ACLS Supplementary materials

Supplemental Materials Contents Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory, Cardiovascular, and Cerebrovascular Systems .......................................................................................................................... 5 The Respiratory System .............................................................................................. 5 Anatomy of the Respiratory System......................................................................... 5 Physiology of the Respiratory System...................................................................... 7 Avoiding Excessive Ventilation During CPR ............................................................ 7 Respiratory Arrest and Insufficiency......................................................................... 9 Airway Obstruction ................................................................................................. 10 Respiratory Arrest .................................................................................................. 11 The Cardiovascular System....................................................................................... 11 Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System ................................................................... 11 The Importance of Adequate Coronary Artery Blood Flow During CPR................... 13 Physiology of the Heart .......................................................................................... 14 Pathophysiology of the Heart .................................................................................. 15 The Cerebrovascular System .................................................................................... 17 Anatomy of the Brain.............................................................................................. 17 Circulation of the Brain........................................................................................... 18 Pathophysiology of the Brain................................................................................... 19 Interaction of Respiratory, Cardiac, and Brain Functions ....................................... 20 ACS: The Clinical Presentation of CHD ........................................................................ 21 Overview ................................................................................................................ 21 Angina Pectoris ......................................................................................................... 23 Unstable Angina ........................................................................................................ 25 Treatment of Unstable Angina ............................................................................... 25 Critical Concepts: Atypical Presentations of Angina............................................... 25 Heart Attack............................................................................................................... 25 “Red Flags” or Warning Signs of Heart Attack ....................................................... 26 Treatment............................................................................................................... 27 Actions to Take for Victims of ACS............................................................................ 28 Initial Actions .......................................................................................................... 28 In-hospital Response ............................................................................................. 28 Out-of-hospital (“Off-duty”) Response .................................................................... 28 Aspirin .................................................................................................................... 29 Nitroglycerin ........................................................................................................... 30 Precipitating Events of Heart Attack....................................................................... 31 Denial: The Deadly Response to a Heart Attack .................................................... 32 Critical Concepts: The Psychology of Denial of Heart Attack................................. 32 EMS Actions to Take for Victims of ACS ................................................................... 33 Overview ................................................................................................................ 33 Initial Assessment and Stabilization ....................................................................... 33 History.................................................................................................................... 34

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Physical Assessment ............................................................................................. 34 Sudden Cardiac Arrest (SCA) ....................................................................................... 35 Overview ................................................................................................................ 35 Causes................................................................................................................... 35 Treatment............................................................................................................... 36 Acute Stroke.................................................................................................................. 37 Overview ................................................................................................................ 37 Pathophysiology and Classification of Cerebrovascular Disease .......................... 38 Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) ............................................................................. 38 Stroke Definition..................................................................................................... 39 Classification of Stroke........................................................................................... 40 The AHA ECC Chain of Survival for the Stroke Victim........................................... 40 The Key Points in Stroke Management: The 7 “D’s” of Stroke Care ...................... 41 Detection of Warning Signs of Stroke .................................................................... 42 Dispatch: Early EMS Activation and Dispatch Instructions..................................... 42 Dealing With Denial................................................................................................ 43 Out-of-hospital Management of Stroke ...................................................................... 44 The EMS System and BLS Care............................................................................ 44 Initial Out-of-hospital BLS Assessment of ABCs .................................................... 45 History and Physical Assessment .......................................................................... 45 History.................................................................................................................... 46 Physical Assessment and Management ................................................................ 47 Out-of-hospital Management.................................................................................. 51 CPR and Defibrillation: The Human Dimension ............................................................ 53 Overview ................................................................................................................ 53 Outcomes of Resuscitation .................................................................................... 53 Stress Reactions ....................................................................................................... 53 Overview ................................................................................................................ 53 Critical Incident Stress Debriefings............................................................................ 54 Overview ................................................................................................................ 54 Critical Incident Stress Debriefings (CISDs)........................................................... 54 Psychological Barriers to Resuscitation..................................................................... 55 Overview ................................................................................................................ 55 Principles of Ethics and Decisions About Resuscitation ............................................ 56 Overview ................................................................................................................ 56 DNAR Orders ......................................................................................................... 57 Initiating and Discontinuing CPR ............................................................................... 58 Determination of Death in the Out-of-hospital Setting ............................................ 58 Discontinuing BLS.................................................................................................. 59 Hospital Policies Regarding CPR .............................................................................. 59 Overview ................................................................................................................ 59 CPR in Nursing Homes .......................................................................................... 60 Community Systems for Communicating DNAR Orders............................................ 60 Overview ................................................................................................................ 60 Legal Aspects of CPR ............................................................................................... 61 Overview ................................................................................................................ 61

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Good Samaritan Laws............................................................................................ 61 Legal Aspects of AED Use ........................................................................................ 62 Overview ................................................................................................................ 62 Family Presence During Resuscitation ...................................................................... 63 Overview ................................................................................................................ 63 Pediatric BLS ................................................................................................................ 64 Overview ................................................................................................................ 64 Definition of Newly Born, Neonate, Infant, Child, and Adult ................................... 64 Causes of Cardiac Arrest Affecting Priorities of Resuscitation ............................... 64 Cardiac Output, Oxygen Delivery, and Oxygen Demand ....................................... 65 Epidemiology of Cardio-pulmonary Arrest:............................................................. 65 Phone Fast (Infant/Child) Versus Phone First (Adult) ............................................ 65 BLS for Children With Special Needs..................................................................... 68 Prevention of Cardiopulmonary Arrest in Infants and Children .................................. 70 Overview ................................................................................................................ 70 Reducing the Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome ........................................... 70 Critical Concepts: Avoid Prone and Side Sleeping Positions to Reduce Risk of SIDS....................................................................................................................... 70 Injury: The Magnitude of the Problem .................................................................... 70 The Science of Injury Control ................................................................................. 71 Epidemiology and Prevention ................................................................................ 71 of Common Injuries in Children and Adolescents................................................... 71 Motor Vehicle–Related Injuries .............................................................................. 72 Pedestrian Injuries ................................................................................................. 74 Bicycle Injuries ....................................................................................................... 75 Submersion ............................................................................................................ 75 Burns...................................................................................................................... 76 Firearm Injuries ...................................................................................................... 76 Pediatric BLS in Special Situations............................................................................ 78 BLS for the Trauma Victim ..................................................................................... 78 BLS for the Submersion Victim .............................................................................. 78 Termination of Resuscitative Efforts....................................................................... 79 Maximizing the Effectiveness of PBLS Training ..................................................... 79 Adult BLS in Special Situations ..................................................................................... 80 BLS for the Trauma Victim ..................................................................................... 80 BLS for the Electric Shock or Lightning Strike Victim ............................................. 81 BLS for the Submersion Victim .............................................................................. 82 Risk Factors for Heart Disease and Stroke ................................................................... 84 Overview ................................................................................................................ 84 Risk Factors: Heart Attack and Stroke ................................................................... 84 Risk Factors That Cannot Be Changed ..................................................................... 85 Overview ................................................................................................................ 85 Understanding Hypertension.................................................................................. 87 Cholesterol—Laying the Foundation for Athero-sclerosis ...................................... 88 Risk Factors That Can Be Changed, Treated, or Modified ........................................ 89 Overview ................................................................................................................ 89

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Cigarette Smoking.................................................................................................. 89 Smoking and Sudden Death .................................................................................. 91 Smoking Intervention Guidelines296........................................................................ 92 High Blood Pressure .............................................................................................. 92 High Blood Cholesterol Level ................................................................................. 94 Cholesterol and Low- and High-Density Lipoproteins ............................................ 94 Reducing Your Cholesterol .................................................................................... 97 Physical Inactivity................................................................................................... 98 Diabetes................................................................................................................. 99 Obesity................................................................................................................. 100 Risk Factors Specific to Stroke................................................................................ 101 Overview .............................................................................................................. 101 TIAs...................................................................................................................... 101 Atrial Fibrillation.................................................................................................... 101 High Red Blood Cell Count .................................................................................. 102 Combined Risk Factors ........................................................................................... 102 Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Women ............................................................... 102 Heart-healthy and Brain-healthy Lifestyles .............................................................. 103 Overview .............................................................................................................. 103 Summary of the Role of Prevention ..................................................................... 106

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Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory, Cardiovascular, and Cerebrovascular Systems

Overview

To effectively detect cardiovascular emergencies and perform CPR, it is helpful if you have a basic understanding of the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular systems.

The Respiratory System

Anatomy of the Respiratory System

The respiratory system (Figure 1) has 4 components: • The airways that conduct air between the outside and the lungs • The alveoli—small air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs • A neuromuscular component • A vascular component Airway

The airway can be divided into the upper airway and the lower airways: Upper Airway • Nose and mouth • Pharynx (behind the tongue) • Larynx (voice box)

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Lower Airways • Trachea (windpipe) • Bronchi (1 bronchus to the right lung and 1 to the left lung) • Bronchioles (branches of the bronchi that terminate in the alveoli)

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Figure 1. Anatomy of the respiratory system.

Alveoli

The alveoli are tiny air sacs. Their functions include • Receiving fresh inspired gas (which at sea level contains 21% oxygen) from the airways and allowing that oxygen to diffuse into the blood • Taking up carbon dioxide from the blood and passing it through the airways for expiration A thin layer of cells lines the inside of the alveoli. A fine network of capillaries surrounds the alveoli. The alveoli and associated capillaries are the basic lung units. Neuromuscular Component

The neuromuscular component of the respiratory system includes • The respiratory center in the brain • The nerves to and from the muscles of respiration • The muscles of respiration

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The major muscles of respiration are • The large, sheetlike diaphragm, which − Attaches to the margin of the lower ribs − Extends from front to back − Separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity • The muscles between the ribs (the intercostal muscles) • Some muscles of the neck and shoulder girdle The thorax consists of the ribs, which are attached in back to the spine and in front to the sternum. Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins

The following table describes the functions of pulmonary arteries, capillaries, and veins: Part Pulmonary Arteries Pulmonary Capillaries Pulmonary Veins

Physiology of the Respiratory System

Function Carry blood with relatively low oxygen content from the right side of the heart through the pulmonary circulation into the capillaries surrounding the alveoli. Create a web surrounding the alveoli. At the interface between the capillaries and the alveoli, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli. Carry blood with high oxygen content from the lungs back to the left side of the heart.

The respiratory system has two primary functions: • Bringing oxygen from the air into the blood • Eliminating carbon dioxide from the body All body cells need a continuous supply of oxygen to function. Metabolism produces carbon dioxide, which the body must eliminate. If oxygen delivery to the cells is inadequate or carbon dioxide elimination is reduced, acidosis can develop.

Avoiding Excessive Ventilation During CPR

The relationship between ventilation (volume of breaths times rate) and the blood flow to the lungs is called the ventilation-perfusion ratio (V/Q). For the best oxygenation of the blood and elimination of carbon dioxide, ventilation should closely match perfusion. During CPR, blood flow to the lungs is only about 20% to 33% of normal, so less ventilation (fewer breaths and smaller volume) is needed to provide

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oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide during cardiac arrest than when the victim has a perfusing rhythm with normal or near-normal cardiac output and blood flow to the lungs. When performing CPR before an advanced airway is in place, ventilations require pauses in chest compressions. During those pauses, there is no blood flow to the heart muscle and brain. During CPR with an advanced airway in place, every time a breath is given blood returning from the body to the heart and lungs is slowed down. If a rescuer is giving too many breaths, blood return to the heart can be so little that the heart is nearly empty before each chest compression. In that case, cardiac output is even less than 25% of normal. That is why a respiratory rate of 8 to 10 per minute is recommended during 2-person CPR once an advanced airway is in place. Each breath should be given over about 1 second. Providers should take care to avoid delivery of more breaths because they are not necessary and they can have negative effects (eg, they will interfere with refilling of the heart and will reduce the blood flow generated by chest compressions). Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system has many physiologic functions. Two of its primary functions are analogous to those of the lungs: • Transporting oxygenated blood from the lungs to the cells of the body • Transporting blood containing carbon dioxide from the cells of the body to the lungs In most healthy people the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood remain relatively constant. The stimulus to breathe comes from the respiratory center in the brain, and the primary stimulus for altering the depth and rate of breaths is the level of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood near this part of the brain. When the level of carbon dioxide rises, the following process occurs: • The respiratory center in the brain sends an increasing number of signals through the nerves to the muscles of respiration. • Breathing rate and depth increase until the level of carbon dioxide falls. • The signals sent by the respiratory center in the brain decrease. • The breathing rate slows. A feedback loop normally maintains a constant (linear) relationship between the carbon dioxide level and the rate and depth of respiration. • The blood level of carbon dioxide is maintained in a narrow range.

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Oxygen Content

Atmospheric air at sea level contains about 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen. Because only about a quarter of the oxygen in inhaled air is taken up by the blood in the lungs during respiration, exhaled air still contains a significant concentration (about 16%) of oxygen as well as a small amount (5%) of added carbon dioxide and water vapor. In rescue breathing the air exhaled by the rescuer and delivered to the victim contains a sufficient amount of oxygen to support oxygenation of the victim. Mechanics of Breathing

Inspiration (breathing in) is an active process, while exhalation (breathing out) is generally a passive process. The diaphragm is the chief muscle of inspiration. The following list shows the process of breathing: • Two sets of muscles contract simultaneously—the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles (between the ribs). Although the intercostal muscles have minimal effect during normal breathing, they can have an impact in an adult if diaphragm function is impaired. − The diaphragm contracts and descends toward the abdominal cavity, increasing intrathoracic volume (volume inside the chest). − The intercostal muscles contract and lift the rib cage, further increasing intrathoracic volume. • When the intrathoracic volume increases, intrathoracic pressure and the pressure within the lungs fall below atmospheric pressure. • The difference in pressure between the atmosphere and the lungs draws air into the lungs. • As the muscles relax, the ribs descend and the diaphragm rises, reducing the volume of the chest cavity. • The elastic lung passively becomes smaller, and the air inside the lung moves out (exhalation).

Respiratory Arrest and Insufficiency

The following table defines respiratory arrest and respiratory failure and treatment the patient needs if experiencing either of these:

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Airway Obstruction

Term Respiratory arrest

Definition Absence of breathing

Respiratory failure

Breathing may be present but inadequate to maintain normal levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood

Patient Needs Positive-pressure ventilation by • Mouth-to-mouth • Mouth-to-mask • Bag-mask ventilation Positive-pressure ventilation or supplementary oxygen to ensure adequate oxygenation of tissues

Airway obstruction, particularly foreign-body airway obstruction (FBAO), is presented in detail in the student manual. The most common cause of airway obstruction in the unresponsive victim is occlusion by the tongue. Any condition that leads to unresponsiveness or loss of tone in the muscles of the jaw can cause the tongue to fall toward the back of the throat and obstruct the airway (Figure 2). Death caused by airway obstruction is relatively uncommon (1.9 deaths per 100 000) in the United States.1 However, the need for proper emergency airway management in cases of foreign-body obstruction is of key importance for safety at home, in restaurants, and in other public places. Figure 2. Airway obstruction in unresponsive victim.

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Respiratory Arrest

The respiratory center in the brain must function for breathing to occur and for breathing rate and depth to remain adequate to control carbon dioxide levels in the blood. The respiratory center can be severely affected by inadequate blood flow to the brain resulting from • Stroke (disruption of the blood supply to an area of the brain) • Shock • Cardiac arrest • Head injury • Drugs that depress respirations (eg, narcotics) Within a few seconds after cardiac arrest occurs, breathing will cease. For the first minutes after a sudden cardiac arrest, the victim may gasp. Many conditions that severely reduce oxygenation of blood can lead to respiratory arrest without cardiac arrest. If the victim does not receive support of oxygenation and ventilation, the respiratory arrest can progress to cardiac arrest. When determining the need for rescue breaths or chest compressions with rescue breaths, do not confuse agonal gasps with breathing. Additional causes of respiratory arrest can include diseases or injuries that reduce brain function or interfere with normal contraction of the muscles of breathing.

The Cardiovascular System Anatomy of The cardiovascular system comprises the the • Heart Cardiovascular • Arteries System

• Capillaries • Veins Heart

The heart of an adult is not much larger than a fist. It lies in the center of the chest, behind the breastbone (sternum), in front of the backbone (thoracic spine), and above the diaphragm. Except for the area against the spine and a small strip down the center of the front of the heart, the heart is surrounded by lung (Figure 3).

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The heart is a hollow organ divided into 4 sections or chambers. The innermost layer of these chambers is called endocardium. The tough, muscular wall of the heart is called the myocardium. A sac called the pericardium surrounds the heart. Figure 3. The heart in relation to other components of the chest.

The following table describes the function of several parts of the heart: Part Function Right atrium Receives blood from the body Right ventricle Pumps this blood into the pulmonary artery for delivery to the lungs Left atrium Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs Left ventricle Valves

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Pumps this oxygenated blood into the aorta, supplying the body • Located between the atria and ventricles and between the ventricles and the 2 major arteries (the pulmonary artery and the aorta) • Help maintain the forward flow of blood through the heart chambers and into the pulmonary artery or the aorta

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The heart has its own blood supply. The coronary arteries are the first branches of the aorta. They supply the myocardium and endocardium with oxygenated blood. The 2 main coronary arteries, the left coronary artery and the right coronary artery (Figure 4), branch into a complex network of arteries that supply all areas of the heart. Figure 4. The coronary arteries.

The Importance of Adequate Coronary Artery Blood Flow During CPR

Blood flow generated by chest compressions delivers a small but critical amount of oxygen and substrate to the brain and heart. In victims of ventricular fibrillation (VF) sudden cardiac arrest, chest compressions increase the likelihood that a shock will be successful. Chest compressions are especially important if the first shock is delivered ≥4 minutes after collapse.2-4 Much of the information about the physiology of chest compressions and the effect of varying compression rates, compression-ventilation ratios, and duty cycles (percent of time the chest is compressed versus time allowed for chest recoil) is derived from animal models. Researchers at the 2005 Consensus Conference,5 however, reached several conclusions about chest compressions: 1. “Effective” chest compressions are essential for providing blood flow during CPR. 2. To give effective chest compressions, “push hard and push fast” with a compression depth of 1½ to 2 inches (approximately 4 to 5 cm) for the adult. Compress the chest at a rate of about 100 compressions per minute. 3. Allow the chest to recoil completely after each compression, and allow approximately equal compression and relaxation times.

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4. Minimize interruptions in chest compressions. A measure of the effectiveness of CPR in providing blood flow to the myocardium is the coronary perfusion pressure (CPP). Effective chest compressions (as defined above) can generate and maintain adequate CPP. The level of CPP during CPR in animal studies correlates with myocardial blood flow and return of spontaneous circulation: increased CPP is associated with increased 24-hour survival. Each time chest compressions resume after an interruption for ventilation or some other procedure, several compressions are required to return CPP to its maximum level. Those first few compressions, therefore, are less effective than subsequent ones. This is one reason why minimal interruptions to chest compressions are emphasized and why the compression-to-ventilation ratio was increased in the 2005 AHA CPR guidelines. It is important to give both rescue breaths and chest compressions, but rescuers should try to limit any interruptions in chest compressions to no more than 10 seconds.

Physiology of the Heart

The function of the heart is to pump blood to the lungs and to the body. Arteries and veins carry the blood between the tissues of the body and the heart. In the tissues, oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the blood and the cells. This exchange takes place through the capillaries that connect the veins and arteries. All body cells need a continuous supply of oxygen to carry out normal functions. Processes in the cells (metabolism) produce carbon dioxide as a waste product. It must be eliminated from the body through the lungs. The heart is actually a double pump:

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Side of the Heart Right

Left

Function • Atrium receives blood that has returned from the body after delivering oxygen to body tissues • Ventricle pumps this dark, bluish-red blood to the lungs, where the blood: − Rids itself of carbon dioxide − Picks up a supply of oxygen, which gives the oxygen-rich blood a bright red color • Atrium receives the oxygen-rich blood from the lungs • Ventricle pumps blood into the aorta, which leads to smaller arteries that distribute it to all parts of the body

The adult heart at rest beats or pumps 60 to 100 times per minute. Each time the adult heart beats, it ejects about 2½ ounces of blood (approximately 70 milliliters). At rest the heart pumps about 5 quarts (approximately 5 liters) of blood per minute. During exercise the heart can pump up to 37 quarts (approximately 35 liters) per minute. The total blood volume of a person weighing 150 pounds is about 6 quarts (approximately 6 liters). Each contraction of the ventricles, or heartbeat, is begun by an electrical impulse. The heart has its own electrical pacemaker. The pacemaker produces an electrical impulse. The impulse is transmitted to the heart muscle by a specialized conduction system. The heart muscle contracts after it is stimulated by this electrical impulse. The contraction is followed by a period of relaxation. During relaxation the chambers of the heart fill with blood. This blood is ready to be pumped out by the ventricles with the next contraction. The heart has its own natural pacemaker. But heart rate can also be changed by nerve impulses from the brain or by substances in the blood that influence the pacemaker and the conduction system.

Pathophysiology of the Heart

The heart muscle needs oxygen just like any other tissue in the body. The coronary arteries supply blood to the heart. The blood supplies oxygen to the heart muscle. A coronary artery can be blocked by atherosclerosis or a blood clot. If the artery is blocked, the blood cannot reach the myocardium (heart muscle). When blood flow

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through a coronary artery is blocked, any one of several conditions may develop. These conditions are called acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and are discussed further in a later chapter. Angina Acute myocardial infarction (AMI), or heart attack

Description The pain that develops when the heart muscle is deprived of oxygen. • The heart muscle actually starts to die. • The size of a myocardial infarction is determined by where the artery is blocked, how severe the block is, and how much heart muscle the artery supplies beyond the block.

The management of ACS has improved a lot over the last 2 decades. Fibrinolytic agents (“clotbuster” medications) and percutaneous coronary interventions (PCIs, including angioplasty and possible stent placement) can reopen blocked coronary vessels, saving lives and improving quality of life.6-13 Early diagnosis and treatment of heart attack significantly reduce mortality,6 decrease the size of the heart attack,7 improve left ventricular function,8-11 and decrease the incidence of heart failure.12,13 These interventions, however, must be provided within the first few hours of symptom onset to be most effective.12,13 Some victims of heart attack may suffer a complication called ventricular fibrillation (VF). When VF is present, chaotic electrical impulses throughout the heart cause useless quivering of the heart. The heart stops pumping blood, and cardiac arrest is present. VF is the most frequent initial heart rhythm in witnessed sudden cardiac arrest. It must be treated rapidly with CPR and electrical defibrillation. The probability of successfully converting VF to a perfusing rhythm with defibrillation diminishes rapidly over time. Untreated VF changes to asystole within a few minutes.14-23 Asystole is a lack of electrical impulses in the heart. Sometimes it is referred to as “flatline.” In addition, good CPR provides some continued blood flow and oxygen delivery to the brain during cardiac arrest, reducing the likelihood of serious brain injury. Once asystole develops, the likelihood of successful resuscitation is extremely low.

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If CPR is provided, VF will last longer. If VF lasts longer, defibrillation is possible for more minutes following cardiac arrest. CPR also increases the likelihood that shock delivery will eliminate the VF and that, following shock delivery and elimination of VF using defibrillation, the heart will resume a normal rhythm. This is why it is so important to do effective CPR quickly and get and use an AED as fast as possible.

The Cerebrovascular System

Anatomy of the Brain

The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord (Figure 5). Figure 5. The brain and spinal cord.

Part Cerebrum

Hemispheres

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Description • The largest portion of the brain • Houses nerve centers that regulate all sensory and motor activities of the body • The cerebrum is divided into right and left halves, or hemispheres. • Each hemisphere contains a complete set of sensory and motor centers. • Generally the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body.

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Lobes

Brain stem

Circulation of the Brain

• The cerebral hemispheres are further subdivided into lobes, or sections with specific, distinct functions. Lack of blood supply to brain tissue in a specific area can therefore result in distinct and limited loss of the specific function controlled by that area of the brain. • The lower part of the brain. • Made up of bundles and tracts of nerves that travel down to the spinal cord from the cerebrum. • Includes distinct centers that monitor and control respiratory and circulatory function.

The brain requires a constant flow of oxygenated blood to function. If blood flow to the brain is interrupted, brain damage or death can result.

Part Carotid arteries

Vertebral arteries

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Description • 2 large arteries in the front of the neck • Supply most (80%) of the blood to the brain (Figure 6) • 2 arteries (right and left) in the back of the neck • Supply blood to the brain stem • Join the carotid arteries to form a network that supplies blood to the rest of the brain

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Figure 6. Brain circulation.

Pathophysiology of the Brain

Injuries or insults to the brain that damage discrete areas can result in loss of specific functions while other parts of the nervous system continue to function normally. For example, the sudden disruption or blockage of blood supply in an artery that supplies a particular area of the brain is known as a stroke. This can result in loss of movement or sensation to one side of the body while the patient remains alert and is able to move the other side of the body normally. Because each hemisphere of the brain controls function on the opposite side of the body, stroke victims usually have weakness and loss of sensation in the arm and leg on the side of the body opposite the side of the brain affected by stroke. Additional symptoms such as slurred speech or visual disruptions may be present, depending on the location of the stroke within the brain. Major injuries to the brain may cause more diffuse brain injury, with loss of responsiveness and reduced functions of the brain. For

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example, severe head injury or severe stroke may lead to altered mental status. Metabolic abnormalities affect all brain cells. A common example is hypoxia (lack of oxygen) during a cardiac arrest. The victim • Loses consciousness • Does not respond to stimuli such as pain • Has no ability to move voluntarily • Loses control of vital functions such as breathing When cardiac arrest develops, all cells in the body are affected, although the brain may sustain the most significant and immediate injury.

Interaction of Respiratory, Cardiac, and Brain Functions

The heart, lungs, and brain function interdependently. The lungs oxygenate the blood, and the heart delivers oxygenated blood to the brain. Respiratory or cardiac arrest will deprive the brain and other vital organs of oxygen. Sudden obstruction of blood flow or hemorrhage (bleeding) within the brain—the condition we call stroke—will deprive a portion of the brain of oxygen. In either case this deprivation will lead to a loss of brain function. Brain function also affects cardiac and respiratory function, which are regulated by specialized centers in the brain. Because the brain is the controlling center for other vital organ systems, brain dysfunction, such as that which may develop after a stroke, may contribute to cardiopulmonary failure and death.

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ACS: The Clinical Presentation of CHD

Overview

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) is caused by the formation of atheromatous plaques in the coronary arteries of the heart. It begins in the late teens or early 20s and progresses silently until there is critical narrowing of one or more coronary arteries, or acute plaque rupture or erosion occurs. The term acute coronary syndromes (ACS) refers to a spectrum of CHD disorders that have in common the rupture or erosion of a lipidladen unstable plaque (Figure 7). Angina pectoris (also known simply as angina), is a symptom that is often caused by ACS (there are other causes of angina). Distinguishing the cause of someone’s angina is beyond the scope of practice of most BLS healthcare providers. Therefore, this section will focus on the BLS healthcare provider’s response to angina with the presumption that ACS may be the cause. The two clinical presentations of ACS that will be considered as possible causes of the angina are acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and unstable angina (UA). Patients with either of these acute coronary syndromes are at risk of developing sudden cardiac arrest.

Clinical Disorder

Underlying Cause

Unstable angina (UA)

Partial or intermittent occlusion of the coronary artery

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI)

Plaque rupture or erosion

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Description If a coronary artery is only partially or intermittently occluded, the heart muscle may become ischemic and the patient may have chest pain or discomfort (angina). These patients may have angina at rest, angina that wakes the patient at night (nocturnal angina), or angina that is triggered with minimal exertion. At any time patients may develop sudden cardiac arrest caused by plaque rupture or erosion. These patients are acutely symptomatic as the result of a thrombus after plaque rupture or erosion. The thrombus has completely blocked a coronary artery and a myocardial infarction (heart attack) has developed. Treatment focuses on the need for rapid and complete re-opening of that coronary artery.

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Figure 7. The natural history of coronary heart disease: evolution to the major acute coronary syndromes.

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Angina Pectoris

The following table contains information about angina pectoris.

Characteristic Description

Causes

Typical symptoms

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Description • A transient discomfort (which may or may not be perceived as pain) caused by an inadequate blood flow and oxygen delivery to the heart muscle. • Frequently located in the center of the chest (called precordial or substernal) but may be more diffuse throughout the front of the chest. • The most frequent cause of angina is coronary atherosclerosis. • Often brought on by any factor that increases the heart rate, including − Exercise − Unusual exertion − Strong emotions − Extreme temperatures • Commonly lasts from 2 to 15 minutes. • Usually described as uncomfortable pressure, fullness, squeezing, or pain in the center of the chest (Figure 8). • May spread to one (more often the left) or both shoulders or arms or to the neck, jaw, back, or upper mid portion of the abdomen (epigastrium). • As the severity of the coronary narrowing increases, the amount of exertion needed to bring on angina decreases.

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Characteristic Atypical symptoms

Treatment

Description • Women, the elderly, and persons with diabetes often present with angina that is more diffuse in location and vague in description than classic angina. • May include − Shortness of breath − Syncope − Lightheadedness − Weakness − Nausea or vomiting − Diffuse pain24-28 • Usually promptly relieved by rest or nitroglycerin. • If exertional angina is not relieved by rest or (in the case of the patient with known CHD) 1 nitroglycerin tablet in 5 minutes, emergency medical evaluation is required.

Figure 8. Typical locations of chest pain during a heart attack.

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Unstable Angina

Treatment of Unstable Angina

Critical Concepts: Atypical Presentations of Angina

Immediately activate the emergency response system if angina in the patient with known heart disease is unrelieved or worsening after • 5 minutes of rest • 1 nitroglycerin tablet • 1 spray dose of nitroglycerin The elderly,29 patients with diabetes, and women24,26 are more likely to present with unusual, atypical angina without classic symptoms or with only vague, nonspecific complaints. All three groups can present with weakness, shortness of breath, syncope, or lightheadedness. The BLS provider must be aware of the many ways that patients may present with angina and be prepared to take action.

Heart Attack

The following table contains information about heart attacks: Characteristic Description

Causes

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Description Occurs when an area of the heart muscle is deprived of blood flow and oxygen for a prolonged period (usually more than 20 to 30 minutes) and the muscle begins to die. • Usually the result of severe narrowing or complete block of a diseased coronary artery or plaque rupture or erosion with secondary thrombus formation. • Rare causes include − Spasm of the arteries: blood vessel spasm (either spontaneous or secondary to drugs such as cocaine) blocks blood flow to heart muscle, causing a heart attack. − Dissection of the coronary artery − Embolism

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Characteristic Consequences

“Red Flags” or Warning Signs of Heart Attack

Description • When blood flow to the heart muscle is blocked for a sufficient period, the muscle becomes ischemic (damaged as a result of inadequate oxygenation). • If blood flow through the artery is not quickly restored, the heart muscle cells supplied by that artery will begin to die (necrosis). • Ischemic heart muscle (muscle that does not receive sufficient oxygen) may develop abnormal electrical rhythms, including ventricular fibrillation (VF). • VF most often develops within the first 4 hours of the onset of symptoms.

• Chest discomfort is the most important signal of a heart attack. The discomfort is similar to previous anginal episodes in character, location, and radiation but lasts considerably longer and is not relieved—or is only partially relieved—by rest or nitroglycerin.30 Some patients describe intense pain, but this is not universal. • Discomfort can occur in other areas of the upper body. Symptoms can include pain or discomfort in one or both arms, the back, neck, jaw, or stomach. • Other signs may include sweating, nausea, lightheadedness, or shortness of breath. • Be alert to the fact that in a long-term follow-up of the Framingham study, one third of first infarctions in men and half of those in women were clinically unrecognized.27 About one half of these were truly silent, but the other 50% had atypical presentations.28 − The discomfort may not be severe and the patient may complain only of related symptoms, such as shortness of breath. You should suspect that these symptoms represent atypical angina if they are prolonged and not relieved by rest or nitroglycerin, particularly in an elderly, diabetic, or female patient. − The person does not necessarily have to “look bad” or have all the symptoms for a heart attack to be present. − Stabbing, momentary twinges of pain are usually not signals of a heart attack. − If the patient uses the term sharp to describe the pain, ask him or her to use another word to clarify the meaning. One-word descriptions of pain can be ambiguous, and some patients use the term sharp when they mean intense, whereas others use it to describe the quality of the pain. Intense pain may be angina, whereas stabbing pain often is not.

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• Signals of a heart attack can develop in either sex, even in young adults, at any time and in any place.

Treatment

Treatment is determined by the type of heart attack or angina that the patient develops. The various types of heart attack may be identified by characteristic changes in the electrocardiogram (ECG) and possibly by serum markers of myocardial injury, often called cardiac enzymes.31 If a sudden complete occlusion of a larger coronary vessel develops, an ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) usually occurs. This clot is rich in thrombin. Fibrinolysis or direct percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) may limit infarct size if performed early enough. A partially occluding thrombus produces symptoms of ischemia, which are prolonged and may occur at rest. At this stage the thrombus is platelet-rich (Figure 7, E). Therapy with antiplatelet agents such as aspirin, clopidogrel, and GP IIb/IIIa receptor inhibitors is most effective at this time. Fibrinolytic therapy is not effective and may paradoxically accelerate occlusion by the release of clot-bound thrombin, which promotes coagulation. An intermittently occlusive thrombus may cause myocardial necrosis, producing a non–ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). In the absence of ST-segment elevation, patients with ischemic-type chest pain can present with ST-segment depression or nondiagnostic or even normal ECGs. ST-segment depression identifies a population at increased risk for major adverse myocardial events. Although many patients will not have ACS (ie, the ECG change is due to an alternative diagnosis, such as left-ventricular hypertrophy [LVH]), initial triage and therapy appropriately includes antiplatelet (including aspirin), antithrombin, and antianginal therapy. These patients usually have a partially or intermittently occluding thrombus. Clinical features can correlate with the dynamic nature of clot formation and breakdown, eg, waxing and waning clinical symptoms.

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Actions to Take for Victims of ACS

Initial Actions

The initial actions to take for someone with symptoms of ACS are, essentially, the same whether the patient is in a hospital or encountered in the out-of-hospital setting (for example, while you are off-duty): have the victim rest quietly and activate the emergency response number. Because both angina pectoris and heart attack are caused by a lack of adequate blood supply to the heart, the appropriate treatment for both is to stop activity. When heart rate or blood pressure increases, such as during activity, the heart requires more oxygen. Rest reduces heart rate and oxygen requirements of the heart and body. The victim should be allowed either to lie down or sit up, whichever allows the most comfort and the easiest breathing.

In-hospital Response

Subsequent steps for ACS patients include administration of oxygen, aspirin, nitroglycerin or morphine, as allowed by the scope of care for your profession and as prescribed by standing orders from the patient’s physician, the attending physician, or the local protocols of the hospital. Providers should also closely monitor the patient’s vital signs until advanced care personnel arrive. It is possible that the patient with symptoms of ACS could experience a cardiac arrest. You should be prepared to (1) notify the emergency response system of such a change in the patient’s status and (2) immediately begin CPR.

Out-ofhospital (“Off-duty”) Response

Many deaths from heart attack occur before the victim reaches the hospital. A great number of these fatalities could be prevented if the victim, a family member, or a bystander phones the emergency response system (911) in the first few minutes after the onset of symptoms. The most common cause of out-of-hospital death in heart attack victims is ventricular fibrillation (VF). VF can often be successfully treated with CPR and a defibrillator, but it will become fatal if it develops when the victim is alone, at home, or in another location away from a defibrillator and persons trained in CPR and use of the defibrillator. Despite efforts to educate the public about risk factors and the early warning signals of heart attack, the rate of death from this major killer remains high. Half of the patients who die of an acute myocardial infarction do so before reaching the hospital. VF or pulseless ventricular tachycardia (VT) is the precipitating arrhythmia in most of

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these deaths,32-34 and it is most likely to develop during the first 4 hours after onset of symptoms.35-38 It is essential to know and recognize the signals of heart attack to reduce the chance of a patient experiencing a cardiac arrest. By default, the initial treatment for an out-of-hospital ACS victim should be to have the victim rest quietly and phone the emergency response number (or 911). In addition, aspirin should be given as soon as possible to anyone with ACS, provided the patient does not have an aspirin allergy or signs of active or recent gastrointestinal bleeding. The patient should chew one (nonenteric-coated) aspirin (160 to 325 mg) as soon as possible. An alternative treatment protocol for a victim who has a known cardiovascular disease and a physician’s instruction to take nitroglycerin first, is as follows: Step 1 2

3 4

5

6

Aspirin

Action Have the victim stop activity and sit or lie down. Take nitroglycerin (tablet or spray under the tongue). Use of the nitroglycerin patch or ointment is not recommended because their onset of action is too slow, and absorption of the drug through the skin is unpredictable in the presence of heart attack. If the angina is unrelieved or worsens after 1 tablet of nitroglycerin, immediately activate the emergency response system. In general, if chest discomfort persists for 5 minutes despite rest, further medical evaluation is needed. In patients with known heart disease, activate the emergency response system if typical symptoms persist for 5 minutes despite rest and ingestion of 1 nitroglycerin tablet (see Figure 9). After activating the emergency response system, have the patient chew one (160 to 325 mg) aspirin (see below). The victim can take up to 2 additional nitroglycerin doses at 5 minute intervals. Closely monitor the patient’s vital signs until advanced care personnel arrive. In the event of a cardiac arrest, you should be prepared to (1) notify the emergency response system (911) of such a change in the patient’s status and (2) immediately begin CPR.

Aspirin should be given as soon as possible to anyone with acute coronary syndromes, provided the patient does not have an aspirin allergy or signs of active or recent gastrointestinal bleeding. The

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patient should chew one (nonenteric-coated) aspirin (160 to 325 mg) as soon as possible. Early administration of aspirin can reduce mortality. In a review of 145 trials, aspirin was found to substantially reduce vascular events in all patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI), and in high-risk patients it reduced nonfatal AMI and vascular death.39 Aspirin inhibits platelets and has other effects on clotting function that can reduce coronary artery re-occlusion and recurrent ischemic events after fibrinolytic therapy.

Nitroglycerin

Nitroglycerin is a drug that dilates coronary arteries and relieves the discomfort of ischemic-type chest pain/angina pectoris. Because nitroglycerin lowers blood pressure, the victim taking the drug should sit or lie down. Nitroglycerin may produce a stinging sensation under the tongue and may cause a headache. The absence of these symptoms, however, does not mean the tablets are old or ineffective. Nitroglycerin tablets often work, but they may be ineffective if • CHD is severe. • The patient develops ACS (with rupture and erosion of a plaque and thrombus formation). Also, a person who has recently taken erectile dysfunction medications should not take nitroglycerin for 24 to 48 hours. The combination of nitroglycerin and the erectile dysfunction medication may cause a sudden and significant drop in blood pressure. Age and light may deactivate nitroglycerin tablets. It is best to keep a fresh supply in a dark place and carry only a few tablets in a small, dark bottle, changing to fresh tablets every month or so. If the patient is using “old” nitroglycerin tablets, ask where fresh tablets that have not been exposed to light are kept. Some nitroglycerin sprays are effective for 2 years, and this form of nitroglycerin therapy may be delivered more reliably.

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Figure 9. Patient (advance) instructions for nitroglycerin use and EMS contact during chest discomfort/pain not related to trauma.

Precipitating Events of Heart Attack

Heart attack can occur under a wide variety of circumstances: • Most episodes of acute coronary syndromes occur at rest or with modest daily activity. • Heavy physical exertion is a precipitating event in a minority of patients, perhaps 10% to 15%.40,41 • Life events with a powerful personal impact (for example, the death of a spouse or other loved one, divorce, or loss of job) are commonly observed before heart attack and may be correlated.42,43 • Illicit drugs such as cocaine have clearly been shown to cause heart attacks and ventricular arrhythmias.44

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Denial: The Deadly Response to a Heart Attack

Victims of heart attack frequently deny the possibility of a heart attack with rationalizations such as the following: • It’s indigestion or something I ate. • It can’t happen to me. I’m too healthy. • I don’t want to bother my doctor. • I don’t want to frighten anyone. • I’ll use a home remedy. • I’ll feel ridiculous if it isn’t a heart attack. When the victim starts looking for reasons why he or she can’t be having a heart attack, it is a signal for a bystander or family member to seek help by accessing the EMS system. Out-of-hospital death from heart attack is often preventable. If VF develops after EMS personnel arrive, they will be prepared to provide CPR and defibrillation. All EMS providers can rapidly transport victims to the hospital and provide prearrival notification to the receiving hospital. Advanced EMS providers will be able to obtain and interpret a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). The 12-lead ECG will allow risk stratification of the patient and will determine the care needed. Prehospital notification and transmission of the out-of-hospital ECG (or its interpretation) will reduce the time to definitive care at the receiving hospital. EMS providers with advanced training are also capable of establishing intravenous (IV) access, administering drugs, and providing advanced support of ventilation. But none of these therapies will be available to the victim unless the EMS system is notified.

Critical Concepts: The Psychology of Denial of Heart Attack

Denial is a common reaction to emergencies such as heart attack. The victim’s first tendency may be to deny the possibility of a heart attack. This denial is not limited to the victim—it may also persuade the rescuer. The tendency of people involved in an emergency to deny or downplay the serious nature of the presenting problem is a natural one that must be overcome to provide rapid intervention and maximize the victim’s chance of survival. Denial of the serious nature of the symptoms delays treatment and increases the risk of death.45,46 The elderly, women, and persons with diabetes, hypertension, or known CHD are most likely to delay calling the EMS system.12

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Because the victim may deny the possibility of a heart attack, rescuers must be prepared to activate the EMS system and provide BLS as necessary. Public education campaigns have been effective in increasing public awareness of this important issue.47,48

EMS Actions to Take for Victims of ACS

Overview

Rapid access of the EMS system after recognition of the signs and symptoms of ACS has many benefits: • Emergency dispatchers can send the appropriate emergency team and provide patient care instructions for the patient before their arrival.49 • BLS-trained EMS providers can administer oxygen, nitroglycerin, and aspirin.50,51 Routine out-of-hospital administration of these medications by BLS ambulance providers is expected to reduce heart attack morbidity and mortality.52 − Nitroglycerin may be effective for relief of symptoms,53 and early administration of aspirin has been shown to reduce mortality in ACS.54 • EMS providers trained in advanced life support (ALS) monitor the heart rhythm continuously to immediately detect potentially lethal cardiac arrhythmias. − In many systems EMS providers are equipped and authorized to perform a 12-lead ECG and may even transmit it to the receiving facility. This enables diagnosis of a heart attack in progress and significantly reduces time to treatment, including fibrinolytic therapy or PCI, upon arrival at the hospital.55-60 − In the event of a complication (either at the scene or en route to the hospital), ALS EMS providers can administer lifesaving therapies, including rapid defibrillation, airway management, and IV medications.

Initial Assessment and Stabilization

BLS prehospital providers (EMS) must follow these steps for initial assessment and stabilization of suspected ACS.

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Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

History

Action Assess to determine whether you need to start the steps of CPR. • If yes, start CPR. • If no, go to step 2. Have the victim position himself so that he is comfortable and have him rest. Have an AED nearby and ready to use in the event the victim becomes unresponsive, stops breathing, and does not have a pulse. If you do not need to give CPR, provide supplementary oxygen even if initial evidence of oxygenation is good. Provide aspirin and nitroglycerin if trained and authorized to do so. Prepare the victim for transport to a hospital or transfer to ALS EMS providers. Closely monitor the patient’s vital signs. In the event of a cardiac arrest, you should be prepared to (1) notify the receiving hospital or provider en route of such a change in the patient’s status and (2) immediately begin CPR.

The BLS EMS provider obtains a focused history during preparation for transport, but obtaining the history should not delay transport of the ACS victim. The history should include questions about • The time of the onset of symptoms • The quality, intensity, location, radiation, and duration of chest discomfort • Initiating and relieving factors • Activity at onset of symptoms The EMS provider should also obtain a history of significant past medical problems and risk factors for ACS.

Physical Assessment

The physical assessment of the victim should not delay transport. It should focus on vital signs and assessment of signs of adequate oxygenation, ventilation, and perfusion. The BLS EMS provider should routinely evaluate skin color, temperature, and moisture. Typically victims with ACS will exhibit signs of a stress response, including cool, pale, and sweaty skin. The physical examination should include auscultation of breath sounds and assessment of work of breathing.

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Sudden Cardiac Arrest (SCA)

Overview

Sudden cardiac arrest occurs when the heart stops beating abruptly or unexpectedly. Sudden cardiac arrest may occur: • As the initial and only symptom of CHD • Before any other symptoms develop • In persons with known CHD • Within the first 4 hours after the onset of symptoms of a heart attack (most common) Patients who develop cardiac arrest need immediate CPR and will likely need defibrillation as soon as it is available. Within seconds after cardiac arrest, the victim becomes unresponsive and stops breathing. The victim may demonstrate an occasional agonal gasp. Gasping is not adequate breathing. The victim who is gasping needs CPR. The sooner circulation to the heart and brain is restored, the greater the chance for full recovery. After 4 to 6 minutes of cardiac arrest without CPR, significant brain damage often develops. Occasionally persons exposed to extreme cold (for example, a small child submerged in icy water) before cardiac arrest may recover normal brain function after longer periods of cardiac arrest. Such a recovery or survival, however, is not the norm.

Causes

Many things can cause cardiac arrest: • CHD (most common cause) • Primary respiratory arrest • Direct injury to the heart • Use of drugs • Disturbances in heart rhythm Brain injury does not always lead to cardiac arrest, because the heart does not require normal brain function to continue beating. If the brain injury causes respiratory arrest, this can precipitate a cardiac arrest. Even when respiration ceases, however, the heart may continue to beat for several minutes until the oxygen level in the blood is so low that the heart stops beating. In most episodes of sudden cardiac arrest the direct cause of the cardiac arrest is VF (an abnormal, chaotic, uncoordinated quivering of the heart muscle), which results in no blood flow. VF develops in approximately 5% of patients with heart attack, and this incidence has not changed over time.61 VF is responsible for most out-of-hospital

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deaths in patients with heart attack and is linked to increased inhospital mortality.61

Treatment

VF usually cannot be converted to an effective heartbeat without electrical defibrillation. Until defibrillation can be attempted, CPR is the only way to possibly maintain vital organ perfusion. Defibrillation consists of the application of electric shock to the heart through the chest wall. The electric shock depolarizes all myocardial cells at the same time, which may enable spontaneous coordinated electrical activity to return. Defibrillation should be performed as soon as possible, and CPR is needed for at least the first moments after defibrillation (possibly longer). Prompt CPR and early defibrillation increase the victim’s chance of survival. Early defibrillation is a vital link in the Chain of Survival (Figure 10).62 It has been shown to significantly improve outcome in victims of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.18,63-67 It can be performed by minimally trained personnel using automated external defibrillators (AEDs)68-70 (see “Automated External Defibrillation” in the BLS for Healthcare Providers Student Manual). BLS providers employed by systems that have AEDs should learn how to use them. Figure 10. The adult Chain of Survival.

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Acute Stroke

Overview

Stroke is the third leading cause of death in the United States and the leading cause of brain injury in adults. Each year approximately 700 000 Americans suffer a new or recurrent stroke and nearly a quarter of those die (Figure 11).71,72 Many advances have been made in stroke prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation.73,74 Fibrinolytic therapy offers the opportunity to limit neurologic insult and improve outcome in ischemic stroke patients when the fibrinolytics are administered by physicians in the setting of a clearly defined protocol, a knowledgeable team, and institutional commitment.75,76 But the time available for treatment is limited.75,76 Healthcare providers, hospitals, and communities must develop systems to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of stroke care.73 Failure to adhere to the protocol increases the risk of complications, including cerebral hemorrhage.77-79 For these reasons all patients presenting to the hospital within 3 hours of the onset of signs and symptoms consistent with acute ischemic stroke should be considered for IV fibrinolytic therapy.75,76,80,81 For patients with acute ischemic stroke who are not candidates for standard IV fibrinolysis, administration of intra-arterial fibrinolytic agents within 3 to 6 hours of symptom onset may also be beneficial. They should be administered in hospitals experienced with this therapy.82-84 The time available to provide this beneficial therapy is brief. 75,76 If fibrinolytic therapy is to be given for eligible victims of acute ischemic stroke, for most victims it must be provided within 3 hours of symptom onset. These time-limited treatments now available for stroke highlight the important role of lay rescuers, first responders, and EMS personnel. Early recognition, early intervention, and early transport of victims with suspected stroke from the scene to a hospital capable of managing acute stroke patients can substantially reduce morbidity and mortality.

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Figure 11. Estimated prevalence of stroke by age and sex, United States, 1999-2002. (From AHA Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics, 2005 Update. Dallas, Tex: American Heart Association; 2004; 16.)

Pathophysiology and Classification of Cerebrovascular Disease

The pathophysiology of an ischemic stroke is similar to that of a myocardial infarction. In both cases there is inadequate blood supply and oxygen delivery, usually as the result of an obstructing blood clot. This blood clot often obstructs flow in an artery that is already narrowed by atherosclerosis. Rapid intervention with fibrinolytic therapy can improve the outcome of stroke.75 The pathophysiology of hemorrhagic stroke is somewhat different. This type of stroke occurs when a vessel ruptures. The victim of a hemorrhagic stroke is not eligible for fibrinolytic therapy.

Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

A transient ischemic attack, or TIA, is a reversible episode of focal neurologic dysfunction that typically lasts a few minutes. It may be impossible to distinguish between a TIA and a stroke at the time of onset. If the neurologic symptoms completely resolve within 1 hour, the event is then classified as a TIA. In fact, most TIAs last only 5 to 10 minutes and completely resolve.85 TIAs are a significant indicator of stroke risk: • Approximately 10% of patients with a TIA, if untreated, will develop a stroke within 3 months.86,87 • Approximately one fourth of patients presenting with stroke have had a previous TIA.88

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A physician should evaluate patients who experience a TIA to identify therapies that may reduce the risk of stroke. Antiplatelet agents such as aspirin can reduce the risk of subsequent stroke in patients with TIA, and other treatment may be needed.

Stroke Definition

A stroke is a temporary or permanent loss of functioning in a region of the brain caused by an interruption in the blood supply to the brain. There are two types of strokes: • Ischemic • Hemorrhagic Stroke Ischemic

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Description • Comprises approximately 88% of all strokes • Results from complete occlusion of a cerebral artery caused by cerebral thrombosis (blood clot) or embolism (blockage of a vessel by a clot that has traveled from another location) • Can be life-threatening (about 20% die within 1 month) • Rarely leads to death within the first hour • Patients with ischemic stroke can be treated with fibrinolytic therapy if the drug can be administered within 3 hours of symptom onset and they have no contraindications to therapy. This requires rapid recognition of the onset of stroke symptoms by the stroke victims or family members, rapid EMS notification and EMS dispatch, rapid EMS transport with prearrival notification to a hospital capable of providing acute stroke care (hospital protocols for providing fibrinolytic therapy), and rapid diagnosis and treatment in the hospital, including identification of any contraindications to therapy. All of this must take place within 3 hours of symptom onset if the patient is to be eligible for fibrinolytic therapy.

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Hemorrhagic

• Caused by cerebral artery rupture with bleeding • Two types: Subarachnoid Intracerebral Bleeding into the Bleeding into the tissue surface of the brain of the brain Most common cause: Most common cause: aneurysm89,90 hypertension91,92 • Can be fatal at onset93 • Patients may present with one or more of the following: − Appear more seriously ill than patients with ischemic stroke − Deteriorate more rapidly − Present with more severe headaches − Display more marked disturbances of consciousness − Have more severe nausea and vomiting • Fibrinolytic therapy cannot be administered to patients with hemorrhagic stroke because it would worsen intracerebral bleeding. • Some patients with hemorrhagic stroke can benefit from surgical intervention.94,95

Classification of Stroke

Strokes may be classified in several ways. One method classifies the stroke according to the portion of the brain circulation that is affected. This classification divides strokes into those involving the carotid (anterior) circulation and those that involve the vertebrobasilar (posterior) circulation.

The AHA ECC Chain of Survival for the Stroke Victim

The AHA and the American Stroke Association have developed a community-oriented “stroke chain of survival” that links specific actions to be taken by patients and family members with recommended actions by out-of-hospital healthcare responders, emergency department personnel, and in-hospital specialty services: • Rapid recognition and reaction to stroke warning signs • Rapid initiation of out-of-hospital care • Rapid EMS system transport and hospital prenotification • Rapid diagnosis and treatment in the hospital Stroke victims will rarely require defibrillation, although arrhythmias are common during the first 24 hours after a stroke.96 Stroke victims do

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require early care with rapid transport and prearrival notification to a hospital capable of treating acute stroke.

The Key Points in Stroke Management: The 7 “D’s” of Stroke Care

Use the 7 “D’s” mnemonic97 to remember key points in the management of the stroke patient: • Detection • Dispatch • Delivery • Door • Data • Decision • Drug Delay may occur at any of these points of management, so at each point, response to and management of the stroke victim must be skilled and efficient. The first 3 D’s are the responsibility of the community, including the lay public, first responders, and EMS responders: • Detection. Detection occurs when a patient, family member, or bystander recognizes the signs and symptoms of a stroke or TIA and phones the emergency response number (or 911). • Dispatch. EMS dispatchers must then prioritize the call for a suspected stroke patient as they would a victim of heart attack or serious trauma and dispatch the appropriate EMS team with high response priority. • Delivery. EMS providers must respond quickly, use a rapid prehospital stroke screening tool to identify the signs and symptoms of a suspected stroke, provide prearrival notification to the receiving hospital, and transport (deliver) the patient to a hospital capable of caring for patients with acute stroke. EMS providers should consider transporting the victim’s relative or family member to confirm the time of symptom onset. The receiving hospital will rapidly evaluate the patient, determine eligibility for fibrinolytics, and provide fibrinolytic therapy (if determined to be safe and appropriate) within 3 hours of the onset of stroke symptoms (goal: within 1 hour after arrival at the emergency department). These 3 points are discussed in greater detail below. The last 4 D’s are initiated in the hospital: • Door. Initial emergency department triage and evaluation • Data. Acquiring a CT scan to diagnose the absence of hemorrhage in the brain • Decision. Identifying candidates eligible for fibrinolytic therapy • Drug. Treating with fibrinolytic therapy

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Detection of Warning Signs of Stroke

Recognition of the signs and symptoms of stroke is critical to early intervention and treatment. The presentation of stroke may be subtle. Signs and symptoms of stroke may include • Sudden weakness or numbness of the face, arm, or leg, especially on one side of the body • Sudden confusion, trouble speaking or understanding • Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes • Sudden trouble walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination • Sudden severe headache with no known cause Patients at high risk for stroke and their families should be taught the warning signs of stroke and should be instructed to phone the emergency response number (or 911) whenever signs of stroke are suspected. In one recent study of stroke patients, only 8% had been educated about the signs of stroke, yet nearly half had experienced a prior TIA or stroke.98 The education of at-risk patients and their families is the responsibility of healthcare providers, and the information should be reinforced in every contact with the patient and family.

Dispatch: Early EMS Activation and Dispatch Instructions

As soon as signs or symptoms of a stroke are suspected, family members or other bystanders should immediately phone the emergency response number (or 911). This is the first critical link in the Stroke Chain of Survival. Rapid recognition and reaction, including phoning the emergency response number (or 911), begins to link the stroke victim to medical care. This first link can make possible such therapies as fibrinolytics, which can improve survival and function after stroke. Rapid access of the EMS system after recognition of stroke is necessary for several reasons. Most important, stroke patients who are transported by the EMS system arrive at the hospital faster than those who are not. Studies have documented that contacting the family physician or having a family member drive the victim to the hospital actually delays the stroke victim’s arrival at the hospital, and the delay is often sufficient to make the patient ineligible for treatment.99-101 Arrival at a hospital capable of caring for patients with acute stroke within 1 to 2 hours of the onset of stroke symptoms increases the likelihood that the stroke victim will be eligible for timecritical therapy, such as fibrinolytics.102-106 When the EMS system is accessed, emergency dispatchers can send the appropriate emergency team and provide patient care instructions

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before their arrival.107-109 EMS responders can then transport the victim to a hospital capable of caring for patients with acute stroke and notify that facility before arrival to ensure rapid hospital-based evaluation and treatment. EMS dispatchers play a critical role in the timely treatment of potential stroke victims. They are responsible for suspecting a stroke when they receive a call for help, and they must prioritize the call appropriately to ensure a rapid response by the EMS system. EMS systems must provide education and training to minimize delays in prehospital dispatch, assessment, and transport. Emergency medical dispatchers must identify potential stroke victims and provide high-priority dispatch to patients with possible stroke. EMS providers must be able to support cardiopulmonary function, perform rapid stroke assessment, establish time of onset of symptoms (or last time the patient was known to be normal), triage and transport the patient, and provide prearrival notification to the receiving hospital.107,108,110,111 EMS providers should consider transporting the victim’s relative or family member to confirm the time of symptom onset or the last time the patient seemed normal. Eighty-five percent of strokes occur at home, and currently only half of stroke victims in the United States are transported to the hospital by the EMS system.99-101 Strokes that occur when the victim is alone or sleeping may further delay prompt recognition and action.112 Public education programs have focused their efforts on persons at risk for stroke and their friends and family members.113 Public education has successfully increased the proportion of patients treated with fibrinolytic therapy.114,115 After phoning the emergency response number (or 911), the lay rescuer should provide supportive care, including • Reassurance • Use of the recovery position (if the victim is unresponsive) • Rescue breathing • CPR if needed Dealing With Denial

Stroke victims may • Be unable to understand that they are having a stroke • Deny their symptoms with rationalizations98 Most stroke victims delay access to care for hours after symptom onset.99-101 This delay can eliminate the possibility of fibrinolytic therapy.

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Out-of-hospital Management of Stroke

The EMS System and BLS Care

In the past BLS EMS providers received minimal training in stroke assessment and care.107,108,110,116 Effective programs are needed to train EMS personnel to accurately recognize and prioritize stroke.101,117 BLS EMS providers now play a critical role in • Recognition and stabilization of the potential stroke victim • Selection of a receiving hospital capable of administering fibrinolytic therapy • Rapid transport Each receiving hospital should define its capability for treating patients with acute stroke and should communicate this information to the EMS system and the community. Although not every hospital can organize the necessary resources to safely administer fibrinolytic therapy, every hospital with an emergency department should have a written plan describing how to manage patients with acute stroke in that institution. The plan should • Detail the roles of healthcare professionals in the care of patients with acute stroke • Define which patients will be treated with fibrinolytic therapy at that facility • Describe when transfer to another hospital with a dedicated stroke unit is appropriate Multiple randomized clinical trials and meta-analyses in adults document consistent improvement in 1-year survival rate, functional outcomes, and quality of life when patients hospitalized with acute stroke are cared for in a dedicated stroke unit by a multidisciplinary team experienced in managing stroke.101,117-119 These studies were performed at sites outside the United States in medical units where both acute and rehabilitative care were provided. Because the improved outcomes were observed within a few days, the results are expected to be relevant to care in dedicated stroke units in the United States. When such a facility is available within a reasonable transport interval, stroke patients who require hospitalization should be admitted there. EMS service policies should give the same high dispatch, treatment, and transport priorities to patients with signs and symptoms of an acute ischemic stroke as those given to patients with signs and symptoms of heart attack or major trauma. Patients with suspected stroke with airway compromise or altered level of consciousness

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should be given the same high dispatch, treatment, and transport priorities as similar patients without stroke symptoms. The goals of out-of-hospital management by BLS EMS providers for patients with suspected stroke include • Priority dispatch and response • Initial assessment and management • Rapid identification of stroke (using a standardized stroke scale) • Rapid transport of the victim to a hospital capable of caring for patients with acute stroke • Prearrival notification to the receiving hospital Initial Out-ofhospital BLS Assessment of ABCs

The initial assessment of the stroke victim should be accomplished as quickly as possible by addressing the ABCs (airway, breathing, and circulation). Airway obstruction (most commonly caused by the tongue and epiglottis) may develop if the patient is unresponsive or has an altered level of consciousness. In an unresponsive patient, open an airway obstructed by the tongue with a head tilt–chin lift or jaw-thrust maneuver. Inadequate ventilation may occur because the patient’s tongue is obstructing the airway, and rescue breathing may be required. Inadequate ventilation may also develop because the patient has a decreased level of consciousness or because the patient has vomited and aspirated. Because the patient may vomit, suction or manual techniques may be needed to clear and maintain a patent airway. Hypotension, if present, is rarely due to stroke, so other causes should be considered.

History and Physical Assessment

Stroke should be suspected in any patient with sudden loss of neurologic function on one side of the body or sudden alteration in consciousness. Symptoms occasionally occur alone, or they can occur in any combination. The findings can be most severe at the beginning, wax and wane, or worsen progressively. The clinical presentations of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke often overlap. Both types of stroke are likely to cause facial droop, unilateral motor weakness or paralysis, and difficulties in speech, But some symptoms are useful for initially distinguishing ischemic from hemorrhagic stroke.

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Headaches (often described by the victim as a sudden onset of “the worst headache of my life”), disturbances in consciousness, nausea, and vomiting are more prominent with hemorrhagic stroke than with ischemic stroke. Loss of consciousness may be transient, with resolution by the time the patient receives medical attention. Patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage may have an intense headache without focal neurologic signs. It is important to note that clinical presentation alone cannot distinguish between ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. A CT scan will be required to rule out hemorrhagic stroke before fibrinolytics can be administered. The patient with an ischemic stroke may be eligible for in-hospital treatment with fibrinolytic therapy. This requires that all of the following happen within 3 hours of onset of symptoms: • Transport victim to hospital with prearrival notification • Mobilize a treatment team at the receiving hospital • Determine eligibility with a CT scan (obtained and interpreted) and other eligibility criteria • Administer fibrinolytic therapy Awareness of these time-critical factors should be incorporated into out-of-hospital assessment and management.

History

After a stroke the patient may be able to communicate well. If at all possible, establish the chief complaint and symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, weakness, seizure, or difficulty speaking. EMS providers should establish the time of onset of signs and symptoms of stroke. This timing has important implications for potential therapy. The onset of symptoms is viewed as the beginning of the stroke, and eligibility for IV fibrinolytic therapy ends 3 hours from that time. Ask family members or friends at the scene when the patient last appeared to be normal (eg, when the patient went to bed or other information that will give the receiving hospital some estimate of the time of onset of symptoms). Alternative Diagnoses

The differential diagnosis of stroke is somewhat limited. Few neurologic illnesses have a similar sudden course. The number of alternative diagnoses is larger when the patient is comatose or when

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no history of the current illness is available. These are some alternatives: • Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) can cause confusion and focal neurologic deficits without a major alteration in consciousness. It is an important consideration in a diabetic patient. • Seizures can be unwitnessed, and the patient may be found with only focal neurologic signs after the seizure (postictal paralysis) that can last several hours. • A fall may cause a head injury. Physical Assessment and Management

The following table lists the steps for assessing and managing a stroke victim.

Step 1 2 3

4

Action Ensure an adequate airway. Obtain vital signs. Conduct a brief general assessment. Look for trauma to the head or neck, cardiovascular compromise, or other abnormalities. Out-of-hospital, quickly use a validated tool such as • the Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale107,118-120 • the Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (LAPSS)121,122 Both tools are described below. Once the diagnosis of stroke is suspected, minimize time in the field and prepare the patient for immediate transport to a hospital capable of caring for patients with acute stroke.

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Figure 12. Facial droop in patient with stroke. A, Normal. B, Droop apparent on the right side of the face when patient attempts to smile.

A

B

Figure 13. Arm drift. When you ask the patient to close both eyes and hold both arms straight out with the palms up, weakness on one side of the body may become more apparent.

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Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale

Unilateral abnormality in any of the 3 areas is strongly suggestive of a stroke. Try to elicit one of the following signs (abnormality in any one is strongly suggestive of stroke): • Facial droop (have patient show teeth or smile) (Figure 12): − Normal: both sides of face move equally well − Abnormal: one side of face does not move as well as the other side • Arm drift (have patient close eyes and extend both arms straight out with palms face up for 10 seconds) (Figure 13): − Normal: both arms move the same or both arms do not move at all − Abnormal: one arm does not move or one arm drifts down • Abnormal speech (have the patient say “you can’t teach an old dog new tricks”): − Normal: patient uses correct words with no slurring − Abnormal: patient slurs words, uses the wrong words, or is unable to speak From reference 118.

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Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (LAPSS)

For evaluation of acute, noncomatose, nontraumatic neurologic complaint. If items 1 through 6 are ALL checked “yes” (or “unknown”), notify the receiving hospital before arrival of the potential stroke patient. If any are checked “no,” follow appropriate treatment protocol. Interpretation: Ninety-three percent of patients with stroke will have positive findings (all items checked “yes” or “unknown”) on the LAPSS (sensitivity = 93%), and 97% of those with positive findings will have a stroke (specificity = 97%). The patient may still be having a stroke if LAPSS criteria are not met.

Criteria

Yes Unknown

No

1. Age >45 years 2. History of seizures or epilepsy absent 3. Symptom duration <24 hours 4. At baseline, patient is not wheelchair bound or bedridden 5. Blood glucose between 60 mg/dL and 400 mg/dL 6. Obvious asymmetry (right versus left) in any of the following 3 categories (must be unilateral)

Equal

R Weak

L Weak

(check all that apply)

(check all that apply)

Smile/grimace

Droop

Droop

Grip

Weak grip

Weak grip

No grip

No grip

Drifts down

Drifts down

Falls rapidly

Falls rapidly

Arm strength

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Adapted from Kidwell CS, Saver JL, Schubert GB, Eckstein M, Starkman S. Design and retrospective analysis of the Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (LAPSS). Prehosp Emerg Care. 1998;2:267-273, and Kidwell CS, Starkman S, Eckstein M, Weems K, Saver JL: Identifying stroke in the field: prospective validation of the Los Angeles Prehospital Stroke Screen (LAPSS). Stroke. 2000;31:71-76.

Out-ofhospital Management

The provider’s first priority must always be assessment and support of airway, breathing, and circulation. Cardiac arrest in stroke patients is uncommon, but because many stroke victims have an altered level of consciousness, airway and breathing problems are frequent. BLS procedures include the head tilt–chin lift maneuver, jaw thrust, clearing of airway secretions, and rescue breathing as appropriate. Seizures and Strokes

Seizures may complicate stroke. Follow these steps to treat a victim with a seizure: Step 1 2 3 4 5

Action Protect the victim’s head (if possible, place something soft underneath it, such as a towel or your hands, to prevent injury). Observe the victim during and after the seizure. At the end of the seizure, assess airway and breathing. If breathing is adequate, place the victim in a recovery position to allow pooled secretions to clear. Do not place objects or fingers in the victim’s mouth, and do not restrain the victim’s movements. Aspiration of food may occur as a complication of any seizure.

Many stroke victims demonstrate arrhythmias, including ventricular tachyarrhythmias and atrial fibrillation.123-125 These arrhythmias may point to an underlying cause of the stroke (eg, atrial fibrillation with embolism) or may be a consequence of the stroke. Bradycardia may indicate hypoxia or elevation in intracranial pressure. Most arrhythmias in stroke patients do not require treatment. Unless the patient requires stabilization, rapid patient transport should be the highest priority. EMS should transport a patient with stroke symptoms to an emergency receiving facility that has a proven capability of initiating fibrinolytic therapy for appropriate stroke patients within 1 hour of arrival unless such an emergency facility is more than 30 minutes away by ground ambulance. © 2006 American Heart Association

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A North American study has revealed that the vast majority of residents live within a 30-minute drive of a hospital with 24-hour CT scanning capability.126 EMS physicians should work with neurologists and local hospitals to establish clear destination protocols for patients suspected of having an acute stroke. Prearrival notification shortens the time to definitive hospital-based evaluation and intervention for patients with stroke.110,111,116 In addition to standard information, EMS systems should communicate to the receiving hospital (prior to arrival) the results of the Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale or the LAPSS, as well as the estimated time of symptom onset. This allows the receiving hospital time to prepare and coordinate the patient’s time-critical care. The receiving facility should have a written plan to initiate therapy as quickly as possible.

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CPR and Defibrillation: The Human Dimension

Overview

This section covers the human dimension of CPR and defibrillation.

Outcomes of Resuscitation

Since 1973 more than 70 million people have learned CPR. Many public health experts consider CPR training to be the most successful public health initiative of modern times. Millions of people have been willing to learn how to take action to save the life of a fellow human being. No matter how exciting the new developments in resuscitation, the reality is that many resuscitative efforts will fail. The effect of this failure on the rescuer can be profound.

Stress Reactions

Overview

A cardiac arrest is a dramatic and emotional event, especially if the victim is a friend or loved one. The emergency may involve disagreeable physical details, such as bleeding, vomiting, or poor hygiene. Any emergency can be emotionally charged, especially if the rescuer is closely involved with the victim. The emergency can produce strong emotional reactions in bystanders, lay rescuers, and healthcare professionals alike. Failed attempts at resuscitation can impose even more stress on rescuers. This stress can result in a variety of emotional reactions and physical symptoms that may last long after the original emergency. These reactions are frequent and quite normal. It is common for a person to experience emotional aftershocks when he or she experiences an unpleasant event. Usually stress reactions occur immediately or within the first few hours after the event. Sometimes the emotional response occurs later.127 Remember that these reactions are common and normal. Psychologists often describe these reactions as normal responses to an abnormal situation. Strong reactions simply indicate that a particular event had a powerful impact. With understanding and the support of loved ones, stress reactions usually pass quickly.

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Physical Reactions • Difficulty sleeping • Fatigue • Irritability • Changes in eating habits • Confusion • Inability to stop thinking about the event128

Emotional Reactions • Grief • Anxiety • Anger • Guilt129

Critical Incident Stress Debriefings

Overview

Psychologists have learned that the most successful way to reduce stress after rescue efforts is very simple: Talk about it.130 This may be helpful. You may want to sit down with other people who witnessed the event and talk it over. EMS personnel are encouraged to offer emotional support to lay rescuers and bystanders. More formal discussions should include not only lay rescuers but also professional responders. In these discussions participants should be encouraged to describe what happened and to relive the event. It is natural and healthy to do this. Most reactions will diminish within a few days. Sharing thoughts and feelings with companions at work, fellow rescuers, EMS personnel, friends, or clergy may prevent stress reactions and help with recovery.130

Critical Incident Stress Debriefings (CISDs)

In some locations emergency services leaders may conduct more formal discussions or debriefings after resuscitation attempts.130 A great deal of controversy surrounds the concept of CISDs. Local policies should determine when these debriefings are appropriate and how they should be conducted. Specially trained teams may be available to organize and conduct CISDs. These teams are usually associated with EMS services, employee assistance programs, community mental health centers, or public school systems. Other sources of psychological and emotional support are local clergy, police chaplains, fire service chaplains, or hospital and ED social workers.127-130

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Psychological Barriers to Resuscitation

Overview

Both students and healthcare professionals may express concerns about performing CPR and using an AED.131,132

Concerns • Fear of imperfect performance • Fear of responsibility • Anxiety • Guilt133 Fear of infection

Fear of lawsuits

Possible Solutions Training programs should incorporate information about willingness to perform CPR and encourage students to develop an individualized action plan in the event of an emergency.134

• Even healthcare professionals may express a fear of performing mouth-to-mouth ventilation.131,132 • There is little risk of contracting an infection when giving CPR. • Those with a duty to respond to a cardiac emergency have a responsibility to provide timely CPR, including ventilations and chest compressions. • Professional and workplace rescuers should carry a barrier device or positive-pressure ventilation device with them at all times. • Having a barrier device immediately available is likely to increase rescuers’ confidence and willingness to provide timely interventions. • Approximately 70% of all cardiac arrests occur in the home, where the victim is likely to be a friend or relative.135 • Fear of lawsuits is sometimes a concern for rescuers faced with performing CPR in a nonprofessional setting.136 • Good Samaritan limited immunity regulations or legislation in all 50 states provides immunity for anyone who renders care gratuitously (without charge for that care) and in good faith (ie, trying to save a life). • The likelihood of litigation arising from a CPR attempt is extremely low. There has never been a successful lawsuit against a lay rescuer who attempted to provide CPR for a victim of cardiac arrest. • Although professional rescuers are held to a higher standard than lay rescuers, most states provide Good Samaritan protection for professional rescuers performing CPR in a nonprofessional setting.

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Modesty

• Both CPR and defibrillation require that the rescuer remove clothing from the victim’s chest. • The rescuer must open the cardiac arrest victim’s shirt or blouse, and it may be necessary to remove (or cut) the person’s undergarments. Rescuers can give CPR with a brassiere in place provided it does not interfere with the rescuer’s ability to push hard enough during compressions. • Common courtesy and modesty may inhibit the rescuer from removing the clothing of a stranger, especially in front of other people in a public location. • Rescuers should anticipate these possible feelings and not let courtesy or modesty delay immediate lifesaving interventions for a victim of cardiac arrest.137

Principles of Ethics and Decisions About Resuscitation

Overview

The goal of medical therapy is to preserve life, restore health, relieve suffering, and limit disability. These goals are influenced by society’s common values—autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. CPR is a medical therapy that must be considered within the context of these goals and ethical values. It should be used to preserve life, restore health, and limit disability. Often these goals cannot be achieved. As for all medical interventions, there are indications and contraindications to the use of CPR. Ethical values should be considered, including the potential benefit to patients and their requests regarding its use. CPR is unique, however, in that there is no time for deliberation before beginning resuscitation, and unlike other medical therapies, CPR is instituted without physician’s orders. It is begun on the premise of implied consent. Because one of the primary goals of medical therapy is to preserve life, there is a strong presumption in favor of giving CPR, and the standard of care remains that CPR should be initiated promptly unless specific contraindications exist. The purpose of this section is to guide healthcare providers in making difficult decisions about starting and stopping CPR. These are guidelines only. Each decision must be individualized and made with compassion and reason.138

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DNAR Orders

Beneficence and advocacy are values that encourage the healthcare provider to defend each patient’s best interest. Sometimes there is disagreement between the physician’s view and the patient’s view of what is in the patient’s best interest, and this should be resolved in favor of the patient’s view whenever possible. Patient Autonomy

Patient autonomy has become a dominant value in medical decision making. A competent and informed person has a moral and legal right to choose whether to consent to or to refuse medical interventions.139 The physician has an obligation to determine the patient’s decisionmaking capacity and to provide him or her with enough information to make an informed decision. Advance Directives

If the patient cannot make an informed decision about CPR, the attending physician should consider the patient’s advance directives or decisions by appropriate surrogates as well as the patient’s likely response to CPR. By using advance directives, competent patients can indicate what interventions they wish to refuse or accept should they lose the capacity to make decisions about their care. Advance directives include written directives, living wills, and durable powers of attorney for health care. Advance directives may be vague and require interpretation and development of a care plan with specific physician’s orders (ie, “do not attempt resuscitation” [DNAR]). Physicians should endeavor to have each patient clearly state advance directives, even if the patient’s health status is good. The term DNAR is used to request that in the event of a cardiac arrest, no cardiopulmonary resuscitative measures will be instituted. If a DNAR order is in effect when a patient has a cardiac arrest, no further resuscitative treatment will be provided. DNAR orders do not preclude • The administration of other forms of beneficial medical therapy (eg, oxygen, IV fluids) • Advanced life support efforts (eg, volume therapy or administration of antiarrhythmics) before the development of cardiac arrest140

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The physician must obtain informed consent for writing a DNAR order or provide informed disclosure in cases where it can be shown that CPR is of no physiological benefit.141 The order should be discussed with the patient’s family, as appropriate. The right to refuse care does not mean that the patient has the right to demand nonbeneficial treatments. However, it is often difficult to determine if a resuscitative attempt will be futile or of no benefit to the patient. The determination of efficacy or futility should be based on physiological outcome criteria, not quality-of-life criteria.

Initiating and Discontinuing CPR

Determination of Death in the Out-ofhospital Setting

For patients who experience sudden cardiac arrest, prompt initiation of CPR remains the standard of care. Criteria for not starting CPR include • Rigor mortis • Lividity • Tissue decomposition • Obviously fatal trauma • Unwitnessed death in the presence of serious, chronic, debilitating disease in the terminal stage of a fatal illness142 • valid DNAR orders143 Successful resuscitation is rarely achieved for patients in traumatic cardiac arrest in the out-of-hospital setting and typically only under specific clinical conditions (eg, short term arrest due to penetrating trauma with short transport time to definitive surgical intervention).144-

147

Pronouncement of death requires direct communication with physician medical control unless local protocol dictates otherwise. Brain death cannot be determined by out-of-hospital personnel, and pupil status or other evidence of neurologic activity should not be used to determine death in the out-of-hospital setting.148 Patients who are hypothermic should be aggressively resuscitated even when long transport times are involved.

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Discontinuing BLS

Rescuers who initiate BLS should continue until one of the following occurs: • Restoration of effective spontaneous circulation and ventilation • Transfer of care to emergency medical responders or other trained personnel who continue BLS or initiate advanced life support • Transfer of care to a physician who determines that resuscitation should be discontinued • Inability to continue resuscitation because of exhaustion, because environmental hazards endanger the rescuer, or because continued resuscitation would jeopardize the lives of others • Presentation of a valid DNAR order to the rescuers

Hospital Policies Regarding CPR

Overview

Hospitals are required by the Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Health Care Organizations (JCAHO) to have written policies for DNAR orders. Hospitals need to review these policies periodically to reflect • Developments in medical technology • Changes in guidelines for CPR • Changes in the law149,150 Hospital policies should state that the attending physician is required to write DNAR orders in the patient’s chart. The rationale for the DNAR order and other specific limits to care should be documented in the progress notes.151 Oral DNAR orders can create problems; they may be misunderstood and may place nurses and other healthcare workers in legal jeopardy. DNAR orders should be reviewed periodically, particularly if the patient’s condition changes and especially before the patient undergoes anesthesia.152,153 A DNAR order means only that CPR will not be initiated. It does not mean that other care should be limited. These orders should not lead to abandonment of patients or denial of appropriate medical and nursing care. They do not constitute “giving up.” For many patients interventions for diagnosis or treatment remain appropriate after a DNAR order is written.148 Hospitals are now required to have advisers, such as ethics committees, that can respond to requests for resolution of ethical

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questions. Ethics committees traditionally have been consultative and advisory and are effective in organizing educational programs and developing hospital policies and guidelines regarding CPR.149,150

CPR in Nursing Homes

Nursing homes should develop and implement institutional guidelines for providing CPR to or withholding CPR from their residents. Care plans for residents should be individualized because CPR may not be indicated for all residents. Guidelines for withholding or initiating CPR should be based on clinical criteria and patient preferences. All patients should be encouraged to state clearly whether they prefer resuscitation should the need arise.154-156

Community Systems for Communicating DNAR Orders

Overview

There is often confusion about whether a DNAR order is transferred from the hospital to the out-of-hospital setting. Out-of-hospital settings include homes, nursing homes, and public places. There are problems with how to identify patients who have a DNAR order.157 The most commonly used method is a standard form that is available from health departments, EMS agencies, or physicians. Other methods include the use of a bracelet, an identification card, or a central registry. Healthcare providers and patients should be educated about appropriate documentation and authenticity of various DNAR orders in their local system. Sometimes a family member may demand CPR despite the presence of a DNAR order at the scene of an emergency. If there is any question of the validity of a DNAR order, it may be appropriate in such cases to begin resuscitation and transport the patient to the hospital. Caregivers can withdraw treatment when the conflicts are resolved and the authenticity and legitimacy of the DNAR order are validated. Sometimes there is confusion about the difference between DNAR orders and living wills.158 DNAR orders are physician orders directed to healthcare personnel specifically to withhold CPR. Living wills are legal documents stating a patient’s preference regarding many forms of medical care to be implemented if the patient loses decision-making capacity.140 Living wills require interpretation and formulation into a medical care plan and often require an assessment of • Patient’s decision-making capacity

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• Presence of terminal illness • Identification of proxies • Formulation of vague requests into specific treatment plans Confusion may occur when living wills (not DNAR orders) are presented to EMS personnel who provide emergency cardiovascular care (ECC). Because of the complexity and lengthiness of living wills, EMS personnel often cannot quickly interpret them or verify their validity. State laws, local ordinances, or EMS policy about the applicability of living wills in the out-of-hospital setting should be reviewed. Advance directives that include written notations by the patient or verbal requests by family members about what the patient would want do not generally meet the procedural requirements for withholding emergency medical care.

Legal Aspects of CPR

Overview

Although the provision of medical care is guided by the standard of care determined by the medical profession, courts, legislative bodies, and regulatory agencies have increasingly influenced the practice of medicine. State courts have consistently upheld the patient’s right to refuse medical care. State living-will laws provide procedural guidelines for patients who wish to exercise this right to direct their medical care should they lose decision-making capacity. Living wills are statutorily defined documents providing very specific instructions by which people convey their requests in a fashion that is legally enforceable. The Federal Patient Self-determination Act requires various healthcare agencies to inform patients of their rights under state living-will laws.140,159

Good Samaritan Laws

Virtually all 50 states have enacted laws or regulations to protect persons who render aid in an emergency from liability. These laws are intended to encourage people to render aid in emergencies without fear of litigious consequences. Good Samaritan laws generally provide that persons who render aid at the scene of an emergency will not be liable for civil damages if they act in good faith and are not specifically compensated for that aid.

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What Situations They Cover

Some states allow protection only if the aid is provided at the scene of the emergency. Most Good Samaritan laws provide that the person rendering emergency aid must have provided it in good faith, must not have acted with the expectation of remuneration, must not have been the cause of the emergency, and must not have been willfully or wantonly negligent in providing the aid.

Legal Aspects of AED Use

Overview

In the United States fear of malpractice accusations and product liability lawsuits increases every year. Innovative programs to bring early CPR and early defibrillation into every community have fallen under the shadow of this fear.160 The fear of malpractice suits is now being solved. All states currently have legislation or regulation that provides Good Samaritan limited immunity for lay rescuers who use AEDs.161 This means that lay rescuers will be considered Good Samaritans when they attempt CPR and defibrillation on someone in cardiac arrest. As a Good Samaritan the lay rescuer cannot be successfully sued for any harm or damage that occurs during the rescue effort (except in cases of gross negligence). Legislation and regulations vary from state to state, and in some states additional persons are covered (eg, the AED purchaser or owner), but all have in some way added AED rescuers to existing Good Samaritan provisions. In some lay rescuer defibrillation legislation, layperson immunity from lawsuits is granted only when specific recommendations are fulfilled. The following are conditions associated with good outcome: • Anticipated rescuers should have formal training in CPR and use of an AED (a nationally recognized course, such as the AHA Heartsaver AED Course or its equivalent, may be recommended). • Use treatment protocols such as the CPR-AED algorithm that are approved by healthcare provider oversight. • Perform routine checks and maintenance on the AED.

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• Notify local EMS authorities of AED placement so that EMS personnel, particularly the EMS dispatcher, are aware that the 911 caller is in a location in which an AED is available. • Report actual use of the AED to EMS authorities (reporting is usually done by phoning 911or other emergency response system).

Family Presence During Resuscitation

Overview

According to surveys in the United States and the United Kingdom,162167 most family members would like to be present during the attempted resuscitation of a loved one. Parents and those who care for chronically ill children are often knowledgeable about and comfortable with medical equipment and emergency procedures. Family members with no medical background report that being at the side of a loved one and saying goodbye during the final moments of life is extremely comforting.162,168,169 Parents or family members often fail to ask if they can be present, but healthcare providers should offer the opportunity whenever possible.165,168,170,171 Family members present during resuscitation report that their presence helped them adjust to the death of their loved one,162,164 and most indicate they would choose to be present again.162 Standardized psychological examinations suggest that family members present during resuscitation show a trend toward less anxiety and depression and more constructive grief behavior than family members not present during resuscitation.166 When family members are present during resuscitative efforts, resuscitation team members should be sensitive to their presence. One member of the healthcare team should be assigned to remain with the family to answer questions, clarify information, and offer comfort.172 In the out-of-hospital setting family members are typically present during resuscitation of a loved one. Out-of-hospital care providers are often too busy to give undivided attention to the needs of family members. But brief explanations and the opportunity to remain with the loved one can be comforting. Some EMS systems provide follow-up visits to family members after unsuccessful resuscitation.

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Pediatric BLS

Overview

This section covers special considerations for pediatric BLS.

Definition of Newly Born, Neonate, Infant, Child, and Adult

The following table contains definitions of key terms:

Term Neonate Newly born and newborn

Infant Child Adult

Causes of Cardiac Arrest Affecting Priorities of Resuscitation

Definition • Infants in the first 28 days (month) of life.173 • These terms are both used to describe the neonate in the first minutes to hours after birth. This term is used to focus attention on the needs of the infant at and immediately after birth (including the first hours of life) and until that newborn leaves the hospital. • Includes the neonatal period and extends to the age of 1 year (12 months). • For the purposes of this text, the term child refers to 1 year of age to the onset of puberty. • For the purposes of BLS HCP (not lay rescuers), the term adult applies to victims from the onset of puberty through adulthood.

Respiratory failure or arrest is a common cause of cardiac arrest during infancy and childhood. These guidelines emphasize the need for immediate provision of CPR by the lone rescuer—including opening of the airway and delivery of breaths—before activation of the emergency response system. This emphasis on immediate support of oxygenation and ventilation is based on knowledge of the important role of respiratory failure in pediatric cardiac arrest.

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Cardiac Output, Oxygen Delivery, and Oxygen Demand

Cardiac output is the product of heart rate and stroke volume. Although the pediatric heart is capable of increasing stroke volume, cardiac output during infancy and childhood largely depends on maintenance of an adequate heart rate. Bradycardia

Bradycardia may be associated with a rapid fall in cardiac output, leading to rapid deterioration in systemic perfusion. In fact, bradycardia is one of the most common terminal rhythms observed in children. Healthcare providers are taught to provide chest compressions when there is no pulse or when severe bradycardia (heart rate less than 60 beats per minute [bpm]) is present despite adequate oxygenation and ventilation and is associated with signs of poor systemic perfusion.

Epidemiology of Cardiopulmonary Arrest: Phone Fast (Infant/Child) Versus Phone First (Adult)

In children the incidence, precise etiology, and outcome of cardiac arrest and resuscitation are difficult to ascertain because most reports of pediatric resuscitation contain insufficient patient numbers or use exclusion criteria or definitions that are inconsistent, prohibiting broad generalization to all children.174 Causes

There are many causes of pediatric cardiopulmonary arrest, including • SIDS • Asphyxia • Drowning • Trauma • Sepsis173,175-180 Newborn and Neonatal Incidence

If resuscitation is required during infancy or childhood, it is most frequently needed at birth or during the first year of life: • Approximately 5% to 10% of newborn infants require some degree of active resuscitation at birth, including stimulation to breathe.181 • Approximately 1% to 10% born in the hospital require assisted ventilation.182 Worldwide more than 5 000 000 neonatal deaths occur annually, with asphyxia at birth the cause of approximately 19% of these deaths.183 The implementation of relatively simple resuscitative

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techniques could save the lives of an estimated 1 000 000 infants per year.184 Infancy and Childhood Incidence

Throughout infancy and childhood most out-of-hospital cardiac arrest occurs in or around the home, where children are under the supervision of parents and child-care providers. In this setting the most common causes of arrest include conditions such as • SIDS • Trauma • Drowning • Poisoning • Choking • Severe asthma • Pneumonia In industrialized nations trauma is the leading cause of death from the age of 6 months through young adulthood.185 Out-of-hospital Arrest

In general, pediatric out-of-hospital arrest is characterized by a progression from hypoxia and hypercarbia to respiratory arrest and bradycardia and then asystolic cardiac arrest.177,180,186 Rapid and effective bystander CPR is associated with successful return of spontaneous circulation and neurologically intact survival in children.173,174 The greatest impact occurs in respiratory arrest,175 in which neurologically intact survival rates of >70% are possible,176178 and in ventricular fibrillation (VF), in which survival rates of 30% have been documented.179 But only 2% to 10% of all children who develop out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survive, and most are neurologically devastated.179-185 Part of the disparity is that bystander CPR is provided for less than half of the victims of out-ofhospital arrest180,183,186 Some studies show that survival and neurologic outcome can be improved with prompt CPR.178,187-189 If the cardiac arrest is witnessed and sudden (eg, a child athlete collapses on the playing field), a lone rescuer should activate the emergency response system (or 911) and get an AED. The rescuer should then return to the child to begin CPR and use the AED when appropriate. Survival from out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest ranges from 3% to 17% in most studies.147,174,175,180,186,187,189-197 Neurologically intact survival rates of 50% or greater have been reported for resuscitation of children with respiratory arrest alone,193,196 and in some studies the presence of VT or VF is associated with a higher

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survival rate.189,195 Benefits of Chest Compressions and Breaths

Studies show that prompt, effective chest compressions and breaths improve return of spontaneous circulation and increase neurologically intact survival in children with cardiac arrest.180,187 Early defibrillation can improve outcome from pediatric VF/VT189,195 (except for submersion victims198). Rationale for Phoning Fast

Organized rapid delivery of out-of-hospital BLS and ALS has improved the outcome of submersion victims in cardiac arrest, perhaps the best-studied scenario of pediatric out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.199 Because most pediatric arrests are secondary to progressive respiratory failure or shock and because VF is relatively uncommon, immediate CPR (phone fast) is recommended for lone rescuers of pediatric victims of cardiopulmonary arrest in the out-of-hospital setting rather than the adult approach (phone first). Effective BLS should be provided for infants and children as quickly as possible. The lone rescuer should provide about 5 cycles of 30 compressions followed by 2 breaths before phoning the emergency response number (or 911). The need to choose between a phone first and a phone fast approach applies only if a rescuer is alone. If 2 or more rescuers are present, one rescuer should make the emergency phone call while the other begins CPR. Use the following table to help decide when to phone fast or phone first:

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Phone Fast • In victims younger than the onset of puberty • In victims of any age with these special situations: − Submersion − Trauma − Drug overdose − Respiratory arrest

BLS for Children With Special Needs

Phone First • In victims past the age of the onset of puberty • If the victim has experienced a sudden, witnessed arrest, even in a previously healthy child • Sudden collapse of children with underlying cardiac disease • Children with an identified risk for sudden cardiac arrest or arrhythmia

Children with special healthcare needs have chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional conditions and require health and related services of a type or amount not usually required by typically developing children.200-202 These children may need emergency care for acute, life-threatening complications that are unique to their chronic conditions,202 such as obstruction of a tracheostomy, failure of support technology (eg, ventilator failure), or progression of underlying respiratory failure or neurologic disease. Approximately half of EMS responses to children with special healthcare needs, however, are unrelated to the child’s special needs and may include traditional causes of EMS calls, such as trauma,203 which require no treatment beyond the normal EMS standard of care. Advance Directives

Emergency care of children with special healthcare needs can be complicated by lack of specific medical information about the child’s baseline condition, medical plan of care, current medications, and any do-not-attempt-to-resuscitate orders. Certainly the best source of information about a chronically ill child is the person who cares for the child on a daily basis. If that person is unavailable or incapacitated (eg, after an automobile crash), some means is needed to access important information. A wide variety of methods have been developed to make this information immediately accessible, including the use of standard forms, containers kept in a standard place in the home (eg, the refrigerator, because most homes have one), window stickers, wallet cards, and medical alert bracelets. No single method of communicating information has proved to be superior. The American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Emergency Physicians developed a standardized form, the Emergency Information Form (EIF).202 It is available on the Worldwide

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Web (http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/104/4/e53). Parents and child-care providers should keep essential medical information at home, with the child, and at the child’s school or child-care facility. Child-care providers should have access to this information and should be familiar with signs of deterioration in the child and any existing advance directives.203,204 If the physician, parents, and child (as appropriate) have made a decision to limit resuscitative efforts or withhold attempts at resuscitation, a physician order indicating the limits of resuscitative efforts must be written for use in the in-hospital setting. In most countries a separate order must be written for the out-of-hospital setting. Legal issues and regulations about requirements for these out-ofhospital no-CPR directives vary from country to country and in the United States from state to state. It is always important for families to inform the local EMS system when such directives are established for out-of-hospital care. Whenever a child with a chronic or life-threatening condition is discharged from the hospital, parents, school nurses, and any home healthcare providers should learn about possible complications that the child may experience, anticipated signs of deterioration, and the cause of such deterioration. Give specific instructions about CPR and other interventions that the child may require, as well as instructions about whom to contact and why.204 Tracheostomy Care

If the child has a tracheostomy, anyone responsible for the child’s care (including parents, school nurses, and home healthcare providers) should learn to assess airway patency, clear the airway, and provide CPR with the artificial airway. If CPR is required, perform breaths and bag-mask ventilation through the tracheostomy tube. As with any form of giving breaths, look for bilateral chest expansion to ensure effective ventilation. If the tracheostomy tube becomes obstructed and impossible to use even after attempts to clear the tube with suctioning, replace the tube. If a clean tube is unavailable, provide ventilations at the tracheostomy stoma until an advanced airway can be placed. If the upper airway is patent, it may be possible to provide effective bag-mask ventilation through the nose and mouth while occluding the superficial tracheal stoma site.

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Prevention of Cardiopulmonary Arrest in Infants and Children

Overview

Healthcare providers can often educate parents and children about risk factors for injury and cardiorespiratory arrest. This section provides information about prevention of SIDS and injury, the leading causes of death in infants and children, respectively.

Reducing the Risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

SIDS is the sudden death of an infant, typically between the ages of 1 month and 1 year, that is unexpected based on the infant’s medical history and unexplained by other causes when a postmortem examination is performed. SIDS probably represents a variety of conditions caused by several mechanisms, including rebreathing asphyxia, with a decreased arousal and possible blunted response to hypoxemia or hypercarbia.205-210 The peak incidence of SIDS occurs in infants 2 to 4 months of age. From 70% to 90% of SIDS deaths are reported in the first 6 months of life.205-210 Many characteristics are associated with increased risk of SIDS, including • The prone (on the stomach) sleeping position 205,206 • Sleeping on soft surfaces 207,208 • Second-hand smoke

Critical Concepts: Avoid Prone and Side Sleeping Positions to Reduce Risk of SIDS

Infants who sleep prone have a much higher frequency of SIDS than infants who sleep supine (on the back).211-213 To reduce the risk of SIDS, place healthy infants on their back (supine) to sleep. Do not place healthy infants on their stomach (prone) to sleep. Do not place infants to sleep on soft surfaces (fluffy comforters, etc).

Injury: The Magnitude of the Problem

In the United States injury is the leading cause of death in children and adults 1 to 44 years of age and is responsible for more childhood deaths than all other causes combined.214,215 Internationally injury death rates are highest for children 1 to 14 years of age and young adults 15 to 24, relative to other causes of death.185,216 The term injury is emphasized rather than the term accident because the injury is often preventable, and the term accident implies that nothing can be done to prevent the episode.

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The Science of Injury Control

Injury control attempts to prevent injury or minimize its effects on the child and family in 3 phases: • Prevention • Minimization of damage • Postinjury care When planning injury prevention strategies, 3 principles deserve emphasis. • Passive injury prevention strategies are generally preferred because they are more likely to be used than active strategies, which require repeated, conscious effort. • Specific instructions (eg, keep the water heater temperature 120°F to 130°F or 48.9°C to 54.4°C) are more likely to be followed than general advice (eg, reduce the maximum temperature of home tap hot water). • Individual education reinforced by community-wide educational programs is more effective than isolated educational sessions or communitywide education alone.217,218

Epidemiology and Prevention of Common Injuries in Children and Adolescents

Injury prevention has the greatest effect by focusing on injuries that are frequent and for which effective strategies are available. Figure 14 depicts the leading causes of death internationally in children 1 to 14 years of age. The 6 most common types of fatal childhood injuries that are preventable are • Motor vehicle passenger injuries • Pedestrian injuries • Bicycle injuries • Submersion • Burns • Firearm injuries185,214,217,219 Prevention of these common fatal injuries would substantially reduce childhood deaths and disability internationally. For this reason information about injury prevention is included with information about infant/child resuscitation.

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Figure 14. International injury deaths for children 1 to 14 years of age. Reproduced from CDC, 2002.

Motor Vehicle– Related Injuries

Motor vehicle–related trauma accounts for nearly half of all pediatric injuries and deaths in the United States and 40% of injury mortality in children 1 to 14 years of age internationally.185,199,214 Contributing factors include failure to use proper passenger restraints, inexperienced adolescent drivers, and alcohol use. Injury prevention programs should address each of these contributing factors. Proper use of child seat restraints and lap-shoulder harnesses will prevent an estimated 65% to 75% of serious injuries and fatalities to passengers 4 years of age and younger and 45% to 55% of all pediatric motor vehicle passenger injuries and deaths.214,219 The American Academy of Pediatrics, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration have made the following child passenger safety recommendations: • Children should ride in rear-facing infant seats until they are at least

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20 pounds (9 kg) and at least 1 year of age, with good head control. Secure these seats in the back seat of the automobile. − Never place a rear-facing safety seat in the front passenger seat of a car with a passenger-side airbag. − Use convertible seats for children less than 1 year old and weighing less than 20 pounds (9 kg) in the reclined and rear-facing position. • Place a child who is 1 year old or older and weighs 20 to 40 pounds (9 to 18 kg) in a convertible car safety seat, in the upright and forward-facing position, as long as he or she fits well in the seat. Position the harness straps at or above the child’s shoulders. Place these seats in the back seat of the automobile. • Use belt-positioning booster seats for children weighing 40 to 80 pounds (18 to 36 kg) until they are at least 58 to 60 inches (4 feet, 10 inches to 5 feet or 148 cm minimum) in height. These belt-positioning seats ensure that the lap and shoulder belts restrain the child over bones rather than soft tissues. • Restrain children in automobile lap and shoulder belts when they weigh 80 pounds (36 kg) and are at least 58 inches (4 feet, 10 inches or 148 cm) tall. A properly fitting lap-shoulder belt should lie low across the child’s hips while the shoulder belt lies flat across the shoulder and sternum, away from the neck and face. • Children approximately 12 years old and younger should not sit in the front seat of cars; this is especially true if the car has a passenger side airbag.220,221 • Children older than 12 years may sit in the front seat. Make sure the seat is as far back as possible to minimize injury from airbags. Parents should learn the proper use of automobile safety restraints. Children should also learn about the importance of safety restraints during their early primary school education.222 Parents should learn to check the installation of child passenger safety seats and follow the manufacturer’s instructions carefully. If the safety seat is properly installed, it should not move more than ½ inch (1 cm) front to back or side-to-side when pushed. According to the NHTSA, from 1975 through 2002, the use of child restraints (child safety seats or adult belts) saved an estimated 6567 lives. In 2002 alone the use of child restraints saved an estimated 376 lives. Of the 459 occupant fatalities among children from birth through age 4 in 2002, nearly 40 percent were completely unrestrained. To prevent airbag and most other occupant injuries, all car occupants should be properly restrained for age and size, and all children 12 years old and younger should be properly restrained for their age and size in the back seat of automobiles. (Source: NHTSA website.)

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For more information, visit the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration website at http://nhtsa.gov. When a child is old enough (more than 12 years old) and large enough to sit in the front seat of an automobile with a passenger-side airbag, the child should be properly restrained for age and size, and the automobile seat should be moved as far back and away from the airbag cover as possible. The development of “smart” airbags that adjust inflation time and force according to the weight of the passenger should further reduce injuries related to airbags. Adolescent Drivers

Adolescent drivers are responsible for a disproportionate number of motor vehicle–related injuries. Surprisingly adolescent driver education classes have increased the number of adolescent drivers at risk with no improvement in safety.223-226 Drivers Under the Influence of Alcohol or Drugs

Approximately 50% of motor vehicle fatalities involving adolescents involve alcohol. In fact, a large proportion of all pediatric motor vehicle occupant deaths occur in vehicles operated by inebriated drivers.227-230 Although intoxication rates decreased for drivers of all age groups from 1987 to 1999, drunk drivers are still responsible for a large portion of all motor vehicle crashes and pose a significant risk to children.214,231

Pedestrian Injuries

Pedestrian injuries are a leading cause of death among children 5 to 9 years of age in the United States.199,217 Pedestrian injuries typically occur when a child darts out into the street, crossing between intersections.214 Actions for Prevention

Although educational programs aimed at improving children’s streetrelated behavior hold promise, roadway interventions, including adequate lighting, construction of sidewalks, and roadway barriers, must also be pursued in areas of high pedestrian traffic.

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Bicycle Injuries

Bicycle crashes are responsible for approximately 200 000 injuries and more than 600 deaths in children and adolescents in the United States every year.199,232 Head injuries are the cause of most bicycle injury– related morbidity and mortality. In fact, bicycle-related trauma is a leading cause of severe pediatric closed-head injuries.233 Actions for Prevention

Bicycle helmets can reduce the severity of head injuries by 85% and brain injuries by 88%. Yet many parents are unaware of the need for helmets, and children may be reluctant to wear them.233,234 A successful bicycle helmet education program includes an ongoing communitywide multidisciplinary approach that provides focused information about the protection afforded by helmets. Such programs should ensure the acceptability, accessibility, and affordability of helmets.232,234

Submersion

Internationally drowning is responsible for approximately 15% of injury deaths to children 1 to 14 years of age.185 It is a significant cause of disability and death in children less than 4 years old and is a leading cause of death in this age group in the United States.199,214,217,235 For every death due to submersion, 6 children are hospitalized, and approximately 20% of hospitalized survivors are severely brain damaged.199,236 Actions for Prevention

Parents should be aware of the dangers to young children posed by any body of water. Never leave any children unattended in bathtubs or near swimming pools, ponds, or beaches. Some drownings in swimming pools may be prevented by completely surrounding the pool with appropriate fencing, including gates with secure latching mechanisms.235,237 The house will not serve as an effective barrier to the pool if it has a door opening onto the pool area. Children should learn how to swim as soon as parents/guardians believe they are ready. No one should ever swim alone, and even supervised children should wear personal flotation devices when playing in rivers, streams, or lakes. Alcohol appears to be a significant risk factor in adolescent drowning. Adolescent education, limited access to alcohol, and the use of

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personal flotation devices on waterways should be encouraged.

Burns

Fires, burns, and suffocation are a leading cause of injury death worldwide.185 Approximately 80% of fire-related and burn-related deaths result from house fires, with associated smoke inhalation injury.238-240 Most fire-related deaths occur in private residences, usually in homes without working smoke detectors.238,239,241,242 Smoke detectors are the most effective way to prevent deaths and injuries, yet 70% of deaths occur in homes without functioning smoke alarms.241,242 Nonfatal burns and burn complications, including smoke inhalation, scalds, and contact and electrical burns, are especially likely to affect children. Socioeconomic factors that contribute to increased risk for burn injury include • Overcrowding • Single-parent families • Scarce financial resources • Inadequate child care/supervision • Distance from fire department Actions for Prevention

Smoke detectors are one of the most effective interventions for preventing death from burns and smoke inhalation. When used correctly, they can reduce fire-related death and severe injury by 86% to 88%.241,242 Place smoke detectors on or near the ceilings outside the doors to sleeping or napping rooms and on each floor at the top of the stairway. Parents should be aware of the effectiveness of these devices and the need to change device batteries every 6 months. Families and schools should develop and practice a fire evacuation plan. Continued improvements in flammability standards for furniture, bedding, and house building materials should further reduce the incidence of fire-related injuries and deaths. Child-resistant ignition products are also under investigation. School-based fire-safety programs should be continued and evaluated.

Firearm Injuries

Firearms, particularly handguns, are responsible for a large number of injuries and deaths in infants, children, and adolescents. Firearmrelated deaths may be labeled as unintentional, homicide, or suicide.173

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Most guns used in unintentional childhood shootings, school shootings, and suicides are found in the home. Many firearm owners admit to storing guns loaded and in readily accessible locations.243 Thirty-four percent of high school students surveyed reported easy access to guns, and an increasing number of children carry guns to school.244-246 The United States has the highest firearm-related injury rate of any industrialized nation—more than twice that of any other country.185,247,248 The highest number of deaths is in adolescents and young adults, but firearm injuries are more likely to be fatal in young children.249 The presence of a gun in the home is associated with an increased likelihood of adolescent250,251 and adult suicides or homicides.252 Although overall firearm-related deaths declined from 1995 to 2002, firearm homicide remains the leading cause of death among African-American adolescents and young adults. 185 Actions for Prevention

Every gun owner, potential gun purchaser, and parent must become aware of the risks of unsecured firearms and the need to ensure that weapons in the home are inaccessible to unsupervised children and adolescents.253-255 Store guns locked and unloaded, with ammunition stored separately from the gun. The consistent use of trigger locks may not only reduce the incidence of unintentional injury and suicide among children and young adolescents but also will most likely reduce the number of gun homicides. In addition, locked guns obtained during burglaries would be useless. “Smart” guns, which can be fired only by the gun owner, are expected to reduce the frequency of unintentional injuries and suicides among children and young adolescents and limit the usefulness of guns obtained during burglaries.256

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Pediatric BLS in Special Situations

BLS for the Trauma Victim

The principles of resuscitation of the seriously injured child are the same as those for any pediatric patient with potential cardiorespiratory deterioration. Some aspects of pediatric trauma care require emphasis, however, because improper resuscitation is a major cause of preventable pediatric trauma death.257-259 Common errors in pediatric trauma resuscitation include failure to open and maintain the airway with cervical spine stabilization, failure to provide appropriate fluid resuscitation, and failure to recognize and treat internal bleeding. Ideally a qualified surgeon should be involved early in the course of resuscitation. In regions with developed EMS systems, children with multisystem trauma should be rapidly transported to trauma centers with pediatric expertise. The relative value of aeromedical transport compared with ground transport of children with multiple traumas is unclear. EMS systems should evaluate this for their response areas.260-262 The preferred mode of transport will likely depend on EMS system characteristics and distance to a trauma center.

BLS for the Submersion Victim

Submersion is a leading cause of death in children worldwide. The duration and severity of hypoxia sustained during submersion is the single most important determinant of outcome. Attempt CPR, particularly giving breaths, as soon as rescuers pull the unresponsive submersion victim from the water. If possible, give breaths even while the victim is still in the water if the rescuer’s safety is ensured. Many infants and children submerged for brief periods of time will respond to stimulation or breaths alone.263 If the child does not have a pulse or if the pulse rate is less than 60 beats per minute after giving initial breaths, begin chest compressions. In 1994 the Institute of Medicine reviewed the recommendations of the AHA about resuscitation of submersion victims and supported the emphasis on initial establishment of effective ventilation.264 There is no evidence that water acts as an obstructive foreign body, and time should not be wasted in attempting to remove water from the victim’s lungs using abdominal thrusts or other FBAO maneuvers. Such maneuvers will delay CPR and the critically important support of airway and ventilation.264 They may also produce complications.

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Termination of Resuscitative Efforts

Unfortunately there are no reliable predictors of outcome during resuscitation to guide when to terminate resuscitative efforts. Witnessed collapse, bystander CPR, and a short time interval from collapse to arrival of professionals improve the chances of a successful resuscitation. In the past, children who underwent prolonged resuscitation and absence of return of spontaneous circulation after 2 doses of epinephrine were considered unlikely to survive,180,186,196 but intact survival after unusually prolonged inhospital resuscitation has been documented.265-270 Prolonged efforts should be made for infants and children with recurring or refractory VF or VT, drug toxicity, or a primary hypothermic insult.

Maximizing the Effectiveness of PBLS Training

CPR is the critical link in the Chain of Survival, particularly for infants and children. For many years the AHA and members of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) have promoted the goal of appropriate bystander (lay rescuer) response to every witnessed cardiopulmonary emergency, such as a child or infant who is choking, in respiratory distress, or in cardiac arrest. Although immediate bystander CPR can result in resuscitation even before the arrival of emergency personnel,187,263 bystander CPR is not provided for a majority of victims of cardiac arrest.180,186 Witnesses may fail to initiate resuscitation for several reasons. The most obvious is that they have not learned CPR. CPR courses have evolved over the last decade into instructorfacilitated, classroom-based programs. Yet this approach is not effective in teaching the critical psychomotor skills of CPR. Several studies have documented the failure of lay rescuers to perform CPR after participating in these traditional courses.271,272 During the past 5 years, scientific research has shown that most people do not perform the basics of CPR proficiently. As a result, AHA has restructured training materials to “get back to the basics of doing good CPR.” The BLS for Healthcare Provider Course is designed to allow significantly greater practice time for all participants. The bottom line is to train people to do better CPR in real life, thus increasing the chances of survival. The BLS for Healthcare Providers Course is instructor-led using practice-while-watching videos. Studies show that participants who can practice CPR while watching a training video learn and retain the skills much better than in traditional learning models.

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Adult BLS in Special Situations

BLS for the Trauma Victim

Establish Unresponsiveness

Head trauma, shock, or respiratory arrest may produce loss of consciousness. If spinal cord injury is present, the victim may be conscious but unable to move. Throughout initial assessment and stabilization, the rescuer should monitor the victim’s responsiveness. Deterioration could indicate either neurologic compromise or cardiorespiratory failure. Airway

When head or neck injury or multisystem trauma is suspected, professional rescuers should try to use the jaw thrust instead of head tilt–chin lift to open the airway. If at all possible a second rescuer should be responsible for stabilizing the head and neck until spinal immobilization equipment is applied. After opening the airway manually, clear the mouth of blood, vomitus, and other secretions. Remove this material with a (gloved) finger sweep, or use gauze or a towel to wipe the mouth. If available, use a manual or powered suction device. Breathing and Ventilation

Once you establish a patent airway, assess for breathing. If breathing is absent or grossly inadequate (eg, agonal or slow and extremely shallow), provide mouth-to–barrier device or bag-mask ventilation. If the jaw thrust does not successfully open the airway, the healthcare provider should use the head tilt–chin lift, even in the presence of suspected head or neck injury or multisystem trauma. If there is a risk of cervical spine injury, immobilize the spine while providing rescue breaths. Maintain immobilization throughout the rescue attempt. Deliver breaths slowly at a rate of 1 second per breath to avoid gastric inflation and possible regurgitation. If the chest does not expand during ventilation despite repeated attempts to open the airway with a jaw thrust, a tension pneumothorax or hemothorax may be present. These complications should be ruled out or treated by advanced providers.

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Defibrillation

Sudden cardiac arrest associated with VF/pulseless VT may cause trauma. If the victim develops VF/pulseless VT, the victim will lose consciousness, and this can lead to falls and motor vehicle crashes. Therefore, even in a trauma setting cardiac arrest is an indication for use of an AED (or manual defibrillator by advanced providers). Disability

Throughout all interventions assess the victim’s level of consciousness and general neurologic status. Monitor closely for signs of neurologic deterioration during BLS care. Exposure

The victim may lose heat to the environment through conduction, convection, and evaporation. Such heat loss will be exacerbated when the victim’s clothes are removed or if the victim is covered in blood or water. Take all practical actions to maintain the victim’s temperature.

BLS for the Electric Shock or Lightning Strike Victim

If immediate resuscitation is provided, survival from cardiac arrest caused by lightning strike is higher than that reported following cardiac arrest from other non-VF causes. Aggressive and persistent resuscitative efforts are justified even when the interval between collapse and the start of resuscitation is prolonged or when cardiac arrest persists despite initial efforts.273 For these victims, start BLS as soon as it is safe to approach the victim. Provide cervical spine stabilization throughout BLS maneuvers. The goal is to oxygenate the heart and brain adequately until respiratory and cardiac activity resume. Victims in respiratory arrest may require only ventilation and oxygenation to avoid secondary hypoxic cardiac arrest. Rescuer Safety

All rescuers must be certain that rescue efforts will not put them in danger of electric shock. Ensure that authorized personnel turn off electrical power or safely clear the source of electricity from the victim. Rescuers should note that any material can conduct high-voltage current, and current can flow through the ground surrounding the victim. For these reasons the rescuer should not approach the victim until a high-voltage power source is turned off.

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Carefully remove any hot or smoldering clothing, shoes, and belts. This precaution will help prevent further burns. Extrication

When electric shock occurs in a location not readily accessible, such as on a utility pole, rescuers must lower the victim to the ground as quickly as possible. Cervical Spine Stabilization

Maintain spinal protection and stabilization during extrication and treatment if there is any possibility of head or neck trauma.274 Electric shock injuries often cause musculoskeletal trauma, spinal injuries, muscle strains, and fractures. These injuries are often due to the tetanic contraction of skeletal muscles. Primary ABCD Survey

Immediately after the electric shock or lightning strike injury, spontaneous respiration, circulation, or both may fail. The victim may be in cardiac arrest with VF/pulseless VT, PEA, or asystole.274 Assess and manage the airway, breathing, and pulse, and provide defibrillation as needed. Continue vigorous resuscitative measures for longer than usual, even for victims who appear dead on initial evaluation. The prognosis for recovery from electric shock or lightning strike cannot be predicted accurately. The important factors of current flow and duration of the charge are usually unknown. But many victims are young with no pre-existing cardiopulmonary disease. They have a reasonable chance of survival if immediate support of cardiopulmonary function is provided.

BLS for the Submersion Victim

As with child submersion victims, attempt CPR, particularly giving breaths, as soon as rescuers pull the unresponsive submersion victim from the water. If possible, give breaths even while the victim is still in the water if the rescuer’s safety is ensured. In 1994 the Institute of Medicine reviewed the recommendations of the AHA regarding resuscitation of submersion victims and supported the emphasis on initial establishment of effective ventilation.264 There is no evidence that water acts as an obstructive foreign body, and time should not be wasted in attempting to remove water from the victim’s lungs using abdominal thrusts or other FBAO maneuvers. Such

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maneuvers will delay CPR and the critically important support of airway and ventilation.264 They also may produce complications.

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Risk Factors for Heart Disease and Stroke

Overview

Research in the causes of the “epidemic” of cardiovascular diseases has identified a consistent association between specific attributes, conditions, and behaviors and the development of cardiovascular disease.72 The concept of risk factors developed from an awareness of these associations. As healthcare providers and BLS educators, we have a responsibility to be familiar with the risk factors of heart disease and stroke and related information on healthy living. Having this knowledge allows us to • Evaluate our own risk and do our best to live a healthy lifestyle • Educate our families and patients about such a lifestyle • Collect a medical history related to risk factors to appropriately diagnose and treat heart disease and stroke It is now well known that heart attack and stroke occur much more frequently in persons who smoke and have elevated blood pressure. Other things being equal, the person who smokes 1 pack of cigarettes a day has a greater chance of heart attack, stroke, and sudden cardiac death than a person who does not smoke. Persons who have more than 1 risk factor may have many more times the chance of developing vascular disease than persons who have none.275,276 For example, the person who has an abnormal (high) serum cholesterol level and smokes 2 packs of cigarettes a day may have as much as 10 times the chance of having a heart attack as the person who has a normal blood cholesterol level and does not smoke. But in rare occasions heart attacks can occur even in the absence of risk factors.

Risk Factors: Heart Attack and Stroke

Heart attack and stroke are vascular diseases caused primarily by the effects of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a gradual process. It develops over the course of a lifetime and is affected by several factors, including age, gender, heredity, and lifestyle. Heart disease and stroke share many of the same risk factors. Some risk factors are more significant for one disease than for the other. High blood pressure is by far the major risk factor for hemorrhagic stroke. Heart disease itself is a risk factor for stroke.

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Risk factors fall into 2 basic categories: • Those that can be changed, treated, or modified through hearthealthy living and sometimes medication • Those that cannot be changed Healthcare providers should be aware of this distinction and educate their patients accordingly. Risk factors that cannot be changed can be used to identify patients at risk for heart attack and stroke. These patients and their families should be taught to identify warning signs of heart attack and stroke and what to do if these warning signs appear. Patients should also be taught how to modify those risk factors that can be changed.

Risk Factors That Cannot Be Changed

Overview

This section highlights risk factors that cannot be changed: • Age • Heredity • Gender • Race

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Risk Factor Age

Heredity

Heart Disease Stroke • The death rate from CHD • The incidence of stroke increases with age. increases in both men and women after age 55. • Nearly 1 in 4 deaths, however, occurs in persons younger than 65 • For persons 55 years of age years.72 and older, the incidence of stroke more than doubles • Heart disease is the single largest with each successive killer of both men and women. decade. • This year approximately 1 200 000 • Although age is not persons will have a new or modifiable, it must be recurrent heart attack or fatal considered when evaluating episode of coronary heart 72 other risk factors such as disease. high blood pressure or transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) because increasing age in combination with these modifiable risk factors results in a higher risk of stroke than any one risk factor alone. • A common misconception is that only elderly people suffer strokes. In any given year about 28% of stroke victims are younger than 65.72 Risk of stroke is greater for A history of premature CHD in people who have a family siblings or parents suggests an increased susceptibility that may be history of stroke, but this risk is probably complicated by the genetic.277 presence of multiple common risk factors in families (eg, smoking, high blood pressure).

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Risk Factor Gender

Heart Disease Stroke • Before menopause women have a • Risk of stroke is higher in lower incidence of coronary men than in women. atherosclerosis than men. • Overall men have a greater chance of a stroke than • Incidence increases significantly in postmenopausal women, who also women do. have a worse clinical course • Among people under the compared with men. age of 65, risk for men is • Hormone replacement therapy is even greater when not indicated for prevention of compared with that of heart disease. women.

Race

• African Americans have more severe high blood pressure than Caucasians and are at a higher risk of heart disease. • Heart disease risk is also higher among Mexican Americans, American Indians, native Hawaiians, and some Asian Americans. This is partly due to higher rates of obesity and diabetes.

The risk of first-ever stroke in African Americans is more than twice that of whites.72 Much of this risk can be explained by the greater number of risk factors (eg, smoking, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and diabetes) present in African Americans.

Understanding Small arteries in the body, called arterioles, regulate blood pressure. Hypertension The manner in which arterioles control blood pressure is sometimes

compared with the way a nozzle regulates water pressure in a hose. If the nozzle is turned to make the opening larger, less pressure is needed to force the water through the hose. If the opening is smaller, the pressure in the hose increases. Similarly, if the arterioles become narrower for any reason, blood cannot easily pass through. This increases blood pressure in the arteries and may overwork the heart. If the pressure increases above normal and stays there, the result is high blood pressure, or hypertension. Uncontrolled high blood pressure adds to the workload of the heart and arteries. The heart, forced to work harder than normal over a long period, tends to enlarge. A slightly enlarged heart may function well, but a heart that is very much enlarged has a difficult time keeping up with the demands of the body. As people grow older, the arteries and arterioles become hardened and less elastic. This process, atherosclerosis, takes place gradually,

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even in people who do not have high blood pressure. But high blood pressure tends to speed up the hardening. Primary high blood pressure cannot be cured, but usually it can be controlled.

Cholesterol— Laying the Foundation for Atherosclerosis

Cholesterol is the main lipidlike (fat) component of atherosclerotic deposits in blood vessels. An elevation of the total blood cholesterol level (hypercholesterolemia) has been consistently associated with CHD.278 Although hypercholesterolemia is sometimes a family trait, it is most often due to environmental factors, the most influential being diet. Studies in humans have shown that in most people the serum cholesterol level can be raised by ingestion of saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol and lowered by substantially reducing this intake. The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute investigated the effect of cholesterol lowering on risk of CHD in men for 7 years in the Coronary Primary Prevention Trial.279,280 Two groups were studied. Both consumed a diet that lowered cholesterol by 4%. One group received the drug cholestyramine, which lowered cholesterol an additional 8.5%. The group with the lower cholesterol level had a 24% reduction in CHD and a 19% reduction in heart attacks. This is the first conclusive evidence that a reduction in cholesterol by drug treatment can decrease the incidence of CHD and heart attack. An elevation of serum triglycerides (the main fatty substance in the fluid portion of blood) is also associated with increased risk of CHD.

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Risk Factors That Can Be Changed, Treated, or Modified

Overview

This section highlights risk factors that can be changed, treated, or modified: • Cigarette smoking • High blood pressure • High blood cholesterol • Physical inactivity • Diabetes • Obesity

Cigarette Smoking

The death rate from heart attack among people who do not smoke is considerably lower than that of people who do.281 In those who quit smoking, the death rate eventually declines almost to that of people who have never smoked.282-286 Passive smoking (inhalation of environmental tobacco smoke) has also been shown to be associated with an increased risk of smokingrelated disease.287-291 Hence all people—and especially those with other risk factors—should try to avoid being exposed to passive smoke. Cigarette smoking is also an important risk factor for stroke. Smoking can contribute to accelerated atherosclerosis and transient elevations in blood pressure that contribute to stroke. Smoking may also contribute to enzyme release, which has been linked to formation of aneurysms.292 Carbon monoxide generated during smoking reduces the amount of oxygen carried in the blood. Cigarette smoking causes blood platelets to cluster, shortens platelet survival, decreases clotting time, and increases blood thickness. Cessation of cigarette smoking reduces risk of stroke.292 Cigarette smoking is a major independent risk factor that acts together with other risk factors (most notably elevated cholesterol and hypertension) to greatly increase the risk of CHD. Overall, cigarette smokers experience a 2-fold to 3-fold greater rate of death from CHD than do nonsmokers. Before menopause, women have lower rates for CHD than men do. Part of this difference is due to the fact that fewer women smoke, and those who do tend to smoke fewer cigarettes per day and to inhale

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less deeply. However, among women whose smoking patterns are comparable to those of men, death rates from CHD are higher. Cigarette smoking remains the leading preventable cause of coronary heart disease in women. In recent years smoking rates have declined more slowly in women than in men. (Every year a smaller percentage of female smokers than male smokers quit.) Women who use oral contraceptives and smoke cigarettes increase their risk of heart attack approximately 10 times compared with women who neither use oral contraceptives nor smoke.293 The earlier a person begins to smoke, the greater the risk to the person’s future health. There is considerable pressure on teenagers to smoke, and whether they resist may depend on the example set by their parents. In the majority of families in which the parents do not smoke, neither do the children. Inhalation of environmental tobacco smoke, or “passive smoking,” has been associated with an increased risk of smoking-related disease. Public buildings, hospitals, and many restaurants and businesses have implemented strong nonsmoking policies. These efforts encourage patrons and employees to recognize the risks for both active and passive smokers. Ongoing efforts in this public health area should lead to a decrease in the incidence of disability and death from cigarette smoking. Making the Decision to Quit

Despite all the data that exists about smoking, a large portion of the population continues to smoke. Quitting smoking is not easy. Nicotine is highly addictive, and the effects of withdrawal can be extremely uncomfortable for many people. Commercial advertising has been very effective in encouraging people to smoke. People must break the habit of smoking. Healthcare providers can play an important role in a patient’s decision to quit. A number of studies have documented that physician-delivered counseling interventions for smoking cessation can be effective. These studies have documented that 2 factors are especially important: the physician (or other healthcare professional) should receive training in counseling methods, and an office system that facilitates the delivery of such counseling and enhances its effect must be in place.294-296 Healthcare financial incentives will also need to be changed to focus on smoking in primary and secondary prevention settings rather than tertiary care only.

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Many programs are available today to help smokers who decide to quit. Smoking cessation programs sponsored by the American Heart Association and the American Lung Association are available nationwide. Nicotine patches, gums, pills, and inhalers can help persons who suffer from severe withdrawal symptoms. Patients who have heart disease or have had a stroke should talk with their healthcare providers before using nicotine replacement therapy. A change in lifestyle is also helpful during attempts to quit smoking.297,298 Exercising, eating a balanced diet, and drinking plenty of water can be helpful in overcoming the stresses of smoking cessation.299 The most important variable is the motivation of the individual. Motivation can be provided by the onset of health problems, concern for the effects of second-hand smoke on a spouse or child, or even the death of a loved one from the effects of smoking. Healthcare providers and family members must provide a helpful, nonjudgmental atmosphere to help the smoker achieve his or her goal. It may take time to overcome the habit of smoking. Most smokers quit several times before they succeed.287,296 The American Heart Association and the American Lung Association offer support to anyone who wants to quit smoking. Visit their offices or websites for information.

Smoking and Sudden Death

Cigarette smoking has been found to elevate the risk of sudden death significantly. About 1 in 5 deaths from cardiovascular disease is attributed to smoking. The risk appears to increase with the number of cigarettes smoked per day. Cessation of smoking diminishes the risk to almost normal over time. From 1995 to 1999 an estimated 442 398 Americans died each year of smoking-related illnesses.72 Over 33% of deaths from cardiovascular disease are attributable to smoking.72 Unless smoking habits change, perhaps 10% of all persons now alive may die prematurely of heart disease attributable to their smoking behavior.294 The total number of such premature deaths may exceed 24 million. “Warning: The Surgeon General Has Determined That Cigarette Smoking Is Dangerous to Your Health.”—Many studies have shown (and the Surgeon General has verified) that cigarette smokers have a greater risk than nonsmokers of dying from a variety of diseases. If a smoker and a nonsmoker have the same disease, the disease is more

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likely to be fatal to the smoker. The same studies indicate that people who give up smoking have a lower death rate from heart attack than do persistent smokers. After a period of years the death rate of those who stop smoking is nearly as low as that of people who have never smoked. Some of the abnormal changes in lung tissue of heavy smokers have also been shown to gradually improve.277,282

Smoking Intervention Guidelines296

• Every patient should be asked about tobacco use. Smoking status should be recorded and updated at regular intervals. • Persons who smoke should be counseled about smoking whenever they visit their healthcare provider’s office. • The importance of maintaining smoking cessation should be discussed frequently with patients who have quit. • Cessation interventions as brief as 3 minutes are effective, with more intensive interventions being more effective. • Clinicians should receive training in patient-centered counseling methods. • Office systems that facilitate delivery of smoking cessation interventions should be established. • Links with other personnel and organizations should be established to provide smoking cessation intervention (eg, nurses, smoking cessation specialists, multiple risk factor intervention programs, community resources).

High Blood Pressure

A major risk factor for heart attack, hypertension (high blood pressure), usually has no specific symptoms but can be detected by a simple, painless test. As many as 65 million adults and children in the United States have high blood pressure.72 It affects nearly 1 in 3 American adults. Primary, or essential, hypertension is the most common type of hypertension. Its cause is unknown. Secondary hypertension is caused by another condition, such as kidney disease. Experts who have studied high blood pressure report that a tendency toward hypertension is often found in families. People whose parents had high blood pressure are more likely to develop it than people whose parents did not. If there is a family history of stroke or heart attack at an early age or if parents have high blood pressure, all family members should have regular blood pressure checks. High blood pressure increases the workload of the heart, causing it to

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enlarge and weaken over time. It also increases the risk of stroke, heart attack, kidney failure, and heart failure. When high blood pressure is combined with older age, obesity, smoking, high blood cholesterol levels, or diabetes, the risk of heart attack or stroke increases several times. Hypertension is one of the most powerful modifiable risk factors for both ischemic and spontaneous hemorrhagic stroke.300,301 Risk of hemorrhagic stroke rises markedly with increases in systolic blood pressure.300 Hypertension is relatively common, affecting 60.9% of men and 74% of women aged 65 to 74, and 69.2% of men and 83.4% of women aged 75 and over.72 For this reason every patient should have his or her blood pressure checked regularly (at least annually), particularly patients older than 60. Uncontrolled high blood pressure can also affect the kidneys.302-304 Kidney damage is the most common form of secondary hypertension. Such effects on the heart, kidneys, and brain are called end-organ damage. Risk of heart disease, stroke, and end-organ damage can be eliminated or reduced if high blood pressure is treated early and effectively. Reduction of blood pressure can significantly reduce risk of heart disease and stroke in both men and women.305 Weight reduction and dietary interventions also contribute to the prevention and treatment of hypertension. A person with mild elevations of blood pressure often begins treatment with a program of weight reduction (if overweight) and salt (sodium) restriction before drugs are recommended. Moderate elevations of blood pressure may be controlled by weight reduction and decreased sodium intake.306 The optimal degree of sodium reduction has not yet been completely established. Table salt is 40% sodium. Removing the salt shaker from the table and not adding salt during food preparation can significantly reduce salt consumption. A physician’s advice about weight reduction should also be obtained. For persons with severe hypertension or mild to moderate hypertension not controlled by these measures, antihypertensive drugs are likely to be required. If drug therapy is required, the drugs must be taken exactly as prescribed, and patients should be carefully monitored to ensure both compliance with therapy and effectiveness of the therapy in controlling hypertension.

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Control of hypertension substantially decreases risk of stroke.98,307 Evidence has shown that systolic hypertension is a risk factor for stroke, particularly in the elderly.

High Blood Cholesterol Level

Cholesterol is manufactured by the body and is present in any animal products that we eat. It is found in especially large amounts in egg yolk and organ meats. Shrimp and lobster are moderately high in cholesterol, although low in saturated fat; hence they represent “better” eating choices than foods that are high in both cholesterol and saturated fat. Too much cholesterol can cause a buildup on artery walls, narrowing the passageway through which blood flows and leading to atherosclerosis, heart attack, and stroke.

Cholesterol and Low- and High-Density Lipoproteins

The American Heart Association endorses the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) guidelines for detection of high cholesterol. The Third Report of the Expert panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III or ATP III) was released in 2001. The NCEP recommends that adults age 20 and over have their total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides measured at least once every 5 years. Cholesterol is a fat-like substance (lipid) that is present in cell membranes and is used in the formation of bile acids and steroid hormones. Cholesterol travels in the blood in distinct particles containing both lipid and proteins (lipoproteins). Two of the major classes of lipoproteins are low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and highdensity lipoproteins (HDL). LDL cholesterol typically makes up 60% to 70% of the total serum cholesterol. LDL is the major atherogenic lipoprotein and is the primary target of cholesterol-lowering therapy. LDL cholesterol is often called the “bad” cholesterol because higher levels reflect a higher risk of heart disease. When too much LDL cholesterol circulates in the blood, it can slowly build up in the walls of the arteries of the body, including those that feed the heart and brain. Together with other substances it can form plaque, a thick, hard deposit that can clog these arteries. Lower levels of LDL cholesterol reflect a lower risk of heart disease.

HDL cholesterol normally makes up 20% to 30% of total serum

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cholesterol. HDL cholesterol is known as the “good” cholesterol because a high level of HDL cholesterol seems to protect against heart attack. HDL carries cholesterol away from the arteries and back to the liver, where it is passed from the body. Researchers have established healthy ranges for total, HDL, and LDL cholesterol as well as for triglycerides. They are given in the lists below. Initial classification based on total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol Total Cholesterol Level

Category

Less than 200 mg/dL

Desirable level that puts a person at lower risk for coronary heart disease. A cholesterol level of 200 mg/dL or higher raises your risk.

200 to 239 mg/dL

Borderline high.

240 mg/dL and above

High blood cholesterol. A person with this level has more than twice the risk of coronary heart disease as someone whose cholesterol is below 200 mg/dL.

HDL Cholesterol Level

Category

Less than 40 mg/dL

Low HDL cholesterol. A risk factor for heart disease.

40 to 59 mg/dL

The higher the HDL level, the better.

60 mg/dL and above

High HDL cholesterol. An HDL of 60 mg/dL and above is considered protective against heart disease.

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If total cholesterol is 200 mg/dL or more, or HDL cholesterol is less than 40 mg/dL, a lipoprotein profile should be done to determine LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels. LDL Cholesterol Level Category Less than 100 mg/dL

Optimal

100 to 129 mg/dL

Near or above optimal

130 to 159 mg/dL

Borderline high

160 to 189 mg/dL

High

190 mg/dL and above

Very high

The LDL cholesterol goal depends on how many other risk factors are present. • If a person does not have coronary heart disease or diabetes and

has one or no risk factors, the LDL goal is less than 160 mg/dL. • If a person does not have coronary heart disease or diabetes and has two or more risk factors, the LDL goal is less than 130 mg/dL. • If a person has coronary heart disease or diabetes, the LDL goal is less than 100 mg/dL, and for some high-risk individuals, an optional goal is less than 70 mg/dL. Triglyceride is the most common type of fat in the body. Many people who have heart disease or diabetes have high triglyceride levels. Normal triglyceride levels vary by age and sex. A high triglyceride level combined with low HDL cholesterol or high LDL cholesterol seems to speed up atherosclerosis (the buildup of fatty deposits in artery walls). Atherosclerosis increases the risk for heart attack and stroke. Triglyceride Level

Category

Less than 150 mg/dL

Normal

150 to 199 mg/dL

Borderline high

200 to 499 mg/dL

High

500 mg/dL and above

Very high

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On the whole, Americans should reduce the amount of saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, and total fat in their diet. If you have high blood cholesterol, it is very important to control high blood pressure, avoid tobacco smoke, eat a healthy diet, get regular physical activity, maintain a healthy weight, and control or delay the onset of diabetes. Taking these steps will help lower your risk of heart disease and stroke. If you still need drugs to reduce your blood cholesterol, a healthy diet and active lifestyle will help lower your cholesterol and improve your overall cardiovascular health. Patients can help raise a low HDL level by not smoking, losing weight or maintaining a healthy weight, and being physically active for at least 30 minutes a day on most if not all days of the week. To lower LDL cholesterol, a physician may prescribe a diet low in saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol; regular aerobic physical activity; and if needed, a weight management program. Medications may also be prescribed to lower LDL cholesterol. People with high triglycerides may have underlying diseases or genetic disorders. To lower a high triglyceride level, the patient must change his or her lifestyle. The patient must reduce weight; eat foods low in saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol; get regular physical activity; and stop smoking. Some patients may need to drink less alcohol.

Reducing Your Cholesterol

Current dietary guidelines from both the American Heart Association308 and the National Cholesterol Education Program309 recommend restricting consumption of fat to 25% to 35% of daily caloric intake. In most people diets rich in saturated fats raise blood cholesterol levels. The major sources of saturated fats are meat, animal fats, some vegetable oils (palm kernel oil, coconut oil, cocoa butter, and heavily hydrogenated margarines and shortenings), dairy products (whole milk, cream, butter, ice cream, and cheese), and baked goods. The dietary recommendations of the AHA and the National Cholesterol Education Program are summarized as follows: • For most meals, eat fish or poultry, and consume no more than 6 ounces per day. • Do not eat the skin of poultry. • When you prepare red meat (beef, pork, or lamb), use lean cuts, trim off excess fat, and serve small portions.

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• Cook with limited amounts of liquid vegetable oils and polyunsaturated, nonhydrogenated margarines (for example, canola, corn, cottonseed, soybean, and safflower products). Olive oil is a monounsaturated fat source. • Use skim milk products. • Eat no more than 3 egg yolks per week. Use egg substitutes in place of eggs. • Use low-fat cooking methods, such as baking, broiling, and roasting. Avoid fried foods. A physician can measure the amount of cholesterol in the blood with a simple test. Because the human body both manufactures cholesterol and consumes it (intake), a diet low in saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol will help lower the level of blood cholesterol if it is too high. Medications are also available to help maintain cholesterol levels within the normal range. Changes in diet should never be drastic. Elimination of essential foods can be harmful. Fad diets that totally exclude one type of food from the diet can lead to additional health problems. Moderate changes in diet and careful monitoring of cholesterol and saturated fat can usually keep blood cholesterol at acceptable levels. It is generally accepted that atherosclerosis begins in childhood, progresses through young adulthood, and usually becomes manifest only in middle age or later. It is therefore recommended that people pay attention to nutrition in children and follow the American Heart Association statement on dietary recommendations for children and adolescents.310

Physical Inactivity

Physical inactivity has been clearly established as a risk factor for heart attack, and regular physical activity can reduce the risk of CHD.311-313 When combined with overeating, lack of physical activity may lead to excess weight, which is an additional contributing factor for heart attack. Persons over the age of 40 years should consult their physician before beginning an exercise program or significantly increasing their physical activity level. Regular physical activity can increase cardiovascular functional capacity and may decrease myocardial oxygen demand for any given level of physical activity. The 1995 federal guidelines recommend a minimum of 30 minutes of moderately intense physical activity most days of the week. The risk of vigorous physical activity may be assessed by appropriate medical evaluation.

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Physical Activity

Regular physical activity tones the muscles, stimulates circulation, helps control weight, prevents obesity, and promotes a general feeling of well-being. Regular physical activity can help control blood lipid abnormalities, high blood pressure, and diabetes. There is evidence to suggest that the survival rate of heart attack victims is higher in those who have exercised regularly than in those who have not. People of all ages should develop a physically active lifestyle as part of a comprehensive program to prevent heart disease. Aerobic activities requiring movement of body weight over distance are especially valuable. Such activities include walking, climbing stairs, running, cycling, swimming, and similar activities. Improvements in cardiovascular fitness appear to result from regular aerobic physical activity of moderate intensity (50% to 75% of capacity) performed 15 to 30 minutes at least every other day. For high-risk patients, vigorous exercise should be prescribed with caution. Graded exercise tolerance tests, which may be used to help formulate an individual’s exercise prescription, should be performed under medical supervision. Strenuous and unaccustomed activity occasionally brings on a heart attack in an apparently healthy person who has undiagnosed heart disease. Persons over the age of 40 or with a known risk of cardiovascular disease should consult a physician before beginning an exercise program or engaging in heavy physical labor. An exercise test may be part of a physical examination. Physical activity should be increased gradually in any exercise program. For someone evaluated as physically fit by his or her physician, the introduction of an enjoyable sport into one’s life can be beneficial.

Diabetes

Diabetes is an independent risk factor for heart attack and stroke. It is associated with high blood pressure,314 high cholesterol, and being overweight. These factors further increase the risk. Diabetes appears most frequently during middle age and more often in people who are overweight. In its mild form diabetes can go undetected for many years, but it can sharply increase a person’s risk of heart attack, making control of other risk factors even more important.

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Diabetes, or a familial tendency toward diabetes, is associated with an increased risk of CHD. The risk of heart disease in diabetic adults is 2 to 4 times that of nondiabetic adults.72 In diabetic women the deaths from heart disease have increased 23% over the past 30 years, and deaths from heart disease in men with diabetes have decreased 13% compared with a 36% decrease in men without diabetes.315 Improved control of glucose levels reduces the vascular complications of diabetes.316 Controlling Diabetes

A physician can detect diabetes and treat it by prescribing exercise and weight control programs, changes in eating habits, and medications (if necessary). The diabetic patient should also be taught how to modify other commonly associated risk factors that may be present. These risk factors are hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridemia, hypertension, and obesity.

Obesity

Obesity has recently been reclassified as a major, modifiable risk factor for coronary heart disease.317 In most cases obesity is the result of eating too much unhealthy food and exercising too little. Obesity places a heavy burden on the heart. Obesity is associated with an increased occurrence of CHD and sudden cardiac death, primarily because of its role in increasing blood pressure and blood cholesterol and precipitating diabetes.318 There is also evidence that obesity may directly contribute to CHD. Few persons become obese without developing a less favorable coronary risk profile. Most people reach their normal adult weight between the ages of 21 and 25. With each succeeding year, fewer calories are needed to maintain this weight. People in their 30s and 40s who eat as much as they did in their early 20s and who become physically less active will store excess calories as body fat. Life expectancy may be shorter for people who are markedly obese. Middle-aged men who are significantly obese have a greater risk of a fatal heart attack than middle-aged men of normal weight. Obesity also leads to a greater risk of hypertension and diabetes. Eliminating Obesity

When the American Heart Association identified obesity as a major risk factor for heart disease, it issued a call to action for all healthcare providers.317 To help patients lose weight, doctors usually recommend

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a program that combines exercise with a low-calorie diet. There is no quick, easy way to lose weight. Extreme reducing diets should be avoided because they usually exclude foods essential to good health. Weight reductions of 5% to 10% of body weight can decrease blood pressure and total blood cholesterol and improve glucose tolerance in diabetic patients (and those with impaired glucose tolerance). These are important advantages. Even when extreme reducing diets do lower weight, they are not effective for maintaining lower weight unless they change patterns of eating. A physician should be consulted to determine the best weight for a patient of a given height and age and to help develop a plan for weight reduction.

Risk Factors Specific to Stroke

Overview

A few risk factors are specific to stroke, including • TIAs • Atrial fibrillation • High red blood cell count

TIAs

A TIA is a brief, reversible episode of focal neurologic dysfunction. It is one of the signs of atherosclerotic disease and a significant indicator of risk of stroke. Approximately one fourth of stroke patients have had a TIA.98 The risk of stroke among patients with TIAs is approximately 5% within the first month. The risk increases to 12% at 1 year and an additional 5% for every year after that. Antiplatelet therapy inhibits the formation of clots and reduces risk of stroke as well as heart attack in patients with TIAs.88

Atrial Fibrillation

Atrial fibrillation is a significant modifiable risk factor for stroke, particularly in the elderly. Anticoagulants (warfarin) can significantly reduce the risk of thromboembolic stroke associated with atrial fibrillation. Aspirin may be prescribed for younger patients with atrial fibrillation but with no other risk factors for stroke.319

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High Red Blood Cell Count

A marked or even moderate increase in the red blood cell count (hypercoagulopathy) is a risk factor for stroke because increased red blood cells thicken the blood, making clots more likely.320 A high red blood cell count can be treated by removing blood and replacing it with intravenous fluid or by administering anticoagulants. Sickle cell anemia is an inherited condition associated with abnormal hemoglobin protein. When the patient with sickle cell anemia becomes hypoxic, hypothermic, or dehydrated, the hemoglobin deforms, causing red blood cells to clump together and produce clots that obstruct blood flow to tissues. These episodes, called vaso-occlusive crises, may produce organ failure or stroke. Although sickle cell anemia cannot be eliminated, vaso-occlusive crises may be prevented in patients at risk by avoiding hypoxemia, hypothermia, and infection and maintaining hydration and oxygenation. The amount of abnormal hemoglobin can also be controlled through exchange transfusion.

Combined Risk Factors Some low-level risk factors become significant when combined with certain other risk factors. For example, the use of oral contraceptives by young women who smoke cigarettes increases their risk of stroke considerably.293,321

Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Women

The major risk factors for coronary heart disease in women are • Cigarette smoking (risk similar to that of men) • Hypertension, including isolated systolic hypertension (benefits of antihypertensive therapy similar for women and men) • Dyslipidemia (risk similar to that of men) • Diabetes mellitus (the impact of diabetes on stroke risk is greater in women than in men) • Obesity (as in men, abdominal adiposity is a particularly important risk factor for CHD) • Physical inactivity (as in men, a substantial reduction in risk of CHD results from even moderate activity)

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Heart-healthy and Brain-healthy Lifestyles

Overview

A heart-healthy and brain-healthy lifestyle is a lifestyle that minimizes the risk of future heart disease and stroke. This lifestyle includes weight control, physical fitness, sensible dietary habits, avoidance of cigarette smoking, low levels of serum cholesterol and triglycerides, and control of high blood pressure. The AHA publishes a wide variety of educational materials about healthy lifestyles that may provide additional information for the instructor and student. For more information contact your local AHA. A number of large studies have confirmed the effectiveness of risk factor modification in reducing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Most authorities believe that risk factor reduction is an important part of a comprehensive approach to reducing cardiovascular and cerebrovascular illness and death in the community, especially among children and young adults. Millions of North Americans begin endangering their hearts at a comparatively early age by acquiring poor living habits. Children begin to overeat and develop a taste for foods high in salt, cholesterol, and calories. Some are not encouraged to be physically active, and watching television limits play activity. The smoking habit frequently begins during the early teen years, especially if parents smoke. By adulthood many North Americans are overweight, lead sedentary lives, and smoke heavily. Many have high levels of cholesterol and triglycerides in their blood. High blood pressure is another prevalent risk factor. Most of the scientific evidence available today indicates that reduction of risk factors may prevent many heart attacks and strokes. At the very least, reducing risk can result in good general health and physical fitness and can benefit every member of the family. Children benefit most of all by learning the habits of healthy living early in life. The following table lists the major controllable risk factors of heart attack and stroke. Take a moment to review these risk factors and behaviors needed to achieve a heart-healthy and brain-healthy lifestyle.

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Following the table is a simple questionnaire that can help identify risk factors for heart attack. It may be useful for the healthcare provider to complete this questionnaire personally or to distribute it to his or her patients.

Major Controllable Risk Factors of Heart Attack and Stroke*

Factor Cigarette smoking

High blood pressure

High blood cholesterol

Physical inactivity

Obesity

Explanation Cigarette smoking is the most important single cause of preventable death in the United States. Smoking damages blood vessels and causes numerous other preventable diseases. Secondhand smoke can hurt your children, loved ones, and friends. Uncontrolled high blood pressure is associated with a greater risk of heart attack and is the single most important risk factor for stroke. High blood pressure can damage your blood vessels and even lead to a ruptured blood vessel in the brain. When excess cholesterol is deposited on the inner walls of the arteries, it can cause the arteries to narrow and obstruct blood flow to the heart or brain. A sedentary lifestyle can lead to heart attack, but vigorous exercise by persons who have not exercised regularly can be dangerous. Consult a physician before starting an exercise regimen. Obesity increases the risk of high blood pressure, diabetes, and high blood cholesterol, therefore increasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. Obesity may also increase the risk of heart attack and stroke independent of these risk factors.

© 2006 American Heart Association

Lifestyle to Reduce Risk Stop smoking as soon as possible. Seek help from your physician. Pick a day now to quit. It is the greatest gift you can give yourself, your loved ones, and friends. Have your blood pressure checked regularly and seek treatment if high blood pressure is noted. Take your prescribed medications conscientiously. Have your physician check your blood cholesterol levels regularly. Avoid a diet high in saturated fat. Regular physical activity (including walking) can stimulate circulation, prevent weight gain, and promote a general feeling of well being. Work with your physician to plan a healthy diet. Lose weight slowly. Fad diets are not successful in achieving long-term weight loss.

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Heart disease

Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs)

Heart disease is a major risk factor for stroke. A damaged pump or abnormal heart rhythms can cause blood clots to form and be released into the brain, leading to stroke. TIAs are stroke-like symptoms that disappear in less than 24 hours. TIAs are strong predictors of stroke. They are usually treated with medications that keep blood clots from forming.

Live a heart-healthy lifestyle and follow your doctor’s instructions for treating all forms of heart and blood vessel disease. If stroke symptoms occur, phone the emergency response system (or 911).

*Note: Other risk factors for heart attack and stroke include heredity, male gender, increasing age, diabetes, and race (African Americans are at greater risk for heart attack and stroke). Contact your local AHA for more information on preventing heart attack and stroke.

Are You at Risk for a Heart Attack?

The following factors increase the risk of heart attack. Check all that apply to you. If you have 2 or more risk factors, see a physician for a complete evaluation of your risk. Men Are you more than 45 years old? Women Are you more than 55 years old? Are you past menopause? Have your ovaries been removed, and if so, you are not taking estrogen? Both Did your father or brother have a heart attack before age 55? Did your mother or sister have a heart attack before age 65? Did your mother, father, sister, brother, or grandparent have a stroke? Do you smoke or live or work with others who smoke tobacco daily?

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Is your total cholesterol level 240 mg/dL or higher? You don’t know your total cholesterol level? Is your high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (“good”) cholesterol less than 40 mg/dL? You don’t know your HDL level? Is your blood pressure 140/90 mm Hg or higher? Have you been told that your blood pressure is too high? You don’t know your blood pressure? Do you exercise for less than 30 minutes on most days? Are you 20 pounds or more overweight for your height and build? Is your fasting blood sugar level 126 mg/dL or higher? Do you need medicine to control your blood sugar level? Do you have coronary heart disease? Have you had a heart attack? Have you had a stroke or transient ischemic attack?

To learn more about preventing heart attack and stroke, phone the American Heart Association (1-800-242-8721) or visit the AHA website at www.americanheart.org.

Summary of the Role of Prevention

As important as it is to provide emergency treatment to the victim of cardiac arrest and stroke, it is far more desirable to prevent these problems. Risk factor modification has clearly been shown to save lives. Education of the public is essential in the effort to decrease death from CHD and stroke. Control of recognized risk factors depends on both the education and willingness of the public to understand and actively participate in adopting a healthier lifestyle. Communitywide campaigns can be effective in reducing cardiovascular risk in patients who have the disease to prevent a second event from happening. It is even more important for those who do not have CHD or stroke to effectively reduce the risk. Educational efforts must also be directed toward overcoming patients’ intrinsic denial of early evidence of cardiac disease and encouraging rapid entry into the EMS system when symptoms of CHD develop.

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Raitt MH, Maynard C, Wagner GS, Cerqueira MD, Selvester RH, Weaver WD. Relation between symptom duration before thrombolytic therapy and final myocardial infarct size. Circulation. 1996;93:48-53.

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Wackers FJ, Terrin ML, Kayden DS, Knatterud G, Forman S, Braunwald E, Zaret BL. Quantitative radionuclide assessment of regional ventricular function after thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction: results of phase I Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1989;13:998-1005.

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Res JC, Simoons ML, van der Wall EE, van Eenige MJ, Vermeer F, Verheugt FW, Wijns W, Braat S, Remme WJ, Serruys PW, et al. Long term improvement in global left ventricular function after early thrombolytic treatment in acute myocardial infarction. Report of a randomised multicentre trial of intracoronary streptokinase in acute myocardial infarction. Br Heart J. 1986;56:414-421.

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