World Weavers: Globalization, Science Fiction, and The Cybernetic Revolution

•Id Weauers Globalization, Scienc e Fiction , an d the Cyberneti c Revolutio n edited by Wang Kin Yuen, Gary Westfahl and Amy Kit-sze Chan

LUorld UJeauers

Hong Kong University Press thanks Xu Bing for writing the Press's name in his Square Word Calligraph y fo r th e cover s o f it s books. For further information , se e p. iv.

LUorld UJeauers Globalization, Scienc e Fiction , an d the Cyberneti c Revolutio n

edited by Wong Ki n Yuen, Gary Westfah l an d Amy Kit-sz e Cha n

# m *> ¥ * a f t

H O N G KON G U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

Hong Kong University Pres s 14/F Hin g Wa i Centr e 7 Tin Wa n Pray a Roa d Aberdeen Hong Kon g

© Hon g Kon g Universit y Pres s 200 5 ISBN 96 2 20 9 72 1 9 (Hardback ) ISBN 96 2 20 9 72 2 7 (Paperback )

All right s reserved . N o portio n o f thi s publicatio n ma y b e reproduced o r transmitte d i n an y for m o r b y an y means , electronic o r mechanical , includin g photocopy , recording , or an y informatio n storag e o r retrieva l system , withou t permission i n writin g fro m th e publisher .

Secure On-lin e Orderin g http://www.hkupress.org British Librar y Cataloguing-in-Publicatio n Dat a A catalogu e recor d fo r thi s boo k i s availabl e from th e Britis h Library . Printed and bound by Kings Time Printing Press Ltd., in Hong Kong, China Hong Kong University Pres s is honoured tha t X u Bing, whose ar t explores the complex themes of language across cultures, has written the Press's name in his Squar e Word Calligraphy. This signal s our commitment t o cross-cultura l thinkin g an d th e distinctiv e natur e of our English-language books published in China . "At first glance, Square Word Calligraphy appears to be nothing more unusual tha n Chines e characters , bu t i n fac t i t i s a ne w wa y of rendering English words in the format o f a square so they resemble Chinese characters. Chinese viewers expect to be able to read Square Word Calligraph y bu t cannot . Wester n viewers , howeve r ar e surprised t o find the y can read it. Delight erupt s when meanin g is unexpectedly revealed/ 7 — Britta Erickson, The Art of Xu Bing

Contents

Contributors i

x

Introduction From Semaphor s an d Steamship s t o Server s an d 1 Spaceships: Th e Sag a o f Globalization , Scienc e Fiction , and th e Cyberneti c Revolutio n Gary Westfahl Part I Globa l Perspective s 5 1. Goin g Mobile : Tradition , Technology , an d th e Cultura l Mona d 7 George Slusser 2. Urbe et Orbe: A Prehistor y o f th e Postmoder n Worl d Cit y 2 Howard V. Hendrix

5

3. 2001 , or A Cyberpalac e Odyssey : Towar d th e Ideographi c 4 Imagination Takayuki Tatsumi

1

4. Th e Genealog y o f th e Cybor g i n Japanes e Popula r Cultur e 5 Sharalyn Orbaugh

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5. Hermeneutic s an d Taiwa n Scienc e Fictio n 7 Wong Kin Yuen

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VI CONTENTS

6. I s Utopi a Obsolete ? Implodin g Boundarie s i n Nea l 9 Stephenson's The Diamond Age N. Katherine Hayles

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Part II : Histor y Lesson s 11

1

7. Tale s o f Future s Passed : Th e Kiplin g Continuu m an d Othe r 11 3 Lost World s o f Scienc e Fictio n Andy Sawyer 8. Globalizatio n i n Japanes e Scienc e Fiction , 190 0 an d 1963 : 13 The Seabed Warship an d It s Re-Interpretatio n Thomas Schnellbacher

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9. Th e Limit s o f "Humanity " i n Comparativ e Perspective : 14 Cordwainer Smit h an d th e Soushenji Lisa Raphals

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10. Th e Ide a o f th e Asia n i n Phili p K . Dick's The Man in the 15 High Castle Jake fakaitis

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11. Godzilla' s Travels : The Evolutio n o f a Globalized Gargantua n 16 Gary Westfahl

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Part III : Contemporary Cas e Studie s 18

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12. Blac k Secre t Technology : Africa n Technologica l Subject s 19 Gerald Gaylard

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13. Th e Teet h o f th e Ne w Cockatoo : Mutatio n an d Traum a i n 20 Greg Egan' s Teranesia Chris Palmer

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14. Whe n Cyberfeminis m Meet s Chines e Philosophy : 21 Computer, Weavin g an d Wome n Amy Kit-sz e Cha n

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15. Hollywoo d Enter s th e Drago n 23 Veronique Flambard-Weisbart

3

CONTENTS VII

16. Romeo Must Die: Actio n an d Agenc y i n Hollywoo d 24 and Hon g Kon g Actio n Film s Susanne Rieser and Susanne Lummerding

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Afterword 25

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Wong Kin Yuen and Amy Kit-sze Chan Notes 25

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Bibliography o f Work s Relate d t o Globalization , Scienc e 28 Fiction, an d th e Cyberneti c Revolutio n Index

7 301

Contributors

Amy Kit-sze CHAN is Associate Director o f the Technoscience Cultur e Research an d Developmen t Centre , an d a n assistan t professo r a t th e Department o f English Language and Literature, at the Hong Kong Shue Yan College. She also teache s technoscienc e cultur e an d th e cultur e o f travel i n th e M.A . Programm e o f Intercultura l Studie s a t th e Chines e University o f Hong Kong. Her researc h interest s includ e technoscienc e culture, gende r studies , SF , Chines e minorit y studie s an d cultura l studies. Veronique FLAMBARD-WEISBART i s an associate professor o f Frenc h at Loyol a Marymoun t University , Directo r o f th e University' s Stud y Abroad Program , an d a n exper t i n martia l arts . Gerald GAYLARD lectures in the English Department a t the Universit y of the Witwatersrand, Sout h Africa. A t present h e is working o n a book on Africa n magica l realism . N. Katherin e HAYLES , Professo r o f Englis h a t th e Universit y o f California Lo s Angeles, i s th e autho r o f How We Became Posthuman. She has bee n awarde d a Guggenhei m Fellowship , fellowship s fro m th e National Endowmen t fo r th e Humanities , a Presidentia l Researc h Fellowship fro m th e Universit y o f California , th e Ren e Welle k Prize , and the Distinguished Schola r Award from th e International Associatio n for th e Fantasti c i n th e Arts . Howard V. HENDRIX i s th e autho r o f th e novel s Lightpaths, Standing Wave, Better Angels, an d Empty Cities of the Full Moon, a s wel l a s a

X CONTRIBUTORS

scholarly book, The Ecstacy of Catastrophe, an d numerous shor t stories . He i s Wester n Regiona l Directo r o f th e Scienc e Fictio n an d Fantas y Writers o f Americ a an d teache s Englis h literatur e a t Californi a Stat e University, Fresno . Jake JAKAITIS, a n associat e professo r o f Englis h an d women' s studie s at Indian a Stat e University , ha s publishe d article s o n Phili p K . Dic k and Do n DeLillo . Susanne LUMMERDIN G ha s taugh t a t th e Universit y o f Fin e Arts , Vienna,- th e Car l vo n Ossietzk y University , Oldenburg , Germany ; an d the Cente r fo r Twentiet h Centur y Studie s a t th e Universit y o f Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Sh e ha s publishe d a boo k an d severa l article s on theorie s o f agenc y an d gende r studies . Sharalyn ORBAUG H i s a n associat e professo r o f Asia n studie s an d women's studie s a t th e Universit y o f Britis h Columbia . He r wor k o n Japanese science fiction ha s appeared in Science Fiction Studies an d th e critical antholog y Gender and Power in the Japanese Visual Field. Chris PALMER is Professor o f English at La Trobe University. His essay s on Phili p K . Dick hav e appeared in th e journals Science Fiction Studies and Extrapolation, an d h e wil l soo n publis h a critica l stud y o f Dick . Lisa RAPHALS is an associate professor o f comparative literatur e a t th e University o f California, Riverside . Her works include Knowing Words: Wisdom and Cunning in the Classical Traditions of China and Greece and Sharing the Light: Representations of Women and Virtue in Early China. Susanne RIESE R teache s fil m studies , popula r cultur e an d women' s studies a t th e Universit y o f Vienn a an d th e Universit y o f Graz . Sh e i s now researchin g he r forthcomin g boo k o n actio n films . Andy SAWYER is Librarian in charg e of the Scienc e Fiction Foundatio n Collection a t th e Universit y o f Liverpoo l Librar y an d deput y cours e director o f the M.A. in S F Studies offere d b y the University o f Liverpoo l Department o f Englis h Languag e an d Literature . H e i s als o Review s Editor o f Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction.

CONTRIBUTORS XI

Thomas SCHNELLBACHER, who received a doctoral degree from Berli n Free University wit h a dissertatio n o n Kob o Abe , currentl y work s a s a freelance translator . George SLUSSER, Professor o f Comparative Literatur e a t the Universit y of California , Riverside , i s th e autho r o r co-edito r o f ove r tw o doze n books abou t scienc e fictio n an d fantasy . H e ha s earne d th e Scienc e Fiction Researc h Association' s Pilgri m Awar d fo r hi s scienc e fictio n scholarship. Takayuki TATSUM I teaches American literatur e an d literary theor y a t Keio University . Hi s recen t publication s includ e Nippon SF ransoshi [Science Fiction Controversies in Japan], and his collaboration with Larr y McCaffery earne d the m th e Scienc e Fictio n Researc h Association' s Pioneer Awar d i n 199 4 fo r th e year' s bes t critica l essa y o n scienc e fiction. Gary WESTFAHL , wh o teache s a t th e Universit y o f California , Riverside, is the author, editor , o r co-editor of many books about scienc e fiction. Hi s forthcomin g project s includ e Science Fiction Quotations: The Yale Dictionary an d th e three-volum e referenc e Encyclopedia of Themes in Science Fiction and Fantasy. WONG Ki n Yue n i s Directo r o f th e Technoscienc e Cultur e Researc h and Developmen t Centre , an d Professo r an d Departmen t Hea d o f th e English Department , Hon g Kon g Shu e Ya n College . H e als o teache s cultural studie s i n th e M A Programm e o f Intercultura l Studie s a t th e Chinese Universit y o f Hon g Kong .

Introduction From Semaphores an d Steamship s to Server s and Spaceships: The Saga of Globalization , Scienc e Fiction , and th e Cyberneti c Revolutio n Gary Westfahl

In Januar y 2001 , a scholarl y conferenc e wa s hel d a t th e Chines e University o f Hong Kong. It was a genuinely global gathering, attractin g speakers an d guest s fro m fiv e continent s an d twelv e countries . A s i s usually th e cas e nowadays , virtuall y al l o f th e arrangement s fo r th e conference — including th e submissio n o f pape r proposals , acceptanc e letters, planning , scheduling , an d hote l reservation s — wer e handle d over th e Internet . Wha t th e speaker s generall y focuse d o n i n thei r presentations wa s scienc e fictio n — the scienc e fictio n o f th e pas t an d the present, th e scienc e fiction o f literature an d film, th e science fictio n of America, Europe , Africa, Asia , an d Australia. B y its very nature, thi s conference — formall y entitle d th e Hon g Kon g 200 1 Conference : Technology, Identity , an d Futurity , Eas t an d West , i n th e Emergin g Global Villag e — embodie d th e interrelationshi p o f globalization , science fiction , an d th e cyberneti c revolutio n tha t function s a s th e foundation o f th e argumen t o f thi s volume . We have al l hear d th e story , encapsulate d i n th e titl e o f Arthu r C . Clarke's non-fictiona l survey , o f How the World Was One b y means of various advance s i n transportatio n an d communicatio n throughou t th e nineteenth an d twentiet h centuries . But those scientifi c breakthrough s alone di d no t forg e a globa l village . I n th e languag e o f th e polic e procedural, ne w technologie s ca n provid e th e means fo r peopl e t o establish ne w connection s wit h distan t lands , bu t the y d o not provid e the motive. Befor e the y mak e a n internationa l phon e cal l o r boar d a

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WESTFAHL

transoceanic jet , peopl e mus t hav e som e reaso n t o d o so . Ther e ha s always been, o f course, the desir e to obtain exoti c goods from foreigner s and t o profi t b y sellin g the m one' s ow n goods , bu t suc h exchange s o f products — which dat e t o ancien t time s — d o no t necessaril y lea d t o exchanges o f ideas . India n spice s wer e fo r centurie s par t o f Europea n life, bu t European s kne w nothin g abou t India n culture . This volum e provisionall y suggests , pendin g furthe r researc h int o the histor y o f globalization , tha t ou r worl d ha s grow n mor e an d mor e interconnected du e not simpl y to technological advance s but t o a shared interest i n thos e advances , an d t o a share d interes t i n wha t thos e advances migh t lea d t o i n th e future . Scientifi c innovation s provid e citizens o f different nation s wit h a unique commo n ground . In the earl y twentieth century , fo r example , a person from Chin a an d a person fro m America migh t hav e foun d i t difficul t t o tal k abou t politic s o r philosophy, give n th e disparat e tradition s an d expectation s o f thei r cultures,- ye t the y coul d readil y tal k abou t th e telephone , a recen t innovation t o bot h cultures , an d the y coul d readil y joi n i n speculatin g about possibl e improvement s i n long-distanc e communicatio n tha t might com e i n th e future . Then , havin g establishe d a rappor t throug h such a conversation , the y migh t b e abl e t o tackl e subject s lik e politic s or philosophy . In fact , durin g th e nineteent h century , i t wa s ofte n th e emergin g literature of science fiction tha t was most successfu l i n garnering reader s from al l ove r th e worl d an d contributin g i n tha t wa y t o th e gradua l formation o f a n internationa l community . Mor e s o tha n storie s abou t drawing room s o r cit y streets , expansiv e technophili c adventure s lik e the novel s o f Jule s Vern e coul d transcen d cultura l barrier s t o becom e enormously popula r and influential i n places ranging from Grea t Britai n and Americ a t o Australi a an d Japan . Whil e th e xenophobi a o f Earth' s disunited pas t lingere d o n i n fearfu l storie s o f Asia n horde s invadin g Western nations , th e literatur e o f scienc e fictio n mor e generall y too k on a n internationa l aura , routinel y positin g th e futur e emergenc e o f a world governmen t an d implicitl y celebratin g th e onenes s o f humanit y in saga s tha t too k human s t o othe r world s wher e the y coul d observ e the Eart h fro m a distanc e an d recogniz e thei r commonalitie s whil e encountering alie n civilizations . Soo n afte r scienc e fictio n assume d it s generic identif y i n th e America n pul p magazine s o f th e twentiet h century, suc h trope s penetrate d t o ever y corne r o f th e globe , an d th e subculture associate d wit h tha t literature , scienc e fictio n fandom , assumed a global character from it s very beginnings. Thus, in 1939 , Ne w York City played host no t onl y to th e celebrated Ne w York World's Fai r but als o t o th e firs t o f man y Worl d Scienc e Fictio n Conventions .

INTRODUCTION: FROM

SEMAPHORES AND STEAMSHIPS TO SERVERS AND SPACESHIPS 3

Given tha t scienc e fictio n wa s fo r s o lon g bot h literall y an d metaphorically linke d to the emergin g global village, it is not surprisin g that scienc e fictio n reader s lik e Cliffor d Stol l were amon g th e firs t an d most enthusiasti c user s o f th e Internet , th e technologica l innovatio n that quickene d th e pac e o f globalizatio n t o a n unprecedente d extent . Having previousl y probe d int o facet s o f globalizatio n suc h a s urbanization, colonialism , an d militarism , scienc e fictio n no w too k o n the tas k o f explorin g ho w th e cyberneti c revolutio n migh t transfor m the world , writer s alway s managin g — despit e ever-acceleratin g developments — t o sta y on e ste p ahea d o f events . In sum , on e might posit , scienc e fiction ha s not onl y serve d a s on e engine o f globalization , bu t i t ha s als o provide d a mirro r fo r huma n responses t o globalizatio n an d a mean s fo r contemplatin g it s possibl e future effects, - it s extravagan t dream s hav e helpe d t o weav e th e worl d together an d ca n hel p u s t o bette r understan d wh y th e weavin g ha s occurred an d ho w i t migh t affec t ou r live s i n th e comin g millennium . Without discountin g th e valu e o f othe r approache s t o th e stud y o f cyberspace an d th e globalize d worl d o f th e twenty-firs t century , th e contributors t o this volume collectivel y demonstrat e tha t ther e is muc h to learn from th e international genre , the wired genre, of science fiction . The firs t sectio n o f thi s volume , "Globa l Perspectives, " present s examinations o f thes e issue s tha t ar e unusually provocativ e an d wide ranging i n thei r scope : Georg e Slusse r link s America n scienc e fictio n to Hon g Kon g actio n cinem a an d Jamaica n regga e music , Howar d V . Hendrix explore s th e globa l tren d towar d urbanizatio n a s i t ha s manifested itsel f i n scienc e fiction, Takayuk i Tatsumi reinterprets 2001: A Space Odyssey i n the context o f contemporary cyberculture , Sharaly n Orbaugh contrast s th e cyborg s of American an d Japanese culture , Won g Kin Yuen draw s upo n Marti n Heidegge r t o examin e Taiwanes e scienc e fiction, an d N . Katherin e Hayle s discern s a new for m o f Utopi a for ou r interconnected societ y i n th e work s o f Nea l Stephenson . The secon d section , "Histor y Lessons, " consider s scienc e fictio n texts fro m th e distan t pas t t o th e 1960 s tha t contribute d t o an d explicated th e tren d towar d globalization : And y Sawye r studie s th e influential pas t future s o f scienc e fiction , Thoma s Schnellbache r discovers a militaristi c Japanes e scienc e fictio n nove l recas t i n fil m a s a fabl e o f globalization , Lis a Raphal s compare s classica l Chines e literature t o the science fiction o f Cordwainer Smith , Jake Jakaitis probes Asian influences i n the novels of Philip K. Dick, an d I informally explor e the burgeoning complexit y o f the international adventure s o f Godzilla .

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The thir d section , "Contemporar y Cas e Studies, " explore s th e current statu s o f globalizatio n an d cybercultur e a s observe d i n today' s literature an d film: Geral d Gaylar d studie s attitude s towar d technolog y in Africa n scienc e fiction, Chri s Palme r ponder s th e global traditio n o f island literatur e a s observe d i n a Gre g Ega n novel , Am y Kit-sz e Cha n relates concept s i n ancien t Chines e philosoph y t o cyberfeminism , Veronique Flambard-Weisbar t celebrate s th e internationa l succes s o f Asian cinema , an d Susann e Riese r an d Susann e Lummerdin g theoriz e about America n an d Hon g Kon g actio n cinema . While thi s volum e wil l convincingl y sho w jus t ho w fertil e thes e grounds o f globalization, scienc e fiction , an d th e cyberneti c revolutio n are for scholar s in al l fields, mor e work clearl y needs to be done to brin g to ligh t th e ful l dimension s o f th e past , present , an d future interfac e o f literature, culture , an d cybertechnology . Fo r tha t reason , th e volum e concludes firs t wit h a n afterwor d b y Won g Ki n Yue n an d Am y Kit-sz e Chan, which sum s up the volume from anothe r perspective and suggest s that contemporar y critica l theory, particularl y it s concep t o f virtuality , can provid e a stimulatin g foundatio n fo r furthe r exploration s o f th e issues thes e contributor s hav e raised . Thi s i s followe d b y a selectiv e bibliography o f resources t o assist thos e scholar s wh o see k t o follow i n the footsteps o f the contributors assemble d here. As residents o f a world that i s undeniabl y globalized , scienc e fictional , an d virtual , i t i s incumbent upo n u s t o full y understan d jus t ho w w e cam e t o liv e i n such a worl d an d jus t wher e thi s worl d ma y b e headin g next . Thi s volume represents on e small but significan t ste p toward achievin g suc h knowledge.

PART 1 Global Perspective s

1 Going Mobile: Tradition, Technology, and th e Cultura l Mona d George Slusse r

"No man is an island, entir e of himself," John Donne once said, standin g on th e fir m soi l o f Britis h natio n an d culture . Ralp h Wald o Emerson , two centurie s later , tell s us , t o th e contrary , no t onl y tha t al l me n ar e islands but tha t al l institutions ar e only "lengthene d shadows " of singl e men: " A ma n Caesa r i s born , an d fo r age s afte r w e hav e a Roma n Empire." 1 Emerson' s monadi c man , however , doe s no t wan t t o foun d an empir e in th e classic , landed way. Instead, hi s power lie s in extrem e mobility, th e abilit y o f renderin g onesel f insubstantia l i n cultura l ties , rootless: "Standing on the bare ground .. . I become a transparent eyeball ; I a m nothing , I se e all." 2 Becomin g nothin g accordin g t o societ y an d culture (thu s th e "bar e ground" ) i s t o becom e mediation , a ne w for m of power : "Powe r cease s i n th e instan t o f repose, - i t reside s .. . i n th e shooting o f th e gulf , i n th e dartin g t o a n aim." 3 T o Donne , th e we b that hold s th e human island s together is culture,- Emerson — foreseein g today's Internet , medi a an d distributio n "networks, " informatio n "highways" and so on — posits a situation i n which things ar e reversed, in whic h th e island s an d thei r position s determin e fro m withi n th e configuration o f th e we , itsel f insubstantia l a s shado w o f a thin g o f energy, no t substance . In wha t way , then , ca n thes e mediacosms , issue d fro m Emerson' s prophetic dynamic , clai m t o be cultures i n an y conventional sense ? A n answer is suggested in th e shift i n meaning of the word "satellite. " Th e old meanin g i s roote d i n th e Lati n wor d satelles, on e attendan t upon ,

8 GEORGE

SLUSSER

and vassa l to , a centra l power . Th e satellit e toda y offer s a n opposite , centrifugal movemen t — i t broadcasts , fro m it s mobile , evanescen t center, a circumference o f forms, images , "worlds. " In the wake of Alvi n Toffler's "Thir d Wave," popular culture — the culture broadcast by thes e new satellite s — has focused o n two o f thes e entities : on one hand, th e oxymoronic "islan d nation,- " o n th e other , th e scienc e fictio n technocosm. Thi s latte r include s th e spac e stations , asteroids , moons , and othe r satellit e location s o f S F literature an d film , al l define d b y a gravitational relatio n t o mor e unwield y spac e bodies . Tw o ver y activ e sites — the focu s o f thi s chapte r — are Hong Kong, where th e nexu s of finance an d fil m generates , i n an d throug h th e for m o f Bruc e Lee , a "third world " politica l vision ; an d Jamaica , wher e touris m an d musi c produce — vi a Bo b Marle y — a post-diaspor a religion . Postmoder n critics, in their attack s o n the old , nation-based "secon d wave " culture , tend t o recuperat e thes e phenomen a a s seriou s "Utopian " visions . Ye t in thei r primar y sens e the y mus t b e see n a s insubstantialities , a s products o f technologica l energ y "shootin g th e gulf. "

The Worl d a s Scienc e Fictio n

Despite continue d rejectio n o f S F by cultura l mavens , Hon g Kon g an d Jamaica offer evidenc e that Bruce Sterling's claim — that th e world toda y has, i n fact , becom e a scienc e fictiona l worl d — is correct . Indeed , t o pursue th e problem thes e tw o satellite s pose on the basis of the cultura l monad i s t o conside r S F i n a broade r contex t — tha t o f Emersonia n power an d form. Ther e is a shared dynamic behind th e function o f Hon g Kong an d tha t o f forma l S F entities suc h a s Rober t A . Heinlein's Lun a City an d Samue l R . Delany' s Triton . I n thes e tw o case s — on e fro m "real" life , th e othe r fro m fictio n — w e fin d analogou s interrelatio n between generativ e an d disseminativ e elements , betwee n th e plasti c powers o f th e singl e individual an d th e extrapolativ e circumferenc e — the vas t world s an d empire s o f imagination , o f soun d an d light . Th e same technolog y o f dissemination , deploye d an d analyze d b y a figur e like Delos D . Harriman i n Heinlein' s "Th e Ma n Wh o Sol d th e Moon, " finds itsel f late r fe d bac k int o SF , via non-S F theoretician s lik e Toffle r and Ily a Prigogine , i n work s suc h a s Sterling' s Islands in the Net. A n ongoing them e i n Heinlein' s novel s i s th e creatio n an d operatio n o f a moon city-stat e (tha t du e to physical condition s i s of necessity a highly restricted territoria l space) , an d beyond this , o f othe r point s o f cultura l "radiation" o n future geo - and cosmo-political maps , such a s Farnham' s

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infamous "freehold. " I n al l thes e cases , agains t unwield y nation s o r government bureaucracies , freedo m an d power equat e wit h mobilit y of information — the rapi d movemen t o f wha t Delo s call s "intangibles. " Likewise, Sterlin g locate s th e powe r point s o f geopolitica l realit y i n "global islands," all forms o f information "hubs " from airport s t o islan d "states" lik e Grenad a an d Jamaica , t o offshor e banks , clandestin e foo d production o n movin g barges , pirates , crim e network s an d "rogue " nations movin g nuclea r weapon s lik e pea s i n a shel l game . In Willia m Gibson's Count Zero, th e mediatize d "religions " o f Rast a an d voodo o become activ e players , bot h a s "viruses " an d anti-vira l element s i n cyberspace. Th e Emersonia n dynami c an d th e cultura l mona d ar e features bot h o f "classic " S F and ne w wav e "cyberpunk. "

Prospero's Islan d The island-stat e an d cultura l mona d goe s far back beyond Heinlein an d SF. Th e dynamic , i n fact , i s alread y a t wor k w i t h i n Willia m Shakespeare's canon , a t th e beginnings o f the ag e of modern science . In his history plays, Shakespeare worked hard to build a solid and coheren t tradition o f kingshi p a s an institutio n roote d i n th e Englis h natio n an d in divine , an d thu s natural , authority . I n The Tempest, however , Shakespeare challenge s thi s roote d authorit y b y creatin g i n Prospero' s "white magic " an art or technology o f mobility that vie s with a natura l order o f thing s tha t ha s bee n violate d b y hi s ouste r fro m "rightful " rulership i n Milan . Landin g o n a n islan d b y fortune , h e no t onl y take s possession, bu t i n doin g s o declares himself riva l with, indee d superio r to, the old landed order of things: "know for certain / that I am Prospero , and tha t ver y duk e / Whic h wa s thrus t fort h o f Milan , wh o mos t strangely / Upo n thi s shor e .. . was lande d / T o b e th e lor d on't " (V , i, 158-62). O n thi s bar e ground , voi d o f traditio n an d "civilization, " Prospero's magic , whic h throug h hi s intermediar y an d agen t Ariel , i s a technology of broadcasting — a "realized" form o f power conventionall y diminished a s "fantasy, " her e restore d t o it s prima l meanin g a s phantasein, th e causin g t o appea r o f image s tha t rival , eve n outdo , th e solid form s o f nature . Suc h form s ar e evanescen t a s the y ar e splendid , and Prosper o summon s an d dissolve s the m a t will : "And , lik e th e baseless fabri c o f thi s vision, / Th e cloud-capp' d towers , th e gorgeou s palaces, / Th e solem n temples , th e grea t glob e itself, / .. . shall dissolv e / And , lik e this insubstantia l pagean t faded , / Leav e not a rack behind " (IV, i , 151-6) . I n th e end , Prosper o forswear s thi s power . Bu t h e ha s

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opened a Pandora's box , one that lead s from him , an d from Christophe r Marlowe's Dr. Faustus (wh o gav e hi s sou l t o summo n th e visio n o f Helen o f Troy), to H . G . Wells's The Invisible Man an d t o tha t moder n morality tale , Wells' s The War of the Worlds. I n th e latter , despit e England's statu s a s island-nation , controllin g a net o f se a lane s instea d of continenta l lan d masses , th e real m i s to o large . Th e forme r maste r of mobility is itself invade d by forces from a world it thought it s satellit e — th e spen t Mar s o f Perciva l Lowel l an d Giovann i Schiaparelli . Mar s is a physically diminishe d world , o f recedin g water an d life . Because of this, however, i t develops a technology of mobility, th e power to dispers e forces, t o creat e dissolvin g "deat h rays. " Onl y becaus e i t i s force d t o wage wa r o n a specifi c soil , wit h it s uniqu e microbes , doe s thi s technology ultimatel y los e power, succumbin g t o diseases t o which we , as extende d holder s o f th e land , hav e lon g becom e immune .

Prospero's Othe r Island : Hon g Kon g Today, i n turn , tw o o f England' s forme r islan d satellites , Hon g Kon g and Jamaica , hav e generate d thei r ow n cultura l monad s — Bruc e Le e and Bo b Marle y —"invisibl e men " wh o trad e physica l existenc e fo r a disseminated cultura l identity , eac h forming, a s the lengthened shado w of its media productions i n film o r music, the baseless fabric o f a cultura l icon — th e kun g f u hero , an d th e Rastafarian . Le t u s examin e th e creation o f eac h figur e i n turn . In relatio n t o th e "deep " cultur e o f th e Chines e mainland , Hon g Kong is another Prospero' s island. As a city, it has realized Ariel's clou d capp'd towers , spire s o f light an d continuou s information . Likewise , i n culture, Hon g Kong' s fil m industr y transpose s traditiona l storie s o f Chinese history into vehicles o f light and soun d that ar e internationall y disseminated, increasingl y detache d fro m th e specific , lande d aspec t of their subject . Thes e films, today , have shot th e gulf t o a global presence. Take for example Ang Lee's sensation, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), a perfec t blen d o f Easter n "serenity " an d Wester n adrenaline , from a Chines e directo r equall y comfortabl e wit h Jan e Austen' s Sense and Sensibility. Th e film, o n one hand, i s a historical dram a o f revenge, honor, an d swordsmanshi p — a classica l "warrio r class " martia l art s film. O n th e other , i t openl y "enhances " traditiona l lyrica l elements , such a s choreographe d flying , wit h state-of-the-ar t specia l effect s technology. A furthe r exampl e i s directo r Joh n Woo' s remak e o f th e iconic high-tec h classi c Mission Impossible, Mission Impossible 2

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(2000), i n whic h h e turn s To m Cruis e int o a cros s betwee n Bruc e Le e and Fantomas . Finally , w e hav e The Kiss of the Dragon (2002) , co directed b y Je t L i an d Lu c Besson , itsel f a loos e remak e o f th e latter' s La Femme Nikita, i n whic h Tchek y Karyo , th e stylis h bu t ruthles s French secre t policema n "Bob " o f tha t film , i s replace d b y th e sam e actor (physicall y ravage d himself ) no w i n th e rol e o f a brutal gangster cop, surrounde d b y a group o f thug s an d perverts . Th e Mandari n thug s of th e traditiona l kun g f u tal e hav e been replace d her e b y Westerners , while th e martia l art s savior , Je t Li , retain s th e Chines e peasan t garb , neutral gra y i n th e mids t o f th e hue s o f decaden t Paris . This tendenc y a s it works ou t today , however, i s the product o f th e Bruce Le e films . I n thes e films , wit h humbl e beginning s i n th e conventional Chines e tal e o f socia l abus e an d revenge , w e hav e th e making o f "Bruc e Lee," a figure tha t escape s from th e role of traditiona l cultural her o t o become a monadic medi a even t — writer, director , an d actor i n film s tha t creat e hi s imag e a s produc t o f th e proces s o f mediation itself. There are only four Bruce Lee films (ther e is some Bruce Lee footage i n a fifth film , The Game of Death, bu t th e flesh-and-bloo d Bruce Le e wa s dea d b y then) . A loo k a t the m chronologicall y i s instructive. Th e firs t film , Fists of Fury, retain s th e "naive " fee l o f th e popular martia l art s tal e an d film , bu t wit h a fe w "signature " detail s that signa l the emergence of its hero as iconic figure. There is the classi c oppressor an d oppressed , th e Chines e warlor d an d th e peasan t classes . Significantly, however , th e workin g classe s ar e uprooted , par t o f th e Chinese "diaspora, " migran t worker s i n Thailand . Thei r oppresso r i s dressed lik e th e conventiona l warlord , wit h droopin g moustache , ceremonial robes , and birds of prey on the arm. His son, however, wear s Western gar b an d run s wit h a gan g o f mixe d Chines e an d Tha i thugs , themselves i n Wester n shirt s an d pants . Moreover , fathe r an d so n ru n an internationa l dru g smugglin g ring . Thei r wa y o f smuggling , (improbably) using blocks of ice made at their factory, i s technologicall y advanced, a t leas t i n relatio n t o th e simpl e peasant s the y employ , an d from whos e clas s th e hero , playe d b y Bruc e Lee , comes . Bruc e Lee , however, despit e hi s gar b an d "country " manners , seems , lik e som e strange foundling , t o com e fro m a differen t class . H e i s maste r o f sophisticated martia l art s techniques , indee d i s possibl y traine d b y Shaolin monks, whose order, in conventional films, provides an alternat e aristocracy, throug h master y o f it s "techniques, " t o th e warlor d oppressors. What i s more, h e wears aroun d hi s nec k a n amulet , sig n of a pledge he has apparently given never to fight an d thus reveal his skills . He stand s b y a s al l sort s o f injustic e ar e don e t o th e workers , an d

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ultimately, i n chivalri c fashion , i s onl y draw n t o figh t whe n damsel s and innocen t childre n ar e i n distress . In thi s film , Bruc e Le e i s subjecte d t o "Western " temptation s — drug mone y an d prostitute s — and eve n succumbs , until , whe n al l hi s friends ar e killed , h e mus t finall y figh t th e Boss . Th e resul t i s th e traditional hand-to-han d comba t wit h th e evi l Lord. The her o re-enter s the spac e o f convention , onl y t o hav e thi s violate d agai n whe n hi s moment o f victor y i s shattere d b y th e siren s o f Tha i polic e cars . As i n the endin g o f Monty Python and the Holy Grail, th e moder n worl d brutally intrude s o n tha t o f conventiona l story . Fro m suc h violation s of the commonly share d cultural plot we have the emergence of a "Bruc e Lee" characte r tha t transcend s traditio n i n th e sens e o f particula r historical o r cultura l roles . Ther e i s a Bruc e Le e presenc e i n several , but striking , re-working s o f traditiona l elements , suc h a s "flying. " I n subsequent films , Bruc e Lee never agai n resorts t o thi s devic e commo n to th e martia l art s epic . Her e h e put s a persona l stam p o n th e device , forever relegatin g i t t o a ba g o f outwor n tricks . Befor e th e fina l fight , he bound s ove r th e wal l o f th e Boss' s residence, - h e the n leap s severa l times ove r attacking dogs, confounding them . In each instance, however , after th e leap , h e pause s t o reac h int o a ba g o f potat o chip s h e ha s brought along , an d t o crunc h one . Wit h thi s device , Bruc e Le e move s effortlessly fro m th e traditiona l t o th e moder n world , an d i n doin g s o steps ou t o f th e genera l persona , t o creat e hi s ow n unique , visuall y identifiable image . The nex t film , The Chinese Connection, i s fa r mor e sophisticate d in creatin g an d projectin g th e Bruc e Le e image . Immediately , w e se e the heroic, chivalric plot relocated, but stil l placed ostensibly on Chines e soil. I t is , however , th e tim e o f Wester n an d Japanes e "concessions, " when Chines e in Chin a ar e prevented fro m occupyin g thei r lan d in an y meaningful fashion . Th e "place " o f Chines e nationalis m i s no w th e martial art s schoo l — an entit y inherentl y mobile , tha t ca n be moved . In th e film , telescopin g th e traditiona l plo t o f cultura l oppression , th e Japanese M r Suzuk i send s hi s martia l art s me n t o "shu t down " th e Chinese school , somethin g h e ca n easil y do , a s lon g a s th e schoo l remains rooted to its specific place. Bruce Lee's role in the film, however , seems t o b e t o displac e al l suc h fixities , t o absor b al l cultura l tie s expressed i n th e kun g fu epi c literally int o his ow n image, his presenc e as bein g o f ligh t o n th e screen . Fo r example , on e for m o f "rooting " i n the conventiona l martia l art s film i s presentation o f "styles " of fightin g as imitated fro m anima l movement s — the stork , th e snake , and s o on . As Bruce Lee returns i n a white sui t t o the school in the opening scene s

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of th e film , h e find s a funera l fo r hi s belove d "teacher. " Stricke n wit h grief, h e fall s t o th e groun d an d dig s lik e a dog. In hi s act , however , h e is no t "imitating " th e animal , i n th e sens e o f drawin g hi s powe r fro m natural plac e an d tradition . O n th e contrary , diggin g a t a n impossibl e location — ther e i s n o teache r i n thi s groun d — h e doe s no t imitat e but rathe r take s th e identity o f the animal shamanisticall y int o himself . In doin g so , i n th e ac t o f digging , h e compresse s th e mythico-natura l space o f thi s conventiona l trop e int o hi s ow n fil m being , whic h th e viewer remember s a s movemen t o f white-suited arm s agains t rai n an d black soil . This fil m i s al l abou t th e fil m presenc e "Bruc e Lee " developin g a "style" o f fighting tha t i s unique t o him an d thu s ca n be projected fre e of conventiona l ties . In this sense , Bruce Lee works t o abolish a secon d tie, commo n t o martia l art s epics , betwee n fightin g style s an d lande d tradition: th e hegemon y o f writing , th e transformatio n o f a printe d character int o a kun g f u "technique. " A commo n trop e i n thes e film s is t o hav e a martia l artis t watc h th e brus h stroke s o f a maste r calligrapher, the n t o "translate " them int o movements, a fighting style . Bruce Lee , however , doe s th e opposite ; h e i s a smashe r o f signs . Fo r example, when th e Japanese trash th e Chinese martial art s school , the y leave behin d a sign , i n stylis h characters , depictin g th e Chines e a s th e "sick ma n o f Asia. " Wha t i s writte n sticks , unti l Bruc e Le e take s th e sign bac k t o th e Japanes e d o jo, defeat s thei r fighters , an d break s no t only thi s sign , bu t wit h flyin g fist s an d kick s smashe s al l th e sign s o n their troph y board . Later , wishin g t o ente r a park reserve d fo r Japanes e and Europeans , h e is repelled by a Hindu, wh o points t o a sign over th e gate: "N o dog s o r Chines e allowed. " Afte r trouncin g a numbe r o f aggressors, he leaps and kicks, breaking the sign into pieces. The "signs " Bruce Le e leave s ar e anti-signs , act s o f freedo m fro m tradition , fro m political oppression as well as the formal hold , by means of conventiona l plots, o f histor y an d culture . Afte r Bruc e Le e kills M r Ho , th e Chines e turncoat, h e string s hi m u p t o a lamppos t wit h a sig n o n hi s chest , marking him a s an anti-warrior, returning him to the "sick man" cultur e Bruce Le e woul d leav e behind . Ultimately, th e "signs " Bruc e Le e leave s behind , th e cut-out s o f adversaries' bodies as they are hurled through th e walls of Japanese paper houses, become more than anti-signs ; they are openings onto the virtua l space o f informatio n disseminatio n t o whic h Bruc e Le e seek s access . This access finally come s in the brilliant final scene of the film, i n whic h a struggl e take s plac e betwee n th e printe d wor d (history , tradition , depicted her e a s cultura l oppression ) an d th e pur e cinemati c image , t o

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which Bruc e Lee' s cinemati c bein g aspires . After winnin g hi s hand-to hand comba t wit h Suzuki , Bruc e Le e i s trappe d insid e th e ruine d Chinese schoo l b y concessio n police , unde r foreig n orders . Dresse d i n Western garb , the y poin t a n arra y o f guns a t th e compoun d gate . Bruc e Lee rushes forwar d an d hurl s himsel f i n a defiant kic k a t th e gate , an d at th e viewer . Hel d i n a freez e frame , h e abide s i n fightin g stanc e a s unseen gunma n fir e th e shot s tha t mus t kil l him i n th e "real " world of the story . H e remains , al l cinemati c grac e an d light , a s th e tex t o f th e credits rol l ove r hi s image . Words, lik e bullets , no w prov e harmles s t o efface hi s new identity a s iconic monad at the center of the new monadi c culture o f Hon g Kon g cinema . The Bruc e Le e mona d i s i n ful l evolutio n i n th e thir d film , Enter the Dragon. Thi s fil m offer s a n interestin g combinatio n o f centripeta l and centrifuga l movement , i n which th e societa l or public frame — th e struggle o f th e Britis h governmen t i n Hon g Kon g t o destro y M r Han' s drug an d slav e rin g — graduall y collapse s an d i s overtake n b y th e expanding cente r o f Bruc e Lee' s privat e ques t t o aveng e hi s sister' s murder b y a Ha n henchman , th e villainou s O'Hara . I t i s a stor y o f islands withi n islands : M r Han' s islan d i s a rogu e satellit e i n relatio n to th e island-stat e Hon g Kong ; i n turn , Bruc e Lee' s presenc e o n Han' s island, i n hi s lon e raid s o n th e force s thi s islan d conceals , i s a simila r monadic space, but thi s time one charged with creativ e expansion. Ther e are tw o othe r cultura l monad s o n th e island : M r Williams , a racia l outcast i n hi s ow n land , an d Roper , a co n ma n himsel f tracke d b y criminal forces . Al l essentiall y ac t sol o (William' s fina l remar k t o M r Han, wh o i s abou t t o kil l him , is : "Whe n [death ] come s I won't notic e it, I'l l b e to o bus y lookin g good") . Communit y proves , i n th e end , ineffectual. Rope r ends up helping Bruce Lee only by virtue of a negative act — by refusing t o fight him . The British Army, which Bruc e Lee call s for help , arrive s afte r th e battle . In fact, th e final due l between M r Ha n and Bruc e Le e becomes, thoug h a stunnin g piec e o f cinematography , a battle betwee n a ma n an d hi s lengthene d shadow s — in thi s case , th e false image s an d fracture d realit y o f Han' s chambe r o f mirrors . I n thi s maze, one' s ow n multiplie d imag e becomes a s much th e enem y a s th e equally multipl e image s o f th e adversary . Bruc e Le e th e martia l artis t must procee d i n thi s worl d o f illusio n b y systematicall y smashin g th e faceted frame s tha t contai n deceptiv e images. By pinning th e flesh-and blood Ha n wit h a spea r t o a rotatin g mirro r door , Bruc e Le e force s shadows t o converg e agai n wit h th e body . Th e location , however , remains a place o f cinemati c illusion . Th e distanc e fro m th e fina l due l in Fists of Fury i s vast . Fo r no w th e victo r relie s les s o n martia l art s

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than o n an ability t o master th e power o f images, t o separate substanc e from appearance . I t i s n o acciden t tha t Bruc e Le e step s fro m thi s rol e to bein g actor , writer , an d directo r o f his nex t an d final film , Return of the Dragon. The actio n o f Return of the Dragon take s place , significantly , i n Rome — the grea t city-stat e o f th e Western worl d an d former cente r of a vas t empire . Bruc e Le e relocate s th e Chines e martia l art s story , i n vivid visua l manner , i n th e moder n West , b y contrastin g way s o f dressing. In Enter the Dragon, whe n Rope r an d Williams com e to Han' s island, the y do n traditiona l Chines e dress . In thi s film , Bruc e Le e step s off th e plane, in th e airpor t o f modern Rome , in traditional blue peasan t garb, an d stand s ou t auspiciousl y amon g suite d business travelers . Th e story i s a banal one — Chinese exile , threatened b y foreign thugs , wan t to tak e ove r thei r restauran t — al l harkin g bac k t o th e conventiona l plot o f Fists of Fury. Now , however , th e thug s ar e multinational s — Mafiosi, amon g whose rank s w e find, i n a Western sui t — the turncoa t Mr H o characte r o f The Chinese Connection. Also , unlik e th e traditionally close-kni t Chines e familie s o f thes e earlie r films , her e "uncle" i s als o a traitor , wh o woul d se e hi s famil y kille d i n orde r t o sell the restaurant an d go back t o Hong Kong. The conventiona l martia l arts fil m ha s opene d u p t o a global clas h o f values , i n whic h Bruc e Le e alone, who stand s out by his uncompromising clothe s and by his refusa l to use guns o r knives, come s t o focus th e values o f th e East agains t th e West. Thes e value s are , a t on e an d th e sam e time , dynami c an d essentially cinematic . The y allo w hi m t o recreat e th e possibilit y — i n a worl d o f globa l corruptio n wher e al l nationa l an d traditiona l boundaries appea r to have disappeared — of East-West cultural exchange , by telescopin g it s multipl e aspect s i n th e cinemati c spectacl e o f a martial art s contest . A centra l scen e i n th e fil m reveal s Bruc e Le e functionin g i n thi s context a s cultura l monad . Walkin g b y th e Coliseu m wit h "uncle's " niece, he exclaim s that preserving this monument waste s precious land . With th e word s "I f thi s wer e Hon g Kong, " an d a gestur e upwards , h e visually transpose s o n this stati c "place " of Roman glory a new vertica l city o f light , energy , disseminatio n rathe r tha n retentio n o f culture . Bruce Lee offers n o verbal meditation o n the past; instead, wit h a visual movement h e woul d swee p thi s plac e upward , t o a virtual Hon g Kon g of new, electroni c marvel s — a "place" tha t Bruc e Lee in his cinemati c here an d now a s creation o f light an d soun d incarnate s befor e ou r eyes , existing nowher e els e bu t i n th e momen t o f hi s creativ e gesture . Thi s same Coliseum , a t th e en d o f th e film , become s th e plac e o f combat ,

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now betwee n ne w cultura l gladiators — the know n martia l artists , Eas t and West , Bruc e Le e and Chuc k Norris . I n a parallel airpor t scene , th e Chuck Norri s figure , name d "Colt, " step s ou t o f th e plan e fro m "America" dresse d in the garish style, not of the West but o f the Wester n film genre : large belt buckle, lou d print cowbo y shirt . I n the Coliseum , however, h e don s th e ceremonia l whit e kimon o o f th e Wester n karat e master. Bruce Lee in turn shed s his peasant shirt , and in doing so, asserts the "Bruc e Lee " figur e h e ha s establishe d i n previou s films . Nake d t o the waist , opposit e th e legen d o f Chuc k Norris , h e move s i n hi s ow n cinematic sphere , th e traditiona l stor y an d trapping s lef t behind . Here , he bring s t o perfectio n a devic e h e use d increasingly , bu t sporadically , in earlie r films . A s w e sa w i n The Chinese Connection, Bruc e Le e appears t o creat e himself , takin g hi s styl e neithe r fro m a teache r (wh o is dead at th e beginning o f the film) no r a n animal. In later fight scenes , his self-sufficienc y i s physically demonstrate d when , wounded , h e dip s a finge r i n hi s blood , taste s it , imbibin g ne w forc e a s a shama n would , but no w fro m hi s sol e self , fro m visibl e wound s o n hi s filme d bod y a s it perform s it s carefull y choreographe d ceremonie s befor e th e camera . The Bruc e Le e image , a s i t whirl s an d spin s lik e a dervish , draw s tradition, history , lande d culture s an d storie s up in its kinetics, creatin g pure cinemati c experienc e i n it s evanescen t presen t moment .

Caliban's Island : Voodoo an d Rasta The Caribbea n offer s a formidabl e fiel d o f island s fo r Sterling' s net . These of course are Caliban's islands. One of them provides a marvelous terrain fo r a modern versio n o f Shakespeare' s struggl e betwee n ar t an d "nature," Caliban' s clai m t o ownership o f th e islan d a s a land-based o r "rooted" culture , an d Ariel' s dislocatio n o f suc h claim s b y mean s o f the powe r t o disseminat e baseles s images : Jamaica . Th e modern-da y Calibans, however , hav e root s elsewher e — in th e Africa n lan d fro m which the y wer e transporte d a s slaves , t o becom e satellite s o f master s and a colonia l i n s t i t u t i o n tha t woul d collaps e becaus e o f t h e tenuousness o f the net tha t sough t t o bind thes e human "islands. " Th e place o f Jamaica , itsel f literall y a satellit e o f th e U S continenta l influence, absorbe d Ariel' s technolog y naturally an d of necessity, bein g in broadcast range of American hyperculture — broadcasts of soul music, rock'n'roll, civi l rights rhetoric, a potpourri of fads and "hits." The resul t of thi s i s a rapid swerv e throug h fantasti c politic s — Marcus Garvey' s back-to-Airica movemen t — t o a fantasti c religion , Rastafarianism ,

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operating i n a real m o f min d t o enshrin e Empero r Hail e Selassie , Ra s Tafari, a s emissary an d god alike. This "Africa " i s a country o f the mind , and ultimatel y o f th e airwaves , fo r al l "movement " towar d it , an d toward Rasta's Zion, was to take place on wings of song — in the Reggae music tha t becam e bot h it s messag e an d it s medium . And , a t th e dynamic cente r o f Regga e music , anothe r cultura l mona d emerge s — the dominan t figur e o f Bo b Marley . Not al l Caribbea n island s hav e witnesse d Jamaica' s rapi d buildin g of cloud-capp' d towers , mor e invisible , an d t h u s mor e purel y disseminatory, tha n Hong Kong's towers o f light. Another island , Haiti , for example , remain s unde r th e swa y o f Caliba n an d hi s "natural " culture. Th e Voodo o religion , i t woul d seem , ha s al l th e potentia l t o become a media event . Indeed, it fascinates Gibson , who offers "livewir e voodoo" i n Count Zero, i n whic h th e force s o f Legb a an d othe r mysterious deitie s mov e wit h eas e acros s cyberspace , avengin g infractions t o thei r natura l order . Ye t anothe r notabl e attemp t t o mediatize voodo o an d Hait i a s th e islan d tha t "produced " i t — We s Craven's film The Rainbow and the Serpent — yields an opposite result . Director Crave n admit s grea t difficultie s i n hi s cre w adaptin g t o th e island. He describe s thei r being "possessed " b y strange forces roote d i n the island , a spel l tha t lifte d whe n the y physicall y lef t th e place . Th e film i s based on Harvard researcher Wade Davis's experiences , i n whic h he claim s t o hav e gon e t o Hait i i n searc h o f th e "zombification " drug , a substanc e h e hope s t o broadcas t acros s th e spectru m o f Wester n pharmacology. A s wit h thi s mysteriou s islan d an d culture , however , there i s no wa y t o know th e dru g fully excep t t o g o Haiti, an d use it a s a Haitia n would . I n lik e manner , makin g hi s fil m i s a litera l struggl e between th e pul l o f place , wit h it s overwhelmin g cultura l roots , an d t h e filmmaker' s abilit y t o transfor m t h a t plac e int o a medi a "experience." Th e cinemati c cru x of the film, therefore , i s the scen e of Davis's buria l i n th e islan d soil , an d hi s resurrection . Davi s take s th e drug an d lie s i n th e coffin . A li d i s place d o n it , plungin g th e entir e screen int o suffocatin g darkness . Darknes s remain s unti l i t become s intolerable fo r th e viewer . I n th e dark , ther e i s th e soun d o f beatin g fists, an d then , afte r a seemin g eternity , a crac k o f light . Th e viewe r experiences thi s "resurrection, " no t merel y i n images , bu t viscerally , as a felt experienc e o f Haitia n soi l an d th e deep , dar k cultur e i t holds . In contrast, Jamaica n Rasta , thoug h i t speaks constantl y o f "roots, " moves incessantl y awa y fro m an y groundin g i n th e Africa n lan d an d historical tradition, towar d the status of media event , i n which th e slo w history o f blac k cultura l an d political resistanc e t o colonia l oppressio n

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yields t o rapi d disseminatio n o f a style an d a hit music . Th e Guyania n writer Eus i Kwayan a describe s Rast a a s th e produc t o f a societ y increasingly le d to accept cultura l mobilit y an d rootlessness. There are , as he says , varying degree s o f detachment : thos e wh o d o not accep t th e religious ideas , accep t th e dress ; thos e wh o d o no t accep t th e dress , accept th e language, - an d "thos e wh o d o no t accep t th e language , wit h the movement' s redefinitio n o f the orde r o f things, accep t th e music." 4 Dress, a s we have seen , is important i n th e cod e scheme o f th e kun g f u film. Rast a dress , however , i s uniqu e i n compressin g a lon g process o f political struggl e int o a genuinel y synchroni c fashio n "statement. " Rastamen wea r thei r hai r in "dreadlocks " and cove r these with knitte d "tarns." Th e on e evoke s th e Africa n warrio r past , th e othe r th e gar b of European colonialists , th e Scottis h planter s wh o gav e thei r name s t o so many Caribbea n slaves . But the y als o wear, a s on e of thes e rename d slaves, Freddy Macgregor, put s i t in his song "Joggin'," "th e trac k shoe s and th e bi g bobb y sox. " I n thi s song , Rastame n practic e th e "ru n fo r creation" by jogging down Kingston's Trafalgar Road . But the shoes the y wear ar e Adidas an d Pumas . Th e bran d name s o f a latest America n fa d resonate i n son g al l abou t Armageddo n an d th e fal l o f tha t "Babylon " that produce d thei r stylis h mean s o f escape . Moreover , a s Rast a dres s continues t o assimilat e Firs t World fads , i t i n tur n i s disseminate d a s a style throug h th e mediu m o f th e Firs t Worl d touris t industry , whic h allows Rastame n t o b e see n i n th e capital s o f Europ e an d Asia . Rasta language , mor e ephemera l yet , make s statement s eve n mor e instantaneously synthesizin g i n nature . Term s fro m a broad an d varie d warrior pas t — Ashanti , Nyabingi , Uhuru , Buffal o Soldier s — ar e compressed i n ritua l incantations . Likewise , ne w word s ar e constantl y assimilated t o the old: native ganja become s sinsemilla, a new America n graft o n the ancestral "herb. " "Ital " food, native-grow n foo d a s oppose d to th e oppressor' s sod a pop an d hamburger , i s praised b y Pete r Tos h i n his hymn t o natural Rasta , "Mysti c Man." At th e sam e time , in a mor e recent song , w e hea r o f "vitamin s A and C an d D fo r a health y body. " Keeping fit fo r Armageddo n mean s incorporatin g th e lates t healt h foo d fads a s well . Incorporatin g i s th e wron g word , fo r where , outsid e it s style an d language , i s th e bod y o f Rasta ? Indeed , th e languag e act s o f Rasta ar e act s o f eludin g materia l location . The y ar e "versions, " suc h as Stee l Pulse' s "versio n o n th e Kin g Jame s Version, " whic h simpl y declares: "i n Afric a wa s foun d th e garde n o f Eden. " Th e root s o f al l Biblical humanit y ar e no t locate d i n a continent , o r eve n a race , bu t rather i n a plac e o f th e min d tha t derive s it s powe r fro m it s rootles s mobility — the Reggae song. Reggae is the ultimate "location " o f Rasta ;

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but lik e th e kun g f u film , i t i s les s a tradition o r eve n "theme " tha n a technology, adapte d fro m th e West , th e themati c adversar y tha t Rasta , on th e leve l o f styl e an d words , continue s t o attack . Rast a meetin g places become "soun d systems, " giant deck s of amplifiers an d speakers ; the "rocker " bea t the y blas t i s no t produce d o n nativ e drum s bu t o n synthesizers. Thi s i s fe d bac k throug h th e syste m a s "dub" : wordless , electronically replicate d version s o f song s i n whic h onl y rhyth m remains, itsel f no w fre e t o serv e a s groun d bas e fo r th e continuousl y topical rappings o f "toastin g djs. " In a sense, in the electronic cauldron , an entir e continenta l cultur e i s diffuse d no t onl y int o musi c bu t int o monadic events — the single media personality, here Bruce's counterpar t Bob Marley, whos e existenc e i s no mor e substantia l tha n th e aggregat e of single instances o f his songs . These instances ar e "hits" — ephemera l moments tha t paradoxicall y gran t electroni c universalit y t o wha t otherwise woul d remai n mire d i n th e plodding sequenc e o f history an d tradition. Horace Campbell' s Rasta and Resistance, wit h it s Marxist materialist bias , look s fo r th e powe r o f th e movemen t i n th e wron g place. H e deplores , fo r instance , Rasta' s "millennialist " deificatio n o f Haile Selassie . Ye t wha t bette r wa y t o shoo t th e gul f fro m histor y t o totality tha n instan t go d making ? I n addition , h e sees , th e obsessiv e use o f the "I " pronoun a s wrongly individualistic . I n statement s lik e " I and I we know" ther e is no grounding in collective destiny , a s in Selassi e there i s n o groundin g i n materia l history . Yet , talkin g o f Bo b Marley , he makes thi s astonishin g remark: "Th e power tha t Bo b Marley's musi c represents ha s don e mor e t o populariz e th e rea l issue s o f [the ] Africa n Liberation Movement tha n severa l decades of backbreaking work o f PanAiricanists an d internationa l revolutionaries." 5 Th e importan t wor d here i s popularize, th e circumferenc e tha t th e cultura l monad , wit h it s Emersonian power , instantl y reaches . Such freedo m doe s not belon g t o myth, fo r myth s ar e collective , thu s boun d t o som e specifi c materia l context, o r text . A ne w ter m fo r th e like s o f Bruc e Le e o r Bo b Marle y is neede d — legend . Plastere d al l ove r buse s i n Londo n i n 198 4 wer e posters depictin g Marley' s retrospectiv e reviva l albu m Legend. Marley , like Bruc e Lee , die d young . Sinc e thei r death , thei r "legend " ha s bee n revived regularly , throug h fil m festival s o r birthda y tributes . I n suc h events, th e experienc e o f eac h figur e i s legendary , precisel y becaus e i t is not "centered " i n materia l spac e but i n a name. The nam e "Marley " is a mobil e point , read y t o expan d whe n summoned , t o encompas s a circumferential totality . "Legend, " th e dictionar y tell s us , i s no t jus t a popular an d spontaneou s story , bu t a dubiou s stor y a s well . Bu t

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dubiousness, i n thi s case , i s onl y i n th e eye s o f histor y an d tradition , because a legend , i n thi s sense , ca n hav e n o bas e beyon d th e dehistoricized individua l wh o regenerate s it . Fo r history, i t i s the mer e caption o n the picture. In the Emersonian sense , in contrast, i t is rathe r image an d sound , it s immediat e presence , tha t call s th e nam e t o life .

The Representativ e Figure s o f Scienc e Fictio n

Science fictio n ha s it s "legends " a s well . I n fact , ther e ar e numerou s cultural monad s a t wor k i n th e genr e traditionall y define d (i n Isaa c Asimov's famou s words ) a s registerin g th e impac t o f scientifi c an d technological advancement o n huma n beings . Science , too , ha s it s historical (an d in ligh t o f Asimov's definition ) cultura l spac e an d slow , evolving sens e o f time . Ye t ther e i s clearl y i n SF , movin g counte r t o this sens e o f th e advancemen t o f science , a counter-dynami c — th e t o t a l i z i n g Emersonia n mode l o f t h e " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " m o n a d . Conventional wisdo m show s th e evolutionar y science s i n th e proces s of relativizin g al l h u m a n model s o f stasi s an d permanence : th e Scriptures, the idea of Kings and Nations, th e history of Earth in relatio n to cosmi c forces . Thi s Emersonia n monad , i n contrast , restore s a possibility o f simultaneit y i n a real m see n dominate d b y relativisti c structures. Thes e S F monad s ar e les s upwardl y strivin g entitie s tha n moving points , eve r read y t o fil l th e vacuum , t o expan d t o thei r totalizing circumference . Rober t A . Heinlein' s wor k i s rif e wit h suc h monads: ther e ar e hi s moo n societie s (th e undulatin g cente r an d circumference o f The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress i s a master computer information satellit e name d "Mike" ) an d "freeholds, " i n th e sens e o f Farnham's spacetim e monad ; ther e ar e figure s lik e Bo b Wilson i n "B y His Bootstraps, " bot h isolate d an d immortalize d a t a singl e instan t o f time,- o r Lazaru s Long , th e mona d wh o spread s hi s geneti c materia l t o encompass th e entir e cosmos . Delany' s Nova offer s a sophisticate d analysis of monadic forces operatin g as means of mediatizing epic deeds. The novel is ostensibly a "space epic" that tell s of Lorq van Ray's heroi c quest t o accomplis h th e definitiv e action , an d thu s fi x i t i n history . It s real focus , i t soo n become s evident , i s no t th e "message " bu t th e medium: i n thi s cas e th e galvani c curren t betwee n Lorq' s tw o companions: Kati n an d Mouse . I n thi s Ka t an d Mous e game , Kati n i s the historia n wh o love s moons , whos e moo n vision s ar e ahistorical , temporal instant s a s "variation s o n sameness, " th e pulse s o f th e ac t o f transmission itself . Hi s "subject " i s no t Lor q bu t Mouse , t h e

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representative ma n wh o unites ever y race, culture, an d historical actio n of humanity i n a single, mobile point. Katin, tellin g of Lorq's grail quest , ends i n mid-sentence , fo r a s th e grai l i s neve r reached , s o th e stor y i s never ended , stor y itsel f a s monadic entity , alway s availabl e t o b e told , always on e wit h th e instanc e o f it s telling .

Story o f Your Lif e This Emersonia n visio n i s vitall y presen t i n recen t SF . A strikin g example i s Te d Chiang' s "Stor y o f You r Life " (1999) . Th e titl e i s significantly ambiguous . I s thi s th e stor y o f a singl e life , o f a representative monad ? O r the stor y o f you r life , th e absolut e story ? I n a sense , i t i s both , a s the y co-exis t simultaneousl y i n th e instan t o f telling. The focus i s less on the type of story than o n "story" a s mediu m that undulate s betwee n cente r an d circumference , th e extreme s o f human life , no t s o muc h a s w e interpre t it , bu t rathe r experienc e it . The stor y i s protagonis t Louis e Banks' s co-extensiv e accoun t o f tw o disparate ye t connecte d acts : the stor y o f he r decipherin g an d learnin g an alie n languag e tha t i s non-linear , an d he r interwove n attemp t t o recount he r ow n life , an d loss o f a daughter, i n non-linea r manner . Th e alien "heptapod " sentenc e i s a singl e continuou s line , i n whic h th e writer mus t assum e th e conditio n o f Emerson' s transparen t eyeball , obliged t o se e all , t o kno w al l event s o n th e line , at the exact same moment (i n Emerson' s terms , i n th e conditio n o f zer o knowledge ) i t makes th e firs t stroke . Th e heptapo d language , sh e discover s i n th e linear "time " o f her investigation , ha s no spoke n form , fo r a speech ac t occurs i n a world o f before an d after , statemen t an d reception , messag e and meaning. Here instead ther e are "semagrams" that "sprou t lik e fros t on a windo w pane." 6 Thi s radia l sens e o f event s begin s t o dominat e the wa y Louis e perceive s he r daughter , whos e deat h o n th e linea r timeline becomes th e fixative even t o f her new heptapod interpretatio n of reality. The mother speak s o f her infant daughte r thus : "When you'r e tranquil, yo u wil l see m t o radiat e ligh t .. . a hal o .. . bu t whe n you'r e unhappy, yo u wil l becom e a klaxon , buil t fo r radiatin g soun d ... . No w is th e onl y momen t yo u wil l perceive , you'l l liv e in th e presen t tense " (333). The investigativ e scientis t i s working her way back t o Emerson' s vision o f th e "representative " o r monadi c existence , alway s read y i n the no w momen t t o activate , t o broadcas t i n th e physica l worl d th e category i t represents . Heinlein' s tim e trave l stor y "B y His Bootstraps " translates thi s condition , not into a language but a n existential situation ,

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generalized i n S F by Rober t Silverberg' s depictio n o f th e tim e travele r as a "floatin g instan t o f no w time , detache d fro m th e continuum." 7 In he r investigatio n o f th e alie n language , Louis e team s u p wit h a physicist, Gar y Donnelly , wh o wil l becom e he r husband , an d fathe r o f her daughter . Fro m thei r workin g together , a symbiotic visio n emerge s challenging Saussurian linguistics, which proclaims an arbitrary relatio n between signifie r an d signified : "Th e physica l univers e wa s a languag e with a perfectl y ambiguou s grammar " (331) . Gar y find s analogie s between th e emergin g heptapod "worldview " an d Fermat's Principl e of Least Time . Fermat' s principl e i s that ligh t refracte d i n wate r take s th e least pat h i n time . Gar y demonstrate s th e counterintuitiv e natur e o f this principle by offering "hypotheses " tha t see m rational solution s bu t prove wrong: for example , a straight lin e i s shorter, - yet a s more o f i t i s underwater, an d ligh t travel s mor e slowl y i n wate r tha n i n air , mor e time i s needed . Fermat' s i s a "variational " principle , i n whic h ligh t always follows a n extreme path , a minimum o r a maximum time . An d any know n physica l law , Gar y explains , ca n b e state d a s a variationa l principle, differen t attribute s becomin g extreme . Fermat' s visio n coincides with tha t o f the Heptapod language — purposive, teleological , rather tha n causa l in nature — and thus demonstrate s tha t what seeme d alien i s i n fac t a n alternat e (an d humanl y conceivable ) wa y o f viewin g nature. According t o this vision , ligh t has to know beforehan d wher e i t is going, must mak e its calculations before i t begins, has to know effect s before engagin g causes . Yet, i n thi s story , ther e i s mor e involve d tha n interpretation s o f the natura l world . B y th e fac t tha t i t i s th e stor y o f "a " life , a huma n teller engage d o n a biologica l tim e line , physica l event s d o exis t an d must b e deal t with , i n wha t Blais e Pasca l calle d th e huma n condition . Foreknowledge, a necessit y o f th e heptapo d worl d view , raise s th e question o f fre e will , o f al l nee d t o ac t purposefull y i n tim e whe n th e limit o f the circumference i s already known t o the center. This proble m enters S F wit h tim e travel , notabl y Wells' s visio n o f futur e deat h o f humanity i n The Time Machine, i n which th e Time Traveller, returnin g to hi s exac t poin t o f departur e i n 1895 , tells th e news , an d i s met wit h (at best ) incredulity , (a t worst ) resignatio n — th e cal l t o liv e "a s i f i t were not so. " Curiously, thi s is the theme o f Heinlein's firs t story , "Lif e Line" (1939) . In this story , scientist Hugo Pinero invents a machine tha t measures th e lengt h o f eac h individua l lifeline . Lik e a heptapo d sentence, eac h lifelin e i s a "pin k worm " o n th e "vine " o f existence , a single entit y but o f precise length. Pinero' s herois m i s to know his ow n end, an d t o fac e i t stoically . I n th e fina l scen e o f th e story , however ,

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other scientist s hold in their hands a box, in which Piner o has measure d their lifelines . Instea d o f openin g it , the y destro y it , preferrin g uncertainty t o foreknowledge. Heinlei n her e sets the problematic o f th e monad, whic h h e wil l grappl e wit h ove r hi s entir e career . Fo r i n slo w organic time , an d even t dat a n o language or theory o f simultaneit y ca n ultimately control , th e totalit y o r extremit y o f th e mona d mus t eventually fac e it s nothingnes s a s well . Louise Bank s discover s that , fo r heptapods , al l languag e i s performative. Instea d o f usin g languag e t o inform , the y us e i t t o actualize. This means lif e lived as if performing a play from a previously written script . I t i s th e ritua l recitatio n o f a legend , i n th e sens e tha t Bruce Lee' s an d Bo b Marley' s live s ar e alread y written , a scrip t w e activate each time we experience in present tim e their images or sounds. And yet , a s Bruc e Le e tell s th e villai n O'Har a i n Enter the Dragon, "boards don' t hi t back, " s o image s o r sound s i n th e minimu m an d maximum conditio n o f thei r emissio n d o no t reflec t o n th e problem s of thei r existenc e a s such . I n Heinlein , an d i n Chiang' s story , S F doe s reflect o n thes e problems , an d a s i t doe s s o become s th e existentia l conscience o f th e cultura l monad . It is possible for S F protagonists, lik e Louise, to know where they are going before the y start , t o organize thei r stories s o that thes e fulfil l thei r monadi c destiny . Yet, in both Heinlei n and Chiang , wher e th e mona d cam e from , it s firs t caus e remain s th e mystery tha t return s u s t o linear, causa l time . Louise, reflecting o n th e child she simultaneously ha s already created and is about t o create, stil l must admit , a s she experiences the time of the gulf between: "yo u won' t be a clon e o f me, - you ca n b e wonderful , a daily delight , bu t yo u won' t be someon e I could hav e create d b y myself " (315) . In lik e manner , th e narrator o f Heinlein' s "Al l Yo u Zombies—," i n hi s monadi c solipsism , still needs "zombies " to people the world of the story, the time betwee n the shadow and act. And, like Louise, if only tacitly, he still must admi t the irreversibilit y o f certai n events , her e th e sca r tha t mark s hi s se x change, o r th e "Mistak e o f '72" : "A thin g eithe r is , or it isn't , no w an d forever amen." 8

Conclusion

The mona d ma y kno w th e road before i t begins to travel it; but n o suc h road is a perfect circle , a hermetic undulatio n betwee n nothin g an d all . Louise explain s ho w workin g wit h th e heptapod s change d he r life : " I met you r father an d learned Heptapod B , both o f which mad e it possibl e

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for m e t o kno w yo u no w [speakin g o f th e daughte r a t onc e dea d an d yet t o b e born] , her e o n th e pati o i n th e moonlight . Eventually , man y years from now , I'l l b e without you r father , an d without you . All I will have lef t fro m thi s momen t i s th e heptapo d language . S o I pa y clos e attention, an d note ever y detail " (336) . Her livin g in th e perpetual no w of the medium , i n a sense, echoe s Eus i Kwayana's remark s abou t Rast a as a movemen t leadin g it s societ y t o acceptanc e o f cultura l mobilit y and los s o f roots , fro m whic h eventually , a s we par e awa y al l forms o f attachment, w e arriv e a t th e immediac y o f song . For adept s o f Reggae , "word soun ' hav e power. " Fo r Louis e it i s th e semagram s o f Heptapo d B, th e singl e radiatin g "sentence " tha t defie s lifeline s an d othe r repositories o f cultura l slo w time , tha t give s immediat e acces s t o th e Emersonian undulatio n o f powe r an d form . Yet , a s Louis e reflect s o n her ne w worl d o f performativ e medium , sh e hint s tha t a proble m remains: th e "content " o f suc h forma l utterances . Thes e ar e he r husband, he r daughter , event s i n th e galvani c circui t that , shor t o f a condition o f tota l solipsism , revea l th e difficult y o f monadic existence . We woul d expec t Louise' s fina l statemen t t o b e heptapod , somethin g written wit h th e mathematica l eleganc e o f Fermat' s principle , pures t "extremities." Instea d i t violate s it s ne w mediu m b y being a question , addressed t o someon e i n th e linea r contex t o f huma n communication : "From th e beginnin g I kne w m y destination , an d I chos e m y rout e accordingly. Bu t a m I workin g towar d a n extrem e o f joy , o r o f pain ? Will I achiev e a minimu m o r a maximum? " (338) . Thi s story , takin g the idea of the cultura l mona d t o its speculativ e extreme , onl y remind s us tha t n o ma n o r woma n i s a n islan d afte r all .

2 Urbe et Orbe: A Prehistory o f th e Postmoder n World City Howard V. Hendrix

The en d o f th e huma n rac e wil l b e tha t i t wil l eventuall y di e o f civilization. —Ralph Waldo Emerson 1

We humans hav e been enchante d wit h th e building o f cities for a t leas t 8,000 years, making citie s arguably the most persistent comple x huma n social artifacts . Ye t th e valu e o f pas t pattern s a s predictor s o f futur e activity i s limited. I n 1968 , when 2001: A Space Odyssey wa s released , the en d o f th e Col d Wa r b y th e tur n o f th e millenniu m wa s generall y considered improbable an d thus tha t East-Wes t conflic t stil l plays a role in tha t film . S o let u s a t leas t conside r th e obsolescence , bot h planne d and unplanned , o f th e cit y a s a socia l form . Ca n th e ancien t spel l o f cities be broken? Shoul d it be? If it should, then can it be broken withou t killing billion s o f huma n being s enchante d b y tha t spell ? Despite th e ubiquit y o f apocalypti c an d post-apocalyptic scenario s put forwar d ove r th e past century , I do not conside r th e contemplatio n of the destruction o r deconstruction o f cities "ligh t entertainment, " no r do I entertain i t lightly. "Civilization, " "citizen, " an d "city" — al l thre e come dow n t o u s b y th e sam e etymologica l route s an d fro m th e sam e etymological roots . The word "civilization" — mos t commonl y define d as "a n advance d stag e o f developmen t i n th e art s an d sciences , accompanied b y a correspondin g social , political , an d cultura l

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complexity"— i s itself a back-formation fro m th e Latin civilis ("civil, " "civic"), which in turn is formed fro m Lati n civis, "citizen. " The Englis h word "citizen " derive s from Middl e English citisein, whic h come s fro m an Anglo-Norman wor d of the same spelling, which in turn derive s fro m Old Frenc h citeain, whic h i s itsel f derive d fro m cite , "city. " T o b e civilized, i t woul d seem , i s t o b e citified , urbanized . Not surprising , give n tha t writin g — alon g wit h mathematics , calendrical astronomy , eve n th e whee l — first appear s i n th e contex t of th e "hierati c cit y state, " th e priestl y o r sacre d cit y tha t i s th e firs t high expression o f agriculture-based Earl y Urbanism. To understand th e end o f cities , w e d o wel l t o loo k a t thei r beginnings . I n on e o f hi s wonderful myth s o f origi n that provid e context fo r th e origin s of myth , Joseph Campbel l mor e extensivel y break s dow n th e earl y urbanis m I have linke d t o agriculture . H e argue s tha t th e beginning s o f th e cit y can b e foun d i n th e firs t appearanc e o f grai n agricultur e amon g th e Natufians 11,00 0 years ago, followed by basal Neolithic villages betwee n 9,500 an d 6,50 0 year s ago , followe d i n tur n b y th e emergenc e o f Hig h Neolithic culture s betwee n 6,50 0 an d 5,20 0 year s ago , whe n "th e abstract concep t o f a geometrically organize d aesthetic field first appear s and th e lat e Neolithi c marke t town s begi n t o elevat e templ e towers." 2 Around 5,20 0 year s ago , i n Sumer , w e se e th e firs t emergenc e o f the mythologica l "monad " upo n whic h "al l o f th e hig h civilization s o f the worl d are , finally, bu t s o many variant s an d developments " (42) . In this mythologica l monad , The whole cit y no w (no t simply th e templ e area ) is conceive d a s an imitation o n earth o f the celestial orde r — [the city as] a sociological middle cosmos, or mesocosrn, between the macrocosm of the universe and th e microcosm o f th e individual. (41) This hierati c city-stat e paradig m — with it s writin g an d mathematic s and astronomy , it s oute r wall s an d mandal a o f cit y street s surroundin g a centra l sanctu m o f palac e an d templ e ziggurat , a templ e whos e fou r sides ar e oriente d t o th e fou r point s o f th e compass , a cit y th e season s of whose life ar e regulated accordin g to equinoxes an d solstice s an d th e passage of the sun and moon amon g the stars — was a model that prove d remarkably popular , croppin g u p everywhere : i n Firs t Dynast y Egyp t (4,800 years ago) , in region s from Cret e t o the Indus Valley (4,600 year s ago), i n Shan g Chin a (nearl y 4,00 0 year s ago) , and i n Per u an d Centra l America (a t leas t 3,00 0 year s ago) . The reason for th e popularity of this city paradigm, Campbel l argues , is tha t i t present s a n "imag e o f man' s destin y a s an orga n participatin g

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in th e organis m o f th e universe " whic h aros e fro m "th e psychologica l requirement .. . fo r a coordinatin g principle , t o brin g th e part s o f a differentiated socia l body into a n orderly relationship t o each other an d simultaneously t o suggest the play through al l of a higher, all-suffusing , all-informing principl e o r energy. " Thi s "profoundl y fel t psychologica l as well a s social requirement" wa s "fulfille d wit h th e recognitio n .. . of the orderly round dance of the five visible planets and the sun and moo n through th e constellation s o f th e zodiac" — celestia l orde r tha t wa s t o become th e basi s fo r Egypt' s concep t o f Ma'at , India' s conceptio n o f Dharrna, an d China' s Ta o (43) . The myth s an d ritual s o f th e mesocosrn , th e socia l world , ar e "structuring agents " intende d t o brin g th e huma n orde r int o harmon y with th e celestial : This templ e towe r .. . and the hieratically organize d city surroundin g it, wher e everyon e play s hi s rol e accordin g t o a celestiall y inspire d divine plan , i s th e mode l o f paradis e tha t w e fin d no t onl y i n th e Hindu-Buddhist imager y of Mount Sumeru , the Greek Olympus, and the Azte c Temples o f th e Sun , bu t als o i n Dante' s Earthl y Paradise , for which Columbus went in search, and in the Biblical image of Eden, from whic h [Dante's ] medieval concep t was developed. (42) In th e hierati c city-stat e paradigm , th e orde r o f th e star s constellate s the orde r o f th e city , an d th e orde r o f th e cit y constellate s th e orde r of the individua l psyche/soul/mind . The rag e fo r orde r an d geometr y i s see n perhap s nowher e mor e clearly tha n i n L e Corbusier' s The City of Tomorrow (1924) . Placed i n th e mids t o f a chaoti c nature , ma n fo r hi s ow n securit y creates an d surrounds himself wit h a zone of protection i n harmon y with wha t h e i s an d what h e thinks ; he needs a retreat, a citadel i n which h e ca n fee l secure, - h e need s thing s whos e existenc e h e ha s himself determined . Th e thing s h e make s fo r himsel f ar e a creatio n which contrast s al l th e mor e with hi s natura l surrounding s becaus e its aim is closer to his mind, and further an d more detached from hi s body .. . things whic h com e into contac t wit h th e body ar e o f a less pure geometry, but a town is pure geometry. When a man is free, hi s tendency is toward pure geometry. It is then that he achieves what we call order ... . The more this order is an exact one, the more happy he is, th e mor e secure he feels ... . All the works tha t ma n has achieve d are an "ordering. " Seen from th e sky, they appear on the earth below as geometric objects .... As we move higher in the scale of creation, so we move towards a more perfect order . What an immense distance in degree and understanding between

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the hu t o f th e savag e an d th e Parthenon ! I f yo u wer e t o loo k dow n from th e sk y o n th e confuse d an d intricat e surfac e o f th e earth , i t would be seen that human effor t i s identical throughout th e ages and at every point. Temples, towns, and houses are cells of identical aspect and are made to human scale . One might say that th e human anima l is like the bee, a constructor o f geometrical cells. 3 For L e Corbusier , "Th e righ t angl e i s lawful , i t i s a par t o f ou r determinism, i t i s obligatory, " (21 ) precisely becaus e i t i s no t natura l but rathe r a n idealizatio n arisin g fro m th e law s th e min d find s hidde n in nature . Clearly, muc h unguarde d Wester n metaphysic s get s loos e i n thes e passages: the disdai n fo r th e body and nature a s disordered an d chaotic ; the love of mind an d geometry fo r thei r abstrac t purity, - an unexamine d view o f "progress" — distanc e i n th e "scal e o f creation " fro m hu t t o Parthenon, ye t "huma n effor t i s identica l throughou t th e age s an d a t every point; " a vie w o f individua l freedo m whic h (b y tendin g towar d pure geometry , happines s an d security ) paradoxicall y lead s towar d a "human animal " hive-minde d an d oversocialize d "lik e th e bee. " There i s a certai n quaintnes s i n al l this , muc h lik e th e soarin g biplanes Le Corbusier himself squiggle d in amid his perfectly geometric , right-angled, clean-lined , future-cit y drawing s — anachronisti c juxtapositions o f present - an d future-tec h reminiscen t o f nearl y contemporary illustration s i n Hug o Gernsback' s magazine s an d elements o f Frit z Lang' s Metropolis. Those biplanes , however , d o no t tak e L e Corbusie r hig h enough . His visio n o f th e futur e a s "civilizatio n equal s urbanizatio n equal s geometrization"— o f al l huma n effor t resultin g i n wha t ar e clearl y geometric objects whe n viewe d from abov e — may seem plausible fro m a biplane' s altitud e bu t no t s o from night-sid e Eart h orbit , fro m whic h the cities below look less like rectilinear grids than lik e bioluminescen t bacterial colonie s sprawlin g acros s a Petr i dis h planet . Fro m a loft y enough height, traged y not onl y ceases to be tragic, but geometr y cease s to b e geometric , a t leas t i n th e simpl e Euclidea n sense . Whether we find L e Corbusier's rage for order merely quaint o r mor e than faintl y fascisti c ("identica l cell s i n th e human hive") , th e passag e above nonetheles s rightl y point s u s towar d thos e psychologica l an d sociological need s t h e cit y fill s i n bot h citize n an d c u l t u r e . Contemporary citie s n o longe r muc h resembl e hierati c geometri c mandalas ( a los s L e Corbusie r lament s a t length , situatin g th e city' s "loss o f geometry " temporall y a t th e beginnin g o f th e industria l

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revolution, wit h th e onse t o f what I think o f a s Middle Urbanism). Yet, if anything , th e spel l o f th e cit y ha s becom e stil l mor e enthralling . The civilization/urbanizatio n connectio n ha s strengthene d ove r time, becomin g particularl y acut e i n th e las t hal f o f th e twentiet h century. I n 1800 , onl y si x metropolita n area s — Tokyo, London , Paris , Naples, Istanbul , an d Beijin g — had 500,00 0 o r more residents . As lat e as 1850 , onl y tw o percen t o f th e world' s populatio n live d i n citie s o f more tha n 100,00 0 persons. By 1950, fifty-three urba n center s had mor e than a millio n inhabitant s each , an d tw o (Ne w Yor k an d London ) ha d grown t o th e siz e th e Unite d Nation s define s a s "megacities " (citie s with 8 million o r more residents). By 1995, more than 325 metropolise s exceeded 1 million inhabitant s each . Today , th e numbe r o f megacitie s (also calle d "worl d cities " an d "globa l cities" ) ha s grow n fro m tw o t o twenty-five, an d more than 5 0 percent o f the world's population reside s in urba n places. 4 I f curren t trend s persist , two-third s o f Earth' s huma n population wil l hav e a n urba n addres s by 205 0 — urbanizing pressure s expected t o p r e c i p i t a t e u n p r e c e d e n t e d socia l disintegration , environmental degradation , an d urba n poverty . Lik e a blac k hol e o r immense vacuum cleaner , urbanization increasingl y sucks up everythin g into it s "bag, " it s wa y o f doin g things , it s systemi c gravitation . As Pete r Hal l note s i n hi s boo k The World Cities, th e las t hal f o f the twentiet h centur y witnesse d "th e greates t flowerin g o f citie s an d urban lif e in world history." 5 Th e statistic s I presented above , however , indicate no t merel y a "flowering " bu t als o a n intensificatio n o f urbanism, th e growt h o f cities , an d th e overal l growt h o f th e huma n population feedin g o n eac h other . In he r Cities in a World Economy, Saski a Sasse n contend s tha t global citie s toda y hav e mor e i n commo n wit h eac h othe r tha n wit h regional citie s i n thei r ow n countries. 6 Tha t i s no t jus t a recen t phenomenon, however : "worl d cities " o f th e ancien t Mediterranea n — Rome, Hellenisti c an d Romanize d Byzantium , Ephesus , Antioch , Alexandria — resemble d eac h othe r (wit h amphitheaters , arenas , an d temple complexes ) fa r mor e tha n the y resemble d town s i n thei r ow n regions o f th e world. 7 I n muc h th e sam e way tha t Fredri c Jameson ha s spoken o f "lat e capitalism, " then , on e ma y spea k toda y o f Lat e Urbanism — information-based , a s Middl e Urbanis m wa s industry based, an d Earl y Urbanis m wa s agriculture-based . "Early U r b a n i s m " i s linke d t o th e Agricultura l Revolutio n (cultivation o f grain , domesticatio n o f animals , a shif t fro m nomadi c living t o residentia l stability) . "Middl e Urbanism " i s linke d t o th e Industrial Revolutio n (machine s substitutin g fo r han d tool s i n th e

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manipulation o f th e physica l world , inanimat e source s o f energ y replacing anima l an d huma n muscl e power , a shif t fro m smallholder s on th e lan d t o worker s i n factories) . The intensified urbanizatio n o f Late Urbanism i s best see n in thos e "megacities," "worl d cities, " and "globa l cities" which ar e characterize d by bein g "comman d point s i n th e worl d economy, - ke y location s fo r the leadin g industrie s o f th e curren t period , whic h ar e financ e an d specialized service s fo r firms, - an d majo r site s o f productio n fo r thes e industries, includin g th e productio n o f innovations." 8 A s Earl y Urbanism i s linked to the Agricultural Revolutio n an d Middle Urbanis m is linke d t o th e Industria l Revolution , Lat e Urbanis m i s linke d t o th e Information Revolutio n (manipulatio n o f symbol s substitutin g fo r th e manipulation o f th e physical , machine-base d calculatio n substitutin g for huma n menta l calculation , a shift fro m factory/productio n worker s to information/innovatio n workers) . I n Lat e Urbanism , informatio n i s increasingly commodified , jus t a s machined good s are the commoditie s par excellenc e o f th e Middl e Urba n world , an d hand-produce d good s and foodstuff s th e commoditie s o f th e Earl y Urba n world . Such a schematic , coverin g a s i t doe s man y millenni a o f histor y and prehistory, mus t necessaril y oversimplif y — yet tha t simplificatio n in itsel f als o highlight s som e interestin g patterns . I t too k man y millennia fo r th e agriculture-base d earl y urba n cit y t o shapeshif t int o the industry-base d middl e urba n city , bu t i t ha s take n les s tha n 25 0 years fo r th e industry-base d middl e urba n cit y t o shapeshif t int o th e information-based lat e urba n city . Chang e no t onl y accumulates , i t accelerates an d speciates . I n eac h transformation , th e cit y become s something othe r tha n i t was . Late , Middle , an d Earl y Urbanism s ma y all be member s o f th e sam e genus , but the y ar e not th e sam e species. 9 The bestiaries and taxonomies o f the city can be seen in the writing s of visionary architect s an d city planning theorist s suc h a s Le Corbusier , Lewis Mumford, Jan e Jacobs, Robert Venturi, Buckminster Fuller , Paol o Soleri, and Murray Bookchin. The architects an d planning theorists hav e produced a literature replete with references t o "utopia, " "ris e and fall, " "twilight," "time, " and "space, " but mos t o f all "th e future." Th e mor e I read the literature o f city planning, th e more I am reminde d o f scienc e fiction. I n a gran d surve y o f scienc e fictio n nove l titles , too , perhap s only th e word s "stars " o r "space " woul d appea r mor e frequentl y tha n the word s "city " o r "cities. " Th e mor e I read th e literatur e o f scienc e fiction, th e mor e I am reminde d o f cit y planning . Underlyin g muc h o f both i s th e assumptio n tha t th e cit y an d th e futur e ar e on e — that th e future o f civilizatio n i s urbanization .

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The accumulatio n o f change s an d th e acceleratio n o f change , however, pos e problems for anyon e trying to predict th e future o f cities . For mos t cit y planner s an d othe r scienc e fictio n writers , th e en d o f civilization woul d b e th e en d o f humanity , an d th e goa l of civilizatio n is th e goa l o f humanity . A s muc h a s w e ma y personall y lov e o r enjo y the culture , entertainment , an d diversit y o f th e city , w e mus t wonde r again: What i f Emerso n i s right? Wha t i f th e en d (goal ) of civilizatio n i s the en d (extinction ) o f humanity ? I s th e futur e o f humanit y separabl e from citie s an d civilization ? On the question o f the enchantment o f urbanization, I think scienc e fictional examination s o f that them e ar e more helpful tha n th e writing s of th e cit y planners , becaus e th e scienc e fictio n writer s hav e generall y been a bi t mor e ambivalen t abou t th e urba n future . Yes , a s a genre S F has perhap s ha d mor e tha n it s shar e o f New ! Giant ! Super ! Megacitie s of th e Futur e (se e th e hyper-cit y illustration s o f 1920 s Gernsbac k magazines, o r Frit z Lang' s Metropolis, mentione d earlier , o r th e mor e recent cyber - an d hyper-citie s fro m Willia m Gibson' s Neuromancer t o films lik e Blade Runner an d The Fifth Element). Scienc e fiction i s also, however, th e genr e o f Georg e R . Stewart' s Earth Abides, th e endles s ruined cityscape s o f post-apocalyptic worlds , and that Gran d Ol d Lizar d Man Godzilla , wh o tim e an d agai n save s th e worl d bu t destroy s th e city i n th e process . I focus her e o n thre e text s — Arthur C . Clarke' s The City and the Stars (compose d 1937-46 , publishe d 1953) , Cliffor d D . Simak' s City (published seriall y a s eigh t storie s 1944-51 , i n boo k for m 1952) , an d Ursula K . Le Guin's City of Illusions (1967 ) — because th e Clark e an d Simak text s matche d th e tim e perio d whe n urbanizatio n bega n t o intensify a t th e beginnin g o f Lat e Urbanism, wherea s th e L e Guin tex t was compose d a t a tim e whe n tha t shif t wa s alread y wel l underway . (The pattern s I sketc h her e i n thes e Cit y novel s ca n als o b e foun d i n more recen t works , suc h a s Jame s Morrow' s City of Truth an d Joh n Shirley's City Come A-Walkin'.) In al l thre e book s o f thi s study , th e worl d i s unde r th e "spell " o f a false histor y — a histor y i n whic h a singl e "las t cit y o f Earth " figure s prominently. Th e fals e histor y i n The City and the Stars i s th e legen d that th e Invaders destroye d th e Galacti c Empire , hurled humanit y bac k from th e stars, and made a pact with us under which the Invaders "coul d have the universe" an d we "woul d be content wit h th e world o n whic h we wer e born. " (Post-colonia l theorists , pleas e note. ) Th e fals e histor y in Simak' s City i s tha t Doggis h societ y i s self-create d an d human s ar e a myt h invente d b y th e sentien t dogs . I n L e Guin' s City of Illusions,

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there reall y ar e Invader s — th e enem y alien s know n a s Shin g — bu t their cove r stor y t o protagonis t Falk/Ramarre n i s tha t ther e wer e n o invaders: The Leagu e o f Al l World s fel l apar t o n it s ow n an d th e Shin g are actuall y jus t a n elit e cast e o f human s savin g "man " fro m hi s ow n worst tendencies . I n eac h novel , th e fals e histor y ha s bee n precipitate d by histori c trauma : humanity , onc e powerfu l an d widespread , ha s retreated an d collapse d inwar d afte r sufferin g a grea t setback . Traumatized humanity , i n each novel, is presided ove r by a singula r "last cit y of Earth" — Diaspar in Clarke, Genev a in Simak , an d Es Toch in L e Guin . Eac h "las t city" , however , present s a differen t emphasis . Diaspar i n The City and the Stars i s a billion-year-old "immorta l city, " "a universe itself " tha t ha s "n o contac t wit h [an ] outer world" 10 whic h is apparently al l desert an d deserted. Diaspar is the physical incarnatio n of endlessl y revive d memorie s i n th e city' s Centra l Computer , an d it s citizens, too , ar e th e city' s reincarnate d memorie s — th e off-loade d informational complexe s o f 1 billion huma n geniuses , onl y on e i n a hundred o f whic h ar e physicall y incarnate d a t an y give n time , s o tha t the city' s populatio n i s alway s maintaine d a t 1 0 millio n (10) . T o th e residents o f Diaspar , thei r cit y i s th e worl d — or a t leas t al l th e worl d that matters . Into thi s utterl y isolate d steady-stat e cit y o f reincarnate d geniuse s with thousand-yea r lifespan s come s Alvin , th e firs t non-prebor n incarnation t o walk ou t of the city's Hall of Creation in 1 0 million years. His adventure s ar e many , bu t her e i t suffice s t o sa y that , althoug h Clarke's narrato r generall y describe s Diaspa r i n mechanis t term s appropriate t o Hig h Modernism' s drea m o f th e Supercit y o f Tomorrow , Diaspar i s als o occasionall y describe d a s a "livin g organism" — a combination o f natura l an d mechanica l imager y tha t achieve s it s ultimate synthesi s whe n Alvi n look s insid e th e Centra l Compute r a t Diaspar's heart : At first he saw nothing; then, by shielding his eyes, he could distinguish thousands o f fain t point s o f ligh t hangin g i n th e nothingness . The y were range d on e beyond th e othe r i n a three-dimensional lattice , a s strange and meaningless a s the stars must hav e been to ancient ma n .... If he could look into his own brain, Alvin realized, it would mean as little to him. The machine seemed inert and motionless because he could not se e its thoughts. (116) The Centra l Compute r tha t sustain s th e cit y of Diaspar agains t eternit y is describe d i n star s i n th e heaven s an d thought s i n th e min d — not s o very fa r remove d fro m th e constellatio n o f individua l mind , city , an d

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stars Joseph Campbel l sa w in the ancient hieratic city-state, when ever y city wa s a hol y city . Geneva, th e las t cit y o f Eart h i n Simak' s fix-u p nove l City, i s no t only "closed " i n the sense of "isolated " an d "self-contained " a s Diaspa r is, bu t als o "closed " i n th e sens e o f "n o longe r i n business " an d "shu t down."11 Lon g before Jon Webster activate s the city of Geneva's defense s and thu s "closes " th e cit y of f fro m th e world , however , th e cit y a s a human institutio n ha d bee n dea d fo r centurie s — kille d whe n famil y helicopters an d planes , togethe r wit h chea p atomi c powe r an d chea p land (resultin g fro m hydroponi c tan k farmin g replacin g traditiona l agriculture) allowe d humanit y t o dispers e ou t o f th e cities , t o privat e estates throughou t th e glob e (th e Secon d Tale , 43). Geneva linger s a s a global administrativ e cente r eve n afte r th e majorit y o f huma n being s (from th e proddin g o f th e outcas t mutants ) disappea r int o a paradisa l existence o n Jupiter, thei r shape s havin g been shifte d int o th e form s o f the Lopers , intelligen t Jovia n creature s inhabitin g a marvelou s planets cape (th e Fourt h an d Fift h Tales) . Eart h goe s t o th e Dog s — sentient descendant s o f Man' s Bes t Friend — as well a s to th e mutant s and increasingly intelligen t ants , an d i t i s to protect th e Dog s from th e lingering balefu l influenc e o f humanit y tha t Webste r close s Geneva , entombing th e las t o f humanit y i n a cit y o f bi g sleeps : deat h an d suspended animation . The narrator i n Clarke' s nove l say s of Diaspar: "Ther e were no rea l emotions, n o dee p passions , i n th e immorta l city " (109) . Jo n Webste r in Simak' s nove l describe s Genev a a s " a grea t prou d cit y tha t ha d los t its purpose " (137) . Thi s ide a o f th e hollownes s o f urba n existenc e i s particularly highlighte d i n L e Guin' s novel . Th e las t an d onl y Cit y o f Earth, E s Toc h — the "City of Illusions" o f th e publisher' s titl e — i s described a s " a sha m city , vapi d an d artificial " an d i s i n fac t th e instrument b y whic h th e Machiavellia n aliens , th e Shing , maintai n control ove r Earth. 12 I n th e wom b o f Diaspar , i n th e tom b o f Geneva , in the sha m drea m o f Es Toch, humanity i n the city is a Sleeping Beaut y lulled b y a fals e history , waitin g t o b e awakene d b y truth . In eac h cas e th e trut h i s ou t ther e — beyond th e cit y an d wha t i t represents. That L e Guin wanted to call her book The Two-Minded Man but th e publishe r retitle d i t City of Illusions say s somethin g no t onl y about L e Guin' s nove l an d th e publishin g industr y bu t als o abou t th e constellation o f idea s foun d i n al l thre e o f thes e cit y novels . Alle n Ginsberg onc e remarke d tha t h e wrot e "i n orde r t o mak e a mode l o f my mind." 1 3 Thes e novel s suppor t th e hypothesi s tha t th e writte n artifact inherentl y bear s trace s o f th e consciousnes s tha t conceive d i t — but i n a mos t peculia r way .

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Long before Roge r Sperr y of Ca l Tech began th e "spli t brain " wor k that wa s t o demonstrat e hemispheri c specializatio n an d cerebra l laterality, Clark e i n The City and the Stars an d Sima k i n City wer e prefiguring th e characteristic s o f tha t hemispheri c specializatio n — characteristics tha t ha d no t ye t bee n articulate d scientifically . Lon g before Julia n Jayne s publishe d hi s controversia l book , The Origins of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1978) , an d long befor e Sperr y receive d th e Nobe l Priz e fo r hi s spli t brai n wor k (1981) — with th e resul t that , i n th e 1980s , hemispheric specializatio n was simplified , pop-psychologized , an d pop-marginalize d int o a lef t brain/right brai n cultura l mytho s — long before al l that , L e Guin , lik e Clarke and Simak , wa s embodyin g the bicamerality o f the human min d in image s o f th e cit y an d th e world , o r "Urbe et Orbe" a s th e Roman s used t o say . These novel s presente d a "divisio n o f menta l labor " befor e tha t division o f labor was articulate d b y physiologists lik e Roger Sperr y an d Michael Gazzaniga . I n Clarke' s novel , th e las t tw o huma n zone s o n Earth ar e th e cit y o f Diaspa r an d th e muc h lower-tec h countrysid e o f small villages known a s Lys — historically " a culture based largely upo n the direc t us e o f menta l power , an d thi s se t i t apar t fro m th e res t o f human society , whic h cam e t o rel y mor e an d mor e o n machines " (68) . The rol e tha t physic s an d engineerin g pla y i n Diaspa r i s playe d b y psychology an d parapsychology i n Lys , where "me n .. . live without th e aid o f cities " (71) . Fo r Diaspar' s virtua l realit y "sagas " an d technica l virtuosity, Ly s ha s intuitio n an d heightene d perception . Fo r Diaspar' s rational, cognitiv e an d introspectiv e emphases , Ly s ha s imagination , emotion, an d impulse . Lik e brai n region s — which , becaus e the y ar e differentiated, mus t integrat e their activities — so, too, Lys and Diaspar : "Alvin knew , wit h a certainty tha t passe d logic, tha t th e welfar e o f th e race demanded th e mingling of these two cultures" (137, pre-dating C. P. Snow's "Tw o Cultures " b y severa l years) . Jus t as , i n th e brain , integration give s ris e t o behavior s an d menta l processe s greate r tha n each region' s contribution , Alvi n an d hi s Ly s counterpart/alte r eg o Hilvar onl y come to possess the ability to leave Earth, trave l throughou t the cosmos , and learn th e truth o f humanity's los t history afte r Diaspa r and Ly s ar e talkin g t o eac h other . "Mental power" — parapsychologica l ability , o r "psi, " champione d by that othe r Campbell , Joh n W. — is a symbolic intensification whic h stands fo r a host o f "righ t brain " associate d specializations , no t onl y i n Clarke's nove l bu t i n th e othe r tw o a s well . Th e separatio n betwee n mechanistic an d menta l power s i s particularl y emphasize d i n Simak' s

URBE ET ORBE 35

City. "Me n live d i n th e cit y [th e mechanize d worl d o f Geneva], " w e are told , "bu t me n withou t a purpose. Th e Dog s live d outsid e th e cit y ...in th e whol e worl d outsid e th e city . Th e Dog s ha d a purpose an d a dream." Thes e sentien t talkin g dogs "are psychic ... . Always have been . They hav e n o mechanica l sens e ... . Wher e ma n woul d follo w metal , the dog s will follow ghosts. " These ghosts, it turn s out , ar e "cobblies, " things i n othe r dimension s th e dog s ar e psychicall y sensitiv e t o (th e Sixth Tale) . Intriguingly, whe n th e vastl y age d mento r o f th e Dogs , th e robo t Jenkins, transdimensionall y contact s th e suspende d Jo n Webster i n th e closed cit y o f Genev a — i n orde r t o lear n ho w th e ancien t human s handled ant s (no w sentient , too , as a result o f tampering by the mutan t Joe) — an d Jenkin s learn s tha t human s di d i t throug h poison , Jenkin s rejects th e "mechanisti c brutality " o f th e "huma n way " (161) . I n s o doing, Jenkin s denie s th e reintegratio n o f th e "lef t brain " mechanisti c way an d the "righ t brain " psychi c way — with th e result tha t th e trut h of humanity's rol e i n th e creatio n o f th e sentien t dog s is los t an d fade s into legend . The mechanisti c city/mentalis t countrysid e divisio n foun d i n Clarke's an d Simak' s novel s i s als o foun d i n L e Guin's . Vi a a secre t passage whic h lead s fro m th e hear t o f Diaspar' s centra l par k t o a n ancient undergroun d transpor t system , Alvi n in The City and the Stars travels fro m th e cityscap e o f Diaspa r t o th e countrysid e o f Lys . Fro m the Hous e i n th e Clearin g o f th e Forest , L e Guin' s protagonis t Fal k travels t o th e cit y o f E s Toch , throug h a wil d landscap e where , a s i n Simak, animal s tal k an d psychic powers (mos t associate d with th e cla n of th e House ) abound . Thoug h th e directio n o f trave l i s reverse d i n L e Guin (countrysid e t o city , rathe r tha n cit y t o country) , integratio n i s again it s destination . As a resul t o f hi s travel s an d th e manipulation s o f th e Shing , Fal k is abl e t o remembe r hi s previou s lif e a s Ramarren , a navigato r o n a contact shi p sen t t o Eart h fro m th e plane t Were l — a worl d whic h escaped detectio n an d dominatio n b y th e Shin g an d whic h i s people d by Terran-colonist/Werelian-nativ e hybri d humans . Integratio n her e mainly involve s th e hero' s reconcilin g o f his tw o mind s an d set s o f lif e experiences. A s a result o f hi s integrativ e experiences , Falk/Ramarren , part alie n nonhuma n himself , i s abl e t o outwi t th e totall y alie n Shin g and leav e fo r hi s homeworl d — presumably t o retur n agai n t o Eart h a t the hea d o f a forc e se t o n liberatin g othe r human s fro m th e Shing . The trut h tha t wil l se t humanit y fre e fro m th e dominatio n o f th e Shing — an d mor e generall y th e trut h tha t awaken s humanit y fro m

36 HOWARD

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the nightmar e o f false cit y history — only come s abou t throug h th e reestablishment o f connection, o f communication, an d the reconciliatio n of apparen t opposites . "Othe r way s o f knowing" becomes synonymou s with "way s o f knowin g th e other. " The los t histor y Alvi n an d Hilvar lear n i n The City and the Stars is fascinatingl y paradoxica l i n thi s regard . Th e penultimate produc t of the Galacti c Empire' s mechanisti c scienc e i s th e Ma d Min d whic h humanity wa s s o instrumenta l i n creatin g — an unbalance d purel y mental entit y "implacabl y hostil e t o matter " (173 ) which, afte r muc h devastation, wa s at last imprisoned in the "strange artificial sta r know n as th e Blac k Sun " (173) . I n it s isolation , th e Ma d Mind i n th e Blac k Sun i s a mirror o f Diaspar, onl y written amon g th e stars. The ultimat e product o f that scientifi c quest , however , i s not the Mad Mind bu t the pure mentalit y discovere d by Alvin in space: Vanamonde, th e childlike supermind o f nearl y infinit e knowledg e bu t almos t infinitesima l wisdom, no w being telepathically tutore d towar d self-consciousnes s b y the psychologists an d philosophers o f Lys — just as the last cit y Diaspa r is als o learning , fro m it s contac t wit h it s othe r half , Ly s (168-9). This myt h o r fictio n o f interpretatio n — abou t hemispheri c specialization, th e possibilit y o f healin g th e divide d self , integration , and yes , individuatio n — can be recas t i n socia l terms , t o sugges t a way ou t o f tha t Emersonia n cul-de-sa c i n whic h humanit y mus t inevitably b e destroye d b y th e succes s o f it s urba n civilization . Fo r although civilizatio n ma y not be separable fro m cities , huma n cultur e certainly is . Cultur e ma y b e separabl e eve n fro m language , i f recen t studies o f the cultures o f wild chimpanze e group s an d bush elephant s are correct . Although w e hav e love d citie s a lon g time , it' s appropriat e t o remember tha t human s hav e had culture — particularly th e culture of the nomadi c hunter-gatherer s — for mor e tha n 10 0 times a s lon g a s we've ha d cities. The traditional rational e fo r the Great Wal l o f Chin a is tha t i t separate d th e nomadic herders , th e people o f the tents, fro m the civilized , th e people of the cities. When anthropologist s spea k wit h those people of the steppes and taiga that persist in the nomadic lifewa y even today , th e nomads tel l the m tha t moving , pullin g u p stakes , an d relocating one' s househol d i s a good thin g — contrary t o the upsettin g and unsettlin g thin g i t is for urbanites. Lif e for nomads i s about wher e they ar e headed, no t wher e the y ar e or where the y hav e been . Science fiction , a literatur e paradoxicall y fille d wit h cities , i s quintessentially nomadi c — about where we're going rather tha n wher e we ar e o r hav e been . Th e Grea t Wal l o f Chin a wind s throug h ever y

URBE ET ORBE 37

society i n th e world , an d eve n throug h program s an d department s o f literature, cultura l studies, and creative writing. The nomadic, shamani c trickster — part huma n being , par t anima l being , par t divin e bein g — continues t o drum , dance , an d drea m o f th e futur e outsid e th e Walls , because th e presen t alway s fall s shor t o f nee d an d desire . Clearly, a n immediate , atavistic , primordialist retur n t o a nomadi c lifeway i s no t th e "wa y out, " give n th e presen t worl d populatio n o f over 6 billion human beings. There are, however, possibilities othe r tha n a simplistic Po l Pot-esque forced retur n t o nomadism o r agriculturalis m — or the intensification o f urbanism whic h end s by emptying th e citie s in th e mass deat h o f apocalyptic boom an d bust — or turning th e whol e Earth int o a single cit y — or (assumin g faster tha n ligh t travel ) turnin g countless Earth s int o eve n mor e countles s cities . Clarke's The City and the Stars, Simak' s City, an d L e Guin's City of Illusions ar e al l characterize d b y bicameralit y i n th e city' s relatio n to it s surroundings . I n each , th e las t world-citie s represen t rational technological societ y an d it s extremis t left-brai n illusions , whil e th e surrounding countrysid e represent s right-braine d approximation s o f truth. Al l thes e novel s tel l storie s o f cycli c expansio n outwar d an d collapse inward — be the expanding elements Empires, Leagues, or fligh t from citie s an d collaps e bac k t o singl e city . I n al l o f the m w e fin d emphasis o n a reverenc e fo r lif e an d prohibitio n o f violence . I n al l o f them, th e reintegratio n o f cit y an d surroun d — i n whic h bot h communicate bu t eac h als o retain s it s uniqu e trait s — is necessar y t o achieving wholeness, whether tha t wholeness be in social terms (Diaspa r and Lys in Clarke , Es Toch and the rest of Earth in Le Guin, th e memor y of Ma n an d th e health y societ y o f th e Dog s i n Simak) , o r i n th e individual (particularl y Alvin an d Hilvar i n Clarke , an d Falk/Ramarre n in L e Guin) . These novel s hin t tha t th e stron g enchantmen t o f th e cit y ca n b e broken withou t destroyin g humanity , tha t th e mechanica l an d th e magical ca n communicat e agai n whil e eac h retain s it s uniquenes s — as in Theodore Cogswell' s grea t story , "Th e Wall Around th e World" — that th e sleeper s ca n awak e t o the differen t trut h o f a non-catastrophi c posturbanism — or, better, disurbanism , wher e perhap s people , havin g reconciled lov e and logic, reduce thei r ow n rates o f reproduction, allo w mortality itsel f t o reduc e populations naturall y ove r time, the n furthe r (having harmonized huma n cultur e an d technology with th e needs an d demands o f nonhuma n wildscape ) choos e t o deser t th e cities , movin g away fro m densel y populate d urba n center s i n t o small-scal e communities, replacin g the "urba n jungle " with perhaps biotechnicall y

38 HOWARD

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homegrown hometown s o r temporary encampments , wher e one canno t see th e tow n fo r th e trees , becaus e th e tow n i s th e tree s (an d mayb e even tha t tow n i s occupie d onl y par t o f th e yea r a t most). 14 Such a vision — perhaps a s improbable t o us now a s the en d o f th e Cold Wa r by 2001 was i n 196 8 — is not beyon d al l possibility. Perhap s we ca n se e its hazy foreshadowings i n Rainbo w Gatherings , Temporar y Autonomous Zones , Burning Man festivals, an d th e like. Such a vision, however, mus t stan d i n star k contras t t o th e overl y urbanize d an d machine-identified element s o f th e cyborgis m advocate d b y Donn a Haraway. Her assertio n i n the "ironi c dream" o f " A Cyborg Manifesto " that " I would rathe r b e a cyborg than a goddess" is really quit e sad , fo r rather tha n bein g individua l an d femal e t o th e highes t possibl e degree , she prefer s t o forsak e bein g anythin g wit h individuatin g qualities. 15 If i t i s tru e tha t Wester n metaphysic s ha s a n unhealth y obsessio n with selfhood , wit h th e individua l (eve n a s "unexpecte d consequence " or "emergen t property " o f socia l interaction) , the n i t i s equall y tru e that cyborgia n self-hatred , drive n b y an urbanize d bicamerality , prefer s to destro y individual consciousnes s altogether , dissolvin g the I into th e We. I t i s "levelling, " a s Kierkegaar d calle d i t — or bein g tol d tha t ou r highest realizatio n i s t o becom e "node s i n th e network. " Thi s i s liberating, w e ar e told , becaus e i f everyon e become s "machinic, " the n there i s no self-hatre d becaus e ther e i s no sel f t o hate o r be hated. Lov e that persona l computer , fo r i t operate s mor e efficientl y a s a networ k node than the unnecessary an d troublesome consciou s human does , an d hey presto ! Th e cybor g i s enshrine d a s th e ideal. 16 "As k no t wha t technology ca n d o fo r you, " say s th e Kenned y cyborg , "bu t wha t yo u can d o fo r technology. " Cyborgist materialis m entail s separatio n fro m th e natural worl d a s well as the spiritual. In this, it resembles the psychic isolation that man y forms o f Christianit y insis t on : separation fro m th e filth o f nature, an d no acces s t o th e divin e (excep t throug h "us, " b e w e hierarch y o r network, s o pas s th e offerin g plate) . Jus t a s th e Christia n Righ t say s "Give yourself u p to the Individual God, " s o the Cyborg Left say s "Giv e yourself u p t o th e Socia l Machine. " Onc e separate d fro m an d denyin g the natura l matri x fro m whic h i t arose , however , th e urba n "cyborg " has los t a fundamenta l connectio n wit h reality , an d th e resul t i s th e kind o f materialis m tha t worship s th e socia l succes s o f mone y an d power, a t th e expens e o f sustainabl e — or even survivabl e — visions of the future . The oversocializatio n o f the postmodernist cybor g in the cyborg cit y is no t s o ver y differen t fro m th e oversocializatio n o f L e Corbusier' s

URBE ET ORBE 39

modernist huma n "bee " in the hive city. If networks ar e simply a subtler method o f achievin g th e comman d an d contro l whic h hierarch y als o aims at , the n replacin g the supposedly unquestioned an d implicit logic of-hierarchy hidde n i n binar y opposition s wit h th e supposedl y questionable an d explici t logic-of-networ k reveale d i n juxtapositio n i s not muc h o f a revolution . William Gibso n wa s a n admitte d compute r illiterat e workin g a t a manual typewrite r whe n h e invente d cyberspace, - mathematician , neo Luddite an d Unabombe r Te d Kaczynski' s antitechnolog y manifest o received it s greates t distributio n vi a th e Internet . Thes e instance s ar e not a s ironic as they are necessary correlate s o f each other. Lik e particle and wav e i n light , o r lik e werewol f an d cybor g i n shaman , individua l and societ y form a n indissoluble complementarity . Or , a s Le Guin put s it i n th e "Introduction " t o th e 197 8 editio n o f City of Illusions, whe n explaining wha t sh e wa s gratefu l t o tha t boo k for , The chance to speak of civilization not as a negative force — restraint, constraint, repression, authority — but as an opportunity lost, an ideal of truth . Th e Cit y a s goa l an d dream . Th e interdependenc e o f orde r and honesty . N o wor d o r momen t o r wa y o f bein g i s mor e o r les s "real" tha n an y other , an d al l i s "natural" ; wha t varie s i s vividnes s and accuracy of perception, clarity, and honesty of speech. The measure of a civilizatio n ma y b e th e individual' s abilit y t o spea k th e truth . (vii-viii) In Leaves of Grass 51 , Whitman's "D o I contradict myself ? / Ver y wel l then I contradict myself , / ( I am large , I contain multitudes) " i s a par t of that truth , too . Never th e whole of it, but enoug h to answer Emerson , for now .

3 2001, o r A Cyberpalace Odyssey: Toward the Ideographi c Imagination 1 Takayuki Tatsum i

Introduction When th e movie 2001: A Space Odyssey wa s first show n i n 1968 , most of th e audienc e responde d alon g th e followin g lines : "What th e hel l i s this? " Even afte r thirty-fou r years , a t a recent panel , "2001 : Th e Yea r vs. Stanley Kubrick " (hel d o n 2 9 Augus t 200 2 a s par t o f th e 60t h Worl d Science Fictio n Convention , "Conjose, " i n Sa n Jose , California) , ever y speaker started his or her talk by recalling the initial shock of the movie. Yes, I still remembe r ver y well ho w mystifyin g tha t strang e objec t the "monolith " looke d a t firs t glance , an d ho w inconsisten t th e narrative seemed. In Japan, MGM first targete d this movie to the genera l public; bu t whe n tha t failed , the y reconsidere d an d recommende d i t exclusively t o intellectuals , an d ende d th e yea r wit h a huge box-offic e success. What wa s tha t mysteriou s monolith ? O f course , i f yo u ar e a goo d reader of Arthur C . Clarke, you already know the answer. Clarke' s nove l very clearly shows us that th e monolith i s none other than th e mediu m for huma n evolution . An d yet, not everyon e who see s the film wil l fee l like readin g Clarke' s tex t i n orde r t o mak e sens e o f th e incident s visualized b y Kubrick . However , havin g th e essenc e o f th e objec t clarified b y th e novelis t doe s no t reduc e th e film' s enchantmen t bu t only plunge s on e further int o th e director' s magic . What matter s mos t here i s that 2001: A Space Odyssey no t onl y nurtured ou r vision o f th e future bu t als o helpe d transfigur e ou r ow n reality . Indeed , thi s groundbreaking work ma y have been attemptin g a prediction abou t th e "next" century ; but, b y the same token, i t also revolutionized th e eart h we inhabite d then , an d th e on e w e inhabi t now .

42 TAKAYUKi

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Monolith an d It s Conspirac y Theory The year 2000 saw amazing upheaval in the field o f Japanese archeology . On 2 1 February, prehistoric houses though t t o be 500,000 years old an d built b y primitiv e human s wer e foun d i n Saitam a Prefecture-Kant o District. Th e discovery , whic h strongl y suggeste d tha t Homo erectus constructed buildings , seemed likely t o overturn th e establishe d theor y that the y were constantly o n the move, hunting for food, an d not stayin g in on e place . A grou p o f archaeologist s le d b y Professo r Fujirnur a Shin'ichi foun d te n pit s i n th e groun d line d u p t o form tw o pentagons . They believe d th e pit s wer e th e remain s o f houses . Seve n ston e tools , typical o f thos e use d i n th e Lowe r Paleolithi c abou t 500,00 0 years ago , were excavate d fro m insid e th e houses . Includin g these , thirt y ston e tools, such as scrapers, were unearthed from th e entire site. The Saitam a prefectural governmen t name d th e ruin s th e "Ogasak a site. " Homo erectus, believe d t o hav e appeare d abou t 1. 6 millio n year s ago , likel y reached Japan 600,000 years ago at th e latest, a s 600,000-year-old Lowe r Paleolithic ston e tool s wer e discovere d las t yea r a t th e Kamitakamor i site i n Tohok u District . However, thi s bi g news i n Februar y wa s t o b e followed b y a bigger disclosure in November. O n 5 November, th e aforementioned Fujirnur a Shin'ichi, 50 , highl y esteeme d self-educate d archeologis t wh o ha d employed hi s "God' s Hands " t o uneart h countles s artifact s fro m th e past, officiall y admitte d tha t h e ha d burie d wit h hi s ow n hand s 6 1 ou t of the 65 Paleolithic ston e implements discovere d in the Kamitakamor i ruins. Pit y Japanes e archeology ! But wha t stimulate d m e mos t a t tha t poin t i s tha t thi s disclosur e of th e fak e discover y wa s immediatel y reappropriate d an d intelligentl y reconstructed b y th e mos t playfu l Interne t conversation s amon g Japanese S F fans . I coul d no t hel p bu t follo w thei r length y an d fascinating discussions , fo r thei r threa d goe s lik e this : "Th e monolit h on th e moo n turne d ou t t o b e a fake : D r Heywoo d Floy d officiall y confessed tha t h e had buried with hi s own hands the monolith beneat h the surfac e o f th e moon. " Althoug h al l th e chatte r i s anonymous , I consider th e write r o f thi s headlin e a kin d o f geniu s wh o aroused ou r science fictiona l imaginatio n t o a great exten t b y beautifully remixin g our historical memory with a science fictional "fake " memory. Yes, once we hav e fashione d ourselve s throug h th e cinematographi c voyag e o f 2001, w e cannot help thinking that ou r voyage into outer space is always accompanied b y Johann Strauss' s waltz . Likewise , i t i s very natural fo r us t o pla n som e sightseein g o n th e moo n i n orde r t o rediscove r th e

2001, OR A CYBERPALACE ODYSSEY 43

"monolith." Th e fil m 2001 wa s s o stimulatin g an d realisti c tha t i t ha s long been impossible for us to tell the real Apollo project o f NASA fro m the imaginar y voyag e o f Clark e an d Kubrick . Onl y recentl y hav e American journalists begun comparing the vision of the film with what' s going o n righ t no w i n NASA , discussin g wha t di d an d didn' t com e true. It i s saf e t o sa y the endurin g appea l o f th e fil m 2001 clarifie s ho w science fictio n i s immerse d withi n ou r contemporar y culture . Th e development o f hig h technolog y ha s formed , an d ha s bee n forme d by , the scienc e fictiona l imagination . Yet on e seriou s questio n remain s unresolved . Wh y o n Earth i s thi s 1960s movi e stil l stimulatin g an d refreshing ? I strongl y believ e thi s mystery coul d be disentangled b y redefining th e statu s o f th e monolit h in ou r ow n globa l cultura l history . Le t m e begi n by refreshin g ou r memory o f th e relationshi p betwee n th e fil m an d fictiona l version s o f 2001: A Space Odyssey, focusin g o n w h a t I tak e t o b e t h e "representational wars " stil l ragin g withi n th e film .

Looking Backward : 2001-196 8 The movi e versio n o f 2001 i s o f cours e no w generall y regarde d a s no t only a landmark S F film bu t a n overal l cinemati c masterpiece . I t was a collaborative effor t b y th e Britis h S F novelis t Arthu r C . Clarke , wh o wrote the original script in 1965 , and the American film directo r Stanle y Kubrick, wh o spen t thre e year s revisin g Clarke' s scrip t an d complete d the fil m i n 1968 . Reports abou t th e makin g o f th e fil m indicat e tha t the novelis t an d th e directo r ha d a seriou s conflic t abou t ho w t o bes t visualize wha t the y wante d t o represent . Mos t o f th e detail s regardin g these creativ e difference s a t tha t tim e see m relativel y trivia l today . Of m u c h greate r i n t e r e s t i s w h a t th e audio-visua l t e x t u a l i t y o f 2001 represent s t o u s today , afte r a laps e o f twenty-fiv e years . And , indeed, thi s movi e i s ful l o f image s demandin g no t onl y clos e examination bu t clos e re-examinatio n i n ligh t o f variou s crucia l "paradigm shifts " i n ou r way s o f thinkin g an d seein g visuall y — fo r instance, th e Man-Ap e beginnin g t o us e a weapo n i n th e prehistori c age, th e Artificia l Intelligenc e controllin g th e spaceshi p Discovery i n t h e twenty-firs t century , th e m y s t e r i o u s m o n o l i t h (th e extraterrestrial rectangula r mediu m o f huma n evolution) , an d th e Sta r Child a s a type of super-human . M y present interest , however , lie s les s in wha t thos e figure s originall y represente d i n th e 1960 s tha n i n wha t those figure s represente d fo r peopl e literall y livin g in th e yea r 2001 , in

44 TAKAYUKITATSUMI

light o f th e transfiguration s occurrin g i n th e interfac e betwee n technology an d ideolog y i n th e post-1980 s milieu . The fil m 2001 ha s fou r sections : 1 ) "Daw n o f Man" ; 2 ) n o titl e (section beginnin g wit h th e famou s jum p cu t fro m bon e t o spaceship , "TMA-1" i n th e novel) ; 3 ) "Jupite r Mission : Eigh t Month s Later " (th e third an d fourt h section s i n th e novel) ; 4 : "Jupite r an d Beyon d th e Infinite" (th e fift h an d sixt h section s i n th e novel) . Th e nove l ha s si x sections: 1 ) "Primeval Night" ; 2 ) "TMA-1" (Tycho-Magnetic-Anomaly One); 3 ) "Betwee n Planets" ; 4 ) "Abyss" ; 5 ) "Th e Moon s o f Saturn" ; 6) "Throug h th e Sta r Gate. " Despit e th e ideologica l difference s between Clark e an d Kubrick , th e movi e an d th e nove l version s o f 2001 shar e the central topic of the super-evolution o f Man intermediate d by a n Artificia l Intelligenc e a s wel l a s b y a n extraterrestria l being . According t o Kubrick' s scheme , th e firs t sectio n calle d "Th e Daw n o f Man"— in which a Man-Ape tentatively calle d "Th e Moon Watcher" i s inspired b y th e firs t monolit h t o us e a bon e a s a weapo n an d thereb y extinguish a n antagonisti c trib e — outline s th e whol e story . Th e significance o f th e introductio n become s cleare r i f w e recogniz e wha t follows: i n th e untitle d secon d sectio n (Clark e call s i t "TMA-1 " i n th e novel), Dr Heywood Floy d comes across the second monolith discovere d beneath th e surfac e o f th e moon, - i n "Jupite r Mission : Eigh t Month s Later," Captai n Davi d Bowma n o f th e spaceshi p Discover y come s t o be deceive d b y th e ma d hyper-compute r HA L 9000 ; an d i n th e concluding section , b y wa y o f th e Sta r Gat e o f th e thir d hug e non Euclidean monolith , Bowma n i s reborn a s th e Sta r Child . A s th e Man Ape give n th e knowledg e o f weapons symptomize s th e interrelatio n between technolog y an d evolution , s o the astronau t o f th e comin g ag e is destine d t o b e metamorphose d int o a highe r being , wit h th e hel p o f "technology," whethe r human-mad e o r extraterrestrial . In contras t t o Clarke' s novelistic explanatio n o f techno-evolution , Kubrick's fil m largel y elide s th e scienc e an d fill s th e logica l ga p wit h symbolic dramaturgy . Kubric k carefull y an d beautifull y chaine d th e cinematic image s o f "tools, " rangin g fro m smashe d bones , a n orbitin g satellite, an d a floating ballpoin t pen , t o th e spaceshi p Discovery wit h HAL 900 0 aboard , th e ultimat e too l t o b e abandone d b y th e captain . As Norma n Kaga n pointe d out , th e nam e o f Bowman' s spaceshi p Discovery ironicall y suggest s tha t 2001 ca n b e interpreted primaril y a s a stor y of the passage from th e discover y of technology t o the discover y of a new form o f being within oneself. 2 I n order to convince the audienc e of th e techno-evolutio n o f Man , Kubrick , unlik e Clarke , preferre d th e "performative" effec t o f cinemati c symbolis m t o th e constativ e on e of

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ODYSSEY 45

the scienc e fictiona l idiom . I n othe r words , Kubric k employe d expressions whose function i s "no t t o inform o r to describe, but t o carr y out a 'performance'." 3 And yet, let me here question th e status o f "performativ e language " itself. Shoshan a Felma n onc e compare d speec h ac t theor y t o atomi c physics: "I f th e matte r o f Histor y i s mad e up , amon g others , o f speec h acts i t i s becaus e fo r Austin , a s fo r Einstein , matte r itsel f ha s ceased , above all , t o b e a 'thing' : matte r itsel f i s a n event." 4 Tryin g t o explai n the scienc e o f language , makin g us e o f th e Einsteiniu m notio n o f "relativism" firs t establishe d i n 1915 , Felma n seem s unwittingl y t o perform a persisten t obsessio n wit h th e cultura l ideolog y o f radica l relativism dominan t i n th e 1960s . The theor y o f relativit y wa s se t u p as a constative (scientific ) syste m i n th e 1910s , whereas th e ideology of radical relativis m wa s conceive d a s a performative (rhetorical ) strateg y in the 1960s . The passage from th e 1910 s to the 1960 s signifies th e wa y the syste m o f relativis m i n th e fiel d o f physic s get s transfigure d int o an absolut e belie f i n relativism , i n th e for m o f th e metaphysic s o f counterculture. O f course , I d o no t sa y th e developmen t o f relativis m from th e 1910 s to th e 1960 s is completel y linear . Einstei n reconfirme d the relativistic perspective by questioning the Newtonian an d Euclidea n worldview, wherea s America n peopl e wer e throw n int o radica l relativism i n the wake of the assassination o f President John F. Kennedy in 1963 , which deprive d America n ideolog y o f an y belie f i n th e ide a of totality, a s Raymon d Federma n ha s explicate d i n hi s archaeologica l study o f America n metafiction. 5 The intertextua l possibilit y o f 2001 reside s i n th e fascinatin g encounter betwee n Clarke' s clos e re-examinatio n o f Einsteiniu m physical relativism an d Kubrick's deeper empathy with post-JFK cultura l relativism. Wha t function s a s th e performativ e o n th e scree n o f 2001 is not simpl y th e Kubrickia n imager y bu t als o th e post-McLuhanesqu e intersection betwee n Clarke' s scientifi c relativit y an d Kubrick' s rhetorical relativism . Wha t appear s t o be the mos t marvelou s fre e pla y of imagination i n 2001 i s not necessarily free from th e network o f sociopolitical discourses, - it is no more than th e effec t o f the representationa l war betwee n th e ideologie s o f Clark e an d Kubrick . I n short , howeve r free th e performativ e trie s t o become , i t i s th e ac t o f tryin g t o b e fre e that endorse s th e ver y notio n o f performativ e a s restricte d b y th e ideology o f radica l relativism . Because critics limit th e significanc e o f the movi e to th e America n 1960s, I have spent muc h tim e specifyin g th e status o f the performativ e in 2001. 2001 critic s lik e Yasuk i Haman o attemp t t o dra w analogie s

46 TAKAYUKITATSUMI

between Bowman' s lobotom y o f HA L 900 0 an d th e authoritaria n repression o f th e freaks , a s see n i n th e lobotomize d McMurph y o f Ke n Kesey's nove l One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1962) . Furthermore , the ideolog y o f post-1960 s cultur e encourage s u s t o identif y wha t Bowman see s insid e th e Sta r Gat e a s a typicall y wil d drug-induce d fantasy, an d th e birt h o f th e Sta r Chil d a s an exemplar y stag e of highe r consciousness i n th e post-Aquarius age . Let m e cal l this sor t o f critica l reduction th e "relativis t tyranny. " Not e tha t I a m no t attackin g counterculture pe r se , a s Alla n Bloo m di d i n The Closing of the American Mind (1988) , bu t merel y discouragin g th e vie w tha t radica l relativism i s th e absolut e ideolog y applicabl e t o anythin g produce d i n the 1960s . To put i t anothe r way , m y purpos e her e i s t o acclaim , fro m the perspectiv e o f th e post-1980s , no t "relativis t tyranny " bu t a "relativist legacy. " For , t o me , wha t radica l relativis m aime d a t bac k in th e 1960 s seem s t o have been realized in its mos t idea l forms durin g the last tw o decades . Thus, conceivin g a movie like 2001 t o be a typica l product o f th e Aquaria n Ag e ca n b e sai d t o ironicall y evad e the blin d spot o f thes e ver y 1960s .

Post-Monolith, Post-Huma n

The monolit h ha s remaine d suc h a n unresolvabl e enigm a tha t peopl e seem reluctant t o clarify it s essence. Certainly, eve n Clarke and Kubric k characterized th e monolit h ver y differently : th e forme r wante d t o foreground th e monolith a s a teaching machine, whereas th e latter hate d to limi t it s meanin g t o suc h a science-fictional formula . Wha t i s more , while i n hi s origina l scrip t Clark e wante d t o desig n thi s TMA- 1 lik e a pyramid an d th e alie n a s humanoid, Kubric k hate d th e writer' s ide a s o radically tha t h e redesigne d i t a s a mysteriousl y rectangula r signifier , preventing th e alien a s such from presentin g anywhere in th e narrative . The contras t betwee n th e novelis t an d th e directo r become s cleare r i f we pa y attentio n t o thei r respectiv e treatment s o f th e firs t monolit h that th e Man-Ape "Moo n Watcher" encounter s i n "Th e Dawn o f Man. " Clarke describe s no t a single monolit h bu t a number "scattere d acros s half th e globe," suggesting a post-Darwinian lesson : "A hundred failure s would no t matter , whe n a singl e succes s coul d chang e th e destin y o f t h e world." 6 Kubric k diminishe s th e Clarkea n implicatio n an d strengthens th e symboli c imag e o f th e monolit h a s somethin g rectangular an d mysterious an d pedagogic. Kubrick's arrangement make s perfect sens e because , i f th e movi e ha d bee n force d t o reflec t Clarke' s

2001, OR A CYBERPALACE ODYSSEY 47

original idea, he shoul d have been content wit h th e stereotypica l imag e of th e Eart h inundate d b y a lo t o f monolit h replicas , a s i s th e cas e w i t h typicall y chea p Invaders/Body-Snatcher s sci-f i t r a s h entertainment. Kubric k trie d t o depart from science-fictiona l cinemati c formulas, wherea s Clark e wa s eage r t o tak e ever y advantag e o f th e conventions o f th e har d scienc e fictio n novel . The ideological conflict betwee n Clark e and Kubrick coincides wit h that between th e traditiona l S F of John W. Campbell, Jr. and the literar y experiments o f J . G . Ballar d i n th e 1960s . Longin g fo r Americ a bu t rejecting Americ a — this i s th e psychologica l ambivalenc e towar d th e United State s tha t shape d th e speculativ e fictio n o f Ballar d a s a chil d of the time ; thus, it is no wonder tha t th e conflicted productio n o f 2001 (another chil d o f th e 1960s ) coincide d wit h wha t happene d t o th e Ne w Wave revolutio n withi n th e fiel d o f scienc e fiction . T o pu t i t anothe r way, i n t h e conflicte d p r o d u c t i o n o f 2001, Clark e an d Kubrick unwittingl y assis t u s i n reconsiderin g th e ideologica l dissen t between oute r spac e an d inne r space , a dissen t characteristi c o f th e science fiction scen e in thos e days . Thus, on e way o f interpreting 2001 is t o rea d suc h a controvers y int o th e shipwrec k o f th e Discovery an d the transcendenta l experienc e withi n th e Sta r Gate, - th e forme r represents th e failur e o f th e ideolog y o f oute r space , th e latte r th e frontier o f th e ideolog y o f inne r space . In th e wak e o f th e cyberspac e perspectiv e o f th e 1980s , however , the traditiona l boundar y between oute r spac e and inne r spac e become s very problematic. At thi s point, le t us tak e th e opportunit y t o questio n Kubrick's re-presentatio n o f th e monolit h i n th e fina l sectio n o f 2001, which i s oppose d t o Clarke' s descriptio n o f th e monolit h a s th e literalization o f scientifi c knowledge . In the cultura l contex t o f the lat e 1960s, Kubrick' s choic e wa s absolutel y right , becaus e h e succeede d i n providing the audience with a more focused an d metaphysically resonan t image of the transcendence o f man-machine symbiosis . The sperm-lik e spaceship plunge s int o th e womb-like Sta r Gat e an d conceive s th e Sta r Child. Kubrick' s re-imaginin g o f Clarke' s tex t i s sufficientl y phallogocentric tha t th e cinemati c version o f th e third monolit h a s th e Star Gat e probabl y simulate s ou r ow n sublimina l experienc e o f bein g born o f woman . Amon g man y ric h an d no t mutuall y exclusiv e possibilities, then , watchin g th e dazzlin g sequences o f the final sectio n can be experienced a s a psychedelic tri p as well as womb fantasy. Here , the symboli c aesthetic s o f Kubric k ar e superb . We canno t forget , however , tha t thi s i s als o a poin t wit h whic h Clarke apparently radicall y disagreed. Why? The answer to this questio n

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is ver y simpl e an d ca n b e inferre d b y examinin g th e movi e 2010: The Year We Make Contact (1984) , th e seque l t o 2001 base d o n Clarke' s 1982 novel 2010: Odyssey Two an d directe d by Peter Hyams. Of course , we d o no t doub t tha t wha t ha s mad e 2001 ver y popula r i s th e characterization o f the super-computer HA L 9000 getting out o f control . And yet , i n thi s seque l 2010 w e ca n se e th e characterizatio n o f th e m o n o l i t h a s anothe r kin d o f super-computer , whic h i s abl e t o reconstruct th e personalit y o f Davi d Bowma n b y pickin g u p th e fragments o f hi s bio-psychologica l dat a scattere d ove r th e Sta r Gate. Viewers o f 2010 ar e probabl y surprise d a t seein g th e ghos t o f Bowman stil l haunting th e spaceship Discovery-, it's als o true, however , that th e monolith's cyberneti c reconstruction o f human personalit y wa s already implie d i n Clarke' s tex t o f 2001. M y poin t i s tha t toda y th e monolith ca n b e see n a s representin g no t onl y a n anthropomorphi c metaphor o f th e womb , a s Kubric k wishe d i t t o be , bu t als o a kin d o f cyberspace capable of simulating eve n transcendental experiences . Thus, what initiall y seeme d t o b e a typical dru g tri p i n 2001 i s later reveale d to b e th e effec t o f a cyberspac e matri x scanning , resolving , an d rebuilding th e accumulate d dat a o f huma n life . Let's now re-examin e what happen s t o Captain Bowma n i n the tex t of Clarke' s 2001. Bowma n ha s jus t entere d a hotel room , an d wha t h e sees o n T V is , no t surprisingly , quit e astonishin g t o him : All the programs were about two years old. That was around the time TMA-1 had been discovered , an d it was hard to believe that thi s was a pure coincidence. Something had been monitoring the radio waves,that ebo n block had been busier tha n me n had suspected . He continue d t o wande r acros s th e spectrum , an d suddenl y recognized a familiar scene . Here was thi s ver y suite , now occupie d by a celebrate d acto r wh o wa s furiousl y denouncin g a n unfaithfu l mistress. Bowman looked with a shock of recognition upon the living room he had just left — and when the camera followed th e indignant couple toward th e bedroom, he involuntarily looke d toward th e door to se e if anyon e was entering. So that wa s how thi s reception are a had been prepared fo r him ; his hosts had based their ideas of terrestrial living upon TV programs. His feeling tha t h e was inside a movie se t was almos t literall y true . (Chapter 44, "Reception/ 7 214 ) However, The vision , o r illusion , laste d onl y a moment . Then th e crystallin e planes and lattices, and the interlocking perspectives of moving light,

2001, OR A CYBERPALACE ODYSSEY 49

flickered ou t o f existence , a s David Bowman move d int o a realm of consciousness tha t no man had experienced before . At first, i t seeme d that Tim e itself wa s running backward. Even this marve l he was prepared t o accept , before h e realized th e subtle r truth. Th e spring s o f memor y wer e bein g tapped ; i n controlle d recollection, h e wa s relivin g th e past . Ther e wa s th e hote l suit e — there the spac e pod — there the burning starscapes o f the red sun — there th e shinin g cor e o f th e galax y — there th e gatewa y throug h which h e had reemerged into th e universe. And not onl y vision, bu t all the sense impressions, and all the emotions he had felt at the time, were racing past, more and more swiftly. His life was unreeling like a tape recorde r playin g bac k a t ever-increasin g spee d ... . H e wa s retrogressing down the corridors of time, being drained of knowledge and experienc e a s he swep t bac k towar d hi s childhood . Bu t nothin g was being lost; all that he had ever been, at every moment of his life, was bein g transferre d t o safe r keeping . Eve n a s on e Davi d Bowma n ceased to exist, another became immortal.... Now, at last, the headlong regression was slackening; the wells of memory were nearly dry. Time flowed mor e and more sluggishly, approaching a moment o f stasis — as a swinging pendulum, a t the limit o f its arc , seems frozen fo r on e eternal instant , befor e th e next cycl e begins. (214, 216-7) A clos e readin g o f Clarke' s carefu l descriptio n o f Bowman' s transcendental experienc e reveals tha t thi s is neither a phantasmagoric, drug-induced produc t no r on e o f religiou s transcendence, - rather , i t i s but th e effec t o f th e monolith-as-computer-matrix sampling , remixing , and cuttin g u p Bowma n an d hi s bio-history . Thi s i s als o th e wa y tha t the film versio n o f 2010 confront s u s with a variety of Bowman's ghost s — including th e ol d man Bowma n an d the Sta r Chil d Bowman , a s wel l as th e "normal " Bowma n i n a spacesuit . Thu s withi n th e historica l context o f th e 1980s , Bowman i s reconstructed no t a s a tragic visionar y but a s a floating signifie r withi n cyberspace , an "area " locate d betwee n outer spac e an d inne r space . H e i s Bowma n an d not-Bowman , los t between lif e an d death (an d between th e 1960 s and the 1980s) . In short , Bowman i s a ne w typ e o f zombi e possessin g th e kin d o f "Thanatoid " existence describe d by Thomas Pyncho n i n Vineland — a being not ye t recovered fro m th e sens e o f los s afte r th e Vietna m War , on e stil l haunting th e postmoder n cit y i n th e 1980 s a s on e o f th e livin g dea d represented i n Adrian Lyne's film Jacob's Ladder (1990 ) — another wor k in w h i c h th e r e m n a n t s o f th e lat e 1960 s ar e transfigure d an d reconsidered fro m a 1980 s perspective. Furthermore , i n th e post-1990 s context, thi s wa y o f reviewin g th e monolith' s functio n ma y quickl y

50 TAKAYUKITATSUMI

remind yo u o f Gre g Egan' s 199 4 nove l Permutation City, i n whic h h e refreshed th e ide a o f cyberspac e b y constructin g th e "Autoverse " inhabited b y a trib e o f thanatoid s calle d "Copy. " In the contex t o f SF , it's interesting (an d even amusing) t o note tha t it wa s th e rise of the 1980 s high-tech writer s like William Gibson , Gre g Bear, an d Richar d Calde r — whose fiction s ar e s o full o f th e fragment s of microtechnology , biotechnology , an d nanotechnolog y — that make s Clarke's origina l representatio n o f th e monolit h ver y "readable " t o u s today. W e shoul d als o no t ignor e th e implication s o f Clarke' s an d Hyams's representatio n o f the multiplying monolith s a s a kind o f viru s infecting Jupiter . "S o th e dam n thing' s gon e dow n t o Jupite r — an d multiplied. Ther e wa s somethin g simultaneousl y comi c an d siniste r about a plague o f black monoliths." 7 Lookin g at them , Katerin a states : "Do yo u kno w wha t i t remind s m e of ? A viru s attackin g a cell . Th e way a phage injects it s DNA into a bacterium, an d then multiplie s unti l it take s over " (263) . Insofar a s the monolith tend s t o steal and rearrang e human data , i t play s th e rol e o f a compute r viru s — the fea r o f whic h is mos t aptl y compare d t o th e AID S scar e i n th e 1980s . Thi s i s wh y Clarke forbids u s t o suppos e th e monolit h t o be an intelligent being . In this sense , the monolit h i s anothe r nam e fo r Overlord , whic h Clark e describes a s a medium o f huma n evolutio n i n Childhood's End (1953) , one o f th e archetype s o f 2001. In th e nove l 2061: Odyssey Three (1987) , th e seque l t o 2010, th e fusion o f Bowma n an d HA L 900 0 explain s t o D r Floy d th e natur e o f the monolith : "I t i s onl y a tool : i t ha s vas t intelligenc e — bu t n o consciousness. Despite al l its powers, you, Hal, and I are its superior." 8 At thi s point, Clarke' s sens e of colonialist hierarch y seem s to reconfir m his investigatio n o f th e possibilit y o f techno-imperialis m mos t appropriate i n th e 1980s , establishin g a ne w kin d o f discriminatio n between Superhuma n a s th e maste r an d hig h technolog y a s th e slave . This visio n i s further confirme d i n 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997) , i n which th e man-machin e hybri d HalMa n explains : "Th e Monolit h i s a fantastically powerfu l machin e — loo k wha t i t di d t o Jupiter ! — bu t i t ' s n o mor e t h a n t h a t . It' s r u n n i n g o n a u t o m a t i c ; i t ha s n o consciousness." 9 Rather tha n assumin g tha t Clark e ha s bee n graduall y revisin g hi s late-1960s notio n o f th e monolit h i n hi s passag e fro m 2001 t o 2010, 2061, an d 3001, i t i s perhaps mor e useful t o see that i t is our own post 19808 ideology that permit s us to recognize the monolith a s a figuratio n of cyberspace , thanatoids ' house , an d compute r viruses . Al l thes e

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representations ha d bee n scattere d ove r th e scree n o f 2001 fro m th e beginning. As Fredric Jameson noticed in his excellent essa y on Kubrick , 2001 i s basicall y a movi e i n whic h th e S F conten t i s a vehicl e fo r a message abou t ou r ow n technologica l present. 10 Therefore , th e mor e we speculat e o n suc h function s o f the monolith , th e mor e awar e w e become o f th e virtua l realit y effec t withi n th e specia l effect s o f mor e recent film s lik e Terminator 2, Prospero's Books, Naked Lunch, an d David Blair' s WAX: or the Discoveries of Television among the Bees, JM, and eve n The Matrix, al l o f which displa y representation s o f muc h higher resolutiona l abilit y tha n th e di d monolith .

Toward th e Ideographi c Imaginatio n Now I would lik e t o point ou t tha t th e perspective unveile d abov e wil l further allo w u s t o locat e th e origi n o f the monolit h i n th e Wester n cultural history o f the memory palace, which was transmitte d int o Asi a by a Jesuit missionary , Matte o Ricci , a s the effec t o f sixteenth-centur y colonialism. Althoug h a numbe r o f critic s hav e ha d difficult y understanding wh y th e Sta r Gat e provide s Bowma n wit h a suit e i n Rococo fashion , no w th e answe r i s ver y simple, - thi s Rococ o suit e i s a hotel roo m mad e t o imitat e a palace room, whic h undoubtedl y allude s to the memory palac e revived in the 1960 s by cultural historian France s Yates in her book The Art of Memory (1966) . Of course, the very concep t of memor y woul d no t hav e bee n possibl e withou t th e Jewis h fat e o f Diaspora, whic h mus t hav e inspire d Clark e t o envisio n a memory cit y called "Diaspar " i n The City and the Stars. But , le t m e not e her e tha t the ide a o f cyberspac e i s brought ou t throug h a long an d ric h traditio n of the memory palace , which wen t throug h a n amazing metamorphosi s in a transcultura l encounte r wit h th e heritag e o f Chines e characters . According t o a postmoder n Sinologist , Jonatha n Spence , certainl y Matteo Ricc i provided th e sixteenth-centur y Chines e with th e Wester n art o f memory, th e seemingl y alchemi c an d almost supernatura l aspec t of whic h enable d hi m t o populariz e Christianit y i n China . But , b y th e same token , Matte o Ricc i awakene d th e Chines e peopl e t o th e enormous potentia l o f Chines e character s themselve s t o constitut e a gigantic memor y palace . Spenc e i s convince d tha t Ricc i owe s muc h t o Host vo n Romberch' s boo k publishe d i n 1533 : "Romberch worke d ou t elaborated scheme s fo r identifyin g storag e space s i n memor y citie s according to occupationa l categorie s — shops, libraries, slaughter yards ,

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schools, etc. — an d develope d comple x 'memor y alphabets ' base d o n human, plant , an d anima l figure s o r o n logicall y interconnecte d sequences o f objects . At th e sam e time , th e actual choosin g o f memor y images t o b e fixe d i n th e memor y place s ha d grow n mor e subtl e an d sophisticated." Thus , b y demonstratin g th e amazin g ar t o f memory , Ricci continues : "i n trut h thi s Memor y Palac e Syste m seem s a s i f i t had bee n invente d fo r Chines e letters , fo r whic h i t ha s particula r effectiveness an d use, in that eac h letter is a figure tha t means a thing." 11 Of course , thi s analog y betwee n th e spaceshi p Discovery's fina l mission an d Matte o Ricci' s missio n migh t wel l soun d outrageous . Nevertheless, a s W u Ya n ha s pointe d ou t t o m e i n conversation , i t i s also true tha t i n th e nove l version o f 2001, Clark e was keenl y awar e of the possible hegemony o f China i n th e twenty-firs t century : "An d now , for thei r ow n inscrutabl e reasons , th e Chines e wer e offerin g t o th e smallest have-not nations a complete nuclear capability of fifty warhead s and deliver y systems " (44) . Wha t i s more , w e shoul d no t forge t tha t once th e monolit h wa s discovered , i t wa s immediately believe d t o be a remnant o f "th e thir d Chines e Expedition , bac k i n '98 " (71) . In the post-1980s milieu, it is very common t o visualize a Gibsonia n cyberspace i n whic h a variet y o f Chines e character s ar e dancing . W e can fin d th e perfec t exampl e i n a jack-in scen e o f th e movi e JM, based on Gibson' s stor y "Johnn y Mnemonic." But , in retrospect, i t i s not tha t cyberspace i s usuall y decorate d wit h exoti c Orienta l image s an d glittering neo n towers , bu t tha t cyberspace , fro m th e beginning , wa s made possibl e throug h th e transcultura l clas h betwee n Wester n mnemonics an d Chines e ideograms , tha t is , betwee n th e iconographi c imagination an d th e ideographi c imagination . I n th e sixteent h century , a Christia n colonialist , Matte o Ricci , unwittingl y performe d a transcultural amalgamation , puttin g grea t emphasi s upo n th e imag e of the Virgi n Mar y holdin g th e Chris t Chil d a s symbolize d i n a Chines e ideograph pronounce d hao (meanin g "good") . Likewise, the colonialis t medium o f Clarke/Kubrick's Monolit h cam e to represent a hypercultural chimera betwee n huma n being s an d aliens , giving birth t o a Star Chil d out o f it s pre-cyberspatia l womb . Wherea s 1960 s cultur e i s skillfull y reconstructed b y post-1980s culture , th e sixteenth-centur y imag e of th e memory palac e is beautifully reconstructe d withi n th e post-twentieth century cyberpalace . I t i s i n thi s imag e o f monstrou s birt h throug h radical metamorphosis tha t we can gain an insight int o ou r own futurit y in th e emergin g globa l village .

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Conclusion In concluding, le t me further suppor t my argumen t b y speculating abou t a coupl e o f recen t texts : Arthu r C . Clarke' s ow n origina l forewor d t o the millennium editio n o f Profiles of the Future (1999 ) and Ted Chiang' s post-Clarkean meditatio n o n artificial life , "Seventy-Tw o Letters " (2000). First, I woul d lik e t o examin e th e impac t o f Clarke' s origina l foreword: This book began, in 1961 , as a series of essays for Playboy magazine. They were assembled in one volume the following year, and a revised edition wa s published i n 1982 . It i s hard t o remember tha t th e late r date wa s tw o year s pre-Orwell , whil e th e earlie r on e no w seem s halfway bac k to the Jurassic. What, no VCRs, no laptops, no Internet, no World Wide Wait — sorry, Web — no CD-ROMS! How did people manage to liv e in those primitive times 2.11 A casua l glanc e a t thi s passag e immediatel y pu t m y ow n memor y int o rewind an d firmly convince d m e tha t 2001: A Space Odyssey, fro m th e beginning, wa s programme d t o allegoriz e th e contemporar y histor y o f media technology . Le t u s recal l tha t Clark e starte d hi s caree r a s rada r instructor, an d tha t hi s essa y "Extraterrestria l Relays " (1945 ) predicte d the adven t o f satellit e broadcasting. Then , insofa r a s Clarke reconsider s the first editio n of Profiles of the Future a s a product o f "thos e primitiv e times," isn't it possible to redefine th e first monolit h depicte d in "Daw n of Man " a s representin g cinem a technolog y i n th e firs t hal f o f th e twentieth century ? Isn' t th e secon d monolit h discovere d o n th e moo n a sig n o f satellit e broadcastin g i n th e mid-twentiet h century ? Isn' t th e third an d larges t monolit h nea r Jupite r a symptom o f cyberspac e i n th e late twentiet h century ? Thi s perspectiv e wil l enabl e u s t o reinterpre t the Man-Ap e i n "Daw n o f Man " a s ou r elder s wh o survive d th e Col d War er a an d t o identif y th e Sta r Chil d a s a n imag e o f ourselves , livin g in a media-saturate d reality . Theoretically speaking , however , th e birth o f th e Sta r Chil d i s stil l open t o man y interpretations . Certainly , a s I explaine d above , th e construction o f th e Sta r Gat e i s influence d b y th e traditio n o f th e memory palace . But , ho w di d thi s monstrou s bab y com e int o being , without an y kin d o f sexua l intercourse ? At thi s point , le t m e tak e a n opportunit y t o lin k th e ideographi c reinterpretation I hav e alread y spelle d ou t wit h a stor y b y on e o f America's promisin g writers , Chiang' s post-Clarkea n alchemy-pun k story "Seventy-Tw o Letters. " In the text, thi s young Chinese-America n

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author fabulousl y invent s th e Kabbalisti c hard scienc e o f nomenclatur e as a brand ne w fiel d o f genetics , b y which i t i s possible t o produc e no t only self-replicatin g automat a bu t als o a form indistinguishabl e fro m a human fetus : "i f a creatur e coul d b e expresse d i n a name, reproducin g that creatur e wa s equivalen t t o transcribin g th e name . A n organis m could contain , instea d o f a tin y analogu e o f it s body , a lexica l representation. Humanit y woul d become a vehicle for th e name a s wel l as a produc t o f it . Eac h generatio n woul d b e bot h conten t an d vessel , an ech o i n a self-sustainin g reverberation." 13 Chiang's amazin g vision of artificial lif e an d human super-evolutio n will lea d u s t o rethin k th e ideographi c imaginatio n imprinte d withi n Clarke's Sta r Gat e a s somethin g radicall y responsibl e fo r th e birt h o f the posthuma n baby . Thus, post-Col d Wa r alchemy-pun k fro m aroun d th e ne w tur n o f the centur y help s reviv e an d reconstruct a work o f Golde n Ag e scienc e fiction fro m th e mid-twentiet h century . Thi s i s th e wa y 2001: A Space Odyssey keep s growing , evolving , an d metamorphosing .

The Genealogy o f th e Cybor g in Japanese Popula r Culture Sharalyn Orbaug h

In Japan, where cyborgization i s .. . openly sought after , the y spea k of " socio techs" an d "human i techs/7 evincin g th e intimat e integratio n of th e worke r an d th e industria l syste m tha t i s th e postmoder n corporation's goal.... [T]he Japanese even call their country "The Robot Kingdom" ... . — Chris Hables Gray 1

N. Katherin e Hayle s ha s resonantl y writte n tha t alread y w e ar e al l posthuman. 2 Th e wor d "cyborg " (fro m "cyberneti c organism" ) i s th e most commo n wa y o f referrin g t o thi s nex t evolutionar y step , simpl y described a s th e "meldin g o f th e organi c an d th e machinic , o r th e [technologically negotiated ] engineerin g o f a unio n betwee n separat e organic systems." 3 Example s o f commonl y occurrin g cyborg s includ e anyone wit h a n artificia l lim b o r organ , suc h a s a pacemaker ; anyon e who ha s had a skin graft, orga n transplant, o r blood transfusion,- anyon e who ha s use d th e technique s o f artificia l inseminatio n o r in vitro fertilization t o reproduce, - anyon e reprogramme d t o resis t diseas e (through immunization) ; anyon e connecte d (eve n i f onl y temporarily ) to high-tec h machinery , suc h a s firefighters , police , IC U an d E R personnel an d thei r patient s — i n short , nearl y everyon e i n th e developed world. 4 Speakin g les s literally , "th e cyborg " i s a concep t intended t o represen t a ne w paradig m o f subjectivity , a ne w wa y fo r humans t o understan d themselve s an d thei r relationshi p t o other s an d to thei r environmen t i n th e postmodern , post-industria l worl d o f transnational capital . Narrative s abou t cybor g subjectivity , therefore , are intended t o work throug h perceived threat s o r possibilities regardin g

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human subjectivit y a s w e mov e steadil y forwar d int o th e stat e o f th e "posthuman." Accordingly, fo r th e las t thirt y years , th e imag e o f th e cybor g ha s appeared wit h increasin g frequenc y i n popular cultur e product s aroun d the world , bu t — for reason s I will speculat e abou t i n thi s chapte r — perhaps especiall y frequentl y i n Japan . Japanes e popula r cultur e narratives i n variou s medi a — includin g pros e fiction , films , manga (narrative comi c books) , an d anime (animate d narrative s o n televisio n or video ) — incorporat e a n enormou s numbe r o f robots , androids , cyborgs, an d "meta l fightin g suits " (als o know n a s "medi a armor") . While m a n y o f thes e narrativ e product s ca n b e dismisse d a s unimaginative o r derivative , other s ar e comple x an d thoughtful ; an d the shee r quantit y mean s tha t th e variou s issue s a t th e hear t o f th e new cybor g paradig m ma y b e explore d mor e thoroughl y i n Japanes e popular cultur e tha n perhap s anywher e else . I began thi s stud y a fe w year s ago , a s I became increasingl y awar e of interes t amon g Nort h America n cyborgologist s i n Japanes e anime, manga, an d po p artist s suc h a s Murakam i Takashi 5 an d Mor i Mariko , who deriv e inspiratio n fro m thes e narrativ e forms . Whil e thi s i s a welcome trend , I have bee n disturbe d a t th e essentializin g tendenc y o f most scholarshi p o n Japanes e cyborg s heretofor e an d it s complet e lac k of historica l consciousness . Th e remark s abou t Japa n i n Chri s Hable s Gray's Cyborg Citizen (quote d above) , fo r example , al l deriv e fro m Frederick Schodt' s 198 8 book , Inside the Robot Kingdom: Japan, Mechatronics, and the Coming Robotopia. 6 Strangely , Gra y doe s no t cite Schodt an d provides no references i n the book itself; the reader mus t search for them o n a hypertext website, listed in the front o f the volume. Schodt's book , whil e no t scholarly , i s carefull y historicized : h e tell s u s which companie s use d "sociotech " (Mitsubishi ) an d "humanication " (not "humanitech, " a s Gra y ha s it ) (Hitachi ) a s par t o f thei r slogan s during which perio d o f th e 1980s . These slogan s ar e no longer used an d would n o doub t b e considered inappropriat e a s sales tools afte r th e lon g recession o f th e 1990 s i n Japan , whic h ha s engendere d increasin g pessimism abou t th e Utopian possibilities o f corporate technology . Gra y presents thes e slogan s a s timeles s indicator s o f Japan' s attitud e towar d (or incarnation of? ) the cyborgian , bu t tha t attitud e i s far fro m unifor m or unchanging . O n th e contrary , a s evince d b y th e larg e numbe r o f cyborg narratives constantl y produced , th e particular issue s and aspect s of cybor g subjectivity engage d a t an y given cultural/historica l momen t are quit e specifi c t o tha t moment . Moreover, th e Japanes e d o not commonl y cal l thei r countr y "Th e

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Robot Kingdom/ ' suc h dramati c an d essentializin g statement s ar e par t of th e rhetori c o f wha t Uen o Toshiy a ha s calle d "techno-orientalism, " in whic h Japa n i s projecte d i n Wester n discours e a s "th e futur e o f technology ... . Th e Wes t i s seduce d an d attracte d b y th e mode l o n th e one hand, whil e o n th e othe r hand , th e mode l o f Japa n i s looked dow n upon rathe r t h a n envied." 7 Gray , whos e wor k o n th e cyborgia n posthuman i s detaile d an d historicize d whe n i t come s t o Nort h American examples , fall s int o th e simplisti c rhetori c o f techno orientalism whe n h e write s abou t Japan . A sho w o n cyborg s a t th e Vancouve r Ar t Galler y (VAG ) i n 200 1 demonstrated a similar problem . Th e textua l explanator y materia l wa s careful t o contextualiz e an d historicize al l o f th e Western artifact s an d art piece s displaye d — beginnin g wit h nineteenth-centur y simpl e automatons an d th e stop-motio n photograph y o f Muybridge , throug h 1920s glorifications o f the machine-worker dyad , Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1926), the artwor k o f Pablo Picass o an d Marce l Duchamp, an d movin g eventually t o Robocop (1987 ) an d video s o f th e performanc e ar t o f Stelarc (1970 s to 1990s) , as well as many other pieces. Connections wer e drawn,- a genealog y wa s sketche d ou t fo r Wester n conceptualization s of th e huma n bod y an d it s relationshi p t o th e machine . Th e sho w wa s admirable i n includin g a numbe r o f Japanes e pieces , bu t th e oldes t o f these wa s a figurin e o f th e cartoo n characte r Tetsuwa n Atom u (Astr o Boy, a s h e i s know n i n English ) fro m th e 1960s , movin g immediatel y to a Nintend o gam e glov e fro m th e 1980s ; th e majorit y o f th e piece s were fro m th e latte r hal f o f th e 1990s . The Japanes e object s al l came a t the en d o f th e show , bot h historicall y an d spatiall y (a s on e progresse d through th e gallery). The suggestion was that Japan, though a latecomer , now dominate s cybor g discourse, an d its consumerist , po p cultur e ton e has displace d th e industrial , hig h art , masculin e ton e o f th e earlier , Western pieces . Th e messag e o f th e sho w wa s tha t Japa n no w is "Th e Robot Kingdom," with al l the trivializing Disneyland resonances of tha t term. In fact , man y o f th e show' s Wester n artifact s an d artwork s were part o f th e genealog y o f cybor g discours e i n Japan . Sinc e 1868 , whe n Japan reopene d t o th e outsid e worl d afte r 25 0 year s o f isolation , th e Japanese have been avi d consumers o f Western technological , scientific , and medica l information , a s wel l a s scienc e fictio n narrative s an d artwork, an d the y hav e produced technologica l an d artistic responses. 8 But th e VA G curator s mad e n o mentio n o f suc h links . And , o f course , there hav e bee n significan t Japanese discursiv e stream s concernin g cyborgian issue s suc h a s th e relationshi p betwee n th e organi c an d th e

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mechanical, hybridity , an d th e limit s o f huma n subjectivity , growin g out o f Japan' s particula r histor y o f modernization , an d beginnin g wel l before th e 1960s . These , too , wer e missin g fro m th e VA G show . Michel Foucaul t ha s writte n tha t "Genealogy , a s a n analysi s o f descent, i s .. . situate d withi n th e articulatio n o f th e bod y an d history . Its task i s to expos e a body totall y imprinte d b y history an d the proces s of history' s destructio n o f th e body." 9 Pu t anothe r way , genealog y i s the description , analysis , an d critiqu e o f existin g regime s o f embodied knowledge an d power , whic h configur e ou r understandin g an d experience o f subjectivity , an d whic h w e normall y accep t uncritically . Here I wil l begi n t o construc t a moder n genealog y fo r th e Japanes e images an d narrative s o f cybor g embodimen t an d subjectivit y tha t provoke s o muc h interes t today .

The Origin s o f th e Japanes e Cybor g One o f the most important , becaus e most ubiquitous , element s o f post World War II Japanese cyborg imagery is the presence o f the giant robot , or, more accurately , th e gian t meta l fightin g sui t (commonl y calle d th e "mecha-suit"), pilote d b y on e o r severa l humans . Th e brillian t an d much-studied anime serie s Neon Genesis Evangelion (directo r Ann o Hideki, 1995-96 ) i s considere d th e culminatio n o f thi s S F subgenre. ( I will later discus s som e important theme s o f Evangelion.) Thi s is a good place to begin a genealogy of the Japanese cyborg, because thi s element , at least , i s no t har d t o trace . After th e reopening of the country to trade and communication wit h the worl d i n 1868 , Japanes e intellectual s rushe d t o translat e a s muc h Western literatur e an d philosoph y a s possible , i n orde r t o lear n ho w Japan migh t catc h u p a s quickly a s possible with th e alread y develope d nations o f Europ e an d Nort h America . I n 1879 , Jule s Verne' s Around the World in Eighty Days (1873 ) was translated , jus t si x years afte r it s original publication. Thi s wor k prove d s o successful tha t ove r th e nex t few year s a t leas t si x Vern e novel s wer e translated , includin g Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1870) , an d al l prove d immensel y popular. I t wa s n o doub t partl y th e insoucian t confidenc e o f Verne' s explorer protagonist s i n themselve s an d th e effectivenes s o f thei r technology tha t attracte d Japanes e reader s o f th e period . During th e 1880s , Japanes e writer s struggle d t o creat e a moder n vernacular Japanes e literature afte r 120 0 years of writing in th e classica l language, and as early as the mid-1890s severa l new and modern literar y

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genres were in place. Verne's particular bran d o f adventure stor y greatl y influenced th e inceptio n o f a popula r literar y genr e calle d th e boken shosetsu (adventur e novel) . Verne' s emphasi s o n transportatio n technology, freein g human s fro m th e limitation s o f thei r bodies , wa s taken u p b y th e earlies t Japanes e adventur e storywriters , suc h a s Oshikawa Shunro . His 190 0 debut, Kaitei gunkan (Underse a Battleship ) was reminiscen t o f th e submarin e i n Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea bu t feature d a n electricall y charge d hul l — something lik e a n early mecha-sui t — and coul d reac h speed s o f 20 0 kilometer s a n hou r at a dept h o f nin e meters. 10 Thi s wa s a n excitin g piec e o f imagine d technology for th e time, extending human capabilitie s i n multiple ways. T h e boken shosetsu o f t h e nex t fe w year s continue d thi s transportation hardwar e theme , a s w e gathe r fro m som e title s o f subsequent work s by Oshikawa: Kokai kidan (Strang e Tales of an Ocea n Voyage) an d Nichi-o senso kuchu daihikotei (Gian t Flyin g Airshi p i n the Wa r Agains t Europe) . I n 1908 , Oshikaw a becam e th e manage r o f the magazin e Boken sekai (Adventur e World) , which launche d a boo m in hardware-heav y adventur e storie s tha t continue d righ t u p t o th e 1930s. Another inescapabl e elemen t o f earl y Japanes e techno-adventur e stories i s militarism . Fro m th e 1900 s throug h th e 1930s , sequentia l victories ove r th e Chines e (i n th e Sino-Japanes e Wa r o f 1894-95) , th e Russians (Russo-Japanes e Wa r o f 1904-05) , an d th e German s (i n Worl d War I, during which Japa n capture d an d patrolled Germany' s Sout h Se a island possession s fo r th e Allies ) ha d give n th e natio n a sens e o f confidence i n Japanes e militar y an d technica l prowess . Th e titl e o f a collection o f storie s b y Oshikawa , Eiyu shosetsu — bukyo no nihon (Stories o f Heroe s — Gallant Japan ) i s a n earl y exampl e o f thi s trend . In 1909 , th e famou s an d criticall y respecte d write r (an d Surgeo n General o f th e Japanes e Army ) Mor i Oga i translate d int o Japanes e Filippo Tommas o Marinetti' s Futurist Manifesto — whic h glorifie d machines an d denigrate d wome n — jus t fou r month s afte r it s initia l publication i n France' s influentia l newspape r Figaro. This inaugurate d the Futurist movemen t i n Japan, represented b y writers suc h a s Inagak i Taruho an d artist s suc h a s Kanbara Tai and Okad a Tatsuo , whose wor k brought aspect s of hardware technophili a t o the "hig h culture " domain s of Japanes e discourse . In th e 1930s , a s Japa n invade d Chin a an d bega n it s militar y incursions int o eve n farther-flun g region s o f Asia , th e incorporatio n o f futuristic battl e machine s intensified , i n nationalistic-soundin g adventure novel s suc h a s Yamanaka Minetaro' s Ajia no akebono (Asia n

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Dawn, 1931 ) an d Daito no tetsujin (Iro n Me n o f th e Grea t East , 1931) . An important venu e for hardware-heavy shor t stories was the magazine s for boys — such as Shonen kurabu (Boy' s Club) or Shogakusei no kagaku (Science fo r Elementar y Students ) — tha t emerge d an d becam e increasingly popula r i n th e 1920 s an d 1930s . Shor t stor y example s i n this nationalist/hardwar e genr e includ e Hirat a Shinsaku' s "Show a yugekitai" (Show a Raiders ) an d "Shinsenka n Takachiho " (Ne w Battleship Takachiho) , Takagak i Hitomi' s "Mok o kijutai " (Mongolia n Carbine Troop) , an d Minam i Yoichiro' s "Sensuika n 'Ginryugo' " (Th e Submarine "Silve r Dragon") . In the post-World War II period, firs t manga (narrativ e comic books ) and late r anime becam e th e dominan t medi a o f scienc e fiction . Th e very commo n imag e o f th e fightin g humanoi d robo t (suc h a s Tezuk a Osamu's Astr o Boy ) o r cybor g (th e mecha-sui t wit h huma n pilo t a s i n Power Rangers, Transformers, etc. ) playe d t o thi s sam e technophili c interest. Flyin g mecha-suit s ar e clearl y a n evolve d for m o f th e prewa r submarines an d "flyin g battleships " tha t coul d exten d huma n power s beyond th e limit s o f th e body , a s well a s providing a n armore d shel l t o protect it s fragility . Fro m th e earl y 1950 s on, narrative s featurin g gian t robots and mecha-suits burgeoned: some of the most famous an d popular examples includ e Astro Boy [manga 1951 , anime 1963) , Tetsujin 28-go (literally Ironma n #28 , but know n i n Englis h a s Gigantor, manga 1956 , anime 1963) , Uchu senkan Yamato (Space-Warshi p Yamato , know n i n English as Star Blazers, 197 4 — a Japanese anime respons e to Star Trek), Gundam (Mobil e Sui t Gundam , anime 1979) , Macross [anime 1982) , Patlabor (anime 1989) , an d Neon Genesis Evangelion [anime 1995). n In the postwar period, th e continuin g US military presence in Japa n during th e Occupatio n (1945-52) , th e Korea n War , th e "Col d War " an d Vietnam, an d al l th e advance s i n militar y technolog y tha t wer e mad e visible b y tha t presence , n o doub t provide d inspiratio n fo r manga an d anime hardware , eve n thoug h Japa n itsel f wa s no w officiall y a pacifis t nation. Spac e exploration, too , captured th e Japanese imagination i n th e 1950s an d 1960s , i f no t quit e t o th e sam e exten t a s i n th e Unite d States.12 Th e American serie s Star Trek wa s broadcast i n Japan and wa s an earl y sourc e o f S F inspiration fo r th e youn g Anno Hideki , wh o late r directed th e monumental Evangelion. A s Anno remarks in an interview , however, h e wa s disappointe d eve n a s a chil d a t th e thinl y disguise d Cold Wa r politic s tha t informe d man y Star Trek episodes . I n contrast , he suggests , th e enemie s depicte d i n 1950 s and 1960 s Japanese mecha suit narrative s wer e genuinel y extraterrestrial , no t thinl y disguise d Russians o r Chinese. 13

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What I cal l th e hardware-technophili c strea m o f Japanes e cybor g narrative thu s aros e i n respons e t o th e historica l condition s o f th e country's modernization : a recognitio n i n 186 8 tha t t o avoi d bein g carved up by Western colonia l powers (as had already happened in Chin a and India), Japan would have to replicate in short orde r the technologica l and military prowess of the already developed nations of the world. Thi s cause-and-effect relationshi p i s fairly straightforward , bu t othe r salien t aspects o f Japanes e cybor g discours e ar e harde r t o grasp . I relate thes e aspects t o wha t I call th e "Frankenstei n syndrome. "

The Frankenstei n Syndrom e [T]he cyborg does not expect its father to save it through the restoration of the garden, that is , through th e fabrication o f a heterosexual mat e — Donna Haraway 14 I found tha t these people possessed a method of communicating thei r experiences an d feelings t o one another by articulate sound s ... . This was indee d a godlik e science , an d I ardentl y desire d t o becom e acquainted wit h i t .. . for I easily perceived that , althoug h I longed t o discover mysel f t o th e cottagers , I ough t no t t o mak e th e attemp t until I had firs t becom e maste r o f thei r language ; which knowledg e might enabl e me to make them overloo k the deformity o f my figure; for wit h thi s als o the contras t perpetuall y presente d t o my eye s had made me acquainted . — Mary Shelley, Frankenstein 15 Gray i s hardl y th e firs t schola r t o sugges t tha t Japa n ha s a specia l relationship wit h th e cyborgian. 16 An d a n eve n greate r numbe r o f scholars hav e asserte d a genealogica l lin k betwee n contemporar y Western cybor g images o r narratives an d the monste r i n Mary Shelley' s Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus. 17 I wish no w t o combine these ideas, tracing the genealogy of the Japanese cyborg using the figur e of Frankenstein's monster , which, I will argue, has a particular relevanc e for Japan . Film an d cultura l theoris t Re y Cho w ha s propose d th e ter m "Kin g Kong syndrome" t o describ e the relationshi p o f th e develope d worl d t o the Thir d World . Sh e explain s thi s a s "th e cross-cultura l syndrom e i n which th e 'Thir d World, ' a s th e sit e o f th e 'raw ' materia l tha t i s ' m o n s t r o s i t y , ' i s produce d fo r th e surplus-valu e o f spectacle ,

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entertainment an d spiritual enrichmen t fo r the 'Firs t World.'" 18 I would argue tha t developin g nation s themselve s experienc e a paralle l phenomenon, whic h I woul d cal l th e "Frankenstei n syndrome, " i n which the y com e to recognize their own "monstrosity " vis-a-vis/within the discursiv e hegemony o f the already developed nations o f the West. 19 When mid-nineteent h centur y Japanes e intellectual s an d policy makers looke d t o Western literatur e an d philosophy t o conceptualiz e a path fo r Japanes e modernity , on e o f th e earlies t an d mos t powerfu l messages the y absorbe d wa s th e "scientificall y proven " racia l an d cultural inferiorit y o f th e "Asiatic " o r "Oriental " race . Les s tha n fift y years later, Japan had replicated ever y aspect o f Western modernity wit h astounding success , includin g cutting-edg e science , medicine , an d technology,- a colonia l empir e supporte d b y a powerful military, - an d a fully develope d industria l economy . Nonetheless , afte r helpin g th e Allied powers defea t German y i n World War I and becoming a foundin g member o f th e Leagu e o f Nations , Japa n wa s agai n relegate d t o th e position o f anomalous Othe r by the refusal o f the other founding nation s to incorporate a statement o f racial equality int o th e League's charter. 20 Like th e monste r i n Frankenstein , rejecte d firs t b y hi s creato r an d eventually b y al l th e othe r human s wit h who m h e trie s t o establis h contact, th e people o f modernizing Japa n were forced tim e an d again t o recognize tha t eve n thei r complet e acquisitio n o f the "godlik e science " of languag e — i n th e for m o f th e discourse s o f industrial , post enlightenment modernis m — was no t enoug h t o sav e the m fro m th e curse o f monsteris m i n th e eye s o f th e West . Al l moder n Japanes e literature an d ar t hav e been , an d continu e t o be , produce d unde r th e shadow of this recognition, leadin g to a marked concer n with monstrou s or anomalou s bodies/subjectivitie s an d a rang e o f attendan t issues . I n striking similarit y t o ke y theme s i n Shelley' s Frankenstein, som e o f the most pressing issues for modern Japanese narrative include question s of legitimacy/illegitimacy , non-normativ e form s o f reproduction , radically hybri d bodie s o r subjectivities , an d ambiguou s o r anomalou s incarnations o f sex/gender/sexuality . One featur e o f th e "Frankenstei n syndrome " i n Japanes e cybor g narrative i s th e tendenc y t o explor e monstrou s subjectivitie s fro m a sympathetic, interiorize d point o f view. In Shelley's Frankenstein, whe n we have worked ou r way through th e outer layers o f narration — Arctic explorer Rober t Walton' s letter s t o hi s siste r an d Victo r Frankenstein' s story a s tol d t o Walton — to th e monster' s first-perso n story , w e arriv e at th e most eloquentl y articulate d an d compelling segment o f the novel . Here w e experienc e monsteris m expresse d "fro m th e inside, " and , lik e

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Walton whe n h e finall y meet s th e monste r i n person , w e fin d i t impossible no t t o sympathize . Similarly , i n readin g muc h Japanes e cyborg narrative we find a point o f view that make s monsterism, thoug h often stil l frightening , a n imaginabl e concept . I n popula r Nort h American product s suc h a s Robocop, The Matrix, o r the Star Trek: The Next Generation two-par t episod e i n whic h Picar d i s Borg-ized , th e traces o f " h u m a n i t y " heroicall y retaine d afte r cyborgizatio n ar e underscored, an d the return t o full, unhybridize d humanit y i s presente d as th e idea l outcom e fo r th e protagonists . (Thi s i s echoe d in Star Trek: The Next Generation's repeate d focu s o n th e attempt s o f th e androi d Data t o becom e "human." ) I n Japanes e popula r narrative , i n contrast , the possibility o r desirability o f rejectin g cyborgizatio n i s rarely raised . The emphasi s i s not o n the cyborg as a threatening presence antithetica l to human s bu t rathe r o n th e nature o f cybor g (o r android) subjectivity , experienced fro m th e inside , an d th e ramification s t o societ y o f ou r impending (o r alread y accomplished ) posthuma n condition . Contemporary example s o f thi s situatio n includ e suc h anime a s Guyver (1989) , i n whic h a youn g ma n find s hi s bod y "invaded " b y a partly organi c mecha-suit : w e witnes s hi s horro r a s it s tentacle s penetrate his ski n and orifices . Onc e invaded by the suit, which retreat s most o f the time into a small area on his back, th e young man i s capabl e at nee d o f becomin g a superher o mecha-warrio r an d savin g hi s friend s from th e force s o f evil ; but muc h o f th e focu s o f eac h episod e i s o n th e hero's psychologicall y comple x reactio n t o hi s new , no w irrevocable , hybridity. Evangelion present s a simila r scenario : in th e firs t episode , w e se e fourteen-year-old mal e protagonis t Ikar i Shinj i insid e a n "entr y plug " being inserte d int o a gian t mecha-sui t (calle d a n EVA) , which h e ha s reluctantly agree d t o pilot . Althoug h a hig h degre e o f bioelectri c * synchronizatio n betwee n pilo t an d sui t i s necessary , an d learnin g t o achieve tha t synchronizatio n usuall y take s months , Shinj i instantl y synchs wit h th e gian t EVA , despite his terrifie d attempt s t o resist . Th e cyborg amalga m Shinji-EV A i s sen t ou t immediatel y t o repe l a horrifi c enemy (calle d an "angel") , and while it is successful, tha t succes s come s at grea t psychi c cos t t o Shinji . I n subsequen t episodes , Shinj i i s repeatedly forced t o enter the suit, synch with it, and engage increasingly powerful an d terribl e "angels " in excitin g battle sequences . Despite th e commercial appea l o f suc h dramati c moments , muc h o f th e narrativ e is a psychologica l exploratio n o f hi s ne w subjectivity , an d tha t o f th e two other pilots (bot h female), th e bilingual/bicultural/mixed-race Asuk a Langley an d th e clon e Ayanam i Rei .

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It is also significant that , a s we learn late in the twenty-si x episod e series, the EVA suits ca n only be piloted by fourteen-year-old adolescent s because pilots must contai n in their genetic make-up a trace of the DN A of th e firs t "angel " t o attac k th e Earth , fiftee n year s earlier , whic h exploded i n th e Antarctic an d scattere d i n microscopic bits al l over th e world. Onl y childre n conceive d o r i n th e wom b a t th e tim e o f thi s occurrence ca n tak e o n th e cybor g subjectivit y tha t allow s the m t o defeat th e subsequen t "angels. " In Evangelion, therefore , al l th e youn g protagonists i n c a r n a t e m o n s t r o s i t y / h y b r i d i t y i n severa l way s simultaneously: throug h thei r cyborgizatio n when eac h synchs with hi s or her designate d suit , throug h th e incorporation o f the extra-terrestria l "angel" DN A i n thei r ow n geneti c make-up , and , i n th e cas e o f th e girls, throug h th e furthe r hybridit y o f bein g mixed-rac e o r a clone . ( I discuss elsewher e th e way s i n whic h Shinji' s ambiguou s genderin g comprises anothe r aspec t o f hi s hybridity. 21) The intense exploration o f the experience of monstrous embodimen t can b e trace d t o anothe r popula r genr e tha t emerge d fro m nineteenth century attempt s t o creat e a literatur e o f modernity : th e kagaku shosetsu (scienc e novels) . Lik e th e adventur e novel s describe d earlier , "science novels " flourishe d fro m th e lat e 1890 s throug h th e 1930s . A s early as 1889 , non-fiction book s explicating various aspects of the newl y imported scientifi c an d medica l knowledg e wer e publishe d fo r th e layperson. Thes e continue d u p throug h Worl d Wa r II . Th e fictional "science novel " really too k off , however , i n th e 1920 s and 1930s , whe n writers suc h a s Edogaw a Ranp o (whos e pe n nam e i s a pla y o n Edga r Allen Poe) , Yumeno Kyusak u (1889-1936) , Unno Juza , and other s bega n publishing storie s tha t capitalize d o n th e ne w medica l an d technica l knowledge bu t rarel y focuse d o n th e transportatio n hardwar e o r heav y weaponry s o belove d b y th e adventur e stor y writers. 22 Th e writer s o f kagaku shosetsu create d imaginativ e an d fantasti c storie s t h a t * frequently feature d monstrou s embodiment s occurrin g through acciden t or design , o r transgressiv e desire s leadin g t o self-mutilation . Th e "science novel " author s ar e know n fo r emphasizin g realisti c scienc e and technology , bu t simultaneousl y fo r frequentl y experimentin g wit h representations o f perverse or anomalous embodiments . Edogawa's Koto no oni (Th e Demo n o f th e Solitar y Isle) , fo r example , feature s experimental surger y performe d o n unwittin g victim s t o enhanc e th e human body , an d bot h Edogaw a an d Yumen o include d hermaphroditi c or androgynou s character s i n som e stories . Some o f thes e writers , suc h a s Unn o (rea l nam e San o Masuichi) , brought t o thei r fictio n knowledg e fro m thei r wor k i n cutting-edg e

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t e c h n i c a l fields . U n n o manage d t h e researc h ar m o f t h e Communications Ministry' s Electrica l Experiment s Divisio n an d use d his expertis e i n hi s firs t story , "Denkibur o n o kaish i jiken " (Th e mysterious deat h i n th e electri c bath , 1928 ) a s wel l a s i n man y o f hi s subsequent publications . Another significan t featur e o f th e "scienc e novel " wa s it s frequen t engagement wit h th e ide a o f th e artificia l huma n o r robot . I n fact , th e concept o f an artificiall y create d huma n predate d th e moder n perio d i n Japan b y a t leas t 50 0 years . I n th e Senshusho folktal e collectio n (compiled sometim e between th e twelfth an d fourteenth centuries) , on e tale concern s th e famou s poe t Saigy o (als o a Buddhis t adept ) grievin g for a dea d friend , an d usin g Buddhis t mystica l technique s t o (re)creat e him. Despit e hi s succes s a t producin g a n exact , functiona l replic a o f his friend, h e is made uneasy by his creation and visits a Buddhist hermi t to find ou t why . The hermi t admit s t o having produced man y artificia l humans himself , al l o f whom ar e currentl y livin g happil y i n th e worl d undetected. H e attribute s th e poet' s onl y partia l succes s t o a lac k o f Buddhist stud y an d insufficien t asceticism . Dismaye d a t th e though t of possibl e doppelganger s o f himsel f i n th e world , th e poe t resolve s t o give u p th e creatio n o f artificia l humans. 23 In the twentiet h century , afte r publicatio n o f Kare l Capek' s R.U.R. (which wa s quickl y translate d int o Japanese) , "scienc e novel " writer s ranged among severa l models of artificial huma n life : the pure machine / robot, human-shape d androids , partl y organi c cyborgs , an d geneticall y or otherwis e scientificall y modifie d humans . Som e stories , however , echoed thi s 500-year-ol d tal e i n th e ambiguit y o f wha t wa s mean t b y "artificial human " an d the metho d o f its production. N o matte r whic h model wa s used , however , i t wa s clea r tha t th e non-normativ e embodiment o f th e creatur e wa s th e foca l poin t o f th e story . Example s of robot s includ e Hirabayash i Hatsunosuke' s 192 8 shor t stor y "Jinz o ningen" (Th e Man-Made Human) , an d Naok i Sanjugo' s 193 1 "Robott o to bedd o n o juryo " (Th e Robo t an d th e Weigh t o f th e Bed) , in whic h a jealous husban d build s a robo t t o punis h hi s wif e i f sh e shoul d prov e unfaithful afte r hi s death . Kiz u Tora' s 192 8 "Haiir o n i bokasaret a kekkon" (Th e Wedding Cloude d i n Grey) , Unn o Juza' s 193 7 "Juhachi ji n o ongakuyoku " (Th e Musi c Bat h a t 6 p.m.) , an d numerou s othe r stories feature d scientificall y enhance d (o r grossly modified) humans. 24 Susan Napie r ha s suggeste d tha t th e atomi c bombing s a t th e en d of Worl d Wa r I I provide d th e impetu s fo r anothe r historica l influenc e on this genealogical stream that emphasize s the experience of monstrou s embodiment. Sh e argues tha t everythin g from th e 1950 s Godzilla film s

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to th e lat e 1980 s anime fil m Akira ca n b e see n a s attempt s t o grappl e with th e ver y rea l possibilit y o f globa l annihilatio n tha t th e atomi c bombings o f 194 5 implied. 25 I would ad d tha t fo r th e Japanes e peopl e in th e immediat e aftermat h o f Worl d Wa r II , the recen t experience s o f a wa r fough t o n thei r ow n soi l an d al l th e attendan t horrors , suc h a s the firestorm s resultin g fro m incendiar y bombs , mus t hav e resulte d i n an acute awareness o f the effects o f long-range technology o n the huma n body. I n th e postwa r perio d ther e wa s a n explosio n o f manga tha t featured variou s kind s o f monstrou s embodimen t — fro m Tezuk a Osamu's aforementione d Astro Boy (th e androi d bo y wit h th e nuclea r reactor for a heart) and his monumental multi-volum e Hi no tori (begu n in 1954) , which include d numerou s example s o f hybrid bodie s (wome n with th e leg s an d fee t o f birds , involuntaril y cyborgize d humans) , t o Cyborg 009 (wh o i s bot h a cybor g an d mixed-race) , Tetsujin 28-go (Ironman Numbe r 28) , an d innumerabl e othe r popula r manga serial s from th e 1950 s throug h th e 1970s . In man y o f thes e narrative s w e se e a merging of the hardware technophili c strea m o f cyborg discourse wit h the monstrou s embodimen t stream , s o tha t creature s livin g wit h a Frankensteinian recognitio n o f self a s "monstrous " in the eyes of other s nonetheless choos e to use their cybor g bodies t o save those other s fro m the ever-threatenin g enemie s (usuall y extraterrestrial) . Conside r th e ur example o f Astr o Boy , who, despit e havin g bee n sol d t o a circu s b y hi s creator-father, learne d t o lov e an d emulat e humans . H e battle d evi l robots, savin g th e Eart h weekl y i n increasingl y violen t confrontations , before finall y immolatin g himsel f b y flyin g int o th e su n t o sav e humanity. Finally, on e o f th e mos t significan t difference s betwee n Japanes e and Nort h America n cybor g narrative s i n recen t year s ha s t o d o wit h the depictio n o f gendere d o r sexe d o r sexualize d cybor g bodies . I n Hollywood films , th e "male " (ofte n hyper-masculine ) cybor g prevails : Darth Vader , Terminator , Robocop , etc. 26 Thes e depiction s o f mal e cyborgs ten d t o emphasiz e a threa t o f violenc e an d domination , condensing an d incarnatin g th e fear s o f machini c dominanc e familia r in Wester n scienc e fictio n sinc e it s earlies t years. 27 Th e ver y fe w examples o f "female " cyborg s i n Hollywoo d movie s — mostly B-grad e films — ar e alway s cas t i n tw o types : th e sexua l toy , o r th e sexua l predator. Lik e their mal e counterparts , the y ar e depicted a s threatenin g to th e othe r character s i n th e film , an d t o th e socia l order. 28 In contrast, a large percentage of the most popula r cybor g narrative s in Japan in the last twent y years have radically challenged th e simplisti c binaries o f male/female , human/machine , an d self/othe r tha t underpi n

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modernist subjectivity . Fo r example , man y hav e feature d "female " cyborgs, male-appearin g cyborg s tha t ar e eventuall y reveale d a s "female," o r cyborg s whos e gende r and/o r sexualit y i s ambiguou s an d conflicted throughou t th e narrative . The criticall y acclaime d Kokaku kidotai [Ghost in the Shell, 1995 ) opens with a view of the voluptuous femal e protagonist, Majo r Kusanag i Motoko, sittin g o n a roo f listenin g t o a colleagu e throug h th e wire s plugged int o fou r interfac e hole s i n he r neck . Whe n he r colleagu e remarks tha t sh e has a lot of static in her brain today, Kusanagi responds, "Yeah, I' m havin g m y period. " Thi s i m m e d i a t e referenc e t o menstruation i s significan t because , a s we soo n learn , Majo r Kusanag i has a body tha t i s completel y mechanica l an d certainl y doe s not bleed . One assume s tha t thi s bod y i s als o incapabl e o f becomin g pregnant , gestating a baby , o r givin g birt h — wha t woul d b e th e nee d fo r suc h functions i n a cybor g securit y officer , whic h i s wha t sh e is ? Thoug h she is extravagantly "female " i n external morphology (an d spends muc h of th e fil m naked) , an d thoug h sh e i s presumabl y femal e i n origina l identity (sh e retain s he r origina l brai n matter) , th e sexe d bod y a s reproductive bod y ha s n o meanin g — or , a t least , should hav e n o meaning — in he r cybor g state . A s I discus s a t lengt h elsewhere , thi s opening scen e forms th e perfect paradoxica l introductio n t o a narrativ e that i s al l abou t th e natur e o f sex/gende r identit y an d self-identit y i n general i n a futur e worl d wher e sexua l reproductio n ha s give n wa y t o mechanical replication. 29 In th e scen e describe d earlie r fro m th e firs t episod e o f Evangelion, in whic h Shinj i enter s th e EV A suit fo r th e firs t time , th e ver y phallic looking entr y plu g containin g Shinj i i s inserte d int o a waitin g orific e in the suit — analogous to the body's incorporation o f the penis in sexua l intercourse. But immediately thereafte r th e entr y plug fills wit h liquid , and despit e Shinji' s terrifie d attempt s t o hol d hi s breath, h e eventuall y has no choic e but t o fill his lungs with th e (oxygen-bearing ) liquid . Thi s is a process I cal l inter-corporatio n — the mutua l incorporatio n o f th e other,- bot h th e mechanica l sui t an d th e bioti c Shinj i hav e penetrate d into an d fille d th e other. 30 This scene , therefore , present s a n interestin g challeng e t o th e modernist definition s o f th e sexe d body , whic h rel y o n belief s abou t the relativ e permeabilit y o f mal e an d femal e bodies . Bot h mal e an d female bodie s ca n b e penetrated , o f course , bu t onl y femal e bodie s ar e permeable t o th e geneti c informatio n encode d i n sperm. 31 Th e instan t synchronization tha t Shinj i achieve s wit h th e EVA-sui t reflect s hi s analogous permeability t o the information tha t mus t be shared betwee n

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the sui t an d hi m i f a ne w an d functiona l cybor g amalga m i s t o resul t from thei r intercorporation . I n this sense , Shinji is coded female, despit e his mal e body . In addition , a s w e late r discover , th e EV A sui t wit h it s hyper masculine appearanc e wa s constructe d usin g organi c materia l fro m Shinji's mother, s o that not only do we have an almost infinite regressio n of intercorporations , eac h formin g a new cybor g unity, bu t also , i n th e fact tha t i n entering and being entered by the EVA suit Shinj i i s actuall y intercorporating wit h hi s mother (a t his father' s insistence) , w e hav e a beautifully an d shockingly liter alized evocatio n o f the typical adolescen t boy's Oedipa l rivalr y wit h th e fathe r ove r possessio n o f th e mother' s body. Thi s Frankensteinia n dismembermen t an d re-suturin g o f th e Oedipal famil y romanc e simultaneousl y put s int o questio n th e gende r and sexua l identitie s o f Evangelion 's protagonists . In Kishiro Yukito' s manga Gunnm (1991) , the connectio n betwee n biological se x and socia l gender is being explored. Unlike th e biologica l category "sex, " "gender " refer s t o th e socia l role s tha t exis t alon g a spectrum o f masculinity an d femininity. Concept s of gender often deriv e from ou r belief s abou t biologicall y base d se x differenc e bu t ar e no t directly linke d t o sexe d bodies : people wit h femal e bodie s ca n ac t an d look masculine , fo r example . Gende r role s ar e therefor e arbitrar y an d contingent upo n loca l socia l structures. 32 I n Gunnm, th e protagonist i s Gaily, a n androi d whos e hea d wa s discovere d o n a scra p hea p b y a famous cybor g doctor , Ido , wh o the n build s a ne w bod y fo r he r an d brings he r bac k t o life . Th e hea d i s hairles s whe n found , givin g n o indication o f th e android' s origina l bod y shape/se x othe r tha n it s cut e facial features . Th e body Ido first give s her is small and light, appropriat e for th e carefre e youn g gir l he wishes he r t o be . Gaily soo n exhibit s th e traits o f a warrior, however , an d he realize s tha t fo r he r ow n safet y sh e needs a suitabl e body . H e replace s he r girlis h bod y wit h on e tha t h e already ha s i n storag e — th e bod y o f a "berserke r warrior " whic h i s emphatically masculin e i n shape . If the point i s to give her a body tha t suits he r inheren t warrio r character , the n thi s shoul d b e adequate . However, th e docto r insist s o n modifyin g thi s bod y int o a feminin e shape. A conversatio n betwee n th e docto r an d hi s assistan t highlight s the arbitrary nature o f this choice: Ido acknowledges tha t he is indulgin g his preferenc e rathe r tha n referrin g t o som e "inborn " se x designatio n for Gaily . Later, afte r a disastrous love affair, Gail y runs awa y and join s a rollerbal l circui t — a ver y popula r an d dangerou s spor t playe d b y cyborgs wit h variousl y souped-u p bodies . Agai n sh e get s a ne w bod y for thi s purpose , bu t agai n i t i s femal e (unlik e th e othe r rollerbal l

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players), an d agai n th e arbitrar y natur e o f tha t choic e i s highlighted . When questioned , th e mechani c providin g th e bod y doe s no t mentio n her "original " sex . As an android, sh e presumably ha s no "original " se x (unlike Kusanag i Motoko) . Th e mechanic' s choice , lik e th e doctor's , i s purely arbitrary , underscorin g th e instabilit y o f th e gende r system s o f all time s an d al l places . Just as a multitude of contemporary manga an d anime us e the figur e of th e ambiguousl y sexe d o r gendere d cybor g t o explor e "monstrous " subjectivities,33 severa l genealogical streams in modern Japanese cultura l history hav e le d t o th e prevalenc e o f thi s narrativ e element . Here again , th e "Frankenstei n syndrome " i s i n play. Simultaneou s with th e realizatio n o f th e Japanes e peopl e i n th e nineteent h centur y that the y were already marked a s racially inferior i n Western "scientific " discourse cam e th e realizatio n tha t Japa n a s natio n wa s marke d a s "feminine" vis-a-vis th e Anglo-European colonialis t powers. In Shelley' s novel, th e monste r beg s hi s creator , Victo r Frankenstein , fo r a femal e monster lik e him , s o tha t h e ma y achiev e a degre e o f subjectivit y analogous t o tha t o f a (male ) human . Becaus e h e ha s n o "female " counterpart agains t whic h t o defin e hi s male-nes s an d wit h whic h t o mate, th e monste r himsel f i s perpetually ambiguousl y gendered/sexed , despite hi s mal e genitalia. 34 I n a similar way , modernizin g Japa n coul d only "masculinize " throug h dominatin g other s i n a manner analogou s to th e wa y i t wa s bein g dominate d b y th e West : henc e Japan' s rus h t o secure its own colonia l possessions. But afte r thei r defea t i n World Wa r II, the Japanese people found themselve s again feminized an d infantilize d in th e eye s o f th e West . (Th e Suprem e Commande r fo r th e Occupatio n Forces, U S genera l Dougla s MacArthu r consistentl y referre d t o th e nation o f Japa n usin g feminin e pronoun s [she/her] , an d th e Allie d countries usin g gender-neutra l one s [it/they/them ] an d publicl y expressed hi s intentio n t o trea t th e Japanes e a s i f the y wer e twelve year-old children. 35) More positively , however , w e ca n poin t t o a n elemen t o f Japanes e narrative an d visual cultur e tha t predate s th e modern period : the imag e of th e bishonen, o r "beautifu l boy. " Th e concep t o f th e bishonen ha s existed sinc e a t leas t 1848 , whe n th e famou s write r Takizaw a Baki n used i t i n th e titl e o f a boo k abou t th e younger , feminin e partner s i n the mal e homosexua l romance s [nanshoku) tha t wer e frequentl y depicted i n premoder n woodbloc k p r i n t s an d fiction . Afte r modernization, th e imag e o f th e bishonen wa s (largely ) strippe d o f it s homosexual connotation s an d referre d merel y t o a brave, trustworthy , pure-hearted youn g hero , wh o alway s happene d t o hav e th e delicat e

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features an d peach-blossom ski n w e migh t associat e mor e readil y wit h a young girl . Bishonen-stylz picture s wer e frequentl y use d t o illustrat e adventure storie s and earl y science fiction storie s in magazines for bot h boys an d girl s i n th e 1920 s an d 1930s . Thi s imag e o f youthful , effeminate-but-still-heroic beaut y for boys was carrie d into the postwa r period i n Tezuk a Osamu' s manga. Hi s Astr o Bo y exhibit s severa l characteristics o f th e bishonen. Similarly , th e firs t explicitl y "cyborg " manga character , Cyborg 009 (i n a seria l begu n i n 196 8 by Ishinomor i Shotaro), i s mor e feminin e i n appearanc e tha n mos t Nort h America n male superheroes . It i s noteworth y tha t anothe r o f Tezuk a Osamu' s postwa r manga characters i s nearly identica l i n appearanc e t o Astr o Boy , although sh e is biologically female. This was Sapphire of the very popular seria l Ribon no kishi (usuall y translate d a s Princess Knight, begu n i n 1953) , wh o was th e firs t i n a lon g lin e o f double-gendere d femal e character s i n manga, possessin g bot h a mal e an d femal e "heart " whil e retainin g a female body . Sapphire is the onl y chil d of a royal family; i n the absenc e of a mal e heir , sh e i s raise d a s a boy , learnin g t o figh t an d defen d he r kingdom. Sh e even has love affairs wit h young women wh o are unawar e of he r tru e sex . Bu t Sapphir e ha s man y feminin e characteristics , too , and i n th e en d learn s t o embrac e a feminin e gende r presentatio n i n a heterosexual romance . Th e extrem e popularit y o f Ribon no kishi suggests tha t girl s appreciate d th e expansio n o f narrative possibilit y — sword-fighting an d adventur e — whil e remainin g safel y withi n a normatively gendere d universe . An d Sapphire' s gende r ambiguit y ma y have mean t tha t boy s coul d enjo y th e stor y a s well . The bishonen styl e of representation an d the doubl e gender concep t really too k of f i n th e 1970s , in th e wor k o f women manga artist s suc h as Iked a Riyok o i n Bersaiyu no bara (Th e Ros e o f Versailles) , a phenomenally popula r serie s featurin g Oscar , a gir l raise d a s a boy , serving i n th e househol d guar d o f Marie-Antoinette . Th e gorgeou s androgyny o f Oscar , an d othe r romanti c mal e character s i n th e manga, is th e epitom e o f th e gender-blendin g bishonen look . Fro m th e 1970s , a subgenr e o f manga fo r girls , calle d bishonen-ai-manga o r "yaoi, " ha s featured male-mal e romance s betwee n thes e gorgeousl y depicte d "beautiful boys. " Elsewher e I trac e th e mergin g o f thi s narrativ e an d visual theme — beautiful androgyn y — in manga fo r girls with th e mor e hard-edged an d dimorphi c manga styl e for boys. 36 I n the 1980s , the tw o styles bega n t o merg e i n comic s an d anime mean t t o appea l t o bot h genders. During th e sam e time , the 1960 s and 1970s , a number o f acclaime d

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women author s launche d a subgenr e o f "hig h culture " literatur e tha t picked u p o n th e aforementione d "monstrou s embodiment " writin g of Edogawa Ranp o an d othe r mal e writer s o f th e 1920s . Award-winnin g fiction b y Kana i Mieko , Kurahash i Yumiko , Kon o Taek o an d other s — none o f whom i s considered a science fiction write r — featured theme s of d i s m e m b e r m e n t , incest , cannibalism , unnecessar y surgery , hermaphroditism, an d s o on , an d di d so in explici t critique s o f existin g gender arrangements . Often , thes e critique s wer e effecte d throug h th e liter alization o f th e psycho-sexua l narrative s o f th e famil y throug h which w e ar e suppose d t o attai n ou r sex/gende r identities . (Thi s migh t have influence d th e literalizatio n o f th e Oedipa l paradig m i n Evangelion.) Overall , th e fictio n b y wome n i n thi s er a worke d t o challenge th e binar y structure s o f modernism , explorin g th e body' s violent, sometime s explosiv e resistanc e t o th e pressur e o f socia l impositions. Drawing fro m thes e variou s pre-existin g discourse s o f gender/sex / and sexua l ambiguit y o r hybridity , contemporar y Japanes e popula r culture depiction s o f cyborg s highlight th e breakdown o f the modernis t binaries tha t hav e heretofor e configure d subjectivit y — male/female , human/monster, autonomous/permeabl e — to creat e radical visions of our futur e a s posthuman .

Conclusion Japan's cybor g discours e i n th e moder n perio d share s man y element s with tha t o f the Western countrie s — unsurprisingly, sinc e the Japanes e have been avi d consumers o f Western scienc e an d scienc e fiction sinc e the mid-1800s . Th e West , i n turn , ha s recentl y looke d t o Japa n fo r interesting narrative s o r images explorin g cybor g subjectivity. However , without knowin g th e specifi c historical , political, an d cultura l current s of Japanese modernization, on e can easily fall int o the interpretive trap s of essentialis m (assumin g tha t Japanes e cybor g discours e i s monolithi c and static , an d derive s fro m som e "pure " cultura l roots) , o r o f universalism (assumin g tha t Japanes e cybor g discours e come s fro m exactly th e sam e source s a s that o f one' s ow n culture) . I have sketche d the beginning s o f a genealogy o f Japanes e cybor g discourse , attemptin g to indicat e th e interpla y o f discursiv e stream s fro m bot h foreig n an d native sources . Japa n i s no t "Th e Robo t Kingdom, " bu t becaus e o f th e country's particular historical circumstance s o f modernization, Japanes e narrative an d imager y ma y offe r uniqu e an d valuabl e insight s int o th e posthuman subjectivit y o f th e cyborg .

Hermeneutics an d Taiwan Science Fictio n Wong Kin Yue n

In a paper, "Urbanity , Cyberpun k an d th e Posthuma n i n Taiwa n SF," 1 I mentione d th e possibilit y o f usin g moder n hermeneutic s t o analyz e Chinese S F texts , particularl y i n relatio n t o N . Katherin e Hayles' s theories o f informatics , embodiment , emergent , an d th e proces s fro m hyphenation t o splicin g withi n th e cybernetic s feedbac k loop . Afte r hearing the paper, Wlad Godzic h suggeste d tha t I should further develo p the them e o f hermeneutic s alon g thi s direction . Here, afte r establishin g a relationshi p betwee n a Taiwa n S F tex t from th e 1970 s and th e Heideggeria n ontologica l hermeneutics , I argu e t h a t thi s relationshi p entail s a discussio n o f th e Gadameria n hermeneutics o f suspicion, readin g Hans-Georg Gadame r a s an advocat e for a voicing o f the other , o r for th e plurality o f otherness , agai n withi n the contex t o f contemporar y Chines e SF . Moving int o th e 1980 s an d 1990s, I will juxtapose works by a younger generatio n o f Taiwan writer s with cultura l movement s o f hybridity o f all kinds, pushing further idea s of differenc e int o area s suc h a s monsters , chimeras , an d cyborg s tha t are a t th e edg e o f hermeneuti c circle , als o addressin g th e feminis t critique o f scientifi c knowledg e throug h situate d textuality , stron g objectivity, an d Sandr a Harding' s "hermeneutic s o f knowing, " whic h embraces th e involvemen t o f th e knower. 2 Suc h a mov e agai n loop s back o n it s ow n volitio n t o a reconsideratio n o f Marti n Heidegger' s hermeneutics o f scienc e i n Being and Time, and , by explorin g concept s such a s phronesi s an d Gestell (framing) , a radica l hermeneutic s i s tenable b y bringin g Gadame r an d Jacque s Derrid a togethe r t o "humiliate" ourselve s i n ou r 'struggl e wit h th e flux ' i n ou r preparin g forth fo r th e comin g o f th e others, " a s Joh n D . Caput o put s it. 3 Al l these "plateaus " (i n the Deleuzian sense ) will form a n abstract machin e

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that wil l prove necessary i n telling Chines e storie s o f machines throug h a Foucaudia n "hermeneutic s o f refusal, " a hermeneutics whic h force s us t o accep t th e fac t tha t w e d o no t kno w wh o w e are . We the n reac h a poin t wher e a hermeneutics o f Deleuzia n becoming s wil l b e helpful , especially fo r th e purpose o f bringing Hayles' s histor y o f ou r becomin g machines i n a posthuman er a to bear upon contemporar y S F in Taiwan . But befor e al l o f this , a stor y shoul d b e told .

Translation an d Ontologica l Hermeneutic s T h e t i t l e o f C h a n g H s i - k u o ' s 3 S S H " T h e U l t i m a t e Son g o f Translation" [ f i t ? I P ! J , a shor t stor y collecte d i n The Star-Cloud Suite CMIMfift) ) (1980) , obviousl y indicate s tha t th e stor y ha s something t o d o with translation . Bu t carefu l readin g reveal s tha t th e story i s als o a fabl e o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e intertwining relationshi p o f translatio n an d moder n hermeneutics . I t tells o f a police interpreter , know n fo r bein g cautiou s an d serious , wh o is assigne d t o investigat e a murde r cas e o n a certai n planet . Durin g the cours e of interrogation carrie d out i n Kai-wen, a language he think s he know s well , h e discover s that , t o hi s amazement , hi s comman d o f Kai-wen i s no t thoroug h enough , an d som e primitiv e usage s escap e him, a s the y ar e hidde n i n th e deepes t laye r o f th e Kai culture . Her e is a part o f hi s interrogatio n o f loca l Kai smuggler s wh o ar e know n i n that par t o f th e galax y a s "peace " lovers : Q. Wher e did the commodities o n the shi p come from ? A. I bought the m from th e Meng-han City. Q. D o you know that thes e commodities ar e booty? A. I don't kno w what booty is. Q. Boot y is stolen goods. Did you eve r steal? A. I don't kno w what stealin g is. Q. Stealin g is taking something without the owner's permission. Did you ever steal? A. I never steal. I only do proper Kai-mou. [Kai-mou means exchange in Kai-wen.) Q. D o you have a criminal record? A. I don't understand what crim e is. Q. Crim e is behavior prohibited by law,- for example, it is a criminal act to kill some Kai-wein. [Kai-wein is equivalent to "people" in our language.) A. I'v e never killed any Kai-wein. I only Kai-peng with others. [Kaipeng means affectionate an d friendly i n Kai-wen.) 4

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This interrogation , whic h get s th e interprete r nowher e i n hi s attemp t at communication , illustrate s th e immense chasm , th e impassabl e gulf , between cultures , between languages, and finally between sel f an d other . In fact , th e stor y show s ho w th e structur e o f cognitiv e estrangemen t in scienc e fictio n i s necessaril y tie d u p wit h hermeneutica l issues . By forcibly draggin g reader s int o a n imaginar y worl d bu t retainin g som e empirical an d realistic elements for thei r reference, th e requirement tha t readers see k a n understandin g o f wha t actuall y goe s o n become s intensified. No t onl y i s th e basi c characteristi c o f a scienc e fictio n discourse inherentl y hermeneutical , bu t th e topi c o f thi s story , th e thematic proble m o f communicatio n throug h translation , foreground s the irreducibl e othernes s o f th e othe r an d make s thi s a stor y abou t hermeneutics, sinc e translatio n necessaril y involve s hermeneutics . The extremit y o f th e radica l othernes s i s dramatize d t o it s utmos t here, a s it turn s ou t tha t Kai-peng, suppose d b y the interprete r t o mea n affectionate an d friendly , i s actuall y a n onomatopoei c expressio n o f cannibalism. H e discover s tha t th e wor d Kai wa s originall y a sound o f satisfaction emitte d afte r eatin g by ancient Kai-wems wh o ha d evolve d from a frog-like species . The process o f thi s discover y ca n be considere d an exercis e i n wha t Steve n Maillou x call s rhetorica l hermeneutics . Though the interpreter later takes pride in this discovery, it is accidental: after th e investigatio n come s t o a standstill , an d havin g nothin g bette r to do , ou r her o wander s int o a Kai museu m an d i s le d int o a theate r where a film i s being show n abou t th e earl y amphibia n Kai-weins. H e witnesses a scen e i n whic h on e o f th e ancesto r Kai-weins, havin g swallowed a smalle r Kai-wein, begin s t o sin g ou t "Kai! Kai! Kai!" i n exultation. A t thi s moment , th e origina l metaphoricit y o f th e Kai i s rediscovered; an d "n o wonde r tha t 8 7 percen t o f Kai-wen word s ar e prefixed wit h th e sound Kai; it turns out to be the most primitive callin g of thi s species " (117) . Ou r her o furthe r learn s tha t i n th e cours e o f history, th e Kai-weins "hav e invente d man y roundabou t way s o f usin g the word" (118) , but n o matter ho w variegate d its usages are, it remain s basically a configuratio n o f sensation , feelings , reflexes , an d idea s pertaining t o th e instinctiv e desir e o f eating . Henc e th e meanin g achieved i n thi s proces s i s a tropica l on e evolve d i n history, - i t i s th e result o f a hermeneutica l ac t tha t situate s it s inquir y "withi n th e cultural conversations , relevan t socia l practices , an d constrainin g material circumstance s o f it s historica l moment." 5 "The Ultimat e Son g o f Translation " i s als o a parod y o f th e interpretative ac t i n general , callin g int o questio n th e assumptio n o f sameness o n th e par t o f th e subject , wh o i s ofte n victimize d b y th e

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repressive logi c o f egocentrism . Th e interprete r tell s u s o f anothe r "expert" o f Kai-wen "wh o ha d neve r though t o f th e Kai-weins bein g cannibals, [who ] only followed ou r own language custom, an d proceede d to rende r Kai-peng int o 'affection, ' Kai-mou a s 'exchange, ' Kai-fo a s 'peace' ... . I t ha d no t occurre d t o hi m that , n o matte r wha t th e Kaiwens said , n o matte r ho w swee t an d nic e the y wer e when the y opene d their mout h t o speak , al l the y coul d thin k o f i s onl y on e thin g — ho w to ea t u p others " (118) . But universal egocentris m notwithstanding , th e only channe l throug h whic h communicatio n i s possibl e mus t b e language itself . W e note tha t th e mediu m fo r ou r her o t o reac h ove r t o the Kai-wens i s linguisti c i n nature , an d hi s triumphan t discover y results fro m hi s effor t t o venture int o th e existentia l origi n o f th e wor d Kai a s a locu s o f meaning . Thi s i s du e t o th e hermeneutica l fac t tha t a l t h o u g h languag e ma y hav e bee n th e majo r hurdl e blockin g understanding, i t i s stil l th e primary mean s fo r th e interpretin g subjec t to be "dispossessed, " "exposed, " an d become vulnerable , whic h i s "th e very conditio n o f communication." 6 Languag e is the sol e agent throug h which, fo r moder n hermeneutics , th e subjec t an d th e othe r ca n b e brought togethe r whil e a distance i s maintained s o the othernes s o f th e other remain s intact . Regardin g th e relatio n betwee n th e interprete r a s an interpretin g subjec t an d th e languag e o f th e other , wha t sh e i s supposed t o do is to discern "th e traces of the coemergence of the subjec t and t h e othe r w i t h i n th e discours e an d share d a c t i v i t i e s o f communicative praxis." 7 Since "Bein g tha t ca n b e understoo d i s language," 8 an d sinc e historical an d cultura l gap s ca n onl y b e bridge d b y a n interactio n o f the interprete r an d th e text , whic h "i s a phenomenon o f language , o f linguisticality [Sprachlichkeit)," 9 Chan g Hsi-kuo' s Kai function s a s a rhetorical device , a metaphor , throug h whic h ou r her o i s guide d t o a final understandin g o f th e authenti c bein g of another radicall y differen t culture o r life form. I t seem s a n appropriate metaphor , also , to reinforc e the argument tha t rhetorical expressions can be the key to understandin g the tru e bein g o f otherness . Sinc e languag e i s basicall y entrenche d i n history, an d sinc e "interpretatio n i s a predominantly tropica l manne r of discourse," 10 Chang' s stor y brilliantl y illustrate s ho w language , history, an d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ar e inextricabl y i n t e r t w i n e d . T h e characteristic "openness " o f Gadamer' s horizo n t o othe r language s an d other worlds is also stressed by Jiirgen Habermas to explain the structur e of th e dialecti c o f translation . Haberma s point s out : "th e firs t gramma r that w e lear n t o maste r alread y put s u s i n a position t o ste p ou t o f i t and t o interpret wha t i s foreign, t o make comprehensibl e wha t initiall y

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is incomprehensible , t o assimilat e i n ou r ow n word s wha t a t firs t escapes them." 11 Understandin g occur s whe n th e meanin g o f th e othe r (a text) i s "translate d int o one' s ow n languag e whic h involve s relatin g it t o a whol e constellatio n o f possibl e meanin g i n whic h w e alway s find ourselves." 12 I t i s onl y fro m an d withi n th e horizo n o f th e alread y mastered language , i n whic h stipulate d semanti c entitie s hav e been se t up, tha t a translato r ca n reac h ou t t o assimilat e wha t i s alien . Translation i s a n exemplar y cas e fo r hermeneutica l problem s i n general, sinc e it s dialectica l structur e i s suc h tha t "onl y wher e w e lac k transformation rule s permittin g th e establishmen t o f a deductiv e relation betwee n language s throug h substitutio n an d wher e a n exac t 'translation' i s exclude d d o we nee d tha t kin d o f interpretation tha t w e commonly cal l translation " (Habermas , 244) . In othe r words , th e ver y t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y i n t r a n s l a t i o n allow s an d indee d m a k e s an y hermeneutical experienc e possible in the first place , since "hermeneuti c understanding [Verstehen) i s applie d t o th e poin t o f rupture ; i t compensates fo r th e brokennes s o f intersubjectivity " (Habermas , 250) . Using Gadamer' s notio n o f translatio n alway s lookin g fo r meanin g "i n a ne w way, " Chang' s stor y lead s u s t o a hermeneutic s o f cultura l hybridity tha t i s firml y grounde d i n Gadamer' s recognitio n o f a voic e of th e other . I t become s obviou s tha t th e story' s interprete r faile d t o listen t o thi s voic e i n hi s firs t encounte r wit h th e alie n culture , henc e failing t o establis h a dialogica l situatio n i n whic h th e pluralit y o f otherness i s accepted. B y juxtaposing hermeneutics an d deconstruction , Risser note s tha t Gadamer' s text , a s it "alway s open s t o a fundamenta l multiplicity o f meanin g o f th e functionin g o f languag e i n whic h differance invade s th e sign , ca n wel l b e pu t alongsid e Derrida' s paradoxical structur e o f meaning whic h i s both differenc e an d deferral " (Risser, 160) . In speakin g o f languag e bein g entrenche d i n history , w e ar e reminded b y Chang' s stor y o f th e "entrenchment " o f th e interprete r himself throughou t th e proces s o f hi s arrivin g a t meanin g hidde n i n the Kai-wein culture . Thi s entrenchmen t o r involvement eve n take s a physical form : a t th e momen t h e discover s th e "root " o f th e wor d Kai, a Kai-wein sittin g nex t t o hi m i n th e theate r sneak s u p t o hi m an d seeks t o "Kai-peng" him . Th e intende d humo r o f hi s farcica l escap e notwithstanding, placin g the interpreter's life at stake is a serious parable for t h e t o t a l i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e i n t e r p r e t i n g subjec t durin g interpretation, conveyin g a key concept in hermeneutics: It is a mistak e to assum e tha t a translato r i s merel y a medium throug h whic h tw o languages meet . T o explai n th e error , Davi d Couzen s Ho y note s tha t

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the Greek messenger of the gods, Hermes, is not onl y a messenger, sinc e "his appearanc e itsel f coul d b e th e message " an d "th e mediu m coul d be th e message " itsel f (Hoy , 1) . Wit h Heidegger' s emphasi s o n situatedness an d thrownness , an d wit h Gadamer' s iteratio n tha t al l interpretations necessaril y impl y phronesis an d application , th e centra l argument o f ontologica l hermeneutic s i s tha t an y understandin g mus t include self-understanding . Wherea s Gadame r say s tha t understandin g "is no t s o muc h a n activit y performe d b y a 'subject ' a s i t i s th e ver y being o f th e subject," 13 Ricoeu r hammer s hom e th e poin t b y saying , "To understan d i s no t t o projec t onesel f int o th e tex t bu t t o expos e oneself t o it ; i t i s t o receiv e a self-enlarg e b y th e appropriatio n o f th e proposed world s whic h interpretatio n unfolds." 14 The concept s o f pre-tex t an d th e situatednes s o f th e translator , o r the context s i n whic h translatio n take s plac e withi n th e hermeneuti c circle, ar e full y reflecte d i n th e idiosomati c an d i d e o s o m a t i c conditioning o f th e narrato r i n "Th e Ultimat e Son g o f Translation. " This i s als o wh y Chan g Hsi-ku o choose s t o giv e elaborat e account s o f the backgroun d an d characte r o f hi s hero , suc h a s hi s bein g a ver y "conservative" person , s o muc h s o tha t hi s "seven-lif e wife " finall y decides t o leav e hi m fo r hi s "lac k o f adventurou s spirit " (106-7) . Hi s success in dislodgin g th e establishe d interpretatio n o f the word Kai ca n also be attribute d t o his willingnes s t o ste p into wha t Calvi n O . Schra g calls "th e global hermeneutical spac e of communicative praxis" (Schrag , 120) t o "locat e th e historiographica l meanin g o f a phenomenon i n th e whole of its historical self-consciousness " (Gadamer , 321). The emphasi s on culture , th e "histor y o f evolution, " (Schrag , 114 ) an d tradition , dramatically describe d i n hi s encounte r i n th e museum , demonstrate s clearly fo r translatio n theor y th e desirabilit y o f Mar y Snell-Hornby' s iterated approac h o f turnin g t o cultur e a s a basic uni t o f translation. 15 Also, our hero's earlier mistake or misunderstanding o f the wide-rangin g and polysemi c natur e o f th e wor d Kai represent s th e failur e o f a translator, i n Habermas' s words , t o b e "oriente d towar d elicitin g fro m tradition a possible action-orienting self-understandin g o f social groups" (Habermas, 270) . Wha t Chang' s her o learn s abou t translatio n is , according t o Habermas, i s tha t "traditio n i s not a process tha t w e lear n to master but a transmitted languag e in which w e live" (Habermas, 270). This point i s again vividly describe d in th e latter part o f the story , whe n our her o bask s i n th e glor y o f havin g discovere d "ne w way s o f usin g the wor d Kai almos t ever y day, " (114 ) since translatio n reflect s th e fac t that "productiv e achievemen t o f hermeneuti c understandin g i s fo r it s

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part motivate d b y th e traditio n tha t i t furthe r develop s i n thi s wa y (Habermas, 271) .

Hermeneutics o f th e Other , Refusal , an d Becoming s Having establishe d a relationshi p betwee n Chang' s stor y an d moder n hermeneutics, w e ca n explor e ho w a younger generatio n o f Chines e S F writers embarke d o n a "radicalization " o f othernes s i n thei r searc h fo r cultural significanc e i n a futuristi c setting . Th e discussio n s o fa r ha s touched onl y on Gadamer's conservativ e sid e of hermeneutics, th e topi c of his debate with Habermas o n his unwillingness t o posit an ideologica l content t o hi s traditiona l horizo n wheneve r th e fusio n o f pas t an d present i s enacted. I t is not unti l we position th e mor e radical Gadame r alongside Derrida' s deconstructiv e strategie s (whic h mus t b e salvage d to mak e the m les s nihilistic ) tha t a "mor e radica l hermeneutics, " a s Caputo ha s it , ca n b e located . Gademer' s puttin g one' s ow n horizo n "at risk " (Gadamer , 366 ) i s fo r Derrid a th e "onl y wa y t o le t th e othe r come," (Caputo , 42) and th e Gadameria n hermeneutic s mus t b e pushe d beyond itsel f t o incorporat e th e Derridea n differance tha t propagate s an indefinit e slippag e o f transfers , translations , an d changes . In Chang' s story, th e translato r i s never brough t t o a position o f "self-recognition, " a moment a t which th e othe r addresse s you a s "tha t i s you," (Gadamer , 64) and never develops a capacity to realize that th e other always belongs to th e ste p beyond . For Derrida , th e secre t o f th e othe r i s caugh t u p i n a "structura l non-knowing, whic h i s heterogeneous, foreig n t o knowledge/' (Caputo , 59) and suc h not-knowin g i s found i n thos e Taiwa n S F writers wh o ar e the counterpart s o f th e cyberpunk s i n th e West . I n th e earl y 1990s , a group o f youn g writers , suc h a s Chan g Chi-chian g ±i±"ae , Hun g Lin g ' x^„ an d Ch i Tawe i "§j°° 9 joined force s t o bring Taiwa n S F into a ne w era o f posthumanism. 16 Together , the y initiate d a movemen t i n th e Chinese-speaking worl d i n whic h humanisti c value s o f al l kind s ar e toppled, don e with . Thes e writer s represente d th e generatio n wh o rea d William Burroughs , J . G. Ballard , Kath y Acker, Joann a Russ , Samue l R . Delany, Pa t Cadigan , Suz y McKe e Charnas , an d Elizabet h Hand . The y were fan s o f film s lik e Alien, The Terminator, Naked Lunch, Crash, The Net, an d especially Blade Runner, whos e future noi r became a kind of cult manifesto throug h which creative imagination an d imagery foun d their home . Unde r umbrell a term s suc h a s postmodernism, feminism ,

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and post-colonialism , thes e writer s too k i t upo n themselve s t o explor e hitherto untappe d area s suc h a s eroticism , th e city , bod y politics , cultural hybridity, diaspora , globalism, an d postnationalism. Well withi n the traditio n o f Willia m Gibso n an d Bruc e Sterling' s cyberpunk , thes e writers produce d storie s tha t no t onl y revolv e aroun d theme s suc h a s video games , artificia l intelligence , virtua l reality , cyborgs , an d gende r and sexualit y issues , bu t als o supporte d eac h othe r i n representin g a kind o f absolut e worl d o f simulacr a i n whic h th e virtua l an d th e rea l have n o significan t boundar y whatsoever . Tw o theme s i n particula r seized th e imaginatio n o f Chines e writer s an d reader s withi n th e dialectical interactio n o f cultura l productio n an d consumption : monstrosity an d th e computer . A clos e look a t som e storie s wil l allo w us t o bette r understan d ho w thes e issue s cam e togethe r t o provid e a picture o f Taiwa n S F at it s best . The Taiwan version o f "virtua l imaginary," 17 followin g th e traditio n of its Wester n counterpart , i s best rea d as a particular kin d o f obsessio n with cit y scapes. Negative space s suc h a s back alleys , dar k corners , an d basements ar e th e favorites , wher e a n interfac e o f human an d machin e can tak e place . Fo r example , whe n Hun g Ling' s "Stor y o f Memories " rt2liiKj$t#J (1994 ) present s a post-industrial , lat e capitalisti c bu t ideologically controlle d societ y in which an y resistance can only be par t of th e hegemoni c schem e o f internationa l corporations , he r character s move i n an d ou t o f cyberspac e t o suc h a n exten t tha t nobod y know s which i s which. As a result, th e illusiveness o f a unified subjec t i n suc h a worl d o f inverte d millenarianism , a s Jameso n depict s it , i s double d up b y th e hero' s discover y a t th e en d o f th e stor y tha t the y themselve s are after al l replicants, genetically engineere d by the corporation researc h projects. Ch i Tawei' s " A Ros e Grow s ou t o f Hi s Ey e an d You r Palm " rflfeWBSJS#W*^lKiiS-*S5[StJ (1994 ) als o play s wit h th e ide a o f "games o f hallucination. " Se t i n a consume r societ y o f th e futur e i n which endles s duplicatio n i s th e onl y philosophy , an d wher e paranoi a and conspirac y ar e inherent t o th e hegemoni c structur e o f corporation s that lurk s behin d everyone , th e stor y thematize s th e cultur e o f simulation t o the extreme. Using icons such as mirrors and media visio n to heighte n th e effect s o f visua l exces s an d prosthetics , i t portray s a kind o f continuou s an d multiplyin g implosio n i n whic h "th e limite d infinitive spac e enters the unlimited infinitiv e space." 18 Th e corporatio n "Imperial" "doe s not occup y land; it only occupies people's senses , thei r souls an d dreams " (Chi , 97). Here, sense s becom e th e onl y reality , a n all-neurons worl d o f cyberia n culture . Again , betwee n science , technology an d organize d resistance , ther e i s "a n unhol y alliance, " i n

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"the undergroun d world " (Chi , 97) where th e reader s canno t hel p bein g sucked int o th e obscenity , fascination , an d parado x o f voyeurism . I n this spac e wher e a gam e o f hallucinatio n unravel s itself , al l relation s between people , between peopl e and society , ar e drawn into a whirlpoo l of infinite self-fertilizatio n an d multiplication. Echoin g the dictu m tha t technology i s us, th e her o finall y realize s tha t "m y ow n shadow s kee p multiplying, flyin g out o f the mirror in all directions,- finally, al l shadow s blend an d wriggle d int o th e slo w motio n o f a dar k screen " (Chi , 105) . The imag e o f th e sel f bein g infinitel y multiplied , flyin g ou t o f th e mirror, echoe s Derrida' s anti-essentialis m an d hi s attemp t a t softenin g the spher e o f th e same . Suc h a n "apori a o f th e same " point s no t t o a matter o f knowin g o r fusing horizon s bu t move s toward s a thirding a s othering, toward s takin g hybridit y a s it s ultimat e fate . Hun g Ling' s writings exemplif y suc h a move , an d he r nove l Rain of Roses on the Judgment Day { ^ 0 S S l M) merit s clos e attentio n i n explorin g ho w Taiwan S F can b e interprete d a s "th e visibl e edg e o f th e hermeneuti c circle," a s expounde d b y Jeffre y Jerom e Cohen. 19 Rain of Roses blend s Japanese comics , India n mythology , Chines e ghos t tales , Wester n vampire stories , an d Western SF . In style , suc h a mix enhance s a sens e of dialecti c an d interactiv e structur e o f literar y productio n an d consumption, foregroundin g a t al l time s it s ow n defian t positio n o f subversiveness agains t the mainstream, especiall y against the everlastin g dominant literar y world of Chinese humanism. The author continuousl y seeks t o toppl e th e traditiona l Chines e sens e o f wha t a nove l shoul d be, jus t a s the Gothi c i n eighteenth-centur y Englis h literatur e attacke d the "nove l proper, " accordin g t o Judit h Halberstam. 20 Throug h thi s hybrid discourse, Hung ca n make full us e of a hermeneutics o f excessiv e meaning, particularl y relyin g o n th e uniquel y multipl e extra-othernes s as represente d b y al l kind s o f monstrosity . Henc e a monstrou s tex t becomes th e sacrificia l alta r o n whic h w e fin d Gothic-styl e vampires , Indian god s an d thei r reincarnations , mutants , beast-lik e lif e forms , corpse-eating creature s tha t ar e half-anima l an d half-human , an d eve n bloodthirsty parasites living in the body of others — in a word, monster s of al l kinds . O n th e S F side, thes e character s ar e livin g togethe r wit h avatars in cyberspace , beings who ar e half-harpy an d half-human i n lov e with geneticall y bre d lif e forms , an d o f cours e man y differen t model s of cyborg . The main purpose for creatin g such a world of monsters is to subver t humanism, an d with it , th e hegemonic power o f mainstrea m literature . Through multifariou s form s o f interaction , th e ver y interfac e o f monster/human/machine i s rendere d possibl e b y a certai n electroni c

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eros, a kin d o f fles h an d bloo d crossing-ove r — throug h explici t descriptions o f desire , passion , an d love o f cours e — so that wha t i t means t o b e huma n i s questione d throug h a nomadi c escap e int o something simila r t o the Deleuzian "bod y withou t organ. " Th e reader is pushe d t o follow a hermeneutic circl e throug h whic h th e "otherin g of self " i s achieve d an d a surplus o f pleasure i s made paralle l wit h a n excess in meaning through the act of reading. Inside the matrix or virtual reality, subjectivit y i s confronte d wit h mutilatio n an d fragmentation , so that huma n hypocris y is unredeemably destroyed . As Hung's cyborg s are provide d wit h th e kind o f unstabling qualitie s describe d b y Donn a Haraway, the y ca n liberate humans fro m thei r fals e naturalis m throug h a thematizatio n o f thei r constructedness. 21 Thes e alternat e lif e form s are now embraced b y the differential rhythm s an d affective intensitie s of evolutio n an d thus empowere d t o find a way out of th e impasse of cultural confrontation s between , say , humanism an d posthumanism , the globa l an d the local , an d monoculturalism an d interculturalism . Here, Hun g grasp s th e idea tha t "th e human i s necessarily boun d u p with a n originar y technicity," 22 an d tha t "evolutio n i s nothin g bu t technic." 23 I n fact, Hung' s evolutionar y penchan t fo r terrifying reader s through a n almost "hypertextual " o r "rhizomatic" proliferatio n o f halfanimals, half-huma n an d half-creatures o f all kinds ca n be analyzed by the Foucauldian "hermeneutic s o f refusal"— a struggle against our being closed in by history and a refusal t o answer the question, "wh o are we?"24 It is a "refusal o f identity" i n order t o open up new possibilities fo r the self; an d a s Caput o notes , suc h a refusa l "issue s fro m a felicitou s nominalism abou t th e irrepressibilit y o f bein g human , fro m it s i r r e p r e s s i b l e c a p a c i t y fo r bein g different , fo r m u t a t i o n an d transformation" (Caputo , 30). Hung's vampiris m follow s th e traditio n o f Wester n undea d fro m Byron onward , tracin g th e vampires' heritag e i n queer discours e al l the way u p to Ann e Ric e an d others, alway s keepin g i n clos e touc h wit h monstrosity a s th e ultimat e motivatio n o f tabo o an d resistanc e i n identity an d gende r politics . He r character s ar e al l "anorganic " becomings "tha t overspil l th e anthropomorphic strat a i n all directions" (Deleuze and Guattari, 503) . By also identifying itsel f wit h th e monste r in Mar y Shelley' s Frankenstein, Hung' s tex t highlight s it s ow n textuality, placin g itsel f a t th e in-betweennes s o f narratin g an d interpreting, producin g an d consuming, pushin g al l the time it s powe r of remindin g u s that w e are all bloodthirsty monster s afte r all . Such a mixture hammer s hom e th e fac t tha t i t i s monstrosit y itsel f tha t generates al l sorts o f narrative o r textuality, it s body alway s a t a point

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of bein g choppe d t o pieces , neve r t o appea r a s a whole . Fro m a mainstream perspective , then , Hun g Ling' s text s becom e th e symbo l of "the feared" invasio n o f the popular, a productivity o f monstrous power , which als o represent s a passion fo r th e "other " o f al l kinds . In fact , b y insisting o n mutilatio n an d fragmentation , an d stickin g t o th e visibl e edge o f th e hermeneuti c circl e wher e minoritaria n desirin g machine s are registere d b y variou s kind s o f hybrid , Hun g bring s reader s fac e t o face wit h th e Deleuzia n philosophica l projec t o f becomings . I am calling , i n ou r context , wha t Deleuz e an d Guattar i hav e don e in thei r Anti-Oedipus an d A Thousand Plateaus a hermeneutic s o f becomings, a n "expanded " hermeneutics, 2 5 afte r th e Foucauldia n hermeneutics o f refusal . B y becomings I mea n "th e pathway s alon g which a concep t ma y b e transforme d whil e retainin g a famil y resemblance t o it s forme r incarnation." 26 Also , Deleuze an d Guattari' s concept o f becoming s seem s t o enjo y a natura l affiliatio n wit h S F i n general, sinc e the y themselve s writ e i n A Thousand Plateaus tha t "science fictio n ha s gon e throug h a whol e evolutio n takin g i t fro m animal, vegetable , an d minera l becoming s t o becoming s o f bacteria , viruses, molecular , an d thing s imperceptible " (Deleuz e an d Guattari , 248). Sinc e Hun g i s bes t suite d t o th e context s o f feminis t an d quee r texts i n Chines e SF , on e ca n focu s o n thei r concept s i n th e desiring machines an d ho w thes e concept s ca n b e relate d t o gende r politics. 27 The Deleuzia n revolutionar y reconcernin g o f desir e an d th e bod y firs t emphasizes processe s o f becomings rathe r tha n an y objectiv e existenc e of desire . Desir e i s i n n o sens e a desir e fo r somethin g bu t i s itsel f th e very productio n "tha t produce s on e within th e other/ ' i t i s th e drivin g force behin d ever y molecula r mov e o f th e bod y (understoo d i n it s broadest sense ) t o communicat e wit h othe r bodies, be they stone , plant , or animals; an d this body-becoming i s what Deleuz e and Guattari mea n by desirin g machines. 2 8 Desirin g machine s synthesiz e wit h th e chemical, biological , an d socia l i n a process o f "sedimentation " withi n an i m m a n e n t principl e o f th e productiv e an d reproductiv e flow s (Deleuze an d Guattar i 5 , 11) . Thes e flows , however , ar e disjunctiv e (hence thei r famou s "body-without-organ") , s o muc h s o tha t the y safeguard thei r bein g ossifie d int o mola r structure s o f organization . Molecular o r rhisomati c element s ar e posite d s o tha t a n open-ende d process o f a "bricolage " i s ensured , indicatin g a n "abilit y t o rearrang e fragments continuall y i n ne w an d differen t pattern s o r configurations " (Deleuze an d Guattari , 7 , 13) . Hence, a s Dorothea Olkwosk i points out , we ar e all potentially "transsexual , flowin g acros s all sexualities." 29 W e note tha t ther e i s no wa y fo r th e translato r i n Chan g Hsi-kuo' s stor y t o

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go thi s fa r in hi s involvemen t i n a hermeneutic praxis . At thi s point , all translator s becom e "trannies, " o r at leas t "becomings-trannies. " One nee d no t overemphasiz e a connection betwee n th e Deleuzia n world o f becoming s an d Hung' s writings ; becaus e o f he r uniquel y subversive bran d o f hybrid discourse , her mixed styl e of Gothic horror , fantasy, an d SF , Hung no t onl y "refuses " t o b e fixe d b y establishe d meanings, bu t i s defian t enoug h t o mov e beyon d "th e possible " towards th e "virtua l becoming " whic h goe s beyond Gadamer' s fusion of-horizons hermeneuti c structure . Th e drawbac k o f th e Gadameria n hermeneutics i s that , a s Lynett e Hunte r notes , hi s advocac y fo r a n education o f suc h leave s littl e roo m fo r "interactio n wit h other s outside th e community." 3 0 Fo r Hung , a s fo r Deleuz e an d Guattari , "writing i s a becoming, writin g is traversed b y strange becoming s tha t are no t becomings-writer , bu t becomings-rat , becomings-insect , becomings-wolf, etc. " (Deleuze and Guattari, 240) . The multiple extra otherness manifes t i n her style doe s point t o Deleuze's critiqu e o f th e possible whic h ma y als o b e rea d a s a critiqu e o f th e Gadameria n positing o f tradition . No t satisfie d wit h th e possibl e tha t i s stil l structured b y th e givens , th e existin g form s o f patterns , Deleuz e affirms Bergson' s critiqu e o f i t a s confirmin g wit h th e rea l lik e " a sterile double." 31 Contrarily, th e "virtual, " bein g unrepresentable , captures th e dynamic s o f becomin g an d open s u p productivity , creativity, an d multiplicities . Deleuz e als o agree s wit h Bergso n tha t there i s in th e West th e philosophical illusio n o f privileging fullness . This remind s on e o f th e negative-positiv e dialecti c o f Chines e hermeneutics, i n whic h emptines s i s virtuall y th e fulles t an d chao s and orde r ar e but lucid movement s o r flows lik e pearl s o r water bead s within a non-comprehensiv e bu t a kin d o f roundin g of f o f thing s i n the world. 32 Such a mov e toward s indeterminacies , o f bodyin g fort h i n a n ac t of flow s a s elucidated b y Deleuze an d the Chinese aesthetics , i s nicel y captured i n Hung' s style , whic h generate s a powerfu l creature-lik e energy in line with th e Deleuzian virtuality . Her effortless flow s amon g different realm s o f being s ar e als o unpredictabl e transformation s whereby gaps or blanks ar e posited in the way similar t o the Bergsonian "zones o f indetermination." 33 Opene d u p by a heightened sens e o f self dispersal, b y the inassimilable otherness , th e character s i n her storie s live in and out of virtual realit y an d the real world , i n an d out of thei r humanness, a s well a s in an d out o f lif e itself .

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Hermeneutics o f Technoscience an d th e Posthuma n Having gone throug h stage s o f extrem e technophili a an d technophobia , signaled by their respective construction o f teletopia and technodystopia , the younge r Taiwa n S F writers ar e now pron e t o constructing a balanc e between tota l submersio n int o cyberspac e an d a hermeneutic s o f technoscience i n th e offlin e world . Suc h a balance entail s a n adaptatio n of th e kin d o f informatic s theorie s a s expounde d b y Hayle s an d he r discourse o n the posthuman, whic h argue s that w e should be theorizin g ourselves awa y fro m th e absolut e disembodimen t o f th e virtua l world . By drawin g ou r attentio n t o th e ironi c lin k betwee n th e Cartesia n subject an d libera l humanism , Hayle s warn s o f th e dange r o f bein g raptured ou t o f ou r bod y a t th e shar p turn s o f th e informatio n superhighway. Tracin g th e developmen t o f informatic s — define d a s "technologies o f information a s well a s the biological, social , linguistic , and cultura l change s tha t initiate , accompany , an d complicat e thei r development"— Hayle s work s ou t a histor y o f cybernetic s i n thre e stories: first , ho w informatio n los t it s body ; second , ho w th e cybor g was created; and third, how the liberal subject i s giving way to a differen t construction calle d "th e posthuman." 34 Thes e stage s ar e the n i n tur n put bac k t o a "feedbac k loop" — itsel f vita l t o th e developmen t o f cybernetics — t o establis h a "robo t teleology " (Hayles , 3 ) withi n a process of privileging pattern over presence, reflexivity ove r homeostasis, randomness ove r predictability . Here , a s the libera l subjec t i s abou t t o be topple d over , a posthuma n perspectiv e i s withi n sight , i n whic h "emergence replace s teleology " an d "chaoti c dynamic s an d emergen t structure" tak e th e plac e o f presenc e o f al l kind s (Hayles , 288) . As note d above , th e virtua l world s create d i n Taiwa n S F have i n general followe d th e Gibsonia n traditio n i n whic h cyberspac e provide s a fascinating "hide-out " fo r hackers or electronic cowboys who jack int o the matri x throug h a "disembodie d consciousness." 35 Thes e virtua l worlds for Chan g an d Ch i ar e characterized b y their "shimmering " an d "opalescence" effect s o f intoxication , a tremblin g qualit y o f sensatio n so alluring that visual s become music. 36 However , othe r S F works resis t this cyberpowe r o f disembodimen t t o strik e a balanc e betwee n th e online an d offlin e worlds , thoug h the y ar e considere d par t o f thi s movement. I am thinkin g o f We i Ke-fung' s ^oTii l "Inane " rpll f J , a story abou t a girl working i n a florist sho p being helped b y a compute r programmer whos e physical being has been transferred, muc h lik e Dixi e Flatline i n Gibson' s Neuromancer, int o th e virtual worl d a s Einstein II, but i s bette r know n a s Inane . Th e stor y center s o n th e powe r o f

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creativity i n flower arrangemen t generate d by this compute r avatar, and the los s o f i t du e t o lac k o f lov e an d trus t betwee n th e gir l an d Inane . Whereas Lucy' s worl d i s occupie d b y character s tha t ar e realisticall y anchored i n th e cit y o f Taipei , th e programme r Inan e i s represented a s an electroni c bein g i n cyberspace , "hi s hea d tightl y inscribe d int o th e white-square scree n o f th e computer." 37 What make s thi s stor y differen t fro m a n old-styl e S F which (a s i n the work s mentione d above ) turns aroun d t o reconfirm th e humanisti c value i s it s weavin g togethe r o f th e cyberworl d an d offlin e realit y without privilegin g on e o r the other . Th e physica l worl d o f "people " i s never i n dange r o f being "disembodied " int o th e virtual reality , an d th e potentials o f leavin g i t ope n fo r a parallel "coevolution " structur e fo r both ar e clearl y present . Respondin g t o Lucy' s selfis h reques t t o appropriate othe r people' s talent s a s he r own , Inan e advise s he r t o "recognize he r ow n ignorance " instea d an d accep t th e fact s tha t th e computer's scannin g devic e als o absorb s informatio n o f people' s brai n waves i n a collectiv e wa y (Wei , 74 ) an d tha t i n th e V R here, persona l interests mus t ste p asid e in favor o f th e community' s good . Here sh e i s called upo n t o ente r a n "engage d communication " i n whic h peopl e "hear eac h other into speed " (Wei , 75). If she still holds on to the virtua l world, sh e i s a t leas t tryin g t o "bloc k expecte d patterns, " s o the y ca n "break int o uncharte d semanti c space " o f th e Deleuzia n virtuality. 38 When Luc y i s face d wit h th e rando m appearanc e o f noises , peopl e o n the stree t an d i n familie s tha t d o not mak e to o muc h sens e t o her , sh e actually face s wha t Hayle s call s "flickerin g signifiers " throug h whic h "information i s identified wit h choice s that reduce uncertainty" (Hayles , 30-1). Wha t Luc y see s ar e "magneti c pattern s i n a multidimensiona l computer space, " (Hayles , 36 ) wherei n "dat a ar e thu s humanize d an d subjectivity i s computerized, allowin g the m t o join in a symbolic unio n whose resul t i s narrative " (Hayles , 39) . It woul d b e a n exaggeratio n t o sugges t tha t We i Ke-fung' s stor y represents a post-cyberpun k S F i n Taiwa n tha t advocate s a human machine coevolutio n poin t o f view. However, instea d o f grounding th e liberal subjec t i n the teleological trajectories associate d with humanism , the stor y a t leas t open s u p th e possibilit y o f takin g prerogative s ove r into th e real m o f th e posthuman . A s a discours e o f chao s acceleratin g the evolutio n o f biologica l an d artificia l life , th e posthuma n canno t b e considered antihuman . Instead , i t "envision s th e consciou s min d a s a small subsyste m runnin g it s progra m o f self-constructio n an d self assurance whil e remainin g ignoran t o f th e actua l dynamic s o f comple x systems" (Hayles , 286) . As differen t fro m th e subjec t tha t root s itsel f

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in presence as a unified, self-centere d entity , suc h a discourse is "locate d within th e dialecti c o f pattern/randomnes s an d grounde d i n embodie d actuality rathe r tha n disembodie d informatio n an d offer s resource s fo r rethinking th e articulatio n o f human s wit h intelligen t machines " (Hayles, 287) . What th e stor y lacks , however , i s direc t reference s t o a process o f interpretation , t o a kin d o f technologica l sublim e base d o n chaos theor y o f cultura l significance , withou t whic h on e can hardly cal l the stor y a harbinge r o f th e posthuman . Wit h thi s i n min d I wish t o discuss anothe r story , Chan g Kuo-li' s H B A L "Th e Ma n o n th e Bicycle " f ilf?^-hfr5AJ , t o discer n th e directio n tha t Taiwa n S F ma y b e heading i n th e future . Despite typica l gimmick s suc h a s robots , magneti c floatin g trains , computers, geneti c engineering , an d cloning , "Bicycle " turn s ou t t o b e softer tha n a soft-core S F story. I n fact, i t shoul d be read a s a parable of science an d technology , a dram a o f ho w environment , information , genetics, an d a philosophy o f technology ca n be woven togethe r t o for m a technoculture discours e particularly relevan t t o our urban socia l spac e in th e ne w millennium. 39 Th e stor y begin s wit h th e self-proclaime d "most cal m observe r i n th e whol e grea t Taipe i city," 40 a cyclis t hire d to circle around o n a five-storey-high platfor m a t a shopping center seve n hours a day , presumabl y a s a liv e commercia l sellin g bicycles . Onc e his "circling " routin e kick s off , th e narrativ e goe s fro m on e characte r to anothe r withi n a spira l structure , loopin g bac k t o th e cyclis t a t th e end. In between o r within th e purview o f his observation , whic h cover s the "7. 8 million populatio n o f Taipei" in general and "41,32 6 occupant s of th e 30-store y building " opposit e hi m (Chang , 49) , we mee t severa l characters: a n unhapp y entrepreneu r worryin g abou t hi s women ; a genetic scientis t wh o clone d a gir l ninetee n year s ago ; D r Liu , a statistician wh o designe d a compute r formul a o f lov e an d who , nonetheless frustrate d i n his own romance , i s told by his chauffeu r tha t he mus t bu y an d lear n t o rid e a bicycle t o b e successfu l wit h women ; the chauffeu r himself , wh o ha s foun d lov e with th e clone d girl , no w a prostitute,- an d the chauffeur' s frien d name d "Hsin g Fu" o r "Happiness " ^ ? I , wh o think s tha t h e ha s falle n i n lov e wit h th e sam e gir l bu t i n fact love s anothe r clon e wh o sell s bicycle s i n th e shop . Ridin g o n hi s bike, an d discoverin g th e cyclis t u p o n th e platfor m fo r th e firs t time , Hsing F u ha s a sudde n realization : It neve r cam e t o hi s min d al l alon g tha t ther e ar e s o many peopl e riding on bikes in this great city. There is even one pushing the bike and another putting his on the shoulder. He does not know the person doing the pushing, or else he would surely ask him whether there is a

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connection betwee n bicycle pushing and reasoning. Then he realizes that th e person shouldering the bike is Professor Wang , the scientist ; could i t b e tha t shoulderin g rathe r tha n pushin g th e bik e i s mor e profound when it comes to thinking? Professo r Wang never answered; he simpl y muttere d t o himself, "Wh y i s i t tha t sh e love s me , an d loves so many others? Why didn't I think of the possibility the data I downloaded t o the computer would fit s o many others?" (Chang, 58) The ric h symboli c significanc e o f thi s bicycle , whic h take s cente r stage i n th e story , shoul d b e readil y recognized . A s bot h th e contac t and interfac e point s betwee n huma n an d machine , i t provide s a n idea l image fo r observin g ho w technoscienc e become s centra l t o th e socia l and cultura l structur e o f societie s i n th e near future. Th e Chines e ter m for bicycle , "self-propellin g vehicle, " i s infuse d wit h multipl e ironies , since i t als o point s t o th e fac t tha t th e ride r mus t contribut e physica l power t o it , henc e insistin g o n a way t o pu t a chec k o n technologica l automaticism. Ther e i s i n th e bicycl e a certai n balanc e o r mutua l dependency betwee n huma n an d machine , betwee n languag e an d technology, whic h i s los t wit h othe r automati c devices . I n th e story , then, ther e ar e tw o seemingl y disparat e worlds , on e o f huma n lov e i n a contemporar y (o r nea r future ) urba n setting ; th e othe r o f techno a u t o m a t i c extreme s suc h a s compute r formulas , cloning , an d electronically enhance d o r mediated communication machines . Betwee n them i s th e articulatio n o f th e bicycle , an d whe n th e autho r make s connections (som e o f the m absurd ) betwee n th e way s bicycle s ar e "used" an d huma n reasonin g o r thinking , h e draw s ou r attentio n t o the possibilit y o f a hermeneutic s o f technosciences . Wherea s suc h a hermeneutics retain s th e basi c tene t o f th e Gadameria n emphasi s o f linguisticality, i t nevertheless stresse s the fact tha t "wha t mark s huma n existence i s bot h languag e an d technolog y i n a particular relation." 41 Here i s a hermeneutic s tha t embrace s Brun o Latour' s proliferatio n o f hybrids an d hi s actor-networ k perspectiv e a s wel l a s Haraway' s proclamation tha t thi s i s th e tim e o f cyborgs , machines , an d chimeras . It the n reache s t o includ e Hayles' s delineatio n o f a proces s fro m hyphenation t o splicin g within a human-machine feedbac k loop , muc h in th e spiri t o f th e ontologica l hermeneuti c circl e firs t expounde d b y Heidegger. On e therefor e mus t harke n bac k t o Heidegger' s ide a o f science i n Being and Time. In Being and Time, Heidegge r offer s a hermeneuti c descriptio n o f science an d how i t ca n be understood a s a mode o f Being-in-the world. 42 Speaking o f a "productiv e logic " whic h i s differen t fro m a merel y

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reproductive on e (Heidegger , 30), Heidegger affirm s th e interpretive rol e of science with a certain projective characte r throug h his fore-structure s in a hermeneuti c situatio n (Heidegger , 191-2 , 274-5) . Arguing agains t the existenc e o f "bar e facts " i n science , Heidegge r wishe s t o ensur e a n act o f "recasting " o r "framing " i n whic h a technologica l instrumen t (his famou s hammer , fo r example ) i s cast , o r change d ove r i n a ne w light (Heidegger , 412) . If scientifi c projectio n tend s t o decontextualiz e (changing ove r fro m Zuhandensein t o Vorhandensein), i t nevertheles s will recontextualiz e a n objec t "withi n a ne w theoretica l framework " in a "ne w an d mor e sophisticate d praxis " (Caputo , 162) . I am reminde d of a touchin g scen e nea r th e en d o f Stanisla w Lem' s Solaris whe n th e protagonist raise s his hand to greet th e alien life form; th e latter emerge s as a wave-lik e mimoi d an d envelope s hi s hand , hesitating , recoiling , while leavin g som e spac e i n between . Sinc e th e radica l othernes s o f this alie n lif e for m "canno t b e directl y show n bu t mus t functio n a s the relativel y blan k cente r o f th e novel," 43 thi s "blan k center " i s a n exemplary dramatizatio n o f a scientifi c Gelassenheit — a lettin g be , a stepping back, o n th e part o f Lem , t o allo w al l "actors " (i n the sens e of Latour's actor-network ) com e togethe r withou t on e losin g ou t t o th e other.44 As scienc e i s a part o f the Heideggerian ontolog y tha t i s essentiall y h e r m e n e u t i c a l , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n h e r m e n e u t i c s an d technoscience i s firml y establishe d b y late r philosophers , notabl y attributable t o a 199 3 conferenc e o n th e topi c i n Hungary . As Do n Ihd e trace s it s developmen t fro m "th e phenomenologica l emphasis upo n perception , praxis , and embodiment, " a hermeneutics o f technoscience seek s t o dea l w i t h " a reflexiv e an d relativisti c characterization o f the structure s o f non-neutrality, multidimensionality , and multistabilit y o f human-technolog y relations." 45 Whil e developin g his hermeneutics o f "visualis m in science," Ihde follows Merleau-Ponty' s primacy o f perception t o explai n th e way "visualizatio n i n th e scientifi c sense i s a deepl y hermeneuti c practice/ ' h e the n use s th e dialecti c o f figure/background exampl e to illustrate the culturally and technologicall y "constitutedness" in which technological instruments (suc h as telescopes) become "hermeneuti c devices, " also mentioning "certai n style s of Asia n painting." 46 Thes e painting s hav e th e backgroun d o f emptines s o r th e "openness o f space " a s th e themati c figur e itself . This echoe s o f cours e Bergson's virtualit y a s wel l a s a kin d o f hermeneutic s o f blank s an d indeterminacy characteristi c o f th e Chines e sublim e I once studied. 47 Together with th e Heideggerian Gelassenheit attitud e in scientific praxis , this technoscience hermeneutic s point s directl y t o a social spac e wher e

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both animat e an d inanimat e actor s refus e t o succum b t o th e pre-give n possibilities o f th e mola r aggregates . Instead , i t i s a spac e i n whic h machinic assemblage s ar e articulated (throug h S F narrative i n ou r case ) in suc h a wa y tha t multiplicities , interconnectedness , an d mutuall y determinings amon g socia l actor s ar e actualized . Ou r stor y abou t th e bicycle i s a n appropriat e tex t t o b e relate d t o th e hermeneutic s o f becomings. True , th e stor y tell s u s tha t huma n relationship s (lov e i n this case ) shoul d b e uniquel y humanisti c an d grant s tha t informatio n can be simply "probabilit y function wit h n o dimensions, no materiality , and n o necessar y connectio n wit h meaning " (Hayles , 52) . But throug h its ver y mechanica l characteristic , a bicycle i s a t th e sam e tim e a n ap t metaphor an d mor e tha n a metapho r i n improvin g huma n capability , physical o r otherwise , b y "splicing " i t int o a feedbac k loo p wit h machines. Her e w e se e a proces s o f evolutio n fo r informatic s t o g o beyond homeostati c stabilit y an d mov e int o cyberneti c reflexivit y i n which th e observer himself i s deeply involved, without a t the same tim e falling int o th e tra p o f determinism . Th e "Bicycle, " therefore , provide s us wit h a dramatization o f the conditio n i n ou r technocultur e i n whic h a cyberneti c movemen t i s enacte d fo r "th e hyphenate d subject " t o b e transfigured int o a functio n o f splicin g huma n an d machin e togethe r within a looping circuit . Fro m her e w e ca n furthe r infe r tha t ther e ha s always bee n a peculia r relationshi p betwee n scienc e an d fiction , between, tha t i s to say , th e seemingl y neutra l o r non-semantic oriente d technoscience o n th e on e sid e an d th e worl d o f imagination , feelings , and meanin g o n th e other . However , a s th e histor y o f scientifi c developments wil l show , "cultur e circulate d throug h scienc e n o les s than scienc e circulates throug h culture, " and then th e "hear t tha t keep s this circulator y syste m flowin g i s narrative — narratives abou t culture , narratives withi n culture , narrative s abou t science , narratives , withi n science" (Hayles , 21-2). After all , recent scienc e studie s tel l u s bluntly : "all scienc e i s local." 48 Therefore , i n star k contras t t o th e traditiona l humanistic approac h t o technology , whic h i s deeme d essentiall y "explainable" b y it s "functio n an d efficiency " rathe r tha n b y a "hermeneutically interpretabl e meaning, " we should read into "Bicycle " and extrac t fro m i t element s tha t wil l enabl e u s t o investigat e ho w technologies themselve s becom e th e "objectificatio n o f socia l value s and cultura l system." 49 Bu t sinc e ever y machin e ha s a story t o tell , le t us tur n t o ho w th e bicycl e create d it s ow n narrative . The earl y evolutio n o f th e bicycl e i n th e lat e nineteent h century , as Thoma s Pinc h an d Wieb e Bijke r tel l us , illustrate s th e poin t tha t technologies develo p thei r fitnes s t o cultura l interest s rathe r tha n t o

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economic o r efficienc y element s accordin g t o it s ow n syste m o f technicity. 50 Ther e wer e man y year s whe n thi s technologica l devic e wavered betwee n a sportsperson' s race r an d a means o f transportation , the forme r havin g a bigger an d highe r whee l i n th e fron t an d th e latte r having tw o equa l wheels fo r safety' s sake . There is , therefore, a certai n ambiguity i n a technological object , a certai n interpretativ e flexibilit y under th e concep t o f underdeterminatio n whic h lead s u s t o loo k fo r the "fit " betwee n "device s an d th e interest s an d belief s o f th e variou s social group s tha t influenc e th e desig n proces s ... . Difference s i n th e way socia l groups interpre t an d use the objects ar e not merel y extrinsi c but make a difference i n the nature o f the objects themselves" (Feenberg , 79-80). Usin g agai n th e bicycl e a s example , Feenber g advance s th e concept o f "technica l codes " throug h whic h a technological objec t ca n be define d an d interprete d "i n accordanc e wit h th e socia l meanin g i t has acquired " (Feenberg , 88). Here, technology, a s the "systemati c locu s for th e sociocultura l variable s tha t actuall y diversif y it s historica l realizations," (Feenberg , 201 ) will readil y subjec t itsel f t o hermeneuti c efforts, whic h tak e als o int o consideratio n mediate d element s suc h a s ethical and aesthetic or even ritualistic ones, and all these can be readily found i n Chan g Kuo-li' s "Bicycle. " All th e aspect s o f a technologica l assemblage , includin g th e characters i n the story , become a social milieu o r a network o f relations, themselves th e result s o f a n abstrac t machin e o f stratification . Th e working o f thi s machin e i s such , however , tha t flow s ar e allowe d i n every directio n amon g al l th e elements , t o be propelled b y som e liqui d energy tha t structure s singularities . I t i s th e machine , an d it s concer n with a realit y o f part s an d whole , whic h "produce s a n exces s whic h cannot b e located withi n a 'subject' sinc e it lie s outside" (Pearso n 186) . Within th e socia l grou p o f th e story , th e bicycl e cultur e demand s a n investigation o f certai n technologica l code s fo r u s t o understan d ho w it shape s thi s futur e worl d int o significance . Fo r twenty-first-centur y Taipei, bicycle s ar e obsolet e a s a mean s o f transportation . Sinc e pollution, a n importan t them e i n first-generatio n Taiwa n SF , no longe r threatens th e city , thu s freein g i t fro m crud e determinism , th e bicycl e is no w equate d wit h a possible devic e "t o b e successfu l wit h women " yielded by "th e emergenc e o f unexpected variabl e in Dr Liu' s compute r formula design " (Chang , 55) . Moreover, fo r Wang , th e ac t o f ridin g i s a means fo r "cal m observatio n an d thinking , helpin g on e t o gras p wha t one want s i n life " (Chang , 57) . Fo r a five-year-ol d child , th e bicycl e excites hi m "becaus e ther e ar e no t man y thing s whic h ca n dra w hi s attention nowadays " (Chang , 50) . Finally, fo r th e paid rider, despit e hi s

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claim t o b e "th e mos t cal m observe r i n th e whol e grea t Taipei, " h e turns ou t t o be a pathetic person, sinc e he, too , is on e of thos e wh o ar e frustrated i n lov e relationship s an d suffe r fro m socia l inertia . These relation s o r "interfaces " proliferat e lik e strat a o r rhizome s growing up everywhere , an d if th e reade r look s fo r a tree-like structur e in which relation s arriv e at the peak o f climax, sh e will be disappointed . In thi s world , "i t i s no t clea r wh o make s an d wh o i s mad e i n relatio n between huma n an d machine." 51 Yes , there is a sense o f circuit loopin g in th e emplotmen t o f th e story , bu t instea d o f depth , th e networ k o f this smoot h socia l spac e mor e resemble s hypertext , al l actor s wove n together i n a nonlinea r an d interactiv e fashio n i n defianc e o f textua l hierarchies. Sinc e hypertext s "represen t th e expressio n o f th e rhizom e in th e socia l spac e o f writing," 52 an d sinc e "wha t th e newnes s o f hypertext offer s i s encouragemen t t o sor t throug h wha t th e groun d fo r its evaluatio n coul d be," (Hunter, 107 ) each creativ e line o f writing an d reading o f th e tex t her e by each acto r become s a line o f flight fro m th e molar structur e o f signification . All th e variable s o r technologica l codes , therefore , ca n als o b e considered hermeneuti c code s fo r interpretation . Technologie s an d human relation s togethe r mak e u p th e kin d o f socia l spac e i n whic h circuits o f territorializatio n an d deterritorializatio n ar e formed, al l th e w h i l e stickin g clos e t o t h e kin d o f e m b o d i m e n t o f p a r t i c u l a r configurations tha t contextualiz e socia l experience , a s Hayle s ha s it . The loopbac k circui t i n cybernetic s ca n no w b e pu t alongsid e th e hermeneutic circle , sinc e bot h hav e a similar movemen t o f reflexivity , pulling bac k th e observer/scientis t o f th e technologica l objec t int o th e picture o f interpretatio n tha t base s itsel f o n facticit y an d historicity . One shoul d b e carefu l abou t th e differenc e betwee n th e Heideggeria n situatedness an d th e feminists ' situate d knowledge . A s Heidegge r complains tha t moder n technolog y cover s ove r th e difference s i n th e spatial ordering s o f things , he fails, a s Jeff Malpa s notes, to "tak e prope r account o f locatedness , henc e his "inadequat e treatmen t o f th e body." 53 This i s importan t because , a s Haraway ha s it , shiftin g th e scientis t a s spectator t o participan t i n ful l embodimen t i s linke d t o a n ethica l awareness, political conviction , an d social responsibility (Haraway , 196) . By splicin g int o th e loo p huma n subject s an d technologica l objects , technology hermeneutic s point s t o wha t Ri p an d Kem p cal l " a technological regime " tha t prefigure s an d prestructure s (muc h lik e th e Heideggerian Vorhaben and Vorstructure) specifi c problem-solvin g an d interpreting activitie s whic h i n tur n defin e th e contour s o f constrain s and trajectorie s o f change. 54

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While bringing our iifeworld t o bear on technological systems roote d in socio-cultur e dimensions , w e mus t avoi d th e temptatio n o f dividin g the tw o int o bod y an d soul , mean s an d ends . Instea d w e mus t vie w them a s a circularity tha t restore s the centralit y o f meaning where thei r reflexive thrus t remain s clear , an d S F here plays a vital role in weavin g together fact s an d value s i n ou r ag e o f informatics . A technoscienc e hermeneutics implicate s bot h huma n meanin g an d th e proces s o f evolution emergin g fro m artificia l an d post-biologica l "life-systems. " Within a dynamics o f meaning an d systems , hooke d u p an d responsiv e to thei r ow n environment , w e ope n u p vist a point s fro m whic h th e technological sublim e ca n b e understood . A connectio n ca n the n b e made to bring together a techno-hermeneutics an d the posthuman, sinc e strategies toward s th e latte r "ar e mor e abou t erasure , rathe r tha n affirmation — a n obsessio n n o longe r wit h sel f bu t a n analysi s wit h structure." 55 To recapitulate, th e stage s throug h whic h Taiwa n S F emerges a s a cultural imaginar y have become indexe s showin g what a technoscienc e hermeneutics woul d b e like . The cyberpun k writer s wer e onc e draw n to telematic s wit h heav y humanisti c overton e bu t neve r wer e totall y submerged i n th e shimmering s o f cyberspac e an d th e tota l plasticit y of digital media . T o be sure , som e cyberpun k storie s coul d b e considere d "subversive" an d ha d o n thei r agend a issue s suc h a s gende r politics , post-colonialism, an d global/loca l conflicts . A s th e dange r o f tota l disembodiment b y electronic informatics loom s large , however, w e ca n detect, eve n withi n th e sam e cybercultur e movemen t o f th e 1990s , potentials an d hope s i n othe r S F writing s which , b y bypassin g th e disembodied cyberspace , plac e thei r fee t bac k o n th e soli d groun d o f the physica l o r rathe r geographica l cityspace , s o tha t bot h th e onlin e and offlin e world s ca n procee d t o incorporat e eac h othe r i n a constan t and dynami c interplay . Suc h interpla y i s backe d u p b y th e virtualit y Deleuze an d Bergso n discuss , an d becoming s o f variou s kind s d o no t rely o n socia l constructivis m whic h "achieve s opennes s by making th e world depen d o n huma n interpretation " only ; instead , i t i s a kin d o f genuine interpla y betwee n huma n an d machin e i n whic h th e worl d i s made int o " a creative , complexifying , problematizin g cauldro n o f becoming." 56 Finally , o n how Taiwa n S F can furthe r develo p th e them e of the posthuman an d a technoscience hermeneutic s o f becoming, thes e words fro m Hayle s ca n serv e a s a reminde r fo r thos e wh o fin d thes e concerns interestin g a s wel l a s exciting : The chaotic, unpredictable nature of complex dynamics implies tha t subjectivity i s emergen t rathe r tha n given , distribute d rathe r tha n

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located solel y i n consciousness , emergin g fro m an d integrate d int o a chaotic world rathe r tha n occupyin g a position o f master y an d contro l removed fro m it . Brun o Latou r ha s argue d tha t w e hav e neve r bee n modern,- the seriate d history o f cybernetics — emerging from network s at onc e materially real, socially regulated, an d discursively constructe d — suggests, for simila r reasons , that w e have always been posthuman . (Hayles 291 )

6 Is Utopia Obsolete? Imploding Boundarie s i n Nea l Stephenson' s The Diamond Age1 N. Katherin e Hayle s

In Achieving Our Country, Richar d Rort y observe s t h a t ou r contemporary novelist s no longer take pride in our nation. 2 T o illustrat e his case , h e mentions , alon g wit h Lesli e Marmo n Silko' s Almanac of the Dead (1991) , Neal Stephenson' s Snow Crash (1992) . Perhaps a better example, o r a t leas t a mor e curiou s one , i s th e boo k tha t followe d Stephenson's Snow Crash blockbuster , The Diamond Age: or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer. 3 The Diamond Age woul d see m t o have th e elements o f a Utopia . Nanotechnolog y provide s materia l abundanc e virtually without cost ; the text explicitly state s that som e cultures wor k better tha n other s an d provides a blueprint o f a successful one, - and th e narrative come s complet e wit h a travele r wh o visit s strang e lands . Yet somehow, althoug h a Utopia n impuls e clearl y inform s th e text , thes e elements d o no t coher e t o mak e a Utopia. Rather , th e narrativ e enact s might mor e appropriatel y b e calle d a mutopia , Istva n Csicsery-Ronay , Jr's phras e coine d t o allud e t o th e mutabilit y o f th e postmoder n condition tha t make s it s o inimical t o th e creatio n o f Utopias. 4 Rea d a s a prefix, th e mu o f mutopi a ha s anothe r meanin g a s well. As Csicsery Ronay indicates , mu i s th e Ze n answe r meanin g neithe r ye s o r no , signifying a n indeterminac y tha t indicate s th e fram e o f th e questio n i s too narro w t o encompas s th e answer . Th e narro w questio n i s wh y A Diamond Age canno t coalesc e int o a Utopia . Th e broade r framewor k points towar d t h e contemporar y presupposition s t h a t m u t a t e conventional idea s o f Utopi a int o a ne w kin d o f genre . Perhap s th e problem i s not tha t ou r writer s ca n no longe r imagin e Utopia s but tha t we hav e no t ye t learne d t o recogniz e it s mutate d inscription . Wha t w e read a s th e absenc e o f Utopi a i s no t merel y a faile d enterpris e bu t th e emergence o f th e distinctl y postmoder n — and posthuman — genre of mutopia.

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Taking The Diamond Age a s m y tuto r text , I argu e a mutopi a a t once an d wit h th e sam e gestur e inscribe s an d implode s th e Utopia n space. Th e condition s o f Utopi a ar e present , bu t the y ar e embedde d i n such comple x context s tha t th e traditiona l separatio n betwee n Utopia n and "normal " societ y canno t obtain . Withou t thi s buffe r zone , th e complex feedback loop s between Utopian isolation an d quotidian realit y so complicat e th e Utopia n projec t tha t i t ca n n o longe r b e see n a s Utopian. Mutopia differ s fro m Utopi a not primarily in its mutability (her e I depar t somewha t fro m Csicsery-Ronay' s formulation ) bu t i n it s increased complexit y an d especiall y i n th e recursiv e loop s connectin g it t o reality . Mutopi a i s th e hybri d offsprin g o f Utopi a an d a reality to o complex t o fi t int o Utopia n formula e o f whateve r kind . Ki n t o th e intelligent machin e an d first cousi n t o th e cyborg , mutopi a announce s not jus t a ne w kin d o f socia l pac t bu t a mutatio n o f th e huma n int o the posthuman . Par t o f th e reaso n mutopi a canno t inscrib e itsel f unambiguously a s a Utopi a i s tha t traditiona l assumption s o f wha t constitute th e huma n d o no t hol d i n th e ne w regime . Withou t th e continuity o f "huma n nature " (howeve r i t i s imagine d t o be re-forme d by Utopia n engineering) , mutopi a doe s no t pu t receive d huma n natur e into differen t socia l forms . Rather , mutopi a announce s itsel f a s a n eruption o f mutation within th e spac e of the known . Wha t change s ar e not th e form s tha t huma n natur e occupie s bu t th e condition s tha t formulate th e huma n itself . In focusin g o n th e tension s implici t i n th e constructio n o f a mutopian space , I follow th e lea d o f Loui s Mari n i n hi s semina l boo k Utopics: Spatial Play and hi s articl e "Frontier s o f Utopia : Pas t an d Present." 5 Juxtaposin g tw o view s o f th e Sear s Tower — the expansive , dominating vie w from th e top an d the restricted , dominate d vie w fro m its bas e — Mari n see s th e frontier s o f Utopi a forme d throug h tw o contrary impulses : on the one hand, a free play of imagination in its indefinite expansio n measured onl y b y th e desire , itsel f infinite , o f happines s i n a spac e where th e movin g frontiers o f its philosophical an d political fiction s would b e traced ; o n th e othe r hand , th e exactl y close d totalit y rigorously code d b y al l th e constraint s an d obligation s o f th e la w binding an d closin g a spac e wit h insuperabl e frontier s tha t woul d guarantee its harmonious functioning. 6 The dynami c ca n b e figure d spatiall y b y juxtaposin g th e constructio n of th e Utopia n frontier s fro m th e insid e ou t an d fro m th e outsid e in . From th e inside , th e spac e i s constitute d throug h th e "fre e pla y o f

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imagination" i n contras t t o th e flawe d exterior . Bu t t o maintai n itsel f as a boundary, th e utopic space has to legislate differences tha t maintai n its separatenes s fro m th e outside , whic h lead s t o th e "exactl y close d totality rigorousl y code d b y al l th e constraint s an d obligation s o f th e law." The boundar y i s not merel y constitute d throug h thi s paradoxica l dynamic betwee n freedo m an d constraint ; rather , a s Marin point s out , the boundar y is thi s dynamic . B y contrast, i n a mutopia , th e fre e pla y of imaginatio n i s not merel y juxtapose d wit h th e constrain t o f la w bu t is put int o a feedback loo p wit h it . A s a result, th e tw o ar e joine d int o a singl e comple x syste m indistinguishabl e an y longe r a s "inside " an d "outside," an d th e boundar y implodes , transformin g th e Utopi a int o a mutopia. To se e ho w thes e loop s work , conside r tw o episode s fro m The Diamond Age. I n one , th e Bespok e Artife x Joh n Perciva l Hackwort h takes hi s wif e Gwe n an d daughte r Fion a o n a n expeditio n t o celebrat e the birthday o f Princess Charlotte. In honor of the occasion, the Bespok e engineers hav e create d "smar t coral, " bio-computationa l device s programmed t o for m a n islan d a t jus t th e righ t tim e fo r th e birthda y party, complet e wit h fancifu l faun a suc h a s unicorns . Hackwort h an d his famil y watc h th e proces s throug h th e crystallin e diamon d floo r o f the airship , itsel f a marve l o f th e nanoengineerin g tha t th e islan d whimsically instantiates . A s th e convergin g smar t cora l create s turbulence, a fe w drop s sprinkl e o n th e airshi p an d caus e th e pilo t t o raise i t a bit, promptin g "heart y laughte r fro m al l o f th e father s i n th e ballroom, wh o wer e delighte d b y th e illusio n o f dange r an d th e impotence o f nature" (15) . This view, traditional i n th e belief tha t "th e fathers" ca n dominat e natur e withou t changin g thei r ow n nature , depends on being able to isolate acts of domination s o they do not affec t those wh o dominate . A fe w page s late r w e ar e presented wit h th e tria l an d executio n o f Bud, a slacker an d dru g pusher wh o i s Harv an d Nell' s father , althoug h he ha s scarcel y see n Har v an d ha s no t bothere d t o chec k i f Nell , no w three, ha s bee n born . Judg e Fang , judgin g Bu d worthles s an d o f n o account a s a father, ha s no compunctio n abou t deliverin g his sentence . A fe w day s later , Bu d i s tol d t o wal k t o th e en d o f a funera l pier , whereupon th e nanodevices injected i n his bloodstream explod e and tur n him int o soup . A s practice d agains t Bud , th e nanosit e injectio n ma y appear simpl y a s a novel way t o carr y ou t capita l punishment. Bu t th e convoluted plot connections soo n make clear that human ski n no longe r defines a n autonomou s individua l wit h th e righ t t o self-identit y an d self-possession. Th e boundar y tha t serve d a s th e basi s fo r libera l

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humanism, th e belief tha t ever y person ha s first an d foremost th e righ t to ow n himsel f o r hersel f an d hi s o r he r ow n labor , i s undercu t a s nanosites o f ever y variety infiltrat e lungs , infest bloodstream s an d mi x with seme n whil e carryin g ou t thei r ow n computationa l agenda s a s autonomous agents . T o them, th e ski n i s a permeable boundar y acros s which the y communicat e wit h othe r agent s while remainin g obliviou s of huma n consciousness , whic h i n tur n i s obliviou s o f them . As a result , geograph y cease s t o mea n th e tracin g o f lan d masse s self-evidently presen t an d becomes a much mor e complicate d endeavo r whose natur e changes , dependin g o n th e scal e referenced . Alread y destabilized b y cartographi c indeterminacy , Utopia n boundarie s ar e further subverte d b y th e dynami c interpla y betwee n larg e an d ver y small. O n a macroscale , geograph y i s on e thing , an d o n a nanoscal e another thin g entirely . Th e (m)utopia n boundar y betwee n insid e an d outside, constitute d throug h th e dynami c betwee n th e freedo m o f imagination an d th e rigo r o f law , ha s mutate d o n a nanoscale int o th e tension between th e consciou s huma n perso n who conceive s o f himsel f as a closed totality and the nanoagents who circulate within an d throug h him. Th e perso n operate s accordin g t o a n Imaginar y o f psychi c wholeness, th e nanosite s accordin g t o computationa l algorithms . Th e operations tha t woul d constitut e th e Utopian borders are undone a s soon as they ar e done, for a border o n on e scale is a permeable membran e o n another. The situation is further complicate d by multiple recursive loops between levels , a dynami c tha t cause s Utopia n boundarie s t o implode , thus transformin g th e Utopi a int o a mutopia . To trac e thes e loops , le t u s conside r th e injectio n o f nanosite s no t into a lowlife lik e Bud but int o Hackworth himself . Hackworth permit s the injection s becaus e h e ha s falle n int o th e hand s o f D r X , t o who m Hackworth went t o make illegal copies of the A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer. Hackwort h wa s commissione d t o fabricate th e Primer b y non e other tha n Lor d Finkle-McGraw , th e mai n spokesperso n withi n th e novel for th e belief tha t som e culture s ar e better tha n others . The Neo Victorian phyl e t o whic h Finkle-McGra w belongs , create d a s a utopis t response to the moral relativism o f the late twentieth century , represent s a retur n t o Victoria n value s an d mor e fundamentall y a retur n t o th e belief exemplifie d b y Finkle-McGraw "tha t som e kinds o f behavior wer e bad an d other s good , an d tha t i t wa s reasonabl e t o liv e one' s lif e accordingly" (20) . As the Neo-Victorians prosper and solidif y thei r triba l codes, largely through their technical superiorit y in nanotechnology, th e phyle grow s i n influenc e an d power . Bu t Finkle-McGra w want s members o f th e phyl e t o adop t it s cree d throug h informe d choice , no t

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merely childhoo d indoctrination . T o counterac t th e inevitabl e ossification tha t take s plac e a s th e generatio n o f pioneer s i s succeede d by technocrats , h e want s t o encourag e "subversives, " b y whic h h e means peopl e wh o refus e t o accep t receive d dogma , preferrin g t o wor k their idea s ou t fo r themselves . Confiden t tha t thi s independenc e wil l convince th e subversive s tha t Neo-Victoria n cultur e is indeed superior , he want s mos t o f al l t o infec t hi s granddaughte r Elizabet h wit h subversion. T o this end , h e commission s Hackwort h t o create A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer, designe d a s counter-indoctrinatio n t o th e culture's prevailin g norms . A marve l o f sophisticate d nanocomputing , th e Primer can b e thought o f as itself Utopian , for i t represents a world s o compelling tha t it seem s t o provide a bounded an d secur e alternativ e t o th e rea l world . Its Utopian capabilities become especiall y obviou s when i t falls int o th e hands o f Nell , it s heroi c depiction s o f Princes s Nel l standin g i n star k contrast t o he r abusiv e environment . Ye t Nel l doe s no t merel y retrea t to th e Primer and choos e t o liv e ther e rathe r tha n i n th e rea l world . The very interactivity tha t give s the Primer it s power over Nell connect s her t o the world through comple x feedback loops . The Primer can sens e its surrounding s an d constantl y rearrange s it s narrative s accordingly, when i t hear s Nell' s mother' s abusiv e boyfrien d cal l th e littl e gir l "cunt," fo r example , i t inscribe s tha t name , bu t whe n Nel l correct s it , the nam e i n al l th e storie s changes . Th e Primer mutate s th e Utopia n impulse tha t brough t i t int o bein g b y implodin g th e boundarie s tha t separate i t fro m th e flawe d rea l world , creatin g highl y interactiv e simulations tha t bot h mirror an d transform th e circumstances i n whic h it i s placed . The sam e kind s o f recursiv e loo p als o operat e a t th e macr o level . Intrigued by the idea of the Primer, Hackwort h decide s t o make a secre t copy fo r hi s daughte r Fiona , venturin g int o th e Lease d Territories , playground o f D r X , to carr y ou t th e copyin g operation . Bu t o n his wa y home — having transgressed th e border tha t separate s the affluent Neo Victorian Ne w Atlanti s fro m th e slum s o f th e Lease d Territorie s — h e is set upon by a gang of young thugs and loses the Primer. Complication s from thi s inciden t brin g hi m int o th e cour t o f Judg e Fang , wh o ha s himself becom e a n associat e o f D r X (abou t whic h mor e shortly) . A s punishment fo r hi s transgression , Hackwort h i s cane d an d receive s a sentence o f te n years , whic h h e wil l en d u p spendin g wit h th e Drummers rathe r tha n i n prison , bu t no t befor e Lor d Finkle-McGra w gets hol d o f hi m an d turn s hi m int o a doubl e agent . Fro m D r X , Hackworth receive s the injection o f nanosites that will direct his action s

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among th e Drummers , usin g th e ro d computer s tha t infec t thei r bloodstream t o carr y ou t a massive computationa l projec t t o creat e th e Seed, an alternative technolog y t o the Fee d that gives the Neo-Victoria n phyle thei r materia l abundanc e an d political clout . Were the See d to b e completed, i t would break the Neo-Victorian monopoly and dramaticall y alter th e balanc e o f power . Thi s macroscal e conflic t i s playe d ou t i n part withi n Hackworth' s bod y a s h e receive s fro m th e Neo-Victorian s another se t o f nanosite s designe d t o survei l th e firs t set , s o tha t hi s body becomes a contested terrain in which nanosite fights wit h nanosite , and purity i s an optica l illusion . If the Neo-Victoria n phyl e ca n be see n as on e versio n o f Utopia , Hackworth' s bod y wa s another , i n th e sens e that prio r to his nanosite infestation h e exemplifie d th e traditiona l ide a of th e rationa l autonomou s subject . Afte r hi s infestation, hi s body, lik e New Atlanti s itself, becomes enmeshe d i n comple x feedback loop s tha t make i t impossibl e t o maintai n th e border s intact . Ye t thes e ver y mutations ar e brough t abou t precisel y b y th e desir e t o maintai n a Utopian isolation , fo r whic h th e Ne w Atlantan s an d th e Celestia l Kingdom bot h striv e i n differen t ways . At ever y leve l of th e text , thes e tw o impulse s revea l themselve s t o be boun d togethe r i n feedbac k loop s — th e driv e towar d th e purit y o f isolation an d th e complicatio n o f recursiv e entanglements . On e mor e detail wil l suffic e t o sho w ho w t h e tex t i s permeate d b y th e simultaneous creatio n an d implosion o f Utopian space . When Nell , wh o has alread y begu n t o b e educate d b y th e stole n Primer, flee s fro m he r abusive hom e wit h he r brothe r Harv , the y en d u p i n Dovetail , a neighboring enclav e t o th e Neo-Victorian s populate d b y craftspeopl e who prid e themselve s o n fashionin g high-qualit y good s b y hand . I n a Utopian spirit , Rit a trie s t o explai n wh y sh e think s he r lifestyl e i s superior t o tha t o f the Neo-Victorian enclav e o f New Atlantis . "Al l th e people i n Dovetail lik e t o make beautiful things . To us, the thing s tha t the Atlantans d o — dressing up in these kinds of clothes, spending year s and year s i n schoo l — are irrelevant . Thos e pursuit s wouldn' t hel p u s make beautifu l things , yo u see . I'd rathe r jus t wea r m y blu e jean s an d make paper" (261) . But Nell punctures thi s clai m t o Utopian superiorit y when sh e observes, "yo u can make money from you r paper only becaus e the Atlantans mak e money from workin g hard," an astute response tha t locates Rita' s isolationis t rhetori c withi n th e entanglement s o f socio economic feedbac k loops . Rita's onl y rejoinder i s tha t Nel l shoul d "as k your boo k th e meanin g o f th e wor d discretion" (261) . Why can' t "discretion " work ? Th e tex t offer s a variet y o f insight s ranging fro m th e socio-economi c t o th e cultura l an d psychological .

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Consider th e Feed , a marvel o f nanoengineerin g tha t create s unlimite d pure wate r an d energ y b y sortin g molecule s int o th e appropriat e categories. Th e Fee d in tur n run s th e matte r compilers , machine s tha t can creat e an y good s whatever , fro m sou p t o m a t t r e s s e s , b y manipulating atom s t o for m th e desire d structures . Bu t thi s materia l abundance doe s no t eliminat e class , no r doe s i t d o awa y wit h chil d abuse. Nell ca n use the matter compile r to fill her room with mattresse s for th e stuffe d toy s wh o ar e he r constan t companions , bu t i t doe s no t prevent he r mothe r fro m leavin g thi s three-year-ol d alon e fo r hour s a t a time o r bringing home boyfriends wh o d o everything from moles t th e little girl to torture her with cigarett e burns. Technology alone , the tex t insists, canno t brin g abou t constructiv e socia l change , becaus e i t represents onl y on e poin t o f interventio n i n comple x socia l dynamics . So deepl y i s thi s fel t t o b e th e cas e that , somewha t inexplicably , th e narrative assert s that peasant s i n th e Celestial Kingdo m ( a thinly veile d euphemism fo r China ) ar e starving . Whethe r th e reaso n i s tha t th e technology ha s no t penetrate d int o remot e rura l regions , o r tha t th e mandarin rulin g clas s ha s prohibite d it s introduction , th e famin e nevertheless reinforce s th e poin t tha t th e technolog y b y itsel f canno t create a Utopia . Dr X expands o n th e ide a whe n h e explain s t o Hackwort h wh y h e wants t o creat e th e Seed . Whe n Wester n technolog y i s introduced , D r X asserts , i t carrie s alon g wit h i t no t onl y th e yong o f th e technolog y itself bu t th e ti o f cultura l value s embedde d i n technology' s structur e and operatio n (457) . The value s th e Fee d instantiates are , accordin g t o him, entirel y Western , base d o n hierarchical structure s o f control . Th e Seed, b y contrast , woul d provid e a different metaphor , on e h e believe s more suite d t o Chines e traditions . Rathe r tha n a centralized hierarchy , the See d woul d b e distribute d t o humbl e agraria n worker s wh o woul d use planting an d harvesting techniques t o make it produce goods, whic h they would then bring to market in distributed networks tha t emphasiz e local contro l an d a peaceful orde r spreadin g fro m th e botto m u p rathe r than th e to p down . Here agai n w e se e th e Utopia n impuls e i n play , a s D r X envision s an adaptatio n o f existin g technolog y tha t woul d enabl e th e Celestia l Kingdom t o brea k it s relianc e o n Western technologie s an d reclaim it s ancestral territory . This ambition take s shape through the Fists, a Boxerlike rebellion orchestrate d by Dr X and other mandarins t o purge foreig n devils from Celestia l Kingdom soil . Yet this isolationist program , carrie d out i n th e nam e o f Utopia n reform , i s complicate d whe n th e Fists ' assault o n Shangha i meets with fierc e resistance from th e Mouse Army ,

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adolescent Chines e girl s who hav e been raise d o n bootleg copie s o f th e Primer that D r X blackmail s Hackwort h int o creating . Presumably , Hackworth altere d th e progra m s o tha t th e girls , instea d o f faithfull y adhering to indigenous Chines e values, adopt as their Quee n and heroin e Nell, hersel f als o raise d b y th e Primer, althoug h a differen t version . I t remains a myster y wh y Nell' s Primer woul d educat e he r t o b e a self reliant individual , wherea s th e Chines e girl s ar e indoctrinated t o for m the massiv e Mouse Army whos e mai n purpose in life is to rescue Nell . Nell play s th e starrin g rol e a s th e quintessentia l freethinke r an d ultimate individual , wherea s thousand s o f Chines e girl s ar e bit player s defined b y thei r allegianc e t o Nell . Whateve r th e explanatio n (o r lac k of it) for thi s glaring difference i n outcomes , Hackwort h i n his colloqu y with D r X suggest s tha t th e girl s ma y late r retur n t o th e Confucia n heritage they see m now t o reject, thoug h presumably a s the subversive s the Primer wa s designe d t o create . The Mouse Army come s into existenc e throug h plot complication s that pla y with Utopia n isolation , onl y t o hav e i t crumbl e i n th e fac e o f moral complexit y s o vas t i t canno t b e containe d withi n a Utopia n scheme. Althoug h th e Lease d Territorie s ar e plague d wit h al l manne r of socia l and economi c ills , they have in thei r mids t a n island o f sanity , rational order , an d mora l concer n i n th e cour t o f Judge Fang. Followin g Confucian practice , Judge Fang sets himself u p as a strict but jus t judge , concerned bot h wit h th e lette r o f th e la w an d mor e broadl y wit h th e morality o f hi s decisions . His harsh judgmen t o f Bu d is precipitated b y his realizatio n tha t Bu d has faile d t o ac t a s a father t o his children ; ha d the case been different, th e Judge's questions imply, he would have take n into accoun t th e effec t Bud' s deat h woul d hav e o n hi s children . Th e Utopian implication, o f course , is that Judg e Fang and his associates ca n adequately asses s an y complexitie s tha t aris e and , havin g take n everything int o account , arriv e a t a correc t decision . Thi s confidenc e is shattere d whe n int o th e Judge' s cour t come s PhyrePhox , a CryptNe t member accuse d o f smugglin g Han bab y girls out o f th e countr y t o sel l to foreigners. Th e Judge explains tha t o f all crimes thi s arouse s "prima l emotions" in him, an d he does not hesitat e t o have PhyrePhox torture d when h e refuse s t o confess . Whereupo n come s hi s firs t surprise , fo r PhyrePhox has used nanotechnology insert s t o block th e neural signals , so that rathe r than excruciatin g pain he experiences only mild titillation . The mutopi a hi s bod y ha s becom e successfull y resist s Judg e Fang' s forcible effort s t o enrol l it into his Utopian space. But the larger surpris e still looms , sprun g whe n Judg e Fan g i s calle d ou t o f th e courtroo m t o the yach t o f Dr X . The yacht function s a s an in-between space , neithe r

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in the Celestial Kingdo m no r in the Lease d Territories where Judge Fang has jurisdiction . Afte r dinne r D r X spring s hi s surprise , takin g Judg e Fang aboar d th e ocea n vesse l wher e thousand s o f Ha n babie s ar e care d for b y a n arm y o f youn g femal e nurses . Th e proble m i s no t tha t CryptNet i s sellin g babies bu t rathe r tha t poo r peasan t parents , unabl e to fee d themselve s le t alon e thei r offspring , ar e fallin g bac k o n th e traditional practice o f abandoning girl babies in th e fields, leavin g the m to die of exposure. CryptNet ha s been collecting the babies and bringin g them t o th e ships , where D r X has take n o n th e responsibilit y fo r thei r care. Technically, D r X is breaking th e law , but whe n h e offer s t o tur n himself ove r to th e Judge, Fang is overwhelmed b y what i t would mea n to tak e hi m u p o n hi s offer , fo r al l th e babie s woul d the n becom e hi s responsibility. Seekin g a way out , h e object s tha t th e shi p doe s not fal l under hi s jurisdictio n — onl y t o hav e D r X poin t ou t that , o n hi s instructions, th e yach t ha s saile d bac k int o Lease d Territorie s waters . The mov e make s explici t tha t th e Utopia n spac e o f Judg e Fang' s cour t has jus t implode d fro m th e comple x feedbac k loop s tha t connec t hi s interrogation o f PhyrePho x wit h th e Ha n babies . In a less literal sense , Dr X ha s alread y broke n ope n th e close d an d rigorou s mora l cod e o f the Judge , fo r thi s anomal y i s to o vas t t o b e encompasse d withi n th e Utopian rule o f law tha t th e Judge has establishe d withi n hi s court . Th e Judge ha s n o alternativ e bu t t o admi t tha t hi s projec t ha s failed , whereupon h e offer s hi s service s t o Dr X, opening th e doo r for hi s late r blackmail o f Hackworth , whic h i n tur n lead s t o th e feedbac k loop s cycling throug h Hackworth' s body . I suggested earlie r that anothe r Utopia n space no sooner constitute d than implode d i s A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer, and I want no w t o expand o n th e idea . Th e doublin g motif , announce d b y th e reflexiv e play betwee n Stephenson' s titl e an d th e Primer a s a boo k withi n hi s book, set s th e stag e fo r a neste d serie s o f recursiv e loops . I n th e adventures o f Nel l w e ar e presente d wit h tw o landscapes , th e code d simulation o f the Primer and the real world, a doubling repeated withi n the Primer whe n Princes s Nell encounters a series of castles and artifact s that tur n ou t t o b e nothin g othe r tha n Turin g machine s processin g binary code , s o tha t th e algorithmi c operation s o f th e Primer ar e als o represented withi n it s simulated world . The first castl e sets the pattern . Nell, imprisone d b y th e Duk e o f Turing , begin s receivin g code d communications an d must determin e whether th e encoder is a machin e (in whic h cas e i t i s tryin g t o tric k her ) o r a human, th e rightfu l Duk e who ha s als o been imprisone d b y his machine . Th e key s Princes s Nel l collects o n he r ques t i n th e Primer hav e a dua l significance . I n th e

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simulated worl d the y unloc k doors , an d i n th e algorithmi c proces s producing this simulatio n the y unlock th e codes that contro l the Turin g machines. I n al l th e machine s bu t th e last , th e Turin g tes t alway s ha s the sam e outcome : the encode r i s revealed as a mechanical syste m tha t Nell ca n bend t o her bidding as soon as she masters th e code . In typica l Romance fashion , th e las t castl e i s th e mos t formidable , ru n b y a n impressive machin e name d Wizar d 0.2 , a nam e tha t playfull y evoke s Oz. In addition , 0. 2 allude s bot h t o a doubling (2 ) and a n emptines s (0) . The doublin g recalls the twin signifier s generate d by code as it oscillate s between plaintex t (e.g. , the scree n text ) an d th e underlyin g enciphere d text. 7 Doublin g an d emptines s converg e whe n Nel l discover s ther e i s no machin e behin d th e curtai n (henc e th e zero) . But ther e i s a human , none other tha n Hackworth himself, th e artifex wh o designed the codin g machine i n whic h h e als o apparentl y resides , inscribin g th e doublin g with ye t anothe r meaning . W e may b e tempte d t o rea d Princes s Nell' s triumph a s revealing the humanit y a t th e heart o f the machine — unti l we remember tha t insid e this human ar e nanomachines. Th e point lie s neither wit h emptines s alone , i.e. , a regim e o f machine s wit h n o humans, o r wit h doublin g alone , i.e. , a regim e tha t endlessl y self reproduces th e human . Rather , th e point (literall y inscribe d a s a dot) i s to connec t bot h regime s i n mutopi c interpenetration . Nell' s ques t i s thus constitute d a s acquirin g th e skill s tha t le t he r successfull y revea l the recursive loops connecting inside with outside , artifex wit h artifact , human wit h machine . This resolutio n i s itsel f double d i n Nell' s dramati c rescu e o f Miranda, th e "ractor " wh o ha s sacrifice d he r caree r t o mothe r Nel l through th e mediation o f the Primer. Determine d t o find Nell , Mirand a wants t o revers e th e one-wa y communicatio n sh e ha s ha d wit h th e Primer, i n whic h sh e know s onl y th e line s sh e read s an d ha s t o infe r Nell's situatio n fro m these . Tracin g th e revers e curren t i s almos t impossible, Car l Hollywoo d explains , becaus e th e disperse d natur e o f the Internet break s information int o smal l packets an d sends it throug h multiple route s t o it s destination . Hollywoo d arrange s fo r Mirand a t o meet th e mysteriou s Beck , fro m who m sh e learn s o f hi s theor y tha t human desire , although usuall y "orthogonal " t o the flow o f informatio n (that is , mathematically independen t o f it), seems t o achieve some kin d of couplin g throug h th e Drummers . H e suggest s tha t Mirand a joi n th e Drummers an d tr y t o fin d Nel l b y exploitin g thi s coupling . Earlier , Hackworth ha d been draw n t o th e underwate r worl d o f th e Drummer s by Dr X's exhortation t o "Fin d th e Alchemist," a recursive formulatio n in whic h hi s ques t turn s hi m int o th e perso n h e seeks . Ther e h e

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witnesses a copulatio n ritua l i n whic h twelv e Drumme r men , arouse d by th e crowd' s drummin g an d chanting , al l copulat e wit h th e sam e woman, whereupo n he r bod y burst s int o flame s fro m th e hea t throw n off b y th e thousand s o f semen-carrie d ro d computer s a s the y carr y ou t their computations . In this copulation ritual, human desir e is harnesse d to d o th e wor k o f computation . Miranda' s schem e woul d revers e thi s procedure, harnessin g th e computationa l powe r o f th e Drummer s t o do the work o f desire . Nell rescues Miranda a t th e point where Mirand a is abou t t o becom e th e recipien t o f th e men' s sper m i n a ritua l tha t would en d wit h he r spontaneou s combustion . Surel y i t i s significan t that Miranda' s desir e by itself i s not enough . Only when Nel l complete s the loop through her reciprocal desire to find Miranda d o the non-huma n operations o f cod e receiv e th e impres s o f huma n desire . This scenari o hint s tha t th e recursiv e loop s ca n lea d t o a broade r sense of the human an d an enhanced appreciatio n o f complexity . Befor e he joins the Drummers, Hackwort h i s a model of rational thought, usin g his super b engineerin g skill s t o arriv e a t design s tha t ar e elegant , economical, an d clever . Hi s desig n principle s sprin g directl y fro m th e scientific triump h o f Enlightenmen t thought . I n thi s respec t the y ar e the opposit e o f the nanosites develope d by Dr X, who take s a s his tuto r evolution rathe r tha n rationality . Kludgy , inefficient , an d inelegant , D r X's technology work s th e way evolutio n does , by heaping modificatio n on modificatio n withou t eve r jettisonin g th e origina l design . Th e goa l is no t efficienc y bu t viability ; i f i t works , i t i s goo d enough . Althoug h Hackworth's aestheti c may at first see m superior, it has the disadvantag e of workin g a t cross-purpose s wit h livin g organisms . Evolutio n i s a bricoleur rathe r tha n a n engineer ; i t rarel y throws anythin g away . Tak e human cognitio n a s an example: operating under th e neocortex's dream s of Utopi a i s th e mammalia n brain , an d underneat h tha t th e reptilia n brain, an d s o on . Moreover , thes e layer s o f distribute d cognitio n ar e bound togethe r b y multipl e feedbac k loops , resultin g i n a distribute d complex syste m muc h lik e thos e D r X creates . In a sense , Hackwort h himsel f become s on e o f D r X' s engineerin g projects, fo r hi s tim e wit h th e Drummer s profoundl y alter s ho w h e thinks. After h e has been with th e Drummers, Hackwort h find s himsel f responding t o question s wit h a n imag e o r drea m rathe r tha n hi s usua l rational speech . It seems that th e Drummers hav e wakened his capacit y for metaphorica l thought , creatin g a space in which creatio n come s no t from th e neocortex alone but fro m th e lower cortical regions and indee d from th e entire body, including the sex organs. The point is underscore d when Hackwort h take s Fion a fo r a n evenin g performanc e o f th e

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scandalous Dramati s Personae . As soon a s he arrives o n ship where th e troop performs, Hackwort h meet s th e Clow n (controlled , w e later learn , by Carl Hollywood), who offers hi m a pair of glasses that promptly faste n themselves o n hi s head . Th e glasse s ar e no t transparen t lense s bu t computational device s creatin g illusions Hackwort h ha s n o choic e bu t to believe , sinc e h e canno t remov e them . Whe n th e Clow n offer s hi m a sea t an d Hackwort h respond s b y feelin g i f th e chai r i s indee d there , the Clow n scathingl y replies , "Thin k yo u ca n ge t awa y with scientifi c rationalism al l night? What's going to happen th e first tim e you actuall y start believing what yo u see?" (421). The riposte hints that we are always in Hackworth' s situation ; eve n whe n w e ar e no t wearin g lenses , th e brain operate s a s a simulatio n machin e whos e principa l jo b i s t o continuously creat e fo r u s a theate r o f representations . As th e structur e o f a simulation-within-a-simulatio n suggests , th e plays o f Dramati s Persona e ar e metafictiona l construct s minglin g audience an d actor s i n indeterminat e ways . The y ar e als o enactment s of a n individual' s relatio n t o th e globa l informatio n flo w — not i n an y simple one-to-on e correspondenc e bu t i n comple x feedbac k loop s whereby on e bot h act s an d i s acte d upon . Whe n Hackwort h discover s a labyrint h o n th e ship' s lowes t leve l an d wade s int o it , w e understan d that he is again plunging into the semi-conscious stat e that characterize d his sta y wit h th e Drummers , presumabl y t o continu e hi s wor k o n th e Seed. Fo r him , th e shi p thu s function s a s a limina l zon e betwee n th e conscious an d unconscious , th e sunli t worl d o f rationalit y an d underwater real m o f th e Drummers , th e restrain t o f Neo-Victoria n morals an d th e promiscuit y o f orgiasti c copulation , th e computationa l expertise o f a skille d enginee r an d th e unconsciou s creativit y o f metaphor an d dream . Computatio n take s plac e a t bot h end s o f th e spectrum, althoug h i n significantl y differen t way s an d t o divers e ends . In Hackworth , th e tw o aesthetic s merge , a s hi s min d an d bod y (mindbody) becom e interpolate d int o feedbac k loop s tha t connec t hi m in multiple an d indeterminate way s to the apparent opposite s o f FinkleMcGraw an d Dr X , reason an d dream , th e Celestia l Kingdo m an d Ne w Atlantis, huma n an d computer , insid e an d outside . Th e change s h e undergoes bot h exemplif y an d enac t th e transformatio n o f Utopi a int o mutopia. Although Hackwort h perform s thi s mutatio n wit h especia l force , similar transformations happe n throughout. Conside r the scene in whic h Carl Hollywoo d i s hackin g int o th e Clow n figure . Hollywoo d carrie s out hi s hac k sittin g i n Mr s Kwan' s teahous e i n Shanghai , wher e th e narrative is interrupted by a flashback i n which we learn o f Hollywood' s

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upbringing in the Lone Eagle territory. Settling in the sparsely populate d regions o f the American Northwest , th e Lone Eagles sought t o establis h their ow n Utopi a by creatin g a space in whic h America n individualis m and self-relianc e woul d reig n supreme . I n thi s anarchisti c group , common caus e meant th e violent exclusio n o f outsiders. To mark thei r territory, th e Lon e Eagle s decorate d thei r border s wit h th e corpse s o f would-be marauders . B y upbringin g an d choice , Hollywoo d i s thu s figured a s tha t quintessentia l individual , th e America n cowboy , an d linked wit h th e isolation , autonomy , an d predatio n o f th e bir d tha t i s the U S nationa l symbol . A s h e enjoy s hi s gree n tea , h e work s wit h mediatronic paper . Significantly , thi s pape r i s precisel y no t th e "blan k page" tha t Miche l d e Certea u ha s suggeste d represent s Utopia n possibilities fo r ever y scribble r wh o sit s before it. 8 Rather , mediatroni c paper i s ful l o f intelligen t agent s tha t hav e th e abilit y t o carr y ou t complex tasks . Moreover, th e paper is in wireless communicatio n wit h the Net, capabl e of transmitting an d receiving messages from anywher e on th e globe . Th e pape r make s clea r tha t Hollywoo d no w live s i n th e mutopia o f contemporar y networke d societ y rathe r tha n i n th e Utopi a of his youth. Th e flashbac k recountin g hi s Utopian root s functions lik e a windo w opene d an d dismisse d b y a mous e clic k withi n th e large r window o f th e present , whic h contextualize s i t a s yet anothe r Utopia n spatiality tha t ha s implode d int o th e complexitie s o f th e mutopi a o f global connectivity . Further increasin g ou r awarenes s tha t th e window s ar e connecte d through multipl e feedbac k loops , th e mediatroni c pape r open s severa l video window s tha t simulat e action s takin g plac e a t geographicall y dispersed locations , whereupo n Hollywoo d glance s u p fro m hi s corne r window sea t t o se e "th e back s an d buttock s o f peopl e i n th e street , jammed u p agai n th e glas s b y th e pressur e o f th e crowd " (407) . Th e narrative window opene d by the flashback, th e intelligent paper' s vide o windows, and the actual window o f the restaurant i s joined in a comple x web o f metaphorica l an d litera l networks . Thi s sam e crowd , pressin g ceaselessly throug h th e Shangha i streets , ha d earlie r bee n use d b y Hollywood t o explai n t o Mirand a wh y i t wa s virtuall y impossibl e t o find Nel l b y backtrackin g he r pat h throug h th e Internet . Pointin g t o the crowd, Hollywood tell s Miranda that informatio n flow s throug h th e Net i n smal l packet s passe d quickl y alon g man y differen t routes , a s if someone o n th e stree t passe d a packe t t o someon e else , an d tha t someone t o stil l another , an d s o forth . I n thi s metaphor , th e crow d merges with th e information flo w tha t ha s interpolated Hollywoo d int o his presen t mutopi a a s h e sit s immerse d i n th e mediatroni c paper .

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Twenty-four hour s later he completes his hack, an d only then doe s "th e crowd outsid e began t o break up. They had been treate d t o a remarkabl e free medi a show , watchin g ove r hi s shoulder s fo r hour s a s t h e dramaturgical exploit s o f Joh n Perciva l Hackwort h ha d playe d themselves out , i n severa l differen t camer a angles , o n floatin g cin e windows o n Car l Hollywood' s pages " (432) . Th e crow d i s t h u s transformed int o a virtua l audienc e o f th e Dramati s Persona e productions, whic h ar e crafte d precisel y t o brea k dow n th e distinctio n between acto r an d audience . T o thi s extent , then , th e crow d i s figure d in it s abilit y t o ac t throug h individua l agenc y rathe r tha n a s th e computational automat a the y had been in Hollywood's earlier metaphor . The crow d has, moreover, bee n connected throug h th e simulated displa y to Hollywood's hack , s o tha t hi s action s hav e affecte d th e crowd . Soo n enough th e crow d wil l affec t him , a s h e get s draw n int o th e chao s o f the Fists' rebellion. He is able to survive only because he forms alliance s with a multi-ethnic grou p o f non-Chinese , wh o figh t togethe r t o reac h the waterfron t wher e the y ca n escape . I n a worl d thi s complex , th e model o f th e Lon e Eagle s canno t wor k fo r long . Another versio n o f mediatronic immersio n come s when Constabl e Moore, i n whos e Dovetai l guesthous e Nel l ha s bee n staying , fall s int o one o f hi s periodi c funk s i n whic h h e relive s th e horror s o f hi s pas t a s a "securit y consultant " t o Chines e warlords . Nel l ha s learne d throug h the Primer's Encyclopedi a tha t th e Constabl e ha d bee n infeste d wit h primitive nanosites . H e wa s incredibl y lucky ; h e survived , unlik e th e 15,000 Chines e troop s who m nanosite s wipe d ou t i n a singl e night . When Nel l firs t arrive s i n Dovetail , sh e come s t o hi s cottag e unannounced an d catche s hi m withou t hi s shirt , noticin g tha t hi s ski n "came i n tw o colors. " Hi s bod y i s describe d i n th e languag e o f earthworks an d imaged as a faulty engineerin g project: "I t was as thoug h worms ha d eate n throug h hi s torso , carvin g ou t a networ k o f interna l passageways tha t ha d late r bee n backfille d wit h somethin g tha t didn' t quite match " (266) . On th e nigh t i n question , Nel l hear s a disturbanc e and peer s i n a t th e Constable , discoverin g tha t h e ha s rolle d bac k th e carpet t o uncove r a mediatroni c floor : "th e floo r was , i n fact , a larg e mediatron itself , glowin g rather diml y compare d t o th e one in th e wall , and displayin g a lo t o f high-resolutio n material : tex t document s an d detailed graphics with the occasional cine feed. The Constable was dow n on hi s hand s an d knee s amids t this , bawlin g lik e a child , th e tear s collecting in th e shallo w saucer s o f his half-glasses an d spatterin g ont o the mediatron, whic h illuminate d the m weirdly from below " (276) . The circuit betwee n th e Constable' s emotion s an d th e event s show n i n th e

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mediatrons break s th e illusio n o f th e secur e an d protected lif e h e lead s in Dovetail , shatterin g th e Utopia n idyl l wit h tear s a s th e connectin g medium. Th e implosio n o f th e Utopia n spac e i s dramatized whe n Nel l notices that , amon g severa l frozen cin e feeds, on e is still rollin g live,- it takes he r a fe w moment s t o realiz e i t depict s a ma n bein g beheaded , whereupon sh e canno t sto p screaming . Eve n in Dovetail , a communit y that ha s chose n t o defin e itsel f b y it s handcrafte d lifestyle , th e information flo w surge s relentlessl y int o th e sam e cottag e tha t ha d earlier bee n describe d a s a quain t antique . Th e ne w spatialit y create d by the synerg y between informatio n technolog y an d nanotechnology i s aptly capture d i n th e imag e o f th e Constable , hi s multicolore d bod y a map o f nanosit e infestation , weepin g a s h e kneel s o n th e surfac e tha t literally serve s a s a groun d fo r hi s dail y activities . The dee p connection s betwee n mutopia , nanospatiality , an d th e transformation o f th e libera l humanis t subjec t i s strikingl y image d i n another bod y displa y tha t confront s Hackwort h whe n h e stand s o n th e beach, the marginal space that both connect s and separates the decorou s world h e ha s know n fro m th e orgiasti c underworl d o f th e Drummers . In this liminal zone he sees a young woman standin g in a circle of tote m poles, whic h h e ha s als o entered , he r ski n an d hai r treate d wit h nanosites s o the y becom e mediatroni c displays . The woman was looking at a totem pole dominated by a representation of a n orca , hea d dow n an d tai l up , dorsa l fin projectin g horizontall y out o f th e pol e an d evidentl y carve d fro m a separat e piece o f wood . The orca' s blowhol e ha d a human fac e carve d aroun d it . Th e face' s mouth and the orca's blowhole were the same thing. This promiscuous denial o f boundarie s wa s everywher e o n th e tote m pole s an d o n th e woman's tattoo: The staring eyes of a bear were also the faces of some other sor t o f creature . Th e woman' s nave l wa s als o th e mout h o f a human face, muc h like the orca's blowhole, and sometimes tha t fac e became th e mout h o f a larger face whos e eye s were her nipple s an d whose goatee was he r pubi c hair. Bu t a s soon a s he'd mad e ou t on e pattern, it would change into something else, because unlike the totem poles th e tatto o wa s dynami c an d playe d wit h image s i n tim e th e same way that th e tote m pole s did in space . (247) The imag e serve s a s harbinge r o f th e subversio n o f individua l identit y enacted whe n Hackworth' s finel y tune d an d supremel y rationa l min d becomes submerge d i n th e mas s unconsciou s o f th e Drummers . I n a broader sense , th e imag e point s towar d th e recursiv e loop s tha t transform a Utopia int o a mutopia. Tempora l processe s i n a Utopia ca n

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be containe d an d directe d becaus e it s borders , howeve r indeterminat e in a cartographi c sense , ar e no t themselve s subjec t t o continuou s transformation. I n th e interchange s mad e possibl e b y nanotechnolog y and informatio n networking , recursiv e loop s occu r o n ever y scale , subverting th e libera l subjec t an d th e Utopia n spac e alike . These loop s sugges t a different interpretatio n fo r th e disappearanc e of Utopi a fro m th e observatio n wit h whic h I began , namel y Rorty' s observation tha t ou r contemporar y writer s hav e los t fait h i n ou r country's abilit y t o achiev e greatness. It is useful t o remember tha t th e Utopian genre , usuall y date d fro m Si r Thoma s More' s classi c i n 1516 , was formulate d i n societie s tha t wer e no t nearl y a s interconnecte d a s they ar e now. Cross-countr y communicatio n too k day s i n More' s tim e and wa s bese t b y man y uncertainties , fro m highwayme n t o a horse' s broken leg . Despite the advent o f the telegraph, a technology proclaime d at th e tim e t o eradicat e space , i t too k severa l hour s fo r a telegrap h message t o be transmitte d aroun d th e globe . Now, o f course , message s can no w flas h aroun d th e eart h i n minutes , permittin g th e ever-tighte r integration amon g social , economic , an d informatio n systems. 9 Th e Utopian idea l ma y b e fading , no t becaus e human s hav e los t hop e fo r a better futur e bu t becaus e th e condition s i n whic h w e liv e mak e th e isolationist premis e o f Utopia n space s appea r increasingl y untenable . This isolatio n i s suspect , a s Loui s Mari n ha s pointe d out , fo r i t alway s implies a complementary perspectiv e fro m whic h th e dominate d mus t look u p t o th e dominatin g heigh t o f a privileged inside . Compared t o a Utopia, a mutopi a ma y afte r al l giv e u s th e greate r reaso n t o hope , fo r its foregroundin g o f th e recursiv e loop s tha t connec t Utopi a t o world , world t o technologica l systems , an d technologica l system s t o peopl e highlights th e interdependencie s tha t mus t for m th e basi s fo r an y responsible contemporar y ethics . "Th e fathers" — indee d al l o f u s — can n o longe r affor d t o laug h a t th e ide a tha t dange r i s a n illusio n an d nature i s impotent; w e ca n n o longe r affor d t o believe tha t th e action s of the dominator s will not cycl e through th e system t o affect u s as well. Conflicted, paradoxical , an d far fro m innocent , Stephenson' s mutopia n can re-create a new sens e of the human, eve n as it implode s olde r idea s of autonomou s individualis m an d secur e boundaries. W e can d o wors e than b e mutopians .

Acknowledgements A portion o f thi s essa y appeare d under th e titl e "I s Utopia Obsolete?" , Peace Review 14: 2 (2002) , 133-9 .

PART 2 History Lesson s

7 Tales o f Future s Passed : The Kipling Continuum and Othe r Los t Worlds of Scienc e Fiction 1 Andy Sawye r

In 2001 , ove r thirt y year s afte r m y las t visit , I agai n fle w int o Hon g Kong. Thi s tim e I lande d a t Che k La p Ko k Internationa l Airport , no t Kai Tak , t o fin d a strang e mixtur e o f familiarit y an d dislocation . M y journey t o thi s regio n was superficiall y simila r — a cramped economy class airliner — though th e food was slightly better an d there was vide o entertainment. (Afte r thirt y years , yo u woul d hav e though t so , eve n though th e entertainmen t turne d ou t t o b e Elizabet h Hurle y i n Bedazzled.) Th e countr y I left , th e Unite d Kingdom , wa s undergoin g one of its masochistic phases o f self-examination: a crisis on the railwa y network ha s meant tha t journey s within Britai n by train ar e slower an d less efficien t tha n the y wer e a centur y ago , neve r min d thirt y years . The countr y I cam e t o wa s entirel y different . I knew i n 196 9 tha t th e political statu s o f Hong Kong would be changing in 1997 , but th e natur e of this chang e was not a t al l that o f the receive d wisdo m o f my teenag e years. Physically, ther e were bridges and tunnels where there were none, land where there was none. Stonecutter's Island was no longer an island . Where I onc e live d ( I discovered) wa s t o th e bes t o f m y knowledg e a n aviary. Buildings were towering like Metropolis remad e with computer generated specia l effects , o r lik e a spacepor t lai d ou t o n a magazin e cover. Some o f thes e thing s I migh t hav e speculate d abou t i n th e lat e 1960s. As an avid reader of science fiction, mayb e I did. But other aspect s of m y journe y coul d neve r hav e been forecast . A s soo n a s we landed , I switched o n m y mobil e phon e t o receive a text-message fro m m y wife . Around me , passengers wer e busily talking to friends, tellin g them the y had arrive d ("Yes , dear , I' m stil l o n th e plane") . Arrangements fo r thi s journey wer e largel y mad e b y e-mail : I quit e literall y coul d no t hav e

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come t o a conferenc e i n Hon g Kon g w i t h o u t t h i s for m o f communication. Eve n thos e aspect s whic h coul d hav e bee n forecas t with a moment's though t — the bridges, buildings, vas t ne w airpor t — seemed dislocating . Mentally , I wa s overlayin g o n th e presen t th e journeys o f m y younge r self , speakin g t o hi m fro m th e futur e i n tha t most science-fictiona l o f years, 2001, a future tha t — like all real future s — is unlike anythin g h e dreame d of . Scienc e fiction future s ar e easy. I t is th e rea l one s tha t ar e har d t o dea l with . This chapte r touche s upo n on e of th e apparen t problem s o f scienc e fiction: ho w a literature apparentl y concerne d wit h th e future s o ofte n finds itsel f involve d wit h th e past , clingin g t o its pas t vision s o f futur e progress. A scienc e fictio n stor y se t som e year s i n th e futur e i s inevitabl y going t o see m outdate d whe n tha t tim e i s reached . Som e storie s reac h this stag e mor e quickl y tha n others . Georg e Orwell' s Nineteen EightyFour (1947 ) i s no w safel y i n th e pas t an d alread y a resourc e fo r tras h TV,2 bu t i t wil l tak e abou t tw o billio n year s befor e w e ca n loo k bac k on Ola f Stapledon' s Last and First Men (1930 ) — thoug h i t i s no w possible, o f course , t o examin e it s firs t section , describin g post-Worl d War I , pre-Hitle r German y a s becomin g on e o f "th e mos t pacifi c o f nations," wit h amuse d condescension . Bu t t o thin k lik e thi s i s i n an y case t o misrea d SF ; we d o not awar d point s fo r accuracy , althoug h i t i s legitimate t o reflec t upo n th e actua l natur e o f th e distortion s o f th e reflection i n th e mirro r whic h th e scienc e fictio n write r hold s u p t o history. W e migh t als o conside r wit h mor e respec t Stapledon' s suggestion o f a superpowe r rivalr y betwee n Chin a an d th e U S durin g the twenty-firs t century . However, I want t o g o back, first , t o th e earl y years o f this century , t o investigate th e nature o f the "fantasti c reality " which i s scienc e fiction . At th e beginnin g o f th e century , thi s collisio n o f genre s — whe n the centuries-old traditio n o f Utopian speculation collide d with reaction s to ne w interpretation s o f scienc e an d th e effect s o f technolog y i n th e shape o f the adventure stor y — remained mor e o r less nameless. Insofa r as there was a name, th e dominan t stran d was the "scientifi c romance " coined b y analog y wit h C . H. Hinton's essay s an d fictions i n Scientific Romances (1886 ) and Scientific Romances: Second Series (1902) . H. G . Wells's early SF slotted neatly into this category and eventually appeare d in omnibu s for m a s The Scientific Romances of H. G. Wells (1933) . But even earlier , th e potentialities o f science were attracting writers. In th e preface t o th e 180 2 editio n o f Lyrical Ballads, Willia m Wordswort h wrote:

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The remotest discoveries of the chemist, the botanist, or mineralogist, will be as proper objects of the poet's art as any upon which it ca n be employed, i f th e tim e shoul d eve r com e when thes e thing s shal l b e familiar t o us , an d the relations unde r whic h the y ar e contemplate d by the follower s o f thes e respectiv e science s shal l be manifestly an d palpably materia l t o u s a s enjoying an d sufferin g beings . If th e tim e should ever come when what is now called science, thus familiarize d to men, shall be ready to put on, as it were, a form o f flesh and blood, the poet will lend his divine spirit to aid the transfiguration, an d will welcome th e bein g thu s produced , a s a dea r an d genuin e inmat e of the household o f man. 3 In th e followin g decade , inspire d bot h b y tale s o f Luig i Galvani' s experiments i n passin g electri c current s throug h th e tissue s o f a frog' s leg, an d b y Joh n Locke' s psychologica l "sensation " theory , expande d on b y Etienn e Condillac , Mar y Shelle y compose d Frankenstein (1818) , a stor y o f (i n th e word s o f th e primar y narrator , Walton) , "arden t curiosity" i n whic h th e min d o f a n artificiall y create d bein g i s see n a s a "tabul a rasa " acte d o n b y sensation s an d subsequen t reflection . In th e 1830s , Tennyso n speculate d o n aeria l comba t i n "Locksle y Hall": For I dipt into th e future, fa r a s human ey e could see, Saw the Vision of the world, an d all the wonder tha t would be ; Saw the heavens fill wit h commerce , argosies of magic sails, Pilots of the purple twilight, droppin g down with costl y bales,Heard the heaven's fill wit h shouting , an d there rain'd a ghastly de w From the nations' airy navies grappling in the central blue.4 Brian Stableford describe s th e almos t unknow n Willia m Wilson, i n A Little Earnest Book upon a Great Old Subject (1851) , suggestin g a species o f literatur e calle d "Science-Fiction " (th e firs t us e o f th e term ) as writin g in which the revealed truths of science may be given, interwoven with a pleasin g stor y whic h ma y itsel f b e poetica l an d tru e — thu s circulating a knowledge of the Poetry of Science, clothed in a garb of the Poetr y o f Life. 5 Later in the century , Lewi s Carroll dramatized scientifi c an d logica l puzzles i n Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1865) , Through the Looking Glass (1872) , and especially Sylvie and Bruno (1889 ) and Sylvie and Bruno Concluded (1893) , i n whic h suc h apparentl y "modern " science-fictional concept s a s state s o f consciousness , tim e ("th e

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outlandish watch") , hive-minds , an d ecologie s o n othe r world s ar e discussed. Matters ha d turne d ou t rathe r differentl y b y 1926 , however, whe n Hugo Gernsback , a Luxembourg-bor n immigran t t o th e US , wh o ha d previously publishe d fictio n i n technica l magazine s devote d t o the ne w sciences o f electric s an d radio, founded Amazing Stories and introduce d his audienc e o f youn g would-b e technician s t o "scientifiction" : I mean the Jules Verne, H. G. Wells and Edgar Allan Poe type of story — a charming romance intermingled with scientific fact and prophetic vision ... . No t onl y d o thes e amazin g tale s mak e tremendousl y interesting readin g — they ar e alway s instructiv e ... . Posterit y wil l point t o them a s having blazed a new trail, not only in literature and fiction, bu t progres s as well.6 Gernsback wa s a propagandist fo r th e values o f science and technology , and his gosh-wow visions, sometimes unscrupulou s busines s sense , an d naive bu t sincer e emphasi s o n th e didacti c qualit y o f th e fictio n h e published se t th e ton e fo r muc h o f wha t i s no w calle d scienc e fiction . But befor e 1926 , man y writer s o n bot h side s o f Atlanti c wer e alread y writing thi s kin d o f literature , thoug h th e dominan t for m wa s th e magazine stor y produce d fo r a sensation-hungr y middl e o r lowe r clas s rather tha n th e mor e culture d poetr y o r pros e tha t Wordswort h o r Wilson ha d i n mind . Periodical s o n bot h side s o f th e Atlanti c ha d lon g featured storie s of space travel or ingenious invention. Wells was perhaps the firs t majo r write r t o be educate d i n science , bu t th e pre-Gernsbac k "scientific romancers " (wh o themselve s embodie d widel y differen t strands o f literar y ambitio n an d achievement ) wer e arguabl y differen t from th e newer generations . I am no t attemptin g t o present a model of literary developmen t tha t run s "Wordsworth-Mar y Shelley-Tennyson Gernsback," bu t merel y point ou t tha t ther e are numerous stream s tha t run into the river that has become the twentieth century' s confrontatio n with it s own identity. Moreover, i t is a gross oversimplification t o regard the histor y o f "th e genr e t o b e know n a s scienc e fiction " throughou t the twentiet h centur y a s a creativ e clas h betwee n a mor e reflective , pessimistic Europea n stran d an d a brasher, mor e optimisti c "engineer' s fiction" (t o adap t th e ter m give n t o i t b y on e o f th e field' s earlies t academic critics, C . S. Lewis), but ther e is enough trut h i n the paradig m for th e patter n t o becom e a clich e o f S F commentary . There was, however, a writer who eve n before thi s divisio n becam e apparent ha d modelle d a wa y t o fus e bot h strands , wh o wa s bot h on e of the finest earl y exponents o f this form an d a n immense influenc e o n

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a number o f late r practitioners . Th e deb t o f scienc e fictio n t o Rudyar d Kipling i s frequentl y acknowledge d bu t rarel y full y examined. 7 I n th e months o f August an d Septembe r 1904 , Kipling was writin g "Wit h th e Night Mail : A Story of 2000/Together wit h Extract s from th e Magazin e in Whic h I t Appeared, " whic h wa s publishe d i n McClure's Magazine in 190 5 and reprinted i n volume form i n Actions and Reactions (1909) . Readers o f th e stor y i n boo k for m wil l have , i n th e subtitle , a no d t o previous publication, 8 bu t wha t th e subtitl e tell s th e reader is of cours e something mor e comple x than conventiona l bibliographical history. It' s a stor y tha t I think i s particularly importan t i n scienc e fictio n becaus e it doe s a numbe r o f thing s tha t man y S F reader s thin k suc h a stor y should do , i t doe s the m particularl y well , an d ye t i t read s wit h a particular strangenes s t o moder n eyes . Th e strangeness , I think , i s intensified becaus e th e futur e societ y i t portray s i s ou r ow n tim e (giv e or tak e a fe w months) , ye t i t i s — o n th e surfac e a t leas t — s o fa r removed fro m ou r experience . The year s befor e th e en d o f th e nineteent h centur y wer e marke d by various attempt s t o sugges t wha t lif e migh t b e like a century hence . The Frenc h author/illustrato r Alber t Robida , i n suc h work s a s Le Vigntieme Siecle (1883 ) an d La Vie Electhque (1890 ) attempte d t o portray life in the comin g century. 9 Jea n Marc Cote, in 1899 , illustrate d a series o f cigarette card s (no t actually published unti l 1986 10) that, lik e Robida's drawings , focuse d particularl y upo n transport , communications, an d househol d gadgetry . I n "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail " Kipling seem s t o be producing a technologically fa r mor e sophisticate d version o f thes e "anticipations" 11 b y giving , i n a s realistic a way a s h e possibly can , a picture o f this future world ; a world in which commerc e and c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ar e dependan t o n air , no t sea , an d t h e administration o f th e plane t i s unde r th e contro l o f manageria l technicians rather than nation-states: the "Aeria l Board of Control" (als o the subjec t o f Kipling' s "A s Eas y a s A.B.C. " [1913] , set sixty-fiv e year s later): a "semi-elected , semi-nominate d bod y o f a few scor e persons o f both sexes" 1 2 reminiscen t o f Wells' s "Samurai " an d "Ai r an d Se a Control" of , respectively , A Modern Utopia (1905 ) an d The Shape of Things to Come (1933) : "Transportation i s Civilization, " ou r mott o runs . Theoretically , w e do what w e pleas e s o lon g a s we d o not interfer e wit h th e traffi c an d all i t implies . (135-6 )

The stor y i s ofte n praise d fo r it s "foresight. " Charle s Carrington , in Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work, stresse s tha t "Althoug h a fe w

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ships were fitted wit h wireles s telegraphy, ther e was no radio-telephony , no hin t o r suggestio n o f publi c broadcasting ; bu t Kipling' s air-line r moved throug h a world-wid e networ k o f radi o services , supplyin g weather forecasts an d allotting safety-levels an d landing priorities, thirt y years befor e anyon e els e ha d dreame d o f 'flyin g control'." 13 T o se t Kipling's imaginativ e achievemen t i n context , le t m e not e a few dates : 1905: "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail " firs t publishe d 1852: Henr i Giffard' s steam-powere d dirigibl e 1883: Tissandie r brothers ' steerabl e airshi p 1900: Ferdinan d vo n Zeppelin' s firs t successfu l dirigibl e 1903: Orvill e an d Wilbu r Wright' s firs t aeroplan e fligh t a t Kitt y Hawk 1908: Firs t aeroplan e fligh t tha t laste d a n hou r (Orvill e Wright ) July 25 , 1909 : Bleriot's firs t fligh t acros s th e Englis h Channe l This perio d no t onl y sa w th e developmen t o f th e airshi p an d aeroplan e but als o o f communication s devices : April 25 , 1874 : Marconi's firs t radi o equipmen t 1905: Marconi' s directiona l radi o antenn a 1906: Aubre y Fessenden invent s A M radio and transmits musi c an d voice 1913: Messner' s radi o transmitte r wit h vacuu m tube s And ther e i s tha t stapl e o f scienc e fiction , "ne w rays" : 1895: Willia m Roentge n discover s X-ray s 1898: Mari e Curi e work s wit h radioactivit y However, i t i s not Kipling' s "forecasting " whic h i s the most interestin g part o f "Wit h th e Night Mail " but ho w he creates the illusion o f reality . His technique for doin g so is one which succeedin g writers have learne d from, althoug h few , perhap s wisely , hav e imitate d th e entiret y o f hi s achievement. Th e story , firs t o f all , i s (althoug h a numbe r o f excitin g things happen ) ver y littl e o f a story . Wha t w e ar e readin g is , i n fact , a piece of journalistic description o f a London-Quebec mail airship : a kind of Sunda y supplemen t piec e addresse d t o reader s i n th e yea r 200 0 an d set in context wit h a background o f advertisements, letter s t o the editor , book reviews , an d othe r materia l designe d t o give the illusio n tha t thi s is a slic e o f lif e fro m th e yea r 2000. 14 Kipling achieve s thi s illusio n i n a numbe r o f ways . Firs t i s th e narrative techniqu e o f th e presentatio n o f hi s future-world , i n whic h

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his narrator-journalis t addresse s hi s word s t o reader s wh o wil l b e familiar wit h som e aspect s o f thi s world : B y slippin g int o th e presen t tense withi n th e secon d paragrap h o f th e stor y h e achieve s narrativ e immediacy ("Tim e fo r us to be on th e move,' says Captai n Purnall , an d we ar e shot u p b y the passenger-lift t o th e to p of th e despatch-towers. " [112]) H e als o achieve s a kin d o f inclusiv e informalit y b y allowin g Captains Purnal l an d Hodgso n t o b e "Tim " an d "George " b y th e en d of th e story . B y insertin g reference s t o th e everyda y worl d o f th e journalist's reader s —"th e picture s o f ou r racin g professionals , fro m L. V . Rautsch t o littl e Ad a Warrleigh, " (112 ) th e "unmistakabl e gree n beam" o f on e o f th e guidin g beacons — Kipling invite s u s t o trea t tha t world a s "real. " Throughout th e story , tw o "readers " are addressed: th e reader i n 200 0 wh o i s par t o f Kipling' s fiction , t o who m th e worl d o f the mighty airship s needs no introduction bu t who might nee d guidanc e about ho w th e technolog y works ; an d th e "real " reade r o f th e story , t o whom Kiplin g mus t conve y al l aspect s o f thi s transforme d future . Readers o f popula r fictio n sometime s refe r t o thi s proble m a s th e "A s you know, Carruther s ... " cliche, or the "infodump. " Kipling' s techniqu e is more subtle . Information i s given t o the "real " reader i n a number o f ways. Informatio n come s throug h conversation , o r th e narrato r drop s some histor y an d technolog y int o hi s account : The ey e detect s n o join t i n he r ski n platin g sav e th e sweepin g hair crack o f th e bo w rudde r — Magniac's rudde r tha t assure d u s th e dominion o f th e unstable air and left it s inventor penniles s an d halfblind. (113) Here Kiplin g i s neatly givin g us both th e "how " o f th e technolog y an d the dram a o f a n untol d stor y behin d th e scenes . Hodgson the n elaborate s o n th e narrator' s unspoke n reflection : "Castelli thought he'd discovered the secret of controlling aeroplane s when he' d onl y foun d ou t ho w t o stee r dirigibl e balloons . Magnia c invented hi s rudde r t o help war-boats ram eac h other, - and war went out o f fashion an d Magniac he went ou t o f his mind because he said he couldn' t serv e hi s countr y an y more . I wonder i f an y o f u s eve r know what we're really doing. " (113) The mos t effectiv e illusio n o f verisimilitude , however , i s th e "apparatus" o f advertisements , letters , an d boo k review s (123-6) . No t only doe s Kiplin g give us detaile d an d ofte n amusin g picture s o f lif e i n the yea r 200 0 throug h advertisements , readers ' letters , an d "Answer s to C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , " b u t h e allow s t h e h i s t o r y an d politica l

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superstructure o f thi s worl d t o b e deduced . W e rea d som e o f th e administrative regulation s o f the A.B.C. and a humorous repor t o f ho w Crete, th e sol e remnan t o f loca l self-government , ha s petitione d th e A.B.C. t o tak e i t over . Opinion s ar e give n o n lega l squabbles , an d answers t o historica l inquirie s ar e provided : Aldebaran — (1 ) War , a s a payin g concern , cease d i n 1967 . (2 ) Th e Convention o f Londo n expressl y reserve s t o ever y natio n th e righ t o f waging wa r s o lon g a s i t doe s no t interfer e wit h traffi c an d al l tha t implies. (3 ) The A.B.C . was constitute d i n 1949 . (151 )

Lerner say s tha t thi s apparatu s is , "strictl y speaking , extraneou s t o th e story," an d i t i s sometime s droppe d fro m anthologize d versions. 15 Ye t by echoin g an d developin g aspect s o f th e journalist' s accoun t an d b y setting thi s accoun t i n context , i t i s fundamentally par t o f th e "story. " One migh t even , perversely , rea d th e stor y a s merel y anothe r additio n to th e overal l concep t o f th e imaginar y "magazine, " contextualizin g i t rather tha n vic e versa. Th e techniqu e o f presenting a "realistic " futur e through snapshot s o f tha t futur e i s on e ofte n use d i n SF . Rober t A . Heinlein, whos e Methuselah's Children wa s firs t publishe d i n Astounding Science-Fiction i n 1941 , an d Joh n Brunner , whos e Stand on Zanzibar appeare d i n 1968 , ar e writer s i n who m w e ca n discer n echoes o f Kipling . Brunner' s narrativ e techniqu e i n th e latte r nove l i s often (an d probabl y rightly ) attribute d t o Joh n Do s Passo s i n U.S.A., but th e deligh t i n devisin g a contextualize d futur e i n bot h writer s i s pure Kipling. Kipling, however, ha d already developed an d perfected th e technique — on e sometime s use d b y th e medi a {Daily Mail, 1928 ; Guardian, 1996 ) o r othe r organization s (Th e Centra l Carolin a Community Foundation , 2000) 16 publishing spoo f "newspaper s fro m th e future," bu t wisel y followe d al l th e wa y b y fe w fictio n writers . Second, Kipling' s fiction was , in the words o f SF writer Gen e Wolfe , "rooted i n technology. " Wherea s Well s wa s traine d a s a practica l biologist, Kiplin g was a journalist wit h a n interes t i n th e how an d wh y of machiner y an d th e speec h an d slan g o f thos e wh o ten d it : th e metaphorical (an d literal) freemasonry o f skilled craft . Considerin g "Th e Poetry o f Rudyar d Kipling " i n The Atlantic Monthly (January , 1897) , Charles Eliot Norton claime d tha t i n "McAndrew' s Hymn, " Kiplin g has "sung th e son g o f th e marin e steam-engin e an d al l its machinery , fro m furnace-bar t o screw , i n suc h wis e a s t o conver t thei r clangin g beat s and throb s int o a sublime symphon y i n accordanc e wit h th e singin g of the mornin g stars, " and tha t h e had fulfilled Wordsworth' s prophec y of a forthcomin g "poe t o f science." 17 "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail " achieve s it s

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purpose i n les s purpl e fashio n bu t equall y effectively . W e ar e give n concrete facts abou t th e development an d structure o f the dirigibles int o which Kiplin g insert s som e interestin g piece s o f technologica l speculation: Brunner , fo r instance , note s hi s us e o f th e ter m "colloid " (115): "Colloi d i s wha t w e woul d no w cal l transparen t plastic . Kiplin g foresaw th e nee d fo r a transparen t materia l stronge r tha n ga s an d les s liable t o fracture , bu t Plexigla s wa s a generatio n off." 18 Naturally , h e describes th e technolog y whic h drive s th e airships : "her e w e fin d Fleury's Parado x o f th e Bulk-heade d Vacuu m — which w e accep t no w without though t — literally i n full blast . Th e thre e engine s ar e H. T. &. T. assisted-vacu o Fleur y turbine s runnin g fro m 300 0 t o th e Limi t ... . the vacuum wher e Fleury's ray dances in violet-green bands and whirle d turbillons o f flame" (119-20) . His invente d technolog y — like s o man y subsequent technologies , convenientl y dependen t o n a yet-to-be discovered "ray" — i s ric h i n jargon , bu t i t ca n be compare d wit h wha t Star Trek fan s cal l "technobabble. " Kipling' s jargo n i s th e jargo n o f th e specialist rathe r tha n o f th e plotte r o f popula r fictio n i n a difficulty . I n "With th e Nigh t Mail " we hea r th e "clangin g beat s an d throbs " o f th e marine stea m engin e transforme d an d heightene d b y th e emergin g technology o f aeronautics . And t h i s o f cours e i s t h e thir d wa y hi s fictio n achieve s verisimilitude: through link s with th e reality his readers in 1905 , rather than 2000 , kno w an d feel . Th e mai l i s transporte d i n container s stil l called "coaches. " Th e dockin g o f a vessel remind s th e narrator o f "th e traitorous littl e bel l whic h i n pigeon-fanciers ' loft s notifie s th e retur n of a homer" (112) . The A.B.C . may contro l th e worl d o f transportation , but ther e is still trade rivalry with the Germans. In his world of airships, we stil l catc h th e echoe s o f th e steam-powere d vessel s tha t buil t th e empire. Captai n Purnal l i s a traditiona l nava l commander , "on e han d on th e wheel, " an d hi s bridg e "le t u s eve r prais e th e G.P.O . a s a repository o f ancientes t tradition! " (115) . "Cal l yoursel f a sailor , Sir? " he bellow s t o th e "ancient , aluminium-patched , twin-scre w tramp " which i s trespassin g upo n hi s ai r spac e (123) . Another vessel , lurkin g for th e opportunit y o f salvage , i s " a Rimousk i drogher." 19 Ther e ar e references t o th e "ol d days, " when seagoin g vessels were wrecked, an d "savages" haule d consumptive s u p mountain s fo r th e benefi t o f th e altitudes (tuberculosis , i t seems , ha s no t bee n conquere d — merel y treated wit h bette r technology) , and to the "archai c lumber" o f popula r democracy. Th e "background " surroundin g th e stor y ha s th e loo k an d feel o f contemporar y advertisements :

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FAMILY DIRIGIBLE . A competen t stead y ma n wante d ... . Mus t b e member o f th e Churc h o f England , an d mak e himsel f usefu l i n th e garden. (159) Mixed wit h th e explanation s an d description s are , finally , events . Th e wreck o f th e "tramp " an d th e stor m ar e dramati c echoe s o f sea-goin g tales, tol d wit h th e experience d fictioneer' s ea r fo r stimulatin g th e imagination. Realisti c fictio n emerge s i n a fantasti c setting . Wha t w e read i s a n elaborat e an d carefull y crafte d representatio n o f a n imagine d reality. In "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail " Kiplin g is not merel y being "predictive " but explorin g th e natur e o f a possible world . I n doin g so , his techniqu e is close to what became known as "hard SF," a term coine d by P. Schuyler Miller in his 1950 s reviews for Astounding Science Fiction. Alle n Steel e writes: "Har d S F is th e for m o f imaginativ e literatur e tha t use s eithe r established o r carefull y extrapolate d scienc e a s it s backbone." 2 0 According t o Gar y Westfahl , har d S F is ofte n seen , becaus e o f it s root s in magazine s rea d b y peopl e wit h a working knowledg e o f scienc e an d technology, a s a share d "gam e betwee n writer s an d reader s i n whic h scientific informatio n an d thinking i s fundamental t o the stor y an d th e aim i s t o b e a s scientificall y accurat e (o r a t leas t a s plausible ) a s possible." Westfah l goe s o n t o say : "har d scienc e fictio n writer s anticipate a n audienc e o f reader s wh o kno w a great dea l abou t scienc e and ar e prepared — even willin g — to poin t ou t scientifi c inaccuracie s in stories." 21 I t i s thi s stran d o f S F which C . S . Lewi s referre d t o a s "engineer's stories, " giving as one o f th e example s th e works o f Arthu r C. Clarke. 22 More tha n an y othe r writer , Clark e i s o n th e borderlin e betwee n science an d fiction . H e ha s writte n extensivel y o n popula r scienc e a s well as fiction (on e of his most recen t books is Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds!, a collection o f non-fictiona l speculations) . Hi s 194 6 essa y o n geosynchronous satellite s mad e hi m th e first perso n ("b y abou t fiftee n minutes," h e late r remarked ) t o la y ou t th e blueprin t fo r today' s broadcasting systems . Hi s fictio n an d non-fictio n hav e als o speculate d about artificia l intelligence s an d "spac e elevators. " Becaus e o f hi s interest i n space — he was an early member o f the British Interplanetar y Society — he has always been an iconic figure for NASA. An early novel, Prelude to Space, describe d th e firs t moon-sho t — British , naturally . Clarke's nove l 2001: A Space Odyssey, whic h I will sa y a fe w word s about, wa s a collaboratio n betwee n h i m an d Stanle y Kubrick ; nevertheless, while numerous ideas came from Kubrick , w e can see tha t

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the novel' s narrativ e technique s ar e essentiall y Clarkeia n (jus t a s w e can sa y the reverse abou t th e film) . Clarke i s a write r o f conventional , realisti c prose , ofte n stiff , bu t frequently — when h e i s describin g aspect s o f th e physica l worl d n o one ha s eve r see n — possessed o f a n astonishin g poeti c charge . Lik e Kipling, h e create s th e illusio n o f a realisti c worl d o f th e future . W e perhaps remembe r Heywoo d Floyd' s journe y i n th e spac e shuttl e through Kubrick' s detaile d visua l images an d use of special effects , bu t Clarke's fla t pros e create s precisel y th e effect h e wants t o create . Thi s is no t writin g intende d t o d o much mor e tha n presen t information : The pilot' s voic e wa s firm an d confident a s it cam e ove r th e cabi n speaker. "Pleas e observe all zero-gee regulations. We will be docking at Spac e Station 1 in forty-five minutes. " The stewardess came walking up the narrow corridor to the right of th e closel y space d seats . Ther e wa s a sligh t buoyanc y abou t her steps, and her feet came away from the floor reluctantly as if entangled in glue. She was keeping to the bright yellow band of Velcro carpeting that ra n the full lengt h of the floor — and of the ceiling. The carpet, and the soles of her sandals, were covered with myriads of tiny hooks, so that the y clun g togethe r lik e burrs. This tric k o f walking in freefall was immensely reassurin g to disoriented passengers. "Would yo u lik e som e coffe e o r tea , D r Floyd? " sh e aske d cheerfully.23 The spac e station : The lounge had been redecorated since his last visit, and had acquired several new facilities. Beside the usual chairs, small tables, restaurant, and post office there was now a barber's shop, drugstore, movie theatre and a souvenir sho p sellin g photograph s an d slide s o f luna r an d planetary landscapes , guarantee d genuin e piece s o f Luniks , Ranger s and Surveyors, all neatly mounted in plastic, and exorbitantly priced. (54) Both thes e passages , an d the description o f the flight t o th e moo n where Floy d i s pestere d b y steward s offerin g hi m "unwante d meals " and use s th e free-fall toile t facilities , ar e designed t o giv e informatio n as clearl y a s possible , t o presen t th e illusio n (i f w e like ) tha t thi s i s part o f everyda y reality . Bu t whereas Kipling' s "default " realit y i s the time o f steamship s an d engine-rooms , Clarke' s i s tha t o f commercia l air trave l an d shin y surfaces : officiou s cabi n staff , decorativ e stewardesses, high-price d souvenir s an d — to giv e u s tha t jol t whic h

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informs u s that Clarke' s viewpoint characte r is not aboard a transatlanti c jet — th e focu s upo n th e "sligh t buoyancy " o f th e stewardess' s gai t through which we learn that the y are in free-fall. Eve n the toilet cubicl e has "al l th e fitting s o f a n ordinar y airlin e toilet. " Later , w e hea r abou t the "Newspad, " th e electroni c transmissio n o f information, bu t jus t a s Kipling's dirigible s ar e "boats " wit h "bridges " crewe d b y "sailors, " s o what Floy d actuall y read s ar e th e headline s o f "newspapers" : "That ver y wor d 'newspaper, ' o f course , wa s a n anachronisti c hang over into the age of electronics. " (62) Finally, ther e i s th e moo n landing : everyday , factua l informatio n — the mountain s below , th e flickerin g number s o n compute r displays , the slo w descen t — is mixed wit h a sense o f wonder a t th e scal e of th e achievement. I n on e o f Clarke' s characteristi c touches , th e fina l paragraph sum s u p th e journe y wit h a paradox : He ha d made , utterl y withou t inciden t an d i n littl e mor e tha n on e day, the incredible journey of which men had dreamed for two thousand years. After a normal, routine flight, h e had landed on the moon. [66) Whereas Kipling's journalist stresse d the romance of the airways, Clark e offers th e mundaneity o f space . Perhaps, o f course, Clark e presents thi s world o f everyda y spac e trave l a s mundan e precisel y becaus e i t i s a vision o f the future h e has already presented severa l times, and one tha t was extremely common i n his heyday. Indeed, if (as I shall be explaining) the imaginar y worl d o f "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail " migh t b e describe d a s an evocatio n o f a Kiplin g Continuum , on e migh t ter m th e imaginar y world o f th e firs t par t o f 2001 a s a versio n o f a Clark e Continuum , named i n hono r o f on e o f it s mos t energeti c promoters . In 2001, however , thi s mundaneit y — as it was in thos e far-off pre stone age days with whic h th e novel opened — is about t o be shattered . Clarke singularl y end s by offering no t th e routin e even t bu t th e ide a of change, represente d by,th e Sta r Chil d broodin g ove r anothe r paradig m shift. Th e advantag e an d disadvantag e o f basi c narrativ e pros e i s tha t the ambiguit y present i n a situation merel y given — presented withou t interpretation — i s ofte n spelle d out . Kubric k tol d th e stor y o f 2001 through th e juxtapositio n o f image, - Clark e interpret s fo r u s wha t i s happening. 24 Bowman/Th e Sta r Chil d i s no w beyon d th e menta l an d physical capabilitie s o f his companions , no t sur e what t o d o next. "Bu t he woul d thin k o f something" — reflecting , o f course , th e positio n o f the homini d Moonwatcher , standin g ove r th e corps e o f th e enem y h e has defeate d wit h hi s ne w discovery , th e weapon . Ne w discoverie s

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change th e world . T o retur n t o wha t Captai n Hodgso n i n "Wit h th e Night Mail " remarke d abou t th e ne w discoverie s whic h brough t abou t his world : " I wonde r i f an y o f u s eve r kno w wha t we'r e reall y doing " (113). Between th e world s o f "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail " an d 2001 lurk s another familia r visio n o f th e future , foun d i n th e pul p scienc e fictio n tradition whic h Gernsbac k exemplifie d i n th e 1920 s an d 1930s , emphasizing no t s o much shinin g spaceship s a s metal robots , gleamin g metallic clothing , movin g walkways , an d vas t cityscapes . I n hi s ow n fiction, especiall y hi s semina l nove l Ralph 124C 41+: A Romance of the Year 2660, Gernsbac k envisage d videophones, translation machines , and vas t undergroun d transpor t systems . William Gibson' s stor y "Th e Gernsback Continuum " describe s th e dislocatio n cause d b y thes e images. W e liv e i n th e futur e tim e Gernsbac k described , ye t ver y fe w of th e thing s h e imagine d ar e here. Still , thei r image s ar e implanted i n our brains , jus t a s ( I wil l argue ) image s fro m Kipling' s an d Clarke' s worlds als o linger . Ou r worl d an d th e on e Gernsbac k imagine d ar e remarkably dissimilar ; ye t i f w e loo k a t th e popula r cultur e an d medi a of ou r time , i t i s i f w e year n fo r thi s future-kitsch . Whe n image s fro m Amazing and simila r magazine s appea r i n th e pres s t o illustrat e something "futuristic, " i t is as if we suffer fro m a nostalgia for the futur e of th e past . The worl d o f "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail, " however , i s differen t i n on e crucial respect . Th e physica l for m o f it s dominan t technolog y ha s no t changed it s dail y life . Th e suburba n roun d goe s on . Purnal l invite s a suitable husban d fo r hi s daughte r hom e t o te a o n Friday, - retailer s attempt t o persuad e potentia l customer s tha t thei r stoc k i s th e best ; the Vicar stil l requires a chauffeur wh o double s a s gardener. The natur e of politic s ha s change d — i n a rea l sens e ther e ar e n o politic s — bu t life goe s on . Clark e attempt s t o creat e a simila r sense , bu t h e a t leas t suggests tha t chang e ma y no t b e quit e s o cozy . In bot h "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail " an d 2001, w e hav e a futur e "overtaken b y events"— but tha t i s not th e point o f discussion. Clearly , a stor y extrapolatin g fro m th e presen t o f th e 1960 s ma y wel l b e close r to th e yea r 200 1 tha n a stor y writte n i n 1905 . Bot h storie s ca n rewardingly be read as "forecasting": w e can now consider how prescien t Kipling wa s i n speculatin g abou t radio , ai r traffi c control , an d th e ris e of the technocracy, an d once space travel does come about, we will the n have remarkabl e fu n discussin g Clarke' s "quaintness" — o r not, a s th e case ma y be . Wha t w e hav e fro m bot h storie s i s th e sens e o f scienc e fiction, o r predictiv e fiction , o r speculativ e fictio n — whatever i t ma y

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be calle d a t th e tim e — a s somethin g bot h abou t histor y an d wit h a history. Clarke , writin g withi n a specifi c traditio n o f S F (albeit on e i n which h e i s a majo r an d innovativ e figure ) i s confiden t but , perhaps , limited. Th e descriptio n o f th e moo n landin g i s somethin g numerou s other writers , Clark e included , hav e don e before. I t is smoot h wit h th e varnish o f time: a carefully wrough t ico n o f science fiction. Ou r uneas e with i t — the sens e o f dislocatio n i t gives us — is that w e stil l stan d i n the cusp of events. The moon has been reached, but not colonized . Ther e is n o moonbase , ther e ar e no commercia l flight s t o th e moo n — but a t every moment sinc e 1969 , the technology has been almost there , waitin g to be developed. Above all, we have read so many stories involving firs t voyages t o th e moon , luna r colonies , an d th e exploratio n o f spac e tha t we hav e now internalize d a set o f virtual historie s o f spac e travel ; and , as a result , w e canno t quit e comprehen d tha t i n fac t al l thi s ha s no t yet happened . Lik e th e Gernsbac k Continuu m o f Gibson' s story , th e Clarke Continuu m haunt s contemporar y culture . To moder n readers , then , Kiplin g ma y provid e a greate r sens e o f the alien , sinc e his Kipling Continuum seem s less a part o f the moder n Zeitgeist. Bot h th e "presents " o f Kipling' s Edwardia n Englan d an d hi s journalist i n a n imagine d futur e cognat e wit h our s ar e alie n t o us . Though Kiplin g doe s no t offe r th e othe r imaginar y artifac t designe d t o instill a sens e o f encyclopedi c realism , th e "time-line," 25 w e ca n consider th e stor y a s a lin k betwee n th e tim e o f compositio n an d ou r day. If one of SF's self-imposed task s is the imaginative creatio n o f alie n time — that which might have happened, but didn' t happen in the futur e — rathe r tha n speculativ e tim e — tha t whic h migh t stil l happe n — Kipling's stor y i s fo r u s th e mor e scienc e fictional . Still, Kipling' s "future " (o r somethin g technologicall y ver y muc h like it) has sometimes surface d durin g our lifetime. On e might first poin t to precursor s o f so-calle d "steampunk " writin g suc h a s Michae l Moorcock's earl y 1970 s "Oswal d Bastable " books , beginnin g wit h The Warlord of the Air, and Brya n Talbot' s Luthe r Arkwrigh t sequence , whereas steampun k itsel f — includin g K . W . Jeter' s Morlock Night (1979), say , o r Willia m Gibso n an d Bruc e Sterling' s The Difference Engine (1990 ) — is ver y muc h a n attemp t t o explor e th e technologica l roots o f th e presen t b y usin g fictiona l mode s develope d b y traditiona l future-oriented scienc e fictio n (specifically , alternat e history , bu t als o recursive commentar y o n scienc e fictio n itself) . A s th e clich e ha s it , we are now living in the future tha t scienc e fiction ha s failed to imagine. But i f scienc e fictio n ha s faile d i n anything , offerin g blueprint s i s no t one o f thes e areas , fo r tha t i s neve r wha t it s creator s — Kipling ,

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Gernsback, o r Clark e — really intende d i t t o do . We can , i f necessary , read scienc e fictio n a s alternat e history . Bu t eve n more , we ca n rea d i t as emblem s o f futures lon g passed an d superseded , storie s o f pasts tha t might hav e been futures, creativ e design s made to test thei r plausibilit y and capacit y fo r illusion . Th e futur e i n scienc e fictio n i s alway s th e present. I n Kipling , Gernsback , an d Clarke , w e se e " p r e s e n t s " transformed b y technologies ; bu t despit e th e Edwardia n trapping s o f Kipling, we still see reflections o f our own concerns in his future-which isn't-a-future. Ove r hi s horizo n alway s loom s th e shado w o f th e invention whic h change s societ y agains t it s inventor' s wishes , th e beneficial technolog y o f Kipling' s poo r comi c Magnia c (yes , th e nam e is significant) , Gernsback' s invento r Ralp h 124 C 41+ , o r Clarke' s Sta r Child, no t quit e knowin g wha t gam e t o pla y wit h thi s ne w powe r ( a reflecting o n th e creativ e forc e o f th e univers e itself ) a s he hover s ove r a "glitterin g toy, " the planet Earth . Their storie s embod y a hard scienc e fiction o f history a s much a s technology, i n which plausibl e future s ar e built bot h a s creativ e act s i n themselve s an d a s thought-experiments . At th e star t o f a ne w century , arguabl y wit h nearl y 20 0 year s o f existence an d certainl y three-quarter s o f a centur y a s a genr e peopl e knowingly writ e an d read , scienc e fictio n i s stil l bein g pondere d b y it s writers an d critics . I f th e divisio n betwee n presen t an d futur e i s becoming s o narrow , i s i t possibl e t o conside r suc h a thin g a s scienc e fiction an y more ? Shoul d i t b e lef t t o subsid e int o th e real m o f th e "scientific romance, " picke d up an d played with a s necessary? Ye t jus t as SF writers, thei r readers , and publicists ar e increasingly consciou s of the traditio n — Stephe n Baxte r i s th e "ne w Clarke, " Iai n Bank s an d Colin Greenlan d hav e reinvente d spac e opera , Ki m Stanle y Robinson' s Mars play s homag e t o a numbe r o f hi s predecessors , includin g Phili p K. Dick , o n who m h e wrot e hi s doctora l thesi s — th e S F whee l i s constantly bein g reinvented . I f scienc e fictio n di d no t exist , i t woul d be necessar y t o inven t it . An d man y peopl e do . A t a conferenc e o n Utopias in 1996, 1 was present when th e author o f a novel not considere d SF (apparently becaus e th e presenter o f the radi o discussio n progra m i n which th e nove l wa s bein g discussed , ha d discovere d "plot " an d "character" i n it ) claime d t o hav e written , i n a previou s novel , "th e first literar y treatmen t o f virtua l reality" — althoug h knowledgeabl e readers ma y amus e themselve s b y arguin g whethe r i t wa s actuall y foreshadowed i n E . M. Forster's "Th e Machin e Stops " (1909 ) or "only " in Arthur C . Clarke' s The City and the Stars (1956) . More t o the point , the writers I have name d — and I could name countles s more , but wil l confine mysel f t o tw o more , Christophe r Pries t an d Gre g Ega n — ar e

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building o n SF' s traditions (sometime s violentl y reactin g agains t them ) to produc e innovativ e work s (an d Maggi e Gee' s The Ice People i s a perfectly adequat e genr e S F novel wit h al l th e virtue s an d som e o f th e faults whic h tha t implies) . But S F is no longer a mode that w e ca n rea d as purel y futuristic . Th e future s o f mos t S F classic s hav e arrive d o r become irrelevant. What we must d o now, I think, i s place them outsid e history an d imagine the m a s the literary artifact s o f thei r eras , echoin g resonantly dow n t o ours , color s ou t o f spac e an d shadow s ou t o f time . So why i s Kipling's alternate future s o resonant? I want t o turn bac k the ter m use d t o defin e tha t subgenr e o f S F tha t look s toward s bot h Victorian an d Edwardian speculation s i n fiction an d the actua l historie s of the times . "Steampunk " seem s to have been coine d by the America n writer K . W . Jete r t o describ e th e "gonzo-historical " novel s o f Ti m Powers, Jame s Blaylock , an d o f his ow n novels . In a letter publishe d i n the April 198 7 issue o f Locus, Jete r offers hi s 197 9 novel Morlock Night (in par t a seque l t o H . G . Wells' s The Time Machine) a s th e firs t suc h novel an d writes : Personally, I thin k Victoria n fantasie s ar e goin g t o b e th e nex t bi g thing, a s lon g a s we ca n com e u p wit h a fitting collectiv e ter m fo r Powers, Blayloc k an d myself . Somethin g base d o n th e appropriat e technology o f the era, - like "steampunks, " perhaps. 26 The word was clearl y modelled o n "cyberpunks, " th e ter m adopte d in th e earl y 1980 s t o describ e th e loos e "movement " o f writer s lik e Gibson, Sterling , and Pat Cadigan , and , like "cyberpunk, " wa s intende d to describ e th e particular literar y sensibilit y o f a small group o f writer s rather tha n a n actua l genre . Cyberpun k itself , a s w e se e i n Gibson' s "The Gernsbac k Continuum, " reacte d agains t th e gosh-wo w element s of pul p scienc e fiction , Gernsback' s "architectur e o f broke n dreams. " In a visio n o f a n alternativ e America , th e narrato r see s The air ... thick with ships: giant wing-liners, little darting silver things (sometimes on e o f th e quicksilve r shape s fro m th e sk y bridge s ros e gracefully int o the air and flew up to join the dance), milelong blimps, hovering dragonfly thing s that wer e gyrocopters .. . [I]t was real, entirely real. But the couple in front o f me lived in it, an d they frightened me . They were the children of Dialta Downes's '80s-that wasn't; they were Heirs to the Dream. They were white, blond and they probably had blu e eyes . They wer e American ... . They wer e smug , happy an d utterly conten t wit h themselve s an d their world. 27

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Like th e Ne w Wav e befor e it , cyberpun k reacte d agains t wha t i t considered t o b e th e complacenc y o f traditiona l scienc e fiction . Ironically, o f course , th e cyberpunks ' visio n o f a computer-dominate d near-future world , no w reasonabl y compatibl e wit h contemporar y expectations, ma y appea r t o ou r descendant s a s quain t an d date d a s "With th e Nigh t Mail " appear s t o us . Thei r worlds , perhaps , wil l someday b e terme d thei r "Gibso n Continuum, " ye t anothe r o f scienc e fiction's discarde d futures t o place alongside those of Kipling, Gernsback , and Clarke . Steampunk, i n a differen t fashion , endeavore d t o reac t agains t th e complacency of science fiction b y reaching back to the genre's past, ofte n rewriting cyberpun k i n a ne w locale . (Strangely , th e steampunk s an d cyberpunks ofte n overlapped. ) Wha t th e steampunk s achieve d wa s t o establish anothe r "defaul t location " for scienc e fiction, on e most reader s and writer s ha d lon g forgotten . I t woul d b e eas y enoug h t o construc t a list o f novels which revisit , i n som e fashion o r another, th e locale s an d fictions o f pre-First Worl d War England: Christophe r Priest' s The Space Machine and Stephe n Baxter' s The Time Ships (1995 ) both rewor k th e fictions o f Wells, - Brian Stablefor d ha s fo r man y year s incorporate d hi s interest i n fin-de-siecle fictio n int o storie s se t i n th e future. Bu t just a s the cyberpunk s an d thei r camp-follower s latche d ont o th e rol e o f information technolog y a s bringe r o f fundamenta l change , s o th e steampunks offere d a n opportunit y t o examin e th e fiction s an d technologies o f th e pas t an d repla y the m t o conside r wha t alternative s might arise . I n th e nove l generall y regarde d a s th e classi c o f th e subgenre, Bruc e Sterlin g an d Willia m Gibson' s The Difference Engine, there i s (Joh n Clut e write s i n Look at the Evidence, fro m a revie w originally published i n 1991 ) "an ongoin g contrast betwee n 'traditional ' steampunk nostalgi a a la Tim Power s an d th e detumescen t chil l o f ou r authors' actua l visio n o f things." 28 "Nostalgia" i s a ter m whic h i s certainl y appropriat e t o America n steampunk, base d a s i t i s o n th e technologie s o f th e dim e novel s an d the re-creatio n o f Victoria n London : a nostalgi a no t jus t fo r th e pas t but fo r the past o f science fiction itself . But there are wider implications , especially thos e suggeste d b y th e proto - an d post-steampunks . Steffa n Hantke 2 9 note s bot h th e rewriting s o f Victorianis m i n Holmesia n pastiches o r suc h "literary " text s a s A . S . Byatt' s Possession, and th e way steampun k reprocesse s th e pas t t o interrogat e th e interpretation s we hav e o f it . Gibso n an d Sterlin g remin d u s tha t th e Victoria n Er a was th e tru e Ag e of Change . Moorcock's "Dancer s a t th e En d o f Time " sequence, a s so often wit h thi s writer, explore s morality,- by contrastin g

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the amoral end-of-timer s an d the conventional Amelia Underwood, th e shifting moralitie s o f 1970 s post-Youth Cultur e Britain are set into shar p relief. Hantke point s ou t tha t th e ver y ter m "steampunk " choose s th e steam engin e as "th e mos t appropriat e ico n o f the past," (247 ) and her e we migh t i n fac t questio n m y initia l implicatio n tha t Kiplin g i s a precursor o f steampunk . H e describe s th e technolog y o f th e airways , but i t i s th e commercia l traffi c — the G . P . O. Outwar d Mai l Towe r — which i s a t th e hear t o f th e story . Charle s Babbag e ma y no t hav e perfected hi s "differenc e engine, " bu t th e railwa y an d th e telegrap h brought abou t th e shif t fro m th e Industria l t o th e Informatio n Revolutions. Les s attentio n ha s bee n give n t o thos e writer s wh o hav e developed wha t I have bee n callin g th e Kiplin g Continuu m (althoug h frequently withou t direc t referenc e t o hi m o r hi s world ) t o becom e a "given" scenari o o f scienc e fiction . On e reaso n ma y b e i s tha t whil e numerous writer s adopte d an d adapte d hi s techniques , man y o f thos e who hav e best develope d hi s "alternative " world eithe r d o so obliquel y or wor k i n field s awa y fro m th e mainstream . Bryan Talbot's "Hear t o f Empire," his seque l t o his groundbreakin g "Luther Arkwright " comi c books , offer s a baroqu e futur e wit h Kiplingesque airship s and , significantly , a tak e o n Britis h nostalgi a fo r empire in which th e popular hunger fo r a figurehead oscillate s betwee n Victoria and Diana. Like Kipling, Talbot dresses his fiction i n the concei t that i t i s a "contemporary " fiction : ther e ar e spoo f "Victorian " advertisements. Ala n Moore' s comi c The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, similarl y bedecke d wit h advertisement s fo r phonographs , health remedies , and gadgets, plays games with popular fictions,- amon g its characters are Allan Quatermain , Captai n Nemo , Wilhelmina Murra y from Dracula, and Poe' s August e Dupin . ( A radicall y revise d fil m version, a t th e tim e o f writing, i s both anticipate d an d dreaded. ) Talbo t is als o th e artis t fo r a n episod e o f th e serie s fro m th e Britis h comi c 2000 AD, "Nemesi s th e Warlock, " i n whic h a n alie n worl d o f shape changers imitates th e English Victorians, showing us their idealistic an d delicate smugnes s abou t t o be smashed by Torquemada, th e totalitaria n emblem o f racial and social "purity. " 2000 AD i s known fo r its politica l satire, an d we recall Margaret Thatcher' s cal l for th e "Victoria n Values " of unregulate d capitalis m — value s which , w e ar e reminde d i n th e fiction, allowe d th e violen t competitio n o f nationa l an d transnationa l forces. Alternat e Victorianis m exist s i n a numbe r o f guises , no t al l o f which ow e anything to Kipling. (Bryan Talbot informs m e that he canno t recall eve r havin g rea d Kipling' s stories. 30) Bu t th e worl d o f "Wit h th e

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Night Mail " an d "A s Eas y a s A.B.C. " live s o n i n Marcu s Rowland' s "Forgotten Futures " role-playing game , and i t i s here we might discer n a clu e abou t wh y s o muc h contemporar y scienc e fictio n spring s fro m two storie s publishe d befor e th e Firs t Worl d War . The notes t o th e RP G game based o n Kipling's storie s (availabl e o n http://www.forgottenfutures.com/) ar e themselve s a remarkabl e piec e of extrapolativ e worldbuilding . Rowlan d offer s a detaile d histor y o f Kipling's world , wit h thoughtfull y bizarr e suggestion s concernin g th e physics an d chemistr y behin d Fleury' s Ray . A numbe r o f th e joke s — such a s th e attributio n o f th e proo f i n 196 7 tha t wa r i s n o longe r " a paying concern" t o the economist s Lenno n an d McCartney o f Liverpoo l University — fal l flat , an d thi s is , o f course , a handboo k fo r gamer s rather tha n a novel o r a scholarly dissertatio n o n Kipling. But i t i s wel l researched, an d Rowland' s exploratio n o f th e differenc e betwee n th e world o f "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail " in 2000 and that o f "A s Easy as A.B.C." sixty-five year s later , a s wel l a s th e insertio n o f fact s an d colo r fro m other stories , buil d u p a convincin g imaginar y world . But wha t w e hav e her e i s no t a convincin g "possible " future , a s Kipling scholar s argu e h e created , bu t a convincin g alternativ e future . Here w e hav e a futur e fictio n whic h ha s bee n rendere d "alternative " by numerous event s in our own historical timeline : the First World War, the wrec k o f th e Heisenberg, th e focu s upo n aeroplan e rathe r tha n dirigible technology . T o admir e Kiplin g fo r hi s prescience , a s Donal d Lopez doe s i n hi s articl e "Th e Dominio n o f th e Unstabl e Air, " misse s the point . I n Kipling' s world , man y o f th e certaintie s o f lat e Victoria n and Edwardia n Englan d remaine d unshattered , whil e simultaneousl y a number o f thei r doubt s an d hesitancie s (suc h a s th e questio n o f wher e the concep t o f "democracy " migh t lea d to ) wer e extrapolated . W e ca n examine ou r ow n response s t o th e world o f th e A.B.C . (is, for example , the police action against the Chicag o "Serviles " a Utopian or totalitaria n act?) and consider th e response of the world of the story. We find a world of thought-experiment , then , a t a doubl e remove . In using the term "defaul t locations " (nearly always, but no t always , "default futures" ) I a m attemptin g t o describ e som e o f th e fictiona l phase-spaces i n SF . Whatever th e man y an d varie d scenario s i n post Gernsback scienc e fiction , i t frequentl y revert s t o a world no t entirel y distinguishable fro m tha t describe d i n Ralph 124C 41+ or th e firs t hal f of 2001. That las t sentenc e i s unfai r t o man y writer s wh o wer e tryin g to engag e wit h th e sens e tha t S F was abou t th e new , th e uncharted , the exciting . Bu t i t aptl y describe s th e future s envisione d b y tw o important group s o f peopl e i n scienc e fiction : reader s who , grippe d b y

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a story o r a them e whic h i s mind-shatteringl y differen t fro m anythin g they hav e eve r read , wan t mor e o f th e same , an d th e non-reader s wh o have heard o f science fiction an d ca n describ e it perfectly. I n the 1930s , it wa s "tha t Buc k Roger s stuff" ; now , everyon e ca n quot e fro m Star Trek. Gibson' s smu g drea m an d "siniste r fruitiness " i s no w capture d by Georg e Lucas' s Star Wars: The Phantom Menace whic h fro m it s wholly generi c titl e t o it s elaborat e captur e o f th e sensibilitie s o f th e covers o f 1930 s S F magazines i s a late manifestatio n o f th e Gernsbac k Continuum, whil e Stephe n Baxter' s alternate historie s o f the America n space progra m ar e keepin g th e Clark e Continuu m alive . Cyberpunk' s Gibson Continuu m ha s becom e a fashio n item, - w e no w us e th e We b not t o hack int o th e database s o f multinational corporation s bu t t o bu y their products. That i s not t o say that th e futures offere d b y those form s are entirel y sterile , bu t writer s an d audience s hav e t o wor k harde r t o overcome th e fac t tha t thes e area s are , largely , known . W e ar e use d t o the future . Writer s lik e Gernsback , Clarke , an d Gibso n hav e draw n u p models for the next decades . The Millennium i s a damp squi b compare d to the rush o f speculation a s the dawning of the last century approached . One reason has to be that popular SF — sci-fi — has done our speculatio n for us . We have seen th e future o n television, an d we saw Captai n Kirk , not Kosovo . In The Guardian o f 2 Septembe r 2000 , Elain e Showalter , wh o ha s never seeme d a scienc e fictio n fan , set s th e contex t fo r he r revie w o f Jeanette Winterson' s modishl y title d The Powerbook i n word s whic h read lik e a cal l fo r someon e t o inven t it : At a historical momen t o f dazzling metamorphosis, whe n th e countr y is transforming itsel f dail y before ou r eyes — when th e Thames skylin e is a surrea l mi x o f th e classical , th e Florentin e an d th e avant-garde , when th e Englis h drea m seem s t o be just ove r th e horizon o r rainbow , as th e America n drea m wa s i n 190 0 whe n L . Frank Bau m wrot e The Wizard of Oz — Englis h novelist s ar e turnin g awa y fro m th e bi g subjects t o th e perennia l smal l chang e o f romance . Writin g abou t singles an d couples , triangle s an d hexagons , abou t lov e instea d o f money, about se x instead o f power, abou t th e past instead o f the future , they ar e measurin g ou t i n latt e spoon s th e greates t socia l -materia l offered t o fictio n sinc e th e 1840s . Stylis h an d fashionabl y satirical , they see m afrai d t o tackl e th e bi g subject s an d t o tak e eithe r th e subjects o r themselve s seriously. 31

It is statements lik e that whic h sugges t that scienc e fiction ha s a future . Towards th e en d o f th e twentiet h century , ther e wer e suggestion s tha t SF wa s comin g t o a n end , wor n out , described . Thi s ma y b e tru e o f

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generic SF , from Gernsbac k t o cyberpunk ; bu t wheneve r w e conside r fundamental socia l change , when w e compar e th e changin g skyline s of our cities (b e they London or Hong Kong) and wonder how these "surrea l mixes" wil l shap e lif e i n th e followin g decade s o r centuries , w e ar e writing scienc e fiction . What I cal l th e Kiplin g Continuu m remain s terra incognita-, eve n in purel y generi c terms , ther e ar e area s t o explor e an d attempt , an d Marcus Rowland an d his role-players, to fill them in . But there are othe r approaches. What remain s powerfu l toda y i s th e sens e o f alternatenes s in Kipling , th e feelin g tha t thi s coul d hav e happened . Suc h world s stimulatingly allo w writer s t o criticall y examin e wha t actuall y happened; Baxte r offer s a n interestin g exampl e i n th e wa y h e interrogates th e presen t spac e program i n hi s Clarkeia n alternate-Mar s program nove l Voyage. Bu t Kipling' s worl d i s no t eve n th e worl d w e "should" hav e live d in : i t i s both his , an d our , worl d askew , generate d by concepts which were superseded very soon after he wrote about them . We do not prais e Kiplin g because h e got certai n detail s abou t ai r traffi c control right , o r blam e hi m becaus e aeroplane s rathe r tha n dirigible s rule th e skies . But he did get somethin g right. He shows tha t th e futur e develops out of the present, tha t it is possible to extrapolate from presen t trends t o create imaginary futures wit h al l the verisimilitude o f realisti c tales of the present, an d that suc h futures almos t certainl y will not tak e place. The onl y certai n futur e i s the bemused aside : " I wonder i f an y of us eve r kno w wha t we'r e reall y doing. " While th e imager y ma y loo k quain t an d archaic , w e nevertheles s find i n th e "Alternativ e Twentiet h Centuries " o f th e earl y decade s o f that centur y thos e element s o f rapi d change , cultura l an d clas s (con)fusion an d abov e al l standin g o n th e precipic e o f a new er a whic h we stil l discern i n popular futur e fictions , particularl y thos e arrivin g i n the Wes t fro m th e East . Th e skyline s an d vision s of , fo r example , Japanese manga ar e touched b y cyberpunk (a s cyberpunk i s touched b y Japanese influence); but what interest s m e is that the y reach an audienc e frequently untouche d b y what w e would cal l science fiction. Certainl y in the United Kingdom, ther e is a crossover audience of Anglo-America n SF and manga (mos t o f wha t I know abou t i t ha s bee n give n b y othe r SF fans), bu t th e cor e audience s fo r bot h ar e remarkabl y separate, - fe w of thos e middle-age d S F fan s wh o hav e a n affectio n fo r E . E . Smith' s "Lensman" series , I think, hav e see n th e anime base d upo n it . Jus t a s Kipling's storie s wer e forme d withou t knowledg e o f scienc e fiction , a term whic h di d no t becom e attache d t o a genre fo r decade s afte r thei r composition, s o som e future speculation s ar e becoming detache d fro m

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the genre . Can w e see , then , anothe r continuu m openin g up i n Easter n SF, one that , lik e Kipling's , will b e a false bu t creativ e daw n impingin g only indirectl y o n th e popula r imagination ? O r ar e th e cityscape s an d technologies o f anime onl y ne w reflection s o f th e Gernsbackia n influences tha t wil l create the form an d content o f a new kind of popula r fiction? I do not attemp t t o answer thi s question , becaus e I believe i t i s too earl y t o see . In anothe r chapte r o f thi s volume , Howar d V . Hendrix speculates upo n th e transformatio n — even abolitio n — of "th e City " a fe w hour s afte r w e wer e introduce d t o Hon g Kong , whic h mus t b e the mos t memorabl e cityscap e i n th e world . But what I will conclud e wit h i s the feeling , mor e clea r t o m e no w after returnin g t o th e geographica l an d tempora l crossroad s whic h i s Hong Kong , tha t th e Kiplin g Continuu m i s no t jus t th e revisionary , recursive, retro-rewritin g tha t develop s a s a genre becomes awar e o f it s past. Tha t aspec t i s literar y history , enormousl y interestin g bu t no t necessarily emotionall y stimulating . Bu t i t i s als o a way o f expressin g what w e a s readers — individually an d collectively — experience whe n we face ou r ow n pasts an d interrogate th e futures tha t whic h aris e fro m them. Janus-like , th e mos t effectiv e scienc e fictio n face s bot h ways .

8 Globalization i n Japanese Science Fiction, 1900 and 1963: The Seabed Warship and It s Re-Interpretatio n Thomas Schnellbache r

The ter m "globalization, " on e them e o f thi s volume , i s a fairl y ne w one. Bu t th e proces s tha t i t implies , th e formatio n o f a se t o f cultura l and/or economi c norm s vali d fo r al l region s o f th e planet , ca n b e sai d to hav e begu n alon g wit h th e ag e w e cal l modernity . I n addition , thi s world orde r ca n b e sai d t o b e base d o n cultura l norm s tha t develope d in Europe . I n th e logi c o f tha t order , th e East-Wes t dichotomy , geographically meaningles s give n tha t th e eart h i s a sphere rathe r tha n a disc, took o n enormou s ideologica l weight. Th e scale s were weighte d on th e "Western " sid e (i.e. , Europe, an d later , European-founde d state s such a s th e US) . The privilegin g o f th e Wes t was , o f course , base d o n the real political dominanc e o f "Western " countrie s an d their technica l (military) superiority, - thi s ca n b e see n a s th e basi s fo r th e equatin g o f "Western" an d "modern. " Japan was among the most successfu l countrie s a t resisting pressur e to confor m t o thi s order , especiall y i n th e wak e o f th e ambitiou s program o f modernizatio n initiate d afte r th e chang e of political regim e in 1868 . Japan avoide d becomin g colonize d an d eve n becam e a playe r in the international powe r struggle , founding colonie s i n the Pacific an d on th e Asia n continent . I n th e Japanese expansionis m o f th e 1930 s an d the ensuin g Secon d Worl d War , Japanes e colonialis m becam e a n increasingly unrealisti c an d desperat e movement , unti l i t wa s forcibl y ended b y Japan' s defeat . Bu t a s Japa n becam e th e principa l Eas t Asia n ally o f th e U S afte r 1945 , th e countr y wa s confirme d a s th e leadin g industrialized natio n i n th e region . Th e resul t wa s a comfortabl e bu t subordinate positio n o n th e US-dominate d par t o f th e globe : Japa n became a Western nation , sinc e i n th e logi c o f th e Col d War , th e Eas t stood fo r th e Sovie t spher e o f influence .

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At th e sam e time , o f course , th e ol d ide a o f th e Eas t lingere d on , providing a coordinatio n syste m i n whic h t o locat e Japanes e cultur e rather tha n internationa l politica l affiliation. Militar y prowess had bee n a principal sig n of successful modernizatio n whe n Japanes e armed force s defeated firs t Chin a (1895 ) an d the n Russi a (1905) . Aroun d 1900 , Japanese militaris m wa s nothing t o be ashamed of . Th e Imperial Navy , in particular, becam e a national myth , and , a s the storie s discusse d her e indicate, thi s myt h wa s stil l ver y muc h aliv e i n post-194 5 peacetime . Of course , attitude s t o thi s myt h wer e ver y different , give n increasin g peacetime affluenc e an d th e new threat o f nuclear war. I want t o discus s below a story tha t no t onl y illustrates th e pathos o f Japanese militaris m but on e that als o played a paradigmatic part in the formation o f Japanes e scientific romance . The myt h o f th e Japanes e secre t weapo n deal t wit h her e i s on e attempt t o surmoun t th e contradictio n betwee n th e Easter n an d th e modern, b y speculatin g abou t a technology tha t i s a uniquely Japanes e invention an d henc e embodie s a n Orienta l counter-modernity . (O f course, th e ver y notion o f reinventing scienc e i s absurd , bu t tha t neve r stopped writers o f popular fiction fro m inventin g suc h myths, nor, mor e importantly, doe s i t mak e the m les s entertainin g o r effective. ) I wil l look a t thi s particula r myt h fro m tw o differen t perspectives : a 190 0 novel which i s passionately nationalist, an d a 196 3 film tha t reinterpret s the motifs o f the novel for th e postwar ideolog y of peaceful coexistence , in th e yea r o f th e firs t nuclea r tes t ba n treaty . The origina l book , The Seabed Warship [Kaitei gunkan), wa s th e debut nove l o f Oshikaw a Shunro 1 (1876-1914) , founding hi s caree r a s a popular write r o f adolescen t adventur e stories. 2 I t was followed b y fiv e sequels, th e las t o f whic h appeare d i n 1907, 3 an d i s widel y regarde d a s an important ste p in th e developmen t o f Japanese proto-science fiction . The fil m (know n i n th e U S a s Atragon) wa s produce d a t Toh o Studio s and directe d b y Hond a Ishir o (1911-93) , wel l know n a s th e directo r o f the firs t Godzilla films. 4 Th e movi e versio n use s th e titl e an d motif s of th e nove l bu t subvert s it s militarism , thoug h i t i s jus t a s concerne d with nationa l identit y i n it s ow n way . Hence , o n a rang e o f possibl e reactions t o globalization , betwee n rejectio n an d espousal , the y appea r to occupy opposite positions. On another level , however, bot h dea l wit h the sam e East-Wes t problem .

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The Nove l The nove l begin s i n Naples , wher e th e narrato r i s abou t t o retur n t o Japan afte r a n extende d journe y throug h Europe . H e look s u p a schoo l friend livin g ther e a s a trader, an d finds tha t hi s host's wif e an d so n ar e traveling t o Japa n o n th e sam e steame r a s h e is . I n th e India n Ocean , the shi p i s attacke d an d sun k b y pirates . Th e narrato r an d th e boy , Hideo, survive in one of the lifeboats. The y happen t o land on a n islan d that has been occupied by the crew of Captain Sakuragi , a Japanese naval reserve office r an d brillian t inventor , wh o i s usin g i t a s a base t o wor k on a revolutionar y ne w weapon , th e "seabe d warship " o f th e title . The shipwrecke d civilian s liv e i n a n idealize d all-mal e societ y fo r three years, until th e submarin e i s launched. A t thi s point, a tidal wav e carries of f al l th e speciall y develope d fue l fo r th e boat , excep t wha t i s in th e tanks . Hence , th e narrato r an d on e o f th e officer s tr y t o reac h India i n a hydroge n balloon , t o ge t th e neede d chemicals . The y com e down in the Indian Ocean just as the Imperial Navy's latest battle cruise r passes below . Bot h Hideo' s parent s ar e returning permanentl y t o Japa n on i t — th e fathe r finance d th e shi p i n memor y o f hi s son , an d th e mother ha d miraculousl y survive d th e shipwreck . Th e stor y climaxe s in a moonli t showdow n wit h th e pirat e flotilla . Th e outnumbere d cruiser i s save d b y th e arriva l o f th e submarine , whic h sink s al l eigh t pirate ships thanks t o its high-speed torpedo-launching mechanism . Th e whole cas t i s united , an d head s hom e t o Japan .

World Orde r 1 : Consensu s an d Rivalr y It i s centra l t o th e ideolog y o f thi s boo k tha t globa l value s ar e b y n o means rejected . Moder n identit y i s claime d b y appropriatin g insigni a of a cosmopolitan an d technocratic worl d order : Oshikawa's narrato r i s a cosmopolita n gentlema n o f th e sor t familia r t o reader s o f Europea n adventure stories . Similarly, technolog y (especiall y military technology ) is considere d necessary , t o be respecte d a s a modern nation . Oshikaw a is adaptin g th e discours e o f cosmopolitanis m an d militar y etho s t o th e Japanese languag e an d fo r a Japanes e readership . There had, o f course, been translation s o f European work, an d ther e had been Japanese adventur e storie s written . Oshikaw a build s o n thes e traditions, but The Seabed Warship wa s probably the first Japanes e novel successfully t o tak e u p state-of-the-ar t technolog y an d speculat e ho w it migh t b e mad e mor e effectiv e — and i n thi s cas e mor e Japanese . T o

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this aspec t o f technologica l speculatio n th e nove l owe s it s place i n th e genealogy o f Japanes e scienc e fiction . Oshikawa's readershi p i s Japanese , bu t i t i s a n internationa l stag e on which hi s character s stak e their claims . Their behavior i s exemplar y in internationa l code s o f conduct . Th e pois e o f th e Japanes e o n th e sinking ship is contrasted with th e undignified behavio r o f the (Western ) officers an d crew , who mak e sur e the y get a place on th e lifeboat s first ; the boa t tha t save s th e narrato r an d th e bo y luckil y resurface s empt y after capsizin g (34-5) . Westerner s i n thi s nove l are , almos t withou t exception, graceles s an d selfish . This i s cleares t i n th e passengers ' concer t o n th e steamer , durin g which th e Japanes e ar e pu t unde r pressur e t o sho w wha t the y ca n d o (25). Whe n i t become s clea r tha t refusa l woul d amoun t t o nationa l disgrace (th e narrator , unfortunately , i s unmusical) , th e mothe r impresses everyon e wit h a rendition o f a popular Parisia n song , thoug h this compromise s he r dignit y a s a lady . Moreover , th e son g contrive s to demonstrat e bot h th e impac t o f Japanes e cultur e worldwid e an d th e tragic fat e o f a Japanes e woma n overseas . It s centra l moti f i s tha t o f a kimono floatin g o n th e Seine . But competitio n i s a ritua l tha t form s a n importan t par t o f th e international order . Thi s i s illustrate d mor e clearl y b y th e them e o f sport. Also on board the steamer, th e narrator represents Japan in variou s disciplines (25) , an d spor t i s a n importan t par t o f th e dail y lif e o f Sakuragi's sailor s (61-2) . Th e mos t importan t spor t o n th e islan d i s baseball, whic h wa s jus t beginnin g t o gai n popularit y i n Japan . Th e narrator dream s o f th e da y whe n Sakuragi' s cre w wil l sai l t o Americ a and challenge to a return match th e pitcher who had recently humiliate d Japanese team s i n Yokoham a (62) . I n thi s way , rivalr y withi n th e Western world orde r is clearly centra l t o The Seabed Warship. Outrigh t rejection i s clearl y no t a n option : Tha t woul d b e th e isolationis m tha t Japan ha d give n u p a s unrealisti c i n 1968 . An allegorical poem written by Sakuragi (21-2) describes a mythical battle on the Indian Ocea n in which whales and crocodiles, cumbersom e creatures representin g Europe , ar e drive n awa y b y th e smaller , lighte r dragon tha t stand s fo r Japan . T o prevail, th e smal l countr y Japa n mus t be innovative . A s Sakurag i explains : If we basically mimic [the European nations] as we do now ... there is no way tha t w e will be abl e t o uphol d th e peac e i n th e Orient , an d wield major diplomatic power. To make a leap forward and rank above Europe and America, we now need a great effort o f will. In other words, we need to make a world-shaking military invention, a great military

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secret .. . that wil l scar e Europe an d America s o much tha t the y wil l no longer be able to trea t u s disrespectfully. 5 (50 ) In other words, Japan must become an Eastern hegemonic power in orde r to resis t Wester n hegemon y fo r th e whol e region . Technolog y play s a key par t i n this . Oshikawa wa s writin g i n th e nationalis t ideologica l mainstrea m dominant betwee n th e Sino-Japanes e an d the Russo-Japanese wars . Th e 1963 fil m aime d a t a ver y different , peacetim e consensu s market . Ye t this peacetim e imaginatio n wa s stil l haunte d b y th e ghos t o f Captai n Sakuragi. The Fil m In the movie, Captai n Shinguji , lik e Sakurag i before him , i s both a naval commander an d geniu s inventor . H e disappear s alon g with th e world' s most advance d submarine , secretl y launched th e day before th e Japanes e surrender i n 1945 . Officially , h e i s presume d kille d i n action , bu t o f course h e i s stil l alive . Thes e militar y secret s ar e know n onl y t o hi s one-time commandin g officer , forme r Admira l Kusumi , wh o no w run s a shippin g company . Shinguji' s daughte r an d Kusumi' s niec e Makoto , who wa s thre e year s ol d i n 194 5 (an d ha s jus t com e o f ag e i n 1963) , believes he r fathe r i s dead . Yet th e fil m begin s lik e a typica l myster y story , wit h a serie s o f kidnappings, whos e strang e backgroun d i s graduall y revealed . Th e kidnapped civi l engineer s hav e bee n take n a s slave s t o th e Empir e o f Mu, founde d i n submarin e cave s unde r th e Pacifi c b y survivor s o f th e legendary sunke n continen t o f tha t name . Th e peopl e o f M u ar e preparing t o recoloniz e th e surfac e o f th e earth , whic h the y believ e t o be rightfull y theirs. 6 Th e film' s submarin e civilizatio n i s a typica l fantasy mixtur e o f primitivism an d advanced technology . At the cente r of th e civilizatio n i s th e cul t o f Manda , a se a drago n who m th e M u people appeas e wit h sacrifices ; i n addition , the y hav e advance d powe r stations an d sophisticate d airborn e transpor t systems . Mu i s a mixtur e of futuristi c an d ethnicall y exoti c images , bot h o f whic h wer e familia r to cinem a audience s an d coul d generat e nostalgia . I n 1945 , th e peopl e of M u ha d capture d Shinguji' s submarine , bu t h e wa s abl e t o escap e t o an unknow n location , takin g wit h hi m th e plan s fo r a stil l mor e advanced boa t tha t ca n fl y an d cu t throug h rock . Thi s i s abou t t o b e launched, an d the people of Mu want i t destroyed because they conside r it th e onl y weapo n tha t coul d sto p them .

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After th e inventor' s islan d bas e i s reveale d t o th e Japanes e b y chance, a smal l part y includin g Kusum i an d Makot o g o t o mee t him . They fin d surrounding s ver y muc h lik e thos e describe d i n th e novel : a simple bu t civilize d hous e i n lus h surroundings , a n all-mal e societ y i n uniform, an d th e insigni a o f th e ol d Imperia l Navy . Eventually , th e Captain i s persuade d t o pu t hi s inventio n a t th e servic e o f th e international community , an d M u i s dul y destroyed .

World Orde r 2 : Peac e an d Subversio n The internationa l communit y i n th e fil m i s represente d b y th e Unite d Nations. However , onl y th e Japanes e Nav y i s reall y i n a positio n t o appreciate th e gravity of the Mu threat , thank s t o Captain Shinguji . Th e UN onl y take s th e dange r seriousl y afte r a Japanes e nava l vesse l i s actually sunk . I n thi s way , Japa n ha s a crucia l par t t o pla y i n th e ne w world order . O f course , thi s circumstanc e i s presented i n th e film i n a n ironic way, but ther e ca n be no doub t tha t th e issue of Japan being take n seriously i n th e worl d i s a s importan t her e a s i t wa s fo r Oshikawa . The Japanes e pas t i s treate d wit h th e sam e seriou s iron y a s it s position i n th e world . Shinguj i a t firs t refuse s t o figh t fo r th e international community , saying , " I buil t thi s boa t fo r Japan , no t fo r the Unite d Nations," 7 an d " I love my countr y mor e tha n humanity . I s that a crime? " Makoto , a s a peace-lovin g chil d o f th e postwar , i s shocked. I n a ke y scene , he r fathe r ask s he r wh y sh e i s cryin g an d encourages he r t o tel l hi m i f sh e ha s anythin g agains t him . Sh e onl y replies: " I don' t lov e you , I hate you! " Seein g tha t n o on e els e share s his attitude , includin g hi s forme r commander , th e Captai n come s t o realize his mistake and is saved from wha t mus t otherwis e have becom e tragedy o r farce . Thi s permit s th e fil m t o reconcil e th e Japanes e pas t with th e presen t worl d order . I n th e process , satir e meet s famil y melodrama, mystery , los t worl d adventure , islan d romance , an d wa r film. There ar e als o sharpe r satirica l allusions . Th e deadlin e se t b y th e people o f M u fo r th e surrende r o f humanit y i s midnight , 1 0 February . The followin g da y wa s formerl y Kigensetsu , a nationa l holida y supposedly commemoratin g th e foundin g o f th e Japanes e Empir e i n 660 BCE . Thoug h th e holida y wa s abolishe d i n 1948 , ther e wa s a movement t o reinstat e it , whic h succeede d i n 1966 . I n Oshikawa' s novel, th e sam e nationa l holida y i s th e auspiciou s da y chose n fo r th e submarine's launch , whe n th e whol e islan d i s bedecke d wit h nationa l

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and naval flags. In the film, then , Kigensets u i s awaited with trepidatio n as th e da y whe n "th e Empir e strike s back. " Bu t th e laughte r i s mor e self-ironic tha n sarcastic . Thi s explain s ho w satir e ca n b e s o clos e t o family melodrama . Bot h wor k togethe r t o exorcis e th e pas t i n a harmonious way . The level s o f realit y i n th e fil m ar e a s mixe d a s th e genres . I n th e novel, the dragons had been confine d t o allegory, but her e they interfer e directly wit h worl d politics . Whe n th e submarin e take s o n th e se a dragon Manda , technolog y battle s m y t h , bu t the y ar e clearl y recognizable a s a mode l an d a puppe t respectively . Thi s anti-realis m brings ou t th e metaphorica l potentia l o f th e story , freein g i t fo r ambivalence o f values , o r associatio n wit h variou s historica l contexts .

The Passin g o f Empire s

Mu stand s fo r th e ol d Japan. As it explode s beneat h th e ocean , Shinguj i orders hi s cre w no t t o sto p th e Empres s M u fro m joinin g he r peopl e i n d e a t h . Sh e die s a s h e migh t wel l hav e die d unde r differen t circumstances. Her s i s a symboli c sacrifice , lik e Godzilla's . Bu t M u i s more tha n a n allegor y o f imperia l Japan . I t coul d stan d fo r al l imperialism, includin g th e superpowe r attitude s o f th e Sovie t Unio n or th e Unite d States . Imperialism ha s bee n mad e th e attribut e o f a non-huma n Other . Resistance n o longe r oppose s anothe r par t o f humanit y bu t unite s humanity i n fightin g thi s Other . Rivalr y wit h th e hegemoni c powe r i s not a n option , an d East-Wes t dichotom y i s no t a direc t theme , thoug h it i s clearl y allude d to , both i n th e them e o f Japanese militarism an d i n the topo s o f th e Mu continen t (a s a Pacific anti-Atlantis) . In fact, worl d unity i s symbolicall y achieve d i n thi s stor y an d other s lik e it . Suc h fictions hav e been , a s i n th e tw o work s discusse d here , vehicle s bot h for th e sprea d an d th e critiqu e o f ideology . N o doubt , th e fil m ha s age d better tha n th e novel , mainl y becaus e M u i s a mythica l rathe r tha n a historical referent . But there will alway s be a marginalized Othe r i n every world order , no matte r whethe r thi s i s associated wit h th e East , th e South , th e Left , or Oute r Space . Som e spatia l trop e wil l alway s b e available . Locatin g the Othe r i n th e "Deep " is an effectiv e wa y o f preventing it s reductio n to a real historical referent. O f course , this is only possible in the fantas y mode, an d i t i s no t likel y t o lea d t o a worl d withou t empire s o r hegemonies. Fo r tha t ver y reason , fantasie s ar e th e idea l refug e o f

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underdogs. The differenc e betwee n Oshikawa' s nove l an d Honda' s fil m is tha t th e former' s fantas y stoo d fo r a historica l ambition , tha t o f a regional Japanes e hegemony , wherea s th e latte r se t ou t t o seve r th e fantasy fro m historica l ambition . In fantasies , opposite s lik e Eas t an d Wes t ca n meet . Tha t the y ca n never mee t i n reality i s not th e resul t o f human weaknes s bu t i s rathe r true becaus e ideologica l opposition s ca n exis t onl y a s ideas , an d onl y in pairs . Hence, the y ca n onl y fade bu t neve r converge . Specifically th e distinction betwee n Eas t an d West doe s not see m abou t t o lose its forc e today — not a s lon g a s w e spea k o f th e Fa r Eas t an d th e Middl e East , and no t a s lon g a s th e reviva l o f anti-Islami c hysteri a followin g th e attacks o f Septembe r 11 , 2001 can s o forcefully emerge . Like the "Red s under th e beds" of the Col d War, Al-Qaida "sleepers " may be imagine d lurking i n an y crevic e o f th e globalize d world . I n tha t sense , Eas t an d West ma y occup y th e sam e geographica l space , but the y hav e stil l no t met. Watch thi s spac e .. .

_?_ The Limit s of "Humanity" in Comparative Perspective : Cordwainer Smit h and the Soushenji Lisa Raphal s

In marked contras t t o the eighteenth- , nineteenth- , an d early twentieth century narrative s o f suc h figure s a s Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley , H . G . Wells, an d Jule s Verne , startin g i n th e 1950 s an d 1960s , a polarit y emerged i n Anglophon e US-centere d scienc e fictio n betwee n "har d science" storie s an d "speculativ e fiction, " roughl y correspondin g wit h the Col d War , th e Vietna m War , an d it s aftermath . O n on e en d wer e such work s a s I, Robot and Issa c Asimov' s Foundation series . O n th e other we see the growth o f a self-conscious genr e of "speculativ e fiction, " pioneered b y Harla n Ellison' s Dangerous Visions anthologies . Speculative fictio n too k it s theme s no t fro m th e physica l science s bu t from biolog y an d th e socia l sciences . I t gav e priorit y les s t o scientifi c plausibility tha n t o a detaile d workin g throug h o f rigorousl y imagine d imaginative futur e o r past scenarios . A few examples : Harlan Ellison' s "A Bo y an d Hi s Dog, " Jame s Tiptree' s "You r Haploi d Heart, " Ursul a LeGuinn's Left Hand of Darkness, Suzett e Haden Elgin's Native Tongue, James Blish' s A Case of Conscience, and th e Instrumentalit y imagine d by Cordwaine r Smith . This chapte r explore s a smal l corne r o f th e wealt h o f Chines e subject matte r suitabl e fo r suc h speculativ e treatment , i n compariso n with part s o f a major oeuvr e o f twentieth-centur y speculativ e fiction . I compare th e treatmen t o f th e broa d them e o f "huma n nature " i n th e work o f Cordwaine r Smit h an d i n severa l Chines e Ha n an d Si x Dynasties text s tha t addres s wha t w e toda y migh t cal l th e theme s o f genetic determinism an d the transgression, o f human-animal, an d other , boundaries.

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The Oeuvr e o f Cordwaine r Smit h Cordwainer Smith' s storie s firs t appeare d i n 195 0 i n scienc e fictio n magazines. Onl y afte r hi s deat h i n 196 6 di d i t becom e know n t o mor e than a handfu l o f peopl e tha t Cordwaine r Smit h wa s Pau l M . L . Linebarger, a professor o f Asiati c Studie s a t John s Hopkin s University. 1 The corpu s o f Smith' s storie s ar e se t i n a timeline tha t begin s las t yea r in th e yea r 2000 , wit h "No , No , No t Rogov " throug h th e attainmen t of civi l right s fo r Underpeopl e i n 16,00 0 CE. 2 I begin wit h a detaile d account o f human-anima l relation s i n th e stor y "Th e Gam e o f Ra t an d Dragon," originall y publishe d i n 195 5 i n Galaxy Science Fiction, and set abou t 9,00 0 CE . Spac e trave l i s o f cours e a stapl e o f har d scienc e fiction. Bu t th e premise s o f thi s stor y revolve , no t aroun d problem s involving mechanica l ingenuit y o r failure, bu t rathe r aroun d a profoun d interaction betwee n human s an d cats , i n whic h th e uniqu e abilitie s o f each specie s combin e t o for m a n entit y whos e whol e i s greate r tha n the su m o f it s parts .

The Gam e o f Ra t an d Drago n The stor y i s no t concerne d wit h th e obviou s danger s o f har d spac e fiction: vacuum , cold , machin e failure . Thes e ver y rea l danger s ar e replaced b y th e vulnerabilit y o f "planoforming " ship s t o attac k b y malevolent quasi-consciou s entities , "dragons. " Human-ca t interactio n takes plac e withi n th e framewor k o f a technology , "pinlighting. " Th e story is carefully constructed ; sectio n headings suggest a n innocent gam e of cards : the table , th e shuffle , th e deal , th e play , th e score . It recount s a gam e whos e stake s ar e lif e an d death . T h e n a r r a t o r o f thi s tal e o f inter-specie s p a r t n e r s h i p an d intracultural incomprehensio n i s Underhill , a "soldier " profoundl y misunderstood b y th e peopl e h e serves. 3 A conversatio n wit h hi s colleague Woodle y contrast s th e know n an d comfortabl e worl d o f th e solar system , "simpl e a s a n ancien t cucko o clock, " an d th e relativ e comfort o f the ancient world , in which people did not trave l to the stars, did no t nee d t o planoform, an d di d not nee d t o "dodg e th e rat s o r pla y the game " (68). Both me n ar e pinlighters ; a t 26 , Woodle y ha s bee n a pinlighter fo r te n year s an d i s du e t o retir e i n a year; pinlighter s ge t a t least tw o month s o f hospita l recuperatio n fo r ever y half-hou r o f activ e duty. Woodley recount s ho w th e introductio n o f swifte r "partners " ha s

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vastly enhance d th e safet y o f pinlighting , bu t a t a price: " I kno w it' s not easy , lettin g a partne r shar e you r mind " (69). Their conversatio n reveals tha t spac e trave l ma y b e somethin g lik e death , tha t pinlighter s can hav e thei r soul s literall y snatche d fro m thei r bodies , an d tha t "partners" als o compromis e th e pinlighters ' integrit y b y sharin g (an d thus intrudin g into ) thei r minds . Underhill respond s tha t "it' s no t eas y for the m either, " bu t Woodle y retorts , "they'r e no t human . Le t the m take car e o f themselves " (69) . The narrativ e shift s t o a history o f planoforming , whic h traverse d immensities o f spac e in practicall y n o time . But i n tha t instant , "ther e was somethin g ou t ther e underneath space itself whic h wa s alive , capricious, an d malevolent " (69). Pinlighters ar e essentiall y telepaths , who coul d detect thes e "dragons " by means of telepathic amplifiers (pin sets) and fight the m wit h "bombs " of light, but dragon s were faster tha n humans. Th e eventua l solutio n wa s a n allianc e betwee n th e intellec t of humans an d th e spee d of "partners. " Th e partners "neve r questione d the superiorit y o f th e huma n mind " bu t wer e no t muc h impresse d b y it; the y worke d wit h human s becaus e the y like d the m (73) , bot h i n general, an d accordin g t o individua l temperament ; affinitie s o f temperament coul d override identity o f species. The match o f pinlighte r and partne r i s determine d b y th e "rol l o f th e dice, " an d w e lear n tha t the partne r Captai n Wo w i s a Persia n cat . Th e proble m wit h partner s is that thei r "motive s an d desire s were differen t fro m thos e o f humans " (74). A battl e ensues , i n whic h th e human s flin g th e cat s a t "dragons " they perceive d a s rats, an d Underhil l i s badly wounded. Th e stor y end s in hospital , wher e a nurse react s t o hi s solicitud e fo r hi s partne r ove r that o f hi s huma n colleague s an d turn s o n him : "Yo u pinlighters ! Yo u and you r dam n cats! " (80) . The telepat h perceive s he r ful l hatre d an d realizes tha t h e love s hi s favorit e partner , th e Lad y May , mor e tha n h e does an y huma n woman . This stor y presents th e unknown, space , as a theatre i n which non human creature s exhibi t qualitie s an d ar e th e objec t o f affection s normally reserve d for human beings. The partners ar e portrayed as loyal, swift, an d courageous , howeve r alien . Th e Lad y Ma y i s als o portrayed , in th e min d o f he r partner , a s mor e beautiful , refined , an d subtl e tha n a human woman . Thi s story , published earl y in Smith' s career , portray s human-animal bondin g i n strongl y emotiona l an d convincin g terms . I t subverts th e "natural " orde r o f human-human affinities , and , under th e pressures o f interstellar space , substitutes a new consciousnes s i n whic h the bond s o f "partnership " tak e precedenc e ove r species .

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Underpeople an d Robots Smith furthe r explore s th e boundaries o f humanity i n a series of storie s about "Underpeople " an d a variety o f artificia l intelligence s i n whic h he problematizes th e categor y o f "humanity " b y a double contras t wit h animate an d inanimat e Others . Mos t importan t ar e th e Underpeople . Underpeople looked like humans bu t were their slave s and had the lega l status o f homunculi . The homunculi were morally repulsive [to the human narrator], though many of them looke d like very handsome people,- bred from animal s into th e shape of men, they took ove r the tedious chore s of working with machine s where no real man would wish to go. Their rol e i s firs t clarifie d i n th e nove l Norstrilia: "peopl e an d Underpeople ar e separat e species , indispensabl e t o eac h othe r .. . Th e Underpeople ar e part o f humanity whic h create d them, - they nee d Man , and Ma n need s the m t o understan d himself . I n addition , Underpeopl e are confine d t o eart h (wit h th e exceptio n o f th e punishmen t plane t Shayol), whils t tru e humans , an d tru e animals , voyag e th e stars. " Underpeople appea r i n passin g i n " A Plane t Name d Shayol, " published in Galaxy, Octobe r 1961 , and gain central prominence in "Th e Ballad of Lost C'Mell," publishe d in Galaxy i n October 196 2 and loosel y patterned o n episode s i n th e fourteenth-centur y Romance of the Three Kingdoms H f f l S S (bot h storie s ar e se t i n 16,00 0 CE) . Thi s stor y elaborates o n th e problemati c statu s o f th e Underpeople : Ever since mankind had gone through the Rediscovery of Man, bringing back governments , money , newspapers, national languages , sicknes s and occasional death, there had been the problem of the Underpeople — people who were not human, but merely humanly shaped from th e stock o f Eart h animals . The y coul d speak , sing , read , write , work , love and die,- but there were not covered by human law, which simply defined the m a s "homunculi " an d gave them a legal statu s clos e t o animals o r robots . Rea l peopl e fro m off-worl d wer e alway s calle d "hominids." (289) In thi s story , th e hig h governmen t officia l Lor d Jestocos t make s common caus e with a cat-derived "girlygirl, " and works agains t his ow n instrumentality enoug h t o give the Underpeople th e modicum o f powe r necessary t o deman d an d negotiat e basi c rights . "Th e Dea d Lad y o f Clown Town, " firs t publishe d i n Galaxy i n Augus t 196 4 an d se t i n 14,000 CE, is an extended flashback fro m th e conspiracy of Lord Jestocost

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and C'Mel l t o th e beginning s o f th e politica l organizatio n o f th e Underpeople. Here , a genetic programmin g erro r strand s Elaine , a bor n healer, ami d a human populatio n wit h n o nee d o f he r skills . Sh e find s her true place as the healer and teacher of a group of refugee Underpeopl e (legally condemne d t o deat h fo r an y illnes s o r defect ) an d mentor s th e dog-girl D'Joa n a s thei r firs t leader .

Artificial Intelligence s "Clown Town " add s the complication tha t th e entire sequence of event s is masterminde d b y a quasi-artificia l intelligence , th e dea d lad y Pan e Ashash (Hind i fo r " 5 " and "6") , who ha s predicte d Elaine' s existenc e and ha s traine d generation s o f D'Joan s t o expec t her . Elain e first meet s this entit y a s a Travelers' Ai d machine : "Is there somebody there?" "Yes and no." "What I mean is," said "Elaine, "are you a person or are you a machine?" "Depends," said the voice. "I'm a machine, but I used to be a person. ... they made this copy, and I died, and they shot my body into space with all the usual honors, but here I was. It felt pretty odd inside this contraption, m e lookin g a t thing s an d talkin g t o people an d givin g good advice .. . So what d o you say? Am I me or aren't I?" (127-8) Active intelligences o f human, animal , an d mechanical component s appear i n Smith' s firs t publishe d story , "Scanner s Liv e in Vain " (1950 , Fantasy, se t i n 6,00 0 CE ) and later storie s suc h a s "Th e Lad y Who Saile d the Soul " (1960, Galaxy, als o in 6,000 CE) , and "Unde r Ol d Earth" (1966 , Galaxy, se t i n 15,00 0 CE) . Unlike th e cas t o f artificia l intelligence s wh o reappea r throughou t the stories , th e Underpeopl e ar e marke d b y sever e povert y an d tremendous diversity . Thei r importanc e i s thei r salvifi c effec t o n humanity, a quality no t share d by artificial intelligences , wh o ar e mor e closely linked t o the highl y technologica l civilizatio n tha t ha s had suc h a dubiou s effec t o n humans ' humanity . Rediscovere d vulnerabilit y i s what give s human s bac k thei r humanit y b y makin g the m mor e lik e the Underpeople . Th e "Rediscover y o f Man, " i n whic h tru e human s deliberately subjec t themselve s t o deat h an d duress , i s controlle d b y Underpeople. I t i s the y wh o cul l informatio n fro m ancien t source s an d pass i t o n t o humans , wh o i n tur n "rediscover " everythin g fro m languages t o mone y fro m th e Underpeople . Th e ne w live s o f tru e

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humans ar e "imperfec t reconstruction s o f a n idealize d past, " th e Underpeople stil l doin g th e har d work . The Soushenji

Chinese Si x Dynastie s collection s o f "anomaly " o r zhiguai jfe| £ literature als o push th e boundarie s o f th e "human " b y portraying bot h humans an d animal s a s par t o f a continuou s mora l community . I n discussing anomal y literatur e a s a genre, I follow th e broa d approac h o f Bakhtin an d Bourdieu , o f definin g genr e a s th e historicall y specifi c orienting conventions , interpretiv e procedures , an d expectation s b y which discours e i s compose d b y author s an d receive d b y audiences. 4 In thi s sense , anomal y literatur e i s a genr e o f flexibl e boundaries . I t consists o f topica l collection s o f brief description s o f anomalous events . Its organizing principles ar e not mad e explicit . It has filiations t o earlie r genres of anthology: annal s ^&, precedent s ~fi"0# , collected "lives " M^M-, and "sayings " M. Anomaly storie s d o no t contai n detaile d narratio n o r specificall y literary development , an d in thi s sense , they presen t n o comparand a t o Smith's detaile d narrativ e techniques . Text s fro m th e third , fourt h an d fifth centurie s (CE ) give extensive account s o f animal anomalies , a s wel l as contrastin g account s o f animal s "norms". 5 I concentrat e o n th e fourth centur y "Record s o f an Inquest int o th e Spiri t Realm " (Soushenji ffitttfi) o f Ga n Ba o T M (335-49). 6 I t contain s chapter s o n t h e transformation o f humans int o plant s an d animals , animal s spirits , an d rewards an d retributio n b y animals. 7

Crossing the Human-Anima l Boundar y The Soushenji portray s severa l differen t mode s o f anomaly , mos t o f which involv e crossin g th e animal-huma n boundary . Thes e include : human-animal hybrids , transformation s betwee n species , transformations o f gender within a species, humans, animals, and spirits, both huma n an d animal. 8 Th e Soushenji explain s th e occurrenc e o f non-natural "possession s an d anomalies " (yaoguai JK'K : that "prevai l over a thing' s essentia l qi and reconfigur e it " ft ;S# > "MMM^^M^ tfe (SSJ, juan 6 , p. 37). Internally th e qi is disordered; externall y th e thin g is transformed . Som e case s ar e partia l transformations , i n whic h a n animal o r human grow s a n extr a o r inappropriate bod y parts: a tortois e growing hair, an d a hare horns (SS J 6.1, p. 38); cows (SS J 6.13, p. 39 an d

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6.21, p . 40), horses (SS J 6.38, p . 43), or birds (SS J 6.45, p. 44) with extr a legs; an d horse s (SS J 6.16, p . 39 an d 6.36 , p . 43), dog s (SS J 6.17, p . 39), and me n (SS J 6.18 , pp . 39-40 ) growin g horns . I n othe r case s th e transformation i s complete , an d a n anima l (o r human) change s entirel y into another , fo r example , a hors e t o a fo x (SS J 6.2 , p . 38) , o r bear s offspring o f another species . There are also cases of cross-species mating s and anomalou s births : a horse bearin g a human chil d (SS J 6.11, p. 39), a do g matin g wit h a pig (SS J 6.19, p . 40), swallow s hatchin g sparrow s (SSJ 6.37, p. 43), falcons (SS J 6.67, p. 48), the birth o f two-headed childre n (SSJ 6.44, p . 44 an d 6.56 , p . 46), and a co w bearin g a chicke n wit h fou r feet (SS J 6.49 , p . 45) . Sometime s th e transformatio n i s o f gender : a woman turnin g int o a man , marrying , an d sirin g childre n (SS J 6.12 , p. 39) ; a ma n turnin g int o a woman , marrying , an d bearin g childre n (SSJ 6.40, p. 43); and a hen becoming a cock (SSJ 6.27, p. 41 and 6.55, p. 46). These anomalie s ar e ascribe d t o ruler s acros s th e earl y dynasti c spectrum, fro m th e Zho u t o th e Late r Ha n Dynastie s an d th e Thre e Kingdoms period . Book 1 2 o f th e Soushenji (1 9 items ) als o describe s "natural " transformations o f animal s an d explain s ho w th e myria d creature s (wanwu M$J) were formed fro m th e five qi o f heaven (wood , fire, metal , water, an d earth). 9 Th e unstate d premis e i s tha t animal s mad e o f th e same kin d o f qi have simila r form s an d simila r natures : eater s o f grai n (humans) hav e intelligenc e an d culture ; eater s o f gras s (domesti c animals) have great strengt h an d little mind; creatures tha t ea t mulberr y leaves (insects) produce silk and become caterpillars; eaters of meat (wil d animals) ar e courageous , fierce , an d high-spirited . (Smith' s description s of human s an d cat s woul d b e right a t hom e here. ) Eater s o f mu d (fish ) lack min d an d breath. Animal s o f th e sam e categor y (lei M, base d o n a division o f heave n o n earth ) naturall y transfor m int o on e anothe r wit h no anomaly. 10 Animal s compose d o f heavenly qi ten d upward ; thos e of earthly qi lis t down, - "eac h thin g follow s it s kind " # # ^ S & (SS J 12 : 81). Other chapter s recor d anomalou s event s withou t explanation . I n one case , a hors e transform s int o a silkwor m (SS J 14:93) . Other s ar e transformations o f humans int o plant s an d animals , fo r example , thre e cases of women changin g into birds and turtles (SS J 14:94-5), and a ma n turning int o a fo x i n th e presenc e o f th e Ha n Dynast y Confucia n philosopher an d anomal y specialis t Don g Zhongshu (SS J 18:121) . Othe r chapters concer n th e spirit s o f mammal s (deer , pigs , dogs , an d a rat , SSJ 18) , and o f snakes , fish , an d turtle s (SS J 19).

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Stories o f Human-Anima l Reciprocit y Most interestin g fo r purpose s o f th e presen t discussio n ar e account s o f reward an d retributio n betwee n human s an d animals. 11 I n al l thes e stories, animal s behav e accordin g t o huma n morality , sometime s i n response t o virtuou s humans , wh o exten d th e benefit s o f "human " morality t o them , sometime s spontaneously , an d sometime s i n star k contrast t o misbehavin g humans . These storie s occu r throughou t th e Soushenji, fo r example : A poo r laborer strike s a snake tha t steal s hi s food , an d i s punished b y a rain of hail. H e remonstrate s wit h th e Duk e o f Thunde r I f ^, wh o stop s th e hail an d kill s th e snak e an d it s famil y (SS J 10.6) . Locusts (SS J 11.11 , p. 73 ) an d tiger s (SS J 11.12 , p. 73 ) respond t o th e virtuou s behavio r o f honest officials . A turtle aid s th e inhabitant s o f Chengdu b y swimmin g along th e rive r t o demonstrat e th e righ t locatio n fo r th e cit y wal l (SS J 13.7, p . 87) . A snak e bor n o f a huma n mothe r mourn s a t he r funera l (SSJ 14.8, p. 93). A dog wears its master's clothe s and walks like a huma n (SSJ 18.23 , p . 125) . A ra t wear s clothin g an d use s huma n speec h (SS J 18.25, p . 126) . The sixtee n storie s o f boo k twent y provid e a continuou s grou p o f stories o f human-anima l reciprocit y o f severa l kinds , sometime s i n combination: human s wh o hel p animal s wh o hel p o r rewar d the m i n return,- animal s wh o exac t reveng e fo r har m o r deat h a t th e hand s o f humans,- an d animal s wh o exac t reveng e o n behal f o f h u m a n benefactors. Le t me g o through thes e narratives i n sequence : (1 ) A ma n perceived tha t a drago n wa s ill ; it transforme d int o a man, h e cure d it , and i t rewarde d th e distric t wit h rain s (SS J 20.1 , p. 133) . (2 ) A tige r abducts a midwife, wh o deliver s th e tigres s o f a breach birth . Th e tige r returns he r hom e an d reward s he r wit h gift s o f gam e (SS J 20.2, p . 133). (3) A ma n cure s a black cran e o f a n arro w wound . I t repay s hi m wit h gifts o f pearl s (SS J 20.3 , p . 133) . (4 ) A chil d nurse s a n injure d oriole , which return s i n huma n for m a s a n envo y o f th e Quee n Mothe r o f th e West, give s him fou r whit e jad e disks, and predicts tha t hi s descendant s will become minister s o f stat e (SS J 20.4, p. 133) . (5) A king come s upo n a serpen t wit h a broken bac k an d order s hi s ow n physicia n t o trea t it . It reward s hi m wit h a luminou s pear l tha t ca n ligh t a roo m a t nigh t (SSJ 20.5, p. 133) . (6) A low-level officia l buy s a caged turtle an d release s it; a s i t swim s t o freedom , i t gaze s t o th e left . Year s later , h e attain s high offic e an d hi s officia l sea l i s cas t thre e times , bu t eac h tim e th e image o f a turtl e o n th e sea l ha s it s hea d turne d t o th e left ; h e the n realizes hi s hig h offic e wa s a reward fro m th e turtl e (SS J 20.6, p . 134) .

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(7) When a huge fis h washe s ashor e an d dies , al l th e local s feas t o n i t except on e ol d lady . A ma n i n a visio n tell s he r tha t th e fis h wa s hi s son an d warn s he r of the signs of an impending flood, whic h destroy s th e area (SS J 20.7, p. 134) . (8) A ma n i n a boat save s a n an t fro m drownin g and release s i t o n shore . The kin g of th e ant s visit s hi m i n a dream an d promises hel p i n tim e o f need . Year s late r h e i s capture d b y bandit s and save d b y ants , wh o releas e hi s bond s an d guid e hi m t o safet y (SS J 20.8, p . 134) . (9 ) A faithfu l do g die s o f exhaustio n whe n i t save s it s master fro m a grassfir e b y runnin g bac k an d fort h t o th e rive r an d shaking its wet coa t ove r the unconscious man' s body. The dog is buried with huma n rite s (SS J 20.9, p. 134-5) . (10) A do g kills a boa constricto r that ha s attacke d it s master , summon s th e unconsciou s man' s companions, an d refuse s foo d unti l h e recover s fro m hi s injuries . Thereafter, th e ma n treate d th e do g as a member o f hi s famil y (SS J 20. 10, p. 135) . (11) A man feed s a mole cricket , which save s him fro m fals e imprisonment an d deat h (SS J 20.11 , p . 135) . (12 ) A mothe r gibbo n commits suicid e whe n a ma n catche s an d the n kill s he r bab y (SS J 20. 12, pp . 135-6) . (13 ) A hunte r shoot s a t a sta g durin g th e night ; i t reproaches hi m i n human speech . Th e nex t day , he finds th e dea d deer , but upo n returnin g hom e wit h it , immediatel y drop s dea d (SS J 20.13 , p. 136) . (14)A hunter kill s a n enormou s snake ; three years later , o n th e same spot , h e tell s th e stor y t o his companion . Tha t night , a black-cla d man appear s t o hi m i n a dream an d relate s how, thre e years ag o he wa s killed in his sleep by an unknown man : "No w you have come and foun d your ow n death! " Th e ma n awake s i n terror , fall s ill , an d die s (SS J 20. 14, p. 136) . (15) An ol d lad y feed s a serpen t tha t kill s th e hors e o f th e local magistrate . Whe n th e magistrat e kill s he r fo r protectin g it , th e snake transform s int o a ma n an d says : "Wh y di d yo u execut e m y mother? Sh e shal l b e avenged! " A storm rage s for fort y night s an d th e city sink s int o th e groun d an d become s a lake (SS J 20.15, p. 136) . (16) A silkwor m growe r wh o onc e stol e an d burne d he r sisters ' cocoon s develops a hug e cys t o n he r back , ful l o f har d object s shape d lik e silkworms (SS J 20.16, pp . 136-7) .

The Problemati c Statu s o f th e Underpeopl e Cordwainer Smit h wa s th e pseudony m o f Pau l Myro n Anthon y Linebarger, Jr . (1913-66). He also had a Chinese name: Lin Ba Loh # f i ^ . He wa s raise d an d educate d i n Chin a an d Japan , an d wa s a clos e acquaintance o f Sun Yat-sen. Smith's father, Pau l M. W. Linebarger, wa s

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a committed advocat e o f Su n Yat-sen. Linebarger/Smith wa s a major i n the Unite d State s Arm y an d colone l i n th e Arm y Reserve . H e wa s closely linke d wit h th e U S Intelligenc e communit y an d ha d a specia l interest i n propagand a technique s an d psychologica l warfare . H e wa s the author of a comprehensive military textbook, Psychological Warfare, first publishe d i n 194 8 an d revise d i n 1954 . H e too k o n a caree r a s a political scientis t an d supporte d th e Nationalis t government , despit e apparent knowledg e o f it s corruption . H e wa s als o activ e i n militar y intelligence durin g th e Korea n War , durin g whic h h e i s sai d t o hav e devised a strateg y t o mak e i t possibl e fo r Chines e troop s t o surrende r without shame . Th e edito r o f hi s collecte d shor t storie s describe s i t thus: He drafte d leaflet s explainin g ho w th e soldier s coul d com e forwar d waving their guns and shouting Chinese words like 'love, " "virtue, " and "humanity"— words that just happened, when pronounced in the right order, to sound like "I surrender" in English. He considered thi s seemingly cynical act t o be the single most worthwhile thing he had done in his life. 12 Several attempt s hav e bee n mad e t o locat e literary , political , an d personal origin s o f th e Underpeople . Man y influences , som e Chinese , have bee n propose d fo r Smith' s literar y styl e an d hi s inventio n o f th e Underpeople. O n th e stylisti c level , h e wa s influence d b y th e writing s of Alfre d Dobli n (1878-1957), an early expressionis t write r wh o se t hi s works i n Chin a i n piece s suc h a s Die drei Sprege des Wang-Lun (Th e T h r e e Leap s o f W a n g l u n , 1915) , Wadzeks Kampf mit der Dampfmaschine (Wadzek' s struggl e with th e steam machine , 1918) , an d Berge, Meere und Giganten (Mountains , Sea s and Giants , 1924 , revise d as Giganten 1931) . These stories attempted a n atmosphere of complexit y and antiquity , an d a lyrica l an d incantator y style . Some c o m m e n t a t o r s o n Smith' s wor k hav e sough t literar y antecedents o f th e Underpeople , includin g H . G . Wells' s Island of Dr. Moreau (1896 ) and The Time Machine (1895) ; the undergroun d worker s of Fritz Lang' s film Metropolis, whic h Smit h sa w in 1927 ; Karel Capek' s War with the Newts (1936) ; Ola f Stapledon' s Sirius (1944) , a highl y literary S F novel about a n intelligent dog ; and Edmond Hamilton's "Da y of Judgment, " a n accoun t o f a post-nuclea r worl d i n whic h animal s developed int o humanoi d creatures . Other s hav e focuse d o n politica l origins for th e Underpeopl e an d have identified America n racia l conflic t as a leitmotif. Although Smit h wa s right-wing o n foreign policy , h e wa s a moderat e o r liberal o n man y socia l issue s an d wa s a stron g supporte r

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of racial equality. Alan Elms argues, to the contrary, tha t neither Smith' s literary taste s no r America n racia l conflict s adequatel y explai n th e sudden prominenc e o f th e Underpeople , wh o appea r i n Smith' s storie s only i n th e latte r hal f o f hi s writin g career . Th e Underpeopl e storie s begin i n 1958 , an d virtuall y al l wer e complete d durin g a three-yea r period from 196 1 to 1963 . Elms argues that th e Underpeople deriv e fro m Smith's profoun d identificatio n wit h th e people o f China, an d tha t the y were a means t o expres s both hi s ow n deepes t politica l conviction s an d to explor e th e conflict s an d tension s o f hi s ow n comple x life . I n th e late 1950s , h e wa s engage d i n intens e researc h o n oversea s Chines e communities, an d the manuscript tha t emerge d fro m thos e studie s wa s rejected b y Princeto n Universit y Pres s i n 195 8 fo r wha t Smit h considered t o b e politica l reasons . Th e Underpeopl e firs t appea r thre e months later . Elm s argue s tha t th e rea l humans, th e Underpeople, bea r traces o f Smith' s perceptio n o f th e Chines e people , o n th e Mainlan d and overseas . Elms' s argument , an d Smith' s ow n stud y o f classica l Chinese literature , raise s th e speculativ e possibilit y tha t Smit h ha d come acros s th e zhiguai storie s an d tha t the y ma y hav e bee n a n additional influenc e o n hi s creatio n o f th e Underpeople .

Comparative Perspective s Whether o r no t an y suc h influenc e occurred , ther e ar e noticeabl e similarities in both the content an d contexts of these two sets of human animal transformatio n stories . Bot h th e Underpeopl e storie s o f Cordwainer Smit h an d th e h u m a n - a n i m a l transformatio n an d reciprocity storie s of th e Inquest pushe d th e margins o f inquiry in way s that wen t agains t thei r authors ' officia l position s an d identities . Bot h present highl y moralize d cosmologie s develope d o n th e boundarie s o f prevailing cultural norms. In both, humans an d animals ar e co-member s in a single moral community . I n both, human trave l outside the bound s of everyday reality presents hidden danger s and occulted realities, whic h may requir e ignorin g "natural " specie s boundarie s i n favo r o f th e recognition o f underlyin g u n i t i e s amon g al l form s o f lif e an d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I n S m i t h ' s oeuvre , t h i s u n i t y i s extende d t o extraterrestrials an d artificia l intelligences . I n th e Soushenji i t extend s to spirits , ghosts , an d animals . Anomaly account s wer e no t associate d wit h an y on e Chines e "school of thought" (whateve r that vexed term may mean). A worldview associated wit h Ga n Ba o an d th e Inquest ha s bee n describe d a s

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tianrenshuo^iXM o r "Heave n an d Humanity. " I t ma y deriv e fro m a tradition o f interpretatio n o f on e o f th e commentarie s t o th e Book of ChangeMM, th e "Commentar y o n the Attached Verbalizations" JUffll . In thi s commentary , th e sage s o f th e pas t reveale d " o c c u l t e d " knowledge,- in anomal y literature , tha t gnosti c role shifts t o th e witnes s and recorder o f anomalies. In this new genre context, anomal y account s function a s a kin d o f historiographica l supplemen t t o th e Book of Change. Si x broa d motif s characteriz e th e Heave n an d Humanit y viewpoint. (1 ) Humanity i s inherently connecte d t o the entir e spectru m of livin g things, - thes e connection s intertwin e th e welfar e o f human s with tha t o f al l other beings . (2) These connection s ar e not th e preserv e of rulers, governments, o r sages, but pervade all humanity. (3 ) Anomalies are meaningfu l message s tha t benefi t thos e wh o understan d an d hee d t h e m . (4 ) Moralit y i s consistentl y rewarde d an d i m m o r a l i t y i s consistently punished . (5 ) Appearance s ar e a jumbl e o f mysteriou s events, bu t ultimatel y th e worl d conform s t o a rule-governe d se t o f relations an d patterns . Anomalie s revea l th e pattern s tha t underli e obscure events . I n Heave n an d Humanit y anima l anomal y stories , humans stan d i n mora l relation s t o animal s an d cohabi t a single mora l community wit h them . The distinctivenes s o f thi s viewpoin t become s cleare r b y contras t with th e account s o f human-anima l boundarie s i n anothe r laye r i n anomaly literature . Som e creator s o f anomal y literatur e wer e "Master s of Esoterica " o r fangshi ^ f ± , a grou p associate d wit h th e earl y development o f scienc e i n China , especiall y i n th e area s o f medicine , materia medica , an d a variet y o f health - an d longevity-producin g meditation technique s an d practices . I n fangshi accounts , animal s ar e anomalous b y virtu e o f thei r shapes , cross-specie s characteristic s (e.g. , Smith's Underpeople), o r trans-species transformation . Fangshi account s of anima l anomalie s d o no t portra y human s i n mora l relation s t o animals o r cohabitin g a singl e mora l communit y wit h them . Fangshi accounts ten d t o portra y animal s throug h th e perspectiv e o f thei r usefulness t o humans (t o attain longevity , politica l power , etc.) ; in thi s they are similar to specifically Daois t Si x Dynasties accounts o f animals , which ten d t o "use " the m pragmatically , eithe r a s litera l component s in medica l remedie s o r a s metaphor s fo r whole-bod y movemen t i n meditation an d martia l arts . In summary , Heave n an d Humanit y anima l account s fal l outsid e the boundarie s o f standar d Confucian , Daoist , o r Buddhis t worldview s or officia l o r monasti c socia l hierarchies .

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Smith's oeuvre , an d specificall y hi s Underpeopl e stories , als o fall s outside o f conventiona l genres , perhap s becaus e o f thei r anomalou s origins. In both th e zhiguai anthologie s an d in the oeuvre of Cordwaine r Smith, th e them e o f animalit y i s used t o commen t o n human moralit y and "human " behavior . I n both , th e them e o f animalit y i s comple x because animal s appea r i n man y guises . Cordwaine r Smit h add s th e twist o f usin g tw o distinc t mode s o f animalit y t o commen t o n huma n behavior: Underpeople an d tru e animals . In the zhiguai stories , animal s may ac t lik e human s (an d vic e versa) , bu t animal s alway s loo k lik e animals. In the Smit h corpus , th e human shap e becomes a marker tha t both establishe s an d problematize s humanity . Bot h tru e animal s an d some hominid s lac k th e huma n shape , bu t al l Underpeople , an d som e hominids, loo k human. Bot h Underpeople an d hominids ar e intelligent . In bot h cases , human s hav e becom e dehumanize d b y civilization , and animal s (an d Underpeople ) emerg e a s mor e h u m a n tha n tru e humans. Th e zhiguai text s ma y ech o a n earl y Daois t them e o f th e corrupting influence o f "civilization. " I n Smith's case, there is the adde d comment o n extrem e technology , whic h ha s debase d human s throug h the artificial an d utopian/dystopian worl d it has created. In this context , the Underpeople , rathe r tha n th e tru e humans , th e tru e possessor s o f human values , ar e th e drivin g forc e behin d th e revitalizatio n o f a degraded humanity . Finally, thes e text s reflec t ver y differen t grounding s i n thei r unexpressed assumption s abou t huma n nature . I n Smith' s stories , thi s realized humanity call s for mor e tha n intelligence ; it als o requires love , free will , an d vitality , qualitie s tha t tru e animal s d o no t attai n bu t Underpeople do . Smit h als o make s i t clea r tha t tru e animal s don' t particularly wan t huma n qualitie s o r huma n intelligence . The y ar e fundamentally different , an d i t i s thei r differenc e an d tru e inhumanit y that make s the m usefu l t o humans . I n th e zhiguai stories , althoug h animals ma y ac t i n way s tha t ar e mor e human e tha n humans , thei r humanity i s passing an d incidenta l — it i s define d a s "strange" ! They , like the true animals of Smith's stories, have no abiding desire to become human. Smith' s Underpeopl e commen t o n "human " behavio r i n a slightly differen t way , becaus e the y posses s al l th e qualitie s o f tru e humanity. They also want human statu s in all senses, including political recognition an d th e basi c right s i t implies . I n Smith' s stories , th e en d result o f th e contras t betwee n tru e animals , Underpeople , an d human s is that tru e animals remai n animals , while Underpeople achiev e huma n status, includin g politica l recognition . I n Smith' s animal-huma n

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continuum, th e galvanizin g forc e behin d self-realizatio n i s love . Lov e humanizes th e "human " Elain e afte r a n empt y youth , an d propel s th e dog gir l D'Joa n t o achiev e rea l huma n status , an d transform s th e Underpeople o f Clow n Town . Th e focu s o f thes e narrative s i s love an d free choice . The zhiguai anthologies , b y contrast , focu s o n distinction s between "natural " an d "anomalous " transformation . The accoun t o f Smith' s strateg y fo r Chines e troop s t o surrende r without sham e doe s no t mentio n wha t th e word s were , bu t ai su ren de i&jRfc H — love, simplicity, benevolence, an d virtue — is a plausible guess. The inciden t doe s illustrate th e combinatio n o f Smith' s acume n as a n agen t o f th e U S governmen t an d hi s abilit y t o thin k i n highl y independent ways . The themes of his SF writings also show this mixtur e of officia l servic e an d radica l independent-mindedness . Cordwaine r Smith's scienc e fiction foreshadow s man y o f th e socia l problems o f th e late twentiet h centur y an d i s remarkabl e fo r it s combinatio n o f independence o f min d an d literar y quality .

10 The Ide a of th e Asian i n Phili p K. Dick's The Man in the High Castle Jake Jakaitis

The Man in the High Castle i s perhap s Phili p K . Dick' s mos t highl y regarded nove l and , alon g with Blade Runner, remain s on e o f his mos t often discusse d works, seemingl y leavin g little room for new o r origina l commentary. However , thi s volume , wit h it s emphasi s o n Asi a an d identity, has inspired me to review previous commentary o n Dick's 196 2 novel an d t o conside r opportunitie s t o lin k Dick' s conceptio n o f Asi a and his applicatio n o f Asian philosophy i n The Man in the High Castle to m y ow n wor k o n rac e an d gende r i n Dick' s novels . Writin g abou t The Cosmic Puppets 1 fo r a paper that I delivered in 2000,1 investigated the relatio n o f Dick' s earl y fascinatio n wit h Zoroastrianis m t o gende r issues i n hi s work ; i n a previou s article , "Tw o Case s o f Conscience : Loyalty an d Rac e i n The Crack in Space (1966 ) an d Counter-Clock World (1967), " I argued that i n both novels Dick self-consciousl y desire d to expres s hi s mora l outrag e a t racia l injustic e an d perhap s somewha t less self-consciousl y sough t wha t Fredri c Jameso n label s a strateg y o f containment, a symboli c resolutio n t o socia l conflic t an d class-base d fears enacte d throug h narrative. 2 I n eac h case , however , I conclude d that thes e narrative s reveale d th e inadequac y o f Dick' s imaginar y interventions t o excis e a n "irrefutabl e Real " tha t denie s resolutio n o f the persona l an d socia l conflicts , th e racia l an d gende r conflict s tha t concerned him. Conveniently, The Man in the High Castle fall s roughl y midway betwee n hi s writin g o f The Cosmic Puppets and th e tw o mid 1960s novel s and , therefore , migh t als o appropriatel y b e discusse d i n terms o f symbolic resolutions an d unselfconsciously enacte d strategie s of containment . In thi s paper , I woul d lik e t o briefl y revie w th e wor k o f Jianjion g Zhu (o n the function o f wu), Patrici a Warrick (o n Fascism an d Taoism),

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and Carl Freedma n (o n The Man in the High Castle i n hi s Critical Theory and Science Fiction) t o prepar e fo r a discussio n o f th e ide a of the Asia n tha t connect s th e imagine d Chin a o f Gather Yourselves Together (1949-51) , perhap s Dick' s firs t novel , an d hi s argumen t i n "Schizophrenia an d th e Boo k o f Changes " t o th e appropriatio n o f Chinese philosoph y an d th e constructio n o f Asia n identit y i n High Castle. My interes t i s no t i n ho w accuratel y Dic k represente d Asia n philosophy i n his work no r in the depth o f his understanding o f th e I Ching, o r The Book of Changes, o f Taoism, o r of Zen Buddhism, bu t in how the idea of the Asian might have functioned fo r him, an d especially whether i t — like his considerations o f race and gender in other novel s of th e 1950 s an d mid-1960 s — migh t attemp t throug h narrativ e a symbolic resolutio n tha t conflate s persona l an d social contradictions , the psychologica l an d th e political . Bu t first , le t u s loo k a t earlie r commentaries o n Asian philosoph y i n High Castle. In "Reality , Fiction , an d Wu i n The Man in the High Castle/' Jianjiong Zh u argues tha t "th e concept o f wu mus t b e seen fro m a Zen Buddhist rathe r tha n a Taoist perspective"; 3 the n he proceeds to present a rathe r forcefu l argumen t i n respons e t o prio r discussion s o f Asia n philosophy in High Castle, especiall y Patricia Warrick's "Th e Encounter of Taoism an d Fascism i n The Man in the High Castle." Zh u is largely concerned wit h layin g bar e Dick' s understandin g o f th e specifi c philosophy incorporate d int o th e novel . Tha t is , hi s concer n i s wit h the degre e to which Dic k understoo d Taois m an d the Zen Buddhist wu that h e appropriated, an d with our accurate understanding of Dick's self consciously enacte d intentions . For Zhu, wu denote s the "immediate experienc e of enlightenment " and a n "unmediated experienc e o f reality" particular t o Zen Buddhism and oppose d to the Taoist philosoph y stresse d by Warrick. He carefull y and insightfully examine s th e origin of wu (fourt h tone) , explaining tha t the characte r fo r wu i s a combine d for m includin g th e character s fo r "heart" an d "self. " Th e single characte r relate s unmediate d realit y t o the idea of the "Unattainable Self, " as opposed to the Taoist wu (secon d tone), which denote s "nothingness " or "non-being" as contrasted to yu, a "haveness " o r "being " (107) . Zhu the n proceed s t o evok e Dick' s ow n comment , throug h Pau l Kasouras, tha t "th e wu i s withi n th e viewer," 4 t o contras t th e Zen conception o f wu t o th e dualisti c "mind " tha t govern s Wyndam Matson's notio n o f historicity (it' s "In the mind, no t the gun" [chapter 5, 64] ) and the n t o appl y th e Ze n ide a o f Unattainabl e Sel f t o Fran k

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Frink, Rober t Childan , Nobosuk e Tagomi , an d Julian a Frink , a n ascending orde r designatin g th e degre e t o whic h eac h attain s th e unattainable. Zhu' s argument , sustaine d b y thoroug h research , i s engaging an d cogentl y argued . I t provide s a n intriguin g contras t t o Warrick's prio r discussio n o f Fascis m an d Taoism . Patricia Warric k note s tha t i n 1983 , High Castle wa s see n largel y as a n indictmen t o f Fascis m bu t tha t th e crucia l rol e o f "oriental " philosophy ha d bee n ignored , excep t fo r surfac e reference s t o th e / Ching.5 T o sustai n he r argument , sh e present s a detaile d an d well researched summar y o f Taois t philosophy , whic h sh e the n applie s t o the novel's centra l characters . Like Jianjiong Zhu , sh e privileges Tagom i and Julian a Frink . Onc e more , th e approac h lead s t o a n intriguin g analysis validate d b y clos e readin g an d research . Certainly , he r emphasizing t h e Taois t conceptio n o f wu and no t Z h u ' s Ze n unattainable sel f i s validate d b y Pau l Kasouras' s comment s o n Fran k Frink's jewelr y a s "aliv e i n th e now " an d "partak[ing ] o f th e Tao " (chapter 11 , 175) . However , Warrick' s desir e t o se e Dic k a s full y knowledgeable regardin g Taoist philosophy, an d fully intentione d i n th e attempt t o privileg e tha t philosoph y i n a battl e wit h Fascism , result s in a dualist argument , on e that subordinate s everythin g else in the nove l to th e Taoist/Fascis t binar y an d implicitl y undermine s th e Taois t principles sai d t o sustai n th e narrative . He r engagin g argumen t i s somewhat les s appealin g tha n Zhu's , fo r th e latte r i s bette r abl e t o sustain th e ide a o f unattainabl e sel f a s mor e logicall y (i f tha t wor d applies here ) centra l t o High Castle and eve n t o Dick' s probabl e intentions. However, wha t I wan t t o argu e her e i s tha t Jianjion g Zhu' s an d Patricia Warrick' s argument s assum e tha t Dic k bot h possesse d a dept h of knowledge o f Zen Buddhis m o r Taoism, respectively , an d brought t o the nove l a self-consciousl y enacte d agend a t o privileg e Asia n philosophy ove r th e wil l t o dominatio n tha t h e sa w a s typifyin g European an d particularl y Germa n philosophy . However , thes e assumptions ar e not necessarily validated by either High Castle o r wha t we know abou t Phili p K. Dick. Certainly, as Warrick demonstrates, Dic k was fascinate d b y Benit o Mussolin i an d full y researche d Fascis m an d Nazism through , amon g othe r sources , th e archive s a t U C Berkeley . We know thi s from Rickman , Sutin , Dick's letters, and other confirmin g sources. 6 W e als o kno w tha t Dic k firs t acquire d hi s Wilhel m editio n of th e I Ching becaus e o f hi s interes t i n Car l Jung' s introductio n — which present s th e boo k a s a psychological tool , a means o f achievin g inner peac e — an d no t becaus e o f a n abidin g interes t i n traditiona l

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Chinese philosophy . Fo r Jung , a s fo r Dick , th e I Ching i s a mean s o f narrativizing an d externalizin g interna l conflicts , thereb y resolvin g them. Furthermore , Dick' s knowledg e o f th e Japanes e concept s o f wu and wabi (craft ) wa s derive d — w e kno w fro m Ann e Dick—fro m a library boo k o n Japanes e landscap e gardening. 7 So it seems that both Jianjiong Zhu an d Patricia Warrick ar e to som e degree "right. " Dic k relie d o n bot h Chines e an d Japanes e philosophy , but h e di d not necessaril y d o so as a serious schola r o r practitioner. Hi s appropriation o f th e I Ching and wu see m governe d mor e b y hi s dail y Jungian consultation s wit h th e forme r an d hi s somewha t casua l selection o f wu a s a n unattainabl e concep t t o counterpoin t th e mor e fully researche d an d more completely understood Western philosophica l tradition. Tha t is , i t seem s tha t Dic k acte d les s a s someon e deepl y involved i n Asia n philosoph y tha n a s a n "orientalist. " As , i t seems , i s Carl Freedma n today , fo r Freedman' s otherwis e cogen t an d rathe r complete analysi s o f High Castle i n Critical Theory and Science Fiction cites no t a single sourc e in Asian philosophy. Unlike Zh u an d Warrick , he create s hi s understandin g o f wu throug h independen t analysis . Fo r Freedman, wu "sum s u p wha t th e tex t uphold s a s th e essenc e o f Oriental spirituality." 8 Instea d o f researchin g th e philosophy , h e orientalizes, makin g th e followin g statements : "Bu t onl y i n th e East , evidently, i s wu th e centra l valu e tha t drive s entir e societies, " an d "implicit i n wu i s th e understandin g tha t al l lif e ha s valu e an d a righ t to it s ow n plac e i n th e cosmos " (170-1) . O f course , whethe r th e wu referenced b y Freedma n i s Zhu' s Japanes e concep t o f unattainabl e sel f and a momentary seein g through t o essentia l reality or Warrick's Taois t idea o f nothingness an d non-being , wu identifie s th e moment , th e wa y out, an d no t a specifi c se t o f values mean t t o direc t societie s o r gover n individual actions . Freedma n misse s th e point , I think, whe n h e seek s justification fo r credibl e selfles s historica l actio n b y individual s i n th e novel, fo r Dic k himsel f argue s i n "Schizophreni a an d th e Boo k o f Changes" tha t suc h actio n i s no t possible . Briefly, i n tha t rathe r importan t post-High Castle essay , Dic k contrasts horizontal , o r linea r cause-effect , sequence s t o th e vertica l unfolding, th e acausa l connectiv e principl e o f "synchronicity " tha t h e associates wit h bot h th e I Ching and a schizophrenic experienc e o f th e now. Th e differenc e betwee n th e tw o i s tha t th e schizophrenic , stuc k in th e eterna l now , ha s n o wa y o f controllin g it , wherea s th e I Ching consultant possesse s a "bea t th e syste m device, " a diagnostic too l tha t presents th e "tota l Configuration " o f al l possibl e coincidences , givin g the analytica l reade r a n opportunit y fo r th e bes t gues s abou t wha t t o

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do next.9 Notably , a s he discusses th e relation o f the I Ching t o plottin g "in systemati c fashion , al l meaningfu l coincidences, " h e call s o n Wolfgang Pauli' s definition o f synchronicity, Joh n Cage's use of the boo k to plo t chor d progressions , Jung' s us e o f i t wit h hi s patients , an d Leibnitz's relianc e o n th e I Ching a s the basis o f his binary system . Al l of hi s reference s ar e t o Wester n aesthetic s an d philosophy . How , then , beyond it s rol e a s a consultan t i n th e structurin g an d writin g o f th e novel, doe s th e I Ching functio n i n High Castle 2. An d ho w doe s The Book of Changes hel p u s t o understan d th e ide a o f th e Asia n i n th e novel? A n answer , I think, ca n be found i n a set of connections betwee n the openin g idea s o f "Schizophreni a an d th e Boo k o f Changes, " th e setting an d characterization s o f Gather Yourselves Together, and ke y Tagomi an d Julian a moment s i n High Castle. Dick open s "Schizophrenia " wit h a commentar y o n th e "pre schizophrenic life " o f th e adolescen t wh o desperatel y struggle s t o maintain hi s persona l worl d (idios kosmos) agains t th e threatenin g reality o f th e share d worl d (koinos kosmos). Becaus e o f th e adven t o f "psychosexual maturity, " however , th e adolescen t canno t escap e th e reality o f th e share d world , an d attempt s t o "retrea t fro m adul t responsibility" wil l b e labele d a s escape s "fro m th e rea l worl d int o a phantasy one. " Adolescent s wh o persis t wil l b e labele d schizophreni c and, for Dick, schizophrenic s ar e stuck i n the now, experiencing "event s occurring outsid e o f time " (1-3) . O f course , Dic k the n take s thi s ide a of schizophreni a an d th e no w an d link s i t t o synchronicit y an d th e / Ching a s summarize d above . What I would lik e t o d o here i s appropriate Dick' s 196 5 comment s and us e the m a s a n entr y t o hi s imagine d Chin a an d t o th e character s of Gather Yourselves Together. Th e settin g i s a n America n Metal s Development Compan y factor y somewher e i n sout h Chin a i n 1949 . Verne Tilden , Barbar a Mahler , an d Car l Fitte r occup y th e otherwis e abandoned compan y grounds , waiting t o formally releas e th e plant an d land t o th e "ne w owners, " th e advancin g Chines e troops . Henr y G . Osborne, th e plan t manager , ha d been instructe d t o selec t thre e peopl e "who represen t th e Compan y an d al l that i t stand s for an d believes in " to stay behind for the ceremonial transfe r o f the property to the Chinese . Osborne, i n fact , randoml y selecte d thes e thre e name s fro m th e offic e files. Coincidentally , Vern e Tilden an d Barbara Mahler kne w eac h othe r in th e U S fiv e year s earlier , whe n h e wa s 3 3 an d sh e onl y 2 0 an d h e seduced her. Despite having coincidentall y been employe d by the sam e large company an d sent , without thei r knowledge , t o the sam e Chines e plant, Vern e an d Barbar a haven' t spoke n t o eac h othe r sinc e h e faile d

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to follo w throug h afte r thei r one-nigh t affair , an d the n marrie d Teddy , a characteristic Phili p K . Dick Dark-Haire d Girl . Barbara, believing tha t Verne used his age and experience t o take advantage o f her, prematurel y forcing he r int o th e share d world , ha s resente d hi m fo r thes e fiv e year s and ha s becom e har d an d jaded . Verne , b y contrast , experience d a ba d two-month marriag e at 1 9 (parallel to Dick's earl y six-month marriage) , became jaded, resentful, an d alcoholic, and spent th e next fourteen year s cynically movin g fro m on e affai r t o anothe r unti l Tedd y overpowere d him, jus t a s he bega n t o fee l somethin g fo r Barbara . Finally , Car l Fitte r is a 22-year-ol d virgi n an d self-style d intellectua l wh o ha s escape d ful l entry int o the share d world, by avoiding sex and writing a philosophica l treatise o n th e natur e o f reality . These ar e th e day s o f ou r lives . This apparen t soa p oper a result s i n a better nove l tha n on e migh t imagine , thoug h no t a quality novel , an d surprisingly, a s Dwight Brow n argue s in his afterword , provide s a n earl y look at "theme s an d tropes" appearing in Dick's later work. 10 Eve n mor e surprisingly, i t grant s u s som e insigh t int o th e ide a o f th e Asia n i n The Man in the High Castle. Despit e the appearanc e o f Harry Liu , a Chines e soldier wh o arrive s t o prepar e Vern e an d th e other s fo r th e advancin g troops, Dick does little to represent China or Chinese values in this novel. Instead, Chin a merely effect s a convenient displacement , a n opportunit y to examin e i n isolatio n an d a t a distanc e fro m th e familia r worl d th e psychosexual development o f the three principal characters. Dick's Chin a and th e cognitiv e estrangemen t tha t i t provoke s functio n similarl y t o the defamiliarizin g alternativ e histor y o f High Castle discusse d b y Freedman. Whil e Verne , Barbara , an d Car l d o no t consul t th e I Ching, each character does exit the present reality while experiencing a seemingly infinite now . In fact, jus t as characters in High Castle, particularly Tagom i and Juliana , see m t o temporaril y acces s a n essentia l reality , th e "whol e can of film" ("Schizophrenia " 3) , so do Verne, Barbara, and Carl, especiall y at moment s o f hig h anxiet y o r sexua l desire . Comparing Dick's description s o f a few o f these moments i n Gather to paralle l moment s i n High Castle establishe s th e earl y moment s a s models fo r Dick' s late r work . Earl y in Gather, w e exi t Chin a whe n th e characters "rela x int o [their ] memories " (16 ) o r allo w themselve s t o become lost i n their thoughts . These movements fro m presen t narrativ e time t o memor y an d bac k agai n ar e rathe r conventionall y rendered . However, a s w e mov e mor e deepl y int o th e novel , an d therefor e mor e deeply int o th e characters ' psychological lives , Dick complicate s thes e moments, jarrin g us an d th e character s ou t o f ou r complacen t realitie s — o r fantasies . Mor e importantly , withi n th e daydream s themselve s

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the characters , an d w e alon g wit h them , experienc e dissolution s o r expansions o f sel f tha t previe w Tagomi' s an d Juliana's encounter s wit h the essenc e o f th e real . Fo r Verne , thes e moment s initiall y ar e tie d t o Teddy, who come s to his apartment an d literally overpower s him . No w situated a s th e pre y i n a sexua l encounter , Vern e feel s "cold " an d "everything i n th e room .. . recede[s] from him " (61) . Later, ou t walkin g with Teddy , h e notice s tha t "Everythin g aroun d hi m wa s disappearing , vanishing .. . fadin g int o th e gre y mists , th e hodgepodg e o f stars , th e trash .. . th e littl e thing s tha t rol l i n th e wind " (73) . Victimized b y th e reality o f th e share d world , Verne , wh o ha d previousl y hidde n i n hi s predatory fantasy , no w begin s t o los e hi s sens e o f self . After escapin g Teddy through hi s Chin a appointment , Vern e seem s recovered fro m hi s alcoholis m an d los t identit y unti l th e evacuatio n and his renewed acquaintance with Barbara, who suggest s that the y hav e sex t o fen d of f th e boredo m o f waiting . Confronte d wit h wha t the y consider a momen t o f choice , the y decid e t o comfor t eac h other , bu t both experienc e a sens e o f vertig o an d "cold " afte r th e act . Barbar a claims tha t "Somethin g .. . wa s waiting . Col d an d dead, " an d the n declares tha t sh e sense s "tom b stones . Th e grave . Cold , dea d stones " (147). The y agre e tha t thi s i s merel y a mutuall y fel t "psychologica l reaction," bu t clearly , i n Dick' s terms , thes e tw o despairin g character s are sociall y dysfunctiona l becaus e o f thei r prematur e entr y int o th e shared worl d an d inabilit y t o recove r thei r privat e identities . Th e exuberant an d naiv e Car l Fitte r counterpart s Vern e an d Barbara , representing Dick' s idios kosmos, o r privat e world . Carl' s overbearin g youthful enthusias m initiall y annoy s the others. He literally skip s dow n a factor y road , incessantl y talkin g a s h e circle s Barbar a whe n the y together explor e th e deserte d compound . However , whe n Vern e an d Barbara discus s thei r "tim e o f decision, " realizin g tha t thei r "worl d i s gone," their "ol d world," an d that the y don' t "kno w what choice s [they ] have o r eve n wher e the y land, " (139 ) Barbara's thought s initiall y turn , not t o th e se x that the y ultimatel y agre e o n a s an inadequat e sourc e of comfort, bu t t o he r mixe d feeling s o f sympath y an d disgus t fo r Car l (138). Repulse d b y hi s immaturity , sh e i s als o draw n t o it , reveal s he r desire t o "follo w hi m acros s th e countryside, " an d the n feel s hersel f a "fool... lure d by marbles an d hopscotch" (138) . Much later in the novel , Barbara walk s alon e t o th e edg e o f th e company' s artificia l lak e i n th e early morning . Standin g a t th e water' s edge , sh e feel s "Isolate d completely fro m th e res t o f th e world , i f suc h existed " (198) . Contemplating th e artificia l landscap e a s a "tin y bi t o f th e Garde n o f Eden," (198 ) sh e submit s t o "th e urg e t o lea p an d run, " i s dizzie d an d

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trembling, shakin g with "a n intens e fever" a s she removes he r clothes , feels hersel f "dissolve , sucke d dow n int o th e earth, " (199 ) an d the n enters th e water . Dizzil y transporte d t o a realit y outsid e he r ow n bu t paradoxically a private reality , perhap s th e "semi-real " persona l worl d of Dick's idios kosmos, sh e nearly drowns, but come s back to awarenes s of th e share d world , th e worl d o f "furnaces , towers , an d concret e buildings," whic h "coul d no t b e escaped " (209) . That sam e morning , Carl , too , goe s ou t walking , an d h e i s transported t o a n alternat e reality . Carl , lik e Barbara , feel s tha t "th e world wa s entirel y hi s persona l property " (205 ) unti l h e encounter s a dead robi n tha t cause s hi m t o contemplat e th e tom b world . Restin g o n a hil l jus t outsid e th e compan y grounds , h e recede s fro m hi s presen t reality, contemplate s hi s confusio n ove r a persona l worl d understoo d only incompletely, remember s a dying cat that h e found a s a young boy, feels hi s "memorie s risin g u p aroun d him, " an d i s transporte d int o a past tha t wa s no w "ver y muc h wit h him " (207) . Th e biograph y tha t follows clearl y parallels Dick' s ow n childhoo d an d migh t b e of interes t to Dic k scholar s fo r tha t reason . O f interes t t o u s today , however , ar e the interlude s ove r th e nex t fe w chapter s tha t briefl y (fo r a paragrap h or so) return u s t o Car l in the narrative present an d depic t his foggines s and disorientation . Ultimately , Car l moves t o the compan y lake where , unseen by Barbara, h e is transported b y the vision o f her nakedness an d contemplates th e "mysterie s o f life " an d "hidde n realities " previousl y beyond his knowledge and experience. By novel's end , of course, Barbar a pushes Car l onto her bed a s he reads his philosophical treatis e alou d t o her an d forcibl y introduce s hi m t o th e share d world . Th e Chines e "newcomers" arrive , and Barbara and Car l agree to travel home togethe r first b y slo w train , the n by , yo u guesse d it , a slo w boa t fro m China , while Vern e i s lef t t o contemplat e hi s cynicis m alone . I hav e perhap s spen t a littl e to o muc h tim e o n Gather becaus e I assumed tha t i t is an unfamiliar text , whereas mos t reader s are familia r with High Castle. Now , allo w m e a shor t revie w o f thos e concern s i n Gather that migh t b e o f interes t t o Dic k scholar s generall y an d t o readers o f High Castle i n particular . Barbar a Mahler , o n th e verg e o f becoming a Dark-Haired Gir l like Teddy in response to her victimizatio n by Vern e Tilden , reverse s he r cours e throug h contac t wit h Car l Fitte r and become s fo r Car l — who i s clearl y base d o n Dic k himsel f — mor e like a mother figure. Sh e — finally — exists outside the schizoid woman / Dark-Haired Gir l dynami c s o expertly detaile d by N . Katherin e Hayle s in How We Became Posthuman 11 and is aligned more with mother/twi n figures lik e Elle n Runcite r o f Ubik, Iren e Deckard o f Blade Runner, o r

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perhaps eve n Julian a Frin k o f High Castle. Furthermore , th e languag e used t o describ e th e persona l world/share d worl d dynami c governin g all thes e protagonist s o f Gather directl y parallel s tha t o f Dick' s "Schizophrenia an d the Book of Changes," an essay that t o some exten t attempts t o explai n th e rol e o f th e J Ching i n High Castle. Finally, th e language describin g the movements o f thes e character s from th e narrativ e presen t t o pas t memories , o r eve n t o "event s occurring outsid e o f time " itsel f ("Schizophrenia " 3 ) roughly parallel s the languag e use d t o describ e Tagomi' s boardroo m an d par k benc h experiences an d Juliana' s "retiring " o f Joe Cinnadella. A s you probabl y recall, Tagom i become s "ill " a s h e listen s t o th e credential s o f th e potential successo r t o Herr Bormann. Confronte d wit h a palpable "evil " that i s "a n ingredien t i n us . I n th e world, " h e experience s "vertigo " and th e "Stabl e floor , walls " begi n t o dissolv e unti l h e contemplate s details o f "th e finit e world " (chapte r 6 , 95-6) an d call s back th e share d or consensus reality . Later , contemplatin g Fran k Frink' s jewelr y o n th e park benc h afte r killin g th e tw o S D men , an d realizin g tha t "w e hav e entered a Moment whe n we are alone," he attempts t o evoke "th e tom b world" an d th e "tim e tha t was " (chapte r 14 , 229) , the n h e onc e mor e experiences vertigo afte r hi s visionary experienc e an d a realization tha t "our spac e and our time " ar e creations o f our ow n psyche" (chapte r 14 , 233). Juliana's respons e t o he r ow n recognitio n o f Jo e Cinnadella's evi l parallels Tagomi's . "I' m dying, " sh e says to Joe, dizzied an d disoriente d despite not havin g taken th e pills Joe gave her. She seems momentaril y to exist outsid e tim e in the hotel bathroom a s she showers fully clothe d and, afte r sh e slit s Joe' s aorta , move s daze d throug h th e lobb y o f th e hotel (chapte r 13 , 210-3). My poin t her e i s no t t o equat e th e situation s an d character s o f Gather Yourselves Together wit h thos e o f The Man in the High Castle, but t o argu e tha t th e tensio n betwee n persona l an d share d realities , generally agree d t o b e centra l t o al l o f Dick' s work , ca n b e see n i n hi s first complete d nove l an d tha t Dick' s decisio n t o se t tha t nove l i n a China tha t he never experienced is a telling gesture. Critics have argue d that Dick' s choic e o f Chin a fo r Gather wa s a huge mistake . Perhap s i n Dick's view , however , i t wa s necessar y t o se t th e nove l wher e h e ha d never been , jus t a s virtually al l S F is se t wher e w e hav e neve r been . I n Gather, Chin a i s jus t a n excus e t o exi t th e share d realit y o f 1940 s America an d ente r a complementary realit y momentaril y outsid e tim e itself. Gather, then , i s no t "about " Chin a an y mor e tha n High Castle i s "about" Japanes e cultur e an d identity o r realistic, historically accurat e

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extrapolations fro m Germa n an d Japanese aggression durin g World War II. So , attempt s t o examin e th e role s o f Taois m o r wu i n High Castle — thoug h the y migh t hav e grea t interes t a s themati c analyse s o r a s engagements wit h th e exten t t o whic h Dic k accuratel y represente d traditional Asia n values and philosophy — in fact inadequatel y addres s Dick's concern s i f the y d o not acknowledg e th e displacemen t functio n of Asia n philosoph y an d identity , thei r role s i n provokin g cognitiv e estrangement. Mor e importantly , i f w e d o not directl y confron t Dick' s " o r i e n t a l i s m , " w e ar e i n dange r o f receivin g an d perpetuatin g stereotypical rendering s o f Asia n philosophie s an d character s that , i n my view, parallel Dick's largely stereotypical an d sexis t representation s of women . W e ten d t o regularl y critiqu e Dick' s Dark-Haire d Girl s an d openly investigate his problematic relationships wit h women. However , we rarely , i f ever , acknowledg e tha t Dick' s Asia n character s — Harr y Liu of Gather, Tagom i o f High Castle, and Tung Chien o f "Fait h o f Ou r Fathers," among many other s — are hardly realistically create d Chines e or Japanese subject s bu t instea d — at th e very least — are imbued wit h mildly stereotypica l trait s and at worst displac e Dick's ow n desire s an d fears, functionin g implicitl y a s raciall y inflecte d inscrutabl e others , a s perhaps unselfconsciousl y enacte d strategie s o f containmen t tha t symbolically resolv e both personal an d political anxietie s o f the author .

11 Godzilla's Travels: The Evolutio n o f a Globalize d Gargantua n Gary Westfah l

If th e topi c unde r consideratio n i s th e rol e played b y scienc e fictio n i n an ongoin g proces s o f globalization , ther e i s on e iconi c figur e wh o literally an d figurativel y tower s abov e the m all . The Japanes e monste r Gojira, bette r know n by his Americanized monike r Godzilla , burst int o international cinem a wit h a serie s o f well-receive d film s o f th e 1950 s and 1960 s that played to packed houses in the United State s and inspire d many imitator s ther e an d i n othe r nations . Afte r severa l film s o f declining quality drove Godzilla into temporary retirement i n the 1970s , he storme d bac k durin g th e 1980 s wit h a ne w serie s o f high-profil e Japanese films , an d i n th e 1990 s he wa s recruite d t o sta r i n on e o f th e most expensiv e and heavily publicized Hollywood film s eve r made. Stil l observed in countless films, cartoons , novels, comic books, video games, toys, an d merchandise , an d th e onl y non-huma n recipien t o f a n MT V Movie Lifetim e Achievemen t Award , Godzill a ha s earne d a plac e alongside Tarza n an d Superma n a s on e o f th e mos t famou s literar y creations o f th e twentiet h century . C h r o n i c l i n g t h e entir e histor y o f Godzill a i n hi s variou s incarnations, a s well as all the critical commentaries that have examine d this renowne d dinosaur , woul d deman d a n entir e book , mor e likel y several o f them . Wha t I hope t o accomplis h her e i s necessaril y mor e limited i n scope . First , I willfull y ignor e th e existin g scholarshi p regarding Godzill a i n the hopes tha t a reviewing o f some original films , unmediated b y th e standar d critica l judgments , migh t lea d t o fres h insights. Then , I focu s o n onl y eigh t film s — includin g thre e tha t ostensibly hav e nothin g t o d o wit h Godzill a — t o provide , fro m a n unabashedly Westernize d perspective , a posite d histor y tha t wil l provisionally explai n ho w th e characte r ha s change d an d evolve d a s h e

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WESTFAHL

has been adapted t o different situation s an d subjecte d t o more and mor e diverse cultural influences, finall y becoming the overdetermined symbo l who collapse s under hi s ow n weight i n th e colossa l fiasco o f the made in-America Godzilla (1998) . Glances a t numerous othe r films alon g th e way will sugges t tha t th e roots and branches o f the Godzill a family tre e are indee d vas t an d variegated , requirin g fa r mor e stud y tha n ha s bee n accomplished t o date , o r ca n b e accomplishe d here . While earlie r literar y an d cinemati c influence s — prominentl y including Arthu r Cona n Doyle' s nove l The Lost World (1912) , and th e film King Kong (1933 ) — canno t b e entirel y overlooked , th e moder n saga of Godzilla trul y begins, I would suggest , with tw o prose narrative s by noted American scienc e fiction writer s published aroun d th e middl e of th e twentiet h century . Rober t A . Heinlein' s Rocket Ship Galileo (1946) describe s a visionar y enginee r wh o build s a moo n rocke t wit h the ai d of thre e teenagers, who fl y t o the Moon an d encounte r renegad e German Nazi s working to establish a Fourth Reich. Ray Bradbury's "Th e Foghorn" (1951 ) i s a n atmospheri c vignett e abou t a dinosaur "who somehow survive d fo r million s o f year s unde r th e se a an d wa s draw n to shor e b y a lighthouse' s foghor n tha t resemble d th e cal l o f hi s ow n kind. Bot h work s wer e purchase d b y Hollywoo d producer s an d transformed int o film s tha t ha d littl e t o d o with thei r sourc e material s — Destination Moon (1950 ) and The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953) , respectively — an d togethe r thes e film s lai d th e foundatio n fo r th e Godzilla mythos . Destination Moon, at firs t glance , seem s ou t o f plac e i n an y discussion o f Godzilla , fo r i t endeavor s t o provid e a realisti c portraya l of ho w a moo n voyag e migh t actuall y b e accomplishe d wit h nothin g resembling a dinosaur involved . Ye t it i s a film tha t wil l late r mak e it s mark o n th e Godzill a series , an d i t furthe r signal s a noteworth y shif t in scienc e fictio n film s tha t ha d direc t effect s o n th e genr e o f gian t monster movies . In earlier scienc e fiction films , th e scientifi c menace s or challenges tended to be on a small scale — a mad scientis t conductin g secret experiments , a horribly transforme d huma n o n a rampage — and the typica l agent s wh o dea l wit h th e situatio n wer e polic e officer s o r detectives. I f a troublesom e creatur e wa s eludin g thei r grasp , sai d officials migh t recrui t a poss e o f torch-wieldin g citizen s t o assis t i n tracking it down , but tha t woul d represent th e full exten t o f any broader civic involvement; eve n Kin g Kong, it ma y be recalled, wa s defeate d b y a modest numbe r o f single-pilo t aircraft . Perhap s thi s recurrin g patter n of localize d scientifi c disruption s handle d b y loca l official s reflecte d a widespread belie f tha t scientifi c progres s was , al l i n all , a relativel y

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minor issu e with littl e impact o n society. However, afte r th e appearanc e of th e atomi c bom b i n 194 5 — th e even t tha t reverberate s throug h virtually al l scienc e fictio n film s i n th e comin g decad e — th e overarching importanc e o f scienc e coul d hardl y b e denied , an d th e scientific menace s o r challenge s depicte d i n film s woul d radicall y expand in their visibility and consequences. In the face of such problems, mere polic e officer s woul d b e impotent, a point dramaticall y conveye d by the scen e in The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms whe n Ne w Yor k City' s finest ar e conspicuousl y ineffectua l i n thei r effort s t o fen d of f th e invading dinosau r wit h thei r handgun s an d rifles. Instead , thes e bigger , and worse , scientifi c crise s woul d deman d th e formatio n o f broa d coalitions o f university-base d scientists , governmen t officials , an d military forces . Destination Moon wa s th e first majo r fil m t o depic t precisely suc h a coalition in action, a s the script eliminated Heinlein's isolated scientis t and instea d ha d it s moo n rocke t constructe d b y a smal l arm y o f scientists an d industrialist s workin g i n cooperation . Thei r succes s i n this endeavo r migh t mak e th e movi e seem , i n th e word s o f H . Bruc e Franklin, " a hym n o f prais e t o th e industrial-militar y complex." 1 However, th e fil m i s als o highl y critica l o f som e member s o f tha t complex: th e retire d Genera l Barnes , rebuffe d b y a short-sighte d American governmen t afte r hi s officia l effort s t o launc h a n Earth orbiting satellit e ar e thwarted by sabotage, must emplo y patriotic fervo r to forg e a tea m o f scientists , engineers , an d leader s o f privat e industr y to construc t a n atomic-powere d rocke t t o th e Moon ; later , th e fligh t i s almost thwarte d b y lega l actio n undertake n b y official s i n respons e t o public pressure. Most scienc e fiction film s o f the 1950 s would similarl y display bot h respec t fo r intelligen t figure s o f authorit y an d contemp t for obtus e figure s o f authority , leadin g t o subplot s involvin g conflict s between differen t faction s i n "th e industrial-military complex " regardin g the bes t cours e o f actio n t o tak e i n respons e t o th e proble m a t hand . Further, despit e th e absenc e o f a monster , a fe w recurrin g conventions o f late r monste r movie s firs t figure d prominentl y i n Destination Moon: th e introductory gatherin g of officials t o be informe d about th e problem , usuall y involvin g visua l aid s suc h a s maps , photographs, an d film s — here, incongruously , a n educationa l cartoo n starring Woody Woodpecker explainin g how a Moon rocket would work ; scenes o f worker s makin g thei r ow n smal l bu t vita l contribution s t o the large r effort , sometime s includin g stoc k footage ; an d conference s of worrie d tea m leader s discussin g terribl e setback s an d possibl e responses t o them . Thes e device s undoubtedl y create d a certai n sens e

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of drama , bu t th e proble m i n Destination Moon wa s tha t th e focu s o f their energie s — constructin g a rocke t tha t woul d trave l t o th e Moo n undistracted b y saboteurs , aliens , o r monster s — wa s inherentl y les s than thrilling , leadin g to the standar d complaint s tha t th e film suffere d from "sever e shortcomings " an d wa s "colourles s an d wooden." 2 T o sustain a fil m genre , thes e league s o f scientists , officials , an d soldier s would requir e mor e excitin g an d spectacula r challenge s — alien s invading th e Earth , a s i n Invaders from Mars (1953 ) an d Earth vs. the Flying Saucers (1956) , o r th e topi c unde r discussio n here , giganti c monsters o n th e rampage . The film tha t firs t presente d th e blueprint fo r giant monste r movie s was The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms. Abandonin g Bradbury' s effort s t o sympathetically characteriz e th e dinosau r a s a lonely relic of a forgotte n era, filmmakers depic t the monster a s implacably evil , the only remnan t of th e origina l stor y bein g a brief sequenc e i n whic h th e dinosaur , lik e the dinosau r o f "Th e Foghorn, " indifferentl y smashe s a lighthouse . (Consequently, th e film' s credit s ca n honestl y sa y onl y tha t th e movi e was "suggeste d by " Bradbury' s story. 3) Th e film' s radicall y differen t scenario introduce s virtuall y al l th e element s tha t woul d b e replicate d in score s o f monste r movie s o f th e 1950 s an d 1960s . Th e monste r appears i n a faraway, unpopulate d are a — such a s the Arctic (thi s film) , the desert s o f th e America n wes t (Tarantula, Them!), o r th e middl e o f the ocea n (Godzilla, King of the Monsters) — usuall y create d o r reawakened b y th e explosio n o f a n atomi c bomb . The creatur e steadil y makes it s way int o mor e an d more populated area s before endin g up i n a major metropolis , such a s New York City (this film), Tokyo (Godzilla, King of the Monsters and it s sequels) , Londo n (Gorgo), Chicago (The Beginning of the End), Sa n Francisc o (It Came from Beneath the Sea), or Copenhagen (Reptilicus). Initially , scattere d sighting s o f the monste r are me t wit h incredulit y an d ridicule, - bu t on e scientist , o r a fe w scientists, recogniz e wha t i s happenin g an d urg e general s an d government official s t o tak e action . Th e usua l triumvirat e i s a n olde r scientist, hi s beautifu l daughter , an d a youn g scientis t romanticall y involved wit h th e daughter , althoug h th e daughte r figur e i n The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms i s actually th e older scientist's unrelated assistant . When th e monster' s increasin g visibility an d destructivenes s mak e th e threat undeniable , scientist s joi n force s wit h politician s an d militar y leaders to craft a n organized, institutiona l respons e to the monster. Th e monster enter s th e bi g city , causin g crowd s o f panickin g peopl e t o ru n away screamin g whil e i t smashe s building s an d step s o n cars . Afte r conventional defense s fail , an d all hope seems lost, members of the inne r

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circle agre e t o g o alon g wit h on e scientist' s desperat e suggestion , an d as a resul t o f th e innovativ e idea , th e monste r i s destroyed . Even thoug h th e fil m ma y no w b e overlooke d b y viewer s wh o anachronistically interpre t i t a s a routin e renderin g o f th e formul a i t actually invented, som e aspects o f The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms wer e not precisel y replicate d i n it s successor s an d thu s comman d attention . The special effects o f Ray Harryhausen employe d stop-motion animatio n to creat e a dinosaur tha t wa s considerabl y mor e impressiv e tha n thos e created b y wha t woul d becom e th e era' s standar d techniques : rear projected insect s an d lizard s (a s i n The Beginning of the End and th e 1960 The Lost World) o r me n i n rubbe r suit s tramplin g o n miniatur e sets (a s in Godzilla, King of the Monsters and it s sequels) . Eventually , computer animatio n woul d engende r a renaissanc e o f qualit y i n depictions o f gian t monsters . Second , i n a rarel y notice d subplot , th e dinosaur, i n additio n t o it s nast y habi t o f destroyin g everythin g i n it s path, i s sai d t o b e spreadin g a virulent disease , incapacitatin g score s of soldiers an d citizens . Thi s aur a o f virulence , o f a medica l menac e associated wit h th e monster , wil l late r b e reintroduce d int o th e genre . Finally, th e fil m interestingl y reache s it s clima x wit h th e monste r i n Coney Islan d Amusemen t Park , smashin g aroun d it s famou s rolle r coaster an d inexorabl y suggestin g that , despit e th e film' s unrelentingl y serious tone, a giant monster i n contemporary time s migh t als o becom e an objec t o f entertainmen t an d amusement , a theme tha t date s to King Kong and cam e t o th e forefron t i n th e nove l an d fil m Jurassic Park. (One migh t als o ter m th e fil m prophetic , i n tha t dinosaur s no w figur e in actual amusement par k rides, such as Universal Studio' s Jurassic Park: The Ride , an d Knott' s Berr y Farm' s Kingdo m o f th e Dinosaurs. ) Despite legion s o f America n imitator s (includin g It Came from Beneath the Sea, Them!, Tarantula, The Land Unknown, The Beginning of the End, The Giant Claw, The Deadly Mantis, and The Black Scorpion), th e mos t significan t offsprin g o f The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms wa s unquestionabl y Toh o Studio' s 195 4 film Gojira, release d in th e U S i n 195 6 a s Godzilla, King of the Monsters. Th e America n version actuall y qualifie s a s a Japanese-American co-production , sinc e American producer s adde d numerou s scene s wit h Raymon d Bur r a s American reporte r Stev e Marti n an d smothere d th e entir e fil m wit h Burr's incessant narration . However, t o balance this intrusive America n presence, th e film , unlik e late r Godzill a film s re-edite d fo r America n audiences, employe d relativel y littl e dubbin g into English ; most scene s feature actor s speakin g i n Japanese , thei r word s explaine d t o Bur r b y an observin g translato r o r paraphrase d b y Bur r a s narrator . I t oddl y

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seems, then , mor e o f a Japanes e fil m tha n it s successor s tha t includ e American actor s in their original casts and dub all dialogue into English . Watching Godzilla, King of the Monsters, on e notice s obviou s borrowings fro m The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms, suc h a s th e firs t appearances o f bot h monster s a s hug e head s loomin g ove r mountai n ridges. Yet the Japanese film als o departed from th e American templat e in severa l ways , som e o f which hav e been well documented . Certainly , there is less emphasis o n scientific rigor : in comparison t o the extensiv e scientific discussion s intende d t o justif y th e existenc e o f th e monste r in The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms, littl e tim e i s devote d t o fau x paleontology i n Godzilla, King of the Monsters-, instead , Godzill a i s briefly an d vaguel y describe d a s a n ancien t hybri d o f lan d an d se a creature from " 2 million years ago," though dinosaur s of course actuall y perished mor e tha n 6 5 million year s ago. 4 And Godzilla' s fire breath , a s commentators hav e regularl y indicated , connect s hi m mor e t o legend s of dragon s tha n t o fact-based account s o f dinosaurs . (An d how migh t a purportedly half-aquati c creatur e develo p fire breat h i n th e firs t place? ) Further, despit e its famous scene s of monstrous mayhem , Godzilla, King of the Monsters i s actuall y mor e attentiv e t o huma n dram a tha n are it s America n counterparts . Th e standar d tria d o f olde r scientist , daughter, an d youn g scientist , an d a perfunctory romanc e betwee n th e latter tw o figures , i s expande d t o includ e a fourt h characte r an d a romantic triangle ; th e scientist' s daughte r ha s falle n i n lov e wit h a handsome sailor , eve n thoug h sh e wishes t o remain loya l t o her fiance , a brillian t youn g scientis t w i t h a distinctiv e ey e patch . Mor e significantly, th e fil m devote s muc h mor e attentio n t o th e sufferin g o f Godzilla's victims ; whereas The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms ha d onl y a few brie f scene s o f injure d peopl e i n hospitals , Godzilla, King of the Monsters linger s on scenes o f pain an d mutilation. Th e film begin s wit h Raymond Bur r lyin g underneat h th e rubbl e o f a smashe d building ; h e is carrie d t o a n overcrowde d hospita l an d lai d o n th e floor , sinc e n o beds ar e available; an d late r scene s depic t hi m wit h hea d bandage s an d his ar m i n a sling . Scen e afte r scen e show s peopl e gettin g injure d o r killed; i t i s repeatedl y emphasize d tha t Godzill a ha s cause d thousand s of deaths,- and ther e is an extende d scen e showing a televised memoria l service wit h tw o hundre d youn g wome n solemnl y singin g a musica l tribute t o Godzilla' s innumerabl e victims . Although th e facto r o f atomi c energ y transform s almos t ever y monster movi e o f th e 1950 s into a potential allegor y o f the devastatin g effects o f nuclear weapons, this film's prolonge d preoccupation wit h th e suffering cause d b y Godzill a make s thi s linkag e impossibl e t o deny . I t

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was a reaction, a s noted i n J . D. Lee s an d Mar c Cerasini' s The Official Godzilla Compendium, no t onl y t o th e bombing s o f Hiroshim a an d Nagasaki i n 194 5 bu t t o a mor e recen t inciden t i n 195 4 involvin g Japanese sailors disastrously contaminate d by an American H-bom b tes t in th e Pacifi c Ocean , describe d i n Japanes e newspaper s a s "th e Secon d Atomic Bombin g o f Japan." 5 T o make th e connectio n eve n clearer , th e older scientis t o f th e fil m specificall y attribute s th e emergenc e o f Godzilla t o the effect s o f H-bomb tests . Godzilla, King of the Monsters, therefore, introduce d t o the monster movie a message about postcolonia l guilt, th e monste r a s bot h a produc t o f th e mor e powerfu l develope d countries an d a symbol of the damage they characteristically inflict upo n their les s powerful , les s develope d counterparts . Lik e othe r theme s s o far touched upon, it is a motif tha t will be echoed in later monster films . Since thei r firs t Godzill a movi e wa s a tremendou s success , Toh o Studies promptly produced a sequel, sometimes given the American titl e Godzilla Raids Again (1955) , which include d i n it s otherwise-familia r story a battl e betwee n Godzill a an d anothe r gian t dinosaur , late r t o become a standar d plo t device . Ye t th e fil m wa s originall y release d i n America unde r th e titl e Gigantis the Fire Monster, providin g Godzill a with a n alia s an d makin g n o referenc e t o th e origina l film . Clearly , th e message received by Toho Studios was that American audience s wante d to se e ne w monsters , no t ol d favorites , an d th e compan y accordingl y devoted the next severa l years to films abou t othe r giant creatures , suc h as the giant bird Rodan (1956) ; Varan the Unbelievable (1958) , variously described a s a giant squirre l o r giant winge d lizard ; an d Mothra (1961) , a giant mot h wh o give s birth t o two gian t caterpillar s tha t carr y on he r struggle. Whe n Willi s O'Brien' s suggestio n fo r a King Kong vs. Frankenstein fil m wa s take n b y produce r Joh n Bec k t o Japa n an d refashioned int o th e fil m King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962) , a new cycl e of Godzilla film s buil t aroun d monste r slugfest s began , followe d b y Godzilla vs. the Thing (1964) , Godzilla battlin g Mothra ; an d Ghidrah the Three-Headed Monster (1965) , Godzilla, Mothra , an d Rodan teamin g up to defeat th e titular menace , a three-headed flying dragon . The latte r film marke d a key shif t i n characterization s o f Godzilla; previously th e villain, th e horribl e destructiv e forc e tha t mus t b e stoppe d b y huma n ingenuity o r the intervention o f kinder, gentler monsters lik e King Kong or Mothra , Godzill a woul d no w figur e primaril y a s a heroi c figure , defending Japa n an d th e res t o f humanit y agains t implacabl e foe s lik e Ghidrah o r alien invaders. Ghidrah the Three-Headed Monster als o ha d a strang e subplo t involvin g a femal e prophe t wh o rediscover s he r Martian ancestry , anticipatin g th e nex t ingredien t tha t woul d soo n b e added t o th e Godzill a stew : adventure s i n oute r space .

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The plot of Godzilla vs. Monster Zero (1966) , to say the least, resist s easy summary ; i t i s a s i f th e film' s creator s wen t rummagin g throug h the America n scienc e fictio n film s o f th e 1950 s in searc h o f trope s an d ideas t o borrow , an d the n clumsil y combine d thei r gleaning s wit h th e battle-of-the-monsters storylin e of Ghidrah the Three-Headed Monster. The openin g sequence , in many respects , surprisingl y recapitulate s an d pays homage t o Destination Moon: a new Plane t X has been discovere d behind Jupiter , an d a spaceship has been dispatche d b y the World Spac e Authority t o lan d o n an d explor e thi s world . Astronaut s Fuj i (Akir a Takarada) an d Glen n (Nic k Adams ) wea r garis h orang e spacesuit s tha t recall th e brightly colore d suit s o f the astronaut s i n Destination Moon, and glimpse s o f the m upsid e dow n o r sideway s i n thei r spaceshi p fleetingly referenc e depiction s o f zer o gravit y i n th e earlie r film . The y turn aroun d thei r streamline d spaceshi p t o land, like the space traveler s in Destination Moon, an d images of their approach to the barren surface , and th e firs t moment s o f thei r arriva l o n th e surface , ar e strongl y reminiscent o f simila r scene s i n Destination Moon. However , jus t a s Fuji i s abou t t o plan t th e combine d flag s o f th e Unite d Nations , Japan , and th e Unite d State s o n Plane t X , presumabl y t o clai m th e worl d i n the manne r o f th e earlie r luna r explorers , th e atmospher e o f realis m dissipates; th e spaceshi p an d Glen n vanish , elevator s emerg e fro m th e surface o f th e world , an d unsee n voice s comman d Fuj i t o ente r a n elevator an d descen d int o th e aliens ' undergroun d realm . At this point, th e story abruptly shifts t o a pastiche of a considerabl y less realistic scienc e fiction fil m o f the 1950s , This Island Earth (1955) ; like tha t film' s Metalunans , th e scientificall y advance d denizen s o f Planet X have bee n force d t o liv e undergroun d becaus e o f destructiv e attacks o n thei r world' s surface , an d they ar e seeking Earth's assistanc e in combatin g th e menace . Here , however , th e attack s com e fro m Ghidrah, rename d Monste r Zer o o n Plane t X , and th e assistanc e bein g requested i s th e righ t t o transpor t Godzill a an d Roda n fro m Eart h t o Planet X t o driv e Ghidra h away . Th e alien s recal l tha t Godzill a an d Rodan wer e previousl y efficaciou s i n riddin g Eart h o f Ghidra h i n Ghidrah the Three-Headed Monster, thoug h the y hav e inexplicabl y overlooked the equally important contribution s o f a third Earth monster , Mothra, perhap s omitte d fro m thi s fil m a s a cost-cuttin g measure . I n exchange for the monsters, th e aliens will provide Earth with a "miracl e drug tha t wil l cur e al l disease. " The astronaut s the n retur n t o Eart h i n another sequenc e tha t recall s Destination Moon, and whe n senio r officials agre e to th e deal , flyin g saucer s from Plane t X appear an d tak e Godzilla an d Roda n awa y t o Plane t X . Another flyin g sauce r take s Fuj i

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and Glen n back to Planet X, where they watch Godzill a an d Rodan tak e care of Ghidrah with amazin g ease and are given a tape with th e formul a for th e miracl e cur e t o retur n t o Eart h i n a duplicat e o f thei r origina l spaceship. The overcomplicate d stor y no w lurche s int o a redactio n o f Earth vs. the Flying Saucers, sinc e th e tap e contain s onl y a n ultimatum , demanding tha t Eart h surrende r t o Plane t X o r fac e a devastatin g invasion. Soon , flyin g saucer s ar e patrollin g Earth' s skies , zappin g random vehicle s wit h deat h rays , an d Godzilla , Rodan , an d Ghidrah , now al l mentally controlle d b y magnetic alie n rays, have been returne d to Eart h an d dispatche d t o destro y variou s area s an d caus e masse s o f horrified peopl e t o fle e i n scene s tha t briefl y harke n bac k t o The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms and Godzilla, King of the Monsters. Thi s time , however, ther e ar e n o scene s o f wounde d victim s o r overcrowde d hospitals; fa r to o muc h i s goin g o n fo r anyon e t o worr y abou t suc h trivialities. Alongside it s distinguishe d olde r scientis t an d beautifu l youn g woman, Godzilla vs. Monster Zero has provide d no t on e o r tw o bu t three mal e heroes , whos e disparat e activitie s no w converge : astronau t Fuji, th e brothe r o f th e femal e lead , ha s someho w re-emerge d a s th e brilliant youn g scientis t i n charg e o f effort s t o fin d som e wa y t o bloc k the magneti c mind-controllin g ray s an d ge t Godzill a an d Roda n bac k on Earth' s side ; astronau t Glen n ha s romance d a beautifu l agen t fro m Planet X , wh o despit e bein g unde r computerize d menta l contro l (lik e all resident s o f Plane t X ) ha s falle n i n lov e wit h Glen n an d provide s him wit h a vita l clu e befor e bein g disintegrate d b y he r disappointe d masters; an d a n eccentri c youn g invento r i n lov e with th e femal e lea d has bee n imprisone d b y agent s fro m Plane t X afte r sellin g the m th e rights t o his lates t invention , a device that produce s a loud, unpleasan t sound. Learnin g fro m a not e lef t b y th e dea d alie n seductres s tha t residents o f Plane t X are vulnerabl e t o lou d noise s (anothe r borrowin g from Earth vs. the Flying Saucers), Glen n an d th e invento r us e hi s noisemaker t o escap e fro m th e agent s o f Plane t X ; the y obtai n Fuji' s assistance in broadcasting th e noise all over Earth t o disable the aliens ; and Godzill a an d Roda n ar e simultaneousl y free d fro m alie n menta l control s o the y ca n combin e force s t o defea t Ghidra h an d brin g thi s increasingly incoheren t stor y t o a welcom e end . Ther e i s on e fina l bombshell: Glenn canno t g o on vacation because he has been appointe d the ne w ambassado r t o Plane t X , though wha t sor t o f diplomac y h e i s expected t o practice with th e computer-controlle d scoundrel s wh o jus t slaughtered hi s girlfrien d an d lai d wast e t o plane t Eart h i s lef t unspecified.

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If th e failur e o f Godzilla vs. Monster Zero ca n b e attribute d t o it s reliance o n to o m a n y disparat e influences , t h e m u l t i p l e an d contradictory role s bein g playe d b y Godzill a ar e particularl y striking . It wil l b e recalle d tha t th e stor y tha t arguabl y starte d i t all , "Th e Foghorn," invited sympathetic consideration o f the reawakened dinosau r as a patheti c los t soul , an d Godzilla vs. Monster Zero unexpectedl y includes on e scen e tha t invite s suc h a n emotiona l reaction . Whe n Fuj i and Glen n leav e Plane t X a secon d tim e afte r Ghidrah' s firs t defeat , Godzilla an d Rodan look up with seemin g frustration an d regret at thei r departing spaceship . The astronaut s expres s a bit o f guilt abou t leavin g these loya l monsters o n a barren alie n world, an d viewing the monster s from th e high perspective 6i th e rising spaceship unusually make s the m look smal l an d helpless , lik e pet s bein g abandone d b y thei r masters . Another rol e playe d b y th e gian t monste r — the implacabl e enem y — will increasingly be assumed by Ghidrah, but Godzill a and Rodan briefl y return t o tha t characterizatio n i n thei r destructiv e rampages . I n thi s film an d mos t futur e films , Godzill a wil l primaril y figur e a s Earth' s heroic champion , defendin g humanit y agains t on e threa t afte r anothe r and b y defaul t representin g th e benevolen t convers e o f whateve r evi l he battle s — defendin g individualit y an d freedo m i n opposin g brainwashed invader s fro m Plane t X i n thi s film , fightin g t o preserv e the environment b y battling Hedorah in Godzilla vs. the Smog Monster, standing up for th e natural world and organic life by overcoming a giant robot i n Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla, and s o on . Finally , i n thi s film' s introduction o f th e them e o f monster s unde r th e menta l contro l o f others, Godzilla and other monsters take on a fourth rol e — the powerfu l but morall y neutral weapon, read y to serve whatever goo d or evil entit y contrives t o seiz e contro l o f it . I n sum , Godzilla vs. Monster Zero alternately invite s audience s t o fee l sorr y fo r Godzilla , t o fea r an d despise Godzilla, t o root for Godzilla, and to have no feelings whatsoeve r for Godzilla . The next nin e Godzilla movies displa y similar confusion , an d ofte n downright silliness , in various attempt s t o recombine familiar element s and impor t ne w influences . I n tw o films , Godzill a i s provide d wit h a n adorable littl e so n t o underlin e hi s burgeonin g aur a o f avuncula r benevolence; ne w alien s launc h monster-assiste d invasion s o f Eart h t o enhance Godzilla's reputation a s Earth's defender; a place called Monste r Island, a saf e have n fo r al l o f Earth' s monster s i n th e nea r future , provides a domesticatin g contex t fo r Godzill a an d othe r monster s an d a convenien t startin g poin t fo r adventures, - an d Godzilla' s robo t counterpart, Mechagodzilla , provide s a n enem y tha t overtl y represent s

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not simpl y th e evil s o f atomi c energ y bu t mor e broadl y th e evil s o f modern technology . None o f these developments , however , coul d brin g a genuin e sens e o f novelt y t o a monster-movi e formul a tha t seeme d increasingly playe d ou t an d incapabl e o f furthe r creativ e growth . Accordingly, Toho' s decisio n t o en d th e serie s i n 197 5 wit h Terror of Mechagodzilla represente d a t th e time th e appropriat e mercy killin g of an ailin g franchise . However, event s in the outside world would soo n offer a foundatio n for a revitalized genr e o f monste r movies . First, scientist s i n th e 1960 s and 1970 s were becomin g awar e o f a new typ e o f dinosaur , th e raptor , that wa s abou t th e siz e o f a human bein g but fast-movin g an d lethall y ferocious. Th e shee r differenc e i n siz e betwee n giganti c monster s an d people ha d alway s mad e effort s t o establis h persona l relationship s awkward an d implausible, - on e wondere d wh y Mothr a wa s s o fon d o f those tw o miniatur e women , o r wh y th e gian t turtl e Gamer a o f riva l studio Daie i wa s sai d t o be s o fond o f tin y huma n children . Th e rapto r offered th e intriguing possibility o f a dinosaur tha t coul d look a man o r a woman i n th e eye , a formidable bu t modestl y dimensione d opponent . Another portentou s developmen t i n the 1970 s was the rise of feminism . With th e exception s o f Mothr a an d th e Britis h Gorgo, bot h mother s accompanied by their offspring , cinemati c dinosaur s an d giant monster s had implicitl y bee n gendere d a s male , an d th e peopl e wh o lea d th e battles agains t thos e monster s wer e invariabl y men . Ho w migh t th e dynamics o f th e monste r movi e chang e i f th e monste r wer e portraye d as a dynamic female, and/o r if the struggl e against th e monster feature d an assertiv e woman ? A n America n film , ostensibl y unrelate d t o th e Godzilla saga , woul d soo n begi n th e proces s o f explorin g thes e ne w options. Given th e hug e amoun t o f scholarshi p an d commentar y focuse d on the film Alien (1979 ) and its sequels , and my lac k of familiarity wit h that literature , I a m understandabl y reluctan t t o discus s th e fil m a t length, fo r fea r o f unknowingl y replicatin g wha t ha s alread y bee n observed. Perhaps , however , ther e i s a modicu m o f novelt y i n arguin g that Alien can be fruitfully considere d a s an inspire d transformatio n o f the Godzill a movie . Othe r influence s o n th e fil m certainl y canno t b e overlooked, mos t notabl y A . E. van Vogt's 193 9 story "Blac k Destroyer " (van Vogt sued the filmmakers an d garnered a cash settlement), th e 195 8 film It! The Terror from Beyond Space, and Joh n Carpenter' s satirica l Dark Star (1974) . Ye t resonance s wit h th e Godzill a film s an d thei r predecessors ar e present a s well. As the robo t As h admiringl y remarks , the Alie n is , lik e Godzilla , "a survivor, " wh o endure d fo r a lon g tim e

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in inhospitable condition s before it s revival. 6 Like Godzilla vs. Monster Zero, th e fil m begin s wit h th e firs t huma n landin g o n a n alie n planet , and lik e The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms, th e Alie n i s firs t discovere d in a cold, barren environment . Th e creature' s projecte d trajector y i s th e standard on e observe d i n The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms, Godzilla, King of the Monsters, and countles s othe r monste r films ; beginnin g it s journey i n a remot e territory , th e creatur e i s steadil y travelin g towar d the bi g cities o f Eart h (eve n if, i n th e cas e of th e Alien, it s tri p t o Eart h is onl y complete d i n th e series ' fourt h film) . Whil e th e adul t Alie n i s humanoid i n shape , i t als o appear s reptilian , muc h lik e a miniatur e Godzilla or a raptor, an d the octopus-like tentacles o f its initial parasiti c form sugges t tha t i t share s wit h Godzill a a n aquati c origin , a s does th e large ne t initiall y deploye d i n a n effor t t o captur e it . Th e deadl y aci d that drip s from it s parasitic form, an d the manner in which it infiltrate s and takes over its victim's body, display a linkage with infectiou s diseas e that als o recalls The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms. And , if the Alien serve s as a miniaturize d gian t monster , an d th e shi p o f th e firs t fil m a s th e miniaturized wildernes s throug h whic h i t destructivel y wander s o n it s way t o civilization , the n th e seven-perso n cre w o f th e Nostromo represents th e miniaturize d bureaucrac y assemble d t o comba t th e monster, combinin g initia l respec t fo r an d relianc e o n authorit y wit h the eventua l rejectio n o f on e membe r o f th e tea m wh o i s reveale d t o be complici t i n th e Alien' s progress . Yet Alien bot h replicate s an d reinvent s th e gian t monste r movie . With a creature the size of a raptor, not a Tyrannosaurus rex , Alien offer s a mor e intimat e aur a o f menace , an d th e hostilit y towar d it s monste r takes o n a persona l tone, - i t i s har d t o imagine , fo r example , someon e condemning Godzilla' s destructio n o f Tokyo by calling him a "so n o f a bitch." Further , despit e th e masculin e natur e o f tha t particula r insult , members o f th e Alie n specie s i n thi s an d late r film s ar e generall y gendered a s female,- here , w e essentiall y hav e a creatur e wh o lay s egg s in huma n torso s an d whos e homicida l impulse s ar e drive n b y it s desperate determination t o reproduce. And the most effectiv e oppositio n to th e Alie n i s th e woma n Ripley , wh o i s consistentl y th e perso n wh o figures ou t an d execute s th e bes t cours e o f actio n whil e he r mal e comrades displa y eithe r inappropriat e compassio n an d docilit y t o th e monster (Dalla s an d Ash ) o r inappropriat e an d ineffectua l machism o (Parker an d Brett) . In thes e respects , Riple y offer s a refreshing contras t to th e submissiv e romanti c object s o f 1950 s America n scienc e fictio n films an d th e Godzill a movies . Predictably, Alien quickl y inspire d a floo d o f imitativ e film s

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featuring small , virulen t monsters , includin g Inseminoid (1980) , Alien Contamination (1981) , Mindwarp: An Infinity of Terror (1981) , Forbidden World (1982) , an d Parasite (1982) ; but ther e als o appeare d a well-received homag e t o th e olde r mode l o f th e rampagin g giganti c reptile, Alligator (1981) , whic h ma y hav e playe d a mor e direc t rol e i n inspiring Toho Studio s t o re-release som e of their classi c monster film s in 1982 . Whe n thes e prove d profitable , a decisio n t o relaunc h th e Godzilla serie s was inevitable. This time , however, no t onl y were ther e new cinemati c and cultural influences t o assimilate, but Godzill a woul d be emergin g fro m a vastl y transforme d nation : Japan , th e globa l economic superpower , i n contras t t o th e devastate d vassa l stat e tha t originally create d th e monster. Ther e was little novelty in th e first fil m of this ne w series , Godzilla 1985 (1984), a straightforward seque l t o th e first Godzill a film wit h Raymond Burr reprising his role as reporter Stev e Martin. Bu t th e nex t film , Godzilla vs. BioUante (1989) , woul d offe r filmgoers a strikin g mixtur e o f th e ol d an d th e new . At th e hear t o f thi s film , on e might argue , is the standar d Godzill a storyline — Godzilla emerge s from th e sea , approaches populated areas , and eventuall y destroy s a major metropoli s (here , oddly, Osak a instea d of Tokyo ) — but thi s familia r dram a occupie s a t mos t fiftee n minute s of the film's tw o hours. More attention is focused o n the strange creatio n of BioUante : a scientis t grievin g ove r th e sudde n deat h o f hi s daughte r decides t o blen d he r gene s wit h thos e o f a ros e bush , the n furthe r combines th e ros e gene s wit h gene s fro m Godzill a cell s t o creat e a gigantic monster plant , sportin g tentacle-lik e vine s with snappin g jaw s that recal l bot h th e carnivorou s plan t o f Little Shop of Horrors (1960 ) and th e bab y Alie n tha t spurt s ou t o f Joh n Hurt' s chest . Ye t BioUant e is a als o a gentl e femal e monster , determine d t o sto p Godzilla' s destructive attacks , inasmuc h a s sh e i s imbue d wit h th e benevolen t spirit o f th e scientist' s daughter , whos e fac e mysteriousl y materialize s when BioUant e drift s int o orbi t t o metamorphos e int o a huge re d ros e at th e film' s conclusion . Th e battl e agains t Godzill a als o require s th e assistance of a young woman whos e psychic powers enable her to detec t the monster' s presenc e whe n h e i s hiding beneath th e sea . In thi s film , then, Godzill a i s singularl y defeate d almos t entirel y b y gir l power . The influenc e o f Alien i s furthe r suggeste d b y th e film' s them e o f infectious diseas e (perhap s reflecting th e fact tha t th e story was writte n by a dentis t wh o entere d an d wo n a contes t t o determin e th e plo t o f the nex t Godzill a movie) : scientist s ar e usin g Godzill a cell s t o creat e "anti-nuclear bacteria " which the y hope can infect an d destroy Godzill a — and might, incidentally , als o make all nuclear weapons obsolete. This

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attracts th e attentio n o f foreig n government s and , no t incidentally , makes this the first Godzill a movie since Godzilla, King of the Monsters to hav e a mildl y anti-America n tone , fo r tw o o f th e foreig n agent s attempting t o stea l som e Godzill a cell s ar e Americans . However , mindful o f a potential America n audience , th e agent s ar e presented a s likable an d ineffectual ; th e rea l villai n i s a ruthles s assassi n fro m th e Middle Eastern natio n o f "Saradia" — a transparent renamin g o f "Saud i Arabia"— whic h seek s Godzill a cell s i n orde r t o creat e a superstron g form o f wheat capabl e of growing in the desert and providing the countr y with a ne w sourc e o f incom e an d globa l clou t whe n it s oi l reserve s eventually diminish . Sinc e eve n th e resurgen t Japa n o f th e 1980 s depended upo n th e increasingl y influentia l nation s o f th e Middl e Eas t for oil , the y ca n no w joi n th e Unite d State s i n functionin g a s representatives o f post-colonia l force s seekin g t o oppres s Japan . If th e geopolitica l tension s an d violenc e o f th e sp y thrille r see m unduly sophisticate d fo r a Godzill a film , ther e i s th e offsettin g facto r of another subplo t openl y aimed a t children . As part o f its plans to dea l with th e expecte d retur n o f Godzilla , th e Japanes e governmen t ha s constructed a n amazing futuristic vehicl e called the "Supe r X-2," closely resembling th e spac e fighter s o f Star Wars (1977 ) an d alway s accompanied b y a musical fanfare highl y reminiscent o f John Williams' s theme fo r th e fil m Superman (1978) . The Supe r X- 2 soar s throug h th e air and employs various weapons in its visually dramatic but ultimatel y ineffectual engagement s wit h Godzilla . Sinc e thi s vehicl e coul d hav e been eliminate d fro m th e film withou t alterin g th e plot i n an y way, it s presence mus t b e explaine d i n cynica l terms . Toh o Studio s ma y hav e figured tha t puttin g a bit o f Star Wars int o th e fil m migh t enhanc e it s popularity, perhap s anticipatin g tha t thi s serie s o f Godzill a films , lik e the las t one , wa s boun d t o en d u p i n oute r spac e anywa y (a s it did) . I t might als o represent a plan t o profit fro m th e toy market, Toh o Studio s hoping tha t littl e Japanes e boy s woul d clamo r t o ow n thei r ow n littl e Super X-2' s t o deplo y i n moc k battle s wit h a miniatur e Godzilla . However confuse d an d variegate d Godzilla vs. BioUante migh t seem, i t i s a model o f coherence an d thematic unit y whe n compare d t o the nex t Godzill a film , Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah. I n som e respects , t h i s seem s a redactio n o f Godzilla vs. Monster Zero: again, technologically advance d visitor s t o Eart h emerg e from a flying saucer , seeking to remove Godzilla fro m Eart h for everyone' s benefit, an d agai n they prove to be duplicitous an d evil. But these visitors are from Earth' s future, an d thei r appearanc e an d motive s seeth e wit h undeniabl e political overtones. Two of these Futurians are white men named Wilso n

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and Girencheko, * one is clearl y American, hi s nam e recallin g Woodro w Wilson, th e first America n presiden t t o play a dominating role in worl d politics, an d the othe r i s clearly Russian, whos e name blends th e nam e of th e then-curren t leade r o f th e USSR , Mikhai l Gorbachev , wit h tha t of hi s immediat e predecessor , Konstanti n Chernenko . Th e thir d Futurian i s a Japanes e woman , Emmy , wh o i s no t a part y t o he r comrade's insidious scheme . The visitors announce that Godzill a is soon destined t o completel y destro y Japan , s o the y see k t o remov e hi m s o that Japan can exist in the future. I n actuality, however, Japa n will thriv e and wil l becom e th e wealthiest , largest , an d mos t powerfu l natio n i n the twenty-thir d century, - Wilso n an d Girencheko' s actua l inten t i s t o replace Godzilla wit h th e eve n more dangerous Ghidorah , s o that Japa n will b e devastate d an d neve r achiev e it s dominan t status . Th e provocative storyline , then , effectivel y ha s the United State s and Russi a plotting t o repres s Japa n b y removin g it s monstrou s champion . An anti-American spirit , however, i s even more apparent i n the wa y that Godzilla' s origin s ar e re-explained. I n previous films , Godzill a ha d somehow shifte d fro m bein g a representative o f other nations oppressin g Japan, create d b y a n America n H-bomb , t o bein g a representativ e o f Japan, defendin g th e natio n agains t attackers ; Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah give s Godzill a a ne w origi n stor y tha t stresse s hi s empath y with Japan . Durin g Worl d Wa r II , Japanese soldier s o n a remot e islan d are improbabl y save d fro m a n America n attac k b y th e appearanc e o f a dinosaur, dubbe d th e godzillasaurus , wh o rout s th e Americans,- thoug h the survivor s kep t thi s dinosau r a secret, the y continue d t o admir e an d revere thi s creature , becaus e th e me n wh o survive d turne d ou t t o b e "the ver y sam e me n wh o rebuil t ou r economy." 7 Ten years later , whe n Americans teste d a n H-bom b nea r th e island , i t wa s thi s dinosau r tha t mutated int o th e large r an d mor e dangerou s Godzilla . I n scene s o f th e smaller Godzill a killin g America n soldiers , an d i n th e affectio n th e soldiers sho w t o th e wounde d dinosau r wh o save d Japan' s leader s an d benefited th e nation , Godzill a i s reconfigure d a s a champio n o f Japan , rendered a menac e onl y du e t o America n interventio n befor e i t rediscovers an d reassert s it s kinshi p wit h Japan . The Futurian s telepor t th e godzillasauru s t o th e botto m o f th e Pacific Ocea n s o that i t wil l neve r b e expose d t o th e H-bom b radiatio n and never become Godzilla ; however, a s part o f their plot, th e Futurian s also bring with the m thre e cherubic little flying monsters calle d Dorats, which the y kno w wil l mutat e int o th e horrifi c Ghidora h whe n the y are expose d t o tha t sam e H-bom b radiation . Whe n a Japa n withou t a Godzilla i s subsequentl y attacke d b y Ghidorah , a Japanes e officia l

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suggests tha t th e undersea dinosau r be located an d expose d t o radiatio n to mak e i t int o Godzill a again , revealin g i n passin g tha t Japa n secretl y possesses a nuclear submarin e arme d with nuclea r missiles . Any actio n on Japan's part turns ou t to be unnecessary, however , whe n i t is reveale d that a sunke n Russia n atomi c submarin e ha s alread y don e th e jo b o f recreating Godzilla , no w eve n talle r an d mor e savag e tha n before . Th e political messag e seem s t o be: the Americans, who create d th e origina l Godzilla, ar e bad ; bu t th e Russians , wh o create d th e secon d an d mor e deadly Godzilla , ar e eve n worse . While th e analysi s abov e might sugges t a conclusion t o th e fil m i n which Godzill a shed s hi s evi l influence s an d reassert s hi s statu s a s Japan's hero , th e Godzill a film s a t thi s stag e have starte d t o manifes t a tendency towar d maxima l complexit y whic h mitigate s agains t suc h moral clarity . Instead , afte r Godzill a defeat s Ghidorah , Godzill a loom s as a menace t o Japan, - th e goo d Futuria n an d he r present-da y comrade s then hav e th e bright ide a o f reviving Ghidora h t o defea t Godzilla . (Th e circularity of this logic, which might lead to Ghidorah defeatin g Godzill a and becomin g th e ne w menace , creatin g a nee d t o reviv e Godzill a t o defeat Ghidorah , o n t o infinity , goe s unnoted.) Ghidora h the n become s this film' s unlikel y avata r o f gir l power, a s Emm y arrange s t o tur n th e moribund Ghidora h int o th e cybor g Mecha-King Ghidorah , sh e hersel f controlling th e monste r fro m a cockpit o f sort s installe d nea r hi s thre e heads. Th e femal e psychi c fro m Godzilla vs. BioUante i s als o lurkin g about, occasionall y pitchin g i n t o provid e som e piec e o f informatio n about Godzill a o r Ghidorah , bu t ther e i s s o much goin g o n i n th e fil m that i t i s difficul t t o pa y an y attentio n t o her . Whe n Godzill a an d Ghidorah fal l int o th e se a whil e locke d i n battle , i t seem s the y hav e defeated eac h other , allowin g fo r a t leas t a sens e o f temporar y closure, but th e fil m ultimatel y refuse s eve n that , b y mean s o f a final scen e i n which w e se e Godzilla' s underse a ey e glowingl y ope n up . Concurrent w i t h thes e effort s t o demoniz e th e previousl y benevolent monster , Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah simultaneousl y make s an unprecedente d effor t t o arous e sympath y fo r Godzilla . Harkenin g back t o th e spiri t o f "Th e Foghorn, " th e Japanese soldiers durin g Worl d War II bond with th e injured dinosau r who defende d them , protectivel y surrounding hi m a s h e lie s wounde d an d helples s o n th e groun d an d apologizing for th e necessity of their departure . Later, in on e of the mos t extraordinary scene s i n th e entir e Godzill a series , th e Japanes e soldie r who most admire d Godzilla , waiting in an abandoned skyscraper , come s face t o fac e wit h th e gian t dinosau r whil e h e i s flattenin g th e city . I n alternating close-ups , man an d monster star e intently a t eac h other , an d

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one momentaril y wonder s i f th e fil m wil l laps e int o th e implausibl e bathos o f a scene right out o f Androcles and the Lion i n which Godzill a recognizes hi s ol d benefacto r an d end s hi s attack . Instead , however , Godzilla resume s hi s rampage , killin g th e ol d ma n wit h a blast o f fir e breath an d revertin g t o hi s siniste r persona . The borrowings an d homages permeating thi s film ar e so numerou s as to def y cataloging . The evil , humanoid robo t o f Alien i s borrowed t o serve a s th e Futurian' s super-powerfu l accomplic e (performin g astounding feats tha t als o seem derived from television' s The Six Million Dollar Man and th e fil m The Terminator), thoug h Emm y reprogram s him t o becom e th e sor t o f helpful , reliabl e robo t observe d i n Aliens. One America n i n Worl d Wa r I I observin g th e dinosau r i s tol d b y hi s commander t o someda y describ e it t o his son , th e punchline being tha t he i s the n identifie d a s "Majo r Spielberg" ; however , on e isn' t sur e i f filmmakers ar e acknowledgin g th e influenc e o f Spielberg' s Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977) in the design of the Futurians' flyin g saucer, ar e linkin g th e cut e littl e Dorat s t o Spielberg' s cut e littl e E.T. (1982), o r ar e jokin g abou t Spielberg' s then-forthcomin g dinosau r fil m Jurassic Park (1993) . In a more general tribute to Godzilla's predecessors , the hero of the film, wh o first theorize s tha t Godzill a is the transforme d dinosaur o f Worl d Wa r II , is sai d t o b e a "scienc e fictio n writer" ; also , after apparentl y buildin g a romanti c relationshi p wit h Emmy , th e woman from th e future finall y reveal s that sh e is one of his descendants , recalling the incestuous adventure s o f Robert A. Heinlein's Lazarus Long in Time Enough for Love and elsewhere . The "anti-nuclea r bacteria " of Godzilla vs. BioUante hav e not bee n entirel y forgotten — they ar e sai d to hav e kep t Godzill a aliv e afte r th e las t film' s battl e — an d whe n Godzilla i s observed foamin g a t th e mout h i n on e battle scene , ther e i s the momentary suggestio n tha t Godzill a is like a rabid, disease d animal . Despite thi s film' s undeniabl e energ y an d evocativ e moments , Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah convey s the aura of a project tha t has gotte n out o f control, a snowball rollin g madly dow n a hillside picking up an d absorbing whateve r material s happe n t o li e i n it s way . Godzill a i s simultaneously a n implacabl e enem y an d a poo r los t soul , th e embodiment o f overreachin g colonia l superpower s an d th e champio n of anticolonialism , a symbo l o f th e evil s o f technolog y an d symbo l o f the natural worl d opposin g technology , a wily an d intelligent adversar y and a mindles s destructiv e force . I n fou r film s afte r thi s one , Toh o Studios carrie d on the sag a in a similarly variegated fashion , finall y an d officially killin g Godzill a i n Godzilla vs. Destroy ah (1995 ) whil e als o developing his new son , Godzilla Junior , a s the potential centerpiec e of

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additional films . I n th e end , however , th e nex t Godzill a fil m woul d surprisingly b e a n all-America n product , a massiv e epi c produce d b y an America n studi o an d th e creativ e tea m tha t gav e u s Independence Day (1996) , producer Dea n Devli n an d directo r Rolan d Emmerich . Godzilla (1998 ) seeme d lik e a fil m tha t coul d no t fail , an d tw o sequels wer e alread y i n th e work s befor e th e unexpectedl y lukewar m response t o th e fil m brough t a hal t t o suc h plans . Man y explanation s might be , an d hav e been , advance d fo r it s failure . Perhaps , th e fil m needed a stronge r leadin g ma n tha n Matthe w Broderick ; perhap s th e new, mor e lizard-lik e desig n o f Godzill a mad e th e creatur e see m les s human, les s appealing , an d no t quit e a "true " Godzilla , wh o shoul d walk uprigh t lik e a man; perhaps th e film wa s so relentlessly publicize d and promote d tha t i t inspire d a critica l an d popula r backlash . To me, however, th e centra l problem i s that Godzilla i s not a movie but i s a mixture o f numerous differen t movies . It is as if the filmmaker s watched ever y singl e Godzill a movi e eve r filmed , alon g with score s o f related films , an d resolve d t o includ e element s fro m ever y singl e on e of them, while also crafting a film tha t coul d appeal to every conceivabl e audience. Instead o f a fresh ne w start , filmmakers carrie d on with Toh o Studio's proces s o f ever-burgeonin g borrowin g an d complicatio n t o produce th e mos t multifacete d an d muddle d Godzill a fil m o f the m all . Consider, fo r example , ho w th e filmmakers dea l with th e issue s of nuclear energ y an d post-colonia l guilt . I n keepin g wit h longstandin g tradition, thei r Godzill a will be created by an H-bomb tes t in the Pacifi c Ocean; furthe r underlinin g th e them e o f irresponsibl e us e o f nuclea r energy is the fact tha t th e film's heroi c scientist i s working o n a projec t to investigat e mutate d earthworm s a t th e scen e o f th e Sovie t Union' s Chernobyl disaster . However , i n a fil m aime d primaril y a t America n audiences, even the slightest hint o f anti-Americanism mus t be avoided , so Godzilla would have to be attributed t o a French H-bom b test, furthe r engendering a subplot involvin g agents of the French secre t servic e wh o surreptitiously joi n th e battl e agains t Godzill a t o dea l wit h thei r ow n "mistake." 8 Now , i f Godzill a ha d gon e o n t o attac k Algeri a o r anothe r country victimize d b y French imperialism , thi s them e migh t hav e ha d some evocativ e power , a t leas t fo r filmgoer s i n th e affecte d nation, - ye t it had also been decided , fo r maximum appea l to Americans, t o emulat e The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms i n havin g Godzill a rampag e throug h New Yor k City . Inexorably , then , Godzill a become s a symbo l o f th e damage inflicte d upo n Americ a b y Frenc h colonialis m — which i s t o say, Godzill a become s a symbo l tha t make s n o sens e whatsoever , depriving the film o f any deeper resonances to underscore its spectacula r action scenes .

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Further confusio n result s fro m a n eviden t desir e t o hav e i t bot h ways, t o dea l wit h ever y se t o f conflictin g option s b y embracin g bot h of them . Shoul d Godzill a b e a n embodimen t o f traditiona l masculin e strength, o r contemporar y gir l power ? Wh y no t d o both ? Thus , whil e Godzilla rampage s wit h th e usua l sor t o f unrestraine d machism o an d is consistentl y referre d t o a s "he, " the monste r i s als o a mother figure , capable o f reproducin g asexuall y an d layin g u p t o 20 0 hug e egg s tha t undeniably recal l th e siniste r egg s lai d b y th e Alien . Should Godzill a resembl e th e traditiona l giganti c dinosaur , o r a more modestl y dimensione d raptor ? Wh y not featur e bot h types ? Thus , while th e fil m begin s an d end s with battle s agains t th e huge , towerin g Godzilla, a n interlud e i n th e middl e o f th e fil m pit s th e heroe s agains t a hord e o f bab y Godzilla s wh o strikingl y resembl e bot h th e origina l Alien an d th e attackin g raptor s o f Spielberg' s Jurassic Park. Should member s o f th e militar y force s opposin g Godzill a b e depicted a s ineffective , o r effective ? Wh y no t both ? Thus , fo r mos t o f the film , militar y firepowe r seem s helples s agains t Godzilla , an d th e general leadin g th e defens e o f Ne w Yor k seem s t o blunde r agai n an d again,- nea r th e end , however , th e genera l start s heedin g th e advic e o f Dr Tatopoulo s (Broderick) , make s goo d decisions , an d ultimatel y kill s Godzilla wit h a n aeria l attack . Should Godzill a b e unrelentingl y menacing , o r a somewha t sympathetic figure ? Wh y no t hav e hi m b e both ? Thus , fo r th e bul k o f the film , Godzill a an d hi s offsprin g functio n a s littl e mor e tha n malevolent killin g machines , bu t ther e ar e moment s whe n w e ar e invited t o fee l sorr y fo r hi m — i n a scen e recallin g Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah whe n Tatopoulo s stand s nex t t o Godzill a an d look s hi m i n the eye, when we observe Godzilla saddene d an d enraged by the corpse s of hi s children , whe n w e watc h Godzill a di e a t th e film' s end . Ther e are eve n effort s t o mak e Godzill a see m comical , i n a scene i n whic h a fisherman feel s a strong tug o n his line, thinks h e has caugh t a big one, and the n watche s i n horror a s Godzilla emerge s from th e water,- an d i n another scen e in which the little Godzillas are roaming through Madiso n Square Garde n eatin g hug e bag s o f popcorn , eve n thoug h i t ha s bee n previously establishe d tha t Godzill a i s a carnivor e — a scen e perhap s designed t o encourag e som e audienc e member s t o hi t th e concessio n stands. Th e tw o side s o f Godzill a ar e suggeste d b y tw o fleetingl y observed televisio n images : th e menacin g octopu s fro m It Came from Beneath the Sea (1953 ) and th e lovable anthropomorphic dinosau r wh o entertains toddlers , Barney . In addition, durin g the film's tw o hours, any number of other theme s

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or motifs fro m previou s films ar e briefly introduce d bu t neve r develope d enough t o have any impact. The short-sighte d interferin g governmenta l officials wh o figur e i n Destination Moon mak e a n appearanc e here , though th e more immediate influenc e seem s to be the film Jaws (1975): not onl y doe s Godzill a hav e on e scen e whe n h e swim s throug h th e ocean like a menacing shark , but ther e is the recurring character o f Ne w York's mayor , u p fo r re-election , wh o i s consistentl y grouch y an d unhelpful durin g Godzilla' s attacks . Jus t a s th e civi c leader s i n Jaws sought t o hastil y re-ope n th e beac h i n orde r t o mak e money , despit e the ongoin g threa t o f th e shark , th e mayo r an d other s wis h t o hastil y allow citizens back into New York City in order to make money, despit e the ongoing threat o f Godzilla and his children. As in films lik e Godzilla vs. Monster Zero an d Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah, peopl e mak e effort s to manipulate Godzill a into serving their own ends — the mayor seekin g political advantage , an d Harr y Shearer' s anchorma n tryin g t o wi n bi g ratings wit h coverag e o f Godzilla' s attack . Indeed , whil e journalist s i n previous Godzill a film s wer e typicall y benig n bu t impoten t observers , Godzilla borrow s fro m film s rangin g fro m The Thing (from Another World) t o Broadcast News i n presentin g journalist s bot h a s heroe s (Broderick's girlfriend , wh o devise s a way t o emplo y televisio n t o aler t the cit y t o th e menac e o f Godzilla' s nest , an d he r frien d Animal , th e brave cameraman) an d villains (Shearer' s vain, self-servin g anchorman) . As Godzilla i s portrayed a s a creature capabl e of quickly givin g birth t o 200 counterparts , an d Broderic k warnin g tha t Godzill a represent s " a new species " tha t migh t replac e humanity , w e ar e invite d t o vie w Godzilla a s a siniste r sor t o f homo superior, echoin g th e paranoi a o f Invasion of the Body Snatchers and countles s depiction s o f advance d beings poise d t o tak e ou r plac e a s ruler s o f th e planet . To any reasonably informed viewe r of science fiction films , virtuall y every scen e i n Godzilla seem s a borrowin g fro m a previous film . Th e initial destructio n o f a Japanese fishing vesse l recalls the destroyed shi p in th e origina l Godzilla: King of the Monsters. Image s o f tin y aircraf t darting throug h th e corridor s o f street s surrounde d b y larg e building s in pursuit o f Godzilla recal l scenes of space dogfights i n Star Wars. Th e octopus o f It Came from Beneath the Sea emerge s o n th e Golde n Gat e Bridge,- Godzilla end s up o n the Brooklyn Bridge. The soldier s patrollin g through th e subway s o f Ne w Yor k i n searc h o f Godzill a recal l th e soldiers searchin g th e Lo s Angele s subwa y syste m fo r gian t ant s i n Them! Som e scenes hav e occurred i n s o many previous film s tha t the y can onl y elici t groans . T o slo w dow n a squadro n o f bab y Godzillas , Broderick upturn s som e rack s o f ball s an d gumbal l machine s i n orde r

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to make th e monsters tri p and fall. And incredibly enough , th e excitin g climax to Godzilla i s nothing mor e tha n a n extende d ca r chase, simila r to those in innumerable televisio n co p shows, Godzilla taking the plac e of th e pursuin g vehicl e a s Broderic k an d compan y rac e throug h th e streets of New York endeavoring to lure Godzilla to the Brooklyn Bridg e where h e ca n b e attacke d an d killed . Give n al l o f thes e innumerabl e borrowings, i t i s onl y appropriat e tha t th e filmmaker s di d no t commission an y ne w song s fo r th e film, * instead , the y recruite d th e Wallflowers an d Puff Dadd y to offer lam e remakes o f old songs by David Bowie an d Le d Zeppelin . I t i s a s i f th e film' s scrip t wen t throug h countless rewrite s by uncredited writers , eac h one adding another tried and-true device . A fil m stuffe d wit h to o man y element s paradoxicall y become s empty, meaningless . Godzill a i s simultaneousl y humanity' s enemy , victim, successor , an d clown . Hi s intrusio n int o contemporar y societ y brings to mind ever y conceivable issue; his story is a chaotic patchwor k of bit s an d piece s fro m a n entir e centur y o f filmmaking . Th e gian t dinosaur wh o coul d never be killed by conventional weaponry ha s bee n smothered b y themati c overkill , shee r cinemati c exces s tha t i s breathtaking i n bot h it s relentles s cynicis m an d it s utte r incoherence . Still, jus t a s Godzill a ha d live d throug h countles s othe r death s i n previous films , th e indefatigabl e dinosau r prove d capabl e o f survivin g the debacl e o f hi s America n debu t an d wa s soo n starrin g i n anothe r sequel — thoug h no t th e seque l tha t Devli n an d Emmeric h ha d envisioned. For , i n respons e t o th e horribl e mutilatio n tha t ha d bee n inflicted upo n th e character , demand s aros e in both Japa n an d Americ a that Toh o Studio s brin g bac k th e origina l Godzilla , an d Toh o soo n obliged wit h Godzilla Millennium (1999) , whic h becam e th e firs t Japanese Godzilla film sinc e Godzilla 1985 to receive a theatrical releas e in America . I n launchin g thei r thir d serie s o f Godzill a films , however , it seem s tha t Toh o ha d learne d som e lesson s fro m pas t experiences , because thes e ne w film s wer e characterize d a s th e "alternat e history " Godzilla movies . Film s i n thi s series , i t wa s announced , woul d hav e no relationshi p t o an y previou s fil m an d woul d mak e n o effor t t o lea d up t o anothe r film, - instead , eac h woul d tel l it s ow n individua l stor y about Godzilla . I t wa s a n approac h tha t migh t hel p t o minimiz e th e influence o f Godzilla' s past , plac e limit s o n hi s multipl e personalitie s and roles , an d kee p th e narrative s fro m spinnin g ou t o f control ; an d this prove d t o b e th e cas e wit h Godzilla Millennium. Here, then , th e sag a o f Godzill a wa s intermingle d onl y wit h precisely on e ne w influence , chose n wit h insidiou s shrewdnes s —

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Devlin an d Emmerich's ow n Independence Day. (I t is as if Toho Studio s was saying : you bastardized ou r film, s o we will bastardize yours.) Thus , Earth i s again invaded by an immense spaceshi p tha t hover s ove r citie s and cause s mas s destruction, - thi s time , however , Godzill a i s recruite d to battl e th e alie n ship , an d evidentl y impresse d b y what the y see , th e invading alien s the n seiz e a piece o f Godzilla' s tissu e an d emplo y i t t o transform thei r spaceshi p int o a monstrous dinosaur , name d Orga , wh o is finall y defeate d b y Godzill a i n a typica l battl e o f th e monsters . Unambitious, derivative , an d entertaining , Godzilla Millennium ha s been followe d b y thre e film s no t ye t availabl e i n America , an d al l indications ar e tha t th e serie s wil l continu e fo r man y year s t o come . Godzilla, i t woul d seem , ha s no w absorbe d a lesso n i n surviva l illustrated b y th e iconi c figure s alread y mentioned , Tarza n an d Superman: t o remain viable , th e mos t ubiquitou s character s o f popula r culture mus t periodicall y abando n thei r pasts an d reinvent themselves , to avoi d bein g crushe d b y a n overaccumulatio n o f attribute s an d resonances. Ove r th e years , th e Tarza n o f novel s an d film s ha s alternately bee n a culture d gentlema n an d a n inarticulat e savage , th e head o f a n extende d famil y an d a lonel y wanderer , a visito r t o contemporary Ne w Yor k an d a travele r t o othe r worlds . Th e sag a o f the comic-boo k Superma n ha s bee n periodicall y revise d t o eras e larg e chunks o f hi s pas t an d reduc e hi s inevitabl y overdevelope d powers . Similarly, Godzill a lik e othe r reptiles , mus t periodicall y she d hi s skin , abandon th e built-u p residue s o f past adventures , an d star t afresh . An d if thi s continue s t o occur , the n Godzill a ma y b e abl e t o dominat e th e twenty-first centur y a s triumphantl y a s h e dominate d th e twentiet h century.

PART 3 Contemporary Cas e Studies

12 Black Secre t Technology: African Technological Subjects 1 Gerald Gaylar d

In Bombay , m y ol d hovel'n'highris e hom e town , w e thin k we'r e o n top of the modern age, we boast that we're natural techno fast-trackers, but that's only true in the high-rises of our minds. Down in the slums of ou r bodies, we're stil l vulnerabl e t o th e scurvies t o f scurvies , th e plaguiest o f plagues . There ma y be pet pussie s prowlin g aroun d ou r squeaky-clean, sky-high penthouses, but they don't cancel out the ratinfested corruptio n i n th e sewer s of the blood. If a birth is the fall-out from the explosion caused by the union of two unstable elements, then perhaps a half-life i s all we can expect . — Salman Rushdie, The Moor's Last Sigh2 The sigh t o f immediat e realit y ha s become a n orchi d i n th e lan d of technology. — Walter Benjamin, Illuminations 3 What i s th e colo r o f technology ? Thi s apparentl y rathe r rhetorica l question arise s because chromatis m an d technology have a long histor y of mutuality . I n particular , technolog y ca n creat e race . Fo r instance , technology's abilit y t o overdetermin e rac e migh t b e foun d i n th e pseudoscientific socia l Darwinism o f craniolog y an d phrenology i n th e late nineteenth an d earl y twentieth centuries . Thus technolog y ca n no t only enabl e a rac e bu t ca n als o b e a too l fo r th e oppressio n o f a race . For peopl e oppresse d b y a technocrati c imperialism , technolog y i s a symbol o f thi s history , an d hence somethin g t o be feared an d shunned . However, i t i s als o simultaneousl y a too l o f reveng e an d a n ico n o f upward socia l mobility . Thu s technolog y help s t o creat e race , but rac e can als o determin e technolog y a s wel l a s it s utilization . Take , fo r

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example, form s o f modernizatio n employe d withi n th e "ghettos " i n Western megalopolise s b y black youth , form s usuall y characterize d b y the cultivatio n o f a n exorbitantl y mach o aspiration . Thi s aspiratio n i s coupled wit h th e nee d t o kick bac k agains t a n oppressiv e clas s system , sometimes throug h socia l revolt , a s i n th e Lo s Angele s riot s i n th e 1990s, bu t sometime s throug h technology , a s i n subversiv e electroni c music and Internet sites . Ironically, during the Los Angeles riots, Africa n Americans loote d vide o an d hi-f i store s bu t di d no t touc h compute r stores right next door , s o technology ca n be unwittingly utilize d t o autoentrench racia l stereotype s b y black s themselve s du e t o a "ghett o mentality." However, rathe r tha n concentratin g o n socio-historica l examples , I want t o conside r portrayal s o f technolog y an d rac e i n fiction , becaus e fiction ca n b e a relativel y fre e spac e straddlin g th e gul f betwee n th e contemporary an d th e archaic , allowin g som e kin d o f acces s t o voice s speaking of technology from perspective s partially outside of technology . There ar e man y example s o f Africa n fictio n embracin g a "ghett o mentality"; t o choose one arbitrarily, on e might cit e Ayi Kwei Armah' s The Healers (1978 ) as typically eschewing modernity and its technology . Another literar y exampl e exposin g a "ghetto mentality" i n th e opposit e sense is George Schuyler's parodic novel Black-No-More (1931 ) in whic h genetic technolog y i s utilized b y African American s t o turn the m fro m melanin-enriched t o melanin-deficient , fro m blac k t o white . As thes e example s o f "ghett o mentality " suggest , peopl e o n th e margins o f moder n technologica l innovation s ar e further marginalize d by th e almos t exponentia l spee d o f suc h innovation s an d th e relation s of powe r involve d i n it s introductio n o r withholding . A majo r facto r mediating th e relationshi p betwee n technolog y an d colo r i s henc e timing, i n th e sens e o f th e newnes s o f th e technology . Gabrie l Garci a Marquez suggest s thi s when h e writes o f the neophilia s o characteristi c of produc t launches , eve n thos e occurrin g mor e tha n a hundre d year s ago durin g a stag e i n th e birthin g o f moder n communication s technology, i n Love in the Time of Cholera (1985) : Years later , a type d persona l lette r woul d b e considere d almos t a n insult, but at that time the typewriter was still an office animal without its own code of ethics, and its domestication for personal use was not foreseen in the books on etiquette. It seemed more like bold modernity, which wa s ho w Fermin a Daz a mus t hav e understoo d it , fo r i n he r second letter t o Florentino Ariza, she began by begging his pardon for any difficulties i n reading her handwriting, sinc e she did not hav e at her disposa l any means more advanced tha n her steel pen. 4

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This suggest s tha t ther e i s a "windo w period, " whe n technolog y i s relatively new , durin g whic h ther e i s greate r potentia l fo r innovativ e or eve n subversiv e uses . Clearly , th e Africa n American s wh o faile d t o loot compute r store s durin g th e Lo s Angele s riot s ha d no t jumpe d through suc h a windo w period . Equally , th e redundanc y o f archai c o r outmoded technolog y ca n make it open for subversive uses, often simpl y because it is available to people who cannot affor d up-to-dat e technology . Furthermore, th e absenc e o f technology , o r brand ne w technology , ca n at time s allo w th e avoidanc e o f som e o f th e mor e perniciou s blandishments an d effect s o f th e new . Of course , tim e canno t b e sundere d fro m spac e i n an y fina l sense , and th e othe r majo r facto r affectin g technolog y an d colo r i s space . Th e space o f technolog y woul d see m t o b e a virtualit y i m m u n e t o imperfection, a technological sublim e with onl y a tenuous relationshi p with quotidia n tim e an d offerin g a n immortalit y throug h preservation . However, thi s impressio n i s misleading , fo r technolog y i s socio historically an d geographically situated . In Africa, thos e who have acces s to th e lates t technolog y ar e invariably th e wealthy. Yet , th e relianc e of the majorit y upo n outdate d technolog y tha t i s maintained wa y beyon d its sell-b y dat e is not onl y a disadvantage. To see Africa's technologica l lag behin d th e Wes t a s a potentia l benefi t i n avoidin g forma t conflic t and interminabl e upgrade s i s a dangerousl y optimisti c understandin g of th e situation, - however , fo r instance , i t i s possibl e tha t b y th e tim e the Internet reall y comes to Africa, comprehensiv e interactive virtualit y will b e pa r fo r th e course , leavin g th e technica l issue s o f toda y i n th e shade. This i s indicated b y the popularity o f wireless communications , particularly cellula r technology , i n Afric a — perhaps a smal l exampl e of the benefits o f "lat e modernization"? Anothe r exampl e might b e th e fact tha t mos t African s ar e comparativel y insulate d fro m th e media , meaning tha t politica l choic e an d behavio r ar e stil l largel y influence d by word-of-mouth, persona l contac t wit h leaders , mass political rallies , house meetings , an d part y propagand a documents . Thi s doe s no t necessarily mea n tha t African s ar e politically detache d o r make poorl y informed choices . Th e medi a d o ten d t o exacerbat e individua l consumption an d individualizatio n an d personalization , a pitfal l tha t Africa's "lat e modernization " partiall y avoids . Wha t chromatis m suggests fo r th e consideratio n o f technology i s that a globalized virtua l space i s no t a s politicall y importan t a s place , th e plac e withi n whic h technology i s introduce d a t a particula r time , whic h bring s m e t o th e specific local e o f thi s chapter . Africa, o f course , ha s a lon g histor y o f technology . Fro m th e

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pyramids t o Great Zimbabwe t o the royal palace at Benin, technologica l cultures of various sorts have evolved and flourished, despit e Eurocentri c perceptions tha t th e continent i s overwhelmingly primal and obstinatel y Luddite. Ro n Eglas h ha s writte n mos t interestingl y o n th e Africa n contributions t o the developmen t o f scientifi c thinking. 5 However , m y topic i s no t Africa n technolog y pe r se , bu t th e relationshi p o f Africa n people t o modernit y an d it s technology . Afric a i s a continen t tha t is , perhaps surprisingly , obsesse d wit h moder n technology . However , tha t obsession take s plac e alongsid e a powerful urg e t o atavism , naturism , the rejectio n o f Wester n modernity , an d thi s o f cours e take s variou s forms. In th e perio d o f revolutio n fro m th e 1950 s t o th e 1980s , mos t African fictio n an d cultur e tende d toward s th e atavisticall y naturalis t and traditionalist , buffin g th e glo w fro m a "golde n age " o f ontologica l confidence an d traditiona l self-certaint y an d denouncin g th e Wes t a s a poisonous imperia l invasion . Tha t technolog y spearheade d th e West' s invasion ca n be seen in H. Rider Haggard's King Solomon's Mines (1885) , in whic h th e Europea n imperialist s ar e abl e t o demonstrat e th e superiority o f thei r cultur e b y shootin g a co w fro m a distance , a n apparently miraculou s ac t t o which th e natives ca n onl y succumb wit h wonder, admitting the superiority of the white man's gods. Many Africa n writers, such a s Ngugi Wa Thiong'o, Chinu a Achebe , Ayi Kwei Armah , and Festu s Iyayi , too k thi s momen t o f technologica l superiorit y a s a moment i n whic h t o situat e thei r assaul t upo n th e centris t hierarch y of Western culture . Hence, it is almost a sine qua non o f African writin g that Africa n subject s ar e a priori alienate d fro m Wester n modernit y an d its technolog y an d unwillin g t o partake i n it s perniciou s globa l spread . However, i n thi s traumati c momen t o f cultural violenc e an d alienatio n was seede d th e obsessiv e return t o tha t moment , wa s seede d th e desir e to posses s an d pla y wit h th e West' s technology . Hence, despit e thi s sine qua non and th e fel t nee d t o maintai n traditional Africa n subjectivities , Africa n technologica l subject s have existed du e t o aspiran t desire , globalization , an d th e ubiquit y o f technology. Indeed , i t seem s hardl y wort h sayin g tha t Africa n technological subject s ca n only increase in number an d variety in future . The Utopian promise of Western technology —"The Gleam" a s Ayi Kwei Armah calle d it 6 — ha s a powerfu l gri p ami d povert y an d oppressio n and drive s man y African s t o desperat e aspiratio n an d obsessiv e fetishism, t o the extent tha t som e are willing to sacrifice thei r humanit y on it s altar . Henc e th e relationshi p betwee n Afric a an d technolog y i s particularly fraugh t an d tend s t o oscillat e especiall y rapidl y betwee n

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fetishism an d Luddism , betwee n aspiratio n an d alienation . Whil e suc h aspiration/alienation i s visible all over the world, it is starkly highlighte d in Afric a du e t o th e relativ e povert y an d urgenc y o f socia l change . Oftentimes thi s collisio n o f tim e an d plac e wit h rac e an d technolog y seems surrea l du e t o disjunctio n betwee n th e technolog y an d localize d application,- Ishmael Ree d refers t o black cultura l production a s "Ghett o surrealism" 7 du e to a particularly exacerbate d disjunction . Thi s phras e accurately capture s tw o importan t aspect s o f blac k culture : first , it s sense o f marginalizatio n an d resistance , an d second , it s "surrealism, " its precarious existenc e between modernit y an d slavery, between obeah and mundaneity , betwee n alienatio n an d overcompensation . Henc e i n any consideratio n o f technologica l subjectivit y an d color , w e hav e t o initially conside r th e characteristi c oscillatio n betwee n aspiratio n an d alienation an d tak e int o accoun t th e surrealis m o f thi s oscillatio n i n black cultures , Africa n culture s i n particular . Thus th e relatio n betwee n tim e an d spac e mad e visibl e by Africa n technological subject s i n thei r surreall y extrem e oscillatio n lead s t o a sense o f socio-historica l place. Thi s echoe s th e insistenc e o f "post colonial" thinkers o n place or relative location a s the politica l momen t in hyper-spatial , tirne-obsesse d lat e capitalism . The questio n is : what d o African technologica l subject s loo k like , given thi s extremit y o f aspiratio n an d alienation , give n thi s plac e o f antinomies? First , suc h subject s ten d t o hav e surrea l elements . On e ostensibly mundane aspec t o f this surrealism i s that suc h subject s ofte n look good ; th e mos t immediatel y visibl e manifestatio n o f aspiratio n i s appearance, an d this mean s spendin g ever-large r amount s o n dress. Th e sapeur o f Wes t Africa, 8 fo r instance , spend s inordinat e amount s o f money o n clothing an d aftershav e i n orde r t o look right, partly becaus e houses an d othe r statu s symbol s ar e ou t o f reach , bu t als o becaus e clothes represen t a mobilit y necessar y i n ofte n uncertai n politica l dispensations. I t i s commo n t o se e urba n African s extremel y wel l dressed, bu t withou t a fixe d abode, - thu s Africa n subject s appropriat e whatever aspect s o f modernit y an d technolog y tha t the y ca n withi n inimical circumstances . Dambudzo Marecher a ha s scabrously noted th e neocolonialism o f thi s concer n wit h appearance : "Th e psycholog y o f clothes has a great dea l to do with wh y men submi t t o brain transplant s in whateve r guis e o f colonialis m the y ma y b e operated." 9 A t anothe r level, i n orde r t o approac h a n answe r t o thi s questio n o f wh o Africa n technological subject s are , perhap s a sens e o f thes e Africa n subject s relative t o contiguou s other s i s th e mos t obviou s avenue . Th e relationship betwee n Africa n technologica l subject s an d Wester n an d

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African-American subjects , for instance, might b e described by the ter m "oblique." Obliquit y ha s been a n African traditio n i n perpetuit y a s th e esteemed abilit y t o couc h wisdo m i n riddle s an d proverbs , an d a s a means o f conveyin g socio-cultura l critiqu e without precipitatin g wrat h upon th e critic . Th e plac e o f Africa n technologica l subject s migh t b e described a s oblique. Obliquity has been used in post-colonial contexts , by Gayatri Chakravort y Spivak, 10 fo r instance , an d by Salman Rushdie , who ha s hi s narrato r i n Shame say: "M y story , m y fictiona l countr y exist, lik e myself , a t a sligh t angl e fro m reality." 11 Obliquit y ha s als o been use d in posthuman contexts , an d Phili p K. Dick describe s androi d hyper-rationalism a s "oblique " i n Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheepl11 I n th e cas e o f Africa , obliquit y i s particularl y extrem e an d consists o f a fragmentation o f subjectivity du e to the surrea l oscillatio n between aspiratio n an d alienation . Thi s fragmentatio n o f subjectivit y due t o especiall y Manichea n antinomie s mean s tha t Africa n subject s tend no t t o acces s a statu s o f politica l or , other agenc y easily , findin g agency whereve r i t ca n b e grasped , a s i n th e exampl e o f th e trickste r sapeur, a rathe r flaneur-likt figure . Ye t neithe r ca n Africa n subject s ignore th e urgenc y o f agency , becaus e the y ar e s o marginalized . Moreover, suc h obliqu e figures ar e not onl y multiply alienate d but als o profoundly shocke d du e t o th e recen t unheralde d impac t o n thei r sensoria o f modernity' s kaleidoscopi c multitud e o f impressions . Marechera ha s suggeste d a nam e fo r suc h a subjec t i n th e titl e o f hi s book — The Black Insider — which implie s both a sense o f agency an d intrigue, an d a sens e o f marginalize d liminality . Hence , whil e Africa n Americans hav e undoubtedl y bee n groundbreaker s fo r Africa n subjectivity, ther e i s stil l a sens e o f obliquit y an d alienatio n betwee n the tw o du e t o socio-historica l difference . Th e subtlet y o f thi s obliqu e relationship betwee n Africa n America n an d Africa n technologica l subjects give s u s th e extrem e cas e an d henc e a wa y o f understandin g obliquity mor e generally . This obliquit y take s tw o primar y forms . Firstly , African s ten d t o feel eve n mor e alienate d fro m technology , particularl y Wester n technology, tha n thei r Africa n America n o r othe r "Thir d World " counterparts. A t a practica l level , th e reaso n i s simpl y tha t Afric a ha s been fa r remove d fro m th e hu b o f technologica l productio n an d consumption. Symbolically , i t i s du e t o Africa' s statu s a s "th e dar k continent," th e atavisti c an d archai c othe r o f Wester n technologica l modernity an d progress . Afric a ha s tende d t o hav e a virtua l statu s fo r the West , an d henc e virtualit y i n Africa n fictio n i s no t merel y a technological imaginary , th e escape from huma n an d worldly restraint s

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via artificia l inteUigenc e or other technological means, but it is manifes t in the works o f the imagination, fro m cartograph y t o biology to fiction . African fictio n posit s th e notion tha t virtualit y has a priori alway s bee n a huma n potentiality ; tha t fictio n itsel f i s a for m o f virtuality ; tha t virtuality i s not merel y an offspring o f the digita l age. What thi s Africa n fiction/virtuality show s i s th e multiplicity , potential , an d dange r o f virtuality itself , tha t i t i s no t merel y a n offsprin g o f th e digita l age . Dambudzo Marecher a sum s u p thi s sens e o f alienatio n fro m a purel y technological virtualit y an d convey s th e danger s o f a technocrati c imaginary whe n h e writes : Logic is a n attitude. It freezes u s forever i n th e ic y tumult o f al l th e cursed attitude s the y stuffe d u s into . .. . Straightforwar d thing s leav e no roo m fo r th e imagination ; the y allo w n o othe r perspectives . Th e tyranny o f straightforwar d thing s i s mor e oppressiv e tha n suc h idl e monstrosities a s life an d death , aparthei d an d beerdrinking, a stam p album an d Jew-baiting . On e plu s on e equal s tw o i s s o irrefutabl y straightforward tha t th e unbor n chil d ca n se e tha t eve n i f ma n wa s wiped off th e face of the earth one plus one would always and forever equal two . .. . "Wh y can't the y settl e thei r dispute s wit h a couple of football games? It would be less costly in lives and money and buildings and brain damage. But no, it has to be war. That's where all this science gets you . Eac h side' s scientist s hav e t o prov e the y ar e a s up-to-dat e and a s brillian t a s th e othe r side . An d s o the y continu e t o inven t these infernal nuclea r an d neutron bombs." (37, 91) Arguably, th e wor k tha t thematize s thi s alienatio n an d consideratio n of th e valenc y o f virtualit y fo r African s an d Africa n subjectivit y mos t directly i s Koj o Laing' s surrea l nove l Major Genii and the Achimota Wars13 i n whic h th e West has retreate d int o th e multiple solitudes 14 o f its cyber-castl e whil e th e "thir d world " i s relegate d t o mer e physica l existence: starvin g band s o f brigand s roamin g a desertifie d hinterland . This, o f course , i s nothin g strang e an d i s th e dystopia n archetyp e o f future imperia l exploitatio n i n th e Mad Max films , Fran k Herbert' s Dune (1965) , John Brunner's Stand on Zanzibar (1968), Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s A Canticle For Leibowitz (1960) , Tad Williams's Otherland novel s (1996-2001), and countles s othe r scienc e fiction texts . In Laing' s novel , Africa i s othered and exploited in this nightmare scenario as toxic wastedumping an d weapons-testin g grounds , an d althoug h "Direc t war s .. . were ou t o f date " (7) , neocolonia l subjectio n continue s throug h propaganda image s of starving Africa, exacerbatin g the othering of Afric a and creatin g compassio n fatigue . Hence , "Laing' s satiri c poin t is , o f

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course, tha t fo r Europe , Afric a ha s alway s existe d i n a stat e o f virtua l reality, a s ide a an d scree n image , or , a s on e characte r put s it , th e 'thingness o f Afric a i s th e headnes s o f somewher e else'." 15 Therefore , the Africa n write r tend s t o have a n adversaria l relationshi p t o muc h o f the "cybercracy " an d virtualis t epistemologie s o f th e West . Africa n technological subject s ar e no t cyborgs , o r a t leas t no t curren t models, they canno t affor d th e lates t technolog y an d ar e hacked togethe r fro m anachronistic throw-away s an d filche d scraps . Rather, Africa n subject s locate th e politics o f cyborgs within th e history an d present o f imperia l exploitation. I n thi s "globa l village, " thi s world-city , neocolonialis m rules t h e da y t h r o u g h m u l t i n a t i o n a l s an d n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l organizations fo r "Direc t war s to o wer e ou t o f dat e wit h th e bosse s abroad, subtl e extinctio n bein g preferred " (7) . Laing's Achimota n wa r is planne d b y "master s abroad " bu t fuelle d b y th e ques t o f thei r loca l hireling, Torro the Terrible, for "powe r in relation t o US," power withi n the loca l domain , whic h mean s powe r i n relatio n t o th e Unite d States . Whether indirec t neocolonialis m o r "conventiona l war " occurs , "Torr o would wi n Achimot a Cit y a t last , rul e i t cruell y an d capriciously , an d then, having thus re-established his reputation overseas , would turn ove r the city, but stil l as some viceroy-bi, to his masters for a haven of nuclea r survival, an d fo r Wester n fu n wit h easter n backin g o r indifference . I t was a cheap an d tragi c history tha t ha d stole n th e people an d th e land s of thi s country " (137). 16 Laing's sense of the extrem e marginalization o f Africans withi n th e international aren a i s echoe d b y Jama l Mahjoub , wh o describe s th e "would-be metropolis" o f globalization a s " a savag e burlesque in whic h the war and the starvatio n were nothing mor e than sidesho w stands." 17 Thus th e Africa n engagemen t wit h th e globa l villag e i s b y n o mean s the cosmopolita n celebratio n o f hybridit y tha t Mahjou b ha s hi s naiv e narrator propound : "th e worl d ha s becom e one , wit h peopl e o f al l nations movin g freel y amongs t on e another." 18 Fa r from "trul y movin g freely," mos t Africa n text s argu e tha t i t i s onl y elites , sometime s including writers , wh o ca n joi n th e cosmopolitan . Reflectin g o n thi s has created, o r perhaps forced, a political consciousnes s i n or on writers, as Mahjoub comments : " I realized the n tha t I was a part o f this strang e dislocated family o f odds and ends whose onl y home was far awa y fro m this makeshift camp , and that we were in fact unite d by that very doub t which w e carrie d separatel y a s t o wha t ou r futur e woul d hold , individually b u t mor e i m p o r t a n t l y collectively " (64) . Thes e cosmopolitans "ha d nothin g ver y muc h t o car e fo r excep t ourselves " (65), fo r thei r

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makeshift cam p was an adventure playground, a land of fairy tale and sorcery tha t onc e taste d migh t b e har d t o resist . The y wante d t o consume all of life with their voracious appetites and they wanted to forget, to lose themselves and to lose would be to forget. I had a sudden premonition o f a worl d i n whic h ther e wa s n o scal e b y whic h t o measure righ t an d wrong , i n whic h th e onl y motive s wer e thos e of seeking pleasure. It was a vision of the future, a picture of abject misery, unfelt pain, numb and lifeless for all its noise and apparent splendour . (103) This exposur e o f cosmopolitanism' s ari d virtuality , whic h i s possibl y even mor e desiccate d tha n th e physicall y desertifie d margins , is , however, no t confine d t o a one-way correctness , for African writer s als o expose occidentalism. Abdulraza k Gurnah , fo r example , show s how co responsible African s ar e for thei r ow n exploitatio n b y asking: "Wh y d o I sa y our societies whe n w e ar e al l s o different , fro m Timbucto o t o Algiers t o Havan a t o Eas t Timor ? Becaus e i n thi s w e ar e al l th e same , that w e kee p silen t an d no d — fo r fea r o f ou r live s — while bloate d tyrants far t an d stam p o n u s fo r thei r pett y gratification." 19 Perhap s the obviou s exampl e her e i s Taye b Sali h who , i n Season of Migration to the North, examine s th e duplicitie s o f a Sudanes e studen t abusin g t h e exoti c r o m a n t i c i s m o f Europea n w o m e n . Further , i f t h e cosmopolitan artificia l synchron y betwee n differen t time s an d place s is problematic , i t i s als o problemati c t o overemphasiz e differenc e an d incommensurability. Th e dange r of suc h emphasi s o n difference i s tha t the cente r wil l no t hold , whic h wil l caus e th e complet e fragmentatio n of subjectivity , a s i n Calixth e Beyala' s warnin g t o Africa n women : "I f she isn' t careful , she'l l fal l apart , drun k o n words . Evolution . Cultura l hybridism. Technology . Tradition." 20 Th e write r reflect s o n th e dange r of a pressure d hybridit y tendin g t o caus e fragmentatio n an d paralysis : "With ever y chang e in her life anxiet y enter s her an d increases hour b y hour. .. . words bubbled up, muddled, undisciplined , spoke n i n th e feve r of delirium " (19 , 38). These orphan s o f technolog y clearl y suffe r fro m nervous condition s du e t o extrem e "post-colonial " antinomies . Th e point her e i s tha t accordin g t o Africa n writers , du e t o th e histor y o f technology's color , technologica l virtualitie s ten d t o b e Western , hierarchical, an d t o exacerbat e suffering , albei t inadvertently . However, despit e thi s direct , immanent , eve n visceral , experienc e of th e dystopia n aspect s o f technologica l virtualit y an d th e resultan t higher alienatio n quotien t i n Africa n subjectivities , thes e Africa n subjectivities d o no t appea r t o b e alway s consume d wit h reactionar y

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anger. We might cal l this pole of the dialectica l oscillatio n th e aspirant , as oppose d t o th e othe r pole , th e alienated , an d thi s aspiratio n i s th e second major aspec t of African technologica l subjectivities. For instance, Laing "insist[s ] o n puttin g a sto p t o thi s cosmi c nonesens e [sic]" of modernity's "pur e speed" : And our golden emblem asked what, after all , was so intelligent about going s o fas t o n th e journey , th e journe y o f life , tha t yo u couldn' t even see the scenery? Even if we call them and insult them that the y are the people of pure speed, physically fast bu t spirituall y snails, we will no t b e sayin g th e whol e truth : i t i s a tin y been y proportio n of these speedster s tha t drag s the rest o f its countryme n along ! And so the only hope is for this slower rest to insist o n putting a stop to this cosmic nonesense. After all , Mr Cockroach had continued, no people with such vast wastelands of spirit and heart could possibly have any right t o produc e art ; an d besides , th e greed y quantitie s o f thi s ar t produced — probably book mountains, canva s mountains, an d sound mountains o f utte r profligatio n — don't hid e th e fac t tha t ther e i s a spiritual an d human narrownes s tha t i s a tragedy t o behold! (70) Yet merel y "fight[ing ] fo r ou r physica l existence " i s als o "nonesense " which i s clearl y no t enoug h t o full y "wak e up" : Yes I agree we are broader, and emotionally and spiritually deeper, but we have nothing t o boast abou t i f al l we do is fight fo r ou r physical existence. Nkwasiasem ["nonesense"]! If we don't wake up, we'll find ourselves on the high road to extinction, kickin g and screaming tha t even though we are being physically liquidated, we are yet spirituall y superior. (70) Hence th e Africa n oppositio n t o th e technocrati c syste m tend s t o b e by no means a simplistic Luddism o r a direct assault; it involves a rather more subtl e an d ambiguou s dissidenc e precisel y becaus e African s ar e not immun e t o the seduction s o f technology, precisely because African s are aspirant . Th e politic s an d aesthetic s Lain g suggest s fo r copin g wit h the antinomie s o f technocratic globalizatio n i s a flexible an d humorou s contingency. Rathe r tha n a deterministi c insistenc e o n forthrigh t resistance, a subtle dissidenc e is now als o see n a s a mode o f oppositio n because o f th e variou s front s o n whic h resistanc e mus t stand . Fo r instance, in Keith Bowen's Pontifex, on e of the few over t scienc e fictio n texts t o hav e com e ou t o f Africa , politic s ar e complexl y factiona l an d distanced, creatin g webs o f intrigue. S o dissidence has not merel y bee n prompted b y loca l condition s bu t als o b y internationa l relations .

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Precisely becaus e lat e capitalis m work s throug h a globa l net, 21 th e marginalized hav e ha d t o expan d thei r horizon s i n al l direction s an d become eve r mor e wil y a t tanglin g tha t net . The subjec t tha t i s flexibl e enoug h t o allo w alienatio n t o cohabi t with aspiration , t o b e analytica l ye t dissident , i s th e trickster . I t i s difficult t o spea k o f th e trickste r wit h muc h authority , becaus e th e trickster ha s s o mastere d th e trait s o f mutability , disguise , an d slipperiness. For instance, the trickster confuse s th e logocentric thinker , such a s th e fascis t dictato r Torr o i n Major Gentl and the Achimota Wars: "Torr o wa s becomin g confused : ho w di d you dea l with a peopl e you coul d defea t wit h you r ful l power , bu t wh o wer e stubbor n enoug h to have rooms on the moon ...? " (43). Thus, by rejecting overtl y politica l solutions, Lain g suggests , perhap s idealistically , th e powe r o f ordinar y individuals wh o liv e beyond rhetori c an d slogans . In thi s commitmen t to th e creativit y o f th e ordinary , Lain g emphasize s tha t resistanc e requires manipulativ e energie s i n exces s o f thos e o f th e power s tha t be: "Wit h Torr o th e bes t thin g t o d o i s t o allo w yoursel f t o b e mesmerised fo r a while, for abou t th e lengt h o f a banana, an d the n yo u wash hi m ou t o f you r hea d befor e yo u begi n t o figh t him " (32) . Henc e Laing evolve s th e trickste r archetyp e int o th e benig n Gent l wh o embodies a n areactionar y satyagraha for m o f resistanc e t o th e neocolonial dictato r Torro . Lain g owe s a deb t her e t o th e non-violen t resistance strateg y Nkrumah an d Padmor e develope d from Gandh i tha t secured Ghanaia n independence , th e firs t Africa n natio n t o secur e independence. Gentl' s "strangenes s an d gentleness" (7 ) is a "seemingl y stupid gentleness " (9 ) but Torr o "i s afrai d o f th e major' s gentleness , fo r he thinks tha t i s a quality he can't alway s trap" (22). Thus Gentl' s "col d and strategi c humanity " (160 ) i n whic h "pla y shoul d b e war , an d wa r should b e play " (120 ) offer s a n answe r t o th e questio n o f th e future : "How ca n suc h a simple ma n sav e us s o often, an d wha t wil l w e d o i n this cit y when he die s ...? ' She had her answer, fo r als o following Gentl , and eatin g th e sam e boile d groundnuts , wer e hi s children , Torro' s children, an d s o man y othe r childre n tha t love d th e wa y h e moved " (180). S o th e trickste r ca n perhap s b e viewe d a s a child , o r a t leas t childlike, whic h suggest s tha t a certai n playfulnes s i s importan t a s a n oppositional energ y in the age of mechanical reproduction. The childlik e trickster i s not onl y flexible an d no t overdetermine d bu t als o is a chil d in not being fully technologicall y competen t an d having to disguise this. So African technologica l subject s ten d t o be not onl y alienate d ye t aspirant bu t als o flexibl e ye t resistant . I n fact , suc h subject s ar e reminiscent o f Claud e Levi-Strauss' s bricoleur, whos e ar t

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consists i n conservin g al l thes e ol d concept s withi n th e domai n of empirical discover y whil e her e an d ther e denouncin g thei r limits , treating them as tools which still can be used. No longer is any truth value attribute d t o them : ther e i s a readines s t o abando n them , i f necessary, shoul d othe r instrument s appea r mor e useful . I n th e meantime thei r relativ e efficacy i s exploited, an d the y are employed to destroy the old machinery to which they belong and of which they themselves are pieces .... The bricoleur, say s Levi-Strauss, is someone who uses 'the means at hand/ tha t is, the instruments he finds a t his disposition aroun d him , thos e whic h ar e alread y there , whic h hav e not been especially conceived with an eye to the operation for which they are to be used and to which one tries by trial and error to adapt them, no t hesitatin g t o chang e the m wheneve r i t appear s necessary , or to try severa l o f the m a t once , even if thei r form an d their origi n are heterogenous — and so forth. 22 The Africa n trickster , a s wit h thi s archetypa l characte r i n mos t fol k literatures, traditionall y embodie s parado x an d incongruity , a representative o f destructivenes s an d creativity , o f narcissis m an d innocence, o f alienatio n an d aspiration . Thi s characte r survive s int o modern literature , from Willia m Shakespeare' s fool s t o Beckettian anti heroes. Th e trickste r o r sapeur i s Legba , Eshu , Anans e i n traditiona l African culture s an d i s th e figur e o f inversion , reversal , an d reconciliation betwee n oppositions , a figure , therefore , wh o signifie s holism. Suc h holistic about-turns ar e usually accomplished throug h wi t and ingenuity , th e anti c stock-in-trad e o f th e trickster . Th e trickster' s role in Africa n societ y migh t b e see n i n a "Sudanes e adage : sometime s it i s bette r t o pla y th e fool , t o loo k stupi d i n [sic] fac e o f problemati c realities tha n i t i s t o kno w exactl y wha t t o d o — o r onc e on e i s committed t o pursu e a specifi c plan , h e o r sh e become s blin d t o th e fact tha t the y ma y reall y b e goin g nowhere." 23 However, whil e Africa n trickster s ten d t o b e bricoleurs, the y experience substantia l alienation , an d thu s thei r playfulnes s i s compounded b y a sense of social suffering an d urgency. African subject s often ac t an d reac t withi n extrem e context s an d without technologica l aid, a s Marecher a point s out : Each circumstance comes into focus when we adjust th e lens, making reality a series o f parallel foc i rathe r tha n a sharply outline d huma n epic whos e ever y detai l i s simultaneousl y i n focus . Soyinka' s interpreters, lik e ourselves , hav e t o lear n this , thoug h withou t th e precision an d auto-sensitiveness o f an expensive camera . (32)

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However, th e ver y extremit y o f thes e circumstance s ca n b e enabling , for suc h extremit y ca n encourag e expansio n o f th e imaginatio n an d capacity fo r action . Fo r example , Marechera' s character s i n The Black Insider hol d deepl y philosophica l conversation s abou t ar t an d cultur e within a wa r zone , leadin g on e o f the m t o ask : Is it not strange and uncommon that we can talk like this in the very midst o f bomb s an d bullet s an d disease ? I t i s not . Th e imaginatio n reaches only that which is just beyond the grasp of human capability . No more . I f ou r act s wer e reall y strang e t o ourselve s an d t o ou r imagination the n w e would indee d understan d wha t insanit y is . For we conduct ourselves in terms of clarity and stability and roses which are only a minute fraction o f the spectrum o f the impossible and th e possible. Hence such of what we know of as real life is limited within the thi n threa d o f colou r i n whic h w e hav e positione d ourselve s i n the spectr a of the universe. (46-7) So while , a s Jea n Baudriliar d an d Scot t Bukatma n hav e observed , th e subject i n late capitalism has become a "terminal of multiple networks, " this termina l identit y i s obliqu e fo r Africans . Jus t a s post-colonialis m wrested a relativ e location , a politic s o f plac e an d position , fro m postmodernism, s o too, do African subject s insis t o n locating their locu s within a particular spac e an d time , a place. Thus Africa n fictio n finds , and i s coerce d t o fin d b y it s extrem e an d fraugh t location , a politica l answer t o th e sometime s paralyze d relativis m o f extrem e version s o f postmodernity. Rathe r tha n Gibsonesqu e warning s o f th e extinctio n o f individuality i n corporat e hyperspace , fo r instance , curren t Africa n writers tentativel y advanc e version s o f virtua l identit y tha t cente r o n relative locatio n i n motion . Willia m Gibson' s "Case " i n Neuromancer abhors quotidian physicality, dismissivel y referring t o it as mere "meat, " a l t h o u g h i t i s precisel y w i t h i n th e viscera l geopolitica l t h a t contemporary Africa n writer s tend to locate their virtualities. Marecher a and Lain g locat e th e real m o f spirit s an d th e fantasti c withi n th e quotidian. Thu s th e politic s o f locatio n ar e enable d an d limite d b y a subjectivity tha t i s not full y sundere d from th e mundane, doe s not hav e the technolog y t o sunde r itself , an d ha s t o maintai n a trickste r flexibility. Man y Africa n writer s toda y ar e assertin g a sens e o f locatedness that , unlik e man y o f th e technologica l virtualitie s o f th e West tha t attemp t t o realiz e an d reif y th e psyche , give s virtualit y a venerable histor y a s fictio n an d politicall y insist s o n th e obliqu e relationship o f virtualit y t o realit y an d subjectivit y t o society .

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Moreover, i n recen t Africa n fictions , th e shee r exuberanc e a s wel l as satyagraha o f this trickste r subjectivit y an d the valency of the virtua l landscape suggest s utopianis m a s wel l a s dystopianism . I n Be n Okri' s Astonishing the Gods (1995) , fo r instance , virtualit y i s figure d a s a Utopian realm, echoin g Fredric Jameson's suggestio n tha t "Third-World " literature ha s acces s t o Utopian cultural energie s denie d t o mainstrea m Western literatur e i n lat e capitalism . M . Keit h Booke r argue s tha t African writer s "mus t ofte n strai n agains t th e generi c characteristic s of th e fundamentally bourgeoi s form withi n whic h the y write," a for m including bot h th e simplisticall y Utopia n an d th e dystopia n whic h i s "a quintessentiall y bourgeoi s genre." 24 However , becaus e thi s Utopia n space i s locate d within , o r directl y connecte d to , th e mundane , wha t we hav e i s a restless , ope n Utopi a a s oppose d t o a stati c perfection . Virtuality i s sometime s image d a s a Utopi a b y Africa n subjects , t o counteract th e heinou s effect s o f th e dystopia n marginalizatio n the y constantly experience . If , a s Bukatma n claims , Wester n cyberspac e o r virtuality i s a realm i n whic h "spatialit y someho w exist s both globall y and invisibly," 25 the n Africa n subject s mak e tha t spac e visible . Th e African subjec t challenge s th e cyborg symbiosis o f human an d machine , refuses th e technologica l sublime , counter s th e virtual theatricalizatio n of th e real . I t i s clea r tha t whil e technologica l citadel s ca n attemp t t o isolate themselves , the y canno t escap e thei r environment ; Afric a wil l not le t them . Virtualit y canno t floa t fre e fro m th e eart h a t escap e velocity; i t i s no t a free space . I f technolog y hold s ou t th e promis e o f immortality an d perfectibility , the n Africa n response s t o technolog y reveal thi s promis e a s a historica l lie , a n evasio n o f histor y an d mortality. Thu s man y contemporar y Africa n fiction s asser t a place , a historical temporality , i n obliqu e oppositio n t o th e emphasi s upo n a virtual spac e and spee d in th e West. As Paul Virilio notes, "today , spee d is war , th e las t war," 26 s o th e assertio n o f plac e an d historica l tim e against th e violenc e o f spee d i s a politica l act . Thi s plac e i s hence , perhaps ironically , a Utopia n plac e an d i t i s activate d b y th e obliqu e African jeste r within th e material , withi n th e mundane . It is onl y suc h a trickster subjectivit y tha t is able to ride the surreal oscillation betwee n Utopian and dystopian virtualities an d realities. The white cyborg speeds through th e deser t t o th e virtua l ne w Jerusale m whic h chimericall y shimmers o n the horizon,- a surreal dancing African scra p heap shadow s it fa r behind ; vulture s monito r thei r progress .

13 The Teeth o f th e Ne w Cockatoo : Mutation and Trauma in Greg Egan's Teranesia Chris Palme r

The toothed cockato o of my title makes a n obstreperous first appearanc e in Gre g Egan' s 199 9 nove l Teranesia. Th e scen e i s a ba r i n Ambon , mostly fille d wit h th e contemporary equivalen t o f the seedy expatriate s and exploiter s o f earlie r tropica l fiction s — in thi s case , self-indulgen t postmodern theorizer s wh o hav e bee n attracte d t o th e are a b y news o f the phenomeno n th e ne w kin d o f cockato o represents : a serie s o f ver y strange mutations i n a variety of plants, insects, and birds. Birds haven' t had teet h sinc e th e ver y earl y day s o f thei r evolutio n fro m dinosaurs , but thi s on e i s no simpl e throwback , a s we wil l discover . I n thi s scen e it doe s wha t cockatoo s ar e alway s liabl e t o do , onl y doe s i t mor e efficiently. I t bite s — no t on e o f th e sill y theorizers , bu t a perfectl y sensible freelanc e biologis t name d Marth a Grant , wh o wil l b e th e companion o f th e novel' s mai n character , Prabi r Suresh . This imag e of the obstreperou s parrot usefull y suggest s how thing s resist interpretation , whethe r i t b e literar y o r scientific , an d resis t absorption int o th e working s o f process . Thi s preliminar y emphasi s i s appropriate, a s Teranesia deal s no t onl y wit h scienc e a s cultura l construction bu t a s a n attemp t t o understan d wha t i s ver y ofte n recalcitrant t o huma n effort s t o understan d o r manipulat e it . Cal l th e latter "Nature. " Bu t late r i t wil l becom e clea r tha t proces s i s o f th e essence, eve n with th e new cockatoo , an d in th e even t natur e wil l als o turn ou t t o b e quit e dauntingl y mind-lik e i n it s operations . Prabir i s involve d i n th e investigatio n o f mutations, - tha t i s th e S F plot o f th e novel . H e know s tha t th e explanatio n wil l b e foun d o n th e remote, uninhabited islan d that he himself onc e named Teranesia (islan d of monsters ; islan d o f amnesia : thes e ar e th e meaning s th e stor y wil l supply t o hi s choic e o f name) . Bu t hi s involvemen t i s personal . H e i s

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playing out a complex, clums y plot of his own, a private drama of primal crime an d rescue, and now return o r redress. He is not himsel f mutate d but maimed , o r hampere d anyway , b y hi s past , whic h h e i s drive n t o redress: thenc e th e conjunctio n o f traum a an d mutatio n i n th e titl e o f this chapter . Prabi r i s no t a happ y person ; h e attempt s suicid e thre e times i n th e cours e o f th e novel . Meanwhile , th e mutage n goe s o n mysteriously spreadin g and varying, i n ways tha t rebuk e man y idea s of the wastefulness o f evolution an d make a striking contrast wit h Prabir' s human history . This essa y concerns th e relations o f the plot o f scientifi c investigation an d th e plo t o f prima l crime , rescue , an d retur n i n Teranesia. Thes e plots represent i n a general fashion tw o Western mode s of dealin g wit h "th e East. " Ega n use s on e t o correc t th e othe r — bu t the narrativ e negotiation s involve d her e ar e ver y complex . Years ago , Prabi r escape d fro m th e island , rescuin g hi s sister , afte r the sudde n death s o f hi s parents . Prabi r wa s the n a child ; Madhusre e was an infant. No w the y are grown up. The siblings ended up in Canada , a long way from Teranesia , an d from India , where the family cam e from . There, i n effect , h e acte d a s her father, whil e comin g t o term s wit h th e fact tha t h e i s gay — a complicate d mixtur e o f th e deracinate d an d th e dedicated. A s parent s occasionall y do , he sacrifice d himsel f fo r her : h e could hav e bee n a scientis t bu t ende d u p workin g i n a bank ; now , a s the secon d phas e o f th e stor y begins , sh e i s o n th e verg e o f a caree r a s a scientis t an d wil l launc h tha t caree r b y goin g o n a n expeditio n t o investigate th e very mutations , spreadin g throug h th e region , an d eve n reaching that ba r in Ambon, whos e earliest beginnings his parents wer e themselves studyin g whe n the y wer e kille d an d th e orphan s ha d t o escape fro m Teranesia . Prabi r fail s t o preven t he r embarkin g o n th e expedition, the n follow s her , and , wit h Grant , get s t o Teranesi a befor e she does . What i t i s tha t happen s nex t wil l b e mentione d later ; eve n wit h this muc h detai l i t ca n be seen that Teranesia i s a tale o f revisiting an d repetition. Prabir' s parents' work wa s cu t shor t b y death; th e corpse s of the mutate d butterflie s the y wer e studyin g ar e stil l i n thei r derelic t camp o n Teranesia , a s w e wil l discove r late r i n th e novel . Prabir' s childhood (a n islan d idyll ) wa s cu t shor t b y fligh t an d th e demand s o f parenting Madhusree, - but he r possession o f thei r pas t o n th e island ha s always bee n blocke d b y him . H e ha s alway s owne d th e narrativ e — something incomplete , t o b e finishe d o r settled , bu t also , a s w e com e to see , partl y represse d b y Prabir . No w th e mutation s ar e spreading , and Madhusre e ha s journeye d t o th e regio n t o hel p investigat e them . (She rename s th e island , too : Sures h Island , afte r thei r family. 1)

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This i s a scenari o loade d wit h huma n freight , matter s o f hur t o r recovery. I n fac t i t i s more , o r worse, tha n ha s bee n indicated . Prabir' s childhood o n Teranesia wa s no t onl y th e scen e of this admirabl e rescu e (the nine-year-old manage s t o get infant siste r acros s hundreds o f mile s of se a and eventuall y t o a n internment camp , in Australia o f al l places,not a n eas y feat, an d i t i s getting a lot harder, a s those acquainte d wit h the recen t disgracefu l behavio r o f th e Australia n governmen t know) . Childhood i s never s o simply positive . No, the episod e of their parents ' death i s fo r Prabi r shape d b y two , no w repressed , crimes . First , i t wa s he wh o summone d th e Indonesia n plan e tha t droppe d th e mine s tha t killed hi s parents, - or s o he feels. H e di d this by including a foolish pro guerrilla remar k i n hi s Interne t conversatio n wit h a woman i n th e US; and h e di d tha t becaus e h e wa s rathe r unskillfull y playin g a t bein g hi s father i n tha t relationship . His fathe r tol d hi m no t t o disclos e his ag e when conversin g o n th e Net: "H e wouldn' t le t m e tel l anyon e m y rea l age . H e wa s paranoi d about i t — maybe somethin g happene d t o him a s a child" (203) . So, h e pretended t o b e hi s father , eve n appropriatin g hi s father' s lif e histor y in th e tale s abou t "himself " tha t h e tol d his webfrien d Eleanor , hersel f an adult . Tha t wa s hi s first , complexl y oedipal , crime , takin g th e ver y contemporary for m o f Interne t deception . Hi s secon d wa s that , o n th e night th e bombe r cam e over , h e ha d crep t int o th e butterfl y house , forbidden groun d for him becaus e of the insect-repelling implan t h e ha s to wear , wit h th e ai m o f poisonin g on e o f th e butterflie s o n whic h hi s parents worked . H e could d o that wit h a touch, becaus e o f the implant . This chapte r examine s th e clashe s an d conjunction s o f th e S F plot and Prabir' s mor e private story . The S F plot i s what i n man y a relevan t contemporary nove l o r piec e o f journalis m abou t weir d mutation s o r new-seeming disease s i s calle d a "scientifi c detectiv e story. " Prabir' s more privat e stor y ha s a traditiona l structure . Teranesia i s a n islan d novel, an d i n thi s i t i s no t s o much Asia n a s a rather differen t thin g i n imaginary, "Eastern. " Thi s Easter n islan d settin g i s mad e th e focu s o f a stor y o f rescu e an d retur n tha t ha s ver y dee p "Western " roots . Thes e things, i t wil l b e suggested , clas h wit h man y o f Egan' s rationa l an d contemporary value s an d view s o f th e worl d (o f nature , fo r instance) : the scientifi c detectiv e stor y i s hi s wa y o f negotiatin g thi s clas h an d finding a complicate d narrativ e resolutio n fo r it . Ega n i s a n Australia n writer, an d th e essa y conclude s wit h a speculatio n o n th e Australia n cultural contex t fo r thes e complicate d moves . Islands ar e often mad e th e site s wherein som e importe d anxiet y o r problem i s worked ou t i n a narrative — whether th e problem i s Heyst' s

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withdrawal fro m commitment , i n Josep h Conrad' s Victory, o r th e difficult moldin g o f "beasts " int o human s i n H . G . Wells' s The Island of Dr Moreau. Th e islan d itsel f ma y suppl y onlooker s (th e impassiv e Wang i n Conrad' s novel , himsel f a n immigrant ) or , mor e often , figur e as "nature, " sourc e o f menac e o r degeneration . Ega n i s goin g t o giv e nature, i n th e for m o f th e mutations , a ver y activ e rol e i n th e story , but i n a wa y a rational role , on e tha t ca n b e discusse d an d ha s a self consistent form , thoug h th e stor y i s largel y abou t th e workin g ou t o f Prabir's persona l problems . The protei n whic h cause s th e mutation s i s not blind or stumbling, as humans ar e in this story, at least when dealin g with thei r ow n historie s an d impulses, - i t i s purposeful , o r purposeful seeming, an d efficient . I t is also, as we will see , independent o f tim e i n a wa y tha t Prabir , hi s lif e shape d b y irrevocabl e action s an d b y a compulsion t o repea t an d return , certainl y i s not . (Mind-like , active , and transformative , obstreperou s an d thorn y o n occasion , engulfin g o n occasion — Nature, a s represente d b y th e virus , i s no t eas y t o fi t int o any gende r stereotype , a matte r tha t i s importan t whe n w e com e t o consider th e working s o f gende r an d sexualit y i n Prabir' s story. ) Now i f i t i s righ t t o argu e tha t Teranesia i s i n par t a replayin g o f the old story of return an d rescue, the n Gre g Egan is not a very obviou s candidate fo r th e writin g o f suc h a story . No t onl y ar e hi s mai n characters frequentl y prickly , single , self-willed , an d self-makin g (a s indeed Prabi r is) , bu t h e ofte n make s comple x fiction s o f extrem e disembodiment: person s downloade d int o autonomou s softwar e programs, existin g i n A J universes, a s i n Permutation City (1994 ) an d Diaspora (1997) . W e coul d sa y tha t h e i s a grandl y an d exuberantl y Cartesian novelist , givin g u s disembodie d min d soarin g i n abstrac t voyages o f discover y throug h a univers e tha t i s t o b e know n an d explained. 2 I n mor e trouble d an d painfu l stories , suc h a s "Miste r Volition" (1995 ) an d "Reason s t o b e Cheerful " (1997) , he dramatize s a mind witnessin g it s corporea l sel f (picture s o f its ow n brain activit y fo r instance), testin g it s ow n cor e o f wil l an d possibl e autonomy . H e i s drawn t o th e ide a that , i n conceivabl e futures , human s migh t remak e themselves, usin g thei r wil l an d consciou s intelligence . Th e openin g episode o f Diaspora recount s th e self-making , th e "Orphanogenesis " of a personag e calle d Yatima , wh o ha s n o gende r o r bod y o r parents . His character s ofte n fai l i n thei r projec t o f self-making , bu t w e woul d expect hi m t o b e uneas y abou t thi s olde r for m o f comin g t o selfhoo d that Prabir' s stor y implies. 3 Further, Egan' s writing is characteristically detaile d and speculative ; he work s wit h character s wh o hav e t o o r lov e t o explai n an d discuss, -

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he likes to remain uncaptured by myths an d metaphors, thos e perennia l underlying structure s o f narrative, thoug h o f cours e he uses metaphor s and know s tha t h e i s doin g so . Teranesia i s a novel with a tropical, island setting, but many feature s are reflective o f the contemporar y post-colonia l an d postmodern world . Its protagonist s ar e visitin g scientists , bu t the y ar e neithe r local s no r Europeans. The y ar e Indians . Th e mai n characte r i s thoroughl y deracinated, i n way s tha t hav e bee n mentioned . The broa d politica l contex t i s th e nea r futur e breaku p o f th e Javanese empire , a s th e nove l call s it , unfoldin g a s Ega n wa s writin g Teranesia, advance d muc h furthe r i n th e worl d o f th e novel , whic h begins i n 2012 . We have near futur e technolog y — advanced medicine , navigation, communicatio n — all based on continuance o f the advance s in computer s an d i n biogenetic s tha t ar e alread y unde r way . Teranesia is set i n a very fragmented an d permeable world . Th e remote seclusio n of the island i n many analogou s storie s is much diminishe d i n thi s one . But Teranesia emphasize s th e bod y an d it s clumsiness , th e min d an d its frailties . The chil d Prabi r ha s th e astonishin g freedo m tha t come s wit h contemporary communication : h e ca n communicat e instantaneousl y with hi s frien d Eleano r i n Ne w Yor k an d securel y buil d u p hi s fictio n that h e i s hi s father , deceivin g thi s intelligen t woman, - bu t h e isn' t allowed i n th e butterfl y hous e a fe w yard s fro m hi s ow n room , and , when h e enter s i t anyway , Ega n gives us a vivid rendition o f his simpl e physical limitations, groping sweatily in the dark , bumping int o things . And late r i n thi s crucia l episode , thi s simpl e physica l clumsines s i s repeatedly underlined: when Prabi r and his mother tr y to help his father , injured b y a mine, b y crawlin g ou t alon g a balanced ladde r — they fai l and hi s mothe r die s (34-44) ; an d agai n whe n Prabi r laboriousl y haul s the supplies for their flight u p and down to the beach, each time lumpin g the infan t Madhusre e alon g wit h hi m (46-8) . Asia i n th e Wester n imaginar y i s usually continenta l — big space s with complex , developed , wis e o r menacin g civilization s sprea d abundantly throug h the m — the Ottoma n Empire , Persia, India , China . Islands, whethe r a part o f Asi a o r not , belon g t o a somewha t differen t imaginary, sinc e island s ar e classicall y isolated , smal l world s i n themselves, rich, perhaps, but no t vast, enigmati c but not i n the fashio n of a remote big place like Tibet. Islands can be sites for pastoral, servin g as an unspoiled an d untouched sit e for a n idyll, as in R. M. Ballantyne' s The Coral Island (1858 ) and Patrick O'Brian' s The Thirteen-Gun Salutef for Utopia , a s in Thomas More' s Utopia (1521) , Aldous Huxley' s Island

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(1962), an d Egan' s ow n Distress (1995) ; and fo r violence , degeneration , and regression , a s i n Victory, The Island of Dr Moreau, Willia m Golding's Lord of the Flies, and lain Banks' s The Wasp Factory. Thi s last, degeneratio n an d regression , i s mos t relevan t fo r ou r novel , no t because Teranesia exemplifie s i t — in fact w e ca n sa y that i t extricate s itself fro m i t — but becaus e thi s i s th e kin d o f thin g tha t th e strang e mutations tha t hav e radiate d ou t fro m Teranesi a coul d easil y hav e figured — another version of Ebola fever o r Kuru, t o name contemporar y stories o f menacin g incurabl e disease s comin g ou t o f th e tropics. 5 An islan d i s secluded ; bu t withi n i t ther e need s t o b e a spac e tha t is secre t o r withheld. Th e explanatio n fo r thi s i s narratological bu t ca n also relat e t o pattern s o f myth . Yo u journe y t o th e islan d wit h som e effort an d adventure , n o doubt . Onc e there , however , th e plac e i s explorable, traversable . Yo u ca n fee l yo u posses s an d kno w it . I n th e first page s o f Teranesia, th e chil d Prabi r name s "hi s island"; 6 the n h e climbs th e island' s centra l peak, s o that h e ca n surve y th e horizon, an d carves the date. But a transparent worl d needs som e element o f mystery , puzzle o r difference i f a story is to develop . There ar e various solution s to thi s (intruders , fo r instance) , but on e solutio n i s to have som e secre t or separate place within th e island, which the n impels the plot. A secre t pool and a hidden cav e i n The Coral Island) th e idylli c crate r worl d i n which humans an d animals peacefully mingl e (withi n the island of Pul o Prabang that is otherwise violent an d harsh) in The Thirteen-Gun Salute-, The Hous e o f Pai n i n Moreau' s establishmen t i n The Island of Dr Moreau-, the was p factor y i n Banks' s nove l o f tha t nam e ( a miniature , controlled world , a kin d o f fat e an d violenc e machin e tha t structure s the killing s tha t ar e th e mai n busines s o f th e novel) . S o it i s wit h th e "kampung" o n Teranesia, with sleepin g huts and butterfly house , scen e of Prabir' s youthfu l crime . When Prabi r return s t o th e islan d i n th e late r par t o f th e story , i t has become hard to traverse, thorny, dangerou s — a result of the change s brought abou t by the mutations. Climbing a tree in searc h of specimen s of th e mutation , h e sight s th e ruine d kampun g bu t i s reluctan t t o tel l Grant abou t it , le t alon e go there. Eventually h e will hav e to , however . He ha s t o com e t o term s wit h hi s parents ' deat h an d hi s represse d conviction tha t h e caused thos e deaths,- and he has to collect specimen s from th e butterfl y house , sinc e the y migh t hol d th e clu e t o th e mutations, a matte r wit h whic h h e i s genuinel y fascinated . Th e plac e where h e ra n fre e a s a chil d ( a plac e o f idyll ) ha s becom e a plac e o f death: not onl y are there corpses still somewhere abou t (Madhusre e sai d she wante d t o ge t t o th e islan d t o giv e the m a prope r burial , a n ide a

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that seem s t o offen d Prabir' s rationalis m (170) , bu t s o ar e lot s o f unexploded mines , droppe d b y th e Indonesians , whom , a s w e recall , Prabir though t h e ha d i n effec t summoned . I don' t thin k i t i s stretchin g th e poin t to o muc h t o identif y thi s forbidden o r hard-to-reach plac e on the island with th e underworld tha t one ha s t o ventur e t o i n traditiona l myth s o f rescue , suc h a s tha t o f Orpheus an d Eurydice . Certainl y thes e myth s ar e als o relevan t t o Teranesia. The y are , interestingly, bi-gendered : husband ca n rescue wife , or siste r rescu e brother , o r mothe r rescu e daughter. 7 Thi s myt h o r repeated stor y patter n o f rescu e carrie s a certai n patho s — rescu e i s often unsuccessfu l o r temporary ; rescu e an d fligh t ca n b e mixed , an d they certainl y ar e in the cas e of Prabir an d Madhusree. It is a story tha t has t o d o with recovery , bein g a s we wer e (Odysseu s an d Penelope , fo r instance); ha s t o d o wit h makin g whol e agai n (reassemblin g th e bod y of Osiris, for instance); has to do with a northern imagination o f seasona l fertility (natura l fertility wil l take a very different for m i n the relentles s mutagen i n thi s novel , an d o f cours e th e season s ar e differen t i n th e tropics); ha s t o d o wit h a certai n tempora l shap e tha t i s no t ver y postmodern, t o pu t i t tha t way . To su m u p thi s sid e o f Teranesia, whic h bear s particularl y o n Prabir's persona l story : w e hav e a n oedipa l origi n t o th e late r stor y o f return: somethin g wen t wron g i n childhood , an d thi s somethin g wa s concerned wit h competin g with , replacing , an d bein g responsibl e fo r the deat h o f one' s father ; th e lif e o f th e protagonis t look s backwar d t o that episode , whic h ha s t o b e confronte d an d perhap s repeated. 8 Tha t is on e for m o f temporality , a shap e t o th e tim e o f a life . Overlai d i s a rendition o f th e myt h o f rescue : saving , o r a t leas t protecting , a love d one b y penetratin g t o a secre t place , an d confrontin g th e mysterie s o f fertility an d sterility , or , translatin g int o th e term s o f th e novel' s SF , let u s ter m i t mutatio n an d menac e i n nature . Tha t i s anothe r for m o f temporality, involvin g retur n an d repetition . This i s all fascinating, an d the pathos an d compulsiveness o f storie s of thes e kind s ca n beguile; but ho w i s Egan going to tel l it? I t ha s bee n suggested tha t ther e are many element s o f his writing — his interest i n rational an d wille d self-making , hi s inclinatio n t o tel l storie s b y intelligent speculativ e discussio n mor e tha n b y metapho r an d myt h — that might make him reserve d about suc h narratives. Moreover, t o spea k more generally, thes e narratives ar e surely very "Western. " It's not onl y that w e hav e a tropica l islan d wit h natur e mysteriousl y an d rathe r threateningly o n the loose — something tha t coul d turn int o a commo n Western trope . It' s tha t w e hav e thes e oedipa l an d mythica l patterns ,

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deep-seated in the modem an d traditional Western imaginary. If the Eas t is ofte n mad e equivalen t t o tha t whic h i s mysterious , instinctua l an d mired i n repetitio n an d tradition , the n th e oedipa l stor y an d th e myt h of rescu e migh t b e classifie d a s th e Eas t o f th e Wes t — what ha s t o d o with th e irrationa l an d repetitiv e i n th e imaginatio n o f th e West . I t might b e fel t tha t yo u canno t impor t thes e Wester n narrative s an d preoccupations, plon k the m dow n o n a tropical island, an d take it fro m there. Th e contemporar y settin g i n a distinc t place , Indonesia , shoul d at leas t complicat e th e project . It i s no t har d t o detai l ho w Ega n no w varie s an d invert s th e stor y of rescue . Prabi r doe s no t rescu e o r protec t hi s sister . He become s th e one rescued , b y a whole serie s o f women : a female scientis t save s hi m from attac k b y a giant python (158-62) ; Grant prevents him fro m killin g himself i n th e momen t o f despai r whic h come s whe n h e a t lengt h penetrates t o th e centra l part o f the island, allow s himself t o remembe r what actuall y happened ther e when he was a child, an d prepares to wal k into th e minefiel d tha t kille d hi s parent s (202-5) ; Madhusre e rescue s him fro m fundamentalis t terrorist s (230-3) ; Madhusre e rescue s hi m again whe n th e mutageni c protei n get s int o hi s bloo d an d begin s t o transform hi s bod y (235-48) . Sh e treat s hi m successfully , an d thi s happens a s the y fle e fro m th e islan d i n a smal l boa t — tha t is , a repetition o f that childhoo d flight afte r th e deaths of their parents, excep t that thi s tim e sh e is saving him. S o on thi s level the plot is modernize d by an emphati c serie s o f reversals o f role, and repetitions (thre e suicid e attempts b y Prabir , an d fou r rescue s o f Prabi r b y variou s women) . What i s don e wit h th e S F plot, th e investigatio n o f th e mutations , is more complex and ambitious. In this part of the novel, Egan negotiate s with an d resolves some of those Western imaginations an d temporalitie s about which , I suggested , h e migh t hav e reservations . The mutagen , th e protein , ma y b e see n a s th e equivalen t o f th e nature go d o f th e islan d tha t ha s t o b e confronte d (tha t is , i t ca n b e fitted int o th e myt h o f rescue) . It serve s t o demystif y th e whol e story , however, becaus e i t i s no t expresse d b y imager y bu t b y detai l an d discussion i n characteristic Egan style. What this speculation, theorizing , and testin g graduall y unfolds , significantly , i s tha t th e activit y o f th e mutagen involve s a drasti c chang e i n temporality . A whol e serie s o f mutations i s occurring : a toothe d cockatoo , perfectl y camouflage d pigeons, change s t o ants , butterflies , pitche r plants , thor n tree s an d s o on. Thes e mutation s ar e efficient , an d explicabl e a s adaptive , bu t the y are no t literall y adaptiv e — it' s no t clea r tha t the y ar e response s t o environmental change s o r challenges . The y ar e convergen t — causin g

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different specie s t o com e together . And th e sam e protein (whic h i s lik e the muc h speculate d abou t prion ) i s effectin g al l thes e changes . At firs t i t seem s tha t th e proces s leap s bac k ages , select s som e potential but discarde d mutatio n fro m th e dee p past, an d reactivates it . The scientist s (thi s include s Prabir , scientis t manque ) resor t t o th e language o f repetitio n t o characteriz e this : repair, reactivate , resurrect , revert (139) ; it' s no t innovatio n bu t recycling . The mutation s ar e not adaptation s t o threat s o r challenges, - it i s a s if they ar e anticipations, forestalling challenge s that hav e not yet arisen , and wil l not , now , becaus e the y hav e been pre-empted . Th e activit y o f the mutage n i s bot h regressio n an d anticipation , then . I t i s mind-lik e — it goe s back an d forwar d a s ou r minds , ou r memorie s an d hopes an d speculations, ca n do, - poignant i n a novel whos e huma n stor y i s mire d in th e past ; bu t i t doe s thi s materially , and , unlik e Prabir' s stumblin g revisiting o f hi s past , i n whic h th e would-b e rescue r need s repeate d rescue, i t doe s thi s wit h perfec t efficiency . Then th e speculator s thin k again , an d confir m thei r ne w theor y with compute r simulations . It' s no t tha t th e mutage n i s revertin g t o long past experiments, - it is accessing quantal possibilities, since , at th e level o f th e atom , thi s i s wha t underlie s an y change . Furtado conjecture d tha t [th e protein] was exploiting thi s sensitivit y to count the numbers of various "counterfactual cousins " of the DNA: similar, bu t non-identica l sequence s tha t might have been produced in it s place, if onl y its recent histor y o f random mutation s ha d been different. [Th e mutations] had been tested, and found to be successful : not i n the past, a s Grant had hypothesised, bu t i n differen t quantu m histories. (214) The proces s o f mutation s canno t b e understoo d withi n norma l cause and-effect time , o r th e tim e o f materia l existenc e (a s distinct fro m th e time o f th e mind ) i n whic h thing s eithe r happe n o r don' t happen , because i t make s us e o f quanta l possibilities . I t accesse s might-have beens (th e mind-like thin g tha t come s up in th e characters ' discussion s at thi s poin t i s a supercomputer; tha t i s what th e mutage n i s compare d to). The resul t i s a n imag e o f freedom , order , an d efficienc y i n natur e that i s i n contras t t o th e live s o f th e human s i n th e nove l an d t o th e narratives tha t shap e thos e lives , chiefl y Prabir's . Th e contras t i s ver y deep, because i t i s at th e leve l o f temporality , th e thin g throug h whic h a nove l (an d a life) i s shaped . Th e protei n doesn' t hav e t o remembe r o r repeat, because it accesses quantal possibilities — and then forges ahead . The self-shapin g tha t Ega n s o ofte n imagine s fo r hi s h u m a n o r

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posthuman personage s i n hi s othe r work s i s realize d b y th e protei n i n this one . But th e proces s b y which th e mutage n work s ha s othe r features . I t is relentless and, as becomes clear, single of purpose — or effect, anyway . It makes creature s an d species into things tha t wil l serve itself. It passe s through individualit y an d variet y an d reduce s it . Neithe r Prabir' s extraordinary lif e history , whic h make s hi m a n interesting , prickl y individual, no r th e separat e lif e o f th e cockatoo , bitin g Gran t i n tha t obstreperous assertio n w e bega n with , ha s an y "relevance " t o th e protein. S o it penetrate s Prabi r an d begin s t o us e hi m fo r it s purposes , changing hi s bod y i n th e wa y th e noocyte s chang e Virgi l i n th e earl y part o f Gre g Bear' s Blood Music (1986) . This i s wha t Madhusre e mus t deal with durin g thei r fligh t fro m th e islan d i n th e novel's las t episode . Eventually, sh e realizes tha t th e protein wil l have to be lured o r draine d out o f Prabi r int o a receptacl e tha t i t wil l rea d a s a mor e suitabl e environment fo r it , an d sh e devise s this . Thus th e scientifi c detectiv e stor y i s solved , an d Prabi r i s save d a s a person; nonetheless , considerin g the whole comple x plot o f the novel , what i s strikin g i s th e transferenc e o f a certai n purposiv e contro l ove r time an d material existenc e fro m huma n being s (wh o have thi s contro l in man y o f Egan' s works , bu t i n th e perso n o f Prabi r i n thi s on e ar e fumbling prisoner s o f childhoo d an d repetition ) t o th e mind-like , efficient, relentles s mutagen. What might be the context for this strikin g shift? As h e an d Gran t sai l toward s th e island , Prabi r meditates : But everyone went back: to battlefields, t o death camps, to places ten thousand time s worse than thi s ... . Every piece of land, ever y stretc h of sea , was a graveyard t o someone. (179) T h e pervadin g preoccupatio n o f Australian s i n thes e year s i s "reconciliation"— comin g t o term s wit h continuin g an d pas t violenc e towards Aborigines. (Or so it was when th e original version of this essa y was writte n i n 2001 ; attention ha s no w shifte d t o keepin g ou t peopl e like Prabhi r an d Madhusree , refugee s comin g b y sea , hystericall y imagined t o be menacing; but tha t i s another story. ) Reconciliation doe s entail th e questio n o f wha t t o d o abou t pas t action s that , bein g past , are don e an d irrevocable . Perhap s thi s i s th e genera l contex t fo r suc h a death-haunted remar k a s Prabir's, s o striking i n a writer wh o ha s mad e reasoned fiction s abou t immortalit y an d abou t cuttin g loos e fro m th e known earth . Here we have a preoccupation with th e past as irrevocable, and a n ambiguou s drea m o f a Natur e tha t i s no t trappe d i n th e sam e temporality a s human s largel y are , thoug h i t als o threaten s humans .

14 When Cyberfeminis m Meet s Chinese Philosophy : Computer, Weaving and Women Amy Kit-sz e Cha n

This chapte r i s a theoretica l discussio n o f cyberfeminism , especiall y focused o n Donn a Haraway' s an d Sadi e Plant' s text s o n th e subject . I t traces th e inter-relationshi p o f women , weaving , computer , an d technology fro m th e poin t o f constructin g a "herstory " o f technology . This "herstory " i s weaved togethe r b y thread s o f smal l stories , suc h a s Ada Lovelace' s biography , Charle s Babbage' s creatio n o f th e Differenc e Engine, th e fables o f weaving in mythologies, tale s of weavers i n poetry , etc. I try t o overcom e th e dualis t framewor k implici t i n Sadi e Plant' s work b y contrastin g th e visio n o f cyberfeminis m o n th e representatio n of th e digit s wit h tha t o f ancien t Chines e philosophy . Unlik e Plant , who see s zer o an d on e — th e onl y digit s i n th e digita l for m o f th e computer — a s representativ e o f th e binar y syste m i n Wester n civilization, ancien t Chines e philosophica l text s offe r multipl e possibilities embodie d in the interaction between the ones and the zeros. As this i s the firs t eve r attemp t o f it s kind , I have chose n onl y a coupl e of text s t o begin with, namely , Lao Zi and I-Ching o r Book of Changes. I believ e tha t ancien t Chines e text s hav e muc h t o contribut e t o th e studies o f technocultur e an d cyberfeminism . Th e in-betwee n space s created b y thei r interaction s constitut e a wealt h o f knowledg e t o b e explored.

Originally published i n Gender, Technology and Development, Vol . 7, No. 3. Copyright © Gender an d Developmen t Studie s Center , Asia n Institut e o f Technology, Thailand, 2003. All rights reserved. Reproduced with the permission of the copyrigh t holder s an d the publishers, Sag e Publications Indi a Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

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Introduction Cyberfeminism i s the latest brand of feminisms afte r th e postfeminisms . What differentiate s th e forme r fro m th e latte r i s that postfeminism s a s a whol e hav e neve r brough t i n an y discussio n o f th e relationshi p between woma n an d technology , th e developmen t o f feminism s a s related t o technologica l advancemen t o r th e impac t o f technolog y o n women. I n contrast, cyberfeminis m i s much intereste d i n explorin g th e role o f woman i n th e technologica l age , the relationshi p o f women an d technology, an d how women ca n make use of technology to fight agains t the patriarcha l society . While Donna Haraway's " A Cyborg Manifesto: Science , Technology , and Socialist-Feminis m i n th e Lat e Twentieth Century " look s int o th e future fo r a connectio n betwee n th e feminis t movemen t an d th e development o f technology , I woul d propos e t o loo k bac k int o th e "herstory" o f cybercultur e fo r inspiration . Differen t fro m th e empirica l or anthropological approac h o f historical studies , my way of discoverin g this "herstory " i s a completel y femal e one : constructin g th e stor y b y connecting othe r smal l storie s (Ad a Lovelace' s autobiography , Charle s Babbage's story , th e stor y o f weavin g fro m mythologie s an d literature , etc.) an d blendin g the m wit h th e text s writte n b y cyberfeminist s lik e Donna Harawa y an d Sadi e Plant. My startin g point i s to retell th e stor y between th e technolog y o f weavin g an d th e inventio n o f th e moder n computer. Sinc e th e compute r i s ofte n claime d t o b e man' s inventio n and therefor e a tool o f his own , i t i s interesting t o se e how th e creatio n of thi s mal e too l an d weavin g — a woman's ar t — and technolog y ca n be pu t together . Then , i n th e secon d part , I mainly discus s th e digit s "zero an d one " in relation t o the concep t o f Tao in Chines e philosophy . Irrelevant a s i t ma y seem , Sadi e Plant' s analysi s o f th e digit s zer o an d one i n relatio n t o weavin g an d feminis m doe s correlat e t o th e concep t of Ta o t o a certai n extent .

Computer an d Weavin g The moder n compute r wa s built afte r th e Secon d World War,- however , the prototyp e o f thi s compute r appeare d a s earl y a s th e nineteent h century. In the year 1833 , the seventeen-year-old Ad a Lovelace first me t Charles Babbag e and hi s "Differenc e Engine. " Lovelac e wa s amon g th e few wh o coul d understan d th e operatio n o f Babbage' s calculatin g machine an d wa s immediatel y captivate d b y Babbage and his machine .

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There began thei r friendshi p an d partnership. Lovelace fully understoo d the potentialit y o f th e Analytica l Engin e a s envisione d b y Babbag e — it wa s no t onl y a machine full y capabl e o f mathematica l computation , but on e tha t ha d interna l memory , coul d mak e decisions , an d repea t instructions. Sh e als o foresa w it s applicatio n i n artificia l intelligence . In he r note s t o Menabrea' s book, 1 Lovelac e stresse d th e Analytica l Engine's abilit y t o b e programme d — tha t is , t o ac t accordin g t o th e instructions a s inscribe d o n th e operatio n cards . An d th e ide a o f operation card s wa s borrowe d fro m th e weavin g machin e develope d b y a Frenchma n calle d Joseph-Mari e Jacquar d i n 1804 . Jacquard invente d a punched-car d syste m whic h coul d contro l th e weavin g o f th e cloth , so tha t an y intricat e wove n pattern , suc h a s tapestry , brocade , an d damask coul d b e produce d a u t o m a t i c a l l y . Th e p u n c h e d car d programmed th e loom , savin g labou r an d eliminatin g errors . Thes e punched card s wer e adopte d b y Babbag e a s a n input-outpu t mediu m for th e Analytica l Engine . Thoug h Babbage' s Engin e wa s neve r materialized, th e punched card s were widely used to store data in binar y form unti l th e inventio n o f recordin g medi a base d o n electromagneti c and electro-opti c technologie s i n 1960s . This possibly explain s th e clos e relation betwee n th e loo m an d th e computer . Plant, wh o document s thi s development, see s weaving as importan t to th e relatio n betwee n compute r an d woman , bot h a s a technolog y and a s a metaphor . Sh e writes : The compute r wa s always a simulation o f weaving; threads o f one s and zeros riding the carpets and simulating silk screens in the perpetual motions of cyberspace. It joins women on and as the interface between man and matter, identit y and difference, on e and zero, the actual and the virtual. An interface whic h is taking off o n its own: no longer the void, the gap, or the absence, the veils are already cybernetic. 2 It is interesting t o note tha t th e earlies t loo m wa s believed t o appear i n ancient China . I t i s mentione d i n a n ancien t literar y tex t The Classic of Odes: "War p an d Weft ar e empty " an d Zh u Xi' s annotation explain s that "War p hold s th e horizonta l lin e an d wef t th e vertica l one. " Also , the loo m i s allude d t o i n numerou s poem s i n differen t dynasties . Th e most famou s on e i s Mu Lan Ci whic h i s a lon g poe m describin g th e heroine stor y o f Mula n wh o joine d th e arm y i n he r father' s name . Th e poem starts with a scene where Mulan is working at the loom: "Weavin g after weaving , Mula n i s weavin g a clot h a t home . Th e soun d o f th e warp canno t b e heard , instea d ther e i s onl y Mulan' s sighing. " Bu t on e interesting observation : all spinsters (whic h also mean single , unmarrie d

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women) ar e females an d i n al l mythologies, th e technolog y o f spinnin g and weavin g i s alway s create d b y a goddess , fo r example , Arachne i n Greek Mythology , Chih Nu i n Chines e Mythology , Neit i n Egyptia n Mythology, etc . It i s perhaps no t a coincidenc e tha t th e wor d techne can b e trace d back t o th e Indo-Europea n roo t teks, whic h mean s "t o weave." 3 However, give n th e fac t tha t technolog y originate s fro m weaving , women shoul d hav e a n intimat e relationshi p wit h technolog y becaus e weaving is the only technology tha t ma n admit s to be created by woma n among al l technologie s i n huma n civilization . Accordin g t o Sigmun d Freud, wome n hav e n o abilit y an d n o desir e t o chang e th e world , lac k of logica l an d rationa l thinkin g an d lac k o f willpower, - therefore , the y have mad e fe w contribution s t o th e invention s an d discoverie s o f th e history o f civilization . An d th e onl y inventio n credite d t o wome n i s the loom . However , Freu d attribute s thi s t o women' s castratio n complex. Nature hersel f woul d see m t o hav e give n th e mode l whic h thi s achievement imitate s by causing the growth at maturity of the pubic hair that conceals the genitals. The step that remained to be taken lay in making the threads adhere to one another, while on the body they stick into the skin and are only matted together/ 7 Sinc e she has only a hole wher e th e mal e has hi s sourc e o f creativity , th e foldin g an d interlacing of threads cannot be a question of a thrusting male desire. Unless she was hiding something else, the processes which so engrossed her must , o f course , b e a matte r o f concealin g th e shamefu l " deficiency" o f the female sex. 4 It i s "th e horro r o f nothin g t o b e seen " tha t woma n want s t o cove r from man' s gaze , s o unconsciousl y sh e weave s afte r th e mode l o f th e pubic hair . Instea d o f celebratin g women' s achievement , Freu d make s up a tale based o n hi s theor y o f absence , castratio n fear , deficienc y an d negativity. Ther e i s no wonde r tha t Deleuz e an d Guattar i cal l him "a n overconscious idio t wh o ha s n o understandin g o f multiplicities." 5 For Freud , man' s bod y i s th e norma l bod y an d woman' s i s th e abnormal one , inferior t o man's body . If man i s represented b y the digi t one in the binary system, the n woman is the zero. However, the weavin g loom tell s u s tha t th e on e an d th e zer o shoul d no t b e i n oppositio n because i f the y wor k wit h eac h other , the y ca n creat e infinit e patterns . As mentioned above , the constructio n o f the loom is , in som e respects , similar t o that o f the computer. Fo r example, the thread runs lengthwis e and crosswis e i n th e war p an d th e wef t t o weav e a fabric . An d al l

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patterns an d colour s o f th e fabri c ar e create d b y runnin g th e threa d through th e war p an d th e weft . O n th e othe r hand , al l operation s o f the compute r ar e controlle d b y th e tw o digits : zer o an d one . I n fact , the computer an d the loom share more similarities tha n we can imagine, for example , the loom needs a lot o f information t o get a pattern finishe d and th e compute r operatio n als o need s a lo t o f dat a fe d in . Moreover , weaving ca n b e use d t o describ e th e constructio n o f a web page , we b site an d linkin g o f we b sites . Ther e i s quit e a lo t o f commonl y use d computer jargo n relate d t o weaving : web , net , network , etc . Lovelac e also make s a remar k o n th e loo m an d th e Analytica l Engine : We may say most aptly, that the Analytical Engine weaves algebraical patterns jus t as the Jacquard-loom weaves flowers an d leaves. 6 Starting from th e beginning, the structure o f the computer i s closel y related t o tha t o f th e loo m an d i t i s probabl y no t surprisin g tha t th e future o f compute r developmen t als o lie s wit h weaving . I n a n articl e written fo r Inf o World. Com, th e Etherne t invento r an d Internet Pioneer , Bob Metcalfe, raise s the idea of computational fabrics. Compute r device s are buil t b y chip s an d circui t board s nowadays , bu t th e possibilit y o f replacing thes e rigi d laminate s b y wove n high-tec h fibers , filaments , threads an d yarns , usin g textil e technologie s t o weav e computer s an d nanocomputers i s bein g seriousl y considered . H e eve n mention s wetware insid e th e computers : "Mayb e som e fabric s wil l b e wet , incorporating biologica l component s t o whic h nourishin g flui d wil l b e carried through hollow fibers i n a woven tissue." 7 On e of the advantage s of usin g computationa l fabrics , accordin g t o Metcalfe , i s tha t "ther e would b e a defect-toleran t textil e programmin g paradig m — build , measure, design , compile , an d run . Redundan t filament s an d routin g would bypas s fabri c defects." 8 Thoug h th e ide a ma y soun d far-fetched , it i s interesting t o se e that onc e agai n developmen t o f compute r ha s t o go back t o th e technolog y o f weavin g fo r inspiration .

Zeros an d One s Sadie Plant suggest s that th e digital form o f the computer a s represente d by th e digit s zer o an d on e i s ver y simila r t o th e constructio n o f th e loom. Sh e attempt s t o explai n th e relationshi p o f zer o an d on e i n th e Western tradition . Accordin g t o her , on e represent s al l th e things , on e is th e beginning an d th e end , on e is the perfect an d th e best, on e i s th e

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whole, th e universa l an d a unity . "I t wa s th e symbo l o f existence , identity, an d being . Strictl y speaking , ther e wa s nothin g else . T o b e anything a t al l wa s t o b e one. " 9 Fo r th e Greeks , on e i s oppose d t o th e many,- but still , many i s treated as the su m o f many "ones. " In contrast , zero pose s a threa t becaus e zer o i s no t th e su m o f an y "ones " an d i t exists outsid e th e world revolve d aroun d on e an d its multiples . We ca n represent al l number s 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 .. . N b y th e expressio n 1+1+1+1+1+1 ... , but zer o is unthinkable, zer o is the other which canno t be tamed . Plan t says : "zer o wa s appropriate d a s a sig n o f absence , nonbeing, an d nothingness." 10 In her othe r essay , Plant als o discusses th e relationship o f the digit s and feminism : The one s an d zero s o f machin e cod e are not patriarcha l binarie s o r counterparts to each other: zero is not the other, but the very possibility of al l th e ones . Zero i s th e matri x o f calculation , th e possibilit y of multiplication, and has been reprocessing the modern world ... It neither counts nor represents, but with digitizatio n i t proliferates, replicates , and undermines the privilege of one. Zero is not its absence, but a zone of multiplicity which cannot be perceived by the one who sees. Woman represents "th e horror of nothing to see", but she also "has sex organs more or less everywhere" (Irigaray, 1985b: 28). She too is more than the sum of her parts, beside herself wit h her extra links.11 Put i n a binary system , on e seem s t o represent man , an d zero , woman . Zero i s a hole wher e nothin g ca n b e seen , an d i t i s a dar k an d horribl e abyss. Suc h a hol e ca n b e foun d i n a femal e body , tha t is , th e vagina . This hol e lead s t o th e dark , we t an d war m wom b and , lik e a n archai c mother, i t devour s everything . Therefore , simila r t o th e femal e se x organs, zer o pose s grea t anxiet y an d fea r t o Wester n philosoph y an d psychology. Plant's interpretatio n o f zer o an d on e sound s rationa l an d logical ; however, puttin g th e tw o digit s bac k int o th e binar y system , opposin g one t o zero , he r interpretatio n doe s no t reall y explai n th e relationshi p of th e tw o digits . Wors e still , i t appear s tha t sh e ma y b e reinforcin g and perpetuatin g Freud' s theor y o f castratio n an d negativity . Wha t w e really need i s to ope n up th e multiplicitie s embodie d by the interactio n of th e one s an d th e zeros . I sugges t a readin g o f a n ancien t Chines e text, Lao Zi, t o gai n som e inspiratio n o n th e relationshi p o f th e on e and th e zero . Tao gave birth to the One; the One gave birth to two,- Two gave birth to Three ; Fro m Thre e ther e were births o f Te n Thousan d Beings. 12 (Chapter 42)

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The wor d "Tao " or "th e Way" is the main concep t o f th e philosophy of Lao Zi. And chapte r 4 2 is usually regarde d a s the theor y o f th e creatio n of univers e o f La o Zi . Ta o ca n b e rea d a s th e origi n o f al l beings , th e origin o f al l existences , a powe r tha t envelop s an d flow s throug h al l things. Ta o i s th e primordia l forc e i n whic h potentialitie s dwell . Th e interpretation o f "th e One " i n Lao Zi i s simila r t o Sadi e Plant's "one. " Both o f the m designat e a unified whole . "Two " mean s th e yi n an d th e yang. Yin is the qi o r air that forme d th e earth , an d yang is the ai r tha t formed th e heaven. What is most importan t i s the "Three " which point s to th e harmonious stat e achieve d by the fusion o f the yin an d the yang . Without th e "Three, " Ta o wil l jus t b e anothe r binar y system . Thoug h yin an d yan g symboliz e pair s o f opposite s whic h ca n b e see n i n th e universe, suc h a s dar k an d light , femal e an d male , col d an d hot , wha t marks th e differenc e fro m dualis m i s tha t ther e mus t b e yi n i n yan g and vic e versa. The symbo l o f Taois m represent s thi s ide a very clearly . The dar k sid e is the yi n an d the white sid e is the yang. However, ther e is a big white do t in the dar k side and vice versa. Anything that develop s extreme qualitie s wil l inevitabl y rever t t o th e opposit e qualities, therefore, som e yin qualitie s must s b e retaine d i n yang an d som e yan g qualities i n yin. The yin qualitie s i n yang deterritorializ e yan g and giv e rise to multiplicity an d becomings. It is through thi s deterritorializatio n that yan g succeeds i n making it s conjunctio n wit h yin an d brings abou t the creatio n o f "Three " an d thu s produce s th e Te n Thousan d Beings . Tao is not one , two, or three. If we compare the One to Sadie Plant' s one, the n Ta o ca n b e compare d t o Plant' s zero . However , Ta o i s no t exactly zero . As mentione d above , zer o "i s no t th e other , bu t th e ver y possibility o f al l th e ones. " Moreover , "Zer o i s no t it s absence , bu t a zone o f multiplicit y whic h canno t b e perceived b y th e on e wh o sees. " Instead o f pushin g i t bac k t o th e binar y system , w e shoul d emphasiz e

9 Fig. 14. 1 Ta o

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the multiplicit y o f zero . Bot h zer o an d Ta o consis t o f virtualit y an d potentiality. The body of Tao is empty; yet it can be drawn without being drained. It is bottomless like the progenitor of all things in the universe. (Lao Zi, chapte r 4) Everything spring s from Being ; Being itself spring s from Not-being . (Lao Zi, chapte r 40) "Not-Being," names the beginning of heaven and earth; "Being," names the mother o f all things. (Lao Zi, chapte r 1) The characte r chong, whic h i s translate d a s "empty " here , actuall y i s closer t o xu, "virtual, " becaus e Ta o is not empt y bu t embodie s infinit e virtuality fo r creation . Actually, ther e ar e also references t o the concep t of "virtual " i n Lao Zi: Empty but never drained; once in movement will never cease, (chapter 5) The virtua l i s oppose d t o th e actua l bu t no t th e real . I n othe r ancien t Chinese literar y writings , ther e ar e als o reference s t o thi s word : The virtual i s the beginning o f all things. (Guanzi, "Th e Art o f th e Heart, Par t 1" ) The wa y of heaven, virtua l an d formless. (Guanzi, "Th e Art o f th e Heart, Par t 1" ) Tao i s neve r empty , an d i t ha s th e potentia l t o transfor m int o al l th e things in the universe. "Being" and "Not-Being " in chapter 1 and chapte r 40 refe r t o th e sam e thing . "Not-Being " an d "Being " ar e no t opposit e to eac h other . Instead , the y ar e jus t tw o existence s o f th e sam e being . "Not-being" refer s t o th e nam e o f heave n an d eart h whe n ther e wa s only chaos in the universe, and "Being " is the name of everything. "Not Being" does not mea n nothingnes s bu t rathe r th e absenc e of perceptibl e qualities. "Not-being " harbour s i n itsel f al l potentialities o f Ta o befor e its virtualit y i s actualized . I n fact , "Not-being " embodie s infinit e bu t not ye t actualize d "Beings. " Tao that ca n be told is not th e unwavering Tao. (Lao Zi, chapte r 1) This i s th e mos t ofte n quote d vers e o f Lao Zi and, a s w e shal l see , i s the mos t importan t vers e o f th e book . Th e impossibilit y o f namin g o r talking abou t Ta o i s du e t o th e fac t tha t Ta o i s formless an d nameless .

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Tao i s th e imperceptibl e upo n whic h nothin g ca n b e predicate d bu t latently contain s th e forms , entities , an d force s o f al l beings, livin g o r non-living. I t i s paramoun t tha t Ta o remain nameless , becaus e onc e i t is named , i t i s actualize d an d cease s t o b e virtual . W e shoul d mak e i t clear tha t Ta o canno t b e interpreted a s "God " i n th e Western traditio n in th e sens e o f th e creator , th e ruler , an d commande r o f th e universe . Yet, i t i s th e ultimat e realit y an d creativ e forc e o f th e universe : The Tao has reality and evidence, but no action an d no form. I t may be transmitted but cannot be received. It may be attained but canno t be seen. It exist s by and throug h itself. It existe d before heave n an d earth, an d indeed for al l eternity. It causes the gods to be divine and the world to be produced. It is above the zenith, but is not high. It is beneath th e nadir, but i s not low. Though prior to heaven and earth, it i s not ancient . Though olde r than th e most ancient , i t is not old . (Zhong Zi, "Th e Great Master") 13 It is equally importan t tha t Ta o should neve r be actualized an d sto p it s movement becaus e th e whol e univers e i s followin g it s movement . I n its earl y form , th e ideogra m fo r Ta o i s made u p o f th e ideogra m o f th e character xing, "walk, " an d a head. Thus Wiege r suggest s tha t th e basi c meaning o f Ta o i s "t o g o ahead." 14 So , w e ca n se e tha t on e o f th e important characteristic s o f Tao is to keep i n motion . I suggest tha t w e can interpre t La o Zi' s Ta o wit h Deleuz e an d Guattari' s concep t o f deterritorialization. I t i s not possibl e t o elaborat e o n thi s poin t i n thi s short paper . To put i t i n a nutshell, Ta o is molecular, mad e u p b y line s of fligh t an d rhizomes . I t i s foreve r i n deterritorializin g movement , moving awa y fro m mola r identit y an d awa y fro m bein g territorialized . There i s n o beginnin g o r ending , onl y th e middle . Sinc e i t i s alway s producing difference s an d multiplicitie s an d makin g ne w connections , Tao wil l neve r com e t o a n end .

fit Fig. 14.2 Ta o IE

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In addition t o Sadi e Plant, othe r feminists hav e also expressed thei r view on the problem o f One and Zero, One and Two and One and Many . Donna Haraway , i n he r " A Cybor g Manifesto " says : The sel f i s th e On e who i s not dominated , wh o knows tha t b y th e service o f the other , th e othe r is the on e who holds the future, wh o knows that b y the experience of domination, which gives the life t o the autonom y o f th e self . T o be On e i s t o b e autonomous , t o b e powerful, t o be God; but t o be One is to be an illusion, an d so to be involved in a dialectic of apocalypse with the other. Yet to be other is to be multiple, without clea r boundary, frayed, insubstantial . On e is too few, but tw o are too many. 15 In analysin g th e relationshi p o f th e On e an d th e other , Harawa y agree s with Plan t tha t On e i s th e powerful , th e universal , th e God ; however , she argue s tha t th e autonom y o f On e i s interdependen t upo n th e ver y existence o f the other . When applyin g this on e and the othe r oppositio n in th e gende r relationship , undoubtedly , th e mal e subjec t i s th e on e and the female subjec t i s the other. As Irigaray argues, the female subjec t always act s a s "supportiv e other" 16 t o th e subjectivit y o f th e mal e subject. The male subject reaffirm s hi s subjectivity b y pushing confusio n onto th e femal e other . Th e mal e subject' s boundarie s ar e well-define d and set , bu t th e femal e subject' s boundarie s ar e mor e fluid , alway s shifting. Bein g th e other , th e femal e subjec t ha s t o escap e fro m bein g territorialized, becaus e onc e i t i s removed fro m th e margina l position , it loses its virtuality, potentiality an d multiplicity. Therefore, th e femal e subject's boundarie s canno t b e defined bu t ar e made up o f lines o f fligh t and rhizomes . Irigaray celebrate s differenc e betwee n sexes . Sh e claim s tha t "th e 'irreducible' differenc e betwee n woma n an d ma n i s a n 'ontological ' difference."17 However , contrar y t o Haraway, sh e advocate s bein g two . In he r book , To Be Two, sh e suggests : To be two means to help each other to be, to discover, and to cultivate happiness, to take care of the difference between us, not merely because of its role in generation, because it represents the means of humanity's production an d reproduction, bu t i n orde r t o achieve happiness an d make it blossom ... Where man seeks the one, overcoming the scission between subjec t an d object, woma n must learn to remain two. 18 However, in two earlier essays "This Sex Which Is Not One" and "Whe n Our Lip s Spea k Together, " Irigara y seem s t o hol d anothe r view . Sh e says:

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She i s neithe r on e no r two . Rigorousl y speaking , sh e canno t b e identified eithe r a s on e person , o r a s two . Sh e resists al l adequat e definition.19 We are luminous. Neither one nor two. I've never known how to count. Up to you. In their calculations , we make two. Really, two? Doesn' t that make you laugh? An odd sort of two. And yet not one. Especially not one. Let's leave one to them: their oneness, with its prerogatives, its domination, it s solipsism: like the sun's. 20 Irigaray hold s a skeptica l vie w o f woma n bein g two . It seem s tha t sh e is eve n critica l o f ho w th e calculatio n o f ma n make s woma n becom e two. Eve n thoug h sh e i s no t satisfie d wit h bein g two , sh e make s n o suggestion o f wha t woma n shoul d be . As suggeste d b y Haraway , "on e i s to o fe w bu t tw o ar e to o many. " Just lik e th e oppositio n o f zer o an d one , i f w e divid e mal e an d femal e subjects int o on e an d tw o respectively , w e wil l agai n fal l int o th e tra p of th e patriarcha l dualism : good/evil , man/woman , bright/dark , etc . What I sugges t i s t o rea d Plant' s zer o i n th e Taois t way : potentiality , rhizomes, multiplicity , virtuality , line s o f flight . I t i s a way t o escap e from dualisti c thinking , t o escap e from territorialization . Zero , then , i s not th e opposit e o f on e bu t alway s i n th e proces s o f becomings , mad e up o f line s o f flight . Then , th e digi t zer o ca n be take n a s th e symbo l of future feminisms : alway s i n motion , deterritorialization , escap e fro m the center , refus e t o b e defined . I t i s onl y throug h suc h continuou s becomings tha t feminism s wil l neve r ceas e t o exist . Cyberfeminism, th e Philosoph y o f Differenc e an d Nomadi c Becomings Donna Harawa y put s fort h th e ide a tha t "wome n o f colour " ca n b e understood a s a cybor g identity , a s thei r subjectivit y i s penetrate d b y outsider identitie s an d th e comple x political-historica l layering s tha t constitute thei r situatedness . Chel a Sandova l theorize s a mode l o f political identit y fo r thes e wome n o f colou r calle d "oppositiona l consciousness" whic h sh e identifie s w i t h cyber-consciousness . Oppositional consciousnes s ca n b e foun d throug h th e methodolog y o f t h e oppressed , w h i c h include s th e technologie s o f semiotics , deconstruction, meta-ideologizing , democratic s an d differentia l movement. 21 I t i s thes e technologie s tha t constitut e th e "standpoin t of th e subjugated " an d impres s dominan t powers . Sandova l define s differential consciousnes s as :

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Each technolog y o f th e methodolog y o f th e oppresse d thu s create s new conjunctura l possibilities , produce d b y ongoing an d transformin g regimes o f exclusio n an d inclusion . Differentia l consciousnes s i s a crossing networ k o f consciousness , a transconsciousnes s tha t occur s in a register permittin g th e networks themselve s t o be appropriated a s ideological weaponry . Thi s cyberspace-of-bein g i s analogou s t o th e cyberspace o f compute r .. . th e technologie s develope d b y subjugate d populations t o negotiate thi s realm o f shifting meaning s ar e recognize d as th e ver y technologie s necessar y fo r al l firs t worl d citizen s wh o ar e interested i n re-negotiatin g contemporar y firs t culture s wit h wha t w e might cal l a sens e o f thei r ow n "power " an d "integrity " intact . 2 2 Differential consciousnes s i s shiftin g an d transformin g it s b o u n d a r i e s all t h e t i m e . A n d i t i s thi s ver y characteristi c o f becomin g t h a t ensure s survival o f differentia l consciousness . T h e oppresse d alway s ha s a n edg e over t h e d o m i n a n t powers, - t h a t is , i t blur s aroun d t h e edge s an d shift s its boundarie s t o includ e an d exclude . I t i s built o n t h e basi s o f processe s of becomin g drive n b y differences . W e ca n bette r understan d differentia l consciousness i n t h e ligh t o f Gille s Deleuze' s theor y o n difference . H e w r i t e s i n Difference and Repetition: Difference i s not diversity . Diversit y i s given, but differenc e i s that b y which th e give n i s given, tha t b y which th e give n i s give n a s diverse . Difference i s no t phenomeno n b y th e noumeno n closes t t o th e phenomenon. I t i s therefor e tru e tha t Go d make s th e worl d b y calculating, bu t hi s calculation s neve r wor k ou t exactl y [juste], an d this inexactitud e o r injustice i n th e result , thi s irreducibl e inequality , forms th e conditio n o f th e world . Th e worl d 'happens ' whil e Go d calculates; i f th e calculatio n wer e exact , ther e woul d b e n o world . The worl d ca n be regarde d a s a 'remainder' , an d th e rea l i n th e worl d understood i n term s o f fractiona l o r eve n incommensurabl e number s ... Everythin g whic h happen s an d everythin g whic h appear s i s correlated wit h order s o f differences : difference s o f level , temperature , pressure, tension , potential , difference of intensity? 3 T h e worl d w a s create d b y difference , an d it s existenc e als o depend s o n difference. W h a t i s give n t o u s i s n o t a bein g b u t a becoming . I f w h a t i s given t o u s w e r e a being , t h e n w e w o u l d neve r hav e existed , b e c a u s e n o t h i n g w o u l d h a p p e n u n d e r t h a t condition . Differenc e give s ris e t o multiplicity an d virtuality . Le t m e p u t t h e ide a i n a simple r way . I f w e b e l i e v e t h e w o r l d give n t o u s i s a being , i t i m p l i e s t h a t w e t a k e a m e c h a n i c a l an d linea r vie w o f causality . Accordingly , al l t h e futur e i s already give n i n t h e past , a n d futur e i s m e r e l y a r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e

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possibilities embodie d i n th e present an d th e past. We can imagine tha t no innovatio n i s possibl e i n tha t case . O n th e contrary , Deleuz e encourages u s t o mode l th e futur e a s ope n ended , an d th e pas t an d th e present i s ful l o f virtualitie s tha t ca n becom e th e actual . At thi s point , I would agai n dra w i n reference s t o ancien t Chines e text fo r inspirations . I n I-Ching or The Book of Changes, whic h i s believed t o th e earlies t boo k in ancien t China , i t i s also mentioned tha t the worl d i s create d b y differences . I t reads : Heaven being venerable and earth base, Jian, "The Key," and Chuan, "The Flow, " ar e settled. Th e bas e an d hig h alread y being arrayed , the nobl e an d mea n ar e established . Motio n an d res t havin g constancy, th e har d an d sof t ar e divided . Th e direction s bein g gathered accordin g t o category, an d beings being divide d accordin g to groups , auspiciousnes s an d in-auspiciousnes s [sic] com e t o life . In th e heaven s completin g image s an d o n earth completin g forms , changes and transformations becom e apparent. (I-Ching, "Appended Statements")24 The universe is divided into dualistic models: heaven/earth, Jian/Chuan, high/base, noble/mean, motion/rest , hard/soft . Everythin g is divided an d categorized int o differen t group s accordin g t o it s characteristics . However, thing s wil l no t remai n static ; the y wil l initiat e a process o f becoming, drive n b y intensit y o f differences . Th e phenomen a i n astronomy an d meteorology , suc h a s the sun , th e moon , stars , da y an d night, seasons , weather , see n i n th e sky , o r phenomena foun d o n eart h in geolog y an d biology , suc h a s th e formin g o f mountain s an d rivers , animals an d plants , ar e al l product s o f interpla y o f differences . One yin and one yang is called the Way. What is tied to it is goodness; what complete s it is life. (I-Ching, "Appende d Statements") 25 The Wa y o r Tao , a s translate d abov e i n Lao Zi, i s mad e u p o f yi n an d yang. Thoug h ther e i s a clea r oppositio n betwee n yi n an d yang , ther e must b e an interaction betwee n the m s o that th e universe ca n continu e to exist . An d a s mentione d abov e i n th e discussio n o f Ta o i n Lao Zi, Tao mus t b e i n continuou s movemen t becaus e onc e i t settles , it s virtualities an d potentialitie s wil l b e actualize d an d Ta o wil l los e it s life force . What make s Ta o in continuou s movemen t i s the interpla y of intensity o f difference s betwee n yi n an d yang . Th e origi n o f univers e as described i n I-Ching i s similar t o that i n Lao Zi, onl y that th e forme r places mor e emphasi s o n th e organi c behaviou r o f non-organi c being s and interpla y o f difference s i n ever y phenomenon .

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This is why the Change s has great extremes. 26 Thi s gives life t o th e two properties ; th e tw o propertie s giv e life t o th e fou r images, - th e four images give life to the eight trigrams,- the eight trigrams give life to the auspiciousness an d in-auspiciousness [sic], an d auspiciousnes s and inauspiciousnes s giv e lif e t o th e grea t enterprise . (I-Ching, "Appended Statements") 27 The "grea t extreme " da ji, als o know n a s tai ji, i s the chaoti c situatio n of th e universe , th e beginnin g o f everything . Thi s chaoti c stat e i s the n divided int o heave n an d earth , whic h i n tur n bree d fou r images : yin , yang, hard , soft . Thes e four s image s will giv e rise t o th e eigh t trigrams : heaven, earth , water , fire , wind , thunder , mountain , an d lakes , whic h are ai l phenomen a o f nature . Everythin g i n th e univers e derive s fro m the eigh t trigrams . Now, le t m e ge t bac k t o Sandoval' s discussion . Th e dominan t powers ca n b e compare d t o th e One , whic h i s th e universal , th e majoritarian, th e unity , onl y tha t i n Sandoval' s case , th e dominan t powers als o refe r t o th e white , middle-clas s feminists . A s discusse d i n the previou s part , th e On e i s th e possible , th e rea l tha t offer s n o roo m for creatio n an d innovation . I n contrast , differentia l consciousnes s embodies virtualit y an d multiplicity . O f course , Sandoval' s proposa l of US Thir d Worl d feminis m i s ver y encouragin g fo r wome n o f colour , but t o limi t Haraway' s cybor g imager y t o U S Thir d Worl d feminis m falls int o th e sam e tra p a s the othe r feminisms . Sandoval' s emphasi s i s mainly o n th e wome n o f colou r i n th e US , an d he r discussio n totall y ignores th e Thir d Worl d outsid e th e US ; she neve r mention s th e non heterosexual female subject s — lesbian, transvestite , transsexual . In fact , she take s i t fo r grante d tha t "wome n o f colour " simpl y mean s heterosexual blac k wome n i n th e US . Clearly, sh e onl y deal s wit h th e breaking dow n o f the boundaries between th e Firs t World and the Thir d World, th e oppresse d an d th e dominant . I n doin g this , sh e completel y ignores th e proble m o f gender , clas s an d non-black , non-whit e wome n or wome n outsid e th e US . Nevertheless , th e methodolog y o f th e oppressed ca n b e adopte d an d appropriate d b y us . Following th e discussio n o n differenc e an d multiplicity , I woul d like t o brin g in Sadi e Plant' s definitio n o f cyberfeminism . Plan t direct s our attentio n t o th e politica l advancemen t o f cyberfeminis m throug h encounters wit h technologies : Cyberfeminism has , however , emerge d a s mor e tha n a surve y o r observation o f th e ne w trend s an d possibilitie s opene d u p b y th e telecoms revolution. Complex systems and virtual worlds are not only

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important becaus e the y ope n space s for existin g wome n withi n a n already existing culture, but also because of the extent to which the y undermine bot h th e world-vie w an d th e materia l realit y o f tw o thousand years of patriarchal control . Network cultur e still appears to be dominated by both men an d masculine intentions and designs ... Women are accessing the circuits ... hackin g int o security' s controls , an d discoverin g thei r ow n post humanity.28 Plant admit s tha t th e Interne t i s stil l dominate d b y mal e subjects . However, sh e als o draw s ou r attentio n t o th e possibilitie s opene d u p for w o m e n t o u n d e r m i n e 200 0 year s o f patriarcha l contro l b y technological advancement . Th e mos t commo n attac k o f th e feminist s on compute r technology , th e Interne t an d cyberspac e i s tha t i t i s th e male domain , bu t the y fai l t o envisio n th e futur e opene d u p b y thes e technologies. On e o f th e aim s o f cyberfeminis m i s thu s t o pu t fort h the ide a tha t w e ca n tur n th e mal e technologie s agains t mal e subject s and undermin e thei r dominatio n o f onlin e an d offlin e world s fro m cyberspace. Suc h a mission i s possible. Irwin Winkler' s The Net (1995 ) tells a story about ho w a female compute r programmer , Angel a Bennett , fights agains t a crimina l syndicat e wit h he r compute r expertise . I will continu e wit h Plant' s definitio n o f cyberfeminism : Cyberfeminism is an insurrection on the part of the goods and materials of the patriarchal world, a dispersed, distributed emergence composed of link s betwee n women , wome n an d computers , computer s an d communication links , connections an d connectionist nets. 29 Plant her e evoke s th e relationship s o f wome n an d weaving , an d technology o f weavin g wit h compute r technology . A t th e sam e time , she als o remind s u s o f th e rhizomati c natur e o f th e Internet . T o sa y that cyberfeminis m i s a "dispersed , distribute d emergence " i s t o refus e a linea r causalit y an d prefe r a nonlinear, chaotic , rhizomatic , nomadi c nature. Th e link s betwee n women , computers , communicatio n an d connection net s are , o f course , no t straigh t line s bu t fragmente d an d disorderly,- lik e th e rhizomes , the y hav e n o beginnin g o r end , onl y th e middle. Bu t together , the y buil d layer s an d layer s o f plateaus . Braidotti is among the first feminist s t o se e the connectio n betwee n Deleuze's rhizomati c thinkin g an d Haraway' s cybor g imagery . Sh e writes: I se e a coalitio n o f interest s betwee n feminis t figuration s o f a posthuman subjectivit y an d Deleuze's positive reaction to the decline

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of phallogocentrism, wit h his emphasis on rhizomatic thinking. Both stress th e need t o work o n transforming th e very imag e o f though t and of subjectivity as an intensive, multiple, and discontinuous process of becoming. 30 Braidotti label s he r kin d o f feminis m "Nomadi c Feminism, " whic h i s more aki n t o Deleuze' s rhizomati c thinkin g an d Haraway' s cybor g consciousness tha n t o othe r feminisms . Sh e define s nomadism : The nomad is my own figuration o f a situated, postmodern, culturall y differentiated understandin g o f th e subjec t i n genera l an d o f th e feminist subjec t i n particula r .. . I n s o far a s axe s o f differentiatio n such a s class , race , ethnicity , gender , age , and other s intersec t an d interact with each other in the constitution of subjectivity, th e notion of nomad refers t o th e simultaneou s occurrenc e of many o f these a t once.31 The nomadis m i n questio n her e refer s t o th e kin d o f critica l consciousness that resists settling into socially coded modes of thought and behavior .. . I t i s th e subversio n o f se t convention s tha t define s the nomadic state, not th e literal act of traveling. 32 Braidotti's nomadi c feminis m i s clearl y inspire d b y Haraway' s situate d knowledge an d Deleuze's concep t o f difference, line s of flight, becomin g and rhizomes . Wha t characterize s he r feminis m a s nomadi c i s no t th e metaphor o f exil e use d firs t b y Virgini a Wool f i n 1938 , whic h state s t h a t al l w o m e n s h a r e t h e s a m e sens e o f h o m e l e s s n e s s an d countrylessness an d the y ca n onl y se e themselve s a s " a citize n o f th e world." Instead , i t i s th e characteristic s o f becomin g an d line s o f fligh t that mark s he r nomadi c feminism . Nomadi c becomin g i s the abilit y of interconnecting betwee n experiences , shiftin g betwee n boundarie s an d potential fo r openin g u p th e future . I n turn , events , experience , space , time ca n collaps e int o eac h othe r an d tur n insid e out . In he r lates t work , Metamorphoses, Braidott i furthe r explore s th e relevance o f Deleuze' s nomadi c philosoph y t o feminism . Sh e suggests : The unconventional, provocative, non-linear style of nomadism appeals to th e anarchi c spiri t o f feminists , wh o ar e tryin g t o brea k ou t of mimetic relationship t o the dominant scientifi c discourse . The issue of figuration s ca n constitut e a n important bon d here , a s it mark s a shift o f emphasis away from th e prepositional conten t o f ideas to the charge, quality an d degree of the intensity they express. This canno t fail t o appea l t o feminist theorist s wh o have asserted th e proximit y between the thinking process, life and the lived experience. Feminism

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has contributed in fact to re-thinking the living processes of existence, literally th e space s i n betwee n th e menta l an d th e physical , th e theoretical an d th e experientia l .. . I t i s thi s ques t fo r overcomin g dualism and reconnecting life and thought that constitutes the bottom line of a possible alliance between feminism an d nomadic thinking; it is a joint commitmen t t o re-thinkin g subjectivit y a s an intensive , multiple an d discontinuous process of interrelations. 33 Conclusion To connec t ancien t Chines e philosoph y t o cyberfeminism , a t firs t glance, is a very far-fetched project . However , I argue for th e importanc e of includin g Chines e text s (includin g philosophy , literature , medicine , astronomy, meteorology , music , etc. ) i n th e stud y o f technoscienc e culture, an d thi s paper i s the firs t attemp t t o put th e Chines e material s on the map o f technoscience studies . The West has expressed its interes t in Chines e scienc e an d technolog y fo r a lon g time , a s represente d b y Joseph Needham's seve n volumes o f Science and Civilization in China. However, thes e storie s an d historica l fact s sta y a s ra w dat a an d hav e not bee n mad e us e o f i n th e stud y o f eithe r Wester n technologie s o r Chinese philosoph y an d culture . A s a Chinese person , I believe tha t i f we woul d lik e t o construc t a technoscience cultur e tha t i s relevan t t o our identit y an d ou r culture , i t i s essentia l tha t w e wor k toward s rediscovering th e concept s o f technology , technicit y an d techn e i n ou r Chinese culture. 34 The Chines e cultur e i s a wealt h o f knowledge s an d ha s mor e t o contribute t o th e studie s o f technocultur e an d cyberfeminis m tha n w e have ever imagined. For example, the relationship between th e compute r and weavin g ca n b e furthe r develope d b y bringin g i n a thoroug h discussion o f th e foundation s o f Chines e medicine , beginning wit h th e Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine o r Huangdi Nei Jing. This classica l medicin e boo k i s th e firs t boo k o n acupuncture . I t proposes th e ide a tha t th e meridian s o r jing-luo ar e th e channel s tha t carry qi and bloo d throug h th e body . The y ar e unsee n an d thu s ar e different fro m bloo d vessels . Th e meridia n syste m i s mad e u p o f th e jing meridian s an d th e luo meridians , whic h ca n b e compare d t o th e warp an d woo f o f th e weavin g loom . Together , th e jing and th e luo meridians for m a net unifyin g al l th e part s an d organ s o f th e body . Though ther e are still feminists resistin g the coupling of technolog y and gende r studies , I thin k i t i s necessar y fo r u s t o recogniz e tha t technology an d gende r i s closel y relate d i n experience . Gende r i s itsel f

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a comple x artifac t generate d b y th e dialecti c o f projectio n an d reciprocation. Human s gende r themselve s vi a thei r distinc t way s o f making an d unmakin g a worl d the y inhabi t i n common . However , technology i s inevitabl y informe d b y gender . Kaufman-Oshor n raise s an interestin g question : wh y d o w e uncriticall y associat e th e ter m "technology" wit h thing s lik e hammers , industria l machine s an d rockets bu t no t diapers , cookin g utensil s an d blankets? 35 I s i t tha t artifacts tha t constitute d women' s work d o not qualif y a s "technology" ? It is perhaps rather urgent for feminists t o voice their opinions and clai m their shar e i n th e studie s o f technoculture , an d I believ e t h a t cyberfeminism i s th e futur e o f feminis t development .

15 Hollywood Enter s the Drago n Veronique Flambard-Weisbar t

It i s a hurricane , a tida l wave , an d a n earthquak e a s well . W e cal l i t globalization. I n th e cultura l context , i t sweep s awa y ever y mediu m i t comes across . The succes s o f cyberspace an d its flourishin g technolog y has largely contributed t o transforming al l the rules of communication , by creatin g informa l tool s o f communicatio n tha t hel p ope n frontiers . Global communicatio n partl y succeed s a t eludin g border s an d makin g information accessibl e t o all . By the sam e token , globalizatio n als o make s th e rol e o f cultur e — the marke r o f diversit y an d differenc e amon g peopl e — seem obsolete , to th e exten t tha t i t i s legitimate t o wonder whethe r globalizatio n wil l mean salutar y o r devastatin g consequence s fo r traditiona l culture s an d societies. Th e mixtur e o f genre s an d culture s i s rapidl y spreadin g globally through th e World Wide Web, World Music, and World Cinema . All thrive at promoting the universalistic vision of a virtual environmen t in which the potential to enact life, love, and death is enhanced,- a virtual global village , i n whic h Babe l ca n b e kisse d goodbye . Meanwhile, Worl d Cinem a als o suggest s th e standardizatio n o f cinematic devices . Furthermore, mos t internationa l film s offere d t o th e global publi c toda y eithe r ar e i n Englis h o r dubbe d fro m th e Englis h language. The hegemony o f American film an d culture keeps increasing , and for man y outsid e the United States , globalization i s merely anothe r term fo r th e Americanizatio n o f th e world. While th e res t o f th e worl d opens itsel f t o internationa l films , th e US , i n contrast , remain s disconcertingly faithfu l t o domesti c film s an d unreceptiv e t o foreig n films. Le d by Hollywood, it s standards ten d t o become world standards . Consequently, i n order to make it on the world market, foreig n cineaste s may fee l th e nee d t o compromise , an d cop y Hollywoo d cinemati c techniques, adaptin g the m t o thei r ow n style s an d cultures .

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In thes e circumstances , th e issu e o f cultura l authenticit y i n Worl d Cinema may be raised. In 1950 s France, film critic s such as Andre Bazin, Francois Truffaut , Jean-Lu c Godard , Jacque s Rivette , an d Eri c Rohme r elaborated theoreticall y an d politically a film theor y an d criticis m tha t defined a "certain tendency " for French cinema. Focused on finding "th e French attitude, " thes e critic s agree d upo n th e simpl e concep t o f "authorship": "th e fil m auteur wa s t o b e considere d a s full y a n artis t as many o f th e grea t novelists , painter s o r poets." 1 The notio n o f miseen-scene o r "directing " wa s th e techniqu e employe d b y a n auteur t o express things in a particular way, his or her style. This made the author / director relationshi p ver y simila r t o tha t o f th e author/artis t o r th e author/writer. Directin g wa s a tru e ac t o f writing , an d n o distinctio n existed betwee n directo r an d author . Th e work s o f th e directo r wer e evaluated critically , i n thei r authenticity : th e styl e o f th e author , th e medium t o hi s o r he r particula r worl d view . Fo r Frenc h directors , th e essence o f cinemati c fictio n henc e wen t beyon d th e theme s the y deal t with an d becam e th e intimat e wor k o f th e cineaste s i n thei r ow n language an d imaginary . I n order t o be authentic , Worl d Cinem a need s to demonstrate tha t cineaste s can touch o n universal criteria understoo d by all while presenting thei r particular worl d views. Cineastes als o nee d to b e talented , bu t mos t importantl y the y hav e t o b e intuitive , an d understand th e air du temps. A wide arra y o f question s com e t o mind : If cineastes tr y t o fit int o world standard s — not t o mentio n th e standard s se t b y th e America n hegemony — in order to produce international box-office winners , don' t they loos e authenticit y i n th e process ? D o internationa l box-offic e winners, suc h a s thos e produce d b y Hollywood , presen t a rea l dange r to mor e authenti c an d challengin g foreig n films ? D o the y eve n addres s the sam e public? Finally , who or what set s the air du temps 2. I n addition , what ar e th e origin s o f worl d trends ? A n o t h e r ris k o f s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n come s fro m t h e m a s s i v e concentration i n Hollywoo d tha t ha s graduall y occurre d i n fil m sinc e the 1960s . A n increasin g tendenc y o f mos t productio n behemoth s (Columbia, Warne r Bros , Universal, 20t h Centur y Fox , etc.) is to focu s on globa l economi c profit . A fil m ha s becom e a produc t whos e firs t priority i s t o sel l o n th e worl d market . Mor e an d mor e critic s o f globalization believ e tha t th e curren t emphasi s ha s a real potential t o kill th e specificit y o f foreig n films . Thi s lead s t o furthe r questions : can Hollywoo d dictat e t o subsidiar y producin g house s wha t type s o f film the y shoul d produce, solel y based o n profit? Moreover , i f this wer e the case , coul d i t mea n th e en d o f th e diversit y o f foreig n cinemati c

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fiction t o th e benefi t o f a standardize d an d profit-oriente d Worl d Cinema? In the late 1950s , the French literary critic/autho r Mauric e Blancho t described i n visionar y term s th e effect s o f globa l communicatio n o n fiction: i t produce s a speec h tha t belong s t o n o on e an d tha t n o on e hears. It always addresse s someon e else , is always receive d by someon e else, and alway s evoke s somethin g else . In other words , the technolog y of communication , havin g reache d th e streets , doe s no t addres s a real/ local space/time . Rather , i t addresse s a virtual/global space/time . Mor e accurately, b y dismissin g collectiv e memor y an d focusin g o n huma n potential, i t addresse s th e void. 2 If th e value s o f th e worl d marke t cal l th e shots , ca n w e trus t Hollywood t o represen t voice s othe r tha n th e traditiona l unmarke d (Caucasian, Christian , Middle-Class , Male) voices that it has called upo n to represen t American , henc e global , collectiv e memory ? Ca n other , foreign voice s wit h differen t value s b e hear d an d save d fro m tota l annihilation? I n spit e o f Hollywood' s increasin g effort s t o loo k beyon d its traditiona l unmarke d se t o f reference s t o represen t collectiv e memory, ca n Hollywoo d communicat e beyon d th e voi d referre d t o b y Blanchot? B y extension , ca n Worl d Cinem a spea k th e other ? Mor e importantly, doe s i t wan t t o spea k th e other ? Echoing the ambivalenc e toward s globa l communication expresse d by th e Frenc h philosophe r Pau l Virili o i n a n intervie w wit h Danie l Bermond, w e ca n argue that globalizatio n i s a real threat t o the essenc e of traditional fiction , t o otherness. 3 Ther e is a huge imbalance betwee n the mental images global communication conveys , and the instrumenta l images o r th e virtua l realit y i t produces . O n th e on e hand, th e tim e o f traditional fictio n i s slow; it i s local. The authors/cineastes appropriat e the commo n speech , whic h the y mak e foreign/othe r b y reinventing it , by creatin g a fram e fo r it . O n th e othe r hand , th e speec h o f Worl d Fiction, an d b y extensio n o f Worl d Cinem a a s promote d throug h Hollywood standards , i s rapi d an d global . I t play s o n th e "live " effec t of real , globa l time . Blancho t argue d tha t th e momen t fictio n dwell s on th e trivialit y o f a global situation , i t doe s no t sa y th e sam e bu t th e other. I t ca n b e adde d tha t t o a n extent , traditiona l fictio n ca n onl y b e foreign/other becaus e i t create s a resistanc e an d invite s th e reader / spectator t o tak e tim e t o reflec t an d revie w th e menta l image s i t produces. I n bein g other , i t necessaril y antagonize s th e interactive , ubiquitous an d instantaneou s instrumenta l image s o f Worl d Fiction . Virilio argue s tha t whil e th e menta l image s o f traditiona l fictio n ca n always lead to the other, by opposition, th e instrumental, virtua l image s

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of global communicatio n creat e a standardized representatio n o f realit y that ca n only lead to the same . In addition, sinc e global communicatio n implies virtua l images , w e shoul d fea r th e adven t o f a uniqu e an d uniform fiction , a World Fiction . Thi s als o means th e en d o f th e worl d as we kno w it . I n World Fiction , th e worl d o f "facts " i s being replace d by the worl d o f "effects " o r impressions. I n other words , World Fictio n is not grounde d on a rational knowledge but o n an emotional experienc e of th e situation . Sinc e you ca n experienc e wha t an y situatio n feel s lik e in virtua l reality , yo u d o no t hav e t o experienc e i t i n th e rea l world . Looking bac k a t Virilio , fictio n ca n onl y evolv e i f th e tw o world s o f "facts" an d "effects " liv e in harmony — real space/local time coexistin g with virtua l space/globa l time , o r reaso n coexistin g wit h emotion . Moreover, th e worl d need s fiction i n orde r t o surviv e th e incarceratio n in the world (a s described by Foucault) tha t come s with th e "live " effec t of globa l communication. 4 Indeed , th e spee d wit h whic h informatio n goes aroun d th e worl d als o set s a phenomena o f limits an d asphyxi a — "a fis h i n a glas s bowl" — tha t paradoxicall y lead s on e bac k t o fictio n as a breathing space in the context o f suffocating globa l communication . While Hollywood heavily relies on entertainment an d special effect s in it s imaginativ e fiction , th e mai n goa l o f Hollywoo d film s remain s its succes s o n th e market , an d it s potentia l a s worl d bes t box-offic e winners. Facin g thei r Hollywoo d counterpart , d o foreig n film s nee d t o choose betwee n remainin g independen t an d faithfu l t o thei r root s an d memory, an d remaining health y o n th e world market ? Ca n cultur e an d tradition onl y surviv e b y resisting th e hegemon y o f Hollywoo d o n th e world market ? I n other words, must fact s prevai l ove r effects, o r reaso n over emotion ? I s thi s dichotom y a t al l necessary ? Th e renewa l an d regaining o f strengt h o f foreig n film s coul d begi n wit h borrowin g without guil t fro m Hollywoo d t o creat e origina l genre s tha t hav e a potential o n th e worl d market . Furthermore , sinc e globalizatio n i s a fact, an d Worl d Cinem a a concep t use d b y Hollywoo d t o facilitat e th e marketing o f it s products , wha t stop s foreig n cineaste s fro m playin g the game and marketing their individual world view through thei r miseen-scene2 From Hollywood's standpoint , th e emergence of local and culturall y diverse voice s o n th e domesti c marke t ca n onl y b e beneficiar y an d expand it s reac h o n th e worl d market . T o that effect , expandin g o n th e early traditional Europea n influences, ne w sensitivitie s hav e come fro m all continent s t o literall y an d figurativel y enric h Hollywood' s horizon . In addition, while the rest of the world tends to focus o n how Hollywoo d manipulates an d displace s loca l memory , wha t Hollywoo d "owes " t o

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the diversity o f local and foreign cultures , an d more specificall y t o Eas t Asian cultures , i n th e shapin g o f global/America n memor y i s ofte n bypassed. Ove r th e years , Hollywoo d ha s succeede d i n borrowing fro m foreign culture s an d tradition s t o produc e internationa l box-offic e winners. Bu t i n th e proces s o f creatin g thes e marketabl e "foreign " products, an d i n a revers e effect , Hollywood' s cultura l an d traditiona l markers hav e als o evolved . In Hollywood, i t is a fact tha t American pragmatism helping , it doe s not tak e lon g fo r cultur e an d traditio n t o becom e a product. America n capitalism i s indeed quit e efficien t a t putting an y product o n th e worl d market, i f i t promise s t o sell . In reverse , i t als o take s n o tim e a t al l fo r this produc t t o becom e a componen t o f America n popula r culture . I n this er a o f globa l communication , cinem a an d televisio n interac t an d play a n immens e rol e i n promotin g a product an d makin g i t a popula r icon: Fo r th e youn g — and no t s o youn g — Japanese futuristi c fictio n is not onl y a favorite bu t als o a daily contender o n the cartoon network s (e.g., Pokemon, Dragon Ball Z, Digimon, Tenchi in Tokyo, etc.) . Hon g Kong-style acrobati c actio n film s hav e gleane d succes s i n box-offic e entries. I n turn , thes e film s hav e inspire d Hollywoo d productions , starting wit h Enter the Dragon, th e 197 3 first Hollywoo d kung-f u fil m staring Bruce Lee . Then, sitcom s eithe r tak e thei r cu e from Hollywoo d box-office winner s (e.g. , Martial Law aired after th e commercia l succes s of th e 1990 s Hollywoo d productio n After Hours), o r inspir e Eas t Asianized film-remakes o f popular television serie s (e.g., 1970 s Charlie's Angels). Hollywood' s traditiona l unmarke d (Caucasian , Christian , Middle-Class, Male ) representatio n o f American/globa l memor y ha s been deconstructe d b y the rise of East Asian voices. Through a singula r phenomenon o f cultural cannibalism , Eas t Asian voices, far fro m bein g passively absorbed , hav e bee n assimilate d b y Hollywoo d an d hav e constructed, i n an d throug h memory , th e increasingl y intercultura l essence o f Hollywood . Ove r th e years , successfu l Hollywoo d film s appearing with thei r cultura l specificit y hav e slowly managed to modif y Hollywood's one-side d representatio n o f American/globa l memor y through thei r commo n consumptio n b y th e public . As America n pop-cultur e increasingl y invest s i n Eas t Asia , Hollywood show s n o guil t a t boastin g abou t America' s increase d diversity on the global market, inventin g such concepts as "internationa l films." Thi s phenomeno n reaffirm s traditiona l America n hop e an d relates t o th e America n dream , th e America n idea l o f a happ y an d successful lif e to which al l may aspire. Except now th e American drea m marketed b y Hollywoo d appear s t o g o beyon d th e singl e privileg e o f the traditiona l Caucasian , Christian , middle-clas s male .

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Another effec t o f this phenomenon i s the revival of the perpetuatin g myth tha t th e U S i s a n acculturate d youn g countr y wit h n o traditio n of its own , o r something tha t Deleuz e an d Guattar i ma y cal l a nomadi c becoming, whic h onl y uphold s th e value s o f th e nor m unti l the y ar e abandoned b y th e masses. 5 I n othe r words , i t i s easie r t o loo k forwar d and mov e ahea d whe n ther e ar e n o tru e loca l traditiona l value s t o surrender. I f globalization subsume s th e American hegemony , fo r man y critics o f globalization , thi s mean s th e hegemon y o f nomadi c culture . There is resentment tha t standardizatio n followin g th e American mode l can onl y lea d t o globa l nomadi c cultur e an d b y extensio n t o Worl d Economy. Globa l nomadi c cultur e ma y b e conceive d a s treachery , an d there is fear tha t Hollywood' s virtua l representation o f American/globa l memory, whic h no w include s a recyclin g o f Eas t Asia n values , wil l infect th e globa l villag e wit h unauthenti c representation s o f loca l traditional cultures . While critics of globalization outsid e of the US fea r the effec t Hollywood' s market-oriente d representatio n o f traditiona l cultures will have on authenticity, conservativ e Americans paradoxicall y perceive Hollywood' s diversit y a s liberal , politicall y correc t an d superficial, henc e dangerou s t o th e preservatio n o f th e conservativ e white mal e America n ideals . I t i s a Catch-22 , i n whic h Hollywood' s global hegemony i s mostly considere d a type o f totalitarianis m leadin g to th e failur e o f "authentic " traditiona l an d loca l cultures . W e ar e lef t w i t h a hig h suspicio n tha t i n a well-orchestrate d provocation , Hollywood onl y display s cultura l diversit y t o reaffir m th e traditiona l values o f America n capitalism . There ar e two side s to a coin. For skeptical audiences, Hollywood' s superficial reinventio n o f it s cultura l an d traditiona l marker s onl y responds t o the needs o f the global market. Th e commodity-productio n of films, which occur s within a system o f multinational capitalism , onl y serves America n plutocrati c interests . Hollywood' s representatio n o f diversity arguabl y resemble s a commercia l enterprise , an d a s suc h it s industry i s willin g t o compromis e al l value s excep t profitability . Les s skeptical audience s ma y hav e a mor e romanti c visio n o f Hollywood' s goals and see an honest bi d towards a successful globa l village in whic h all human s ca n liv e i n harmony . In 1949 , i n hi s effor t t o attac k totalitarianism , th e Britis h autho r George Orwel l wrot e th e dystopi a 1984, i n whic h h e describe s th e obsolete characte r o f nations : in a world constantl y a t war , th e enem y shifts fro m on e da y t o th e nex t o n wha t seem s n o rationa l ground . I n 1984, human s ar e unde r th e dictatorshi p o f Bi g Brother , a n elaborat e virtual intelligence tha t literall y keep s an ey e on humankind, deprivin g

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all fro m freedom , henc e fro m hope . Mos t human s hav e give n u p o n their identity , an d henc e ar e reduce d t o puppets . Fo r th e skeptics , a certain definitio n o f globalizatio n coul d strangel y ech o Orwell' s dystopia, Uncl e Sa m takin g ove r th e rol e o f Bi g Brothe r i n th e globa l village. Bu t fo r th e romantics , i n 1984 th e fe w wh o resis t Bi g Brothe r find ways of subverting the system and gaining back hope. Paradoxically , Hollywood's imaginativ e fictio n ha s alway s displaye d suc h individuals , who affir m tru e value s an d lov e fo r freedom . I n a n effor t t o expres s it s invincible hope, Hollywood's imaginative fiction ha s traditionally relie d on th e "lonesom e cowboy " hero , wh o i s hardl y nomadi c sinc e h e upholds th e trues t value s o f th e nor m precisel y whe n th e masse s hav e abandoned them , an d wh o symbolize s th e vehicl e o f humankind' s resistance agains t it s enemies . Hollywood's imaginativ e fiction ha s als o increasingly dramatize d wanderin g warrior s influence d b y Eas t Asia n values that James Shamus, co-author o f Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon with An g Lee, would describ e a s "knights-erran t skille d i n martia l art s and Taois t spiritua l practice s wh o figh t o n behal f o f thei r principle s a s well a s agains t thei r ow n individua l desires" . Arguably, th e cross-fertilization betwee n Hollywood an d East Asia n values ha s turne d ou t t o b e mor e tha n a savv y profitabl e enterprise, - i t also create d a ne w perceptio n o f America n identity , an d b y extension , of th e globa l village . Whil e remainin g awar e o f th e critica l difference s among the experiences an d articulations o f the American an d East Asia n cultures, it nonetheless seem s appropriate to analyze Hollywood's figur e of the wandering warrior, to ask how a particular film withi n a particular c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t indicate s som e way s i n w h i c h a p a r t i c u l a r understanding o f identit y i s evoke d — and ho w tha t understandin g i s put int o question . Hollywood's figur e o f th e lonesom e cowbo y ha s com e a lon g wa y since the Westerns o f the 1960s . Or has it? Joseph Sartelle suggests tha t the Star Wars trilog y by George Lucas (1978 , 20th Centur y Fo x release) "can [... ] b e seen a s a fantasy i n which Americ a go t to win th e Vietna m War after all , by siding with the Vietcong." 6 Th e figurative identificatio n of th e whit e mal e wit h th e enem y h e ha d fough t agains t i n Vietna m puts th e whit e mal e i n th e positio n o f th e victim . Luk e Skywalke r i s meant t o be seen a s a heroic freedom fighter . "I n other words, the whit e male paranoi a fantasy , whic h emphasize s bot h th e sufferin g and th e retribution o f th e hero , allow s th e whit e ma n t o engag e i n th e sam e violently aggressiv e behaviou r tha t earne d hi m hi s reputatio n a s th e world's chie f oppressor , whil e freein g hi m fro m guil t b y recodin g tha t behaviour a s justifiabl e act s o f vengeance." 7 Luke Skywalke r ma y b e a

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modernized whit e mal e sportin g Asia n values , bu t h e remain s jus t another lonesom e cowbo y fightin g fo r th e America n dream . The 198 2 Warne r Bros , productio n o f Hollywood-adopte d Britis h director Ridle y Scott' s Blade Runner present s a fictio n o f Lo s Angele s in th e twenty-firs t century . Symboli c hom e o f Hollywood, Lo s Angele s is depicted a s a super megapolis where English is not th e main languag e spoken any longer,- instead, humans communicat e throug h a compoun d language mad e o f a variet y o f traditiona l language s including , amon g others, English, Spanis h an d Chinese. Through th e police officer, playe d by Edwar d Jame s Olmos , Scot t expresse s th e intercultura l essenc e o f Los Angeles,* the character hardly speaks English — or at least he refuse s to spea k it, an d his ethnicit y is impossible to decipher from hi s physica l traits (e.g. , hi s fac e combine s light-blu e slante d eye s wit h Hispani c features). Moreover , hi s presenc e i s ofte n symbolize d b y th e littl e origami figures h e always leave s behind, an d which punctuat e th e film . Visually, th e electroni c advertisin g panels projecting Asia n faces o n th e high risers , an d th e food-stand s o n th e street s giv e Los Angeles th e fee l of a n Eas t Asia n megapoli s suc h a s Hon g Kong . Th e protagonist , Ric k Deckard, i s a "blad e runner " who , t o protec t humankind , stalk s genetically mad e crimina l humanoid s — replicant s — t o kil l them . Incidentally, beside s thei r murderou s streak , th e replicants ' crim e i s their desir e t o be like th e human s wh o create d the m a s a labor force t o accomplish task s tha t human s ar e reluctan t t o do , suc h a s goin g t o battle. T o kee p replicant s i n line , the y hav e bee n programme d t o hav e only a ver y shor t lifespan . Thei r clai m t o a futur e an d t o hop e paradoxically goe s through thei r clai m t o a memory; although the y hav e personal memorie s (e.g. , photos) , i t i s indee d throug h thei r lac k o f collective memor y tha t replicant s ar e spotte d amon g humans . Blade Runner's her o i s stil l a whit e male , depicte d a s a reluctan t her o wh o lost hi s bravad o i n a forme r battle , th e purpos e o f whic h remain s unclear. I n the end , Deckar d seem s nothing mor e tha n a n unconvince d survivor o f humankind , hardl y mor e huma n tha n th e humanoid s h e kills. Bu t hi s lac k o f hop e make s complet e sens e i n th e 199 1 Warne r Bros, first releas e of the director' s cu t version o f Blade Runner, i n whic h we find ou t tha t Deckard is a replicant himself. More sophisticated tha n other generation s o f replicants , h e wa s no t programme d t o di e early , but wha t i s th e poin t o f livin g withou t hope ? The Warner Bros. 199 9 production o f the cyber thriller The Matrix, by the Wachowsk i Brothers , dramatize s humankind' s figh t fo r surviva l against artificia l intelligence . I n th e process , th e Wachowsk i Brother s achieve t o deconstruct th e standar d human perceptio n o f identity. As a

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matter o f fact, wha t on e perceives as real is an elaborate deception spu n by all-powerfu l machine s o f artificia l intelligenc e tha t contro l humankind. Reversin g al l standards , The Matrix suggest s tha t th e traditions an d cultures , which onc e marked human diversity , have no w become th e too l o f a n artificia l intelligence , th e matrix . I n thi s apocalyptic world , tradition s an d culture s ar e th e opiu m use d b y th e matrix t o num b an d kee p humankin d i n line , b y givin g i t pleasure . Although non e o f thes e pleasure s i s lef t i n th e rea l world , th e matri x keeps traditio n an d cultur e aliv e throug h a virtua l hoax . Th e surviva l of the matrix paradoxically depend s on the survival of humankind upo n which i t feeds . Th e protagonist s — incidentally a whit e male , a blac k male an d a whit e women , ar e a sampl e o f heroi c human s wh o figh t deception using its very tools; hence the "d o you kno w kun g fu?" scen e in whic h th e ancestra l martia l ar t i s downloade d int o Ne o throug h th e matrix. However, Ne o uses his virtual and instantaneous contro l of kun g fu t o figh t fo r hi s ver y life . Thi s i s a reminde r o f Virilio' s assumptio n that th e instrumental , virtua l image s o f globa l communicatio n creat e a standardize d representatio n o f realit y tha t ca n onl y lead t o th e same . In th e worl d o f The Matrix, all human s paradoxicall y hav e acces s t o the sam e culturall y divers e virtual reality,- but i t is what individual s d o with th e acquire d informatio n fro m th e matri x tha t reall y matters. Fo r example, on e of the characters, afte r havin g learned th e trut h abou t th e reality o f th e huma n condition , decide s t o rever t t o th e virtua l worl d of th e matrix , becaus e h e woul d rathe r liv e i n a worl d o f complet e illusion tha n i n a worl d withou t th e pleasure s on e ca n deriv e fro m tradition, a worl d withou t hope . However , fo r Ne o an d hi s followers , their belie f i n traditio n an d thei r hop e end s u p savin g humankind . I n The Matrix, thos e wh o hav e contro l ove r th e matrix , rathe r tha n le t the matri x hav e sol e contro l ove r them , stil l fin d th e necessar y hop e for a ne w beginning , o r a "degre e zero " a s Barthe s woul d cal l it. 8 I f Neo i s indee d th e on e tha t Morpheu s an d hi s follower s hav e bee n waiting for , i n The Matrix, th e messag e o f th e whit e mal e i s on e o f hope i n th e future , eve n i f humankin d i s th e resul t o f a technologica l breeding. I t i s a cal l t o sto p th e dichotom y tha t oppose s th e huma n t o the machine, an d to believe in the compatibility o f a technological ne w beginning o f humankind . The Matrix i s a cal l t o transcen d dichotom y for th e sak e o f harmony , t o surrende r th e sel f fo r th e benefi t o f th e whole. For Virilio, fiction ca n onl y evolv e i f th e tw o world s o f rea l space / local tim e an d virtua l space/globa l tim e lear n t o liv e i n harmony . N o w h e r e ha s thi s " h a r m o n y " bee n mor e dazzlin g tha n i n th e

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Independent Son y Classic s an d Columbi a turn-of-th e millenniu m production o f Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon b y cineast e An g Lee . The fil m i s th e apotheosi s o f Hollywood' s passio n fo r entertainmen t and profitability, combine d wit h it s recent craz e for East Asian culture s and traditions. Audiences discove r a combination o f spectacular martia l arts fighting , romance , a feminis t sensibility , an d a focu s o n hope . Surprisingly, th e whole fil m i s in Mandarin wit h Englis h subtitles , an d all actor s ar e Chinese . "Th e conventiona l wisdo m ha s bee n tha t teen s would rathe r coo k a meal fo r thei r parent s tha n si t throug h a subtitle d movie. But times hav e changed. [... ] havin g grown up with th e Interne t and instant messaging , the y no longer have a problem readin g subtitle d text." 9 An g Le e ha s partiall y succeede d i n bringin g th e Hon g Kong martial art s styl e fully i n th e world spotlight , i n spit e of the film's poo r reception wit h a more conservativ e mainland Chines e audience : "Sinc e it's a kun g f u movie , yo u can' t jus t mak e i t t o you r ow n sensibility, " said theate r manage r X u Zhongren. "Yo u have t o adjus t fo r a mainlan d Chinese audience." 1 0 Yet , Le e prove d hi s abilit y t o reconcil e an d transcend th e antagonis m betwee n a loca l an d a globa l sensibility . A s stressed b y Lorenz a Munoz , "Wha t i s uniqu e abou t 'Crouchin g Tiger ' is tha t i t i s appealin g t o s o man y differen t group s o f people , rangin g from teenager s wh o hav e neve r see n a foreign-language fil m t o hip-ho p fans t o Hon g Kong-styl e martia l art s movie s buffs." 11 Virilio predicts th e failure o f Babel and a return t o myth. Fro m thi s identification t o myth, World Citizenship will emerge, and subsequentl y World Poetr y will succee d World Economy. An g Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon wa s indisputabl y a great box-offic e success , which ha d a dramati c effec t o n th e globa l receptio n o f Asia n films . "America n distributors ar e lookin g a t ever y possibl e nex t 'Crouchin g Tiger, ' fro m every singl e countr y i n Asi a — an d i t doesn' t nee d t o b e a n actio n picture only . [... ] Th e minut e 2,00 0 theater s i n th e U.S . showed a fil m in th e Chines e language , th e possibilitie s becam e limitless, " sai d director Peter Chan , who split s his tim e between Lo s Angeles and Hon g Kong. Moreover, directo r Jacob Cheung, a 20-year veteran o f Hong Kong film, commente d o n the succes s of Crouching Tiger, which "encourage d big America n studio s t o giv e loca l production s a gree n light" . Frui t Chan, a n independen t filmmake r als o said : "Afte r th e succes s o f 'Crouching Tiger' , ther e i s no w a bette r opportunit y fo r audience s t o realize ther e i s anothe r sid e t o th e Hon g Kon g style." 12 Furthermore , beyond th e fac t tha t Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon opene d door s fo r other Asia n film s o n th e worl d market , th e fil m i s als o particula r i n the sens e tha t i t leave s categorization s behin d an d create s a stron g

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impact o n th e emotion s o f th e audience . I t ma y ver y wel l b e th e firs t of a ne w generatio n o f Hollywoo d film s tha t transcend s th e worl d market an d brings the audience back to myth. In Kenneth Turan's words, the film' s "blen d o f th e magical , th e mythica l an d th e romanti c fill s a need in us we might not eve n realize we had". 13 Hollywoo d has entered , conquered, questioned , an d deconstructe d th e dragon . Th e er a t o transcend th e drago n ha s no w come . An g Lee' s fil m succeede d i n harmonizing th e competin g cognitive-aestheti c value s o f traditio n an d pleasure. It simultaneousl y demonstrate s th e long-standin g pleasur e of tradition's discipline , whic h lik e i n kun g f u trainin g i s suppose d t o b e arduous an d sacrificial , an d th e pleasure' s deterritoralization , it s lac k of groundedness. On the downside, by reaching critical mass, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon ha s mad e th e Hon g Kon g martial ar t styl e mor e susceptible t o standardization . O n th e u p side , Frenc h directo r Christophe Gan s explains that th e current craz e for the Hong Kong style in Hollywood "wil l continu e t o develo p because it i s part o f a traditio n of physica l actio n tha t i s a s ol d a s movie s themselve s [... ] I f yo u loo k at Buster Keato n o r Douglas Fairbank s movies , what stil l amazes toda y is thei r physica l abilit y [... ] Th e onl y specia l effect s tha t neve r gro w old ar e wha t yo u ca n d o wit h th e huma n body". 14 In othe r words , Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, di d no t hav e th e impac t i t ha d o n the audienc e b y respectin g o r transgressin g th e standard s — whethe r local o r globa l standard s — bu t b y indulgin g th e audienc e wit h th e pleasures derive d fro m spectacula r cinema , a pur e an d universa l demonstration o f huma n potentiality . To conclude , I would lik e t o addres s agai n th e justifiabl e concern s of a mor e skeptica l audienc e fo r who m th e fil m industr y represent s a mechanism fo r convertin g socia l values int o commodities , an d remin d this audienc e o f Virilio's prediction : th e failur e o f Babel and eventuall y of Worl d Economy , an d th e retur n t o m y t h fro m whic h Worl d Citizenship, henc e Worl d Poetry , woul d emerge . Althoug h th e doubl e dichotomy o f real space/local tim e versus virtual space/globa l tim e stil l exists i n Worl d Poetry , i t i s though t o f a s an d replace d b y a harmon y between apparentl y contradictor y terms , an d i s a ste p toward s wha t Mignolo call s "borde r thinking." 15 Le d b y Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, a ne w generatio n o f Hollywoo d film s surprisingl y an d paradoxically transcend s traditiona l dichotomies . The world market wil l not imped e human potentiality , an d in the end , it is through th e poetr y of traditio n tha t humanit y wil l prevail .

16 Romeo Must Die: Action an d Agency i n Hollywoo d an d Hon g Kong Action Film s Susanne Riese r an d Susanne Lummerdin g

The objectiv e o f ou r collaboratio n i s t o develo p ne w perspective s o n action fil m b y bringin g togethe r th e respectiv e concept s o f action and agency wit h referenc e t o Hollywood an d Hong Kong action cinema . A s poststructuralist fil m theorie s o f th e pas t decade s hav e elaborated , cinematic technologie s (togethe r wit h narrative ) construc t identities . "Violent Visuals an d Wo/Men Warriors," by Susanne Rieser, deal s wit h issues o f identit y constructio n a s a technologica l effect , i n particula r with th e identit y politic s o f th e violen t visualit y i n actio n fil m iconography. "Th e Dislocatio n o f Identit y an d th e Precondition s o f Agency," b y Susann e Lummerding , analyze s th e wa y thos e moment s that "ba r o r a t leas t minimiz e identificatio n fo r a subjec t a s wel l a s of any objec t o r meaning " ar e t o b e considere d a s intertwine d wit h th e preconditions o f agency .

Violent Visual s an d Wo/Me n Warrior s To genr e aficionados , Hollywoo d an d Hon g Kon g hav e becom e synonymous wit h th e very best o f violent visuals . Action cinem a itsel f has become a surefire bonanza of the global popular culture . Action film s as divers e a s Gladiator, Chungking Express, Twister, Heroic Trio, Volcano, The Green Snake, The Terminator, and Shanghai Noon all share a t leas t on e feature tha t i s required b y the econom y o f successfu l film production : "Producer s ar e screening over and ove r again the film s that hav e prove n t o posses s somethin g tha t mad e the m bo x offic e successes. The y [don' t simpl y mak e the m over ] — they brea k the m .. . into differen t arrangements , a s parts o f a new [film]." 1 I n attempting t o

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isolate the box-office appea l of successful films , Wheeler Winston Dixo n maintains i n Disaster and Memory on e solitar y elemen t i s almos t always identified a s a prime "bankable " element aroun d which th e dea l can b e struck : spectacula r scenes. 2 Spectacula r scene s ar e thos e tha t break u p th e narrativ e an d audio-visua l sequitu r an d trea t audience s with unconstraine d spectacle s o f spee d an d violence . As a genre, actio n cinem a parade s specifi c semanti c an d syntacti c features. O n th e semanti c level , i t show s spectacula r comba t scenes , weaponry, explosions , catastrophes , chase s an d countdown s — wit h characters rangin g from cop s to terrorists , fro m Shaoli n monk s t o tria d gangsters. O n th e syntacti c level , actio n cinem a feature s primaril y a dynamized, hyperkinetic , an d materia l (a s oppose d t o psychological ) imagery tha t aggressivel y attack s ou r perceptive faculty. Actio n cinem a is no t onl y abou t th e dynamic s o f th e represente d bu t abou t th e dynamics o f representatio n itsel f — an d alon g wit h it , abou t th e dynamization o f ou r perception . Rick Altma n locate s genr e a t th e intersectio n o f a commo n semantics and a commo n syntax. 3 I n thi s sens e actio n cinem a i s — despite th e heterogeneit y o f plots , narratives , topics , o r character s o n both side s o f th e Pacifi c Ri m — quintessential^ generic : 1 ) it feature s an almos t obsessiv e body discourse b y flashin g bod y checks , bod y counts, spectacula r hardbodies , bodil y transgressions , a s wel l a s th e bodies' ethnic and gendered categorie s o f belonging; 2) the othe r centra l generic elemen t i s th e spectacula r overdos e both a s a semanti c devic e (as key imagery ) an d a s a syntactic devic e (a s organizing principle). Th e part o f th e chapte r focuse s o n thos e moment s o f th e spectacular overdose that characteriz e th e genr e — those spli t second s o f irritatio n and disintegratio n tha t ca n b e terme d absolut action: 4 crashes , explosions, detonations, fairy-tale kick - an d trick-ballets, o r violent "all night-blood-and-bullet-raves," whe n th e narrative and the visual regim e break dow n int o th e frenz y o f post-representational imagery, int o th e chaotic poetic s o f mer e shapes , color s an d sounds . Below , Susann e Lummerding consider s th e wa y thos e moment s tha t "ba r o r a t leas t minimize identificatio n fo r a subjec t a s wel l a s o f an y objec t o r meaning" ar e t o b e considere d a s intertwine d wit h th e precondition s of agency . The epicente r o f pleasure wit h actio n film s lie s no t i n th e plo t bu t in thei r dazzlin g "damn-the-logic-full-speed-ahead " visuals , a t th e cor e of which , say s Yvonn e Tasker , i s th e body. 5 Spectacula r bodie s ar e i n fact semanti c surface s — sometime s conservativ e an d reactionary , sometimes ambivalen t o r eve n subversiv e — that mobiliz e discourse s

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around identities : nationa l (fro m Rocky t o Shanghai Noon), racialize d (from Predator and Predator II t o Rush Hour), ox gender-specific (fro m Fatal Beauty t o Strange Days). Hollywood actio n cinem a love s th e fetishisti c displa y o f mal e hardbodies an d thei r painfu l torturin g — images, say s Kaj a Silverman , that ar e relate d t o th e catholi c imager y o f th e sufferin g whit e mal e body.6 Th e martyre d (an d later reborn) bodies of Arnold Schwarzenegge r and compan y testif y tha t actio n film , mor e tha n an y othe r genre , reaffirms th e constructio n o f male subjectivit y b y renouncing it s socia l origination. Whereas Hollywoo d actio n heroe s ar e thoroughly toug h (thei r har d bodies suit s o f armor , thei r gaz e stern , thei r movement s brisk , thei r posture rigid , thei r languag e uncompromising) , Mar k Gallaghe r compares thos e fetish bodie s o f a white mal e supremacis m t o the light footed bod y language o f many Asian heroes , who ar e swift an d evasive , their glance s furtiv e an d roaming , thei r postur e relaxed , thei r languag e sometimes eve n garrulous. 7 Costum e i s different , too : Instead o f bar e beef w e fin d everythin g fro m Jacki e Chan' s slopp y leisurewea r t o th e black designe r suit s o f th e mundan e killer s fro m Joh n Wo o o r Jonni e To. The tw o majo r productio n site s fo r actio n film s als o diffe r wit h regard t o wome n warriors . Wherea s th e bul k o f Hollywoo d film s reinscribe th e femal e bod y b y masculinit y (thin k o f Lind a Hamilton , Sigourney Weaver, o r Demi Moor e as compared t o Anita Mui , Michell e Yeoh, or Maggie Cheung), Hong Kong action cinem a sometime s resort s to reverse d se x roles, suc h a s i n th e legendar y fane Bond films. 8 Film s like Fallen Angels, Heroic Trio, an d Beyond Hypothermia boas t eve n more fundamentall y differen t gende r imagery , runnin g th e gamu t fro m transvestism t o bisexuality an d hermaphroditism. Hermaphroditism , a s a physica l an d spiritua l qualit y fa r beyon d th e wildes t dream s o f th e average America n mach o hero , i s a prominen t featur e o f th e mos t powerful gong-f u masters , who, being truly omnipotent, ar e not confine d to one sex only. And heroines from A Chinese Ghost Story t o Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon are not th e Hollywood-typ e "second-clas s men " but rather first-class wome n warriors , commanding arsenal s of their ow n — such a s snakes, bee swarms, an d lethal-effect embroider y equipment . Richard Dye r ha s observe d tha t Hollywood , however , doe s no t smoothly consen t t o suc h alternatives/heroes . Heroe s othe r tha n mal e and whit e (an d straigh t an d able-bodied) , h e writes , "ar e stil l goin g t o feel exceptiona l fo r som e tim e t o com e .. . Others neve r hav e quit e th e same acces s t o th e spee d o f worldl y sensation . Experienc e o f spac e ha s

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race an d gende r dimension s whic h set s limit s t o ho w plausibl e o r exceptional on e ma y fin d a representation." 9 Such a n exceptio n wa s Cleopatra , th e legendar y "blaxploitatio n queen" o f th e 1970s . In Cleopatra Jones and the Casino of Gold, Cle o sets out t o find her black American "brothers " who have been kidnappe d in a Hon g Kon g dru g dea l gon e wrong . I t is , a s Jennife r DeVer e Brod y remarks, trul y difficul t t o imagin e a 1990 s fil m i n whic h whit e me n are marginalized, whit e wome n ar e demonized, an d actions/heros suc h as th e Africa n America n Cleopatr a Jone s an d her femal e Asia n partne r Mi Ling Fong dominate th e screen. The political and erotic role-playing, in whic h eac h o f th e tw o play s the Other, undercut s th e Hollywoo d master/slave binary of the sidekick formula an d allows, Brody continues, for a highl y interestin g quee r reading. 10 Being s o preoccupie d wit h th e physique , th e analysi s o f actio n cinema a s a cinema o f spectacula r bodie s neglects th e most spectacula r and violent visualit y o f the genre: the rupture o f th e signifyin g imager y itself, th e moment s whe n w e are left wit h th e bursting flame s without Jean Claud e va n Damm e o r th e smokin g gunfir e without Cho w Yu n Fat. Those dazzling and spectacular "no-foody " image s are not just abou t the gender o f th e represented bu t abou t th e gendering of representatio n and th e genderin g o f ou r cognitiv e an d perceptiv e facult y itself . One way to theorize the spectacle is to locate it within th e "officia l memory." Th e spectacle , fro m thi s perspective , i s considere d a s a rupture, a s a consciousl y arrange d fissur e i n memory . Michae l Rogi n locates suc h a fissure i n th e Dirt y Harr y film i n which Clin t Eastwoo d speaks th e famous line , "G o ahead, make my day! " to a black hoodlu m who i s pressin g hi s gu n ont o a femal e hostage' s head . Eastwoo d her e risks th e murde r o f th e hostag e i n orde r t o kil l th e hoodlum . Th e live s that h e put s a t ris k ar e blac k an d female , no t hi s own . According t o on e survey , almos t everyon e is familiar wit h th e "G o ahead!" expression , bu t hardl y anybody ca n recall the contex t i n whic h it ha d bee n said . Amnesi a make s i t possibl e t o remembe r th e whit e hero — an d t o simultaneousl y forge t th e contex t tha t produce d him : "In the American myt h w e remember, whit e me n alon e risk thei r live s in equa l combat. In the on e we forget, whit e men sho w how toug h the y are b y resubordinatin g an d sacrificin g thei r rac e an d gende r others." 11 Innumerable film s establis h thei r hegemoni c heroe s throug h suc h an otherin g o f ethni c an d gender antagonists. 12 Mar k Wahlber g in Che Kirk Wong' s The Big Hit i s a contrac t killer , ye t h e i s depicte d a s a victim o f tw o greed y girlfriend s — on e Jewis h an d th e othe r Africa n

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American — and of his Hispanic sidekick. The nauseating representatio n of Wahlberg' s "rac e an d gende r others, " however , i s los t i n th e cours e of violen t visual s fusin g on e imag e int o anothe r wit h blindin g spee d and razor-shar p editing . As Rogi n says , "Amnesi a mean s bot h t o have th e experienc e an d not to retain i t i n memory. " Amnesi a support s guilt-fre e pleasure s b y "disconnecting fro m memor y th e histor y o f violenc e wholesale d o n populations an d retailed o n body parts"— in tha t i t lets th e spectacula r imagery alone rise to the more memorable symboli c order. 13 Th e filmi c dismemberment i s reflecte d b y th e forma l dismembermen t (rupture ) and is thus, to speak with Luc e Irigaray, in total opposition t o a political claim fo r re-membering . Yet action cinem a als o undermines th e allegedly stable relationshi p between subject s an d object s o f vision . Visio n ha s traditionall y bee n associated wit h th e "masculine " position , wherea s image s hav e bee n associated wit h th e "feminine. " Th e hyperkineti c spectacularit y i n action cinema , however , challenge s thi s masculin e visio n an d it s attempt t o contro l an d dominat e th e feminine spher e of images. Actio n cinema frustrate s th e authorit y o f th e subjec t whe n th e dynamize d object world begins to live a life of its own 14 an d when element s literall y begin t o dance , a s in Twister, Volcano, Titanic, o r in almos t an y o f th e Hong Kon g blood-and-bulle t raves . A representativ e cultura l philosopher , Jea n Baudrillard , i s s o distressed b y thi s "triump h o f object s ove r subjects" — wit h a n objec t world s o completel y ou t o f contro l tha t i t surpasse s al l attempt s o f th e subject eve n t o understan d i t — that h e speak s o f a "seduction," 15 an d elsewhere eve n o f a n "assault " o f th e "feminine " objec t worl d o n "masculine integrity." 16 I n absolut action-sequences, visualit y adopt s a postmodern aestheti c in that th e fractured an d kinetic imagery implie s a potentiall y reversibl e subject-objec t relationshi p — a s a dialogue , which, by criticizing the subject-centered visio n (includin g its narrativ e authority) open s u p th e possibilit y o f a re-distribution i n th e symboli c relations betwee n th e "masculine " an d th e "feminine " an d disclose s new ground s fo r visua l agency .

The Dislocatio n o f Identit y an d th e Precondition s o f Agency "Hit har d and fast: Mak e them as k what i t i s that hi t them. " — Anonymous

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This line , found o n a flyer lef t i n a bar, appropriatel y expresse s anothe r key aspec t o f Hollywoo d an d Hong Kon g action cinema : th e ruptur e of the signifyin g chai n — or , mor e precisely : dislocation. Accordin g t o Ernesto Laclau , dislocatio n i s t o b e see n a s somethin g i n whic h th e limits o f objectivit y an d th e failur e o f an y specifi c socio-symboli c "system" a s a n allege d entit y ar e revealed. 17 Dislocation , a s Lacla u defines it , come s clos e t o wha t Laca n define s a s th e Real, that whic h escapes th e symboli c an d ca n onl y appea r within th e latte r i n negativ e form.18 I n this sense , the explosiv e moments o f absolut action, th e spli t seconds o f irritatio n an d disintegratio n tha t temporaril y ba r o r a t leas t minimize an y optio n o f identificatio n (fo r a subjec t a s wel l a s o f an y object o r meaning) , represen t no t onl y moment s o f extrem e senso motoric shoc k bu t primaril y a deprivation , a threa t o n th e leve l o f identification. I n orde r t o understan d th e rol e o f thos e moment s o f spectacular ruptur e i n relatio n t o processe s o f identification , i.e. , th e constitution o f subject s an d th e productio n o f meaning , i t i s usefu l t o take int o accoun t theorie s o f identificatio n a s conceptualize d i n (psychoanalytically informed ) fil m theor y an d cultura l studie s (addressing th e issu e o f gende r a s wel l a s thos e o f ethnicit y an d "nation"). Primarily, thi s par t o f th e chapte r seek s t o mak e tw o points : first , that w e conside r th e momen t o f radica l ruptur e i n actio n fil m onl y a s an excessiv e mod e o f a pivotal momen t that , i n les s spectacula r form , is inherent t o any process o f identification a s well as to any productio n of meaning; 19 second , tha t thi s momen t — representin g th e effec t o f fundamental contingenc y (o f the subjec t a s well a s meaning) — is to b e understood a s intertwine d wit h th e precondition s o f agency. Fo r thi s purpose on e migh t sugges t a notio n o f agency that define s i t a s th e perception o f option s differin g fro m th e apparentl y "given" — tha t is , the emergenc e o f th e political — based o n dislocation. 20 The questio n o f agency ha s re-emerge d a t differen t level s i n recen t debate, a s a seemingl y ne w issue , i n th e contex t o f informatio n an d communication technologie s i n whic h i t i s associate d wit h tw o ke y terms: "interactivity " an d th e "fragmented " subject . I t ha s re-emerge d around th e politica l implication s o f deconstructionis t theoretica l approaches, 21 whic h focuse s o n ho w somethin g lik e agenc y migh t b e conceived of , i n which a specific traditiona l conceptio n o f the Cartesia n subject ha s lon g bee n discarded . Suc h notio n o f a coheren t subjec t functioning a s the autonomous cente r of a person's actions and thinking , long though t t o b e a preconditio n o f agency , ha s bee n replace d b y th e conception o f a de-centere d or , rather , "ex-centric " an d incoheren t

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subject. An y critica l review , however , o f th e mechanism s o f subjec t constitution inevitabl y require s th e analysi s o f th e mechanism s o f signification. To examine th e role of moments o f rupture o r dislocation i n actio n film an d th e functio n o f suc h moment s withi n a cinemati c narrative , one mus t acknowledg e thei r relatio n t o th e effect s o f th e fundamenta l contingency o f an y meanin g o r identity tha t become s perceptible a s a n irritation (experience d b y th e subject) . Thi s irritatio n i n tur n sustain s the desir e t o concea l thi s lac k o f coherenc e (i n a continuou s chai n o f signifiers). It is these very moments o f irritation that mus t be understoo d as th e startin g poin t fo r a consideratio n o f agency. I n thi s sense , th e preconditions o f agenc y woul d hav e t o b e see n no t withi n a suppose d autonomy o f th e subject , but , o n th e contrary , i n th e ver y momen t within th e proces s o f subjec t constitutio n i n whic h th e subject' s ow n contingency bu t als o tha t o f an y othe r meanin g become s perceptible . Insofar a s this irritatio n provide s th e basis to conceiv e apparen t "facts " not a s "given " o r determine d bu t a s contingen t an d naturalize d constructions, thi s clearl y i s a political aspec t sinc e i t i s onl y o n thi s ground tha t no t onl y th e possibilit y o f chang e ca n appea r bu t als o th e question fo r th e cause s o f a particula r statu s qu o (an d henc e th e contestability o f the latter) — which alway s implie s questionin g powe r relations. On th e premis e o f analyzin g th e processe s o f constructio n o f categories no longer see n as "genuine " or "given, " political dimension s can b e locate d withi n significator y practice s generatin g identitie s a s relational term s b y mean s o f differentiation , classification , an d attribution. An y resor t t o putativ e "pre-discursive " entitie s therefor e implies th e misapprehensio n o f thes e processe s an d th e unreflecte d consolidation o f th e powe r relation s thereb y construed . The consideratio n o f the preconditions o f agency a s fundamentall y intertwined wit h a pivota l momen t withi n th e proces s o f subjec t constitution i s based on psychoanalytical an d linguistic approaches tha t have show n tha t subjec t constitutio n a s wel l a s th e productio n o f meaning ha s t o b e understoo d a s a continuou s process . Th e subjec t conceived b y structura l psychoanalytica l theor y i s fundamentall y incoherent no t onl y becaus e i t constitute s itsel f alway s i n relatio n t o an Othe r (an d therefor e canno t clai m autonomy ) bu t als o becaus e identification i s subjec t t o th e mechanism s o f signification . Thus , i n order t o construc t meanin g (o r identity) , i t i s necessar y t o creat e th e illusion o f coherenc e (i n th e sens e o f a "closure" ) t o cove r u p th e fundamental failur e o f significatio n tha t engender s th e necessit y o f a continuous re-enactmen t o f thi s ver y process .

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The failur e o f significatio n i s implicit t o an imaginar y a s well a s t o a symboli c level . Th e ambiguit y o f th e imaginar y i s base d o n th e necessity t o identif y wit h somethin g external , "other, " t o achiev e th e grounds fo r a quasi-coheren t identity . Th e imag e w e identif y wit h i s always alread y "other, " thereb y subvertin g an y ide a o f a stabl e an d autonomous subjectivity . Th e imaginary i s bound up with th e symboli c insofar i t ca n functio n onl y o n th e conditio n o f a recognition b y som e symbolic Other — tha t is , anothe r dimensio n o f contingency . Furthermore, th e subjec t constitute s itsel f withi n language , withi n th e symbolic orde r tha t precede s i t an d withi n whic h i t onl y ca n identif y as somethin g specific . Thus on e ca n conclud e tha t th e constituen t impossibilit y o f a coherent identit y render s possibl e (an d a t th e sam e tim e requires ) th e process o f identificatio n i n whic h th e subjec t i s constitute d a s contingent an d lacking . I t i s th e ver y impossibilit y o f a stabl e an d coherent identit y that makes processes of identification constituent . Th e political impac t result s fro m th e fac t tha t th e constitutio n o f ever y (ultimately impossible ) identit y (impossibl e i n th e sens e o f an absolut e "closure" o f meaning ) — which always implie s a gendered identit y — can be attempted onl y throug h processes o f identification wit h sociall y available discursiv e construction s (includin g visua l in-formation , ideologies, etc.) . It i s th e necessaril y interminabl e proces s o f th e productio n o f meaning tha t feminis t fil m theoris t Teres a d e Lauretis ha s pointe d ou t in he r conceptio n o f th e narrative , whic h differ s considerabl y fro m a traditional understanding. 22 I n respons e t o feminis t fil m theor y o f th e mid-1970s havin g calle d for abandonin g narrative structure s altogethe r in feminist filmmakin g i n orde r to deconstructively subver t patriarchi c structures o f viewin g i n favo r o f identificator y position s fo r femal e spectators, 23 d e Laureti s state s that , contrar y t o th e ide a o f a "story, " any productio n o f meanin g i s base d o n narrativ e structures . I t i s indispensable, eve n i n so-calle d "non-narrative " avant-gard e film , tha t meaning be produced, sinc e signification permanentl y ha s to cove r ove r its ow n inheren t failure. 24 Considering tha t processe s o f identificatio n hav e t o b e re-enacte d continuously (du e t o thei r interminabl e structure) , i t become s eviden t that als o i n actio n fil m th e moment s o f spectacula r ruptur e hav e t o b e variously restraine d o r conceale d t o re-establis h a n identificator y structure. A questio n tha t canno t b e answere d here , bu t i s wort h pursuing, i s i n wha t respec t th e actio n fil m industrie s o f Hollywoo d and Hon g Kon g hav e develope d suc h strategie s o f concealmen t i n

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respectively differen t way s an d ho w thes e difference s ma y b e interpreted. Th e fac t tha t moment s o f ruptur e — or , mor e precisely , moments o f dislocatio n — i n actio n fil m ar e introduce d b y mean s o f radical exces s allow s a n extende d understandin g o f actio n fil m tha t focuses o n th e momen t o f contingenc y whic h i n amplifie d for m open s up supplementa l option s fo r shift s i n identificatio n processe s tha t ar e not restricte d t o identificator y image s (o f hero/in/es ) bu t addres s th e structure o f significatio n itself . I t i s o n thi s structura l leve l wher e th e coherence o f th e viewin g subjec t i s fundamentall y jeopardize d tha t actually a shift i n th e productio n o f meaning an d identit y — including dominant cultura l code s a s wel l a s normativ e gende r identitie s — ca n become a politica l option .

Afterword Wong Ki n Yue n an d Am y Kit-sz e Cha n

Traditionally, a n afterword i s supposed t o serve as an editorial summing up o r postscript afte r al l th e tim e an d effor t o f assemblin g a collectio n of essay s suc h a s thi s one . It shoul d als o provide th e las t wor d o n ho w such effort s migh t lea d t o futur e direction s an d collaboration s amon g editors and contributors suc h as one finds i n this volume. Gary Westfah l has don e som e o f thi s wor k i n th e "Introduction, " bu t w e ca n ad d a few words regarding the arrangement o f these essays into three sections . First w e woul d lik e t o remin d ou r reader s tha t contributor s i n th e "Global Perspectives " ar e emphasizing th e pluralistic dimensio n o f th e concept o f globalization , s o much s o that thei r article s displa y a stron g sense of commitment t o examining globalism a s an economic, political , and cultura l hegemoni c machin e operate d b y superpowers , an d t o considering tha t machin e fro m a critical perspective. Relationality an d interconnectedness ar e the theme s ampl y manifested i n thei r effort s t o bring together culture s suc h as Jamaica, Japan, mainland China , Taiwan , and Hon g Kon g i n thei r relationshi p to , say , Britis h an d America n science fiction . Under "Histor y Lessons, " th e sam e principl e i s upheld ; onl y her e it i s th e historicalit y o f scienc e fiction , bot h Eas t an d West , tha t i s radicalized. Thes e ar e truly , t o borro w And y Sawyer' s words , "Tale s of Futures Passed " i n th e sens e bes t explaine d b y th e monstrou s visibl e edges o f th e hermeneutica l circle . B y "visibl e edges " w e refe r t o th e classical monster s suc h a s th e on e i n Frankenstein, H . G . Wells' s Morlocks, th e chimera s i n evolution , Godzilla s ne w an d old , th e anomaly i n Classica l Chines e texts , an d th e Book of Changes a s deciphered i n th e High Castle . Here, th e histories o f science fiction ar e not s o muc h bein g re-examine d bu t rathe r ar e bein g place d int o a co -

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evolutionary orbi t togethe r wit h ou r conceptualizatio n o f differen t futures. Readin g the articles in this sectio n gives us the impression tha t perhaps, t o parody Latour, human s "hav e never been humans" afte r all . With th e ide a tha t i t i s onl y throug h ou r memorie s an d thei r rol e in ou r future(s ) tha t w e ma y hav e a glimpse o f ou r contemporality , w e approach th e thir d an d fina l section , "Contemporar y Cas e Studies. " Here, scienc e an d technology , o r rathe r technoscience , i s revisite d an d expanded i n it s natur e an d scop e t o incorporat e ancien t culture s int o contemporary fictio n an d film. Unexpecte d network s o f interaction ar e found between , fo r example , Africa n cultur e an d moder n technology , and th e weaving women i n ancien t Chin a an d cyberfeminism , th e tw o related t o an d i n suppor t o f eac h othe r throug h a concep t o f virtuality , and betwee n th e ancien t martia l art s o f Chin a an d today' s Hollywoo d filmmaking throug h th e adaptatio n o f th e styl e o f Hon g Kon g kung f u action films . Regarding the future(s) o f ou r endeavo r i n thi s field , w e woul d lik e to focu s o n th e very concep t o f virtuality, whic h traverse s th e past an d the future i n such a way that puts together globalization, scienc e fiction , and the cybernetic revolution into a hermeneutic circle , a feedback loo p of non-linea r folds , an d a projection-reciprocatio n dialectics . Here , virtuality i s a n abstrac t machine , i n a Deleuzia n sense , whic h open s up passages , flows , an d movement s fo r th e becomin g o f technoscienc e cultures, social changes, and the philosophy of difference i n general righ t up t o the cuttin g edg e of mutations. By drawing upon thi s collectio n of attempts an d endeavor s t o focu s o n th e processualit y o f humanity / posthumanity becomin g th e other , al l o f u s ca n ge t int o th e circle , th e loop, o r fold , t o becom e par t o f a n identit y chang e — th e dislocated , desynchronized transition s o r transformations o f the kind o f future tha t has bee n th e virtua l see d o f th e past . Such a relational ontology without hierarch y affords al l contributor s in thi s volum e a ne w spac e fo r interactio n an d fo r establishin g futur e symbiosis withi n ou r them e o f concerns . Hong Kong may well be suc h a space , a s Westfah l mention s i n th e "Introduction" : th e conferenc e was th e firs t eve r o f it s kin d t o be held i n thi s city , an d i t make s sens e for thi s volum e t o b e publishe d b y a universit y pres s i n Hon g Kong . The importance o f any relation doe s not res t with th e interaction o f it s terms bu t rathe r wit h th e spac e tha t ha s bee n yanke d ou t b y them . Such a space is marked ou t b y a process o f cultural imaginatio n a s wel l as theorizatio n o n th e topi c o f moder n scienc e an d technolog y whic h is necessarily global in nature,- and if Hong Kong is truly aspiring toward s a so-calle d knowledg e society , it s peopl e nee d t o catc h u p no t simpl y

AFTERWORD 257

with informatio n o r digita l technolog y bu t als o wit h a cyberontolog y which embrace s arts , creativity , an d a cultura l imaginar y o f al l kinds . We believe in the potential o f science fiction t o be stretched beyon d its purvie w int o th e ne w real m o f cyberculture , an d thi s i s essentia l i n Hong Kong as well a s in all of Asia. Cyberculture a s an interdisciplinar y praxis ha s bee n ampl y documente d b y a tradition o f scholarshi p i n th e West. Important cultura l thinker s suc h a s Jameson, Davi d Harvey , an d Gastells hav e writte n o n th e nee d t o conceptualiz e th e global-socia l totality an d time-space compressio n i n our information age . To be sure , extremities ar e foun d i n th e technophile s an d th e technophobes , bot h subsumed unde r th e fat e o f crud e scientifi c an d ethica l determinisms . However, critic s ca n no w tak e int o consideratio n Latour' s "amoder n episteme" i n which a n "actor-network " perspectiv e o n technology wil l help u s t o understan d tha t socio-cultur e an d th e Interne t ar e mutuall y determining. Cyberdiscourse s als o joi n force s w i t h t h e lates t developments o f inforrnati c theories , technoscience hermeneutics , an d cyberf eminist agenda s in their working out o f ways to visualize th e ne w cultural "spaces " o f digita l technologies. 1 Emphasizin g "geographi c information systems," 2 virtualit y o f all kinds in electronically enhance d communication an d interactive media, 3 an d cyberpower an d the politic s of the Internet, 4 cybercritic s ar e naturally inclined t o construct a balance between cyberspac e o r th e matri x an d th e actua l worl d w e liv e in . Directions ar e no w se t fo r comin g investigation s o f ho w th e computer itsel f become s the "objectificatio n o f social values and cultura l systems." 5 Followin g Gastells' s "spac e o f flow s an d spac e o f places, " discussions o f th e relationshi p betwee n th e "cit y o f bits" 6 an d Urbanscape 7 tur n t o locatin g th e specifi c circui t loop s an d mediatio n of infoledg e an d cultura l content s i n bot h on-lin e an d off-lin e worlds . This i s o f particula r importanc e t o Hon g Kon g a s a megacity, sinc e it s citizens wil l hav e t o dea l wit h th e proble m o f ho w t o relocate , a s i t were, th e virtua l cultur e i n th e rea l world . Therefore , bot h th e immediate and long-term impact s and consequences o f network cultur e will hav e t o b e accessed ; an d th e mutua l pushin g an d pullin g betwee n different technoscientifi c an d social conditions, the Internet functionin g as a mediu m fo r cultura l transmission , wil l b e carefull y studied . Al l these will, in th e lon g run, benefi t bot h th e student s o f Hong Kon g an d the publi c a t larg e i n helpin g the m kee p pac e wit h technologica l innovations throughou t thei r lifelon g learning . By emphasizin g th e virtualit y o f ou r endeavor s — past an d futur e — i n groupin g effort s an d expertis e i n bot h scienc e fictio n an d cyberculture, we are effectively advocatin g a shifting o f paradigms fro m

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cultural studie s pe r s e t o intercultura l studies . B y paying attentio n t o the combinatories , say , o f intensiv e scienc e an d virtua l philosophy , a s Manuel De Land a has it, we wish t o move into the spac e of the "inter, " a spac e wher e Bria n Massumi' s "parables " o f th e virtua l pla y a role of a c t o r / a c t a n t w h i c h i s characterize d b y passages , processes , interactivities, o r the interface betwee n human/nonhuma n an d human / machine. Massum i i s o f th e opinio n tha t "cultura l studie s ha s misse d its processua l boa t becaus e i t ha s no t ha d th e audacit y t o swee p fa r enough" int o change s themselves , s o tha t i t "misse s surplu s givin g relation an d th e qualitativ e exces s o f ongoin g transformations." 8 Suc h valorizing o f effects , percepts , an d movement s o f al l kind s i n a flux o f forces an d intensities , w e woul d ventur e t o suggest , wil l becom e th e major problematic s fo r intercultura l studie s in the twenty-firs t century . For al l thes e matter s t o b e furthe r pursued , thi s volum e ha s manage d to provid e a n indispensabl e firs t ste p t o giv e ou r futur e project s a hea d start, an d fo r tha t reaso n w e ar e deepl y gratefu l t o everyon e wh o ha s been involve d i n th e publicatio n o f thi s volume .

Notes

CHAPTER 1

1. Ralp h Wald o Emerson , "Self-Reliance, " i n Sculle y Bradley , Richmon d Croom Beatty , an d E . Hudso n Long , editors , The American Tradition in Literature, Thir d Edition , Volume 1 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967) , 1136 . 2. Ralp h Waldo Emerson, "Nature, " i n Bradley, Beatty, an d Long , editors , The American Tradition in Literature, 1066-7 . 3. Emerson , "Self-Reliance, " 1140 . 4. Eus i Kwayana , Prefac e t o Rasta and Resistance, b y Horac e Campbel l (Trenton, NJ : Africa Worl d Press , 1987) , xii . 5. Horac e Campbell , Rasta and Resistance (Trenton , NJ : Africa Worl d Press , 1987), 145 . 6. Te d Chiang , "Stor y o f You r Life " (Ne w York : TOR , 2002) , 327 . Late r parenthetical pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 7. Rober t Silverberg , Up the Line (Ne w York : Ballantin e Books , 1969) , 38. 8. Rober t A . Heinlein, "Al l You Zombies —, " i n Heinlein , 6 x H: Six Stories by Robert A. Heinlein (origina l title The Unpleasant Profession of Jonathan Hoag) (1959 ; New York : Pyrami d Books , 1961) , 136 . Stor y firs t publishe d in 1959 .

CHAPTER 2 1. A well-know n remar k attribute d t o Ralp h Wald o Emerson . 2. Josep h Campbell , "Th e Hierati c Cit y State, " Parabola: The Magazine of Myth and Tradition, volum e numbe r (Winter , 1993) , 41. This i s a n excerp t from Campbell , The Flight of the Wild Gander: Explorations in the Mythological Dimension (Ne w York : HarperCollins , 1990) . Late r pag e references i n th e tex t ar e t o th e magazin e excerpt . 3. L e Corbusier, The City of Tomorrow and its Planning (1924 ; London: Th e

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TO PAGES 29-38

Architectural Press , 1987) , 22-4. Translated fro m th e eight h Frenc h editio n of Urbanisme. Later pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o th e Architectura l Press edition . 4. Se e Jea n Gottma n an d Rober t A . Harper , Since Megalopolis: The Urban Writings of Jean Gottman (Baltimore , MD: Johns Hopkins Universit y Press , 1990), an d th e Unite d Nations , World Urbanization Prospects: The 1994 Revision (Ne w York : Unite d Nations , 1995) . 5. Pete r Hall , The World Cities, Thir d Editio n (London : Weidenfel d an d Nicholson, 1984) . 6. Saski a Sassen , Cities in a World Economy (Thousan d Oaks , CA: Pine Forg e Press, 1994) , 1 . 7. I am indebte d t o intellectua l historia n Bradfor d Lya u fo r pointin g ou t thi s characteristic o f th e ancien t Mediterranea n worl d t o me . 8. Sassen , 194 . 9. Her e I a m soundin g lik e a biologis t talkin g o f cit y plannin g — but s o I should, fo r bot h I onc e was . I n 1979-80 , I was biologis t manage r o f th e Newtown Fis h Hatcher y i n Newtown , Ohio . I n th e summe r o f 1982 , a s one of my many graduate school jobs, I interned in the Planning Departmen t of th e Cit y o f Pal m Springs , writing an d editin g th e Energ y Element o f th e City Genera l Pla n a s wel l a s severa l disaste r preparednes s documents . Because Palm Spring s is in th e middl e o f a desert an d imports nearl y al l it s energy, food , an d wate r fro m outsid e cit y limit s — because Pal m Spring s is, i n othe r words , lik e ever y othe r city , onl y mor e s o — the artificialit y and unnaturalnes s o f th e cit y wa s brough t powerfull y hom e t o me . 10. Arthu r C . Clarke , The City and the Stars (1953 ; New York : Harcourt, Brace and Company , 1956) , 1 . Later page references i n the tex t ar e to this edition . 11. Se e "Th e Sixt h Tale, " Cliffor d D . Simak , City (Ne w York : Gnom e Press , 1952). Late r pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 12. Ursul a K . L e Guin , City of Illusions (1967 ; Ne w York : Harpe r an d Row , 1978), 189 . Later pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 13. Alle n Ginsberg , Interview , 16t h Annua l Writer s Week , Universit y o f California, Riverside , Februar y 1983 . 14. Thi s "sof t landing " pat h i s no t ho w th e citie s ar e emptie d i n m y nove l Empty Cities of the Full Moon, thoug h I wish it were. Forgive me if I remain pessimistic i n m y fiction . I do s o onl y ou t o f a n optimis m tha t th e fact s may tur n ou t bette r tha n I have an y righ t t o expect . 15. Donn a J. Haraway, " A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism i n th e Lat e Twentiet h Century, " i n Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (Ne w York : Routledge , 1991) , 181. 16. M y thank s t o philosophe r Davi d Bruc e Alber t fo r sharin g wit h m e hi s responses t o Haraway' s "Cybor g Manifesto. "

NOTES TO PAGES 41-53 261

CHAPTER 3

1. Th e earlies t versio n o f th e pape r wa s delivere d a t a specia l symposium , "Happy Birthday , HA L 9000, " held a t AR K Hill s i n Toky o o n 1 2 Januar y 1992, the very da y that thi s super-compute r wa s born i n the movi e versio n of 2001. Later , I discussed m y idea s wit h m y friend s Larr y McCaffer y an d Kathryn Crame r an d incorporated th e argumen t int o m y tal k i n a panel o n cinematic representation s (hel d at Rikky o Universit y i n Toky o o n June 18 , 1993, wit h Fredri c Jameso n an d Pete r Fittin g a s co-panelists . Thei r invaluable comment s an d advic e encourage d m e t o complet e th e article . The organizer s o f th e conference , "Hon g Kon g 2001: Technology , Identity , Futurity, Eas t an d West , i n th e Emergin g Globa l Village, " hel d a t th e Chinese Universit y o f Hon g Kong , 4- 6 Januar y 2001 , especially Won g Ki n Yuen, Gar y Westfahl , an d Zhon g Longxi , gav e m e a chanc e t o furthe r develop m y interpretatio n o f 2001 i n a keynot e addres s delivere d o n 6 January, whe n I received a variety o f insightfu l question s an d comments , especially fro m Christophe r Bolton . I also feel oblige d t o acknowledg e tw o more debts . One is to Doug Rice, who generousl y printe d on e of th e earlie r drafts i n th e first issu e of th e "avant-pop " magazin e he edits , Nobodaddies (Spring/Summer 1994) . The othe r deb t i s t o Hiroak i Sakashita , th e edito r of Heibonsha Publishers, who encouraged me to expand the idea of the paper into m y boo k Rereading 2001: A Space Odyssey (Tokyo : Heibonsh a Publishers, 2001) . 2. N o r m a n Kagan , The Cinema of Stanley Kubrick (1972 ; Ne w York : Continuum, 1989) , 161. 3. Shoshan a Felman , The Literary Speech Act (1980 ; Ithaca: Cornell Universit y Press, 1983 , 15. 4. Felman , 148 . 5. Raymon d Federman , "Self-Reflexiv e Fictio n o r Ho w t o Ge t Ri d o f It. " Critifiction: Postmodern Essays (Albany : Stat e Universit y o f Ne w Yor k Press, 1988) : 17-34 . 6. Arthu r C . Clarke , 2001: A Space Odyssey (Ne w York: Signet Books , 1968) , 25. 7. Arthu r C . Clarke , 2010: Odyssey Two (London : Grafton , 1982) , 254. Late r page reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 8. Arthu r C . Clarke , 2061: Odyssey Three (Ne w York : De l Rey , 1987) , 263. 9. Arthu r C . Clarke , 3001: The Final Odyssey (Ne w York : Ballantine , 1997) , 189. 10. Fredri c Jameson , "Historicis m i n The Shining," i n Jameson , Signatures of the Visible (Ne w York : Routledge , 1990) , 86 . 11. Matte o Ricci, cited in Jonathan Spence, The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (1983; Ne w York : Penguin , 1984) , 135 , 139 . 12. Arthu r C . Clarke, Profiles of the Future: Millennium Edition (1999 ; London: Indigo, 2000) , l } italic s added .

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13. Te d Chiang , "Seventy-Tw o Letters, " i n Chiang , Stories of Your Life and Others (Ne w York : Tor , 2002) , 238 . Story firs t publishe d i n 2000 .

CHAPTER 4

1. Chri s Hable s Gray , Cyborg Citizen (Ne w Yor k an d London : Routledge , 2001), 165 , 191. 2. N . Katherin e Hayles , How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Infomatics (Chicago : Universit y o f Chicag o Press, 1999) . 3. Chri s Hable s Gray , Heid i J . Figueroa-Sarriera , an d Steve n Mentor , "Cyborgology: Constructin g th e Knowledg e o f Cyberneti c Organisms, " i n Gray, editor , The Cyborg Handbook (London : Routledge , 1995) , 2. 4. Thi s i s a n expansio n o f th e lis t o f cyborgia n feature s i n Gray , Figueroa Sarriera, an d Mentor , "Cyborgology : Constructin g th e Knowledg e o f Cybernetic Organisms, " i n Gray , editor , The Cyborg Handbook, 2 . 5. Her e an d throughou t I follo w Japanes e nam e orde r fo r Japanes e names : family nam e first . 6. Frederic k Schodt , Inside the Robot Kingdom: Japan, Mechatronics, and the Coming Robotopia (Tokyo : Kodansh a International , 1980) . 7. Uen o Toshiya, "Japanimatio n an d Techno-Orientalism," i n Bruce Grenville, editor, The Uncanny: Experiments in Cyborg Culture (catalogu e fo r sho w at th e VAG ) (Vancouver : Arsena l Pul p Press , 2001) , 228. 8. Fo r example , Frit z Lang' s fil m Metropolis, cite d i n th e VA G sho w a s a n important momen t i n th e histor y o f th e cyborg , inspire d Japanes e cultura l icon, manga artis t Tezuk a Osam u t o issu e a 160-pag e comi c book versio n of Metropolis betwee n 194 7 and 1949 . (Tezuka claims that he had only heard about, bu t neve r seen , th e film. ) Thi s popula r manga stor y helpe d cemen t Tezuka's reputatio n i n Japan . H e wen t o n t o writ e dozen s o f enormousl y popular work s featurin g robots , androids , an d cyborgs . Tezuka Osamu's Metropolis ha s bee n mad e int o a n anime movi e b y directo r Rintaro , an d released widel y acros s Nort h America . Anothe r exampl e i s th e Futurist Manifesto an d it s influenc e o n Japanes e Futurism , discusse d late r i n thi s essay. 9. Miche l Foucault , "Nietzsche , Genealogy , History, " i n Foucault , Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews, edite d b y Donald Bouchar d (Ithaca , NY : Cornel l Universit y Press , 1977) , 148 . 10. I am indebte d t o Komatsu Sakyo' s study o f early SF for the analogy betwee n the submarine' s hul l an d th e contemporar y mecha-suit ; se e Komatsu , Komatsu Sakyo no SF Seminaa (Komats u Sakyo' s S F Seminar ) (Tokyo : Shueisha, 1982) , 95. Much o f th e informatio n abou t th e adventur e novel s and storie s her e come s fro m Komats u (93-101) , wh o unfortunatel y doe s not giv e exact publication date s for many o f the literary works he discusses .

NOTES TO PAGES 60-62 263

11. Th e date s I list her e mar k th e beginnin g o f publicatio n o f a seria l manga or the beginning o f an anime T V series. Most o f these narratives hav e bee n remade an d expande d upo n severa l times , i n severa l media : manga, T V animation, direct-t o vide o animatio n (ver y popular an d widely accesse d i n Japan), an d animate d movie s release d t o theaters . The basi c narrativ e an d characters o f Gundam, fo r example , have been made into fourteen T V series and a t leas t tw o full-lengt h featur e films . 12. Amon g th e man y instance s o f cross-fertilizatio n I canno t pursu e her e i s the large-scal e Japanes e productio n an d expor t o f ti n toy s o f robot s an d spacemen i n th e 1940 s an d 1950 s an d America n pul p fictio n abou t spac e exploration an d alie n invasion s tha t bot h dre w inspiration fro m thes e toy s and i n tur n influence d thei r design . Se e Teruhis a Kitahara , Kitahara Teruhisa no hakoezukan (Kitahar a Teruhisa' s To y an d Toybo x Collection ) (Tokyo: Jitsugyo n o nihonsha , 1999) , 72-109 . 13. Ann o Hideki and Komatsu Sakyo , "Conversation: 'Seda i o koete kyoyu su m SF seishin' " ( A Share d Spiri t o f Scienc e Fictio n Tha t Transcend s th e Generations), in Ono Shuichi, editor, Roman: Album: SF Japan: Millenium: 00 (Tokyo : Tokkan shoten , 2000) , 25. 14. Donn a Haraway , " A Manifest o fo r Cyborgs : Science , Technology , an d Socialist-Feminism i n th e 1980s, " i n Lind a Nicholson , editor , Feminism/ Postmodernism (Ne w York : Routledge, 1990) , 192 . 15. Mar y Shelley , Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus (1818 ; Poole , Dorset: Ne w Orchard , 1986) , 121-4 . 16. Beside s the example s from Gra y in th e epigraph , se e Bruce Grenville, "Th e Uncanny: Experiment s i n Cybor g Culture, " i n Grenville , editor , The Uncanny: Experiments in Cyborg Culture (Catalogu e for sho w a t th e VAG) (Vancouver: Arsena l Pul p Press , 2001 , 38-48, an d Uen o Toshiya , 22 3 ff . 17. See , fo r example , Gray , Figueroa-Sarriera , an d Mentor , "Cyborgology, " 5 6; Hug h Gusterson , "Shor t Circuit : Watchin g Televisio n wit h a Nuclear Weapons Scientist, " i n Gray , editor, The Cyborg Handbook, 109 ; Haraway, in th e epigrap h t o thi s section ; an d Nin a Lykke , "Betwee n Monsters , Goddesses an d Cyborgs : Feminis t Confrontation s wit h Science, " i n Gil l Kirkup, Lind a Janes , Kat h Woodward , an d Fion a Hovenden , editors , The Gendered Cyborg: A Reader (Londo n and New York : Routledge, 2000) , 75 6). Nod a Masahiro , Zusetsu robotto: Noda SF korekushon ( A Pictoria l History o f America n S F Magazines) (Tokyo : Kawad e shobo , 2000) , 8-10 , makes a similar argumen t abou t th e monster's connectio n with ou r feeling s toward artificia l lif e forms , bot h Japanes e an d Western . 18. Re y Chow , "Violenc e i n th e Othe r Country : Chin a a s Crisis , Spectacle , and Woman," i n Chandr a Mohanty , An n Russo an d Lourdes Torres, editors , Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Bloomington : Indian a University Press , 1991) , 84. 19. Cho w i s taking her model from th e 193 3 film King Kong, but m y reference s to Frankenstein ar e t o Mar y Shelley' s 181 8 book rathe r tha n t o an y o f th e filmed version s o f th e narrative .

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TO PAGES 62-68

20. Joh n W . Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York : Pantheon , 1986) , 204. 21. Se e Sharalyn Orbaugh, "Se x and the Single Cyborg: Japanese Popular Cultur e Experiments i n Subjectivity, " Science Fiction Studies (November , 2002) , 436-52. 22. Th e ter m "scienc e fiction, " usuall y expresse d i n Japanes e wit h th e letter s "sf," cam e int o th e languag e onl y i n th e 1950s . Unti l tha t time , mos t o f what w e would now classif y a s science fiction fel l into th e kagaku shosetsu category. 23. Fuji o Ishihara , SF Robottogaku nyumon (A n Introduction t o S F Robotology) (Tokyo: Hayakawa, 1981) , 34-5. 24. Fo r a fulle r descriptio n o f som e o f thes e stories , se e Rober t Matthew , Japanese Science Fiction: A View of a Changing Society (London : Routledge, 1989), 13-38 . 25. Susa n Napier, Anime: From Akira to Princess Mononoke (London : Palgrave, 2001), 197 . 26. Sometime s femal e cyborg s appeare d i n movi e o r televisio n sequel s t o th e original narrative corpus , such as Seven of Nine in Star Trek: Voyager. Most often the y see m t o b e afterthoughts . Th e replicant s Pri s an d Rachae l i n Blade Runner ar e th e unusua l exception s t o thi s rule . 27. Th e vas t majorit y o f scienc e fictio n pul p magazin e cover s fro m th e 1920 s through 1940 s in th e U S featured robot s o r extraterrestrial machine-being s hurting o r threatenin g humans . I t i s no t unti l th e 1950 s tha t human s i n space suit s an d othe r "benevolent " cyborg s begi n t o appea r i n cove r art . (The magazines examine d includ e Amazing Stories, Wonder Stories, Weird Tales, Science Fiction, Fantastic Adventures, an d The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction.) Se e Noda Masahiro , passim. 28. Se e Samanth a Holland , "Descarte s Goe s t o Hollywood : Mind , Bod y an d Gender in Contemporar y Cybor g Cinema," i n Mike Featherstone an d Roge r Burrows, editors , Cyberspace, Cyberbodies, Cyberpunk: Cultures of Technological Embodiment (London : Sag e Publications , 1995) , 157-74 . 29. Orbaugh , "Se x an d th e Singl e Cyborg. " 30. I n "Se x an d th e Singl e Cyborg " I explor e a t greate r lengt h Evangelion'% representation o f "intercorporation " an d it s implication s fo r sex/gende r theory. 31. Femal e bodie s ar e perceive d a s permeabl e als o throug h th e "leakage " o f menstruation an d th e violen t breachin g o f bod y boundarie s durin g childbirth. 32. But , a s theorists suc h a s Judith Butle r have made clear , tha t doe s not mea n that on e is free t o rejec t th e gender roles o f one's tim e an d place an d creat e a ne w gende r identity . Eac h o f u s i s born int o a society alread y structure d by thes e roles , an d ou r onl y choic e i s t o tak e u p on e o f th e availabl e positions.

NOTES TO PAGES 69-76 265

33. No t all of these narratives ca n be seen as "progressive," by any means. Ofte n they ar e heteronormative o r misogynist. Fo r the people drawing th e manga or creatin g th e anime, th e decisio n t o featur e a voluptuou s femal e bod y even fo r a warrio r protagonis t ma y simpl y b e a matte r o f providin g eye candy for th e audience . Nonetheless , thes e depiction s rais e interesting an d important questions , eve n whe n no t explicitl y mean t t o b e progressive . 34. Severa l critic s — from Sandr a M . Gilber t an d Susa n Gubar , Madwoman in the Attic: the Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (Ne w Haven, CT : Yale University Press , 1979) , especially 21347, t o Pete r Brooks , Body Work: Objects of Desire in Modern Narrative (Cambridge: Harvar d Universit y Press , 1993) , 199-22 0 — have conclude d that th e monste r i s gendere d feminin e becaus e h e i s no t acknowledge d a s a legitimat e so n b y hi s creator-father , h e ha s n o femal e counterpar t wit h whom t o form th e heterosexual dyad , an d he has difficult y i n enterin g int o language an d th e symbolic , amon g othe r reasons . 35. MacArthu r wa s hei r t o a long traditio n o f viewin g th e Japanes e (an d othe r "Orientals") a s children . Dowe r discusse s th e analysi s b y wartim e psychoanalysts o f th e Japanes e "collectivel y blocke d a t th e ana l o r phalli c stage" (302-3) ; se e als o 118-46 . 36. Th e wor d "yaoi " is an acrony m meanin g "n o highs , no lows , no meaning, " suggesting the undramatic an d repetitive nature o f these boy-boy romances . Nonetheless, som e ar e far fro m undramatic , includin g graphi c rape scenes , murder, an d th e like . Se e Sharaly n Orbaugh , "Bust y Battlin ' Babes : Th e Evolution o f th e Shoj o i n 1990 s Visua l Culture, " i n Joshu a S . Mostow , Norman Bryso n an d Maribet h Graybill , editors , Gender and Power in the Japanese Visual Field (Honolulu : Hawai i Universit y Press , 2003) .

CHAPTER 5

1. Won g Kin Yuen, "Urbanity, Cyberpunk and the Posthuman: Taiwa n Scienc e Fiction fro m th e 60 s t o 90s, " Tamkang Review, Vol . XXXI, No. 3 (Winte r 2000), 71-102 . 2. Harding , Sandra . The Science Question in Feminism. (Milto n Keynes: Ope n University Press , 1986) . 3. Joh n D . Caputo , More Radical Hermeneutics: On Not Knowing Who We Are (Bloomingto n an d Indianapolis : Indian a Universit y Press , 2000) , 42 . 4. Chan g Hsi-kuo , "Th e Ultimat e Son g o f Translation, " i n Chang , The Star Cloud Suite (Taipei : Hun g fan , 1980) , 111 ; my translation . Late r pag e references i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 5. Steve n Mailloux , Rhetorical Power (Ithaca , NY : Cornell Universit y Press , 1989), 134 . 6. I quote fro m Sua n Handelman' s "Parodi c Pla y an d Propheti c Reason " i n Paul Hernadi, editor , The Rhetoric of Interpretation and the Interpretation of Rhetoric. (Durham , NC : Duk e Universit y Press , 1989 , 143-71) , wher e

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TO PAGES 76-82

the autho r present s Levinas' s hermeneutics , whic h take s languag e t o b e the singl e majo r ke y fo r th e subjec t t o answe r th e "cal l o f th e other. " I t i s "a gift , a n offerin g an d welcom e o f th e other " (155) . 7. Calvi n O . Schrag , Communicative Praxis and the Space of Subjectivity (Bloomington an d Indianapolis : Indiana Universit y Press , 1986) , 136 . Late r page reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 8. Han-Geor g Gadamer , Truth and Method (London : Shee d an d Ward , 1975) , 432. Late r pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 9. Davi d Couzen s Hoy , The Critical Circle: Literature and History in Contemporary Hermeneutics (Berkeley : Universit y o f Californi a Press , 1978), 98 . Later pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 10. Ha y den White , "Th e Rhetori c o f Interpretation, " i n Pau l Hernadi , editor , The Rhetoric of Interpretation and the Interpretation of Rhetoric (Durham , NC: Duk e Universit y Press , 1989) , 2. 11. Jiirge n Habermas , " A Revie w o f Gadamer' s Truth and Method," i n Bric e R. Wachtehauser , editor , Hermeneutics and Modern Philosophy (Albany : New Yor k Stat e Universit y Press , 1986) , 243. 12. Jame s Risser , Hermeneutics and the Voice of the Other: Re-reading Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutic (Albany : Stat e Universit y o f Ne w York, 1997) , 132 . Later pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 13. G B . Madison, The Hermeneutics of Postmodernity (Bloomington : Indian a University Press , 1988) , 96. 14. Pau l Ricoeur , "Metapho r an d th e Centra l Problem s o f Hermeneutics, " i n Ricouer, Paul Ricoeur: Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences, translate d and edite d b y Joh n B . Thompson (London : Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1981), 94 . 15. Se e Mar y Snell-Hornby , "Linguisti c Transcodin g o f Cultura l Transfer ? A Critique o f Translatio n Theor y i n Bermany, " i n Susa n Bassnet t an d Andr e Lefere, editors , Translation, History and Culture (London : Pinter , 1990) . 16. I n discussin g th e younge r generatio n o f Taiwa n SF , I primarily dra w upo n stories appearin g i n th e Marc h 199 4 issue o f Youth Literary, No . 483. All stories appearin g i n thi s issu e ha d bee n give n award s b y th e magazine . 17. Ti m Jordan , Cyberpower: The Culture and Politics of Cyberspace and the Internet (Londo n an d Ne w York : Routledge , 1999) , 17 9 (Jorda n 1999 , 20). 18. Ch i Tawei, " A Rose Grows Out o f His Eye and Your Palm," Youth Literary, No. 40 3 (March , 1994) , 104 ; my translation . Late r pag e reference s i n th e text ar e t o thi s edition . 19. Jeffre y Jerom e Cohen , Monster Theory: Reading Culture. (Minneapolis : University o f Minnesot a Press , 1996) . 20. Judit h Halberstam' s Skin Shows, Gothic Horror and the Technology of Monsters (Durham , NC : Duke Universit y Press , 1995 ) theorizes tha t wha t monsters ar e t o "normal " peopl e i s paralle l t o wha t Gothi c novel s ar e t o mainstream novels . 21. Se e Donn a Haraway , Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of

NOTES TO PAGES 82-84 267

Nature (Ne w York : Routledge , 1991) . Later pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e to thi s edition . 22. Keit h Ansel l Pearson , "Viroi d Life : On Machines , Technic s an d Evolution, " in Pearson , editor , Delueze and Philosophy: The Difference Engineer (London: Routledge, 1997) , 181 . Later page references i n th e tex t ar e to thi s edition. 23. Gille s Deleuz e an d Feli x Guattari , A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, translate d b y Bria n Massum i (London : Th e Athlon e Press , 1988), 69 . Al l late r pag e reference s t o Deleuz e an d Guattar i i n th e text , except i n on e paragrap h note d below , ar e t o thi s wor k an d t o thi s edition . 24. Miche l Foucault , "Th e Subjec t an d Power, " i n Foucault , Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, edite d by Hubert Dryfu s an d Pau l Rabinow, 2n d Editio n (Chicago : University o f Chicag o Press , 1983) , 213. 25. B y expanded , I a m followin g Do n Ihde' s boo k Expanding Hermeneutics: Visualism in Science (Evanston , IL : Northwestern Universit y Press , 1998) . Together wit h hi s Technology and the Lifeworld: From Garden to Earth (Bloomington an d Indianapolis : Indian a Universit y Press , 1990) , Idh e ha s done muc h t o promulgat e a hermeneutic s o f scienc e an d technology , a s later discussed . 26. Pau l Patton , Deleuze and the Political (London : Routledge . 2000) , 78 . 27. Th e relationshi p betwee n feminism s an d th e Deleuzia n projec t i s wel l established nowadays , a s demonstrate d b y work s lik e Tasmi n Lorraine' s Irigaray and Deleuze: Experiments in Visceral Philosophy (Ne w York : Cornell University Press , 1999 ) and Elizabeth Grosz' s anthology Becomings: Explorations in Time, Memory, and Futures (Ithac a an d London : Cornel l University Press , 1999) . 28. Gille s Deleuz e an d Feli x Guattari , Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, translate d b y Robert Harley, Mar k Seem , an d Helen R . Lan e (Minneapolis: University o f Minnesota Press , 1983) , 2, 8. All page reference s in thi s paragrap h ar e t o thi s tex t an d t o thi s edition . 29. Dorothe a Olkowski , "Flow s of Desire and the Body-Becoming," in Elizabet h Grosz, editor , Becomings: Explorations in Time, Memory, and Futures (Ithaca an d London : Cornel l Universit y Press , 1999) , 107 . See also Deleuz e and Guattari , Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, 70 , 82. 30. Lynett e Hunter , Critique of Knowing: Situated Textualities in Science, Computing and the Arts (London : Routledge , 1999) , 103 . Late r pag e references i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 31. Tasmi n Lorraine, Irigaray and Deleuze: Experiments in Visceral Philosophy, 126. 32. Fo r a delineatio n o f Chines e hermeneutics , se e m y "Metaphoricit y i n Classical Chines e Criticism : Towar d a Chines e Hermeneutics, " i n Han liang Chang , editor , Concepts of Literary Theory East and West (Taipei : Bookman, 1993) , 245-63. 33. Henr i Bergson , Matter and Memory, translate d b y N . M . Pau l an d W . S . Palmer (Ne w York : Zone Books , 1988) , 38.

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34. N . Katherin e Hayles , How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics (Chicago : University o f Chicag o Press, 1999) , 29, 2 . Late r pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 35. Ti m Jordan , Cyberpower, 20 . 36. Margare t Morse , Virtualities: Television, Media Art and Cyberculture (Bloomington: Indian a Universit y Press , 1998) , 180 . 37. We i Ke-fung, "Inane, " Youth Literary, No . 403 (March, 1994) , 65. Later pag e references i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 38. Lynett e Hunter , Critique of Knowing, 188 . 39. Veronic a Hollinge r ha s noted a relationship betwee n studie s o n scienc e an d technology an d SF , in he r discussio n o f ne w friend s i n S F criticism: "S F i s increasingly feature d i n th e expandin g area s o f cybercultur e studie s (se e Dery's Escape Velocity, fo r example ) an d cultura l studie s o f scienc e an d technology (suc h a s Balsamo' s Technologies of the Gendered Body)." "Contemporary Trend s i n Scienc e Fiction Criticism , 1980-1999, " ScienceFiction Studies, 2 6 (July , 1999) , 261. 40. Chan g Kuo-li , "Th e Ma n o n th e Bicycle, " Youth Literary, No . 403 (March , 1994), 48, my translation. Late r page references i n the text are to this edition . 41. J . MacGregor Wise , Exploring Technology and Social Space (London : Sage , 1997), 59 . 42. Marti n Heidegger , Being and Time, translate d b y Joh n MacQuarri e an d Edward Robinso n (Ne w York : Harpe r an d Row) , 1962 , 408 . Late r pag e references i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 43. Car l Freedman , Critical Theory and Science Fiction (Middletown , CT : Wesleyan Universit y Press , 2000) , 110 . 44. I can anticipat e a possible objection b y reader s tha t th e late r Heidegger , i n The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, translate d b y William Lovit t (Ne w York : Harpe r an d Row , 1977) , turn s aroun d an d condemns technolog y a s concealin g wha t coul d b e reveale d b y a n obliteration o f distance between humans an d objects. However, I agree wit h Caputo tha t Heidegge r succumbe d t o a "massiv e essentialism " abou t science and technology after Being and Time an d seemingly forgot hi s earlie r account o f a "hermeneutic version of science" which was "refreshingly non essentialist, projection " (Caput o 169-70) . 45. Do n Ihde , Technology and the Lifeworld, 44 , 48. 46. Do n Ihde , Expanding Hermeneutics, 161 , 162. 47. Wherea s I canno t d o justic e t o th e concep t o f th e Chines e sublim e here , both poet s an d landscap e painter s i n th e Classica l Chines e traditio n informed b y Taois t aesthetic s uphel d th e kin d o f virtualit y Bergso n an d Deleuze tal k about . Wha t Elizabet h Gros z i s intereste d i n abou t "duratio n or temporal flow" an d how this duration brings "t o the world the possibilit y of a n unfolding , a narrative, a hesitation" (i n her essa y in Becomings, 215 , 225) certainly find s a counterpart i n th e hermeneutic praxi s o f th e Chines e landscape paintin g an d poetry. There, spatia l experienc e i s "temporalized, "

NOTES TO PAGES 90-92 269

turned int o multipHcities o f viewpoints, broken streams being "narrativized, " gaps and opening s thematized . Deleuz e an d Guattar i themselve s hav e pai d tribute t o the Chines e poets by noting the latter's not pursuing resemblance : "They retain , extrac t onl y th e essentia l line s an d movement s o f nature ; they proceed onl y by continued o r superposed traits , or strokes. It is in thi s sense that becoming-everybody/everything , makin g th e world a becoming" (Deleuze and Guattari , 280) . Needless t o say , the line of blank o r emptines s so characteristic of classical Chinese landscape painting (which usually take s up a middle positio n i n th e painting a s a line o f mis t o r cloud) i s a "lin e of becoming whic h ha s onl y a middle" (Deleuz e an d Guattari , 293) . Bergson's concept o f perceptio n i s relevan t here , sinc e a s Pearso n explain s i n "Pur e Reserve: Deleuze, Philosoph y an d Immanence, " i n Deleuze and Religion, edited b y Mar y Bryde n (London : Routledge , 2001) , i t "concern s th e vita l adaptive interest s o f th e body , an d thes e interest s ar e wha t guid e actio n and instruc t it s relatio n wit h th e virtual " (144) . Th e whol e issu e o f th e openendedness o f virtuality wil l eventuall y b e trace d t o Deleuze' s concep t of movement-imag e an d hi s adoptin g Bergson' s "sensory-moto r schema " in his tw o books on cinema. Describing how Deleuze understands sensatio n and ho w i t move s thought , Gregor y Flaxma n i n hi s "Introduction " t o Flaxman, editor , The Brain Is the Screen: Deleuze and The Philosophy of Cinema (Minneapolis : Universit y o f Minnesota , 2000) , liken s i t t o th e Kantian sublime , whic h i s a "confrontatio n wit h chaos " an d a "vibration " between imaginatio n an d though t (13) . I would, however , argu e tha t th e Bergsonian an d Deleuzia n idea s o f montage , th e percep t an d affec t o f a n acentered an d non-huma n ey e which i s beyond th e huma n condition , ar e better compare d t o th e Chines e sublim e tha n t o th e Kantia n one . But thi s is beyon d th e scop e o f thi s chapter . 48. Margare t C . Jacob , "Scienc e Studie s afte r Socia l Construction : Th e Tur n toward th e Comparativ e an d th e Global, " i n Victori a E . Bonnell an d Lyn n Hunt, editors , Beyond The Cultural Turn: New Direction in the Study of Society and Culture (Berkeley : University o f Californi a Press , 1999) , 97. 49. Andre w Feenberg , Questioning Technology (London : Routledge , 1999) , 83, 85. Late r pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 50. Trevo r Pinc h an d Wieb e Bijker , "Th e Socia l Constructio n o f Fact s an d Artefacts," i n Bijker , T . Huges, and Pinch, editors , The Social Construction of Technological Systems (Cambridge : MI T Press , 1987) , 42. 51. Thoma s C . Shevory , Body/Politics: Studies in Reproductions, Productions, and (Re)Construction (London : Praeger , 2000) , 43. 52. Stuar t Moulthrop , "Rhizom e an d Resistance : Hypertext an d th e Dream s of a Ne w Culture, " i n Georg e P . Landow , editor , Hypertext /Text /Theory (London: John s Hopkin s Universit y Press . 1994) , 304. 53. Jef f Malpas , "Uncovering the Space of Disclosedness: Heidegger, Technology , and th e Proble m o f Spatialit y i n Being and Time," i n Mar k Wrathal l an d Malpas, editors , Heidegger , Authenticity, and Modernity: Essays in Honor of Hubert L. Dreyfus, Volum e 1 , Cambridge: MI T Press , 2000) , 220 .

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TO PAGES 92-113

54. Ari e Rip an d R . Kemp, "Toward s a Theory o f Social-Technica l Change, " i n S. Rayner an d E . L. Malone, editors , Human Choice and CHmate Change, Volume H (Columbus, OH : Battelle Press , 1998) , 340. 55. Stelarc , "Fro m Psycho-Bod y t o Cyber-Systems : Image s a s Post-huma n Entities," i n Joa n Broadhurs t Diso n an d Eri c J . Cassidy , editors , Virtual Futures: Cyberotics, Technology and Post-human Pragmatism (London : Routledge, 1998 , 116) . 56. Manue l D e Landa , "Deleuze , Diagrams , an d th e Open-Ende d Becomin g of the World, " i n Grosz , editor , Becomings: Explorations in Time, Memory, and Future, 41 .

CHAPTER 6

1. A shorte r versio n o f thi s essa y appeare d withou t scholarl y apparatu s i n Peace Review, 14: 2 (2002) , 133-9 . 2. Richar d Rorty , Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in TwentiethCentury America (Cambridge , MA : Harvard Universit y Press , 1999) . 3. Nea l Stephenson , The Diamond Age: or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer (New York: Bantam Books , 1996) . Later parenthetical pag e references i n th e text ar e t o thi s edition . 4. Istva n Csicsery-Ronay , Jr . "Note s o n Mutopia, " Postmodern Culture, 8: 1 (September, 1997) . Text available at http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/pmc / contents.all.html. 5. Loui s Marin , Utopics: A Spatial Play, translate d b y Rober t A . Vollrat h (Atlantic Highlands , NJ : Humanitie s Press , 1984) ; Marin , "Frontier s o f Utopia: Pas t an d Present, " Critical Inquiry, 1 9 (Winter , 1993) : 403-11 . 6. Marin , "Frontiers, " 403-4 . 7. Thi s point is made by Shawn Rosenheim in The Cryptographic Imagination: Secret Writing from Edgar Poe to the Internet (Baltimore , MD : Parallax , 1997). 8. Certeau , "Scriptura l Economy, " i n Certeau , The Certeau Reader, edite d by Graha m War d (London : Blackwell, 1999) . 9. O n th e erosio n o f Utopia n though t i n postmoder n culture , se e Fredri c Jameson, " S e c o n d a r y E l a b o r a t i o n s ( C o n c l u s i o n ) , " i n J a m e s o n , Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Ithaca , NY : Cornell Universit y Press , 1991) , 297-408, especiall y 334-4 0 an d 401-6 .

CHAPTER 7

1. A versio n o f thi s chapte r wa s firs t presente d a s a paper a t th e Hon g Kon g 2001 Conference ; I gratefully acknowledg e th e suppor t o f th e conference , the Facult y o f Art s an d Departmen t o f Englis h Languag e an d Literature , the Universit y o f Liverpool , an d th e Britis h Academ y fo r a n Oversea s Conference grant .

NOTES TO PAGES 114-117 271

2. Room 101 was a series o n Britis h TV where celebritie s consig n t o oblivio n things tha t irritat e o r anno y them . Big Brother wa s a n immensel y popula r American progra m i n whic h a group o f youn g peopl e livin g togethe r i n a house wer e filme d an d subjec t t o regula r audienc e vote s tha t decide d wh o would remain . 3. Willia m Wordsworth , "Preface, " i n Wordswort h an d Samue l Taylo r Coleridge, Lyrical Ballads: The Text of the 1798 Edition with the Additional 1800 Poems and the Prefaces, edite d by R. L. Brett and A. R. Jones (London : Methuen, 1963) , 254 . 4. Alfre d Lor d Tennyson , "Locksle y Hall, " i n Tennyson , The Poems of Tennyson, edite d b y Christophe r Rick s (London : Longman , 1969) , 695. 5. Willia m Wilson , A Little Earnest Book upon a Great Old Subject, cite d i n Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction, No . 1 0 (June 1976), 6-12. Wilson speaks o f "Th e Poetr y o f Science, " an d Stablefor d quote s further : "th e Natural an d mechanica l Science s ar e alike loaded wit h ric h an d wonderfu l Poetry." 6. Hug o Gernsback , " A Ne w Sor t o f Magazine, " Amazing Stories, 1 (April, 1926), 3 . For mor e o n Gernsbac k an d hi s importanc e t o th e definitio n o f science fiction, se e Gary Westfahl, The Mechanics of Wonder: The Creation of the Idea of Science Fiction (Liverpool : Liverpool Universit y Press , 1998) . 7. Fo r acknowledgments o f Kipling , Fred Lerner summarize s som e S F writers' comments o n Kipling in " A Master of Our Art: Rudyard Kipling and Moder n Science Fiction" (poste d at the Kipling Society website, http://www.kipling . org.uk/kip_fra.htm). Se e also John R. Pfeiffer, "Brunner' s Novels: A Posterit y for Kipling, " i n Josep h d e Bolt , editor , The Happening Worlds of John Brunner (Por t Washington , NY : Kennikat Press , 1975) , and Brunner' s ow n comments i n th e Kiplin g antholog y h e edited , Kipling's Science Fiction (New York : To r Books , 1982) . Fo r exceptiona l examination s o f Kipling' s science fiction , se e Donal d S . Lopez' s articl e o n "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail, " "The Dominion o f the Unstable Air," in The Kiphng Journal, No. 22 (March, 1982), 10-8 , an d Stephe n R . L . Clark, "Alie n Dreams : Kipling, " i n Davi d Seed, editor , Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and its Precursors (Ne w York : Syracus e Universit y Press , 1995) . 8. Th e stor y actuall y appeare d i n 1905 , i n th e U S an d Grea t Britai n respectively, i n McClure's Magazine (November ) an d Windsor Magazine (December). A separat e versio n illustrate d b y Fran k X . Leyendecke r an d H. Reuterdah l (wh o illustrate d th e McClure's version ) wa s issue d b y Doubleday i n 1909 . 9. Fo r examples o f illustration s b y Robida an d his contemporaries , se e Andre s Watt, with Yasuo Nagayama, Karere ga Yume-Mita 2000-Nen (The Year 2000 They Dreamed of) (Tokyo : Shinchosha , 1999) . 10. I n Futuredays, tex t b y Isaac Asimov (Ne w York : Henry Hol t & Co., 1986) . 11. Jean-Claud e Viche , o f th e Associatio n de s Ami s d'Alber t Robida , i n a personal letter to me (27 September 1999 ) is careful t o distinguish the Frenc h

272 NOTES

TO PAGES 117-122

"anticipation" fro m SF : "i t mean s extrapolatio n t o a [near ] future , 5 0 t o 100 years, whic h i s differen t fro m 'scienc e fiction, ' whic h ha s n o o r littl e connection wit h presen t reality. " 12. Rudyar d Kipling , "Wit h th e Nigh t Mail, " i n Actions and Reactions, (London: Macmillan, 1951 ) 135 . Later page references i n th e tex t ar e to thi s edition. Th e phras e "o f bot h sexes " i s absen t fro m th e slightl y differen t version o f thi s passag e tha t appeare d i n "A s Eas y a s A.B.C. " 13. Charle s Carrington , Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work (London : MacMillan, 1955) , 374. 14. Th e earlie r magazin e version s o f th e stor y ar e slightl y different . Firs t an d foremost, the y d o no t appea r t o b e followe d b y th e twenty-fou r page s o f "apparatus" whic h ar e include d i n th e boo k versions . Th e boo k version s are subtitled " A Stor y o f 200 0 A.D." In eac h magazin e versio n th e stor y i s noted as appearing from a future versio n of the magazine: McClure's i s date d June 202 5 A.D . The Windsor i s date d Octobe r 2147 . Compariso n o f th e two version s show s mino r varianc e i n th e firs t sentence : McClure's: A t 2 1 o'cloc k o f a gusty winte r nigh t I stood o n th e lowe r stages o f th e G P . O . Outwar d mai l tower . Windsor: A t 9.3 0 p.m . o f a windy winter' s nigh t I stood o n th e lowe r stages o f th e G . P . O. Outwar d Mai l Tower . Actions and Reactions: A t nin e o'cloc k o f a gusty winter nigh t I stoo d on th e lowe r stage s o f on e o f th e G P . O . outwar d mai l towers . There are also frequent i f minor change s to punctuation. I assume that mos t if no t al l o f thes e change s ar e editoria l amendment s an d tak e th e Actions and Reactions tex t a s th e preferre d text . 15. Brunne r doe s no t us e i t (fo r reason s o f space ) i n Kipling's Science Fiction. 16. Se e http://www.cccfsc.org/annualreport/annualdinner.asp . 17. Cite d i n Roge r Lancely n Green , editor , Kipling, the Critical Heritage (London: Routledg e & . Kegan Paul , 1971 ) 189 . 18. Brunner , Kipling's Science Fiction, 66. The wor d "colloid " i s ofte n use d t o refer t o jelly-like substances: the O.E.D. give s as one definitio n "colourles s or yellowish transparen t jelly-like substance," and cites as a quotation "jelly like thoug h ston y substance. " 19. A "drogher " i s a vessel from th e Indian Ocean , characterize d by a triangula r sail. 20. Alle n Steele , "Har d Again," The New York Review of Science Fiction (June , 1992), 4 . 21. Gar y Westfahl , Cosmic Engineers: A Study of Hard Science Fiction (Westport, CT : Greenwood Press , 1996) , 113 . Interestingly, an d ver y muc h in th e spirit o f this "game, " Brunner points ou t tha t Kiplin g probably mean t "Parallel" whe n h e describe d th e Trans-Asiati c Direc t airship s "soberl y ringing th e worl d roun d th e Fiftiet h Meridien " (140) . Kiplin g i s thus , i n Brunner's eyes , writing a kind o f "har d S F of history mor e usuall y foun d i n alternate histor y o r time-trave l stories. "

NOTES TO PAGES 122-136 273

22. Se e C. S . Lewis, "O n Scienc e Fiction. " i n Lewis , Of Other Worlds: Essays and Stories, edite d by Walter Hooper (London , Geoffre y Bles , 1966) , 59-73 . 23. Arthu r C . Clarke, 2001: A Space Odyssey (London : Arrow, 1968) , 50-1. Late r page reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 24. Actually , Clarke' s endin g is profoundl y ambiguou s an d mad e eve n mor e s o by th e wa y h e rewrite s i t fo r th e beginnin g o f th e sequel , 2010: Odyssey Two-, but tha t i s anothe r story . 25. Se e Olaf Stapledon' s Last and First Men an d Robert A. Heinlein's tim e char t (in The Past Through Tomorrow bu t originall y publishe d i n th e Ma y 194 1 issue o f Astounding Science-Fiction) designe d t o brin g togethe r hi s linke d short storie s int o a "futur e history. " 26. K . W. Jeter , Letter , Locus, 2 0 (April , 1987) , page number t o be supplie d b y author. 27. Willia m Gibson , "Th e Gernsback Continuum, " i n Gibson, Burning Chrome (London: Gollancz , 1986) , 46-7. 28. Joh n Clute , Look at the Evidence (Liverpool : Liverpoo l Universit y Press , 1995), 235. 29. Steffe n Hantke , "Differenc e Engine s an d Othe r Inferna l Devices : Histor y According t o Steampunk, " Extrapolation, 4 0 (Fall , 1999) , 244-54 . 30. Brya n Talbot , persona l communication , 2000 . 31. Elain e Showalter , "Saturda y Review : Books : Eterna l Triangles, " The Guardian ( 2 September 2000) , 9 .

CHAPTER 8

1. Al l Japanes e name s ar e cite d i n th e Japanes e order , th e famil y nam e first . 2. Kaito boken kitan: Kaitei gunkan [The Seabed Warship: An Island Adventure Romance (Tokyo : Bunbudo , Novembe r 1900) , n o prio r serialization, cite d i n Shonen shosetsu taikei (Oshikawa Shunio shu), Vol . 2 (Tokyo : San'ich i Shobo , 1987) , 11-96 . Pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o the 198 7 edition . 3. Accordin g t o th e biographica l tabl e i n Oshikawa Shunro shu, thes e were : Eiyu shosetsu: Bukyo no Nippon [Chivalrous Japan: A Heroic Novel) (Tokyo: Bunbudo, Decembe r 1902) ; Kaikoku boken kitan: Shinzo gunkan [The New Warship: A Romance of a Marine Nation) (Tokyo : Bunbudo , January, 1904) ; Senji eiyu shosetsu: Bukyo kantai (The Chivalrous Fleet: A Novel of Wartime Heroism) (Tokyo : Bunbudo, September , 1904) ; Eiyu shosetsu: Shin Nippon-to [New Japan: A Heroic Novel) (Tokyo : Bunbudo, June, 1906); an d Eiyu shosetsu: Toyo bukyodan (The Orient Chivalry Force: A Heroic novel) (Tokyo : Bunbudo, December , 1909) . 4. Premier e Decembe r 23 , 1963 ; director , Hond a Ishiro ; producer , Tanak a Tomoyuki; screenplay, Sekizaw a Shin'ichi ; camera, Koizumi Hajime; music , Ifukube Akira ; specia l effects , Tsuburay a Eiji ; actor s includ e Fujik i Yu , Uehara Ken , and Fujiyama Yoko . Overseas premiere: Festival Internazional e

274 NOTES

TO PAGES 139-144

del Fil m d i Fantascienza , Trieste , Jul y 1964 . U S premiere : Lo s Angeles , March 1965 . 5. Th e ter m translate d a s "Orient " i s th e Japanes e word Tokyo, whic h i s stil l in us e today . I t i s writte n wit h th e Chines e character s meanin g "Easter n Sea," associating it with th e Pacific. I n Chinese, th e term originall y referre d to Japan . 6. Thi s continen t wa s postulate d b y th e America n amateu r archaeologis t Colonel James Churchward (1852-1936 ) in The Lost Continent of Mu (1926) . Churchward's clai m wa s partl y base d o n th e theor y o f a lost continen t o r land bridg e calle d Lemuria , pu t forwar d t o explai n th e existenc e o f lemur s (the small primates, no t th e spirit s o f th e dead ) on both side s o f th e Pacific , which ha d a t leas t som e currenc y i n th e scientifi c communit y unti l i t wa s discredited b y the theor y o f continenta l drift . Th e theor y o f M u wa s take n even les s seriousl y b y scientist s bu t stil l ha s man y enthusiasti c adherent s worldwide (mainl y fantasy fans , Ne w Ag e adherents, ufologists, o r amateu r archaeologists). M u i s generall y associate d wit h Lemuria , sometime s eve n identified wit h it . I n Japan , M u becam e popula r a s a topo s o f fantas y literature, performin g a simila r functio n t o tha t o f Atlanti s i n Wester n (transatlantic) fantasy . Ther e i s a n intriguin g paralle l t o thi s Japanes e imaginary i n on e develope d b y Tami l intellectuals , symbolizin g a "geography o f loss, " i n whic h th e scientifi c theor y o f th e los t continen t mingles wit h Tami l legends . Thi s traditio n i s describe d i n Sumath i Ramaswamy: "Histor y a t Land' s End : Lemuria i n Tami l Spatia l Fables, " i n The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol . 59 (Augus t 2000) , 575-602 . A s thes e examples illustrate , Lemuri a an d Mu hav e also been used t o se t up th e ide a of a n anti-Atlantis , a n Easter n Los t Continen t t o riva l th e Wester n one . 7. M y analysi s i s based o n th e Germa n versio n o f th e film , entitle d U 2000: Tauchfahrt des Schreckens, release d i n 1965 . All quotation s ar e therefor e translated fro m th e Germa n translatio n o f th e origina l Japanese .

CHAPTER 9 1. H e als o wrote unde r th e nam e Feli x C. Forrest , a pseudonym derive d fro m his Chines e nam e Li n Bah-loh . Th e cas e o f Jame s Tiptree , a.k.a . Alic e Sheldon, anothe r U S governmen t employe e wh o wrot e unde r an d maintained, a male identity , present s a n intriguin g counterpoint . 2. Smit h di d no t leav e notebooks , bu t th e collection' s editor , J . J . Pierce , compiled th e timelin e fro m th e publicatio n orde r o f th e storie s an d fro m internal evidence . 3. Thi s them e i s a stapl e o f muc h Chines e literature , bot h poetr y an d prose . See Eric Henry, "Th e Motif o f Recognition in Early China," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 , No. 1 (1987): 1-30, an d Lisa Raphals, Knowing Words: Wisdom and Cunning in the Classical Traditions of China and Greece (Ithaca, NY : Cornell Universit y Press , 1992) , passim.

NOTES TO PAGES 148-159 275

4. "Alph a Ralph a Boulevard " (1961) , 287. 5. Joha n Heje , "O n th e Genesi s o f Norstrilia, " Extrapolation 3 0 (Summe r 1989):152. 6. Norstrilia , 23 7 7. Thi s accoun t o f zhiguai i s based o n Robert Ford Campany, Strange Writing: Anomaly Accounts in Early Medieval China (Albany : SUNY Press , 1996) : 21-7. Fo r genr e se e M. M. Bakhtin , Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, ed. Caryl Emerson an d Michael Holquist, trans . Vern W. McGee, Universit y of Texas Press Slavi c Series , 8 (Austin: University o f Texas Press, 1986 ) an d Pierre Bourdieu , Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans . Richar d Nic e (Cambridge: Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1977) . 8. Campany , 52-79 , especiall y 52 , 58- 9 an d 79. 9. Ga n Ba o T * (335-49) . Soushenji ftttfB (henceforwar d SSJ , Congshu jicheng, vols . 2692-4), excerpt s translate d i n Kennet h J . DeWoskin an d J. I. Crump, Jr. , In Search of the Supernatural: The Written Record (Stanford , CA: Stanfor d Universit y Press , 1996) . 10. Othe r example s o f th e genr e include : th e Bowuzhi W$}*z [Treatis e o n Curiosities] o f Zhan g Hu a 3 6 ^ (232-300) , 3 9 sections , fou r o n anima l anomalies (Marvelou s Beast s HlPt , Bird s JlJft , Insect s Sil t an d Fis h JI& , the Soushen houji fttt^SE [Furthe r Record s o f a n Inques t int o th e Spiri t Realm], problematically attribute d t o Tao Qian Rj$ f (Ta o Yuanming PI$PJI , 365-427 CE , Congshu jicheng ed. , vol. 2695) an d th e Yiyuan J t | £ [Garde n of Marvels ] o f Li u Jingsh u WI&M. (fl . earl y 5c) , a "garden " o f anomalie s whose title allude s t o Liu Xiang's f i\p\Shuoyuan H!$ B or Garden of Sayings. 11. Campany , 247-53 . 12. Elm s (1990) 170-2 , Weird Tales, reprinted in The Best ofEdmond Hamilton, ed. Leig h Brackett , 1977 .

CHAPTER 1 0 1. Accordin g t o Greg g Rickman's To the High Castle: Philip K Dick: A Life, 1928-1962 (Lon g Beach, CA : Fragments West , 1989) , The Cosmic Puppets was writte n i n 195 3 before bein g publishe d i n 195 6 i n magazin e for m a s "A Glas s o f Darkness " an d i n boo k for m i n 1957 . 2. "Rememberin g Phili p K . Dick' s Th e Cosmi c Puppets " wa s presente d o n 24 Marc h 200 0 a t th e 21s t Internationa l Conferenc e o n th e Fantasti c i n the Art s i n For t Lauderdale , Florida . "Tw o Case s o f Conscience : Loyalt y and Rac e i n Th e Crac k i n Spac e (1966 ) an d Counter-Cloc k Worl d (1967) " appears i n Philip K. Dick: Contemporary Critical Interpretations, ed . Samuel J . Umlan d (Westport , CT : Greenwoo d Press , 1995) , 169-95 . Jameson's discussio n o f symboli c resolutio n throug h strategie s o f containment appear s i n hi s The Political Unconscious (Ithaca : Cornel l University Press , 1981) , 74-102 .

276 NOTES

TO PAGES 158-184

3. Jianjion g Zhu , "Reality , Fiction , an d Wu i n The Man in the High Castle," in Nichola s Ruddick , editor , State of the Fantastic: Studies in the Theory and Practice of Fantastic Literature and Film: Selected Essays from the Eleventh International Conference on the Fantastic in the Arts, 1990 (Westport, CT : Greenwoo d Press , 1992) , 107 . 4. Phili p K. Dick, The Man in the High Castle (1962 ; New York: Vintage Books, 1992), Chapter 11 : 176. Later chapter an d page references ar e to this edition . 5. Patrici a Warrick, "Th e Encounte r o f Taoism and Fascism in Philip K. Dick's The Man in the High Castle," Science-Fiction Studies, 7 (July, 1980) , 174 90. 6. Se e Rickman , To the High Castle, Lawrenc e Sutin , Divine Invasions: A Life of Philip K. Dick (Ne w York: Harmony Books, 1989), and Paul Williams, Only Apparently Real (Ne w York : Arbor House , 1986) . 7. Se e Anne J. Dick, The Search for Philip K Dick, 1928-1982 (Lewiston , NY : Edwin Melle n Press , 1995) . 8. Car l Freedman , Critical Theory and Science Fiction (Hanover , NH : Wesley an Universit y Press , 2000) , 170 . Late r pag e reference s ar e t o thi s edition. 9. Phili p K . Dick, "Schizophreni a an d th e Boo k o f Changes, " Philip K. Dick Society (PKDS) Newsletter, ed . Paul Williams, 1 4 (June 1987) : 6. Later pag e references ar e t o thi s edition . 10. Dwigh t Brown , "Afterword, " i n Phili p K . Dick, Gather Yourselves Together (Herndon, VA: WCS Books, 1994) , 290-91. Later page references t o the Dic k novel ar e t o thi s edition . 11. N . Katherin e Hayles , How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics (Chicago , IL : Chicago Universit y Press, 1999) .

CHAPTER 1 1

1. H . Bruce Franklin, Robert A. Heinlein: America as Science Fiction (Oxford : Oxford Universit y Press , 1980) , 76. 2. Joh n Baxter , Science Fiction in the Cinema (Ne w York: Paperback Library , 1950), 102 ; Phil Hardy , The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies (1984 ; Minneapolis, MN : Woodbur y Press , 1986) , 125 . 3. The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (Warne r Brothers , 1953) . 4. Godzilla, King of the Monsters (Toh o Studios , 1954) ; English-languag e version wit h adde d scene s released i n th e US by Embassy Picture s i n 1956 . 5. J . D. Lee s an d Mar c Cerasini , The Official Godzilla Compendium (Ne w York: Rando m House , 1998) , 12 . 6. Alien (Twentieth-Centur y Fox , 1979) . 7. Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah (Toh o Studios , 1991) . 8. Godzilla (Centropoli s Films , 1998) .

NOTES TO PAGES 191-198 277

CHAPTER 1 2

1. Titl e take n fro m A Gu y Calle d Gerald , Black Secret Technology (London : Juice Box : 1996 ) (soundtrack) . 2. Salma n Rushdie , The Moor's Last Sigh (London : Vintage, 1994) , 145 . 3. Walte r Benjamin, "Th e Work of Art in th e Age of Mechanical Reproduction, " in Benjamin , Illuminations, translate d b y Harr y Zoh n (London : Fontana , 1973), 235. 4. Gabrie l Garci a Marquez , Love in the Time of Cholera (1985 ; London : Penguin, 1998) , 292-3 . 5. Se e various commentarie s poste d a t Ro n Eglash' s homepage , http://www . rpi.edu/~eglash/eglash.htm. 6. Ay i Kwe i Armah , The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968 ; London : Heinemann, 1969) , 12 . 7. Ishmae l Reed, "Futur e Christmas, " in Shere e Thomas, editor , Dark Matter: A Century of Speculative Fiction from the African Diaspora (Ne w York : Warner, 2000) , 287 . 8. Davi d Hech t an d Maliqali m Simone , Invisible Governance: The Art of African Micropolitics (Ne w York : Autonomedia , 1994) , 47. Sapeur come s from "SAPE, " th e "Societ e de s Ambienceurs e t de s Personne s Eligantes. " Later pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 9. Dambudz o Marechera , The Black Insider (Harare : Baobab Books, 1990) , 52. Later pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 10. Gayatr i Chakravort y Spiva k say s that "thos e 'collectivities ' o r 'individuals ' who wer e mad e t o cathec t th e spac e o f a n 'other ' tha t woul d consolidat e the hegemoni c self , relat e t o th e [Western/postmodern ] critiqu e o f th e sovereign subjec t obliquely." Cite d i n Angel a McRobbie , Postmodernism and Popular Culture (London : Routledge , 1994) , 25. 11. Salma n Rushdie , Shame (London : Picador , 1983) , 29. 12. Phili p K . Dick , Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep! (1968 ; London : Millennium, 1999) , 130 . 13. Koj o Laing , Major Gentl and the Achimota Wars (London : Heinemann , 1992). Later pag e reference s i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 14. Pau l Virilio , The Art of the Motor, translate d b y Juli e Ros e (Minneapolis : University o f Minnesot a Press , 1995) , 9. 15. Dere k Wright , "Postmodernis m a s Realism: Magic History i n Recen t Wes t African Fiction, " in Wright, editor, Contemporary African Fiction (Bayreuth : Bayreuth Africa n Studies , 1997) , 203. 16. Thi s analysi s i s not a s generalized a s it ma y seem . Torro is a n analogu e fo r the Ghanaia n leade r Rawlings , an d th e constan t reference s t o frui t i n th e novel are evocative of Ghana's uniquely non-pastoralist fructaria n economy . Laing therefor e allegorize s specifi c Ghanaia n socio-economi c histories . 17. Jama l Mahjoub , Navigation of a Rainmaker (London : Heinemann , 1989) , 69.

278 NOTES

TO PAGES 198-209

18. Jama l Mahjoub, Wings of Dust (London : Heinemann, 1994) , 121 . Later pag e references i n th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 19. Abdulraza k Gurnah , Admiring Silence (London : Hamish Hamilton , 1996) , 192. 20. Calixth e Beyala , The Sun Hath Looked Upon Me, translate d b y Marjolij n de Jage r (Oxford : Heinemann , 1996) , 94 . Late r pag e reference s i n th e tex t are t o thi s edition . 21. Fredri c Jameson, "Postmodernism , or , the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, " New Left Review, 14 6 (1984) , 53-93 . 22. Jacque s Derrida , "Structure , Sig n and Pla y i n th e Discours e o f th e Huma n Sciences," in Davi d Lodge , editor, Modern Criticism and Theory: A Reader (London: Longman , 1988) , 115 . 23. Hech t an d Simone , 35. 24. M . Keit h Booker , "Africa n Literatur e an d th e Worl d System : Dystopia n Fiction, Collectiv e Experience , an d th e Postcolonia l Condition, " Research in African Literature, 2 6 (Winte r 1995) , 58 , 59. 25. Scot t Bukatman , Terminal Identity: The Virtual Subject in Postmodern Science Fiction (Durham , NC : Duke Universit y Press , 1993) , 18 . 26. Pau l Virilio, Speed and Politics: An Essay on Dromology, translate d by Mar k Polizzoti (Ne w York : Semiotext(e) , 1986) , 139 .

CHAPTER 1 3

1. Gre g Egan, Teranesia (London : Gollancz , 1999) , 223. Later pag e reference s in th e tex t ar e t o thi s edition . 2. Ros s Farnell' s excellen t articl e o n Permutation City —"Attemptin g Immortality: AI , A-Lif e an d th e Posthuma n i n Gre g Egan' s Permutation City," Science Fiction Studies, 2 7 (Marc h 2000) , 69-9 1 — reads i t a s a n exploration o f th e "posthuman" ; thi s migh t see m a ver y lon g wa y fro m the Cartesian , bu t i n fac t th e tw o position s ar e paradoxicall y compatible . 3. I n he r Island Dystopia (Thesis , L a Trobe University , 2000) , Tani a Donal d identifies a fictiona l genr e i n whic h olde r me n mould , make , an d initiat e others, often boys , in pursui t o f a n extrem e an d violent "masculinity. " Sh e discusses Danie l Defoe' s Robinson Crusoe, Rober t Loui s Stevenson' s Treasure Island, Wells' s The Island of Dr Moreau, Willia m Golding' s Lord of the Flies, Conrad' s Victory, Iai n Banks' s The Wasp Factory, Collodi' s Pinocchio, an d Alex Garland' s The Beach a s exemplifying o r critiquing th e assumptions o f th e genre . Teranesia coul d b e read i n connectio n wit h thi s genre, i n it s treatmen t o f th e namin g an d renamin g o f th e islan d an d it s subdivision an d th e scarrin g o f th e mai n character , an d rea d i n contras t t o it, i n it s treatmen t o f th e viru s (i f thi s represent s nature) , women , an d Prabir's conflicte d masculinity . 4. I n Patric k O'Brian' s The Thirteen-Gun Salute (Ne w York : Norton , 1989) , the islan d actuall y figure s a s a n episod e (217-31 ) o f peacefu l innocenc e i n

NOTES TO PAGES 210-211 279

nature i n a n adventur e novel . It i s worth mentionin g becaus e it s settin g i s Indonesian and , lik e Egan , O'Brian , i s inspire d b y th e tale s o f nineteenth century naturalists an d their encounter s with orangutans , birds of paradise , giant orchid s an d s o on . 5. Fo r examples alon g these lines, conside r th e film Outbreak (1995) , Richar d Preston's The Hot Zone (1994) , Patrick Lynch' s Carriers (1996), and Richar d Rhodes's Deadly Feasts (revise d edition , 1998) . The threa t come s ou t o f Africa i n th e firs t tw o cases , Sumatr a an d Ne w Guine a i n Lynch' s thrille r and Rhodes's journalistic account, thoug h thi s contemporar y narrativ e for m is no t simpl y Orientalis t — there's usuall y bot h a n exotic , tropica l origi n and skulldugger y resultin g from Wester n overrationalis m o r unnaturalness . The blur b fo r Carriers, abou t a virus i n Sumatr a an d th e America n arm y medical tea m investigatin g it , says , "I n th e dar k hear t o f th e rainfores t something deadl y i s stirring . Olde r tha n life , i t feed s o n the living , a blin d primal force. " In th e revision s o f th e islan d nove l tha t hav e proliferate d sinc e th e 1950s, we observe, among other things , a tendency to bring the island hom e (in The Wasp Factory th e island is a muddy patch near the coast of Scotland ; in J . G Ballard' s Concrete Island [1974 ] it i s a n enclav e amon g dangerous , traffic-choked freeways) ; t o make the condition o f being castaway somethin g willed b y th e castawa y (Concrete Island again ; Ballard' s "Th e Termina l Beach" [1966] ) o r delusor y (Golding' s Pincher Martin, I960). I n virtuall y all thes e stories , i f ther e i s an y violenc e i t i s i n th e "civilized " characte r (vivid i n th e relation s o f Maitlan d an d Procto r i n Concrete Island sinc e the latter is a revision of Caliban and the former a revision of Crusoe). There are also recent version s o f th e islan d narrativ e tha t ar e successfu l work s of art an d ar e not revisions : th e openin g episod e in Gregor y Benford' s In The Ocean of Night an d th e fil m Cast Away. 6. Compar e chapte r 2 0 o f Ballard's Concrete Island (Ne w York: Farrar, Strau s and Giroux , 1974) , and Golding' s Pincher Martin (London : Faber, 1960) , 86 (both cite d b y Donald , 75) . 7. Examples : Orpheu s rescuin g Eurydice , Isi s recoverin g th e dismembere d Osiris, Alcesti s sacrificin g hersel f fo r Admetu s wit h som e hel p fro m Heracles, Demete r rescuin g Persephone ; and , i n Jef f Noon' s Vurt (1993 ) a recent S F version , Scribbl e exchangin g himsel f fo r hi s siste r an d love r Desdemona. We may also mention Odysseus' s return t o Penelope and rescue of he r fro m th e suitors , th e culminatio n o f anothe r tal e o f island s an d monsters. Her e th e secre t plac e a t th e hear t o f th e islan d i s th e marita l bed, mad e fro m a living tree . 8. I n Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel, "Th e Archaic Matrix of the Oedipus Comple x in Utopia, " i n he r Sexuality and Mind (London : Maresfiel d Library , 1986) , 92-108, th e autho r associate s islands , Utopias , an d th e desir e fo r a pure , simple union with th e mother. Wit h Prabi r and his sister, Ega n does sugges t how rational , scientifi c explanatio n ca n itsel f expres s a simila r desir e fo r

280 NOTES

TO PAGES 215-223

the pure , controlled , an d transparen t a s Chasseguet-Smirge l detect s i n Utopias. A t firs t reading , on e migh t feel tha t th e childre n ar e to o rationa l and intelligen t t o b e plausibl e a s children , bu t Egan , wh o sometime s dramatizes a kind o f autis m i n his intelligen t mai n characters , i s pursuin g a subtler insight, an d Chasseguet-Smirgel's essa y helps to define thi s insight . Donald als o discusse s th e relation s o f islan d protagonist s (fo r instance , Crusoe) wit h thei r father s an d "sons, " an d wit h a detached , dominatin g rationality see n as part o f Western scienc e (for instance, Moreau, and Angu s Cauldhame i n Banks' s The Wasp Factory).

CHAPTER 1 4

1. I n 1842 , a n Italia n militar y enginee r Loui s Menabre a wrot e th e Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage an d deposite d i t i n the Librar y o f th e Genev a University . Shortl y after , Lovelac e translated th e book int o Englis h an d bein g encourage d b y Babbage , sh e adde d he r ow n notes t o the translation which ar e three times as long as Menabrea's origina l work. 2. Sadi e Plant , "Th e futur e looms : weavin g wome n an d cybernetics. " Body and Society 1 (3-4), 45-64 . 63. 3. Timoth y Kaufman-Osborn . Creatures of Prometheus: Gender and the Politics of Technology. (Lanha m & Ne w York : Rowma n & Littlefiel d Publishers, 1997) . 101. 4. Sadi e Plant . Zeros + Ones: Digital Women + The New Technolocultuxc. (London: Fourt h State , 1997) , 24. 5. Deleuze , Gille s & . Guattari, Felix . A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Trans . Brian Massumi. (Minneapoli s & London: Universit y of Minnesot a Press , 1987) , 32. 6. Loui s F . Menabrea, Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage: With Notes upon the Memoir by the Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace, . 7. Bo b Metcalfe, "D o Computationa l Fabric s Hol d th e Ke y t o th e Futur e o f the Internet' s Web?" , . 8. Ibid . 9. Plant , Zeroes + Ones, 54 . 10. Plant , Zeroes + Ones, 55 . 11. Sadi e Plant, "O n th e Matrix: Cyberfeminist Simulations, " i n The Gendered Cyborg: A Reader, edite d b y Gil l Kirku p e t al . (Londo n an d Ne w York : Routledge, 1999) , 265-75 , 272 . 12. Al l translation s ar e th e author' s unles s state d otherwise . 13. Th e translatio n i s quote d fro m Alla n Watts , Tao: The Watercourse Way (New York : Pantheo n Books , 1975) , 40-1.

NOTES TO PAGES 223-231 281

14. Leow , Weiger , Chinese Characters: Their Origin, History, Classification, and Signification, translate d b y L . Davrout , 2n d edn . (Ne w York : Dove r Publications, 1965) , 326. 15. Donn a Haraway , " A Cybor g Manifesto: Science , Technology, an d Soeialist Feminism i n th e Lat e Twentieth Century, " i n Haraway , Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature (Ne w York: Routledge, 1991) , 177. 16. Cite d i n Tamsi n Lorraine , Irigaray and Deleuze: Experiments in Visceral Philosophy (Ithac a an d London : Cornel l Universit y Press , 1999) , 22. 17. Cite d i n Lorraine , 21. 18. Luc e Irigaray , To Be Two, translate d b y Moniqu e M . Rhode s (Londo n an d New York : Routledge , 2001) , 57. 19. Luc e Irigaray , "Thi s Se x Which I s Not One, " i n Irigaray , This Sex Which Is Not One, translate d b y Catherin e Porte r (Ithac a an d Ne w York : Cornel l University Press , 1985) , 26. 20. Luc e Irigaray, "Whe n Ou r Lips Speak Together," i n Irigaray, This Sex which Is Not One, 207 . 21. Chel a Sandoval , ""Ne w Sciences : Cyborg Feminism an d th e Methodolog y of th e Oppresser/' " i n Gray , editor , The Cyborg Handbook, 416 . 22. Sandoval , "Ne w Sciences, " 418-9 . 23. Gille s Deleuze, Difference and Repetition, translate d b y Paul Patto n (Ne w York: Columbi a Universit y Press , 1994 ) ,222. 24. Translate d b y Edwar d L . Shaughnessy , J Ching: The Classic of Changes (New York : Ballantin e Books , 1996) , 189 . 25. Translate d b y Shaughnessy , 193 . 26. Shaughnessy' s translate s grea t extrem e a s "grea t constancy " becaus e th e Chinese versio n h e use s read s da heng instea d o f da ji. Bu t h e put s i n a note statin g tha t bot h reading s ar e possible. I prefer da ji, "grea t extreme, " here. 27. Translate d b y Shaughnessy , 199 . 28. Plant , "O n th e Matrix, " 265 . 29. Plant . 30. Ros i Braidotti , Nomadic Subjects: Embodiment and Sexual Difference in Contemporary Feminist Theory (Ne w York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1994), 110 . 31. Braidotti , 4 . 32. Braidotti , 5 . 33. Ros i Braidotti, Metamorphoses: Towards a Materialist Theory of Becoming (Cambridge: Polit y Press , 2002) , 69. 34. B y saying tha t Chines e cultur e ha s somethin g t o contribut e t o th e stud y of technoscience, I a m no t creatin g anothe r binar y syste m here , Western / Chinese cultures . Even the Chinese texts I have selected for discussio n her e do not represen t "Chines e culture " a s such ; the y ar e onl y representative s of on e schoo l o f though t i n Chines e philosophy . Moreover , ther e ar e othe r

282 NOTES

TO PAGES 232-243

modes o f though t i n othe r civilization s tha t coincid e wit h ou r discussio n of zero . Th e mos t importan t i s India n mathematics . A famou s India n mathematician, Bhaskar a I I (1114-85) , describe s th e rule s dealin g wit h calculations o f zer o i n hi s boo k Siddhanta Siromani. Th e India n word , sunya, stand s fo r zero , bu t i t isn' t vacanc y o r emptiness, - rather , i t i s receptivity an d swelling. (Fo r details, see Robert Kaplan' s The Nothing that Is.) I t i s obviou s tha t th e digi t zer o i n India n mathematic s wa s muc h informed b y th e concep t o f emptines s i n Buddhism . I am certai n tha t thi s mode o f thinkin g i n India n cultur e als o has a lot t o contribut e t o the stud y of technoscience , bu t thi s i s beyond ou r scop e o f discussio n i n thi s paper . 35. Timoth y Kaufman-Osborn , Creatures of Prometheus: Gender and the Politics of Technology

CHAPTER 1 5

1. Ji m Hillier , ed. , Cahiers du Cinema. The 1950s: Neo-Realism, Hollywood, New Wave (Cambridge , MA : Harvard Universit y Press , 1985) , 6 . 2. Mauric e Blanchot , Le Livre a Venir (Paris : Gallimard , 1959) . 3. Se e Danie l Bermond , "L a Litteratur e es t Menacee " (intervie w wit h Pau l Virlio), Lire (March , 1999) , 46-7 . 4. Se e Michel Foucault , Surveiller etpunir (Paris : Gallimard, 1975) . 5. Se e Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, Capitahsme et Schizophrenic 2. Mille Plateaux (Paris : Editions d e Minuit, 1972) . 6. Josep h Sartelle , "Dream s an d Nightmare s i n th e Hollywoo d Blockbuster, " in The Oxford History of World Cinema (London : Oxford Universit y Press , 1997), 523 . A late r pag e reference i n th e tex t i s t o thi s edition . 7. Sartelle , 524 . 8. Se e Rolan d Barthes , Le degre zero de l'ecriture (Paris : Points, 1972) . 9. Patric k Goldstein , "Th e Dragon Is Hidden N o Longer, " Los Angeles Times, 16 Octobe r 2001 , Fl, F4-F5 . 10. Henr y Chu . " 'Crouchin g Tiger ' Can' t Hid e fro m Ba d Review s i n China, " Los Angeles Times, Januar y 2001 , Al & A10. 11. Lorenz a Munoz , "Crouching Tiger Burnin g Brigh t a t th e Bo x Office," Los Angeles Times, Thursday , 2 1 Decembe r 2000 , A l , A26 . 12. Sorin a Diaconescu, "Ridin g the 'tiger,' " Los Angeles Times, Saturday , 9 June 2001, F l &F18 . 13. Jame s Shamus , cite d i n Kennet h Turan , "Wha t Wome n Fli p Over, " Los Angeles Times, 1 5 December 2000 , Fl , F16 . 14. Christoph e Gans , cite d i n Richar d Natale , "Springin g t o Action, " Los Angeles Times, 8 January 2002 , Fl , F7-F8 . 15. Walte r Mignolo , Local History/Global Designs. Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking, Princeton , NJ : Princeto n Universit y Press, 2000 .

NOTES TO PAGES 245-250 283

CHAPTER 1 6

1. Davi d Bordwell , Jane t Staiger , an d Kristi n Thompson , The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (New York: Columbia Universit y Press , 1985) , 111. 2. Se e Wheeler Winsto n Dixon , Disaster and Memory: Celebrity Culture and the Crisis of Hollywood Cinema (Ne w York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1999). 3. Se e Ric k Altman , Film/Genre (London : BFI Publishing, 1999) . 4. Se e Susann e Rieser , "Absolu t Action, " Film und Kritik, 4 (October , 1999) , 5-20. 5. Se e Yvonne Tasker, Spectacular Bodies: Gender, Genre and the Action Film (London an d Ne w York : Routledge, 1993) . 6. Se e Kaj a Silverma n (1988 ) "Masochis m an d Mal e Subjectivity, " Camera Obscura. A Journal of Feminism and Film Theory, 1 7 (1988) , 31-6 . 7. Se e Mar k Gallagher , " M a s c u l i n i t y i n Translation : Jacki e Chan' s Transcultural Sta r Text, " The Velvet Light Trap, 3 9 (Spring , 1997) , 23-42 . 8. Se e Sa m Ho , "License d t o Kic k Men : Th e Jan e Bon d Films, " i n Stephe n Teo, The Restless Breed: Cantonese Stars of the Sixties, Th e 20t h Hon g Kong International Fil m Festiva l Guid e (Hon g Kong: Urban Counci l Press , 1996), 40-53 . 9. Richar d Dyer , "Action! " Sight and Sound, 4 (October , 1994) , 8 . 10. Se e Jennifer DeVer e Brody , "Th e Return s o f Cleopatra Jones," Signs: The Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 2 5 (1999) , 91-122 . 11. Michae l P . Rogin , " 'Mak e M y Day!' : Spectacl e a s Amnesi a i n Imperia l Politics," i n Am y Kapla n an d Donal d Pease , editors , Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durha m an d London : Duk e Universit y Press , 1993) , 505. 12. Se e Susann e Rieser , "Lo s Angeles , Epicente r o f th e Cinemati c Spectacle, " in Willia m Boelhowe r an d Joh n R . Leo , editors , Working Sites: Texts, Territories, and Cultural Capital in American Cultures (Amsterdam : University o f Amsterda m Press , forthcoming) . 13. Rogin , 507 . 14. Se e Christin e Buci-Glucksmann , Baroque Reason: The Aesthetics of Modernity (London : Sage , 1994) . 15. Jea n Baudrillard, Symbolic Exchange and Death (1976 ; London: Sage, 1993), 18. 16. Cite d in Josh Cohen, Spectacular Allegories: Postmodern American Writing and the Politics of Seeing (London : Plut o Press , 1998) , 152 . 17. Se e Ernest o Laclau , New Reflections on the Revolution of Our Time (London: Verso , 1990) , an d author/interviewer , "Theory , Democracy , an d the Left : A n Intervie w wit h Ernest o Laclau , Carlo s Pessoa , Mart a Hernandez, Seoungwo n Lee , Lass e Thomassen," Umbra: A Journal of the Unconscious, volum e numbe r (2001) , 7-28 .

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TO PAGES 250-257

18. Se e Jacques Lacan, "Le s Quatre Concepts Fondamentaux d e la Psychanalyse , in Lacan, Le Seminair: Livre XI (1964 ; Paris: Seuil, 1973) , and Jacques Lacan , "Encore," i n Lacan , Le Seminair: Livre XX (1972-73 ; Paris: Seuil , 1975) . 19. Se e Susann e Lummerding , "Weibliche" Asthetik? Moglichkeiten und Grenzen einer Subversion von Codes (Vienna : Passage n Verlag , 1994) , an d Susanne Lummerding, Agency!: Cyberspace, Subjektkonstituierung und die Funktion des Politischen (Vienna , Cologne , an d Ne w York : Bohlau , forthcoming). 20. Se e Susanne Lummerding , "Cyberspac e — Konvergenz von Phantasma un d Symptom," i n Pete r Mortenbock an d Helge Mooshammer, editors , Visuelle Kultur: Korper-Raume-Medien (Vienna , Cologne , an d Ne w York : Bohlau , forthcoming); an d Lummerding , Agency! 21. Se e Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (London an d Ne w York : Routledge, 1990) , an d Judit h Butler , Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex" (Ne w York, London: Routledge , 1993). 22. Se e Teres a d e Lauretis , Alice Doesn't: Feminism, Semiotics, Cinema (Bloomington: Indian a Universit y Press , 1984) . 23. Se e Laur a Mulvey , "Visua l Pleasur e an d Narrativ e Cinema, " Screen, 1 6 (1975); republishe d i n Bria n Walli s an d Marci a Tucker , editors , Art after Modernism. Rethinking Representation (Bosto n an d Ne w York : The Ne w Museum o f Contemporar y Art/Godine , 1986) , 361-74. 24. O n thi s premis e th e notio n o f "sovereign " spectatorshi p a s suc h cam e t o be challenged . Whil e i n fil m theor y debate s aroun d th e issu e o f th e cinematic production o f reality and identity (o r meaning) were long centere d around th e assumptio n o f a congruenc y betwee n th e ey e o f th e spectato r and th e camer a a s wel l a s th e attendan t privilege d positio n o f visua l perception an d thus a n ideal spectator, film theorist s like Teresa d e Laureti s and Kaj a Silverma n — referrin g t o Lacan' s distinctio n betwee n th e gaze (the camera ) an d th e ey e (o f th e spectato r — radicall y questione d th e assumption o f a n "exemplary " viewe r enjoyin g a n authoritarian , sovereig n position.

AFTERWORD 1. Bukatman , Scott . Terminal Identity: The Virtual Subject in Postmodern Science Fiction. Durham , N.C. : Duke Universit y Press , 1993 . 2. Curry , Michae l R . Digital Places: Living with Geographic Information Technologies. Londo n an d Ne w York : Routledge , 1998 . 3. Morse , Margaret . Virtualities: Television, Media Art and Cyberculture. Bloomington: Indian a Universit y Press , 1998 . 4. Jordan , Tim. Cyberpower: The Culture and Politics of Cyberspace and the Internet. Londo n an d Ne w York : Routledge , 1999 .

NOTES TO PAGES 257-258 285

5. Feenberg , Andrew . Questioning Technology. London : Routledge , 1999 . 6. Mitchell , Willia m J . City of Bits. Cambridge : MI T Press , 1996 . 7. Graham , Stephe n an d Marvin , Simm . Telecommunications and the City: Electronic Space, Urban Spaces. London : Routledge , 1996 . 8. Massumi , Brian . Parables For the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation. Durham an d London : Duk e Universit y Press , 2002 .

Bibliography o f Works Relate d t o Globalization, Scienc e Fiction , and th e Cybernetic Revolutio n

Given th e breadth o f our interrelated topic s an d the wealth o f material s available, an y bibliography relate d t o globalization necessaril y mus t b e selective. Here , w e woul d clai m onl y t o b e providin g a representativ e sampling of the resources now available to scholars, placing an emphasi s on more recen t works tha t ma y not be included i n other bibliographica l compilations. Reflecting ou r tripartite focus, w e divide our bibliograph y into thes e sections : "Work s Relate d t o Globalization/ ' "Work s Relate d to Globalizatio n an d Scienc e F i c t i o n / ' an d "Work s Relate d t o Globalization an d th e Cyberneti c Revolution. "

Works Relate d t o Globalizatio n Afshar, Hale h an d Stephani e Barrientos, editors. Women, Globalization and Fragmentation in the Developing World. Ne w York : St . Martin's Press , 1999 . Appadurai, Arjun . "Disjunctur e an d Differenc e i n th e Globa l Cultura l Economy." Public Culture, 2: 2 (1990) , 1-24 . . Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: Universit y o f Minnesot a Press , 1996 . , editor . Globalization. Durham , N.C. : Duk e Universit y Press , 2001. Bamyeh, Mohamme d A . The Ends of Globalization. Minneapolis : University o f Minnesot a Press , 2000 . Barker, Chris . Television, Globalization and Cultural Identities. Buckingham an d Philadelphia : Ope n Universit y Press , 1999 . Bauman, Zygmunt . Globalization: The Human Consequences. Ne w York: Columbi a Universit y Press , 1998 .

288 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ben Rafael, Elieze r with Yitza k Sternberg , editors. Identity, Culture, and Globalization. Leide n an d Boston : Brill , 2001. Bhabha, Hom i K . The Location of Culture. London : Routledge , 1994 . Bharucha, Rustom . The Politics of Cultural Practice: Thinking through Theatre in an Age of Globalization. Universit y Pres s o f Ne w England/Wesleyan Universit y Press , 2000 . Cantor, Pau l A . Gilligan Unbound: Popular Culture in the Age of Globalization. Lanham , Md. : Rowma n & . Littlefield, 2001 . Castells, Manuel . Information Technology, Globalization and Social Development. Geneva : UNRISD , 1999 . Clarke, Arthur C . How the World Was One: Beyond the Global Village. New York : Banta m Books , 1992 . Crane, Diana , Nobuk o Kawashima , an d Ken'ich i Kawasaki , editors . Global Culture: Media, Arts, Policy, and Globalization. Ne w York : Routledge, 2002 . Curry, Michae l R . Digital Places: Living with Geographic Information Technologies. Londo n an d Ne w York : Routledge , 1998 . Ducatel, Ken , Julie t Webster , an d Werne r Herrmann , editors . The Information Society in Europe: Work and Life in an Age of Globalization. Lanham , Md. : Rowma n & Littlefiel d Publishers , 2000. Featherstone, Mike . Undoing Culture: Globalization, Postmoderism and Identity. Londo n and Thousand Oaks , Calif.: Sage Publications, 1995. Garcia Canclini , Nestor . Consumers and Citizens: Globalization and Multicultural Conflicts. Translate d an d wit h a n Introductio n b y George Yudice . Minneapolis: Universit y o f Minnesota Press , 2001. Giddens, Anthony . Runaway World: How Globalization Is Reshaping Our Lives. Ne w York : Routledge , 2000 . Golding, Pete r an d Phi l Harris , editors . Beyond Cultural Imperialism: Globalization, Communication and the New International Order. London an d Thousan d Oaks , Calif. : Sage , 1997 . Graham, Stephe n an d Marvin , Simm . Telecommunications and the City: Electronic Space, Urban Spaces. London : Routledge , 1996 . Hall, Peter . The World Cities, Thir d Edition . London : Weidenfel d an d Nicholson, 1984 . Harris, Richar d an d Melind a J . Seid , editors . Critical Perspectives on Globalization and Neoliberalism in the Developing Countries. Boston: Brill , 2000 . Haugerud, Angelique , M . Priscill a Stone , an d Pete r D . Little , editors . Commodities and Globalization: Anthropological Perspectives. Lanham, Md. : Rowma n & Littlefield , 2000 .

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Holmes, David , editor . Virtual Globalization: Virtual Spaces/Tourist Spaces. Londo n an d Ne w York : Routledge , 2001 . Inda, Jonatha n Xavie r an d Renat o Rosaldo , editors . The Anthropology of Globalization. Maiden , Mass. : Blackwel l Publishers , 2002 . Iwabuchi, Koichi . Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. Durham , N.C. : Duke University Press , 2002. James, Jeffrey . Globalization, Information Technology and Development. Ne w York : St . Martin' s Press , 1999 . Jameson, Fredri c an d Masa o Miyoshi , editors . The Cultures of Globalization. Durham , N.C. : Duke Universit y Press , 1998 . Jordan, Tim . Cyberpower: The Culture and Politics of Cyberspace and the Internet. Londo n an d Ne w York : Routledge , 1999 . Kempny, Maria n an d Aldon a Jawlowska , editors . Identity in Transformation: Postmodernity, Postcommunism, and Globalization. Westport , Conn. : Praeger , 2002 . Kennedy, Paul , editor . Second International Conference on Globalization, Culture and Everyday Life 2000: A Selection of Papers from the Conference, 5 July-7 July 2000. Manchester : Manchester Metropolita n University , 2000 . King, Anthon y D. , editor . Culture, Globalization, and the WorldSystem: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity. Binghamton , N.Y. : Departmen t o f Ar t an d Ar t History , State Universit y o f Ne w Yor k a t Binghamton , 1991 . Kofman, Eleonor e an d Gillia n Youngs , editors . Globalization: Theory and Practice. Ne w York : Pinter , 1996 . Kwon Tai-Hwan an d Oh Myung-Seok, editors . Asian Studies in the Age of Globalization. Seoul : Seou l Nationa l Universit y Press , 1998 . Lechner, Fran k J . an d Joh n Boli , editors . The Globalization Reader. Maiden, Mass. : Blackwell , 2000 . Lukic, Rene e an d Michae l Brint , editors . Culture, Politics, and Nationalism in the Age of Globalization. Aldershot : Ashgate, 2001. McBride, Stephe n an d Joh n Wiseman , editors . Globalization and Its Discontents. Ne w York : St . Martin' s Press , 2000 . Mazzoleni, Donatella . "Th e Cit y an d th e Imaginary. " I n Eric a Carte r et al. , editors , Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location. London: Lawrence , 1993 , 285-301 . Meyer, Birgi t an d Pete r Feschiere , editors . Globalization and Identity: Dialectics of Flow and Closure. Oxfor d an d Maiden , Mass. : Blackwell, 1999 . Michaelis, Anthony R . From Semaphore to Satellite. Geneva : ITU, 1965 .

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Index

2001: Space Odyssey (th e movie ) 3 , 25, 41 , 42-48, 50-5 4 Achebe, Chinu a 19 4 actor-network 88-89 , 25 7 African American s 192-193 , 196, 248 Akira 6 6 Alien 79, 177-179 , 18 3 Amazing Stories 116,12 5 android 56 , 63 , 65, 66 , 68 , 69, 19 6 anime 56 , 58, 60, 63, 66, 69, 70 , 133, 134 Armah, Ay i Kwe i 19 4 The Healers 19 2 artificial intelligenc e 43-44 , 80 , 122 , 146-147, 154 , 197 , 217, 240-24 1 Asian philosoph y 157-160 , 16 6 Asimov, Issa c 20 , 14 3 Astounding Science Fiction 120 , 12 2 Astro Boy 60 , 66 Babbage, Charle s 130 , 215-21 7 the Differenc e Engin e 130 , 215 216 Ballantyne, R . M . The Coral Island 209-21 0 Banks, Iai n 127 , 21 0 The Wasp Factory 21 0 Barthes, Rolan d 24 1

Baudrillard, Jea n 203 , 24 9 Baxter, Stephe n 127 , 129 , 132 , 13 3 The Time Ship 12 9 Bear, Gre g 5 0 Blood Music 21 4 becomings 74 , 79, 82-84, 90, 93, 221, 225 biogenetics 20 9 bisexuality 24 7 Blade Runner 31 , 79, 157 , 164 , 24 0 Blanchot, Mauric e 23 5 Blaylock, Jame s 12 8 Bowen, Keit h Pontifex 20 0 Bradbury, Ra y "The Foghorn" 168,170,176,18 2 Braidotti, Ros i 229-23 0 Metamorphosis 23 0 bricoleur 105 , 201-20 2 Brunner, Joh n 120-121 , 19 7 Bukatman, Scot t 203-20 4 Byatt, A.S . Possession 12 9 Cadigan, Pa t 79, 12 8 Campbell, Josep h 26 , 3 3 Campbell, Josep h W . 3 4 Campbell, Josep h W . Jr . 4 7

302 INDEX

Capek, Kare l R.U.R. 65 War With the Newts 15 2 capitalism 130 , 237-23 8 late 29 , 195 , 201 , 203-20 4 Carroll, Lewi s 11 5 Chan, Jacki e 24 7 chaos 84 , 86-87 , 108 , 22 2 Chow, Re y 6 1 "King Kon g Syndrome " 6 1 Chungking Express 24 5 Clarke, Arthu r C . 1 , 31-35, 37, 41, 43, 44-54 , 122-127 , 129 , 13 2 2001: The Space Odyssey 43 , 12 2 How the World Was One 1 The City and the Stars 31-32 , 34 37, 51 , 12 7 collective memor y 235 , 24 0 colonialism neocolonialism 195 , 19 8 Conrad, Josep h Victory 20 8 cosmopolitanism 137 , 19 9 Crash 79, 9 5 Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon 10 , 239, 242-243 , 24 7 Csiscery-Ronay, Istva n Jr . 95 , 96 cultural studie s 37 , 250 , 25 8 cyber cracy 19 8 cyberfeminism 4 , 215-216, 225, 228229, 231-232 , 25 6 cybernetic 1 , 3-4, 48 , 55 , 73 , 85, 90, 92, 94 , 217 , 25 6 cyberontology 25 7 cyberpunk 9 , 79, 80, 86, 93, 128, 129, 133 cyberspace 3 , 9, 17 , 39, 47-53, 80 , 81, 85, 86 , 93, 204, 217 , 226 , 229 , 233, 257 cyborg 3 , 38 , 39 , 55-71 , 73 , 80 , 81, 82, 88 , 96, 182 , 198 , 204, 216 , 224, 225, 228-23 0 cyborgian 38 , 56 , 57 , 6 1 cyborgism 3 8

cyborgist 3 8 cyborgization 55 , 63 , 6 4 cyborgologist 5 6 Daoism (Taoism ) 157-159 , 166 , 21 1 Darwinism, socia l D a r w i n i s m o f craniology an d phrenolog y 19 1 De Landa , Manue l 25 8 de Lauretis , Teres a 25 2 Delany, Samue l R . 8 , 79 Nova 2 0 Deleuze, Gille s 82-84 , 93 , 218, 223, 226-227, 229-230 , 23 8 Destination Moon 168 - 170, 174, 18 6 deterritorialize 22 1 diaspora 8 , 11 , 51, 80 Dick, Phili p K . 3 , 127 , 157-166 , 19 6 Counter-Clock World 15 7 Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep! 19 6 Gather Yourself Together 15 7 The Cosmic Puppets 15 7 The Crack in Space 15 7 The Man in the High Castle 15 7 Difference and Repetition 22 6 dislocation 16 , 113 , 125-126 , 250 251, 25 3 dislocation (o f identity ) 245 , 24 9 Disneyland 5 7 Dixon, Wheele r Winsto n Disaster and Memory 24 6 Doyle, Arthu r Cona n 16 8 The Lost World 16 8 Duchamp, Marce l 5 7 ecologies 11 6 Egan, Gre g 4 , 50 , 127 , 205-21 4 Diaspora 20 8 Distress 21 0 Premutation City 50 , 20 8 Teranesia 205-21 1 embodied 58 , 87 , 116 , 215, 220, 22 7 disembodied 85 , 86 , 87 , 93, 20 8 embodiment 58 , 64 , 65 , 66, 71 , 73, 89, 92 , 183 , 18 5

INDEX 303

disembodiment 85 , 93, 208 Emerson, Ralp h Wald o 7 , 25, 21, 25, 31,39 Emersonian 8 , 9 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 24, 3 6 Eurocentric 19 4 feedback loo p 73 , 85, 88, 90, 96, 97, 99, 100 , 103 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 25 6 feminist fil m theor y 25 2 Forster, E . M . "The Machin e Stops " 12 7 Foucault, Miche l 58 , 23 6 Frankenstein 61-6 2 Frankenstein Syndrom e 61-62 , 6 9 Freud, Sigmun d 218 , 22 0 Galaxy Science Fiction 144 , 14 6 Gee, Maggi e The Ice People 12 8 Gernsback, Hug o 26 , 28 , 31 , 116 , 125-129, 131-13 4 Ghost in the Shell 6 7 Gibson, William 9 , 17 , 31, 39, 50, 52, 80, 85 , 125 , 126 , 128 , 129 , 132 , 203 Count Zero 9, 1 7 "Johnny Mnemonic " 5 2 "The Gernsbac k Continuum " 12 5 Neuromancer 31 , 85, 20 3 Gladiator 24 5 global village 1 , 3, 52, 198 , 233, 238239 globalism 80 , 25 5 globalization 1-4 , 135 , 167, 194, 198, 200, 233-236 , 238 , 239 , 255 , 25 6 Godzilla 3 , 31, 65, 141, 167-168, 171188, 25 5 Godzilla (movie ) 136 , 168 , 170-176 , 178-188 Gigantis the Fire Monster 17 3 Godzilla (1998 ) 168 , 18 4 Godzilla Millennium 187-18 8 Godzilla Raids Again 17 3 Godzilla vs. BioUante 179-180 , 182-183

Godzilla vs. Destroy ah 18 3 Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah 180 183, 185-18 6 Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla 17 6 Godzilla vs. Monster Zero 174 176, 178 , 180 , 18 6 Godzilla vs. the Smog Monster 176 Godzilla vs. the Thing 17 3 Godzilla, King of the Monsters 170-173, 175 , 178 , 180 , 18 5 King Kong vs. Godzilla 17 3 Golding, Willia m Lord of the Flies 21 0 Gray, Chri s Hable s 55-57 , 6 1 Cyborg Citizen 5 6 Greenland, Coli n 12 7 Guattari, Feli x 82-84 , 218 , 223, 238 Gundam 6 0 Gunnm 68 Guyver 6 3 Haggard, Ride r King Solomon's Mines 19 4 Hantke, Stephe n 129 , 13 0 Haraway, Donn a 38 , 61 , 82, 88 , 92, 215, 224 , 225 , 228-23 0 "A Cybor g Manifesto " 38 , 216, 224 hard science fiction 47 , 122 , 127 , 14 4 Hayles, N . Katherin e 3 , 55 , 73 , 74 , 85-90, 92-94 , 95 , 16 4 How We Became Posthuman 16 4 hegemony 13 , 52, 62, 139 , 142 , 233234, 236 , 23 8 Heinlein, Rober t A . 8 , 9, 20-23, 120 , 168, 169 , 18 3 "By Hi s Bootstraps " 20 , 2 1 "The Man Who Sol d the Moon" 8 "The Moon is a Hard Mistress" 2 0 Rocket Ship Galileo 16 8 hermaphroditism 71 , 247 hermeneutical circl e 25 5 Heroic Trio IAS, 247

304 INDEX

Hollywood 66 , 167 , 168 , 233 , 234 240, 242-243 , 245 , 247 , 248 , 250 , 252, 25 6 Hong Kon g 1 , 3, 4, 8 , 10 , 14 , 15 , 17, 113, 114 , 133 , 134 , 237 , 240 , 242 , 243, 245 , 247-250 , 252 , 255-257 , humanism 81 , 82, 85 , 86 , 9 8 liberal 9 8 humanity 2 , 18 , 21,22, 31-33, 35-37, 54, 63 , 66, 104 , 140-141 , 143 , 145, 147, 149 , 151-156 , 173 , 176 , 186 , 194, 201 , 243, 25 6 Huxley, Aldou s Island 20 9 hybridism 19 9 hybridity 58 , 63-64 , 71 , 73, 77, 80 81, 198-19 9 idios kosmos 161 , 163-16 4 imperialism 14 1 French 18 4 techno- 5 0 technocratic 19 1 informatics 8 5 information 9 , 10 , 13 , 20, 29, 30, 57, 67, 85 , 86 , 87 , 90 , 104 , 106 , 107 , 109, 110 , 119 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 129 , 147, 182 , 219 , 233 , 236 , 241 , 250, 257 highway 7 Revolution 30 , 13 0 superhighway 8 5 intercultural studie s 25 8 Internet 1 , 3, 7 , 39, 42, 53, 104 , 107 , 192, 193 , 207, 219 , 229 , 242 , 25 7 Irigaray, Luc e 220 , 224-225 , 24 9 Iyayi, Festu s 19 4 Jacquard, Joseph-Mari e 217 , 21 9 Jameson, Fredri c 29 , 51, 80, 157 , 204, 257 Jeter, K . W. Morlock Nigh t 12 6

Jung, Car l 159-16 1 Jurassic Park 171 , 183 , 18 5 Kaufman-Osborn, Timoth y 23 2 King Kong 16 8 Kipling, Rudyar d 113 , 117-13 4 Kubrick, Stanle y 41 , 43-48 , 51-52 , 122-124 kung f u 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 237 , 241, 242 , 243 , 25 6 La Femme Nikita 1 1 Laing, Koj o 197-198 , 200-201 , 20 3 Major Gentl and the Achimota Wars 197 , 20 1 Lang, Frit z Metropohs 28 , 29, 31, 57, 113, 152, 170, 179 , 19 8 Latour, Brun o 88-89 , 94 , 256-25 7 Le Corbusie r 27-28 , 30 , 3 8 The City of Tomorrow 17 Le Guin, Ursula K. 31-35 , 37, 39, 14 3 City of Illusions 31 , 33, 37, 3 9 Lee, An g 10 , 239, 242-24 3 Lee, Bruc e 8 , 10-16 , 23 7 Fists of Fury 11 , 14 , 1 5 Enter the Dragon 14-15 , 23 , 23 7 Return of the Dragon 1 2 The Chinese Connection 12-14 , 15, 1 6 The Game of Death 1 1 Levi-Strauss, Claud e 201-20 2 lines o f fligh t 223-225 , 23 0 Lovelace, Ad a 215-217 , 21 9 Lucas, Georg e 132 , 23 9 The Star Wars 132 , 180 , 186 , 23 9 Luddism 195 , 20 0 Luddite 39 , 19 4 Macross 6 0 manga 56 , 60 , 66 , 68-70 , 13 3 Marechera, Dambudzo 195-197 , 202203

INDEX 305

The Black Insider 196 , 20 3 Marley, Bo b 8 , 10 , 17 , 1 9 Marlowe, Christophe r Dr. Faustus 1 0 Marquez, Gabrie l Garci a Love in the Time of Cholera 19 2 Massumi, Bria n 25 8 Metcalfe, Bo b 21 9 Mission Impossible 1 0 Mission Impossible 2 1 0 modernity 62 , 64, 135 , 192 , 194-19 6 counter- 13 6 modernization 58 , 61 , 69 , 71 , 135 136, 192-19 3 monad 7-11 , 14-15 , 17 , 19-21 , 2 3 24,26 Moorcock, Michae l 126 , 12 9 The Warlord of the Air 12 6 Moore, Ala n "The Leagu e o f Extraordinar y Gentlemen" 13 0 More, Thoma s Utopia 20 9 multiplicity 77, 197 , 220-222 , 224 226, 22 8 mutation 82 , 96, 100 , 106 , 205, 206, 208, 210-213 , 25 6 Naked Lunch 51 , 79 nanocomputing 99 nanoengineering 97, 10 1 nanomachines 10 4 nanoscale 9 8 nanosites 98-100 , 105 , 108 , 10 9 nanospatiality 10 9 nanotechnology 95 , 9 8 Needham, Josep h Science and Civilization in China 231 Neon Genesis Evangelion 58 , 60, 63, 64, 67, 68 , 7 1 network 7 , 9 , 38 , 39, 45 , 88 , 89 , 91, 92, 94, 101 , 107, 108, 110, 113 , 118, 203, 219 , 226 , 229 , 237 , 256 , 25 7 Nintendo 57

O'Brian, Patric k The Thirteen-Gun Salute 209-21 0 occidentalism 19 9 Okri, Be n Astonishing the Gods 20 4 Orphanogenesis 20 8 Orwell, Georg e Nineteen Eighty Four 114 , 23 8 otherness 73 , 75-77 , 79, 81 , 84, 89 , 235 Patlabor 6 0 Picasso, Pabl o 5 7 Plant, Sadi e 215-217 , 219-221 , 224 225, 228-22 9 popular cultur e 8 , 55-56 , 71 , 125 , 188, 237 , 24 5 postcolonial 173 , 19 5 posthuman 54 , 56, 57, 63, 71, 74, 8587, 93-94 , 95-96 , 196 , 214 , 229 , posthumanism 79, 82 , posthumanity 219 , 25 6 postmodern 8 , 25, 49, 51, 55, 95, 205, 209, 211,230,24 9 postmodernism 79 , 20 3 postmodernity 20 3 Powers, Ti m 128 , 12 9 Priest, Christophe r 12 7 The Space Machine 12 9 Ralph 124C 41+ 125 , 127 , 13 1 recursive loo p 96, 98 , 99, 103-105 , 109, 11 0 rhizome 92 , 223-225 , 229-23 0 Robinson, Ki m Stanle y 12 7 Robocop 57, 63 , 66 robot 35 , 55 - 58 , 60 , 65 , 66 , 71 , 85, 87, 125 , 146 , 176 , 177 , 18 3 robotopia 5 6 Rorty, Richar d 9 5 Achieving Our Country 95 Rushdie, Salma n Shame 19 6 The Moor's Last Sigh 19 1

306 INDEX

Saigyo 6 5 Sandoval, Chel a 225 , 22 8 satellite 7 , 8 , 10 , 14 , 16 , 20, 44, 53, 122, 16 9 schizophrenia 158 , 160-161 , 16 5 Schuyler, Georg e Black-No-More 19 2 Schwarzenegger, Arnol d 24 7 Shakespeare, Willia m 9 , 16 , 20 2 The Tempest 9 Shanghai Noon 245 , 24 7 Shelley, Mar y 6 9 Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus 61-62 , 82 , 115 , 255 Silko, Lesli e Marmo n Almanac of the Dead 9 5 Silverberg, Rober t 2 2 Simak, Cliffor d D . 31-35 , 3 7 City 31 , 33, 3 4 simulation 80 , 99, 103 , 104, 106 , 213, 217 Spielberg, Steve n 183 , 18 5 Close Encounters of the Third Kind 18 3 E.T 18 3 Spivak, Gayatr i Chakravort y 19 6 Stableford, Bria n 115 , 12 9 Stapledon, Ola f Last and First Men 11 4 Sirius 15 2 Star Trek 60 , 63 , 121 , 13 2 steampunk 126 , 128-13 0 post- 12 9 proto- 12 9 Stelarc 5 7 Stephenson, Nea l 3 , 95 , 103 , 11 0 Diamond Age 95 Snow Crash 95 Sterling, Bruc e 8 , 9, 16 , 80, 126 , 128, 129 Islands in the Net 8 subjectivity 55 , 56, 58, 63, 64, 67, 69, 71, 82 , 86 , 93 , 195 , 196 , 197 , 199 ,

203, 204 , 224 , 225 , 229 , 230 , 231 , 247, 25 2 cyborg 55 , 56 , 63 , 64, 7 1 human 56 , 5 8 posthuman 7 1 intersubjectivity 77 Surrealism 19 5 symbiosis 47 , 204 , 25 6 Tagomi, Nobosuk e 159 , 161-162 , 165-166 Talbot, Brya n 126 , 13 0 "Heart o f Empire " 13 0 "Luther Arkwright " 13 0 Tao 27 , 159 , 216 , 220-223 , 22 7 Taoism (Daoism ) 157-159 , 166 , 21 1 Taoist 158 , 159 , 160 , 225 , 23 9 technological sublim e 87 , 93 , 193 , 204 terminal identit y 20 3 territorialize 223-22 4 Tetsuwan Atum o [Astr o Boy] 57 , 60, 66, 7 0 The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms 168 172, 175 , 178 , 18 4 The Difference Engine 126 , 12 9 the Differenc e Engin e 130 , 215 , 21 6 The Fifth Element 3 1 The Green Snake 24 5 The Kiss of the Dragon 1 1 The Matrix 51 , 63, 240-24 1 The Net 79, 22 9 The Six Million Dollar Man 18 3 The Terminator 51 , 68, 79, 183 , 24 5 Thiong'o, Ngug i W a 19 4 Third Worl d 8 , 61 , 196-197 , 20 4 Third Worl d Feminis m 22 8 time travele r 2 2 transvestism 24 7 Turing 103-10 4 Twister 245 , 24 9 Underpeople 144 , 146-148 , 151-15 6 urbanism 26 , 29 , 3 7

INDEX 307

Early 26 , 29 , 3 0 Middle 29 , 3 0 disurbanism 3 7 Late 29 , 30, 3 1 post- 3 7 urbanscape 25 7 Utopia 3 , 30 , 95 , 96-107 , 109-110 , 127, 155 , 204, 20 9 distopian 15 5 mutopia 95-98 , 102 , 106-107 , 109-100 mutopian 96, 11 0 Utopian 8 , 56 , 95 , 96-107, 109 110, 114 , 131 , 194 , 20 4 utopianism 20 4 Vader, Dart h 66 Verne, Jule s 2 , 58-59 , 116 , 14 3 Around the World in Eighty Days 58 Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea 58-5 9 Virilio, Pau l 204 , 235-236 , 241-24 3 virtual realit y 34 , 51,80 , 82 , 84 , 86, 127, 198 , 235 , 236 , 24 1 virtuality 4 , 84, 86, 89, 93, 193, 196 197, 199 , 203 , 222 , 224-226 , 228 , 256-257 Volcano 245 , 24 9

wabi 16 0 Warrick, Patrici a 157-16 0 web 7 , 53 , 107 , 132 , 200 , 219 , 23 3 Wells, H . G 22 , 114 , 116 , 117 , 120 , 128, 129 , 143 , 153 , 208, 25 5 Invisible Man 1 0 The Time Machine 22 , 128 , 15 2 The War of the Worlds 1 0 The Island of Dr. Moreau 152 , 208, 21 0 The Scientific Romances of H. G. Wells 11 4 Whitman, Wal t 3 9 Woo, Joh n 10 , 24 7 Woolf, Virgini a 23 0 Wordsworth, Willia m 114 , 116 , 12 0 Lyrical Ballads 11 4 Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine (Huangdi Nei Jing) 23 1 Yiching ( I Ching o r Book of Change) 158-162 , 165 , 215, 227 228 synchronicity 160-16 1 yin yang 22 8 Zen Buddhis m 95 , 158-15 9 Zhu, Jianjion g 157-16 0 Zoroastrianism 15 7