.11-1%
alone;
a n d discusses i n which
is full
of
e u e p y s a l a , w h i c h are c o n c r e t e
b e n e f a c t i o n s a n d n o t abstract n o t i o n s o f g r a c e , as C r o o k o b s e r v e s . J a m e s H a r r i s o n has p o i n t e d o u t , h o w e v e r , t h a t P h i l o c r i t i q u e s t h e H e l l e n i s t i c notion
of
benefaction
whereby
the
benefactor
provides,
beneficiaries r e s p o n d w i t h p r a i s e a n d h o n o u r . F o r P h i l o ,
and
the
benefaction
f r o m G o d is n o t i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e b e n e f a c t o r s so o f t e n c e l e b r a t e d i n i n s c r i p t i o n a l e v i d e n c e . G o d d o e s n o t " h a w k his g o o d s i n a c o m m e r c i a l enterprise."
G o d is a different sort o f b e n e f a c t o r , w h o s e c h a r a c t e r is
motivated b y "an unconditional generosity" and not an expectation of return.
H a r r i s o n d r a w s parallels b e t w e e n P h i l o ' s a p p r o a c h a n d t h a t o f
S e n e c a , w h o also c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e ideal b e n e f a c t o r as d e c i d e d l y
not
p r o m p t e d b y t h e possibility o f a r e p a y m e n t , similar t o t h e p a r e n t a l i m a g e s discussed
earlier. B u t
we
must
still u n d e r s t a n d
Philo's
approach
to
b e n e f a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f r e c i p r o c i t y , for t h o s e w h o a r e w o r t h y t o r e c e i v e G o d ' s b e n e f i c e n c e are d e e m e d w o r t h y o f it t h r o u g h t h e i r p i e t y o r o t h e r f o r m s o f activity. P h i l o m a y b e critical o f t h e c o m m o n p r a c t i c e o f b e n e f a c t i o n t h a t h e sees g o i n g o n a r o u n d h i m , b u t w h e n h e discusses G o d as a b e n e f a c t o r , albeit a u n i q u e l y g e n e r o u s a n d unselfish o n e , h e d o e s n o t a s s u m e t h a t G o d p r o v i d e s t o t h o s e w h o are n o t w o r t h y o f s u c h beneficence. P h i l o also l i n k s b e n e f a c t i o n
w i t h friendship.
S e v e r a l passages
are
r e l e v a n t h e r e , t h e first o n e c l e a r l y c o n t r a s t i n g a w e a l t h y m a n w i t h a true benefactor. After describing t h e miserable a n d worthless rich m a n who
wastes
his
money
on
pleasure,
Philo
instructs:
"You
will
c o n t r i b u t e freely t o n e e d y f r i e n d s (cplXcov), w i l l m a k e b o u n t i f u l gifts t o
70
C r o o k , Reconceptualising Conversion, 8 7 .
71
Harrison, Paul's Language of Grace, 1 3 1 . See Philo, Cher. 1 2 2 - 2 3 .
7 2
Harrison, Paul's Language, 1 3 1 .
3.
Friendship, Patronage and Benefaction
73
serve y o u r country's wants, y o u will help parents w i t h o u t m e a n s to m a r r y t h e i r d a u g h t e r s . . . y o u w i l l all b u t t h r o w y o u r p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y i n t o t h e c o m m o n s t o c k a n d i n v i t e all d e s e r v i n g o f k i n d n e s s t o t a k e a share."
7 3
context
M o r e o v e r , references to friendship w i t h G o d e m e r g e in the of references
Sobrietate,
to
benefaction.
A
s t r i k i n g passage
from
De
i n w h i c h P h i l o w r i t e s o f N o a h ' s b l e s s i n g o f S h e m , is w o r t h
q u o t i n g i n full. It is t h e L o r d and G o d of t h e w o r l d and all that is therein, w h o m h e declares to b e peculiarly t h e G o d of S h e m b y special grace (^apcv). ... F o r w h i l e t h e w o r d s " L o r d and G o d " proclaim H i m master and b e n e factor (euepyeTY)^) of t h e w o r l d w h i c h is o p e n to o u r senses, to that g o o d n e s s w h i c h o u r m i n d s p e r c e i v e H e is saviour a n d b e n e f a c t o r (euepyeTY)^) only, n o t master o r lord. For w i s d o m is rather G o d ' s friend (cpcXov) than His servant. A n d therefore H e says plainly of A b r a h a m , "shall I hide anything from A b r a h a m M y friend (
as his f a t h e r " a n d b e c o m e b y a d o p t i o n
S o n , " p o s s e s s i n g all t h e r i c h e s , a n d w h o never debased by
flattery
"His
only
" r e a p s t h e p r a i s e w h i c h is
. . . " (Sobr. 5 6 ) . P h i l o asks h o w this f o r t u n a t e
beneficiary should respond to G o d ' s generosity and responds:
"What
s h o u l d h e d o b u t r e q u i t e his B e n e f a c t o r ( e u e p y e x Y j v ) w i t h t h e w o r d s o f his lips w i t h s o n g a n d w i t h h y m n ? . . . F o r it is m e e t t h a t h e w h o h a s G o d f o r his h e r i t a g e s h o u l d bless a n d p r a i s e H i m , s i n c e this is t h e o n l y r e t u r n t h a t h e c a n offer, a n d all else, strive as h e w i l l , is q u i t e b e y o n d his p o w e r " (Sobr. 5 8 ) . G o d is clearly b o t h b e n e f a c t o r a n d f r i e n d i n t h i s passage.
The
text
also
illustrates
that
despite
God's
tremendous
g e n e r o s i t y , t h e r e is still a n e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s , as w o r t h y as t h e y a r e , w i l l r e s p o n d w i t h blessings a n d p r a i s e for G o d a n d t h u s t h e r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p r e m a i n s i n effect. Crook friends"
7 4
h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t "y&piQ
does n o t occur b e t w e e n
actual
b u t t h e a b o v e e v i d e n c e indicates that this w o r d can a p p e a r in
t h e c o n t e x t o f f r i e n d s h i p , a n d t h a t friends c a n offer b e n e f i t s a n d e x p r e s s g r a t i t u d e f o r t h e m e v e n if t h i s e x c h a n g e is n o t n e c e s s a r y for t h e r e l a tionship.
73
74
A r i s t o t l e says t h a t " t h i n g s t h a t c r e a t e f r i e n d s h i p a r e d o i n g a
Fug. 2 9 . Z e b a A. C r o o k , "Reflections o n C u l t u r e and Social-Scientific M o d e l s " JBL
124
(2005) 520. 75
As Konstan (Friendship in the Classical World, 81) puts it: "Clearly t h e Athenians felt
strongly a b o u t returns for favors granted and m a d e material claims o n gratitude o w e d . B u t in n o n e o f t h e above passages is t h e d e m a n d for reciprocity o f services c o n n e c t e d w i t h
74
Friendship
f a v o u r (yjkpiq) doing it."
7 6
and Benefaction
in James
a n d d o i n g it u n a s k e d , a n d n o t m a k i n g it p u b l i c
after
M o r e o v e r , in t h e c o n t e x t o f discussing h o w friends share
possessions in
common,
Dio
Chrysostom
comments
that
"he
who
s h o w s h i s f r i e n d s (cpiXoig) a f a v o u r (^apL^6[X£vog) r e j o i c e s b o t h as g i v e r a n d r e c e i v e r at t h e s a m e t i m e . "
7 7
S e n e c a says t h a t t h e r e is n o t h i n g t o
p r e v e n t h i m f r o m g i v i n g a gift t o a f r i e n d , w h i l e j o i n i n g o t h e r s a g r e e i n g t h a t f r i e n d s h a v e all t h i n g s i n c o m m o n , that "graciousness
[x^P^]
in
w h i l e P l u t a r c h states
a n d usefulness g o w i t h f r i e n d s h i p . "
Inscriptional evidence points to an overlap b e t w e e n friendship
and
b e n e f a c t i o n t e r m i n o l o g y , a l t h o u g h h e r e t h e b e n e f a c t o r s o r cpiXoi
are
h u m a n beings, given that t h e n o t i o n o f friendship w i t h G o d was m u c h less c o m m o n i n G r e e k t h o u g h t . F o r e x a m p l e , a n A t h e n i a n i n s c r i p t i o n from 3 0 6 - 3 0 5 B C E h o n o u r s T i m o s t h e n e s of Carystus, w h o to b e a friend
"continues
(cpiXo^) t o t h e p e o p l e o f A t h e n s " a n d w h o
"did
not
w i t h d r a w f r i e n d s h i p (cpiXioc^) a n d w a s c o n t i n u a l l y b e n e f i t i n g i n p u b l i c the people of Athens."
8 0
T h i s benefactor likely did n o t e m b o d y
the
i d e a l b e n e f a c t o r o r t h e i d e a l f r i e n d , b u t a g a i n it illustrates t h e fact t h a t for t h e s e G r e e k s , f r i e n d s h i p a n d b e n e f a c t i o n c o u l d o v e r l a p , j u s t as t h e y c o u l d for J o s e p h u s a n d P h i l o . Benefaction
and friendship w e r e b y n o means the same, and
we
m u s t r e m e m b e r that ideal friendship existed w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f bal anced reciprocity in w h i c h t h e parties w e r e equal, w h e r e a s benefaction o c c u r r e d w i t h i n a generalized f o r m o f e x c h a n g e . H o w e v e r , the ideal i m a g e o f a b e n e f a c t o r as a g e n e r o u s a n d s o m e t i m e s selfless c o u l d o v e r l a p w i t h t h a t o f t h e i d e a l f r i e n d , for i n d e e d b o t h
provider images
s h a r e d t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . P e r h a p s it is t h i s o v e r l a p t h a t m a d e it easy for G r e e k s t o t h i n k o f t h e i r b e n e f a c t o r s as friends? M o r e o v e r , d i d t h e fact t h a t b e n e f a c t o r s o f G r e e k cities w e r e n o t all p o w e r f u l i n t h a t t h e y had to continue to provide in order to maintain h o n o u r or keep the p e a c e e n a b l e p e o p l e t o t h i n k o f t h e m m o r e as f r i e n d s t h a n as r u t h l e s s rulers?
friendship. This is n o t t o say that Athenians could n o t b e disappointed b y a friend's i n gratitude, b u t rather that t h e n o t i o n o f kharis as t h e obligation t o reciprocate kindnesses was n o t specifically associated w i t h relations b e t w e e n philoi." 76
Rhet. 2.4.29.
77
DeRegn.
78
De Ben. 7.12. In addition, Pseudo-Plutarch's Life and Poetry of Homer links G o d ' s b e
3.110.
neficence t o t h e c o m m u n i t y o f friends w h o n o t only hold all in c o m m o n , b u t are dear t o the gods, a phrase discussed in C h a p t e r 2. See Harrison, Paul's Language of Grace, 187. 79
Adul. amic. 5 I B . 2
IG I I 4 5 7 . Translation b y P . H a r d i n g , From the End of the Peloponnesian War to the Battle oflpsus: Translated Documents (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1985) 154.
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
Benefaction
75
H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h a u t h o r s a r e also at ease i n m i x i n g u p b e n e f a c t i o n l a n g u a g e w i t h t h a t o f f r i e n d s h i p , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n t h e y cast G o d as a benefactor
extraordinaire.
G o d ' s generosity receives emphasis.
t i m e s it is v e r y c l e a r t h a t t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f G o d ' s ya-P^
Some
have benefited
b e c a u s e o f t h e i r l o y a l t y t o G o d o r s o m e p a r t i c u l a r act, a n d t h u s it is n o t t
n e c e s s a r i l y a free yjkpiQ
n
a
t
1
God
b e s t o w s , o r a yv-P ^
m
a
t
c
a
n
for g r a n t e d o r r e m a i n u n a c k n o w l e d g e d b y t h e recipients.
e
^
t a
ken
Authentic
f r i e n d s h i p w i t h this b e n e f a c t o r G o d is e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e , a l t h o u g h t h e authors d o n o t i n t i m a t e that h u m a n s are s o m e h o w equal to G o d . T h u s w e see t h a t t h e r e is e v i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n t h a t t h e concepts
of
friendship
and
benefaction
could
overlap,
at
least
rhetorically, o n b o t h the h u m a n and the divine planes. This overlap exists e v e n t h o u g h t h e t w o t y p e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r i g i n a t e d s e p a r a t e l y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o m a i n t a i n distinctive characteristics, especially regard
to
status.
The
next
question
is t h u s
to
determine
with where
p a t r o n a g e fits w i t h i n this a n c i e n t c o n c e p t u a l a n d social l a n d s c a p e .
Patronage Although
its p r e c i s e o r i g i n s a r e o b s c u r e , b y
t h e first
century,
the
practice o f p a t r o n a g e was deeply e n t r e n c h e d in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n area a n d d i s c u s s i o n s o f it a r e n o w r e g u l a r l y f o u n d i n s t u d i e s o f t h e w o r l d o f the N e w Testament.
Patron-client relations w e r e generally l o n g t e r m
liaisons b e t w e e n u n e q u a l s ; t h a t is, b e t w e e n a w e a l t h y p a t r o n a n d o n e o r more
poorer
clients
who
would
provide
services,
and
especially
h o n o u r s , i n e x c h a n g e f o r l a n d , f o o d , w o r k , p r o t e c t i o n o r w h a t e v e r it was that the patron could provide. into
explicit
exploitation
participant
in the
relationship
and
clients.
83
relationship, could
O f t e n this e x c h a n g e c o u l d slide
as t h e p a t r o n , could
demand
more
being
the m o r e
determine and
more
the
nature
from
his
powerful of
the
or
her
U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , t h e c l i e n t o f t e n h a d t o r e s o r t t o flattery i n
order to preserve or obtain provisions, protection or whatever
was
n e e d e d f r o m t h e p a t r o n for t h e c l i e n t ' s s u r v i v a l . S o m e classical a n d b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s h a v e u n d e r s t o o d p a t r o n a g e a n d b e n e f a c t i o n t o b e t h e s a m e t h i n g , for c e r t a i n l y t h e y h a v e m u c h
81
in
For example, see K . C . H a n s o n & D . E . O a k m a n , Palestine in the Time of Jesus: Social
Structures and Social Conflicts (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998) 6 3 - 9 7 . 82
See R i c h a r d Sailer, Personal Patronage under the Early Empire (Cambridge: C a m b r i d g e
University Press, 1982) 1. 83
See P . Millett, "Patronage and Its A v o i d a n c e in Classical A t h e n s , " Patronage in An
cient Society (ed. A. Wallace-Hadrill; L e i c e s t e r - N o t t i n g h a m Studies in A n c i e n t Society 1; L o n d o n / N e w Y o r k : R o u t l e d g e , 1989) 16.
76
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
c o m m o n a n d b o t h d r a w u p o n t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p , as w e shall see p r e s e n t l y w i t h r e g a r d t o p a t r o n a g e . B o t h p h e n o m e n a also i n v o l v e an e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n parties, either towards an individual o r g r o u p , e n d u r e o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e , a n d i n v o l v e p e o p l e o f d i f f e r i n g social status ( a l t h o u g h b e n e f a c t i o n c a n o c c u r b e t w e e n f r i e n d s , as d i s c u s s e d , e v e n t h o u g h it n e e d n o t , as i d e a l l y f r i e n d s s h a r e all i n c o m m o n ) . A d d i tionally, there are examples o f ancient persons — generally
wealthy
m a l e s — w h o f u n c t i o n e d as b o t h p a t r o n s a n d b e n e f a c t o r s . B u t this d o e s n o t m e a n that the t w o things w e r e universally u n d e r s t o o d to b e i d e n t i cal, at least i n t h e first c e n t u r y . First, w h e r e a s e v i d e n c e f o r b e n e f a c t i o n r e a c h e s b a c k i n t o G r e e k c l a s sical w r i t e r s a n d i n s c r i p t i o n s , p a t r o n a g e is p a r t i c u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h R o m a n p o w e r and politics,
85
and only well into the imperial period
d o e s it c o m e t o p e r v a d e t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . A s t h e R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e G r e e k east, t h e G r e e k s w o u l d h o n o u r this n e w p o w e r in the language and categories that they k n e w — that of b e n e f a c t i o n . T h u s , this d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e G r e e k s u n d e r s t o o d t h e " R o m a n r u l e o v e r t h e m as p a t r o c i n i u m (as t h e R o m a n s d i d ) . "
8 6
More
o v e r , as t h e R o m a n s t o o k c o n t r o l i n t h e e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s , t h e p h r a s e " c o m m o n b e n e f a c t o r " ( x o i v o ^ euepyexY)^) b e g i n s t o a p p e a r as a n e w e p i t h e t for
the R o m a n
rulers. A c c o r d i n g
to A n d r e w
Erskine,
e m e r g e n c e o f this p h r a s e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e G r e e k s d i d n o t
the
perceive
R o m a n p o w e r in the same m a n n e r that they had u n d e r s t o o d that of t h e H e l l e n i s t i c k i n g s . C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e u s e o f xoivo<; euepyexYjg i n G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s t o t h a t o f E g y p t i a n p a p y r i i n d i c a t e s t h a t it w a s u s e d
84
T h e m o s t t h o r o u g h a r g u m e n t I have seen for the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e distinction is
Stephan J o u b e r t ' s Paul as Benefactor: Reciprocity, Strategy and Theological Reflection in Paul's Collection ( W U N T 124; T u b i n g e n : M o h r Siebeck, 2000) 17-72. C r o o k {Reconceptualising Conversion,
60-66) has challenged J o u b e r t , arguing that although t h e r e are differences
b e t w e e n patronage and benefaction, o n e cannot distinguish "patronage and benefaction t o o starkly based o n any standard"(p. 65). C r o o k t h e n uses t h e terms t o g e t h e r t h r o u g h o u t parts of his b o o k , b u t at s o m e points uses benefactor o r patron. In t h e case of James, C r o o k thinks that G o d is a " p a t r o n " in Jas 4:1-6 because "friend" (4:4) is a t e r m used for clienthood. H o w e v e r , "friend" is also used in t h e context of benefaction, and as w e have seen, has a rich b a c k g r o u n d in Hellenistic J e w i s h literature. 85
For a discussion of t h e "foundation m y t h " of patronage, see V e r b o v e n , The Economy
of Friends, 5 7 - 6 2 . As h e says, "patronage . . . emerges as a culturally distinct p h e n o m e n o n in R o m a n society n o t because there w e r e any technical requirements a b o u t h o w such relations h a d t o b e formed
and maintained, b u t because there existed an ideological
m o u l d ascribed to t h e maiores classifying relations based o n reciprocity and loyalty b e t w e e n unequal partners as p a t r o n client relations" (p. 61). Stephan J o u b e r t , " O n e F o r m of Social E x c h a n g e o r T w o ? 'Euergetism,' Patronage, and N e w T e s t a m e n t Studies," BTB 31 (2001) 2 2 .
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
11
Benefaction
i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e k i n g , P t o l e m y , w h o w a s a l l - p o w e r f u l for t h e E g y p t i a n p e a s a n t . I n t h e G r e e k east, t h e p h r a s e w a s n o t u s e d f o r t h e G r e e k kings because n o o n e rivaled t h e m . H o w e v e r , w h e n R o m e
assumed
c o n t r o l , its s t r e n g t h c o u l d n o t b e m a t c h e d a n d t h e G r e e k s k n e w it. T h e r e f o r e " c o m m o n b e n e f a c t o r " reflects w h a t w a s p e r c e i v e d t o b e a n unbeatable power. For Erskine, not only did the Greeks n o w
view
R o m e as t h e b e n e f a c t o r , t h e y w e r e " o b e d i e n t t o R o m e a n d s u b o r d i n a t e t o it, j u s t as t h e p e a s a n t w a s t o t h e P t o l e m i e s . "
T h e language of
benefaction thus continues to appear in G r e e k inscriptions h o n o u r i n g R o m a n officials, b u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r as it w a s b e t w e e n t h e G r e e k s a n d t h e i r kings. S c h o l a r s s u c h as E r i c h G r u e n h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e R o m a n s d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e G r e e k east i n t e r m s o f p a t r o n a g e , b u t w e r e simply b u i l d i n g u p o n t h e already established practice o f b e n e f a c tion.
8 8
H o w e v e r , G . W . Bowerstock had observed h o w from the time
o f Sulla (c. 8 0 B C E ) , " t h e w o r d patron
e m e r g e s o n i n s c r i p t i o n s as a
r e g u l a r c o n j u n c t w i t h euergetes a n d soter, it is a L a t i n w o r d t h i n l y d i s g u i s e d as G r e e k , a n d it c o n n o t e s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y R o m a n tion."
8 9
institu
C l a u d e E i l e r s has e x a m i n e d i n s c r i p t i o n s f r o m N o r t h Africa i n
w h i c h c i v i c g e n e r o s i t y a n d patronatus
c o i n c i d e . I n 11 o f 2 1 cases t h e
p a t r o n a n d t h e benefactor are t h e same person. T h e r e m a i n i n g 10 i n s c r i p t i o n s , h o w e v e r , n a m e o n e p e r s o n as t h e p a t r o n (usually a R o m a n official w h o d e d i c a t e d t h e i n s c r i p t i o n ) a n d a n o t h e r as t h e f i n a n c i a l p r o vider or benefactor.
A s E i l e r s p o i n t s o u t , if g e n e r o s i t y a n d l i b e r a l i t y
h a d b e c o m e part o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f p a t r o n a g e , o n e w o u l d e x p e c t t o see m o r e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h o s e r e f e r r e d t o as b e n e f a c t o r s a n d t h o s e as p a t r o n s : " a p p a r e n t l y , b e i n g a patronus material generosity."
o f a city was n o t closely l i n k e d t o
Although patronage and euergetism could coin
cide, a n d i n d e e d , b o t h roles w e r e o c c u p i e d b y t h e w e a l t h y , generosity is n o t a k e y a t t r i b u t e o f p a t r o n a g e as it is o f b e n e f a c t i o n . M o r e o v e r , it is n o t clear that t h e R o m a n s w a n t e d to substitute p a t r o n a g e for b e n e f a c -
87
A n d r e w Erskine, " T h e R o m a n s as C o m m o n Benefactors," Historia 4 3 (1994) 86.
88
Erich S. G r u e n , The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1984) 158-200. 89
G . W . B o w e r s t o c k , Augustus and the Greek World (Oxford: O x f o r d University Press,
1965) 12. For an example of an inscription h o n o u r i n g s o m e o n e as a Kaxpcova, see
SEG
37.959. 90
C l a u d e Eilers, Roman Patrons of Greek Cities (Oxford Classical M o n o g r a p h s ; Oxford:
O x f o r d University Press, 2002) 1 0 0 - 0 1 . 91
Eilers, Roman Patrons, 1 0 1 .
78
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
tion. R a t h e r , " p a t r o n a g e w a s a d d e d to t h e H e l l e n i c system o f services a n d h o n o u r s , euergesiai a n d timau w i t h o u t m e r g i n g w i t h i t . "
9 2
Finally, a difference b e t w e e n p a t r o n a g e a n d b e n e f a c t i o n i m p o r t a n t t o o b s e r v e is t h a t p a t r o n c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s w e r e t h o s e i n w h i c h t h e client(s) could not repay t h e b e n e f i t p r o v i d e d b y t h e p a t r o n . " A c l i e n t w a s b y d e f i n i t i o n u n a b l e t o s o l v e his d e b t o f h o n o u r t o his p a t r o n . "
This
i n a b i l i t y t o r e t u r n t h e f a v o u r is w h a t m a d e a p e r s o n a cliens, w h i c h w a s a d e g r a d i n g t e r m i n itself.
94
M a r t i a l l i k e n s s u c h a s i t u a t i o n t o slavery,
a s k i n g t h e p a t r o n G a l l u s w h y , if h e d o e s n o t g e t a n y r i c h e r b y t h e c l i ent's crucifixions, h e does n o t simply remit the ordeals.
J.E. Lendon
quotes F r o n t o w h o c o m p a r e s t h e favours of a p r o t e g e to that o f a cli e n t . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e e x c h a n g e is t h a t o v e r t i m e , F r o n t o a n d his p r o t e g e s t o p c o u n t i n g t h e f a v o u r s , w h e r e a s c l i e n t s c o u l d n e v e r s t o p counting.
Clients w e r e forever indebted to their patrons, and thus the
possibility o f exploitation w a s often o n t h e h o r i z o n . All t h e client c o u l d d o w a s d r e a m t h a t s o m e t e r r i b l e disaster w o u l d befall t h e p a t r o n , for o n l y t h e n " b y s o m e i m a g i n e d act o f d e r r i n g - d o , c o u l d t h e client p e r f o r m s u c h g r e a t s e r v i c e as w o u l d free h i m . " P a t r o n a g e w a s d i f f e r e n t f r o m b e n e f a c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , i n t h a t it w a s b y definition b e t w e e n unequals, a n d placed the client forever in the p a tron's
debt.
Benefaction
certainly
could
place
a
recipient
in
s u b m i s s i v e r o l e , b u t n o t b y d e f i n i t i o n , a n d i n s c r i p t i o n s attest t o
a the
fulfillment o f o b l i g a t i o n s a n d h o n o u r s b y b e n e f i c i a r i e s , t h e r e b y e x e r t i n g pressure o n the benefactor to continue to provide. faction
was particularly
Moreover, bene
associated w i t h m a g n a n i m i t y ,
liberality
and
e v e n selflessness, w h e r e a s p a t r o n a g e n e e d n o t b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s u c h a t t r i b u t e s . T h e fact t h a t p a t r o n s c a m e t o b e d e s c r i b e d w i t h s u c h v i r t u e s , o r t h a t t h e y w e r e h o n o u r e d as b o t h p a t r o n s a n d b e n e f a c t o r s , n e e d n o t lead o n e to c o n c l u d e that patronage and benefaction w e r e o n e and the same thing.
Jean-Louis Ferrary, " T h e Hellenistic W o r l d and R o m a n Political P a t r o n a g e , " Helle nistic Constructs: Essays in Culture, History, and Historiography (ed. P . Cartledge, P . Garnsey & E.S. G r u e n ; Hellenistic C u l t u r e and Society 26; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997) 110. 93
V e r b o v e n , The Economy of Friends, 62.
95
Martial, Ep. 10.82.
See Sailer, Personal Patronage, 8 - 1 1 . 96
F r o n t o , Ad
Ver. 1.6.2. J.E. L e n d o n , Empire of Honour.
Roman World (Oxford: O x f o r d University Press, 1997) 67. J.E. L e n d o n , Empire of Honour, 98
S e e S £ G 2 6 . 1282.
67.
The Art of Government in the
3.
Friendship,
Patronage and
79
Benefaction
Patronage, Friendship, and Flattery H e r e it is w o r t h r e c a l l i n g t h e t e x t f r o m P h i l o i n w h i c h t h e describes
the
fortunate
recipient
of
God's
benefaction,
p r a i s e s t o G o d , b u t d o e s n o t r e s o r t t o flattery,
author
who
sings
clearly i n d i c a t i n g that t o
a t t e m p t t o flatter G o d w o u l d b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e , t o say t h e least.
For
P h i l o , G o d is n o t a p a t r o n w h o c a n b e s e d u c e d b y t h e f a w n i n g
of
h u m a n s . T h i s does n o t m e a n that p e o p l e did n o t necessarily praise a n d attempt
to
flatter
benefactors,
but
rather
that
the
ideal
benefactor
should n o t b e predisposed to saccharine w o r d s . In contrast, the i m a g e o f t h e f l a t t e r e r is s t r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p a t r o n - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s as t h e client w o u l d
seek the p a t r o n ' s favours,
and so-called
"friendship,"
t h r o u g h flattery. W e t h u s t u r n t o t h e t o p i c o f flattery a n d h o w it relates t o f r i e n d s h i p a n d p a t r o n a g e as a n c i e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f it i n p a r t i c u l a r reveal h o w authors did n o t v i e w true friendship and patronage to b e t h e s a m e . I n fact, s o m e w r i t e r s w e r e v e r y s e n s i t i v e a n d p e r h a p s e v e n e m b i t t e r e d b y t h e fact t h a t p a t r o n s a n d c l i e n t s w o u l d d a r e r e f e r t o o n e a n o t h e r as a " f r i e n d . " P h i l o ' s d i s a p p r o v a l o f flattery
j o i n s t h a t o f o t h e r w r i t e r s . T h e flat
t e r e r ( x 6 A a £ ) i n fact r e c e i v e s m u c h c r i t i c i s m a n d r i d i c u l e i n a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e , f r o m a u t h o r s s u c h as T h e o p h r a s t u s , M a x i m u s o f T y r e o t h e r s , a n d w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a false f r i e n d .
and
T r u e friendship, m a n y
a u t h o r s a r g u e d , w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y " f r a n k s p e e c h " (TrappYjaia) w h i l e t h e flatterer w a s associated w i t h t h e client, w h o pathetically a t t e m p t e d to gain m o r e benefits from a patron. T h e first c e n t u r y B C E E p i c u r e a n , P h i l o d e m u s o f G a d a r a , w h o l i v e d at H e r c u l a n e u m , w r o t e a n essay o n f r a n k n e s s , F t e p l Trappyjaia, w h i c h e x p l a i n s h o w o n e is t o g o a b o u t s p e a k i n g f i r m l y a n d h o n e s t l y , b u t n o t cruelly, t o fellow disciples o r friends. T h i s straightforward a n d
often
r e p r o v i n g t a l k w a s i n t e n d e d for t h e e d i f i c a t i o n o f o n e ' s f r i e n d s a n d it was directly o p p o s e d to flattering speech, a t h i n g detestable t o m a n y p h i l o s o p h e r s . T h e goal o f frank criticism was t h e m o r a l i m p r o v e m e n t of the addressee and the relationship of the speaker to the listener was s o m e w h a t akin to that of a physician and patient.
P h i l o d e m u s uses
t h e v e r b a}£pa7reu(o, for e x a m p l e , t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f r i e n d s
99
must
Philo, De. Sobr. 56.
100
See also Philo, Conf 48.
101
F o r Theophrastus, see F o r t e n b a u g h et al, Theophrastus ofEresus, 2.373; M a x i m u s o f
T y r e , Or. 14.18. 102
See N o r m a n W . D e W i t t , " O r g a n i z a t i o n and P r o c e d u r e in E p i c u r e a n G r o u p s , " CP
31 (1936) 2 0 5 - 1 1 .
Friendship
80
and Benefaction
" t r e a t " o n e a n o t h e r for t h e i r e r r o r s .
1 0 3
in James
W i t h s o m e friends o r pupils, o n e
had to b e harsher, d e p e n d i n g u p o n their character, b u t o n e m u s t b e careful n o t t o o v e r l y c h a s t i s e t h e y o u n g b e c a u s e t h e y " m i g h t
become
irritated" a n d hate e v e r y o n e ; i n d e e d , " t h e use o f inconsiderate speech nity."
... s e v e r s t h e social r e l a t i o n s a m o n g f r i e n d s
1 0 4
T h i s frank
of the
frank
commu
criticism, a l t h o u g h s o m e t i m e s h a r d t o take,
was
ultimately t h e "sign o f a g e n u i n e friend," w h i l e t h e flatterer
"gives
h i m s e l f a w a y b y a s e l f - i n t e r e s t e d a d u l a t i o n t h a t is e x p l o i t a t i v e
rather
than altruistic."
105
T h e d i a m e t r i c o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n f r i e n d s h i p a n d flattery w a s
not
a l w a y s a n issue i n t h e h i s t o r y o f G r e e k f r i e n d s h i p . D u r i n g t h e A r c h a i c a n d Classical a g e s , flattery w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a v i c e b u t it d i d n o t f i g u r e as a p r o b l e m i n f r i e n d s h i p
r e l a t i o n s as f r i e n d s w e r e
generally
e q u a l s . M o r e o v e r , 7rappy)cria w a s u n d e r s t o o d m o r e as a p o l i t i c a l r i g h t to f r e e d o m of speech rather than the personal quality of candour. As A r n a l d o M o m i g l i a n o p u t it, w i t h t h e d e f e a t o f A t h e n s b y P h i l i p M a c e d o n , " M e n a n d e r r e p l a c e d A r i s t o p h a n e s , a n d parrhesia v i r t u e r e p l a c e d parrhesia as a p o l i t i c a l r i g h t . " however,
of
as a p r i v a t e
D u r i n g Hellenistic times,
so-called "friendships" b e c a m e c o m m o n
between
unequals
a n d w e r e t h u s m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o e x p l o i t a t i o n , t h a t is, p e o p l e w o u l d p r e t e n d t o b e friends to those either a b o v e o r b e n e a t h t h e m , b u t t h e n p r o v e themselves u n t r u e w h e n t h e ostensible "friend" was in trouble. S u c h relations w e r e further complicated b y the system of patron-client r e l a t i o n s , a n d as m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , a w o r r i s o m e a n d s o m e w h a t i r r i t a t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h i s s y s t e m w a s t h e fact t h a t m a n y c l i e n t s w o u l d a t t e m p t t o b e c o m e f r i e n d s w i t h t h e i r p a t r o n t h r o u g h s m o o t h talk, flattery, a n d s o m e t i m e s e v e n i m i t a t i o n o f frank speech, for t h e sole p u r p o s e o f at t r a c t i n g t h e p a t r o n ' s c o n s i d e r a t i o n . P h i l o s o p h e r s o f f r i e n d s h i p , s u c h as P h i l o d e m u s , f o u n d t h e s e flatterers p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v o l t i n g , as n o t
only
w e r e t h e y selfish a n d d e c e i t f u l , b u t t h e y t h r e a t e n e d t o u n d e r m i n e a n d pervert true friendship.
103
"... that h e can b e treated, either b y us o r b y another o f his fellow-students"
(Lib.,
fr. 79; trans. D a v i d Konstan, Diskin Clay, Clarence E. Glad, J o h a n C . T h o r n & James W a r e ; S B L T T 4 3 ; G r a e c o - R o m a n 13; Atlanta: Scholars, 1998). 104
Clarence E . Glad, " F r a n k Speech, Flattery and Friendship in P h i l o d e m u s , " Friend
ship, Flattery and Frankness of Speech, 3 9 - 4 0 . 105
D a v i d Konstan, "Friendship, Frankness a n d Flattery," Friendship, Flattery and Frank
ness of Speech, 7. 1
Arnaldo M o m i g l i a n o , " F r e e d o m o f Speech in A n t i q u i t y , " Dictionary of the History of
Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, vol. II (ed. P . P . W i e n e r ; N e w Y o r k : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973-74) 2 6 0 . This citation appears in Konstan, "Friendship, Frankness and Flattery," 9.
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
81
Benefaction
T h e s e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s flattery a r e e c h o e d b y P l u t a r c h .
Plutarch
d o e s n o t t h i n k that o n e s h o u l d h a v e t o o m a n y friends, for u n d o u b t e d l y s o m e o f t h o s e s o - c a l l e d friends w i l l n o t b e t r u e f r i e n d s , b u t t h o s e s e e k i n g s o m e t y p e o f selfish g a i n . C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g e x c e r p t f r o m Having Many
On
Friends:
In t h e houses of rich m e n and rulers, t h e p e o p l e see a noisy t h r o n g of visitors offering their greetings and shaking hands and playing t h e part of a r m e d retainers, and they t h i n k that those w h o have so m a n y friends must b e happy. Y e t t h e y can see a far greater n u m b e r of flies in those persons' kitchens. B u t t h e flies d o n o t stay o n after t h e g o o d food is g o n e , n o r t h e retainers after their patron's usefulness is g o n e (94B [LCL]). 107
As E d w a r d
O'Neil
observes,
Plutarch
may
have
the
system
of
p a t r o n - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s i n m i n d h e r e , as h e d e s c r i b e s p e o p l e w h o a p p e a r t o b e friends b u t i n r e a l i t y a r e o n l y o u t for t h e m s e l v e s .
1 0 8
T r u e friends,
a c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , a r e r a r e , for t h e y m u s t b e c o n s t a n t a n d l o y a l . O ' N e i l has s u r v e y e d t h e topoi i n P l u t a r c h ' s w r i t i n g s o n
friendship
w h i c h t h e m o r a l i s t shares w i t h m a n y o t h e r p h i l o s o p h e r s o f ship.
friend
R a t h e r t h a n r e i t e r a t i n g all o f t h e s e t h e m e s , I w a n t t o f o c u s u p o n
P l u t a r c h ' s a d a m a n t d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n friends a n d flatterers, w h i c h h e m a k e s m o s t forcefully i n his essay, How to Tell a Flatterer from a
110
Friend.
H e r e a g a i n w e see t h e n e x u s o f f r i e n d s h i p , f r a n k n e s s a n d flattery w h i c h w e observed in the writings of Philodemus. F o r P l u t a r c h , t h e t r u e f r i e n d is s o m e o n e w h o w i l l u s e TrappYjaia i n a tactful, c o n s i d e r a t e m a n n e r for t h e b e n e f i t o f his o r h e r f r i e n d .
111
The
flatterer, h o w e v e r , is a fake; a p e r s o n w h o p r e t e n d s t o b e f r i e n d s , w h o m a y u s e f r a n k s p e e c h i n o r d e r t o c o n v i n c e t h e l i s t e n e r t h a t h e o r s h e is a s i n c e r e f r i e n d , b u t w h o is i n fact a d a n g e r o u s i n d i v i d u a l .
As d e
s c r i b e d earlier, t h e flatterer is a c h a m e l e o n - l i k e p e r s o n w h o is fickle, c h a n g i n g all t h e t i m e , e a g e r l y d a n c i n g a r o u n d s w e a r i n g o a t h s a n d s o l i c -
107
Translated b y Frank C o l e Babbit (London, C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University
Press, 1928). 108
E d w a r d N . O ' N e i l , "Plutarch o n Friendship," Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship,
109. 109
O ' N e i l ("Plutarch o n Friendship," 113-22) shows h o w Plutarch m u s t have b e e n
familiar w i t h s o m e of t h e typical goods that are typical of true friendship, including goodwill, intimacy, frankness, kindness, pleasure, usefulness and like-mindedness. 110
Translation b y Frank C o l e Babbitt (LCL; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m b r i d g e , M A :
H a r v a r d University Press, 1928). 111
Adul. amic. 7 I B .
112
Troels E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n , "Plutarch to Prince Philopappus o n H o w to Tell a Flat
terer from a F r i e n d , " Friendship, Flattery and Frankness of Speech, 7 1 .
82
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
i t i n g w i t n e s s e s t o s u p p o r t h i m w h e n e v e r h e is a c c u s e d o f a n y t h i n g . T h e f r i e n d , h o w e v e r , is t h e c o m p l e t e a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e flatterer, a n d d o e s n o t require
such formalities
or
f r i e n d s h i p is s i m p l e (anXoxjc)
ministrations.
1 1 3
The
language
of
noble
and void of phoniness and posturing.
F l a t t e r e r s , m o r e o v e r , a r e o b s e s s e d w i t h a n d c o v e t o u s o f status a n d will dishonestly seek to i m p r o v e their reputations o r gain w e a l t h b y exploiting t h e trust a n d sincerity o f o t h e r p e o p l e t h r o u g h t h e e m u l a t i o n o f f r i e n d l y b e h a v i o u r . P l u t a r c h calls t h e m a p e s . trast, d o
n o t possess e n v y
(cp&ovo^) for
another nor
are
they
116
for t h e y b e a r o n e a n o t h e r ' s
1 1 7
I n fact, as T r o e l s E n g b e r g -
i n c l i n e d t o fall i n t o e m u l a t i o n (^yjAo^), successes a n d failures w i t h e q u a n i m i t y .
one
T r u e friends, i n c o n
Pedersen argues, Plutarch appears to regard true, honest friendship
to
b e t h e " a p o g e e " o f a m o r a l s y s t e m ; " t h e p l a c e w h e r e t h a t s y s t e m is realized."
1 1 8
friendship,
F r a n k s p e e c h o r c r i t i c i s m is a m e a n s t o w a r d s this e n d o f whereas
flattery
is
destructive
o f it;
flattery
"perverts"
f r i e n d s h i p a n d t h e m o r a l s y s t e m w h i c h it r e p r e s e n t s . F o r E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n , " H o w t o T e l l a Flatterer from a F r i e n d " is a p l e a for a m o r a l e x p r e s s i o n b a s e d u p o n trust, p e r m a n e n c e o f c h a r a c t e r , loyalty a n d sincerity — all t h i n g s t h a t are c o n s t i t u t i v e o f f r i e n d s h i p . T h i s e x p r e s s i o n faced t h e t h r e a t o f e r o s i o n b y t h e h i g h l y s t a t u s - c o n s c i o u s p r a c tice o f p a t r o n a g e , w h i c h p l a c e d all p e o p l e w i t h i n a h i e r a r c h y . A n d r e w W a l l a c e - H a d r i l l has s u m m e d u p this latter s y s t e m o f h u m a n relations: F r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of t h e society, patronage represented a flexible m e t h o d o f integration and simultaneously of social control; that is n o t t o say that it was always effective, n o r i n d e e d a particularly attractive system to live in. F r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w o f the individual p a t r o n , t h e ability to persuade others of his p o w e r t o secure access t o benefits was t h e basis of social credibility. T h e ideology thus b o t h results from and morally underpins t h e social system.
120
S u c h a s c h e m e for society d i d n o t p r o m o t e g e n u i n e friendship, for p e o p l e w e r e c o n s t a n t l y s c r a m b l i n g t o e i t h e r c l i m b u p t h e status l a d d e r o r at least, n o t fall off o f it - a n d t h e y a p p a r e n t l y e m p l o y e d all o f t h e skills o f t h e f l a t t e r e r t o d o s o . T h e y f a w n e d u p o n t h e w e a l t h y 113
Adul. amic. 6 2 D .
114
Adul. amic. 6 2 C .
115
Adul. amic. 5 2 B .
116
117
Adul. amic. 5 4 C . Adul. amic. 5 4 C .
118
Engberg-Pedersen, "Plutarch t o Prince Philopappus," 7 5 .
119
Engberg-Pedersen, "Plutarch t o Prince Philopappus," 72.
120
and
A n d r e w Wallace-Hadrill, "Patronage in R o m a n Society: F r o m R e p u b l i c t o E m
pire, "Patronage in Ancient Society, 8 5 .
3.
powerful,
offering
Friendship,
phony
Patronage
"sage"
and
83
Benefaction
advice
or
sweet
compliments
if
r e q u i r e d , all i n t h e h o p e s o f o b t a i n i n g s o m e s m a l l f a v o u r o r d i s t i n c t i o n , or of exploiting the generosity of the person w h o m they had lured into t h e i r nets. T h e r e w a s n o place for trust, sincerity, i n t i m a c y , simplicity or loyalty here, only c u n n i n g a n d guile. B u t w h a t l i k e l y i r r i t a t e d P l u t a r c h m o r e t h a n all else w a s t h e fact t h a t w i t h i n this w o r l d o f p a t r o n a g e , p a t r o n s a n d clients w e r e often s c r i b e d as cpiAoi. T h e flatterer i m i t a t e d t h e f r i e n d ,
employing
de frank
s p e e c h i n his d u p l i c i t y , a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e s o m e t i m e s e x t r e m e l y difficult t o d e t e c t , " a s i n t h e case w i t h s o m e a n i m a l s t o w h i c h N a t u r e h a s g i v e n t h e f a c u l t y o f c h a n g i n g t h e i r h u e , so t h a t t h e y e x a c t l y c o n f o r m t o t h e colours and objects b e n e a t h t h e m . "
1 2 1
Such a designation of patrons and
c l i e n t s as f r i e n d s " s h o u l d b e s e e n as a s h a m . It reflects a n a t t e m p t t o conceal the
real ties, w h i c h
were
strongly hierarchical
and
status-
determined." I n his e m p h a t i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n f r i e n d s h i p a n d flattery, a n d o f t h e n e e d t o b e a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e t w o , P l u t a r c h m a y b e e n g a g i n g i n a l a r g e r social a n d p o l i t i c a l
argument
w i t h i n w h i c h f r i e n d s h i p a n d flattery r e p r e s e n t , i n d e e d e m b o d y , o p p o site
poles.
Genuine
friendship
delineates
a
society
of
trust
and
p e r m a n e n c y , w h e r e a s flattery e x e m p l i f i e s t h e w o r l d o f p a t r o n a g e
in
w h i c h p e o p l e a r e o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e i r o w n status a n d p o t e n t i a l g a i n s . A s E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n suggests, w h e n e v e r w e o b s e r v e this n e x u s o f friend s h i p , flattery a n d f r a n k n e s s o f s p e e c h w i t h i n a n c i e n t t e x t s , t h e r e is l i k e l y " a c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e status s y s t e m a n d a set o f c o u n t e r - v a l u e s . " is n o t t o say t h a t P l u t a r c h , a w e l l - t o - d o p e r s o n , w a n t e d t o
This
equalize
w e a l t h o r o b l i t e r a t e all status d i s t i n c t i o n s , b u t s i m p l y t h a t h e w a s f r u s t r a t e d b y t h e t h r e a t flattery p o s e d t o his n o b l e i d e a l o f f r i e n d s h i p
and
t h e b e h a v i o u r w h i c h characterized such an association. A l t h o u g h L a t i n d e v e l o p e d a s e p a r a t e v o c a b u l a r y for p a t r o n a g e , t h i s b l u r r i n g o f p a t r o n - c l i e n t a n d f r i e n d s h i p r e l a t i o n s w a s also p r o b l e m a t i c f o r s o m e R o m a n a u t h o r s , j u s t as it w a s for P l u t a r c h . U n l i k e t h e G r e e k w o r d cpiAla, w h i c h d e s c r i b e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f affection b e t w e e n t w o o r m o r e p e o p l e , regardless o f their biological c o n n e c t i o n , h a d a m o r e p r e c i s e w o r d f o r f r i e n d s h i p , amicitia. r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t w o friends o r amid,
Latin
T h i s t e r m refers t o a
although the precise nature
o f t h e relationship c o u l d vary. S o m e scholars h a v e claimed that
121
any
amicitia
Adul. amic. 5 I D .
122
E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n , "Plutarch to Prince P h i l o p a p p u s , " 7 8 .
123
E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n ("Plutarch to Prince Philopappus," 79) refers specifically t o early
Christian texts.
84
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
w a s s i m p l y a p r a c t i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n , d e v o i d o f affection a n d i n t i m a c y ,
4
o r t h e y h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e is n o d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a p a t r o n client association a n d o n e o f friendship.
O t h e r s , s u c h as R i c h a r d
Sailer, h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a c l i e n t a n d a f r i e n d is s o m e t i m e s so s m a l l t h a t t h e y c o u l d b o t h b e
examined within
the
framework of patronage. H e writes: T o discuss b o n d s b e t w e e n senior aristocrats and their aspiring j u n i o r s in terms of "friendship" seems t o m e misleading, because of t h e egalitar ian overtones that w o r d has in m o d e r n English. T h o u g h willing to e x t e n d t h e courtesy of t h e label amicus to some of their inferiors, the status-conscious R o m a n s did n o t allow t h e courtesy to obscure t h e relative social standings of t h e t w o parties. O n t h e contrary, amid w e r e subdivided into categories: superiores, pares and inferiores (and t h e n l o w e r d o w n t h e hierarchy, h u m b l e ciientes). Each category called for an a p propriate m o d e of behaviour, o f w h i c h t h e R o m a n s w e r e acutely aware (Pliny, Ep. 7.3.2, 2.6.2; Seneca, Ep. 94.14). T h e central question ... is w h e t h e r amid inferiores can appropriately b e analysed u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g of patronage. R e s e m b l a n c e s b e t w e e n t h e b e h a v i o u r o f aristo cratic amid inferiores and ciientes suggest that such an analysis w o u l d b e a reasonable w a y of p r o c e e d i n g . I n d e e d , as Sailer a r g u e s , t h e r e is s o m e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n amkitia
and
clientela i n t h e R o m a n w o r l d . S o m e t i m e s , b o t h e l e m e n t s w e r e p r e s e n t w i t h i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p as f r i e n d s h i p s unequal reducible
stations to
in
life.
127
But
a patron-client
c o u l d exist b e t w e e n p e r s o n s
Roman
association,
friendship
is
nor
mere
to
a
not
of
wholly practical
association. P e t e r B r u n t writes that the range of amidtia is vast. From the constant intimacy and goodwill of vir tuous or at least like-minded m e n to the courtesy that etiquette normally enjoined o n gentlemen, it covers every degree of genuinely or overtly ami cable relation. Within this spectrum purely political connections have their place, but one whose all-importance must not be assumed. 128
This is t h e v i e w of R o n a l d S y m e , The Roman Revolution (Oxford: O x f o r d U n i v e r sity Press, 1939) 157. 125
Konstan ("Patrons and Friends," 328) refers to Nicholas Horsfall (Poets and Patron:
Maecenas, Horace and the Georgics, Once More [ N o r t h R y d e , 1981] 5) w h o writes: " t h e line b e t w e e n amicus "friend" a n d amicus " c l i e n t " should n o t b e d r a w n , n o w o r at any p o i n t later in t h e relationship." R i c h a r d Sailer, "Patronage a n d Friendship in Early Imperial R o m e : D r a w i n g t h e Distinction," Patronage in Ancient Society, 57. See Konstan, Friendship in the Classical World, 136-37. Peter B r u n t , 'Amicitia
in t h e Late R o m a n R e p u b l i c , " The Fall of the Roman
(Oxford: C l a r e n d o n , 1988) 3 8 1 .
Republic
3.
Moreover,
Friendship,
and
as
Patronage
discussed
and
85
Benefaction
earlier,
a
patron-client
relation
necessarily placed t h e client in a situation in w h i c h h e o r she c o u l d n o t return the benefit or favour in equal amounts to the patron, thereby m a k i n g t h e client p e r m a n e n t l y subservient t o t h e p a t r o n unless s o m e s o r t o f s e r i o u s m i s h a p a l l o w e d t h e c l i e n t t o r e p a y w i t h s o m e g r e a t feat o r b r a v e act. T h u s , e v e n t h o u g h R o m a n p a t r o n a g e m a y h a v e similar
language,
and
operated
within
a
similar
ethical
used
exchange
f r a m e w o r k that involved loyalty a n d gratitude, from an e m i c p o i n t of view, " R o m a n patronage was n o t a m e r e variant ofamicitia" although, from
a n e t i c p o i n t o f v i e w it c o u l d
amicitia"
b e d e s c r i b e d as a
"lop-sided
M o r e o v e r , t h e w o r d amicitia m a y h a v e b e e n u s e d b r o a d l y ,
b u t it d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l o y a l t y , h o n e s t y
and
t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s w e r e n o l o n g e r i m p o r t a n t aspects o f f r i e n d s h i p , e v e n i n associations w h i c h
were
more
political
than
intimate.
Some
Latin
a u t h o r s m a k e it v e r y c l e a r t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e t o b e a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n amicitia a n d clientela. B u t b e f o r e w e t u r n t o t h o s e w r i t e r s , l e t u s recall C i c e r o ' s Laelius de amicitia, w h i c h r e v e a l s t o w h a t e x t e n t i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s h i p b a s e d u p o n v i r t u e p r e v a i l e d as a n o b l e p h e n o m e n o n i n t h e w o r l d o f this p e r i o d . C i c e r o ' s Laelius
is s o l i d e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f a
friendship
based u p o n g o o d w i l l a n d v i r t u e was a n o b l e idea d u r i n g t h e late R o man
Republic.
As m e n t i o n e d
above,
however,
amicitia
c o m p a s s i n t i m a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s o r m u t u a l r e l a t i o n s o f politesse.
could
en
In R o m e ,
friendships existed b e t w e e n persons o f b o t h equal a n d u n e q u a l statures a n d c o u l d i n v o l v e an e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s a n d services.
130
I t is for t h i s
r e a s o n t h a t f r i e n d s h i p i n its R o m a n f o r m could be i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m a patron-client relationship. Barbara G o l d writes that " t h e w o r d
amicus
is a p e r f e c t l o c u s f o r d i s c u s s i n g p a t r o n a g e , s i n c e it is a n i c e l y a m b i g u o u s w o r d w h i c h a p p l i e s e q u a l l y w e l l t o p o l i t i c a l allies o r p e r s o n a l i n t i m a t e s , to the patron or the client." ally stratified, friendships
1 3 1
Indeed, R o m a n society was e x c e p t i o n
and people were
of the wealthy
o f t e n v y i n g for t h e a t t e n t i o n s
and powerful.
Sometimes
and
a client o f a
w e a l t h y p e r s o n w a s also a f r i e n d , especially a m o n g t h e p o e t s a n d t h e i r
129
V e r b o v e n , The Economy of Friends, 62.
130
As Konstan (Friendship in the Classical World, 128) writes: "... helpfulness is tradition
ally t h e m a r k of a friend and services m a y b e interpreted as a sign of g o o d will o r amicableness. M u t u a l support is t h e p o i n t at w h i c h t h e vocabularies of friendship and exchange of benefits intersect, and C i c e r o m o v e s naturally b e t w e e n t h e t w o issues, d e fending his integrity o n b o t h t h e counts of refraining from offending a supposed friend and of b e i n g conscientious in respect to any g e n u i n e debts of gratitude h e m a y o w e . " 131
Barbara K. Gold, Literary Patronage in Greece and Rome (Chapel Hill, L o n d o n : U n i
versity of N o r t h Carolina Press, 1987) 134.
86
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
" g r e a t f r i e n d s " w h o g a v e t h e artists m a t e r i a l w e a l t h , f a m e a n d i n f l u e n c e i n e x c h a n g e f o r " t h e gift o f p o e t i c i m m o r t a l i t y , " t h a t is, p o e t i c t r i b u t e s to t h e rich p e r s o n ' s qualities. H o w e v e r , w e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t this d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t p a t r o n a g e and friendship w e r e o n e and the same. Friendship required honesty and g o o d w i l l b e t w e e n t h e t w o amid,
e v e n if t h e y w e r e o f s e p a r a t e social
stations, o r w e r e n o t particularly close. Friends offered frank criticism; t h e y d i d n o t flatter o n e a n o t h e r i n o r d e r t o g a i n a d v a n t a g e s , as P l u t a r c h m a d e so u t t e r l y clear. T h u s w h e n b o t h f r i e n d s h i p a n d p a t r o n a g e e x i s t e d t o g e t h e r , t e n s i o n s m i g h t surface as t h e friends c o u l d n o t a l w a y s b e s u r e w h e t h e r t h e o t h e r ' s a c t i o n s p r a n g f r o m bona fide f r i e n d s h i p o r a n o t h e r , p o s s i b l y m a n i p u l a t i v e , s t r a t e g y . M o r e o v e r , friends o c c a s i o n a l l y b e c a m e clients, for as P e t e r W h i t e o b s e r v e s , " a n e x c h a n g e t h a t w a s b a d l y b a l a n c e d o v e r t i m e m i g h t also w o r k t o c l i e n t i z e a f r i e n d . "
1 3 4
K o n s t a n has e x a m i n e d t h e w o r k s o f t w o R o m a n p o e t s , H o r a c e a n d J u v e n a l , w i t h a f o c u s u p o n t h i s issue o f f r i e n d s h i p a n d p a t r o n a g e . I n J u v e n a l ' s fifth satire, for e x a m p l e , t h e p o e t r i d i c u l e s a c e r t a i n T r e b i u s , w h o fancies t h a t h e w i l l a t t a i n t h e f r i e n d s h i p o f t h e w e a l t h y p a t r o n , V i r r o . J u v e n a l e x p o s e s t h e fact t h a t i n reality, all T r e b i u s w i l l a c h i e v e is a c l i e n t status a n d w i l l " b e as h u m b l e a n d i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e eyes o f V i r r o as t h e m o b t h a t l i n e s u p t o salute h i m e a c h d a y . "
1 3 5
T r e b i u s is
i n v i t e d t o V i r r o ' s h o m e for a m e a l b u t V i r r o treats h i m h o r r i b l y , u n c o v e r i n g to w h a t e x t e n t V i r r o does n o t consider T r e b i u s a friend, b u t a m e r e h a n g e r - o n , w h o m h e can humiliate and exploit. Juvenal c l u d e s his satire b y i n f o r m i n g T r e b i u s w h a t his i m a g i n e d
con
friendship
w i t h Virro will b e like: " I f y o u can e n d u r e such things, y o u deserve t h e m ; s o m e day y o u will b e offering y o u r h e a d t o b e shaved
and
slapped: n o r will y o u flinch f r o m a stroke o f t h e w h i p , w e l l w o r t h y o f s u c h a feast a n d s u c h a f r i e n d . "
1 3 6
S o m e h a v e i n t e r p r e t e d t h i s satire t o e q u a t e f r i e n d s h i p w i t h p a t r o n age,
1 3 7
w h e r e a s K o n s t a n has s h o w n t h a t J u v e n a l refers t o f r i e n d s
and
f r i e n d s h i p t h r o u g h o u t t h e satire w i t h his t o n g u e f i r m l y p l a c e d i n s i d e o f
1 2
See P e t e r W h i t e (Promised Verse: Poets in the Society of Augustan
Rome
[Cambridge,
M A , L o n d o n : H a r v a r d University Press, 1993] 14-27) for a discussion of patterns o f exchange b e t w e e n t h e Augustan poets and their wealthy friends. Konstan, "Patrons and Friends," 336. 134
W h i t e , Promised Verse, 3 1 . Konstan, "Patrons and Friends," 336. Juvenal, Sat. 5.170-73 (LCL; trans. G . G . R a m s a y ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ;
Cam
bridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1950). See R i c h a r d LaFleur, "Amicitia (1979) 1 7 1 .
and the U n i t y of Juvenal's First B o o k , " ICS
4
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
87
Benefaction
his c h e e k . P a r t o f J u v e n a l ' s h u m o u r r e s i d e s i n his p o r t r a y a l o f t h e " f r i e n d s h i p " b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o c h a r a c t e r s as a n a b s u r d tale o f a b u s e a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n . T h e i r o n y lies i n t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h i s a b s u r d i t y a n d t h e n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p as " a r e l a t i o n s h i p b a s e d u p o n and generosity."
mutuality
T r e b i u s a n d V i r r o p l a y at b e i n g friends, b u t i n r e a l
i t y t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n is b a s e d u p o n u t i l i t y . V i r r o , t h e m o r e p o w e r f u l o f t h e t w o , a c t u a l l y e x p l o i t s T r e b i u s , m a k i n g t h e i r s o - c a l l e d f r i e n d s h i p all the m o r e counterfeit. R a t h e r than likening friendship to patronage, J u v e n a l lays b a r e t h e h y p o c r i s y o f t h o s e w h o p r e t e n d t o b e f r i e n d s b u t a r e i n t r u t h m a n i p u l a t i n g o n e a n o t h e r for t h e i r o w n i n t e r e s t s . Horace's
eighteenth
e p i s t l e also u n d e r l i n e s
the
contrast
between
friendship a n d p a t r o n a g e . H o r a c e spends t h e b u l k o f this letter advising 139
its a d d r e s s e e , L o l l i u s , a m a n o f c a n d o u r ( H o r a c e calls h i m liberrime)
on
h o w t o b e a n a c c o m m o d a t i n g c l i e n t . L o l l i u s ' s n a t u r a l d i s p o s i t i o n is t o b e straightforward a n d unafraid of speaking w i t h frank speech
(libertas)
b u t H o r a c e is s e e m i n g l y a g a i n s t s u c h h o n e s t y a n d p u s h e s h i m i n t h e opposite direction "to the point of endorsing the kind of assumed ex pressions
and
attitudes
characteristic
of
the
flatterer."
But
then
s u d d e n l y H o r a c e c h a n g e s his c o u r s e a n d c o u n s e l s L o l l i u s t o s e e k t h e q u i e t life; t o r e a d a n d t o q u e s t i o n t h e w i s e . H e states: " T h o s e
who
h a v e n e v e r t r i e d t h i n k it p l e a s a n t t o c o u r t a f r i e n d i n p o w e r ; o n e w h o has tried dreads i t . "
1 4 1
T h e p o e t e x h o r t s L o l l i u s t o s e e k his o w n w a y , t o
b e free f r o m t h e a n x i e t y a n d fears t h a t c a t e r i n g t o a p a t r o n p r o d u c e s . H e asks L o l l i u s , " W h a t w i l l m a k e y o u a f r i e n d t o y o u r s e l f ? "
and
states t h a t t h e p a t h , h e , H o r a c e , h a s t a k e n is t h a t o f a s e c l u d e d , u n e n c u m b e r e d life, i n w h i c h h e m a y n o t " w a v e r t o a n d fro w i t h t h e h o p e s of each uncertain h o u r . " T h i s l e t t e r d e m o n s t r a t e s , t h e n , t h a t a life o f i n d e p e n d e n c e is n o t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e life o f a c l i e n t ; o f s o m e o n e w h o m u s t i n d u l g e t h e w h i m s o f a p a t r o n a n d adjust his o r h e r b e h a v i o u r b a s e d u p o n t h e f a n cies o f t h e w e a l t h y a n d p o w e r f u l . I n t h e first p a r t o f t h e l e t t e r , H o r a c e r e f e r r e d t o L o l l i u s ' s p a t r o n as a " r i c h f r i e n d , "
1 4 4
"great friend,"
1 4 5
and
138
Konstan, "Patrons and Friends," 337 n . 2 9 .
139
H o r a c e , Ep. 18.1 (LCL; trans. H . R u s h t o n Fairclough; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m
bridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1942). 140
Konstan, "Patrons and Friends," 339.
141
Ep. 18.90.
142
Ep. 1 8 . 1 0 1 .
143
Ep. 18.110.
144
Ep. 18.24.
145
Ep. 18.44-45.
88
Friendship
"worshipful
friend"
1 4 6
but
and Benefaction
again,
the
in James
is
likely
i r o n i c i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h i s " f r i e n d " is far f r o m t h e f r a n k a n d
designation
"friend"
good
s p i r i t e d p e r s o n t h a t a n i d e a l f r i e n d is u n d e r s t o o d t o b e . L o l l i u s m a y t h i n k that h e has a friend i n his p a t r o n , b u t in actuality h e has o n l y s o m e o n e w h o w i l l f o r c e h i m t o q u e l l his i n s t i n c t t o s p e a k f o r t h r i g h t l y , forcing h i m , instead, to speak in an ingratiating and pleasing m a n n e r . S u c h b e h a v i o u r is c o u n t e r t o L o l l i u s ' s d i s p o s t i o n f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d t h u s H o r a c e e n d s t h e l e t t e r w i t h a p l e a for t h e q u i e t life,
dependent
u p o n n o o n e b u t oneself. T h u s i n R o m e , f r i e n d s h i p w a s still p e r c e i v e d b y s o m e as a r e l a t i o n s h i p b a s e d u p o n m u t u a l g o o d w i l l a n d h o n e s t y , as C i c e r o ' s r e f l e c t i o n s u p o n t h e s u b j e c t i l l u s t r a t e . H o w e v e r , f r i e n d s h i p s d i d exist a m o n g p e o p l e o f differing social classes. It w a s c o m m o n f o r p a t r o n s a n d c l i e n t s t o call o n e a n o t h e r amid e v e n w h e n t h e ideals o f g e n e r o s i t y a n d f r a n k n e s s d i d n o t m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . It is t h i s s o r t o f p r e t e n sion that the poets
Horace
and Juvenal
sharply
criticize, for
they
b e l i e v e , l i k e P l u t a r c h , t h a t it is h y p o c r i t i c a l t o call s o m e o n e a f r i e n d w h o m o n e d o e s n o t t r e a t w i t h g e n u i n e affection a n d g o o d w i l l . I n p r a c tice, friendship could and did overlap w i t h patronage, b u t t h e y should n o t b e c o n f l a t e d as o n e a n d t h e s a m e .
Conclusion T h i s c h a p t e r h a s d e a l t w i t h a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r r e l a t e d issues. First, t h a t f r i e n d s h i p w a s i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y at c e r t a i n p o i n t s a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r e n v i r o n m e n t s is w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n . H o w e v e r , its u s e i n s u c h c o n t e x t s d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e lofty i d e a l i m a g e o f friends as t w o p e o p l e w h o act selflessly a n d g e n e r o u s l y t o w a r d s o n e a n o t h e r d i d n o t exist. I n fact, t h e u s e o f t h i s l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p i n p r i m a r i l y p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t s illustrates t h e e s t e e m w i t h w h i c h t h e c o n c e p t o f f r i e n d s h i p w a s held b y ancients. Second, given the previous statement and the centrality of reciproc i t y t o a n c i e n t social r e l a t i o n s , it is easy t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w " f r i e n d " is used w i t h i n t h e e x c h a n g e systems o f b o t h benefaction a n d p a t r o n a g e . These t w o forms of exchange overlap w i t h o n e another in a variety of w a y s , b u t t h e y a r e also d i s t i n c t . B e n e f a c t i o n , o r at least t h e i d e a l f o r m s o f it, is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e v i r t u e o f g e n e r o s i t y , a n d i n t h i s w a y it o v e r laps w i t h t h e i d e a l o f f r i e n d s h i p . T h e n o b l e b e n e f a c t o r s h o u l d n o t b e m o t i v a t e d b y a d e s i r e f o r r e t u r n , a l t h o u g h it w o u l d b e
dishonourable
for a b e n e f i c i a r y n o t t o e x p r e s s g r a t i t u d e . M o r e o v e r , w h e n b e n e f a c t o r s
146
Bp. 18.73.
3.
Friendship,
Patronage
and
89
Benefaction
p r o v i d e d f o r a s s o c i a t i o n s a n d cities, t h e y w e r e n o t a l l - p o w e r f u l , d e s p i t e t h e i r w e a l t h a n d status. O n c e t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s h a d fulfilled t h e i r o b l i g a tions, the benefactor was often compelled to k e e p providing, and n o t t o d o so c o u l d e v e n i n v i t e risk. T h e p a t r o n , h o w e v e r , a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d m o r e p o w e r o v e r his o r h e r client(s), for t h e v e r y d e f i n i t i o n
of
c l i e n t h o o d was t o b e u n a b l e t o repay t h e debts i n c u r r e d . T h u s clients w e r e extremely vulnerable to their patron's w h i m s and often resorted to
flattery
f o r t h e i r o w n s u r v i v a l . S u c h b e h a v i o u r w a s a far c r y f r o m
i d e a l f r i e n d s h i p , i n w h i c h friends s p o k e p l a i n l y a n d d i r e c t l y t o
one
a n o t h e r . T h u s o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d w h y w r i t e r s s u c h as P l u t a r c h b e c a m e so f r u s t r a t e d
when
they saw patrons and
clients p r e t e n d i n g t o
be
f r i e n d s , w h e n i n fact, t h e y m a n i f e s t e d o n e o f t h e f u r t h e s t t h i n g s f r o m it. T h e foundationally distinct b u t overlapping concepts o f benefaction and patronage, and their relationship to friendship, have n o w
been
e x p o s e d . W e shall n o w t u r n t o t h e t e x t o f J a m e s itself t o d e t e r m i n e t o w h a t extent these t h e m e s and practices help illuminate the arguments t h a t t h e a u t h o r is a t t e m p t i n g t o m a k e .
4
The Exordium: James 1:2-18
Introduction
H a v i n g s u r v e y e d aspects o f t h e h i s t o r y o f f r i e n d s h i p a n d s o m e o f t h e similarities a n d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n f r i e n d s h i p , p a t r o n a g e a n d b e n e f a c t i o n , w e n o w t u r n t o a n analysis o f J a m e s . T h e n e x t t h r e e c h a p t e r s w i l l e x a m i n e t h r e e s e c t i o n s o f t h e l e t t e r w h e r e I t h i n k t h a t t h e social a n d c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a j u s t d i s c u s s e d p l a y significant r o l e s . R e a d i n g t h e s e sections o f J a m e s in light o f friendship, p a t r o n a g e a n d benefaction can aid i n b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h a t t h e a u t h o r is a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n v e y . I also t h i n k , as d o o t h e r a u t h o r s , t h a t t h e s e passages f o r m d i s c r e t e r h e torical units w i t h i n t h e letter. T h u s these chapters will e x a m i n e
not
only the presence of friendship, patronage and benefaction w i t h i n the l a n g u a g e a n d social w o r l d o f J a m e s , b u t h o w t h e s e t e x t u r e s
function
w i t h i n t h e rhetoric, o r i n n e r t e x t u r e , o f t h e texts u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n . Before b e g i n n i n g this discussion t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r will briefly r e v i e w t h e status o f J a m e s b o t h as a l e t t e r a n d as a r h e t o r i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d d o c u m e n t . It w i l l n o t d w e l l o n t h e s e issues, h o w e v e r , as t h e y
have
b e e n t h o r o u g h l y d i s c u s s e d b y o t h e r a u t h o r s a n d t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g o f a c o n s e n s u s e m e r g i n g t h a t J a m e s is a carefully c r a f t e d d o c u m e n t , t h o u g h t h e r e is n o a g r e e m e n t as t o its o v e r a l l l i t e r a r y o r structure.
1
1
al
rhetorical
2
A notable exception is the v i e w of W i a r d Popkes, w h o does n o t t h i n k that James is
shaped b y an overall literary structure, b u t b y t h e various traditions that are incorporated into the d o c u m e n t . See his Der Brief des Jakobus
( T H K N T 14; Leipzig: Evangelische
Verlagsanstalt, 2001) 5 4 - 5 7 . 2
For a survey of c o n t e m p o r a r y studies of the structure o f James, see Taylor, " R e c e n t
Scholarship o n the Structure o f J a m e s , " 8 6 - 1 1 5 .
4. The Exordium:
James
1:2-18
91
J a m e s as a L e t t e r T h e d e b a t e a b o u t J a m e s as a l e t t e r recalls t h e w o r k o f A d o l f D e i s s m a n n , w h o s e studies o f t h e ancient letter w e r e c o n d u c t e d nearly a c e n t u r y a g o . D e i s s m a n n classified l e t t e r s i n t o t r u e l e t t e r s , w h i c h a r e p r i v a t e a n d a d d r e s s c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s , a n d epistles, w h i c h a r e p u b l i c , h i g h l y l i t e r ary, a n d artistic. J a m e s , h e a r g u e d , clearly falls i n t o t h e l a t t e r c a t e g o r y , as it lacks t h e d e t a i l r e q u i r e d f o r a specific s i t u a t i o n ; r a t h e r , J a m e s is a " p a m p h l e t addressed to the w h o l e of C h r i s t e n d o m . "
3
Similarly, M a r t i n
D i b e l i u s ' s i n f l u e n t i a l c o m m e n t a r y o n J a m e s v i e w e d t h e d o c u m e n t as a string o f discontinuous ethical a d m o n i t i o n s , w i t h n o evidence o f an "epistolary situation," t h e only "letter" characteristic b e i n g t h e p r e s c r i p t i n J a s 1:1.
T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s l e d h i m t o c o n c l u d e t h a t J a m e s is
n o t an actual letter, b u t a n o t h e r genre, n a m e l y paraenesis.
5
H o w e v e r , studies o f a n c i e n t e p i s t o l o g r a p h y h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e a n cient
letter
was
a
tremendously
flexible
and
varied
form
of
c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d D e i s s m a n n ' s classification o f letters i n t o " r e a l l e t t e r s " a n d epistles has b e e n criticized as a far t o o n a r r o w , a n d i n d e e d m i s l e a d i n g , m e a n s o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e g r e a t diversity o f e x t a n t a n c i e n t l e t ters. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e are epistles w h i c h c o u l d also b e classified as " r e a l 6
l e t t e r s " a n d s o m e " r e a l l e t t e r s " b e a r characteristics o f epistles. I n d e e d , as D a v i d A u n e has d e c l a r e d , apart f r o m D e i s s m a n n ' s c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , w h i c h A u n e d e e m s p r o b l e m a t i c , " f e w t y p o l o g i e s o f G r e c o - R o m a n o r early C h r i s t i a n letters h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d a n d n o n e w i d e l y a d o p t e d . "
Other
genres o f literature could b e framed w i t h i n s o m e of the conventions o f a l e t t e r a n d c o u l d f u n c t i o n as a letter, d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t t h e y d o n o t b e a r all o r e v e n m a n y " r e a l l e t t e r " characteristics.
F o r e x a m p l e , essays c o u l d
b e f r a m e d b y epistolary i n t r o d u c t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s , a n d t h u s s e r v e as
3
A d o l f Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East (trans. Lionel R . M . Strachan; N e w
Y o r k : G e o r g e H . D o r a n , 1927; repr., Peabody, M A : H e n d r i c k s o n , 1995) 2 4 2 - 4 3 . 4
S. R . Llewellyn ( " T h e Prescript o f J a m e s , " NovT
39 [1997] 385-93) has argued that
Jas 1:1 was a later addition, and that perhaps this originally "loose compilation of sayings" comparable to t h e Gospel of Thomas and Q , was preserved "because it was given t h e ostensible form o f the letter [with the addition o f t h e prescript] at s o m e later stage in its transmission." 5
Dibelius, James, 2 - 3 .
6
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 5 n. 12. D a v i d E . A u n e , The New Testament in Its Literary
Environment
(LEC 8; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987) 165-66.
7
D a v i d E. A u n e , The New Testament, 1 6 1 .
8
As A u n e (The New Testament, 170) writes, "epistolary prescripts and postscripts could
b e used to frame almost any k i n d o f composition. T h e epistolary conventions o f m a n y letter-essays, philosophical letters, and novelistic and fictional letters functioned frequently in this w a y . "
92
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
" l e t t e r essays," a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s w o u l d u s e t h e l e t t e r f o r m as a m e a n s o f i n s t r u c t i n g t h e i r s t u d e n t s . S u c h letters are n o t p r i v a t e n o r d o t h e y n e c e s sarily focus u p o n a p a r t i c u l a r e p i s t o l a r y s i t u a t i o n , b u t t h e y are g e n e r a l l y c a t e g o r i z e d as letters, albeit " l i t e r a r y " letters. M a n y today consider James to b e a "literary" letter w h i c h was n o t addressed to a private individual b u t probably to a n u m b e r of c o m m u n i t i e s , as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e i n i t i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e " t w e l v e t r i b e s i n t h e d i a s p o r a " ( 1 : 1 ) . I n this w a y , J a m e s is c o m p a r a b l e , as
Karl-Wilhelm
N i e b u h r h a s a r g u e d , t o a n c i e n t J e w i s h e n c y c l i c a l s , s u c h as t h e A r a m a i c diaspora letters dispatched b y m e m b e r s o f t h e Gamaliel family, t h e encyclicals p r e s e r v e d w i t h i n 2 M a c c a b e e s ,
1 1
10
and
w h i c h w e r e addressed
to m o r e than o n e g r o u p a n d c o u l d serve a variety o f religious or a d ministrative purposes.
It also, h o w e v e r , is a n a l o g o u s t o w h a t F r e d O .
F r a n c i s calls " s e c o n d a r y l e t t e r s , " o r l e t t e r s w h i c h " l a c k s i t u a t i o n a l i m mediacy."
Francis
observes
that
"secondary
letters,"
often
found
w i t h i n h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e s s u c h as t h e l e t t e r i n 1 M a c e 1 0 : 2 5 a n d t h e one
within Josephus's
Antiquities
s t a t e m e n t s , as J a m e s has, close,
(8.50-54),
have
double
and they end abruptly, w i t h n o
opening epistolary
a n o t h e r f e a t u r e o f J a m e s . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s also a p p e a r i n
m a n y i n d e p e n d e n t Hellenistic private a n d public letters,
a n d several
letter collections leave o u t o p e n i n g greetings a n d closing salutations altogether.
17
S o m e H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h l e t t e r s , s u c h as t h e
apocryphal
L e t t e r o f J e r e m i a h , w h i c h is n o t e m b e d d e d i n a h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e , has
9
See A u n e , The New Testament, 165-69; and A b r a h a m J. M a l h e r b e , Moral
Exhortation,
A Greco-Roman Sourcebook (LEC 4; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986) 7 9 - 8 5 . 10
See Karl-Wilhelm N i e b u h r , " D e r Jakobusbrief i m Licht fruhjudischer
briefe," NTS
Diaspora-
44 (1998) 4 2 0 - 4 3 . For the texts and translations of these letters, see D e n n i s
Pardee, Handbook of Ancient Hebrew Letters (SBLSBS 15; C h i c o , C A : Scholars, 1982) 1 8 6 96. 11
See 2 M a c e 1:1-9; 1:10-2:18.
12
See Baasland, "Literarische F o r m , " 3 6 4 6 - 8 4 ; R o p e s , The Epistle of St. James, 127-28;
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 5-6. 13
14
Francis, " T h e F o r m and F u n c t i o n , " 1 1 1 . Francis ( " T h e F o r m and F u n c t i o n , " 111) points o u t that in Jas 1:1-27 " t h e r e is a
presentation a n d representation of testing, steadfastness, perfect work/gift,
reproach
i n g / a n g e r , w i s d o m / w o r d s , and r i c h - p o o r e r / d o e r . In b o t h cases these t h e m e s laid d o w n in the o p e n i n g verses are subsequently d e v e l o p e d in the b o d y o f the episde." 15
E m b e d d e d w i t h i n Thucydides's narrative there are letters (7.10-15; 1.128.7) w i t h
neither o p e n i n g n o r closing formulae. See A u n e , The New Testament, 169. 16
For example P h l m 4 - 7 contains a d o u b l e o p e n i n g statement, and m a n y Hellenistic
letters, private and public, primary and secondary, e n d abrupdy, such as 1 J o h n . See Fran cis, " T h e F o r m and F u n c t i o n , " 112, 125. A u n e (The New
Testament,
171) refers to the letters o f Apollonius, for example,
w h i c h all have abbreviated openings, and only four o f w h i c h have closing salutations.
4. The Exordium:
James
1:2-18
93
n e i t h e r an epistolary prescript n o r a closing formula. g i n n i n g w i t h t h e p h r a s e Trpo
1 8
Moreover, be
7tavx(ov i n 5 : 1 2 , J a m e s closes w i t h
w a r n i n g against t h e use o f oaths a n d expressions o f c o n c e r n for
a
the
recipients' health and well-being. R e f e r r i n g to F.X.J. Exler's study of Hellenistic epistolography, e n d w i t h t h e p h r a s e npo
Francis p o i n t s o u t h o w G r e e k letters m a y
Ttavxwv f o l l o w e d b y a h e a l t h w i s h a n d / o r a n
o a t h formula. Finally, m a n y letters, i n c l u d i n g several N e w letters,
20
Testament
r e f e r t o p r a y e r i n t h e i r c l o s i n g . T h u s J a m e s is n o t so d e v o i d o f
e p i s t o l a r y f e a t u r e s as D i b e l i u s a n d o t h e r s h a v e t h o u g h t , b u t m a y b e s t b e classified as a " l i t e r a r y " l e t t e r .
James and Rhetoric D e s p i t e Dibelius's v i e w that J a m e s h a d limited epistolary features, h e d i d g r a n t t h a t it w a s a s o p h i s t i c a t e d d o c u m e n t , at least at t h e l e v e l o f w r i t i n g style a n d v o c a b u l a r y . R e c e n t
scholarship o n J a m e s
concurs
w i t h D i b e l i u s t h a t t h e a u t h o r w r i t e s i n g o o d G r e e k , uses r a r e w o r d s , a n d t h a t t h e l e t t e r m a n i f e s t s v a r i o u s r h e t o r i c a l e l e m e n t s , s u c h as p a r o nomasia
(1:1, 2), parechesis
t e l e u t o n (1:6) a m o n g o t h e r s .
(1:24), alliteration 2 2
(1:2), a n d
Y e t Dibelius's fundamental
homoiodescription
o f J a m e s as p a r a e n e s i s p l a c e d l i m i t a t i o n s u p o n t h e d o c u m e n t t h a t a r e n o l o n g e r acceptable to m a n y today. F o r Dibelius, paraenesis was a literary g e n r e m a n i f e s t e d b y a series o f e x h o r t a t i o n s s t r u n g t o g e t h e r w i t h little continuity b e t w e e n t h e m and n o overarching frame or t h e m e .
More
o v e r , D i b e l i u s t h o u g h t t h a t i f s o m e t h i n g w a s essentially p a r a e n e t i c , it was simply a loose assemblage of diverse traditions w i t h n o theological purpose or structure.
overall
2 4
It is l i k e l y for this l a t t e r r e a s o n t h a t D i b e l i u s d i d n o t a p p l y t h e t e n e t s o f G r e c o - R o m a n rhetorical t h e o r y t o the letter. F o r Dibelius, p a r a e -
18
19
A u n e , The New Testament, 178. F.X.J. Exler, The Form of the Ancient Greek Letter: A Study in Greek Epistolography
(Washington: Catholic University o f America, 1923). 20
F o r example, 1 Thess 5:17, 1 J o h n 5:14-17, P h l m 2 2 . See Francis, " T h e F o r m a n d
F u n c t i o n , " 125. 21
P e t e r H . Davids, " T h e Epistle o f James in M o d e r n Discussion," ANRW
2.25.5
(1988) 3 6 2 8 - 2 9 ; J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 24; Laws, The Epistle of James, 6; W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 8. 22
Dibelius, James, 3 7 - 3 8 ; see W a c h o b (The Voice of Jesus, 11-12) for a m o r e substantial
list o f James's rhetorical elements. 23
Dibelius, James, 5 - 1 1 .
24
Dibelius (James, 22) w r o t e that paraenesis, " b y its very nature c a n n o t at all b r i n g t o
gether a c o h e r e n t structure o f theological t h o u g h t . " T h e origins o f Dibelius's ideas a b o u t paraenetic literature are helpfully discussed b y W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 3 6 - 5 2 .
Friendship
94
and Benefaction
in James
n e t i c l i t e r a t u r e w a s by nature u n o r i g i n a l ; it c o n s i s t e d p r i m a r i l y o f a c o l lection of traditions and was m o r e interested in the transmission
of
m a t e r i a l s t h a n i n t h e i r r e v i s i o n . A s h e w r o t e , t h e "first f e a t u r e "
of
p a r a e n e s i s "is a p e r v a s i v e eclecticism w h i c h is a n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e h i s t o r y a n d n a t u r e o f p a r a e n e s i s , s i n c e t h e c o n c e r n is t h e t r a n s m i s sion o f an ethical tradition that does n o t r e q u i r e a radical revision e v e n t h o u g h changes in emphasis and form might o c c u r . "
2 5
T h u s Dibelius's
presuppositions that James consisted primarily of paraenesis and about t h e n a t u r e o f p a r a e n e s i s itself p r e v e n t e d h i m f r o m e x p l o r i n g h o w a n cient rhetorical conventions m a y have b e e n operative in James. D i b e l i u s u n d e r s t o o d p a r a e n e s i s as a l i t e r a r y g e n r e s p a n n i n g J e w i s h and G r e e k cultures a n d g r o u n d e d in ethical exhortation, w h i c h in turn, h a d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n early C h r i s t i a n i t y as it s t r u g g l e d t o p r o v i d e d i r e c t i v e s for
fledgling
C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e r e is little c o n t e n
t i o n w i t h this latter p o i n t , b u t historians h a v e n o t b e e n able to discover a d e f i n i t i o n o f p a r a e n e s i s as a t e c h n i c a l t e r m for a l i t e r a r y g e n r e i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . I n his t a x o n o m i c s t u d y o f w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e , J o h n
G.
G a m m i e a r g u e s t h a t p a r a e n e t i c l i t e r a t u r e is a s e c o n d a r y g e n r e o f w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e , w i t h p a r a e n e s i s as a s u b - d i v i s i o n o f p a r a e n e t i c l i t e r a t u r e . P a r a e n e s i s , t h e r e f o r e , " c a n n o t b e p r o p e r l y classified as a m a j o r l i t e r a r y t y p e o r e v e n as a s e c o n d a r y g e n r e . " O t h e r s , s u c h as W e s l e y W a c h o b , d o n o t t h i n k t h a t p a r a e n e s i s is d i s tinguishable from protreptic,
for i n d e e d , b o t h t e r m s r e f e r t o h o r t a t o r y
speech. H o w e v e r , various studies h a v e a t t e m p t e d to
find
differences
b e t w e e n t h e t w o , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t s o m e s c h o l a r s , s u c h as W a c h o b and Patrick H a r t i n ,
2 8
p r e f e r t o classify J a m e s as p r o t r e p s i s , w h i l e o t h e r s ,
s u c h as G a m m i e , t h i n k o f it as p a r a e n e s i s .
25
29
T h e issue o f w h e t h e r t o
Dibelius, James, 5. J o h n G. G a m m i e , "Paraenetic Literature: T o w a r d the M o r p h o l o g y of a Secondary
G e n r e , " Semeia 50 (1990) 4 1 . 27
W a c h o b (The Voice of Jesus, 51) says that " t h e y are interchangeable terms for e x h o r t a
tion or horatory speech." W a c h o b bases his findings o n the p i o n e e r i n g w o r k of T h e o d o r e C . Burgess ("Epideictic Literature," University of Chicago Studies in Classical Philology 3 [1902] 89-248) w h i c h was apparently o v e r l o o k e d by Dibelius and those h e d e p e n d e d u p o n for his understanding of paraenesis. 28
For Hartin's discussion of this (largely based u p o n G a m m i e ' s Semeia article) see A
Spirituality of Perfection. Faith in Action in the Letter of James (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1999) 4 5 - 4 9 . 29
W a c h o b (Voice of Jesus, 45) points o u t that Benjamin Fiore, although h e admits that
the m o d e r n distinction b e t w e e n protrepic and paraenesis is "sharper" than in antiquity, accepts R u d o l f Vetschera's observation that paraenesis can include m a n y aspects of life such as "culture, friends, enemies, g o o d f o r t u n e " b u t that protreptic " h o p e s to lead t h e addressee to obtain a certain k n o w l e d g e and the arete included in it" (The Function of
4. The Exordium:
James
1:2-18
95
c a t e g o r i z e J a m e s as p a r a e n e s i s o r p r o t r e p s i s c a n n o t b e s o l v e d h e r e , b u t suffice it t o say t h a t d e b a t e s a b o u t t h e l i t e r a r y g e n r e a n d n a t u r e o f J a m e s have contributed to the conclusion that w e should n o longer
view
J a m e s as a h o d g e - p o d g e o f sayings b u t as a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y d i s c i p l i n e d l e t t e r , d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t t h e r e a r e d e b a t e s a b o u t t h e e x a c t a r r a n g e m e n t of that structure. S o m e s c h o l a r s o b j e c t t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f r h e t o r i c a l analysis t o l e t ters s u c h as J a m e s b e c a u s e i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d , as W a t s o n a n d H a u s e r , w h o b u i l d f r o m t h e w o r k o f A b r a h a m J. M a l h e r b e , p o i n t o u t , e p i s t o lary
theory
and
rhetorical
theory
developed
separately
from
one
a n o t h e r i n a n t i q u i t y a n d t h u s s o m e s c h o l a r s w o n d e r if r h e t o r i c t r u l y affected l e t t e r w r i t i n g i n t h e w a y s i n w h i c h o t h e r a u t h o r s w o u l d l i k e t o t h i n k it d i d .
T h e a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c a l h a n d b o o k s r a r e l y discuss r h e t o r i c ' s
applicability to letters, a n d likewise, letter w r i t i n g manuals d o n o t dis cuss r h e t o r i c . It w a s n o t u n t i l t h e f o u r t h a n d fifth c e n t u r i e s , m o r e o v e r , that Christianity explicitly integrated rhetorical a n d epistolary
prac-
tices. B u t as W a c h o b a n d o t h e r s h a v e affirmed, t h a t r h e t o r i c a l a n d e p i s t o lary t h e o r y w a s n o t f o r m a l l y i n t e g r a t e d at t h e t i m e o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f various texts of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t does n o t m e a n that rhetoric could n o t have exerted an influence u p o n letter w r i t i n g .
3 2
Rhetoric
pervaded the cultures of the G r a e c o - R o m a n w o r l d and the authors of the N e w Testament did n o t require formal training in rhetoric in order
Personal Example
in the Socratic and in the Pastoral Epistles [AnBib 105; R o m e : Biblical
Institute Press, 1986] 41). Fiore bases his c o m m e n t s u p o n the w o r k of R u d o l f Vetschera, Zur griechischen Pardnese ( S m i c h o w / P r a g u e : R o h l i c e k & Sievers, 1911-12) 7. Stanley Stowers has argued that t h e difference m a y b e based u p o n the nature of t h e audience: paraenesis was directed to the c o n v e r t e d in an effort to reinforce particular attitudes w h i l e protreptic is occasionally used in attempts to convert people. H o w e v e r , Stowers admits that this is n o t an entirely consistent feature of each t e r m (Letter Writing, 91-92) and W a c h o b (The Voice of Jesus, 48) has n o t e d that C l e m e n t of Alexandria, w i t h his Exhortation to Endurance or to the Newly
Baptized,
did n o t presuppose a particular audience disposition
w h e n h e titled his w o r k a TlpoTpenTixoq.
G a m m i e ("Paraenetic Literature," 53) points to
a perhaps m o r e convincing difference b e t w e e n the t w o terms that protrepsis builds a sustained a r g u m e n t w h i c h is m u c h m o r e systematic and organized than that of paraenesis, e v e n t h o u g h the latter can have a n a r r o w focus. 30
D u a n e F. W a t s o n and Alan J. Hauser, Rhetorical Criticism of the Bible. A
Comprehensive
Bibliography with Notes on History and Method (Leiden: E J . Brill, 1994) 1 2 1 . A b r a h a m J. M a l h e r b e (Ancient Epistolary Theorists [SBLSBS 19; Atlanta: Scholars, 1988] 2) writes that epistolary t h e o r y "is absent from the earliest extant rhetorical h a n d b o o k s , and it only gradually m a d e its w a y i n t o t h e g e n r e . " 31
W a t s o n , Rhetorical Criticism, 122.
32
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 8. See also B u r t o n L. M a c k , Rhetoric and the New
ment (Guides to Biblical Scholarship; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990) 3 1 .
Testa
96
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
t o b e i n f l u e n c e d b y it, a l t h o u g h s o m e w e r e l i k e l y f r o m a w e l l e d u c a t e d b a c k g r o u n d . B y simply living in the culture that they did, they w o u l d have c o m e into contact w i t h rhetoric, "for the rhetorical theory of the s c h o o l s f o u n d its i m m e d i a t e a p p l i c a t i o n i n a l m o s t e v e r y f o r m o f o r a l and written communication."
M o r e o v e r , A u n e claims that b y
the
3 4
and
third century B C E , rhetoric h a d c o m e to influence letter writing,
other authors have demonstrated that certain G r e e k writers w r o t e let ters a c c o r d i n g t o r h e t o r i c a l c o n v e n t i o n s p r i o r t o t h e C o m m o n
Era.
D e m e t r i u s , a n o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n G r e e k w r i t e r w h o refers t o A r i s t o t l e ' s Rhetoric
f r o m t i m e t o t i m e , discusses l e t t e r s i n his t r e a t i s e ,
Style, w h i c h c a n p o s s i b l y b e d a t e d t o t h e early first c e n t u r y B C E . metrius
says t h a t
" t h e letter, like t h e
glimpses of character,"
3 7
dialogue,
should
On
3 6
De
abound
in
and he continues o n to describe the appropri
ate style a n d t o p i c s for l e t t e r s . W h a t is u n u s u a l , as G e o r g e
Kennedy
c o m m e n t s , is t h a t o t h e r r h e t o r i c i a n s d o n o t discuss l e t t e r s , as t h e e p i s t o lary f o r m a t w a s u s e d so w i d e l y i n t h e G r e c o - R o m a n w o r l d .
Perhaps,
as Jeffrey R e e d p o i n t s o u t , t h e t h r e e s p e c i e s o f r h e t o r i c w e r e t o o l i m i t e d f o r l e t t e r w r i t e r s , d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t t h e i r f u n c t i o n s a p p e a r i n letters. D e s p i t e t h i s l a c k o f a n c i e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f r h e t o r i c as it relates t o l e t t e r w r i t i n g , t h e r e is n o w a w e a l t h o f r h e t o r i c a l s t u d i e s o n t h e
New
T e s t a m e n t letters e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e r e m a i n s o m e w h o are skeptical o f rhetoric's
33
applicability.
40
But
when
it c o m e s
to
Hebrews
and
the
G e o r g e K e n n e d y , New Testament Interpretation through Rhetorical Criticism (Chapel Hill
and L o n d o n : University o f N o r t h Carolina Press, 1984) 10. 34
A u n e , The New Testament,
35
F o r example, F . W . H u g h e s (Early Christian Rhetoric and 2 Thessalonians [ J S N T S u p 30;
160.
Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1989] 47-50) has s h o w n that the letters of D e m o s t h e nes w e r e w r i t t e n according to rhetorical rules. For a discussion o f D e m e t r i u s , see G e o r g e A. K e n n e d y , A New History of Classical Rhetoric (Princeton: P r i n c e t o n University Press, 1994) 8 8 - 9 0 . 37
D e m e t r i u s , Eloc. 221 (LCL; trans. W . RJiys R o b e r t s ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m
bridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1927). 38
K e n n e d y , A New History, 90.
39
Jeffrey T . R e e d , A Discourse Analysis of Philippians. Method and Rhetoric in the Debate
over Literary Integrity ( J S N T S u p 136; Sheffield: Sheffield A c a d e m i c Press, 1997) 454. 40
For example, Stanley E . Porter, ( " T h e Theoretical Justification for Application o f
R h e t o r i c a l Categories to Pauline Epistolary Literature," Rhetoric and the New
Testament.
Essays from the 1992 Heidelberg Conference [ed. Stanley E. P o r t e r & T h o m a s H . Olbricht; J S N T S u p 90; Sheffield: J S O T Press, 1993] 100-22) argues that studies o f Paul's letters should limit themselves t o t h e rhetorical style o f Paul's letters, as t h e rhetorical h a n d b o o k s only discuss style w h e n it c o m e s to letters. In his v i e w , there is n o t e n o u g h warrant in t h e h a n d b o o k s for applying basic rhetorical categories to letters. In contrast, see Betz (Gala-
4. The Exordium:
James
97
1:2-18
C a t h o l i c E p i s t l e s , t h e r e is little d e b a t e a b o u t t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s . T h e y a r e s e e n as h i g h l y l i t e r a r y s p e e c h e s t h a t w e r e i n t e n d e d to b e r e a d aloud, a n d thus scholars assume that t h e a u t h o r s i n c o r p o r a t e d rhetorical c o n v e n t i o n s i n t o their texts.
Moreover, there
is g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e s e a n c i e n t t e x t s d i d
not
s i m p l y a b s o r b a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y reflect r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s f r o m
the
w o r l d a r o u n d t h e m , b u t t h a t t h e y c o n s c i o u s l y a n d skillfully
applied
rhetorical c o n v e n t i o n s to their texts in a " s t u d i e d " m a n n e r , w h i c h s u g gests t h a t at least s o m e o f t h e a u t h o r s m a y h a v e b e e n s c h o o l e d
in
ancient rhetoric. S e v e r a l e a r l y critics h a d u s e d r h e t o r i c i n t h e i r analyses o f J a m e s d u r ing the
19th century.
4 3
B u t studies i n c o r p o r a t i n g rhetoric i n t o
e x a m i n a t i o n o f J a m e s did n o t reappear until relatively recently,
the with
the publication of W i l h e l m Wuellner's " D e r Jakobusbrief i m Licht der R h e t o r i k u n d T e x t p r a g m a t i k , " followed b y Ernst Baasland, w h o p r o p o s e d t h a t J a m e s c o n s i s t e d o f d e l i b e r a t i v e r h e t o r i c a n d w a s essentially a w i s d o m s p e e c h (weisheitliche
44
Rede).
J o h n H . E l l i o t t also d e v e l o p s his
analysis o f J a m e s b a s e d u p o n W u e l l n e r ' s w o r k , b u t h e f o c u s e s o n t h e i n s i g h t s t h a t t h e social s c i e n c e s c a n b r i n g t o t h e l e t t e r . E l l i o t t e x p l o r e s J a m e s in light o f contrasts b e t w e e n purity and pollution, w h i c h figured i m p o r t a n t l y in S e c o n d T e m p l e J u d a i s m a n d early Christianity,
and
s h o w s h o w p u r i t y a n d p o l l u t i o n " s e r v e as a n i m p o r t a n t m e a n s f o r c o n ceptualizing, distinguishing, and evaluating appropriate and
inappro
p r i a t e a t t i t u d e s , a c t i o n s , a n d alliances w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e c o m m u n i t y , its m e m b e r s , and their relation to G o d and society."
4 5
T h e m o s t r e c e n t r h e t o r i c a l s t u d y o f t h e e n t i r e l e t t e r o f J a m e s is t h a t o f L a u r i T h u r e n , w h o a r g u e s t h a t J a m e s is p r i m a r i l y e p i d e i c t i c r h e t o r i c i n t h a t it a t t e m p t s t o r e i n f o r c e i d e a s a n d v a l u e s t h a t t h e r e c i p i e n t s a l ready possess.
46
Thuren
suggests t h a t t h e s e e m i n g o b s c u r i t y o f
the
r h e t o r i c a l s t r u c t u r e is a c t u a l l y t h e s u b t l e t y o f a n a u t h o r w h o k n o w s t h a t tians), w h o performs a full-fledged application of ancient rhetorical practices to Paul's letter t o t h e Galatians. 41
D u a n e F. W a t s o n , " R h e t o r i c a l Criticism o f H e b r e w s and t h e Catholic Epistles Since
1 9 7 8 , " CR:BS 42
43
5 (1997) 178.
W a t s o n , " R h e t o r i c a l Criticism," 179. This is m e n t i o n e d b y W a c h o b (Voice of Jesus, 54), w h o refers to Baasland ("Liter-
arische F o r m , " 3648) w h o , in turn, refers to t h e w o r k o f J . D . Schulze, C . G . Kiichler, C . G . W i l k e , and J. A. Bengel, all o f w h o m applied insights from rhetoric t o their analyses o f James before the b e g i n n i n g of t h e 2 0 t h century. 44
Baasland, "Literarische F o r m , " 3654.
45
Elliott, " T h e Epistle o f J a m e s , " 7 8 - 7 9 .
46
Lauri T h u r e n , " R i s k y P J i e t o r i c , " 2 7 6 - 7 7 . T h u r e n also grants that there are aspects
of judicial and deliberative rhetoric w i t h i n t h e letter as well.
98
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
his a u d i e n c e is r h e t o r i c a l l y k n o w l e d g e a b l e , a n d t h u s resists m a k i n g his r h e t o r i c a l shifts t o o o b v i o u s . O t h e r authors h a v e offered m o r e focused w o r k o n sections o f J a m e s . J . D . N , v a n d e r W e s t h u i z e n p e r f o r m e d a c l o s e analysis o f Jas 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 , w h i c h h e classifies as d e l i b e r a t i v e r h e t o r i c i n t h a t it e x h o r t s t h e a u d i ence to action.
4 8
D u a n e F. W a t s o n has p u b l i s h e d t w o rhetorical studies,
o n J a m e s 2 a n d 3 : 1 - 1 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y . H e u n d e r s t a n d s c h . 2 a n d 3 : 1 - 1 2 as deliberative rhetoric, for these sections e x h o r t t h e a u d i e n c e to a p a r ticular type o f action a n d dissuade t h e m f r o m o t h e r kinds o f behavior. W a t s o n s h o w s h o w t h e r e are t h r e e c o m p l e t e a r g u m e n t s created t h e s e p e r i c o p a e , e a c h o f w h i c h i n c l u d e s a propositio, exornatio,
a n d conplexio.
paraenetic
ratio,
in
confirmatio,
H e also e x p l a i n s h o w J a m e s uses d i a t r i b e a n d
materials in these sections to amplify
the
arguments.
4 9
W a c h o b ' s w o r k concentrates u p o n the use of a saying of Jesus in 2:5 w i t h i n t h e r h e t o r i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f 2 : 1 - 1 3 . H e also c o n s i d e r s J a m e s t o b e deliberative rhetoric, and, applying V e r n o n K. R o b b i n s ' s m e t h o d
of
s o c i o - r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m , h e e x p l o r e s h o w 2 : 5 c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e social, c u l t u r a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f J a m e s as a w h o l e .
5 0
Finally,
P a t r i c k J . H a r t i n ' s m o s t r e c e n t b o o k o n t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s finds r h e torical patterns t h r o u g h o u t t h e letter, arguing that 2 : 1 - 1 3 ,
2:14-26,
3:1-12, and 3:13-4:10 each c o n f o r m to the pattern of a perfect argu^ 51
ment. T h e w o r k o f t h e s c h o l a r s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , as w e l l as o t h e r s w h o m w e w i l l e n g a g e p r e s e n t l y , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e is a n e m e r g i n g a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h i s t e x t is i n f o r m e d b y G r a e c o - R o m a n r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s insofar as t h e s e p r a c t i c e s p e r v a d e t h e c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y o f t h e d a y , a l t h o u g h considerable disagreement remains regarding h o w exactly these ventions
figure
con
in James. This lack of consensus does n o t m e a n that a
r h e t o r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n is n o t w a r r a n t e d , for i n r h e t o r i c a l s p e e c h e s a n d especially so i n l e t t e r s , t h e p r e c i s e s t a r t i n g a n d e n d i n g p o i n t s o f r h e t o r i cal u n i t s a r e n o t a l w a y s o b v i o u s n o r d o t h e y p l a i n l y c o n f o r m t o t h e instructions provided in h a n d b o o k s and instruction manuals. over, 47
early
Christian
rhetoric,
insofar
as
it
served
a
5 2
new
More social
Thuren, "Risky Rhetoric," 283. J . D . N , van der W e s t h u i z e n , "Stylistic T e c h n i q u e s and T h e i r Functions in James
2 : 1 4 - 2 6 , " Neot 25 (1991) 8 9 - 1 0 7 . 49
W a t s o n , "James 2 ; " " T h e R h e t o r i c o f James 3 : 1 - 1 2 . " For a brief s u m m a r y of W a c h o b ' s thesis, see W a t s o n , " R h e t o r i c a l Criticism," 189. Patrick J. Hartin, James (Sacra Pagina 14; Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 2003). M a c k (Rhetoric and the New Testament, 49) points o u t that the rhetorical h a n d b o o k s
w e r e simply guides; t h e y " w e r e n e v e r u n d e r s t o o d in antiquity as rigid templates, n o r has it b e e n assumed ... that every rhetorical c o m p o s i t i o n must follow these patterns."
4. The Exordium:
James
1:2-18
99
e x p e r i m e n t , w a s i m a g i n a t i v e a n d i n v e n t i v e i n its r e f e r e n c e t o n e w l a n guage and
figures,
a n d d i d n o t d r a w u p o n all o f t h e s t o c k p h r a s e s a n d
h e r o i c e x a m p l e s o f its n o n - C h r i s t i a n c o n t e m p o r a r i e s .
Therefore,
the
a i m o f t h i s s t u d y is n o t t o offer a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r h e t o r i c a l o u t l i n e o f J a m e s , b u t insofar as s e c t i o n s o f J a m e s u s e t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p a n d t h e r e l a t e d c o n c e p t s o f p a t r o n a g e a n d b e n e f a c t i o n , it w i l l a n a l y z e the rhetorical form and function of the unit u n d e r question.
J a m e s 1:2-18 A. C o m m o n Features o f the E x o r d i u m B e f o r e a r g u i n g t h a t Jas 1 : 2 - 1 8 serves as t h e e x o r d i u m o f t h e l e t t e r , a t tention must be paid to the nature and function of an e x o r d i u m within ancient rhetoric. Subsequently the chapter will delineate h o w
1:2-18
forms an e x o r d i u m and h o w friendship language and related concepts function within the unit. M o s t a n c i e n t w r i t e r s c o n c u r t h a t t h e e x o r d i u m is a r e q u i r e m e n t f o r an argumentative speech,
5 4
a l t h o u g h A r i s t o t l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t it is " o n l y
a d m i s s i b l e w h e n t h e r e is a c o n f l i c t o f o p i n i o n . "
5 5
T h e purpose of the
e x o r d i u m is t o establish a n ethos o f a u t h o r i t y for t h e s p e a k e r a n d a c l i m a t e of pathos t h a t w i l l e n g a g e t h e a u d i e n c e a n d p r e d i s p o s e it t o l i s t e n . T h e e x o r d i u m is a l w a y s a d j u s t e d t o suit t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e d i s course,
speaker,
particular
subject
audience under
(including potential discussion.
Cicero
opponents),
says t h a t t h e
and
the
exordium
should b e serious a n d m u s t contain everything w h i c h contributes to dignity, because t h e best t h i n g to d o is that w h i c h especially c o m m e n d s t h e speaker to his audience. It should contain very little brilliance, vivacity, or finish of style, because these give rise to a suspicion of preparation and excessive i n g e n u i t y (Inv. 1.25 [LCL]). 56
A l t h o u g h the entire narrative should i n d u c e the audience to b e well disposed, a t t e n t i v e a n d r e c e p t i v e t o t h e speaker, t h e Rhetorica ad
Herennium
53
See M a c k , Rhetoric and the New Testament, 9 4 - 9 7 .
54
See C . P e r e l m a n and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca, The New Rhetoric. A Treatise on Argumen
tation (trans. J o h n W i l k i n s o n and Purcell W e a v e r ; N o t r e D a m e , L o n d o n : University of N o t r e D a m e Press, 1969) 4 9 5 . 55
Aristotle, Rhet 3.13.3 (LCL; trans. J o h n H e n r y Freese; L o n d o n , C a m b r i d g e , M A :
H a r v a r d University Press, 1926). 56
Translated b y H . M . H u b b e l l (Cambridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press; L o n d o n :
H e i n e m a n n , 1949).
100
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
says t h a t this stance " m u s t i n t h e m a i n b e w o n b y t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e »57
cause. I n a n y s p e e c h , t h e e x o r d i u m is t h e c r u c i a l p l a c e f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r , f o r if t h e s p e a k e r is b e l i e v e d t o b e a g o o d p e r s o n at t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e a u d i e n c e w i l l b e m o r e i n c l i n e d t o l i s t e n .
58
A n c i e n t rhetoricians agree that t h e character o f t h e speaker has a central r o l e i n t h e effectiveness o f t h e s p e e c h ; i n fact, A r i s t o t l e says t h a t t h i s ethos, proof
or m o r a l character, (Rhet.
"constitutes the most
effective
means
of
1.2.4). T h u s t h e e x o r d i u m m u s t carefully establish t h e
credibility o f t h e speaker, especially if t h e speaker k n o w s that t h e a u d i e n c e is n o t s y m p a t h e t i c . O n e m a y begin a speech w i t h either a direct or a subtle o p e n i n g , the l a t t e r r e s e r v e d f o r s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r ' s c a u s e is d i s c r e d i t a b l e , t h e h e a r e r has a l r e a d y b e e n p e r s u a d e d b y t h e o p p o s i t i o n , o r t h e h e a r e r is t i r e d f r o m l i s t e n i n g t o p r e v i o u s s p e a k e r s . rect approach,
a n effective
method
59
I f o n e uses t h e d i
o f b e g i n n i n g is t o a d d r e s s
the
s i t u a t i o n o f t h e h e a r e r s a n d p r a i s e t h e m for t h e i r " c o u r a g e , w i s d o m , h u m a n i t y a n d nobility o f past j u d g m e n t s t h e y h a v e r e n d e r e d ..."
(Rhet.
ad Her. 1.8). O n e also attracts t h e a u d i e n c e ' s a t t e n t i o n if it is m a d e c l e a r t h a t t h e m a t t e r u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n is i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h a t it c o n c e r n s all o f h u m a n i t y or the hearers themselves.
T h e speaker m a y refer t o t h e
g o o d relationship b e t w e e n himself a n d t h e a u d i e n c e , o r h e will address t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e , w h i c h i n t u r n , c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as g i v i n g rise t o t h e s p e e c h . T h e e x o r d i u m m a y also b e u s e d t o i n t r o d u c e s o m e m a i n p o i n t s w h i c h will b e d e v e l o p e d later i n t h e a r g u m e n t . T h e Rhetoric to Alexander
states
t h a t o n e o f t h e tasks o f t h e e x o r d i u m is t o p r o v i d e a " s u m m a r y e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e business t o p e r s o n s w h o are n o t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h it, i n o r d e r t o i n f o r m t h e m w h a t t h e s p e e c h is a b o u t a n d t o e n a b l e t h e m t o f o l l o w the line of a r g u m e n t ,.."
62
According to Quintilian, such an introduction
is n o t a r e q u i r e m e n t a n d s h o u l d n o t e n u m e r a t e e v e r y issue t o b e d i s cussed, b u t it m a y b e p r u d e n t t o i n c l u d e a f e w r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e m a i n q u e s t i o n s as t h e y " w i l l e x e r c i s e a v a l u a b l e i n f l u e n c e i n w i n n i n g t h e j u d g e 57
P s e u d o - C i c e r o , Rhet. Her. 1.11 (LCL; trans. H a r r y Caplan; C a m b r i d g e , M A , L o n
don: Harvard University Press, 1954). 58
Quintilian, Inst. 4.1.7
(LCL; trans. H . E . B u d e r ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m b r i d g e ,
M A : Harvard University Press, 1960). 59
Rhet. ad Her. 1.9.
60
C i c e r o , De Inv. 1.23.
61
Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, The New Rhetoric, 497.
62
Pseudo-Aristotle, Rhet. Alex.
29 (LCL; trans. H . R a c k h a m ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ;
C a m b r i d g e , M A : Harvard University Press, 1957).
4. The Exordium:
James
1:2-18
101
t o r e g a r d us w i t h f a v o u r " ( 4 . 1 . 2 6 ) . L i k e w i s e , C i c e r o says t h a t a faulty e x o r d i u m is o n e w h i c h n e g l e c t s t o find c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h t h e rest o f t h e speech.
63
T h u s o n e e x p e c t s t o find ideas a n d t h e m e s w i t h i n t h e e x o r d i u m
t h a t w i l l b e d e v e l o p e d later o n . S u c h a n i n t r o d u c t i o n aids i n p r e p a r i n g t h e a u d i e n c e for w h a t is t o c o m e . B . J a m e s 1 : 2 - 1 8 as a n E x o r d i u m T h e transition markers b e t w e e n t h e e x o r d i u m , narratio a n d o t h e r parts c o m m o n l y referred to in t h e rhetorical h a n d b o o k s are n o t always o b v i o u s i n r h e t o r i c a l s p e e c h e s , e v e n less s o i n l e t t e r s ,
64
a n d as W a t s o n p o i n t s
o u t , " i t is m o r e l i k e l y t h a t J a m e s s i m p l y d o e s n o t c o n f o r m t o G r e c o R o m a n s t a n d a r d s i n its o v e r a l l a r g u m e n t a t i o n . "
6 5
M o r e o v e r , J a m e s uses
m a n y o b v i o u s d i v i s i o n m a r k e r s , s u c h as t h e a p p e a l t o " m y b r o t h e r s " o r " m y b e l o v e d b r o t h e r s " t o i n d i c a t e small u n i t s , b u t t h e r e b y m a k i n g it difficult t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x a c t o u t l i n e o f l a r g e r r h e t o r i c a l s e c t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , o n e c a n n o t r e l y solely u p o n c l e a r s y n t a c t i c shifts b u t
on
h o w t h e sections function o n a rhetorical level. N e a r l y all s t u d i e s o f J a m e s a g r e e t h a t 1:1 is a n e p i s t o l a r y p r e s c r i p t , t h e f o r m a t o f w h i c h is a c t u a l l y t y p i c a l o f a n c i e n t n o n - l i t e r a r y l e t t e r s .
66
C e r t a i n l y t h e p r e s c r i p t c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r , f o r it w a n t s t o b e h e a r d as c o m i n g f r o m J a m e s o f J e r u s a l e m , o r J a m e s t h e J u s t , clearly a n i m p o r t a n t figure w i t h i n early C h r i s t i a n i t y . O t h e r t h a n t o call h i m s e l f a " s l a v e o f G o d a n d o f t h e L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , " t h i s s p e a k e r h a s n o n e e d t o qualify himself, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t h e k n e w t h a t t h e r e c i p i ents w o u l d recognize t h e n a m e . M o r e o v e r , T h u r e n argues that
the
p r e s c r i p t m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d as p a r t o f t h e e x o r d i u m , b e c a u s e it e s t a b lishes t h e ethos o f t h e s p e a k e r as a u t h o r i t a t i v e , its u s e o f t h e
epithet
SouXog " e m p h a s i z e s his s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e a d d r e s s e e s , " a n d t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e w i t h t h e t r u e Israel w o u l d b e p l e a s i n g ,
for
d e s p i t e t h e i r diaspora s i t u a t i o n , t h e y really h a v e h i g h status. M o r e o v e r ,
63
C i c e r o (De Inv. 1.26): " T h e u n c o n n e c t e d [exordium] is o n e w h i c h is n o t derived
from the circumstances of t h e case n o r closely knit w i t h the rest of the speech, such as a l i m b to t h e b o d y . " 64
Especially w h e n , as discussed earlier, the rhetorical h a n d b o o k s d o n o t address t h e use
o f rhetoric in letters. 65
W a t s o n , " R h e t o r i c a l Criticism," 190.
66
See J o h n L. W h i t e , Light from Ancient Letters (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986) 1 9 4 - 9 5 . As
n o t e d earlier, Llewelyn ( " T h e Prescript of James") argues that t h e prescript was only a d d e d later to give James t h e appearance o f a letter, w h i c h enabled its survival. U n f o r t u nately, h o w e v e r , Llewelyn does n o t engage t h e i m p o r t a n t essay b y Francis ( " F o r m and F u n c t i o n " ) w h o , as discussed previously, explores the ways in w h i c h different ancient letter forms can deviate from standard practices, such as a lack o f a final farewell.
102
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
the use of ^odpeiv w o u l d create an amiable a t m o s p h e r e a n d connects t h e v e r s e t o t h e n e x t o n e , w h i c h refers t o j o y ( ^ a p a v ) .
H o w e v e r , it is
j u s t as l i k e l y t h a t t h e a u t h o r m a y h a v e w r i t t e n a p r e s c r i p t w h i c h w o u l d n i c e l y c o h e r e w i t h t h e rest o f t h e l e t t e r , for 1 : 2 - 1 8 is a b l e t o d e v e l o p a n ethos a n d pathos q u i t e w e l l a p a r t f r o m t h e p r e s c r i p t . W h e n w e t u r n t o t h e rest o f t h e e x o r d i u m , m o s t r h e t o r i c a l analyses o f J a m e s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t 1 : 2 - 1 8 f o r m s e i t h e r p a r t o r all o f t h e e x o r d i u m a n d e v e n D i b e l i u s g r a n t s t h a t t h i s is a s e e m i n g l y u n i f i e d s e c t i o n o f the letter.
68
A p a r t f r o m his i n c l u s i o n o f Jas 1:1, T h u r e n ' s
arguments
regarding t h e outlines o f t h e e x o r d i u m are t h e m o s t c o n v i n c i n g . Thuren,
1:1-4
f o r m s t h e e x o r d i u m p r o p e r , w i t h its e m p h a s i s
6 9
For upon
p e r s e v e r a n c e a n d p e r f e c t i o n , 1 : 5 - 1 1 t h e n amplifies t h e s e t h e m e s w i t h relation to w i s d o m and m o n e y , while 1:12-18 forms an inclusio b y returning to the themes of perseverance
and perfection.
Wuellner,
h o w e v e r , a r g u e s t h a t t h e e x o r d i u m is f o u n d i n 1 : 2 - 4 , f o l l o w e d b y a narratio ( 1 : 5 - 1 1 ) , a propositio
i n 1:12, a n d a n argumentatio
i n 1:13—5:6.
T h u r e n r i g h t l y p o i n t s o u t t h a t s u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t is a w k w a r d , t h e r e a r e n o signs o f a t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n 1:12 a n d 1:13, a n d
for 1:19,
w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h " K n o w t h i s , m y b e l o v e d b r o t h e r s , " is m u c h m o r e likely t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w section.
O t h e r studies o f J a m e s h a v e
d i v i d e d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e l e t t e r differently, s u c h as F r e d O . F r a n c i s , w h o argues that 1:13-18, 1:19-21 and 1:22-25 have restated the three o p e n i n g t h e m e s of testing, w i s d o m / s p e e c h , and m o n e y ,
7 1
b u t h e has
n o t a d d r e s s e d h o w s u c h a s t r u c t u r e w o u l d f u n c t i o n r h e t o r i c a l l y . If w e e x a m i n e t h e u n i t o f 1 : 2 - 1 8 , h o w e v e r , w e w i l l see t h a t it p e r f o r m s t h e typical functions of an e x o r d i u m . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l w a y s i n w h i c h a s p e a k e r c a n establish a n ethos o f authority and integrity. mentioned
72
O n e is t h e u s e o f d i r e c t a d d r e s s , w h i c h , as
earlier, is o f t e n
used w i t h i n the e x o r d i u m in
rhetorical
speeches. M a n y a n c i e n t writers c o n f i r m that forthright, frank
speech
(noLppir]GloL o r licentia), w h i c h offers c r i t i c i s m b u t c r i t i c i s m for t h e b e t -
67
Thuren, "Risky Rhetoric," 270-71.
68
Dibelius, James, 69.
69
Baasland ("Literarische F o r m , " 3658-59) also considers Jas 1:2-18 t o b e the e x o r
d i u m , although h e thinks that 1:16-18 functions as a transitus to the propositio in 1:19-27. 70
T h u r e n , " R i s k y R h e t o r i c , " 270. Francis, " F o r m and F u n c t i o n , " 118. I a m following the approach of S h a w n C a r r u t h h e r e ("Strategies o f Authority. A
R h e t o r i c a l Study of the Character of t h e Speaker in Q 6 : 2 0 - 4 9 , " Conflict and
Invention.
Literary, Rhetorical, and Social Studies on the Sayings Gospel Q, ed. J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g [Valley Forge, P A : Trinity, 1995] 98-115), w h o applies the principles o f rhetorical t h e o r y to t h e character of t h e speaker in the Q inaugural sermon.
4. The Exordium:
James
1:2-18
103
t e r m e n t o f t h e hearers, reveals t h e fine character o f t h e speaker. D i o C h r y s o s t o m insists t h a t t o find a m a n w h o s p e a k s f r a n k l y a n d o u t o f c o n c e r n for t h e g o o d o f o t h e r s , e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f r i s k i n g a l i e n a t i o n a n d r e j e c t i o n f r o m t h e m o b , is n o t easy, " s o g r e a t is t h e d e a r t h o f n o ble,
independent
souls
and
mountebanks, and sophists."
73
such
the
abundance
of
toadies,
Rhetoricians t h o u g h t highly of frank
ness. I s o c r a t e s , for e x a m p l e , w r o t e t h a t o n e o u g h t t o c o m m e n d t h o s e w h o a d m o n i s h o t h e r s for t h e i r b e t t e r m e n t , " f o r s u c h a m a n c a n s o o n e s t b r i n g y o u t o a b h o r w h a t y o u s h o u l d a b h o r a n d t o set y o u r h e a r t s o n better things."
7 4
T h i s frankness m u s t n o t d e s c e n d to t h e level o f a h u
m i l i a t i n g i n v e c t i v e , w e recall, for s u c h d i s p a r a g e m e n t w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y n o t aid o r i m p r o v e t h e recipients, b u t only depress o r d e m o r a l i z e t h e m . T h u s frankness m u s t always k e e p t h e g o o d o f t h e listeners in v i e w , a n d m u s t b e d o n e sensitively a n d w i t h m o d e r a t i o n . T h e b e g i n n i n g o f J a m e s d o e s n o t a d m o n i s h t h e a u d i e n c e , b u t it d o e s directly w a r n t h e m a b o u t their b e h a v i o u r . T h e a u t h o r speaks dently and with authority w h e n
confi
h e c a u t i o n s t h e m t o ask G o d
for
w i s d o m (if t h e y l a c k it) w i t h faith, u n l i k e t h e d o u b l e - m i n d e d m a n w h o is u n s t a b l e a n d as a r e s u l t w i l l r e c e i v e n o t h i n g f r o m G o d ( 1 : 5 - 7 ) . A l t h o u g h w e h a v e n o t established w h o t h e recipients of t h e letter w e r e , n o r w h a t t h e i r e c o n o m i c status w a s , J a m e s asserts s q u a r e l y t h a t t h e r i c h m a n w i l l fade a w a y ( 1 : 1 0 - 1 1 ) . If t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f t h e l e t t e r c o n s i s t e d o f b o t h r i c h a n d p o o r , J a m e s d o e s n o t resist t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o f f e n d i n g t h e w e a l t h y , at least if t h e y i n t e n d u p o n r e m a i n i n g w e a l t h y . S i g n s o f a s p e a k e r ' s ethos a r e also e v i d e n t i n t h e u s e o f i m p e r a t i v e s . A n c i e n t r h e t o r i c i a n s d o n o t discuss t h e u s e o f i m p e r a t i v e s i n c r e a t i n g a n ethos, b u t s o m e m o d e r n t h e o r i s t s p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e f o r c e o f t h e i m p e r a t i v e lies i n t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r .
76
T h u s , if a s p e a k e r k n e w t h a t
s h e l a c k e d a u t h o r i t y , s h e w o u l d l i k e l y resist u s i n g t h e i m p e r a t i v e m o o d , as t h e a u d i e n c e w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y b e g i n i g n o r i n g h e r . J a m e s ,
how
e v e r , d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e t o u s e t h e i m p e r a t i v e t h r o u g h o u t his l e t t e r , as it appears 31 times,
7 7
e i g h t o f w h i c h a r e i n Jas 1 : 2 - 1 8 . E v e n f r o m t h e v e r y
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e l e t t e r , t h e n , t h e a u t h o r s e e m s t o b e a w a r e o f his a u -
73
D i o C h r y s o s t o m , Alex. 32.11 (LCL; trans. J . W . C o h o o n & H . Lamar Crosby; L o n
d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m b r i d g e , M A : Harvard University Press, 1961). 74
Isocrates, De pace 7 2 - 7 3 (LCL; trans. G e o r g e N o r l i n ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; N e w
Y o r k : P u t n a m , 1929). 75
76
See Plutarch, Adul. amic. 7 4 D - E . See C a r r u t h , "Strategies o f A u t h o r i t y , " 103 and P e r e l m a n and Olbrechts-Tyteca,
The New Rhetoric, 158. 77
See J o s e p h B . M a y o r , The Epistle of St. James (London: Macmillan, 1913) ccxxx.
104
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
thoritative h o l d o n t h e a u d i e n c e , for o t h e r w i s e h e w o u l d likely a v o i d so m a n y d i r e c t i n s t r u c t i o n s . T h e use o f m a x i m s c a n e n h a n c e t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e speaker, for b y u s i n g a k n o w n s a y i n g o r p h r a s e w h i c h is u n d e r s t o o d t o b e g e n e r a l l y true, t h e speaker reveals a g o o d c h a r a c t e r .
78
H o w e v e r , indiscriminately
flinging m a x i m s a b o u t in a speech will n o t impress an audience; t h e m a x i m s m u s t b e u s e d s p a r i n g l y a n d a p p r o p r i a t e l y . Q u i n t i l i a n m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f w e l l - k n o w n sayings is " u s e l e s s , u n l e s s t h e p l e a d e r h a s t h e w i t t o a p p l y t h e m i n s u c h a m a n n e r as t o s u p p o r t t h e p o i n t s w h i c h h e is t r y i n g t o m a k e " ( 5 . 1 1 . 4 2 ) . T h u s p r o v e r b s o r sayings w i t h w h i c h t h e a u d i e n c e m a y b e q u i t e familiar a r e n o t effective u n l e s s t h e y a r e p l a c e d carefully w i t h i n a n a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t . J a m e s 1:12 is c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d t o b e a m a c a r i s m o r b e a t i t u d e , a type of m a x i m w h i c h (xaxapio^
avYJp,
often
appears in the L X X w i t h the
formula
a n d is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e .
G e o r g e K e n n e d y discusses t h e b e a t i t u d e s i n M a t t h e w ' s S e r m o n o n t h e M o u n t , explaining that Jesus makes the m i n o r premises ("the p o o r in spirit w i l l e n t e r t h e k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n " a n d so f o r t h ) a c c e p t a b l e t o his listeners " b y a v o i d i n g a n y a t t e m p t t o j u s t i f y t h e m , t h u s r e l y i n g o n t h e e t h o s o f his a u t h o r i t y , a n d also b y t h e w a y h e p u t s t h e v e r b s i n t o t h e future tense."
S i m i l a r l y , S h a w n C a r r u t h has s h o w n h o w t h e b e a t i
tudes in Q 6:20-21 derive their claim to truth from the authority of the s p e a k e r . I n fact, t h e s p e a k e r m u s t h a v e significant a u t h o r i t y as t h e
Q
beatitudes are generally t h o u g h t to r u n c o u n t e r to c o n v e n t i o n a l w i s dom.
T h e c o n t e n t o f J a s 1:12 is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o u n t e r t o a c c e p t e d
w i s d o m , given the emphasis u p o n testing w i t h i n J e w i s h w i s d o m litera ture,
b u t it d o e s offer t h e f u t u r e p r o m i s e o f a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e w a r d ,
t h e " c r o w n o f l i f e . " T h e r e f o r e , it s e e m s t h a t t h e s p e a k e r i n J a m e s a g a i n asserts h i s a u t h o r i t y b y m a k i n g a f i r m s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e f u t u r e , w i t h n o n e e d t o j u s t i f y himself. S e c o n d l y , t h e r e f e r e n c e t o a trial ( T r e i p a a JJLO^) recalls 1:2 a n d p r e p a r e s t h e w a y f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t e m p t a t i o n i n 1:13-18, a section in w h i c h the verb t h e a d j e c t i v e (kneipoLGToq
rceipa^eiv
occurs three times and
appears o n c e in v. 13. W h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e
ethos o f t h e s p e a k e r , t h e r e f o r e , t h e b e a t i t u d e also fits w e l l w i t h i n t h e
78
Aristotle (Rhet. 2.21.16) says that " h e w h o employs [maxims] in a general m a n n e r
declares his moral preferences; if t h e n t h e m a x i m s are good, t h e y s h o w t h e speaker also to b e a m a n o f g o o d character." 79
Dibelius, James, 88.
80
Patrick J. Hartin, A Spirituality of Perfection, 4 3 .
81
K e n n e d y , New Testament Interpretation, 50.
82
C a r r u t h , "Strategies o f A u t h o r i t y , " 108.
83
R a l p h P . M a r t i n , James ( W B C 4 8 ; W a c o : W o r d B o o k s , 1988) 3 3 .
4. The Exordium:
James
105
1:2-18
o p e n i n g s e c t i o n o f J a m e s , c o n n e c t i n g t h e m e s i n t r o d u c e d at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e letter w i t h those that immediately follow v. 12. James 1:13-18 t h e n continues the t h e m e of temptation/testing w i t h a series o f s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t G o d a n d t e m p t a t i o n . 1:13 is p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t a b l e as it c o n f o r m s s o m e w h a t t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a r h e t o r i c a l s y l l o g i s m o r enthymeme
w h e r e b y a s t a t e m e n t is m a d e , w h i c h is a n i m
p e r a t i v e i n t h i s case ( " L e t n o o n e say w h e n h e is t e m p t e d ,
'I
am
t e m p t e d b y G o d ' " ) , followed b y a reason for t h e statement w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i v e y a p ("for G o d c a n n o t b e t e m p t e d w i t h evil a n d h e h i m s e l f t e m p t s n o o n e " ) . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e b i b l i c a l passages s u c h as G e n 2 2 w h i c h s u g g e s t t h a t G o d d o e s i n d e e d test, h e r e J a m e s is l i k e l y e x p r e s s i n g the v i e w found in w i s d o m literature that rather than taking responsibil ity for their choices, h u m a n s e x p e r i e n c e difficulties.
84
are q u i c k t o b l a m e
It c o u l d b e , m o r e o v e r ,
God when
they
that G o d does
not
" t e m p t t o evil" b u t does "test" for virtue, for surely t h e a u t h o r w o u l d a d m i t that G o d tested A b r a h a m i n Jas 2 : 2 1 ? place
the
blame
for
temptation
to
evil
8 5
Verses 14 a n d 15 t h e n
upon
one's
own
desire,
£7ULi)ufxt,a, w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y l e a d s t o sin a n d d e a t h , w h i l e w .
16-18
affirm t h a t o n l y g o o d n e s s a n d p e r f e c t i o n c o m e f r o m G o d , i n d i r e c t 3
rv
/
86
c o n t r a s t t o £7uutu[jxa. S u c h a series o f s t r o n g s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e s o u r c e o f t e m p t a t i o n a n d t h e n a t u r e o f G o d w o u l d n o t e m e r g e f r o m a s p e a k e r w h o lacks r e s p e c t f r o m h i s a u d i e n c e . Q u i n t i l i a n states t h a t " r e f l e x i o n s o f u n i v e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n " a r e " b e s t s u i t e d t o t h o s e s p e a k e r s w h o s e a u t h o r i t y is s u c h t h a t t h e i r c h a r a c t e r itself w i l l l e n d w e i g h t t o t h e i r w o r d s " ( 8 . 5 . 7 - 8 ) . J a m e s 1 : 1 3 - 1 8 m a k e s firm a s s e r t i o n s a b o u t h u m a n d e s i r e a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e divine,
which
suggests
that
this
author
possesses
an
ethos
of
self-
a s s u r e d n e s s a n d r e s p e c t , f o r h e r e q u i r e s s u c h a u t h o r i t y t o affirm t h e s e opinions. Y e t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f J a m e s d o e s n o t f o c u s u p o n ethos at t h e e x p e n s e of pathos,
for t h e text attempts t o arouse e m o t i o n f r o m t h e a u d i e n c e .
A l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r speaks w i t h authority, h e expresses c o n c e r n for t h e r e c i p i e n t s . 1:2, f o r e x a m p l e , m a k e s e m o t i o n a l a p p e a l s t o t h e a u d i e n c e w i t h a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e trials (7csipacT(Jioi) t h a t t h e y , t h e a u t h o r ' s "brothers"
(aSeXcpoi)
meet,
and
the
assurance
that
the
testing
84
See P r o v 19:3; Sir 15:11-20; Martin, James, 34.
85
See J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 192.
86
T h e contrast b e t w e e n desire a n d G o d is m o s t p r o n o u n c e d in v. 18, w h e r e b y G o d
"gives b i r t h " t o h u m a n s " b y t h e w o r d o f t r u t h " as opposed t o desire w h i c h conceived sin, w h i c h i n t u r n "gave b i r t h " t o death. See J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 0 5 ; Martin, James, 39.
106
Friendship
and Benefaction
in
James
( S o x i u x o v ) o f faith w i l l l e a d t o a v i r t u e , n a m e l y steadfastness o r e n d u r ance
(urcofjiovTQ).
O f n o t e h e r e is t h e fact t h a t J a m e s d e s c r i b e s
the
a u d i e n c e as " k n o w i n g " t h a t t e s t i n g w i l l p r o d u c e e n d u r a n c e , a p o s i t i v e s t a t e m e n t w h i c h w o u l d m a k e t h e addressees m o r e i n c l i n e d t o listen. S u c h e n d u r a n c e , in t u r n , leads t o an e v e n greater e n d , that o f p e r f e c t i o n , f o r 1:4 states t h a t UTCOJXOVTQ s h o u l d h a v e a "full effect" o r " p e r f e c t w o r k " (epyov
xeXeiov) s u c h t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e m a y b e " p e r f e c t
and
c o m p l e t e , l a c k i n g i n n o t h i n g . " T h u s t h e e n d o f t e s t i n g is n o t steadfast ness b u t u l t i m a t e l y p e r f e c t i o n o r w h o l e n e s s ; s o m e t h i n g w h i c h J a m e s p r e s e n t s as a n a t t a i n a b l e g o a l . M o r e o v e r , at t h e c l o s e o f t h e e x o r d i u m , J a m e s refers t o his " b e l o v e d b r o t h e r s " (1:16) a n d assures t h e m t h a t all g o o d t h i n g s c o m e f r o m G o d , that " w e " w e r e b r o u g h t forth b y the w o r d of truth that " w e " should b e a k i n d o f "first f r u i t s " o f G o d ' s c r e a t u r e s ( 1 : 1 8 ) . T h i s v e r s e is o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d as a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e salvific a c t i o n s o f G o d , w h e r e b y t h e b e l i e v e r b e c o m e s o n e o f t h e "first f r u i t s " o r o n e o f t h e r e b o r n .
Rhet
orically, it c o u l d n o t h e l p b u t h a v e a p o s i t i v e effect u p o n t h e a u d i e n c e , for it assures t h e m t h a t t h e y a r e i n d e e d t h e first fruits o f G o d ' s c r e a tures. T h u s far, 1 : 2 - 1 8 h a s fulfilled t h e d u t i e s o f t h e e x o r d i u m i n t h a t it h a s p r e s e n t e d t h e s p e a k e r as a u t h o r i t a t i v e , d i r e c t , a n d c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e a u d i e n c e , b u t it has d o n e so w i t h a c e r t a i n s e n s i t i v i t y for t h e i r s i t u a t i o n a n d a s s u r a n c e o f G o d ' s reliability. B u t a n e x o r d i u m w i l l also o f t e n refer t o t h e subject(s) o f t h e e n t i r e s p e e c h
8 9
a n d t h u s it is
n o t u n u s u a l t h a t t h e m a i n t h e m e s o f J a m e s b e i n t r o d u c e d i n this s e c t i o n . M a n y analysts a g r e e t h a t a n o v e r a l l t h r u s t o f J a m e s is t o perfection or wholeness,
9 0
seek
f o r w e o b s e r v e this t h e m e t o b e t a k e n u p
t h r o u g h o u t t h e rest o f t h e l e t t e r , w i t h x e X e i o ^ o c c u r r i n g five t i m e s , as w e l l as o t h e r i n s t a n c e s o f t h e v e r b xsXeiv a n d r e l a t e d w o r d s s u c h as oAo£ a n d oXoxXyjpo^.
91
B y perfection, James does not m e a n the unat-
87
See T h u r e n , " R i s k y R h e t o r i c , " 2 7 1 .
88
See Dibelius, James,
8 9
P e r e l m a n and O l b r e c h t s - T y c e c a ,
104-107. The New Rhetoric,
497.
See, for example, Elliott, " T h e Epistle o f James in R h e t o r i c a l and Social Perspective,"
7 1 ; H u b e r t Frankemolle,
E i n h e i t eines umstrittenen Perfect t h r o u g h Suffering
B r i e f e s , " J B Z 3 4 (1990)
193; Patrick J. Hartin,
(James 1,2-4). T h e C o n c e p t
of Perfection
tion;
Martin,
James,
lxxix-lxxxiv;
Josef
Zmijewski,
zur T h e o l o g i e des Jakobusbriefes,"
Studien
"Christliche zum
Neuen
Zur
"Call to b e
in the Episde
James and the S e r m o n o n t h e M o u n t , " Bib 77 (1996) 4 7 7 - 9 2 ; and A Spirituality Erwagungen
Scientific
"Das semantische N e t z des Jakobusbriefes.
of
of Perfec
'Vollkommenheit.' Testament
und seiner
Umwelt (ed. Albert Fuchs; ser. A, vol. 5; Linz: A. Fuchs, 1980) 5 0 - 7 8 . 91
T h e use o f Ttkeioq
and related w o r d s has b e e n analysed b y Zmijewski,
'Vollkommenheit,'" 52-53.
"Christliche
4. The Exordium:
James
107
1:2-18
tainable t h i n g for w h i c h m o d e r n s s o m e t i m e s aspire, b u t t h e n o t i o n o f c o m p l e t e or total allegiance to G o d .
9 2
T o b e p e r f e c t is t o w i t h s t a n d t h e
trials o f faith w h i c h s e e k t o d i v i d e o n e f r o m G o d , as w e l l as t o l i v e o u t o n e ' s life i n d e d i c a t i o n t o G o d , w h e t h e r it b e t h r o u g h b r i d l i n g o n e ' s t o n g u e (3:2) o r t h r o u g h c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n h e a r i n g a n d d o i n g ( 1 : 2 5 ) . P e r f e c t i o n is g a i n e d , at least i n p a r t , n o t t h r o u g h o n e ' s o w n m e r i t s , b u t t h r o u g h t h e gift o f w i s d o m f r o m G o d , w h i c h is t h e f o c u s o f Jas 1 : 5 - 8 . T h u r e n , E l l i o t t a n d W u e l l n e r a r g u e t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n is a n e x p a n s i o n o r amplificatio o f t h e p r o p e r e x o r d i u m i n 1 : 2 - 4 , w h i c h o u t t h e n e e d for p e r s e v e r a n c e
firmly
i n t h e q u e s t for p e r f e c t i o n .
lays
1:9-11,
w h i c h refers t o t h e r i c h a n d p o o r , a t h e m e t a k e n u p l a t e r o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e t t e r , is also a n a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f p e r f e c t i o n , for p a r t o f b e i n g p e r f e c t is t o resist t h e d e s i r e f o r r i c h e s . of the
exordium,
fxaxdcpiog
avvjp
endurance
OQ u 7 t o u i v e i
A^fjuJ^xoa TOV a x ^ a v o v auxov
leading
1:12-18 t h e n invokes a t h e m e to perfection,
7t£ipaafji6v,
by
stating
OTL Soxifxo^
x-yjg £WYJ£, 6v £TCY)YY£IX(XTO
that
yevouxvo^ aya7Tc5aiv
TOZQ
( " B l e s s e d is t h e m a n w h o e n d u r e s trial, for w h e n h e h a s s t o o d
t h e test h e w i l l r e c e i v e t h e c r o w n o f life w h i c h G o d has p r o m i s e d h i m " ) , a n d b y f u r n i s h i n g a n o t h e r m e a n i n g o f neipoLGiioq:
"steadfastness
i n t r i b u l a t i o n is r e w a r d e d b y G o d [ 1 : 2 - 4 ] , b u t t h e trial c a n also b e a t e m p t a t i o n w h i c h leads t o d e a t h [ 1 : 1 3 - 1 5 ] . "
T h e s e c t i o n t h e n closes
w i t h 1:16-18, w h i c h provides a contrast to 1:13-15 b y t h a t " e v e r y p e r f e c t gift" c o m e s f r o m
God who
emphasizing
" b r o u g h t us
forth,"
u n l i k e sin w h i c h " b r i n g s f o r t h " d e a t h . G o d , w h o p r o v i d e s " e v e r y p e r f e c t gift" is t h e s o u r c e o f p e r f e c t i o n , it s e e m s , e c h o i n g 1:5-8. T h u s , it is clear t h a t 1 : 2 - 1 8 p e r f o r m s a n o t h e r o f its d u t i e s as a n e x o r d i u m , a n d t h a t is t o i n t r o d u c e a m a i n s u b j e c t o f t h e letter.
C. Friendship and Benefaction within the E x o r d i u m H a v i n g m a d e a case for Jas 1 : 2 - 1 8 as t h e e x o r d i u m o f t h e l e t t e r , t o w h a t extent d o notions of friendship, benefaction a n d / o r
patronage
p l a y a r o l e i n this u n i t ? T h e s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n w i l l a t t e n d t o t h i s q u e s t i o n at t h r e e l e v e l s : a u t h o r t o a u d i e n c e ; t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f c o m m u n i t y members;
to
the
c o m m u n i t y . H e r e w e see t h a t t h e a u t h o r s p e a k s t o t h e a u d i e n c e
and the character of G o d
au
thoritatively, 92
but
invokes
and G o d ' s relationship
aspects o f t h e t r a d i t i o n
of friendship,
he
H a r t i n ("Called t o B e Perfect t h r o u g h Suffering," 483-84) discusses this c o n c e p t o f
perfection in J e w i s h literature. 93
T h u r e n , " R i s k y R b e t o r i c , " 2 7 2 ; Elliott, " T h e Epistle of James in R h e t o r i c a l a n d
Social Scientific Perspective," 72; W u e l l n e r , " D e r Jakobusbrief," 4 1 . Baasland ("Literarische F o r m , " 3655) includes Jas 1:5-15 w i t h i n the e x o r d i u m . 9 4
Thuren, "Risky R b e t o r i c , " 272.
108
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
i n t r o d u c e s s o m e o f t h e v i r t u e s o f f r i e n d s h i p as i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e a u d i ence
to
uphold,
especially
the
ability
to
withstand
testing
and
faithfulness, a n d h e i n t r o d u c e s G o d as a b e n e f a c t o r a n d t h e t i e b e t w e e n t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s a n d G o d as o n e o f f r i e n d s h i p a n d b e n e f a c tion. 1. Author
to
Hearers/Readers
T h e epistle c a n n o t b e c a t e g o r i z e d as a " f r i e n d l y l e t t e r " t y p e , b u t o n e o f moral exhortation and advice.
T h e s p e a k e r , as w e h a v e s e e n , is a f i g
u r e o f r e s p e c t ; i n fact, i n c l a i m i n g t o b e J a m e s t h e J u s t , t h e b r o t h e r o f Jesus,
h e is s p e a k i n g as o n e w h o w a s c l o s e t o J e s u s . R o b e r t W a l l h a s
also s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n s u p p l y i n g t h e c r e d e n t i a l s o f " s e r v a n t o f G o d a n d o f t h e L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , " t h e a u t h o r is d r a w i n g u p o n t h e i m a g e o f J a c o b , w h o is i d e n t i f i e d as G o d ' s s e r v a n t b y Isaiah (Isa 4 9 : 5 - 6 )
and
c a l l e d t o d r a w t o g e t h e r t h e s c a t t e r e d s h e e p o f Israel. F o r W a l l , t h e s e r v a n t h o o d o f J a m e s is c o m p a r a b l e t o t h a t o f J a c o b , a n d t h u s J a m e s w r i t e s as " a t r a d e n t o f a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e v e l a t i o n t r a d i t i o n , b u t also as a n a g e n t o f G o d ' s s a l v a t i o n , w h o s e v o c a t i o n is t o t e a c h t h e w o r d o f t h e L o r d f o r salvation."
W h o e v e r actually w r o t e J a m e s , a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t Wall's
p o i n t is c o r r e c t , t h e i m p l i e d a u t h o r s p e a k s w i t h a v o i c e o f a u t h o r i t y . I n a n t i q u i t y , w i s e m e n , t e a c h e r s a n d friends h a d p a r t i c u l a r r e s p o n s i bilities t o s p e a k w i t h f r a n k n e s s , as P h i l o d e m u s ' s essay o n f r a n k c r i t i c i s m m a k e s clear.
T h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e s p e a k e r is s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y s p e a k i n g
as a t e a c h e r b e c o m e s e v i d e n t i n Jas 3 : 1 - 2 , w h e n h e refers t o t e a c h e r s , himself included, in t h e c o n t e x t o f a discussion o f t h e role a n d p o w e r o f t h e t o n g u e . G i v e n t h e a u t h o r ' s s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g as a t e a c h e r , his k n o w l e d g e o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t e a c h e r s , his w a r n i n g s a b o u t t h e d a n g e r s o f t h e t o n g u e ( 3 : 1 - 1 2 ) as w e l l as t h e f r a n k t o n e t h a t p e r v a d e s t h e l e t t e r , I t h i n k t h a t h e is a w a r e o f t h e v a l u e o f f r a n k s p e e c h a n d v a l u e s it, e v e n t h o u g h h e n e v e r e x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n s t h e w o r d TtappYjaLa. A n d as d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , f r a n k s p e e c h w a s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r i e n d s h i p . P l u t a r c h e m p h a s i z e s t h e fact t h a t t r u e
friends
w i l l s p e a k d i r e c t l y t o o n e a n o t h e r , o u t o f c o n c e r n for e a c h o n e ' s w e l l being
95
96
and
betterment.
IlappYjcrLa
was
the
focus,
as w e
saw,
of
See Stowers, Letter Writing, 9 1 - 1 5 1 . Scholarship o n James is virtually u n a n i m o u s that the James w h o m the a u t h o r p u r
ports to b e is James t h e Just, o r James of Jerusalem. This was t h e m o s t famous James in the early c h u r c h , and claiming to b e this James w i t h little qualification presumes that t h e audience k n e w w h o h e was. Wall, Community
of the Wise, 4 1 .
98
P h i l o d e m u s , Lib. 1; 10.
99
Amic.adul.
7IB.
4. The Exordium:
James
109
1:2-18
P h i l o d e m u s ' s treatise o n h o w m e m b e r s o f t h e E p i c u r e a n school, friends a n d f e l l o w disciples, s h o u l d t r e a t o n e a n o t h e r . I n this s a m e t r a d i t i o n , J a m e s does n o t m a k e e m o t i o n a l appeals; rather h e firmly exhorts t h e a u d i e n c e t o p a t i e n c e a n d p e r f e c t i o n , a n d w a r n s his l i s t e n e r s n o t t o fall p r e y t o t e m p t a t i o n . J a m e s is b l u n t , w i t h n o t r a c e o f flattery. B u t consistently w i t h advice a b o u t frank s p e e c h f r o m
Philodemus
a n d P l u t a r c h , J a m e s d o e s n o t d e m o l i s h t h e h e a r e r s . P l u t a r c h says t h a t friends s h o u l d n o t speak w i t h a n g e r a n d resort t o fault-finding
for
" f r a n k n e s s is friendly a n d n o b l e , b u t f a u l t - f i n d i n g is selfish a n d m e a n " . T h e r e a r e n o insults i n J a m e s ; r a t h e r , t h e l e t t e r offers r e a s s u r a n c e s t h a t t h o s e w h o w i t h s t a n d t e s t i n g a n d trial w i l l r e c e i v e " t h e c r o w n o f l i f e " ( 1 : 1 2 ) . T h e e x h o r t a t i o n s a r e f o r t h e g o o d o f t h e a u d i e n c e , n o t for t h e i r h u m i l i a t i o n . I n d e e d , harsh w a r n i n g s a n d apocalyptic images are applied t o t h e r i c h , b u t t h e s e r i c h a r e o u t s i d e t h e c o m m u n i t y , as w e w i l l discuss b e l o w . I n s p e a k i n g t o his i n t e n d e d a u d i e n c e , a n d b e g i n n i n g i n exordium, James provides strong instruction intertwined with
the
refer
e n c e s t o G o d ' s r e l i a b i l i t y a n d p r o m i s e s o f G o d ' s gifts ( 1 : 5 , 1 2 , 1 7 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e a u t h o r a d d r e s s e s t h e a u d i e n c e as dSeXcpoi [xou (1:2) a n d as dSeXcpol [xou dyaTDQTOi ( 1 : 1 6 ) , a n a d d r e s s w h i c h h e c o n t i n u e s t o u s e t h r o u g h o u t t h e rest o f t h e l e t t e r . Arzt-Grabner
and Harland have shown
As discussed in C h a p t e r 2, that the use of
"brothers"
c o u l d , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , b e u s e d t o d e s i g n a t e friends i n a v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s , i n c l u d i n g m a n y G r e e k d o c u m e n t a r y p a p y r i , as w e l l as i n i n scriptions from associations.
102
B y consistently referring to the audience
as aSeXcpoi (xou, J a m e s t e m p e r s his f i r m e x h o r t a t i o n w i t h
fictive
family
l a n g u a g e t h a t e v o k e s , as it d o e s i n o t h e r a n c i e n t c o n t e x t s , b e l o n g i n g a n d friendship. M o r e o v e r b y calling t h e a u d i e n c e " m y " b r o t h e r s (and p r e s u m a b l y w o m e n w e r e i n c l u d e d , as i n d i c a t e d b y 2 : 1 5 ) , J a m e s stresses his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e . E v e n t h o u g h h e s p e a k s w i t h a u t h o r ity, h e p l a c e s h i m s e l f a l o n g s i d e t h e c o m m u n i t y , as a b r o t h e r , p e r h a p s e v e n as a n e q u a l , as H a r t i n s u g g e s t s .
103
T h e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e first p e r s o n
p l u r a l i n 1:18 f u r t h e r u n d e r s c o r e this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e r e c i p i e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e v o i c e is s t r o n g , it also b e a r s aspects o f i n t i m a c y a n d stresses a c o m m o n i d e n t i t y b e t w e e n t h e a u t h o r a n d t h e a u d i e n c e . J a m e s clearly w a n t s t o offer d i r e c t i v e s t o his r e a d e r s / h e a r e r s , b u t h e also a c c e n t u a t e s his r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e m . H e s p e a k s as a w i s e , r e s p e c t e d a n d
100
Plutarch, Adul. amic. 66E. P h i l o d e m u s (Lib. 26) makes a distinction b e t w e e n "caring
a d m o n i s h m e n t and an irony that pleases b u t also stings e v e r y o n e " . 101
S e e j a s 1:19; 2 : 1 , 5, 14; 3 : 1 , 10; 4 : 1 1 ; 5:7, 9, 12, 19.
102
See C h a p t e r 2, n n . 2 0 2 - 2 0 7 .
103
Hartin, James, 56.
110
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
h o n e s t friend, a n d rhetorically such language a n d t o n e w o u l d inspire a r e c e p t i v e a n d g e n i a l d i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e a u d i e n c e , w h i c h is o n e o f t h e goals o f a n e x o r d i u m . 2. Community
Members
I n a d d i t i o n t o s p e a k i n g w i t h t h e v o i c e o f a friend, J a m e s
encourages
qualities i n his a u d i e n c e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f r i e n d s h i p t r a d i t i o n . I n 1:21 8 , t h e s e qualities focus p r i m a r i l y o n t h e a u d i e n c e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o G o d , a l t h o u g h later i n t h e letter, as w e w i l l see, qualities associated w i t h h o w t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d treat o n e a n o t h e r a r e stressed. I n a n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r w e o b s e r v e d t h a t o f t e n friends w e r e r e q u i r e d t o p r o v e t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p t h r o u g h t e s t i n g . I n t h e classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d s , t h e t r u e test o f f r i e n d s h i p w a s w h e t h e r o n e f r i e n d w o u l d h e l p a n o t h e r d u r i n g difficult t i m e s , reports.
1 0 4
e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f d e a t h , as P l u t a r c h
C i c e r o , w e recall, insists u p o n p u t t i n g friends t h r o u g h trials
r a t h e r t h a n n a i v e l y a c c e p t i n g p r e l i m i n a r y e x p r e s s i o n s a n d acts o f g o o d will.
M o s t e x p l i c i t i n his r e f e r e n c e s t o t e s t i n g is B e n Sira, w h o uses
t h e s a m e w o r d , neipoia^ioc;,
as J a m e s t o d e s c r i b e w h a t a n e w
(pfkoc,
s h o u l d e n d u r e before e a r n i n g t h e trust o f a n o t h e r (6:7). L i k e t h e o t h e r w r i t e r s , B e n Sira c o n c u r s t h a t t h e b e s t test o f f r i e n d s h i p is h o w
the
f r i e n d b e h a v e s i n t h e face o f affliction o r a d v e r s i t y o f s o m e k i n d ( 6 : 8 ; 12:8-9). T h e f o c u s o f t e s t i n g i n J a m e s is t h e t e s t i n g o f faith ( 1 : 3 ) . T h e o b j e c t o f faith is G o d , f o r d i r e c t l y after t e l l i n g t h e a u d i e n c e t o ask G o d f o r w i s d o m , t h e a u t h o r e x h o r t s t h e m t o ask i n faith (ev
TZIGTSI).
J a m e s says
t h a t t h e t e s t i n g o f t h e a u d i e n c e ' s faith w i l l p r o d u c e steadfastness, a n d t h a t steadfastness w i l l h a v e its full effect, s u c h t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e w i l l b e p e r f e c t a n d c o m p l e t e , l a c k i n g i n n o t h i n g ( 1 : 2 - 4 ) . It is w o r t h o b s e r v i n g h e r e t h a t t h i s n o t i o n o f p e r f e c t i o n , o r h a v i n g i n t e g r i t y , is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a f r i e n d w h o d o e s w h a t h e says. M o r e o v e r , t h e m a n w h o e n d u r e s t e s t i n g w i l l r e c e i v e t h e c r o w n o f life w h i c h G o d has p r o m i s e d t o t h o s e w h o l o v e G o d ( 1 : 1 2 ) . T h u s f o r J a m e s , a k e y c o m p o n e n t o f a u t h e n t i c faith is a faith t h a t has w i t h s t o o d t e s t i n g a n d trials. C e n t r a l t o t h e a u d i e n c e ' s l o y a l t y t o o r faith i n G o d is t h e a b i l i t y t o m a i n t a i n s u c h faith i n t h e face o f t r i b u l a t i o n . A s w e s a w i n t h e first c h a p t e r , l o y a l t y is a k e y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t e m e r g e s a g a i n a n d a g a i n i n t h e h i s t o r y o f f r i e n d s h i p . P h i l o ' s v i e w , as w e s a w , is t h a t o n l y G o d a n d
104
Orest. 6 5 5 - 5 7 .
105
Adv. Col. 8.1111b.
106
Lad. 6 3 .
4. The Exordium:
James
t h o s e w h o a r e f r i e n d s o f G o d a r e faithful.
1:2-18
111
O f t e n s u c h faithfulness is
a u t h e n t i c a t e d t h r o u g h a p e r i o d o f trial. J a m e s , i n r e f e r r i n g e x p l i c i t l y t o t h e t e s t i n g o f faith, reflects t h i s t r a d i t i o n . I n t h e h i s t o r y o f f r i e n d s h i p , w e s a w t h a t f r i e n d s c o u l d test o n e a n o t h e r , o r t h a t t e s t i n g c o u l d c o m e f r o m a n o t h e r s o u r c e . O n t h i s issue J a m e s c l e a r l y allies h i s t e a c h i n g w i t h t h e l a t t e r s i t u a t i o n . T h e l e t t e r g o e s o u t o f its w a y t o m a k e it c l e a r t h a t a l t h o u g h t e s t i n g is v e r y i m p o r t a n t , G o d is n o t t h e s o u r c e o f t e s t i n g ( 1 : 1 3 - 1 4 ) . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e u s e o f t h e n o u n Treipaajxo^ i n 1:2 a n d 1:12 refers t o e x t e r n a l t e s t i n g a n d trials, w h i l e t h e v e r b internal, subjective t e m p t a t i o n "
1 0 8
rceipd^co
i n 1:13-14 "refers
to
a n d t h u s " t e m p t e d " is m o r e a p p r o p r i
a t e t h a n " t e s t e d " i n t h e l a t t e r v e r s e s . J a m e s ' s p o i n t h e r e , i n a n y case, is t h a t t h e n o t i o n t h a t G o d tests o r t e m p t s is i n c o r r e c t . J a m e s t h u s differs f r o m t h e L X X i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Genesis 2 2 : 1 , w h i c h reads Kod s y e v e T O fji£Ta
Ta
p7](jiaTa
TOCUTOC
6
#eo<;
Ircelpa^ev
xov
A(3paa[ji
5
and
t h e r e b y a c k n o w l e d g e s G o d as a s o u r c e o f t e s t i n g . D e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t h e refers t o t h e s t o r y o f t h e b i n d i n g o f Isaac as a g r e a t m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f faith a n d w o r k s i n 2 : 2 1 - 2 4 , J a m e s w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y r e j e c t t h e L X X r e a d i n g , for testing does n o t c o m e f r o m G o d , b u t f r o m desire. T e s t i n g , w h a t e v e r its f o r m , c a n b e v i e w e d as a p o s i t i v e t h i n g t h a t
promotes
e n d u r a n c e a n d p e r f e c t i o n i n J a s 1 : 2 - 4 , b u t it is n o t e v i d e n t t h a t J a m e s s h a r e s w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e ' s v i e w t h a t t e s t i n g is e d u c a t i v e , w h e r e i n " t h e w h o l e life o f t h e r i g h t e o u s is a test, s i n c e G o d e d u c a t e s H i s o w n t h r o u g h o u t their lives."
T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f G o d as t h e s o u r c e
of
testing therefore distances J a m e s f r o m various biblical texts comfortable w i t h t h i s i d e a , s u c h as D e u t 8 : 2 , b u t it l i k e n s t h e l e t t e r , as J o h n s o n p o i n t s o u t , t o o t h e r t e x t s s u c h as S i r 1 5 : 1 1 a n d P h i l o (Opif.
2 4 ; Leg.
2.19) w h i c h r o u n d l y reject t h e n o t i o n that G o d can b e b l a m e d for one's defects.
110
G o d m a y b e a t r u e f r i e n d i n J a m e s , b u t G o d is n o t t h e
s o r t o f f r i e n d w h o tests o r t e m p t s a n o t h e r . R e a d i n g J a m e s t h r o u g h t h e l e n s e s o f t h e topos o f f r i e n d s h i p also of fers a p e r s p e c t i v e o n a r a t h e r m y s t e r i o u s w o r d f o u n d t w i c e i n t h e l e t t e r (1:8; 4 : 8 ) , n a m e l y 8l^u^o<;. T h i s w o r d is t r a n s l a t e d v a r i o u s l y as " d o u b l e -
107
Leg. 2.204.
108
Hartin, James, 9 0 .
1 0 9
Heinrich
TDNTVl 110
Seesemann,
"7te!pa,
7t£ipaco,
rceipaafzo*;,
arcelpaaTO^,
ex7tet,pa£to,"
(1968) 2 6 .
See J o h n s o n , James, 192. Dibelius (James, 90-91) explains h o w s o m e J e w i s h writers
resisted t h e idea that G o d could test, for they w e r e c o n c e r n e d t o maintain t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n sin a n d h u m a n responsibility. Various texts w e r e corrected, such as G e n 2 2 : 1 , w h i c h i n Jub. 17:16 is changed t o state that G o d did n o t test A b r a h a m , b u t t h e devil, Mastema.
112
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
souled," "double-minded,'' or "double-spirited."
1 1 1
J a m e s identifies
the
p e r s o n w h o w a v e r s t o a n d fro as a p e r s o n w h o lacks s t a b i l i t y a n d w i l l n o t r e c e i v e a n y t h i n g f r o m G o d b e c a u s e o f a l a c k o f faith.
S
ALTYUYOC,
*
i n t r i g u i n g , as t h i s a p p e a r s t o b e its first i n s t a n c e i n G r e e k l i t e r a t u r e . Stanley P o r t e r has traced t h e history o f t h e w o r d a n d f o u n d n o a n t e c e d e n t s t o its a p p e a r a n c e i n J a m e s , a l t h o u g h it is p i c k e d u p b y o t h e r e a r l y Christian writers.
1 1 2
P o r t e r c o n c l u d e s w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h i s is a
Christian w o r d , a n d possibly o n e that the a u t h o r of J a m e s i n v e n t e d .
1 1 3
T h e n o t i o n of being divided, however, did not originate w i t h James, for w e find v a r i o u s w o r d s i n d i f f e r e n t t e x t s w h i c h a r e p r e f i x e d b y 0 1 t o d e s i g n a t e " t w o " o r d i v i s i o n o f s o m e s o r t . T h e Testament for e x a m p l e , d e s c r i b e s t h e " d o u b l e - f a c e d " f o l l o w s h i s o w n d e s i r e (e7ri&u[x(,a).
114
of Asher
3.2,
(&f,7rpocrco7ro<;) p e r s o n
who
Joel Marcus, w h o compares the
J e w i s h c o n c e p t o f yeser, o r e v i l i n c l i n a t i o n , t o J a m e s ' s r e f e r e n c e t o f o l lowing
one's
own
£7ii&ufjiia,
c o n s i d e r s &i7rp6(jco7ro£
and
the
word
Si^u^o^ in James to "correspond to a condition of 'double-heartedness' w h i c h m e a n s b e i n g r u l e d b y b o t h t h e g o o d a n d t h e evil inclination, in rabbinic
traditions."
1 1 5
Susan R .
G a r r e t t discusses t h i s
psychological
f e a t u r e o f " d o u b l e n e s s " i n h e r analysis o f L u k e ' s u s e o f " s o u n d
eye"
(OTOCV 6 ocp&ocAjjio^ crou dcTiAou^ YJ) i m a g e r y i n L u k e 1 1 : 3 4 - 3 6 . Such authors referred "singleness" and its opposite, " d o u b l e n e s s " o r "duplicity," n o t only t o t h e eye b u t also to t h e face (hence o n e can b e " t w o - f a c e d " ) , t o t h e soul ( " d o u b l e - s o u l e d , " in G r e e k dipsychos),
and
especially t o t h e heart ( " d o u b l e - h e a r t e d " o r having a " d i v i d e d h e a r t " ) . T h e "single" p e r s o n was v i e w e d as entirely d e v o t e d to G o d , w i t h n o fraction of t h e self w a v e r i n g or h o l d i n g back in its c o m m i t m e n t .
116
J a m e s is u n d o u b t e d l y t a p p i n g i n t o t h i s " d o u b l e n e s s " i m a g e r y
with
h i s r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e S t ^ u ^ o ^ b u t it is i n t r i g u i n g t o c o n s i d e r w h y
111
112
he
Stanley Porter, "Is dipsuchos (James 1,8; 4,8) a 'Christian' W o r d ? " Bib 71 (1991) 474. P o r t e r ("Is dipsuchos"
475-76) points o u t t h e verbal and conceptual parallels b e
t w e e n 1 a n d 2 Clement a n d James w h i c h suggest that t h e former w e r e influenced b y t h e latter. 113
As P o r t e r ("Is dipsuchos," 498) writes: " I n this instance, h o w e v e r , t h e evidence as a
w h o l e does at this stage o f investigation p o i n t t o Sl^u^og b e i n g a Christian w o r d , and probably o n e originating w i t h t h e b o o k of James as well. The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. A Critical Edition of the Greek Text ( P V T G ; ed. M . de J o n g e ; Leiden: Brill, 1978) 138. 115
J o e l M a r c u s , " T h e Evil Inclination in t h e Epistle of J a m e s , " CBQ 44 (1982) 617
n. 37. 116
Susan R . Garrett, " B e l o v e d Physician o f t h e Soul? L u k e as A d v o c a t e for Ascetic
Practice," Asceticism and the New Testament (ed. Leif E. Vaage & V i n c e n t L. W i m b u s h ; N e w Y o r k : R o u t l e d g e , 1999) 7 7 .
4. The Exordium:
James
113
1:2-18
c h o s e , o r p e r h a p s i n v e n t e d , this w o r d w h e n h e c o u l d h a v e u s e d " d o u b l e - h e a r t e d " o r " d o u b l e - f a c e d " as o t h e r s d o . O n e p o s s i b i l i t y is t h a t a g a i n , J a m e s is t h i n k i n g o f f r i e n d s h i p . W e r e call f r o m a n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r t h a t f r i e n d s w e r e o f t e n d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g o f " o n e s o u l " o r " o n e m i n d " (uioc ^ X f l ) - T h i s g o e s as far b a c k as t h e tragic p o e t s a n d Aristotle, and Cicero,
1 1 8
a n d is c a r r i e d o n i n t h e w o r k s o f P l u t a r c h
N e w T e s t a m e n t a u t h o r s s u c h as P a u l ( P h i l 1:27)
L u k e (Acts 4 : 3 2 ) , a n d e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s s u c h as G r e g o r y
and
Nazianzus
1 1 9
a m o n g o t h e r s . S o m e w r i t e r s s i m p l y t a l k a b o u t friends l o v i n g o n e a n o t h e r as t h e y l o v e t h e i r o w n s o u l , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e w h o a u t h o r e d t h e L X X (1 S a m 1 8 : 1 ) , a n d o t h e r s u s e d v a r i a t i o n s , s u c h as 6\io^\)yo(;, describe friends. the
enemy
120
who
to
B e n Sira ( 6 : 1 ) , m o r e o v e r , c o n t r a s t s t h e f r i e n d w i t h is c h a r a c t e r i z e d
as a " d o u b l e - t o n g u e d
sinner"
(6
a[xapxcoA6g SLyXcoaaog). F o r J a m e s , t h e S L ^ U ^ O ^ p e r s o n is also Siaxpivofjievog. U s u a l l y t h e l a t t e r w o r d is t r a n s l a t e d as " o n e w h o d o u b t s , " b u t r e c e n t l y , P e t e r S p i t a l e r h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e w o r d i n J a m e s as w e l l as e l s e w h e r e i n t h e
New
T e s t a m e n t h a s e x p e r i e n c e d a shift i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f r o m p a t r i s t i c a n d medieval authors to the m o d e r n day.
M o d e r n scholars usually i n t e r
p r e t a n d t r a n s l a t e this w o r d t o refer t o " o n e w h o d o u b t s . " H o w e v e r , Classical a n d H e l l e n i s t i c w r i t e r s u n d e r s t a n d it t o m e a n " t o b e s e p a r a t e f r o m o r " t o c o n t e n d w i t h . " S p i t a l e r d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t m a n y p o s t - R e f o r m a t i o n a u t h o r s h a v e a r g u e d for t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d t o b e " s p e c i a l " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it refers t o " d o u b t i n g " i n o p p o s i t i o n t o faith, t h e n o t i o n o f " d o u b t " a c t u a l l y c r e p t into N e w Testament understandings of the w o r d w h e n the Greek was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o L a t i n . R a t h e r t h a n a " s e m a n t i c shift," t h e w o r d c a m e t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d o u b t as a r e s u l t o f i n t e r p r e t i v e m o v e s t h a t c a m e w i t h a m o v e " f r o m eastern a n t h r o p o l o g y w i t h its c o n c e r n for t h e p e r s o n i n s o f a r as h e o r s h e is e m b e d d e d w i t h i n a l a r g e r social u n i t a n d s o c i o - c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t , t o western p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d the individual's intrapersonal well being. D o u b t does not n e e d other; dispute does."
117
Euripides, Orest. 1046; Aristode, Eth. Eud. 7.6.8-13.
118
Plutarch, Amic. mult. 96E. C i c e r o , Lael. 80; 92 describes friends as unus animus.
119
120
"the
T h e r e is n o n e e d t o a s s u m e t h a t J a m e s is t a l k i n g
Or. 43.20. J o h n Chrysostom, Horn 1 Thess. 2. See W h i t e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth
Cen
tury, 9 1 . 121
P e t e r Spitaler, "Aiaxplvecr&ou in M t . 2 1 : 2 1 , M k . 11:23, Acts 10:20, R o m . 4:20,
14:23, Jas 1:6, and J u d e 22 - t h e "Semantic Shift' T h a t W e n t U n n o t i c e d b y Patristic A u t h o r s , " NovT 122
49 (2007) 1-39.
Spitaler, "Aiaxplve<7&ai,"39.
114
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
a b o u t d o u b t h e r e . H e is m o r e l i k e l y t h i n k i n g o f s o m e o n e w h o tries t o argue with G o d . S p i t a l e r ' s i n s i g h t s a b o u t Siocxpivofxevo^ a r e also r e l e v a n t t o standing
how
commentators
James
uses
on James
Si^u^og.
As
Spitaler
have interpreted
has
under
shown,
the Si^u^o^
and
early
Siocxpi-
v6[A£vo£ p e r s o n n o t as a d o u b t e r b u t as a n i n s o l e n t p e r s o n w h o a t t e m p t s t o a r g u e w i t h G o d o r w h o sets h i m s e l f a p a r t f r o m G o d .
Unlike God,
w h o as w e w i l l s e e , b e h a v e s as a t r u e f r i e n d a n d b e n e f a c t o r s h o u l d , t h e 8i<J;u%0£ a n d Siocxpivofxevog h u m a n acts i n o p p o s i t i o n t o a n d s e p a r a t e f r o m G o d . T h e l e t t e r is n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e a u d i e n c e ' s i n t e r i o r faith, b u t i n t h e faith m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n h u m a n i t y
and
G o d . T h i s p e r s o n is so d i v i d e d b e t w e e n G o d a n d a n o t h e r p o l e t h a t h e cannot be u i a
^uyfi
w i t h a n o t h e r b e i n g . H e is t h e c o m p l e t e o p p o s i t e
o f a friend in seeking either to distance himself from G o d o r argue w i t h God. J a m e s 1:6-8 t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f w h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s the audience m e m b e r s n e e d to avoid. T h e insolent SL^IU^O^ p e r s o n will n o t r e c e i v e w i s d o m n o r a c h i e v e p e r f e c t i o n for h e is n o t steadfast. F u r t h e r m o r e , O s c a r S e i t z , w h o h a s c o m p a r e d t h e u s e o f S i ^ u ^ o ^ t o its u s e i n o t h e r e a r l y C h r i s t i a n t e x t s , s u c h as 1 a n d 2 Clement, Hermas,
a n d t h e Epistle
of Barnabas,
t h e Shepherd
of
h a s f o u n d t h a t s u c h a c h a r a c t e r is
c o n s i s t e n t l y p o r t r a y e d as a n u n s t a b l e p e r s o n w h o c a n n o t e n d u r e trials and w h o cannot withstand temptation.
J a m e s 1:6-8 is n o t d e s c r i b i n g
s o m e o n e w h o s e faith is i n d o u b t , so m u c h as a fair w e a t h e r f r i e n d , w h o will distance himself f r o m or object to G o d , ultimately indicating h o w u n s t a b l e (1:8) a n d u n r e l i a b l e h e t r u l y is. T h i s p e r s o n , t h i s n o n - f r i e n d , will n o t receive a n y t h i n g f r o m G o d (1:8), w h e r e a s t h e loyal p e r s o n w h o w i t h s t a n d s t e s t i n g w i l l u l t i m a t e l y r e c e i v e t h e c r o w n o f life (1:12) w h i c h G o d promises to those w h o love God. Lastly, J a m e s ' s e x o r d i u m i n t r o d u c e s t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n r i c h a n d p o o r ( 1 : 9 - 1 1 ) , a t h e m e w h i c h is t a k e n u p s e v e r a l t i m e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e t t e r . H e r e a n a l l u s i o n t o L X X Isa 4 0 : 6 - 8 a p p e a r s ,
123
125
w i t h parallel i m -
Spitaler ("Aiaxplvea&ou," 18) cites a n u m b e r o f early writers o n James, including
Cyril o f Alexandria (Commentarii
in Lucam 8 4 8 . 3 2 - 3 3 = P G 72, 476-949) w h o indicates
that h e understands Jas 1:6 as describing s o m e o n e w h o wants t o argue w i t h G o d . Spitaler (36) also shows h o w T h e o p h y l a c t (Expositio in Epistulam Sancti Jacobi 1137.23 = P G 125, 1134-1190) concurs w i t h Cyril that Jas 1:6 refers t o an insolent person w h o , for T h e o phylact, wants t o set himself apart. 124
Oscar J. F. Seitz, "Antecedents and Signification o f t h e T e r m A I T T X O S , " JBL 6 3
(1944) 2 1 2 - 1 3 . 125
Dibelius, James, 85-86; J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 1 9 0 - 9 1 ; D.J. Verseput, " G e n r e
and Story: T h e C o m m u n i t y Setting o f t h e Epistle of J a m e s , " CBQ 62 (2000) 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 .
4. The Exordium:
James
1:2-18
115
ages s u c h as t h e p a s s i n g o f f l o w e r s i n t h e grass a n d t h e w i t h e r i n g o f t h e grass. C o m m e n t a t o r s
a g r e e t h a t t h e w o r d s xaTreivo^ a n d
UXOUGIOQ
r e f e r t o a l a c k o r excess o f m a t e r i a l w e a l t h ( a l t h o u g h it is i m p o r t a n t t o a d d t h a t h o n o u r a n d status s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d h e r e t o o ) ,
1 2 6
b u t t h e r e is
d i s a g r e e m e n t as t o w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r i c h p e r s o n is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a m e m b e r of the c o m m u n i t y (commentators agree that these t w o indi v i d u a l s a r e n o t specific p e o p l e b u t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e r i c h a n d p o o r ) . R o p e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h i n k s t h a t oioz'kyoQ nXouaioQ member.
as it is w i t h 6 1 2 7
IZ'KOUOIOQ,
should b e supplied w i t h 6
therefore making the rich m a n a
H o w e v e r , it c o u l d b e t h a t J a m e s d i d n o t r e f e r t o t h e r i c h
p e r s o n as a b r o t h e r i n a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t t o d e s c r i b e t h e
wealthy
m a n ' s o u t s i d e r status. M o r e o v e r , t h e p a r a l l e l i s m b e t w e e n t h e o u t c o m e s b e t w e e n t h e r i c h a n d p o o r is o d d . T h e p o o r b r o t h e r is o f f e r e d h o p e f o r t h e future, for h e will b e exalted, w h i l e t h e rich p e r s o n will b e h u m i l i ated w i t h n o sense o f h o p e .
1 2 8
J a m e s is n o t h o l d i n g o u t a n y p o s s i b i l i t y
f o r s a l v a t i o n for t h e affluent h e r e ; i n d e e d , t h e r i c h w i l l "pass a w a y " a n d "wither away,"
1 2 9
t h e r e b y t u r n i n g t h e verses i n t o a clear threat t o t h e
rich. Interestingly, D o n a l d V e r s e p u t has f o u n d a c o m p a r i s o n in t h e w a y t h a t 4 Q 1 8 5 uses t h e i m a g e r y f r o m Isa 4 0 : 6 - 8 t o p r o v i d e " a n o r a c l e o f d o o m s p o k e n against t h e a d v e r s a r i e s o f G o d ' s p e o p l e . "
H e r e , w o e is
p r o n o u n c e d u p o n the "sons of m a n , " then the p o e m continues w i t h l a n g u a g e s i m i l a r t o Jas 1 : 9 - 1 1 : F o r see, (man) sprouts like grass and his loveliness b l o o m s like a flower. His grace makes t h e w i n d b l o w over h i m and his r o o t shrivels, and his leaves: t h e w i n d scatters t h e m , until hardly anything remains in his place, and n o t h i n g b u t w i n d is found. [...] T h e y will l o o k for h i m and n o t find h i m , and n o h o p e remains;
126
O n the terms " r i c h " and " p o o r " in antiquity, see B r u c e J. Malina, " W e a l t h and
P o v e r t y in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t and Its W o r l d , " Int 41 (1986) 3 5 4 - 6 7 ; Paul H o l l e n b a c h , " D e n n i n g R i c h and P o o r U s i n g Social Sciences," SBLSP
26 (1987) 5 0 - 6 3 .
127
R o p e s , Epistle of James, 146.
128
See Laws, The Epistle of James, 6 3 .
129
R o p e s (Epistle of James, 148-49) thinks that it is n o t t h e person w h o will pass away
and w i t h e r away, b u t his riches, b u t h e does n o t given a solid a r g u m e n t for this position. 130
704.
D o n a l d J. Verseput, " W i s d o m , 4 Q 1 8 5 , and the Episde of J a m e s , " JBL
117 (1998)
116
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
their days are like a s h a d o w o n t h e earth.
31
M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e r i c h w h o
are
c o n d e m n e d in Jas 5:1-6 are u n d e r s t o o d t o b e " p o w e r f u l outsiders a n d enemies of the 'elect p o o r ' . "
1 3 2
A g a i n , t h e y m a y n o t b e real p e o p l e ,
insofar as t h i s l e t t e r l i k e l y c i r c u l a t e d a m o n g a v a r i e t y o f c o m m u n i t i e s , b u t t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e t y p e o f lifestyle a n d b e h a v i o u r t h a t is n o t a c c e p t able to G o d . In light o f t h e letter overall, their c o n d e m n a t i o n
could
f u n c t i o n as a s t e r n w a r n i n g t o m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w h o
are
t e m p t e d t o p u r s u e r e l a t i o n s w i t h w e a l t h y p a t r o n s a n d e v e n t o call t h e m " f r i e n d s , " f o r it p r o h i b i t s s u c h p e o p l e f r o m G o d ' s s a l v a t i o n . It d o e s n o t e v e n offer t h e m t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e p e n t a n c e ! S u c h h a r s h
invective
against t h e r i c h , w h i c h o n l y intensifies l a t e r o n i n t h e l e t t e r (see 2 : 6 - 7 ; 5:1-6) m a y indicate the degree to w h i c h the a u t h o r thinks their influ ence could threaten the integrity of the c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r ,
in
referring to the exaltation of the lowly brother, James m a y b e preparing his a u d i e n c e for t h e k i n d c a r e f o r t h e p o o r h e s u b s e q u e n t l y e x h o r t s t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s t o p r a c t i s e (see 1 : 2 6 - 2 7 ; 2 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . T h u s , w h i l e Jas 1 : 9 - 1 1 d o e s n o t c o n t a i n e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e f r i e n d s h i p t r a d i t i o n , it d o e s offer h o p e t o t h e " l o w l y " b r o t h e r w h i l e it e x p r e s s e s a n t i p a t h y f o r t h e r i c h m a n . L a t e r o n i n t h e l e t t e r , as w e w i l l see, J a m e s c o n t i n u e s t h i s n e g a t i v e p o r t r a y a l o f t h e w e a l t h y , m a k i n g it c l e a r t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d i d e n t i f y w i t h t h e p o o r . T h i s stress o n c a r i n g f o r t h e p o o r a n d identifying
with t h e p o o r is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e
practice o f m u t u a l aid a n d t h e sharing o f possessions in c o m m o n that w e s a w a d v o c a t e d b y o t h e r w r i t e r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e a u t h o r o f Luke—Acts. It w o u l d also d i s c o u r a g e t h e a u d i e n c e f r o m i n i t i a t i n g o r a g r e e i n g t o alliances w i t h t h e r i c h . 3. God as Benefactor I n J a s 1:5 t h e a u d i e n c e is e x h o r t e d t o ask G o d for w i s d o m , w h o g i v e s t o all a n d w i t h o u t r e p r o a c h i n g (fry)
oveiSi^ovxo^). T h e w o r d
OLTZX^C,
can m e a n "simply," " w i t h o u t ulterior m o t i v e , " "wholeheartedly"
or
" g e n e r o u s l y , " a n d is s o m e t i m e s , as w e s a w , u s e d t o d e s c r i b e a t r u e f r i e n d . P l u t a r c h c o m p a r e s t h i s t y p e o f p e r s o n t o t h e flatterer, t h e a n tithesis o f t h e f r i e n d , w h e n h e w r i t e s ,
131
Translation b y Wilfred G.E. W a t s o n in Florentino Garcia Martinez, ed., The Dead
Sea Scrolls Translated. The Qumran Texts in English (2nd ed., Leiden, N e w Y o r k , C o l o g n e : Brill; G r a n d Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999) 380. 132
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 153.
4. The Exordium:
James
1:2-18
117
F o r t h e character of a friend, like t h e "language of t r u t h , " is, as E u r i p ides puts it, "simple
(obcXou*;)", plain, a n d unaffected
... b u t
the
flatterer's activity shows n o sign o f honesty, t r u t h , straightforwardness (dbrXouv), o r generosity ... T h e f r i e n d possesses t h i s v i r t u e o f s i m p l i c i t y
134
as o p p o s e d t o t h e flat
t e r e r w h o m a y say o n e t h i n g b u t m e a n a n o t h e r . M o r e o v e r ,
Plutarch
g o e s o n t o d e s c r i b e t h e f l a t t e r e r ' s f a v o u r s , i n w h i c h t h e r e is r e p r o a c h (£7rovelSL(7Tov) a n d m o r t i f i c a t i o n (Amic.
adul. 6 4 B ) . T h e cpiXog, i n c o n
trast, r e p o r t s h i s a c t i o n s m o d e s t l y , " a n d says n o t h i n g a b o u t (Amic.
himself
adul. 6 4 B ) . T h e f r i e n d is g r a c i o u s , a n d d o e s n o t c o m p l a i n a b o u t
b e i n g p u t o u t i n o r d e r t o g r a n t a f a v o u r . P l u t a r c h also c o m p a r e s t h e g e n e r o u s a c t o f a t r u e f r i e n d t o t h e acts o f t h e g o d s i n w h o s e n a t u r e it is " t o take pleasure i n t h e m e r e act o f b e i n g gracious a n d d o i n g g o o d " i n contrast t o t h e flatterer w h o
d o e s n o t s p e a k a7rXc5<;.
135
Similarly,
2 0 : 1 5 d e s c r i b e s t h e f o o l " w h o h a s n o f r i e n d s " (Sir 2 0 : 1 6 ) w h o
Sir
"gives
little a n d u p b r a i d s ( o v e i S t a i ) m u c h " w h i l e Sir 4 1 : 2 5 w a r n s a g a i n s t t h e u s e o f a b u s i v e w o r d s (Xoywv 6v£io\cj[Jiou) b e f o r e f r i e n d s a n d o f i n s u l t s after g i v i n g a gift. F o r J a m e s , G o d is a n y t h i n g b u t a f l a t t e r e r o r a f o o l . G o d is c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a f r i e n d w h o possesses t h e v i r t u e o f s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d n e s s , g e n e r o s i t y a n d l a c k o f r e p r o a c h , a n d t h u s t h o s e w h o ask f o r w i s d o m w i l l r e c e i v e it w i t h o u t a n y c o m p l a i n t s o r h e s i t a t i o n f r o m G o d . T h e a u t h o r g o e s o u t o f his w a y t o m a k e t h i s clear. G o d also a p p e a r s i n t h e e x o r d i u m as a c l e a r c o n t r a s t t o t h e S l ^ u ^ o g p e r s o n . O t h e r t e x t s , s u c h as The Testament
of Benjamin
6.7, place the
t e r m s f o r " d o u b l e " (SL7TXOU<;) a n d " s i n g l e " (dbrXous), s i d e b y s i d e , as t h e
Testament
7rp6(7W7io<;.
137
of Asher
4.1 juxtaposes
SnzpoaomoQ
1 3 6
with
just
fxovo-
As H . W . Hollander and M . de J o n g e point out:
T h e use of t h e w o r d s [LovonpoGMizoQ that of a7rXou<; a n d SLTCXOU^
and SiKpoaumoc,
runs parallel t o
... a m a n w h o is ' d o u b l e ' has ' d o u b l e
sight' and ' d o u b l e h e a r i n g ' , ' t w o t o n g u e s ' , of blessing a n d cursing, of c o n t u m e l y a n d h o n o u r , of s o r r o w a n d j o y , of quietness and confusion,
133
134
Adul
amic. 6 2 C ; 63F.
T h e central t h e m e o f The Testament of Issachar is t h e virtue o f (XTTXOTY^, w h i c h r e
veals t o w h a t an extent this n o t i o n o f simplicity h a d b e c o m e a virtue in Hellenistic J e w i s h t h o u g h t . In The Testament of Issachar, h o w e v e r , t h e focus is u p o n leading a simple life, as Issachar is depicted as a farmer. F o r s o m e discussion o f this t h e m e in The Testament of Issachar, see Hollander and D e J o n g e , The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, 2 3 3 - 3 4 . 135
Plutarch, Adul. amic. 6 2 C .
136
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, 173.
137
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, 138.
118
Friendship
and Benefaction
in
James
o f hypocrisy a n d t r u t h , o f p o v e r t y a n d wealth. All Beliar's w o r k tament
of Benjamin
6 : 7 ] is 8i7iAoug, n o t h a v i n g a n y ' s i m p l i c i t y ' .
[Tes
1
J a m e s is p l a y i n g u p o n t h e p h r a s e u i a ^ujpq w i t h its o p p o s i t e i n o r d e r to a c c e n t u a t e t h e contrast b e t w e e n G o d , t h e gracious friend, a n d t h e v a c i l l a t i n g p e r s o n w h o is S i ^ u ^ o g a n d s o d i v i d e d t h a t h e o r s h e c a n n o t "share a soul" w i t h another.
1 Clement,
e s p e c i a l l y , c o n t r a s t s Si^uj^og
139
w i t h d 7 i X 6 5 g . A l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t discuss f r i e n d s h i p l a n g u a g e , P o r t e r c o m e s t o a similar conclusion: If o n e lacks k n o w l e d g e o f h o w t o pray in such circumstances [tests], o n e is t o t u r n t o G o d , w h o gives t o all (X7cAc5<;, either generously o r more
likely "straightforwardly",
a n d n o t reproachfully.
Thus the
corrrmand for t h e believer t o pray i n faith . . . is set against t h e character o f G o d , w h o is willing t o give. T h e r e f o r e it is true that this section is constructed a r o u n d a practical dualism regarding t h e believer ... b u t this practical dualism is set w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f theology, w h i c h c o u n t s o n a G o d w h o is unlike t h e d o u b t i n g m a n .
140
G o d d o e s n o t w a v e r n o r a r g u e w i t h o n e w h o is faithful t o G o d . M o r e o v e r , G o d is r e l i a b l e a n d w i l l p r o v i d e t h e c r o w n o f life (Jas 1:12) t o t h o s e w h o l o v e G o d . G o d is l o y a l t o t h o s e w h o r e t u r n s u c h l o y a l t y . J a m e s 1 : 1 6 - 1 8 e m p h a s i z e s t h e n e e d t o r e l y u p o n G o d as a g e n e r o u s b e n e f a c t o r . T h e s e v e r s e s r e m i n d t h e a u d i e n c e t h a t G o d is t h e s o u r c e o f all g o o d t h i n g s a n d t h a t G o d is c o n s t a n t . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is a c o m p l e x t e x t critical p r o b l e m h e r e as t o t h e p r e c i s e w o r d i n g ,
all t h e v a r i a n t
r e a d i n g s m e a n t h e s a m e t h i n g : " t h e t e x t o p p o s e s t h e steadfastness o f G o d to the changeableness o f creation."
G o d is a l o y a l a n d u n c h a n g
i n g p r o v i d e r , j u s t as f r i e n d s a n d i d e a l b e n e f a c t o r s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o b e , for n o f r i e n d s h i p c o u l d s u r v i v e w i t h o u t c o n s t a n c y .
1 8
1 4 3
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, 3 4 0 . See J e a n D a n i e l o u , Theologie du Judeo-Christianisme
(Bibliotheque d e T h e o l o g i e ; H i s -
toire des D o c t r i n e s C h r e t i e n n e s avant N i c e e ; Paris: Desclee, 1957) 4 2 0 . Porter, "Is dipsuchos," 4 8 2 . T h e best attested text for Jas 1:17b (noLpoiKkcrfri Y) Tpo7nJ£ £X7iocrxLa(jjjLa) is s u p p o r t e d b y t h e corrector o f 3, A, C , K, P , W, m o s t minuscules, m a n y lectionaries, t h e Vulgate, t h e Peshitta a n d H a r k l e a n a n d A r m e n i a n versions, a n d J e r o m e . A second reading (7rapaXXayY] [or
] zponriQ OLTZOGKLOLG^CHTOC,) is s u p p o r t e d b y t h e original a u t h o r o f K, a n d B . A third
reading (nc/LpoiKkccfr] Y) Tpo7tY) a7rocjxta(jfxaTo^) appears i n several minuscules, a fourth
(7rappaXXay^^
YJ Tp07rij£
23
a7iocjxta(7fjLaTO^) only i n p , a fifth (dbtoaxlaafxa
TrapaXXayV)) only i n t h e Sahidic C o p t i c manuscript,
a sixth
Y) Tp07tY] YJ
(rcapaAAaYY)
Y) ponyc,
a7roaxia(jfjLa) only i n Augustine, a n d a seventh (7rapaXXayY] Y) poni] a7tocrxtacrjjLacrTO^) i n t h e O l d Latin version Corbeiensis I a n d possibly t h e Bohairic C o p t i c manuscript. J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 197. C i c e r o , Lael. 9 2 .
4. The Exordium:
James
119
1:2-18
G o d ' s c h a r a c t e r as a b e n e v o l e n t p r o v i d e r , i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e c h a n g e able
and
"double-minded"
person,
thus
emerges
clearly
in
the
e x o r d i u m . S m a l l details, s u c h as t h e fact t h a t G o d gives " s i m p l y " a n d " w i t h o u t r e p r o a c h " b e a r similarities t o t h e i d e a l i m a g e s o f f r i e n d s a n d benefactors that w e r e e x p l o r e d i n an earlier c h a p t e r o f this b o o k . T h i s i m a g e o f G o d s e e m s " u n p r o v o k e d , " as K l o p p e n b o r g V e r b i n h a s n o ticed,
1 4 4
but
it
could
be
perceived
as
preparation
for
further
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f G o d as a b e n e f a c t o r a n d
friend,
w h o d o e s n o t m a n i p u l a t e t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f G o d ' s gifts. G o d is clearly d e p i c t e d as t h e o p p o s i t e o f a h u m a n p a t r o n , f o r G o d w i l l c o n t i n u e t o p r o v i d e w i t h o u t reproach, and n o t disappear w h e n calamity strikes.
145
D e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t J a m e s d o e s n o t p r e s e n t G o d as a n e q u a l t o t h e a u d i e n c e , it is s t r i k i n g t h a t a t t r i b u t e s o f friends, s u c h as " s i m p l i c i t y " a n d c o n s t a n c y a r e stressed i n t h e s e o p e n i n g v e r s e s . G o d w i l l b e r e l i a b l e t o t h o s e w h o p e r s e v e r e t h r o u g h t e s t i n g , j u s t as a t r u e f r i e n d is e x p e c t e d t o r e m a i n faithful t o o t h e r s . M o r e o v e r , G o d p r o v i d e s g e n e r o u s l y t o t h o s e w h o ask f o r w i s d o m f r o m G o d . O n e recalls t h e W i s d o m o f S o l o m o n ( 7 : 1 4 ) h e r e f o r it states t h a t t h o s e w h o r e c e i v e w i s d o m b e c o m e f r i e n d s o f G o d . T h e a u t h o r o f J a m e s p r e s e n t s G o d as a f r i e n d b u t also as a t r a n s c e n d e n t b e n e f a c t o r r e m i n i s c e n t o f J e w i s h w i s d o m l i t e r a t u r e , b u t also recalling that G r e e k inscriptional and literary e v i d e n c e that was c o m fortable
merging
the
imagery
of
benefactor
and
friend
together.
0
M o r e o v e r , G o d is a c l e a r c o n t r a s t t o t h e S L ^ ^ X ^ p e r s o n , w h o w a v e r s and w h o will ultimately n o t receive anything from G o d .
Conclusion T h e e x o r d i u m o f J a m e s draws u p o n s o m e characteristics o f friendship t h a t w e r e p r e s e n t i n t h e first c e n t u r y . T h e a u t h o r s p e a k s a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y , d i r e c t l y a n d w i t h f r a n k n e s s , as a f r i e n d s h o u l d , b u t h e also d e l i b e r a t e l y uses fictive k i n s h i p l a n g u a g e , as m a n y friends d i d , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s a n i n t i m a c y w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e . M o r e o v e r , b y u s i n g t h e first p e r s o n p l u r a l , t h e a u t h o r allies h i m s e l f w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e a n d i n d i c a t e s t h a t h e shares a c o m m o n identity with them. T h e e x o r d i u m also stresses l o y a l t y , t e s t i n g a n d steadfastness as i m p o r tant
attributes
of the
audience.
In
contrast,
the
"double-minded"
v a c i l l a t i n g p e r s o n is p o r t r a y e d as u n r e l i a b l e a n d u n s t a b l e . T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b o t h t o u p h o l d a n d a v o i d recalls t h e topos o f friendship and indicates that the a u t h o r wants the m e m b e r s of t h e a u d i -
144
Kloppenborg Verbin, "Patronage Avoidance," 768.
145
See K l o p p e n b o r g V e r b i n , " P a t r o n a g e A v o i d a n c e , " 770.
120
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
e n c e t o act as f r i e n d s d o , j u s t as h e is a f r i e n d t o t h e m . H o w e v e r , t h e s p e a k e r is p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d i n t h e e x o r d i u m t h a t t h e
listeners
f o c u s u p o n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d , w h o , as I h a v e a r g u e d , is i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e l e t t e r as a r e l i a b l e f r i e n d a n d b e n e f a c t o r - t h e c o m p l e t e o p p o s i t e o f a S i ^ u ^ o ^ p e r s o n . T h e a u d i e n c e c a n ask f o r w i s d o m f r o m this g r e a t b e n e f a c t o r ,
G o d , w h o w i l l s u p p l y it b o u n t i f u l l y , w i t h
no
reproach. Certainly a discussion of t h e later expressions o f friendship in J a m e s is r e q u i r e d , b u t it is significant t h a t s o m e allusions t o it a p p e a r i n t h e exordium,
as o n e o f its p u r p o s e s is t o i n t r o d u c e t h e m e s a n d
ideas
w h i c h will b e d e v e l o p e d in the a r g u m e n t of the speech. As friendship w a s s u c h a n o b l e b o n d i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d , t h e s e a l l u s i o n s t o it w o u l d h a v e a i d e d t h e e x o r d i u m i n p e r f o r m i n g its f u n c t i o n o f d e v e l o p i n g a sense of pathos,
stressing t h e a u t h o r i t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r , a n d
i n t r o d u c i n g i m p o r t a n t t h e m e s that are t h e n t a k e n u p t h r o u g h o u t
the
r e m a i n d e r o f t h e l e t t e r . N o t e w o r t h y is t h e fact t h a t t h e e x o r d i u m i n t r o d u c e s t h e a u d i e n c e t o t h e a u t h o r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f G o d , in this case as a b e n e f a c t o r a n d f r i e n d . W h a t t y p e o f social a n d c u l t u r a l t e x t u r e s m i g h t t h e a u t h o r o f J a m e s b e a t t e m p t i n g to address w i t h such an i n t r o d u c t i o n ?
146
T h i s q u e s t i o n is
i m p o s s i b l e t o a n s w e r o n t h e basis o f t h e e x o r d i u m a l o n e , for o t h e r t h a n t h e issue o f r i c h a n d p o o r , J a m e s d o e s n o t refer t o c o n c r e t e p r o b l e m s w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t focuses u p o n t h e a u d i e n c e ' s relationship t o G o d a n d t h e necessity o f loyalty, o n G o d ' s reliability a n d generosity a n d o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e n d u r i n g t e s t i n g . Classifying J a m e s w i t h i n t h e s u b g e n r e o f a " c o v e n a n t a l l e t t e r t o t h e D i a s p o r a , " V e r s e p u t has o b s e r v e d t h a t a n e m p h a s i s u p o n w i t h s t a n d i n g h a r d s h i p is a p p r o p r i a t e after a n o p e n i n g t h a t a d d r e s s e s t h e r e c i p i e n t s as t h e " t w e l v e t r i b e s i n t h e d i a s p o r a " (Jas 1:1), if w e t a k e t h i s o p e n i n g as a g e o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r ence
to
their whereabouts,
for
references
to
Israel's
exile
(in
the
d i a s p o r a ) w e r e p a i n f u l a n d e v o k e d t h e i d e a t h a t Israel m u s t e n d u r e u n t i l G o d ' s salvific i n t e r v e n t i o n .
1 4 7
H e t h e n r e a d s Jas 1:2-4 as a r e f e r e n c e t o
t h e "afflictions o f life i n t h e D i a s p o r a [that] h a v e a p u r i f y i n g effect b y c o n c e n t r a t i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n s o f suffering deliverance of G o d . "
Israel u p o n t h e
anticipated
G i v e n the eschatological r e w a r d linked to e n
d u r a n c e t h r o u g h trial i n 1:12, a n d t h e e m p h a s i s u p o n p a t i e n t suffering u n t i l t h e c o m i n g o f t h e L o r d i n 5 : 7 - 1 2 , it is i m p o r t a n t t o b e a r i n m i n d that salvation a n d deliverance are i m p o r t a n t t h e m e s for J a m e s , a n d in
146
See R o b b i n s , Exploring the Texture of Texts, 7 1 - 9 4 .
147
Verseput, " G e n r e and Story," 100, 102.
148
Verseput, " G e n r e and Story," 102.
4. The Exordium:
James
121
1:2-18
n o w a y d o I w i s h t o dismiss t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f t h e l e t t e r . H o w e v e r , t h i s p r o m i s e o f s a l v a t i o n is p a r t o f J a m e s ' s r h e t o r i c a l a i m , w h i c h is, as I see it, t o p r o m o t e m u t u a l a i d i n t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d t r u s t i n G o d . J a m e s m a y b e b e g i n n i n g his l e t t e r w i t h r e f e r e n c e s t o t e s t i n g a n d e n d u r a n c e b e c a u s e h e w a n t s t o p r e p a r e his a u d i e n c e for t h e t y p e o f social life t h a t h e a n t i c i p a t e s c a n o r w i l l p r o d u c e trials o r e v e n "afflic t i o n s . " T h e p r o m i s e o f s a l v a t i o n , as w e l l as t h e d o o m t h a t t h e r i c h w i l l face, a r e t h e r e i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d , b u t t h e y a r e n o t c e n t r a l t h e m e s . I n t h e e x o r d i u m J a m e s is g e t t i n g t h e a u d i e n c e r e a d y f o r t h e t y p e o f p o s i t i v e a c t i v i t y t h a t h e is g o i n g t o e x h o r t . H e says, for e x a m p l e , testing produces perfection,
steadfastness,
which
produces
a positive
that
outcome,
a n i m p o r t a n t t h e m e o f t h e l e t t e r . P e r f e c t i o n , it a p p e a r s ,
refers t o w h o l e n e s s , o r t h e n o t i o n o f faith i n a c t i o n , o r b e l i e f a n d e t h ics, j o i n e d i n e x t r i c a b l y t o o n e a n o t h e r ,
b u t t h e r e is n o c l e a r l i n k t o
salvation i n this passage. J a m e s 1:2-4 m a k e s n o r e f e r e n c e t o p a t r o n a g e p e r se, b u t it c o u l d b e t h a t t h e suffering a n d trials J a m e s h a s i n m i n d r e l a t e t o w h a t w i l l h a p p e n if m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y resist t h e s u p p o r t a n d i n f l u e n c e o f w e a l t h y p a t r o n s , especially w h e n o n e considers t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n
of
t h e r i c h i n 1 : 9 - 1 1 . I n his s t u d y o f p a t r o n a g e as t h e social s e t t i n g for t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s , T h o m a s C o l e m a n p o i n t s o u t h o w t h i s " m a t t e r o f trials, b r o a c h e d as it is at t h e o u t s e t o f t h e l e t t e r , s h o w s t h a t J a m e s ' s p r i m a r y c o n c e r n is n o t p r o p o u n d i n g n e w d o c t r i n e s b u t a d d r e s s i n g t r o u b l e s o m e issues."
150
G i v e n t h e fact t h a t t h e s y s t e m o f p a t r o n a g e w a s a " t r o u b l e
s o m e i s s u e , " at least f o r t h e p o o r , i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e
Roman
E m p i r e i n t h e first c e n t u r i e s o f t h e C o m m o n E r a , w e c a n n o t dismiss it as o n e o f t h e p r o b l e m s w i t h w h i c h J a m e s a n d his a u d i e n c e h a d t o c o n t e n d . I n p o i n t i n g o u t t o his a u d i e n c e i n t h e e x o r d i u m t h a t G o d is t h e u l t i m a t e b e n e f a c t o r , J a m e s sets t h e stage t o c r i t i q u e h u m a n p a t r o n s a n d the h a v o c that p a t r o n - c l i e n t relations c o u l d w r e a k .
149
H a r t i n , A Spirituality of Perfection, 129-47.
150
T h o m a s M . C o l e m a n , Patronage and the Epistle of James: A New Social Setting for the
Epistle of James (Master of T h e o l o g y dissertation; University o f A b e r d e e n , 1996), 6 5 .
5
A Challenge to Patronage: James 2:1-13, 14-26
Introduction All r h e t o r i c a l analysts a g r e e t h a t J a m e s 2 f o r m s p a r t o f t h e
argumentatio
1
a n d m a i n b o d y o f t h e l e t t e r . M a n y also u n d e r s t a n d t h i s p a s s a g e t o b e a self-contained unit,
2
w i t h i n w h i c h are t w o subunits, 2 : 1 - 1 3 a n d 2 : 1 4 -
2 6 , e a c h i n t r o d u c e d b y t h e p h r a s e , <x$sk<poi (xou. E a c h u n i t is similar, as e v i d e n c e d b y t h e e x a m p l e s set f o r t h i n 2 : 2 - 3 a n d 2 : 1 5 - 1 6 ,
which
i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e " n e e d s o f t h e p o o r a r e n o t b e i n g m e t . F a i t h is n o t b e i n g d e m o n s t r a t e d b y g o o d w o r k s t o w a r d t h e p o o r (cf.
1.22-7)."
T h e t w o sections address t h e same p r o b l e m of neglect o f t h e destitute, for b o t h s e e k t o p e r s u a d e t h e a u d i e n c e n o t t o s h o w p a r t i a l i t y t o t h e r i c h b u t t o c a r e for t h e p o o r . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e argumentatio ent
methods,
which
will
is t o p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e , u s i n g differ
support
one's
case.
The
stylistic
and
a r g u m e n t a t i v e features o f J a m e s 2 h a v e b e e n studied closely b y v a n d e r W e s t h u i z e n a n d W a t s o n a n d I will n o t rehearse t h e m in great detail here. R a t h e r , I will p r o v i d e a brief o v e r v i e w of the rhetorical structure of t h e chapter, following W a t s o n a n d others, t h e n focus o n t h e speaker and c o m m u n i t y attributes in each section, followed b y the portrayal of G o d in 2:1-13 and of A b r a h a m and R a h a b respectively in 2:14-26. I
1
For example, Baasland, "Literarische F o r m , " 3656; W u e l l n e r , " D e r Jakobusbrief,"
36; T h u r e n , " R i s k y R h e t o r i c , " 2 7 8 . 2
See, for example, Dibelius, James, 1; P e t e r H . Davids, The Epistle of James. A
mentary on the Greek Text
Com
( N I G T C ; G r a n d Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982) 105; Patrick J.
Hartin, James, 149-62; van der W e s t h u i z e n , "Stylistic T e c h n i q u e s , " 90; W u e l l n e r , " D e r Jakobusbrief," 4 8 - 5 1 . 3
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 9 8 .
4
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 100.
5
H a r t i n (James, 124) thinks that James 2 uses such strong and vivid language that it
suggests an "actual c o n t e x t w h e r e b y t h e rich and powerful exploit their positions and oppress t h e powerless."
5.
A Challenge
to Patronage: James
2:1-13,
123
14-26
w i l l m e n t i o n a t t h e o u t s e t , h o w e v e r , t h a t i t is t h i s p o r t i o n o f J a m e s t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e clearest e v i d e n c e t h a t o n e o f t h e p r o b l e m s J a m e s s e e k s t o r e s o l v e a m o n g t h o s e w h o r e c e i v e h i s l e t t e r is t h e i r t e m p t a t i o n t o c e d e t o t h e influence a n d strength o f t h e w e a l t h y . H e r e w e find
evidence
t h a t p a t r o n a g e is o n e o f t h e s e r i o u s issues t h a t J a m e s is a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n f r o n t i n this letter. A l t h o u g h J a m e s m a d e n e g a t i v e c o m m e n t s a b o u t the rich i n t h e e x o r d i u m , t h e rich again c o m e u n d e r scrutiny i n c h . 2. T h e a i m o f c h . 2 , h o w e v e r , is t o e x h o r t t h e a u d i e n c e t o c a r e f o r t h e p o o r , w h i c h itself is a n e x a m p l e o f h o w faith a n d w o r k s c a n n e v e r b e separated.
J a m e s 2:1-13 A. Rhetorical
Structure
W a t s o n has e x a m i n e d James 2 in light o f ancient rhetorical h a n d b o o k s and found that 2:1-13 a n d 2:14-26 each conform to a complete argu ment,
as o u t l i n e d
Herrenium.
Briefly,
i n texts
such
this p a t t e r n
as P s e u d o - C i c e r o ' s
Rhetorica
consists o f a p r o p o s i t i o n
ad
(propositio)
w h i c h sets f o r t h w h a t t h e s p e a k e r w a n t s t o p r o v e ; t h e r e a s o n
(ratio)
obviously provides a cause o r reason for t h e proposition; t h e p r o o f o f t h e r e a s o n (confirmatio) bellishment (conplexio)
(exornatio)
offers a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e r e a s o n ; t h e e m beautifies
the argument
while
the
resume
consists o f a c o n c l u s i o n t h a t d r a w s t h e s e c t i o n s o f t h e a r g u
m e n t together.
T h e s e are t h e elements o f a perfect argument. W a t s o n ,
and m o r e recently, Hartin,
s e e t h e m all i n Jas 2 : 1 - 1 3 .
T h e p r o p o s i t i o n o f this s e c t i o n lies i n 2 : 1 w i t h its e x h o r t a t i o n n o t t o s h o w partiality, b u t b e f o r e e x p l a i n i n g this p r o p o s i t i o n , w e m u s t m a k e s o m e observations a b o u t t h e text. T h e verse instructs t h e a u d i e n c e n o t t o s h o w p a r t i a l i t y as " y o u h o l d t o t h e faith o f o u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t , t h e L o r d o f g l o r y . " T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l issues w i t h this l a t t e r s e c t i o n . Is i t " f a i t h i n J e s u s C h r i s t " o r a r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s ' faith? C u r r e n t a b o u t t h e G r e e k p h r a s e TYJV 7U
r?j£ ooyriq
debates Xpiaxou
a r e r e l e v a n t h e r e . Is this a n o b j e c t i v e g e n i t i v e a n d t h e r e f o r e
a r e f e r e n c e t o faith in J e s u s C h r i s t , o r a s u b j e c t i v e g e n i t i v e a n d t h u s a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e faith o f J e s u s C h r i s t ? G i v e n t h e t h e o c e n t r i c n a t u r e o f J a m e s a n d t h e fact t h a t t h e r e is o n l y o n e o t h e r e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s i n t h e l e t t e r (1:1) a n d t h a t n o w h e r e i n J a m e s d o e s i t stress b e l i e v ing in Jesus, only believing i n G o d , t h e subjective genitive makes m o r e
6
Ad Her. 2.18.28 cited b y W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 9 5 .
7
H a r t i n , James,
128-38.
124
Friendship
and Benefaction
sense for s o m e c u r r e n t scholars.
in
James
H o w e v e r , t h e r e is also d i s a g r e e m e n t
a b o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s is o r i g i n a l t o t h e l e t t e r . A t least s i n c e t h e l a t e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y , s c h o l a r s h a v e q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r " o u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t " is o r i g i n a l t o 2 : 1 .
T h e r e is n o t e x t critical issue
h e r e , b u t t h e p h r a s e is v e r y a w k w a r d , ^ e s p e c i a l l y t h e TYJS 86-/r\Q, is h a r d t o fit g r a m m a t i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e s e n t e n c e .
1 1
This
which
awkwardness
w o u l d d i s a p p e a r , h o w e v e r , if " o u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t " w a s n o t p r e s e n t a n d t h e v e r s e w o u l d r e f e r t o h o l d i n g faith i n " t h e L o r d o f g l o r y . "
As
D a l e A l l i s o n p o i n t s o u t , e a r l y C h r i s t i a n scribes w e r e p r o n e t o a d d i n g " C h r i s t " , "Jesus", a n d "Jesus C h r i s t " to manuscripts, a n d a d d i n g " o u r L o r d Jesus C h r i s t " w o u l d h a v e b e e n " n a t u r a l " for a scribe w h o
was
familiar w i t h t h e p h r a s e . M o r e o v e r m a n y c o n c u r t h a t t h e r e a r e i n t e r p o l a t i o n s i n e a r l y C h r i s t i a n t e x t s , s u c h as 2 C o r 6:14—7:1, w h i c h
lack
textual s u p p o r t — textual s u p p o r t n e e d n o t b e t h e o n l y factor for d e c i d ing the issue.
13
Finally, t h e i d e a o f G o d b e i n g t h e o b j e c t o f faith is
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o faith s u c h as Jas 1:2-4 a n d 2 : 1 8 - 2 6 i n w h i c h t h e o b j e c t o f faith o r faithfulness is G o d - J e s u s is n o w h e r e t o b e f o u n d . I n t h e J a m e s 2 t e x t , r e f e r e n c e s t o A b r a h a m ' s faith a n d f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d a p p e a r . C l e a r l y A b r a h a m ' s faith is n o t f o r J e s u s , b u t for G o d . I w o u l d therefore c o n c u r w i t h those w h o argue that the refer e n c e t o " o u r L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t " is a l a t e r a d d i t i o n t o t h e l e t t e r . T h u s t h e p r o p o s i t i o n consists o f t h e c l a i m t h a t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
or
s h o w i n g p a r t i a l i t y is i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h faith i n G o d . J a m e s p u t s his claim in an exhortative m o d e , typical of deliberative r h e t o r i c .
1 4
The
r e a s o n f o l l o w s i n Jas 2 : 2 - 4 b e g i n n i n g w i t h y a p , w h i c h s h o w s t h a t it is s u p p o r t i n g a r a t i o n a l e for t h e p r o p o s i t i o n . It consists o f a s c e n a r i o , w h i c h c o u l d b e real o r i m a g i n e d , i n w h i c h a r i c h m a n a n d a p o o r m a n e n t e r t h e g a t h e r i n g , a n d t h e affluent f i g u r e is o f f e r e d a n i c e seat w h i l e
8
For further discussion o f arguments in favour of the subjective genitive, see W a c h o b ,
The Voice of Jesus, 6 4 - 6 6 a n d Hartin, James, 9
117.
B o t h L. Massebieau ("L'epitre de Jacques: est-elle l ' o e u v r e d ' u n chretien?" RHR
32 [1895] 249-83) a n d F. Spitta (Zur Geschichte und Literatur des Urchristentums des Jakobus
[Gottingen: V a n d e n h o e c k
31-
2: Der Brief
& R u p r e c h t , 1896]) argued that the references
Jesus in Jas 1:1 and 2:1 w e r e later interpolations
inserted b y Christians into w h a t
to was
originally a J e w i s h d o c u m e n t . Laws, Epistle of James, 94. 1
O n t h e difficulties in understanding t h e function o f TY]£ §byr\(; w h i l e including t h e
reference to " o u r L o r d Jesus C h r i s t , " see Davids, James, 12
Dale Allison, " T h e Fiction of J a m e s a n d its Site
106-107. im Leben"RB
118 (2001)
543.
G i v e n that o t h e r references to faith in J a m e s refer to t h e faith o f the audience, I take the v i e w that Jas 2:1 refers to faith in G o d as o p p o s e d to G o d ' s faith. 13
Allison, " T h e Fiction," 5 4 3 .
14
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 102.
5. A Challenge to Patronage: James 2:1-13,
14-26
125
t h e p a u p e r is o r d e r e d a r o u n d . I n v . 4 J a m e s asks t h e r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s : " H a v e y o u n o t m a d e d i s t i n c t i o n s (ScexpithjTe) a m o n g y o u r s e l v e s a n d b e c o m e j u d g e s w i t h evil t h o u g h t s ? " O f course t h e a u d i e n c e m u s t a d m i t " y e s , " f o r t h e s c e n e d e s c r i b e s e x a c t l y t h e k i n d o f p a r t i a l i t y t h a t is i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h faithfulness t o G o d . It also e c h o e s L e v 1 9 : 1 5 w i t h its a d m o n i t i o n n o t t o give unjust j u d g m e n t s n o r t o b e partial t o t h e p o o r a n d defer to t h e rich b u t to j u d g e one's n e i g h b o u r justly.
15
T h i s illustra
t i o n f r o m c o m m u n i t y life t h u s s e r v e s as a c l e a r e x a m p l e o f h o w
the
a c t i o n s o f t h e a u d i e n c e , w e r e t h e y t o g i v e t h e b e s t seat t o t h e r i c h m a n a n d s q u a w k at t h e p o o r m a n , clearly v i o l a t e s t h e w h o l e n o t i o n o f b e i n g faithful
t o G o d a n d h e n c e it p r o v i d e s a c l e a r c a u s e for s t a t i n g
the
p r o p o s i t i o n i n t h e first p l a c e . J a m e s 2 : 5 - 7 f o r m s t h e p r o o f o f t h e r e a s o n o r c o r r o b o r a t i o n for t h e reason.
It b e g i n s w i t h aSeXcpoL
(xou a n d consists o f t h r e e r h e t o r i c a l 17
questions w h i c h " e m p h a s i z e t h e p o i n t " that discriminating against t h e destitute d i s h o n o u r s h i m a n d o n l y supports t h e rich w h o are o p p r e s sive, d r a g p e o p l e
into
court
and blaspheme
the honourable
name
i n v o k e d o v e r t h e a u d i e n c e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e first q u e s t i o n r e m i n d s t h e audience of an important teaching in the Jewish tradition, namely that G o d chooses t h e d o w n t r o d d e n ( D e u t 4:37; 7:7).
M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is
w i d e c o n s e n s u s t h a t v . 5 finds its a n t e c e d e n t i n t h e first b e a t i t u d e , " B l e s s e d a r e t h e p o o r , f o r t h e i r s is t h e k i n g d o m o f G o d . " T h i s u s e o f a t e a c h i n g a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s is t h e f o c u s o f W e s l e y W a c h o b ' s
mono
g r a p h o n J a m e s , i n w h i c h h e a r g u e s t h a t t h e l e t t e r uses Q 6 : 2 0 b ( o r a f o r m o f it) b u t recasts it t o suit its o w n p u r p o s e s . borg
has
further
developed
Wachob's
idea,
e n g a g e s i n t h e r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e o f aemulatio
1 9
J o h n S. K l o p p e n
showing
how
James
w h e n h e refashions these
e a r l i e r sayings t o s e r v e his p u r p o s e s . K l o p p e n b o r g p o i n t s o u t t h a t J a m e s m u s t h a v e k n o w n t h e Q version o f "Blessed are t h e p o o r . . . " because J a m e s a n d Q are t h e o n l y sources that place " t h e p o o r " a n d " t h e k i n g dom"
together,
a n d Jas 2 : 6 s h o w s familiarity w i t h
1 2 : 5 8 - 5 9 w h i l e 2 : 7 s e e m s t o recall Q 6 : 2 2 .
2
Q
6:29
and
Q
F o r W a c h o b , Jas 2 : 5 uses a
s a y i n g o f J e s u s as a d e l i b e r a t i v e t e a c h i n g t o illustrate t h e e x i g e n c e n o t t o s h o w p a r t i a l i t y t o t h e r i c h m a n . P a r t o f t h e a r g u m e n t lies i n t h e fact t h a t Jas 2 : 8 refers t o t h e l a w o f L e v 1 9 : 1 8 a n d t h u s s h o v i n g a r o u n d t h e
15
See Hartin, James, 132..
16
See W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 104 w h o refers to Ad Her. 2.18.28.
17
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 1 0 4 referring to Quintillian Inst. 9.2.7.
18
See Hartin, James, 119.
19
See W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 1 3 8 - 5 1 .
20
J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g , " T h e R e c e p t i o n o f Jesus Traditions in J a m e s , " in The Catholic
Epistles and the Tradition (ed. J. Schlosser; B E T L 176; Leuven: Peeters, 2004) 136-40.
126
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
p o o r w o u l d b e a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e T o r a h . W a c h o b also t h i n k s t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s C h r i s t i n J a s 2 : 1 is o r i g i n a l t o t h e l e t t e r a n d t h u s for h i m , t o d i s c r i m i n a t e against t h e " p o o r i n t h e w o r l d " w h o a r e " r i c h i n f a i t h " v i o l a t e s t h e faith o f J e s u s C h r i s t . F o r W a c h o b , J a m e s w a n t s his a u d i e n c e t o i d e n t i f y as t h e " p o o r " o f J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g .
2 1
Kloppenborg
t a k e s t h i s p o i n t f u r t h e r t o u n d e r l i n e t h e fact t h a t if t h e a u d i e n c e g i v e s t h e b e s t seat t o t h e r i c h m a n t h e y a r e n o t o n l y d i s o b e y i n g T o r a h , t h e y a r e w o r k i n g against t h e i r o w n i n t e r e s t s insofar as t h e y are t h e p o o r .
2 2
J a m e s 2 : 8 - 1 1 e m b o d i e s t h e exornatio o r e m b e l l i s h m e n t w h i c h f u r t h e r entrenches an already established a r g u m e n t . O r a t o r s c o u l d d r a w u p o n j u d g m e n t s b y nations, gods, oracles o r respected m e n to s u p p o r t their case.
H e r e , J a m e s d r a w s u p o n L e v 1 9 : 1 8 , t h e u s e o f w h i c h , as i n d i
c a t e d a b o v e , m a k e s p l a i n t h e fact t h a t m i s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e p o o r is a b a l d v i o l a t i o n o f T o r a h . W h a t f o l l o w s i n Jas 2 : 9 - 1 0 a n d 2 : 1 1 is a p a i r o f e n t h y m e m e s , o r i n c o m p l e t e syllogisms that c o n t a i n an u n s t a t e d p r e m ise.
24
T h e u n s t a t e d p r e m i s e o f t h e first e n t h y m e m e is t h a t
"showing
p a r t i a l i t y is a failure t o o b e y t h e l a w " w h i l e t h a t o f t h e s e c o n d is: " i f y o u disobey any c o m m a n d m e n t o f t h e law, y o u h a v e transgressed the whole law."
2 5
M o r e o v e r , J a m e s chooses t h e laws against adultery a n d
m u r d e r t o e m p h a s i z e t h a t h a r s h t r e a t m e n t o f t h e p o o r is as bad as killing or committing
26
adultery.
T h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e p a t t e r n is f o u n d i n Jas 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 , w h i c h
con
tains w h a t m a y b e a p r o v e r b : " F o r j u d g m e n t is w i t h o u t m e r c y t o o n e w h o has s h o w n n o m e r c y " triumphs over judgment."
and the traditional teaching that " m e r c y T h e o v e r a l l c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e u n i t is s u p
p l i e d b y v. 1 2 w i t h its e m p h a s i s u p o n s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g as t h o s e w h o are j u d g e d u n d e r t h e l a w o f l i b e r t y . W h a t t h e " l a w o f l i b e r t y " m e a n s e x a c t l y is d e b a t e d ,
2 9
b u t w h a t is i m p o r t a n t for o u r p u r p o s e s is t h a t
J a m e s h a s c o n c l u d e d his a r g u m e n t w i t h a n e x h o r t a t i o n t o a c t i o n , a fitting 21
w a y for orators to c o n c l u d e their a r g u m e n t s .
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 2 1 . See also, Batten, "Ideological Strategies in J a m e s , " 26.
22
Kloppenborg, " T h e Reception," 141.
23
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 105, w h o refers to Quintilian, Inst. 5.11.36 o n this point.
24
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 106.
25
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 107.
26
Hartin, James, 137.
27
See Hartin, James, 138. See W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 107.
29
O n t h e possibility that James's p e r c e p t i o n of the law is that it is t h e w r i t t e n form of
Stoic understandings, see M a t t A. J a c k s o n - M c C a b e , Logos and Law in the Letter of James. The Law of Nature,
the Law of Moses, and the Law of Freedom ( N o v T S u p p 100; Leiden,
Boston, C o l o g n e : Brill, 2001). 30
See W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 108, w h o refers to Anaximenes, Rhet. Alex.
20.1433b.30ff.
5.
A Challenge
to Patronage: James
2:1-13,
14-26
127
T h e a b o v e s u m m a r y o f J a s 2 : 1 - 1 3 as a d i s c r e t e a r g u m e n t is p r e c i s e l y t h a t : a s u m m a r y , a n d a b r i e f o n e at t h a t . T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e a g r e e m e n t a m o n g scholars that this u n i t centres u p o n t h e t h e m e o f
not
f a v o u r i n g t h e r i c h at t h e e x p e n s e o f t h e p o o r . W h a t I w a n t t o f o c u s o n n o w is h o w t h e u n i t reflects t h e t h r e e p h e n o m e n a o f f r i e n d s h i p ,
pa
tronage and benefaction. B. Friendship, Patronage and Benefaction in James 1. Author
to
2:1-13
Hearers/Readers
As in t h e e x o r d i u m , t h e a u t h o r speaks to t h e a u d i e n c e w i t h authority, b u t t e m p e r e d w i t h i n t i m a t e l a n g u a g e . T h e v o i c e o f a w i s e t e a c h e r is u p h e l d t h r o u g h h i s careful a r g u m e n t , u s e o f p r o v e r b i a l w i s d o m
and
a p p e a l s t o c o m m o n J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n . T h e fact t h a t h e k n o w s h o w
to
d e v e l o p a p e r s u a s i v e a r g u m e n t is e v i d e n c e , i n itself, t h a t h e is f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e school a n d thus t h e roles o f teachers a n d students. J a m e s is t h e r e f o r e t e a c h i n g p e o p l e a f i r m l e s s o n a b o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n t h i s p a s s a g e b u t h e w e a v e s his c a r e for t h e c o m m u n i t y
throughout
t h e u n i t . T w i c e h e refers t o t h e a u d i e n c e as " m y b r o t h e r s " (Jas 2 : 1 , 5 ) , t h e s e c o n d t i m e c a l l i n g t h e m aSeXcpol fxou dya7r7)TOi, m a i n t a i n i n g t h e u s e o f fictive k i n s h i p l a n g u a g e t h a t w e s a w i n t h e e x o r d i u m . T h i s t y p e o f l a n g u a g e , as d i s c u s s e d , b e l o n g s t o t h e topos o f f r i e n d s h i p , for " c o m p a n i o n s h i p , i n t i m a c y , k i n s h i p , a n d similar relations are t h e species o f friendship."
3 2
J a m e s also talks t o t h e a u d i e n c e d i r e c t l y , u s i n g t h e
2nd
person plural consistently t h r o u g h o u t the section. T h e author does n o t shy away from sternly exposing the audience's discrimination
against
t h e p o o r as a n a c t c o n t r a r y t o b e i n g faithful b o t h t o G o d a n d t o t h e l a w — a t o u g h m e s s a g e i n d e e d f o r t h e a u d i e n c e t o r e c e i v e - a n d his u s e o f rhetorical questions that expose the error of the audience's ways w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y l e a v e his l i s t e n e r s o r r e a d e r s f e e l i n g s o m e w h a t s h e e p i s h . H e s p e a k s b l u n t l y , i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f f r a n k s p e e c h t h a t w a s so a d m i r e d b y P h i l o d e m u s a n d P l u t a r c h . Y e t t h e w r i t e r effectively p u s h e s f o r w a r d h i s a r g u m e n t w i t h " f r i e n d l i n e s s for t h e p e r s o n s u n d e r e x a m i n a t i o n ,
with
t h e i n t e n t i o n that if t h e y u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y are d o i n g t h e y m a y n o t d o it a n y l o n g e r . "
T h i s is n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t J a m e s s i m p l y t a k e s o n t h e
g u i s e o f f r i e n d l i n e s s ; i n d e e d I t h i n k h e t r u l y cares for his a u d i e n c e . H o w e v e r , h e n e e d s t o u s e all t h e r h e t o r i c a l skills h e c a n i n o r d e r t o help t h e m b e h a v e in a m a n n e r that h e understands to b e in their best i n t e r e s t s b e c a u s e it is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w h a t h e t h i n k s G o d w a n t s
31
See W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 137.
32
Aristotle, Rhet
33
A n a x i m e n e s , Rhet. Alex.37A445b.lff.;
2.4.28. q u o t e d b y W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 104.
of
128
Friendship
them.
and Benefaction
in
James
Perhaps some audience members found
it a l i e n a t i n g , b u t
as
7TappY)a(,a d e m a n d e d , o n e m u s t b e w i l l i n g t o " r i s k o n e ' s o w n s t a n d i n g w i t h a n o t h e r for t h e g o o d o f t h e o t h e r , " a n d this "is w h y f r a n k s p e e c h can only b e understood in the context of genuine friendship." 2. Community
3 4
Members
First, s e v e r a l a u t h o r s h a v e i d e n t i f i e d p a t r o n a g e as a n " e x i g e n c e , " problem requiring solution, address,
36
3 5
or
t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f J a m e s is a t t e m p t i n g t o
w i t h Jas 2 : 1 - 1 3 p r o v i d i n g t h e m o s t e x p l i c i t s u p p o r t f o r s u c h
an exigence. As w e k n o w , the p e r i c o p e begins w i t h an exhortation to s h o w n o partiality (2:1), f o l l o w e d b y a scenario in w h i c h a rich m a n w i t h fine c l o t h i n g a n d g o l d r i n g s a n d a p o o r m a n i n s h a b b y c l o t h e s e n t e r t h e a s s e m b l y ; t h e r i c h m a n is t r e a t e d w e l l , w h i l e t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d o n e is o r d e r e d a r o u n d ( 2 : 2 - 3 ) . O f n o t e h e r e is t h e fact t h a t t h e 7TTCO^6<; p e r s o n w a s s o m e o n e w h o
r e q u i r e d for s u r v i v a l .
37
had no guarantee of the
minimum
T h e a u t h o r c o n c l u d e s t h e specific s c e n e w i t h
the rhetorical question: " h a v e y o u n o t m a d e distinctions a m o n g y o u r selves, a n d b e c o m e j u d g e s w i t h evil t h o u g h t s ? " ( 2 : 4 ) , r e m i n d s
them
t h a t G o d has c h o s e n t h e " p o o r i n t h e w o r l d " — s u r e l y a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s h a b b i l y d r e s s e d m a n — t o b e r i c h i n faith a n d h e i r s o f t h e k i n g d o m w h i c h G o d h a s p r o m i s e d t o t h o s e w h o l o v e G o d , t h e n scolds t h e a u d i e n c e for d i s h o n o u r i n g t h e p o o r m a n d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t it is t h e r i c h w h o oppress t h e m , drag t h e m into court, and blaspheme the h o n o u r able n a m e i n v o k e d o v e r t h e m (2:6-7).
3 4
J. Paul Sampley, "Paul's Frank Speech w i t h the Galatians and t h e
Philodemus
and the New
Testament
Corinthians,"
World (ed. J o h n T . Fitzgerald, D i r k O b b r i n k , & G l e n n
S. HoUand; N o v T S u p p 111; Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2004) 296. 35
" E x i g e n c e " is Lloyd Bitzer's t e r m , w h i c h h e defines as " a n imperfection m a r k e d b y
an urgency; it is a defect, an obstacle, s o m e t h i n g waiting to b e d o n e , a t h i n g w h i c h is o t h e r than it should b e " ( " R h e t o r i c a l Situation," Philosophy and Rhetoric 1 [1968] 6). 36
Alicia Batten, " A n Asceticism o f Resistance in J a m e s , " Asceticism and the New
ment, 3 5 5 - 7 0 ; C o l e m a n , Patronage and the Epistle of James; J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g "Status u n d Wohltatigkeit bei Paulus u n d J a k o b u s , " Von Jesus zum Studien.
Festgabe fur Paul Hoffmann
zum
Christus:
Testa Verbin,
Christologische
65. Geburtstag ( B Z N W 9 3 ; ed. R u d o l f H o p p e &
Ulrich Busse; Berlin, N e w Y o r k : de Gruyter, 1998) 127-54; "Patronage A v o i d a n c e J a m e s , " HTS in J a m e s ? "
in
55 (1999) 7 5 5 - 9 4 ; S t e p h e n J. Patterson, " W h o are t h e ' P o o r to t h e W o r l d ' (unpublished
paper delivered
at t h e Society of Biblical Literature
Annual
M e e t i n g , B o s t o n , N o v e m b e r , 1999). I a m grateful to D r . Patterson for allowing m e to cite his paper. D o n a l d J. Verseput, " G e n r e and Story: T h e C o m m u n i t y Episde of J a m e s , " CBQ
James 2: D o e s A n c i e n t Patronage Illumine t h e T e x t ? " AUSS The Voice of Jesus, 37
Setting of the
62 (2000) 9 6 - 1 1 0 ; N a n c y J. Vhymeister, " T h e R i c h M a n
181-85.
See S t e g e m a n n and Stegemann, The Jesus Movement,
84.
in
3 3 (1995) 2 6 5 - 8 3 ; W a c h o b ,
5.
A Challenge
to Patronage: James
2:1-13,
129
14-26
A s K l o p p e n b o r g h a s o b s e r v e d , s u c h a s c e n e o f a n affluent f i g u r e e n tering a r o o m
o r g a t h e r i n g is r e m i n i s c e n t
of Lucian's criticism
of
w e a l t h y p e o p l e w h o flaunt their trappings, e x p e c t i n g g r a n d r e c o g n i t i o n (Nigr.
21).
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t flattery w a s o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p a
tronage during the Hellenistic and R o m a n periods, and o n e form
of
e x p r e s s i n g it w a s t o offer t h e b e s t seat o r t h e p l a t f o r m t o t h e w e a l t h y p a t r o n ; w h a t P l u t a r c h refers t o as " s i l e n t
flattery"
(Adul.
amic.
58B).
C o n s i d e r i n g h o w pervasive p a t r o n a g e w a s in t h e early centuries o f t h e C o m m o n E r a , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f t h i s t e x t w o u l d n o t b e familiar w i t h t h e s y s t e m , n o r t h a t h e w o u l d n o t b e c r i t i cal o f it, as s o m e o t h e r H e l l e n i s t i c w r i t e r s w e r e . M o r e o v e r , g i v e n t h e g e n e r a l b i t t e r n e s s t h a t J a m e s displays t o w a r d s t h e r i c h i n t h i s t e x t (e.g. Jas 1:10; 5 : 1 - 6 ) , a d e n u n c i a t i o n o f p a t r o n a g e a n d t h e b e h a v i o u r t h a t it c o u l d p r o d u c e , n a m e l y
flattery
f r o m clients
a n d ill t r e a t m e n t o f t h e p o o r , w o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s i n g . I n 5 : 1 - 6 , t h e a u t h o r directly attacks t h e rich, u s i n g p r o p h e t i c a n d apocalyptic l a n g u a g e . A s p e c t s o f t h i s assault f i n d parallels w i t h i n J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e ,
39
as
t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h o s e w h o e x p l o i t t h e p o o r (5:4) s h o u l d b e c o n d e m n e d w a s a c o m m o n i d e a , e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g t h e g r e a t social p r o p h e t s .
4 0
This
s e c t i o n is also c o m p a r a b l e w i t h Jas 4 : 1 3 - 1 7 ,
as t h e y b o t h s h a r p l y d e
nounce
associated
specific
attitudes
and
behaviours
with
gaining
w e a l t h , a n d b o t h b e g i n w i t h " c o m e n o w , y o u " ( 4 : 1 3 ; 5:1), b u t t h e y a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i n c o n t e n t . W h a t is specifically n o t e w o r t h y f o r o u r p u r p o s e s is s o m e o f t h e d e t a i l t h a t J a m e s p r o v i d e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e is r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r u s t i n g o f g o l d a n d silver, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e s e a r e p e o p l e w h o let t h e i r r i c h e s p i l e u p , p u t t i n g t h e i r faith i n w e a l t h i n s t e a d of G o d . M o r e o v e r , they exploit their workers, the equivalent of m u r d e r (Sir 2 4 : 3 7 ) a n d as s u c h , h a v e l i v e d o u t t h e life o f e n v y a n d f i g h t i n g t h a t , as w e w i l l s e e , is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d i n Jas 3 : 1 3 4:10.
4 2
If these rich p e o p l e r e p r e s e n t p o t e n t i a l p a t r o n s for t h e a u d i e n c e ,
h e r e t h e y are categorically s c o r n e d a n d e x p o s e d in t h e w o r s t possible t e r m s . It is h a r d t o i m a g i n e t h a t a n a u t h o r w o u l d s i m p l y craft s u c h a p o l e m i c , d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t it d r a w s u p o n p r o p h e t i c ideas a n d i m a g e r y , unless h e o r s h e h a d b e e n p r o v o k e d b y s o m e sort o f social p r o b l e m r e lated to wealth, or perhaps seen the p r o b l e m e m e r g i n g o n the horizon.
38
K l o p p e n b o r g Verbin, "Patronage A v o i d a n c e , " 7 6 5 .
39
See K l o p p e n b o r g Verbin, "Patronage A v o i d a n c e , " 7 7 3 n n . 6 3 and 64. In particular,
see 1 Enoch 9 7 , w h i c h refers to t h e unjust accumulation o f gold and silver. 40
See, for example, LXX M a i 3:5.
41
Dibelius, James, 2 3 0 .
42
See J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 309.
Friendship
130
and Benefaction
in James
O n e o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f Jas 2 : 1 - 1 3 is t o d i s c o u r a g e t h e a u d i e n c e f r o m participating in p a t r o n - c l i e n t relationships and to avoid relying o n the wealthy to support the c o m m u n i t y . E v e n t h o u g h the scene m a y be a stock illustration, t h e care J a m e s has t a k e n t o p r e s e n t a vivid i m a g e that w a s l i k e l y familiar t o t h e a u d i e n c e a n d t o g i v e a s u b s e q u e n t tion,
indicates James
has
nothing
but
scorn
for
such
elabora
favouritism.
S h o w i n g p a r t i a l i t y t o t h e r i c h o v e r against t h e p o o r is so w r o n g , i n James's view,
that h e develops a sophisticated
and vivid
argument
against it, c l a i m i n g t h a t it flatly c o n t r a d i c t s t h e w h o l e i d e a o f b e i n g faithful t o G o d a n d o f u p h o l d i n g t h e l a w . T h e c o m m u n i t y is n o t t o act like clients, w h o b u s y themselves o v e r t h e interests a n d n e e d s o f rich p a t r o n s , b u t t o c a r e for t h e p o o r , for, as a l r e a d y o b s e r v e d , t h e y are t h e p o o r . I f t h e y a r e " r i c h i n f a i t h " t h e n t h e y a r e t h e p o o r f o r G o d has c h o s e n t h e " p o o r i n t h e w o r l d " t o b e " r i c h i n faith a n d h e i r s o f t h e k i n g d o m " ( 2 : 5 ) . P a t r o n a g e is " o f t h e w o r l d " for J a m e s . W e h a v e s e e n i n a n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r t h a t p a t r o n a g e forces clients t o r e m a i n i n d e p e n d e n t a n d v u l n e r a b l e r o l e s , n e v e r a b l e t o fully r e p a y t h e i r p a t r o n s . I a m n o t suggesting that p a t r o n a g e creates p o v e r t y , a n d i n d e e d in various e x a m p l e s it e n a b l e s p e o p l e t o stay a l i v e . H o w e v e r , J a m e s d o e s n o t c a r e for t h e k i n d o f b e h a v i o u r it g e n e r a l l y b r e e d s , a n d t h u s a d v o c a t e s differ ent models of behaviour that h e understands to b e consistent
with
faithfulness t o G o d . T h e v a l u e s o f h o n o u r a n d s h a m e f a c t o r i m p o r t a n t l y i n t o this a r g u m e n t . As m a n y studies h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d , h o n o u r a n d s h a m e
were
and c o n t i n u e to b e pivotal values in t h e regions that f o r m e d a r i m around the Mediterranean
Sea.
43
S u c h characteristics h a v e n o t
only
b e e n c o n f i r m e d b y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d b y b i b l i c a l s c h o l a r s u s i n g social scientific c r i t i c i s m ,
b u t also b y classicists. J . E . L e n d o n , f o r e x a m p l e ,
u n d e r s t a n d s h o n o u r t o h a v e b e e n so f u n d a m e n t a l i n t h e R o m a n e m p i r e t h a t t h e a n c i e n t s w e r e n o t e v e n c o n s c i o u s o f it. N o n e t h e l e s s , h e e x a m i n e s v a r i o u s aspects o f t h a t w o r l d i n o r d e r t o b r i n g h o n o u r a n d t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h it c o u l d f u n c t i o n for t h e s e p e o p l e i n t o s h a r p e r relief. As h e writes, an attempt to schematize perceptions so natural to ancient m a n that h e n e e d e d n o such explicit o r d e r i n g is at o n c e artificially tidy and i n c o m -
See Peregrine H o r d e n and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea. A Study of Mediter ranean History (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000) 4 8 5 - 5 2 3 . 44
M u c h o f the g r o u n d b r e a k i n g w o r k in social scientific criticism has b e e n d o n e b y
m e m b e r s o f t h e C o n t e x t G r o u p . See, for example, B r u c e J. Malina, The New
Testament
World. Insights from Cultural Anthropology (Louisville: J o h n K n o x Press, 1981) 2 5 - 5 0 .
5.
A Challenge
to Patronage: James
2:1-13,
131
14-26
p l e t e , b u t p e r h a p s a d e q u a t e t o offer a n i n k l i n g o f h o w m e n a n d e n t i t i e s to w h i c h h o n o u r was ascribed could exert p o w e r in their w o r l d .
4 5
H o n o u r s t a n d s for a p e r s o n ' s s e n s e o f w o r t h a n d p l a c e i n s o c i e t y .
46
M e n , in particular, are e x p e c t e d to defend a n d u p h o l d their h o n o u r a n d t h e h o n o u r o f t h e i r f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y . W o r d s s u c h as " r i c h " (TZ'KOUGIOC,
—
see J a s 1:10, 1 1 ; 2 : 5 , 6; 5:1) a n d " p o o r " (TTTW^O^ — s e e 2 : 2 ,
3 , 5 , 6) r e f e r t o t h e c a p a c i t y t o m a i n t a i n a n d g a i n h o n o u r i n t h e case o f t h e r i c h , a n d t h e loss o f h o n o u r , i n t h e case o f t h e p o o r . T h u s " r i c h " a n d " p o o r " w e r e n o t solely e c o n o m i c t e r m s , a l t h o u g h t h e y c e r t a i n l y included important e c o n o m i c dimensions, b u t pertained to the gain or loss o f h o n o u r .
7
W e a l t h y b e n e f a c t o r s w e r e o f t e n p r a i s e d for t h e i r " l o v e
o f h o n o u r " o r cpiAoxifJila,
and described w i t h a variety of positive
m o r a l a t t r i b u t e s s u c h as " g o o d " o r " b e a u t i f u l " (xaXov), w h i l e
the
49
TTTCO^O^ p e r s o n w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b a d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . H o w e v e r , s i n c e all g o o d s , i n c l u d i n g h o n o u r , w e r e u n d e r s t o o d t o b e l i m i t e d -
the an
cient Mediterranean had n o concept of a " g r o w t h e c o n o m y " b u t rather perceived everything to b e in limited supply
- and thus o n e person's
g a i n w a s a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s loss, t h e r u t h l e s s p u r s u i t o f r i c h e s for t h e s a k e o f w e a l t h a l o n e w a s n o t a d m i r e d , f o r it m e a n t t h a t o n e w a s g r e e d y , d e p r i v i n g others often o f their basic n e e d s . T h e r e f o r e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e affluent w e r e d e e m e d h o n o u r a b l e , if t h e y d i d n o t s h a r e t h e i r w e a l t h w i t h t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o r v i l l a g e , o r i f t h e y e x p l o i t e d o t h e r s for t h e i r o w n gain, t h e y w o u l d n o t receive such admiration.
45
J.E. L e n d o n , Empire of Honour, 3 1 .
4 6
Malina, New Testament World, 4 7 .
47
Malina, " W e a l t h and P o v e r t y in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t and Its W o r l d " ; H o l l e n b a c h ,
" D e f i n i n g R i c h and P o o r U s i n g Social Sciences"; Batten, "Ideological Strategies," 14; Alicia Batten, " T h e D e g r a d e d P o o r and t h e G r e e d y R i c h : E x p l o r i n g t h e Language o f P o v e r t y a n d W e a l t h in t h e Letter o f J a m e s , " The Social Sciences and Biblical Translation
(ed.
D i e t m a r Neufeld; S y m p o s i u m Series 4 1 ; Atlanta: Society o f Biblical Literature; Leiden: Brill, 2008) 6 5 - 7 7 . 4 8
See, for example, IG I P 1292 (Athens; c. 2 5 0 BCE); IG I P 1314 (Athens; 3 6 / 3 5
BCE). T h i s inscription features a priestess, G l a u k o n , w h o is praised for h e r cpiAoTifJila), indicating that sometimes w o m e n could b e associated w i t h a love o f h o n o u r . See also, Alicia Batten, " T h e M o r a l W o r l d o f G r e c o - R o m a n Associations," SR 3 6 (2007) 1 3 8 - 3 9 . 49
See G . E . M . de Ste. C r o i x , The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World (Ithaca: C o r
nell University Press, 1981) 4 2 3 - 2 4 . 5 0
See Malina, The New Testament World, 7 1 - 9 3 .
51
M a n y if n o t m o s t o f o u r literary sources c o m e from elite and wealthy persons, a n d
thus it is practically impossible t o get at w h a t p o o r peoples' attitudes towards these issues w e r e . H o w e v e r , e v e n a m o n g wealthy writers, such as Plutarch (Am. prol), t h e r e is disdain for those w h o are p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h m o n e y . B e n Sira makes m a n y positive c o m m e n t s a b o u t wealth, b u t if seeking w e a l t h gets o u t o f control, it causes blindness. See V i c t o r
132
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
W h a t is u n u s u a l a b o u t t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s is t h a t t h o s e w h o a r e n o t usually associated w i t h h o n o u r , n a m e l y t h e p o o r , are i n d e e d w o r t h y o f h o n o u r . J a m e s castigates t h e a u d i e n c e for s h o w i n g p a r t i a l i t y t o t h e r i c h b e c a u s e it " d i s h o n o u r s " t h e p o o r m a n
(2:6), a n d t h e " p o o r i n
the
w o r l d " (2:5) a r e t h o s e w h o m G o d h a s c h o s e n t o b e r i c h i n faith a n d h e i r s o f t h e k i n g d o m . J a m e s d o e s n o t c o m e o u t a n d say t h a t t h e r i c h are w i t h o u t h o n o u r , b u t h e n e v e r portrays t h e w e a l t h y in a positive l i g h t , a n d i n c h . 5 t h e r i c h a r e c o n d e m n e d t o a p o c a l y p t i c m i s e r i e s for their exploitation o f others (5:1-6). F o r J a m e s , t h e p o o r are h o n o u r e d b y G o d a n d t o t r e a t t h e m b a d l y is " e v i l " (see 2 : 4 ) .
5 2
T h e letter m a y b e
said t o b e c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l i n this r e g a r d , for it g o e s a g a i n s t t h e c u s t o m o f t h e d a y w h i c h w a s t o s h o w h i g h r e g a r d for t h o s e w h o h a d w e a l t h ; a c o n v e n t i o n that s u p p o r t e d p a t r o n / c l i e n t relations. T h u s n o t only does J a m e s c h a l l e n g e p a t r o n a g e a n d t h e p r a c t i c e s t h a t it d e m a n d e d , h e i n v e r t s t h e v a l u e s y s t e m o f h o n o u r a n d s h a m e , at least w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e wealthy, that supports it.
5
T h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r also u p h o l d s s o m e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y a t t r i b u t e s t h a t w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e e x o r d i u m . F a i t h f u l n e s s t o G o d is a g a i n e m p h a s i z e d i n t h e o p e n i n g s t a t e m e n t (2:1) a n d i n 2 : 5 , i n w h i c h it is c l e a r t h a t G o d has c h o s e n t h e " p o o r i n t h e w o r l d " (nTtoyovQ TW xoafjiw) t o b e " r i c h i n f a i t h " (nXouaiouq
ev TUCTTSL). W e o b s e r v e a n
o t h e r instance o f t h e v e r b Siaxpivco, a l t h o u g h in t h e passive f o r m , in 2 : 4 . H e r e , t h e v e r b is n e v e r t r a n s l a t e d as h a v i n g a n y t h i n g t o d o w i t h " d o u b t " b u t u s u a l l y as " h a v e y o u n o t m a d e d i s t i n c t i o n s a m o n g y o u r selves" ( N R S V ) and thus m o r e consistent w i t h t h e Hellenistic
Greek
understanding of the w o r d . James does n o t apply the t e r m to the rela tionship b e t w e e n the person and G o d here t h o u g h , b u t to relationships a m o n g c o m m u n i t y members. T h e y should not order the p o o r person a r o u n d for it leads t o t h e t y p e o f d i v i s i o n w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y t h a t recalls t h e S c ^ u ^ o g p e r s o n i n t h e e x o r d i u m — t h e l a t t e r b e i n g t h e e x a c t t h e o p p o s i t e o f a friend. In light o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t section, 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 , o n e also m i g h t a r g u e t h a t h o s p i t a l i t y is i n v i e w h e r e , g i v e n t h a t A b r a h a m (2:21) a n d R a h a b ( 2 : 2 5 ) , b o t h k n o w n for t h e i r h o s p i t a l i t y , a r e p r e s e n t e d as e x a m p l e s . J a m e s w a n t s t h e a u d i e n c e t o i d e n t i f y w i t h a n d offer h o s p i t a l i t y t o t h e p o o r . S u c h b e h a v i o u r w a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e
M o r l a Asensio, " P o v e r t y and W e a l t h : B e n Sira's V i e w of Possessions," in Der Einzelne
und
seine Gemeinschaft bei Ben Sira (ed. R e n a t e E g g e r - W e n z e l & Ingrid K r a m m e r ; B Z A W 270; Berlin and N e w Y o r k : W a l t e r de Gruyter, 1998) 151-78. 52
See H a r t i n , James, 147.
53
W a c h o b (The
Voice of Jesus, 178-93) also takes this v i e w , arguing that James's chal
lenge to t h e h o n o u r / s h a m e dynamics is i n f o r m e d b y J e w i s h culture.
5.
A Challenge
to Patronage:
James
2:1-13,
133
14-26
tradition of friendship in w h i c h hospitality was u n d e r s t o o d to b e the b e g i n n i n g of friendship. O t h e r o b v i o u s c o m m u n i t y a t t r i b u t e s a p p e a r i n this s e g m e n t i n c l u d i n g t h e t h e m e o f i n t e g r i t y o r t h e p a i r i n g o f s p e a k i n g a n d a c t i n g (Jas 2 : 1 2 ) , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f u p h o l d i n g t h e l a w , especially t h e c o m m a n d ment
to love your
neighbour
as y o u r s e l f (2:8) w h i c h
is
certainly
c o m p a t i b l e w i t h f r i e n d s h i p . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m e r c y is also stressed i n 2 : 1 3 w h i c h recalls M a t t 5:7 a n d T o b 4 : 1 0 , b o t h o f w h i c h r e f e r
to
s h o w i n g m e r c y (zkzoc)
or
a n d i n T o b i t is c o n n e c t e d t o a l m s g i v i n g
s h o w i n g m e r c y t o t h e p o o r . It is also i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o A r i s t o t l e , sXso^ w a s n o t s i m p l y a r e s p o n s e t o t h e suffering o f a n other,
but
undeserved.
a response
that
Moreover,
acknowledged
that
that
suffering
was
for A r i s t o t l e o n e p i t i e s o t h e r s w h o m
one
k n o w s , b u t n o t t h o s e w h o a r e t o o c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d , for t h e n t h e o n e w h o feels p i t y w i l l feel t h a t h e o r s h e w i l l l i k e l y suffer. A r i s t o t l e e x p l a i n s t h a t t h i s is w h y Amasis is said n o t to have w e p t w h e n his son was led to execution, b u t did w e e p w h e n his friend (cplXog) was r e d u c e d to beggary, for t h e latter excited pity (tksoc), the former terror (Rhet. 2.8.12). If t h i s is w h a t J a m e s u n d e r s t o o d sXeog t o m e a n h e r e , t h e n it s u g g e s t s n o t o n l y t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d s h o w p i t y for t h e 7TTco^6g
person,
b u t t h a t t h e p o o r p e r s o n clearly d i d n o t d e s e r v e t o b e suffering. M o r e over,
Aristotle's
example
is i n t r i g u i n g
in
that
it refers
to
Amasis
s h o w i n g p i t y for a f r i e n d w h o has b e c o m e a b e g g a r . Is it p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f J a m e s h a s f r i e n d s h i p i n t h e b a c k o f his m i n d w h e n advocates caring for t h e p o o r , w h o
h a v e lost t h e i r h o n o u r i n
he the
w o r l d ' s eyes, a n d b e e n r e d u c e d to p e n u r y ? 3.
God
T h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f G o d i n Jas 2 : 1 - 1 3 is also c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w h a t w e f o u n d i n t h e e x o r d i u m . F o r e x a m p l e , G o d ' s r e l i a b i l i t y is stressed i n 2 : 5 w i t h a reference to G o d ' s promises to those w h o love G o d . G o d ' s care for t h e p o o r is e s p e c i a l l y b r o u g h t o u t h e r e , w i t h a n e m p h a s i s u p o n h o w G o d " c h o o s e s " t h e p o o r i n t h e w o r l d t o b e r i c h i n faith, p r o b a b l y r e calling t h e tradition in J u d a i s m o f G o d c h o o s i n g G o d ' s p e o p l e 1 6 : 5 ; D e u t 4 : 3 7 ; 7 : 7 ; Isa 1 4 : 1 ) .
54
55
G o d is a b e n e f a c t o r w h o cares f o r t h e
D i o C h r y s o s t o m , 1 Regn. 4 1 . Aristotle, Rhet.
2.8.2. See A a r o n B e n - Z e ' e v , "Aristotle o n E m o t i o n s towards t h e
F o r t u n e of O t h e r s , " in Envy, Spite and Jealousy, 56
(Num
See Hartin, James, 119.
112-14.
134
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
p o o r u n l i k e t h e r i c h , s u c h as t h e m a n w i t h t h e g o l d r i n g s , w h o o p p r e s s t h e p o o r a n d d r a g t h e m i n t o c o u r t (Jas 2 : 6 ) . T h e r i c h , i n c l u d i n g r i c h patrons, are t h e o p p o s i t e o f G o d . T h e s e rich, m o r e o v e r ,
"blaspheme the honourable
name
(xaXov
ovofxa) w h i c h w a s i n v o k e d o v e r " t h e a u d i e n c e ( 2 : 7 ) . S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s u n d e r s t a n d this " n a m e " t o b e t h a t o f J e s u s , e s p e c i a l l y if t h e y t h i n k t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s C h r i s t i n 2 : 1 is o r i g i n a l t o t h e l e t t e r ,
57
while
o t h e r s , e v e n if t h e y t h i n k t h a t 2 : 1 is o r i g i n a l t o t h e l e t t e r , t h i n k it c o u l d b e Jesus or G o d .
5 8
A l t h o u g h t h e phrase does a p p e a r i n early C h r i s t i a n
l i t e r a t u r e w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o J e s u s ' n a m e ( H e r m . Sim.
8.6.4), this n e e d
n o t m e a n t h a t J a m e s is u s i n g t h e p h r a s e i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r , f o r s o m e Christians, b u i l d i n g u p o n a biblical tradition that c o n d e m n e d t h e blas p h e m y o f G o d (see L e v 2 4 : 1 0 - 2 3 ) , s i m p l y r e p l a c e d t h e n a m e o f G o d w i t h t h a t o f J e s u s . J a m e s is also d r a w i n g f r o m this s a m e t r a d i t i o n , b u t t h e r e is n o t h i n g i n t h e t e x t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s a m e t y p e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n is o c c u r r i n g , e s p e c i a l l y as I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t t h e earliest t e x t o f J a m e s i n c l u d e d a reference t o Jesus i n 2 : 1 . T h e phrase applies t o G o d ' s n a m e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e n a m e as xaXov
(see L X X Ps
1 3 4 : 3 ) . F o r J a m e s , it is t h e r i c h w h o b l a s p h e m e this g o o d a n d h o n o u r a b l e n a m e . O b v i o u s l y this is n o t t h e s o r t o f b e h a v i o u r t h a t J a m e s desires o f his a u d i e n c e . J a m e s w a n t s his a u d i e n c e t o l o v e G o d (2:5) a n d t o h o l d faith i n G o d ( 2 : 1 ) , a n d i m p l i c i t l y , t o h o n o u r G o d , a n d f o r t h i s , as w e w i l l see i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , G o d p r o v i d e s gifts o f f r i e n d s h i p , as P h i l o also m a k e s clear.
James 2:14-26 A. Rhetorical
Structure
J a m e s 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 , as s t a t e d a b o v e , is u n d e r s t o o d t o b e a f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a r g u m e n t a b o u t p a r t i a l i t y set o u t i n 2 : 1 - 1 3 , b u t e l a b o r a t e d t o t h e b r o a d e r t o p i c o f faith a n d w o r k s .
W a t s o n has w o r k e d o u t t h e
following structure again according to patterns described in rhetorical t e x t s s u c h as t h e Rhetorica
ad Herennium
and others, and Hartin's most
r e c e n t w o r k o n J a m e s g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w s this p a t t e r n b u t w i t h differences.
57
61
For example, Davids, The Epistle of James, 113. For example, J o h n s o n , James, 226.
59
See Philo, Abr. 129.
60
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 108; W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 1 1 1 . Hartin, James, 156-62.
some
5.
A Challenge
to Patronage: James
2:1-13,
135
14-26
T h e p r o p o s i t i o n ( 2 : 1 4 ) , w h i c h states t h e t h e m e t h a t faith m u s t b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y w o r k s , uses t w o r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s , b o t h o f w h i c h expect a negative response. This t h e m e of the impossibility of the sepa r a t i o n o f faith a n d w o r k s is at t h e " h e a r t o f J e w i s h faith a n d p i e t y , "
6 2
a n d w o u l d presumably b e self-evident to the audience. James backs the proposition w i t h a reason, h o w e v e r , in 2:15-16, w h i c h invokes
the
e x a m p l e o f h o w t o t r e a t a b a d l y c l o t h e d a n d h u n g r y b r o t h e r o r sister — o b v i o u s l y n o t s i m p l y w i t h w o r d s , b u t w i t h p r a c t i c a l aid. A s W a t s o n says, t h e e x a m p l e is i r o n i c , for t h e r e s p o n s e o f " g o i n p e a c e , g e t w a r m and get s o m e t h i n g to eat" to the shivering, famished person w i t h o u t a c t u a l l y p r o v i d i n g f o o d a n d s h e l t e r is r i d i c u l o u s . D i r e c t l y f o l l o w i n g t h e reason, J a m e s p r o v i d e s further p r o o f for t h e r e a s o n w h i c h restates t h e p r o p o s i t i o n ( 2 : 1 7 ) , a r e p e t i t i o n w h i c h a m p l i fies t h e i n i t i a l p r o p o s i t i o n .
T h e n w e e n c o u n t e r an e n g a g e m e n t w i t h
an imaginary interlocutor w h i c h includes anticipation or the strategy for delaying t h e o b j e c t i o n t o t h e a r g u m e n t , a n d personification — t h e representation of an absent person — in 2:18a,
and the author's posing
o f a d i l e m m a t o t h e o p p o s i t i o n o f this i n t e r l o c u t o r i n 2 : 1 8 b . 2 : 1 9 a n t i c i p a t e s a n o t h e r o b j e c t i o n b y t h e o p p o n e n t ; t h a t is, t h a t o n e s i m p l y confess t h a t G o d is o n e , w h i c h is t h e Shema
must
Israel ( D e u t 6 : 4 ) .
J a m e s refutes this b y s a y i n g e v e n t h e d e m o n s b e l i e v e , a n d t h u s
believing
b y itself is clearly n o t sufficient. T h e o p p o n e n t ' s a r g u m e n t is s h o w n t o h a v e n o w e i g h t w h a t s o e v e r . As m a n y scholars, i n c l u d i n g D i b e l i u s ,
6 6
h a v e s h o w n , t h e s e c t i o n e x h i b i t s m a n y aspects o f t h e a n c i e n t d i a t r i b e form, including the use of an imaginary o p p o n e n t in 2 : 1 8 - 2 3
who
m a k e s o b j e c t i o n s (2:18) a n d f o r m s false c o n c l u s i o n s ( 2 : 1 9 ) . The
embellishment
(2:20-25)
o f t h e a r g u m e n t a g a i n amplifies
in
2 : 2 0 w i t h a r e i t e r a t i o n o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n a n d a t o n e o f s u r p r i s e o r ex68
clamatio.
It t h e n offers a p r o o f f r o m e x a m p l e i n 2 : 2 1 - 2 2 w i t h t h e s t o r y
o f t h e b i n d i n g o f Isaac, a iudicatio natural
oracle
in
2:23,
another
(judgment) in the form of a super amplification
which
repeats
the
proposition in 2:24, and another p r o o f from example in 2:25 w i t h the story of R a h a b . T h e brief s u m m a r y conclusion appears in 2:26, recall i n g v. 17 a n d using a figure o f t h o u g h t that forms "a
62
Hartin, James, 157.
63
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 108.
64
C i c e r o , Part. or. 15.54; cited in W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 1 0 9 .
65
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 112.
one-to-one
66
Dibelius, James, 1 4 9 - 5 1 .
67
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 119. H a r t i n (James, 156-62) follows roughly the same pattern
68
See Rhet. Her. 4.15.22; cited in W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 114.
136
Friendship
and Benefaction
in
James
correspondence between body-faith and spirit-works."
T h u s w e see
t h a t Jas 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 c o n f o r m s t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a p e r f e c t a r g u m e n t , j u s t as d i d t h e u n i t d i r e c t l y p r e c e d i n g it. B. Friendship and Benefaction in J a m e s 2:14-26 T h i s s e c t i o n o f J a m e s fully d e v e l o p s t h e n e c e s s i t y for faith t o b e c o m p l e t e d o r p e r f e c t e d b y w o r k s (ex TCOV s p y w v r\ maxiq
STeXeiw&Y)) as
it says i n 2 : 2 2 . 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 t h e r e f o r e p i c k s u p o n e o f t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e s o f t h e l e t t e r : t h e n e c e s s i t y o f p e r f e c t i o n , o r w h o l e n e s s (xeXeio^) as i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e e x o r d i u m ( 1 : 4 ) . It is also i n t h e s e v e r s e s t h a t t h e n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d a p p e a r s e x p l i c i t l y as A b r a h a m is c a l l e d a " f r i e n d o f G o d . " G o d is n o t a c e n t r a l f i g u r e h e r e , b u t A b r a h a m a n d R a h a b e m e r g e as e x a m p l e s o r m o d e l s o f h u m a n b e i n g s w h o d e m o n s t r a t e h o w n e i t h e r faith n o r w o r k s a r e sufficient o n t h e i r o w n , b u t a r e i n s e p a r a b l e . In t h e following w e will explore friendship in the c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n a u t h o r a n d h e a r e r s / r e a d e r s as w e h a v e b e e n d o i n g t h u s far, t h e n focus o n c o m m u n i t y attributes a n d
finally,
t h e specific r o l e s o f A b r a
h a m and Rahab. 1. Author
to
Hearers/Readers
A s i n Jas 2 : 1 , t h e a u t h o r b e g i n s t h i s s e c t i o n w i t h a8eX<po(, [xou a n d t h e audience m e m b e r s are referred
to with
fictive
k i n s h i p l a n g u a g e as
" b r o t h e r " a n d " s i s t e r " ( 2 : 1 5 ) , j u s t as m e m b e r s o f a n c i e n t a s s o c i a t i o n s w o u l d often refer to o n e a n o t h e r . T h e a u t h o r therefore begins o n an intimate and "friendly" n o t e w i t h the audience, and h e remains direct w i t h t h e m , consistently using the second person (2:16, 1 8 - 2 0 , 2 2 , 24). H o w e v e r , t h e a u t h o r also c o n t i n u e s t o u s e r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s i n this s e c t i o n , s u c h as i n J a s 2 : 1 4 , a n d p r o v i d e s a n e x a m p l e i n 2 : 1 5 - 1 6 that m a y w e l l h a v e t a k e n place a m o n g t h e recipients o f t h e letter. If so, p r e s u m a b l y t h e h y p o c r i s y o f g i v i n g a d v i c e t o a p o o r p e r s o n , w h o is a m e m b e r o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , w i t h o u t offering c o n c r e t e aid w o u l d e m barrass s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e a u d i e n c e , a n d clearly J a m e s is w i l l i n g t o risk
this r e a c t i o n . H e also forcefully uses t h e d i a t r i b e f o r m
including
engagement w i t h a hypothetical o p p o n e n t in 2:18-20. Diatribes w e r e o f t e n u s e d w i t h i n a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s as effective m o d e s o f teaching in order to m o v e people to action. tor w o u l d
sometimes b e addressed w i t h
7 0
T h e imaginary interlocu
t h e v o c a t i v e s u c h as
"O
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 116. 7 0
See Stanley K. Stowers, " T h e D i a t r i b e , " Greco-Roman Literature and the New
ment (ed. D a v i d E . A u n e ; SBLSBS 2 1 ; Adanta: Scholars, 1988) 7 1 - 8 3 .
Testa
5. A Challenge to Patronage: James 2:1-13, man."
7 1
14-26
137
W e see t h i s h a p p e n i n g i n J a m e s as t h e a u t h o r a d d r e s s e s t h e
m a n w h o says " Y o u h a v e faith a n d I h a v e w o r k s " (2:18) w i t h t h e e x clamatory " y o u e m p t y p e r s o n " in 2:20. B y using these
techniques,
J a m e s m a i n t a i n s h i s ethos as a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e , d i r e c t a n d skilled t e a c h e r , a n d i n d i c a t e s h o w s t r o n g l y h e feels a b o u t t h e issue o f faith a n d w o r k s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e n e e d t o l i v e o u t faith b y o f f e r i n g h o s p i t a l i t y a n d c a r e to the poor. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f firm, authoritative t e a c h i n g a n d friendly address c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h o u t Jas 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o t h e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e l e t t e r e x a m i n e d t h u s far. J a m e s w a n t s t o m a i n t a i n a w a r m t o n e w i t h t h e a u d i e n c e b u t h e also c o n t i n u a l l y r e a s o n s assertively u s i n g t o o l s f r o m G r e e k e d u c a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s . U s i n g t h e d i a t r i b e is effective i n t h i s s e c tion
because
it
allows J a m e s
to
speak
forcefully
without
directly
a t t a c k i n g t h e a u d i e n c e a n d r i s k i n g t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f its m e m b e r s . w a n t s t o b e firm, b u t n o t nasty. T h i s p r u d e n c e in offering
He
correction
a n d a d v i c e is o f t e n c o m m e n t e d u p o n b y t h o s e w h o w r o t e a b o u t f r a n k s p e e c h a n d f r i e n d s h i p . P l u t a r c h , f o r e x a m p l e , w a r n s against b e i n g t o o heavy handed: B u t t h e m a n w h o has b e e n hard hit and scored b y frankness, if h e b e left r o u g h and t u m i d and u n e v e n , will, o w i n g to t h e effect o f anger, n o t readily respond to an appeal t h e n e x t t i m e , or p u t u p w i t h attempts to soothe h i m . T h e r e f o r e those w h o e m p l o y a d m o n i t i o n should b e particularly o n their guard in this respect ... (Adul. amic. 74E). G i v e n t h e facility w i t h w r i t i n g a n d r h e t o r i c t h a t w e h a v e s e e n so far in James, the a u t h o r m u s t b e aware that speaking t o o directly will d e feat
his
overall
purpose
to
guide
the
audience
in
altering
their
b e h a v i o u r , e s p e c i a l l y t o w a r d s o n e a n o t h e r . H e h a s t h u s c o n t i n u e d his address, using a strong b u t m e a s u r e d t o n e , a n d t e m p e r e d w i t h
"my
b r o t h e r s , " s u c h t h a t u p o n h e a r i n g o r r e a d i n g t h e d o c u m e n t , his a u d i e n c e will n o t snort w i t h anger a n d discard t h e letter. 2. Community
Members
T h i s u n i t , as m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , f o c u s e s u p o n t h e n e e d t o e m b o d y b o t h faith a n d w o r k s , o r t h e t h e m e o f w h o l e n e s s o r i n t e g r i t y . T h i s t h e m e f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e s t h e n e e d t o c a r e f o r t h e p o o r , w h i c h as Jas 2 : 1 4 - 1 7 m a k e s clear, w o u l d b e a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f faith a c c o m p a n i e d b y w o r k s . It
follows
the
previous
argument
in
which
attitudes
towards
the
w e a l t h y a n d p o o r m e n w h o enter t h e assembly are criticized sharply, and which presumes a background of patronage.
71
Stowers, " D i a t r i b e , " 76.
138
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
J a m e s 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 c o n t a i n s t h e r e f e r e n c e t o A b r a h a m as a " f r i e n d
of
G o d " ( 2 : 2 3 ) , a p h r a s e e a r n e d i n this case, a n d as w e w i l l discuss b e l o w , f r o m b o t h A b r a h a m ' s w o r k s o f h o s p i t a l i t y as w e l l as his w i l l i n g n e s s t o u n d e r g o a g r e a t test a n d n e a r l y sacrifice his s o n . T h u s t h e t h e m e
of
t e s t i n g is m a i n t a i n e d ; o n e m u s t e n d u r e tests i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d , b u t also a n e m p h a s i s u p o n p r o v i d i n g h o s p i t a l i t y , f u r t h e r substantiated b y the reference to R a h a b (2:25). J a m e s exhorts t h e a u d i ence to practise hospitality and in o r d e r to e n c o u r a g e such charity the w r i t e r supplies a h u m a n e x a m p l e , A b r a h a m , w h o possessed friendship w i t h G o d , a n d a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , R a h a b , w h o is j u s t i f i e d b y w o r k s . T o b e a f r i e n d o f G o d n o t o n l y i n v o l v e s trials, b u t w o r k s o f h o s p i t a l i t y a n d c a r e for t h o s e i n n e e d . W e recall D i o C h r y s o s t o m ' s c o m m e n t h e r e t h a t h o s p i t a l i t y is t h e b e g i n n i n g o f f r i e n d s h i p ,
and the general feature of
f r i e n d s h i p , d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 2 , t h a t friends s h a r e all i n
common.
T h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d is i n t i m a t e l y d e p e n d e n t n o t o n l y u p o n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o w i t h s t a n d t e s t i n g , as d e v e l o p e d i n t h e e x o r d i u m , b u t also o n h o w t h e y t r e a t e a c h o t h e r , e s p e c i a l l y t h e m o r e vulnerable in their midst. As m a n y scholars h a v e d e t e r m i n e d , t h e r e w e r e p e o p l e f r o m different social strata w i t h i n early C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s .
7 3
Such complex groups ex
p e r i e n c e d i n n e r conflicts a n d p r o b l e m s s i m i l a r t o o t h e r a s s o c i a t i o n s o f people in the ancient world.
J a m e s ' s a u d i e n c e is u n l i k e l y t o b e a n y
e x c e p t i o n . T h e s e p e o p l e a r e p r o b a b l y i n u r b a n areas, g i v e n t h e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e " c r o w n " (aTscpoLvoq) o f life i n 1:12 a n d t h e m a n w i t h g o l d r i n g s i n 2 : 2 , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e m a n is a r e a l f i g u r e . S o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y h a v e m o r e serious needs t h a n o t h ers, a n d this s e c t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r suggests t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e w e r e n o t a l w a y s assisted. F o r e x a m p l e , Jas 2 : 1 5 - 1 7 e x p l i c i t l y a d d r e s s e s t h e p l i g h t o f a " b r o t h e r o r sister" i n s h a b b y c l o t h e s , w i t h o u t e n o u g h f o o d ,
who
r e q u i r e s t h i n g s " n e e d e d for t h e b o d y . " R a t h e r t h a n a i d i n g t h e s e p o o r i n t h e i r o w n c o m m u n i t y , it is l i k e l y t h a t s o m e m e m b e r s w e r e s e e k i n g a d v a n t a g e s t h r o u g h alliances w i t h t h e l e i s u r e class, as is e x p l i c i t i n Jas 2 : 1 - 1 3 , a n d n e g l e c t i n g t h e i r o w n . T h e a u t h o r a d a m a n t l y rejects s u c h
72
IRegn.
73
O n t h e Pauline churches, for example, see W a y n e A. M e e k s , The First Urban Chris
1.41.
tians. The Social World of the Apostle Paul ( N e w H a v e n and L o n d o n : Yale University Press, 1983). 74
Verseput ( " G e n r e a n d Story," 107-108) provides s o m e helpful comparisons w i t h
s o m e ancient associations, b u t t h e inscriptions for these groups generally d o n o t provide moral and theological grounds for their m o r a l codes in the m a n n e r that James does. 75
See Batten, "Ideological Strategies,"12.
5.
A Challenge
to Patronage: James
2:1-13,
139
14-26
liaisons w i t h t h e r i c h , i m p l o r i n g t h e a u d i e n c e t o offer h o s p i t a l i t y t o those w h o truly n e e d it.
76
G i v e n t h e s t r o n g p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e is n o t o f i d e n t i c a l s o cial status, t h e r e f o r e , h o w is it p o s s i b l e t o i m a g i n e t h e s e p e o p l e as b e i n g " f r i e n d s " t o o n e a n o t h e r , w h e n t r u e f r i e n d s h i p c o u l d o n l y exist w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f b a l a n c e d r e c i p r o c i t y , as w e s a w i n C h a p t e r 3? T h i s is w h e r e I t h i n k t h a t t h e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n f r i e n d s h i p a n d b e n e f a c t i o n is e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t . L i k e o t h e r s i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d , J a m e s sees a certain c o m m o n a l i t y b e t w e e n friendship and benefaction.
7 7
He
does
n o t state t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e is t o b e a c o m m u n i t y o f cplXoi, y e t h e e m p h a s i z e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f r i e n d s h i p , s u c h as t e s t i n g , faith, i n t e g r i t y a n d h o s p i t a l i t y , t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h t h a t i d e a l . I t h e r e f o r e t h i n k t h a t his a p p e a l s t o characteristics o f friendship are rhetorical i n that t h e y aid in p e r s u a d i n g a m i x e d a u d i e n c e t o manifest t h e qualities i n h e r e n t in friendship w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y a d v o c a t i n g t h a t it b e a c o m m u n i t y o f e q u a l s . T h e l i n e b e t w e e n f r i e n d s h i p a n d b e n e f a c t i o n is b l u r r e d , j u s t as it is i n s o m e o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n a l e v i d e n c e t h a t refers t o a n i n d i v i d u a l as b o t h a b e n e f a c t o r and as a f r i e n d , o r t h e H e l l e n i s t i c J e w i s h e v i d e n c e t h a t w i l l s p e a k o f G o d as a f r i e n d a n d b e n e f a c t o r .
E p i c u r u s , as w e s a w , associates
friendship w i t h practical aid a l t h o u g h help s h o u l d n o t b e t h e f o u n d a tion of friendship.
Friends w e r e expected to be supportive of o n e
a n o t h e r , e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f suffering a n d d y i n g for t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e i r cpiXoc P r o v e r b s 1 4 : 2 1 c o n t r a s t s t h e sinfulness o f h a t i n g a f r i e n d w i t h t h e b l e s s e d n e s s o f c a r i n g for t h e p o o r , t h e r e b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t o l o v e friends is also t o h a v e c o m p a s s i o n for t h e n e e d y . A n
emphasis
u p o n a i d w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e t h o s o f f r i e n d s h i p as w e l l as t h e e t h o s o f b e n e f a c t i o n . J a m e s is a b l e t o d r a w u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p , t h e r e f o r e , effectively t o e n c o u r a g e m o r e b e n e f a c t i o n f o r t h e n e e d y . I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e frantic j o s t l i n g f o r a t t e n t i o n
76
Patterson ( " W h o are the ' P o o r ' in the W o r l d , " 6-7, 10) thinks that this emphasis
u p o n hospitality in Jas 2:14-26 m a y reflect problems in t h e c o m m u n i t y related to hospital ity towards itinerant prophets, w h o m the a u t h o r of the letter supports. T h e s e w a n d e r i n g radicals m a y b e the xeXecoc comparable to those of the Didache (6:2) and those in M a t t 19:21 " w h o e m b r a c e a m o r e radical form of discipleship." In James, they m a y b e those w h o have t h e true authority to teach (Jas 3:2). This a r g u m e n t is also presented in Patter son's m o n o g r a p h , The Gospel of Thomas and Jesus ( F F R S ; S o n o m a , C A : Polebridge, 1993) 178-88. 77
J e r o m e H . N e y r e y , SJ ( " G o d , Benefactor and Patron: T h e Major Cultural M o d e l for
Interpreting the D e i t y in G r e c o - R o m a n A n t i q u i t y , " JSNT
27 [2005] 465-92) has recently
explored the b e n e f a c t o r / p a t r o n image (he makes n o distinction b e t w e e n the two) a n d further reveals t h e degree to w h i c h benefactors w e r e associated w i t h friendship. 78
See Chapters 2 and 3 .
79
Sent. Vat. xxxix.
140
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
a n d f a v o u r s f r o m t h e affluent c o m b i n e d w i t h a n i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e t r u l y d e s t i t u t e , it is p r e c i s e l y t h i s s o r t o f e t h o s t h a t J a m e s p r o m o t e s . 3. Abraham
and
Rahab
T h e r e f e r e n c e s t o A b r a h a m a n d R a h a b a p p e a r w i t h i n t h e exornatio,
the
l a t t e r b e i n g u s e d t o e m b e l l i s h , o r " a d o r n a n d e n r i c h t h e a r g u m e n t , after t h e p r o o f h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d " (Rhet.
Her.
2.18.28). B o t h
Abraham
a n d R a h a b a r e r e f e r r e d t o as specific h i s t o r i c a l e x a m p l e s o f p e o p l e w h o w e r e j u s t i f i e d b y w o r k s a n d n o t b y faith a l o n e ( 2 : 2 4 ) . T h e u s e o f e i t h e r h i s t o r i c a l o r i n v e n t e d e x a m p l e s , as w e s a w , w a s a c o m m o n
practice
w i t h i n r h e t o r i c a l s p e e c h e s for t h e y p r o v i d e c o n c r e t e p r o o f i n s u p p o r t of the argument.
8 0
In the N e w Testament, examples used in rhetorical
arguments w e r e often taken from J e w i s h history,
and the examples of
Abraham and R a h a b w e r e well k n o w n within Jewish and circles.
Christian
S o m e t i m e s t h e y w e r e c i t e d t o g e t h e r , as t h e y w e r e f a m o u s f o r
t h e i r h o s p i t a l i t y a n d faith, a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s .
8 3
It is t h e r e f o r e n o t u n u s u a l for A b r a h a m a n d R a h a b t o b e r e f e r r e d t o t o g e t h e r ; h o w e v e r , t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f A b r a h a m ' s w o r k s ( s p y a ) (Jas 2 : 2 1 , 2 2 ) has p u z z l e d s c h o l a r s . J a m e s e x p l a i n s t h e m e a n i n g o f R a h a b ' s w o r k s (epya): she practised hospitality b y sheltering, h i d i n g a n d h e l p i n g t w o s t r a n g e r s t o e s c a p e f r o m J e r i c h o (Josh 2 : 1 - 2 1 ) , a n d t h i s s t o r y fits w e l l w i t h t h e t h e m e o f s h o w i n g m e r c y t o t h e p o o r as r e f e r r e d t o i n Jas 2 : 1 5 - 1 6 a n d t h e l a r g e r a r g u m e n t a b o u t p a r t i a l i t y as i n t r o d u c e d i n 2 : 1 1 3 . H o w e v e r , t h e w o r k s w h i c h j u s t i f i e d A b r a h a m a r e n o t so clear. Is it b e c a u s e h e w a s w i l l i n g t o offer Isaac u p o n t h e altar, as J a s 2 : 2 1 s e e m s t o say? W h y , t h e n , is e p y a i n t h e p l u r a l a n d n o t t h e s i n g u l a r ? R o y B o w e n W a r d suggests t h a t t h e a u t h o r p r e s u p p o s e s his a u d i e n c e ' s k n o w l e d g e o f Abraham's works
of hospitality
(Gen
80
Aristotle, Rhet. 2.20.
81
K e n n e d y , New Testament Interpretation, 16.
1 8 ) , as this w a s w e l l
known
For a list o f references to R a h a b in J e w i s h and Christian literature, see A n t h o n y H a n s o n , " S e m i n a r R e p o r t o n ' T h e U s e o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t in t h e Episde o f J a m e s , ' " NTS
25 (1979) 527. T h e list o f references to A b r a h a m in Jewish and early Christian
literature is, as o n e could imagine, rather lengthy. For references to A b r a h a m w i t h i n the earliest Christian literature, at least, see R o y B o w e n W a r d , " A b r a h a m Traditions in Early Christianity," Studies in the Testament of Abraham (ed. G e o r g e W . E . Nickelsburg; SBLSCS 6; Missoula: Scholars, 1976) 173-84. 83
F o r example, 1 Clement 10-12 admires A b r a h a m , Lot and R a h a b for their hospital
ity, and in the case o f A b r a h a m and R a h a b , for their faith. F o r a discussion o f these examples in 1 Clement, see H . C h a d w i c k , "Justification b y Faith and Hospitality," Studia Patristica 4 (1961) 2 8 1 - 8 5 . Dibelius, (James, 167) points o u t that there w e r e lists of pious persons w h i c h w e r e well k n o w n w i t h i n ancient Judaism and apparendy to s o m e N e w T e s t a m e n t writers as well.
5. A Challenge to Patronage: James 2:1-13,
14-26
141
w i t h i n J e w i s h a n d C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e . M o r e o v e r , t h e title " f r i e n d
of
G o d " w a s a r e a s o n a b l y c o m m o n e p i t h e t for A b r a h a m , a n d c o u l d b e associated w i t h a variety o f A b r a h a m ' s g o o d deeds, i n c l u d i n g hospital i t y . F o r e x a m p l e , i n his t r e a t i s e , On Sobriety,
P h i l o cites G e n 1 8 : 1 7 as
" ' s h a l l I h i d e a n y t h i n g f r o m A b r a h a m m y f r i e n d (cplXou (JLOU)'" e v e n 84
t h o u g h t h e L X X uses 7iai86<; [Jiou. W a r d a r g u e s t h a t Jas 2 : 1 5 - 1 6 p r e p a r e s t h e a u d i e n c e for t h e s t o r y o f A b r a h a m ' s h o s p i t a l i t y b e c a u s e it refers t o c a r i n g f o r t h o s e i n n e e d , t h e n s e n d i n g t h e m o n t h e i r w a y (2:16) w h i c h is e x a c t l y w h a t A b r a h a m d i d i n G e n 1 8 : 1 6 .
8 5
He
concludes that Abraham's " w o r k s " should b e understood w i t h
thus refer
e n c e t o his h o s p i t a l i t y r a t h e r t h a n t o his w i l l i n g n e s s t o sacrifice his s o n . W a r d ' s a r g u m e n t w o u l d b e p e r s u a s i v e w e r e it n o t for t h e fact t h a t Jas 2 : 2 3 , w h i c h l i n k s a c i t a t i o n f r o m G e n 1 5 : 6 t o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f A b r a h a m as a " f r i e n d o f G o d , " h a s a p r e c e d e n t i n J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e .
Irving
J a c o b s has p o i n t e d o u t that w i t h i n M i d r a s h , t h e association o f t h e b i n d i n g o f Isaac s t o r y i n G e n 2 2 : 1 - 1 9 , o r t h e Akedah,
and the citation of
G e n 15:6 had occurred prior to the e m e r g e n c e of James.
Thus, the
n o t i o n o f b e i n g a " f r i e n d o f G o d " is p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o t h e Akedah. k e e p i n g w i t h J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n , J a m e s associates A b r a h a m ' s w i t h G o d w i t h t h e e n d u r a n c e o f a g r e a t test.
In
friendship
H o w e v e r , W a r d is c o r
r e c t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t A b r a h a m ' s h o s p i t a l i t y w a s w e l l k n o w n a n d it w o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s i n g if t h e l e t t e r ' s a u t h o r p r e s u m e d t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e k n e w a b o u t it. It c o u l d b e , t h e n , t h a t t h e l e t t e r w r i t e r refers t o t h e b i n d i n g o f Isaac b e c a u s e " i t w a s at t h i s p o i n t i n his life t h a t A b r a h a m w a s d e c l a r e d r i g h t e o u s f o r t h i s a n d h i s m a n y p r e v i o u s acts o f h o s p i t a l i t y a n d c h a r i t y (cf. H e b . 1 1 . 1 7 - 1 9 ) . "
8 9
This w o u l d explain the reference to
A b r a h a m ' s w o r k s i n t h e p l u r a l a n d it also m a i n t a i n s t h e
connection
b e t w e e n t h e a c t i o n s o f A b r a h a m a n d R a h a b , as w e l l as t h e c o h e r e n c e b e t w e e n A b r a h a m ' s w o r k s a n d t h e f o c u s o f c h . 2 , w h i c h is t o act m e r cifully t o w a r d t h o s e i n n e e d .
84
Philo (de. Sob. 56 [LCL III; trans. F . H . Colson; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n i v e r
sity Press; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , I960]). R . B . W a r d ( " T h e W o r k s o f A b r a h a m , " HTR
61
[1968] 286) notes that t h e "title 'friend of G o d ' was related t o various characteristics of A b r a h a m , e.g. his humility (1 Clem.
17:2), his faithfulness
(Jub. 19:9), his o b e d i e n c e to
G o d ' s c o m m a n d m e n t s ( C D 3.2) - as well as his hospitality." 85
Ward, " T h e W o r k s , " 288.
86
See Davids, The Epistle of James,
87
130.
Irving Jacobs, " T h e Midrashic B a c k g r o u n d for James II, 2 1 - 3 , " NTS
22
(1975-76)
4 5 7 - 6 4 . See 1 M a c e 2:52; Sir 4 4 : 2 0 - 2 1 . 88
Again, o n e needs to r e m e m b e r that this is n o t the only reason w h y A b r a h a m was
called a friend of G o d . 89
W a t s o n , "James 2 , " 114-15.
142
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
R e t u r n i n g t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f r h e t o r i c , W a t s o n states t h a t Jas 2 : 2 3 is a iudicatio
o r j u d g m e n t (in this case, f r o m t h e past) w h i c h , w i t h i n
exornatio,
the
serves t o e m b e l l i s h t h e a r g u m e n t o n c e t h e p r o o f h a s b e e n set
f o r t h . 2 : 2 3 is a s u p e r n a t u r a l o r a c l e o f a g o d , w h i c h c a n f u n c t i o n as a t y p e o f j u d g m e n t , a n d i n t u r n , " c o n f i r m s " t h e i d e a s set f o r t h i n t h e unit,
that
faith
should
be
accompanied
by
works,
especially
the
" w o r k s " o f c a r i n g f o r t h e n e e d y . T h e e x a m p l e o f A b r a h a m is t h e " c l i n c h e r " w i t h w h i c h n o n e o f J a m e s ' s listeners c o u l d a r g u e . It is a c o m p e l l i n g e l a b o r a t i o n u p o n t h e t h e m e t h a t faith m u s t b e a c c o m p a n i e d by works. A s w e h a v e s e e n , t h i s s e c t i o n finds c o n t i n u i t y w i t h c h . 1, i n t h a t e n d u r a n c e t h r o u g h " t e s t i n g " is a d m i r e d , t h e r e f e r e n c e t o " p e r f e c t i o n " (Jas 2 : 2 2 ) is r e p e a t e d , b u t also i n t h a t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d o i n g
(1:22-25)
a n d c a r i n g f o r t h e n e e d y (1:27) is stressed. A l t h o u g h J a m e s is u n d o u b t edly describing A b r a h a m in terms w h i c h w e r e well k n o w n
within
J u d a i s m , h e has m a i n t a i n e d t h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n p e r f e c t i o n , t e s t i n g a n d b e i n g a friend o f G o d , a n d h e has a d d e d t h e n o t i o n o f p r o v i d i n g hospitality, b o t h because A b r a h a m was associated w i t h hospitality i n t r a d i t i o n , a n d b e c a u s e t h e o v e r a l l c h a p t e r focuses u p o n faith a n d w o r k s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w o r k s o f c a r i n g f o r o t h e r s . J o h n s o n c o m m e n t s t h a t t h e title " f r i e n d o f G o d " is t h e m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e e l e m e n t i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f A b r a h a m , f o r it is " t h e m o s t r e v e a l i n g a s p e c t o f J a m e s ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f A b r a h a m w i t h i n t h e d u a l i s t i c f r a m e w o r k o f his o w n c o m p o s i t i o n . " A b r a h a m , as f r i e n d o f G o d , is t h e o p p o s i t e o f t h e oi^ujoc,
9 0
person. H e
is u n w a v e r i n g i n his faith e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e u l t i m a t e test: t h e b i n d i n g o f his o w n s o n , w h i c h is o n e o f his w o r k s . " A b r a h a m ' s willingness to give back to G o d w h a t G o d h a d given d e m o n s t r a t e d a n d p e r f e c t e d h i s faith a n d r e v e a l e d w h a t ' f r i e n d s h i p God' might mean."
with
A b r a h a m is a p e r f e c t e x a m p l e o f o n e w h o a v o i d s
friendship w i t h the w o r l d in favour o f friendship w i t h G o d , an o p p o s i t i o n w h i c h e m e r g e s clearly i n c h . 4 . A b r a h a m f u n c t i o n s , t h e r e f o r e , n o t o n l y as a p r o o f i n t h e f o r m o f a n e x a m p l e , b u t as a m o d e l o f h o w a h u m a n b e i n g c a n b e a f r i e n d o f G o d . It is t h r o u g h t e s t i n g a n d c a r i n g f o r o t h e r s t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e c a n b e c o m e friends w i t h G o d , n o t t h r o u g h b u t t e r i n g u p t h e r i c h . J a m e s d o e s n o t i m a g i n e t h a t h u m a n s a r e o n t h e s a m e l e v e l as G o d , b u t clearly, g i v e n t h e precedents w i t h i n J e w i s h sources particularly, friendship
between
h u m a n s a n d G o d w a s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e . F r i e n d s h i p , as w e h a v e s e e n , was partly e m b o d i e d t h r o u g h sharing w i t h others. A b r a h a m engaged in
90
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 4 8 . J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 4 8 .
5.
A Challenge
to Patronage: James
2:1-13,
14-26
143
s u c h s h a r i n g , a n d g i v e n t h a t J a m e s a d a m a n t l y insists t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s c a r e for o n e a n o t h e r , especially for t h e p o o r i n t h e i r m i d s t , A b r a h a m does n o t b e h a v e like a patron, d e m a n d i n g h o n o u r from o t h ers, b u t freely p r o v i d e s h o s p i t a l i t y t o s t r a n g e r s . A b r a h a m is a m o d e l f o r h o w t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s s h o u l d treat o n e another, how
those w h o
particularly
had m o r e should support the most vulnerable.
As
A b r a h a m ' s activities w e r e c o n n e c t e d t o his r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d , so t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s actions are integral t o their r a p p o r t w i t h t h e divine. T o b e a f r i e n d o f G o d t h e b e n e f a c t o r is t o b e a f r i e n d t o o n e a n o t h e r a n d t o p r o v i d e a i d t o t h o s e w h o n e e d it, j u s t as A b r a h a m n o t
only
d e m o n s t r a t e d his faith a n d l o y a l t y t o G o d , b u t his c a r e f o r o t h e r h u m a n beings. T h e n o t i o n t h a t A b r a h a m ' s h o s p i t a l i t y is i n m i n d h e r e is u n d e r s c o r e d b y t h e r e f e r e n c e t o R a h a b a n d h e r c a r e for s t r a n g e r s . T h e i n c l u s i o n o f R a h a b i n t h e u n i t f u r t h e r s u p p o r t s t h e p o i n t t h a t faith m u s t b e a c c o m panied
by
works
and
underlines
the
type
of morality
that
James
advocates within the c o m m u n i t y . M o r e o v e r , perhaps James included a reference to R a h a b n o t o n l y because she was often associated
with
A b r a h a m , b u t b e c a u s e J a m e s e m p h a s i z e s c a r e f o r b o t h a b r o t h e r and a sister i n Jas 2 : 1 5 , as J o h n s o n h a s s u g g e s t e d .
92
If t h i s is t h e case, t h e n R a
h a b f u n c t i o n s as a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f h o w c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s s h o u l d treat o n e another. R a t h e r t h a n s u c c u m b to t h e influence a n d p o w e r o f w e a l t h y p a t r o n s , t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d care for t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d a m o n g t h e m — t h e y s h o u l d act as f r i e n d s , a n d t h o s e w h o h a v e m o r e
should
p r o v i d e benefits to t h e p o o r .
Conclusion T h i s c h a p t e r has e x p l o r e d t h e t w o d i s c r e t e u n i t s o f J a m e s 2 k e e p i n g i n m i n d the traditions of friendship, patronage and benefaction. T h e a u t h o r c o n t i n u e s t o s p e a k as a f r i e n d , b u t a g a i n w i t h t h e
authoritative
v o i c e o f o n e w h o is n o t afraid t o t e a c h . O v e r a l l t h e s e c t i o n stresses t h e n e e d t o c a r e f o r t h e n e e d y , w h i c h relates t o J a m e s ' s i n s i s t e n t p o i n t t h a t faith w i t h o u t w o r k s is d e a d . I j o i n o t h e r s c h o l a r s w h o a r g u e t h a t t h e scene of the rich and p o o r m e n entering the assembly and the resultant b e h a v i o u r are typical in a w o r l d in w h i c h p a t r o n a g e p e r v a d e d
many
aspects o f social life. J a m e s rejects t h i s s y s t e m o f p a t r o n - c l i e n t r e l a t i o n s , a n d a r g u e s p a s s i o n a t e l y t h a t t h e n e e d y m u s t b e c a r e d for, a n d n o t left a b a n d o n e d w i t h o u t sufficient f o o d a n d c l o t h i n g . T h e r i c h , after all, a r e n o t reliable for t h e y simply oppress p e o p l e , a n d d r a g t h e m i n t o c o u r t .
92
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 4 5 .
144
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
F r i e n d s h i p lies i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d h e r e , for t h e t h e m e s
associated
w i t h f r i e n d s h i p t h a t w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e e x o r d i u m , s u c h as faith, integrity, a n d testing, are m a i n t a i n e d in J a m e s 2. T h e use o f t h e e x a m ples o f A b r a h a m a n d R a h a b especially emphasizes t h e n e e d t o practice h o s p i t a l i t y , w h i c h a g a i n is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f r i e n d s h i p
a n d also
of
benefaction. James, I think, draws u p o n the noble tradition of friend s h i p i n this c h a p t e r i n o r d e r t o p u s h his h e a r e r s / r e a d e r s t o
practise
m o r e b e n e f a c t i o n t o w a r d s t h o s e w h o h a v e less. T h e e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o A b r a h a m as a f r i e n d o f G o d is a n effective r e m i n d e r , as w e l l , t h a t h o w t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t r e a t o n e a n o t h e r is r e l a t e d t o their relationship
with
God.
A b r a h a m practised
hospitality,
among
o t h e r t h i n g s , a n d A b r a h a m is c a l l e d a f r i e n d o f G o d . It is t h i s b e n e f i c e n t G o d u p o n w h o m t h e a u d i e n c e m u s t rely, a n d n o t w e a l t h y p a t r o n s . T h e u n i t holds o u t t h e attractive possibility that perhaps, like their great a n c e s t o r A b r a h a m , t h e a u d i e n c e c a n b e friends w i t h G o d , a n i d e a t h a t receives further attention in James 4.
6 Friendship with God: James 3:13-4:10
Introduction T h e final s e c t i o n t h a t e v i n c e s t h e t h e m e o f f r i e n d s h i p
clearly is Jas
3:13—4:10. T h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w i l l f o c u s o n t h i s u n i t , w h i c h I also t h i n k conforms to the "elaboration of a t h e m e " exercise comparable to w h a t w e have witnessed in 2 : 1 - 1 3 and 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 . W e will b e g i n w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f h o w 3:13—4:10 m a n i f e s t s this e x e r c i s e , t h e n p r o c e e d t o analyze h o w friendship, benefaction a n d p a t r o n a g e figure w i t h i n
the
v o i c e o f t h e a u t h o r t o t h e h e a r e r s / r e a d e r s , w i t h i n t h e g u i d e l i n e s for t h e c o m m u n i t y , and in the portrayal of G o d . As in J a m e s 2, I t h i n k that the a u t h o r a d v o c a t e s a m a n n e r o f life a m o n g t h e a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s t h a t conforms to the tradition of friendship in m a n y ways, and draws u p o n friendship and benefaction in speaking of the relationship b e t w e e n the a u d i e n c e a n d G o d . A g a i n , as i n J a m e s 2 , t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s t r e a t o n e a n o t h e r is i n t e g r a l t o h o w understand
their relationship
to God,
who
t h e y are
is t h e i r b e n e f a c t o r
to and
friend.
James
3:13-4:10
A. Rhetorical
Structure
First, a f e w r e m a r k s m u s t b e m a d e a b o u t t h e issue o f t h e u n i t y o f Jas 3:13—4:10. T h i s s e c t i o n is p a r t o f t h e argumentation as all r h e t o r i c a l a n a lysts o f J a m e s w o u l d a g r e e , a l t h o u g h t h e y d i s a g r e e o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r it is u n i f i e d . D i b e l i u s c o n s i d e r e d 3 : 1 - 1 2 t o b e a c o h e s i v e t r e a tise o n t h e t o n g u e ,
1
a n d W a t s o n h a s s h o w n h o w 3 : 1 - 1 2 displays a
classical p a t t e r n o f a r g u m e n t a t i o n ,
and b o t h support the n o t i o n that
3 : 1 3 is t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w s e c t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r . D i b e l i u s , h o w e v e r , 1
Dibelius, James, 181-206.
2
W a t s o n , " T h e R h e t o r i c of James 3 : 1 - 1 2 , " 4 8 - 6 4 .
146
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r 3:13—4:10 t o b e a s m o o t h u n i t y , b u t a s e q u e n c e o f t w o a d m o n i t i o n s in 3:13-17 a n d 4 : 1 - 6 b r o k e n u p b y a n isolated saying i n 3 : 1 8 a n d c o n t a i n i n g a series o f i m p e r a t i v e s i n 4 : 7 - 1 2 .
H e also t h i n k s
t h a t 4 : 1 1 - 1 3 c a n b e i n c l u d e d w i t h t h e rest o f 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 b e c a u s e i t c o n sists o f i m p e r a t i v e s w h i c h c o n f o r m i n f o r m t o t h e p r e v i o u s i m p e r a t i v e s a l t h o u g h h e a d m i t s t h a t 4 : 1 1 i n t r o d u c e s " s o m e t h i n g n e w , as is i n d i c a t e d also b y t h e c h a n g e i n t o n e : i n s t e a d o f ' s i n n e r s ' (afxapxtoXoi) o r 'double-minded' ( S i ^ X
0 1
t
)
n
e
a d d r e s s i n v 1 1 is ' b r o t h e r s a n d sisters'
4
(aSsXcpoi)." T h u r e n c o n s i d e r s 3 : 1 - 4 : 1 2 t o b e a u n i t y b a s e d u p o n t h e t h e m e s o f s p e e c h a n d w i s d o m , a n d n o t i c e s t h a t t h e r e is a b r e a k b e t w e e n 3 : 1 2 a n d 3 : 1 3 , b u t h e t h i n k s t h a t t h e r e is n o c l e a r c h a n g e o f a u d i e n c e after 3 : 1 3 u n t i l 4 : 1 3 , a l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t p r o v i d e a n y e x p l a n a t i o n for this p o s i t i o n . floating
Davids admits that 4:11-12 m a y b e a free-
a d m o n i t i o n , b u t h e t h e n suggests t h a t t h e y fit w e l l w i t h t h e
p r e v i o u s section i n that t h e y address c o m m u n i t y conflict.
However,
o n e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t a g o o d p r o p o r t i o n o f J a m e s a d d r e s s e s t h e issue o f c o m m u n i t y conflict a n d , m o r e o v e r , Davids grants that 4 : 1 0 "clearly r o u n d s o f f a s e c t i o n . " J a m e s H a r d y R o p e s c l a i m s t h a t 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 is a n a p p e n d i x t o 4 : 1 - 1 0 i n t h a t t h e " t h o u g h t o f t h e w r i t e r r e v e r t s ... t o t h o s e facts o f life w h i c h h a d g i v e n h i m t h e t e x t f o r h i s far r e a c h i n g discussion a n d e x h o r t a t i o n
(4:1-10)."
8
Ropes's
s c e n a r i o is c e r t a i n l y
p o s s i b l e b u t as w i t h t h e o t h e r p o s i t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , h a r d l y
final
proof. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e a b o v e a u t h o r s , s o m e scholars v i e w 3:13—4:10 as a logical unit. A l t h o u g h Davids includes 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 w i t h 4 : 1 - 1 0 , h e does see
t h e relationship
between
3:13-18
and 4:1-10.
He
challenges
D i b e l i u s ' s v i e w t h a t 3 : 1 8 is a f r e e - f l o a t i n g s a y i n g b y p o i n t i n g o u t h o w t h e "£ipY)V7]v at t h e e n d o f 3 : 1 8 f o r m s a c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e TZ6\Z\LOI
of
4 : 1 . T h e latter section m a k e s t h e m o r e general accusation o f 3 : 1 3 - 1 8 p o i n t e d a n d specific."
R a l p h P . M a r t i n states t h a t " t h e t e x t f r o m 3 : 1 3
t o 4 : 1 0 is i n d e e d a c o h e r e n t a n d s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t u n i t , w i t h s o m e telltale m a r k e r s t o indicate t h e closely w o v e n t e x t u r e . "
3
Dibelius, James, 2 0 8 .
4
Dibelius, James, 2 2 8 .
5
Thuren, "Risky Rhetoric," 280.
6
Davids, The Epistle of James, 169.
7
Davids, The Epistle of James, 168.
9
Davids, The Epistle of James, 149.
1 0
H e t h e n goes o n to
R o p e s , A Critical and Exegetical Commentary, 2 7 3 . 10
R a l p h P . Martin, James, 142. N o t e that in his earlier w o r k , H a r t i n (James and the Q
Sayings of Jesus, 31) treats 3:13-18 a n d 4:1-10 as discrete units w h i c h parallel each o t h e r
6.
Friendship
with God: James
3:13-4:10
147
d e s c r i b e s e v e r a l w a y s i n w h i c h 3 : 1 3 - 1 8 is c o n n e c t e d t o 4 : 1 - 1 0 , i n c l u d i n g t h e fact t h a t 4 : 1 - 1 0 p i c k s u p o n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s (for e x a m p l e , w a r s a n d strife) o f f o l l o w i n g t h e w i s d o m f r o m b e l o w , w h i c h is c o n trasted to t h e w i s d o m from a b o v e in 3 : 1 3 - 1 8 . M o r e o v e r , h e points o u t h o w Jas 3:17
describes t h e w i s d o m
from
above to be
"impartial"
(a8iaxpt,TO<;), w h i c h c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e p e r s o n w h o f o l l o w s t h e w i s d o m f r o m b e l o w ( 3 : 1 5 - 1 6 ) a n d w h o is n o t i m p a r t i a l b u t
(Si^uxog).
"double-minded"
11
J o h n s o n also refers t o this l a t t e r p o i n t i n his analysis o f Jas 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 as a u n i f i e d s e c t i o n .
1 2
H o w e v e r , h e understands t h e u n i t t o consist o f an
i n d i c t m e n t i n 3:13—4:6 f o l l o w e d b y a call t o c o n v e r s i o n i n 4 : 7 - 1 0 . T h e t h e m a t i c f o c u s o f t h e i n d i c t m e n t is e n v y , w h i c h r e a c h e s a c l i m a x i n 4:5-6, w i t h the citation of P r o v 3:34. " T h e w h o l e exposition
comes
d o w n to t h e validity of the scriptural witness to the w a y G o d w o r k s in t h e w o r l d . Is all t h a t S c r i p t u r e says i n v a i n ? Is e n v y really t h e p r o p e r s o r t o f l o n g i n g for t h e spirit G o d p l a c e d i n h u m a n s ? "
1 3
Following the
i n d i c t m e n t is t h u s a series o f e x h o r t a t i o n s t o s u b m i t t o G o d a n d b e h u m b l e , o r said o t h e r w i s e , a call t o c o n v e r s i o n f r o m a life o f e n v y a n d e n m i t y t o a life o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d ( 4 : 4 ) .
14
J o h n s o n ' s s t u d y o f this s e c t i o n o f J a m e s is c o m p e l l i n g , a n d e n v y c e r t a i n l y figures i m p o r t a n t l y i n t h e u n i t , b u t h e has n o t p e r f o r m e d a fullfledged
r h e t o r i c a l analysis. H o w e v e r , e v e n t h o u g h w e h a v e n o t p r o v e n
t h a t J a s 3:13—4:10 is c l e a r l y a c o h e r e n t w h o l e , t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d b y s c h o l a r s , as w e l l as t h e fact t h a t J a m e s is c l e a r l y familiar w i t h r h e t o r i cal a r g u m e n t s as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , p r o v i d e s sufficient warrant to attempt a rhetorical study of 3:13-4:10. In the
following
section w e will therefore e x a m i n e the section particularly to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the instructions provided by various rhetorical guides in antiq u i t y a r e f o l l o w e d h e r e . T h e i n t e r e s t is t h u s t h e " i n n e r t e x t u r e " o f this p a r t o f J a m e s : "its f o r m , structure, a n d a r g u m e n t a t i v e p a t t e r n . "
1 5
A s w e s a w i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , a c o m p l e t e a r g u m e n t is c o m p o s e d o f five p a r t s . T o q u o t e t h e Rhetorica ad
Herennium:
and " f o r m t h e very heart o f t h e epistle," although in his m o r e recent c o m m e n t a r y , as w e will see, h e treats 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 as a unified w h o l e . 11
M a r t i n , James, 142.
12
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 6 8 .
13
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 269.
14
See also, L u k e T i m o t h y J o h n s o n ,
"James 3 : 1 3 - 4 - 1 0 and t h e
Topos I 1 E P I
0>@ONOY," NovT 2 5 (1983) 3 2 7 - 4 7 , w h i c h discusses the topos o f e n v y m o r e thoroughly. 15
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 59.
148
Friendship
and Benefaction
in
James
a perfect a r g u m e n t ... is that w h i c h is comprised of five parts: t h e Proposition, t h e R e a s o n , t h e P r o o f of t h e R e a s o n , t h e Embellishment, and t h e R e s u m e . T h r o u g h t h e Proposition w e set forth summarily w h a t w e i n t e n d to p r o v e . T h e R e a s o n , b y means o f a brief explanation subjoined, sets forth the causal basis for t h e Proposition, establishing t h e t r u t h of w h a t w e are urging. T h e P r o o f of t h e R e a s o n c o r r o b o rates, b y means of additional arguments, t h e briefly presented R e a s o n . E m b e l l i s h m e n t w e use in o r d e r to adorn and enrich t h e a r g u m e n t , af ter t h e P r o o f has b e e n established. T h e R e s u m e is a brief conclusion, d r a w i n g t o g e t h e r t h e parts of t h e a r g u m e n t (Rhet. Her. 2.18.28). S u c h a n o u t l i n e m a y n o t h a v e b e e n t r u e for all r h e t o r s , b u t r h e t o r i c a l s p e e c h e s d i d h a v e a s t a n d a r d , o r skeletal, f o r m a t c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e i n t r o duction
(7ipool[jLiov, exordium)
statement (nlaxiq,
of
the
case
w h i c h was discussed i n C h a p t e r 3 , a
(Si/^yTjcji^,
confirmatio o r argumentatio),
tio o r conciusio) .
1 6
narratio),
supporting
arguments
a n d a c o n c l u s i o n (Inikoyoq,
perora-
T h i s pattern was characteristic o f judicial speeches b u t
s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e c o m m o n for d e l i b e r a t i v e s p e e c h e s . B u r t o n M a c k p o i n t s o u t t h a t d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C E , a g e n e r a l o u t l i n e for a c o m p l e t e a r g u m e n t , o r " t h e s i s , " e m e r g e d w h i c h w a s m o r e accessible t o m o s t p e o p l e i n t h a t it e n a b l e d t h e m t o b y p a s s d e c i p h e r i n g t h e c o m p l e x instructions w i t h i n the rhetorical h a n d b o o k s . This outline consisted of t h e f o u r m a j o r e l e m e n t s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e as w e l l as a f e w o t h e r p i e c e s a n d is s t r u c t u r e d as f o l l o w s : (1) a n i n t r o d u c t i o n ; (2) a p r o p o s i t i o n ; (3) a r e a s o n ( r a t i o n a l e ) ; (4) a n o p p o s i t e ( c o n t r a r y ) ; (5) a n a n a l o g y ( c o m p a r i son);
(6) a n e x a m p l e ; (7) a c i t a t i o n ( a u t h o r i t y ) ; a n d (8) a c o n c l u s i o n .
1 7
A s M a c k a n d W a c h o b e x p l a i n , t h i s p a t t e r n w a s flexible. F o r e x a m p l e , H e r m o g e n e s ' s e l a b o r a t i o n o f a c h r e i a e x e r c i s e c o n s i s t e d o f e i g h t stages (praise, p a r a p h r a s e , r a t i o n a l e , s t a t e m e n t f r o m t h e
opposite point
of
view, statement from analogy, statement from example, statement from authority, exhortation).
S i m i l a r t o this is t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a t h e m e ,
o r tractatio, w h i c h is o u t l i n e d i n t h e Rhetorica
ad Herennium
and con
sisted o f s e v e n stages: (1) s t a t e m e n t o f t h e t h e m e (res o r propositio);
(2)
t h e r e a s o n (ratio); (3) t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e t h e m e i n a n o t h e r f o r m (pronuntiatum) (contrarium);
16
w i t h o r w i t h o u t t h e r e a s o n s ; (4) a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e c o n t r a r y (5) a c o m p a r i s o n (similie);
(6) a n e x a m p l e (exemplum);
and
M a c k , Rhetoric and the New Testament, 4 1 . See M a c k , Rhetoric and the New Testament, 42; and W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 62. M a c k , Rhetoric and the New
Testament, 4 4 - 4 7 ; W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 6 2 - 6 3 ; see
B u r t o n M a c k and E d w a r d O ' N e i l , " T h e C h r e i a Discussion of H e r m o g e n e s of Tarsus," The Chreia in Ancient Rhetoric, 1 5 5 - 7 1 .
6. Friendship with God: James (7) a c o n c l u s i o n (conclusio).
3:13-4:10
149
A g a i n , t h i s p a t t e r n m a y v a r y , b u t at least
s o m e o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s a r e essential t o a c o m p l e t e a r g u m e n t .
2 0
A c l o s e analysis o f Jas 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 r e v e a l s t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s e c t i o n follows t h e elaboration exercise w i t h s o m e adaptations. Before describ i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e i n d e t a i l , h o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t i n his 2 0 0 3 c o m m e n t a r y o n James, Patrick Hartin explored 3:13-4:10 c o n c l u d e d t h a t it c o n f o r m s t o t h e r h e t o r i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f a argument,"
2 1
and
"perfect
a s t r u c t u r e w h i c h h e finds i n 2 : 1 - 1 3 , 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 a n d 3 : 1 - 1 2
as w e l l . H a r t i n analyses t h e s e s e c t i o n s o f J a m e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p a t t e r n s e x p l a i n e d i n t h e Rhetorica
ad Herennium
and while I a m in agreement
w i t h m a n y aspects o f his a p p r o a c h , I differ o n t h e p r e c i s e p a t t e r n t h a t I see i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r . I w i l l t h u s refer t o his w o r k o c c a s i o n a l l y w h i l e w o r k i n g t h r o u g h the structure, b u t in general I will follow the analysis o f t h e s e c t i o n t h a t I d e v e l o p e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n m y 2 0 0 0 d i s sertation.
22
In m y view, 3:13-4:10 contains the following pattern: 1. Statement of T h e m e - 3:13-14 2. R e a s o n - 3 : 1 5 - 1 8 3. A r g u m e n t P r o p e r a. O p p o s i t e - 4 : 1 - 3 b . M a x i m - 4:4 c. Citation (Authority) - 4:5-6 4. C o n c l u s i o n - 4:7-10
1. Statement
of Theme: Jas
3:13-14
T h e o p e n i n g v e r s e i n t r o d u c e s p a r t o f t h e t h e m e o f this s e c t i o n , n a m e l y , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l e a d i n g a life o f w i s d o m . J a m e s asks w h o is " w i s e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g " a m o n g his l i s t e n e r s , a n d t h e n e x h o r t s t h e o n e w h o m i g h t r e s p o n d , " I a m , " t o l i v e a g o o d life a n d " s h o w his w o r k s i n t h e m e e k n e s s o f w i s d o m . " T h e v e r s e b e g i n s w i t h a r e f e r e n c e t o aocpo<; a n d ends w i t h t h e w o r d aocpla, t h e t h e m e o f w i s d o m giving direction t o t h e w h o l e s e c t i o n , a n d , as w e w i l l s e e , " t o w h a t f o l l o w s i n 4 : 1 - 1 0 as well."
19
20
2 3
See Rhet. Her. 4.43.56; W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 62. W a c h o b (The Voice of Jesus, 63) writes: " R h e t o r i c i a n s and texts, b o t h ancient and
m o d e r n , agree and demonstrate that, w h i l e t h e sequence of those figures m a y vary a n d o n e o r several o f t h e m m a y b e absent in a given case, o n e o r m o r e o f t h e m are t h e neces sary ingredients for a c o m p l e t e a r g u m e n t . " 21
H a r t i n , James, 2 0 6 - 1 6 .
22
Alicia Batten, " U n w o r l d l y Friendship: T h e 'Epistle of Straw' R e c o n s i d e r e d " ( d o c
toral diss.; T o r o n t o : University o f St. Michael's College, 2000) 1 7 3 - 2 0 1 . 23
H a r t i n , James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 99.
150
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
J a m e s associates t w o t h i n g s w i t h this life o f w i s d o m : w o r k s
(epya)
a n d m e e k n e s s (TrpauTT)^). N e i t h e r a s s o c i a t i o n is n e w o r s u r p r i s i n g , e i ther
in
this
letter
or
in
early
Christian
literature.
In James
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w o r k s a n d w i s d o m is similar t o t h a t
the
between
w o r k s a n d faith, d i s c u s s e d i n J a m e s 2 . W i s d o m , l i k e faith, is n o t s i m p l y a n i n t e l l e c t u a l p o s s e s s i o n , b u t m u s t b e m a n i f e s t e d i n a g o o d life works.
2 4
of
O t h e r e a r l y C h r i s t i a n t e x t s also m a d e this a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n
w o r k s a n d w i s d o m s u c h as 1 Clem.
38:2, 1 Pet 2:12; 3:2, and
13:7.
o n e lives a n d acts is
James's emphasis u p o n h o w
Heb
continued
t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e s e c t i o n w i t h t h e discussion o f w a r s a n d divisions b e t w e e n p e o p l e ( 3 : 1 6 ; 4 : 1 - 1 3 ) , u n d e r s c o r i n g t h e fact t h a t h e is d e a l i n g w i t h , c o n c r e t e b e h a v i o u r h e r e , as h e d o e s t h r o u g h o u t m o s t o f t h e l e t t e r . T h e s e c o n d c o n n e c t i o n , m e e k n e s s , o r c a l m n e s s , is n o less i m p o r t a n t , for J a m e s s p e n d s a g o o d d e a l o f this s e c t i o n w a r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e o p p o site o f m e e k n e s s , n a m e l y p r i d e , a n d selfish a m b i t i o n ( 3 : 1 4 , 1 6 ; 4 : 2 , 6 ) . I n c h . 1 J a m e s refers t o TcpauTT)^ (1:21) as t h a t w h i c h is r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o r e c e i v e t h e w o r d f r o m G o d a n d l i k e w i s e h e r e h e r e m i n d s his audience that they n e e d w i s d o m b u t w i s d o m received w i t h meekness. Again, m e e k n e s s was a v i r t u e w i t h i n early Christianity (Gal 6 : 1 ; E p h 4:2; 2 T i m 2 : 2 5 ; T i t 3:2; 1 P e t 3:15), a n d in G r a e c o - R o m a n culture was
associated w i t h
roughness or anger.
"friendliness"
and
"gentleness"
as o p p o s e d
to
2 6
T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e o p e n i n g t h e m e is a n e x h o r t a t i o n t o t h o s e w h o h a v e " b i t t e r j e a l o u s y " (£yjXog) a n d "selfish a m b i t i o n " ( e p i & e l a ) i n t h e i r h e a r t s n o t t o b o a s t ( x a T a x a u ^ a o u m ) a n d b e false t o t h e t r u t h . T h i s latter phrase ( ^ e u S e a ^ e
xaxa
TYJ^ aX7]9eLa^) is a w k w a r d
m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s u n d e r s t a n d it as " l y i n g against t h e t r u t h . "
but The
o v e r a l l m e a n i n g o f t h e v e r s e , h o w e v e r , s e e m s r e a s o n a b l y e x p l i c i t : if y o u a r e j e a l o u s a n d full o f y o u r o w n p r i d e a n d a m b i t i o n ( t h e o p p o s i t e o f r e c e i v i n g w i s d o m m e e k l y ) , y o u s h o u l d n o t b o a s t o f y o u r w i s d o m for t h e n y o u a r e l y i n g . Y o u c a n n o t b e w i s e a n d b e selfishly a m b i t i o u s o r boastful s i m u l t a n e o u s l y for t h e t r u l y w i s e p e r s o n is m e e k a n d s h o w s his w i s d o m t h r o u g h a g o o d life o f w o r k s , as t h e p r e v i o u s v e r s e e x p l a i n e d .
24
Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 100. Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 100. Aristotle (Rhet. 1.9.5) considers 7tpaik7)£ to b e o n e of the c o m p o n e n t s o f virtue, and
h e places it as t h e m e d i a n b e t w e e n anger (opyiXoTY^) and "spineless (aopyYjala). See F. H a u c k and S. Schulz, "npaiut;, T c p a u n r ^ , " TDNTVl 27
incompetence"
(1968) 6 4 5 - 5 1 .
Davids, The Epistle of James, 1 5 1 ; Laws, The Epistle of James, 160; J o s e p h B . M a y o r ,
The Epistle of St. James (London: MacMillan, 1913) 127-28; R o p e s , A Critical and Exegetical Commentary,
246.
6.
Friendship
with
God: James
3:13-4:10
151
T h e c e n t r a l m e s s a g e o f this s e c t i o n o f J a m e s , t h e r e f o r e , is t h a t t h e truly w i s e are those w h o are h u m b l e a n d s h o w their w i s d o m t h r o u g h w o r k s , as o p p o s e d t o t h o s e w h o a r e j e a l o u s , selfish a n d full o f w o r d s o f p r i d e . T h i s c o n t r a s t , p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e , t r u l y w i s e vs. j e a l o u s a n d selfish, is c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e rest o f t h e s e c t i o n . A s t h e r h e t o r i c a l i n s t r u c t o r w r o t e , t h i s o p e n i n g s t a t e m e n t sets f o r t h " s u m m a r i l y w h a t w e i n t e n d t o p r o v e " (Rhet.
Her. 2 . 1 8 . 2 8 ) a n d t h u s t h e a u d i e n c e c a n a n t i c i
p a t e a series o f a r g u m e n t s w h i c h w i l l s u p p o r t t h e call t o l i v e a life o f w i s d o m a n d t o a v o i d a life o f j e a l o u s y a n d selfishness. 2. Reason: James
3:15-18
T h e n e x t s e c t i o n o f t h e a r g u m e n t is t h e r e a s o n w h y o n e s h o u l d h u m b l y a c c e p t a n d f o l l o w G o d ' s w i s d o m a n d n o t b e selfish a n d e n v i o u s . W i t h i n t h e ratio, r h e t o r s w o u l d p r o v i d e e x a m p l e s t h a t w o u l d n o t o n l y demonstrate the correctness of the proposition,
but supply p r o o f of
w h y t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d f o l l o w t h e i r a d v i c e . A s W a c h o b states, t h e ratio i n c l u d e s a n e x a m p l e w h i c h p r o v i d e s a " c o m p e l l i n g social basis f o r what
[James] s a y s . "
There
are different
types o f examples
which
r h e t o r s c o u l d d r a w u p o n , n o t a b l y t h e h i s t o r i c a l e x a m p l e (7rapa8£t,y(jia), t h e c o m p a r i s o n o r a n a l o g y (TrapapoXiq), a n d t h e fable (fiu&og).
The
h i s t o r i c a l e x a m p l e w a s a w e l l - k n o w n case t a k e n f r o m h i s t o r y s u c h as w e s a w w i t h t h e figures o f A b r a h a m a n d R a h a b i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , w h i l e a c o m p a r i s o n w a s u s u a l l y a n e x a m p l e f r o m e v e r y d a y social life a n d a fable w a s f r o m a n i m a g i n a r y w o r l d o r s t o r y . I n this p a r t i c u l a r p e r i c o p e , J a m e s b u i l d s a n a n t i t h e t i c a l c o m p a r i s o n o f t w o lifestyles, o n e w i t h o u t w i s d o m a n d o n e w i s e . H i s c o m p a r i s o n h e r e is n o t as c o n c r e t e as t h e r e a s o n s h e p r o v i d e s i n o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f his letter, for e x a m p l e , t h e contrast i n t r e a t m e n t o f t h e w e a l t h y a n d p o o r m e n w h o e n t e r t h e a s s e m b l y i n Jas 2 : 2 - 4 , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s , it f u n c t i o n s i n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r . J a m e s d e s c r i b e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e a c h life, a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y illustrates t h e i r c o n c r e t e effects for s o c i e t y . H e b e g i n s b y s t a t i n g c l e a r l y t h a t this " a n t i - w i s d o m "
3 3
vides
to
28
a list
of
negative
adjectives
is n o t f r o m a b o v e , t h e n p r o describe
it:
it
is
"earthly"
H a r t i n (James, 208-209) argues that 3:14 introduces the reason o r ratio w h y o n e
should live a life o f w o r k s in w i s d o m ' s meekness, b u t this fails to account for t h e dual nature o f t h e statement w h i c h is b o t h t o live a life of w o r k s in t h e meekness of w i s d o m and t o resist living selfishly and b e i n g boastful. 29
H a r t i n (James, 209-11) also thinks that Jas 3:15-18 forms a ratio.
30
Rhet. Her. 2.23.35.
31
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 77. See also M a c k , Rhetoric and the New Testament, 40.
32
M a c k , Rhetoric and the New Testament, 40.
33
Hartin, A Spirituality of Perfection, 7 3 .
152
Friendship
(eniyeioc,),
and Benefaction
"unspiritual" ( ^ X
L X 7
l)
a n c
in
James
^ " d e v i l i s h " (SaLfjiovLciSv]^).
The
m o s t p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s list is t h a t J a m e s w a n t s t o e m p h a s i z e t h e n e g a t i v e features o f this a n t i - w i s d o m in increasingly increments.
3 4
First, it is enlyeioQ;
being from G o d .
worsening
it is f r o m t h e w o r l d , as o p p o s e d t o
3 5
T h e t e r m eniyeiot;'
can m e a n simply "existing o n earth" w i t h
no
n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n , b u t i n c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h t h e r e is a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n e a r t h a n d h e a v e n knlyeioQ
d o e s c o m e t o m e a n " w h a t is
e a r t h l y i n t h e s e n s e o f w h a t is c o m p l e t e l y o p p o s e d t o t h e h e a v e n l y . "
3 6
T h e n e x t w o r d , ^ u ^ i x i q , is a little m o r e p u z z l i n g , as it s i m p l y m e a n s " o f the soul,"
3 7
b u t w i t h i n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t it b e c o m e s o n e p o l e o f t h e
contrast b e t w e e n " t h e earthly, h u m a n , and non-spiritual a n d the h e a v enly, divine a n d spiritual,"
t h e o p p o s i t e p o l e b e i n g 7iveu[jiaTix6<;. T h e
t h i r d a d j e c t i v e , SaifioviciST)*;, r e p r e s e n t s t h e w o r s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a n t i w i s d o m , as it b a l d l y states t h a t it is f r o m t h e d e v i l . T h i s w o r d is u n a t t e s t e d p r i o r t o its a p p e a r a n c e i n J a m e s a n d is a hapax
in the
New
Testament but James also refers to x a
Soajxovia in 2:19 w h o believe b u t shudder,
and o t h e r N e w T e s t a m e n t texts present d e m o n s as t h e opposite of G o d (1 C o r 1 0 : 2 0 - 2 1 ; 1 T i m 4 : 1 ) .
39
T h u s J a m e s is n o t g r a n t i n g t h a t t h e r e is a n o t h e r t y p e o f w i s d o m , f r o m b e l o w , so t o s p e a k , b u t t h a t n o o n e c a n c l a i m t o h o l d t r u e w i s d o m w h e n t h e y e n g a g e i n selfish, false a n d a r r o g a n t b e h a v i o u r .
As
S o p h i e L a w s p u t s it, J a m e s ' s " p o i n t is n o t t h a t t h e r e is a d i f f e r e n t w i s d o m in opposition to the true one, b u t that a claim to true w i s d o m c a n n o t b e u p h e l d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a n i n c o n s i s t e n t style o f l i f e . "
40
In
o t h e r w o r d s , a life o f e n v y a n d d i s h o n e s t y d o e s n o t o r i g i n a t e i n a n o t h e r type of w i s d o m b u t c o m e s from t h e devil. I n v . 1 6 , J a m e s t h e n d e s c r i b e s t h e c o n c r e t e effects o f t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f £JjXo£, w h i c h w e s a w c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as e n v y , a n d s p i & e i a (selfish a m b i t i o n ) . T h i s m i g h t b e s t b e t r a n s l a t e d as " s o c i a l u n r e s t " o r
34
H a r t i n , A Spirituality of Perfection, 7 3 . This t h e m e o f "earthliness" or "worldliness" is again picked u p in Jas 4:4 (see b e l o w ) . H e r m a n n Sasse, "£7tly£to^," TDNTl
(1964) 6 8 0 - 8 1 . A n o t h e r text w h i c h makes this
c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n h e a v e n and earth is 2 C o r 5:1. 37
Albert D i h l e , "<Jmxix6<;," TDNTIX
38
Dihle, "^u^txo?," 661.
9
(1974) 6 6 1 .
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 272.
4 0
S o p h i e Laws, The Epistle of James, 162.
41
H a r t i n , A Spirituality of Perfection, 7 3 .
6. Friendship with God: James
rtpayfjia
even, "anarchy."
3:13-4:10
153
refers t o c o n c r e t e acts o r p r a c t i c e s , t h u s
u n d e r s c o r i n g t h a t J a m e s is t a l k i n g a b o u t b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n t h e c o m m u nity a n d n o t simply t h o u g h t s or dispositions. H e m a y e v e n b e referring t o p r o b l e m s i n c o u r t as m e n t i o n e d i n 2 : 6 , for Tipayfjia c a n r e f e r t o l a w suits.
43
T h u s the reason w h y the audience should not be envious and
a m b i t i o u s , b u t m e e k a n d h u m b l e is v e r y clear, f o r e n v y finds its s o u r c e i n t h e d e v i l a n d p r o d u c e s strife; i n d e e d it p r o d u c e s e v e r y e v i l a c t i o n . J a m e s 3 : 1 7 p r e s e n t s a b a l a n c e d c o n t r a s t t o a j e a l o u s life b y s p e c i f y i n g t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f w i s d o m a n d i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e effects o f s u c h a l i f e s t y l e . This wisdom from
above
(avw&ev
ao
(ayviq); i n
w o r d s s h e is free o f all t h i n g s b a d , s u c h as £?]Xo<; a n d epi&eioc.
44
other Next,
J a m e s p r o v i d e s a list o f t h e v i r t u e s o f w i s d o m w h i c h a r e r e l a t e d b y t h e i r a l l i t e r a t i o n ( t h e first t h r e e a d j e c t i v e s e a c h b e g i n w i t h a n e) b u t also by
t h e fact
'meekness'
that
"they
enjoined
by
amount 3:13."
in combination
4 6
Wisdom
from
to a definition
(elpTjvixiq), w h i c h is i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e d i s o r d e r p r o d u c e d b y e n v y a m b i t i o n ; it is g e n t l e (kmsixric),
and
a w o r d w h i c h is p a r a l l e l e d b y " m e e k
ness"
(7rpocuT7]TO(^) i n 2 C o r 1 0 : 1 ,
hapax
" w h i c h does not
4 7
a n d t r u s t i n g (euneidyic,),
another
indicate a person w i t h o u t convictions
agrees w i t h e v e r y o n e a n d sways in t h e w i n d
who
(cf. 1 : 5 - 1 8 ) , b u t t h e p e r
s o n w h o g l a d l y s u b m i t s t o t r u e t e a c h i n g a n d listens carefully t o other instead of attacking h i m . " and
good
fruits"
([XSCTTY)
of
a b o v e is p e a c e a b l e
eXeoix;
the
T h i s w i s d o m is also "full o f m e r c y xal
xapicwv
dya&wv) t h e l a t t e r
w h i c h anticipates t h e "fruit o f righteousness in 3 : 1 8 , "
4 9
"impartial" or
5
" s i m p l e " (aSiaxpixo<;), and " w i t h o u t hypocrisy" or "sincere"
(dcvu-
Tc6xpt,TO<;). T h e s e d e s c r i p t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s recall t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f G o d in ch. 1 a n d are t h e antithesis o f t h e d o u b t i n g , w a v e r i n g S L ^ U ^ O ^ p e r s o n w h o m w e e n c o u n t e r e d earlier a n d w h o returns i n 4 : 8 . T h e rationale c o n c l u d e s w i t h Jas 3 : 1 8 , w h i c h m a y h a v e b e e n w e l l k n o w n t o t h e a u d i e n c e , a n d t h u s m a y b e a m a x i m : " A n d t h e fruit o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s is s o w n i n p e a c e b y [for] t h o s e w h o m a k e p e a c e [ p e a c e -
42
4
44
R o p e s , A Critical and Exegetical Commentary, 2 4 8 . J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 7 3 . M a n y authors agree that Jas 3:15-16 and 3:17-18 form a balanced contrast. See, for
example, Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 9 8 . 45
46
C o m p a r e w i t h W i s 7:25. See R o p e s , A Critical and Exegetical Commentary, 2 4 9 . J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 274.
47
See Davids, The Epistle of James, 154.
48
Davids, The Epistle of James, 154.
49
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 274.
50
Scholars debate a b o u t t h e precise m e a n i n g o f aSiaxpccog. It could m e a n " s i m p l e " as
o p p o s e d t o Sl^u^o?, o r " n o t given t o party spirit." See Davids, The Epistle of James, 154.
154
Friendship
makers]."
5 1
and Benefaction
in James
I n p a r t i c u l a r , it b e a r s a r e s e m b l a n c e t o M a t t 5 : 9 : " B l e s s e d
are t h e p e a c e m a k e r s , " a s a y i n g p r o b a b l y familiar t o J a m e s ' s g i v e n t h e o v e r a l l d e n s i t y o f J e s u s sayings i n J a m e s .
5 2
readers
Jas 3 : 1 8 a n d M a t t
5:9 a r e i n fact t h e o n l y t w o N e w T e s t a m e n t t e x t s t o a d d r e s s p e a c e m a k i n g a n d t h e y are similar i n their t h i n k i n g .
I n b o t h sayings, t h e a b i l i t y
t o m a k e p e a c e e m e r g e s f r o m a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d . I n M a t t 5:9 t h e p e a c e m a k e r s a r e r e f e r r e d t o as " t h e s o n s o f G o d " w h i l e i n Jas 3 : 1 8 , t h e p e a c e m a k e r r e c e i v e s t h e gift o f r i g h t e o u s n e s s f r o m G o d .
5 4
T h e possibil
ity t h a t J a m e s is r e f a s h i o n i n g t h e b e a t i t u d e , o r a f o r m o f t h e b e a t i t u d e , is i n c r e a s e d g i v e n t h e fact t h a t t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w i s d o m
from
a b o v e i n 3 : 1 7 uses a d j e c t i v e s w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t r i k i n g l y t o t h e w o r d s used in M a t t h e w ' s beatitudes. J a m e s 3 : 1 8 c o u l d b e a n e x a m p l e o f aemulatio,
or a restatement of an
idea from a n o t h e r text o r famous teacher using n e w w o r d s . As K l o p p e n b o r g has o b s e r v e d , " w h a t w e m i g h t call p l a g i a r i s m a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l theft is w h a t r h e t o r i c i a n s c a l l e d aemulatio — t h e r e s t a t i n g o f p r e d e c e s s o r s ' ideas in o n e ' s o w n w o r d s . "
R h e t o r s s u c h as T h e o n d e s c r i b e m u l t i p l e
ways in w h i c h o n e can paraphrase an expression, including the practice of substitution, w h e r e b y " w e replace the original w o r d w i t h another; for e x a m p l e , pais o r andrapodon
f o r doulos (slave), o r t h e p r o p e r w o r d
instead of a m e t a p h o r o r a m e t a p h o r instead of the p r o p e r w o r d ,
or
several w o r d s instead o f o n e o r o n e instead o f several." W h e n a n a u t h o r r e f a s h i o n s a s t a t e m e n t u s i n g this m e t h o d , a n d a p plies t h e n e w f o r m o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n t o a n e w s i t u a t i o n , s o m e o f t h e a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s likely recognize t h e original statement a n d can n o w a d m i r e h o w t h e a u t h o r has a d a p t e d it t o a n e w s i t u a t i o n . Although
the
author
and
audience
of James
may
be
aware
of
"Blessed are t h e p e a c e m a k e r s , " t h e w r i t e r m a y h a v e deliberately p a r a p h r a s e d t h e s t a t e m e n t t o fit t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t . S u c h a p r a c t i c e
51
T h e dative can b e read as " b y those w h o m a k e p e a c e " o r "for those w h o m a k e
p e a c e . " Douglas J. M o o (The Letter of James [ P N T C ; G r a n d Rapids: E e r d m a n s , 2000] 177) points o u t that t h e verse "has a simple proverbial style ... w h i c h suggest[s] that James m a y here b e q u o t i n g a saying current in t h e early c h u r c h . " 52
See Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, in particular, 112.
53
Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 155.
54
Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 155. C o m p a r e Jas 3:17, w i t h its references t o w i s d o m from above as p u r e , peaceable, g e n
tle and merciful to M a t t 5:5, 7, 8, 9. See Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 214. K l o p p e n b o r g , " T h e R e c e p t i o n o f Jesus Traditions in J a m e s , " 1 2 1 . T h e o n , Progymnasmata
109 in Progymnasmata.
Greek Textbooks of Prose
Composition
and Rhetoric (trans., ed. G e o r g e A . K e n n e d y ; Writings from t h e G r e c o - R o m a n W o r l d 10; Atlanta: Society o f Biblical Literature, 2003) 70. 58
K l o p p e n b o r g , " T h e R e c e p t i o n o f Jesus Traditions," 122.
6.
would
Friendship
with
God: James
h a v e t h e r h e t o r i c a l effect
155
3:13—4:10
o f assuring t h e a u d i e n c e that
the
speaker's teaching corresponds to Jesus' teaching, w h i c h in turn,
in
creases t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r . T h i s v e r s e is also s t r i k i n g i n t h a t it associates p e a c e m a k i n g righteousness
(SixoaoauvY)).
Within
the
inscriptional
with
evidence,
the
e p i t h e t o f StxatoauvT) was often a w a r d e d t o t h e secretaries o f G r e e k associations w h e n t h e y h a d d o n e an e x e m p l a r y j o b o f m a n a g i n g their association's finances. T h i s does n o t m e a n that Sixoaoauvv] was d e v o i d o f a m o r a l d i m e n s i o n , for i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s it c o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e c r e t a r y w a s fair a n d h o n e s t i n h o w h e d i s t r i b u t e d t h e monies.
5 9
H o w e v e r , s o m e t i m e s individuals w e r e praised for b o t h oV
xoaoauvT) a n d q j i X o x i u i a , t h e l a t t e r o f w h i c h c o u l d refer t o h a v i n g a c o m p e t i t i v e spirit, a n d t o p o s s e s s i n g zeal a n d g r e a t a m b i t i o n .
6 0
Again,
this w o r d c o u l d h a v e a p o s i t i v e m o r a l c o n n o t a t i o n , i n t h e s e n s e t h a t it c o u l d refer t o " g e n e r o u s zeal,"
b u t o f t e n it w a s s h a r p l y c r i t i c i z e d for
it c o u l d " s h a d e i n t o a g g r e s s i o n , p r i d e a n d b o a s t f u l n e s s , "
62
precisely the
sorts o f t h i n g s t h a t J a m e s criticizes. T h u s t h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n p e a c e m a k i n g a n d ScxoaocruvY) w o u l d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e b e e n
self-evident
t o a n c i e n t society in general, w h i c h m a y h a v e n o r m a l l y associated fi n a n c i a l skills, o r p e r h a p s c o m p e t i t i o n , w i t h SIXOCLOCJUVY). J a m e s t u r n s t h e latter linkage upside d o w n b y associating p e a c e m a k i n g , n o t c o m p e t i t i o n , w i t h r i g h t e o u s n e s s . A g a i n , J a m e s is a t t e m p t i n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t l i v i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e w i s d o m f r o m a b o v e , t h e w i s d o m f r o m G o d , is diametrically opposed to the " n o r m a l " workings of the world. In addi t i o n , Jas 3 : 1 8 is a n a p t w a y t o e n d t h i s s e c t i o n , f o r it r e s e m b l e s t h e f o r m o f Jas 3 : 1 6 i n t h a t it refers t o a c t i o n s ;
j u s t as Jas 3 : 1 6 s p e c i f i e d n e g a t i v e
b e h a v i o u r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h j e a l o u s y , Jas 3 : 1 8 refers t o p o s i t i v e b e h a v i o u r ( p e a c e m a k i n g ) w h i c h is b o r n o f a n a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e w i s d o m o f G o d . It also lifts u p p e a c e m a k i n g , m e n t i o n e d i n Jas 3 : 1 7 as a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f w i s d o m f r o m a b o v e , as a " p r i m e q u a l i t y o f all t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s wisdom."
6 4
of
F i n a l l y , it a n t i c i p a t e s its o p p o s i t e , strife a n d f i g h t i n g , w h i c h
follow in ch. 4. T h e rationale w i t h i n this rhetorical u n i t n o t o n l y reemphasizes t h e t h e m e o f p u r s u i n g w i s d o m m e e k l y a n d n o t s u c c u m b i n g t o selfish a m -
5 9
Frederick W . D a n k e r , Benefactor: Epigraphic Study of a Graeco-Roman and New
Testa
ment Semantic Field (St. Louis: C l a y t o n , 1982) 3 4 5 . 6 0
D a n k e r , Benefactor, 3 2 8 .
61
D a n k e r , Benefactor, 3 2 8 .
62
K.J. D o v e r , Greek Popular Morality in the Time of Plato and Aristotle (Oxford: Basil
Blackwell, 1974) 232. 6 3
6 4
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 7 5 . H a r t i n , A Spirituality of Perfection, 7 5 .
156
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
b i t i o n s a n d e n v y , b u t it offers a c o m p a r i s o n , t a k e n f r o m t h e
social
s p h e r e , as t o w h y o n e s h o u l d c h o o s e t h e w i s d o m p a t h . A l a c k o f w i s d o m will lead to disorder and b a d practice whereas those w h o accept w i s d o m will seek j u s t i c e / r i g h t e o u s n e s s peacefully. J a m e s has r e a s o n e d i n d u c t i v e l y , f o r h e h a s u s e d e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e social s p h e r e
(conflict
vs. p e a c e ) a n d p r o b a b l y a v e r s i o n o f a J e s u s s a y i n g (3:18) t o i n t r o d u c e r e a s o n s f o r h i s a r g u m e n t , b u t h e h a s also u s e d a d e d u c t i v e p r o o f ( c o m m o n l y c a l l e d a n e n t h y m e m e ) , i n t h a t h e m a k e s a s t a t e m e n t (3:15) a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y p r o v i d e s a s u p p o r t i n g s t a t e m e n t for it b e g i n n i n g w i t h y a p in3:16.
6 5
B o t h techniques w e r e c o m m o n w i t h i n rhetorical speeches,
6 6
and the
t y p e o f e n t h y m e m e w h i c h J a m e s uses i n 3 : 1 5 - 1 6 , w h i c h is " d e r i v e d from opposites"
(in this case, t h e o p p o s i t e o f t r u e w i s d o m ) , w a s a
c o m m o n topic of demonstrative enthymemes. Moreover, James i n t r o d u c e d t h e issue o f p e a c e v e r s u s c o n f l i c t w h i c h w i l l
figure
has
impor
t a n t l y i n his s u b s e q u e n t m a i n a r g u m e n t . 3. Argument
Proper (Jas
4:1-6)
a. O p p o s i t e : J a m e s 4 : 1 - 3 I n J a s 4 : 1 - 3 , t h e l e t t e r w r i t e r c o m m e n c e s his a r g u m e n t p r o p e r w i t h a series o f i m p a s s i o n e d q u e s t i o n s a n d s t a t e m e n t s f o c u s i n g u p o n
conduct
t h a t is i n d r a m a t i c o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e t y p e o f d e m e a n o r w h i c h J a m e s e x h o r t s . A g a i n , o p p o s i t e s r e m i n d u s t h a t r h e t o r i c is d e b a t e , f o r t h e y k e e p t h e o t h e r side i n v i e w .
6 8
Opposites could b e used in a variety of
w a y s , a n d i n this p a r t i c u l a r case, it a p p e a r s t h a t J a m e s e m p l o y s t h e o p posite in order to "censure the opposite proposition, s h o w i n g that the o p p o s i t e w o u l d n o t m a k e a n y s e n s e ...
I n this i n s t a n c e , t h e o p p o s i t e
proposition w o u l d b e to ignore the author's plea to seek the w i s d o m from a b o v e , b u t rather, to live a c c o r d i n g to o n e ' s o w n ambitions, o n e ' s own
inclinations.
In
this s e c t i o n ,
then, James builds
an
argument
against s u c h b e h a v i o u r . J a m e s b e g i n s this " o p p o s i t i o n a l " s e g m e n t w i t h t w o questions, b o t h o f t h e m rhetorical, w h i c h address conflict w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . M o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s understand James's use of the terms " w a r s "
(iroAefjioi)
a n d " f i g h t i n g s " ((xa^oc) as m e t a p h o r s for d i s p u t e s a m o n g t h e a u d i e n c e ,
65
See K e n n e d y , New Testament Interpretation, 16. For a comparable analysis of ch. 2 of
James, see W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 77. 66
Aristode, Rhet.
67
Aristode, Rhet. 2 . 2 3 . 1 .
68
1.2.8-9.
M a c k , Rhetoric and the New Testament, 4 2 . M a c k , Rhetoric and the New Testament, 4 3 . H a r t i n (James, 212-15) takes Jas 4:1-6 as an exomatio o r embellishment o f 3:13.
6.
Friendship
with
God: James
3:13-4:10
157
as t h e s e w o r d s a r e u s e d as " s y n o n y m s for strife a n d q u a r r e l i n g . "
7 1
The
s e c o n d q u e s t i o n refers t o p a s s i o n s (TQSOVGU) at w a r " i n y o u r m e m b e r s , " w h i c h m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t t h e s o u r c e o f all o f t h e s e conflicts is h u m a n p a s s i o n , w h e t h e r it is f o r p h y s i c a l p l e a s u r e , o r for w e a l t h , f a m e , a u t h o r i t y e t c . T h e t e r m TQ&OVT), m o r e o v e r , is l i n k e d t o social d i s o r d e r w i t h i n Hellenistic and Hellenistic-Jewish literature.
T h e n e x t v e r s e is g r a m
m a t i c a l l y difficult. D o e s it say t h a t y o u d e s i r e a n d d o n o t h a v e and so y o u kill, as s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s w o u l d p u n c t u a t e i t ;
73
o r is it t h a t t h e
a d d r e s s e e s d e s i r e a n d d o n o t h a v e , kill o u t o f j e a l o u s y , a n d c a n n o t o b tain, fight a n d w a g e w a r ?
Several authors have puzzled o v e r James's
r e f e r e n c e t o k i l l i n g (90vo^) a n d e m e n d e d t h e t e x t t o r e f e r t o
envy
(9&6vo£), w h i c h w o u l d c e r t a i n l y m a k e s e n s e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is little basis f o r t h e e m e n d a t i o n . J o h n s o n s h o w s t h a t m u r d e r is o f t e n l i n k e d t o t h e topic o f e n v y a n d u n t r a m m e l e d desire w i t h i n Hellenistic literature a n d i n J a s 1 : 1 4 - 1 5 , t h e a u t h o r d i d m a k e it c l e a r t h a t d e s i r e (e7ct9-U(xLa) could lead to death. W i t h regard to the grammatical structure o f the verse, M a y o r ' s reading (following H o f m a n n )
seems the m o s t logical.
H e explains: T h e easiest w a y of seeing h o w t h e w o r d s naturally g r o u p themselves is to p u t t h e m side b y side w i t h o u t any stopping: £7U&UU.£IT£ xocl o u x <pov£U£T£
e^£T£
xocl
xocl
£Y)XOUT£
xocl
ou
8uvoca&£ knixvyzw
{lOLJEG^e
7toX£(ji£lT£. C a n a n y o n e d o u b t that t h e abrupt collocations o f
<pov£U£T£ and [lOLjea^e cedes,
and
that
in
are e m p l o y e d t o express results of w h a t p r e the
eniTvyeiv c o r r e s p o n d t o
second
series £y]Xouxe
£7TC&UU.£IT£ xocl o u x
£X£T£
xocl
ou
8uvocc7&£
in t h e first series?
Unsatisfied desire leads t o m u r d e r ; disappointed a m b i t i o n leads t o quarrelling a n d fighting.
71
Dibelius, James, 216; M a r t i n , James, 144.
72
See, for example, 4 M a c e 1:25-27.
7 3
F o r example, J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 211.
74
M a r t i n , James, 146.
75
F o r example, W i s 2:24. 1 Clem 4 : 9 - 5 : 2 (LCL; trans. Kirsopp Lake; L o n d o n , C a m
bridge, M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1912) refers t o various stories o f jealousy in t h e H e b r e w Bible, such as t h e story o f C a i n and Abel, w h i c h illustrates that "jealousy a n d e n v y w r o u g h t fratricide." See J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 7 7 . Didache 3:2 also states that anger (opyV)) leads t o m u r d e r (90VOV). See J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g , " T h e Transformation o f M o r a l E x h o r t a t i o n in Didache 1-5," The Didache in Context. Transmission
Essays on Its Text, History and
(ed. C l a y t o n N . Jefford; Leiden, N e w Y o r k , C o l o g n e : Brill, 1995) 107.
H u u b v a n d e Sandt ("James 4 , 1 - 4 in t h e Light o f t h e J e w i s h T w o W a y s T r a d i t i o n 3 : 1 - 6 , " Biblica 88 [2007] 38-63) has recently argued that Jas 4:1-4 should b e u n d e r s t o o d as a d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a d m o n i t i o n s in Did. 3:1-6. 76
M a y o r , The Epistle of St. James, 136. J o h n s o n (The Letter of James, 211) also takes this
reading.
158
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
If o n e a l l o w s o n e ' s d e s i r e s a n d e n v y t o r e i g n , o n e o n l y e n c o u n t e r s fighting
a n d d e a t h , r a t h e r t h a n p e a c e , w h i c h is t h e r e s u l t o f f o l l o w i n g
G o d ' s w i s d o m . U s i n g a series o f q u e s t i o n s , w h i c h f u n c t i o n r h e t o r i c a l l y to hold the audience's attention,
and indictments, the author boldly
m a k e s p l a i n t h e folly o f c l i n g i n g t o o n e ' s o w n d e s i r e s . H i s a u d i e n c e h a s n o t l e a r n e d t h a t t h e y m u s t ask for w i s d o m f r o m G o d (Jas 1:5), r a t h e r t h e y c o v e t a n d t h e y d o n o t h a v e , b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t ask ( 4 : 2 b ) . J a m e s 4:3 indicates, m o r e o v e r , that s o m e are asking things o f G o d , b u t t h e y a r e a s k i n g w r o n g l y o r " e v i l l y , " t o s p e n d it o n t h e i r p a s s i o n s . B y t h i s t h e w r i t e r likely m e a n s that s o m e are a p p r o a c h i n g G o d w i t h t h e motives;
wrong
t h e i r p e t i t i o n s a r e b o r n o u t o f selfishness.
T h r o u g h the depiction of the type of conduct which the
author
w i s h e s his a u d i e n c e w o u l d a v o i d , t h e n , J a m e s e x p o s e s t h e futility l e a d i n g a life w i t h o u t w i s d o m , f o r it is r u l e d b y v o r a c i o u s w h i c h , e v e r unsatisfied, l e a d t o
fighting
of
desires
a n d k i l l i n g . T h e l a n g u a g e is
v e r y s t r o n g , b u t for J a m e s , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s u b j e c t a p p e a r s t o d e m a n d such a vivid depiction. b . M a x i m : James 4:4 T h i s v e r s e , I w i l l s u g g e s t , is a J a c o b e a n v e r s i o n o f a J e s u s s a y i n g , b u t for o u r i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s e s w e w i l l a d d r e s s its r o l e as a m a x i m w i t h i n t h e a r g u m e n t p r o p e r o f Jas 3:13—4:10.
80
T h i s is n o t t h e o n l y p l a c e w h e r e a
m a x i m o c c u r s i n J a m e s , as w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e exordium, w h e r e the m a x i m served to enhance the authority of the speaker. T h e r e are different forms o f m a x i m s , a n d s o m e are m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n o t h e r s i n t h a t t h e y p r o v i d e a r e a s o n for t h e s a y i n g .
They
s h o u l d b e u s e d o n l y rarely, b u t w h e n t h e y are used, t h e y "will a d d m u c h distinction."
M o r e o v e r , they should b e related to the matter
u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , " i n o r d e r t h a t w h a t y o u say m a y n o t s e e m c l u m s y and irrelevant." actions.
77
78
M a x i m s are proofs d r a w n f r o m w o r d s , persons
As Aristotle explains, t h e y are statements o f t h e general,
or and
Rhet. Her. 4.16.24. J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 7 8 . M a y o r , The Epistle of St. James, 138. A l t h o u g h H a r t i n (fames, 198-99) does t h i n k that Jas 4:4 corresponds to Jesus' w i s d o m
from M a t t 6:24; L u k e 16:13, h e does n o t explicitly address its rhetorical role as a m a x i m . 81
Rhet. Her. 4 . 1 7 . 2 4 - 2 5 .
82
Rhet. Her. 4.17.25.
83
Rhet. Alex.
9.
84
Rhet. Alex.
7.
6.
Friendship
with
God: James
3:13-4:10
159
t h e y a r e a d v a n t a g e o u s for m o r e t h a n o n e r e a s o n . First, if t h e y a r e f a m i l iar t o t h e a u d i e n c e , t h e y w i l l b e m u c h m o r e a c c e p t a b l e a n d l i k e l y t o b e p u t i n t o a c t i o n , a n d s e c o n d , if t h e y a r e g o o d , t h e y w i l l m a k e
the
speech ethical, w h i c h will in t u r n r e n d e r t h e character of t h e speaker t o b e " a m a n o f g o o d c h a r a c t e r " (Rhet.
2.21). Certainly, a m a x i m could
b e r e j e c t e d b y t h e a u d i e n c e , " b u t so g r e a t is its f o r c e , so g r e a t t h e p r e s u m p t i o n o f a g r e e m e n t a t t a c h i n g t o it, t h a t o n e m u s t h a v e reasons for rejecting it."
weighty
If t h e m a x i m d o e s r u n c o n t r a r y t o t h e desires
a n d expectations o f t h e a u d i e n c e , h o w e v e r , o n e m u s t "specify t h e r e a s o n s briefly, so as t o a v o i d h o s t i l i t y a n d n o t a r o u s e i n c r e d u l i t y . "
8 7
J a m e s 4:4 begins w i t h a caustic c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s as " a d u l t e r e s s e s , " a n e x p r e s s i o n t h a t d i s t u r b e d s o m e s c r i b e s w h o a m e n d e d it t o [xoi^ol x a l
[xoi^aXlSe^,
b u t w h i c h refers t o t h e c o v e
n a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d a n d Israel w h i c h , i n t h e a u t h o r ' s v i e w , t h e a u d i e n c e h a s s u n d e r e d . I n so d o i n g , t h e y h a v e effectively ted adultery, before God.
commit
a n d i n d e e d i d o l a t r y , for t h e y h a v e p u t o t h e r
things
T h e p h r a s e a n t i c i p a t e s t h e rest o f t h e v e r s e as it f o c u s e s
u p o n c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n l o y a l t y t o G o d a n d l o y a l t y t o s o m e t h i n g else. It is f o l l o w e d b y t h e p h r a s e " d o y o u n o t k n o w , " w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e a r e a w a r e o f w h a t t h e y s h o u l d d o b u t refuse t o d o s o ; it is " t h e clearest e x a m p l e i n J a m e s o f t h e d i a t r i b a l r e b u k e for n o t a c t i n g u p o n an assumed store of shared k n o w l e d g e . "
9 1
T h i s q u e s t i o n / r e b u k e is
t h e n followed b y a repetition o f w h a t the question asked, b u t in state m e n t f o r m , b e g i n n i n g w i t h OQ s a v . T h i s is t h e m a x i m p r o p e r , f o r it states clearly t h a t if o n e is a f r i e n d o f t h e w o r l d t h e n o n e is a n e n e m y o f G o d . D e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e is c o n s c i o u s t h a t t h e y c a n n o t b e f r i e n d s w i t h b o t h t h e w o r l d a n d G o d at t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e l e t t e r w r i t e r b l u n t l y r e m i n d s t h e m o f t h i s fact.
85
T h e a u t h o r of the Rhetorica ad Herennium
(4.17) explains, as well, that a m a x i m is a
"saying d r a w n from life, w h i c h shows concisely either w h a t happens or o u g h t to h a p p e n in life ..." 86
P e r e l m a n and Olbrechts-Tyteca, The New Rhetoric, 166.
87
Rhet. Alex. 1 1 .
88
As w e have seen, James usually refers to his audience as " b r o t h e r s " o r " b e l o v e d
b r o t h e r s " and thus the g e n d e r - i n v e r t e d address w o u l d likely have b e e n surprising to s o m e scribes. 89
See LXX Ps 72:27; J e r 3:6-10; 13:27; Isa 57:3; H o s 3 : 1 ; 9:1; E z e k 16:38; 23:45. See
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 7 8 . 90
James 4:1-13 is using w h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e Rhetorica ad Herennium (4.15.22) calls an
" A p o s t r o p h e " w h i c h expresses grief o r indignation: "If w e use A p o s t r o p h e in its p r o p e r place, sparingly, and w h e n the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e subject seems to d e m a n d it, w e shall instill i n t h e hearer as m u c h indignation as w e desire." 91
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 7 8 .
160
Friendship and Benefaction in James
T h i s m a x i m t h u s i n t r o d u c e s f r i e n d s h i p i n t o this p a r t i c u l a r u n i t
of
J a m e s , b u t it is also c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s . I n t h e o p e n i n g s t a t e m e n t a n d r a t i o n a l e t h e w r i t e r h a s m a d e it c l e a r t h a t his r e a d e r s s h o u l d s e e k w i s d o m a n d l i v e b y it w i t h h u m i l i t y . H e t h e n d e l i n e a t e s t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s w i s d o m a n d its effects i n c o n t r a s t t o t h o s e w h o l i v e w i t h o u t it, a n d w h o a r e t h u s selfish a n d e n v i o u s . T r u e w i s d o m c o m e s f r o m G o d , w h o g i v e s s i m p l y a n d w i t h o u t r e p r o a c h (Jas 1:5), a n d f r o m w h o m e v e r y p e r f e c t gift c o m e s ( 1 : 1 7 ) . T h e s e gifts c o m e f r o m
above
(avw&ev) as d o e s this w i s d o m (avw&ev 3 : 1 7 ) w h e r e a s t h e o p p o s i t e t o this w i s d o m is " e a r t h l y " (£7riy£to^ 3 : 1 5 ) . W i t h J a s 4 : 4 t h e a u t h o r has maintained the contrast b e t w e e n
above and below, between
God's
desires a n d t h e w o r l d ' s desires; b e t w e e n G o d ' s w i s d o m , w h i c h b r i n g s peace, a n d the lack o f w i s d o m in the w o r l d , w h e r e i n e n v y and a m b i tion reign, p r o d u c i n g fighting and death. As J o h n s o n writes, to "'friends
of the world,'
t h e n , m e a n s t o live b y t h e logic o f
be
envy
avto&ev, r i v a l r y , c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d m u r d e r . " Although
it
introduces
a
new
idea
(friendship
with
the
w o r l d / e n m i t y w i t h G o d ) t o t h e s e c t i o n , J a s 4 : 4 states t h e m a i n t h e m e o f t h e section, albeit in a n o t h e r w a y .
3 : 1 3 - 1 4 expresses t h e
notion
that o n e must m a k e a choice b e t w e e n living according to G o d ' s w i s d o m a n d a c c o r d i n g t o o n e ' s o w n e n v i o u s d e s i r e s . I n t h e ratio, a c l e a r c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e w i s d o m f r o m G o d " f r o m a b o v e " a n d all w h i c h is f r o m b e l o w — " e a r t h l y " — is d r a w n s u c h t h a t n o c o m p r o m i s e c a n b e made
between
them;
one
cannot
live a c c o r d i n g
to both.
4:4
re-
emphasizes this c h o i c e , b u t u s i n g t h e l a n g u a g e o f friendship w i t h t h e world and enmity with G o d
9 4
and w i t h an even stronger
emphasis
u p o n t h e fact t h a t o n e m u s t m a k e a c h o i c e b e t w e e n G o d a n d
the
w o r l d . T h i s is a v i v i d e x a m p l e o f h o w a b s o l u t e l y n o c o m p r o m i s e s c a n b e m a d e ; t o b e a f r i e n d o f t h e w o r l d , i n effect, w i l l c a u s e o n e t o h a t e G o d ! H o w c o u l d a n y o n e argue that friendship w i t h the w o r l d w o u l d b e desirable?! A n d t o a t t e m p t t o live i n allegiance t o b o t h w o u l d m a k e o n e a Sc^ir^og p e r s o n (Jas 1:8; 4:8) w h o w a v e r s i n t h e w i n d . T h i s v e r s e , t h e r e f o r e , f u n c t i o n s as a d r a m a t i c , p o w e r f u l , a n d v i v i d p r o o f o f t h e t y p e o f c h o i c e t h a t J a m e s ' s l i s t e n e r s m u s t m a k e . M o r e o v e r , it h o l d s o u t t h e a t t r a c t i v e p o s s i b i l i t y o f b e c o m i n g f r i e n d s w i t h G o d if o n e is w i l l i n g t o resist t h e w o r l d . I f o n e lives i n t h e m e e k n e s s o f G o d ' s w i s d o m ,
one
c o u l d p r e s u m a b l y b e c a l l e d a f r i e n d o f G o d , as A b r a h a m a n d o t h e r s
92
93
94
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 8 8 . See Rhet. Her. 4.43.56.
J o h n s o n (The Letter of James, 279) points o u t that ex^P LXX Sir 6:19; 37:2; L u k e 23:12.
a
a n (
l 9^XLa are opposites; see
6.
Friendship
with God: James
3:13-4:10
161
w e r e . T h i s verse w o u l d thus h a v e b e e n an especially c o g e n t m e a n s o f convincing the audience that they should only follow God's w i s d o m in h u m i l i t y , a n d resist t h e i r o w n selfish a m b i t i o n s . T h e m a x i m , as d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , w a s o n e t y p e o f p r o o f u s e d i n c o n structing
a rhetorical
speech.
Briefly,
I want
to
suggest
that
this
p a r t i c u l a r m a x i m o f J a s 4 : 4 is a f o r m o f r e c i t a t i o n o f a J e s u s s a y i n g , albeit recast in t h e letter w r i t e r ' s w o r d s , using l a n g u a g e a m e n a b l e t o t h e w r i t e r ' s i n t e n t s a n d i n t e r e s t s . A s s u c h , t h e a u d i e n c e , o r at least s o m e o f t h e a u d i e n c e , w o u l d h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e m a i n emphasis o f this saying as b e i n g s o m e t h i n g w h i c h J e s u s h i m s e l f t a u g h t . It is w e l l k n o w n t h a t t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s s h a r e s m a n y t h i n g s i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e sayings o f Jesus, especially t h o s e sayings f o u n d i n t h e shared material b e t w e e n
Matthew
and Luke, namely
Q.
Patrick J.
H a r t i n has e x p l o r e d these c o m p a r i s o n s t h o r o u g h l y i n his m o n o g r a p h , James and the Q Sayings
ofJesus,
in w h i c h h e argues that J a m e s stands in
an intermediary position b e t w e e n Q and the Gospel of M a t t h e w .
In
d e e d , m o s t a u t h o r s h a v e n o t i c e d t h e s e similarities b e t w e e n J a m e s a n d t h e sayings o f Jesus,
e v e n t h o u g h J a m e s n e v e r credits Jesus w i t h t h e
m a t e r i a l . M o r e o v e r , t h e c o m m o n v i e w is t h a t J a m e s d i d n o t h a v e a c cess t o t h e c a n o n i c a l G o s p e l s , b u t d r e w f r o m t h e s o u r c e s w h i c h
the
G o s p e l w r i t e r s u s e d , s u c h as Q , o r at least, a v e r s i o n o f Q . A s s o m e s t u d i e s o f J a m e s h a v e s h o w n , t h e a u t h o r freely a n d r e g u l a r l y recasts p r e e x i s t i n g t e x t s i n o r d e r t o s u i t his o w n p u r p o s e s .
Thus, James may be
u s i n g a v a r i e t y o f J e s u s s a y i n g s , as w e l l as L X X t e x t s , a n d o t h e r t r a d i tions, b u t s h o w s n o sign o f feeling c o m p e l l e d t o preserve t h e m
with
a c c u r a c y . R a t h e r , t h e y a r e s h a p e d a n d e d i t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e style a n d c o n t e n t o f his message. J a m e s 4 : 4 is c o m p a r a b l e , at least i n m e a n i n g , t o t h e s a y i n g serving t w o masters, f o u n d in M a t t 6 : 2 4 / L u k e
about
16:13, both of w h i c h
also i n c l u d e t h e s a y i n g a b o u t t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f s e r v i n g G o d mammon Hartin
at t h e s a m e t i m e , a n d
argues,
that James's
Gos.
source
for
Thorn. these
and
4 7 : 2 . It is p o s s i b l e , as materials
was
a
pre-
M a t t h e a n v e r s i o n o f t h e S e r m o n o n t h e M o u n t , for J a m e s preserves materials m o r e c o m m o n to M a t t h e w t h a n to L u k e .
95
9 7
See D e a n B . D e p p e , The Sayings of Jesus in the Epistle of James (diss. A m s t e r d a m ;
Chelsea, M I : Bookcrafters, 1989); Dibelius, James, 2 8 - 2 9 . M a y o r (The Epistle of James, 139) states, for example, that Jas 4:4 is a reference t o " o u r Lord's w o r d s M a t t vi 2 4 . " W a c h o b ' s w o r k focuses u p o n Jas 2:5 as an allusion t o M a t t 5:3; L u k e 6:20b; Gos. Thorn. 54; P h o l . Phil. 2 : 3 . 96
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 1 5 1 .
97
H a r t i n James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 243) writes that "because o f its c o m m o n use
o f t h e Jesus tradition, it w o u l d b e logical t o p r e s u m e that James t o o k it o v e r from t h e
162
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
T h e r e a r e f e w v e r b a l similarities b e t w e e n Jas 4 : 4 a n d t h e J e s u s s a y i n g , a p a r t f r o m t h e r e f e r e n c e t o G o d as o n e p o l e o f
commitment.
H o w e v e r , t h e s e n s e o f t h e t w o sets o f m a t e r i a l s is v e r y similar. B o t h forms of the m a x i m emphasize that there can b e n o c o m p r o m i s e b e tween
love
of the
"world,"
as is t h e
case i n J a m e s ,
or love
of
" m a m m o n , " as is t h e case w i t h t h e J e s u s s a y i n g , a n d l o v e o f G o d . "Mammon"
was c o m m o n l y
thought
to be a Semitic reference
m o n e y o r r i c h e s , a n d a l t h o u g h J a m e s is n o t t a l k i n g e x p l i c i t l y
to
about
w e a l t h i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r (as h e d o e s i n o t h e r s e c t i o n s ) h e is f o c u s i n g u p o n t h e evils o f selfish a m b i t i o n a n d c o v e t o u s n e s s w h i c h l e a d to
fighting.
M o r e o v e r , as K l o p p e n b o r g has o b s e r v e d , t h e " w o r l d " for
James, represents a place of pride, ambition, and values o p p o s e d
to
G o d ; it is a p l a c e w h e r e t h e p u r s u i t o f m a m m o n r u n s r a m p a n t . I n fact, t h e " p o o r i n t h e w o r l d " a r e t h o s e w h o a r e r i c h i n faith a n d h e i r s o f t h e k i n g d o m (2:5). T h e Jesus saying d o e s n o t use friendship l a n g u a g e , b u t J a m e s m u s t h a v e t h o u g h t it a p p r o p r i a t e t o recast t h e s a y i n g i n f r i e n d s h i p t e r m s as s u c h a r e f a s h i o n i n g w o u l d b e s u i t a b l e g i v e n t h e e a r l i e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f G o d as a f r i e n d , a n d t h e e x a m p l e o f A b r a h a m as a friend o f G o d . M o r e o v e r , it m a k e s s e n s e f o r J a m e s n o t t o u s e t h e v e r b " t o s e r v e " o r " t o b e a slave t o " (SouXeuco) as f o u n d i n t h e s a y i n g a t t r i b u t e d t o J e s u s , for J a m e s is s t r e s s i n g f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d h e r e a n d n o t s e r v i t u d e t o God.
9 8
T h e n o t i o n t h a t t h i s is a r e v i s i o n o f a J e s u s s a y i n g is f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i ated by
2
Clem.
6:1-5.
This
early Christian
document
is
another
i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e J e s u s s a y i n g (in this case, J e s u s is c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e saying) a n d t h e n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e world: 1. A n d the L o r d says: - " N o servant can serve t w o masters." If w e d e sire to serve b o t h G o d and M a m m o n it is unprofitable to us, 2. " F o r w h a t is the advantage if a m a n gain t h e w h o l e w o r l d b u t lose his soul?" 3 . N o w the w o r l d that is, and t h e w o r l d to c o m e are t w o enemies. 4. This w o r l d speaks o f adultery, and corruption, and love o f m o n e y , and deceit, b u t that w o r l d bids these things farewell. 5. W e c a n n o t t h e n b e friends (cplXoi) of b o t h ; b u t w e m u s t bid farewell to this w o r l d , to c o n sort w i t h that w h i c h is to c o m e .
tradition b e i n g h a n d e d o n w i t h i n t h e M a t t h e a n c o m m u n i t y . This description does n o t c o m e t o James via Q , b u t rather from his c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the M a t t h e a n c o m m u n i t y . " 98
E v e n t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r does refer t o himself as a boukoq o f G o d in Jas 1:1. O n the
removal o f SouXeuw i n Jas 4:4, see J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g , " T h e E m u l a t i o n of Jesus T r a d i tion in t h e Letter of J a m e s , " Reading James with New Eyes, 135.
6. Friendship with God: James 2 Clement
3:13—4:10
163
thus m a k e s a clear link b e t w e e n t h e Jesus saying, a n d t h e
fact t h a t o n e c a n n o t b e f r i e n d s (cplAoi) w i t h t h e w o r l d , b u t i n s t e a d o f c o n t r a s t i n g t h e w o r l d w i t h G o d , it c o n t r a s t s this w o r l d w i t h t h e w o r l d t o c o m e . T h e letter o f J a m e s has a strong eschatological d i m e n s i o n , b u t u n l i k e 2 Clement,
t h e l e t t e r d o e s n o t focus u p o n t h e w o r l d t o c o m e b u t
o n t h e a u d i e n c e ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o G o d . J a m e s is p r o f o u n d l y t h e o c e n t r i c , a n d thus rather t h a n focusing u p o n t h e n e x t w o r l d , J a m e s centres this m a x i m u p o n t h e e x c l u s i v e c o m m i t m e n t t o G o d r e q u i r e d for all b e l i e v ers. T h i s c o m m i t m e n t , as w e h a v e s e e n , w i l l a b i d e n o c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e w o r l d , n o r , in t h e Jesus saying, t o w e a l t h a n d riches. In m a i n t a i n i n g t h e contrast b e t w e e n G o d a n d this w o r l d , J a m e s has therefore p r e s e r v e d t h e s e n s e o f t h e J e s u s s a y i n g b e t t e r t h a n 2 Clement,
w h i c h has t a k e n a
m u c h m o r e eschatological turn. A l t h o u g h it has o f f e r e d a n o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e J e s u s s a y i n g , 2 Clement
r e v e a l s t h a t o t h e r early C h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s r e c o g n i z e d t h e s i m i
larities b e t w e e n J e s u s ' s a y i n g a b o u t G o d a n d M a m m o n
and James's
saying a b o u t c o m p e t i n g friendships. I h a v e n o t f o u n d any o t h e r early C h r i s t i a n t e x t w h i c h m a k e s as c l o s e a n a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o i d e a s as 2 Clement ship
d o e s , a n d i n d e e d , w h e t h e r t h e r e is a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n
between James
2 Clement's
and
2
Clement
is n o t
clear.
But
even
linkage supports t h e possibility that w h e n t h e a u t h o r
so, of
J a m e s w r o t e this v e r s e , h e h a d J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g i n m i n d . T h e n e x t q u e s t i o n is, W h y d o e s J a m e s refer t o J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g w i t h o u t c r e d i t i n g J e s u s w i t h his o w n i n s t r u c t i o n ? W a c h o b h a s d e a l t w i t h t h i s issue i n g r a p p l i n g w i t h Jas 2 : 5 as a v e r s i o n o f " B l e s s e d a r e t h e p o o r " a n d c o n c l u d e d t h a t J a m e s d i d t h i s i n o r d e r t o say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t G o d ' s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e p o o r as w e l l as a b o u t t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n v i e w . B y a v o i d i n g t h e a t t r i b u t i o n t o J e s u s (in a t t r i b u t i n g a c h r e i a t o a speaker, o n e was obviously m a k i n g a c o m m e n t about the character and m o r a l s t a n c e o f t h e s p e a k e r ) , J a m e s shifts t h e f o c u s a w a y f r o m J e s u s a n d 99
2 Clement n e v e r quotes James directly, although the unusual w o r d $u|A%ia (2 Clem.
19.2) appears in this letter. H o w e v e r , as w e saw earlier, this w o r d is found in 1 Clement, w h i c h contrasts "simplicity" (obiAoTY)) w i t h "duplicity" ( S ^ u ^ l a ) (1 Clem. 23.1). T h e s e t w o ideas are also o p p o s e d in the Epistle of Barnabas's contrast b e t w e e n the " t w o w a y s " (Barn. 18-20) and t h e Shepherd of Hernias provides considerable reflection u p o n S i ^ u ^ a . Debates c o n t i n u e as to the relationship b e t w e e n this collection of early Christian literature and the letter of James, b u t 1 Clement and the Shepherd of Hermas bear m o r e lexical a n d thematic similarities t o James t h a n 2 Clement does. For a list of indirect parallels b e t w e e n early n o n - c a n o n i c a l Christian literature and James, see M a y o r , The Epistle of James, lxvilxxxiv, and for a discussion of t h e relationship b e t w e e n James and 1 Clement, see D . A . H a g n e r , The Use of the Old and New Testaments in Clement of Rome ( N o v T S u p 34; Leiden: Brill, 1973) 2 4 8 - 5 6 . H a g n e r thinks it likely that 1 Clement is d e p e n d e n t u p o n James, considering the extent of thematic and lexical parallels.
164
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
o n t o G o d . F o r W a c h o b , t h e case o f 2 : 5 is also a r h e t o r i c a l e x a m p l e w h i c h recalls t h e faith o f J e s u s i n 2 : 1 . T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t o W a c h o b , 2 : 5 is " t h e l a n g u a g e o f J e s u s .... r e f o r m u l a t e d i n t o a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t G o d , a n d it is m a r k e d b y , s u b s u m e d u n d e r , a n d i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d
to
J e s u s ' faith ... T h e i m p l i c a t i o n i n Jas 2 : 5 is t h a t J e s u s " faith is t h o r oughly consonant w i t h God's words and deeds towards the p o o r . "
1 0 0
S e c o n d l y , t h e u s e o f t h e s a y i n g m a k e s a significant c l a i m f o r t h e a u t h o r o f t h e l e t t e r , w h o , i n W a c h o b ' s v i e w , is c l a i m i n g t o b e J a m e s t h e J u s t . T h u s t h e lack o f a t t r i b u t i o n t o Jesus serves t o buttress t h e a u t h o r i t y a n d m o r a l calibre o f J a m e s t h e J u s t .
1 0 1
J a m e s 4:4, h o w e v e r , appears in t h e c o n t e x t o f o t h e r q u o t a t i o n s (4:5), a n d t h e r e a r e n o r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e faith o f J e s u s i n t h e v i c i n i t y . I n t h i s case, t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t J a m e s is i n t e r e s t e d i n e v o k i n g t h e faith of Jesus.
W h i l e t h e a u d i e n c e m a y h a v e r e c o g n i z e d 4 : 4 as s o m e t h i n g
w h i c h J e s u s t a u g h t , it m a y also h a v e a p p r e c i a t e d t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h J a m e s h a s recast t h e s a y i n g . W e h a v e a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d t h e i d e a o f aemulatio
w i t h i n a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c , a n d I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t 4 : 4 is a n
other example
o f James paraphrasing a previous teaching o f Jesus.
R i c h a r d B a u c k h a m ' s w o r k o n J a m e s is v e r y h e l p f u l h e r e .
1 0 3
Bauckham
has l o c a t e d p r e c e d e n t for t h e r e - e x p r e s s i o n o f a sage's w o r d s i n J e w i s h t e x t s i n t h e w r i t i n g s o f B e n Sira, w h o s o m e t i m e s " r e p e a t s t h e t h o u g h t s o f P r o v e r b s b u t d e l i b e r a t e l y refrains f r o m r e p e a t i n g t h e w o r d s ... [ l i k e w i s e ] J a m e s c r e a t e s a n a p h o r i s m o f his o w n , i n d e b t e d t o b u t n o m e r e reproduction of the words of Jesus."
Bauckham demonstrates
this
practice t h r o u g h o u t J a m e s w i t h regard to the teachings o f Jesus a n d c o m m e n t s t h a t i n t h e case o f Jas 4 : 4 , t h e r e a r e n o d i r e c t w o r d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s t o M a t t 6 : 2 4 / L u k e 1 6 : 1 3 b u t t h a t " w e c a n easily i m a g i n e inspiration from the latter."
1 0 5
B a u c k h a m d o e s n o t t h i n k it i m p o r t a n t w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e a u d i e n c e r e c o g n i z e d t h e s o u r c e t e a c h i n g as J e s u s ' . I w o u l d d i s a g r e e , f o r o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s w h y aemulatio
is effective is b e c a u s e t h e h e a r e r s r e c o g n i z e
the original m a x i m and thus appreciate h o w the second speaker r e p h r a s e s it a n d p r e s e n t s it as his o w n . I n d o i n g s o , t h e a u t h o r h a s , as
100
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 150.
101
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 1 5 1 . A n d as indicated in C h a p t e r 3 , I d o n o t t h i n k "Jesus C h r i s t " is original t o Jas 2 : 1 . R i c h a r d B a u c k h a m , James.
Wisdom of James, Disciple of Jesus the Sage ( N e w Testa
m e n t R e a d i n g s ; L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o r k : R o u d e d g e , 1999). 104
B a u c k h a m , James, 9 1 . R i c h a r d B a u c k h a m , "James and Jesus," in The Brother of Jesus. James the Just and His
Mission (ed. B r u c e C h i l t o n and J a c o b N e u s n e r ; Louisville, L o n d o n : W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n K n o x , 2001) 120.
6.
Friendship
with God: James
3:13—4:10
165
K l o p p e n b o r g illustrates, b o t h " a l i g n e d h i m s e l f o r h e r s e l f w i t h t h e e t h o s of the original speaker" and rephrased the saying such that " t h e a u d i e n c e w i l l a p p r e c i a t e t h e artistry o f p a r a p h r a s e a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e o l d m a x i m to the n e w rhetorical situation."
1 0 6
G i v e n t h a t , as I h a v e a r g u e d , J a m e s is d r a w i n g u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s t h r o u g h o u t his l e t t e r , I t h i n k t h a t h e deliberately paraphrases this saying o f Jesus in t h e l a n g u a g e o f friendship b e c a u s e it c o h e r e s w e l l w i t h o t h e r p o r t i o n s o f t h e l e t t e r . H i s a u d i e n c e w i l l r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h i s v e r s e finds its p r e d e c e s s o r i n t h e t e a c h i n g s o f J e s u s , a n d t h u s it qualifies as a m a x i m n o t o n l y b e c a u s e it is a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t , b u t it is w i s d o m d r a w n f r o m J e s u s a n d familiar t o t h e a u d i e n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e a u d i e n c e will appreciate h o w J a m e s has
crafted
J e s u s ' s a y i n g t o suit t h e c o n t e x t o f his l e t t e r , w h i c h , as w e h a v e s e e n , h a s a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f G o d as f r i e n d a n d
benefactor 1
( t h e l a t t e r w i l l b e e l a b o r a t e d b e l o w w i t h r e f e r e n c e s t o G o d ' s X&P ^
m
Jas 4 : 6 ) . It w o u l d n o t m a k e s e n s e t o s w i t c h s u d d e n l y f r o m d e s c r i b i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n a n d d i v i n e as o n e o f f r i e n d s h i p t o o n e o f m a s t e r a n d s e r v a n t , as Q 1 6 : 1 3 d o e s . M o r e o v e r , o n e c o u l d s e e h o w J a m e s c o u l d associate t h e r e f e r e n c e t o " m a m m o n " i n t h e Q s a y i n g t o things " o f t h e w o r l d , " t h e c o v e t i n g o f w h i c h leads t o wars a n d fighting. J a m e s , w h o h a s a n e g a t i v e v i e w o f t h e " w o r l d " (see J a s 1:27) sees it i n o p p o s i t i o n t o G o d j u s t as m a m m o n is i n o p p o s i t i o n t o G o d , a n d t h u s substitutes " w o r l d " for m a m m o n . J a m e s is a d e e p l y t h e o c e n t r i c t e x t ; G o d a n d t h e h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o G o d a r e at t h e v e r y h e a r t o f t h e l e t t e r . F r i e n d s h i p l a n g u a g e , as w e h a v e d i s c u s s e d , f u n c t i o n s as a p o w e r f u l r h e t o r i c a l t o o l t o p e r s u a d e t h e audience to James's point of view. B y rephrasing o n e of Jesus' teachings i n l a n g u a g e t h a t is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e rest o f t h e l e t t e r , J a s 4 : 4 f u n c t i o n s as a forceful p r o o f f o r t h e e x h o r t a t i o n t o a b a n d o n t h e w a y s o f t h e w o r l d , fraught w i t h envy, pride and the pursuit of wealth, and to r e ceive a n d live o u t G o d ' s w i s d o m . c. C i t a t i o n ( A u t h o r i t y ) : J a m e s 4 : 5 - 6 J a m e s 4 : 6 a p p e a l s t o s c r i p t u r e as a n a n c i e n t t e s t i m o n y i n s u p p o r t o f t h e o v e r a l l a r g u m e n t . A c i t a t i o n f r o m a n a n c i e n t s o u r c e establishes truth of t h e nature of the overall statement.
1 0 7
the
T h e persuasive p o w e r of
the q u o t a t i o n can b e very great "because of the universal validity o f t h e
106
K l o p p e n b o r g , " T h e R e c e p t i o n o f Jesus Traditions," 1 4 1 .
107
Rhet.
Her.43.6.
166
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
w i s d o m a n d its u n q u e s t i o n a b l e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e p a r t i e s . "
The
c i t a t i o n h e r e is f r o m P r o v 3 : 3 4 . First, h o w e v e r , w h a t a r e w e t o m a k e o f Jas 4 : 5 , a v e r s e f r a u g h t w i t h l e x i c a l difficulties? F o r e x a m p l e , t o w h a t is t h e a u t h o r r e f e r r i n g w h e n h e m e n t i o n s s c r i p t u r e (ypacpig)? T h e p h r a s e b e g i n n i n g w i t h 7tp6<; 9&6vov d o e s n o t a p p e a r a n y w h e r e i n s c r i p t u r e , a n d d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s h a d access t o t e x t s w h i c h w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e c a n o n , w h e n J a m e s d o e s q u o t e s c r i p t u r e h e a l w a y s cites t h e S e p t u a g i n t .
1 0 9
Is it
t h e case, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t J a m e s is c i t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r i d e a f r o m s c r i p t u r e , for t h e n o t i o n o f a j e a l o u s G o d w h o r e q u i r e s c o m p l e t e fidelity
from
Israel is n o t u n c o m m o n i n b i b l i c a l texts? H o w e v e r , G o d is n e v e r d e scribed
as
"longing
enviously"
(npoq
cp&ovov
knmo^el),
rather,
6vo<; is o n l y a p p l i e d t o t h e h u m a n b e i n g o r h u m a n e m o t i o n , w h i c h can be envious,
1 1 0
a n d £7ii7ro&ew is a p p l i e d t o t h e h u m a n l o n g i n g for
G o d and not vice versa.
111
T h i s leads J o h n s o n , f o l l o w i n g Laws
and
A d a m s o n t o s o m e e x t e n t , t o c o n c l u d e t h a t " i t is n o t G o d w h o s h o u l d b e t a k e n as t h e s u b j e c t , b u t t h e pneuma
within humans."
For J o h n
s o n , t h e " s c r i p t u r e " r e f e r e n c e is t o v . 6, w h i c h c o n t a i n s a c i t a t i o n f r o m Prov 3:34.
1 1 3
L a w s d o e s n o t a c c e p t s u c h a p o s i t i o n , as it m e a n s t h a t
P r o v 3 : 3 4 w o u l d r e c e i v e a d o u b l e i n t r o d u c t i o n ; r a t h e r , s h e suggests t h a t t h e m e n t i o n o f s c r i p t u r e is n o t a r e f e r e n c e t o a single t e x t , b u t t o a g e n eral scriptural i d e a , f o u n d m o s t o f t e n i n t h e Psalms, t h a t " t h e desire o f t h e h u m a n spirit is, a c c o r d i n g t o s c r i p t u r e , for G o d a n d t h e t h i n g s o f G o d . " S h e t h u s u n d e r s t a n d s J a s 4 : 5 as t w o r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s : " D o e s s c r i p t u r e m e a n n o t h i n g ? Is t h i s ( a c c o r d i n g t o s c r i p t u r e ) t h e w a y t h e h u m a n spirit's l o n g i n g is d i r e c t e d , b y e n v y ? "
108
H e i n r i c h Lausberg, Handbook
1 1 5
T h e answer obviously requires
of Literary Rhetoric. A Foundation for Literary
Study
(trans. M a t t h e w T . Bliss, A n n e m i e k Jansen, & D a v i d E. O r t o n ; ed. D a v i d E. O r t o n & R . D e a n Anderson; Leiden, Boston, C o l o g n e : Brill, 1998) 2 0 3 . Quintilian
(5.11.37)
discusses this type o f testimony, " w h i c h is r e n d e r e d all the m o r e impressive b y t h e fact that it was n o t given to suit special cases, b u t was the utterance o r action of m i n d s swayed neither b y prejudice o r influence, simply because it seemed t h e m o s t h o n o u r a b l e or h o n est t h i n g t o say o r d o . " Laws, The Epistle of James, 177. 110
See Laws (The Epistle of James, 177) w h o refers to LXX W i s 2:24; 6:23; 1 M a c e 8:16;
3 M a c e 6:7. 111
J o h n s o n (The Letter of James, 281) cites LXX Ps 41:2; 119:20, 1 3 1 , 174.
112
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 282. See also Laws, The Epistle of James, 178; James B .
Adamson, James. The Man and His Message (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989) 332. 113
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 280.
114
Laws, The Epistle of James, 179.
115
Laws, The Epistle of James, 178. J o h n s o n (The Letter of James, 282) concurs w i t h this
reading.
6.
Friendship
with
God: James
3:13-4:10
167
a n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e , for a c c o r d i n g t o s c r i p t u r e ( t h e Psalms) t h e h u m a n spirit l o n g s for G o d a n d all t h e t h i n g s o f G o d . S u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e v e r s e is n o t a b s o l u t e l y c o n v i n c i n g , as L a w s a d m i t s , b u t it e x p l a i n s t h e u s e o f npoc,
enmo^el
and the intriguing reference
to
"scripture." J a m e s 4 : 6 c o n t a i n s a n o b v i o u s r e f e r e n c e t o s c r i p t u r e w h i c h "is n o t a r b i t r a r y , b u t i n fact g r o u n d s J a m e s ' s a r g u m e n t . "
T h e citation from
L X X P r o v 3 : 3 4 is a l m o s t e x a c t e x c e p t f o r a n e x c h a n g e o f
ftsoq
for
x u p t o g . T h i s c i t a t i o n offers p r o o f o f w h y o n e s h o u l d l i v e a g o o d life " i n t h e m e e k n e s s o f w i s d o m " a n d n o t l i v e a c c o r d i n g t o selfish a m b i t i o n for " G o d o p p o s e s t h e p r o u d , b u t g i v e s g r a c e t o t h e h u m b l e . " G o d d o e s n o t a p p r o v e o f a n e n v i o u s o r selfish life b u t o f a h u m b l e o n e ; t h e a n c i e n t t e x t s say so. G o d ' s a c t i o n s a r e c o m p l e t e l y
different
h u m a n spirit, w h i c h c a n b e e n v i o u s . G o d g i v e s a " g r e a t e r "
from
gift, a n o t i o n w h i c h is c o m p a r a b l e t o Jas 1:5 i n w h i c h G o d (xn'k^q.
the
(fxei^ova)
T h e c o n t e x t o f P r o v 3 : 3 4 , w h i c h deals w i t h G o d ' s
gives
wisdom,
w a l k i n g i n p e a c e , n o t e n v y i n g , c a r i n g for t h e p o o r , a n d t h e e x a l t a t i o n o f t h e w i s e , fits w e l l w i t h t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f i d e a s i n Jas 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 .
1 1 7
T h e c i t a t i o n f r o m P r o v 3 : 3 4 w i t h i n its c o n t e x t , w i t h w h i c h t h e a u d i e n c e w a s l i k e l y familiar, t h u s f o r m s a c o n s u m m a t i o n a n d p r o o f o f t h e a r g u m e n t as a w h o l e . 4. Concluding
Exhortations:
James
4:7-10
T h e closing of a pattern of elaboration often included s o m e e x h o r t a tion,
1 1 8
efforts t o i n f l u e n c e t h e e m o t i o n s o f t h e h e a r e r s , a n d a n a t t e m p t
t o s u m m a r i z e o r refresh t h e a u d i e n c e ' s m e m o r y o f t h e o v e r a l l t h e m e .
1 1 9
T h e c o n c l u s i o n c o u l d a p p e a l t o t h e a u d i e n c e ' s feelings for a d e c i s i o n o r judgment. J o h n s o n t e r m s J a s 4 : 7 - 1 0 a call t o c o n v e r s i o n f r o m a life o f e n v y a n d f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d , t o a life o f t o t a l r e l i a n c e a n d t r u s t i n G o d . T h i s is really a call t o
repentance,
p r o m i n e n t l y i n this s e c t i o n .
121
as r e p e n t a n c e
language
figures
A l t h o u g h J a m e s ' s l a n g u a g e is s t r o n g , it is
a s s u m e d t h a t his a u d i e n c e d o e s w a n t t o b e loyal t o a n d t r u s t i n g o f G o d .
116
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 8 3 .
117
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 8 3 .
118
H e r m o g e n e s (Progymnasmata line 60), for example, writes that at the conclusion of
an elaboration, " y o u are to add an exhortation to the effect that it is necessary to h e e d the o n e w h o has s p o k e n o r acted." Translation b y H o c k and O ' N e i l , The Chreia in Ancient Rhetoric, 119
120
121
177.
Lausberg, Handbook of Literary Rhetoric, 2 0 4 . M a c k and R o b b i n s , Patterns of Persuasion, 5 5 . J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 8 9 .
168
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
T h e first v e r s e i n c l u d e s t h e w o r d ouv ( " t h e r e f o r e " ) w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t n o w t h a t t h e a u t h o r h a s set f o r t h his a r g u m e n t a n d p r o o f s ,
the
r e c i p i e n t s o f his m e s s a g e m u s t m a k e a d e c i s i o n as t o w h a t t h e y w i l l d o . J a m e s a p p e a l s t o t h e m t o " s u b m i t " (wroTGrprjTe) t o G o d (4:7) a n d t o " r e s i s t " (avxicrryjTe) t h e d e v i l , w h o , as t h e l e t t e r w r i t e r assures o p t i m i s tically, w i l l " f l e e " f r o m y o u if y o u d o .
1 2 2
H e exhorts the readers to
c l e a n s e t h e i r h a n d s , t o p u r i f y t h e i r h e a r t s a n d calls t h e m S c ^ u ^ o i w h i c h t h e y a r e as l o n g as t h e y r e m a i n e n e m i e s o f G o d a n d r e l y u p o n t h e i r o w n selfish a m b i t i o n s . H e d e m a n d s t h e m t o b e w r e t c h e d , a n d t o w e e p a n d m o u r n , s o m e w h a t r e m i n i s c e n t o f M a t t 5:4, b u t u n l i k e t h e p r o p h e t s w h o use this l a n g u a g e t o describe w h a t will h a p p e n t o idolatrous p e o p l e , t h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t t h r e a t e n his r e a d e r s o r h e a r e r s w i t h
outside
disaster; r a t h e r t h e a u t h o r w a n t s t h e a u d i e n c e t o b r i n g s u c h t r i b u l a t i o n u p o n themselves in " a n act o f c o n v e r s i o n . "
I n o r d e r t o b e friends o f
G o d , t h e y m u s t u n d e r g o a dramatic reversal f r o m following their o w n desires t o h e e d i n g a n d m a n i f e s t i n g t h e w i s d o m o f G o d , a n d s u c h a r e v e r s a l r e q u i r e s r e p e n t a n c e . A l t h o u g h t h e l a n g u a g e o f t e s t i n g a n d trials is n o t u s e d e x p l i c i t l y h e r e , t h e n o t i o n
that the audience must
t h r o u g h perhaps a painful c o n v e r s i o n conforms to James's
go
emphasis
u p o n t e s t i n g a n d trials as n e c e s s a r y c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e j o u r n e y t o p e r f e c t i o n . I f o n e desires f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d , o n e m u s t e n d u r e trials, a t h e m e c o n s i s t e n t i n J a s 1, 2 , a n d 4 . F i n a l l y , t h e last v e r s e f u n c t i o n s as a n i c e inciusio t o t h e e n t i r e s e c t i o n as a g a i n , it e m p h a s i z e s t h e h u m i l i t y r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o f o r m a r e l a tionship
with
God.
"Be
humbled"
says 4 : 1 0 ,
recalling the
initial
r e f e r e n c e t o m e e k n e s s (7upauTY)s) i n 3 : 1 3 a n d t h e c i t a t i o n o f P r o v 3 : 3 4 in Jas 4:6 ( " G o d gives grace t o t h e h u m b l e
[TOLTZSIVOZC]").
T h e audi
e n c e is r e m i n d e d o f t h e t y p e o f b e h a v i o u r t h a t G o d d e m a n d s , a n a p p e a l is m a d e t o m a k e a d e c i s i o n , a n d a p r o m i s e t h a t G o d w i l l r e s p o n d ( " t h e L o r d w i l l e x a l t y o u " ) is m a d e . T h i s s e c t i o n w o u l d h a v e b e e n p e r s u a s i v e , f o r d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e m u s t u n d e r g o r e p e n t a n c e in o r d e r t o b e c o m e friends
with
G o d , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s u c h a f r i e n d s h i p is t r u l y t h a t , a p o s s i b i l i t y . T h e r e is o p t i m i s m h e r e t h a t t h e h e a r e r s c a n c h a n g e a n d a n a s s u r a n c e t h a t G o d is r e l i a b l e . T h e e x h o r t a t i o n s t o c l e a n s e t h e h a n d s a n d p u r i f y t h e h e a r t (Jas 4:8) w o u l d h a v e b e e n effective r h e t o r i c a l l y f o r s u c h d i r e c -
122
O n l y James and Herm. Man.
12.4, 7; 12.5, 2 contain this idea o f evil fleeing from
t h e person. 123
124
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James, 2 8 5 . This final phrase bears striking resemblance to L u k e 18:14; M a t t 18:4; 23:12. See
Hartin, James and the Q Sayings of Jesus, 142.
6.
Friendship
with
God: James
169
3:13-4:10
t i o n s associate l i v i n g f r o m " b e l o w , " h e e d i n g t h e d e v i l a n d God's wisdom with impurity.
1 2 5
ignoring
If o n e is a f r i e n d o f t h e w o r l d
and
e n e m y o f G o d , o n e is also i m p u r e . T h i s l a n g u a g e m a y h a v e b e e n u s e d i n o r d e r t o m a k e a last effort t o p e r s u a d e t h e p e o p l e o f t h e u n d e s i r a b i l ity o f friendship w i t h t h e w o r l d . W i t h i n t h e letter of James, 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 forms a discrete literary unit, w h i c h conforms to the ancient rhetorical technique of the elaboration o f a t h e m e . T h e f o c u s o f t h e u n i t is a d h e r e n c e t o t h e w i s d o m o f G o d , i n h u m i U t y , as o p p o s e d t o e n g a g i n g i n strife a n d satisfying a m b i t i o n s . T h i s t h e m e is p a r t i c u l a r l y e m p h a s i z e d b y t h e u s e o f a m a x i m i n 4 : 4 , w h i c h e m p h a t i c a l l y restates t h e t h e m e b u t i n t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d v e r s u s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d . If t h i s is a r e f a s h i o n i n g o f a J e s u s s a y i n g , it w o u l d h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p e l l i n g f o r it restates s o m e t h i n g w h i c h t h e a u d i e n c e p r e s u m a b l y a l r e a d y a c c e p t s , a n d it a s serts t h a t t h e w i l l o f J e s u s a n d G o d
are t h e same. T h e
notion
of
f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d is t h e r e f o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m i n g a p e r s u a s i v e a r g u m e n t as t o w h y t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d resist t h e i r d e s i r e s , resist t h e d e v i l a n d d r a w n e a r t o G o d .
B . Friendship, Patronage and Benefaction in James 3:13-4:10 1. Author
to
Hearers/Listeners
I n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s , t h e v o i c e i n Jas 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 s p e a k s m o r e h a r s h l y t o t h e a u d i e n c e t h a n in o t h e r sections o f the letter. A l t h o u g h references to t h e r e c i p i e n t s as " m y b r o t h e r s " (a&eXcpof, fxou) a p p e a r t h r e e t i m e s i n Jas 3 : 1 - 1 2 ( 3 : 1 , 1 0 a n d 12) a n d 4 : 1 1 i n c l u d e s aSsXcpoi, t h e t e r m d o e s n o t o c c u r i n t h e u n i t itself. T h e fact t h a t 3 : 1 - 1 2 c o n t a i n s t h r e e m e n t i o n s o f dcSeXcpoi fxou m a y b e a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r is r e a d y i n g t h e a u d i ence
for
a heavy
onslaught
of criticism w h i l e
the
appearance
of
a&eXcpoi i n 4 : 1 1 is a n a t t e m p t t o r e m i n d t h e m t h a t d e s p i t e t h e p r e v i o u s t o u g h t a l k i n 3:13—4:10, t h e y s h o u l d n o t f o r g e t t h a t t h e a u t h o r is i n deed their "brother." T h u r e n has o b s e r v e d that J a m e s speaks "frankly a n d directly"
and
"dares to a p p r o a c h [the audience] in a direct, e v e n u n k i n d , m a n n e r , "
1 2 6
a n d n o w h e r e d o w e see t h i s f r a n k n e s s m o r e clearly t h a n i n Jas 3 : 1 3 4 : 1 0 . J a m e s c o n t i n u e s to use t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n address t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e s e c t i o n a n d h e asks t h e a u d i e n c e r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t w h o is w i s e a m o n g t h e m (3:13) a n d w h a t causes t h e m t o fight (4:1) t h e n proceeds to answer t h e questions w i t h challenges and exhortation. T h i s
125
F o r m o r e o n pollution and purity in James, see Elliott, " T h e Episde o f James in
R h e t o r i c a l and Social-Scientific Perspective." 126
Thuren, "Risky Rhetoric," 283.
170
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
r e a s o n i n g t h r o u g h q u e s t i o n a n d a n s w e r is effective r h e t o r i c a l l y b e c a u s e it h o l d s t h e h e a r e r s ' a t t e n t i o n : w h e n e v e r a q u e s t i o n is a s k e d , t h e a u d i ence
anticipates
a response.
However, James
is e s p e c i a l l y
tough
t h r o u g h o u t these verses a n d m a y b e treading o n t h i n ice. T h e bluntness o f t h e c o u n s e l a l m o s t stings; a n d i n c l u d e s p r o p h e t i c d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f t h e a u d i e n c e , s u c h as t h e d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t t h o s e w h o c o v e t a n d f i g h t a r e a d u l t e r o u s ( 4 : 1 ) . A s w e h a v e s e e n , a n c i e n t w r i t e r s o n TrappTjaioc w e r e w e l l a w a r e t h a t t h e r e c o u l d b e a fine l i n e b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t i v e c r i t i cism and o u t - a n d - o u t ridicule and belittlement. Frank speech could b e h a r s h p r o v i d e d it w a s f o r c o n s t r u c t i v e p u r p o s e s . P l u t a r c h says t h a t the true frankness such as a friend displays applies itself to errors that are b e i n g c o m m i t t e d ; t h e pain w h i c h it causes is salutary and b e n i g nant, and, like h o n e y , it causes t h e sore places to smart and cleanses t h e m t o o . . . (Adul.
amic.
59D).
T h e f r i e n d is t h e c o u n s e l a n d a d v o c a t e
1 2 8
a n d bears t h e responsibility
" t o b e f r a n k w i t h u s , a n d i n d e e d t o b l a m e us w h e n o u r c o n d u c t is bad,"
a n d t h i s is p r e c i s e l y w h a t J a m e s is d o i n g . I w o u l d a r g u e t h a t
a l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r s o u n d s v e r y a n g r y i n this s e c t i o n , t h e a i m is n o t t o mortify the audience, b u t to encourage t h e m to change and behave p r o p e r l y , s u c h t h a t t h e y c a n b e c a l l e d friends o f G o d . A l t h o u g h
he
d i r e c t l y chastises t h e a u d i e n c e f o r t h e i r b e h a v i o u r o n all sorts o f f r o n t s , h e p r o v i d e s a n a r g u m e n t for w h y w h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g is b a d , a n d offers c l e a r g u i d a n c e as t o w h a t t h e y s h o u l d d o t o i m p r o v e t h e i r b e h a v i o u r . U n l i k e h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n s a b o u t t h e r i c h i n Jas 1 : 9 - 1 1 a n d 5 : 1 - 6 , w h o apparently have n o option to repent and avoid an apocalyptic
doom,
J a m e s ' s a u d i e n c e a r e p r o v i d e d c l e a r g u i d a n c e as t o w h a t t h e y m u s t d o in o r d e r t o cleanse a n d purify themselves such that G o d will exalt t h e m (4:10). J a m e s 3:13—4:10 also m a i n t a i n s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r .
Not
only does h e appeal to the audience directly and strongly, in 4:4 h e r e p h r a s e s a t e a c h i n g o f J e s u s t o suit his o w n c o n t e x t . A s s t a t e d earlier, this v e r s e w o u l d m a k e s i g n i f i c a n t c l a i m s for t h e s p e a k e r , f o r it i n d i c a t e s that t h e speaker's v i e w s a n d Jesus' v i e w s are t h e same. T h u s ,
the
s p e a k e r w o u l d a p p e a r as o n e w h o " l i k e J e s u s , s p o k e a n d t a u g h t t h e wisdom of G o d . "
B y r e c a s t i n g a s a y i n g o f J e s u s , t h e s p e a k e r has i n
c r e a s e d h i s m o r a l c r e d i b i l i t y w i t h his a u d i e n c e . If his l i s t e n e r s o r r e a d e r s value the teachings of Jesus, they w o u l d presumably n o t question the 127
Rhet. Her. 4.16.24.
128
Plutarch, Adul. amic. 6 1 D .
129
Plutarch, Adul. amic. 66A.
130
W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 1 5 1 .
6.
Friendship
with God: James
3:13-4:10
171
a u t h o r i t y o f this a u t h o r , for h e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t his w i s d o m is i n l i n e w i t h t h a t o f J e s u s . M o r e o v e r , t h e y w i l l a p p r e c i a t e t h e artistry w i t h w h i c h h e has r e p h r a s e d this t e a c h i n g s u c h t h a t it is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h his o v e r a l l e m p h a s i s u p o n G o d as a f r i e n d a n d b e n e f a c t o r . 2. Attributes
of Community
Members
T h i s p o r t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r is f o c u s e d u p o n c r i t i c i s m a n d e x h o r t a t i o n t o t h e a u d i e n c e t o resist t h e w a y s " o f t h e w o r l d , " especially e n v y , w h i c h leads to fighting a n d destruction. T h e vices to c o m e u n d e r attack in p a r t i c u l a r a r e 5?jXo£ (Jas 3 : 1 4 , 1 5 ; 4 : 2 ) , epi&eioc ( 3 : 1 4 , 16) a n d cp&ovo^ (4:5), w i t h Jas 4 : 5 c h a l l e n g i n g t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e h u m a n spirit s h o u l d b e g o v e r n e d b y e n v y (
131
P l u t a r c h , for i n s t a n c e , c l a i m e d t h a t t r u e friends d o
possess e n v y (cp&ovo^) n o r e m u l a t i o n (£?jXos) b u t w i t h s t a n d o n e other's accomplishments with moderation and without vexation
not an (Adul
amic. 5 4 C ) . F o r A r i s t o t l e , t h e s e t w o c o m p e t i t i v e e m o t i o n s a r e e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h o t h e r s w h o a r e similar, i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i t h f r i e n d s .
Good
virtues are w o r t h y o f emulation, b u t Aristotle does n o t a p p r o v e o f e n v y within friendship.
133
P r i o r t o t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B C E , £JjXo£ w a s u n d e r
s t o o d as a n e u t r a l t e r m a n d o f t e n t r a n s l a t e d as " z e a l " w h i c h c o u l d b e p o s i t i v e i n t h a t o n e c o u l d h a v e zeal o r p a s s i o n for a p a r t i c u l a r i d e a o r person, or cause.
134
H o w e v e r , a n d as w e s a w i n C h a p t e r 2 , b y t h e
f o u r t h c e n t u r y B C E , it c a m e t o h a v e a n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n . it is d e s c r i b e d as " b i t t e r " (my-poq)
In James
a n d p l a c e d side b y side w i t h epi&eioc,
w h i c h c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d as "selfish a m b i t i o n " a n d i n t h e N e w
Testa
m e n t is r e l a t e d t o " a n t i s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s d e s t r u c t i v e o f c o m m u n i t y ( R o m 2 : 8 ; G a l 5 : 2 0 ; P h i l 1:17; 2 : 3 ) . "
1 3 6
I n v a r i o u s G r e e k t e x t s £yjXo? is u s e d
i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y w i t h 9 & 6 v o £ , a n o b s e r v a t i o n w h i c h leads J o h n s o n t o c o n c l u d e t h a t J a m e s also t h i n k s o f t h e t w o w o r d s as s y n o n y m s .
1 3 7
Thus
£?jXo£ l i k e l y refers t o " e n v y " i n J a m e s a n d c o n t a i n s n o n e o f t h e p o s i t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s it possesses i n o t h e r l i t e r a r y c o n t e x t s . T h i s is clearly a v i c e w h i c h J a m e s is d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d r e l i n q u i s h .
131
As J o h n s o n ("James 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 , " 336) remarks: " T h a t cp&6vo<; opposes friendship is
obvious ..." 132
Rhet. 2.4.25.
133
Rhet. 2.4.25. See Viano, " C o m p e t i t i v e E m o t i o n s and Thumosin Aristode's Rhetoric" 9 1 .
134
A. Stumpff, "5jXos," TDNTll
135
See C h a p t e r 2, n. 116.
(1964) 8 7 7 - 7 8 .
136
J o h n s o n , The Letter of James,
137
J o h n s o n (The Letter of James, 271) lists t h e following sources: Plutarch, On Brotherly
271.
Love 14; How to Profit by One's Enemies 1; 9; On Tranquility of Soul 10; 11; Plato, sium 2 1 3 D ; Laws 6 7 9 C ; Epictetus, Discourses III, 22, 6 1 .
Sympo
172
Friendship
and Benefaction
in
James
T h e fact t h a t e n v y w a s d e c l a r e d b y a n c i e n t t e x t s t o b e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e v a l u e s o f f r i e n d s h i p c o u p l e d w i t h J a m e s ' s stress o n its a v o i d a n c e is further evidence, to m y m i n d , that J a m e s wants to advance t h e values o f a u t h e n t i c f r i e n d s h i p a m o n g t h e m e m b e r s o f his a u d i e n c e i n o p p o s i t i o n t o w h a t h e u n d e r s t a n d s t o b e t h e values " o f t h e w o r l d . " I n this s e c t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r , e n v y a n d its r e l a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a s p e c t s o f living w i t h o u t G o d ' s w i s d o m from above. E n v y and jealousy wars and
fighting
cause
within the audience. R a t h e r than sharing their wealth
i n c o m m o n a n d a i d i n g o n e a n o t h e r , as t r u e friends s h o u l d , t h e s e p e o p l e a r e l o n g i n g f o r o n e a n o t h e r ' s p o s s e s s i o n s a n d as a c o n s e q u e n c e , J a m e s p o i n t s o u t q u i t e d r a m a t i c a l l y , e n g a g i n g i n w a r a n d m u r d e r . T h i s is n o t t h e b e h a v i o u r o f f r i e n d s , f o r f r i e n d s " w i s h w h a t is g o o d f o r u s . " J a m e s e x h o r t s t h e a u d i e n c e t o a v o i d o t h e r sorts o f a c t i v i t y t h a t w e r e u n d e r s t o o d t o b e o p p o s i t i o n a l t o f r i e n d s h i p . F o r e x a m p l e , h e insists t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e s h o u l d n o t b o a s t o r b e false t o t h e t r u t h ( 3 : 1 4 ) . S u c h c a u t i o n a b o u t t h e u s e o f s p e e c h is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e l e t t e r i n w h i c h J a m e s reflects u p o n t h e u s e o f s p e e c h ( 3 : 1 - 1 2 ; 4 : 1 1 - 1 7 ) and near the e n d w h e n h e c o m m a n d s the audience n o t to take oaths ( 5 : 1 2 ) . A s d i s c u s s e d i n a n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r , s p e e c h w a s a n i m p o r t a n t issue w i t h i n discussions o f friendship
for friends w e r e e x p e c t e d t o
honestly, and sometimes critically
139
speak
t o o n e a n o t h e r , w i t h re a p p e a l a .
1 4 0
T h o s e "friendships" b e t w e e n p a t r o n s a n d clients w e r e often l a m p o o n e d b e c a u s e o f t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f i n s i n c e r e talk, n a m e l y
flattery,
t h a t for
s o m e w r i t e r s e x p o s e d t h e falsity o f s u c h " f r i e n d s h i p s . " J a m e s d o e s n o t deal directly w i t h
flattery,
b u t t h e r e is a d e e p s u s p i c i o n o f t h e t o n g u e ,
t o t h e p o i n t that t h e t o n g u e c a n n o t b e t a m e d b y a h u m a n b e i n g (3:8). J a m e s c l a i m s , a l t h o u g h it s h o u l d n o t b e s o , t h a t b o t h b l e s s i n g a n d c u r s i n g c o m e f r o m t h e t o n g u e ( 3 : 1 0 ) , m a k i n g it s o m e w h a t c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e S l ^ u x o ^ p e r s o n , w h o w e a v e s t o a n d fro w i t h t h e w i n d . T h e p r i m a r y c o n t e x t f o r s u c h c r i t i c i s m o f b o a s t i n g a n d falsity i n Jas 3 : 1 4 is t h e a u t h o r ' s d e s i r e f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s t o g e t a l o n g a n d s t o p g r u m b l i n g a g a i n s t o n e a n o t h e r as it is i n o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e l e t t e r ( 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 ; 5 : 9 ) . Strife c a u s e d b y false s p e e c h is a p r o b l e m p l a g u e d m a n y types o f associations in a n t i q u i t y .
141
that
H o w e v e r , J a m e s is a
little a t y p i c a l c o m p a r e d t o e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s i n t h a t it p r o h i b i t s t h e u s e o f o a t h s i n 5 : 1 2 , a v e r s e t h a t recalls J e s u s ' i n s t r u c t i o n s i n 138
139
Aristotle, Rhet.
2.4.8.
For example, P r o v 27:6 states: " W e l l m e a n t are t h e w o u n d s a friend inflicts, b u t
profuse are t h e kisses o f an e n e m y . " 140
See W i l l i a m R . Baker, " ' A b o v e All Else': C o n t e x t s of the Call for Verbal Integrity
i n J a m e s 5:12," JSNT 141
54 (1994) 5 7 - 7 1 .
See Verseput, " G e n r e and S t o r y , " 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 .
6.
Friendship
with God: James
3:13-4:10
173
M a t t 5 : 3 3 - 3 7 . T h e o a t h w a s q u i t e c o m m o n a m o n g a s s o c i a t i o n s , f o r it guaranteed obedience to the regulation of conduct,
1 4 2
a n d it w a s u s e d
generally w i t h i n a n c i e n t society for sealing contracts a n d m a k i n g p r o m ises.
S o m e r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s , s u c h as t h e P y t h a g o r e a n s , r e s i s t e d t a k i n g
t h e o a t h f o r it w a s p e r c e i v e d t o b e useless a n d i n s i n c e r e .
P l u t a r c h also
i n d i c a t e s a c e r t a i n m i s t r u s t o f o a t h s , f o r h e d e s c r i b e s t h e flatterer as o n e w h o r e p e a t e d l y t a k e s o a t h s , i n c o n t r a s t t o t r u e friends w h o d o n o t r e q u i r e s u c h " t r i f l e s " (Flatterer 2 1 ) . T h i s suggests t h a t J a m e s h a s i n m i n d t h e e t h i c s e s p o u s e d b y s i n c e r e friends as h e a t t e m p t s t o offer c o n c r e t e g u i d a n c e t o his l i s t e n e r s ; g u i d a n c e t h a t w o u l d a g a i n a m p l i f y t h e useless n a t u r e o f flattery a n d t h e s y s t e m it u p h e l d , n a m e l y p a t r o n a g e .
1 4 5
Falsity, e n v y , b o a s t i n g , a n d strife all m a n i f e s t , f o r J a m e s , t h e b e h a v i o u r o f s o m e o n e w h o is a " f r i e n d o f t h e w o r l d " a n d is c o m p l e t e l y c o u n t e r to "friendship w i t h G o d . "
1 4 6
If o n e is at w a r w i t h o n e ' s f e l l o w
c r e a t u r e s , it s e e m s f o r J a m e s , t h e n o n e c a n n o t b e friends w i t h G o d . If o n e has n o t r e c e i v e d t h e w i s d o m " f r o m a b o v e " w i t h all o f its v i r t u o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (3:17) t h e n o n e c a n n o t b e a p e a c e m a k e r ( 3 : 1 8 ) . M o r e o v e r , t h e s e c o n d r e f e r e n c e t o t h e oityuyoQ
p e r s o n a p p e a r s i n 4 : 8 as a
description of "sinners" or those w h o need to draw near to God; those w h o are living a c c o r d i n g to friendship w i t h t h e w o r l d a n d p r e s u m a b l y l i v i n g w i t h e n v y a n d its s u b s e q u e n t results. J a m e s t h u s m a i n t a i n s , i n t h i s section, the image of a person w h o cannot b e u i a
^fuyyi w i t h a n y o n e
else b e c a u s e h e o r s h e is so d i v i d e d . S u c h a p e r s o n clearly c a n n o t b e a friend of G o d . It is i m p o r t a n t t o r e t u r n t o t h e fact, h o w e v e r , t h a t J a m e s is n o t c o n t e n t simply to criticize those w h o d o n o t receive t h e w i s d o m
from
a b o v e , b u t p r o v i d e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h a t c o m e s o f r e c e i v i n g this w i s -
142
For example, see IG V / 1 . 1 3 9 0 .
143
See W . Burkert, Greek Religion (trans. J o h n RafFan; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d U n i
versity Press, 1985) 250. For example, Pliny's famous letter t o Trajan (Letters 10.96 [LCL; trans. William M e l m o t h ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; N e w Y o r k : P u t n a m , 1924]) reports o f Christians w h o " b o u n d themselves b y a solemn oath, n o t t o any w i c k e d deeds, b u t n e v e r t o c o m m i t any fraud, theft o r adultery ..." 144
See J o s e p h Plescia, The Oath and Perjury in Ancient Greece (Tallahassee: Florida State
University Press, 1970) 87. 145
Similarly, C o l e m a n (Patronage and the Epistle of James, 120-21) provides evidence s u p
p o r t i n g t h e v i e w that oaths w e r e often used in patron-client contracts, and concludes regarding Jas 5:12 that "James is w a r n i n g against an official oath in w h i c h a client, in r e t u r n for patronal benefactions, promises service for a p e r i o d o f 146
time."
K l o p p e n b o r g V e r b i n ("Patronage A v o i d a n c e , " 770) writes, "'Friendship w i t h t h e
w o r l d ' is characterized in t h e immediately p r e c e d i n g verses as filled w i t h conflict and rivalry (4:1-2a) ... W i t h such 'friendship'James immediately juxtaposes a d h e r e n c e to G o d , w h o 'gives grace t o t h e h u m b l e ' and exalts t h e m (4:6-10)."
174
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
d o m . J a m e s 3:13—4:10 c o n t a i n s m u c h p o s i t i v e e x h o r t a t i o n for t h e life o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . M a n y o f t h e t h i n g s t h a t h e stresses as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s w i s d o m a n d o f o n e w h o r e c e i v e s it a r e p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n s , s u c h as " c a l m n e s s " (npoLUTr]), w h i c h A r i s t o t l e d e s c r i b e s as t h e q u i e t i n g o f anger,
147
a n d m e r c y (skioq)
(Jas 3 : 1 7 )
1 4 8
A r i s t o t l e d e s c r i b e s friends as
those w h o are ready to help others; w h o are neither " q u a r r e l s o m e n o r contentious,"
while
Plutarch
associates
truthfulness,
love
for
the
g o o d , a n d t h e ability t o r e a s o n w i t h t h e f r i e n d , w h o tries " t o foster t h e g r o w t h o f w h a t is s o u n d a n d t o p r e s e r v e i t . " fulness
(3:14), gentleness, p e a c e m a k i n g ,
James advocates truth
and being open
to
reason
(3:17) - all p o s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t r e s o n a t e w i t h t h i s i m a g e o f t h e i d e a l f r i e n d . T h e a u t h o r is d e l i b e r a t e l y d r a w i n g u p o n f r i e n d s h i p a n d t h e v i r t u o u s e m o t i o n s a n d a c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h it i n o r d e r t o p r o m o t e a m o r e h a r m o n i o u s c o m m u n i t y life a m o n g t h e a u d i e n c e . 3.
God
First, it is c l e a r t h a t t h e i m a g e o f G o d as b e n e f a c t o r is m a i n t a i n e d i n this s e c t i o n . G o d is t h e p r o v i d e r f r o m w h o m t h e a u d i e n c e m u s t m a k e r e quests
(4:3). J a m e s
chooses
the
citation
e m p h a s i z e t h a t G o d g i v e s " g r a c e " (y&pic)
from
L X X Prov
3:34
to
to the humble. This language
o f g r a c e is, as w e h a v e s e e n , r e g u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b e n e f a c t i o n a n d , t o s o m e e x t e n t f r i e n d s h i p , i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . A n d J a m e s has n o t only o p t e d to use the Proverbs citation here, h e introduces t h e verse w i t h fjiel^ova
8e SiScocriv
x*P
LV
w h i c h indicates that h e wants to e m
p h a s i z e t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f G o d as a p r o v i d e r o f y&pis g e n e r o u s l y (Jas 1 : 5 ) .
151
w
n
o
gives
J a m e s g o e s o u t o f his w a y t o stress this b e n e f i
c e n c e , j u s t as h e d i d i n 1:5 w h e n h e m a d e it c l e a r t h a t G o d
gives
g e n e r o u s l y a n d w i t h o u t r e p r o a c h . G o d is c o m p l e t e l y o p p o s i t e , t h e n , t o t h e r i c h p a t r o n w h o m a y p r o v i d e b u t also d r a g s p e o p l e t o c o u r t (2:6) o r e x p l o i t s his l a b o u r e r s ( 5 : 4 ) . This section contains a n o t h e r explicit reference to friendship G o d , n a m e l y 4 : 4 , a l b e i t s t a t e d i n t h e r e v e r s e as f r i e n d s h i p w i t h
with the
w o r l d e q u a l i n g e n m i t y w i t h G o d . S o m e a u t h o r s c o n s i d e r this verse t o b e t h e c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i d e n t i t y t h e l e t t e r w r i t e r w i s h e s his audience w o u l d reflect.
152
T h i s m a y b e t r u e , b u t i n a n y case 4 : 4 clearly
147
Rhet.
148
See Konstan, The Emotions of the Ancient Greeks, chs. 3 and 10.
2.3.1
149
Rhet. 2.4.8-12.
150
Adul. amic. 6 1 D .
151
See Hartin, James, 200.
152
As H a r t i n (A Spirituality of Perfection, 106) writes: " A m o n g t h e spiritual values that
James's c o m m u n i t y is e n c o u r a g e d t o e m b r a c e is t h e call to maintain friendship w i t h G o d .
6.
Friendship
with
God: James
175
3:13-4:10
fits, as a m a x i m s h o u l d , w i t h w h a t w e h a v e e n c o u n t e r e d i n J a m e s so far. J a m e s p l a c e s s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s u p o n t e s t i n g , a n d t h e o n e w h o w i t h s t a n d s g r e a t tests a n d trials is c a l l e d a f r i e n d o f G o d , as A b r a h a m w a s ( 2 : 2 3 ) . T h e p e r s o n w h o w i t h s t a n d s t h e trials a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f o r s a k i n g " t h e w o r l d , " as c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y J a m e s , c a n also possess t h i s f r i e n d s h i p with God.
God, moreover,
is d e s c r i b e d as friends s o m e t i m e s
were
( 1 : 5 ) . U n l i k e t h e p e r s o n w h o is S l ^ u ^ o ^ a n d w h o vacillates, t h e a u t h o r w a n t s his r e a d e r s t o f o c u s u p o n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h G o d ,
which
s h o u l d t a k e p r i o r i t y o v e r all o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . G i v e n w h a t w e h a v e l e a r n e d i n e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s a b o u t w h a t it m e a n t t o b e a (pikoq
in antiquity, the language o f friendship h e r e w o u l d have
b e e n q u i t e p o w e r f u l , f o r friends w e r e e x p e c t e d t o b e a r loyalty for o n e a n o t h e r ;
unparalleled
they should b e of " o n e soul" instead
" d o u b l e - s o u l e d " ; t h e y s h o u l d s h a r e all t h i n g s a n d e v e n d i e for
of one
a n o t h e r if n e c e s s a r y . " A s a f r i e n d o f G o d , o n e shares t h e s a m e v i s i o n , t h e s a m e v a l u e s G o d h a s — o n e trusts G o d fully a n d sees r e a l i t y as G o d would."
1 5 3
O n e has a b s o l u t e faith i n G o d . T h i s w o u l d b e a d e m a n d i n g
r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d o n e t h a t e n t e r t a i n s n o c o m p r o m i s e s , b u t it a r t i c u l a t e s c l e a r l y t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i d e n t i t y t h a t J a m e s desires for his a u d i e n c e . I f t h e c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s a r e t o b e friends w i t h G o d , l i k e A b r a h a m a n d Rahab,
they
will
manifest
the
great
characteristics,
through
good
w o r k s , w h i c h t r u e friends a r e e x p e c t e d t o h a v e . The
o p p o s i t e e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m is f r i e n d s h i p
with the
world,
w h i c h , i f e n t e r e d i n t o , effectively m a k e s o n e a n " e n e m y " o f G o d . T h e w o r l d (xoafxo^) is n o t p o r t r a y e d p o s i t i v e l y t h r o u g h o u t this l e t t e r : i n Jas 1:27, r e l i g i o n is d e f i n e d as k e e p i n g o n e s e l f " u n s t a i n e d f r o m t h e w o r l d " ; i n 2 : 5 , t h e a u t h o r asks if G o d has n o t " c h o s e n t h o s e w h o a r e p o o r i n t h e w o r l d t o b e r i c h i n faith t o b e h e i r s o f t h e k i n g d o m w h i c h h e h a s chosen to those w h o love h i m ? " thereby contrasting the " w o r l d " with t h e " k i n g d o m " ; 3 : 6 d e s c r i b e s t h e t o n g u e as a " w o r l d o f i n j u s t i c e
...
s t a i n i n g t h e w h o l e b o d y " ; a n d finally i n 4 : 4 , as w e s e e , t h e w o r l d is d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d t o G o d . T o b e friends w i t h t h e w o r l d
would
m e a n that o n e embraces w o r l d l y values, values w h i c h d o n o t
come
f r o m G o d . A s t h e w r i t e r says, t h e e m b r a c e o f s u c h i d e a s w o u l d l e a d t o e n m i t y w i t h G o d , f o r o n e c a n o n l y b e a f r i e n d o f G o d if o n e is e n t i r e l y d e v o t e d a n d p l a c e s n o t h i n g i n t h e w a y o f t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e a u t h o r d e s i r e s his a u d i e n c e t o f o r s a k e t h e w o r l d a n d retreat to the desert or s o m e o t h e r geographically r e m o t e location, b u t
T h i s expresses t h e very identity o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . James 4:4 is o n e of t h e central verses o f t h e entire letter; it captures the m a i n thrust o f the letter's central a r g u m e n t . " 153
Hartin, A Spirituality of Perfection, 110.
176
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
they m u s t n o t live a c c o r d i n g to t h e values and standards o f the w o r l d , for t h e s e d o n o t c o m e f r o m G o d a n d a r e , i n effect, o p p o s e d t o G o d . M a x i m s a r e p o w e r f u l r h e t o r i c a l l y , f o r a n a u d i e n c e h a s difficulty r e jecting c o m m o n wisdom; moreover, maxims enhance the authority of t h e s p e a k e r , e s p e c i a l l y if t h e y a r e r e c o g n i z e d as o r i g i n a t i n g f r o m a g r e a t t e a c h e r . T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t arises is, W h y w o u l d J a m e s n o t s i m p l y c i t e t h e Jesus saying, " Y o u c a n n o t serve G o d a n d m a m m o n , " rather t h a n c h a n g e it t o c o n t r a s t " f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d " w i t h " e n m i t y w i t h G o d " ? T h e b e s t e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t s u c h a r e p h r a s i n g c o h e r e s s m o o t h l y w i t h t h e i d e a s i n t h e l e t t e r t h u s far. G o d has b e e n i n t r o d u c e d as a f r i e n d a n d b e n e f a c t o r i n t h e e x o r d i u m , a n d J a m e s w a n t s this c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t o c o n t i n u e t h r o u g h o u t t h e rest o f t h e t e x t . M o r e o v e r , J a m e s aware of the rhetorical p o w e r of the n o t i o n of friendship w i t h
was God,
and such a n o t i o n was i m p o r t a n t in the overall f r a m e w o r k of the c o m p o s i t i o n as w e h a v e s e e n i n t h e f e w s e c t i o n s s t u d i e d so far. T h e i d e a o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d c o u l d b e a n effective m e a n s o f e x p o s i n g t h e s p e cious nature of "friendship" w i t h w e l l - t o - d o patrons w h o , unlike G o d , c o u l d b e changeable, a n d are ultimately outside t h e plan o f salvation. " F r i e n d s h i p " w i t h these p e o p l e equals friendship w i t h t h e w o r l d , m a d e manifest in the envy, squabbling and the resultant killing that emerges. J a m e s ' s a u d i e n c e , I h a v e a r g u e d , w o u l d h a v e a s s o c i a t e d this w i s d o m w i t h J e s u s , b u t J a m e s ' s a l t e r a t i o n o f it w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e a p p r o p r i ate given
the problems
his a u d i e n c e
was having,
and
the
overall
language a n d t h o u g h t w o r l d o f t h e letter.
Conclusion T h i s c h a p t e r has a r g u e d t h a t J a s 3:13—4:10 c o n f o r m s t o t h e classical elaboration o f a t h e m e exercise, centred o n the idea that true w i s d o m f r o m a b o v e r e s i d e s i n h u m i l i t y a n d c a l m n e s s i n c o n t r a s t t o a life o f e n v y a n d r e s u l t a n t strife. J a m e s d r a w s u p o n a v a r i e t y o f s o u r c e s t o s u p p o r t his a r g u m e n t , m o s t n o t a b l y , a t e a c h i n g o f Jesus in 4:4 w h i c h h e has trans formed
into
a statement
about
friendship
such
that the m a x i m
c o n g r u e n t w i t h t h e o v e r a l l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f G o d as a f r i e n d
is and
b e n e f a c t o r . T h i s m a x i m is k e y t o J a m e s ' s a r g u m e n t , a n d t h u s it is s i g nificant
that h e draws u p o n
the image of G o d
as a f r i e n d
in
his
e x p r e s s i o n o f it. As i n t h e p r e v i o u s t w o chapters t h e a u t h o r maintains an authoritative ethos as h e s p e a k s t o t h e a u d i e n c e i n this s e c t i o n . I n fact, t h e t o n e o f this s e c t i o n is m o r e f r a n k t h a n i n t h e p r e v i o u s t w o , a n d b o r d e r s o n t h e h a r s h . P e r h a p s s u c h a v o i c e is a n i n d i c a t o r t h a t e n v y a n d r i v a l r y w e r e s o m e o f t h e w o r s t p r o b l e m s t h a t t h e a u t h o r i m a g i n e d ( o r k n e w ) his
6.
Friendship
with
God: James
177
3:13-4:10
a u d i e n c e t o b e f a c i n g , a n d t h u s h e h e l d n o t h i n g b a c k i n a d d r e s s i n g this i s s u e . H o w e v e r , n o t o n l y d o e s h e e x h o r t his l i s t e n e r s o r r e a d e r s t o a v o i d s u c h q u a r r e l s o m e a c t i v i t y , w h i c h w a s also u n d e r s t o o d b y a n c i e n t w r i t e r s t o b e a n e n e m y o f f r i e n d s h i p , h e p r o v i d e s g u i d a n c e as t o h o w t h e y c a n c h a n g e , a n d b e c o m e friends w i t h G o d . T h e v i r t u e s t h a t t h e a u t h o r associates w i t h l i v i n g w i t h t h e w i s d o m f r o m a b o v e a r e c o n s i s tent with
the
q u a l i t i e s t h a t a u t h o r s s u c h as A r i s t o t l e a n d
Plutarch
associate w i t h a t r u e f r i e n d . A l t h o u g h J a m e s d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y c o m m a n d t h e a u d i e n c e t o l i v e as a c o m m u n i t y o f f r i e n d s , m a n y o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t h e a d v o c a t e s , as h e d i d i n t h e p r e v i o u s t w o s e c t i o n s e x a m i n e d , easily fit w i t h i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f i d e a l f r i e n d s . F i n a l l y , this s e c t i o n u p h o l d s t h e n a t u r e o f G o d as o n e w h o p r o v i d e s b e n e f i t s g e n e r o u s l y a n d w h o c a n b e a " f r i e n d " p r o v i d e d o n e is n o t a friend " o f t h e w o r l d . " I n 3:13—4:10 J a m e s m e r g e s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f G o d ' s w i s d o m w i t h t h e d e s i r e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h o s e w h o r e c e i v e d J a m e s ' s m e s s a g e . If t h e y r e c e i v e this w i s d o m o f G o d f r o m a b o v e , t h e n t h e y will n o t e n v y a n d f i g h t o n e a n o t h e r f o r this w i s d o m is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a series o f v i r t u ous features
(4:17). I n d e e d t h e a u d i e n c e m e m b e r s
are e x h o r t e d
to
s u b m i t to G o d , to cleanse their hands a n d h u m b l e themselves before G o d . If t h e y d o these things t h e y will receive G o d ' s benefits, i n c l u d i n g G o d ' s w i s d o m , w h i c h , if m a n i f e s t e d i n a g o o d life o f w o r k s , w i l l c o n tribute
to a harmonious
community
life t h a t reflects
some
of
the
qualities o f ideal friendship. Friendship w i t h G o d thus enables friend ship a m o n g t h e recipients o f James's letter.
7
Conclusion
Introduction T h e a i m of t h e previous chapters was to demonstrate that t h e discrete m e a n i n g s i n h e r e n t in the language o f friendship a n d benefaction, espe cially t h e n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d t h e b e n e f a c t o r , h a d significant roles to play in t h e persuasive strategy o f t h e letter o f J a m e s . J a m e s c o n sists m a i n l y o f d e l i b e r a t i v e r h e t o r i c , h o w e v e r , a n d as s u c h it s e e k s t o e n c o u r a g e a n d c o n v i n c e its r e c i p i e n t s t o " c o n v e r t " o r c h a n g e
their
b e h a v i o u r in s o m e w a y . O b v i o u s l y , t h e n , the a r g u m e n t m u s t relate to t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h o s e w h o a r e h e a r i n g it. T h e r e m u s t b e w h a t L l o y d B i t z e r calls a " r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n , " w h i c h h e d e f i n e s as a c o m p l e x o f persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence w h i c h can b e completely or partially r e m o v e d if discourse, i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e situation, can so constrain h u m a n d e c i sion or action, as to b r i n g a b o u t t h e significant modification of t h e exigence ... 1
T h u s t h e r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e s (1) a n " e x i g e n c e , " o r a p r o b l e m t h a t n e e d s c o r r e c t i o n , (2) a n a u d i e n c e , o r a g r o u p o f p e o p l e w h o are capable o f " b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d b y discourse a n d o f b e i n g m e d i a t o r s o f change,"
2
a n d (3) r h e t o r i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s , w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e
"beliefs,
a t t i t u d e s , d o c u m e n t s , facts, t r a d i t i o n s , i m a g e s , i n t e r e s t s , m o t i v e s a n d t h e 3
l i k e " u s e d b y t h e s p e a k e r t o c o n v i n c e t h e a u d i e n c e o f his o r h e r a r g u m e n t . I n o t h e r w o r d s , r h e t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e is n o t c r e a t e d m e r e l y
to
f l a u n t a p a r t i c u l a r c l e v e r n e s s o r l i t e r a r y style, b u t t o a d d r e s s c o n c r e t e issues a n d c o n c e r n s w i t h i n a d e s i r e d f r a m e w o r k o r p e r s p e c t i v e ; it is p r a g m a t i c a n d r e s p o n d s t o a specific s i t u a t i o n . A n analysis o f J a m e s ' s
1
Bitzer, " R h e t o r i c a l Situation," 6. Bitzer, " R h e t o r i c a l Situation," 8.
3
Bitzer, " R h e t o r i c a l Situation," 8.
7.
179
Conclusion
r h e t o r i c , t h e n , can aid i n p o s i t i n g a possible scenario, o r
"rhetorical
s i t u a t i o n , " t o w h i c h this e l u s i v e l e t t e r d i r e c t s itself. It is i m p o r t a n t t o b e c l e a r t h a t t h e r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n is n o t i d e n t i c a l t o t h e historical situation o f t h e recipients, a l t h o u g h t h e t w o are n o t unrelated. In attempting to determine the rhetorical situation of James, w e w i l l n o t b e r e c o n s t r u c t i n g a p r e c i s e set o f h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , b u t assessing t h e t y p e o f " s p e c i f i c c o n d i t i o n o r s i t u a t i o n w h i c h i n v i t e s utterance."
What
set o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s w o u l d i n v i t e t h e a u t h o r
of
J a m e s to create and send such a letter and particularly, w h a t type of situation m i g h t the language of friendship
a d d r e s s effectively?
This
s i t u a t i o n is l i k e l y c o n n e c t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e a u d i e n c e , b u t it d o e s n o t f o c u s u p o n t h e details o f t h e i r
exact
w h e r e a b o u t s , t i m e , a n d distinct characteristics. A s t h e r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n is n o t a n a l o g o u s t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l o n e , it is p o s s i b l e t o assess it e v e n w i t h r e g a r d t o a n e n c y c l i c a l , s u c h as t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s . T h e l e n s is n o t u p o n t h e p r e c i s e c o m p l e x i o n o f t h e a u d i e n c e , b u t t h e g e n e r a l e t h o s a n d set o f e x i g e n c i e s t h a t n e e d t o b e a l t e r e d . T h u s the letter n e e d n o t b e addressed to only o n e c o m m u n i t y b u t to n u m e r o u s g r o u p s that share similar p r o b l e m s a n d for w h i c h J a m e s c o u l d b e an effective v o i c e i n o v e r c o m i n g s u c h difficulties. M y task is n o t t o e x p l o r e e v e r y issue i n t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s , b u t t o e x a m i n e w h a t p o s s i b l e social c o n t e x t s o r p r o b l e m s t h e l a n g u a g e
of
f r i e n d s h i p c o u l d a d d r e s s effectively. P a r t o f t h i s p r o b l e m w i l l i n e v i t a b l y b e t h e ennui o f t h e a u d i e n c e t h a t t h e s p e a k e r m u s t d e f e a t i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a l e g i t i m a t e h e a r i n g . It is m y c o n t e n t i o n t h a t g i v e n t h e c o m p l e x relationship
between
friendship
and patronage
within
the
Graeco-
R o m a n w o r l d , J a m e s is d r a w i n g u p o n f r i e n d s h i p l a n g u a g e i n o r d e r t o counteract the audience's surrender or potential surrender to the influ e n c e o f w e a l t h y p a t r o n s , w h i c h g r e a t l y u p s e t s t h e a u t h o r b e c a u s e it leads t o t h e n e g l e c t o f t h e p o o r . T h i s is b y n o m e a n s t h e o n l y p r o b l e m b u t t h e r e is sufficient e v i d e n c e w i t h i n t h e t e x t t o s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n that this w a s o n e aspect o f t h e a u d i e n c e ' s situation t o w h i c h t h e a u t h o r d e e m e d it n e c e s s a r y t o r e s p o n d . P a t r o n a g e w a s a p e r v a s i v e a n d s u c c e s s ful m e a n s o f social c o n t r o l u n d e r t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , f o r it w a s a central m e c h a n i s m for t h e r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h . As such, o n e c o u l d g e n e r a l l y say t h a t p a t r o n a g e h a d a f i r m grasp u p o n m a n y c o m m u n i t i e s ; a g r a s p f r o m w h i c h m a n y w o u l d h a v e f o u n d it difficult t o
wrench
t h e m s e l v e s free. M o r e o v e r , this p a t r o n a g e s y s t e m w o u l d m a s k itself as f r i e n d s h i p , t h e r e b y m a k i n g it m o r e difficult t o c h a l l e n g e . B u t f o r s o m e w r i t e r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e a u t h o r o f J a m e s , p a t r o n a g e , e x p o s e d f o r w h a t it
4
W i l h e l m Wuellner, " W h e r e is Rhetorical Criticism T a k i n g U s ? " CBQ 49 (1987) 455.
180
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
truly was, was in direct contrast to the attitudes and behaviours
ex
p e c t e d o f t r u e f r i e n d s as t h e y w e r e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e a n c i e n t G r a e c o R o m a n world,
5
and indeed, to the disposition and c o n d u c t that the
a u t h o r o f J a m e s is a t t e m p t i n g t o p r o m o t e .
P a t r o n a g e as a n E x i g e n c e B e f o r e s u m m a r i z i n g t h e e v i d e n c e i n s u p p o r t o f p a t r o n a g e as a n e x i gence w i t h i n the rhetorical situation of the letter of James, a
few
general observations a b o u t t h e letter are required. As o n e reads t h r o u g h James, c o m m u n a l relations are consistently the overriding Whether
it f o c u s e s
upon
proper
speech
(3:1-12), anger
concern.
6
(1:19-21);
t r e a t m e n t o f t h e p o o r ( 1 : 2 7 ; 2 : 1 - 2 6 ) ; t r u e w i s d o m ( 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 ) , o r daily e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ( 5 : 1 3 - 2 0 ) , e a c h issue r e l a t e s d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y t o t h e life o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . W i t h i n t h i s c o n t e x t o f c o n c e r n for c o m m u n i t y life, J a m e s d o e s n o t offer us a t r e a t i s e e x t o l l i n g t h e v i r tues o f friendship n o r a systematic critique o f p a t r o n a g e , b u t t h e r e are sufficient i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h e s e f o r m s o f h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n , b o t h p r e s e n t a n d u n d o u b t e d l y familiar t o m a n y a n c i e n t s , lie b e h i n d s o m e o f t h e a r g u m e n t s w i t h i n t h e t e x t . T h e a u t h o r d r a w s u p o n t h e topos o f a n c i e n t friendship, b o t h from the J e w i s h and G r a e c o - R o m a n worlds, in o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e G o d as a t r u e f r i e n d a n d b e n e f a c t o r , a d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t c o u l d o p e r a t e as a foil a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e p o t e n t i a l p a t r o n s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y c o u l d b e c o m p a r e d . I suggest that J a m e s does this deliberately i n o r d e r t o e x p o s e t h e instability a n d m a n i p u l a t i v e character o f t h e rich, those w h o James's audience believes can b e their patrons. B y
or
offering
t h e possibility o f friendship w i t h G o d , J a m e s m a y b e u n d e r s c o r i n g t h e futility a n d i l l u s o r y n a t u r e o f " f r i e n d s h i p " w i t h h u m a n p a t r o n s . S e c o n d l y , t h e n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d is t i e d t o a specific t y p e o f m o r a l life, c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t e s t i n g a n d e n d u r a n c e (Jas 1 : 2 - 4 , 1 2 ) , b y a i d t o t h e p o o r ( 1 : 2 7 ; 2 : 1 4 - 1 7 ) , c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n faith a n d a c t i o n ( 2 : 1 4 - 1 7 ) , a n d careful c o n t r o l o f s p e e c h ( 3 : 1 - 1 2 ; 4 : 1 1 ) . S u c h a life is difficult a n d r e q u i r e s p a t i e n c e a n d suffering ( 5 : 1 0 ) , b u t it is also j o y f u l (1:2). I n a d d i t i o n , it is a life l i v e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e w i s d o m f r o m a b o v e , a n d is o p p o s e d t o a life o f e n v y a n d u l t i m a t e l y f i g h t i n g a n d
death
(3:13—4:10). I n s o m e w a y s , as w e s a w , a life a c c o r d i n g t o G o d ' s w i s d o m is s i m i l a r t o t h e e x i s t e n c e a t r u e f r i e n d l e a d s , for it f o c u s e s u p o n t h e welfare o f t h e other. James's a u d i e n c e m u s t rely u p o n G o d t o p r o -
5
This is Troels E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n ' s interpretation of Plutarch's u r g e n t distinction b e
t w e e n friendship and flattery, as discussed in C h a p t e r 3 . See W a c h o b , The Voice of Jesus, 1 6 1 .
7.
Conclusion
181
v i d e t h e m w i t h t h e w i s d o m t h a t w i l l l e a d t o t h i s life, for i n d e e d , w i s d o m c a n m a k e p e o p l e friends o f G o d (Wis 7:27). I n contrast w i t h such a life is t h e life o f friendship w i t h t h e w o r l d , identified b y e n v y , s e e k i n g after gain, a n d fighting. S u c h a lifestyle is l e d b y t h e rich, w h o e x p l o i t t h e p o o r (Jas 5:4) a n d live i n l u x u r y , b u t w h o will disappear (1:11). J a m e s is c o n t r a s t i n g t w o " w o r l d v i e w s " i n t h i s l e t t e r , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n ' s r e a d i n g o f P l u t a r c h ' s How
to Tell a Flatterer from
a
Friend. F o r E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n , P l u t a r c h ' s essay r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t t o p r e s e r v e t h e n o b l e i d e a o f f r i e n d s h i p as t h e " a p o g e e " o f a m o r a l s y s t e m i n w h i c h t r u s t a n d s i n c e r i t y w e r e c e n t r a l , a n d status issues w e r e n o t t h e c o n s t a n t p r e o c c u p a t i o n . T h e c o n t r a r y t o t h a t s y s t e m is o n e b a s e d u p o n d i s t i n c t i o n s i n social r a n k , i n w h i c h p a t r o n a g e a n d flatterers t h r i v e , a n d , w h e n it a d o p t s t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p , t h r e a t e n s t o d e m e a n
and
pervert the true m e a n i n g of friendship. T h u s E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n
sug
gests t h a t w h e n e v e r Christian writers m a k e use of concepts b e l o n g i n g w i t h i n t h e n e x u s of friendship, flattery and frank criticism ... , t h e y t o o betray a c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e status system and a set of counter-values. T o t h e e x tent, therefore, that their use of those concepts enters directly i n t o t h e formulation of their o w n religious message (as I t h i n k it often does), that message t o o will b e partly about t h e status system and a set of counter-values. 7
T h i s s u g g e s t i o n is e s p e c i a l l y c o m p e l l i n g f o r t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s , f o r d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t J a m e s ' s u s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p is l i m i t e d , t h e r e is g r e a t c o n c e r n i n t h i s l e t t e r f o r status d i s t i n c t i o n s a n d t h e effect o f status d i s t i n c t i o n s u p o n t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y w e a k . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e s u l t o f t h e " s h o w i n g p a r t i a l i t y " e x a m p l e i n 2 : 1 - 1 3 is t h a t t h e p o o r m a n h a s b e e n " d i s h o n o u r e d " (2:6) a n d t h i s s h o w i n g o f p a r t i a l i t y t o t h e r i c h is i n fact a sin ( 2 : 9 ) . F r i e n d s h i p , especially f r i e n d s h i p w i t h
God,
s e r v e s t o u n d e r m i n e t h o s e status d i s t i n c t i o n s , for i n p u r s u i n g s u c h a f r i e n d s h i p o n e m u s t a b a n d o n this s c r a m b l e for status a n d m a t e r i a l g a i n and h u m b l e oneself before the L o r d (4:10).
Audience J a m e s ' s l e t t e r a d d r e s s e s a specific r h e t o r i c a l a u d i e n c e , t h a t is, a n a u d i e n c e t h a t is c a p a b l e o f p u t t i n g J a m e s ' s t e a c h i n g s i n t o a c t i o n a n d i n t h i s case, o f r e s i s t i n g p a t r o n a g e a n d p u r s u i n g f r i e n d s h i p w i t h G o d . W h e t h e r t h e y i n r e a l i t y d i d p u t t h e s e e x h o r t a t i o n s i n t o p r a c t i c e is a n o t h e r i s s u e .
7
E n g b e r g - P e d e r s e n , "Plutarch to Prince P h i l o p a p p u s , " 79.
182
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
G i v e n t h e fact t h a t p a t r o n a g e w a s a v i r t u a l l y u n i v e r s a l p h e n o m e n o n i n t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d , as w e l l as t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e topos o f f r i e n d s h i p w a s familiar t o G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d H e l l e n i s t i c J e w ish w r i t e r s , t h e s e t w o issues w i t h i n t h e l e t t e r d o n o t h e l p u s
when
considering t h e w h e r e a b o u t s o f t h e letter's recipients. H o w e v e r , l e t t e r is a d d r e s s e d t o " t h e t w e l v e t r i b e s i n t h e D i a s p o r a . "
t o r s h a v e r e a d t h i s e i t h e r as a r e f e r e n c e t o J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s outside of Palestine,
the
Commenta living
w h o still c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s t o b e w i t h i n t h e
b o u n d s o f J u d a i s m , o r a m e t a p h o r i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e C h r i s t i a n s as 9
t h e t r u e Israel, h e a v e n b e i n g t h e i r r e a l d w e l l i n g p l a c e . S o m e stress t h e eschatological d i m e n s i o n of the phrase,
w h i l e a t h i r d p o s s i b i l i t y is t h a t
t h e l e t t e r is a d d r e s s e d t o b o t h J e w s a n d J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s .
11
This p r o b
l e m is difficult t o s o l v e , f o r e a r l y o n , C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s , c o n s i s t i n g o f b o t h J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s , c a m e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m s e l v e s as t h e
"new
Israel" w i t h h e a v e n b e i n g their true h o m e . H o w e v e r , e v e n t h o u g h s o m e g r o u p s h a d b r o k e n off f r o m J u d a i s m at a n early d a t e b u t r e t a i n e d t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e D i a s p o r a a n d " n e w I s r a e l , " t h e r e a r e o t h e r c l u e s i n t h e l e t t e r t h a t s u p p o r t a literal r e a d i n g o f " t w e l v e t r i b e s i n t h e D i a s p o r a . " A b r a h a m is r e f e r r e d t o as " o u r f a t h e r " (Jas 2 : 2 1 ) , a p h r a s e w h i c h J o s e p h M a y o r t h i n k s m u s t b e t a k e n literally "unless reasons can b e s h o w n to the contrary."
O t h e r references that
u n d e r l i n e t h e J e w i s h c h a r a c t e r o f this l e t t e r i n c l u d e t h e m e n t i o n o f t h e " L o r d o f t h e S a b a o t h " ( 5 : 4 ) , " s y n a g o g u e " (2:2) as t h e t e r m for a p l a c e o f m e e t i n g , " G e h e n n a " (3:6), a n d t h e e x a m p l e s o f R a h a b (2:25), J o b ( 5 : 1 1 ) , t h e p r o p h e t s (5:10) a n d E l i j a h ( 5 : 1 7 ) . W o u l d a n a u d i e n c e t h a t included
Gentiles have understood
these references
easily, w i t h
no
explanation? A l t h o u g h the precise relationship b e t w e e n J a m e s and Paul is d i s p u t e d , J a m e s c a n t a k e f o r g r a n t e d his a u d i e n c e ' s r e s p e c t for t h e
8
Franz Mussner, DerJakobusbrief
(5 t h ed.; H T K N T 13, 1; Freiburg, Basel and Vienna:
H e r d e r & H e r d e r , 1987) 2 - 2 3 . 9
For example, R o p e s , A Critical and Exegetical Commentary,
124-25; Dibelius, James,
67; F. H a u c k , Die Briefe des Jakobus, Petrus, Judas, und Johannes (4th ed.; N T D 10; G o t t i n gen: V a n d e n h o e c k & R u p r e c h t , 1949) 6; F. V o u g a , VEpitre
de Saint Jacques ( C N T 13;
Geneva: Labor et Fides, 1984) 3 7 . See M a t t J a c k s o n - M c C a b e , " A Letter to t h e T w e l v e Tribes in the Diaspora: W i s d o m and 'Apocalyptic' Eschatology in t h e Letter o f J a m e s , " SBLSP 11
35 (1996) 5 0 4 - 1 7 .
This possibility has b e e n revived b y Allison ( " T h e Fiction of J a m e s and its Sitz
Leben,"
im
529-70), w h o points o u t that m a n y early c o m m e n t a t o r s o n James u n d e r s t o o d
James's audience to consist o f this c o m b i n a t i o n o f J e w s and J e w i s h Christians. For example, see Gal 6:16. 1 P e t e r is generally considered to b e a late first century o r early second century letter, b u t it does use the language of dispersion (1 P e t 1:1), although most scholars agree that its audience was largely Gentile. M a y o r , The Epistle of St. James, cxlii.
7.
Conclusion
183
T o r a h (2:8-13) and, unlike Paul, exhibits n o worries or concerns a b o u t issues t h a t m i g h t arise i n a J e w i s h - G e n t i l e a u d i e n c e . T h e r e a r e n o r e f e r e n c e s t o a G e n t i l e p r e s e n c e o r set o f c o n c e r n s . A literal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p r e s c r i p t is f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e fact t h a t t h e l e t t e r c l a i m s t o h a v e b e e n c o m p o s e d b y J a m e s (Jas 1:1). M o s t a u t h o r s c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e o n l y J a m e s t h a t t h i s c o u l d b e is J a m e s t h e J u s t , t h e b r o t h e r o f t h e L o r d ( G a l 1:19) a n d a pillar o f t h e c h u r c h (Gal 2:9). J a m e s , o f course, was an apostle a n d leader in t h e J e r u s a l e m church,
and
was
martyred
by
stoning prior
to
the Jewish
War.
1 4
W h e t h e r o r n o t t h e t e x t w a s a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n b y J a m e s is n o t t h e q u e s t i o n h e r e , b u t it is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t i c e t h a t t h e a u t h o r c l a i m s t o b e J a m e s , a n d t h u s it m u s t h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n t o p e o p l e w h o w o u l d h a v e h e l d this p e r s o n in h i g h regard. F u r t h e r m o r e , this letter bears similari ties t o o t h e r J e w i s h e n c y c l i c a l s t h a t w e r e w r i t t e n t o D i a s p o r a J e w s , s u c h as t h e Letter of Jeremiah, 86.
1 5
2 M a c c a b e e s 1 : 1 - 9 ; 1 : 1 0 - 2 : 1 8 a n d 2 Baruch 7 8 -
T o g e t h e r , t h e s e factors p r o v i d e s t r o n g s u p p o r t for a literal i n t e r
pretation of the prescript. W h e t h e r the audience consisted of b o t h J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s a n d J e w s is b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s s t u d y as is t h e i r e x a c t w h e r e a b o u t s , b u t suffice it t o say, t h e i r r o o t e d n e s s w i t h i n H e l l e n i s t i c J u d a i s m c a n b e t a k e n for g r a n t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e t t e r .
The
t e m p t a t i o n t o h o o k u p w i t h w e a l t h y o u t s i d e r s w o u l d b e as r e a l for s u c h g r o u p s as it w o u l d b e for G e n t i l e a u d i e n c e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e
Roman
E m p i r e . M o r e o v e r , I t h i n k it l i k e l y t h a t t h e a u d i e n c e w a s i n a n u r b a n s e t t i n g , g i v e n t h e fact t h a t t h e y m u s t at least b e familiar w i t h figures w h o c o u l d afford fine c l o t h e s a n d g o l d r i n g s (Jas 2 : 2 ) , a n d t h e r e f e r e n c e t h i n g s s u c h as a " c r o w n " i n 1:12 a n d " c o u r t " i n 2 : 6 .
Rhetorical
Constraints
J a m e s , as w e h a v e s e e n , e m p l o y s v a r i o u s m e t h o d s i n p e r s u a d i n g t h e a u d i e n c e t o resist f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w o r l d . I n so d o i n g , t h e a u t h o r h o p e s t h a t t h e l i s t e n e r s w i l l resist t h e p r e s s u r e s t o s u c c u m b t o f o r m i n g alliances w i t h w e a l t h y p a t r o n s . A t
the very beginning,
claims t o b e J a m e s t h e Just, a claim w h i c h w o u l d h a v e
14
the
author
immediately
F o r a collection of t h e texts describing James's m a r t y r d o m , see R . A . Lipsius, Die
apokryphen
Apostelgeschichten
und Apostellegenden
II.2 (Braunschweig: G.
Westermann,
1884) 2 3 8 - 5 7 . For a discussion of the reasons w h y James m a y have b e e n p u t t o death in Jerusalem b y J e w s , see R i c h a r d B a u c k h a m , " F o r W h a t Offence was James P u t t o D e a t h ? " James the Just and Christian Origins (ed. B r u c e C h i l t o n & Craig Evans; N o v T S u p 9 8 ; L e i den, Boston, C o l o g n e : E.J. Brill, 1999) 199-232. 15
See N i e b u h r , " D e r Jakobusbrief," 4 2 0 - 4 3 ; Verseput, " W i s d o m , 4 Q 1 8 5 , and J a m e s , "
7 0 2 - 7 0 3 ; Verseput, " G e n r e and Story," 1 0 1 .
184
Friendship
and Benefaction
in James
e n d o w e d t h e w r i t e r w i t h a n a u t h o r i t a t i v e ethos, n e c e s s a r y at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a l e t t e r . T h i s l e t t e r p r e s c r i p t t h u s serves o n e o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e e x o r d i u m — t o establish t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s p e a k e r - e v e n t h o u g h it is n o t p a r t o f t h e e x o r d i u m p r o p e r . T h r o u g h o u t t h e l e t t e r , t h i s ethos o f a u t h o r i t y is m a i n t a i n e d , h o w e v e r , b y t h e u s e o f f r a n k s p e e c h a n d t h e use o f i m p e r a t i v e s , m a x i m s , a n d assertions a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f G o d a n d human
existence. A n orator w h o
lacked authority w o u l d not
dare
m a k e s u c h s t a t e m e n t s i f t h e a u d i e n c e h a d little r e s p e c t f o r h i m o r h e r . T h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s is n o t c o l d a n d a u s t e r e , h o w e v e r , b u t e x e m p l i f i e s pathos i n e x p r e s s i n g t r u e c o n c e r n a n d s y m p a t h y for t h e l i s t e n e r s ' p l i g h t , a f f i r m i n g e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r e w a r d s , a n d o f f e r i n g c o n s t r u c t i v e a d v i c e for c o m m u n a l r e l a t i o n s . J a m e s a d d r e s s e s t h e r e c i p i e n t s as " b r o t h e r s " a n d "beloved brothers," and perhaps most importantly, the author presents a p o r t r a i t o f a G o d w h o is r e l i a b l e a n d " s i m p l e . " I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e topos o f f r i e n d s h i p is p r e s e n t e d i n at least t h r e e sections of J a m e s (1:2-18; 2 : 1 4 - 2 6 ; 3 : 1 3 - 4 : 1 0 ) , a considerable p o r t i o n o f t h e l e t t e r , a n d t h a t t h e o p p o s i t e o f f r i e n d s h i p , n a m e l y p a t r o n a g e , is implicitly u n d e r m i n e d
w h e n James
offers
criticisms
of speech
w e a l t h . It is o f n o t e t h a t t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s a l l u s i o n s t o
and
friendship
appear in the e x o r d i u m , a unit o f the letter that functions to i n t r o d u c e s o m e o f its b a s i c t h e m e s , a n d t o establish a n ethos a n d pathos.
This o b
s e r v a t i o n suggests t o m e t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e o f f r i e n d s h i p w a s i m p o r t a n t t o t h i s a u t h o r for r h e t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s . E v e n w i t h o u t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e topos i n t h e e x o r d i u m , g i v e n t h e old a n d rich traditions o f this ideal i n b o t h G r a e c o - R o m a n a n d J e w i s h contexts, the appeal to friendship w o u l d have b e e n compelling. James uses it t o d e b u n k t h e " f r i e n d s h i p s " t h a t w e r e f o r m i n g w i t h p a t r o n s , f o r b y describing w h a t a friend (and a benefactor) truly was, the a u d i e n c e w o u l d s o o n see t h a t t h e s e p a t r o n s d i d n o t c o r r e s p o n d v e r y w e l l . J a m e s e v e n restates a s a y i n g o f J e s u s , b u t i n f r i e n d s h i p t e r m s , so as t o p r o v i d e f u r t h e r a u t h o r i t a t i v e p r o o f o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f his a d v i c e . T h e s e are o n l y a f e w o f t h e rhetorical constraints used in t h e letter o f J a m e s , b u t t h e y p r o v i d e further e v i d e n c e that this d o c u m e n t w a s d e signed to persuade an audience to take a particular course of action. In part, such actions r e q u i r e d a resistance to patronage, a n d a pursuit o f friendship, b o t h w i t h G o d and w i t h o t h e r m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u n i t y . B o t h types o f friendship w e r e inseparable from " w o r k s . " A n d w h e t h e r " w o r k s " include feeding the h u n g r y or restraining the t o n g u e , a u d i e n c e is c a l l e d t o l i v e t h e m o u t i n t h e l e t t e r o f J a m e s .
the
7.
Conclusion
185
Conclusion T h e letter of James draws u p o n b o t h Jewish and Hellenistic tradition to a r g u e f o r r e s i s t a n c e t o p a t r o n a g e a n d c a r e for t h e p o o r . It d o e s so d r a w ing upon
the
topos
of friendship
in a variety of ways. This
topos,
h o w e v e r , c a m e f r o m a r e a s o n a b l y elitist t r a d i t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e Graeco-Roman
world.
Although
the author does not
advocate
egalitarian ethos in t h e c o m m u n i t i e s h e writes t o , h e does
an
invoke
friendship, a n d benefaction, in m a n n e r s that w o u l d serve the interests o f t h e m o r e v u l n e r a b l e i n t h e a u d i e n c e . H e a d v o c a t e s assistance
or
b e n e f a c t i o n f r o m t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y b e t t e r off i n t h e a u d i e n c e t o t h o s e w h o a r e p o o r , a n d h e offers little h o p e , if a n y , t o elite a n d w e a l t h y outsiders. T h e latter aspect o f t h e letter has caused J a m e s t o b e a p r o b l e m a t i c t e x t at v a r i o u s m o m e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f its r e c e p t i o n , w h i l e J a m e s ' s a d v o c a c y for t h e p o o r has h e l d a p p e a l .
16
W e d o n o t k n o w h o w James was received b y the original audience that listened t o o r read this letter.
W e r e s o m e offended? D i d t h e letter
s i m p l y s o u n d s t r a n g e o r a l i e n i n t h e w a y t h a t it c o m b i n e d d i r e c t e x h o r t a t i o n t o d e p e n d u p o n G o d a n d assist t h e n e e d y w i t h d e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e rich, w h i l e elevating values a n d characteristics that o n l y t h o s e o f s u p e r i o r social status c o u l d reflect u p o n , a r g u e a b o u t a n d a t t e m p t t o m a n i f e s t ? C o u l d w e say t h a t J a m e s is a t t e m p t i n g t o " d e m o c r a t i z e " v a l ues a n d ideas that h a d previously b e e n limited to t h e u p p e r e c h e l o n s o f s o c i e t y ? C o n t i n u e d s t u d y o f t h e social w o r l d o f a n c i e n t J u d a i s m a n d C h r i s t i a n i t y , c o m b i n e d w i t h analysis o f t h e r h e t o r i c t h a t s o u g h t t o p e r s u a d e t h e m t o a c t i n specific w a y s , m a y e n a b l e u s t o c o m e c l o s e r t o answering s o m e of these questions.
16
F o r s o m e examples o f h o w James's criticism of wealth has b e e n received, see Batten,
"Ideological Strategies in J a m e s , " 6-7. 17
T h e earliest d o c u m e n t e d citation of James is O r i g e n (185-254 CE), w h i l e i n t h e
W e s t e r n c h u r c h , the oldest extant reference is in t h e writings o f Hilary of Poitiers, s o m e time b e t w e e n 3 5 6 and 3 6 0 CE.
Bibliography Aasgaard, R e i d a r , 'My Beloved Brothers and Sisters!' Christian Siblingship in Paul, Early Christianity in C o n t e x t ; L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k : T & T Clark, 2 0 0 4 A d a m s o n , James B . , James: The Man and His Message, G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 1989 , The Epistle of James, T h e N e w International C o m m e n t a r y o n t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t ; G r a n d R a p i d s : E e r d m a n s , 1976 Adkins, A r t h u r W . H . , Merit and Responsibility: A Study in Greek Values, Oxford: C l a r e n d o n , 1960 , "Friendship and Self-Sufflciency in H o m e r and Aristotle," C Q 13 (1963): 3 0 - 4 5 Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, trans. H e r b e r t W e i r S m y t h e ; L C L ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1922 Aglen, A.S., " F r i e n d , " in Dictionary of the Bible, ed. James Hastings, 6 8 ; E d i n b u r g h : T & T Clark, 1903 Allison, Dale C , " T h e Fiction o f James and its Sitz i m L e b e n , " RB 118 (2001): 5 2 9 - 7 0 A m b r o s e o f Milan, Omnia Quae Extant Opera 7, ed. D . A . B . Caillau; Collectio 2 2 , Ecclesiae P a t r u m ; Paris: A p u d P a r e n t Desbarres, 1839 A m p h o u x , C . - B . , " L ' e m p l o i d u c o o r d o n n a n t dans l'epitre de J a c q u e s , " Bib 6 3 (1982): 90-101 , " E t u d e s structurales: langue de l'epitre de J a c q u e s , " RHPR 5 3 (1973): 7-45 Anderson, G., Studies in Lucian's Comic Fiction, M n e m o s y n e Suppl.; Leiden: Brill, 1976 Annas, Julia, The Morality of Happiness, O x f o r d and N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d University Press, 1993 , "Plato and Aristode o n Friendship and Altruism," Mind 86.344 (1977): 5 3 2 - 5 4 Aristotle, Eudemian Ethics, trans. H . R a c k h a m ; L C L ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1935 , Nicomachean Ethics, trans. H . R a c k h a m ; L C L ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1934 , Rhetoric, trans. J o h n H a r v e y Freese; L C L ; L o n d o n , C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1926 A r z t - G r a b n e r , Peter, ' " B r o t h e r s ' and 'Sisters' in D o c u m e n t a r y Papyri and in Early Christianity," RivB 50 (2002): 1 8 5 - 2 0 4 Asensio, V i c t o r M o r l a , " P o v e r t y and W e a l t h : B e n Sira's V i e w of Possessions," in Der Einzelne und seine Gemeinschaft bei Ben Sira, ed. R e n a t e E g g e r - W e n z e l and Ingrid K r a m m e r ; B Z A W 2 7 0 ; Berlin and N e w Y o r k : de Gruyter, 1998, 1 5 1 - 7 8 Asmis, Elizabeth, " T h e Stoics o n W o m e n , " in Feminism and Ancient Philosophy, ed. Julie K. W a r d ; N e w Y o r k & L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e , 1996, 8 6 - 9 2 Augustine, Letters, trans. J a m e s H o u s t o n Baxter; L C L ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n : C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1930 A u n e , D a v i d E . The New Testament in Its Literary Environment, L E C , 8; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987
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Baasland, Ernst, "Literarische F o r m , T h e m a t i k u n d geschichtliche E i n o r d n u n g des Jakobusbriefes," ANRW2.25.5 (1988): 3 6 4 6 - 8 4 Bailey, Cyril, Epicurus. The Extant Remains, Oxford: C l a r e n d o n , 1926 Baillet, M a u r i c e , "Les manuscrits de la G r o t t e 7 de Q u m r a n et le N o u v e a u T e s t a m e n t , " Bib 54 (1973): 3 4 0 - 5 0 , "Les manuscrits de la G r o t t e 7 de Q u m r a n et le N o u v e a u T e s t a m e n t , " Bib 5 3 (1972): 5 0 8 - 1 6 Baker, W i l l i a m R . , Personal Speech-Ethics: A Study of the Epistle of James Against Its Background, W U N T 2 / 6 8 ; T u b i n g e n : J . C . B . M o h r (Paul Siebeck), 1995 , " ' A b o v e All Else': C o n t e x t s of the Call for Verbal Integrity in James 5:12," JSNT 54 (1994): 5 7 - 7 1 Balch, D a v i d L., "Political Friendship in the Historian Dionysius o f Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities," in Greco-Roman Perspectives on Friendship, ed. J o h n T . Fitzgerald; S B L R B S 34; Atlanta: Scholars, 1997, 1 2 3 - 4 4 Barrett, C.K., The Gospel According to St. John, L o n d o n : S P C K , 1955 Bartelink, G.J.M., " Q u e l q u e s observations sur 7iappY)ala dans la litterature p a l e o c h r e t i e n n e , " in Graecitas et Latinitas Christianorum Primaeva, S u p p l e m e n t a 3 ; N i j m e g e n : D e k k e r & V a n d e Vegt, 1970, 7-57 B a r t o n , S t e p h e n and G . H . R . Horsley, " A Hellenistic C u l t G r o u p and t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t C h u r c h e s , " JAG 24 (1981): 7 - 4 1 Basil o f Caesarea. Letters, trans. R o y J. Defferrari; L C L ; L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n ; N e w Y o r k : P u t n a m ; C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1 9 2 6 - 3 4 Batten, Alicia, " T h e D e g r a d e d P o o r and the G r e e d y R i c h : E x p l o r i n g t h e Language o f P o v e r t y and W e a l t h in the Letter of J a m e s , " in The Social Sciences and Biblical Translation, ed. D i e t m a r Neufeld; S y m p o s i u m Series 4 1 ; Adanta: Society of Biblical Literature; Leiden: Brill, 2 0 0 8 , 6 5 - 7 7 , "Ideological Strategies in J a m e s , " in Reading James with New Eyes. Methodological Reassessments of the Letter of James, ed. R o b e r t L. W e b b and J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g ; L N T S 342; L o n d o n : T & T Clark, 2 0 0 7 , 6-26 , " T h e M o r a l W o r l d of G r e c o - R o m a n Associations," SR 3 6 (2007): 1 3 3 - 4 9 , " G o d in t h e Letter o f James: P a t r o n o r Benefactor?" NTS 50 (2004): 2 5 7 - 7 2 , " U n w o r l d l y Friendship: T h e 'Episde of Straw' R e c o n s i d e r e d , " diss. University of St. Michael's College, T o r o n t o , 2 0 0 0 , " A n Asceticism of Resistance in J a m e s , " in Asceticism and the New Testament, ed. Leif E . Vaage and V i n c e n t L. W i m b u s h ; N e w Y o r k : R o u t l e d g e , 1999, 3 5 5 - 7 0 B a u c k h a m , R i c h a r d , "James and Jesus," in The Brother of Jesus. James the Just and His Mission, ed. B r u c e C h i l t o n and J a c o b N e u s n e r ; Louisville and L o n d o n : W e s t m i n s t e r J o h n Knox, 2001, 100-37 , James. Wisdom of James, Disciple of Jesus the Sage, N e w T e s t a m e n t R e a d i n g s ; L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o r k : R o u t l e d g e , 1999 , " F o r W h a t Offence W a s James P u t to D e a t h ? " in James the Just and Christian Origins, ed. B r u c e C h i l t o n a n d C r a i g Evans; N o v T S u p 9 8 ; Leiden, B o s t o n , C o l o g n e : E.J. Brill, 1999 Beasley-Murray, G e o r g e R . , The General Epistles: James, 1 Peter, Jude, 2 Peter, Bible Guides, 2 1 ; L o n d o n : L u t t e r w o r t h ; N e w Y o r k : A b i n g d o n , 1965 Belser, J o h a n n e s E., " D i e Vulgata u n d d e r griechische T e x t i m Jakobusbrief," TQ 90 (1908): 3 2 9 - 3 9 B e n s o n , J o h n , " M a k i n g Friends: Aristode's D o c t r i n e of t h e Friend as A n o t h e r Self," in Polis and Politics: Essays in Greek Moral and Political Philosophy, ed. A n d r o s L o i z o u and H a r r y Lesser; Aldershot, U K : A v e b u r y , 1990, 5 0 - 6 8 B e n - Z e ' e v , A a r o n , "Aristotle o n E m o t i o n s towards the F o r t u n e of O t h e r s , " in Envy, Spite and Jealousy. The Rivalrous Emotions in Ancient Greece, ed. D a v i d K o n s t a n and N .
188
Friendship
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Wallace-Hadrill, A n d r e w , " P a t r o n a g e in R o m a n Society: F r o m R e p u b l i c t o E m p i r e , " in Patronage in Ancient Society, ed. A n d r e w Wallace-Hadrill; L e i c e s t e r - N o t t i n g h a m Studies in A n c i e n t Society, 1; L o n d o n a n d N e w Y o r k : R o u d e d g e , 1989, 6 3 - 8 8 , ed., Patronage in Ancient Society, L e i c e s t e r - N o t t i n g h a m Studies in A n c i e n t Society, 1; L o n d o n and N e w Y o r k : R o u d e d g e , 1989 W a r d , Julie K., "Aristode o n Philia: T h e B e g i n n i n g of a Feminist Ideal o f Friendship?" in Feminism and Ancient Philosophy, ed. Julie K. W a r d ; N e w Y o r k & L o n d o n : R o u d e d g e , 1996, 155-71 , "Focal R e f e r e n c e in Aristotle's A c c o u n t of Philia: Eudemian Ethics VII 2 , " Apeiron 2 8 (1995): 1 8 3 - 2 0 5 W a r d , R . B . , " A b r a h a m Traditions in Early Christianity," i n Studies in the Testament of Abraham, ed. G e o r g e W . E . Nickelsburg; SBLSCS 6; Missoula: Scholars, 1976, 1 7 3 84 , "Partiality i n t h e Assembly: J a m e s 2, 2 - 4 , " HTR 62 (1969): 8 7 - 9 7 , " T h e W o r k s o f A b r a h a m : J a m e s 2, 1 4 - 2 6 , " HTR 61 (1968): 2 8 3 - 9 0 , " T h e C o m m u n a l C o n c e r n o f t h e Episde of J a m e s , " P h . D . diss.. H a r v a r d University, 1966 W a t s o n , D u a n e F., " A Reassessment o f t h e R h e t o r i c of the Episde o f James a n d Its Implications for Christian O r i g i n s , " in Reading James with New Eyes. Methodological Reassessments of the Letter of James, ed. R o b e r t L. W e b b and J o h n S. K l o p p e n b o r g ; L N T S 342. L o n d o n : T & T Clark, 2 0 0 7 , 9 9 - 1 2 0 , " R h e t o r i c a l Criticism of H e b r e w s and t h e Catholic Episdes since 1 9 7 8 , " CR:BS 5 (1997): 1 7 5 - 2 0 7 , "James 2 in Light o f G r e c o - R o m a n Schemes of A r g u m e n t a t i o n , " NTS 3 9 (1993): 94-121 , " T h e R h e t o r i c o f James 3:1-12 and a Classical Pattern of A r g u m e n t a t i o n , " NovT 3 5 (1993): 4 8 - 6 4 , The Rhetoric of the New Testament. A Bibliographic Survey, T o o l s for Biblical Study, 8; Blandford F o r u m : D e o , 2 0 0 6 W a t s o n , D u a n e F. and Alan J. Hauser, Rhetorical Criticism of the Bible. A Comprehensive Bibliography with Notes on History and Method, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994 W e n g s t , Klaus, Humility: Solidarity of the Humiliated, trans. J o h n B o w d e n ; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988 W e s t e r m a n n , Claus, Isaiah 40-66. A Commentary, trans. D a v i d M . G . Stalker; O T L 19; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969 W h i t e , C a r o l i n n e , Christian Friendship in the Fourth Century, C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e University Press, 1992 W h i t e , J o h n L., Light from Ancient Letters, F F N T ; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986 , " N e w T e s t a m e n t Epistolary Literatures in t h e F r a m e w o r k of A n c i e n t Epistolography," ANRW2.25.2 (1984): 1 7 3 0 - 5 6 W h i t e , L. M i c h a e l , " M o r a l i t y B e t w e e n T w o W o r l d s : A Paradigm of Friendship in Philippians," in Greeks, Romans, and Christians: Essays in Honor of Abraham J. Malherbe, ed. D . L . Balch, E . Ferguson, and W . A . M e e k s ; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990, 2 0 1 - 1 5 W h i t e , Peter, Promised Verse: Poets in the Society of Augustan Rome, L o n d o n , C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1993 , 'Amicitia and the Profession o f P o e t r y in Early Imperial R o m e , " JRS 6 8 (1978): 74-92 , " T h e Friends of Martial, Statius, and Pliny, and t h e Dispersal o f P a t r o n a g e , " HSCP 79 (1975): 2 6 5 - 3 0 0 W i e d e m a n n , T . , Greek and Roman Slavery, Baltimore: J o h n s H o p k i n s University Press, 1984
Bibliography
209
Wiesehofer, J., " D i e ' F r e u n d e ' u n d ' W o h l t a t e r ' des Grosskonigs," Studia Iranica 9 (1980): 7-21 W i l c k e n , U . , Fr. Krebs and Paul Viereck, eds., Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Koniglichen Museen zu Berlin, Griechische Urkunden 1, Berlin: W e i d m a n n , 1895 Williams, Bernard, Shame and Necessity, Berkeley, Los Angeles, L o n d o n : University o f California Press, 1993 W i l s o n , J o h n R . , "Shifting and P e r m a n e n t Philia in T h u c y d i d e s , " G&R 3 6 (1989): 1 4 7 51 W i l s o n , W a l t e r T . , The Mysteries of Righteousness: The Literary Composition and Genre of the Sentences of Pseudo-Phocylides, T e x t e u n d Studien z u m A n t i k e n J u d e n t u m , 4; T u b i n g e n : J . C . B . M o h r (Paul Siebeck), 1994 W i n d i s c h , H a n s , Die katholischen Briefe, 2 n d ed., rev.; H N T 15; T u b i n g e n : J . C . B . M o h r (Paul Siebeck), 1930 W i n s t o n , David, The Wisdom of Solomon, A B 4 3 ; G a r d e n City, N Y : D o u b l e d a y , 1979 W i n t e r , S.C., "Ilapp7]cjla in A c t s , " in Friendship, Flattery and Frankness of Speech: Studies on Friendship in the New Testament, ed. J o h n T . Fitzgerald; N o v T S u p 82; Leiden, N e w Y o r k , C o l o g n e : Brill, 1996, 1 8 5 - 2 0 2 W i s e m a n , T . P . , "Pete Nobiles Amicos: Poets a n d Patrons i n Late R e p u b l i c a n R o m e , " in Literary and Artistic Patronage in Ancient Rome, ed. Barbara Gold; Austin, T X : University o f Texas Press, 1982, 2 8 - 4 9 W i t h e r i n g t o n III, B e n , Friendship and Finances in Philippi: The Letter of Paul to the Philippians, T h e N e w T e s t a m e n t in C o n t e x t ; Valley Forge, P A : Trinity Press International, 1994 Wolf, Eric R . , "Kinship, Friendship, and P a t r o n - C l i e n t Ties in C o m p l e x Societies," i n Friends, Followers and Factions: A Reader in Political Clientelism, ed. Steffen W . Schmidt, Laura Guasti, Carl H . Lande, a n d James C . Scott; Berkeley: University o f California Press, 1977, 167-77 , "Kinship, Friendship and P a t r o n - C l i e n t Relationships," in The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies, ed. M i c h a e l B a n t o n ; L o n d o n : Tavistock, 1966, 1-22 W o l m a r a n s , J.L.P., " T h e T o n g u e G u i d i n g the B o d y : T h e Anthropological P r e s u p positions o f James 3 : 1 - 1 2 , " Neot 2 6 (1992): 5 2 3 - 3 0 W o l v e r t o n , W . I . , " T h e D o u b l e - M i n d e d M a n in the Light of Essene Psychology," ATR 3 8 (1956): 166-75 W o o d , J o h n T . , Discoveries at Ephesus, Including the Sites and Remains of the Great Temple of Diana, Boston: James R . O s g o o d , 1877 W u e l l n e r , W i l h e l m H . , " W h e r e is R h e t o r i c a l Criticism T a k i n g U s ? " CBQ 49 (1987): 448-63 , " D e r Jakobusbrief i m Licht der R h e t o r i k u n d T e x t p r a g m a t i k , " LB 4 3 (1978): 5-66 X e n o p h o n , Memorabilia, E . C . M a r c h a n t ; L C L ; L o n d o n , C a m b r i d g e , M A : H a r v a r d University Press, 1923 Y e e , Gale A., "Ideological Criticism," in Dictionary of Biblical Interpretation, ed. J o h n H . Hayes; Nashville: A b i n g d o n , 1999, 5 3 4 - 3 7 Y o u n g , F . W . , " T h e R e l a t i o n o f 1 C l e m e n t t o the Episde of J a m e s , " JBL 67 (1948): 3 3 9 45 Z a n k e r , G r a h a m , The Heart of Achilles. Characterization and Personal Ethics in the Iliad, A n n Arbor: University of M i c h i g a n Press, 1994 Zmijewski, Josef, "Christliche ' V o l k o m m e n h e i t . ' E r w a g u n g e n zur T h e o l o g i e des Jakobusbriefes," in Studien zum Neuen Testament und Seiner Umwelt, ed. Albert Fuchs; ser. A, 5; Linz: A. Fuchs, 1980, 5 0 - 7 8 Z u c k e r , Friedrich, Freundschaftsbewahrung in der neuen attischen Komodie: Ein Kapitel hellenistischer Ethik und Humanitat, Berlin: A k a d e m i e , 1950
Index of Modern Authors Aasgaard, R . 47 Adkins, A . W . H . 13 Aglen, A.S. 19 Allison, D . 124 A r t z - G r a b n e r , P. 46, 47 Asensio, V . M . 1 3 1 , 132 Aune, D.E. 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 9 6 Baasland, E. 5, 92, 97, 102, 107, 122 Baker, W . 172 Batten, A. 2, 7, 6 8 , 126, 128, 1 3 1 , 138, 149, 185 B a u c k h a m , R . 164, 183 B e n g e l J . A . 97 B e n - Z e ' e v , A. 133 Betz, H . D . 2 , 3 5 , 9 6 Bitzer, L. 128, 178 Blundell, M . W . 12, 14 B o w e r s t o c k , G . W . 77 B r o c k , A . G . 16, 17 B r o w n l e e , W . H . 18 B r u e g g e m a n n , W . 49 B r u n t , P . 84 Burgess, T . C . 94 Burkert, W . 173 C a r r u t h , S. 102, 103, 104 Cassidy, E. 4 0 C h a d w i c k , H . 140 Clark, E. 39 C o l e m a n , T . M . 1 2 1 , 128, 173 Cooper, J.M. 2 4 , 6 2 Corley, J. 1 6 , 3 4 Crook, Z.A. 7 1 , 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 6 Cummins, W J . 23
D a n k e r , F . W . 7 1 , 155 D a n i e l o u J . 118 Davids, P . H . 9 3 , 122, 124, 134, 146, 150, 153 Deissmann, A. 91 de J o n g e , M . 34 D e p p e , D . B . 161 de Ste. C r o i x , G . E . M . 131 D e W i t t , N . W . 79 Dibelius, M . 5 Dihle, A. 152 D i Leila, A A . 3 2 Dirlmeier, F. 2, 19, 48 D o n l a n , W . 20 D o v e r , K.J. 155 Dugas, L. 2 Eilers, C . 77 Elliot, J . H . 5 , 9 7 , 1 0 7 , 1 6 9 Engberg-Pedersen, T. 3 1 , 8 1 , 82, 8 3 , 180, 181 Erskine, A. 76, 77 Exler, F . X J . 9 3 Ferrary, J.-L. 78 F i c h t n e r , J . 17 Finley, M . I . 11 Fiore, B . 2, 94, 95 Fitzgerald, J . T . 1 3 , 1 4 , 2 0 , 4 2 , 4 3 , 44 Ford, J . M . 3 5 , 5 3 Fraisse,J.-C. 2, 14, 2 1 , 22 Francis, F . O . 4, 92, 9 3 , 1 0 1 , 102 Frankemolle, H . Gallant, T .
59
5
Index
of Modern
G a m m i e , J. G. 94 Garnsey, P. 11 Garrett, S.R. 112 Gill, C . 1 0 , 3 1 Ginzberg, L. 53 Glad, C . E . 80 Gold, B.K. 85 Goldhill, S. 59 G r e e n , P. 64, 65 G r u e n , E.S. 77 H a b e l , N . 18 H a g n e r , D . A . 163 Hallenbach, P. 115 Halperin, D . M . 19 H a n s e n , K . C . 75 H a n s e n , M . H . 60 H a n s o n , A. 140 Harland, P A . 4 7 , 6 9 H a r r i n g t o n , D.J. 3 3 Harrison, J . R . 70,71,72,74 H a r t i n , P.J. 94, 98, 104, 106, 107, 109, 1 1 1 , 1 2 1 , 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 132, 133, 134, 135, 146, 149150, 1 5 1 , 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 1 6 1 , 168, 174, 175 H a u c k , F. 2, 150, 182 Hauser, A.J. 95 H e r m a n , G. 59, 6 5 , 66 Hock, R.F. 26,27 Hollander, H . W . 34 H o o k e r , J. 13 H o r d e n , P. 130 H u g h e s , F . W . 96 H u n t e r , H . 60 Hutter, H. 2 8 , 6 0 Irwin, W . H .
34
J a c k s o n - M c C a b e , M . A . 126, 182 Jacobs, I. 141 J o h n s o n , L. 2, 50, 9 3 , 105, 1 1 1 , 115, 118, 129, 134, 142, 143, 147, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 159, 160, 166,
Authors
211
167, 168, 171 Joly, R . 36 J o u b e r t , S. 76 K e n n e d y , G. 96, 140, 156 Klauck, H.-J. 2 , 3 5 Klein, M . 5 K l o p p e n b o r g , J.S. 125, 126, 154, 157, 162, 165 K l o p p e n b o r g Verbin, J.S. 2, 119, 128, 129, 173, Konstan, D . 2 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 16, 19, 2 1 , 24, 2 5 , 30, 36, 37, 3 8 , 3 9 , 40, 4 1 , 50, 5 1 , 52, 60, 6 1 , 62, 64, 7 3 , 80, 84, 8 5 , 86, 87, 174 K r a m m e r , I. 3 3 Kraut, R . 24 Kuchler, C . G . 97 LaFleur, R . 86 Lamb, W . R . M . 23 Lausberg, H . 166, 167 Laws, S. 9 3 , 1 1 5 , 1 2 4 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 2 , 166 L e n d o n , J.E. 7 8 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 Lesses, G. 24, 2 8 , 29 Lipsius, R . A . 183 Llewellyn, S.R. 9 1 , 101 M a c l n t y r e , A. 10 M a c k , B.L. 9 5 , 9 8 , 9 9 , 148, 1 5 1 , 156, 167 M a l h e r b e , A J . 2, 5, 3 5 , 92, 95 Malina, B.J. 10, 115, 130, 131 M a r c h a l J A . 54 Marcus, J. 112 Marshall, P. 2 Martin, R . P . 104, 105, 146, 147, 157 Martinez, F.G. 53 Massebieau, L. 124 M a y o r , J . B . 103, 150, 157, 158, 1 6 1 , 163, 182 M c K e r l i e , D . 42 M e e k s , W . A . 138 M i d d e n d o r p , T . 32 Millard, A . R . 49
212
Friendship
and Benefaction
Miller, S. 10, 12 Millet, P. 6 2 , 7 5 Mitchell, A . C . 2, 36, 44, 4 5 , 46 Mitchell, L.G. 60 M o l t m a n n , J. 50 M o m i g l i a n o , A. 80 M o o , D J . 154 Mussner, F. 182 NeyreyJ.H. 139 N i e b u h r , K . - W . 5, 92, 183 Nietzsche, F. 10 O a k m a n , D . E . 75 Olbrechts-Tyteca, L. 99, 100, 103, 106, 159 O'Neil, E.N. 81,148 O r w e l l , G. 29 Pardee, D . 92 Patterson, S J . 128, 139 Peachin, M . 57 Penner, T . C . 1 Perelman, C . 99, 100, 103, 106, 159 Perkins, P . 2 Peterson, E. 50, 51 Pizzolato, L. 2, 16, 54, 59, 6 3 P l e s c i a J . 173 Polanyi, K. 56 P o p e , M . H . 18 Popkes, W . 9 0 Porter, S.E. 96,112,118 Powell, J. 23,24,26,60 Powell, J . G . F . 31 Price, A . W . 2 3 Purcell, N . 130 R e e d J . T . 96 R e e s e , J. 5 R e i t e r e r , F J . 34 Rengstorf, K . H . 3 5 , 7 1 R h o d e s , P.J. 60 R i n g e , S.H. 36 R o b b i n s , V.K. 7, 120, 167 R o b i n s o n , D . 13 Ropes, J.H. 5,92,115,146, 150, 153, 182
in James
Sahlins, M . 56 Sailer, R . 11,75,78,84 S a m p l e y J . P . 128 Sanders, J . T . 32 Schroeder, F . M . 62 Schulz, S. 150 S c h u l z e J . D . 97 Scully, S.E. 15,20,48 Seesemann, H . Ill Seitz, O J . F . 114 Sinos, D . S . 19 Silver, A. 12 Skehan, P . W . 32 Spitaler, P . 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 Spitta, F. 124 Stahlin, G. 16, 17, 18 Stegemann, E. 56, 57, 128 Stegemann, W . 56, 57, 128 Sterling, G.E. 16, 17, 52, 53 Stevenson, T . R . 70 Stowers, S.K. 2, 9 5 , 108, 136, 137, Stumpff, A. 171 Syme, R . 84 Taylor, C . 10 Taylor, M . E . 1, 90 T h o r n , J . C . 30 T h u r e n , L. 5, 9 7 , 9 8 , 102, 106, 107, 122, 146, 169 T r e u , K. 17 Tsuji, M . 5 Trilling, L. 9 Ulf, C .
19
Vaage, L.E. 2 V a n D a m , R . 37 van de Sandt, H . 157 van der W e s t h u i z e n , J . D . N . 9 8 , 122 V e r b o v e n , K. 57,76,85 Verseput, D.J. 115, 120, 128, 138, 172, 183 Vetschera, R . 94, 95 Vhymeister, N J . 128 Viano, C . 3 1 , 171 Vidal, M . 48
Index of Modern Authors V o u g a , F.
182
Wachob, W.H. 3 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 1 , 92, 9 3 , 94, 9 5 , 97, 116, 124, 125, 126, 127, 132, 147, 148, 149, 1 5 1 , 156, 1 6 1 , 165, 170, 180 Wall, R . 5, 108 Wallace-Handrill, A. 82 Wallbank, F. 66 W a r d J . K . 62 W a r d , R . B . 140, 141 W a t s o n , D . F . 5, 6, 9 5 , 97, 9 8 , 1 0 1 , 123, 124, 125, 126, 134, 135, 136, 1 4 1 , 145 W h i t e , C . 16, 3 7 , 3 8 , 39, 40 W h i t e , J.L. 4 , 1 0 1 White, L.M. 3,35 W h i t e , P . 86 W i l k e , C . G . 97 Williams, B . 9 W i n s t o n , D . 49 W u e l l n e r , W . 5, 102, 107, 122 Yee, G A .
7
213
Index of Biblical and Other Ancient References
H e b r e w Bible
18:3
/LXX
20: 17
Jeremiah
17 17
3:6-10
159
13:27 2
Genesis 15:6 18
Samuel
1:26
141
Ezekiel
18
140
18:16
141
Esther
18:17
4 9 , 141
5:10
22:1
111
22:1-19
159
16:38
159
23:45
159
17 Daniel
1 0 5 , 141
Job 6:14
17
2:13
17
2:17
17
Exodus 32-34
49
Psalms
33:11
49
41:2
Hosea 166
72:27
159
119:20
Leviticus
159
9:1
159
166
125
119:131
166
Malachi
1 2 5 , 126
119:174
166
3:5
19:15 19 :18
3:1
24 : 10-23
134
134:3
129
134 Tobit 4:10
Proverbs
Numbers 16:5
3:34
133
133
147, 166, 167,
168, 174
Wisdom
of
Deuteronomy
12:26
17
2:24
4:29
45
14:21
18, 139
3:5
71
4 :37
1 2 5 , 133
16:28
17
3:9
71
18
6:23
Solomon
157, 166
166
6:4
135
18:24
7 :7
1 2 5 , 133
19:3
105
7:14
119
8:2
111
19:6
18
7:23
71
19:7
18
7:27
4 9 , 7 2 , 181
27:6
172
7:28
49
11:5
71
16:2
71
13:7
17,43
Joshua 2 :1-21
140
Isaiah 14:1
1
40:6-8
Samuel
10:14-15a 18:1
18
17,42,113
49:5-6 57:3
133
16:11
71
115 108 159
Sirach 6:1
113
Index of Biblical and Other Ancient References 6:7 34, 110 6:8 110 6:14-16 3 3 6:17 3 3 6:19 160 12:8 3 4 12:8-9 110 12:9 3 4 15:11 111 19:13-14 3 3 19:16b 3 3 20:15 117 20:16 117 20:23 3 3 22:13-26 33 22:22 3 3 2 4 : 3 7 129 27:16-21 33 37:2 160 41:25 117 4 4 : 2 0 - 2 1 141 Letter ofJeremiah 183
Apocalypse of Abraham 9-10 5 3 Testament of Abraham 15 53 Testament of Asher 3.2 112 4.1 117 Testament of Benjamin 6.7 117, 118 Testament of Issachar 117
Christian Testament
92,
1 Maccabees 2:52 141 8:16 166 10:25 92 2 Maccabees 1:1-9 92, 183 1:10-2:18 92, 183 6:7 166
Pseudepigrapha 1 Enoch 97 129 2 Baruch 7 8 - 8 6 183 Jubilees 17:6 111 19.9 5 3 , 141
Q 6:20 125 6:20-21 104 6:20-49 102 6:22 125 6:29 125 12:58-59 125 16:13 165 Matthew 5:4 168 5:7 133 5:9 154 5:33-37 173 6:24 158, 1 6 1 , 164 8:8 16 10:28 16 18:12-13 16 19:21 139 Mark 13:12
12:4-5 16 14:10 17 14:12 17 14:12-14 45 15:4-6 16 15:9 17 16:13 158, 1 6 1 , 164 18:28 45 21:16 16 2 2 : 2 5 - 2 6 46 23:12 160 23:2 17 John 10:11 35 10:15 35 10:17-18 35 15:13 35 Acts 2:44 44 2:44-47 45 3:1-10 46 4:9 46 4:32 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 5 , 113 4 : 3 2 - 3 7 45 4:36-37 45 5:1-11 46 10:24 17 19:31 17 20:35 45 27:3 17 Romans 2:8 171 1 Corinthians 10:20-21 152
16
Luke 6:34-35 45 7:6 16 11:5 17 11:6 17 11:8 17
2 Corinthians 5:1 152 6:14-7:1 124 10:1 153 Galatians 1:19 183
215
216 2:9 183 5:20 171 6:1 150 6:16 182 Ephesians 4:2 150 Philippians 1:5,7 4 4 1:17 171 1:27 4 3 , 113 2:2 4 3 , 4 4 2:3 171 2:6-11 3 5 2:20 4 3 3:10 44 4:2 4 3 4:14-15 44 4:11 35 1 Thessalonians 5:17 9 3 1 Timothy 4:1 152 2 Timothy 2:25 150 Titus 3:2 150 Philemon 4 - 7 92 22 9 3 Hebrews 11:17-19 141 13:7 150 James 1:1 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 3 , 1 0 1 , 120, 1 2 3 , 183 1:1-4 102 1:1-27 9 2 1:2 9 3 , 104, 180
Friendship and Benefaction in James 1:2-4 107, 110, 1 1 1 , 120, 1 2 1 , 124, 180 1:2-18 6 , 9 0 - 1 2 1 , 184 1:3 110 1:4 136 1:5 109, 116, 160, 167, 174, 175 1:5-7 103 1:5-8 107 1:5-11 102 1:5-18 153 1:6 9 3 1:6-8 114 1:8 112, 114, 160 1:9-11 107, 114, 115, 1 2 1 , 170 1:10 129, 131 1:10-11 103 1:11 1 3 1 , 1 8 1 1:12 102, 104, 109, 110, 114, 118, 120, 138, 180, 183 1:12-18 102, 107 1:13 102, 105 1:13-15 107 1:13-18 102, 104, 105 1:13-5:6 102 1:14-15 156 1:16 106, 109 1:16-18 107, 118 1:17 106, 109, 118 1:18 106, 109 1:19 102 1:19-21 102, 180 1:21 150 1:22-25 102, 142 1:22-27 122 1:24 9 3 1:25 107 1:26-27 116 1:27 142, 165, 175, 2
180 98
2:1
1 2 3 , 124, 126, 127, 128, 132, 134, 136, 164 2:1-13 5 , 6 , 9 8 , 122, 1 2 3 - 3 4 , 138, 140, 145, 149, 181 2:1-26 6, 180 2:2 1 3 1 , 138, 182, 183 2:3 131 2:2-3 122, 128 2:2-4 124, 151 2:4 125, 128, 132 2:5 9 8 , 127, 130, 1 3 1 , 132, 133, 134, 162, 163, 164, 175 2:5-7 125 2:6 125, 1 3 1 , 132, 134, 153, 174, 1 8 1 , 183 2:6-7 116, 128 2:7 125, 134 2:8 125, 132, 133 2:8-11 126 2 : 8 - 1 3 183 2:9 181 2 : 9 - 1 0 126 2:11 126 2:12 133 2 : 1 2 - 1 3 126 2:13 133 2:14 1 0 5 , 135, 136 2 : 1 4 - 1 7 137, 180 2:14-26 6 , 9 8 , 1 1 6 , 122, 1 2 3 , 132, 1 3 4 - 4 3 , 145, 149, 184 2:15 4 7 , 1 0 5 , 106, 136, 143 2 : 1 5 - 1 6 122, 1 3 5 , 136, 140, 141 2 : 1 5 - 1 7 138 2:16 136 2:17 135 2:18 135, 137
Index of Biblical and Other Ancient References 2 : 1 8 - 2 0 136 2 : 1 8 - 2 3 135 2:18-26 124 2:19 135 2:20 135, 137 2 : 2 0 - 2 5 135 2:21 105, 132, 140, 182 2 : 2 1 - 2 2 135 2 : 2 1 - 2 4 111 2:22 136, 140, 142 2:23 135, 138, 141,142, 175 2:24 135, 136, 140 2:25 132, 138, 182 2:26 135 3:1 169 3:1-2 108 3:1-12 9 8 , 108, 145, 149, 169, 172, 180 3 : 1 - 4 : 1 2 146 3:2 107, 139 3:6 175, 182 3:8 172 3:10 169, 172 3:12 146, 169 3:13 145, 146, 153, 169 3:13-14 149, 160 3:13-17 146 3:13-18 146, 147 3:13-4:6 147 3:13-4:10 6 , 9 8 , 129, 1 4 5 - 7 7 , 180, 184 3:14 150, 1 5 1 , 1 7 1 , 172, 174 3:15 156, 160, 171 3 : 1 5 - 1 6 147, 153 3 : 1 5 - 1 8 149, 1 5 1 56 3:16 150, 152, 155, 156, 171 3:17 147, 153, 154, 155,160, 1 7 3 , 174 3 : 1 7 - 1 8 153
3:18 146, 153, 154, 155, 156, 173 4:1 146, 169, 170 4 : 1 - 3 149, 156-58 4:1-6 76, 146, 1 5 6 67 4:1-10 146, 147, 149 4 : 1 - 1 3 150, 159 4:2 150, 171 4:4 6, 147, 149, 1 5 8 - 6 5 , 170, 174, 175, 176 4:5 164, 166, 171 4:5-6 147, 149 4:6 150, 165, 166, 167, 168 4:7 168 4:7-10 147, 149, 167-69 4:7-12 146 4:8 112, 153, 160, 168, 173 4:10 146, 168, 170, 181 4:11 146, 169, 180 4:11-12 146, 172 4 : 1 1 - 1 3 146 4:11-17 172 4:13 146 4:13-17 129 4:17 177 5:1 131 5:1-6 116, 129, 132, 170 5:4 129, 174, 1 8 1 , 182 5:7-12 120 5:7-20 5 5:9 172 5:10 180, 182 5:11 182 5:12 172 5:13-20 180 5:17 182 1 Peter 2:12 150
217
3:2 150 3:15 150 1 John 3:16 35 5:14-17 9 3
Nag Hammadi Writings Gospel of Thomas 47:2 161
Apostolic Writings 1 Clement 114, 118 4:9-5:2 157 10.1 54 10-12 140 17:2 54, 141 23:1 163 38:2 150 2 Clement 114 6:1-15 162 19:2 163 Didache 3:2 157 6:2 139 Shepherd of Hermas 8.6.4 134
Early Christian Writings Ambrose De officiis ministrorum 3.22.133 4 4 3.132 39
218 Barmabas Epistle of Barnabas 114 18-20 163 Basil of Caesarea Epistulae 56 38 83 43 C l e m e n t o f Alexan dria Protrepticus 12.12.3 54 Quis dives salvetur 32 36
Friendship and Benefaction in James J o h n Chrysostom De sacerdotio 1.1 39 Homilae in epistulam i ad Thessalonicenses 2 113 Paulinus of N o l a Epistulae 13 40 51 40 Tertullian Adversus Judaeos 2.7 54
Josephus and Philo Josephus Antiquitates judaicae 3.65 72 5 . 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 72 5.116 5 3 8.50-54 92 Philo De Abrahamo 129 134 De cherubim 1 2 2 - 2 3 72
Stromata 2.19 54
Theophylact Expositio im Epistu lam Sanctijacobi 1137.23 114
Cyril of Alexandria Commentarii in Lucam 8 4 8 . 3 2 - 3 3 114
Qumran
De fuga et inventione 29 7 3
Damascus Document 3.2 54
De opificio mundi 24 111
G r e g o r y of N a z i a n zus Epistulae 11.2 37 31.1 44 103.1 37 Oratio in laudem Basilii 43.20 4 3 , 113 Irenaeus Adversus haereses 4.14.4 54 16.2 54 Jerome Epistulae 3 39
4Q185
115
De confusione linguarum 48 79
Writings
De sobrietate 54-56 73 56 52, 7 3 , 7 9 , 141 58 7 3
Mekilta 18.22 53
De somniis 1.193-95 52
b. Menahot 53b 53
De vita contemplativa 13-17 44
t. Berakot 7.13 53
De vita Mosis I 1.157 52
Sifre Deuteronomy 352 53
Legum allegoriae 2.19 111 2.204 111 3 . 7 7 - 7 8 72
Rabbinic
Sifre Numbers 115 5 3
Index of Biblical and Other Ancient References Quis rerum divinarum heres sit 21 52 83 42 Quod omnis probus liber sit 8 5 - 8 7 44 Graeco-Roman
2 . 4 . 8 - 1 2 174 2.4.25 171 2.4.28 127 2.4.29 74 2.8.12 133 2.20 140 2.21 159 2.21.16 104 2.23.1 156 3.13.3 99
Writings Aeschylus Prometheus vinctus 2 2 3 - 2 8 20 3 3 0 20 Aristotle Ethica eudemia 7.4.1-2 15 7 . 6 . 8 - 1 3 42, 113 7.6.10 42 7.12.1 26 Ethica nichomachea 4.3.1 70 7.6.3 25 8.1 2 4 8.1.4 6 1 , 6 2 8.3.1 25 8.3.6 25 8.6.2 2 5 8.6.7 62 8.7.3-6 6 3 8.8.7 27 8.9.3 61 9.4.5 42 9.8.2 42 9.8.9 3 5 , 4 2 9.9.1 26 9.9.3 25 Rhetorica 1.2.4 100 1.2.8-9 156 1.9.5 150 2.3.1 174 2.4.8 172
Pseudo-Aristotle Rhetorica ad Alexandrum I 158 9 158 II 159 2 0 . 1 4 3 3 b . 3 0 126 29 100 37.1445b.l 127 Aulus Gellius Nodes atticae 1.2.3.10-20 67 Chariton De Chaerea et Callirhoe 1.5.2 26 8.8.7 27 8.8.12 27 Cicero De inventione rhetorica 1.23 100 1.25 99 1.26 101 Laelius 18 30 20 30 21 30 38 67 61 67 62 32 6 3 32, 110 64 3 0 , 6 6 65 32
77 80 81 91 92
219 67 4 3 , 113 43 32 4 3 , 113, 118
Pseudo-Cicero Rhetorica ad Herrenium 1.8 100 1.9 100 1.11 100 2.18.28 125, 140, 148, 151 2.23.35 151 4.3.6 165 4.15.22 159 4.16.24 158, 170 4.17 159 4.17.24-25 158 4.17.25 158 4.43.56 149, 160 Demetrius De elocutione 227 96 Demosthenes In Cononem 54.7 60 5 4 . 1 4 - 2 0 60 5 4 . 3 0 - 4 0 60 Dio Chrysostom De regno i 41 138 De regno Hi 110 4 4 , 7 4 D i o g e n e s Laertius Vitae philosophorum 6.27 52 7.118 29 7.102 29 7.102-07 28 7.124 28 7.89 27
Friendship and Benefaction in James
220
Plato Leges
18.90 87 18.101 87 18.110 87
8.10 44 10.120 27 Epicurus Sententia Vaticana xxiii 27 xxxix 27 lvi-lvii 27 Epictetus Diatribai 2.7.3 35 2.17.19 51 3.22.61 171 4.3.9 5 1 , 2 Euripides Orestes 652 21 6 5 5 - 5 7 2 1 , 110 8 0 4 - 0 6 21 1046 4 2 , 1 1 3
679C Hypereides Euxenippus 3.7-8 60
Lysis
Iamblichus Vita pythagorae 38 70 1 9 2 - 9 4 30 2 2 9 29 2 3 4 - 4 0 29 Juvenal Satirae 5.170-73
86
Lucian Nigrinus 21 129
Fronto Ad Verus 1.6.2 78
Martial Epigrammata 10.82 7 8
Hermogenes Progymnasmata 6 0 167
M a x i m u s of T y r e Orationes 14.18 79
Homer Ilias 4 . 3 6 0 - 6 1 41 17.411 19 17.655 19 2 4 . 4 4 - 5 2 19
M i n u c i u s Felix Octavius 1.3 44
Odyssea 3.126-29
Philodemus De diis 1.17-18 51 1.19-20 51
42
Horace Epistulae 18.1 87 18.24 87 18.44-45 87 18.73 8 7 , 88
171
De libertate dicendi fr. 1 108 fr. 10 108 fr. 26 109 fr. 79 80
212A 214E 215B 223B
23 23 23 24
Symposium 2 1 3 D 171 Timaeus 5 3 D 50 Pliny Epistulae 2.6.2 84 7.3.2 84 Plutarch Adversus Colotem 8.111b 3 5 , 110 De adultore et amico 51B 74 66E 109 96E 4 2 De amicorum multitudine 5 4 C 31 93E 31 9 4 B 81 96E 113 96F 30 9 7 B 31 De amore prolis 131 De capienda ex inimicis utilitate 1 171 9 171
Index of Biblical and Other Ancient References De fraterno amore 14 171 4 7 9 D 47 De tranquillitate animi 10 171 11 171 Quomodo adulator ab amico internoscatur 51D 6 6 , 6 3 52B 82 5 4 C 82 5 8 B 129 5 9 D 170 6 1 D 170, 174 6 2 C 8 2 , 117 6 2 D 82 63F 117 6 4 B 117 6 6 A 170 7 1 B 8 1 , 109 74E 137 Pseudo-Plutarch De vita et poesi Homeri 143 51
Epistulae 94.14 84
IG X I / 4 1061 68
Sophocles Antigone 182-88 61
IGLAM 47
Theophrastus Xenophon Memorabilia 2.4.5 21 2.4.6 22 2.6.5 22 2 . 6 . 2 1 - 2 2 22 2 . 6 . 2 2 - 2 3 22 2.6.28 22 2.6.35 2 2 Symposium 4.47-48 50
Seneca De beneficiis 1.1.10 7 0 1.4.3 7 0 1.10.5 7 0 3.15.4 69 4.3.3 70 4.26.1 70 7.12 74 7.31.2 7 0
IDidyma 502 47 IG I P 457 74 IG I P 1292 131 IG I P 1297 69 IG I P 1314 131 IG V / 1 . 1 3 9 0 173
798
Ilasos 116 47
Theon Progymnasmata 109 154
Inscriptions Quintilian Institutio Oratoria 4.1.7 100 4.1.26 101 5.11.36 126 5.11.42 104 8.5.7-8 105 9.2.7 125
221
IasMinLyk I 69 47 79 IMagnaMai 3 2 1 47 IMylasa 5 7 1 - 7 5 47 IPontBithM 57 47 IPrusaOlymp 47
24
ISmyrna 7 2 0 47 MAMA 47
III 5 8 0
MAMA 47
III 7 8 0
MAMA 47
III 7 8 8
SEG 26.1282 69, 78 SIG 9 8 5 71 TAM 47
V 93
222 Papyri BGU VIII 1874 46 POxy VII 2 1 4 8 46
Friendship and Benefaction in James POxy X L I I 3057 46 SB V 7661 46 SB X I V 11644 46
