Using Chinese: A Guide to Contemporary Usage

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Using Chinese This is a guide to Chinese usage for students who have already acquired the basics of the language and wish to extend their knowledge. Unlike conventional grammars, it addresses many aspects of Chinese language usage, such as letter writing, idioms, proverbs, and riddles. It also provides new and recent words, including internet vocabulary, which enables students to understand and properly use the most up-to-date expressions alongside everyday language. Useful sections on common social interactions are included, along with an invaluable guide to the finer nuances of body language. Clear, readable, and easy to consult, this is an essential reference for learners seeking access to one of the world’s most important languages. yvonne li walls taught Chinese for over thirty years in North American universities, including Indiana University, the University of Washington, University of British Columbia, University of Victoria, and Simon Fraser University. She is now an editor and translator for the North America Fine Arts Publishing House in Vancouver, Canada. jan w. walls taught Chinese for over thirty years in North American universities, including Indiana University, the University of British Columbia, University of Victoria, and Simon Fraser University. He is now Professor Emeritus in Humanities, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, Canada.

Companion titles to Using Chinese Other titles in this series Using French (third edition) A guide to contemporary usage r. e. bat c h e lor and m . h . of f or d (ISBN 9780521 64177 7 hardback) (ISBN 9780521 64593 5 paperback)

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Using Chinese A guide to contemporary usage

YVONNE LI WA L L S and JAN W. WA L L S

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521785655 © Yvonne Li Walls and Jan W. Walls, 2009 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2009 ISBN-13

978-0-511-71968-4

eBook (NetLibrary)

ISBN-13

978-0-521-78565-5

Paperback

ISBN-13

978-0-521-78565-5

Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Contents

1 1.1 1.2

1.3 2 2.1 2.2

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14

Varieties of language and register

1

Introduction 1 The Chinese language and its distribution 2 1.2.1 Modern Chinese 2 1.2.2 Regional differences in spoken Chinese – the dialects 1.2.3 Regional differences – within Mandarin 3 1.2.4 The spoken language 4 1.2.5 The written language and writing system 6 Overview of register in Chinese 7 1.3.1 Illustrations of register 8 Vocabulary and usage

3

10

Parts of speech 10 Word formation 11 2.2.1 Compounding 11 2.2.2 Prefixes 12 2.2.3 Suffixes 12 2.2.4 New words 13 Homonyms 14 Homophones 16 Homographs 19 New and recent words 25 Computer and internet-related words 44 2.7.1 Terms for things 44 2.7.2 Terms for actions 45 2.7.3 Text messaging, blogging, and online chatting abbreviations Quotable quotes from the classics 46 Idioms 52 Four-character set phrases 55 Proverbs and common sayings 100 Punning allusion 133 Metaphorical allusion 135 Onomatopoeia 139 2.14.1 Animal sounds 139

46

v

Contents

2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 3 3.1

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

3.7 3.8 vi

2.14.2 Human, inanimate, and mechanical sounds 2.14.3 Other onomatopoeic expressions 140 Mimetopoeia 140 Riddles 142 Tongue twisters 144 Colors 145 Opposites 148 F igurative expressions 150 Vulgar sayings and insulting words 156 Issues in translation 158 Transliteration vs. translation 159 Functional language

161

Proper names 161 3.1.1 Surnames 161 3.1.2 Personal names 163 3.1.3 Continents 164 3.1.4 Highest peaks in the world 164 3.1.5 Major mountain ranges in China 165 3.1.6 Oceans 165 3.1.7 Seas 166 3.1.8 Major rivers in the world 167 3.1.9 Rivers in China 168 3.1.10 Major lakes in the world 169 3.1.11 Lakes in China 170 3.1.12 Countries and their capitals 171 3.1.13 Administrative divisions in China 178 Festivals 180 Holidays 181 Family relationships 181 Forms of address 185 Social interaction 187 3.6.1 Greetings 187 3.6.2 Introductions 188 3.6.3 Farewells 189 189 3.6.4 Apologies 3.6.5 Requests 190 3.6.6 Refusals 191 192 3.6.7 Invitations 3.6.8 Compliments 192 3.6.9 Self-deprecating responses 193 3.6.10 Regrets 193 3.6.11 Thanks 194 3.6.12 Polite expressions 194 3.6.13 Emergency expressions 195 Directions 196 Measurements 196

139

Contents

3.9 3.10

3.11 3.12

4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5 5.1

5.2 5.3 5.4

5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8

3.8.1 Length 197 3.8.2 Area 197 3.8.3 Land Area 198 3.8.4 Weight 198 3.8.5 Volume 199 3.8.6 Capacity 199 Temperature 199 Calendar 199 3.10.1 Year 203 3.10.2 Month 203 3.10.3 Week 204 3.10.4 Time of day 204 3.10.5 Duration of Time 205 Currency 205 Numbers 206 3.12.1 Numerals 206 3.12.2 Ordinals 207 3.12.3 Decimals 208 3.12.4 Percentages 208 3.12.5 Fractions 208 3.12.6 Multiples 208 3.12.7 Approximate numbers 208 Letters

209

Addressing an envelope General form of a letter Informal letters 210 Formal letters 213 Grammar

209 210

215

The main features of Chinese grammar 215 5.1.1 Absence of morphological change 215 5.1.2 Frequent ellipsis 216 5.1.3 Mutual influence of monosyllabic and disyllabic words 217 5.1.4 Differences between spoken and written forms 217 Word order and syntax 219 221 Topic-comment sentences Pronouns 222 5.4.1 Personal pronouns 222 5.4.2 Demonstrative pronouns 223 5.4.3 Interrogative pronouns 223 Location 224 Measure words 225 Ways of asking questions 228 Auxiliary verbs/optative verbs 231 5.8.1 Capability 231 5.8.2 Possibility 231 vii

Contents

5.9 5.10

5.11 5.12 5.13

5.14

5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20

5.21

5.22 5.23 5.24 6

5.8.3 Permission 232 5.8.4 Perceived obligation or likelihood 232 5.8.5 Imperative obligation 233 Negation 233 Particles 234 5.10.1 Structural particles: the three de 235 5.10.2 Aspect particles: le, ne, zhe, guo 238 5.10.3 Modal particles: a, ba, de, le, ma, ne 243 5.10.4 Other frequently used modal particles 247 Object inversion: “ᡞbaˇ ” sentences 248 Commands and suggestions 249 Comparisons 251 5.13.1 Comparison of equality 251 5.13.2 Negating comparison of equality 252 5.13.3 Comparison of inequality 252 5.13.4 Negating comparison of inequality 253 5.13.5 Degrees of inequality by comparison 253 Complements 254 5.14.1 Complement of degree 254 5.14.2 Directional complement 256 5.14.3 Complement of time 259 5.14.4 Complement of quantity 260 5.14.5 Resultative complement 260 5.14.6 Potential complement 261 5.14.7 List of commonly used verbs with potential complements 262 Expressing whoever, whatever, wherever, however, and whenever 263 Expressing surprise 264 Connecting words 264 Emphasis using the “shì . . . de” pattern 267 Interjections 269 Passive voice 270 5.20.1 Structural passive 270 5.20.2 Notional passive 271 271 Reduplications 5.21.1 Reduplication of verbs 271 5.21.2 Reduplication of nouns 273 5.21.3 Reduplication of adjectives 274 5.21.4 Reduplication of measure words 275 Prepositions 276 Subjunctive mood 279 Sentences without subjects 280 Body language Bibliography Index 289

viii

283 286

1 Varieties of language and register

1.1

Introduction It has been several centuries since non-native speakers around the world first began systematically learning the Chinese language. In imperial China, the Jesuit order published Chinese language textbooks for use by their missionaries. Chinese has been widely taught in universities and colleges in the West for many decades now, and the demand for Chinese language instruction has been increasing steadily, to the point where it is now taught in many secondary and even primary schools in Europe and North America. If grammar is considered in the narrower sense of rules for the expression of differences in case, number, person, tense, and voice, then Chinese is said by some to have little or very simplistic grammar. As a result, learning Chinese often has been believed to be a tedious exercise in rote memorization of words and expressions. However, as a human language, Chinese definitely has a well-ordered structure and organization, and therefore has a grammar. From the learner–user’s point of view, Chinese grammar also needs systematic treatment, so that learning can become a more logical and orderly process. Once basic grammar has been mastered in a number of conventional contexts, one must proceed to develop command of a more extensive vocabulary in a variety of different situations and contexts in order to truly master it. It is the intention of Using Chinese to address these and a variety of other issues, with a view towards making the learning of Chinese a more sensible and pleasant experience. In this book, the target language is modern standard Chinese, ⦄ҷ∝䇁 xiàndài Hànyuˇ , also called Mandarin, the standard spoken form: ᱂䗮䆱 puˇ tōnghuà; the standardized (generally known as the simplified) character form, ㅔԧᄫ jiaˇntîˇzì, is used for the written script; and the Romanization adopted is the ᣐ䷇ pīnyīn system, or more officially: the Scheme for the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, which has been officially used in China since 1958 and has now become the most widely used 1

1 Varieties of language and register

Romanization system in textbooks and dictionaries around the world. On January 1, 2001, “The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Language” went into effect. In this law the above-mentioned spoken, written, and Romanization forms are proclaimed as the standard. The Chinese language, Ё᭛ Zhōngwén, has a written history that can be traced back to about the middle of the second millennium BCE. It is one of two branches of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages and is used by the Han Chinese, ∝ᮣHànzú, who make up 91.59% of China’s 1.3 billion people, and by many Chinese who live elsewhere on every inhabited continent and on major islands around the world, estimated at around 30 million. The other 8.41% of the population in China speak one of many minority nationality languages, such as Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, Dai, Naxi, Korean. The Chinese language in its many dialect forms is the native tongue of more people than any other language in the world, English being the second most widely spoken native tongue. Chinese is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations, the others being English, Arabic, French, Russian, and Spanish. Mandarin, ᱂䗮䆱 puˇ tōnghuà, the standard language of China, is the native dialect of about 71% of its population, and is also spoken by educated speakers of other dialects. Mandarin is also the off icial language in Taiwan, and is one of the official languages in Singapore. In its broadest sense the Chinese language refers to all of the Chinese “dialects,” so called because although they all read and write the same characters for the same meaning, their pronunciation of the same characters may differ as greatly as the Romance languages of Europe differ in their pronunciation of the same Latin root words, or their pronunciation of the Arabic numerals. The Chinese language, in both its written and spoken aspects, has been evolving for several millennia, but most historical linguistics scholars would say that the “modern Chinese” (Mandarin) era began around the time of the early Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). There are a number of Chinese terms for the Chinese language: “∝䇁 Hànyuˇ ” meaning “Han language” and “Ё᭛ Zhōngwén,” a more general term meaning “Chinese language” and “Ё೑䆱 Zhōngguó huà” meaning “Chinese speech.” There are also different terms used for what we call “Mandarin”: “࣫ᮍ䆱 běifānghuà” meaning “northern speech”; “᱂䗮䆱 puˇ tōnghuà” meaning “common speech” in mainland China; “ढ䇁 Huáyuˇ ” meaning “Chinese language,” mostly used by overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia, and “೑ 䇁 guóyuˇ ” meaning “national language” used mostly in Taiwan.

1.2 The Chinese language and its distribution 1.2.1

Modern Chinese When we speak of the “modern Chinese language,” ⦄ҷ∝䇁 xiàndài Hànyuˇ , or Mandarin ᱂䗮䆱 puˇ tōnghuà, we refer to the

2

1.2 The Chinese language and its distribution

language that is based on the northern dialect, taking Beijing pronunciation as its standard and taking well-known vernacular writings as the standard for its grammar. The origin of the term that we translate as “Mandarin” Chinese appears to be the older term “ᅬ䆱 guānhuà” which literally means “official speech.” The English word “mandarin” is traceable to a Sanskrit term “mantrin,” meaning “minister.” The distinction between “Chinese language” and “Mandarin” is not just an academic one, for you may hear a Cantonese speaker say “Ngóh sik góng Jùngmàhn, ngh-sik góng gwok-yúeh,” meaning “I speak Chinese, but not Mandarin.” This makes sense when we consider that Mandarin is one of several dialects, all of which are “Chinese.” While most urban Chinese today will be able to speak, or at least understand, Mandarin, it is spoken as the native tongue of Chinese in the area north of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River, and west of Hunan and Guangdong provinces. Apart from Mandarin, other important dialect groups include: Wú (including Shanghainese), spoken in Jiangsu Province and Zhejiang Province; Mîˇn (Fukienese), spoken in Fujian Province, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia; Yuè (Cantonese), spoken in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, North America, and elsewhere by the Chinese diaspora; and Kèjiā (Hakka), spoken mostly in Guangdong and Jiangxi provinces. Following the growth of more universal education and mass media over the past century, Mandarin is now spoken by most educated Chinese in most cities throughout China.

1.2.2

Regional differences in spoken Chinese – the dialects Most people living in northern, northeastern, and southwestern China, amounting to about three-quarters of all Chinese, are native speakers of a Mandarin sub-dialect: Beijing Mandarin, Shandong Mandarin, Sichuan Mandarin, etc. As mentioned above, the remaining quarter of the Chinese-speaking population is composed of about seven other major dialects, which mostly are mutually unintelligible. Their differences in pronunciation might be compared to the differences between French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese among the Romance languages.

1.2.3

Regional differences – within Mandarin Regional differences in pronunciation of Mandarin within China are as great or greater than the varieties of English as spoken in England, Scotland, Ireland, Australia, the United States, and Canada. The difference between a Mandarin sub-dialect and a dialect is that subdialect speakers can mostly understand each other’s speech, while the different dialects are often mutually unintelligible. 3

1 Varieties of language and register

Major Chinese dialect distribution:

Dialect

1.2.4

Representative place Pop. where dialect is Region where (%) spoken dialect is spoken

᱂䗮䆱 puˇ tōnghuà

71

࣫ҀBěijīng

N of the Chángjiāng River 䭓∳& SW China

ਈ Wú

9

Ϟ⍋ Shànghaˇ i

Ϟ⍋ˈ㢣ᎲˈᵁᎲ Shànghaˇ i, Sūzhōu, Hángzhōu

␬ Xiāng

5

䭓≭ Chángshā

␪फ Húnán

㉸ Yuè (Cantonese)

5

ᑓᎲ Guaˇ ngzhōu

ᑓ㽓ˈᑓϰ Guaˇ ngxī, Guaˇ ngdōng

䯑 Mîˇn (Fukienese)

4

North: ⽣Ꮂ Fúzhōu South: ॺ䮼 Xiàmén

⽣ᓎˈৄ⑒ˈ ⍋ फ Fújiàn, Táiwān, Haˇ inán

ᅶᆊ Kèjiā (Hakka)

4

ṙও Méixiàn

Mostly in Guaˇngdōng, Jiāngxī, and Hakka communities in SE China

䌷 Gàn

2

फᯠ Nánchāng

∳㽓 Jiāngxī

The spoken language Spoken Chinese is an analytic, or isolating, language meaning that the vast majority of all morphemes, or syllables, are meaningful units of speech, which may in turn be combined with other meaningful syllables to form new words. There are only around 400 syllables in Modern Standard Chinese. Below are a few examples to illustrate the difference in the “feel” of a language whose words are mostly made up of meaningful syllables.

4

English

Chinese

crane

䍋䞡ᴎ qîˇ-zhòng-jī (raise-heavy-machine)

department store

ⱒ䋻݀ৌ baˇ i-huò-gōng-sī (100-goodspublic-managed)

elevator

⬉ẃ diàn-tī (electric-stairs)

encyclopedia

ⱒ⾥ܼк baˇ i-kē-quán-shū (100-categorytotal-book)

1.2 The Chinese language and its distribution

English

Chinese

escalator

⒮ẃ guˇ n-tī (rolling-stairs)

library

೒к佚 tú-shū-guaˇ n (chart-book-building)

microscope

ᰒᖂ䬰 xiaˇ n-wēi-jìng (reveal-tiny-lens)

ophthalmology

ⴐ⾥ yaˇ n-kē (eye department)

pedometer

䅵ℹ఼ jì-bù-qì (count-step-tool)

radio

ᬊ䷇ᴎ shōu-yīn-jī (receive-sound-machine)

surgery

໪⾥ wài-kē (external-department)

university

໻ᄺ dà-xué (major-learning)

telescope

ᳯ䖰䬰 wàng-yuaˇ n-jìng (gaze-far-lens)

zebra

᭥偀 bān-maˇ (striped-horse)

All varieties (i.e. dialects or sub-dialects) of the Chinese language are tonal. Each Mandarin syllable has four tones, although not all toned syllables are meaningful syllables in modern Chinese. The four tones 5 P

1st 4th 4

I T 2nd

3

C 2 H

3rd 1

There is also a “neutral” tone, which could be considered as a fifth tone. First tone (high-level): Second tone (high-rising): Third tone (dip-low-rising): Fourth tone (falling): Neutral tone (“toneless”):

mā, má, maˇ , mà, ma,

“ཛྷ, mother” “咏, hemp” “偀, horse” “偖, scold” ৫, verbalized question mark

These tonal distinctions are “built into” each spoken syllable, with or without reference to the Chinese character that would be used to 5

1 Varieties of language and register

write each different syllable. For example, the difference between “ф 㦰 maˇi cài” and “प㦰 mài cài” is significant: the former means “buy groceries,” while the latter means “sell groceries.” “ཛྷཛྷ偖偀 Māma mà maˇ” means “Mom scolds the horse,” while “偀偖ཛྷཛྷ Maˇ mà Māma” means “The horse scolds Mom.” Actually the meaning of the sample sentence “Māma mà maˇ,” depending upon the context of the utterance, may be more general or more specific, and either singular or plural: “(The) Mom(s) scold(s) (the) horse(s).” In the context of speaking about things that happened yesterday, the utterance “Māma mà maˇ ” would mean: “(The) Mom(s) scolded (the) horse(s).” Verbs are not conjugated in Chinese. If it is not clear whether we are talking about something in the past, present, or future, we may add a time expression before the verb or at the beginning of the utterance: for example, “ཛྷཛྷ᯼໽偖偀 Māma zuótian mà maˇ ,” or “᯼໽ཛྷཛྷ偖偀 Zuótian māma mà maˇ ” where “᯼໽ zuótian, yesterday” shows it is a past action. Thus there is no need for verbalized declension to show past, present, and future tense of verbs in Chinese, since “yesterday” (or “today” or “tomorrow” or “last year”), which must always be expressed or implied before the verb, removes the need for the addition of tense markers in verbs. Nor is there any need to verbalize distinctions between singular and plural forms of nouns. If it is necessary to refer specifically to more than one of a noun, it may be preceded by a specific number, or by “some,” or “a few,” or “many.” Once you have uttered a number or a pluralizer like “several,” then it is perfectly clear that the noun which follows has been pluralized, so there is no need to mark it any further: к shū, book or books; ϔᴀк yìběn shū, one book; ϸᴀк liaˇ ngběn shū, “two book”; ᕜ໮к hěnduō shū, “many book”; ޴ᴀк jîˇběn shū, “a few book,” etc., is every bit as clear as “one book, two books, many books or a few books.” One way to turn an indicative sentence into an interrogative sentence is simply to add the interrogative particle (verbalized question marker) “৫ ma” at the end of the sentence. Thus, to ask the question “Does/Do Mom(s) scold(s) (the) horse(s)?” we may simply say: “ཛྷཛྷ偖偀৫˛Māma mà maˇ ma?” 1.2.5

The written language and writing system When writing their language, Chinese speakers use a non-alphabetical script called “characters, ᄫ zì.” Ёढᄫ⍋ Zhōnghuá zìhaˇi, Sea of Chinese Characters (1994), contains 85,568 characters’ entries, 3,500 of which are used the most frequently. In China, urban people are considered literate if they have mastered 2,000 of the most frequently used characters. In the countryside, the number is 1,500. However, a well-educated person should know 5,000 to 7,000 characters. Most Chinese characters can be identified as belonging to one of the following categories:

6

1.3 Overview of register in Chinese

1.

Pictograms such as: ᳼ mù, tree ቅ shān, mountain ∈ shuîˇ, water Ҏ rén, person ᮹ rì, sun ᳜ yuè, moon 偀 maˇ , horse 2. Ideograms such as: Ϟ shàng, above ϟ xià, below ߌ tū, protruding ߍ āo, concave Ѡ èr, two ϝ sān, three 3. Meaningful compounds such as: Ң cóng, follow (person following a person) ᮺ dàn, dawn (sun above the horizon) ᵫ lín, woods (two trees) Ể sēn, forest (three trees) ᱊ jīng, bright (three suns), also means “crystal” ӫ zhòng, crowd (three people) 4. Ideophonetic compounds such as: ≤ mù, bathe: has something to do with “water,∉,” and sounds something like “᳼ mù, wood” = “mù,” “bathe” ᷟ dòng, pillar: has something to do with “wood, ᳼,” and sounds something like “ϰ dōng, east” = “dòng,” “pillar” ᱈ qíng, fair: has something to do with “sun,᮹,” and sounds something like “䴦 qīng, blue/green” = “qíng,” “fair” (weather) ⏙ qīng, clear: has something to do with “water,∉,” and sounds something like “䴦 qīng, blue/green” = “qīng,” “clear” or “pure” 䇋 qîˇng, request: has something to do with “words, 䅴,” and sounds something like “䴦 qīng, blue/green” = “qîˇng,” “ask,” or “invite” About 94% of all characters used today are either meaningful compounds or ideophonetic compounds, the latter being the great majority. The remaining characters are either pictographs or ideographs. Therefore we may say that most Chinese characters are neither completely phonetic nor completely ideographic, but rather, they contain a “semantic hint” and a “phonetic hint.”

1.3 Overview of register in Chinese When linguists speak of “register” in a language, they refer to a subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular 7

1 Varieties of language and register

social setting. The famous linguistics scholar M. A. K. Halliday (1964) identified three broadly defined variables that help us understand different types of register in a language: field (the subject matter); tenor (the participants and their relationships); and mode (the channel of communication – spoken, written, chatroom, etc.). Martin Joos (1962) describes five styles: frozen (printed, unchanging phrases, such as canonical quotations); formal (one-way participation, no interruption, ritualistic); consultative (two-way participation, interruptions common); casual (in-group friends, ellipsis and slang common, interruptions common); and intimate (non-public, private vocabulary). Quirk et al. (1985) distinguish five different registers of formality in English, although they use the term “attitude” rather than register: very formal, formal, neutral, informal, and very informal. Such distinctions would seem to be quite helpful to understand how register works in Chinese. Native speakers of North American English usually are not so conscious of the need to switch speech registers when talking with people of different social distance, different professions, different age groups, different degrees of closeness, or in different social contexts. Perhaps the implicit assumptions of equality and individuality among modern English speakers are not conducive to a focus on relationships, which is precisely what is required to trigger a switch in speech register. 1.3.1

Illustrations of register

You (normal) You (polite)

Դ nîˇ ᙼ nín

My father (normal) My father (normal, less formal) Your father (more formal)

៥⠊҆ woˇ fùqin ៥⠌⠌ woˇ bàba ᙼ⠊҆ nín fùqin

My mother (normal) My mother (normal, less formal) Your mother (more formal)

៥↡҆woˇ muˇ qin ៥ཛྷཛྷwoˇ māma ᙼ↡҆nín muˇ qin

To visit a friend (normal) To visit the teacher (more formal)

ⳟ᳟ট kàn péngyou ᢰ䆓㗕Ꮬ bàif aˇ ng laˇ oshī

To eat at a restaurant (informal) To eat at a restaurant (more formal)

ৗ佚ᄤ chī guaˇ nzi ೼佁佚‫ܓ‬ৗ佁 zài fànguaˇ nr chīfàn

To go by taxi (informal) To go by taxi (normal)

ᠧⱘএ daˇ dī qù തߎ⾳䔺এ zuò chūzūchē qù

To order drinks (informal) To order beverages (more formal)

㽕ୱⱘ yào hēde ⚍佂᭭ diaˇ n yîˇnliào

What would you like to drink? (informal) What would you like to drink? (more formal)

ୱ⚍‫ܓ‬ҔМ˛ Hē diaˇ nr shénme? ᙼୱ⚍‫ܓ‬ҔМ佂᭭˛Nín hē diaˇ nr shénme yîˇnliào?

8

1.3 Overview of register in Chinese

How old are you? (extremely polite)

Դ޴ቕњ˛Nîˇ jîˇsuì le? Դ໮໻њ˛ Nîˇ duōdà le? ᙼ໮໻ቕ᭄њ˛Nín duōdà suìshu le? 䇋䯂ˈᙼ໮໻ᑈ㑾˛Qîˇngwèn, nín duōdà niánji? 䇋䯂ˈᙼ䌉ᑮ˛Qîˇngwèn, nín guìgēng?

How How How How

ᗢМḋଞ˛Zěnmeyàng a? ད৫˛Haˇ o ma? ԴདʽNîˇ haˇ o! ᙼདʽNín haˇ o!

How How How How

old old old old

are are are are

are are are are

you? you? you? you?

you? you? you? you?

(to children) (to adults) (to older people) (polite, to older people)

(informal) (normal) (normal) (more polite)

My wife (to familiar people) My wife (to familiar people) My wife (to familiar people) My My My My

wife wife wife wife

(to familiar people) (common in PRC) (normal) (normal now)

My husband (to familiar people) My husband (to familiar people) My husband (to familiar people) My My My My

husband husband husband husband

(to familiar people) (common in PRC) (normal) (normal now)

៥䙷ষᄤ woˇ nèikoˇ uzi ៥㗕⠅ woˇ laˇ o’ài ៥㗕Ԉ‫ ܓ‬woˇ laˇ obànr (also means “my husband”) ᄽᄤҪཛྷ háizi tā mā ៥⠅Ҏ woˇ àiren ៥ྏᄤ woˇ qīzi ៥໾໾ woˇ tàitai ៥䙷ষᄤ woˇ nèikoˇ uzi ៥㗕⠅ woˇ laˇ o’ài ៥㗕Ԉ‫ ܓ‬woˇ laˇ obànr (also means “My wife”) ᄽᄤҪ⠌ háizi tā bà ៥⠅Ҏ woˇ àiren ៥Ϝ໿ woˇ zhàngfu ៥‫ ⫳ܜ‬woˇ xiānsheng

Your wife (normal) Your wife (a bit formal) Your wife (formal)

Դ໾໾ nîˇ tàitai ᙼ໾໾ nín tàitai ᙼ໿Ҏ nín fūren

Your husband (normal) Your husband (a bit formal) Your husband (formal)

ԴϜ໿ nîˇ zhàngfu ᙼϜ໿ nín zhàngfu ᙼ‫ ⫳ܜ‬nín xiānsheng

Teacher Liu (polite, to a teacher) Master Liu (polite, to skilled worker) Section Chief Liu (formal) Liu (older than speaker, familiar) Liu (younger than speaker, familiar) Mr. Liu (normal, formal)

߬㗕Ꮬ Liú laˇ oshī ߬Ꮬٙ Liú shīfu ߬⾥䭓 Liú kēzhaˇ ng 㗕߬ laˇ o Liú (old Liu) ᇣ߬ xiaˇ o Liú (young Liu) ߬‫ ⫳ܜ‬Liú xiānsheng

Come in! (impolite, command) Come in! (informal) Please come in! (formal)

䖯ᴹʽ Jìnlái! 䖯ᴹ৻DŽ Jìnlai ba. 䇋䖯DŽ Qîˇng jìn.

9

2 Vocabulary and usage

2.1

Parts of speech Before they became aware of non-Chinese concepts of “parts of speech” in the late nineteenth century, Chinese distinguished primarily between “notional” words, ᅲ䆡 shící, literally “substantive words,” and “function” words, 㰮䆡 xūcí, literally “empty words.” The first Western-style grammar was that of Maˇ Jiànzhōng 偀ᓎᖴ (1844–1900), the 1898 偀⇣᭛䗮 Maˇ shì wéntōng, Basic Principles for Writing. This very influential work introduced Chinese terminology for parts of speech based on Latin, and cited classical Chinese passages extensively to document short statements about syntax. The book was revolutionary and remains a primary work. Over the last century Chinese grammatical concepts such as nouns, ৡ䆡 míngcí, literally “name words”; verbs, ࡼ䆡 dòngcí, literally “motion words”; adjectives, ᔶᆍ䆡 xíngróngcí, literally “description words”; adverbs, ࡃ䆡 f ùcí, literally “assisting words”; prepositions, ҟ䆡 jiècí, literally “interface words”; conjunctions, 䖲䆡 liáncí, literally “connecting words,” etc., have become standard grammatical terms. The most commonly used Chinese terms for what we consider to be parts of speech are:

10

ৡ䆡 ϧ᳝ৡ䆡

míngcí zhuānyoˇ u míngcí

ࡼ䆡 ҷ䆡 ᔶᆍ䆡 ࡃ䆡 㛑ᜓࡼ䆡

dòngcí dàicí xíngróngcí f ùcí néngyuàn dòngcí

ҟ䆡 䞣䆡

jiècí liàngcí

noun: 偀 maˇ , horse proper noun: 偀⥝။ Maˇ Yùtíng verb: 偖 mà, to scold, to curse pronoun: ཌྷ tā, she adjective: 㕢 měi, beautiful adverb: ᕜ hěn, very modal verb: ৃҹ kěyîˇ, can; may preposition: ᳓ tì, for measure word: Ͼ gè, as in ϸ ϾҎ, two people

2.2

2.2

᭄䆡 䖲䆡

shùcí liáncí

ࡽ䆡

zhùcí

ᢳໄ䆡

nîˇshēngcí

Џ䇁

zhuˇ yuˇ

䇧䇁

wèiyuˇ

ᆒ䇁

bīnyuˇ

㸹䇁

buˇ yuˇ 

䰜䗄হ

chénshùjù

⭥䯂হ

yíwènjù

⼜Փহ

qíshîˇjù

ᛳ্হ

gaˇ ntànjù

Word formation

numeral: ϝ sān, 3 connecting word/conjunction: ੠ hé, and particle: њ le, perfective aspect particle onomatopoeia: வவ wēngwēng, buzzing sound subject: ཛྷཛྷ偖偀 Māma mà maˇ (Māma = subject) predicate: ཛྷཛྷ偖偀 (mà maˇ = predicate) object: ཛྷཛྷ偖偀 (maˇ = object of verb 偖mà) complement: 偀䎥ᕫᖿ (ᕫᖿde kuài= complement) declarative sentence, statement: ཛྷཛྷ偖偀Māma mà maˇ , Mom scolds the horse. interrogative sentence: ཛྷཛྷ偖 偀৫˛Māma mà maˇ ma?, Is Mom scolding the horse? imperative sentence: ߿偖偀! Bié mà maˇ !, Don’t scold the horse! exclamatory sentence: ៥ⱘཛྷ! Woˇ de mā!, Oh my goodness!

Word formation Chinese words are formed in a great variety of ways. There are simple words, which are monosyllabic and written with a single Chinese character such as “person,Ҏ rén,” or polysyllabic and written with more than one character such as “command, ੑҸ mìnglìng”; and there are compound words such as “a switch, ᓔ݇ kāiguān,” literally “open–close” or “happy, ᓔᖗkāixīn,” literally, “open-heart,” or “pistachio nut, ᓔᖗᵰ kāixīn’guoˇ ,” literally “[split-] open-heart-fruit.”

2.2.1

Compounding Listed below are some of the most characteristic ways of forming compound words: Co-ordinate compounds Attribute-head subordinate

ֱि baˇ owèi, protect, literally “protect–defend” ⬉♃ diàndēng, electric light, literally “electric lamp” 11

2 Vocabulary and usage

Head-referent subordinate Head-modifier subordinate Referent-head subordinate Head-measure subordinate

Pref ix-plus-root

Root-plus-suffix Reduplicated compounds Abbreviated compounds

2.2.2

ৗ࡯ chīlì, require strenuous effort, literally “eat-up strength” ᠧ‫ צ‬daˇ daˇ o, topple, literally “strike fall” 㞾䈾 zìháo, pride oneself in, literally “self-proud” 䔺䕚 chēliàng, vehicle, car; literally “vehicle + measure word used for vehicles” 㗕ᓴ Laˇ o Zhāng, Old Zhang (addressing or referring to a familiar person whose surname is Zhang) Ḡᄤ zhuōzi, table; literally “table” + diminutive suffix “zi” 䔺䔺 chēche, little car or buggy (children’s talk) 催ᬭ gāojiào, higher education (from 催ㄝᬭ㚆 gāoděng jiàoyù)

Prefixes Prefixes like 㗕 laˇ o, old and ᇣ xiaˇ o, young, are often used before names of close friends and associates, such as 㗕ᓴ Laˇ o Zhāng, (Old) Zhang and ᇣ⥟ Xiaˇ o Wáng, (Young) Wang, or before nouns, as in 㗕Ꮬ laˇ oshī, teacher or 㗕е laˇ oxiāng, fellow villager. Some compound verbs may consist of a verbal prefix plus an action, such as ᠧᓔ daˇ kāi, to open; ᠧᠿ daˇ saˇ o, to sweep; ᠧᡂ daˇ bàn, to apply makeup; ᠧ਀ daˇ tīng, to make enquiry, and ᠧㅫ daˇ suàn, to plan. The English suffix “-able” is expressed by using the verbal prefix ৃ kě, may, as with ৃᚰ kěxī, regretable; ৃ୰ kěxîˇ, rejoiceable; ৃᚆ kěbēi, lamentable; ৃᗰ kělián, pitiable; ৃᙊ kěwù, detestable; ৃ㛑 kěnéng, possible; and ৃュ kěxiào, laughable.

2.2.3

Suffixes The most common suffixes are: ‫ ܓ‬er ᄤ zi ༈ tou 㗙 zhě ᆊ jiā

12

㢅‫ˈܓߔˈܓ‬ạ‫ˈܓ⫊ˈܓ‬༈‫ˈܓ⬏ˈܓ‬䖭‫ˈܓ‬䙷 ‫ˈܓ‬ા‫ˈܓ‬etc. ߔᄤˈঝᄤˈḠᄤˈ䴶ᄤˈ⊩ᄤˈᐑᄤˈᄽᄤˈ‫ܓ‬ ᄤˈᢡᄤˈetc. 䞠༈ˈ໪༈ˈϞ༈ˈϟ༈ˈৢ༈ˈࠡ༈ˈ᭻༈ˈⷪ ༈ˈ᳼༈ˈetc. 䇏㗙ˈᄺ㗙ˈᔎ㗙ˈࠡ㗙ˈৢ㗙ˈϾҎЏН㗙ˈ etc. ԰ᆊˈ⬏ᆊˈϧᆊˈ᭛ᄺᆊˈк⊩ᆊˈ⾥ᄺᆊˈ etc.

2.2

ਬ yuán ຿ Ӏ ᗻ ࣪

shì men xìng huà

Word formation

ᬭਬˈⷨおਬˈⓨਬˈଂ䋻ਬˈ♞џਬˈ䖤ࡼਬˈ etc. ᄺ຿ˈ⸩຿ˈम຿ˈ⬋຿ˈཇ຿ˈᡸ຿ˈetc. ៥ӀˈԴӀˈҪӀˈཌྷӀˈ᳟টӀˈ‫⫳ܜ‬Ӏˈetc. ⿃ᵕᗻˈ∌Йᗻˈᬓ⊏ᗻˈစФᗻˈ⣀⡍ᗻˈetc. 㓓࣪ˈ⏅࣪ˈ⷇࣪ˈᴎẄ࣪ˈ㗕࣪ˈ⬉㛥࣪ˈℷᐌ ࣪ˈetc.

Verbal aspect particles such as “њ le, perfective aspect,” “ⴔ zhe, progressive aspect” and “䖛 guò, experiential aspect” may also be regarded as suffixes, but will be treated in this book as aspect particles. 2.2.4

New words

Words imported from non-Chinese languages are created using one of four primary strategies: 1. Creating a new Chinese character using a semantic component related to the meaning of the new word, plus a phonetic component whose pronunciation is similar to that of the word being translated. Examples would be the word for the chemical element “erbium” – 䪦 ěr, which has to do with “metal,” and sounds like the “er” of “erbium”; another example is “magnesium” – 䬕 měi, which has to do with “metal,” and sounds like the “ma” of “magnesium.” 2. Transliterating the sound of the polysyllabic foreign word into a series of Chinese characters used for their phonetic value only. One example from the early twentieth century would be the first term used for the Western concept of “democracy” – ᖋ䇳‫ܟ‬ᢝ㽓 démókèlāxī, whose components “virtue-plan-overcome-tug-west” representing no Chinese concept, are recognized as a transliteration of a foreign concept. Another early twentieth-century example would be the transliteration of “inspiration” – ⚳຿ᡍ䞠㒃 yānshìpīlîˇchún, literally: “mist-scholar-approve-hamlet-pure.” Both of the above examples later were “domesticated” using the next translation technique below. 3. Translating the meaning of the foreign word into a meaningful Chinese compound of two or more characters. Examples would be the term now used for “democracy,” ⇥Џ mínzhuˇ , whose components mean “people-sovereign,” and “inspiration,” ♉ᛳ línggaˇ n, whose components mean “spirit-feeling.” 4. Combining translation with transliteration. An example is the Chinese word for “ice cream” – ‫ ޠ▔ބ‬bīngjilíng or ‫⎟⎛ބ‬ bīngqilín, in which “bīng” means “ice,” and “jilíng” (“surge” + “encroach”) or “qilín” (“Qí River” + “drench”) represent the sound of “cream” in English. Other examples would be: “beer” – ସ䜦 píjiuˇ , in which “pí” represents the sound of “beer,” and “jiuˇ ” means “alcoholic drink”; and “internet” – ಴⡍㔥 yīntèwaˇ ng, in 13

2 Vocabulary and usage

which “yīntè” represents the sound of “inter,” and “waˇ ng” means “net.”

2.3

Homonyms In English, a homonym is a word which has the same spelling and pronunciation as another word but a different meaning. A few examples are: “ball: a sphere; a dance”; “band: something wrapped around the arm; musical group”; “box: a crate; engage in fisticuffs”; “bank: a financial institution; the edge of a river,” etc. In Chinese, then, we might say that a homonym is one character which has only one pronunciation, but more than one meaning. Because there are relatively fewer syllables in Chinese, even with their tonal distinctions, we would expect to see more different meanings attached to a typical Chinese word than we might expect to a typical English word. A good example would be “ᬒ f àng” whose most basic meaning is “to let go of something, to release something.” To “put” or to “place” is a logical extension of “release,” as in: ᡞкᬒ೼ḠᄤϞ baˇ shū f àngzai zhuōzishang, Put the book on the table. Seen in this light, other extensions become quite reasonable, as shown in the following illustrations, each requiring different English words to express the same meaning: ᬒ f àng set free, release ԯᬭᦤ‫׵‬ᬒ⫳DŽ Fójiào tíchàng f àngshēng. Buddhism advocates freeing captive animals. put, place ཌྷᡞ㸷᳡ᬒ೼⋫㸷ᴎ䞠DŽ Tā baˇ yīfu f àngzai xîˇyījī lîˇ. She put the clothes in the washer. let off, give out 䜦থ䝉ᯊӮᬒߎ⇨⊵DŽ Jiuˇ f ājiàoshí huì f àngchū qìpāo. When wine is fermented it gives off bubbles of gas. put out to pasture ᬒ⠯˗ᬒ㕞 f àng niú; f àng yáng put cows out to pasture; put sheep out to pasture expand; make longer/larger 䖭ᴵ㺸ᄤ㛑ϡ㛑㒭៥ᬒ䭓ϔᇌ˛ Zhètiáo kùzi néngbuneng gěi woˇ f àngcháng yícùn? Can you lengthen these pants by an inch for me?

14

2.3

Homonyms

blossom, bloom ⱒ㢅唤ᬒ Baˇ ihuā qíf àng. “Let a hundred flowers blossom” (Let different views be aired) lend money, make loans ᬒℒᰃ䫊㸠⫳߽ⱘᮍᓣПϔDŽ F àngkuaˇ n shi yínháng shēnglì de f āngshì zhīyī. Loans are one of the ways a bank earns a profit. add something to something else Դୱ੪ଵᬒϡᬒ㊪˛ Nîˇ hē kāf ēi f àngbuf àng táng? Do you add sugar to your coffee? Another good illustration of the same point would be “↯ máo,” which originally means “body hair,” which is short and fine, as opposed to “থ f à, hair on the head,” which grows longer. In light of the principle of metaphorical extension, it becomes easy to understand the connection between “tiny hair,” “down,” “wool,” “feather,” “mildew,” “small,” “careless,” “unfinished,” and even “alarmed” (hair standing on end), as illustrated in the following utterances, each requiring different English words to translate: ↯ máo hair, wool, down, feather ϔ㠀ⱘ⋟Ҏ䑿Ϟ䭓ⱘ↯↨Ё೑Ҏ໮DŽ Yibānde yángrén shēnshang zhaˇ ngde máo bîˇ Zhōngguorén duō. Westerners generally have more body hair than Chinese. mildew, mold 䖭ᑆ䜾Ꮖ㒣䭓↯њʽ Zhè gānlào yîˇjīng zhaˇ ngmáo le! This cheese is already moldy! little, small Ҫᠡϡᰃ໻ҎˈᰃϾ↯ᄽᄤʽ Tā cái bushì dàrén, shige máoháizi! He’s no adult. He’s just a little kid! semifinished (product) ↯䪕ህᰃ⫳䪕ⱘ঺໪ϔϾ䇈⊩DŽ Máotiě jiùshi shēngtiě de lìngwài yige shuōfa. “Rough iron” is another way of saying “pig iron.” gross (profit or income) ↯ᬊܹᔧ✊↨‫ޔ‬ᬊܹ໮଺DŽ Máoshōurù dāngrán bîˇ jìngshōurù duō la. Gross income is greater than net income, of course. 15

2 Vocabulary and usage

careless, crude, rash ୖ‫خ‬џ㽕ᇣᖗ⚍‫߿ˈܓ‬䙷М↯㊭њʽ Wei! Zuòshì yào xiaˇ oxīn diaˇ nr, bié nàme máocao le! Hey! Be more careful with your work, don’t be so careless! alarmed, scared ཌྷϔⳟ㾕ॖ䭓ህথ↯њDŽ Tā yíkànjian chaˇ ngzhaˇ ng jiù f āmáo le. She became frightened (got goose flesh) at the sight of the factory manager. dime (1/10th of a yuan) ϸ↯Ѩ㗠Ꮖ˛ⳳ֓ᅰʽ Liaˇ ngmáowuˇ éryîˇ? Zhēn piányi! Only twenty-five cents? That’s really cheap! This phenomenon of extended metaphorical usage should be quite familiar to English speakers when we think of words like “run,” whose core meaning is “to move at a speed faster than a walk, never having both or all the feet on the ground at the same time.” Put “run” in different contexts, and it will require entirely different words to translate it into Chinese. For example, “the Yankees lead by one run: ⋟෎Ầ⧗䯳乚‫ܜ‬ϔߚYángjī bàngqiúduì lîˇngxiān yìf ēn,” “to run a business: 㒣㧹ӕϮ jīngyíng qîˇyè,” “to run out of money: 䪅 ⫼‫ܝ‬њ qián yòngguāng le,” “to run up a huge bill: ᓔᬃⱘ㌃⿃ᕜ ໻ kāizhīde lěijī hěn dà,” and “a run of bad luck: ϔ䖲Іⱘണ䖤⇨ yìliánchuànde huàiyùnqi.” All the previous examples require different translations in Chinese and none of them involve “䎥 paˇ o,” which is the core meaning of “run” in Chinese. Following is a small sample of common Chinese words with several different meanings, requiring different English words in translation: 䍄zoˇ u Ϟshàng ϟxià ⱑ bái

2.4

to flee, to walk, to leave, to run above, over, on, upper; previous; to ascend, to mount; to present to one’s superiors; to go (to class or to work) below, under, lower; next; to descend, to dismount to send down (to one’s subordinates); to finish (a class or a working day) white; clear, pure, plain; colloquial; free of charge; vainly; wrongly written; surname

Homophones English homophones are words which have the same sound but different meanings and different spelling, such as “air (atmosphere)” and “heir (one who inherits wealth)”; or “to,” “too,” and “two.” Chinese homophones, ৠ䷇ᄫ tóngyīnzì, by analogy, are syllables which have the same pronunciation, but are written with different

16

2.4

Homophones

Chinese characters and have different meanings. With a total inventory of just over 400 syllables (without considering tones) to pronounce the 2,000 or so characters needed to be basically literate in Chinese, it is statistically impossible to avoid a huge number of homophones, far more than we could ever expect to find through the vagaries of spelling words in English. In fact, any attempt to list the puˇ tōnghuà homophones would amount to a pronunciation dictionary of puˇ tōnghuà, so rather than list all the homophones, we shall simply take a few syllables, and list all the characters represented by each. a¯n

ᅝ ᒉ ⇼ 䵡 䇭 ḝ 吠

ān ān ān ān ān ān ān

still, quiet hut, nunnery ammonia saddle learn by heart, be well versed in eucalyptus quail

jia¯

ᆊ jiā home, house, family ࡴ jiā add Շ jiā good, beautiful ། jiā press, squeeze; clip ௝ jiā good, fine; praise 㹜jiā used in “㹜㺳jiāshā,” a Buddhist monk’s outerwear 㣘 jiā used in transliterated words, like “䲾㣘 xuějiā,” cigar ᶋjiā cangue ԑjiā a Galileo unit; used in transliterated words like “⨰ԑ yújiā,” yoga ⦜jiā woman’s headdress in ancient China ⮖jiā scab, crust 䎣jiā used in “䎣䎎jiāfū,” a sitting posture of a Buddhist 䖺 jiā used in transliterating names, such as “䞞䖺⠳ሐ Shìjiāmóuní,” Sakyamuni ⌗jiā wet through 㩁jiā tender shoot of a reed 䬧jiā gallium yi¯

ϔ yī one ໍyī one ए yī medicine; medical profession; doctor 㸷 yī clothing ձ yī approach; depend on; comply with; according to Ӟ yī surname; he or she 17

2 Vocabulary and usage

ઓyī 䫅yī ిyī ⣫yī ⓾yī ᦪyī 咳yī

a character used for its sound in “ઓਔyīyā,” babble, prattle iridium alas a character used to show exclamation in classical Chinese ripples bow with hands clasped together a character used in a place name “Yī xiàn,” Yi County

zuò

԰ zuò do, make ‫ خ‬zuò do, make, be ത zuò sit, ride ᑻ zuò seat; a measure word for mountains, tall buildings ૥zuò a character used in “౏૥sāizuò,” thiazole ᗡzuò shame ⼮zuò fortune 㚭zuò sacrifical meat in the ancient times 䜶zuò a character used in classical Chinese, “䝀䜶chóuzuò,” a return toast made by a guest 䰐zuò the stairs on the east side of the hall of a Chinese building ᶲzuò oak ߓzuò certain (classic meaning); mortise While it may be unrealistic to present a list of all the homophones in the language, we should say a few words about the prevalence and importance of the playful use of homophones by Chinese speakers. This happens in the form of punning, both verbal and graphic. Examples of verbal punning would be: “䗗П༁༁, táo zhī yāoyāo” is an idiom meaning “to flee,” but the first character is a punning allusion to the first line of a famous folk ballad in the Classic of Songs, 䆫㒣 Shījīng, “ḗП༁༁,” meaning “peach tree, young and fresh.” The cleverness of this pun is in its simultaneously calling forth images of classical dignity and an undignified departure. Domino’s Pizza, which currently dominates around 60% of the market in Taiwan, is famous for its use of puns in Chinese marketing. First, its registered Chinese corporate name is “䖒㕢Ф Dáměilè” which means “Achieving Beautiful Joy” while sounding like “Domino.” Three of the puns associated with Domino’s are: 䖒㕢Ф dáměilè, ᠧњ≵ daˇ le méi? Translation: Answering the phone: “Domino’s, you called?” 体⠌⠌体, ៥体៥体 è bàba è, woˇ è woˇ è 18

2.5

Homographs

2882-5252 èr-bā-bā-èr wuˇ -èr-wuˇ -èr (Domino’s phone number) Hungry Papa hungry; I’m hungry I’m hungry ᖿФ乖 kuàilèsòng Ode to Joy ᖿ⛁䗕 kuàirèsòng Delivered fast and hot

2.5

Homographs Chinese homographs, ໮䷇ᄫ duōyīnzì, are characters that have more than one pronunciation, depending upon different meanings or their use in different character compounds. Here are some examples: 䰓

ā ē

䰓亲, 䰓㉇Ꮘ, 䰓ྼ 䰓ᓹ䰔ԯ, 䰓䇔

㚠

bèi bēi

㚠к, 㚠ৢ, 㚠᱃, 㚠䴶, 㚠য, 㚠ᖗ 㚠ࣙ, 㚠ᏺ

߿

bié biè

߿ৡ,߿๙, ߿䩜, ߿㟈, 䕼߿, Ꮒ߿, 䕲߿, Ͼ ߿, ∌߿ ߿ᡁ

र

buˇ bo

ऴरˈ⫳⅏᳾र 㧱र, 㚵㧱र

খ

cān cēn shēn

খ㗗,খ䌲,খᬓ,খ㾖,খࡴ,খ䇟,খϢ খᏂ, খᏂϡ唤 ‫ܮ‬খ, ⍋খ, Ҏখ

㮣

cáng zàng

㮣к,䒆㮣,ᬊ㮣,㭈㮣, ⦡㮣, 䌂㮣, ᤝ䗋㮣 㮣ᮣ, 㮣㑶㢅, ᅱ㮣

᳒

céng zēng

᳒㒣, ϡ᳒, ᳾᳒ ᳒ྦྷ, ᳒ᄭ, ᳒⼪

Ꮒ

chā chà chāi cī

Ꮒ乱, Ꮒ䎱, Ꮒ߿, Ꮒ䫭, Ꮒᓖ Ꮒࢆ, Ꮒϡ໮, Ꮒϡ⾏ Ꮒ䘷,Ꮒџ, ߎᏂ, ݀Ꮒ খᏂ

എ

cháng chaˇ ng

എ䰶, ϔഎ䲼 ᪡എ, ⱏഎ, ᑓഎ,‫ދ‬എ, ⠻എ,ᘃഎ,⦄എ 19

2 Vocabulary and usage

ᳱ

cháo zhāo

ᳱ䰇, ᳱᬓ, ᳱҷ, ᳱ剰ᮣ, ⥟ᳱ ᳱ⇨,ᳱ䴆, ᳱ᮹, ᳱ໩, ᳱ䳲

⿄

chēng

⿄੐,⿄䇧,⿄䇶, ⿄䌲,ো⿄, ㅔ⿄, ৡ⿄, Ҏ ⿄,㘠⿄,㞾⿄, ᇞ⿄ ⿄ᖗ, ⿄ᜓ, ⿄㘠, Ⳍ⿄

chèn 䞡

chóng zhòng

㟁

chòu xiù

໘

㟁㰿, 㟁偖,㟁䈚㜤, 㟁⚬⚬, 㟁ТТ, ⢤㟁, ষ㟁,㜹㟁, ч㟁᳾ᑆ ᮴㡆᮴㟁, 㟁ੇⳌᡩ

chù

໘ཇ,໘Ϫ, ໘ᱥ, ໘⅏,໘ᮍ, ໘ߚ, ໘๗, ໘ ߥ, ໘㔮,໘⧚ક,Ⳍ໘ ໘᠔, 䭓໘, ᆇ໘, Ⲟ໘

⬰

chù xù

ᆊ⬰, ⡆⬰, ⾡⬰, ⬰㙹, ⬰⫳ ⬰⠻, ⬰ѻક

Ӵ

chuán

Ӵ᪁, Ӵऩ, Ӵ䗦, Ӵᥜ, Ӵ㒳,Ӵⳳ, ӴᏗ, Ӵ ᬭ,Ӵ⼲, Ӵᶧ⮙, ༅Ӵ, 䇷Ӵ, ⼪Ӵ Ӵ⬹, Ӵ䆄, 䆘Ӵ, 㞾Ӵ

chuˇ

zhuàn ߯

chuàng chuāng

20

䞡ီ, 䞡ᄭ,䞡ⓨ, 䞡䰇, 䞡༣, 䞡঴, 䞡໡, 䞡ᮄ,ঠ䞡 䞡߯,䞡䋳,䞡ӏ, 䞡ᠬ,䞡ᢙ,䞡ഄ, 䞡⌏,䞡⫼

߯ߞ, ߯ࡲ, ߯Ϯ,߯В, ߯԰, ߯ゟ, ߯ᮄ, ߯ 䗴, ߯ྟ, 佪߯ ߯⮩, ߯Ӹ, 䞡߯

ㄨ

dā dá

ㄨᑨ,ㄨ㜨 ㄨḜ, ㄨ䕽, ㄨ໡, ㄨो, ㄨ䆱, ㄨ䇶, ಲㄨ, 㾷 ㄨ, 䯂ㄨ

ᠧ

dá daˇ

ϔᠧ叵㲟 ᠧቨᠧᎹ,ᠧᅬৌ,ᠧ㸠ᴢ,ᠧᢅϡᑇ

໻

dà dài

໻ഄ໻㛥໻䲾໻ජᏖ໻ⱑ㦰໻᜜ ໻ᚆ ໻໿໻咘

‫צ‬

daˇ o dào

‫צ‬ภ,ᠧ‫צ‬, 乴‫צ‬ ‫צ‬ゟ, ‫⌕צ‬, ‫צ‬ᕅ, ‫צ‬䕀, ‫צ‬ḑ㩅

ⱘ

de dí dì

Ԑⱘ, ᰃⱘ, ᳝ⱘᰃ ⱘ⹂, ⱘ⹂㡃 Ⳃⱘ

2.5

Homographs

ᕫ

dé de děi

ᕫᔧ, ᕫ㚰, ᕫ༅, ᕫ᠟, ពᕫ, ᖗᕫ,ؐᕫ 䴴ᕫԣ,њϡᕫ, ᰧᕫ, 䅸ᕫ Դᕫᔧᖗ

䇗

diào tiáo

䇗ᶹ, 䇗ᄤ,ᔎ䇗, ᳆䇗 䇗⧚, 䇗᭭,䇗ᚙ, 䇗‫ذ‬,䇗ੇ,⛍䇗, ༅䇗, ण䇗

ᙊ

è

ᙊ↦, ᙊ࣪, ᙊࡷ, ᙊд,ᙊᛣ, ᙊ԰࠻, ϥᙊ, 䰽ᙊ, ߊᙊ, 㔾ᙊ ᙊᖗ ৃᙊ

ě wù ߚ

f ēn

f èn fen ᑆ

gān gàn

ߚ䕼,ߚ⊠, ߚᳳ, ߚᏗ, ߚ㾷, ߚ㺖, ߚᯢ,ߚ䜡, ߚᵤ, ߚ䩳,ߚᢙ, ߚᑫ, ߚ⾦,ߚ䑿, ߚ᠟, ߚ༈, ߚ䞣, ߚ໪,ᅝߚ, ໘ߚ, ៤ߚ, 䑿ߚ

ߚᇌ,ߚᎹ, ߚ㑶, ߚᡍ,ߚᬷ, ߚ᭄, ߚሙ,ߚᓔ, ߚ࿽, ⪰ߚ, ᑇߚ, ऎߚ 䖛ߚ, ᚙߚ, 㓬ߚ

ᑆᵃ, ᑆ⯾,ᑆᡄ, ᑆ⍝,ᑆ➹,亢ᑆ, 㢹ᑆ, Ⳍᑆ ᑆ䚼, ᑆࢆ,ᑆ৫,ᑆџ, ᑆ㒓, ᠡᑆ, 偼ᑆ, 㛑ᑆ, Џᑆ

᳈

gēng gèng

᳈ࡼ, ᳈ᬍ, ᳈ᤶ, ᳈⫳, ᳈ᮄ, ᳈㸷, ᳈ℷ ᳈ࡴ

㸠

háng

㸠ᔧ, 㸠ᆊ,㸠߫, 㸠ᚙ, 㸠Ϯ, থ㸠, ৠ㸠, ໪ 㸠, 䫊㸠, 㸠䆱 㸠⿟,㸠‫ݯ‬, 㸠ᴢ,㸠ࡼ, 㸠ᕘ, 㸠Ҏ, 㸠偊, 㸠᯳,㸠ད, 㸠୘, 㸠џ,㸠ए, 㸠䍄, 㸠㺙, 㸠Ҏ㸠Ў, 㸠ᬓ, 㸠䏾, ᲈ㸠, ᖋ㸠, থ㸠, ῾㸠,ⲯ㸠, 䖤㸠

xíng

ད

haˇ o

hào ੠

hé he huo hè hú huó

ད⅍, ད∝, དফ, དᛣ, টད,ད਀, དҎ, ད‫ڣ‬, དԐ, དュ, དᖗ, དѯ, ད↨, ད໘, ད ೼,དണ, དЙ, དⳟ, ད䇈, 㕢ད, ᙄད དᔎ, དᅶ, ད༛, ད㚰, དџ, ⠅ད, ரད ੠㬐, ੠ⴺ, ੠ᑇ, ੠ᇮ, ੠䇤,੠亢, ੠ད, ੠ 㓧, ੠୘,੠㾷, ੠䇜, ⏽੠ 䇈੠ ᧙੠, ᱪ੠, ⛁੠, 䕃੠, ⏽੠ ϔଅⱒ੠ ੠⠠њ ੠䴶, ੠⊹

21

2 Vocabulary and usage

huò

੠⿔⊹, 㮩㉝䞠੠⚍㊪

䖬

hái huán

䖬ᰃ 䖬ᴀ,䖬᠟, 䖬؎, 䖬Ӌ, 䖬⼐, 䖬ॳ, 䖬ఈ, ٓ 䖬,䗔䖬

‫؛‬

jiaˇ jià

‫؛‬ᡂ,‫ݦ؛‬, ‫؛‬䆒, ‫؛‬䞞, ‫؛‬ᅮ, ‫؛‬བ, ‫؛‬㢹, ‫؛‬ Փ,‫؛‬ቅ,‫؛‬ᛣ, ‫؛‬㺙,㰮‫؛‬, ԰‫؛‬ ‫؛‬ᳳ, ‫؛‬ᴵ, ‫؛‬᮹, ⮙‫؛‬, 䇋‫؛‬

䯈

jiān jiàn

䔺䯈, ᠓䯈, ⇥䯈, ᳳ䯈, ᯊ䯈 䯈䇡, 䯈ᮁ,䯈᥹,䯈䱭, 䯈ℛ

ᔎ

jiàng qiáng

ᔎఈ, ‫ר‬ᔎ ᔎᑺ,ࡴᔎ, ᔎཌ, ᔎ‫ع‬,ᔎໂ, ᔎⲫ, ᔎᴗ, ᔎⲯ, ᔎ⚜, ᔎ࣪, ᔎ䇗, ᔎ໻ ᔎ䖿, ᔎ䆡༎⧚, ᔎҎ᠔䲒, ᔎ买⃶ュ

qiaˇ ng ᬭ

jiāo jiào

ᬭк ᬭᇐ, ᬭӮ, ᬭ㒗, ᬭᏜ,ᬭ䆁, ᬭ㚆, ᬭᴤ, ᬭ ᅸ, ᬭූ, ᬭᴵ, ᬭᄺ, ᬭਬ

㾦

jiaˇ o jué

㾦ᑺ, 㾦㨑 㾦㡆, 㾦䗤

ᇚ

jiāng jiàng

ᇚ䖥, ᇚ‫ݯ‬, ᇚᴹ ᇚᅬ, ᇚ乚

᷵

jiào xiào

᷵䅶, ᷵ᇍ,᷵ࢬ, ᷵ḋ, ᷵䯙, ᷵ℷ ᷵亢,᷵㾘, ᷵ߞ, ᷵ᖑ, ᷵ು, ᷵䭓

㒧

jié jiē jie

㒧ᵘ, 㒧ᵰ,㒧ီ, 㒧᱊, 㒧ሔ, 㒧䆎, 㒧Ϯ, 㒧 Ꮴ, 㒧䆚, 㒧ᴳ,㒧Ϯ,ಶ㒧,ᘏ㒧 㒧ᅲ Ꮘ㒧

ሑ

jîˇn jìn

ሑ‫ܜ‬, ሑㅵ ሑ࡯, ሑ䞣, ሑ݈, ሑ㘠

⽕

jīn jìn

⽕ᕫ䍋, ⽕ϡԣ, ⽕ᕫԣ ⽕ᖠ,⽕ऎ, ⽕ℶ, ⽕Ҹ,ⲥ⽕, ᢬⽕,䖱⽕

ⳟ

kàn

ⳟᳯ, ⳟⳌ, ⳟᕙ, ⳟ⊩, ⳟ㾕,ⳟ䞡, ⳟ唤, ⳟ䕏, ⳟৄ,ⳟϡ䍋, 䲒ⳟ, ᇣⳟ, ⳟ⮙ ⳟㅵ, ⳟᡸ, ⳟᆊ, ⳟᅜ,ⳟᄽᄤ

kān

22

2.5

ぎ

kōng

kòng Ф

lè yuè

Homographs

ぎ㝍, ぎ䆎, ぎ༈,ぎ⋲, ぎᯋ,ぎ䆱, ぎ䇜, ぎᡩ, ぎ㺁, ぎ䖤,ぎ䯈, ぎ‫ݯ‬, ぎ⇨, ぎ䇗, ぎ ᛇ, ぎ㰮, ぎЁ,໽ぎ ぎⱑ, ぎ‫ܓ‬, ぎ䱭,ぎ㔎, ぎᱛ, ぎ䯆, ฿ぎ, ً ぎ Ф㾖, Ф䍷, Фᛣ,Фು, Ф੉੉, ᒋФ, ᖿФ, ⃶Ф, စФ Ф⧚, Ф䈅, Ф᳆, Ф఼, Фಶ, Фゴ,ໄФ, ䷇ Ф, ༣Ф

њ

le liaˇ o

䰸њ, ㅫњ, Ўњ њᕫ, њ㾷, њ㒧, њϡ䍋, њϡᕫ, 㒜њϡ ᕫњ

㌃

léi lěi lèi

㌃䌬, ᵰᅲ㌃㌃ ㌃⿃,䖲㌃, 㔾㸠㌃㌃ ࢇ㌃, ফ㌃

䞣

liáng liàng liang

䞣ᵃ, 䞣ᑺ,⌟䞣, Ԅ䞣 䞣䆡, 䞣࡯, ѻ䞣, ᑺ䞣, ⇨䞣 ଚ䞣

㩭

méng mēng měng

㩭㬑,㩭᯻, 㩭ফ 㩭偫 㩭সᮣ

䲒

nán nàn nan

䲒ѻ, 䲒໘,䲒䇈,䲒䘧, 䲒ᕫ, 䲒ᑺ, 䲒ᗾ, 䲒෾,䲒‫ܡ‬, 䲒ফ,䲒乬,㡄䲒, Ў䲒 䲒㚲,䲒ট, 䙓䲒, 䲒‫ܘ‬䲒ᓳ ೄ䲒

ⓖ

piāo piaˇ o piào

ⓖ⊞, ⓖ⍂, ⓖ⌕ ⓖⱑ, ⓖᶧ, ⓖⱑ㉝ ⓖ҂, ⓖ҂䆱

ߛ

qiē qiè

ߛ䰸, ߛ⺟, ߛࡆ,ߛ⠛,ߛ䴶 ߛড়, ߛ䆄, ߛᖠ,ߛ䑿, ߛ乬, ߛᅲ,݇ߛ, ᙇߛ, ᆚߛ, ҆ߛ, ⹂ߛ, ϔߛ

᳆

qū quˇ

᳆ሎ, ᳆㾷, ᳆Ⳉ, ᳆ᡬ, ᳆㒓, ᳆ạ⧗, 㴋᳆ ᳆㡎, ᦦ᳆, ℠᳆, ៣᳆, 㒘᳆, ༣号᳆

ᬷ

saˇ n sàn

ᬷ‫ܝ‬, ᬷ⓿, ᬷ᭛, ᬷ㺙,ឦᬷ, ᵒᬷ, 䯆ᬷ ᬷ᪁, ᬷഎ,ᬷᖗ,ᬷℹ, ᬷথ, ᬷӮ,ᬷ៣

ᠿ

saˇ o

ᠿⳆ, ᠿഄ,ᠿ๧,ᠿᦣ,ᠿ݈, ᠧᠿ

23

2 Vocabulary and usage

sào

ᠿᏮ, ᠿᏮ᯳

㟡

shě shè

㟡ᕫ, 㟡ੑ, 㟡ᓗ, 㟡䑿, 㟡ϡᕫ 㟡ϟ, ᆓ㟡

ⳕ

shěng xîˇng

ⳕජ, ׁⳕ, ⳕџ, ⳕᖗ, ⳕӑ, ⳕ⬹ো, ׁⳕ, 㡖ⳕ ⳕ҆, ⳕᙳ, ডⳕ

Ԑ

sì shì

ԐТ, ⳌԐ Ԑⱘ

ᣥ

tiāo tiaˇ o

ᣥ䗝,ᣥࠨ, ᣥⴐ ᣥᢼ,ᣥ៬, ᣥ䗫

৤

tuˇ tù

৤㬗, ৤䴆,䇜৤, ৲৤ ৤≿, ৤㸔, ৤⋏, ਩৤

Ў

wéi

ЎҎ,Ў䲒, Ўᳳ, Ў佪, Ўℶ, ៤Ў, 㸠Ў, ҹ Ў, ԰Ў Ўԩ, Ўњ, ЎҔМ, ಴Ў 䲒Ў

wèi wei Ⳍ

xiāng

xiàng 㸔

xiě xuè

㸔ᰩ, 㸔⎟⎟ 㸔ㅵ, 㸔य़, 㸔⎆, 㸔Ⱐ, 㸔Ḝ, 㸔ዽ,㸔䗍, 㸔 ⌚, 㸔ᑧ,㸔⊾, 㸔㛝,㸔⇨, 㸔⏙, 㸔⧗, 㸔 㙝, 㸔㡆, 㸔к,㸔∈, 㸔㊪, 㸔㒳,㸔㜹, 㸔 ൟ,㸔㓬, 㸔؎, 㸔៬, 㸔⏡

݈

xīng

݈ࡲ, ݈༟, ݈ᓎ, ݈ᯎ,݈䱚, ݈ⲯ,݈㹄, ݈ѵ, ׂ݈, ݈䆌, ᤃ݈,Ё݈, ໡݈ ݈䍷, 催݈, े݈, ᠿ݈, 䲙݈,ࡽ݈

xìng

24

Ⳍ⿄, Ⳍ໘, ⳌӴ, Ⳍ↨, ⳌᏂ, Ⳍᔧ, Ⳍㄝ, Ⳍ ᇍ, Ⳍড,Ⳍ݇, ⳌѦ,ⳌԐ,Ⳍ䆚, Ⳍৠ, Ⳍ 䗶, Ⳍᑆ,Ⳍᗱ, Ⳍ䈵, Ⳍձ, ⳌѦ Ⳍᴎ, Ⳍ䉠, Ⳍ䴶, Ⳍໄ, Ⳍ⠛, ᡂⳌ, ⳟⳌ, ҂ Ⳍ, 䆚Ⳍ, ✻Ⳍ, ⳳⳌ

㽕

yāo yào

㽕∖, 㽕ᣳ 㽕ϡ,㽕䘧, 㽕ഄ, 㽕⢃, 㽕ᆇ, 㽕Ӌ, 㽕ӊ, 㽕ᔎ, 㽕Ҏ,㽕䯏, 㽕㘠, 㽕⚍, 㽕乚, 㽕ੑ, 㽕 ᰃ, 㽕㋴, 㽕䴶ᄤ, 㽕ϡ✊, 㽕ϡᰃ, ᡐ㽕, 䳔 㽕, ᨬ㽕, 䞡㽕

ᑨ

yīng

ᑨᔧ, ᑨ䆹, ᑨໄ, ᑨ䆌, ᑨ‫ܕ‬

2.6 New and recent words

yìng

ᑨব,ᑨ䝀, ᑨㄨ, ᑨᇍ, ᑨҬ,ᑨᗹ, ᑨ᱃, ᑨ㗗,ᑨ䆩, ᑨ偠, ᑨ⫼,ᑨ䆞, ᑨᕕ, ᡹ᑨ, ㄨᑨ, ডᑨ, ડᑨ, ✻ᑨ

䕑

zài zaˇ i

䕑䞡, 䍙䕑,䖤䕑, 㺙䕑, 䕑℠䕑㟲 䆄䕑, ߞ䕑, 䖲䕑, 䕀䕑

ᡬ

zhē zhé shé

ᡬ㝒 ᡬড়, ᡬ⺼, ᡬ঴, ᡬᠷ,ᡬЁ, ⊶ᡬ, ᄬᡬ, 偼 ᡬ, ᳆ᡬ ᠧᡬњ㝓, ᡬᴀ

᣷

zhēng zhèng

᣷ᠢ ᣷ੑ, ᣷䪅

Ё

zhōng

Ё令, Ёᮁ, Ёമ, Ё䯈‫ܓ‬, Ёҟ, Ёⳟ, Ёゟ, Ёϰ,Ёস, Ёढ, Ё㑻,Ё⌕,Ё໪, Ё㽓, Ёℶ,Ёᑈ, Ё᭛, Ёᓣ, Ёᵶ, Ё਀, Ёᖗ, Ёᄺ, Ё㥃, Ёᒌ,Ё⫼, Ё␌ Ё↦, Ё亢, Ё༪,ЁӸ, Ёᱥ, Ё䗝,Ёᛣ, ⳟ Ё

zhòng ⾡

zhòng zhoˇ ng

⾡⮬, ⾡ഄ, ⾡㢅, ⾡⬄, ⾡ỡ, ḑ⾡, 㗩⾡ ⾡⬰, ⾡㉏, ⾡ᄤ, ⾡ᮣ, ᪁⾡, ࠻⾡, 㚆⾡

԰

zuō zuó zuò

԰ᓘ, ԰⅏, ԰ᦪ ԰᭭ ԰ֱ, ԰ᙊ,԰ᗾ, ԰‫؛‬, ԰Ф, ԰ᅑ,԰⼳, ԰ᑳ, ԰亢, ԰ᆊ, ԰ક, ԰Ў, ԰᭛, ԰Ϯ, ԰ ⫼,԰㗙, ԰Џ, ԰ᓞ, ԰ᇍ ‫خ‬԰

zuo

2.6 New and recent words With the changes in society and technologies, some words (vocabulary) fall into disuse and many more new words are added. In addition, some existing words take on new meanings. In recent years, many new Chinese words have appeared. The following is a selection from the reservoir of new words that accumulated in the 1990s and shortly beyond. A

⠅⭫ ⠅㓓

àiliaˇ o ` àilü

⠅П㾦

àizhījiaˇ o

㡒⒟⮙

àizībìng

healing with love love and protect green space love corner, matchmaking corner AIDS 25

2 Vocabulary and usage

B

C

26

ᅝФ⅏

ānlèsîˇ

euthanasia, mercykilling

ⱑ㡆⍜䌍

báisè xiāof èi

ⱑా䷇

báizàoyīn

ᐂᖭ݀ৌ

bāngmáng gōngsī

ֱ䰽㦰

baˇ oxiaˇ n cài

㚠咥䫙 ↨෎ሐᣖग़

bēihēiguō bîˇjīní guàlì

⮙ऎ

bìngqū

funeral expenses (funerals are referred to as “white event”); also, spend money according to income white noise, a sound that promotes sleep home service company safe vegetables, vegetables not sprayed with insecticides to be a scapegoat bikini calendar, calendar with pictures of bikiniclad women geographic areas with serious problems

䋶㒣ᇣ䇈

cáijīng xiaˇ oshuō

३᠔ᑓਞ

cèsuoˇ guaˇ nggào

♦㙵 ♦剓剐

chaˇ oguˇ chaˇ oyóuyú

ৗ佁‫ݰ‬Ϯ

chīf àn nóngyè

ৗᮻ

chījiù

ᣕवᮣ

chíkaˇ zú

䌸㛮ᮄ䯏

chìjiaˇ o xīnwén

novels whose main theme is finances and economy advertisments inside and outside public bathrooms speculate in stocks to fire, to dismiss; to be fired, to be dismissed traditional agricultural activities which only produce grains one whose profession is buying and selling used goods those who possess credit cards “barefoot” news, news that comes from real life

2.6 New and recent words

D

ᣕ㓁‫ݰ‬Ϯ

chíxù nóngyè

‫⬉ܙ‬

chōngdiàn

㘾ᯢव

cōngmingkaˇ

֗䫔ᇣྤ

cùxiāo xiaˇ ojie

ᠧⱘ ໻䫙؎

daˇ dī dàguōzhài

ᠧᎹ᭛ᄺ

daˇ gōng wénxúe

໻㘇ᴉ ໻હ໻

dà ěrduo dàgēdà

໻㛮⬋Ҏ

dàjiaˇ o nánren

໻ℒ

dàkuaˇ n

໻ℒଚક

dàkuaˇ n shāngpîˇn

໻㜩‫ܓ‬

dàwànr

໻㜩ӕϮ

dàwàn qîˇyè

ऩ䑿⫼ક

dānshēn yòngpîˇn

ⱘ

dī

ⱘ຿ᖿ令

dīshi kuàicān

ⱘ⠋ ഄ䪕ᑓਞ

dīyé dìtiě guaˇ nggào

sustainable agriculture charge batteries; recharge oneself by going back to school “clever electronic” card, debit card young women who promote sales to take a taxi debts incurred from guaranteed lifelong work and the equal distribution system literature on the subject of short-term laborers satellite dish cellular phone; also called “᠟ᴎ shoˇ ujī” which is a more popular term now men who can take risks a very wealthy person expensive goods which only the very rich can afford big shot, celebrity, expert solid and reputable enterprises items suitable for singles to use; small packages of frozen foods, small utensils, small furniture, etc. taxi, short for “ⱘ຿ dīshi, taxi” fast food originally designed for taxi drivers taxi driver advertisements on subway trains and at subway stations 27

2 Vocabulary and usage

28

㄀ѨѻϮ

dìwuˇ chaˇ nyè

㄀ϔॼ᠓

dìyī chúfáng

㄀ϔ㗙

dìyīzhě

⬉㑶࿬

diànhóngniáng

⬉䆱ᢰᑈ

diànhuà bàinián

⬉䆱ᘟ⠅ ⬉䆱ᕟᏜ

diànhuà liànài diànhuà lü` shī

⬉䆱ଚഎ

diànhuà shāngchaˇ ng

⬉䆱㧹䫔 ⬉䆱᥼䫔 ⬉䆱䫊㸠 ⬉㛥㤊佚

diànhuà diànhuà diànhuà diànnaˇ o

⬉㛥Ⳇ ⬉㛥ᮣ

diànnaˇ ománg diànnaˇ ozú

⬉㾚໻䫙

diànshì dàguō

⬉㾚ଚഎ ⬉䚂

diànshì shāngchaˇ ng diànyóu

⬉ᄤ䪅ࣙ

diànzîˇ qiánbāo

⚍ᄤ݀ৌ

diaˇ nzi gōngsī

yíngxiāo tuīxiāo yínháng cháguaˇ n

the fifth industry: psychology and career development consulting services first kitchen: the processing plant for partial or fully prepared foods a married person who has a lover computer, television and telephone matchmakers wishing someone Happy New Year by telephone (traditionally done only in person) “love” by telephone “telephone lawyers,” a service provided by some telephone companies “telephone markets,” shopping services via telephone telemarketing telemarketing telebanking tea houses with computers, offering shopping and consulting services computer illiterate people who own and use personal computers at home television satellite receiver info-mercial e-mail, short for ⬉ᄤ䚂ӊ diànzîˇ yóujiàn “electronic wallet”: credit card services which give people ideas, provide information, design

2.6 New and recent words

E

F

G

⚍ᄤҎ

diaˇ nzirén

⚍ᄤᡩ䌘

diaˇ nzi tóuzī

⬉ᕅ㤊ᑻ

diànyîˇng cházuò

⬉ᕅҎ

diànyîˇngrén

ϕ‫ܟ‬໿ཛ

dīngkè fūf ù

໮ԭӮ䆂

duōyú huìyì

Ѡ㗕໪

èrlaˇ owài

Ѡϔᆊᒁ

èryī jiātíng

Ѡ㘠

èrzhí

ᮍ֓㦰

f āngbiancài

ᮍ֓䴶 ᠓啘 ӓ⫳ᷥ

f āngbianmiàn fánglíng faˇ ngshēngshù

亲໽䅵ߦ

f ēitiān jìhuà

Ꮉॖᮙ␌

‥ˇ yóu gōngchaˇ ng lu

advertisements, marketing, etc. consultants who plan for industries investing in valuable ideas in industries places where people can drink tea and watch movies at the same time people who work in the movie industry DINK couple: double income no kids superfluous meetings Chinese employees who are hired by foreign companies in China and receive higher salaries and better benefits families consisting of two parents and one child second job which people take on in order to earn more money instant dishes in pouches which can be cooked very quickly instant noodles age of a house artificial trees for decoration flying plan: a plan that involves inviting overseas Chinese scholars to China to develop projects factory tourism, touring factories as part of tourist industry 29

2 Vocabulary and usage

H

30

㙵⼼ᚙ㒾

guˇ piào qíngxü`

儐Ӌ

guîˇjià

䌉ᮣଚᑫ

guìzú shāngdiàn

䌉ᮣଚક

guìzú shāngpîˇn

೑᳝⾕㧹

guóyoˇ u sīyíng

೑䌘

guózī

⍋ᩦ

haˇ isaˇ

∝䇁ᯢ᯳

Hànyuˇ míngxīng

৿ⶹ䞣

hánzhīliàng

咥䴶

hēimian

咥Ѩ㉏

hēiwuˇ lèi

stock emotions, stress created by the changes in stocks extremely high prices nobility shops: shops with very expensive goods merchandise of excellent quality and high price industries owned by the state but managed by the private sector state-owned capital funeral services which spread the dead person’s ashes into the ocean non-Chinese who become famous because they speak very good Chinese “knowledge content,” referring to how learned a person is the dark and ugly side of society a processed health food made of five kinds of “black” ingredients: 咥䈚 hēidòu, black soy beans; 咥㉇ hēimîˇ, black rice; 咥㡱 咏 hēizhīma, black sesame seeds; 咥ᵒ ᄤ hēisōngzîˇ, black pine seeds; and 咥 ࡴҥhēijiālún, black currants. Note: “hēiwuˇ lèi” used to refer to landlords, rich

2.6 New and recent words

㑶㡆⍜䌍

hóngsè xiāof èi

੐ᴎ ‫׭‬右ൟҎᠡ

hūjī hòuniaˇ oxíng réncái

⦃ֱ

huánbaˇ o

⦃ֱৡ⠛

huánbaˇ o míngpiàn

㚵ৠ␌

hútòngryóu

⦃থ

huánf ā

⦃๗䷇Ф

huánjìng yīnyùe

咘䞥ḷ

huángjīndaˇ ng

咘䞥ᬭ㚆

huángjīn jiàoyù

♄࣪

huīhuà

farmers, counterrevolutionaries, rightists, and criminals, during the Cultural Revolution. expenses using public funds. For example: dining, dancing, giftgiving. a pager, a beeper high-tech specialists who come and go wherever projects need their skills environmental protection environmental business cards; business cards with colored earth, ocean, seaweed, butterflies, etc. printed on them to call attention to environmental protection special tours for tourists who ride in pedicabs and are driven through designated traditional alleys in Beijing environment and development “background music”: music broadcast in factories, shops, restaurants, etc. prime time on television valuable training for entrepreneurs and education for the staff greying or blurring of distinctions, as between good and bad, moral and immoral, in society 31

2 Vocabulary and usage

J

32

⏋㸔䔺

hùnxuèchē

☿᢯

huoˇ zhāo

ঢ়߽ো

jílìhàor

ᴎ䆥 ᡔᧈ ‫؛‬ଅ ᆊᒁߎ⾳

jīyì jìyuán jiaˇ chàng jiātíng chūzū

‫؛‬᮹䲚Ꮦ

jiàrì jíshì

䆆Ӌ݀ৌ

jiaˇ ngjià gōngsī

䕓ⱘ

jiàodī

᥹䗕ᮣ

jiēsòngzú

‫׳‬㛥

jiènaˇ o

䞥ᴀԡ

jīnběnwèi

“mixed blood cars”: cars made with parts from different countries most popular and most welcome ways of doing things auspicious numbers, such as 8888 which sounds like “f ā f ā f ā f ā” which means “having great prosperity” machine translation technical assistance lip-sync (singing) a service which earns money by providing a family or familylike atmosphere to lonely elders who have no family of their own markets held during holidays for shoppers’ convenience companies who bargain on behalf of their clients sedan car type of taxi, as opposed to “䴶ⱘ miàndī” which is a van type of taxi parents who deliver and pick up children from schools in cities “borrowing brains”: hiring, with very high pay, highly intelligent people from other regions the concept that money is the most important thing of all

2.6 New and recent words

K

䞥⚍ᄤ 䞥㘇ᴉ 㒣⌢令

jīndiaˇ nzi jīn’ěrduo jīngjicān

㒣Ⳇ

jīngmáng

㊒⼲ᖿ令

jīngshen kuàicān

㊒⼲㊂ᑫ

jīngshen liángdiàn

䜦㒣⌢

jiuˇ jīngji

Ꮌ᮴䴌

jùwúbà

वᢝok⮙

kaˇ lā ok bìng

व⠋

kaˇ yé

՗ӋᏖഎ

kaˇ njià shìchaˇ ng

՗᭛࣪

kaˇ n wénhuà

ᒋሙԣᅙ

kāngjūzhùzhaˇ i

⾥ӕ ଗ㗕

kēqîˇ kěnlaˇ o

ぎᎶ䰊↉

kōngcháo jiēduàn

especially good ideas sharp ears affordable, good meals people who have no knowledge of market economy spiritual fast-food: short reading “spiritual food store”: bookstores in rural areas economy based on marketing liquor superlative things, the best sore throat from singing too many karaoke songs those who have the authority to stop someone from doing anything whenever they want to markets where the buyers can bargain the common phenomenon of the Chinese chatting and talking about anything and everthing when they get together affordable housing in Beijing for low and mid-income earners technology industry young people who should have been independent but still depend on their parents empty-nest period in one’s life when all children have left home

33

2 Vocabulary and usage

L

34

ぎહ

kōnggē

ぎྤ

kōngjiě

ぎ႖

kōngsaˇ o

ぎⱑီ࿏

kòngbái hūnyīn

ᘤ啭⮛

koˇ nglóng zhèng

ぎЁ⼐⠽

kōngzhōng lîˇwù

䝋

kù

ℒ࿬ ℒᮣ ೄ䲒݀ৌ

kuaˇ nniáng kuaˇ nzú kùnnán gōngsī

㪱໽䅵ߦ

lántiān jìhuà

㗕ᵓᏖഎ

laˇ obaˇ n shìchaˇ ng

㗕໻

laˇ odà

㗕⃻

laˇ o’ōu

male cabin personnel on airplanes stewardess, short for “ぎЁᇣྤ kōngzhōng xiaˇ ojie” stewardesses who range from 30 to 35 years of age, and are married and have children a marriage on paper only. The purpose is for a foreigner to get permanent resident status. dinosaur-like organizations where there are too many employees and efficiency is substandard “cyber-space gifts”: greetings or good wishes given to people with songs over radio or television “cool” (transliteration) super-rich women very rich people consulting companies who help enterprises to solve problems in such things as capital, management, policy, and development blue sky plan: environmental plans to keep the sky blue employment market, job market mid-sized and largesized state enterprises a person from Europe

2.6 New and recent words

㗕໪

laˇ owài

⼐કᏖഎ

lîˇpîˇn shìchaˇ ng

БҎ㘠Ϯ

lìrén zhíyè

⼐Ҿᑓਞ

lîˇyí guaˇ nggào

⼐Ҿ⍜䌍

lîˇyí xiāof èi

ᒝӋ᠓ ᒝଚ

liánjiàfáng liánshāng

ϸኌϝഄ

liaˇ ng’àn sāndì

ϸኌಯഄ

liaˇ ng’àn sìdì

ϸФ

liaˇ nglè

ϸᴵ㝓߇ᄤ

liaˇ ngtiáotuîˇ dèngzi

ϸࠊᆊᒁ

liaˇ ngzhì jiātíng

⣢ᠡ

liècái

one who does not understand a particular profession; used to refer to a foreigner since the 1970s. markets specializing in selling gift items “beauty” profession: models, promotion ladies, etc. newspaper advertisements announcing weddings, birthdays, etc. expenses for social and protocol activities affordable housing ethical business practice, ethical business person three places on two shores: mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan four places on two shores: mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan “two joys” or “two colas,” referring to Coca Cola ৃষৃ Фkěkoˇ ukělè and Pepsi Cola ⱒџৃФ baˇ ishìkělè two-legged chairs: unstable careers, jobs, and wages two-system family: either husband or wife is from mainland China and the other one from Taiwan head-hunting, also known as ⣢༈ liètóu 35

2 Vocabulary and usage

M

36

⬭ᅜ⬋຿

liúshoˇ u nánshì

⬭ᅜཇ຿

‥ˇ shì liúshoˇ u nu

⬭ᅜᄤཇ

‥ˇ liúshoˇ u zîˇnu

㓓ഄ݀ৌ

lü` dì gōngsī

㓓㡆⬉㛥

lü` sè diànnaˇ o

㓓㡆乒ᅶ

lü` sè gùkè

㓓㡆ㅵ⧚

lü` sè guaˇ nlîˇ

㓓㡆⾥ᡔ

lü` sè kējì

㓓㡆≑䔺

lü` sè qìchē

㓓㡆亳ક

lü` sè shípîˇn

ᮙ␌ᄺд

‥ˇ yóu xuéxí lu

фऩ

maˇ idān

husbands who stay home and take care of everything when their wives go abroad wives who stay home and take care of everything when their husbands go abroad children whose parents went abroad and are taken care of by relatives “green companies”: companies who create green space in urban environments environmentally sound computers, energy saving and easily recycleable customers with strong environmental consciousness green management: management that takes environmental protection into consideration science and technology which promote environmental protection and sustainable ecological balance “green cars”: environmentally sound, low-emission cars “green food”: unpolluted food, organic food tourism that involves some learning asking for the check (at a restaurant)

2.6 New and recent words

N

фܼ೑ˈ

maˇ i quánguó

पܼ೑

mài quánguó

㕢亳

měishí

䗋ԴᏖഎ

mínîˇ shìchaˇ ng

䴶ⱘ

miàndī

ᯢ᯳ᑓਞ

míngxīng guaˇ nggào

ᯢ᯳㸿

míngxīngshān

῵ᢳ䄺ᆳ

móní jîˇngchá

↡ජ

muˇ chéng

㛥ⷓ

naˇ okuàng

㛥⇥

naˇ omín

‫ݰ‬໻ℒ

nóngdàkuaˇ n

ᓘ㙵

nòngguˇ

‫ݰ‬џ⾬к

nóngshì mìshū

management policies and directions that promote buying selling and distributing to the whole country, not just locally good food, delicious food mini-markets: markets with stalls by the streets and in residential lanes inexpensive, yellow mini-van type of taxis commercials or advertisements with famous movie stars, singers, dancers, and sports figures promoting goods T-shirts with pictures of movie stars, singers, etc. on them virtual police: police statues placed at intersections mother cities: cities around which satellite cities and development zones have developed brain mine: resource base for talents and intelligence people whose work depends on using their brains (intelligence). This type of work is called “㛥Ϯnaˇ oyè.” extremely rich farmers buy and sell stocks, play with stocks technical people hired by farmers to 37

2 Vocabulary and usage

improve the products by employing new technology P

38

⊵≿㒣⌢ ⊵≿ড়ৠ

pàomò jīngjì pàomò hétong

⊵≿೒к

pàomò túshū

⊵≿᭛࣪

pàomò wénhuà

⊵≿ᮄ䯏 䎥㝓݀ৌ

pàomò xīnwén paˇ otuîˇ gōngsī

䰾ѻ

péichaˇ n

᤻⠋

pěngyé

䋿⊩

pínf aˇ

䋿㗕

pínlaˇ o

⸈䪕᤻䞥

pòtiě pěngjīn

bubble economy bubble contract: a contract which promises to supply more than one can produce in order to control the market bubble books: books which do not have substantial content or value but are published in great quantities bubble culture: a false, pretentious culture, such as the mass creation of low-quality cultural goods false news service companies who will do chores of any kind for clients accompanying childbirth: husband stands by his wife when she is giving birth flatterer, brownnose, apple polisher, bootlicker poor legal knowledge, lacking legal concepts poor old-aged people, particularly those without a spouse, old-age pension, or ability to work break the “3 irons” and hold “gold”; 3 irons: iron office

2.6 New and recent words

Q

R

᱂б

puˇ jiuˇ

䫎䏃䌍

pūlùf èi

ଚᑫ 䪅Ⳇ

qīyīyī shāngdiàn qiánmáng

Ꮋ‫࡯ܟ‬ᓣ

qiaˇ okèlì shì

䕏䔼Ѹ䗮 ӕϮҎ

qīngguîˇ jiāotōng qîˇyèrén

䴦᯹ড়ৠ

qīngchūn hétong

⏙੪

qīngkā

ᚙᛳ֗䫔

qínggaˇ n cùxiāo

⛁⚍

rèdiaˇ n

⛁⚍䆱乬

rèdiaˇ n huàtí

Ҏᠡ╂

réncáicháo

chair, iron wage, iron rice bowl; gold: gold rice bowl, particularly more work for more pay and a rich and comfortable life nine years of compulsory public education money, “fee,” given to someone who will help to get things done 7-11 stores people who are blinded by, and blindly worship, money the pampering way of bringing up children light rail transit enterprise members who have a solemn and proud air “youth contract”: contracts between enterprises and their employees, where they agree that the employees only work for them when they are young black coffee, with no cream or sugar promotions which appeal to buyers’ emotions for sales “hot spots”: popular spots or places hot conversation topics “brain tide”: qualified people relocating for better jobs 39

2 Vocabulary and usage

S

40

Ҏᠡ໰Ꮦ ‫ۦ‬ଚ

réncái yèshì ruˇ shāng

䕃ᑓਞ

ruaˇ n guaˇ nggào

䕃䌘⑤

ruaˇ n zīyuán

䕃ㅵ⧚

ruaˇ n guaˇ nlîˇ

ϝᏕ

sānbì

ϝពᕟᏜ

sāndoˇ ng lü` shī

ϝ᳓݀ৌ

sāntì gōngsī

㡆Ⳇ䬰

sèmángjìng

ଚ⍋

shānghaˇ i

ଚᑓ

shāngguaˇ ng

ଚк

shāngshū

ଚট

shāngyoˇ u

Ϟ㢅⧁

shànghuābān

night job market Confucian merchant: a scholarly merchant soft advertisement: for example, through the props or words in movies soft resource: science, technology, information, etc. “soft management”: a management method where people are left alone to be proactive and creative three kinds of currency: Renminbi, Hong Kong dollar, and Taiwan dollar lawyers who know law, foreign language, and economics “three 4 U company”: a service company who will do almost anything for the client for a fee corrective lenses for color blindness commodity market which is as vast and changeable as an ocean commercial advertising or commercials books on economics or commerce friends who do business together “spotty work”: some state government workers only go to their own workplace when they are not

2.6 New and recent words

ᇥ⢃ ⍝໪३᠔

shàof àn shèwài cèsuoˇ

⍝໪㑶࿬

shèwài hóngniáng

⫳ᗕ䘧ᖋ

shēngtài dàodé

⫳ᗕᮙ␌ Ϫ䌌

‥ˇ yóu shēngtài lu shìmào

Ϫ䫊

shìyín

᠟ᴎ

shoˇ ujī

᠟䇁Ꮦഎ

shoˇ uyuˇ shìchaˇ ng

ᇓ䰽

shòuxiaˇ n

к⇥

shūmín

ঠӥ᮹

shuāngxiūrì

ঠ䌶

shuāngyíng

∈䋻

shuîˇhuò

∈⊹Ểᵫ

shuîˇní sēnlín

ಯড়䰶

sìhéyuànr

working on the side elsewhere juvenile delinquent good, clean washrooms for people from overseas matchmakers who try to find foreign partners for Chinese ecological ethics: regulations and norms which keep harmony between humans and the natural ecological environment eco-tourism WTO, World Trade Organization, short for Ϫ⬠䌌ᯧ㒘㒛 shìjiè màoyì zuˇ zhī World Bank, short for Ϫ⬠䫊㸠shìjiè yínháng cellular phone; the older term is “dàgēdà” “sign language market,” where only hand signs are used for trade life insurance, short for Ҏᇓֱ䰽 rénshòu baˇ oxiaˇ n people who truly love books both Saturday and Sunday off work win–win situation or strategy low quality, fake goods, as opposed to 㸠䋻hánghuò, genuine goods concrete jungle: tall buildings in cities conservative and closed way of 41

2 Vocabulary and usage

T

W

42

⅏ѵီ࿏

sîˇwáng hūnyīn

ಯᇣ啭

sìxiaˇ olóng

䏇ᵓီ࿏

tiàobaˇ n hūnyīn

༈㛥݀ৌ

tóunaˇ o gōngsī

࿗࿗ᬭᥜ

wáwa jiàoshòu

㔥৻ 㔥㰿 㔥⇥ ೈ㺭Ϝ໿

waˇ ngbā waˇ ngchóng waˇ ngmín wéiqún zhàngfu

ॅᴎㅵ⧚ ᭛࣪令

wēijī guaˇ nlîˇ wénhuà cān

䯂乬ᆊᒁ

wèntí jiātíng

᮴ᑫ䫎䫔ଂ

wúdiànpù xiāoshòu

᮴ᄽᮣ

wúháizú

thinking, like the traditional enclosed courtyard homes a marriage in which husband and wife still maintain the relationship although the marriage has broken down and they have no more feelings towards each other Four Little Dragons: Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong a marriage without love, based purely on achieving a certain goal “talent company” which gathers engineering and technical talents and provides them to organizations “baby professors”: very young professors internet cafe nethead, webaholic internet surfers husbands who take care of household work crisis management foods which have historical, folk, or other kinds of cultural meaning dysfunctional family, where husband and wife do not get along or are divorced sales without shops: direct sales childless people

2.6 New and recent words

X

Y

Z

㟲⭫

wuˇ liaˇ o

᮴⚳᷵

wúyānxiào

໩䰇Ꮦഎ

xīyáng shìchaˇ ng

ϟ⍋

xiàhaˇ i

ᖗ⭫

xīnliaˇo

ֵᙃ䋽ᄤ

xìnxī f ànzi

ֵᙃ∵ᶧ

xìnxī wūraˇ n

ᔶ䈵᥼䫔

xíngxiàng tuīxiāo

⋟ᠧᎹ

yángdaˇ gōng

ϔ೑ϸࠊ

yìguó liaˇ ngzhì

⹀ᑓਞ

yìng guaˇ nggào

᳝⮙

yoˇ ubìng

ᆄᆊ

zaˇ ijiā

ᆄ໪

zaˇ iwài

䰉⛁

zhènrè

ⶹᴀᆊ

zhīběnjiā

dancing as a way of healing, dance therapy non-smoking schools sunset market: markets catering to older people to quit one’s official job and go into private business psychological healing, psychotherapy one who sells information disturbance caused by inaccurate or mistaken information marketing of a corporate, product, or personal image foreigners who work and earn wages in China one country, two systems, such as China and Hong Kong, or China and Macau hard advertisements: commercials shown on television sick, wacky, abnormal people who demand high prices and try to make money without mercy cheating foreigners out of their money, or getting more money out of foreigners short temporary social trend or fashion intellectual capitalist: one who has keen 43

2 Vocabulary and usage

ᱎ࡯ಲ⌕

zhìlì huíliú

䩳⚍Ꮉ

zhōngdiaˇ ngōng

ㄥᎶᓩ޸

zhùcháo yîˇnf èng

䗑╂ᮣ

zhuīcháozú

䗑䔺ᮣ

zhuīchēzú

䗑ℒᮣ

zhuīkuaˇ nzú

‫ޚ‬乒ᅶ 㞾ࡽ䫊㸠

zhuˇ ngùkè zìzhù yínháng

㞾ࡽ✻

zìzhùzhào

business skills and a creative mind, a term coined from 䌘ᴀᆊzīběnjiā, capitalist Chinese science and technology intellectuals who studied, stayed abroad, and then returned to work in China people who are paid by the hour, doing odd jobs such as shopping, laundry, window cleaning, taking care of a sick person “building a nest to attract the phoenix”: a term meaning creating a favorable environment in order to attract investments those who follow the trends those who love to own or enjoy the use of cars people who chase after money potential customers automatic banking, ATM, automatic teller machine camera booth where one puts in coins, and photos are automatically dispensed

2.7 Computer and internet-related words 2.7.1

Terms for things address book attachment

44

ഄഔ㈓dìzhîˇbù 䰘ӊf ùjiàn

2.7 Computer and Internet-related words

Big 5 blog/blogger chatroom domain e-mail file forum GB Google hacker hardware home page host (computer) internet internet cafe keyword message netizen/nettizen online password platform site software user name virus webaholic/nethead webpage website Wikipedia Yahoo 2.7.2

the traditional (or complex) Chinese standard fonts मᅶ bókè 㘞໽ᅸliáotiānshì ඳৡyùmíng ⬉ᄤ䚂ӊdiànzîˇ yóujiàn/⬉䚂diànyóu/Ӟ ၮᇨyīmèi’ěr ᭛ӊ wénjiàn 䆎യ lùntán abbreviation for ೑ᷛ guóbiāo, the simplified Chinese standard fonts 䈋℠ guˇ gē 咥ᅶhēikè ⹀ӊ yìngjiàn Џ义 zhuˇ yè Џᴎzhuˇ jī Ѧ㘨㔥 hùliánwaˇ ng, the older name is ಴⡍ 㔥 yīntèwaˇ ng 㔥৻waˇ ngbā ݇䬂ᄫguānjiànzì/݇䬂䆡guānjiàncí ⍜ᙃxiāoxi 㔥⇥waˇ ngmín ೼㒓zàixiàn ᆚⷕ mìmaˇ ᑇৄpíngtái キ⚍zhàndiaˇ n 䕃ӊ ruaˇ njiàn ⫼᠋ yònghù/⫼᠋ৡ yònghù míng ⮙↦bìngdú 㔥㰿waˇ ngchóng 㔥义 waˇ ngyè 㔥キ waˇ ngzhàn 㓈෎ⱒ⾥ wéijībaˇ ikē 䲙㰢yaˇ huˇ

Terms for actions back, return browse chat check one’s mail check one’s mailbox click on a link decode download go online log in log out

䖨ಲf aˇ nhuí ⌣㾜liúlaˇ n 㘞໽ liáotiān ᶹ䚂ӊ chá yóujiàn ᶹ䚂ㆅ chá yóuxiāng ⚍ߏ diaˇ njī 㾷ⷕjiěmaˇ ϟ䕑 xiàzaˇ i Ϟ㔥shàngwaˇ ng ⱏᔩ dēnglù ⱏߎ dēngchū 45

2 Vocabulary and usage

register search send e-mail surf/go online upload 2.7.3

Text messaging, blogging, and online chatting abbreviations ::>_<:: 3Q 3x “42” “88” “94” “520” “5555” bt fb ft GG JJ konglong MM mm ‫⿔ي‬佁 PF PLMM PMP qingwa ৆ᓳᓳ

TMD

2.8

⊼‫ ݠ‬zhùcè ᧰㋶sōusuoˇ থ䚂ӊ f ā yóujiàn Ϟ㔥 shàngwaˇ ng Ϟ䕑 shàngzaˇ i

weeping eyes Junglish pun: pronounced “sān Q,” thank you bilingual pun: “sān x” sounds like “thanks” yes (sounds like “shì”) “bābā,” similar to “bye bye,” goodbye “jiuˇ sì,” short for ህᰃjiù shì, that is I love you (sounds like “woˇ ài n) short for “wū wū wū wū,” the sound of sobbing বᗕ biàntài, abnormal 㜤䋹 fuˇ bài, corruption, dining out on public funds ߚ⡍ f ēntè, short for “faint” short for “હહgēge,” “elder brother,” boy short for “ྤྤjiějie,” older sister ᘤ啭koˇ nglóng, dinosaur, ugly girl short for “ྍྍmèimei,” “younger sister,” a girl 㕢ⳝměiméi, beautiful eyebrows, a girl oˇ uxīf àn = ៥୰⃶ woˇ xîˇhuān, I like (+ an object) short for “Խ᳡pèifu,” admire acronym for “ⓖ҂ྍྍpiàoliang mèimei,” beautiful girl short for “ᢡ偀ሕ pāimaˇ pì,” to bootlick, to brownnose 䴦㲭qīngwā, frog, ugly boy shîˇdìdi = ‫⪰ڏ‬shaˇ guā, short for “৆ࡾ↨ⱘᓳᓳ shîˇnúbîˇde dìdì, Snoopy’s younger brother,” meaning “stupid” acronym for “Ҫཛྷⱘtāmāde,” expletive “his mother’s”

Quotable quotes from the classics One of the most favored ways to display wisdom and/or erudition when using Chinese to discuss matters is to be able to quote a well-known line from one of the great classics, such as The Analects of Confucius, The Writings of Mencius, The Middle Way, The Great Learning, The Writings of Zhuangzi, The Classic of the Way and Its Virtue, The Writings of Master Han Fei, and the like, which will suggest a perspective that not only makes sense, but also imposes a proper moral or ethical interpretation on the matter at hand. For example, after discussing at length the pros and cons of undertaking

46

2.8

Quotable quotes from the classics

a project that clearly cannot be completed in the foreseeable future, but should be started regardless of the challenge, one might quote a line from the Daoist classic, The Classic of the Way and Its Virtue: “A thousand-league journey begins with a first step, ग䞠П㸠ྟѢ䎇 ϟ qiānlîˇzhīxíng shîˇyú zúxià.” There are countless others, but we may cite a few of the best-known quotations here: From The Analects of Confucius, 䆎䇁 Lúnyuˇ :

ϡᙷҎПϡᏅⶹˈᙷϡⶹҎгDŽ búhuàn rénzhī bùjîˇzhī, huàn bùzhīrén yě I am not bothered by others not understanding me; I am bothered that I do not understand others. ᆠ㗠ϡ偘ᯧˈ䋿㗠᮴ᗼ䲒DŽ f ù ér bùjiāo yì, pín ér wúyuàn nán It is easier to resist being arrogant when wealthy than to avoid being resentful when poor. ৯ᄤ℆䆋ᮐ㿔ˈ㗠ᬣᮐ㸠DŽ jūnzi yù nàyúyán, ér mîˇnyúxíng The superior person should be slow in speech and earnest in conduct. ৯ᄤஏᮐНˈᇣҎஏᮐ߽DŽ jūnzi yùyúyì, xiaˇ orén yùyúlì The mind of the superior person is conversant with righteousness; the mind of the petty person is conversant with gain. ݊䑿ℷˈϡҸ㗠㸠ˈ݊䑿ϡℷˈ㱑ҸϡҢDŽ qíshēn zhèng, búlìng érxíng; qíshēn búzhèng, suīlìng bùcóng An upright person will be obeyed without issuing orders; a deviant person will not be followed even after issuing orders. ϝҎ㸠ˈᖙ᳝៥Ꮬ⛝ˈᢽ݊୘㗙㗠ҢПDŽ sānrénxíng, bìyoˇ u woˇ shī yān, zé qí shànzhě ér cóngzhī Among any three people, one will be worthy of being my teacher. I can choose the best to follow. ⏽ᬙ㗠ⶹᮄˈৃҹЎᏜ⶷DŽ wēngù érzhīxīn, kěyîˇ wéishīy One who learns something new from reviewing something old may be a teacher of others. ᄺ㗠ᯊдПˈϡѺᙺТ˛ xué ér shíxízhī, búyì yuèhū? Isn’t it pleasant to learn with constant application? ᳝᳟㞾䖰ᮍᴹˈϡѺФТ˛ yoˇ upéng zìyuaˇ nf āng lái, búyì lè hū? Isn’t it delightful to have friends coming from far away? ⶹ㗙ϡᚥˈҕ㗙ϡᖻˈ࢛㗙ϡᚻDŽ zhīzhě búhuò, rénzhě bùyōu, yoˇ ngzhě bújù 47

2 Vocabulary and usage

The wise are free from perplexity, the kind free from anxiety, and the bold free from fear. ⶹП㗙ϡབདП㗙ˈདП㗙ϡབФП㗙DŽ zhīzhīzhě bùrú hàozhīzhě, hàozhīzhě bùrú lèzhīzhě They who know the truth are not as great as those who love it, and they who love it are not as great as those who delight in it. From The Great Learning, ໻ᄺ Dàxué

৯ᄤ᮴᠔ϡ⫼݊ᵕDŽ jūnzi wúsuoˇ búyòngqíjí The superior person puts everything into every endeavor. ⠽Ḑ㗠ৢⶹ㟇DŽ wù gé érhòu zhīzhì Knowledge is achieved only after things have been investigated. ⠽᳝ᴀ᳿џ᳝㒜ྟDŽ wù yoˇ uběnmò; shì yoˇ uzhōngshîˇ Things have fundamentals and incidentals. Matters have beginnings and endings. ᖗϡ೼⛝ˈ㾚㗠ϡ㾕ˈ਀㗠ϡ䯏ˈ亳㗠ϡⶹ݊ੇDŽ xīnbúzàiyān, shì ér bújiàn, tīng ér bùwén, shí ér bùzhīqíwèi When the mind is not focused, we look without seeing, listen without hearing, and eat without tasting. ℆⊏݊೑㗙ˈ‫ܜ‬唤݊ᆊˈ℆唤݊ᆊ㗙ˈ‫ׂ݊ܜ‬䑿DŽ yù zhìqíguózhě, xiān qíqíjiā, yù qíqíjiāzhě, xiān xiūqíshēn Whoever would rule a nation should first put their house in order; whoever would put their house in order should first perfect self-cultivation. 㞾໽ᄤҹ㟇ᮐᒊҎˈໍџⱚҹׂ䑿ЎᴀDŽ zì tiānzîˇ yîˇzhìyú shùrén, yīshì jiēyîˇ xiūshēn wéiběn From the emperor down to the common people, all must consider self-cultivation to be the fundamental issue. From The Middle Way, Ёᒌ Zhōngyōng

䆮㗙, ໽П䘧гDŽ䆮П㗙, ҎП䘧гDŽ chéngzhě, tiānzhīdàoyě. chéngzhīzhx, rénzhīdàoyě Sincerity is the Way of Heaven. Making oneself sincere is the Way of humanity. 䆮㗙ˈ⠽П㒜ྟDŽϡ䆮᮴⠽DŽ chéngzhě, wùzhī zhōngshîˇ. bùchéng wúwù Sincerity is the beginning and end of all things. Without sincerity there is nothing. 䆮㗙㞾៤гˈ㗠䘧㞾䘧гDŽ chéngzhě zìchéngyě, ér dào zìdàoyě

48

2.8

Quotable quotes from the classics

Sincerity is perfected in people as the Way is followed in Nature. 䘧ϡ䖰ҎDŽҎПЎ䘧㗠䖰ҎˈϡৃҹЎ䘧DŽ dào bùyuaˇ n rén. rén zhī wéidào ér yuaˇ nrén, bùkěyi wéidào The Way is not something separate from humankind. If you practice a Way that is apart from humankind, this cannot be the Way. ੠г㗙ˈ໽ϟП䖒䘧гDŽ héyězhě, tiānxià zhī dádàoyě Harmony is the most advanced Way in the world. ៪⫳㗠ⶹПˈ៪ᄺ㗠ⶹПˈ៪ೄ㗠ⶹПˈঞ݊ⶹПˈϔ гDŽ huò shēng ér zhīzhī, huò xué ér zhīzhī, huò kùn ér zhīzhī, jíqí zhīzhī, yī yě Some are born understanding; some understand by learning and some have to struggle to understand. Nevertheless, their understanding has the same value. ৯ᄤП䘧ˈ䌍㗠䱤DŽ jūnzi zhī dào, f èi ér yîˇn The Way of superior people is to go into seclusion when their talents are unused. ৯ᄤП䘧ˈ䕳བ㸠䖰ᖙ㞾䖽DŽ jūnzîˇ zhī dào, pìrú xíngyuaˇ n bìzì’ěr The Way of superior people can be compared to traveling: to go far, you must start from close by. Ҏ㥿ϡ佂亳гDŽ剰㛑ⶹੇгDŽ rén mòbùyîˇnshíyě. xiaˇ nnéng zhīwèiyě Everyone eats and drinks, but few are they who really appreciate flavor. བℸ㗙ˈϡ㾕㗠ゴˈϡࡼ㗠বˈ᮴Ў㗠៤DŽ rúcîˇzhě, búxiàn érzhāng, búdòng érbiàn, wúwéi érchéng In this way, it manifests without show, it changes without moving, and achieves without effort. From The Classic of Filial Piety, ᄱ㒣Xiàojīng

໿ᄱˈᖋПᴀгˈᬭП᠔⬅⫳гDŽ fū xiào, dézhīběnyě, jiào zhī suoˇ yóushēngyě. Filial piety is the root of all virtue, and the stem out of which grows all moral teaching. ໿ᄱˈ໽П㒣гˈഄПНгˈ⇥П㸠гDŽ fū xiào, tiānzhījīngyě, dìzhīyìyě, mínzhīxíngyě. Filial piety is the constant way of Heaven, the righteous way of Earth, and the practical duty of the populace. 䑿ԧথ㙸ˈফП⠊↡ˈϡᬶ↕ӸˈᄱПྟгDŽ shēntîˇ faˇ fū, shòuzhī f ùmuˇ , bùgaˇ n huîˇshāng, xiàozhìshîˇyě.

49

2 Vocabulary and usage

Our bodies, even every hair and bit of skin, are received by us from our parents, and not daring to injure or wound them is the beginning of filial piety. џ҆㗙ˈሙϞϡ偘ˈЎϟϡхˈ೼ϥϡѝDŽ shìqīnzhě, jūshàng bùjiāo, wéixià búluàn, zàichoˇ u bùzhēng. They who serve their parents well, when in a high position will be free from pride, in a low position will avoid insubordination, and among equals will not be quarrelsome. From The Ritual Records, ⼐䆄Lˇî jì

໻䘧П㸠гˈ໽ϟЎ݀DŽ dà dào zhī xíng yě, tiān xià wéi gōng The Greatest Truth proceeds this way: the world is for the public. 㢯ᬓ⣯Ѣ㰢DŽ kēzhèng měngyú huˇ Tyrannical government is more fierce than a tiger. ⼐ᇮᕔᴹDŽ lîˇ shàng waˇ nglái Courtesy demands reciprocity. ᄺ✊ৢⶹϡ䎇ˈᬭ✊ৢⶹೄDŽ xué ránhòu zhībùzú, jiāo ránhòu zhīkùn Through studying we understand deficiency; through teaching we understand difficulty. ⥝ϡ⧶ϡ៤఼ˈҎϡᄺϡⶹ䘧DŽ yù bùzhuó bùchéngqì, rén bùxué bùzhīdào Unpolished jade is useless; uneducated people are ignorant. ⶹ㘏䖥Т࢛DŽ zhīchîˇ jìnhū yoˇ ng Having a sense of shame is close to being courageous. From The Writings of Mencius, ᄳᄤ Mèngzˇî

ᕫ䘧໮ࡽˈ༅䘧ᆵࡽDŽ dédào duōzhù, shīdào guaˇ zhù Just causes find much support; unjust causes enjoy little support. 㗕਒㗕ˈҹঞҎП㗕ˈᑐ਒ᑐˈҹঞҎПᑐˈ໽ϟৃ䖤 ѢᥠDŽ laˇ o wúlaˇ o, yîˇjí rénzhīlaˇ o, yòu wúyòu, yîˇjí rénzhīyòu, tiānxià kěyùnyúzhaˇ ng If we treat our own elders with respect and extend that treatment to the elders of other families, and treat our own young with great care and extend that treatment to the young of other families, we will have a peaceful world in our hands.

50

2.8

Quotable quotes from the classics

ҎⱚৃҹЎᇻ㟰DŽ rén jiēkěyîˇ wéi Yáo Shùn Anyone may become a Sage King. ⥟乒Ꮊে㗠㿔ҪDŽ wáng gù zuoˇ yòu ér yántā The King looks left and right, then changes the subject. (Used to describe someone who changes the subject when he/she can’t answer a difficult or embarrassing question.) ҹѨकℹュⱒℹDŽ yîˇ wuˇ shíbù xiào baˇ ibù Those who retreat fifty feet scoff at those who retreat a hundred feet. From The Classic of the Way and Its Virtue 䘧ᖋ㒣 Dàodéjīng

໻䘧ᑳˈ᳝ҕНDŽDŽDŽ೑ᆊᯣхˈ᳝ᖴ㞷DŽ dàdào f èi, yoˇ u rényì....guójiā hūnluàn, yoˇ u zhōngchén When the Great Truth has been abandoned, benevolence and righteousness appear . . . When the country is in chaos, loyal ministers appear. 䘧ᐌ᮴Ў㗠᮴ϡЎDŽ dào cháng wúwéi ér wú bùwéi The Way always does without ado, leaving nothing left undone. 䘧ৃ䘧ˈ䴲ᐌ䘧DŽৡৃৡˈ䴲ᐌৡDŽ dào kě dào, f ēi cháng dào. Míng kě míng, f ēi cháng míng Truths may be told, but not eternal Truth. Names may be named, but not eternal names. бሖПৄ䍋Ѣ㌃ೳˈग䞠П㸠ྟѢ䎇ϟDŽ jiuˇ céngzhītái qîˇyúlěituˇ , qiānlîˇzhīxíng shîˇyúzúxià A nine-story tower starts with a pile of dirt; a thousandleague journey starts with a first step. Ҏ⊩ഄഄ⊩໽໽⊩䘧ˈ䘧⊩㞾✊DŽ rén faˇ dì, dì faˇ tiān, tiān faˇ dào, dào faˇ zìrán Humanity is patterned after Earth; Earth is patterned after Heaven; Heaven is patterned after the Way. The Way simply is. Ϟ୘㢹∈DŽ∈୘߽ϛ⠽㗠ϡѝDŽ shàngshàn ruò shuîˇ. shuîˇ shàn lì wànwù ér bùzhēng The greatest good is like water. Water benefits all things and struggles against none. 㚰Ҏ㗙᳝࡯㞾㚰㗙ᔎDŽ shèngrénzhě yoˇ ulì, zìshèngzhě qiáng He who overcomes others has power; he who overcomes himself has strength. ⶹҎ㗙ᱎ㞾ⶹ㗙ᯢDŽ zhīrénzhě zhì, zìzhīzhě míng 51

2 Vocabulary and usage

One who understands others is wise; one who understands oneself is brilliant. From The Writings of Zhuangzi, ᑘᄤ Zhuāngzˇî

ઔ㥿໻Ѣᖗ⅏ˈ㗠䑿⅏⃵ПDŽ āi mòdàyú xīnsîˇ, ér shēnsîˇ cìzhī Nothing is sadder than the death of a heart, and the death of a body is the next saddest. ৯ᄤПѸ⎵བ∈ˈᇣҎПѸ⫬㢹䞈 jūnzi zhījiāo dànrúshuîˇ, xiaˇ orén zhījiāo gānruòlîˇ Superior people’s friendship is pure as water; petty people’s friendship is too sweet, like a liqueur. ᇣᎿ㾕໻Ꮏ xiaˇ owū jiàn dàwū A lesser shaman meets a greater shaman (a novice meets a master). From The Writings of Master Han Fei, 䶽䴲ᄤ Hánf ēizˇî

ग䞠П෸ˈ⑗Ѣ㱕え qiānlîˇ zhī dī, kuì yú yîˇxuè A thousand-league dike may collapse because of an ant hole (minor causes may lead to major disasters).

2.9

Idioms The four-character idioms, ಯ㿔៤䇁 sìyánchéngyuˇ , are expressions derived from classical writings. They are concise summaries of wellknown anecdotes or parables from classical Chinese texts, crystallizing the main point or lesson of the stories. They are analogous to English expressions like “slow but steady wins the race,” which finds its source in “The Tortoise and the Hare” from Aesop’s Fables. A typical Chinese idiom is a string of four characters that may constitute a complete sentence, such as “㗕偀䆚䗨 laˇ omaˇ shítú, the old horse knows the route,” or may simply constitute a comment on a previously stated topic, such as “ѩᑩП㲭 jîˇngdîˇzhīwā, a frog at the bottom of the well.” Educated Chinese, like learned English speakers, derive pleasure from using classical allusions to crystallize the essence of a current situation both in speech and in writing. The difference is that Chinese speakers have such a huge collection of classical works from which to draw their allusions when a comparable parallel is noticed in contemporary situations. Not only is it not deemed pretentious, it is widely admired and appreciated when one idiom, drawn from a rich reservoir of classical citations, is recollected and aptly applied to a contemporary scenario. The following are examples of idioms, along with their classical sources:

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2.9

ⱒথⱒЁ

baˇ if ābaˇ izhòng

To hit the bull’s eye every time.

ञ䗨㗠ᑳ

bàntú’érf èi

ϡ㘏ϟ䯂

bùchîˇxiàwèn

ߎᇨডᇨ

chū’ěrfaˇ n’ěr

૛ѵ啓ᆦ

chúnwángchîˇhán

To give up halfway through the task. Not ashamed to learn from one’s subordinates. You reap what you sow./What goes around, comes around. Share a common lot; when one is lost, dependents will suffer.

ϰᮑᬜ乺

Dōng Shī xiàopín

ᇍ⠯ᔍ⨈

duìniútánqín

໮㿔ԩⲞ

duōyánhéyì

⢤‫؛‬㰢࿕

hújiaˇ huˇ wēi

⬏㲛⏏䎇

huàshétiānzú

ѩᑩП㲭

jîˇngdîˇzhīwā

ࠏ㟳∖ࠥ

kēzhōuqiújiàn

Ugly people’s affectations make them appear even uglier, referring to Xi Shi’s ugly neighbor Dong Shi, who tried to imitate Xi Shi’s cute frown. Cast pearls before swine. There is no use talking too much. To feign powerful airs by positioning oneself near one who wields real power. Ruin the project by adding something superfluous. A person with a very limited outlook, who has seen no more of the world outside than a frog who lives at the bottom of a well. To base one’s actions on irrelevant history, like the man who carved a notch on the side of the boat where his sword dropped in the river during

Idioms

(Strategies of the Warring States,៬೑ㄪ Zhànguócè) (The Writings of Lie Yukou, ߫ᄤ Lièzˇî ) (The Analects of Confucius, 䆎䇁 Lúnyuˇ ) (The Writings of Mencius, ᄳᄤ Mèngzˇî ) (The Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, ᎺӴ Zuoˇ zhuàn) (The Writings of Zhuangzi, ᑘᄤ Zhuāngzˇî )

(ᑘᄤ Zhuāngzˇî ) (The Writings of Mozi, ๼ᄤ Mòzˇî ) (៬೑ㄪ Zhànguócè)

(៬೑ㄪ Zhànguócè)

(ᑘᄤ Zhuāngzˇî )

(The Lü Historical Annals., ৩⇣᯹⾟ ‥ˇ shì Chūnqiū) Lu

53

2 Vocabulary and usage

Ⓓパ‫ܙ‬᭄

lànyúchōngshù

㗕偀䆚䗨

laˇ omaˇ shítú

Фᵕ⫳ᚆ

lèjíshēngbēi

ṕϞ৯ᄤ

liángshàngjūnzîˇ

↯䘖㞾㤤

Máo Suí zìjiàn

健㰢䲒ϟ

qíhuˇ nánxià

ᴲҎᖻ໽

qîˇrényōutiān

䍋⅏ಲ⫳

qîˇsîˇhuíshēng

བ剐ᕫ∈

rúyúdéshuîˇ

ᅎᄤৃᬭ

rúzîˇkějiāo

า㖕༅偀

sàiwēngshīmaˇ

亳㿔㗠㙹

shíyán’érféi

ᅜ᷾ᕙ‫ܨ‬

shoˇ uzhūdàitù

ᕦࢇ᮴ࡳ

túláowúgōng

ᳯ⋟্݈

wàngyángxīngtàn

54

the crossing, with the intention of searching under the notch once they reached the other side. One’s incompetence may go unnoticed in a large group. An old hand; a veteran who knows how to perform the task. Extremes generate opposite extremes. A euphemistic reference to a catburglar. Used apologetically when recommending oneself for a job or a task. To find it impossible to back down once a challenge has been taken up. To worry about misfortunes that will never happen. To snatch life from the jaws of death; to have a very close call. Happy as a fish in water.

(The Writings of Master Han Fei, 䶽䴲ᄤ Hánf ēizˇî ) (䶽䴲ᄤ Hánf ēizˇî )

(Records of the Grand Historian, ৆䆄 Shˇî jì) (History of the Later Han Dynasty, ৢ∝к Hòuhànshū) (৆䆄 Shˇî jì)

(History of the Jin Dynasty, ᰟк Jìn Shū) (߫ᄤ Lièzˇî )

(৆䆄 Shˇî jì)

(Annals of the Three Kingdoms, ϝ೑ᖫ Sānguózhì) (৆䆄 Shˇî jì)

A young person who is capable of learning great things. A potential blessing in (The Writings of Huáinánzˇî , ⏂फᄤ disguise. Huáinánzˇî ) Habitually making (ᎺӴ Zuoˇ zhuàn) idle promises. Foolishly wait for an (䶽䴲ᄤ Hánf ēizˇî ) unrepeatable windfall. Work to no avail; (ᑘᄤ Zhuāngzˇî ) to work hard and achieve nothing. Feeling utterly (ᑘᄤ Zhuāngzˇî ) helpless and powerless.

2.10 Four-character set phrases

‫ܜ‬থࠊҎ

xiānf āzhìrén

᥽㘇ⲫ䪗

yān’ěrdàolíng

㿔䖛݊ᅲ ᦴ㢫ࡽ䭓ˋ ᢨ㢫ࡽ䭓

yánguòqíshí yàmiáozhùzhaˇ ng bámiáozhùzhaˇ ng

ϔ䋹⍖ഄ

yíbàitúdì

ϔᄫग䞥

yízìqiānjīn

಴ᇣ༅໻ˋ 䋾ᇣ༅໻

yīnxiaˇ oshīdà tānxiaˇ oshīdà

᳝໛᮴ᙷ

yoˇ ubèiwúhuàn

ᛮ݀⿏ቅ

yúgōngyíshān

ᳱϝᲂಯ

zhāosānmùsì

㒌Ϟ䇜݉

zhîˇshàngtánbīng

㞾Ⳍ⶯Ⳓ

zìxiāngmáodùn

㞾ⶹПᯢ

zìzhīzhīmíng

The one who makes (৆䆄 Shˇî jì) the first move has the advantage. To use “ostrich head” (⏂फᄤ Huáinánzˇî ) tactics. To bury one’s head in the sand. (ϝ೑ᖫ Sānguózhì) An overstatement. Engage in counterproductive measures to hasten or increase production. Suffer a crushing defeat; to be wiped out by the enemy. Worth its weight in gold (said of great calligraphy or poetry).

(ᄳᄤ Mèngzˇî )

Penny wise and pound foolish. Preparedness averts peril; be prepared and have no worries. Where there’s a will, there’s a way. To deceive by juggling the figures. Be an armchair quarterback. Make selfcontradictory statements. To know one’s own strengths and weaknesses.

ˇ shì (৩⇣᯹⾟ Lu Chūnqiū) (ᎺӴ Zuoˇ zhuàn)

(৆䆄 Shˇî jì)

(৆䆄 Shˇî jì)

‥

(߫ᄤ Lièzˇî ) (߫ᄤ Lièzˇî ) (৆䆄 Shˇî jì) (߫ᄤ Lièzˇî )

(៬೑ㄪ Zhànguócè)

2.10 Four-character set phrases Four-character set phrases are structurally the same as idioms, since they also consist of four characters. Chinese usually put these two into the same category and call them “ಯ㿔៤䇁 sìyán chéngyuˇ , four-character idioms.” However, unlike the idioms, these are not 55

2 Vocabulary and usage

usually crystallizations of stories from classical writings and their usage is more common and their occurrence is more frequent in modern Chinese. A ⠅ϡ䞞᠟

àibùshìshoˇ u

⠅䋶བੑ

àicáirúmìng

⠅㥿㛑ࡽ

àimònéngzhù

ᅝℹᔧ䔺 ᅝߚᅜᏅ

ānbùdāngchē ānf ènshoˇ ujîˇ

ᅝሙФϮ

ānjūlèyè

ᅝ䋿Ф䘧

ānpínlèdào

ᅝ✊᮴ᘭ ᣝ䚼ህ⧁

ānránwúyàng ànbùjiùbān

ᱫㆁӸҎ

ànjiànshāngrén

ᯖ佪䯨ℹ

ángshoˇ ukuòbù

B ܿ䴶⦆⦥

56

bāmiànlínglóng

ⱑথ㢡㢡 ⱑ᮹‫خ‬Ṻ ⱑ᠟䍋ᆊ

báif àcāngcāng báirìzuòmèng báishoˇ uqîˇjiā

ⱑ༈‫ة‬㗕

báitóuxiélaˇ o

ⱒ䇏ϡॠ

baˇ idúbúyàn

ⱒথⱒЁ ⱒᛳѸ䲚

baˇ if ābaˇ izhòng baˇ igaˇ njīaojí

ⱒ㢅唤ᬒ

baˇ ihuāqíf àng

like something so much one would not let go of it money-grabbing, miserly willing but unable to help walking, go on foot well behaved and law abiding, mind one’s own business live and work in peace and contentment live contentedly even though poor, and enjoying what one does safe and sound doing things according to rules stab people in the back march forward with head high, strut about pleasing everyone, an artful person with white/grey hair day-dreaming build up a fortune from scratch husband and wife live together through old age something one never gets tired of reading always on target moved by many different emotions let a hundred flowers blossom, let all talents be revealed

2.10 Four-character set phrases

ⱒᗱϡ㾷

baˇ isībùjiě

ⱒձⱒ乎 ⱒ៬ⱒ㚰 ⱒᡬϡᣴ

baˇ iyībaˇ ishùn baˇ izhànbaˇ ishèng baˇ izhébùnaˇ o

ञ䗨㗠ᑳ ञֵञ⭥

bàntú’érf èi bànxìnbànyí

ञ໰ϝ᳈

bànyèsāngēng

ᲈ䏇བ䳋

bàotiàorúléi

ᵃⲬ⣐㈡

bēipánlángjí

ᴀᴹ䴶Ⳃ ᴀ᳿‫צ‬㕂

běnláimiànmù běnmòdàozhì

ー᠟ー㛮 ー༈ー㛥 ↨᠟⬏㛮

bènshoˇ ubènjiaˇ o bèntóubènnaˇ o bîˇshoˇ uhuàjiaˇ o

ᖙᙁᖙᭀ 䯁䮼䗴䔺

bìgōngbìjìng bìménzàochē

䶁䭓㥿ঞ

biānchángmòjí

ᕀᕀ᳝⼐ ‫ބ‬໽䲾ഄ

bīnbīnyoˇ ulîˇ bīngtiānxuědì

⮙ܹ㝣㙧

bìngrùgāohuāng

मস䗮Ҟ

bóguˇ tōngjīn

मᄺ໮ᠡ ϡ㘏ϟ䯂

bóxuéduōcái bùchîˇxiàwèn

absolutely cannot understand totally obedient ever victorious unyielding and persistent, unrelenting, never frustrated give up half way not quite convinced, half believing, half doubting in the middle of the night fly into a rage, stomp around with rage cups and dishes in disarray after a dinner or party one’s true colors confuse cause and effect, put the cart before the horse clumsy block-headed, stupid to gesticulate (while talking) extremely respectful work on a project without knowing what everyone else is doing on the same project beyond one’s reach (of authority) very well mannered the whole landscape covered with ice and snow sick to the core, incurable well versed in knowledge old and new, very learned learned and talented feel at ease asking and learning from people below oneself 57

2 Vocabulary and usage

58

ϡᠧ㞾᢯

bùdaˇ zìzhāo

ϡࡼໄ㡆

búdòngshēngsè

ϡདᛣᗱ ϡ⃶㗠ᬷ ϡᜠϡᖭ

bùhaˇ oyìsi bùhuān’érsàn bùhuāngbùmáng

ϡ䅵᭄݊

bújìqíshù

ϡ᢬ᇣ㡖

bùjūxiaˇ ojié

ϡ෾ಲ佪

bùkānhuíshoˇ u

ϡ෾䆒ᛇ

bùkānshèxiaˇ ng

ϡৃᬥ㥃

bùkějiùyào

ϡৃ㚰᭄ ϡৃᬊᣒ

bùkěshèngshuˇ bùkěshōushi

ϡৃᗱ䆂

bùkěsīyì

ϡࢇ㗠㦋 ϡњњП

bùláo’érhuò bùliaˇ oliaˇ ozhī

ϡ䴆ໄ㡆

búlùshēngsè

ϡӺϡ㉏ ϡᯢϡⱑ

bùlúnbúlèi bùmíngbùbái

ϡϝϡಯ

bùsānbúsì

ϡໄϡડ ϡ㚰ᵮВ

bùshēngbùxiaˇ ng búshèngméijuˇ

ϡ⮐ϡ⮦

bùténgbùyaˇ ng

ϡ䯏ϡ䯂

bùwénbúwèn

confess without being pressed, confess on one’s own not showing any feelings, poker-faced, not batting an eyelid embarrassed, shy end in discord calmly, not in any hurry countless, uncountable not constrained by formalities, unconventional cannot bear to look back to the past unimaginable, inconceivable incurable, beyond remedy countless, numerous beyond help, unretractable unthinkable, incomprehensible reap without sowing settle something by leaving it unsettled not revealing one’s feelings, intentions, etc. neither fish nor fowl pointless, with no clear reason neither one nor the other; neither fish, flesh, nor fowl quiet, silent too numerous to mention, too numerous to count effortless, perfunctory turn a blind eye to, turn a deaf ear to, be indifferent to

2.10 Four-character set phrases

ϡⳌϞϟ

bùxiāngshàngxià

ϡᄺ᮴ᴃ ϡॠ݊⚺

bùxuéwúshù búyànqífán

ϡ㗐㗠亲

búyì’érf ēi

ϡ㑺㗠ৠ

bùyuē’értóng

ϡᢽ᠟↉ ϡⶹϡ㾝

bùzéshoˇ uduàn bùzhībùjué

ϡⶹ᠔᥾

bùzhīsuoˇ cuò

ϡ䎇ᣖ啓

bùzúguàchîˇ

ℹҎৢᇬ

bùrénhòuchén

C ᠡ䉠ঠܼ

cáimàoshuāngquán

ᚼ᮴Ҏ䘧 㮣啭ऻ㰢 খᏂϡ唤 ሖߎϡか

caˇ nwúréndào cánglóngwòhuˇ cēncībùqí céngchūbùqióng

ᦦ㖙䲒亲 䭓㆛໻䆎

chāchìnánf ēi chángpiāndàlùn

䔺∈偀啭 ≝咬ᆵ㿔

chēshuîˇmaˇ lóng chénmòguaˇ yán

䍕☿ᠧࡿ

chènhuoˇ daˇ jié

⿄ᖗབᛣ

chēngxīnrúyì

៤गϞϛ

chéngqiānshàngwàn

៤㕸㒧䯳 ៤ҎП㕢

chéngqúnjiéduì chéngrénzhīměi

Ь㰮㗠ܹ

chéngxū’érrù

comparable, well matched, on a par ignorant, not learned taking great pains, very patient vanish into the thin air, disappear suddenly coincide, think alike, in concert by hook or by crook unaware, unconsciously at a loss, not knowing what to do not worth mentioning, not important follow in someone’s footsteps beautiful/handsome and talented inhumane, brutal hidden talents uneven, not uniform emerging endlessly, one coming after another difficult to escape very lengthy, longwinded heavy traffic keeping quiet, habitually silent take advantage of others’ misfortune to benefit oneself just as one wishes, to one’s own liking thousands upon thousands in large groups helping others to achieve their goals take advantage of a chance

59

2 Vocabulary and usage

60

偄ৡЁ໪

chímíngzhōngwài

䌸᠟ぎᣇ ᛕⳝ㢺㜌 ϥᗕⱒߎ ߎষ៤ゴ

chìshoˇ ukōngquán chóuméikuˇ liaˇ n choˇ utàibaˇ ichū chūkoˇ uchéngzhāng

ߎҎ༈ഄ

chūréntóudì

ߎ⫳ܹ⅏

chūshēngrùsîˇ

߱ߎ㣙ᑤ

chūchūmáolú

໘П⋄✊ ໘໘⺄ຕ

chuˇ zhītàirán chùchùpèngbì

਍↯∖⮉

chuīmáoqiúcī

ൖ⍢ϝሎ

chuíxiánsānchîˇ

᯹亢⒵䴶

chūnf ēngmaˇ nmiàn

䆡ϡ䖒ᛣ

cíbùdáyì

㉫ᖗ໻ᛣ ᇌℹϡ⾏

cūxīndàyì cùnbùbùlí

᥾᠟ϡঞ

cuòshoˇ ubùjí

D ᠧᢅϡᑇ

daˇ bàobùpíng

໻ᴤᇣ⫼

dàcáixiaˇ oyòng

໻ৗϔ᚞

dàchīyìjīng

໻থ䳋䳚

dàf āléitíng

໻ࡳਞ៤

dàgōnggàochéng

໻݀᮴⾕ ໻⍋ᤲ䩜

dàgōngwúsī dàhaˇ ilāozhēn

໻᚞ᇣᗾ

dàjīngxiaˇ oguài

famous in China and abroad empty-handed distressed looks acting like a buffoon articulate, be able to speak well extemporaneously stand a cut above others risk one’s life, go through thick and thin totally inexperienced in society take things calmly run against obstacles everywhere fault-finding, hairsplitting greedily hankering after something beaming with smiles and happiness words fail to express the real meaning careless, negligent follow someone closely caught unprepared lend a helping hand to right a wrong underuse of great talents and material astounded, greatly shocked fly into a rage, flare up a great task is successfully accomplished totally selfless look for a needle in a haystack fuss over something small, a storm in a teacup

2.10 Four-character set phrases

໻ৡ哢哢

dàmíngdîˇngdîˇng

໻఼ᰮ៤

dàqìwaˇ nchéng

໻༅᠔ᳯ ໻ৠᇣᓖ

dàshīsuoˇ wàng dàtóngxiaˇ oyì

໻ᰒ䑿᠟

dàxiaˇ nshēnshoˇ u

໻ᨛ໻ᨚ

dàyáodàbaˇ i

ਚ༈ਚ㛥 ਚ㢹᳼叵

dāitóudāinaˇ o dāiruòmùjī

ऩᵾऍ偀 㚚໻ࣙ໽

dānqiāngpīmaˇ daˇ ndàbāotiān

㚚ᇣབ哴

daˇ nxiaˇ orúshuˇ

㚚៬ᖗ᚞ ᔧП᮴᛻

daˇ nzhànxīnjīng dāngzhīwúkuì

‫צ‬㸠䗚ᮑ

dàoxíngnìshī

䘧਀䗨䇈 ᕫϡٓ༅

dàotīngtúshuō débùchángshī

ᕫᇌ䖯ሎ

décùnjìnchîˇ

ᕫ䖛Ϩ䖛

déguòqiěguò

ᕫ໽⣀८ ᕫᛣᖬᔶ

détiāndúhòu déyìwàngxíng

ᕫᛣ⋟⋟

déyìyángyáng

ഄ໻⠽म

dìdàwùbó

乴ϝ‫צ‬ಯ

diānsāndaˇ osì

乊໽ゟഄ

dîˇngtiānlìdì

very well known, celebrated great talents mature late, Rome was not built in a day greatly disappointed nearly the same, differing only in details show off one’s skill, distinguish oneself strut; walk with big, swinging steps idiotic, tactless dumb as a wooden chicken, dumbstruck, rendered speechless single-handed fearless, extremely brave timid as a mouse, cowardly tremble with fear worthy of great reputation, worthy of merit do things backward, retrogressive attempt hearsay, gossip more loss than gain, waste effort on pointless things give him an inch and he’ll take a mile muddle through, get by particularly blessed beside oneself with joy very pleased with oneself vast terrritory and rich resources upside-down, in utter confusion, incoherent towering (said of a person), heroic and great 61

2 Vocabulary and usage

϶ϝ㨑ಯ

diūsānlàsì

ϰ༨㽓䍄

dōngbēnxīzoˇ u

ϰᢝ㽓ᡃ

dōnglāxīchě

ϰቅ‫ݡ‬䍋 ϰᓴ㽓ᳯ

dōngshānzàiqîˇ dōngzhāngxīwàng

⣀ϔ᮴Ѡ

dúyīwú’èr

ᑺ᮹བᑈ

dùrìrúnián

ᮁゴপН

duànzhāngquˇ yì

ᇍㄨབ⌕

duìdárúliú

ᇍ⠯ᔍ⨈

duìniútánqín

ᇍ⮛ϟ㥃

duìzhèngxiàyào

໮ᠡ໮㡎

duōcáidūoyì

໮ᛕ୘ᛳ ໮໮Ⲟ୘ ໮ㅵ䯆џ

duōchóushàngaˇ n duōduōyìshàn duōguaˇ nxiánshì

E ᘽᇚқ᡹ 㘇Ⳃϔᮄ

ěrmùyìxīn

㘇ᦤ䴶ੑ 㘇䯏Ⳃⵍ

ěrtímiànmìng ěrwénmùduˇ

F থ༟ᖬ亳

f āf ènwàngshí

থোᮑҸ 㗏ᴹ㽚এ

62

ēnjiāngchóubào

f āhàoshīlìng f ānláif ùqù

missing this and that, losing this and that running to and fro busily, going in all directions do things in a disorderly way; ramble in speech stage a comeback look this way and that one of a kind, unique, unmatched a day seems as long as a year, time passes slowly take things out of context give quick and fluent answers cast pearls before swine prescribe specific cures for specific problems talented in many things, versatile overly sentimental the more the merrier stick one’s nose in other’s business, finger in many pies repay kindness with hatred find everything new and fresh give earnest advice what one witnesses directly, what one hears and sees work so hard as to forget to eat give orders toss and turn; say things repeatedly

2.10 Four-character set phrases

㗏໽㽚ഄ

f āntiānf ùdì

ড໡᮴ᐌ

faˇ nf ùwúcháng

ᑳᆱᖬ亳 ߚ䘧ᡀ䭇 ߚ䮼߿㉏

f èiqîˇnwàngshí f ēndàoyángbiāo f ēnménbiélèi

Є㸷䎇亳

f ēngyīzúshí

亢䴵ϔᯊ

f ēngmíyìshí

亢ᑇ⌾䴭

f ēngpínglàngjìng

亢䇗䲼乎

f ēngtiáoyuˇ shùn

亢⚯⅟ᑈ

f ēngzhúcánnián

໿ଅཛ䱣

fūchàngf ùsuí

ᭋ㸡њџ

fūyánliaˇ oshì

䍈∸䐜☿

f ùtāngdaˇ ohuoˇ

G ᬍ䖛㞾ᮄ

gaˇ iguòzìxīn

ᬍ༈ᤶ䴶

gaˇ itóuhuànmiàn

ᬍ䙾ᔦℷ ⫬ᢰϟ亢

gaˇ ixiéguīzhèng gānbàixiàf ēng

催ᵩ᮴ᖻ

gāozhěnwúyōu

ḐḐϡܹ 䱨๭᳝㘇 䱨䵈᧨⮦

gégébúrù géqiángyoˇ u’ěr géxuēsāoyaˇ ng

৘ᣕᏅ㾕

gèchíjîˇjiàn

৘ሑ᠔㛑

gèjìnsuoˇ néng

৘ᓣ৘ḋ

gèshìgèyàng

earth-shaking; make a shambles of change one’s mind frequently, blow hot and cold forget to eat or sleep to go separate ways sort into different categories have plenty of food and clothes become fashionable for a time no wind or waves, all is calm everything goes smoothly old age, like a candle in the wind husband and wife are in sync do things in a perfunctory way undaunted by danger, through thick and thin mend one’s ways and start over, turn over a new leaf make superficial changes mend one’s ways willing to admit defeat or inferiority rest without worry, rest easy incompatible, misfit walls have ears a vain effort, useless attempt each holds on to his/her own opinion, uncompromising each according to his/her ability all kinds

63

2 Vocabulary and usage

৘᳝᠔䭓

gèyoˇ usuoˇ cháng

৘᳝᠔ད

gèyoˇ usuoˇ hào

ḍ⏅㩖೎

gēnshēndìgù

ࡳ៤ৡህ

gōngchéngmíngjiù

࣒ᖗ᭫㾦

gōuxīndòujiaˇ o

⢫ᗹ䏇๭

goˇ ujítiàoqiáng

⢫ҫҎ࢓

goˇ uzhàngrénshì

সҞЁ໪

guˇ jīnzhōngwài

ᄸ䰟ᆵ䯏 偼㙝Ⳍ䖲 偼⯺བ᷈

gūlòuguaˇ wén guˇ ròuxiānglián guˇ shòurúchái

ᢤᔃᢍ㾦

guaˇ iwānmòjiaˇ o

儐儐⼳⼳ 䖛⊇ᢚḹ

guîˇguîˇsuìsuì guòhéchāiqiáo

䖛Ⳃϡᖬ

guòmùbúwàng

H ⍋ᑩᤲ᳜

64

haˇ idîˇlāoyuè

৿৿㚵㚵

hánhanhūhū

↿ϡ৿㊞

háobùhánhu

དৗឦ‫خ‬

hàochīlaˇ nzuò

੠㬐ৃ҆ ੠ᑇ݅໘

hé’aˇ ikěqīn hépínggòngchuˇ

吸ゟ叵㕸

hèlìjīqún

each has his/her/its own merits each has his/her own taste, each to his/her own liking deep-rooted, deepseated, ingrained to have achieved success and recognition plot against each other, mutual rivalry take desperate measures if pushed to the limit a bully who relies on powerful backing at all times and in all countries ill-informed flesh and blood thin as a bag of bones beat about the bush, to be roundabout secretive, stealthy burn the bridge after crossing it, be ungrateful will not forget after reading, great retentive memory make a futile attempt, attempt something illusory ambiguous, evasive, muttering unambiguous, clearcut gluttonous and lazy, good for nothing kind and gentle live at peace with, peaceful coexistence stand out, outstanding

2.10 Four-character set phrases

῾ϗオܿ

héngqīshùbā

ઘූ໻ュ

hōngtángdàxiào

ৢӮ᳝ᳳ ㊞䞠㊞⍖ ಿ೉৲ᵷ

hòuhuìyoˇ uqī húlihūtū húluntūnzaˇ o

㚵䇈ܿ䘧

húshuōbādào

㚵ᗱхᛇ

húsīluànxiaˇ ng

㰢༈㲛ሒ

huˇ tóushéwěi

㢅㿔Ꮋ䇁 ⃶໽୰ഄ

huāyánqiaˇ oyuˇ huāntiānxîˇdì

ᘡ✊໻ᙳ

huaˇ ngrándàwù

᣹䞥བೳ

huījīnrútuˇ

䇆Ҏϡ‫׺‬ ⌥∈ᩌ剐

huîˇrénbújuàn húnshuîˇmōyú

ᯣ༈ᯣ㛥

hūntóuhūnnaˇ o

☿Ϟࡴ⊍

huoˇ shàngjiāyóu

J 伹ϡᢽ亳

jībùzéshí

伹ᆦѸ䖿

jīhánjiāopò

⿃ᇥ៤໮

jīshaˇ ochéngduō

᮶ᕔϡ੢

jìwaˇ ngbújiù

ᆊᐌ֓佁

jiāchángbiànf àn

ᆊஏ᠋ᰧ

jiāyùhùxiaˇ o

‫⾕⌢݀؛‬

jiaˇ gōngjìsī

‫؛‬ᖗ‫؛‬ᛣ

jiaˇ xīnjiaˇ yì

spread out in disorder all burst out into laughter will meet again muddle-headed swallow without chewing, accepting without thinking talk nonsense, stuff and nonsense let one’s imagination run wild good beginning with a weak ending, peter out artful talk, lip service overjoyed, extremely delighted suddenly realize, a great revelation spend money like dirt, squander tireless in teaching to fish in troubled waters muddle-headed, become muddled add fuel to flames, stir things up beggars can’t be choosers suffer from both hunger and cold many a little makes a mickle, many a little makes a lot let bygones be bygones ordinary meal, home cooking known to every household exploit public offices for private gains insincere, feigned sincerity 65

2 Vocabulary and usage

㾕⅏ϡᬥ

jiànsîˇbújiù

㾕Н࢛Ў

jiànyìyoˇ ngwéi

Ѹ༈᥹㘇

jiāotóujiē’ěr

㛮䏣ᅲഄ

jiaˇ otàshídì

ি㢺䖲໽ ᬭᄺⳌ䭓

jiàokuˇ liántiān jiàoxuéxiāngzhaˇ ng

ⱚ໻⃶୰

jiēdàhuānxîˇ

᥹Ѡ䖲ϝ

jiē’èrliánsān

᥋䎇‫ⱏܜ‬

jiézúxiāndēng

‫׳‬㢅⤂ԯ

jièhuāxiànfó

᭸᭸䅵䕗

jīnjīnjìjiào

䫺Ϟ⏏㢅

jîˇnshàngtiānhuā

䖥೼ⴐࠡ

jìnzàiyaˇ nqián

䖯䗔ϸ䲒 ᚞໽ࡼഄ

jìntuìliaˇ ngnán jīngtiāndòngdì

㊒⮆࡯ሑ ѩѩ᳝ᴵ ᭀ㗠䖰П

jīngpílìjìn jîˇngjîˇngyoˇ utiáo jìng’éryuaˇ nzhī

б⅏ϔ⫳

jiuˇ sîˇyìshēng

ህџ䆎џ

jiùshìlùnshì

ВϪ䯏ৡ Вϔডϝ

juˇ shìwénmíng juˇ yīfaˇ nsān

K ᓔ䮼㾕ቅ

66

kāiménjiànshān

doing nothing to save someone in grave danger gallantly rise to the occasion whisper into each other’s ears, talk confidentially feet solidly on the ground complain bitterly teaching and learning stimulate each other everyone concerned is greatly pleased one after another, successively fastest person gets there first make a gift of something given by others caculate everything, haggle over everything make what is good better, icing on the cake right under one’s nose in a dilemma earth-shaking, incredible completely exhausted in good order, tidy keep at a respectful distance a narrow escape, close shave deal with a matter on its own merits world famous make inference by analogy no beating about the bush

2.10 Four-character set phrases

՗՗㗠䇜

kaˇ nkaˇ n’értán

ৃᛇ㗠ⶹ ぎぎ⋲⋲

kěxiaˇ ng’érzhī kōngkōngdòngdòng

ぎࠡ㒱ৢ

kōngqiánjuéhòu

ぎЁὐ䯕

kōngzhōnglóugé

ষ㢹 ⊇

koˇ uruòxuánhé

ষᰃᖗ䴲

koˇ ushìxīnf ēi

㛡♭Ҏষ

kuàizhìrénkoˇ u

⢖亢ᲈ䲼

kuángf ēngbàoyuˇ

L  䙟䞠䙟䘶 ᢝ㒓ᨁḹ

lālilātā lāxiàndāqiáo

ᴹᴹᕔᕔ

láiláiwaˇ ngwaˇ ng

ᴹ啭এ㛝

láilóngqùmài

ᴹ㗙ϡᢦ

láizhěbújù

⣐⢜Ўཌ ⣐৲㰢ઑ

lángbèiwéijiān lángtūnhuˇ yàn

㗕ᔧⲞໂ

laˇ odāngyìzhuàng

㗕ཌᎼ⒥

laˇ ojiānjùhuá

㗕⫳ᐌ䇜 Фᵕ⫳ᚆ

laˇ oshēngchángtán lèjíshēngbēi

⊾བ䲼ϟ ‫ދ‬㢹‫ބ‬䳰 ‫ⴐދ‬ᮕ㾖

lèirúyuˇ xià lěngruòbīngshuāng lěngyaˇ npángguān

ᛷ༈ᛷ㛥 ᘟᘟϡ㟡 ϸܼ݊㕢

lèngtóulèngnaˇ o liànliànbùshě liaˇ ngquánqíměi

talk at ease and fluently as can be imagined completely empty, no content unprecedented and unrepeatable castles in the air, daydreams eloquent, nimble of speech say one thing and mean another widely quoted, on everyone’s lips storms and hurricanes sloppy, slovenly pull strings and make contacts coming and going, to and fro sequence of actions, the complete process, the ins and outs refuse no one, refuse nothing in cahoots wolf down, gobble up the older the more energetic, old and vigorous old and cunning, old and crafty cliché expression extreme joy gives rise to sorrow tears fall like rain (manner) cold as ice look on with indifference rash, reckless reluctant to part satisfy both parties, have it both ways

67

2 Vocabulary and usage

ϸ㹪⏙亢

liaˇ ngxiùqīngf ēng

䳊ϗܿ⹢

língqībāsuì

݁⼲᮴Џ

liùshénwúzhuˇ

хϗܿ㊳

luànqībāzāo

㔫䞠㔫஺

luōliluōsuō

M ඟ༈㢺ᑆ

68

máitóukuˇ gàn

⒵䴶᯹亢

maˇ nmiànchūnf ēng

⒵䕑㗠ᔦ

maˇ nzài’érguī

↯᠟↯㛮

máoshoˇ umáojiaˇ o

᜶ᴵᮃ⧚

màntiáosīlîˇ

↯䘖㞾㤤

Máo Suí zìjiàn

ⳝ亲㡆㟲 㕢Ёϡ䎇 䴶㑶㘇䌸 䴶咘㙠⯺

méif ēisèwuˇ měizhōngbùzú miànhóng’ěrchì miànhuángjīshòu

䴶Ⳃϔᮄ ཭᠟ಲ᯹

miànmùyìxīn miàoshoˇ uhuíchūn

ৡϡ㰮Ӵ

míngbùxūchuán

ৡࡃ݊ᅲ

míngf ùqíshí

ᯢⶹᬙ⢃

míngzhīgùf àn

㥿ৡ݊཭

mòmíngqímiào

⓴ϡ݇ᖗ

mòbùguānxīn

Ⳃϡ䆚ϕ Ⳃ⵾ষਚ

mùbùshídīng mùdèngkoˇ udāi

penniless, having nothing but bare hands odds and ends, odd pieces out of sorts, at sixes and sevens messy, chaotic, topsy-turvy fussy, nagging work very hard, industrious face beaming with smiles come home with a full load careless, roughhanded slowly and unperturbed recommend oneself for something enraptured, delighted slight imperfection blushing thin and colorless (person), emaciated take on a new look wonderful skill in curing illnesses well-deserved reputation the name matches the reality, worthy of the name violate knowingly, do something wrong knowingly inexplicable, without reason or rhyme indifferent, totally unconcerned completely illiterate dumbfounded, stunned

2.10 Four-character set phrases

N ᣓ᠟ད៣

náshoˇ uhaˇ oxì

फ㜨࣫䇗 䲒㟡䲒ߚ

nánqiāngběidiào nánshěnánf ēn

䲒㿔П䱤

nányánzhīyîˇn

ᙐ㕲៤ᗦ

naˇ oxiūchéngnù

㛑㗙໮ࢇ

néngzhěduōláo

ᗉᗉϡᖬ

niànniànbúwàng

ᓘ‫؛‬៤ⳳ

nòngjiaˇ chéngzhēn

ᗦথ‫ݴކ‬

nùf àchōngguān

ᗦⳂ㗠㾚

nùmù’érshì

O 㮩ᮁϱ䖲

oˇ uduànsīlián

਩ᖗ≹㸔

oˇ uxīnlìxuè

‫ي‬ϔЎП

oˇ uyīwéizhī

P ᢡḜি㒱

pāi’ànjiàojué

ᥦ䲒㾷㒋

páinànjiěf ēn

ᑲ✊໻⠽

pángrándàwù

ᮕ㾖㗙⏙

pángguānzhěqīng

ᮕ㢹᮴Ҏ

pángruòwúrén

᡿༈ᬷথ ᤻㝍໻ュ

pītóusaˇ nf à pěngf ùdàxiào

৺ᵕ⋄ᴹ

pîˇjítàilái

one’s specialty, what one is best at a mixed accent difficult to part from each other something difficult to disclose embarrassment turned into anger capable people do more work unable to forget, unforgettable something playful becomes serious, false becomes true so angry that one’s hair stands on end stare with angry eyes, to glare at relationships that cannot be entirely severed work one’s heart out, work one’s fingers to the bone do something once in a while praise the excellence of something settle disputes, clear up misunderstandings something formidable, colossus the by-stander always sees more clearly act as if no one is nearby, supercilious with hair disheveled split one’s sides with laughter, roar with laughter something good follows something very bad

69

2 Vocabulary and usage

Ⲃ↯П㾕 ᑇᖗ䴭⇨ ᑇᯧ䖥Ҏ

pímáozhījiàn píngxīnjìngqì píngyìjìnrén

㧡∈Ⳍ䗶

píngshuîˇxiāngféng

᡿᯳᠈᳜

pīxīngdàiyuè

⸈䬰䞡೚

pòjìngchóngyuán

⸈ষ໻偖

pòkoˇ udàmà

᱂໽ৠᑚ

puˇ tiāntóngqìng

Q ϗᣐܿ‫ޥ‬

70

qīpīnbācòu

ϗϞܿϟ

qīshàngbāxià

ϗ᠟ܿ㛮

qīshoˇ ubājiaˇ o

ϗఈܿ㟠

qīzuîˇbāshé

༛ᔶᗾ⢊

qíxíngguaìzhuàng

༛㺙ᓖ᳡

qízhuāngyìfú

健㰢䲒ϟ

qíhuˇ nánxià

健偀ᡒ偀

qímaˇ zhaˇ omaˇ

䍋⅏ಲ⫳

qîˇsîˇhuíshēng

ቖ᳝ℸ⧚ ᙄࠄད໘ ᙄᙄⳌড

qíyoˇ ucîˇlîˇ qiàdàohaˇ ochù qiàqiàxiāngfaˇ n

गবϛ࣪

qiānbiànwànhuà

superficial views calm, dispassionate amicable and easy to get along with casual and brief encounter, meet by chance work or travel night and day reunion of a couple after separation or divorce shout abuse at someone the whole country/ world joins in celebration piece together from various sources in a mental flurry of indecision, at sixes and sevens everyone lending a hand; too many cooks may spoil the broth all talking at once, tongues wagging odd shape or appearance exotic or bizarre clothes no way of backing out of something already started keeping what one has while looking for something better bring the dying back to life sheer nonsense just right just the opposite, on the contrary unending changes, myriad changes

2.10 Four-character set phrases

गᮍⱒ䅵

qiānf āngbaˇ ijì

ग䞠䖶䖶 ग㆛ϔᕟ

qiānlîˇtiáotiáo qiānpiānyílü`

ग༛ⱒᗾ

qiānqíbaˇ iguài

ग䕯ϛ㢺 गⳳϛ⹂ ग༈ϛ㒾

qiānxīnwànkuˇ qiānzhēnwànquè qiāntóuwànxù

ग㿔ϛ䇁

qiānyánwànyuˇ

ग䕑䲒䗶 ࠡ䔺П䡈

qiānzaˇ inánféng qiánchēzhījiàn

ࠡ⿟Ԑ䫺 ࠡ⿟ϛ䞠

qiánchéngsìjîˇn qiánchéngwànlîˇ

ࠡࡳሑᓗ

qiángōngjìnqì

ࠡ಴ৢᵰ

qiányīnhòuguoˇ

҆བ᠟䎇 ҆㞾ߎ偀

qīnrúshoˇ uzú qīnzìchūmaˇ

䴦咘ϡ᥹ 䴦ṙネ偀

qīnghuángbùjiē qīngméizhúmaˇ

䕏㗠ᯧВ ؒⲚ໻䲼 䴦໽䴍䳇

qīng’éryìjuˇ qīngpéndàyuˇ qīngtiānpīlì

か䗨᳿䏃

qióngtúmòlù

⾟催⇨⠑

qiūgāoqìshuaˇ ng

∖Пϡᕫ

qiúzhībùdé

ሜᣛৃ᭄

qūzhîˇkěshuˇ

by one means or another, by hook or by crook from afar all alike, a set formula, following the same pattern all kinds of strange things spare no pains as sure as can be (of things) extremely complicated and difficult to unravel innumerable words, a host of words once in a blue moon past examples to take warnings from a bright future a great future, bright prospects all previous work is wasted, all labor lost cause and effect, antecedents and consequences as close as siblings come out in person, make a personal appearance a gap in succession the period of time when boy and girl grow up together easy to undertake torrential downpour a bolt from the blue, a terrible blow at the end of one’s rope, at the end of one’s tether dry, crisp air of autumn just what one has wanted can be counted on one hand, not many 71

2 Vocabulary and usage

প䭓㸹ⷁ

quˇ chángbuˇ duaˇ n

প㗠ҷП

quˇ ’érdàizhī

ܼ࡯ҹ䍈

quánlìyîˇf ù

ܼ⼲䌃⊼

quánshénguànzhù

ܼᖗܼᛣ

quánxīnquányì

㺭ᏺ݇㋏ 㕸啭᮴佪

qúndàiguānxi qúnlóngwúshoˇ u

R ➗ⳝПᗹ

72

ránméizhījí

ᛍᰃ⫳䴲 Ҏᠡ⌢⌢

rěshìshēngf ēi réncaíjîˇjîˇ

Ҏᅮ㚰໽

réndìngshèngtiān

Ҏ䯈ഄ⣅ Ҏ䯈໽ූ

rénjiāndìyù rénjiāntiāntáng

Ҏ࡯ϡ䎇

rénlìbùzú

Ҏ䴶‫ݑ‬ᖗ

rénmiànshòuxīn

ҎቅҎ⍋ Ҏ᠔݅ⶹ

rénshānrénhaˇ i rénsuoˇ gòngzhī

Ҏ⚳⿴ᆚ ҎПᐌᚙ ᖡ⇨৲ໄ

rényānchóumì rénzhīchángqíng rěnqìtūnshēng

ᖡ᮴ৃᖡ

rěnwúkěrěn

ӏࢇӏᗼ

rènláorènyuàn

ӏ䞡䘧䖰

rènzhòngdàoyuaˇ n

᮹⿃᳜㌃

rìjīyuèlěi

draw on others’ strong points to offset one’s weaknesses replace, take over, step into someone else’s shoes totally devote oneself to, do one’s utmost absorbed in, utterly concentrate on whole-hearted, complete devotion nepotism a group without a leader as urgent as eyebrows on fire be meddlesome many talented people, full of talented people human determination can overcome destiny hell on earth heaven on earth, paradise on earth insufficient manpower a person with a cruel heart huge crowds well known, known to everyone densely populated human nature endure without any protest beyond endurance, beyond tolerance work hard without complaint able to carry heavy responsibilities through thick and thin gradual accumulation

2.10 Four-character set phrases

᮹Й໽䭓

rìjiuˇ tiāncháng

᮹᮹໰໰ ᮹ᮄ᳜ᓖ

rìrìyèyè rìxīnyuèyì

ᆍ‫⛩ܝ‬থ བ⊩⚂ࠊ

róngguānghuànf ā rúfaˇ pàozhì

བ㦋㟇ᅱ

rúhuòzhìbaˇ o

བ伹Ԑ␈

rújīsìkě

བ䳋䌃㘇

rúléiguàn’ěr

བṺ߱䝦

rúmèngchūxîˇng

བ䞞䞡䋳

rúshìzhòngf ù

བ᭄ᆊ⦡

rúshuˇ jiāzhēn

བ᠔਼ⶹ བᛣㅫⲬ བ剐ᕫ∈

rúsuoˇ zhōuzhī rúyìsuànpán rúyúdéshuîˇ

བᜓҹٓ

rúyuànyîˇcháng

བത䩜↵

rúzuòzhēnzhān

ч㟁᳾ᑆ

ruˇ chòuwèigān

ܹ᳼ϝߚ

rùmùsānf ēn

ܹᚙܹ⧚

rùqíngrùlîˇ

㢹᮴݊џ

ruòwúqíshì

㢹᳝᠔༅

ruòyoˇ usuoˇ shī

S ϝ䭓ϸⷁ ϝ⬾Ѩ⃵

sānchángliaˇ ngduaˇ n sānf ānwuˇ cì

for a long, long time; after a considerable period of time day and night new changes day after day glowing with health follow suit, model after as if hitting the jackpot, rejoice over a windfall thirst for, seek eagerly (your reputation) is resounding just like waking from a dream as if relieved of a heavy burden, heave a sigh of relief speak on a subject with great familiarity as is generally known wishful thinking like a fish in water, in one’s natural element a wish come true, fulfill a wish on pins and needles, feeling extremely uneasy still wet behind the ears (said of views, ideas) penetrating, sharp perfectly reasonable and logical as if nothing has happened look distracted unexpected disaster or misfortune time and again, over and over again

73

2 Vocabulary and usage

74

ϝ᳈ञ໰

sāngēngbànyè

ϝ⫳᳝ᑌ

sānshēngyoˇ uxìng

ϝᖗѠᛣ

sānxīn’èryì

ϝ㿔ϸ䇁 ᴔϔۚⱒ

sānyánliaˇ ngyuˇ shāyījîˇngbaˇ i

ቅⲳ⍋䁧

shānménghaˇ ishì

ቅᯢ∈⾔

shānmíngshuîˇxiù

ቅफ⍋࣫

shānnánhaˇ iběi

ྫྫᴹ䖳

shānshānláichí

ቅ⦡⍋ੇ

shānzhēnhaˇ iwèi

୘᳝୘᡹

shànyoˇ ushànbào

ᇥ㾕໮ᗾ

shaˇ ojiànduōguài

ᇥᑈ㗕៤

shàoniánlaˇ ochéng

㟡ᏅЎҎ

shějîˇwèirén

䆒䑿໘ഄ

shèshēnchuˇ dì

䑿䋹ৡ㺖

shēnbàimíngliè

⏅᳈ञ໰ ⏅ܹ⌙ߎ

shēngēngbànyè shēnrùqiaˇ nchū

⏅ᗱ❳㰥

shēnsīshúlü`

⏅ֵ᮴⭥

shēnxìnwúyí

in the dead of night, middle of the night, about midnight extremely lucky, a stroke of luck indecisive, whimsical, have two minds in a few words punish one to warn others pledge of eternal love beautiful scenery, beautiful mountains and rivers the four corners of the land arriving slowly and late delicacies from mountains and seas good is always rewarded one who has seen little finds more things strange, ignorant young but experienced sacrifice oneself for others place oneself in other’s position, put oneself in another’s shoes lose all standing and reputation, be utterly discredited in the dead of night to treat a difficult matter in a simple and understandable way weigh and consider, ponder over thoroughly convinced

2.10 Four-character set phrases

⼲䗮ᑓ໻

shéntōngguaˇ ngdà

⫳⅏ᄬѵ

shēngsîˇcúnwáng

ⳕৗׁ⫼

shěngchījiaˇ nyòng

ໄϰߏ㽓

shēngdōngjīxī

छᅬথ䋶

shēngguānf ācái

⫳⇨ࢗࢗ 㚰ӏᛝᖿ ⲯ㸠ϔᯊ

shēngqìbóbó shèngrènyúkuài shèngxíngyìshí

џञࡳ‫ס‬

shìbàngōngbèi

༅㗠໡ᕫ क‫ހ‬㜞᳜

shī’érf ùdé shídōnglàyuè

कᣓб〇 कܼक㕢 㾚䋶བੑ 㾚㗠ϡ㾕 Ϫ໪ḗ⑤

shínájiuˇ wěn shíquánshíměi shìcáirúmìng shì’érbújiàn shìwàitáoyuán

৆᮴ࠡ՟

shîˇwúqiánlì

џϢᜓ䖱

shìyuˇ yuànwěi

ྟ㒜ϡ⏱ ᠟⮒ⴐᖿ

shîˇzhōngbùyú shoˇ ujíyaˇ nkuài

᠟ᖭ㛮х

shoˇ umángjiaˇ oluàn

᠟㟲䎇䐜

shoˇ uwuˇ zúdaˇ o

᠟䎇᮴᥾

shoˇ uzúwúcuò

ᅜষབ⫊

shoˇ ukoˇ urúpíng

佪ሜϔᣛ

shoˇ uqūyìzhîˇ

infinitely powerful, very capable a matter of life and death try to save money on food and other expenses feign attack on the east and strike on the west win promotion and get rich lively and full of vigor equal to the task in vogue, become current get twice the result with half the effort lost and found again winter months, the cold months of the year almost certain perfect, flawless worship money turn a blind eye to Shangri-la, Utopia, paradise on earth unprecedented, unparalleled in history things do not turn out the way one wishes unswerving, steady quick of eye and deft of hand, dexterous frantic, panicstricken waving and jumping up and down with joy, dance for joy perplexed, not knowing what to do tight-lipped, keeping a secret the best, number one, second to none 75

2 Vocabulary and usage

76

ফᅴ㢹᚞

shòuchoˇ ngruòjīng

❳㛑⫳Ꮋ

shúnéngshēngqiaˇ o

⅞䗨ৠᔦ

shūtútóngguī

ᴳ᠟᮴ㄪ

shùshoˇ uwúcè

ঠㅵ唤ϟ

shuāngguaˇ nqíxià

∈㨑⷇ߎ

shuîˇluòshíchū

∈⍼㠍催

shuîˇzhaˇ ngchuángāo

乎᠟⡉㕞

shùnshoˇ uqiānyáng

乎∈᥼㟳

shùnshuîˇtuīzhōu

䇈ᴹ䆱䭓 䇈ϔϡѠ

shuōláihuàcháng shuōyībú’èr

䇈‫خ‬ህ‫خ‬

shuōzuòjiùzuò

⅏♄໡➗

sîˇhuīf ùrán

⅏⇨≝≝

sîˇqìchénchén

ಯߚѨ㺖

sìf ēnwuˇ liè

ಯ⍋Ўᆊ

sìhaˇ iwéijiā

ಯ䴶ܿᮍ ಯ䗮ܿ䖒

sìmiànbāf āng sìtōngbādá

Ԑᰃ㗠䴲

sìshì’érf ēi

䱣ᯊ䱣ഄ

suíshísuídì

overwhelmed by someone’s favor or flattery practice makes perfect different paths to the same goal, there is more than one way of doing things at a loss as to what to do, at one’s wit’s end using two different ways to deal with one matter truth will emerge eventually ships rise with the tide make off with something go with the current, go with the flow it’s a long story one means what one says suit the action to the word, act on one’s word like dying embers that flare up, resurging without vitality, lifeless falling apart, torn apart by disunity able to regard anywhere as home all directions can lead to all directions appearing right but really wrong, specious any time and anywhere, whenever and wherever

2.10 Four-character set phrases

䱣ᖗ᠔℆

suíxīnsuoˇ yù

䱣䘛㗠ᅝ

suíyù’ér’ān

ቕ᳜᮴ᚙ

suìyuèwúqíng

T ໾ᑇ᮴џ

tàipíng wúshì

⋄✊໘П ⋄✊㞾㢹

tàiránchuˇ zhī tàiránzìruò

䋾ᕫ᮴ॠ 䋾ᅬ∵ৣ 䋾⫳ᗩ⅏

tāndéwúyàn tānguānwūlì tānshēngpàsîˇ

䋾ᇣ༅໻

tānxiaˇ oshīdà

ᯭ㢅ϔ⦄

tánhuāyíxiàn

䇜໽䇈ഄ

tántiānshuōdì

䇜ュ亢⫳

tánxiàof ēngshēng

ᖤᖥϡᅝ

taˇ ntèbù’ān

্Ў㾖ℶ

tànwéiguānzhîˇ

⒨⒨ϡ㒱

tāotāobùjué

䗗П༁༁

táozhīyāoyāo

䅼Ӌ䖬Ӌ ᦤᖗ৞㚚

taˇ ojiàhuánjià tíxīndiàodaˇ n

୐ュⱚ䴲

tíxiàojiēf ēi

໽ዽഄ㺖 ໽䭓ഄЙ

tiānbēngdìliè tiānchángdìjiuˇ

໽㗏ഄ㽚

tiānf āndìf ù

໽㢅хഴ

tiānhuāluànzhuì

as one pleases, as one sees fit take what comes and be contented time and tide wait for no one there is no trouble, peace and tranquility take things calmly unperturbed, with great composure greedy, avaricious corrupt officials afraid of death, cowardly penny wise and pound foolish rare and brief appearance talk about everthing under the sun light-hearted and fascinating restless, fidgety, feeling uneasy what perfection!, nothing could be better spout words in a steady flow run away, take to one’s heels haggle, bargain have one’s heart in one’s mouth, sick with worry or fear one can neither cry nor laugh earthshaking changes everlasting and unchanging chaos, earthshaking changes an extravagant and colorful description, wonderful event or news 77

2 Vocabulary and usage

78

໽ᯣഄᱫ

tiānhūndì’àn

໽ӺПФ ໽फഄ࣫

tiānlúnzhīlè tiānnándìběi

⫰㿔㳰䇁 ໽㸷᮴㓱 ໽⏞П߿

tiányánmìyuˇ tiānyīwúf èng tiānyuānzhībié

໽♒Ҏ⽌

tiānzāirénhuò

໽԰Пড়

tiānzuòzhīhé

ᣥᢼ⾏䯈

tiaˇ obōlíjiàn

䪕䴶᮴⾕

tiěmiànwúsī

䪕⷇ᖗ㙴

tiěshíxīncháng

਀㗠ϡ䯏

tīng’érbùwén

਀݊㞾✊

tīngqízìrán

਀໽⬅ੑ ᤎ䑿㗠ߎ ৠ⮙Ⳍᗰ

tīngtiānyóumìng tîˇngshēn’érchū tóngbìngxiānglián

ৠᑞᓖṺ

tóngchuángyìmèng

ৠ⫬݅㢺

tónggāngòngkuˇ

ৠᔦѢሑ ৠ⌕ড়∵

tóngguīyújìn tóngliúhéwū

ৠᖗण࡯ ৠ㟳݅⌢

tóngxīnxiélì tóngzhōugòngjì

ス买吸থ

tóngyánhèf à

darkness all around, chaos and darkness family happiness separated by great distance, from different places honey-tongued flawless, faultless worlds apart, vastly different natural and manmade disasters a match made in heaven pit one against another, sow dissension (a person) of unbending principles heart of steel, hardhearted, resolute listen without paying attention let matters take their natural course be resigned to fate step forward bravely fellow sufferers sympathize with one another strange bedfellows, partners with different agendas stick together through thick and thin end in common ruin wallow in mire together (work) united as one in the same boat, stick together through thick and thin (old man) with white hair and ruddy complexion

2.10 Four-character set phrases

⮯ᬍࠡ䴲

tònggaˇ iqiánf ēi

⮯ુ⌕⍩

tòngkūliútì

⮯偖ϔ乓 ༈ᯣⴐ㢅 ༈䞡㛮䕏 さ亲⣯䖯

tòngmàyídùn tóuhūnyaˇ nhuā tóuzhòngjiaˇ oqīng tūf ēiměngjìn

さབ݊ᴹ

tūrúqílái

ೳ⫳ೳ䭓

tuˇ shēngtuˇ zhaˇ ng

ಶ㒧ϔ㟈

tuánjiéyízhì

᥼䰜ߎᮄ

tuīchénchūxīn

᥼ᏅঞҎ

tuījîˇjírén

৲৲৤৤

tūntūntuˇ tuˇ

㜅⾏㢺⍋

tuōlíkuˇ haˇ i

㜅㚢ᤶ偼

tuōtāihuànguˇ

ᢪ⊹ᏺ∈

tuōnídàishuîˇ

W ℾ᳆џᅲ ℾℾᡁᡁ ໪ᔎЁᑆ

wāiqūshìshí wāiwāiniuˇ niuˇ wàiqiángzhōnggān

໪ЎЁ⫼

wàiwéizhōngyòng

ϛϡᕫᏆ

wànbùdéyîˇ

ϛস⌕㢇

wànguˇ liúf āng

ϛᗉ‫♄ׅ‬

wànniànjùhuī

ϛџབᛣ

wànshìrúyì

thoroughly mend one’s ways cry and shed bitter tears give a sound scolding feel dizzy top-heavy progress by leaps and bounds happens abruptly, arise suddenly locally born and brought up, locally grown in unity and solidarity put forth new ideas in place of old ones treat others as you would yourself, be considerate mutter, hem and haw, be evasive to get over hardship, to escape from difficulties of life create new things out of old, thoroughly remold oneself sloppy, slovenly, halfheartedly distort facts twisted, crooked strong in appearance but weak inside make things foreign serve China when there is no alternative, as a last resort leave a good name to posterity all hopes dashed to pieces have all one’s wishes come true 79

2 Vocabulary and usage

80

ϛᇓ᮴⭚

wànshòuwújiāng

ϛ᮴ϔ༅

wànwúyìshī

ϛ䈵᳈ᮄ

wànxiànggēngxīn

ϛӫϔᖗ

wànzhòngyìxīn

ϛ㋿ग㑶

wànzîˇqiānhóng

∾⋟໻⍋

wāngyángdàhaˇ i

ᵝ䌍ᖗᴎ

waˇ ngf èixīnjī

མ㞾㧆㭘

wàngzìfěibó

མ㞾ᇞ໻ ᖬᘽ䋳Н

wàngzìzūndà wàng’ēnf ùyì

ᳯᇬ㥿ঞ

wàngchénmòjí

ᳯ亢ᤩᕅ

wàngf ēngbuˇ yîˇng

ᳯṙℶ␈

wàngméizhîˇkě

ᳯⴐ℆こ

wàngyaˇ nyùchuān

ᳯᄤ៤啭

wàngzîˇchénglóng

ॅᴎ䞡䞡 ॅᴎಯӣ

wēijīchóngchóng wēijīsìfú

࿕亢ޯޯ ࿕亢ᠿഄ

wēif ēnglîˇnlîˇn wēif ēngsaˇ odì

࿕℺ϡሜ

wēiwuˇ bùqū

ᖂϡ䎇䘧 Ў䴲԰⅍ ЎҎᏜ㸼

wēibùzúdào wéif ēizuòdaˇ i wéirénshībiaˇ o

to wish a long, long life to (someone) absolutely certain, no chance of a mistake with the beginning of a new year, everything is renewed united as one, with one heart and one mind a profusion of colors, a riot of colors vast sea, boundless ocean rack one’s brains in vain, all the attempts are futile think lightly of oneself, feel inferior to others conceited, arrogant have no sense of gratitude fall far behind, unequal to pursuing a phantom, on a wrong track feed on fancies, castles in the air gaze anxiously till one’s eyes are overstrained long to see one’s son succeed in life riddled with crises be threatened by growing crises all around awe-inspiring be completely discredited not be subdued by force insignificant, trivial commit evil deeds be a model for others

2.10 Four-character set phrases

Ў᠔℆Ў

wéisuoˇ yùwéi

ᚳ߽ᰃ೒

wéilìshìtú

ᚳ៥⣀ᇞ

wéiwoˇ dúzūn

᳾र‫ⶹܜ‬

wèibuˇ xiānzhī

᳾㗕‫ܜ‬㹄

wèilaˇ oxiānshuāi

᳾䲼㓌㓾 ⏽ᬙⶹᮄ

wèiyuˇ chóumiù wēngùzhīxīn

᭛䋼ᕀᕀ 䯏᠔᳾䯏

wénzhìbīnbīn wénsuoˇ wèiwén

䯂䭓䯂ⷁ

wènchángwènduaˇ n

䯂ᆦ䯂ᱪ

wènhánwènnuaˇ n

䯂ᖗ᮴᛻

wènxīnwúkuì

䯂ᖗ᳝᛻

wènxīnyoˇ ukuì

៥㸠៥㋴

woˇ xíngwoˇ sù

᮴䖍᮴䰙 ᮴⮙੏৳

wúbiānwújì wúbìngshēnyín

᮴ⱘᬒⶶ

wúdìf àngshîˇ

᮴ഄ㞾ᆍ

wúdìzìróng

᮴ࡼѢ㹋

wúdòngyúzhōng

᮴⣀᳝‫ي‬

wúdúyoˇ u’oˇ u

᮴⊩᮴໽

wúfaˇ wútiān

do whatever one pleases profit-grabbing, seek only profit assume airs of self-importance, autocratic, bossy have foresight, be able to foretell prematurely senile, older than one’s years save for a rainy day learn something new by reviewing the old with elegant manners unprecedented, unheard of make detailed enquiries, ask about this and that enquire with concern about someone’s well-being have a clear conscience, not feel guilty about something feel guilty about something stick to one’s old ways boundless, vast moan and groan without being ill, make a fuss about nothing aimless and fruitless, shoot without aiming ashamed to show one’s face unmoved, aloof and indifferent not unique; by coincidence violate all laws, run wild

81

2 Vocabulary and usage

82

᮴】П䇜

wújīzhītán

᮴䅵ৃᮑ

wújìkěshī

᮴⌢Ѣџ

wújìyúshì

᮴ᆊৃᔦ ᮴ӋПᅱ

wújiākěguī wújiàzhībaˇ o

᮴㊒ᠧ䞛 ᮴᢬᮴ᴳ

wújīngdaˇ caˇ i wújūwúshù

᮴ৃ䴲䆂

wúkĕf ēiyì

᮴ৃ᭄䅵

wúkěshùjì

᮴ৃ༜ԩ ᮴ᄨϡܹ

wúkěnàihé wúkoˇ ngbúrù

᮴⧚প䯍

wúlîˇquˇ nào

᮴䏃ৃ䍄 ᮴䆎བԩ

wúlùkězoˇ u wúlùnrúhé

᮴ৡᇣद ᮴ৡ㣅䲘 ᮴㛑Ў࡯ ᮴༛ϡ᳝

wúmíngxiaˇ ozú wúmíngyīngxióng wúnéngwéilì wúqíbùyoˇ u

᮴∖ѢҎ

wúqiúyúrén

᮴Ҏ䯂⋹

wúrénwènjīn

᮴Ӹ໻䲙

wúshāngdàyaˇ

᮴Ꮬ㞾䗮 ᮴џ⫳䴲

wúshīzìtōng wúshìshēngf ēi

᮴᠔ϡЎ

wúsuoˇ bùwéi

᮴᠔ϡⶹ

wúsuoˇ bùzhī

fabrication, fiddlesticks, nonsense at a loss as to what to do, at one’s wit’s end to no effect, irrelevant, of no help homeless priceless treasure, invaluable asset listless, in low spirits free and easy, without any restraint blameless, beyond reproach a countless amount of something having no alternative seize every opportunity, have a finger in every pie refuse to listen to reason, unprovoked quarrel no way out, helpless no matter what, in any event a nobody unknown hero powerless, incapable no lack of strange things, lots of bizarre things independent, be one’s own master nobody is interested, unclaimed not matter much, not affecting things as a whole self-taught much ado about nothing, make uncalled-for trouble stop at nothing, do all manner of evil know everything

2.10 Four-character set phrases

᮴᠔ϡ㟇

wúsuoˇ búzhì

᮴᠔џџ

wúsuoˇ shìshì

᮴᠔䗖Ң

wúsuoˇ shìcóng

᮴ᖂϡ㟇

wúwēibúzhì

᮴䱭ৃЬ

wúxìkěchéng

᮴ձ᮴䴴

wúyīwúkào

᮴ҹЎ⫳

wúyîˇwéishēng

᮴ᕅ᮴䏾

wúyîˇngwúzōng

᮴ᖻ᮴㰥

wúyōuwúlü`

᮴㓬᮴ᬙ

wúyuánwúgù

᮴Ё⫳᳝

wúzhōngshēngyoˇ u

᮴䎇䕏䞡

wúzúqīngzhòng

Ѩᔽ㓸㒋

wuˇ caˇ ibīnf ēn

Ѩ⽣Ј䮼

wuˇ fúlínmén

Ѩ‫ܝ‬क㡆

wuˇ guāngshísè

Ѩ␪ಯ⍋

wuˇ húsìhaˇ i

Ѩ㢅ܿ䮼

wuˇ huābāmén

Ѩԧᡩഄ

wuˇ tîˇtóudì

Ѩ买݁㡆 ⠽ᵕᖙড

wuˇ yánliùsè wùjíbìfăn

⠽ҹ㉏㘮

wùyîˇlèijù

spare no pains, penetrate everywhere idle, have nothing to do not knowing what to do meticulous, in every possible way no loophole to exploit be alone in the world, friendless and helpless have no means of livelihood without a trace, disappeared without a trace no worries whatsoever, carefree without rhyme or reason sheer fabrication, groundless, out of thin air insignificant, of little importance full of colors, very colorful the five blessings come to the house, the house is blessed resplendent with many colors every corner of the country kaleidoscopic, a variety of show someone profound admiration very colorful things always reverse themselves after reaching an extreme birds of a feather flock together

83

2 Vocabulary and usage

䇃Ҏᄤᓳ

wùrénzîˇdì

䇃ܹ℻䗨

wùrùqítú

X ᙃџᅕҎ

84

xīshìníngrén

ᙃᙃⳌ݇

xīxīxiāngguān

⿔䞠㊞⍖ ❭❭᫬᫬

xīlihūtū xīxīraˇ ngraˇ ng

дҹЎᐌ

xíyîˇwéicháng

ᐁഄ㗠ത ⋫㘇ᙁ਀

xídì’érzuò xěrgōngtīng

⋫᠟ϡᑆ

xîˇshoˇ ubúgàn

୰ߎᳯ໪

xîˇchūwàngwài

୰ᗦઔФ

xîˇnù’āilè

୰ᗦ᮴ᐌ

xîˇnùwúcháng

୰⇨⋟⋟

xîˇqìyángyáng

୰ュ买ᓔ ୰ᮄॠᮻ

xîˇxiàoyánkāi xîˇxīnyànjiù

୰ᔶѢ㡆 㒚∈ᐌ⌕

xîˇxíngyúsè xìshuîˇchángliú

ϟϡњৄ

xiàbùliaˇ otái

ϟϡЎ՟

xiàbùwéilì

ϟ㨑ϡᯢ

xiàluòbùmíng

ᰒ㗠ᯧ㾕

xiaˇ n’éryìjiàn

mislead and cause harm to young people take a wrong path (in doing things) compromise so that everyone can have peace closely linked to each other muddle-headed bustling with activity, hustle and bustle become accustomed to sit on the floor listen with reverent attention, be all ears wash one’s hands of something overjoyed, happy beyond expectations delight, anger, joy and sorrow; full range of emotions capricious, subject to changing moods jubilant, overwhelmed with joy beaming with smiles fickle in one’s affections radiant with joy do something little by little in a constant way caught in a dilemma, be in an embarrassing situation with no way out not to be taken as a precedent not knowing the whereabouts of obvious, evident

2.10 Four-character set phrases

‫ܜ‬থࠊҎ

xiānf āzhìrén

‫ܜ‬㾕Пᯢ

xiānjiànzhīmíng

‫އܜ‬ᴵӊ ‫ܜ‬䪅ৢ䜦 ‫ܹܜ‬ЎЏ

xiānjuétiáojiàn xiānqiánhòujiuˇ xiānrùwéizhuˇ

‫ܜⶹܜ‬㾝

xiānzhīxiānjué

剰㡇༎Ⳃ

xiānyànduómù

䯆ᚙ䘌㟈

xiánqíngyìzhì

䋸ྏ㡃↡

xiánqīliángmuˇ

ⳌᕫⲞᕄ

xiāngdéyìzhāng

Ⳍ䕙Ⳍ៤

xiāngfuˇ xiāngchéng

Ⳍᭀབᆒ

xiāngjìngrúbīn

Ⳍᦤᑊ䆎

xiāngtíbìnglùn

ᛇܹ䴲䴲

xiaˇ ngrùf ēif ēi

ⳌձЎੑ

xiāngyīwéimìng

䗡䘹⊩໪

xiāoyáofaˇ wài

䗡䘹㞾೼

xiāoyáozìzài

⍜ᙃ♉䗮 䳘ຸП߿

xiāoxilíngtōng xiāoraˇ ngzhībié

ᇣ䘧⍜ᙃ ᇣᖗ䇼ᜢ ᇣᖗ㗐㗐

xiaˇ odàoxiāoxi xiaˇ oxīnjîˇnshèn xiaˇ oxīnyìyì

gain mastery by striking first able to predict, ability to discern what is coming prerequisite pay first, deliver later first impressions are most important; one who enters first is the master having foresight, a person of foresight brilliant colors, splendor blinding the eye carefree, leisurely and carefree mood a virtuous wife and loving mother bring out the best in each other, complement each other supplement and complement (of married couples) treat each other with respect mention in the same breath indulge in wishful thinking, have fantasies depend on each other for survival (of criminals) be at large be at peace with the world and oneself well informed a great difference, as that between heaven and earth grapevine news careful, cautious extremely careful

85

2 Vocabulary and usage

86

ᇣ乬໻‫خ‬

xiaˇ otídàzuò

ュ䞠㮣ߔ

xiàolîˇcángdāo

ュᆍৃᦀ

xiàoróngkějū

ュ䗤买ᓔ 䇶㒱খ㾖 䇶໽䇶ഄ

xiàozhúyánkāi xièjuécānguān xiètiānxièdì

ᖗᅝ⧚ᕫ

xīn’ānlîˇdé

ᖗϡ೼⛝ ᖗ⚺ᛣх

xīnbúzàiyān xīnfányìluàn

ᖗ᳡ষ᳡ ᖗ㝍Пᙷ

xīnfúkoˇ ufú xīnf ùzhīhuàn

ᖗ㝍ПѸ ᖗ⫬ᚙᜓ ᖗ㢅ᗦᬒ ᖗᗔ儐㚢 ᖗᜠᛣх

xīnf ùzhījiāo xīngānqíngyuàn xīnhuānùf àng xīnhuáiguîˇtāi xīnhuāngyìluàn

ᖗ♄ᛣ‫ދ‬ ᖗ᚞㚚៬ ᖗ᚞㙝䏇

xīnhuīyìlěng xīnjīngdaˇ nzhàn xīnjīngròutiào

ᖗষབϔ

xīnkoˇ urúyī

ᖗᯋ⼲ᗵ ᖗ䞠᭄᳝

xīnkuàngshényí xīnliyoˇ ushù

ᖗхབ咏 ᖗ⒵ᛣ䎇 ᖗᑇ⇨੠

xīnluànrúmá xīnmaˇ nyìzú xīnpíngqìhé

ᖗབߔࡆ

xīnrúdāogē

make much ado about nothing, make a mountain out of a molehill murderous intent behind one’s smiles beaming with smiles, with a charming smile beaming with smiles visitors not admitted thank goodness, thank heavens feel at ease, with mind at ease and conscience clear absent-minded confused and worried, with a heavy heart utterly convinced danger from within, serious hidden trouble bosom friends be most willing to wild with joy, elated have evil intentions nervous and flustered, all in a fluster disheartened tremble with fear jumpy, have the jitters speak from the heart, frank and forthright relaxed and happy know what’s what, know what’s going on very confused perfectly content calm, even-tempered and good-humored heart-rending, hurt to the quick

2.10 Four-character set phrases

ᖗབসѩ ᖗབ☿⛮ ᖗབ⅏♄ ᖗབ䩜ᠢ

xīnrúguˇ jîˇng xīnrúhuoˇ fěn xīnrúsîˇhuī xīnrúzhēnzhā

ᖗབℶ∈

xīnrúzhîˇshuîˇ

ᖗ⼲ϡᅕ

xīnshénbùníng

ᖗᖗⳌ䖲

xīnxīnxiānglián

ᖗᖗⳌॄ

xīnxīnxiāngyìn

ᖗ㛌ᓔ䯨

xīnxiōngkāikuò

ᖗ㰮㚚ᘃ

xīnxūdaˇ nquè

ᖗ㸔ᴹ╂

xīnxuèláicháo

ᖗ⤓ᛣ偀 ᖗᙺ䆮᳡

xīnyuányìmaˇ xīnyuèchéngfú

ᖗ✻ϡᅷ

xīnzhàobùxuān

ᖗⳈষᖿ ᖗЁ᳝儐

xīnzhíkoˇ ukuài xīnzhōngyoˇ uguîˇ

ᖗЁ᭄᳝

xīnzhōngyoˇ ushù

䕯䕯㢺㢺

xīnxīnkuˇ kuˇ

⃷୰㢹⢖

xīnxîˇruòkuáng

⃷⃷৥㤷 㸠ሌ䍄㙝

xīnxīnxiàngróng xíngshīzoˇ uròu

݈催䞛⚜ ᑌ♒Ф⽌

xìnggāocaˇ iliè xìngzāilèhuò

㛌᳝៤ネ

xiōngyoˇ uchéngzhú

䲘ᖗࢗࢗ

xióngxīnbóbó

apathetic torn by anxiety hopelessly apathetic greatly distressed, as if pricked to the heart mind as tranquil as still waters out of sorts, the mind wanders closely attached to each other (normally said of lovers) share the same feelings, see eye to eye broad-minded, lighthearted have a guilty conscience seized by a whim, suddenly hit upon an idea restless, fickle completely convinced have a tacit understanding outspoken have a guilty conscience know the score, understand the situation take great pains, work laboriously wild with joy, beside oneself with joy thriving, prospering one who vegetates, utterly useless person elated, jubilant gloat over other people’s disasters have a preconceived idea or vision before one does something very ambitious 87

2 Vocabulary and usage

❞❞⚜☿

xiōngxiōnglièhuoˇ

㕲㕲ㄨㄨ 㰮ᑺ‫ܝ‬䰈

xiūxiūdādā xūdùguāngyīn

㰮ᚙ‫؛‬ᛣ

xūqíngjiaˇ yì

㰮᳝݊㸼

xūyoˇ uqíbiaˇ o

㰮ᓴໄ࢓

xūzhāngshēngshì

㹪᠟ᮕ㾖

xiùshoˇ upángguān

䲾Ё䗕⚁

xuězhōngsòngtàn

Y 叺䲔᮴ໄ થষ᮴㿔

88

yāquèwúshēng yaˇ koˇ uwúyán

㿔໮ᖙ༅

yánduōbìshī

㿔ᔦℷӴ

yánguīzhèngzhuàn

㿔䖛݊ᅲ 㿔㸠ϔ㟈

yánguòqíshí yánxíngyízhì

༘༘ϔᙃ

yaˇ nyaˇ nyìxī

᥽Ҏ㘇Ⳃ

yaˇ nrén’ěrmù

ⴐ催᠟Ԣ

yaˇ ngāoshoˇ udī

ⴐ㢅㔁х ⴐ㾕Ўᅲ ᡀⳝ৤⇨

yaˇ nhuāliáoluàn yaˇ njiànwéishí yángméituˇ qì

‫ܓݏ‬䰆㗕

yaˇ ng’érfaˇ nglaˇ o

raging fire, raging flames bashful, shy, timid waste one’s time, idle away time a false display of affection, a hypocritical show of friendship appear better than it is make an empty show of strength, bluff stand by with indifference give timely assistance dead silent tongue-tied, dumbfounded one who talks too much is prone to error to return to the subject, return from the digression exaggerate, overstate deeds match the words, action in accord with words at one’s last gasp, on the verge of death hoodwink others, deceive the public fastidious but incompetent, have high ambition but lack ability dazzled seeing is believing feel proud and elated, a feeling of exaltation upon fulfillment raise children as oldage security

2.10 Four-character set phrases

઀᭛ಐᄫ

yaˇ owénjuézì

ᨛᨛᨚᨚ

yáoyáobaˇ ibaˇ i

઀⠭ߛ啓

yaˇ oyáqièchîˇ

䞢ᖗࢗࢗ ৊㨑ᔦḍ

yěxīnbóbó yèluòguīgēn

໰䭓Ṻ໮

yèchángmèngduō

ϔᴀℷ㒣

yìběnzhèngjīng

ϔヨ࣒䫔

yìbîˇgōuxiāo

ϔ㞖П࡯ ϔଅϔ੠

yíbìzhīlì yíchàngyìhé

ϔᇬϡᶧ

yìchénbùraˇ n

ϔㅍ㥿ሩ

yìchóumòzhaˇ n

ϔߔϸᮁ ϔᏚ亢乎 ϔὖ㗠䆎

yìdāoliaˇ ngduàn yìf ānf ēngshùn yígài’érlùn

ϔᑆѠ‫ޔ‬

yìgān’èrjìng

ϔ੐ⱒ䇎

yìhūbaˇ inuò

ϔ੐ⱒᑨ

yìhūbaˇ iyìng

ϔᡔП䭓

yíjìzhīcháng

ϔ㾕བᬙ

yíjiànrúgù

ϔ㾕䩳ᚙ

yíjiànzhōngqíng

pedantic, paying too much attention to wording swagger, wobble, wobbly gnash the teeth in deep-seated hatred, clench the teeth extremely ambitious what comes from the soil will return to the soil a long night is fraught with dreams, a long delay brings trouble in all seriousness, in deadly earnest write off in one stroke, reject offhand a helping hand chime in with, in perfect harmony spotless, not stained with even a speck of dust, pure at a loss, no way out, at one’s wit’s end make a clean break smooth sailing generalize, lump people or things under one heading lock, stock, and barrel; altogether, completely have hundreds at one’s beck and call hundreds respond to a single call having one single skill, capable of one specific job hit it off right from the start love at first sight

89

2 Vocabulary and usage

90

ϔㆁঠ䲩

yíjiànshuāngdiāo

ϔВϸᕫ

yìjuˇ liaˇ ngdé

ϔࢇ∌䘌

yìláoyoˇ ngyì

ϔњⱒњ

yìliaˇ obaˇ iliaˇ o

ϔ䏃ᑇᅝ

yílùpíng’ān

ϔ↯ϡᢨ

yìmáobùbá

ϔ号᚞Ҏ

yìmíngjīngrén

ϔ῵ϔḋ

yìmóyíyàng

ϔⳂњ✊

yímùliaˇ orán

ϔ䋿བ⋫

yìpínrúxîˇ

ϔ⇨੉៤

yíqìhēchéng

ϔ䪅ϡؐ

yìqiánbùzhí

ϔちϡ䗮

yíqiàobùtōng

ϔ⏙ѠἮ

yìqīng’èrchuˇ

ϔ㾚ৠҕ

yíshìtóngrén

ϔџ᮴៤

yíshìwúchéng

ϔϱϡ㢳

yìsībùgoˇ u

ϔ⅏ⱒњ

yìsîˇbaˇ iliaˇ o

kill two birds with one stone, achieve two things at one stroke gain two ends at once, kill two birds with one stone settle a matter once and for all all troubles end when the main trouble ends bon voyage, have a safe journey miserly, parsimonious, stingy achieve overnight success, set the world on fire identical, exactly the same be clear at a single glance penniless, utterly destitute, as poor as a church mouse complete something at a stretch utterly worthless, not worth a penny utterly ignorant of something, know nothing about perfectly clear, as clear as daylight treat all alike without discrimination, treat equally nothing accomplished, get nowhere conscientious and meticulous death pays all scores, death squares all accounts

2.10 Four-character set phrases

ϔภ㊞⍖

yìtāhútú

ϔ໽ࠄᰮ ϔ㔥ᠧሑ ϔ᮴ৃপ

yìtiāndàowaˇ n yìwaˇ ngdaˇ jìn yìwúkěquˇ

ϔ᮴᠔䭓

yìwúsuoˇ cháng

ϔ᮴᠔᳝

yìwúsuoˇ yoˇ u

ϔѨϔक

yìwuˇ yìshí

ϔュ㕂П

yíxiàozhìzhī

ϔᖗϔᛣ

yìxīnyíyì

ϔ㿔䲒ሑ

yìyánnánjìn

ϔ㿔Ўᅮ ϔ৊ⶹ⾟

yìyánwéidìng yíyèzhīqiū

ϔᛣᄸ㸠

yíyìgūxíng

ϔ佂㗠ሑ

yìyín’érjìn

ϔᑨ‫ܼׅ‬

yīyīngjùquán

ϔ䩜㾕㸔

yìzhēnjiànxiě

ϔⶹञ㾷

yìzhībànjiě

㸷䫺㤷ᔦ

yījîˇnróngguī

in a complete mess, in a great mess all day long make a clean sweep good for nothing, worthless having no special skill not having a thing to one’s name (narrate) systematically and in full detail laugh it off, dismiss with a smile wholeheartedly, heart and soul it’s a long story, difficult to put in a nutshell it’s settled then! one falling leaf heralds the autumn, a small sign can indicate the whole trend, a straw shows which way the wind blows insist on having one’s own way, act willfully quaff in one gulp, drink up complete in every line, complete with everything hit the nail on the head half-baked knowledge, with a smattering of knowledge glorious homecoming after having won high honors and wealth

91

2 Vocabulary and usage

92

㸷亳ԣ㸠

yīshízhùxíng

ձձϡ㟡

yīyībùshě

⭥⼲⭥儐 ҹ↦ᬏ↦

yíshényíguîˇ yîˇdúgōngdú

ҹ䰆ϛϔ

yîˇfángwànyī

ҹᏅᑺҎ

yîˇjîˇdùrén

ҹ‫؛‬хⳳ

yîˇjiaˇ luànzhēn

ҹ䑿԰߭

yîˇshēnzuòzé

ҹकᔧⱒ

yîˇshídāngbaˇ i

Нϡᆍ䕲

yìbùróngcí

ᓖষৠໄ

yìkoˇ utóngshēng

ᓖ᳆ৠᎹ

yìquˇ tónggōng

ᓖᛇ໽ᓔ

yìxiaˇ ngtiānkāi

ᛣᛇϡࠄ

yìxiaˇ ngbúdào

ᯧབডᥠ

yìrúfaˇ nzhaˇ ng

಴⽌ᕫ⽣

yīnhuòdéfú

಴Ҏ㗠ᓖ

yīnrén’éryì

clothing, food, shelter, and transportation – the basic necessities of life reluctant to part (from someone or some place) extremely suspicious fight poison with poison provide for any contingencies judge others by oneself, measure another’s corn by one’s own bushel mix the false with the true, pass the fake for genuine set an example with one’s own conduct pit ten against a hundred be duty-bound, act from a strong sense of duty with one voice, in unison same satisfactory results produced by different methods indulge in the wildest fantasy, wishful thinking, have a bee in one’s bonnet unexpected, never thought of it as easy as falling off a log, as easy as ABC derive gain from misfortune, luck grows out of adversity vary with each individual

2.10 Four-character set phrases

಴ᇣ༅໻

yīnxiaˇ oshīdà

ᓩ⣐ܹᅸ

yîˇnlángrùshì

ᓩҎ⊼Ⳃ

yîˇnrénzhùmù

佂∈ᗱ⑤

yîˇnshuîˇsīyuán

ᑨ᳝ሑ᳝

yīngyoˇ ujìnyoˇ u

ᑨᇍབ⌕

yìngduìrúliú

∌ൖϡᴑ

yoˇ ngchuíbùxiuˇ

␌᠟ད䯆 ᳝໛᮴ᙷ

yóushoˇ uhàoxián yoˇ ubèiwúhuàn

᳝ᬭ᮴㉏

yoˇ ujiàowúlèi

᳝ষⱚ⹥

yoˇ ukoˇ ujiēbēi

᳝߽ৃ೒

yoˇ ulìkětú

᳝ৡ᮴ᅲ

yoˇ umíngwúshí

᳝Ⳃ݅ⵍ ᳝⇨᮴࡯

yoˇ umùgòngduˇ yoˇ uqìwúlì

᳝∖ᖙᑨ

yoˇ uqiúbìyìng

᳝ໄ᳝㡆

yoˇ ushēngyoˇ usè

᳝༅䑿ӑ ᳝ྟ᳝㒜

yoˇ ushīshēnfen yoˇ ushîˇyoˇ uzhōng

penny wise, pound foolish; to save a little only to lose a lot open the door to an enemy, lead a wolf into the sheepfold attract attention, conspicuous when drinking water, think of its source – bear in mind where one’s happiness comes from, feel grateful everything one could wish for is there reply readily and fluently be immortal, live forever in the hearts of idle, loaf about preparedness prevents calamity in education, there should be no class distinction universally acclaimed, universally praised there is profit to be reaped exist in name only, nominal obvious to all lifeless, feeble, lackluster grant whatever is asked, never refuse a request very vivid and dramatic beneath one’s dignity do something well from beginning to end, from beginning to end 93

2 Vocabulary and usage

94

᳝䇈᳝ュ ᳝༈᳝ሒ

yoˇ ushuōyoˇ uxiào yoˇ utóuyoˇ uwěi

᳝ᳱϔ᮹

yoˇ uzhāoyírì

剐㉇Пе

yúmîˇzhīxiāng

剐Ⳃ⏋⦴

yúmùhùnzhū

ᛮ᯻᮴ⶹ 䲼ৢ᯹ミ

yuˇ mèiwúzhī yuˇ hòuchūnsuˇ n

Ϣ㰢䇟Ⲃ

yuˇ huˇ móupí

Ϣ᮹‫ׅ‬๲ ϢϪ᮴ѝ

yuˇ rìjùzēng yuˇ shìwúzhēng

Ϣӫϡৠ

yuˇ zhòngbùtóng

䲼䖛໽᱈

yuˇ guòtiānqíng

䇁᮴Ӻ⃵

yuˇ wúlúncì

䇁䞡ᖗ䭓 ℆䗳ϡ䖒 ‫ݸ‬ᆊᇍ༈ ‫ݸ‬ᆊ䏃じ

yuˇ zhòngxīncháng yùsùbùdá yuānjiāduìtóu yuānjiālùzhaˇ i

ॳᇕϡࡼ ॳᴹབℸ

yuánf ēngbúdòng yuánláirúcîˇ

ॳᔶ↩䴆

yuánxíngbìlù

㓬᳼∖剐

yuánmùqiúyú

䖰䍄催亲

yuaˇ nzoˇ ugāof ēi

talking and laughing do something from beginning to end, have a beginning and an end one day, some day, if by chance land of fish and rice, bread basket pass off fish eyes for pearls, pass off something sham as genuine stupid and ignorant spring up like mushrooms ask a tiger for its hide – a useless petition or act increase daily stand aloof from worldly strife different from the others, showing originality sunshine after the rain, difficult period gives way to bright future rambling, incoherent, nonsensical in all earnestness haste makes waste opponent and foe one cannot avoid running into an enemy intact, left untouched so that’s how it is, I see show one’s true colors a fruitless approach, attempt the impossible flee to distant places

2.10 Four-character set phrases

Z ᴖх᮴ゴ

záluànwúzhāng

ᴖϗᴖܿ

záqīzábā

‫ݡ᥹ݡ‬ढ़

zàijiēzàilì

䕑℠䕑㟲 ‫ݡ‬ϝ‫ݡ‬ಯ

zàigēzàiwuˇ zàisānzàisì

೼᠔䲒‫ܡ‬ 䌲ϡ㒱ষ

zàisuoˇ nánmiaˇ n zànbùjuékoˇ u

ᮽߎᰮᔦ

zaˇ ochūwaˇ nguī

ᠢᠢᅲᅲ

zhāzhāshíshí

؎ৄ催ㄥ

zhàitáigāozhù

⊒⊒㞾୰

zhānzhānzìxîˇ

ⶏࠡ乒ৢ

zhānqiángùhòu

᭽㤝䰸ḍ

zhaˇ ncaˇ ochúgēn

᭽䩝៾䪕

zhaˇ ndīngjiétiě

៬៬ܶܶ

zhànzhanjīngjīng

ᓴ♃㒧ᔽ

zhāngdēngjiécaˇ i

ᓴ‫ݴ‬ᴢ᠈

zhāngguānlîˇdài

ᓴষ㒧㟠

zhāngkoˇ ujiéshé

ᓴϝᴢಯ

zhāngsānlîˇsì

ᓴ⠭㟲⟾

zhāngyáwuˇ zhuaˇ

without pattern or order, confused and disorderly a mix of bits of everything make persistent effort, with everrenewed efforts singing and dancing again and again, time and again unavoidable full of praise, praise unceasingly leave home or go to work at the crack of dawn and return by starlight sturdy, in a down-toearth manner debt-ridden, up to the ears in debt self-satisfied, selfcomplacent overly cautious and indecisive when cutting weeds, remove the roots – remove the source of trouble resolute and decisive, adamant tremble with fear, very cautious decorate with lanterns and festoons (for an auspicious event) mistake one thing or person for another aghast and tonguetied, at a loss for words this or that person; Tom, Dick or Harry make threatening gestures

95

2 Vocabulary and usage

96

ᥠϞᯢ⦴

zhaˇ ngshàngmíngzhū

ҫ࢓ℎҎ

zhàngshìqīrén

ᳱϡֱ໩

zhāobùbaˇ oxī

ᳱ⇨㫀ࢗ

zhāoqìpéngbó

ᳱϝᲂಯ

zhāosānmùsì

䩜䫟Ⳍᇍ

zhēnf ēngxiāngduì

ⳳ߁ᅲ᥂ ⳳⳌ໻ⱑ

zhēnpíngshíjù zhēnxiàngdàbái

ⳳⶹ♐㾕

zhēnzhīzhuójiàn

ѝ亢ৗ䝟

zhēngf ēngchīcù

ѝৡ༎߽

zhēngmíngduólì

ѝ‫ܜ‬ᘤৢ

zhēngxiānkoˇ nghòu

ℷҎ৯ᄤ

zhèngrénjūnzîˇ

㪌㪌᮹Ϟ Ⳉ᥹њᔧ ᠻ䗋ϡᙳ

zhēngzhēngrìshàng zhíjiēliaˇ odàng zhímíbúwù

Ⳉ㿔ϡ䆇

zhíyánbúhuì

ᣛϡ㚰ሜ

zhîˇbúshèngqū

াㅵ৽੤

zhîˇguaˇ nf ēnf ù

ᣛḥ偖ᾤ

zhîˇsāngmàhuái

a dearly beloved daughter, apple of one’s eye abuse one’s power and bully people live from hand to mouth, in a precarious state full of youthful vigor, fresh and vigorous play fast and loose, be fickle; hoodwink the gullible diametrically opposed to, give tit for tat indisputable evidence the truth has come out, the case is entirely cleared up real knowledge and deep insight vie for a man’s or woman’s favor struggle for fame and wealth strive to be the first, in a mad rush to be first respectable gentleman ever flourishing straightforward refuse to come to one’s senses speak without reservation, mince no words more than can be counted on the fingers, countless your wish is my command indirect, veiled accusation; make oblique accusations

2.10 Four-character set phrases

ᣛ᠟⬏㛮 䎒催⇨ᡀ

zhîˇshoˇ uhuàjiaˇ o zhîˇgāoqìyáng

ᖫৠ䘧ড়

zhìtóngdàohé

㕂㢹㔨䯏

zhìruòwaˇ ngwén

㕂Пϡ⧚

zhìzhībùlîˇ

ᖴ㿔䗚㘇

zhōngyánnì’ěr

ӫষ䪘䞥

zhòngkoˇ ushuòjīn

ӫⳂⵑⵑ

zhòngmùkuíkuí

ӫ䇈㒋㒁

zhòngshuōf ēnyún

ӫ᠔਼ⶹ ӫᖫ៤ජ ਼㗠໡ྟ

zhòngsuoˇ zhōuzhī zhòngzhìchéngchéng zhōu’érf ùshîˇ

਼䕀ϡ♉

zhōuzhuaˇ nbùlíng

䕀䋹Ў㚰

zhuaˇ nbàiwéishèng

䕀ᔃᢍ㾦

zhuaˇ nwānmòjiaˇ o

㺙ᩌ԰ḋ

zhuāngmózuòyàng

㺙㜨԰࢓

zhuāngqiāngzuòshì

䇚䇚୘䇅

zhūnzhūnshànyòu

ᤝ㼳㾕㙬

zhuōjīnjiànzhoˇ u

㞾਍㞾᪖

zìchuīzìlěi

㞾ਞ༟࢛

zìgàof ènyoˇ ng

gesticulate put on airs and swagger about, behave arrogantly having same interests or goals, in the same camp turn a deaf ear to, take no notice pay no attention to, ignore good advice grates on the ear, the truth hurts public clamor can confound right and wrong under the watchful eyes of the public opinions are widely divided as everyone knows unity is strength move in cycles, go round and begin not enough to meet the needs, problem with cashflow turn defeat into victory beat about the bush, in a devious way, in a roundabout way behave in an affected way, assume airs make pretence of dignity, put on airs teach and guide untiringly cannot make ends meet, too many (financial) problems to deal with blow one’s own horn, brag and boast volunteer for (difficult or dangerous) tasks 97

2 Vocabulary and usage

98

㞾催㞾໻

zìgāozìdà

㞾乒ϡᱛ

zìgùbùxiá

㞾㒭㞾䎇 㞾࡯᳈⫳

zìjîˇzìzú zìlìgēngshēng

㞾प㞾༌

zìmàizìkuā

㞾号ᕫᛣ

zìmíngdéyì

㞾ੑϡ޵

zìmìngbùfán

㞾ℎℎҎ

zìqīqīrén

㞾✊㗠✊

zìrán’érrán

㞾亳݊࡯

zìshíqílì

㞾ྟ㟇㒜

zìshîˇzhìzhōng

㞾⾕㞾߽ 㞾䅼㢺ৗ

zìsīzìlì zìtaˇ okuˇ chī

㞾ᡩ㔫㔥

zìtóuluówaˇ ng

㞾៥䱊䝝 㞾Ⳍ⅟ᴔ

zìwoˇ táozuì zìxiāngcánshā

㞾Ⳍ⶯Ⳓ 㞾㿔㞾䇁 㞾ҹЎᰃ

zìxiāngmáodùn zìyánzìyuˇ zìyîˇwéishì

㞾⬅コѝ 㞾⬅㞾೼ 㞾೚݊䇈

zìyóujìngzhēng zìyóuzìzài zìyuánqíshuō

self-important, self-aggrandizing, conceited unable even to fend for oneself self-sufficient self-reliance, selfreliant, rely on oneself indulge in selfglorification, praise one’s own goods sing one’s own praises, be puffed up with pride have an unduly high opinion of oneself, consider oneself above the crowd deceive oneself as well as others, selfdeceit very naturally, automatically live by one’s own labor, live on one’s own toil, paddle one’s own canoe from start to finish, from beginning to end selfish ask for trouble and get it walk into a trap, put one’s head in a noose self-intoxicated mutual annihilation, fratricide self-contradictory mutter to oneself consider oneself in the right, be opinionated free competition leisurely and carefree justify oneself

2.10 Four-character set phrases

㞾԰㘾ᯢ

zìzuòcōngming

㞾‫خ‬Џᓴ

zìzuòzhuˇ zhāng

㞾԰㞾ফ

zìzuòzìshòu

ᘏ㗠㿔П

zoˇ ng’éryánzhī

䍄ᡩ᮴䏃

zoˇ utóuwúlù

䝝⫳Ṻ⅏

zuìshēngmèngsîˇ

ᇞᏜ䞡䘧

zūnshīzhòngdào

Ꮊ乒েⳐ

zuoˇ gùyòupàn

Ꮊ䚏ে㟡 Ꮊᗱেᛇ

zuoˇ línyòushè zuoˇ sīyòuxiaˇ ng

Ꮊে䗶⑤

zuoˇ yòuféngyuán

ᎺেЎ䲒

zuoˇ yòuwéinán

԰㣻㞾㓮

zuòjiaˇ nzìf ù

԰࿕԰⽣

zuòwēizuòfú

‫خ‬䌐ᖗ㰮

zuòzéixīnxū

തৗቅぎ

zuòchīshānkōng

fancy oneself to be clever, try to be smart decide for oneself, have one’s own way of doing things suffer the consequences of one’s own actions, as you make your own bed so you must lie on it in summary, in a few words, in short, in a nutshell have no way out, be in an impasse, be in a hopeless situation lead a happy-golucky life honor the teacher and respect his/her teachings glance left and right, feel uneasy next-door neighbors think over and over again, turn over in one’s mind everything going one’s way, win advantage from both sides in a dilemma, in an awkward predicament caught in one’s own trap, enmeshed in one’s own web act like a tyrant, assume great airs of authority have a guilty conscience fritter away a great fortune

99

2 Vocabulary and usage

2.11

തゟϡᅝ

zuòlìbù’ān

ത༅㡃ᴎ

zuòshīliángjī

തѿ݊៤

zuòxiaˇ ngqíchéng

ᑻ᮴㰮ᐁ

zuòwúxūxí

be fidgety, be on tenterhooks, on pins and needles let a golden opportunity slip by reap what one has not sown all seats are occupied, a full house

Proverbs and common sayings Proverbs and common sayings, 䇮䇁yànyuˇ or ֫䇁súyuˇ , are a very important part of Chinese language usage. They are crystallizations of historical experience and popular wisdom. They are used so often because so much meaning is compressed and expressed in a single phrase. ✽ indicates English equivalents of sayings. ( ) indicates similar meanings in English. B

100

ܿᄫ㸭䮼ᳱ फᓔˈ᳝⧚ ᮴䪅㥿䖯ᴹ

The court faces south, but do not enter if you have only reasons but no money.

Possession is nine-tenths of the law.

Rich men have no faults.

The reasons of the poor weigh not. It doesn’t matter ⱑ⣿咥⣿ˈ báimāo hēimāo, ᡧࠄ㗕哴ህ zhuādaolaˇ oshuˇ jiùshi if it is a white cat haˇ omāo or a black cat; as ᰃད⣿ long as it catches mice, it is a good cat. (Whatever the method, as long as it works.) bāzìyámen cháonánkāi, yoˇ ulîˇ wúqián mòjìnlái

2.11

ⱒ䯏ϡབϔ 㾕ˈⱒ㾕ϡ བϔᑆ

Proverbs and common sayings

baˇ iwén bùrú yíjiàn, baˇ ijiàn bùrú yígàn

Hearing it a hundred times is not as good as seeing it once, and seeing it a hundred times is not as good as doing it once.

Seeing is believing. Illness enters ⮙Ңষܹˈ bìng cóngkoˇ urù, huò cóngkoˇ uchū from the mouth ⽌Ңষߎ and calamity comes out of the mouth.

A closed mouth catches no flies.

Let not your tongue cut your throat. If you don’t ϡᔧᆊϡⶹ bùdāngjiā bùzhī cháimîˇguì, bùyaˇ ng’ér manage the ᷈㉇䌉ˈ household, you ϡ‫ܓݏ‬ϡⶹ bùzhī f ùmuˇ ’ēn don’t know the ⠊↡ᘽ cost of fuel and food, and if you do not have children, you do not know how much gratitude you owe to your parents. Without ϡ㒣ϔџˈ bùjīng yíshì, bùzhaˇ ng yízhì experiencing ϡ䭓ϔᱎ things, you cannot grow wiser.

A stumble may prevent a fall.

Wisdom comes from experience.

101

2 Vocabulary and usage

C

102

ϡ਀㗕Ҏ 㿔ˈৗѣ೼ ⴐࠡ

bùtīng laˇ orényán, chīkuī zàiyaˇ nqián

ϡܹ㰢えˈ ⛝ᕫ㰢ᄤ

búrù huˇ xuè, yāndé huˇ zîˇ

ᏂП↿६ˈ ༅Пग䞠

chàzhī háolí, shīzhī qiānlîˇ

ᢚϰ๭ˈ㸹 㽓๭

chāi dōngqiáng, buˇ xīqiáng

䭓∳ৢ⌾᥼ ࠡ⌾ˈϪϞ ᮄҎ䍊ᮻҎ

Chángjiāng hòulàng tuī qiánlàng, shìshang xīnrén gaˇ n jiùrén

If you do not listen to an old person’s advice, you will suffer soon. (One should listen to an old person’s advice because he/she is wiser.) One cannot get the tiger’s cub without entering the tiger’s lair.

Nothing ventured, nothing gained.

Nothing venture, nothing win. A miniscule off aim, a very long distance off target.

A miss is as good as a mile.

An inch, in a miss, is as good as an ell. Take from the east wall to repair the west wall.

Rob Peter to pay Paul. The waves of the Changjiang River push forth, and young people push out the old in this world.

One fire drives out another.

2.11

D

Proverbs and common sayings

໘໘᳝䏃ࠄ 䭓ᅝ

chùchùyoˇ ulù dào Cháng’ān

߱⫳П⡞ϡ ⬣㰢

chūshēngzhīdú búwèihuˇ

ᴥЁ᮴㰢⢫ Ў⥟

cūnzhōngwúhuˇ goˇ uwéiwáng

ᠧҎ߿ᠧ 㜌ˈ偖Ҏ߿ ᧁⷁ

daˇ rén biédaˇ liaˇ n, màrén biéjiēduaˇ n

໻џ࣪ᇣˈ ᇣџ࣪њ

dàshì huàxiaˇ o, xiaˇ oshì huàliaˇ o

One nail drives out another. Everywhere there are roads to Chang’an.

All roads lead to Rome. A newborn calf does not fear the tiger.

As valiant as a calf.

Ignorance is bliss. When there are no tigers in the village, the dog is the king.

In the kingdom of the blind, the one-eyed man is king.

When the cat’s away the mice will play. Do not hit a person on the face, do not curse a person’s shortcomings. (Do not attack people where they are vunerable.) Regard big troubles as small and small ones as nothing at all. (One should make molehills out of mountains.)

103

2 Vocabulary and usage

ߔϡ⺼㽕⫳ 䫜ˈ∈ϡ⌕ 㽕থ㟁

䘧催ϔሎˈ 儨催ϔϜ

ࠄҔМቅ ϞˈଅҔ М℠

䇏ϛोкˈ 㸠ϛ䞠䏃

E

104

‫ܓ‬ᄭ㞾᳝‫ܓ‬ ᄭ⽣ˈ㥿Ў ‫ܓ‬ᄭ԰偀⠯

dāobùmó yàoshēngxiù, shuîˇ bùliú yàof āchòu

A knife will rust if it is not sharpened and stagnant water will turn foul.

Standing pools gather filth.

The best fish smell when they are three days old. When virtue dàogāoyìchîˇ, mógāoyízhàng rises one foot, evil rises ten feet.

Where God has his church, the devil will have his chapel. dào Sing the songs shénmeshānshang, of the mountain chàng shénmegēr when you go there.

Do in Rome as the Romans do.

Go native. dú wànjuànshū, xíng To be learned, one should read wànlîˇlù ten thousand books and travel ten thousand miles.

He that goeth far hath many encounters.

He that travels far knows much. érsūn zìyoˇ u’érsūnfú, Children and mòwèi érsūn grandchildren zuòmaˇ niú have their own fortune; don’t work like horses and cows for them.

2.11

Proverbs and common sayings

㘇਀Ў㰮ˈ ⴐ㾕Ўᅲ

ěrtīngwéixū, yánjiànwéishí

F

佁ৢⱒℹ 䍄ˈ⌏ࠄ бकб

f ànhòu baˇ ibùzoˇ u, huódao jiuˇ shijiuˇ

G

৘Ҏ㞾ᠿ䮼 ࠡ䲾ˈӥㅵ ҪҎ⪺Ϟ䳰

gèrén zìsaˇ o ménqiánxuě, xiūguaˇ n tārén waˇ shangshuāng.

݀䇈᳝݀ ⧚ˈယ䇈ယ ᳝⧚

gōngshuō gōngyoˇ ulîˇ, póshuō póyoˇ ulîˇ

⢫ᤝ㗫ᄤˈ ໮ㅵ䯆џ

goˇ u zhuōhàozi, duōguaˇ n xiánshì

(Let children take care of themselves.) What one hears is empty but what one sees is real.

One eyewitness is better than ten earwitnesses.

Seeing is believing. Walk one hundred steps after supper, and you will live to be ninety-nine.

After supper walk a mile. Each sweeps the snow in front of his/her own door. Never mind the frost on someone else’s roof.

Attend to your own affairs.

Mind your own business. Grandpa says he is right and grandma says she is right. (Truth is relative.)

He says, she says. A dog catching mice: much meddling in another’s business.

105

2 Vocabulary and usage

H

J

106

Attend to your own affairs.

Mind your own business. High officials are ᅬ໻᳝䰽ˈ guāndà yoˇ uxiaˇ n, shùdà zhāof ēng in danger and big ᷥ໻᢯亢 trees attract the wind.

Great winds blow upon high hills. Time flies like ‫ܝ‬䰈Ԑㆁˈ guāngyīn sìjiàn, rìyuè rúsuō an arrow, and ᮹᳜བẁ days and months pass as fast as a shuttle.

Time flies.

Time does sail.

Tempus fugit. One must not ᆇҎПᖗϡ hàirénzhīxīn bùkěyoˇ u, harbor bad ৃ᳝ˈ䰆 fángrénzhīxīn bùkěwú intentions, but ҎПᖗϡ one must guard ৃ᮴ against the intentions of others. haˇ ohàn bùdaˇ qī, A good man ད∝ϡᠧ does not beat ྏˈད⢫ϡ haˇ ogoˇ u bùyaˇ ojī his wife; a good ઀叵 dog does not bite chickens. (One must not take advantage of the weak.) huódàola ˇ o, Live until old ⌏ࠄ㗕ˈᄺ xuébùlia ˇ o age, but there is ϡњ always more to learn.

Live and learn. Ꮕ᠔ϡ℆ˈ jîˇ suoˇ búyù, wùshīyú What you do rén not want, do not ࣓ᮑѢҎ inflict on others.

2.11

Proverbs and common sayings

ᆊϥϡৃ ໪ᡀ

jiāchoˇ u bùkě wàiyáng

ᆊ㢅ϡབ䞢 㢅佭ˈᆊ㢅 ‫↨צ‬䞢㢅䭓

jiāhuā bùrú yěhuāxiāng, jiāhuā dàobîˇ yěhuācháng

ᆊᆊ᳝ᴀ䲒 ᗉⱘ㒣

jiājiā yoˇ uběn nánniàndejīng

ᆊ᳝㗕ˈᰃ Ͼᅱ

jiāyoˇ ulaˇ o, shìgebaˇ o

∳ቅᯧᬍˈ ᴀᗻ䲒⿏

jiāngshān yìgaˇ i, běnxìng nányí

(Do not force upon others what you do not want forced upon yourself.) The ugly side of a family should not be revealed to outsiders.

Do not air your dirty linen in public.

Don’t wash your dirty linen in public. Flowers at home are not as fragrant as flowers in the wild, but they last longer than wild flowers.

Grass is greener on the other side of the fence. Every family has a sutra that is hard to chant.

There is a skeleton in every closet. Having an old person in the house is a real treasure. Rivers and mountains can be easily moved, but a person’s true nature cannot be changed.

Can the leopard change his spots?

107

2 Vocabulary and usage

108

Ҟ᮹᳝䜦Ҟ ᮹䝝ˈᯢ᮹ ᛕᴹᯢ᮹ᔧ

jīnrìyoˇ ujiuˇ jīnrìzuì, míngrìchóulái míngrìdāng

䖥∈ὐৄ‫ܜ‬ ᕫ᳜ˈ৥䰇 㢅᳼ᮽ䗶᯹

jìnshuîˇ lóutái xiāndéyuè, xiàngyáng huāmù zaˇ oféngchūn

䖥ᴅ㗙䌸ˈ 䖥๼㗙咥

jìnzhūzhě chì, jìnmòzhě hēi

Nature draws more than ten oxen.

What is bred in the bone will not be out of the flesh. Drink today while you have wine; deal with tomorrow’s problems when they come.

Seize the moment.

Seize the time.

Carpe diem. The terrace closest to water gets the moon first and spring comes earlier to flowers and trees facing the sun.

A baker’s wife may bite of a bun, a brewer’s wife may drink of a tun.

The parson always christens his own child first. Near the vermillion, one turns red; near the ink, one turns black.

He that lives with cripples learns to limp.

2.11

䜦䗶ⶹᏅग ᵃᇥˈ䆱ϡ ᡩᴎञহ໮

Proverbs and common sayings

Keep good men company and you shall be of the number.

One must howl with the wolves.

One who lies down with dogs, must rise with fleas.

The finger that touches rouge will be red.

Who keeps company with the wolf will learn to howl.

You cannot touch pitch without being defiled, and anyone who associates with a proud man will come to be like him. When with a jiuˇ féngzhījîˇ qiānbēishaˇ o, bosom friend, a huàbùtóujī bànjùduō thousand cups of wine is too few; if they do not get along, half a sentence is too much.

Old friends and old wine are best.

Old wine and old friends are good provisions.

The company makes the feast.

109

2 Vocabulary and usage

K

L

110

ᓔ䮼ϗӊ џˈ᷈㉇⊍ Ⲥ䝅䝟㤊

kāimén qījiànshì, chái mîˇ yóu yán jiàng cù chá

ᄨᄤг᳝ϝ ߚᏂ

Koˇ ngzîˇ yěyoˇ u sānf ēnchà

㗕⥟प⪰ˈ 㞾प㞾༌

laˇ o Wáng màiguā, zìmài zìkuā

㗕㰢ϡ೼ ቅˈ⤈ᄤ⿄ ໻⥟

laˇ ohuˇ búzàishān, hóuzi chēngdàwáng

㡃㥃㢺ষ߽ Ѣ⮙ˈᖴ㿔 䗚㘇߽Ѣ㸠

liángyào kuˇ koˇ u lìyúbìng, zhōngyán nì’ěr lìyúxíng

Seven things one has to provide every day: firewood, rice, oil, salt, sauce, vinegar, and tea. Even Confucius can be a little off.

A good marksman may miss.

Even Homer sometimes nods.

No man is wise all times.

To err is human. Old Wang selling melons: he brags about his own goods.

Every salesman boasts of his own wares. When the tiger is not in the mountain, the monkey proclaims himself king.

When the cat’s away, the mice will play. Good medicine is bitter but beneficial for curing illness; sincere advice is hard on the ear but beneficial to conduct.

2.11

Proverbs and common sayings

ϸ㰢Ⳍ᭫ˈ ᖙ᳝ϔӸ

liaˇ nghuˇ xiāngdòu, bìyoˇ u yìshāng

⬭ᕫ䴦ቅ ೼ˈϡᗩ≵ ᷈⚻

liúde qīngshānzài, búpà méicháishāo

啭⫳啭ˈ޸ ⫳޸ˈ㗕哴 ⫳‫ܓ‬Ӯᠧ⋲

lóngshēnglóng, f èngshēngf èng, laˇ oshuˇ shēng’ér huìdaˇ dòng

䏃䘹ⶹ偀 ࡯ˈ᮹Й㾕 Ҏᖗ

lùyáo zhīmaˇ lì, rìjiuˇ jiànrénxīn

Bitter pills may have wholesome effects, good counsel never comes amiss. When two tigers fight, one is sure to get wounded. As long as there is a mountain with trees, there will always be firewood.

Where there is life there is hope.

While there is life there is hope. Dragon begets dragon, phoenix begets phoenix, and a mouse is born knowing how to dig holes.

It early pricks that will be a thorn.

Like begets like. When the journey is long, you learn how strong the horse is; after a long time, you come to know a person’s heart.

A friend is never known till needed.

A man knows his companion in a long journey and a little inn.

111

2 Vocabulary and usage

M

咏䲔㱑ᇣˈ Ѩ㛣‫ܼׅ‬

máquè suīxiaˇ o, wuˇ zàng jùquán

㉇Ꮖ៤佁ˈ mîˇ yîˇchéng f àn, mù yîˇchéng zhōu ᳼Ꮖ៤㟳

ᯢᵾᯧ䒆ˈ ᱫㆁ䲒䰆

112

míngqiāng yìduoˇ , ànjiàn nánfáng

Before you make a friend, eat a bushel of salt with him.

Try before you trust.

Try your friend before you have need of him. A sparrow may be small, but it has all five viscera.

Even a fly hath its spleen.

There is life in a mussel, though it be little. The rice is already cooked, the wood is already made into a boat.

It’s no use crying over spilt milk.

The die is cast.

What’s done cannot be undone. It is easier to avoid a spear in the open than an arrow from the back.

Better an open enemy than a false friend.

Better be stung by nettle than pricked by a rose.

2.11

N

P

Proverbs and common sayings

With friends like that, who needs enemies? ⠵Ѝ㱑དˈ muˇ dān suīhaˇ o, bìyào Peonies are beautiful, but ᖙ㽕㓓৊ᡊ lü` yè fúzhù their beauty is ࡽDŽ enhanced by green leaves.

No man is an island. Get angry and ᙐϔᙐˈ㗕 naˇ oyìnaˇ o, ϔ㗕ˈュϔ laˇ oyìlaˇ o, xiàoyíxiào, you get older; laugh and you ュˈᇥϔᇥ shàoyíshào become younger.

Laugh and grow fat. nípúsa guòhé, zìshēn A clay Buddha ⊹㦽㧼䖛 nánbaˇ o crossing a river: ⊇ˈ㞾䑿 he may not even 䲒ֱ save himself. (One has enough trouble helping oneself, much less others.) Rather be a ᅕЎ⥝⹢ˈ níngwéi yùsuì, bùwéi waˇ quán piece of broken ϡЎ⪺ܼ jade than a whole clay tile.

Better a glorious death than a shameful life.

Better to die in glory than live in dishonor. níngyuˇ qiānrénhaˇ o, Better be friends ᅕϢगҎ bùyuˇ yìrénchóu with a thousand དˈϡϢ than an enemy of ϔҎқ one. The onlookers ᮕ㾖㗙⏙ˈ pángguānzhě qīng, dāngjúzhě mí see clearly but ᔧሔ㗙䗋 those involved are in the dark.

113

2 Vocabulary and usage

㚪ᄤϡᰃϔ ষৗⱘ

ᑇ⫳ϡ‫خ‬ѣ ᖗџˈञ໰ ϡᗩ儐ᭆ䮼

Q

114

䪅ࠄ᠟ᠡㅫ 䪅ˈ㙝ࠄ ষᠡㅫৗ

Lookers-on see most of the game.

Standers-by see more than gamesters.

The darkest place is under the candlestick. pàngzi búshi yìkoˇ u One mouthful chīde does not a fat person make.

An oak is not felled at one stroke.

Rome was not built in a day.

The tree falls not at the first stroke. Never do a píngshēng búzuò conscienceless kuīxīnshì, bànyè deed and you búpà guîˇqiāomén won’t fear a ghost knocking at the door at midnight.

A good conscience is a continual feast.

A quiet conscience sleeps in thunder.

A clean hand wants no washing. qiándàoshoˇ u Money is only cáisuànqián,ròudàokoˇ u good when it is cáisuànchī in your hand, and meat is good only when it is in your mouth.

2.11

ࠡҎ⾡ᷥˈ ৢҎЬ‫ޝ‬

ᔎЁ᳈᳝ᔎ Ё᠟ˈ㛑Ҏ 㚠ৢ᳝㛑Ҏ

Ꮋႇཛ❂ϡ ߎ≵㉇ⱘ ㉹ˈᎻఈܿ હ䇈ϡ䖛═ ݇এ

ᚙҎⴐ䞠ߎ 㽓ᮑ

Proverbs and common sayings

Do not count your chickens until they are hatched.

First catch your hare.

Gut no fish till you get them.

Never cackle till your egg is laid. qiánrén zhòngshù, Forerunners plant hòurén chéngliáng trees and people after them enjoy the shade.

One man makes a chair, another man sits on it.

One man sows and another reaps. qiángzhōng gèngyoˇ u Among the qiángzhōngshoˇ u, strong there néngrén bèihòu yoˇ u are stronger, néngrén and behind the capable there are more capable people.

Diamond cut diamond. Even a skillful qiaˇ oxífu zhuˇ bùchū wife cannot cook méimîˇdezhōu, qiaˇ ozuîˇbāger without rice; shuōbúguò Tóngguān even a myna bird qu cannot talk its way beyond the Tongguan Pass. (No one can create something out of nothing.) qíngrén yaˇ nli chū Only her lover’s Xīshī eye sees her as a beautiful Xi Shi.

115

2 Vocabulary and usage

R

116

∖Ҏϡབ ∖Ꮕ

qiúrén bùrú qiújîˇ

Ҏ↨Ҏ⇨ ⅏Ҏ

rénbîˇrén, qìsîˇrén

Ҏϡৃ䉠 Ⳍˈ⍋∈ϡ ৃ᭫䞣

rén bùkě màoxiàng, haˇ ishuîˇ bùkě doˇ uliáng

Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

Beauty lies in a lover’s eyes.

Love is blind. Asking others for help is not as good as asking oneself.

Better spare to have thine own than ask of other men.

Let every tub stand on its own bottom. One gets very angry when compared with others.

Comparison is odious. A person cannot be judged by looks alone; the sea cannot be measured by bushels.

A little body doth often harbor a great soul.

Appearances are deceptive.

It is not the hood that makes the monk.

Men are not to be measured by inches.

Never judge from appearance.

2.11

Proverbs and common sayings

Ҏ䖛⬭ৡˈ 䲕䖛⬭ໄ

rénguò liúmíng, yànguò liúshēng

Ҏ୘㹿Ҏ ℎˈ偀୘㹿 Ҏ健

rénshàn bèirénqī, maˇ shàn bèirénqí

Ҏᕔ催໘ 䍄ˈ∈ᕔԢ ໘⌕

rén wàng gāochu zoˇ u, shuîˇ wàng dīchu liú

Ҏ᮴ᅠҎˈ 䞥᮴䎇䌸

rén wú wánrén, jīn wú zúchì

Never judge from appearances.

The cowl does not make the monk.

You cannot judge a book by its cover.

You cannot judge a tree by its bark. A person leaves a name behind and a wild goose leaves a cry.

Where the horse lies down, there some hair will be found. Nice people are taken advantage of; nice horses are ridden.

All lay the load on the willing horse. People want to rise high; water flows down low.

No priestling, small though he may be, but wishes someday Pope to be. No one is perfect and no gold is pure.

A horse stumbles that has four legs.

Every bean has its black.

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2 Vocabulary and usage

Ҏᖗ唤ˈ⋄ ቅ⿏

Ҏ㽕㸷㺙ˈ ԯ㽕䞥㺙

Ҏ᳝༅䎇ˈ 偀᳝༅䐘

᮹᳝᠔ᗱˈ ໰᳝᠔Ṻ

118

Every man has his faults.

He is lifeless that is faultless.

No man is wise at all times.

Nobody is perfect.

The peacock has fair feathers but foul feet.

There are lees to every wine. rénxīn qí, Tàishān yí When everyone is of one mind, the great Taishan Mountain can be moved away.

A long pull, a strong pull, and a pull all together.

Unity is strength. rényào yīzhūang, A person needs fóyào jīnzhuāng fine clothes; a Buddha statue needs gilding.

Fine feathers make fine birds.

The tailor makes the man. rén yoˇ u shīzú, maˇ A person may yoˇ u shītí slip and a horse may stumble.

A horse stumbles that has four legs. rìyoˇ usuoˇ sī, What one thinks yèyoˇ usuoˇ mèng about during the day, one dreams about at night.

2.11

ܹ೑䯂⽕ˈ ܹеҢ֫

㢹㽕Ҏϡ ⶹˈ䰸䴲Ꮕ 㥿Ў

S

ϝⱒ݁क 㸠ˈ㸠㸠ߎ ⢊‫ܗ‬

ϝϾ㟁Ⲃ ࣴˈ乊Ͼ䇌 㨯҂

Proverbs and common sayings

rùguó wènjìn, rùxiāng cóngsú

When entering a country, ask about its taboos; when going into a village, follow its customs.

When in Rome, do as the Romans do. If one does not ruòyào rénbùzhī, want people chúf ēi jîˇmòwéi to know, one should not do the deed.

The day has eyes and the night has ears.

There is a witness everywhere.

What is done by night appears by day. sānbaˇ iliùshi háng, There are hángháng chū three hundred zhuàngyuan and sixty professions. In each profession, someone will excel. Three sānge chòupíjiàng, dîˇngge Zhūgeˇ Liàng leathersmiths can be as smart as Zhuge Liang.

Four eyes see more than two.

Many heads are better than one.

Three helping one another bear the burden of six.

Two heads are better than one.

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2 Vocabulary and usage

120

ϝҎϔᴵ ᖗˈ咘ೳব ៤䞥

sānrén yìtiáoxīn, huángtuˇ biànchéngjīn

ϝक݁䅵ˈ 䍄ЎϞ䅵

sānshiliùjì, zoˇ uwéishàngjì

ቅϡ೼催ˈ ᳝ҭ߭ৡ˗ ∈ϡ೼⏅ˈ ᳝啭߭♉

shān búzàigāo, yoˇ uxiān zémíng; shuîˇ búzàishēn, yoˇ ulóng zélíng

୘᳝୘᡹ˈ ᙊ᳝ᙊ᡹˗ ϡᰃϡ᡹ˈ ᯊᴎ᳾ࠄ

shànyoˇ ushànbào, èyoˇ u’èbào; búshibúbào, shíjīwèidào

Two eyes can see more than one. When three people are of one mind, they can turn dirt into gold.

Unity is strength. Of the thirty-six strategies, the best is to run away.

He who fights and runs away lives to fight another day.

Seek safety in flight.

Take flight.

Take to one’s legs. A mountain does not have to be high to become famous when there is an immortal living on it. A river does not have to be deep to work wonders when there is a dragon living in it. Kindness will be rewarded, and evil will be punished. It is not that justice is not done, it is just that the time is not yet right.

Justice has long arms.

2.11

Ϟṕϡℷϟ ṕℾ

ᇥໂϡࡾ ࡯ˈ㗕໻ᕦ Ӹᚆ

ᰃ䴲㒜᮹ ᳝ˈϡ਀ 㞾✊᮴

कϾᣛ༈ ᳝䭓᳝ⷁ ϔỉᵰᷥ ᳝䝌᳝⫰

Proverbs and common sayings

The mills of God grind slowly. shàngliángbúzhèng, If the upper xiàliángwāi beam is tilted, the lower beam will be crooked.

Fish begins to stink at the head.

A bad beginning makes a bad ending. shàozhuàng bùnuˇ lì, If one does not laˇ odà túshāngbēi work hard during one’s prime, one will grieve during old age.

A lazy youth, a lousy age.

An idle youth, a needy age.

If you lie upon roses when young, you’ll lie upon thorns when old.

Reckless youth makes rueful age. shìf ēi zhōngrìyoˇ u, There is gossip bùtīng zìránwú every day; if you don’t listen to them, they will go away.

Were there no hearers, there would be no backbiters. shígezhítou, Ten fingers: some yoˇ ucháng yoˇ uduaˇ n, are long and yìkēguoˇ shù, yoˇ usuān others short; one yoˇ utián fruit tree: some fruits are sour, others sweet.

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2 Vocabulary and usage

T

122

कᑈᷥ᳼ˈ ⱒᑈᷥҎ

shínián shùmù, baˇ inián shùrén

ϪϞ≵᳝ϡ ᬷⱘᆈᐁ

shìshang méiyou búsànde yànxí

㱅ᄤ໮њ ϡ⮦

shīzi duōle bùyaˇ ng

ᷥ‫צ‬⣶⣆ᬷ

shùdaˇ o húsūn sàn

໽໪᳝໽ˈ ҎϞ᳝Ҏ

tiānwài yoˇ utiān, rénshàng yoˇ urén

So many men, so many minds. It takes ten years to grow a tree, but one hundred to educate a person.

A skill is not acquired in a matter of days.

Rome was not built in a day. There is no feast that will not end.

All good things come to an end.

The best of friends must part.

The longest day must have an end. When one is infected with many lice, one does not feel the itch. (One more problem does not bother a person who has many.) When a tree falls, all the monkeys scatter.

A rat leaving a sinking ship.

Rats desert a sinking ship. There are heavens above heaven, and there are people above people.

2.11

໽᮴㒱Ҏ П䏃

໽ϟР叺ϔ 㠀咥

໽ϟ᮴䲒 џˈাᗩ᳝ ᖗҎ

໽ϟॳᴹ݅ ϔᆊˈಯ⍋ П‫ܘⱚݙ‬ᓳ

Proverbs and common sayings

(There is always somewhere and someone better.) tiān wú juérénzhīlù Heaven does not cut off roads for a person.

Every day brings its own bread.

When one door closes, another opens. tiānxià wūyā All crows under yìbānhēi heaven are black.

All tarred with the same brush.

The same holds true everywhere.

The world is much the same everywhere. There is nothing tiānxià wúnánshì, difficult, except zhîˇpà yoˇ uxīnrén for those who hesitate.

Nothing is difficult to a man who wills.

Nothing is impossible to a willing heart.

Nothing is impossible to a willing mind.

It is dogged that does it.

Where there is a will, there is a way. tiānxià yuánlái The whole world gòngyìjiā, sìhaˇ izhīnèi is a family and all jiēxiōngdì are siblings.

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2 Vocabulary and usage

໽ϟ݈ѵˈ tiānxià xīngwáng, pîˇfū yoˇ uzé ऍ໿᳝䋷

W

124

໽᳝ϡ⌟亢 ѥˈҎ᳝ᮺ ໩⽌⽣

tiān yoˇ u búcèf ēngyún, rén yoˇ u dànxīhuòfú

ϛџᓔ༈䲒

wànshì kāitóunán

᮴亢ϡ䍋⌾

wúf ēng bùqîˇlàng

All are brothers within the four seas. Everyone is responsible for what the world becomes. Nature brings unexpected weather and unexpected calamities and fortune.

A foul morn may turn to a fair day.

Here today and gone tomorrow. Everything is difficult at the start.

All things are difficult before they are easy.

The first blow is half the battle.

It is the first step which is troublesome. Without wind, there are no waves.

Every bullet has its billet.

Every why has a wherefore.

There’s no smoke without fire.

Where there is smoke there is fire.

2.11

X

ⵢ⣿⺄Ϟ⅏ 㗫ᄤ

ᇣᯊً䩜ˈ 䭓໻ً䞥

Y

ⴐϡ㾕ᖗ ϡ⚺

‫ܓݏ‬䰆㗕ˈ ⿃䈋䰆伹 㕞↯ߎ೼㕞 䑿Ϟ

ҹ䌐ᤝ䌐ˈ ҹ↦ᬏ↦

ϔᇌ‫ܝ‬䰈ϔ ᇌ䞥ˈᇌ䞥 䲒фᇌ‫ܝ‬䰈

Proverbs and common sayings

A blind cat stumbles on a dead mouse. (Blind luck.) xiaˇ oshí tōuzhēn, He who steals zhaˇ ngdà tōujīn needles when young will steal gold when grown up.

Just as the twig is bent the tree is inclined. yaˇ nbújiàn, xīnbùfán What one cannot see one does not worry about.

Far from eye, far from heart.

Out of sight, out of mind.

What the eye doesn’t see the heart doesn’t grieve over. yaˇ ng’ér fánglaˇ o, jīguˇ Raise sons for fángjī your old age, and store grain for times of hunger. yángmáo chūzai Sheep’s wool yángshēnshang comes from the sheep’s own body. (Nothing is free.) yîˇzéi zhuōzéi, yîˇdú Use a thief to gōngdú catch a thief and attack poison with poison.

Set a thief to catch a thief. yícùnguāngyīn One inch of time yícùnjīn, cùnjīn is worth one nánmaˇ i cùnguāngyīn inch of gold, but one inch of gold cannot buy one inch of time.

xiāmāo pèngshang sîˇhàozi

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2 Vocabulary and usage

ϔϾ੠ᇮᣥ ∈ৗˈϸϾ ੠ᇮᢀ∈ ৗˈϝϾ੠ ᇮ᮴∈ৗ

ϔϾ㇅ペϝ Ͼḽˈϔ Ͼད∝ϝ Ͼᐂ

ϔ㉦㗕哴 ሢˈണњϔ 䫙㉹

126

Take time by the forelock.

There is nothing more precious than time.

Time is money. One monk gets yíge héshang his own water; tiāoshuîˇchī, liaˇ ngge héshang two monks táishuîˇchī, sānge fetch less water héshang wúshuîˇchī together; three monks will have no water.

Everybody’s business is nobody’s business. yíge líba sānge One fence needs zhuāng, yíge haˇ ohàn three posts. One sānge bāng successful person has the help of three.

No man is an island. yílì laˇ oshuˇ shîˇ, huàile One rat dropping yìguōzhōu spoils a whole pot of porridge.

One bad apple spoils the whole bunch.

One bad apple spoils the whole barrel.

One ill weed mars a whole pot of porridge.

The rotten apple spoils its neighbors.

2.11

ϔᑈП䅵೼ Ѣ᯹ˈϔ᮹ П䅵೼Ѣ᰼

ϔ⫊ᄤϡ ડˈञ⫊ ᄤᰗ㤵

ϔҎ‫خ‬џϔ Ҏᔧˈા᳝ ႖႖᳓ྥ࿬

ϔ᮹ЎᏜˈ 㒜䑿Ў⠊

ϔ༅䎇៤ग সᘼˈ‫ݡ‬ಲ ༈ᰃⱒᑈ䑿

Proverbs and common sayings

yìniánzhījì zàiyúchūn, yírìzhījì zàiyúchén

The year’s plan should be made in the spring, and the day’s plan should be made in the morning.

An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening. yìpíngzi bùxiaˇ ng, A full bottle bànpíngzi huàngdang makes no noise, but half a bottle shakes and makes much noise. Making a great display of a little knowledge.

All asses wag their ears.

Empty vessels make the most sound. yìrén zuòshì One should yìréndāng, naˇ yoˇ u be responsible saˇ osao tì gūniang for one’s own actions; how can she blame her sister-in-law? (One should take responsibility for one’s own actions.) yírìwéishī, My teacher for zhōngshēnwéif ù one day is like my parent for life. yìshīzú chéng One slip of qiānguˇ hèn, zàihuítóu the foot brings shi baˇ iniánshēn eternal regret; in a blink of the eye, a whole life has passed.

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2 Vocabulary and usage

128

ҹⴐ䖬ⴐˈ ҹ⠭䖬⠭

yîˇyaˇ n huányaˇ n, yîˇyá huányá

ϔ໰໿ྏⱒ ໰ᘽˈⱒ໰ ໿ྏⱒ䕑ᚙ

yíyèfūqī baˇ iyè‘ēn, baˇ iyèfūqī baˇ izàiqíng

ϔ㿔᮶ߎˈ 偋偀䲒䗑

yìyán jìchū, sìmaˇ nánzhuī

ϔᳱ㹿㲛 ઀ˈकᑈ ᗩ㤝㓇

yìzhāo bèi shéyaˇ o, shínián pà caˇ oshéng

Do wrong once and you’ll never hear the end of it.

One wrong step may bring a great fall.

Short pleasure, long lament. An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.

Eye for eye.

Like for like.

Measure for measure.

Tit for tat. Husband and wife for one night, love for a hundred nights; husband and wife for a hundred nights, love for a hundred years. Once a promise is made, a team of horses cannot bring it back.

A word and a stone let go cannot be recalled.

A word spoken is past recalling. Once bitten by a snake, one fears ropes for ten years.

A burned child dreads the fire.

Once bit, twice shy.

2.11

Proverbs and common sayings

Once bitten, twice shy.

The scalded cat fears cold water. One careless ϔⴔϡᜢˈ yìzhāo búshèn, maˇ npán jiēshū move, the whole ⒵Ⲭⱚ䕧 chess game is lost.

One false move may lose the game.

One wrong move may lose the game. Borrow and ᳝‫׳‬᳝䖬ˈ yoˇ ujiè yoˇ uhuán, zàijiè bùnán return, and you ‫׳ݡ‬ϡ䲒 can easily borrow again. ᳝⧚䍄䘡໽ yoˇ ulîˇ zoˇ ubiàntiānxià, You can go anywhere if ϟˈ᮴⧚ᇌ wúlîˇ cùnbùnányí you’re upright. ℹ䲒⿏ Otherwise, you cannot move an inch. Money can make ᳝䪅㛑Փ儐 yoˇ uqián néngshîˇ a demon push guîˇtuīmò ᥼⺼ the grinder.

Gold goes in at any gate except heaven’s.

Money makes the mare go.

Money talks.

Wage will get a page. You want the জ㽕偀‫ܓ‬䍄 yòuyào maˇ ’er horse to run ᕫདˈজ㽕 zoˇ udehaˇ o, yòuyào well, but do not 偀‫ܓ‬ϡৗ㤝 maˇ ’er bùchīcaˇ o want it to eat hay.

You cannot eat your cake and have it too.

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2 Vocabulary and usage

You cannot have your cake and eat it too.

You cannot sell the cow and drink the milk.

You can’t have it both ways. If you are so ᳝㓬ग䞠ᴹ yoˇ uyuán qīanlîˇ ⳌӮˈ᮴㓬 láixiānghuì, wúyuán destined, you ᇍ䴶ϡⳌ䗶 duìmiàn bùxiāngféng will meet though a thousand miles apart; if not destined, you will not meet even though facing each other. (People will not get together if they are not meant for each other.) If you want to ℆ࡴП㔾ˈ yùjiāzhīzuì, héhuànwúcí accuse someone ԩᙷ᮴䆡 of a crime, you can easily find a reason.

A stick is quickly found to beat a dog with.

Give a dog a bad name and hang him.

He that wants to hang a dog is sure to find a rope.

If you want a pretence to whip a dog, say that he ate the fryingpan.

130

2.11

䖰∈ϡᬥ䖥 ☿ˈ䖰҆ϡ བ䖥䚏

᳜⒵߭ѣˈ ∈⒵߭⑶

Z

䖭ቅᳯⴔ䙷 ቅ催

ⶹᏅⶹᕐˈ ⱒ៬ⱒ㚰

া㽕Ꮉ໿ ⏅ˈ䪕ᵉ⺼ ៤䩜

Proverbs and common sayings

yuaˇ nshuîˇ bújiù jìnhuoˇ , yuaˇ nqīn bùrú jìnlín

Distant water cannot put out a nearby fire, a distant relative is not as good as a close neighbor.

Better is a neighbor that is near than a brother far off.

Water afar off quencheth not fire.

We can live without our friends, but not without our neighbors. When the moon yuèmaˇ nzékuī, is full, it will shuîˇmaˇ nzéyì wane; when water is full, it will spill. (Don’t be too full of yourself.) zhèshān wàngzhe From this nàshān gāo mountain, the other mountain looks higher.

Grass is greener on the other side of the fence. Understand zhījîˇ zhībîˇ, baˇ izhàn baˇ ishèng yourself and understand your opponents and you will never be defeated. zhîˇyào gōngfushēn, If one puts in tiěchuˇ móchéngzhēn effort, an iron rod can be ground into a needle.

131

2 Vocabulary and usage

132

⾡⪰ᕫ⪰ˈ ⾡䈚ᕫ䈚

zhòngguādéguā, zhòngdòudédòu

തৗቅぎ

zuòchī shānkōng

Constant dropping wears away the stone.

Feather by feather the goose is plucked.

Little strokes fell great oaks.

Many strokes fell great oaks.

With time and patience the leaf of the mulberry becomes satin. Plant melons, you shall reap melons; plant beans, you shall reap beans.

As the call, so the echo.

As you sow, so will you reap.

You must reap what you have sown. Sitting around and eating, one will use up all the mountain’s resources.

Always taking out of the mealtub, and never putting in, soon comes to the bottom.

Dig one’s grave with one’s teeth.

Hair and hair makes the carle’s head bare.

2.12

2.12

Punning allusion

Punning allusion One of the most enjoyable, and puzzling for the novice, aspects of using modern Chinese is the “punning allusion, ℛৢ䇁xiéhòuyuˇ ,” which is so rare in modern English as to be practically non-existent. We say “practically” because we have on occasion heard allegorical puns spoken by monolingual English speakers, whom we know to have been uninfluenced by Chinese language usage. An example is: “These jeans fit like a cheap hotel – no ball room.” This captures almost perfectly the form and spirit of the Chinese xiéhòuyuˇ , which are used when one wants to display wit or humor, often disparagingly when describing a person, a thing, or a situation. The basic structure of the typical xiéhòuyuˇ is quite simple: the speaker makes a concise description of a scene, an action or situation that would appear on the surface to be unrelated to the topic of discussion. The fact that the utterance appears unrelated to the topic at hand makes the listener search for a metaphorical analogy that would be more appropriate in the current context. The metaphorical analogy is often triggered through a pun. If the xiéhòuyuˇ is well known, then the speaker will not even verbalize the “punch line,” because the listener will make the connection and start laughing or nodding approval. Structurally, the xiéhòuyuˇ shares much in common with the riddle. The best way to appreciate the punning allusion is through selected examples. In the following examples, the first part is the “riddle” that describes the situation and the second part is the “punch line” or the intended answer. ञ໽ぎ䞠ᣖষ㹟 – 㺙亢 bàntiānkōnglîˇ guà koˇ udài – zhuāngf ēng Hanging a bag in mid-air – packaging the wind. It is easier to understand this mechanism if we review the line of thought in reverse order of its expression. We wish to say that a person is “feigning madness.” The Chinese expression for feigning madness is “㺙⮃ zhuāngf ēng.” If we grope around for a pun on “madness,” the nearest common word is “wind, 亢 f ēng.” As it happens, the Chinese word for “to package” also means “to adorn,” “to apply makeup,” and “to feign,” as in “㺙‫ ڏ‬zhuāngshaˇ , to feign stupidity.” What would be an example of trying to “package the wind”? Obviously, holding or hanging a bag up in mid-air. So the allusive pun’s creative thought process is expressed in reverse. ⬉㒓ᴚϞ㒥叵↯ ̢ད໻ⱘᦌᄤ diànxiàngānshang baˇ ng jīmáo – haˇ odàde daˇ nzi Tie chicken feathers on a power line pole – very big duster. The word for “feather duster, ᦌᄤ” is homophonous with the word for “guts, 㚚ᄤ,” although written with a different character. This pun is a roundabout way of saying that someone has “a lot of guts.” 133

2 Vocabulary and usage

Ỏᴤ䞠Ԍ᠟ – ⅏㽕䪅 guāncaili shēnshoˇ u – sîˇ yàoqián Stretching out the hand from inside the coffin – persistently wanting money. The colloquial expression for “persistently” doing something, or “persistently wanting” something, is: sîˇ + verb phrase, or sîˇ yào + noun, similar to “just dying” to do something in English. Here, “dying” is expressed by “in the coffin,” and “wanting money” by “stretching out the hand.” ੠ᇮᠧӲ̢᮴থ᮴໽ héshang daˇ saˇ n – wúfaˇ wútiān A monk using a parasol – hairless and heavenless. “Hairless and heavenless” is a pun on “lawless and heavenless,” i.e., defying all laws, of mankind and of nature. The pun is on “থ faˇ , hair” and “⊩ faˇ , law.” The parasol obscures the view of the “sky (heaven), ໽ tiān.” 㣙ഥ䞠϶⚌ᔍ – ▔䍋݀㉾ máokènglîˇ diū zhàdàn – jīqîˇ gōngf èn A grenade tossed into the outhouse – the shit’s going to fly. The expression “݀ᛸ gōngf èn, public indignation” sounds like “݀ ㉾ gōngf èn, public shit.” ≵ᓺⱘ⨉⨊ – Ңા‫ܓ‬ᔍ䍋 méixiánde pípā – cóngnaˇ r tánqîˇ A stringless lute – where to start strumming? “ᔍ䍋 tánqîˇ, start strumming” is a pun on “䇜䍋tánqîˇ, start talking about something.” Used when we don’t know where to start talking about a complex matter. 䪕݀叵̢ ϔ↯ϡᢨ tiěgōngjī – yìmáo bùbá An iron rooster – not a single feather can be plucked. “↯, máo” in the context of birds means “feather,” and in the context of money means “dime, ten cents.” Used to describe a “tightwad,” a stingy person who won’t spend a dime to help you. ϛቕ⠋ⱘ㣙३ – ≵᳝Դⱘ㉾ wànsuìyéde máocè – méiyoˇ u nîˇde f èn His Majesty’s toilet – no room for your shit. There is nothing for you. The Chinese words “㉾f èn, shit” and “ӑf èn, share” are homophones. 㱞ᄤᬒሕ – ᇣ⇨ wénzi f àngpì – xiaˇ oqì A mosquito fart – tiny air. 134

2.13

Metaphorical allusion

Stingy. “ᇣ⇨xiaˇ oqì” means “stingy,” literally “tiny air.” ᇣ㩅ᢠ䈚㜤 – ϔ䴦Ѡⱑ xiaˇ ocōng bàndòufu – yìqīng èrbái Shallots mixed with beancurd – one clearly green, the other clearly white. “Shallots mixed with beancurd – perfectly clear.” This one plays on the homophony between “green,䴦qīng” and “pure,⏙qīng,” so that “shallots mixed with beancurd” means “completely clear and understandable.”

2.13

Metaphorical allusion The metaphorical allusion type of ℛৢ䇁xiéhòuyuˇ is somewhat easier to understand, because the metaphor is only once removed from the person or situation being described, as it involves no punning. A near-equivalent English expression might be “between a rock and a hard place – no way out.” Some examples in Chinese: 䋶⼲⠋ᭆ䮼 – ⽣Ң໽䰡໽໻ⱘདџ cáishényé qiāomén – fú cóngtiānjiàng; tiāndàde haˇ oshì The God of Wealth rapping at the door – a blessing from heaven, a colossal boon. ⢫઀ࠎ⤀ – ᮴໘ϟষ goˇ u yaˇ o cìwei – wúchù xiàkoˇ u A dog trying to bite a hedgehog – no place to sink his teeth into. Used to describe a situation in which one has no idea where to start to accomplish anything. 㗕哴䖛㸫 – ҎҎ୞ᠧ laˇ oshuˇ guòjiē – rénrén haˇ ndaˇ A rat running across the street – everybody shouts: “Get it!” Used to describe a person universally recognized as bad, and reviled by everyone. 㗕⥟प⪰ – 㞾प㞾༌ laˇ owáng màiguā – zìmài zìkuā Old Wang selling melons – he’s praising them because he’s selling them. Used to indicate that someone is exaggerating the virtues of something in which they have a vested interest. 㱖㱕ৗ㧸☿㰿 – ҂೼㙮䞠 maˇ yîˇ chī yínghuoˇ chóng – liàng zài dùli An ant swallows a firefly – the brightness is inside. 㱖㱕݇೼右ㄐ䞠 – 䮼䘧ᕜ໮ maˇ yîˇ guānzai niaˇ olóngli – méndào hěnduō Ants locked inside a birdcage – there are many ways out. 135

2 Vocabulary and usage

㱖㱕ୱ∈ – ⚍Ⓢህ໳଺ maˇ yîˇ hēshuîˇ – diaˇ ndī jiùgòu la An ant takes a drink of water – just a drop will do. 㱖㱕䖯⠶᠓ – 㞾᳝ߎ䏃 maˇ yîˇ jìn láofáng – zìyoˇ u chūlù Ants in a jail cell – they have a way out. 㱖㱕ᡧϞ⠯㾦ᇪ – 㞾ҹЎϞњ催ቅ maˇ yîˇ zhuāshang niújiaˇ ojiān – zìyîˇwéi shàngle gāoshān An ant has climbed to the tip of an ox horn – to him it’s a mountain peak. 㱖㲅᭫݀叵 – 㞾ϡ䞣࡯ màzha dòu gōngjī – zì bùliánglì Locust attacking a rooster – he hasn’t gauged his own strength. पỎᴤⱘ઀⠭ – ᘼҎϡ⅏ màiguāncaide yaˇ oyá – hèn rén bùsîˇ The coffin salesman grits his teeth – wishing someone would die. प∈ⱘⳟ໻⊇ – ሑᰃ䪅 màishuîˇde kàn dàhé – jìnshì qián The water seller looking at the mighty river – all he sees is money! ⣿ϡৗ剐 – ‫؛‬ᮃ᭛ māo bùchī yú – jiaˇ sīwén A cat pretending not to eat fish – faked refinement. ⣿ુ㗕哴 – ‫؛‬᜜ᚆ māo kū laˇ oshuˇ – jiaˇ cíbēi A cat crying over a mouse’s misfortune – feigned mercy. Used to describe someone showing false sympathy to another, or to a cause for which one has no sympathy. ⣿ᤝ㗕哴 – 䴴㞾Ꮕⱘᴀџ māo zhuō laˇ oshuˇ – kào zìjîˇde běnshì A cat catching mice – relying on its own abilities. 㣙ഥ䞠ᬒ⥿⩄㢅 – ᰒϡߎ佭ੇ máokèngli f àng méiguìhuā – xiaˇ nbuchū xiāngwèi Roses placed inside the outhouse – the fragrance won’t be noticed. ⣿‫ܓ‬ᬭ㗕哴 – ⬭ϔ᠟ māor jiāo laˇ oshuˇ – liú yìshoˇ u A cat teaching lessons to mice – withholding a trick or two. ⣿‫ᤝܓ‬㗕哴ˈ⢫ⳟ䮼 – ৘ᅜᴀߚ māor zhuō laˇ oshuˇ , goˇ u kān mén – gèshoˇ u běnf èn The cat catches mice and the dog guards the house – each doing his own thing. 136

2.13

Metaphorical allusion

✸⧗ᬒ೼⷇♄䞠 – 咥ⱑߚᯢ méiqiú f àngzai shíhuīli – hēibái f ēnmíng A lump of coal in the lime – distinctions as clear as black and white. 䮼㓱䞠ⳟ໽ – Ⳃ‫ܝ‬⣁ᇣ ménf èngli kàntiān – mùguāng xiáxiaˇ o Looking at the sky through a crack in the door – a narrow view of things. Ṻ䞠䆆ⱘ䆱 – ϡⶹᰃⳳᰃ‫؛‬ mèngli jiaˇ ngdehuà – bùzhī shìzhēn shìjiaˇ Something spoken in a dream – can’t tell if it’s true or false. ᓹࢦԯ – ュষᐌᓔ mílèfó – xiàokoˇ u chángkāi The Maitreya Buddha – always a big smile on the face. ㉇ㄯ㺙∈ – ⓣ⋲໮ mîˇshāi zhuāng shuîˇ – lòudòng duō Trying to carry water in a rice sieve – too many loopholes. ㉇∸⋫༈ – ㊞⍖ࠄ乊 mîˇtāng xîˇtóu – hútudàodîˇng A rice-gruel shampoo – the head is muddled. ẝ㢅ᾠᠧ哧 – ≵䷇ miánhuachúi daˇ guˇ – méi yīn Drumming with a cotton drumstick – not a sound. Used to describe a useless effort. ẝ㢅䞠㮣䩜 – ᶨЁ᳝߮ miánhuali cáng zhēn – róuzhōng yoˇ ugāng A needle in a wad of cotton – soft on the outside, tough inside. ᑭЁⱘѨⱒ㔫∝ – ৘᳝৘ⱘϔᅮⱘഄԡ miàozhōngde wuˇ baˇ i luóhàn – gè yoˇ u gède yídìngde dìwei Five hundred Arhat statues in the temple – a place for everyone and everyone in his place. ⊹㦽㧼䖛⊇ – 㞾䑿䲒ֱ nípúsa guòhé – zìshēn nánbaˇ o A clay Buddha trying to cross the river – can hardly save himself, much less others. Used to explain that “I’d love to be able to help you, but you see I’m . . .” 㙝ࣙᄤᠧ⢫ – ᳝এ᮴ಲ ròubāozi daˇ goˇ u – yoˇ uqù wúhuí A meat bun thrown at a dog – an irretrievable loss. Used to describe an investment of resources for which there surely will be no return – a wasted use of resources.

137

2 Vocabulary and usage

࿗࿗ⳟ儨ᴃ – 㥿ᯢ݊཭ wáwa kàn móshù – mòmíngqímiào Baby watching a magic show – not a clue what’s going on. ࿗࿗健᳼偀 – ϡ䖯ϡ䗔 wáwa qí mùmaˇ – bújìn bútuì Baby riding a hobbyhorse – neither progressing nor regressing. ࿗࿗ϟẟ – 㛌᮴ܼሔ wáwa xiàqí – xiōngwúquánjú Baby playing chess – no long-range plan in mind. ℾ䫙䜡᠕♊ – ϔ༫䜡ϔ༫ wāiguō pèi biaˇ nzào – yítào pèi yítào Slanted frying-pan on a lopsided stove – a perfect fit. ℾఈ੠ᇮᗉ㒣 – 䇈ϡߎϔহℷ㒣䆱 wāizuîˇ héshang niànjīng – shuōbuchū yíjù zhèngjinghuà A crooked-mouth monk chanting scriptures: can’t get a straight line out of him. 㔥䞠ⱘ剐ㄐЁⱘ右 – 䎥ϡњ waˇ nglîˇde yú, lóngzhōngde niaˇ o – paˇ obuliaˇ o A fish in the net, a bird in the cage – no way to escape. ⥟ϗⱘ‫ܘ‬ᓳ – ⥟ܿ Wáng Qī de xiōngdi – Wáng Bā Wang Number Seven’s younger brother = Wang Number Eight = a turtle = a bastard. ೈⴔ☿♝ৗ㽓⪰ – ᖗϞ⫰ϱϱ䑿Ϟᱪ⚬⚬ wéizhe huoˇ lú chīxīguā – xīnshang tiánsīsī, shēnshang nuaˇ nhōnghōng Eating watermelon by the stove – feeling sweet inside, and warm outside. 㱞ᄤূ㦽㧼 – 䅸䫭њҎ wénzi dīng Púsa – rèncuòle rén Mosquito bites a Buddha – misrecognized the person. Used to describe an ill-advised attack on a benevolent personage. 㱞ᄤ亲䖛㛑䅸݀↡ – དⴐ࡯ wénzi f ēiguò néngrèn gōngmuˇ – haˇ o yaˇ nlì Able to tell the sex of a mosquito flying by – good eyesight. Discerning eyes. 㱞ᄤᡒ㳬㲯 – 㞾ᡩ㔫㔥 wénzi zhaˇ o zhīzhu – zìtóu luówaˇ ng Mosquito hunting for a spider – looking for a trap to fall into. One voluntarily falls in a trap. ሟ乊Ϟⱘ⥟ܿ – Ϟϡⴔ໽ϟϡⴔഄ wūdîˇngshangde wángba – shàngbuzháo tiān, xiàbuzháo dì 138

2.14

Onomatopoeia

A turtle on the rooftop – can’t climb any higher and can’t climb back down. In a quandary. 㳜㱷ৗ㴢ᄤ – ҹ↦ᬏ↦ wúgōng chī xiēzi – yîˇdúgōngdú Centipede eating a scorpion – fighting poison with poison. Tit for tat. ሟ⁤ϟ䒆䲼 – ϡ䭓Й wūyánxià duoˇ yuˇ , bùchángjiuˇ Avoid rain under the eaves – not long. Ducking under the eaves in the rain – this won’t last long.

2.14

Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia, ᢳໄ䆡nîˇshēngcí, is a word or string of syllables that imitates the sound it is describing. Examples in English are: “bang,” “clang,” “oink,” “arf, arf,” and “meow, meow.” Such expressions are used more commonly by Chinese speakers than by English speakers.

2.14.1

2.14.2

Animal sounds ੅੅

guāguā

੐ర੐ర

hūlūhūlū

ૻૻ ৑৑இஇ ੾੾

jījī jījīzhāzhā mīmī

உ ੽੽ ∾∾ வவ

miāo miēmiē wāngwāng wēngwēng

୨୨ ਅਅ

wōwō zīzī

ਅਅ

zhīzhī

quack-quack, croak-croak, cawcaw snorting sound of a pig; sound of snoring sound of a monkey chattering chirping, twittering sound “here, kitty-kitty” (sound used to call a cat) meow baa-baa (sound of a sheep) bow-wow, arf-arf (barking sound) buzz-buzz (sound of a mosquito flying) cock-a-doodle-doo peeping sound of a mouse; chirping of a bird creaking sound

Human, inanimate, and mechanical sounds ৻஦৻஦ ূᔧ

bādābādā dīngdāng

੮੮

dōngdōng

chit-chatty clinking sound, tinkling sound thump-thump-thump, sound of drums 139

2 Vocabulary and usage

2.14.3

2.15

௳௳

dūdū

௢ਅ௢ਅ

gāzhīgāzhī

੩ర੩ర

gūlūgūlū

䕄䱚

hōnglōng

੐੐ ફ଺

hūhū huālā

ફ଺ફ଺

huālāhuālā

ફ଺଺ ৑䞠੩ర

huālālā jīlīgūlū

৑䞠੅଺ ࡜䞠ା଺ Ц䳊Чୋ ЦЧ

jīlīguālā pīlīpālā pīnglingpānglāng pīngpāng

ᠥ䗮

pūtōng

亩亩 ⎙≹ફ଺

sōusōu xīlihuālā

௬ ⠭⠭

xū! yāyā

toot-toot (the sound of a horn) crunching sound, creaking sound gurgle, gurgle (sound of liquid pouring out of a vessel, or stomach growling) sound of thunder, machinery, or artillery soughing sound of wind the sound of crashing or rustling crashing sound, splashing sound, sound of heavy rainfall crashing sound gabble-gabble (incessant talking) hullabaloo cracking or crackling sound banging and clanging sound of gunfire, sound of a ping-pong ball kerplunk (sound of something falling into water) soughing sound of the wind rustling sound, splashing sound; swish, swish shh! hush! hissing sound babbling (of a baby)

Other onomatopoeic expressions ੥ ়੩ ୟୟϡӥ ੅੅ি ੩ర੩ర

dā dáogu diédiébùxiū guāguājiào gūlūgūlū

੩઱ જજュ ュજજ

gūnong hāhā xiào xiàohāhā

gee-up, giddup grumble incessant chattering tip-top, top knotch grumble; sound of stomach growling grumble to laugh out loud laughing (out loud)

Mimetopoeia Mandarin speakers make much use of imitative sounds in ordinary conversation. Speech sounds that imitate other sounds are called “onomatopoeia,” and these are such English expressions as “bang,”

140

2.15

Mimetopoeia

“burp” or “guzzle.” There is another kind of imitative speech, which we might call “mimetopoeia,” ᢳᗕ䆡nîˇtàicí, which imitates not sounds, but mannerisms, airs, or “vibes” of people, animals, and even inanimate objects or weather. We have a few mimetopoeic words in English, like “higgledy-piggledy” and “helter-skelter,” but far fewer than we find used in everyday Chinese speech. Selected examples follow: ໻ϡ੻੻ ♄ϡ⑰϶ ‫ޝ‬亩亩 ᜶㝒㝒 䗋䗋㊞㊞

dàbuliēliē huībuliūdiū liángsōusōu màntēngtēng mímihūhū

⺼⺼䑁䑁

mómócèngcèng

㫿ϡૻૻ ᡁᡁᤣᤣ

niānbujījī niuˇ niuniēniē

㚪੮੮ 㚪௳௳ ϗ৅༌ঝ

pàngdōngdōng pàngdūdū qīchīkuāchā

‫ڏ‬ТТ ⯺Ԋҗ ュ੉੉ ュજજ ュ੾੾ ュఏఏ ュ৳৳ ᨛᨛᰗᰗ Ⳉϡἲన

shaˇ hūhū shòulíngdīng xiàohēhē xiàohāhā xiàomīmī xiàoxīxī xiàoyīnyīn yáoyáohuànghuàng zhíbulēngdēng

casual, careless; arrogant very grey, dreary chilly (in a wind) ever so slow dazed, confused, muddleheaded walk dragging the feet, slow and tardy (of a person) in low spirits diffident(ly), timorous(ly), unwillingly fat, chubby fat, plump doing something at a whizzing speed simple-minded, naive skinny as a rail smilingly, laughing happily happily laughing aloud smilingly, with a gentle smile smilingly, with a smile smilingly, with a dainty smile wobbly, falteringly straight as an arrow

There is an interesting category of colloquial adjectival expression, which is composed of neither ordinary adjectives nor clearly imitative supplements, but which share some of the feeling of mimetopoeic expressions. In this type of expression, we may take an adjective such as “‫ڏ‬shaˇ , silly,” “ೳ tuˇ , rustic,” or “㉫cū, coarse,” reduplicate it (‫ ڏڏ‬shaˇ shaˇ ,ೳೳ tuˇ tuˇ ˈ㉫㉫ cūcū), and add a “䞠li, used as a filler” after the first syllable and a “⇨qì, air, atmosphere, manner” after the repeated syllable, to form the expressions‫ڏ‬䞠‫ڏ‬ ⇨ shaˇ lishaˇ qì, ೳ䞠ೳ⇨ tuˇ lituˇ qì, and㉫䞠㉫⇨ cūlicūqì, adding a “physical feel” to the simple adjective. A somewhat similar pattern is seen when we take a disyllabic adjective like “㊞⍖hútu, muddleheaded” or “ᜠᓴhuāngzhang, flurried, flustered,” add a “䞠li” after the first syllable and repeat the original word to form “㊞䞠㊞ ⍖ húlihūtū” and “ᜠ䞠ᜠᓴ huānglihuāngzhāng,” making it more colorful than the original adjective. 141

2 Vocabulary and usage

2.16

Riddles Riddling has been a favorite pastime of Chinese speakers for many centuries. There are riddles of all kinds. Guessing the answers to riddles, 䇰䇁míyuˇ , is a popular game at festive gatherings, often at dinner parties, where the first person to answer a riddle correctly may receive a prize. There are also many different kinds of riddles involving Chinese characters. Usually they are closely connected with (1) the shape, (2) the constituent elements, (3) the pronunciation, or (4) the meaning of a Chinese character. Following are samples of riddles that illustrate the four types of riddle involving Chinese characters mentioned above and samples of other types of riddles:

(1)

Riddles referring to the shape of Chinese characters: Riddle:

䖰ⳟԐ៥⠍ˈ䖥ⳟ䴲៥⠍ˈ㜅ϟᐑᄤⳟˈⳳⱘᰃ៥⠍ yuaˇ nkàn sì woˇ diē, jìnkàn f ēi woˇ diē, tuōxia màozi kàn, zhēndeshì woˇ diē.

From a distance, it looks like my dad; on closer look, it’s not my dad; taking off the hat, I see it really is my dad. Answer:䇰ᑩ mîˇ dîˇ:Ѹ jiāo, cross over, give over, intersect Explanation: The character Ѹ, originally a pictograph of a person with legs crossed, is composed of two elements: the top part being “Ѵ lid, cover” and the bottom being “⠊f ù, father.” From a distance, the character does indeed resemble “⠊,” but upon closer examination it is not “⠊” but “Ѹ.” If, however, the “hat,” i.e., the “lid” or “cover” element on top is removed, the character is indeed “⠊,” or “father.” (2)

Riddles referring to the constituent elements of Chinese characters: Riddle:

㉇㗕哴 mîˇ laˇ o shuˇ Mickey Mouse

Answer:㉑zîˇ, seed Explanation: The character㉑is composed of two structural elements – “㉇” meaning “rice” but pronounced “mîˇ,” which represents the sound of “Mickey,” and “ᄤ,” which means “child” or “son,” but is also the first of the “Twelve Earthly Branches, ഄ ᬃ dìzhī,” representing the “mouse” or “rat” among the “Twelve Zodiacal Animals, कѠ⫳㙪 shí’èr shēngxiào.” Therefore ㉇㗕哴 alludes to “mîˇ + mouse” = “㉑.” Riddle:

∈㨑⷇ߎ shuîˇ luò shí chū When the river waters recede, the rocks will emerge.

Answer:⋉bèng, pump 142

2.16

Riddles

Explanation: The proverb “When the river waters recede, the rocks will emerge,” means that “conditions will evolve so that the truth will be seen.” The character ⋉ is composed of the character for “water∈” below the character for “rock⷇,” which together form the word for “pump⋉.” Riddle:

Ҏ᳝ᅗ໻໽᮴ᅗ໻ rén yoˇ utā dà, tiān wútā dà With it, a person becomes great; without it, heaven becomes great.

Answer:ϔ yī, one Explanation: The answer being “one,ϔ” (a horizontal stroke). If a person, Ҏ, has “it” (ϔ), then “person,Ҏ” becomes “great, ໻” ; if “Heaven, ໽” lacks “it” (ϔ), then “Heaven,໽” becomes “great,໻.” (3)

Riddles referring to the pronunciation of Chinese characters (often a pun): Riddle:

ㄐЁП右 lóng zhōng zhī niaˇ o A caged bird

Hint: ೑ৡ guómíng, name of a country. Answer: फ䴲Nánf ēi, South Africa (pun: from 䲒亲 nán f ēi, “hard to fly”) Explanation: A bird in a cage finds it hard to fly, 䲒亲. The character ”䲒” is homophonous with the character for “south, फ nán,” while “亲 f ēi” is homophonous with “䴲 f ēi,” the first syllable of “䴲⌆ F ēizhōu, Africa.” Therefore, “hard to fly” is the same pronunciation as the abbreviated reference to “South Africa.” Riddle:

䞥䫊䪰䪕 jīn yín tóng tiě gold, silver, copper, iron

Hint:ഄৡ dìmíng, place name in China Answer: ᮴䫵Wúxī, a city not far from Shanghai Explanation: “䞥䫊䪰䪕䫵jīn yín tóng tiě xī, gold, silver, copper, iron and tin “ is a set phrase in Chinese, referring to “the Five Metals.” If we say only “gold, silver, copper, iron,” then “tin” is missing, i.e., “there is no tin.” The characters for the city of Wúxī mean “without tin.” (4)

Riddles referring to the meaning of Chinese characters: Riddle:

ঠ୰Ј䮼 shuāng xîˇ lín mén Double Happiness arrives at the door.

143

2 Vocabulary and usage

Hint:ഄৡdìmíng, a place name Answer: 䞡ᑚ Chóngqìng, a city in Sichuan Province Explanation: The character “䞡 chóng ” means “repeated” or “doubled,” and “ᑚ qìng ” means “felicitations” or “celebrations.” (5)

Some other types of riddles: Riddle: Ꮊϔ⠛ˈেϔ⠛ˈϸ⠛ϰ㽓ϡ㾕䴶DŽ zuoˇ yípiàn, yòuyípiàn, liaˇ ngpiàn dōng xī bújiànmiàn. One on the left; one on the right. They are just east and west of each other, but they never meet. Answer: ears, 㘇ᴉěrduo Riddle:

Ϟ䖍↯ˈϟ䖍↯ˈЁ䯈ϔ乫咥㨵㧘DŽ shàngbian máo, xiàbian máo, zhōngjiān yìkē hēipútao. Hairs above, hairs below, and a dark grape in between.

Answer: eye, ⴐ⴯yaˇ njing Riddle:

ѨϾ‫ܘ‬ᓳˈԣ೼ϔ䍋ˈৡᄫϡৠˈ催ⷂϡ唤DŽ wuˇ ge xiōngdì, zhùzai yìqîˇ, míngzi bùtóng, gāo’aˇ i bùqí. Five brothers, living together: different names and different heights.

Answer: fingers, ᠟ᣛ༈shoˇ uzhítou Riddle:

咏ሟᄤˈ㑶Ꮴᄤˈ䞠䴶തϾⱑ㚪ᄤDŽ máwūzi, hóngzhàngzi, lîˇmian zuò ge báipàngzi. a pock-marked room, a red bed-curtain, sitting inside is a white chubby person.

Answer: peanut kernel, 㢅⫳㉇huāshēng mîˇ

2.17

Tongue twisters Following are a few examples of commonly heard tongue twisters, 㒩ষҸ ràokoˇ ulìng, which are Chinese parallels to the English “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper”: ཛྷཛྷ健偀偀᜶ཛྷཛྷ偖偀 māma qímaˇ , maˇ màn, māma mà maˇ . Mother rides a horse; the horse is slow; mother curses the horse. ಯᰃಯकᰃककಯᰃकಯಯकᰃಯक sì shi sì, shí shi shí, shísì shi shísì, sìshí shi sìshí Four is four, ten is ten, fourteen is fourteen, forty is forty. 㗕⷇੠㗕৆໽໽এ݀ৌϔⳈᰃৠџ laˇ o Shí he laˇ o Shîˇ, tiāntiān qù gōngsī, yìzhí shi tóngshì Old Shí and old Shîˇ, go to the same company every day, have always been colleagues.

144

2.18

Colors

㗕⷇㗕ᰃ偫㗕৆㗕৆䇈㗕⷇ᅲ೼ϡ㗕ᅲ laˇ o Shí laˇ oshi piàn laˇ o Shîˇ, laˇ o Shîˇ shuō, laˇ o Shí shízài bù laˇ oshí Old Shí always tricks old Shîˇ. Old Shîˇ says: Old Shí is truly dishonest. ϔϾ໻႖ᄤϔϾ໻ᇣᄤ໻႖ᄤ੠໻ᇣᄤ↨䌯ࣙ低ᄤ yíge dàsaˇ ozi, yíge dàxiaˇ ozi, dàsaˇ ozi hé dàxiaˇ ozi, bîˇsài bāojiaˇ ozi A woman, a guy: the woman and the guy have a dumplingmaking match. ໻႖ᄤࣙⱘ低ᄤজ໻জ໮জདৗ໻ᇣᄤࣙⱘ低ᄤজᇣ জᇥজ䲒ৗ dàsaˇ ozi bāode jiaˇ ozi, yòudà yòuduō yòuhaˇ ochī, dàxiaˇ ozi bāode jiaˇ ozi, yòuxiaˇ o yòushaˇ o yòunánchī. The dumplings the woman makes are big, numerous, and delicious. The dumplings the guy makes are small, few, and taste awful. ϔা䴦㲭ϔᓴఈ, ϸাⴐ⴯ಯᴵ㝓, ᠥ䗮ϔໄ䏇ϟ∈, yìzhī qīngwā yìzhāngzuîˇ, liaˇ ngzhī yaˇ njing sìtiáo tuîˇ, pūtōng yìshēng tiàoxiashuîˇ One frog, one mouth, two eyes, and four legs: splash! It jumps into the water. ϸা䴦㲭ϸᓴఈ, ಯাⴐ⴯ܿᴵ㝓, ᠥ䗮ᠥ䗮ϸໄ䏇ϟ∈ liaˇ ngzhī qīngwā liaˇ ngzhāngzuîˇ, sìzhī yaˇ njing bātiáo tuîˇ, pūtōng pūtōng liaˇ ng shēng tiàoxiashuîˇ. Two frogs, two mouths, four eyes, and eight legs: splash! splash! They jump into the water. ϝা䴦㲭ϝᓴఈ, ݁াⴐ⴯कѠᴵ㝓, ᠥ䗮ᠥ䗮ᠥ䗮ϝໄ䏇ϟ ∈ sānzhī qīngwā sānzhāngzuîˇ, liùzhī yaˇ njing shí’èrtiáo tuîˇ, pūtōng pūtōng pūtōng sānshēng tiàoxiashuîˇ. Three frogs, three mouths, six eyes, and twelve legs: splash! splash! splash! They jump into the water.

2.18

Colors For the Chinese, red is an auspicious color but white is an inauspicious color. Green is a very good color now because it implies environmental friendliness. Some basic color words are monosyllabic: 㑶 咘 㪱 ⱑ 咥

hóng huáng lán bái hēi

red yellow blue white black 145

2 Vocabulary and usage

㓓 ㋿ ♄

lü` zîˇ huī

green purple grey

The above colors can be modified by ⏅ shēn, dark, deep, or ⌙ qiaˇ n, light/⎵ dàn, light, to make them a darker or lighter shade. Other colors are disyllabic: ໻㑶 ㉝㑶 ᵷ㑶 ḗ㑶 ‬㑶 ㉇咘 ᴣ咘 䞥咘 㖴㪱 ᅱ㪱 ໽㪱 䴯㪱 㤝㓓 㖴㓓 Ⴝ㓓 䴦㓓

dàhóng fěnhóng zaˇ ohóng táohóng júhóng mîˇhuáng xìnghuáng jīnhuáng cuìlán baˇ olán tiānlán diànlán caˇ olü` cuìlü` nènlü` qīnglü`

scarlet, bright pink, rosy burgundy peach, pink orange beige, cream apricot, pinkish yellow golden, golden yellow bright blue sapphire blue azure, sky blue indigo, indigo blue grass green jade green, emerald green light green, soft green dark green

Some colorful differences:

Same things expressed with different colors in English and Chinese: Black tea Black and blue

Blue blood Blue movies Brown bread Brown sugar Green-eyed, green with envy

㑶㤊 hóngchá, red tea 䴦ϔഫ㋿ϔഫ qīngyíkuài zîˇyíkuài, a patch of blue and a patch of purple 䌉ᮣ㸔㒳guìzú xuètoˇ ng, noble clan blood 咘㡆⬉ᕅ huángsè diànyîˇng, yellow movies 咥䴶ࣙ hēimiànbāo, black bread 㑶㊪ hóngtáng, red sugar ⴐ㑶 yaˇ nhóng, eyes are red; ᆇ㑶ⴐ⮙ hài hóngyaˇ nbìng, infected with red-eye disease

Phrases with color in English, but equivalent phrases in Chinese have no color:

Black sheep

146

䋹ᆊᄤbàijiāzîˇ, children who ruin the family;ᆇ㕸П偀 hàiqúnzhīmaˇ , horses who ruin the herd

2.18

Greenhorn

Greenhouse Green thumb Grey matter In a blue mood Once in a blue moon

Out of the blue In the black Lily-livered or yellow-bellied person Pink slip In the red Not a red cent Red-letter day Red tape Roll out the red carpet

White elephant

White lies

White sale Yellow pages

Colors

⫳᠟shēngshoˇ u, new hand; ≵ 㒣偠ⱘҎméijīngyande rén, a person without experience ⏽ᅸ wēnshì, warm room ᳝ು㡎ᡔ㛑yoˇ u yúanyì jìnéng, having gardening skills ໻㛥 dànaˇ o,brain; ᱎ࡯zhìlì, intelligence ᚙ㒾Ԣ≝qíngxù dīchén, emotions are low ग䕑䲒䗶ⱘᴎӮ qiānzaˇ i nánféngde jīhui, a chance in a thousand years ᛣᛇϡࠄⱘ yìxiaˇ ng búdàode, unexpected 䌶߽yínglì, profit 㚚ᇣ儐 daˇ nxiaˇ oguîˇ, coward 㾷䲛䗮ⶹ jiěgù tōngzhī, firing notice ѣᤳkuīsuˇ n, loss ϡৡϔ᭛ bùmíng yìwén, not having one cent to one’s name ໻୰ⱘ᮹ᄤ dàxîˇde rìzi, great happy day ⚺⧤ⱘџ fánsuoˇ de shì, tedious things 䱚䞡⃶䖢䌉ᆒ lóngzhòng huānyíng guìbīn, welcoming honored visitors in a grand manner ᯖ䌉᮴⫼ⱘϰ㽓 ángguì wúyòngde dōngxi, expensive and useless things ᮴ᙊᛣⱘ䇢㿔 wú èyìde huaˇ ngyán, lies without any evil intentions ໻‫ޣ‬Ӌ dàjiaˇ njià, big reduction in prices ߚ㉏⬉䆱㈓ f ēnlèi diànhuàbù, classified telephone book

Phrases with no color in English, but with color in Chinese:

Boiled water

Dividend

ⱑᓔ∈bái kāishuîˇ, white boiled water, plain boiled water 㑶߽ hónglì, red profit 147

2 Vocabulary and usage

Enjoy extreme popularity and fame

Funeral Go-between (female), matchmaker (female) Good luck To be a cuckold (said of married men)

Wedding Weddings and funerals

2.19

㑶ᕫথ㋿ hóngdef āzîˇ, so red it is turning purple ⱑџbáishì, white event 㑶࿬hóngniáng, red lady 㑶䖤 hóngyùn, red fortune ᠈㓓ᐑᄤdài lü` màozi, to wear a green hat 㑶џ hóngshì, red event 㑶ⱑ୰џhóngbái xîˇshì, red and white happy events

Opposites Opposites are always expressed in the following order, and never in reverse. For example: 㚪 pàng – ⯺ shòu, ໻dà – ᇣxiaˇ o, etc. ᚆ bēi, sad 䭓 cháng, long ㉫ cū, thick (circumference) ໻ dà, large, big, older (age) ऩ dān, single ࡼdòng, moving ໮ duō, many, much 㙹féi, fat (animal, meat) ᑆgān, dry 催gāo, high 催gāo, tall དhaˇ o, good 咥hēi, black ८hòu, thick ੐hū, breathe out ᓔkāi, open; turn on ુkū, cry ᖿkuài, fast ᆑkuān, wide 㗕laˇ o, old (age) ‫ދ‬lěng, cold 䞠lîˇ, inside

148

୰ xîˇ, joyful ⷁduaˇ n, short (not for people’s height) 㒚 xì, thin (circumference) ᇣ xiaˇ o, little, small, younger (age) ঠ shuāng, double 䴭jìng, still ᇥ shaˇ o, few, little ⯺  shòu, thin; lean (animal, meat) ⑓shī, wet Ԣdī, low ⷂaˇ i, short (person) ണhuài, bad ⱑ bái, white 㭘báo, thin ਌xī, breathe in ݇guān, close; turn off ュxiào, laugh ᜶màn, slow じzhaˇ i, narrow ᇥ shào, young (age) ⛁rè, hot (temperature) ໪wài, outside

2.19

фmaˇ i, buy 㕢měi, beautiful 䲒nán, difficult 㚪 pàng, fat (person) ࠡqián, front ᔎqiáng, strong ࢸqín, diligent 䕏qīng, light 䕃ruaˇ n, soft Ϟshàng, up, above ⏅shēn, deep; dark (color) ⫳shēng, live, life ᵒsōng, loose ໽tiān, heaven, sky Ⳉzhí, straight ‫ܜ‬xiān, first (in order) ᮄxīn, new Ꮊzuoˇ , left

Opposites

पmài, sell ϥchoˇ u, ugly ᯧyì, easy ⯺ shòu, thin (person) ৢhòu, back ᔅruò, weak ឦlaˇ n, lazy 䞡zhòng, heavy ⹀yìng, hard ϟxià, down, below ⌙qiaˇ n, shallow; light (color) ⅏sîˇ, die, death ㋻jîˇn, tight ഄdì, earth, land ᔃwān, winding, curved ৢhòu, next, last (in order) ᮻjiù, used েyòu, right

Some opposites can be combined to become nouns: 䭓ⷁ chángduaˇ n ㉫㒚 cūxì ໻ᇣ dàxiaˇ o ࡼ䴭dòngjing ໮ᇥ duōshaˇ o 㙹⯺féishòu 催Ԣgāodī 催ⷂgāo’aˇ i དണhaˇ ohuài 咥ⱑhēibái ८㭘 hòubáo ੐਌hūxī ᓔ݇kāiguān ᖿ᜶kuàimàn ᆑじkuānzhaˇ i фपmaˇ imai ࠡৢqiánhòu 䕏䞡qīngzhòng 䕃⹀ ruaˇ nyìng Ϟϟshàngxià ⫳⅏shēngsîˇ ⏅⌙shēnqiaˇ n

length thickness size movement amount, number size (of clothes); the proportion of fat and lean (of meat) height (of mountains, cliffs); sense of propriety height (persons, trees), stature good and bad (quality) black and white; right and wrong thickness (surfaces) breathing; to breathe switch speed width, breadth, size (of clothes) business, trade, transaction order (of lining up); around; from beginning to the end weight; relative importance the softness or hardness (of some object) high and low; old and young; from top to bottom; up and down life and death depth; shade (of color) 149

2 Vocabulary and usage

ᵒ㋻sōngjîˇn ໽ഄtiāndì ‫ৢܜ‬xiānhòu ᮄᮻxīnjiù Ꮊে zuoˇ yòu

2.20

degree of tightness, elasticity heaven and earth, the world, universe priority, order the newness (of something) around (for approximate number); control; to master

Figurative expressions Sometimes people like to use different words to express the same idea, that is, they may use “figurative” terms, ྨဝ䇁wěiwaˇ nyuˇ or 䱤䇁yîˇnyuˇ . These terms are used to say things in a roundabout way, to avoid being too direct, to avoid embarrassment or to express things in a more colorful manner. “Death or to die, ⅏ s has to be the most widely tabooed word, and there are about 500 different ways of saying “s in Chinese without actually using the word. The following are samples of figurative expressions: English and Chinese

Figurative expression

argue

㑶㜌hóngliaˇ n, redden the face

ѝ䆎zhēnglùn, ਉᶊchaˇ ojià bathroom

ि⫳䯈wèishēngjiān, hygiene room

३᠔cèsuoˇ

⋫᠟䯈xîˇshoˇ ujiān, wash hand room ϔো yíhào, number one

blind ⵢxiā

༅ᯢshīmíng, lose brightness

brag, boast

਍⠯chuīniú, blow a cow

༌໻kuādà

䇈໻䆱 shuōdàhuà, speak big words

break up (a relationship)

਍chuī, to blow it

ߚ᠟ f ēnshoˇ u

䑀dēng, to kick ᦄ bāi, to break into two

change jobs ᤶऩԡhuàndānwèi

䏇ῑtiàocáo, to jump to another trough

chaperone (derogatory)

♃⊵dēngpào, light bulb

Ԉ䱣㗙bànsuízhě

⬉♃⊵diàndēngpào, electric light bulb

chase women, find a girlfriend

ங㳰xiùmì, sniff for honey

‥ˇ ren 䗑ཇҎ zhuīnu 150

2.20

Figurative expressions

commit suicide

ᇏⷁ㾕xúnduaˇ njiàn, seek short view

㞾ᴔzìshā

ᢍ㛪ᄤmoˇ bózi, slash neck 䕏⫳qīngshēng, make light of life ॠϪyànshì, sick of the world 㞾ሑzìjìn, self finish 㞾ᇏⷁ㾕zìxún duaˇ njiàn, self seek short view of life

cuckold (a man)

᠈㓓ᐑᄤdài lü` màozi (wear a green hat; in ancient times, such a person had to wear a green hat or turban)

ཌཛⱘϜ໿ jiānf ùde zhàngfu

Р啳 wūguī, tortoise

death, die

ᅝ⳴ānmián, peaceful sleep

⅏sîˇ

ᅝᙃānxī, peaceful rest ϡ೼њbúzàile, no longer here 䭓⳴chángmián, long sleep 䭓䗱chángshì, left forever 䕲Ϫcíshì, quit the world 䑀㝓dēngtuîˇ, kick legs ᮁ⇨duànqì, break off breath ᬙϪgùshì, pass away from the world ᔦ໽guītiān, return to heaven ᔦ㽓guīxī, return to the western heaven where paradise is 㻍ሌguoˇ shī, wrap up the corpse, to die on the battlefield 䖛এguòqu, pass away 㾕ϞᏱjiànshàngdì, to meet with God 㾕偀‫ܟ‬ᗱjiàn Maˇ kèsī, to meet with Karl Marx ᤤ䒃juānqū, donate one’s body to the country 151

2 Vocabulary and usage

≵Ϫmòshì, to disappear from the world ≵᳝њméiyoˇ ule, no more, no longer here ⍙Ⲭnièpán, death of a monk or nun ⇨㒱qìjué, breath terminated ᓗϪqìshì, abandon the world এqù, go, leave, depart এϪqùshì, go away from the world छ໽shēngtiān, rise up to heaven Ԍ㝓shēntuîˇ, stretch out legs 䗱Ϫshìshì, disappear from the world ᇓ㒜ℷᆱshòuzhōng zhèngqîˇn, finish life for a proper sleep ⥽‫ܓ‬ᅠwánrwán, finish playing ਰ੐ઔઝwūhu āizai, alas, how sad ⡎⡆xīshēng, sacrifice oneself for one’s country ⅝೑xùnguó, die for one’s country ⅝ᬭxùnjiào, die for religion ⅝ᚙxùnqíng, die for love ⅝㘠xùnzhí, die on duty ઑ⇨yànqì, swallow up the breath ༁䗱yāoshì, disappear young ༁ᡬyāozhé, broken young ϔ⮙ϡ䍋yíbìngbùq, once sick, never get up ∌߿yoˇ ngbié, part forever ∌䗱yoˇ ngshì, disappear forever ϢϪ䭓䕲yuˇ shì chángcí, bid farewell to the world forever 㩀䑿剐㝍zàngshēnyúf ù, buried in a fish belly 䍄њzoˇ ule, left, gone, departed 152

2.20

Figurative expressions

԰সzuòguˇ , become a person of the past deaf

㘇㚠ěrbèi, ear out of the way

㘟lóng

༅㘾shīcōng, lose faculty of hearing ༅਀shītīng, lose hearing

diarrhea

ᢝ㙮ᄤlādùzi, evacuate the tummy

⋏㙮xièdù

ᢝ⿔lāxī, evacuate watery 䯍㙮ᄤnào dùzi, belly stirs 䎥㙮ᄤpaˇ odùzi, belly runs

divorce

ߚ᠟f ēnshoˇ u, part hands

⾏ီlíhūn drug addict ਌↦㗙xīdúzhě

Ⱂ৯ᄤyîˇnjūnzîˇ, addicted personage

flirt (with women), to tease (women)

ৗ䈚㜤chī dòufu, eat beancurd (which is soft)

䇗ᚙtiáoqíng foolish, stupid person

ー㲟bèndàn, dumb egg

ーҎ bènren

㷶䋻chuˇ nhuò, dumb goods ѠⱒѨèrbaˇ iwuˇ , two hundred and fifty: no full understanding of things ‫⪰ڏ‬shaˇ guā, silly melon ‫ڏ‬ᐑ‫ܓ‬shaˇ màor, silly hat

foreigner

㗕໪laˇ owài, old outsider

໪೑Ҏwàiguorén funerals 㩀⼐zànglîˇ

ⱑџbáishì, white event (white is the color of mourning) ⱑ୰báixîˇ, white happiness, especially an old person’s funeral ৢџhòushì, event afterwards

go to the washroom

໻֓dàbiàn, big convenience

Ϟ३᠔shàng cèsuoˇ

ᮍ֓f āngbian, convenience 㾷᠟jiěshoˇ u, loosen hands ‫ޔ‬᠟jìngshoˇ u, clean hands এ⋫᠟qùxîˇshoˇ u, go wash hands

153

2 Vocabulary and usage

Ϟ⋫᠟䯈shàng xîˇshoˇ ujiān, go to the hand-washing room Ϟϔোshàngyíhào, go to number one ᇣ֓xiaˇ obiàn, small convenience have sex ᗻѸxìngjiāo

᠓џfángshì, bedroom business: husband and wife Ϟᑞshàngchuáng, go to bed ⴵ㾝shuìjiào, sleep ѥ䲼yúnyuˇ , clouds and rain ԰⠅zuò’ài, make love

homosexual

ৠᖫ tóngzhì, comrade

ৠᗻᘟtóngxìngliàn

‫ܓܨ‬tùr, rabbit

jealous

ৗ䝟chīcù, eat vinegar

ᖠསjìdu

ⴐ㑶 yaˇ nhóng, eyes red ⢃㑶ⴐ⮙f àn hóngyaˇ nbìng, suffer red eye disease ᆇ㑶ⴐ⮙hài hóngyaˇ nbìng, suffer red eye disease

lay off

ϟቫxiàgaˇ ng, leave sentry duty

㾷䲛 jiěgù lose one’s job, to be fired ༅Ϯshīyè

♦剓剐chaˇ oyóuyú, fry squid, fried squid (fried squids roll up like the bedroll a fired person has to carry) ⸌佁⹫záf ànwaˇ n, smash the rice bowl

make things difficult for Փϡᖿshîˇbúkuài (a subordinate)

こᇣ䵟chuān xiaˇ oxié, wear tight shoes

marriage

៤ᆊchéngjiā, establish home

ီ࿏hūnyīn,

໻џdàshì, great event

㒧ီjiéhūn

୰џxîˇshì, happy event 㒜䑿໻џzhōngshēn dàshì, great event of the whole life

154

menstruation, period

՟‫؛‬lìjià, regular holiday

᳜㒣yuèjīng

ᇣ᳟টxiaˇ opéngyou, little friend

old age

ⱑ佪báishoˇ u, white head

2.20

㗕ᑈlaˇ onián

Figurative expressions

㭘ᲂbómù, early evening ᳿ᲂmòmù, late evening ᲂ᱃mùjîˇng, evening scene Ϟᑈ㑾shàngniánji, move up in age 䳰থshuāngf à, frosted hair

pickpocket

ϝা᠟sānzhīshoˇ u, three hands

ᠦ᠟páshoˇ u pornographic movie 㡆ᚙ⬉ᕅsèqíng diànyîˇng

咘㡆⬉ᕅhuángsè diànyîˇng, yellow movie

pornographic video

↯⠛máopiān, fuzz film

㡆ᚙ⠛sèqíngpiān poor かqióng

ᧁϡᓔ䫙jiēbukāi guō, cannot open the cooking pot

poverty-stricken person かҎqióngrén

か‫ܝ‬㲟qióngguāngdàn, poor as a smooth egg ೄ䲒᠋kùnnánhù, difficult household

pregnant

ᢅ࿗࿗bào wáwa, hold baby

ᗔᄩhuáiyùn

ᗔ䑿huaíshēn, harbor a body ᗔ୰huáixîˇ, harbor happiness ᳝њ䑿ᄤyoˇ ule shēnzi, have a body ᳝୰yoˇ uxîˇ, have happiness

prison

䪕にtiěchuāng, iron window

ⲥ⣅jiānyù refused entry 㹿ᢦ䖯ܹbèijù jìnrù

ৗ䯁䮼㖍chī bìméngēng, eat closedoor soup

shoot the breeze, chat 䯆䇜xiántán

ⷡ໻ቅkaˇ ndàshān, chop big mountain 㘞໽liáotiānr, chat about the day 䯆⺩⠭xiánkēyá, leisurely click teeth

sick

ϡᅝbù’ān, not at ease

⮙bìng

ϡᖿbúkuài, not happy ϡ䗖búshì, not fit ϡ㟦᳡bùshūfu, not comfortable

155

2 Vocabulary and usage

⃴ᅝqiàn’ān, lack wellness ⃴⠑qiànshuaˇ ng, lack well-being thief 䌐zéi, ᇣًxiaˇ otōu

ṕϞ৯ᄤliángshàng jūnzîˇ, gentleman on the beams

tidy up someone else’s mess

᪺ሕ㙵cā pìgu, wipe bottom

ᬊᣒshōushi weddings ီ⼐hūnlîˇ

2.21

㑶џhóngshì, red event (red being the color of happiness)

Vulgar sayings and insulting words For cursing and/or insulting someone, besides the obvious direct insults, the Chinese speaker often resorts to cursing or insulting the person’s ancestors or casting doubt upon the legitimacy of that person’s lineage. Another way is to challenge that person’s sanity or moral fibre. Here are some examples: ー㲟 ߿⢫ⴐⳟҎԢ

bèndàn bié goˇ uyaˇ n kànrén dī

߿㺙‫ڏ‬

bié zhuāngshaˇ

᪡Դཛྷ ᪡Դ⼪ᅫ ਍⠯ ਚ༈ਚ㛥ⱘ ҔМᖋ㸠 ᬒሕ 䆹⅏ ⢫ሕ 叵Ꮘ Ҫཛྷⱘ ⥟ܿ

cào nîˇmā cào nîˇzuˇ zōng chuī niú dāitóu dāinaˇ ode shénme déxing f àngpì gāisîˇ goˇ upì jība tāmāde wángba

⥟ܿ㲟 ᳝⮙

wángbadàn yoˇ ubìng

stupid, dumb ass How dare you look down on me!, Do I look like a fool ? Stop playing the fool. Don’t act stupid. f ck your mother f ck your ancestors You’re bragging! dull, slow-witted disgusting, shameful fart, nonsense damn! damn it! dog fart, nonsense jerk, pr ck his mother’s, damn it turtle, a cuckolded husband turtle egg, bastard crazy, nuts

Some of these expressions are in four-character format: ϡᕫད⅏ ϡӺϡ㉏

156

bùdéhaˇ osîˇ bùlúnbúlèi

die a terrible death neither fish nor fowl

2.21

ϡᄺ᮴ᴃ ໻᚞ᇣᗾ

bùxuéwúshù dàjīngxi~oguài

ᇍ⠯ᔍ⨈ ໮ㅵ䯆џ 儐儐⼳⼳ དৗឦ‫خ‬

duìniútánqín duōguaˇ nxiánshì guîˇguîˇsuìsuì hàochīlaˇ nzuò

㚵䇈ܿ䘧

húshuōbādào

䙟䞠䙟䘶 ⣐ᖗ⢫㚎

lālilātā lángxīngoˇ uf èi

⣐⢜Ўཌ хϗܿ㊳ 㔫䞠㔫஺ ᯢⶹᬙ⢃

lángbèiwéijiān luànqībāzāo luōliluōsuō míngzhīgùf àn

㥿ৡ݊཭ ᮕ㢹᮴Ҏ

mòmíngqímiào pángruòwúrén

ቖ᳝ℸ⧚ ᛍᰃ⫳䴲 ໾䖛ߚњ 䋾ᕫ᮴ॠ ᣥᢼ⾏䯈 ᖗ⤓ᛣ偀 㸠ሌ䍄㙝

qíyoˇ ucîˇlîˇ rěshìshēngf ēi tàiguòf ènle tāndéwúyàn tiaˇ obōlíjiàn xīnyuányìmaˇ xíngshīzoˇ uròu

ᑌ♒Ф⽌

xìngzāilèhuò

জᗢМḋ

yòuzěnmeyàng

ᛮ᯻᮴ⶹ ᴖх᮴ゴ

yuˇ mèiwúzhī záluànwúzhāng

ᠻ䗋ϡᙳ

zhímíbúwù

㞾ℎℎҎ

zìqīqīrén

㞾⾕㞾߽ 㞾䅼㢺ৗ ԰㣻㞾㓮

zìsīzìlì zìtaˇ okuˇ chī zuòjiaˇ nzìf ù

‫خ‬䌐ᖗ㰮

zuòzéixīnxū

Vulgar sayings and insulting words

ignorant, not learned fuss over something small, a storm in a teacup cast pearls before swine busybody, meddler secretive, stealthy good for nothing, gluttonous and lazy talk nonsense, stuff and nonsense sloppy, slovenly wolf ’s heart and dog’s lungs: heartless in cahoots messy, chaotic, topsy-turvy fussy, nagging violate knowingly, do something wrong knowingly ridiculous, baffling So arrogant!, act as if no one else mattered sheer nonsense meddlesome That’s going too far! greedy, avaricious pit one against another restless, fickle-minded an utterly useless person, one who vegetates gloat over other people’s disasters So what? What are you going to do about it? stupid and ignorant without pattern or order, confused and disorderly refuse to come to one’s senses deceive oneself as well as others, self-deceit very selfish ask for trouble and get it caught in one’s own trap, stew in one’s own juice have a guilty conscience

157

2 Vocabulary and usage

2.22 Issues in translation We are not truly “competent” in a language until we can “think in it,” which means that we have formed the habit of using a “Chinese mindset” when engaging in Chinese discourse. To get there, we should aim to transcend thinking about what we want to say first in English, then translating the English into Chinese. Rather, we should aim to see situations and their relationships as Chinese-speaking people are expected to see them (this is what “culture” means in practice), and describe them or engage them as a Chinese speaker would. Remember, if we think in English, then directly translate what we think into equivalent Chinese words and grammatical structures, we may very well come across as saying or writing something totally inappropriate. Having said this, it is sometimes necessary to translate English and Chinese sentences back and forth – newspaper articles, journal articles, novels, poems, subtitles for films, consecutive or simultaneous interpreting for speeches, and other important and culturally significant forms. One of the first concerns must always be the “unit of translation,” that is, should one focus on words, phrases, sentences, or larger units of meaning? The classical philologist may well tell us to focus first on finding precisely equivalent words, then using equivalent grammatical structures in the target language, perhaps using footnotes to explain any difference in nuance, metaphorical reference, or subtle allusion. If the source text is modern fiction, poetry, drama, or feature film screenplay, perhaps the focus should be on “functional equivalence” or “pragmatic equivalence.” For example, the common phrase “ᰮᅝ waˇn ān” would be translated at the word level as “evening calm,” but its pragmatic equivalent would be “good night” (not “good evening,” which would be “waˇnshang haˇo!”). When one friend greets another for the first time in the morning with “Chīf ànle ma?,” the literal meaning of “Have you eaten?” should be rendered into its pragmatic equivalent: “Good morning! How are you?.” When considering fundamental strategies for translation, some people think in terms of polarities such as “domestication” (finding in the target language a functionally equivalent way of representing a foreign concept or object that does not exist in the target language) or “alienation” (using a direct translation or transliteration of the source language object or concept for which there is no functional equivalent in the target language). One common example might be the Chinese word/ thing/concept called “啭 lóng.” Mostly for the sake of convenience, we usually translate “啭 lóng” as “dragon,” since Euro-American mythic traditions do have a large reptile-like beast with four legs, a long neck and a long tail, but that is where the resemblance ends. The Western dragon usually has a pair of wings, may sometimes spout fire, may stand on the ground, and is often seen as a malevolent beast. The Chinese 啭lóng, however, usually resembles a huge snake 158

2.23 Transliteration vs. translation

with four short legs and sharp talons, no wings, always either in the air or in water, and is usually viewed as a benevolent power and a symbol of the emperor. The “domestication/alienation” issue here is whether there is enough similarity between the Euro-American “dragon” and the Chinese “lóng” to justify representing one as the other. The most commonly used Chinese–English and English– Chinese dictionaries define “dragon” as “lóng” and vice versa. Perhaps “Chinese dragon” would be an optimal accommodation. Specific examples such as “dragon” are too numerous to list here, but perhaps the following contrastive features of Chinese and English may be useful in the struggle to find pragmatic equivalence in translation: 1. Chinese speakers usually focus first on the forest, then on specific trees; English speakers often begin with specific details first, then broaden the focus. This sometimes poses a challenge for structuring a natural paragraph in the target language. 2. Chinese speakers tend to use more metaphorical expressions, such as proverbs, maxims, analogies, and allusions, than would be the norm for English speakers. This may require creative means to naturalize a passage in the target language. 3. Chinese utterances are often characterized by “parataxis,” in which the relationship between the surface elements of a sentence may be loose and unclear. Natural English utterances may be characterized by “hypotaxis,” in which greater importance is attached to the formal cohesion of sentence elements. Most Chinese people who know anything at all about translation theory know that the most often quoted rule for high-quality translation was proposed by Ϲ໡Yán F ù (1853–1921), one of the greatest translators of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. He wrote, in his Chinese translation of Evolution and Ethics, ໽ⓨ䆎Tiānyaˇ nlùn, that there are three fundamental challenges to overcome when translating: fidelity, ֵ xìn, to the source text; clarity, 䖒 dá, of the target text; and elegance, 䲙 yaˇ . Though highly abstract and generalized, Yan’s “three challenges” do seem to cover the main points that are still the subject of scholarly debate in the twenty-first century.

2.23 Transliteration vs. translation The process of “alienation-to-domestication” is clearly observable in the history of Chinese translation. As early as the medieval period of Chinese history, we see monumental translation projects undertaken to render the major Buddhist sutras into Chinese from their original Pali and Sanskrit texts. Extremely talented and disciplined translators came up with the following strategies for rendering foreign things, names, titles, and concepts into Chinese, all of which are still used 159

2 Vocabulary and usage

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

160

when dealing with neologisms from English and other languages. Roughly, they are: Pure transliteration: chocolate = Ꮋ‫࡯ܟ‬qiaˇ okèlì; clone = ‫ܟ‬䱚kèlóng; sofa = ≭থ shāf ā Part transliteration, part translation: beer = ସ䜦 pí (beer) jiuˇ (alcoholic beverage); AIDS = 㡒⒟⮙àizī (AIDS) bìng (illness) Pure translation: democracy = ⇥Џmín (people) zhuˇ (sovereign); web page = 㔥义 waˇ ng (web) yè (page) Transliteration with added meaning: Coca-Cola = ৃষৃФkěkoˇ u (delicious) kělè (enjoyable); PepsiCola = ⱒџৃФbaˇ ishì (all occasions) kělè (enjoyable) Inventing a new Chinese character for a new foreign term: germanium = 䫫 zhě; mendelevium = 䩨mén; radon = ⇵dōng.

3 Functional language

3.1 3.1.1

Proper names Surnames A Chinese name is expressed with the ྦྷ xìng, surname/last name/ family name, followed by the ৡmíng, personal/first/given name. A married woman usually keeps her own surname. Children usually inherit their father’s surname, although it is legal to take on their mother’s surname. And, indeed, some do take their mother’s surname. In 2006, a study which used the names of 296 million people of the entire 1.3 billion population, found that there are 4,100 surnames. It found that 129 surnames account for 87% of the whole population. The three most widely used surnames are ᴢ Lîˇ (7.4%), ⥟ Wáng (7.2%), and ᓴ Zhāng (6.8%). Most of the surnames are monosyllabic, ऩྦྷ dānxìng, but some are also disyllabic, ໡ྦྷfùxìng. Chinese usually ask other people’s names by first asking their surnames: ᙼ䌉ྦྷ˛Nín guìxìng? People normally respond by giving their surname: ៥ྦྷ X, Woˇ xìng X. Sometimes this may be followed by a verbal explanation or description of the character used for the surname by dividing it up into its constituent parts or by using a famous person’s surname as an illustration. Sometimes, people may use their index finger to write the character in the air or on their palm for people to see. The following are some major surnames and some examples of their conventional explanations. Ten major surnames: Character

Pinyin

Explanation

ᴢ

Lîˇ

᳼ mù ᄤ zîˇ ᴢ L

⥟

Wáng

ϝ sān ῾ héng ⥟ Wáng

ᓴ

Zhāng

ᓧgōng 䭓 cháng ᓴ Zhāng 161

3

Functional language

Character

Pinyin

Explanation

߬

Líu

߬ Líu ໛ Bèi de ߬ Líu

䰜

Chén

㘇 ěr ϰ dōng 䰜 Chén

ᴼ

Yáng

᳼ mù ᯧ yì ᴼ Yáng

咘

Huáng

咘 huáng 买㡆 yánsè de 咘 Huáng

䍉

Zhào

䍉 Zhào 䪅 Qián ᄭ Sūn ᴢ Lîˇ de 䍉 Zhào

਼

Zhōu

਼ᳱ Zhōucháo de ਼ Zhōu

ਈ

Wú

ষ koˇ u ໽ tiān ਈ Wú

Next ten surnames: ᕤ

Xú

ᄭ

Sūn

ᴅ

Zhū

偀

Maˇ

㚵

Hú

䛁

Guō

ᵫ

Lín

ԩ

Hé

催

Gāo

ṕ

Liáng

Double surnames:

162

݀ᄭ

Gōngsūn

⃻䰇

Ōuyáng

Ϟᅬ

Shàngguān

ৌ偀

Sīmaˇ

ৌᕦ

Sītú

㽓䮼

Xīmén

䇌㨯

Zhūgě

3.1

Proper names

Rare surnames:

3.1.2

∫

Hàn

㗕

Laˇ o

䲒

Nán

ᆓ

Sù

೒

Tú

ॅ

Wēi

ᆄ

Zaˇ i

Personal names There are no set Chinese personal or first names. Han Chinese personal names are usually either disyllabic, ঠৡ shuāngmíng, or monosyllabic, ऩৡ dānmíng. In the past half a century, there has been a tendency for more and more people to have monosyllabic personal names in China. This may increase the possibility of more people having the same names by coincidence. Traditionally, and still observed by some families, in disyllabic names, one of the characters is a generation name. Usually the first one is the generation name which all the children, especially males, will have, for example: ᆠ䌉 Fùguì, ᆠ⼹ Fùxiáng. Some may have the second as their generation name, for example: ᆠ⼹ Fùxiáng, 䌉⼹ Guìxiáng. Children are usually given names which have good meanings, or impressive words from classical writings. Generally speaking, males are given names which express or imply strength, high aspirations, glorification of the ancestors, or goodwill; female names express or imply gentleness, beauty, colors, or preciousness. In any case, people usually try to avoid a combination of surnames and personal names that could sound funny or ridiculous. For example: ਈ㛑 Wú Néng, which sounds like: ᮴㛑 wúnéng, meaning “incompetent,” or ਈ⧚ Wú Lîˇ which sounds like ᮴⧚ wúlîˇ, meaning “unreasonable.” It is almost a taboo to name children after their parents, relatives, ancestors, or friends. According to statistics, in 1984 the ten most frequently used characters appearing in first names were: 㣅 ढ ⥝ ⾔ ᯢ ⦡ ᭛

yīng huá yù xiù míng zhēn wén

flower, outstanding person magnificent, splendid jade, beautiful elegant, beautiful bright, brilliant precious, valuable civil, refined

163

3

Functional language

㢇 ݄ ೑ 3.1.3

fāng lán guó

fragrant, virtuous orchid nation, state

Continents The seven continents are:

3.1.4

Asia

Ѯ⌆

Yàzhōu

Africa

䴲⌆

Fēizhōu

North America

࣫㕢⌆

Běiměizhōu

South America

फ㕢⌆

Nánměizhōu

Antarctica

फᵕ⌆

Nánjízhōu

Europe

⃻⌆

Ōuzhōu

Oceania/Australia

໻⋟⌆ˋ▇⌆

Dàyángzhōu/Àozhou

Highest peaks in the world The following peaks are all over 8,000 meters high. Peak Everest K-2 Kangchenjunga Lhortse Makalu Cho Oyu Dhaulagiri Manaslu Manga Parbat Annapurna Gasherbrum I Broad Peak

164

Chinese ⦴〚ᳫ⥯ ዄ Шៜ䞠ዄ ᑆජゴ௝ ዄ ⋯ᄤዄ 偀व剕ዄ ध༹টዄ 䘧ᢝঢ়䞠 ዄ 偀ᢝᮃ剕 ዄ फԑዄ ᅝ㒇Ꮧᇨ 㒇ዄ ࡴ㟦ᇨᏗ 剕᳼,ዄ Ꮧ⋯䰓⡍ ዄ

Pinyin Zhūmùlaˇ ngmaˇ fēng

Location Nepal, Tibet

Qiáogélîˇfēng Gānchéngzhāngjiā fēng Luòzîˇfēng Maˇ kaˇ luˇ fēng Zhuó’àoyoˇ ufēng Dàolājílîˇfēng

Pakistan Nepal, India Nepal Nepal, Tibet Nepal, Tibet Nepal

Maˇ lāsīluˇ fēng

Nepal

Nángāfēng Ānnàbù’ěrnàfēng

Pakistan Nepal

Jiāshū’ěrbùluˇ mù I Fēng Bùluò’ātèfēng

China, Pakistan China, Pakistan

3.1

Peak Gasherbrum II

Chinese ࡴ㟦ᇨᏗ 剕᳼,,ዄ Xixiabangma Ꮰ໣䙺偀 Peak/Gosainthan ዄˋ催‫ڻ‬ Peak 䌲ዄ

3.1.5

3.1.6

Pinyin Jiāshū’ěrbùluˇ mù II Fēng Xīxiàbāngmaˇ fēng/ Gāosēngzànfēng

Proper names

Location Pakistan China, Nepal

Major mountain ranges in China Name

Chinese

Pinyin

Location

Himalayan Mountains

୰⥯ᢝ䲙ቅ㛝

Xîˇmaˇ lāyaˇ Shānmài

China, India, Nepal

Kunlun Mountains

ᯚҥቅ㛝

Kūnlún Shānmài

Pamir Plateau

Tianshan Mountains

໽ቅቅ㛝

Tiānshān Shānmài

Xinjiang

Tanggula Mountains

૤সᢝቅ㛝

Tángguˇ lā Shānmài

Qinghai, Tibet

Qinling Mountains

⾺ኁቅ㛝

Qínlîˇng Shānmài

Gansu

Greater Hinggan Mountains

໻݈ᅝኁቅ㛝

Dàxīng’ānlîˇng Shānmài

Heilongjiang

Taihang Mountains

໾㸠ቅቅ㛝

Tàiháng Shānmài

The Loess Plateau

Qilianshan Mountain Range

⼕䖲ቅቅ㛝

Qîˇliánshān Shānmài

Tibet

Hengduanshan Mountain Range

῾ᮁቅቅ㛝

Héngduànshān Tibet, Shānmài Sichuan, Yunnan

Taiwan Mountain Range

ৄ⑒ቅ㛝

Táiwān Shānmài

Taiwan

Oceans There are five oceans on earth. They cover about 70% of the earth’s surface and contain almost 97% of the earth’s water supply. The five oceans recognized since the year 2000 Pacific Ocean

໾ᑇ⋟

Tàipíngyáng

Atlantic Ocean

໻㽓⋟

Dàxīyáng 165

3

Functional language

3.1.7

Indian Ocean

ॄᑺ⋟

Yìndùyáng

Southern Ocean

फᵕ⋟ˋफ‫ބ‬ ⋟ˋफ໻⋟

Nánjíyáng/ Nánbīngyáng/ Nándàyáng

Arctic Ocean

࣫‫⋟ބ‬

Běibīngyáng

Seas It is said that there are ninety-five seas in the world. The table lists some of the better known seas: The better known seas

166

Aegean Sea

⠅⨈⍋

Aìqínhaˇ i

Andaman Sea

ᅝ䖒᳐⍋

Āndámànhaˇ i

Baltic Sea

⊶㔫ⱘ⍋

Bōluódìhaˇ i

Bering Sea

ⱑҸ⍋

Báilìnghaˇ i

Black Sea

咥⍋

Hēihaˇ i

Bohai Sea

⏸⍋

Bóhaˇ i

Caribbean Sea

ࡴࢦ↨⍋

Jiālèbîˇhaˇ i

Coral Sea

⦞⨮⍋

Shānhúhaˇ i

East China Sea

ϰ⍋

Dōnghaˇ i

Greenland Sea

Ḑᵫ݄⍋

Gélínlánhaˇ i

Gulf of Mexico

๼㽓હ⑒

Mòxīgēwān

Hudson Bay

䌿ᖋ䗞⑒

Hèdéxùnwān

Japan Sea

᮹ᴀ⍋

Rìběnhaˇ i

Mediterranean Sea

ഄЁ⍋

Dìzhōnghaˇ i

North Sea

࣫⍋

Běihaˇ i

Okhotsk Sea

䛖䳡⃵‫ܟ‬⍋

Èhuòcìkèhaˇ i

Red Sea

㑶⍋

Hónghaˇ i

South China Sea

फ⍋

Nánhaˇ i

Yellow Sea

咘⍋

Huánghaˇ i

3.1

3.1.8

Proper names

Major rivers in the world River

Chinese

Pinyin

Location

Nile

ሐ㔫⊇

Níluóhé

Africa

Amazon

Ѯ偀ᄭ⊇

Yàmaˇ sūnhé

South America

Changjiang/ Yangtze

䭓∳ˋᡀᄤ ∳

Chángjiāng/ Yángzîˇjiāng

China

Huanghe/ Yellow

咘⊇

Huánghé

China

Ob/Obi

䛖ढ⊇

Èhuáhé

Russia

Heilongjiang/ Amur

咥啭∳

Hēilóngjiāng

China

Lena

ࢦᣓ⊇

Lènáhé

Russia

Congo

߮ᵰ⊇

Gāngguoˇ hé

Africa

Mackenzie

偀᳈ѯ⊇

Maˇ gèngxiēhé

Canada

Mekong

␘݀⊇

Méigōnghé

Southeast Asia

Niger

ሐ᮹ᇨ⊇

Nírì’ěrhé

Africa

Yenisey

৊ሐา⊇

Yènísàihé

Russia

Parana

Ꮘᢝ䙷⊇

Bālānàhé

South America

Mississippi

ᆚ㽓㽓↨⊇

Mìxīxībîˇhé

USA

Missouri

ᆚ㢣䞠⊇

Mìsūlîˇhé

USA

Volga

ӣᇨࡴ⊇

Fú’ěrjiāhé

Russia

Purus

᱂剕ᮃ⊇

Puˇ luˇ sīhé

Brazil

Madeira

偀ҷ㜞⊇

Maˇ dàilàhé

Brazil

Yukon

㚆ぎ⊇

Yùkōnghé

Canada

Rio Grande

Ḑ݄ᖋ⊇

Gélándéhé

USA, Mexico

Brahmaputra

Ꮧᢝ偀᱂⡍ ᢝ⊇

Bùlāmaˇ puˇ tèlāhé

China, India

Indus

ॄᑺ⊇

Yìndùhé

Pakistan

Danube

໮⨭⊇

Duōnaˇ ohé

Germany

St. Lawrence

೷ࢇӺᮃ⊇

Shèngláolúnsīhé Canada

Euphrates

ᑐথᢝᑩ⊇

Yòufālādîˇhé

Turkey, Iraq, etc.

167

3

Functional language

3.1.9

River

Chinese

Pinyin

Location

Tigris

ᑩḐ䞠ᮃ⊇

Dîˇgélîˇsīhé

Turkey, Iran, Iraq

Ganges

ᘦ⊇

Hénghé

Himalayas

Saskatchewan

㧼ᮃ୔ߛ⏽ ⊇

Sāsīkāqièwēnhé

Canada

Don

乓⊇

Dùnhé

Russia

Peace

੠ᑇ⊇

Hépínghé

Canada

Rivers in China There are more than 1,500 rivers in China, each of which drains 1,000 or more square kilometers. The Changjiang River is the longest and the Huanghe River the second longest. The Zhujiang River is the longest in the south. The Changjiang River is also the third longest in the world. The table lists rivers longer than 1,000 kilometers: Rivers longer than 1,000 kilometers Changjiang River/ Yangtze River

䭓∳ˋᡀᄤ∳

Chángjiāng/ Yángzîˇjiāng

Huanghe River/ Yellow River

咘⊇

Huánghé

Heilongjiang River/ Amur River

咥啭∳

Hēilóngjiāng

Zhujiang River/Pearl ⦴∳ River

168

Zhūjiāng

Lancang River

╰≻∳

Láncāngjiāng

Talimu River

ศ䞠᳼⊇

Taˇ lîˇmùhé

Yaluzangbu River

䲙剕㮣Ꮧ∳

Yaˇ luˇ zàngbùjiāng

Nu River/Salween River

ᗦ∳

Nùjiāng

Songhua River/ Sungari River

ᵒ㢅∳

Sōnghuājiāng

Han River

∝∈

Hànshuîˇ

Yalong River

䲙⸏∳

Yaˇ lóngjiāng

Liao River

䖑⊇

Liáohé

3.1

3.1.10

Proper names

Yu River

䚕∳

Yùjiāng

Jialing River

௝䱉∳

Jiālíngjiāng

Hai River

⍋⊇

Haˇ ihé

Hetian River

੠⬄⊇

Hétiánhé

Nen River/Nonni River

Ⴝ∳

Nènjiāng

Dadu River

໻⏵⊇

Dàdùhé

Yuan River

≙∳

Yuánjiāng

Wu River

Р∳

Wūjiāng

Huai River

⏂⊇

Huáihé

Major lakes in the world Lake

Chinese

Pinyin

Location

Caspian Sea

䞠⍋

Lîˇhaˇ i

Russia, Iran

Superior

㢣ᖙ߽␪

Sūbìlìhú

USA, Canada

Victoria

㓈໮߽Ѯ␪

Wéiduōlìyàhú

Africa

Huron

ӥӺ␪

Xiūlúnhú

USA, Canada

Michigan

ᆚ㽓ḍ␪

Mìxīgēnhú

USA

Tanganyika

ഺ㨯ሐ୔␪

Taˇ ngěníkāhú

Africa

Baikal

䋱ࡴᇨ␪

Bèijiā’ěrhú

Russia

Great Bear

໻❞␪

Dàxiónghú

Canada

Nyasa

ሐѮ㧼␪

Níyàsāhú

Africa

Great Slave

໻཈␪

Dànúhú

Canada

Chad

Сᕫ␪

Zhàdéhú

Africa

Erie

Ӟ߽␪

Yīlìhú

USA, Canada

Winnipeg

⏽ሐԃ␪

Wēnníbóhú

Canada

Ontario

ᅝ໻⬹␪

Āndàluèhú

USA, Canada

Ladoga

ᢝ໮ࡴ␪

Lāduōjiāhú

Russia 169

3

Functional language

Lake

Chinese

Pinyin

Location

Oniga

༹⍙ࡴ␪

Àonièjiāhú

Russia

Titicaca

ⱘⱘ୔୔␪

Dìdìkākāhú

South America

Nicaragua

ሐࡴᢝ⪰␪

Níjiālāguāhú

Nicaragua

Athabaska

䰓ᩦᏈᮃव␪

Āsābāsīkaˇ hú

Canada

Tú’ěrkaˇ nàhú/ Lúduō’ěrf ūhú

Kenya

Turkana/Rudolf ೒ᇨव㒇␪ˋश ໮ᇨ໿␪

3.1.11

Reindeer

Ӻ䖾ᇨ␪

Lúndí’ěrhú

Canada

Eyre

඗ᇨ␪

Āi’ěrhú

South Australia

Urmia

Р㉇Ѯ␪

Wūmîˇyàhú

Iran

Vänern

㓈㒇ᘽ␪

Wéinà’ēnhú

Sweden

Great Salt

໻Ⲥ␪

Dàyánhú

USA

Qinghai

䴦⍋␪

Qīnghaˇ ihú

China

Lakes in China According to published statistics, there are around 2,600 lakes which are one square kilometer or over, in China. They include fresh and saltwater lakes. Some important lakes in China:

170

Name

Chinese

Pinyin

Province

Poyang Lake

䜅䰇␪

Póyánghú

Jiangxi

Dongting Lake

⋲ᒁ␪

Dòngtínghú

Hunan

Taihu Lake

໾␪

Tàihú

Jiangsu

Hongze Lake

⋾⋑␪

Hóngzéhú

Jiangsu

Lake Chaohu

Ꮆ␪

Cháohú

Anhui

Nantian Lake

फ⬄␪

Nántiánhú

Shandong

Lake Dianchi

⒛∴

Diānchí

Yunnan

Erhai Lake

⌅⍋

Ěrhaˇ i

Yunnan

Lake Jingpo

䬰⊞␪

Jìngpōhú

Heilongjiang

Sun Moon Lake

᮹᳜╁

Rìyuètán

Taiwan

3.1

3.1.12

Proper names

Name

Chinese

Pinyin

Province

Qinghai Lake/ Koko Nor

䴦⍋␪

Qīnghaˇ ihú

Qinghai

Namtso Lake

㒇᳼䫭

Nàmùcuò

Tibet

Lake Honghu

⋾␪

Hónghú

Hubei

West Lake

㽓␪

Xīhú

Zhejiang

Countries and their capitals Depending on the point of view and who is counting, the number of countries in the world may range from 186 to well over 200. The more accurate number, however, is believed to be 193, that is, 192 members of the United Nations plus Vatican City. The following table includes most of the countries.

Asia

Ѯ⌆

Yàzho¯u

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Afghanistan

䰓ᆠ∫

Āfùhàn

Kabul

୔Ꮧᇨ

Kābù’ěr

Azerbaijan

䰓าᢰ⭚

Āsàibàijiāng

Baku

Ꮘᑧ

Bākù

Bangladesh

ᄳࡴᢝ೑

Mèngjiālāguó

Dacca

䖒व

Dákaˇ

Bhutan

ϡЍ

Bùdān

Thimphu

ᓋᏗ

Tíngbù

Brunei

᭛㦅

Wénlái

Bandar Seri Begawan

ᮃ䞠Ꮘࡴ⑒ Ꮦ

Sīlˇî bājiāwān shì

Burma/ Myanmar

㓙⬌

Miaˇndiàn

Rangoon

ӄ‫ܝ‬

Yaˇ ngguāng

Cambodia

᷀ඨᆼ

Jiaˇ npuˇ zhài

Phnom Penh

䞥䖍

Jīnbiān

China

Ё೑

Zhōngguó

Beijing

࣫Ҁ

Běijīng

Georgia

Ш⊏Ѯ

Qiáozhìyà

Tbilisi

ᦤ↨䞠㽓

Tíbˇî lˇî xī

India

ॄᑺ

Yìndù

New Delhi

ᮄᖋ䞠

Xīndélˇî

Indonesia

ॄᑺሐ㽓Ѯ

Yìndùníxīyà

Djakarta

䲙ࡴ䖒

Yaˇ jiādá

Japan

᮹ᴀ

Rìběn

Tokyo

ϰҀ

Dōngjīng

Kazakstan

वᠢ‫ܟ‬ᮃഺ

Kaˇ zhákèsītaˇ n

Astana

䰓ᮃഺ㒇

Āsītaˇ nnà

Korea (South)

䶽೑

Hánguó

Seoul

∝ජ

Hànchéng

Laos

㗕ᣱ

Laˇ owō

Vientiane

ϛ䈵

Wànxiàng

Malaysia

偀ᴹ㽓Ѯ

Maˇláixīyà

Kuala Lumpur ঢ়䱚വ

Chinese

Pinyin

Jílóngpō

171

3

Functional language

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Mongolia

㩭স

Měngguˇ

Ulan Bator

Р݄Ꮘᠬ

Wūlánbātuō

Nepal

ሐ⊞ᇨ

Nípō’ěr

Katmandu

ࡴᖋ⒵䛑

Jiādémaˇ ndū

North Korea

ᳱ剰

Cháoxiaˇ n

Pyongyang

ᑇຸ

Píngraˇ ng

Pakistan

Ꮘ෎ᮃഺ

Bājīsītaˇ n

Islamabad

Ӟᮃ݄෵

Yīsīlánbaˇ o

Philippines

㧆ᕟᆒ

` bīn Fēilü

Manila

偀ሐᢝ

Maˇ nílā

Russia

֘㔫ᮃ

Éluósī

Moscow

㥿ᮃ⾥

Mòsīkē

Saudi Arabia

≭⡍䰓ᢝԃ

Shātè Ālābó

Riyadh

߽䲙ᕫ

Lìyaˇdé

Singapore

ᮄࡴവ

Xīnjiāpō

Singapore

ᮄࡴവ

Xīnjiāpō

Sri Lanka

ᮃ䞠݄व

Sīlˇî lánkaˇ

Colombo

⾥Ӻവ

Kēlúnpō

Tajikistan

ศঢ়‫ܟ‬ᮃഺ

Taˇ jíkèsītaˇ n

Dushanbe

ᴰᇮ߿

Dùshàngbié

Thailand

⋄೑

Tàiguó

Bangkok

᳐䈋

Mànguˇ

Turkey

ೳ㘇݊

Tuˇ ’ěrqí

Ankara

ᅝवᢝ

Ānkaˇlā

Uzbekistan

Р‫ܟ߿ݍ‬

Wūzībiékè

Tashkent

ศҔᑆ

Taˇ shígān

Vietnam

䍞फ

Yuènán

Hanoi

⊇‫ݙ‬

Hénèi

Africa

䴲⌆

Fe¯izho¯u

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Algeria

䰓ᇨঞ߽Ѯ

Ā’ěrjílìyà

Algiers

䰓ᇨঞᇨ

Ā’ěrjí’ěr

Angola

ᅝહᢝ

Āngēlā

Luanda

㔫ᅝ䖒

Luó’āndá

Benin

䋱ᅕ

Bèiníng

Porto Novo

⊶໮䇎ӣ

Bōduōnuòfú

Botswana

म‫⪺ݍ‬㒇

Bózīwaˇ nà

Gaborone

ࡴम㔫‫ݙ‬

Jiābóluónèi

Cameroon

୔呺䱚

Kāmàilóng

Yaoundé

䲙⏽ᕫ

Yaˇwēndé

Cape Verde

ԯᕫ㾦

Fódéjiaˇ o

Praia

᱂ᢝѮ

Púlāyà

Central Africa Republic

Ё䴲݅੠೑

Zhōngfēi Gònghéguó

Banjul

⧁ঢ়

Bānjí

Chad

Сᕫ

Zhàdé

N’Djamena

ᘽ䌒ṙ㒇

Ēnjiaˇméinà

Comoros

⾥ᨽ㔫

Kēmóluó

Moroni

㥿㔫ሐ

Mòluóní

Congo

߮ᵰ

Gāngguoˇ

Brazzaville

Ꮧ଺᷈㓈 ᇨ

Bùlācháiwéi’ěr

Cote d’ivoire

䈵⠭⍋ኌ

Xiàngyáhaˇ i’àn Abidjan

䰓↨䅽

Ābˇî ràng

172

3.1

Proper names

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Egypt

඗ঞ

Āijí

Cairo

ᓔ㔫

Kāiluó

Equatorial Guinea

䌸䘧޴‫ݙ‬Ѯ

Chìdàojˇî nèiyà

Malabo

偀ᢝम

Maˇ lābó

Ethiopia

඗า֘↨Ѯ

Àisài’ébˇî yà

Addis Ababa ѮⱘᮃѮ 䋱Ꮘ

Gambia

‫↨ݜ‬Ѯ

Gāngbˇî yà

Banjul

⧁⦴ᇨ

Bānzhū’ěr

Ghana

ࡴ㒇

Jiānà

Accra

䰓‫ܟ‬ᢝ

Ākèlā

Guinea

޴‫ݙ‬Ѯ

Jˇî nèiyà

Conakry

⾥㒇‫ܟ‬䞠

Kēnàkèlˇî

Guinea-Bissau

޴‫ݙ‬Ѯ↨㒡

Jˇî nèiyàbˇî shào

Bissau

↨㒡

Bˇî shào

Kenya

㚃ሐѮ

Kěnníyà

Nairobi

‫ݙ‬㔫↩

Nèiluóbì

Lesotho

㦅㋶ᠬ

Láisuoˇ tuō

Maseru

偀าश

Maˇ sàilú

Liberia

߽↨䞠Ѯ

Lìbˇî lˇî yà

Monrovia

㩭㔫㓈Ѯ

Méngluówéiyà

Libya

߽↨Ѯ

Lìbˇî yà

Tripoli

ⱘ咢⊶䞠

Dìlíbōlˇî

Madagascar

偀䖒ࡴᮃࡴ

Maˇ dájiāsījiā

Tananarive

ศ䙷䙷߽ ԯ

Taˇ nànàlìfó

Malawi

偀ᢝ㓈

Maˇ lāwéi

Lilongwe

߽䱚ഁ

Lìlóngguī

Mali

偀䞠

Maˇ lˇî

Bamako

Ꮘ偀⾥

Bāmaˇkē

Morocco

ᨽ⋯હ

Móluògē

Rabat

ᢝᏈ⡍

Lābātè

Mozambique

㥿ḥ↨‫ܟ‬

Mòsāngbˇî kè

Maputo

偀᱂ᠬ

Maˇ puˇ tuō

Namibia

㒇㉇↨Ѯ

Nàmˇî bˇî yà

Windhoek

⏽ᕫ੠‫ܟ‬

Wēndéhékè

Nigeria

ሐ᮹߽Ѯ

Nírìlìyà

Lagos

ᢝ৘ᮃ

Lāgèsī

Rwanda

शᯎ䖒

Lúwàngdá

Kigali

෎ࡴ߽

Jījiālì

Sao Tomé and Principe

೷໮㕢੠᱂ᵫ Shèngduōměi hé Puˇ línxībˇî 㽓↨

Sao Tomé

೷໮㕢

Shèngduōměi

Senegal

า‫ࡴݙ‬ᇨ

Sàinèijiā’ěr

Dakar

䖒୔ᇨ

Dákā’ěr

Seychelles

า㟠ᇨ

Sàishé’ěr

Victoria

㓈໮߽Ѯ

Wéiduōlìyà

Sierra Leone

าᢝ߽ᯖ

Sàilālì’áng

Freetown

ԯ䞠ᬺ

Fólˇî dūn

Somalia

㋶偀䞠

Suoˇ maˇ lˇî

Mogadishu

ᨽࡴ䖾≭

Mójiādíshā

South Africa

फ䴲

Nánfēi

Pretoria

↨ࢦ䰔߽ Ѯ

Bˇî lètuólìyà

Sudan

㢣Ѝ

Sūdān

Khartoum

୔ೳ〚

Kātuˇ mù

Swaziland

ᮃ࿕຿݄

Sīwēishìlán

Mbabane

ྚᏈᏈ㒇

Muˇ bābānà

Yàdìsīyàbèibā

173

3

Functional language

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Tanzania

ഺḥሐѮ

Taˇnsāngníyà

Dar es Salaam

䖒㌃ᮃ㧼 ᢝྚ

Dálèisīsālāmuˇ

Togo

໮હ

Duōgē

Lomé

⋯㕢

Luòměi

Tunisia

さሐᮃ

Tūnísī

Tunis

さሐᮃ

Tūnísī

Uganda

Рᑆ䖒

Wūgāndá

Kampala

ഢᏩᢝ

Kaˇnpàlā

Western Sahara

㽓ᩦજᢝ

Xīsāhālā

N/A

Zambia

䌲↨Ѯ

Zànbîˇyà

Lusaka

श㧼व

Lúsākaˇ

Zimbabwe

⋹ᏈᏗ䶺

Jīnbābùwéi

Salisbury

㋶ᇨ‫ݍ‬ԃ 䞠

Suoˇ ’ěrzībólˇî

Central America

Ё㕢⌆

Zho¯ngmeˇ izho¯u

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Belize

ԃ䞠‫ݍ‬

Bólˇî zī

Belmopan

䋱ᇨ㥿┬

Bèi’ěrmòpān

Costa Rica

હᮃ䖒咢ࡴ

Gēsīdálíjiā

San Jose

೷㑺⨳

Shèngyuēsè

El Salvador

㧼ᇨ⪺໮

Sā’ěrwaˇduō

San Salvador ೷㧼ᇨ⪺ ໮

Shèngsā’ěrwaˇ duō

Guatemala

ॅഄ偀ᢝ

Wēidìmaˇlā

Guatemala City

ॅഄ偀ᢝ Ꮦ

Wēidìmaˇlāshì

Honduras

⋾䛑ᢝᮃ

Hóngdūlāsī

Tegucigalpa

⡍স㽓ࡴ ᇨᏈ

Tèguˇ xījiā’ěrbā

Nicaragua

ሐࡴᢝ⪰

Níjiālāguā

Managua

偀䙷⪰

Maˇnàguā

Panama

Ꮘᣓ偀

Bānámaˇ

Panama City Ꮘᣓ偀ජ

Bānámaˇ chéng

Caribbean

ࡴࢦ↨

Jia¯lèbîˇ

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Antigua and Barbuda

ᅝᦤ⪰੠Ꮘ Ꮧ䖒

Āntíguā hé Bābùdá

St. John’s

೷㑺㗄

Shèngyuēhàn

Bahamas, The

Ꮘજ偀

Bāhāmaˇ

Nassau

ᣓ偮

Násāo

Barbados

ᏈᏈ໮ᮃ

Bābāduōsī

Bridgetown

Ꮧ䞠༛乓

Bùlˇî qídūn

Cuba

সᏈ

Guˇ bā

Havana

જ⪺䙷

Hāwaˇnà

Dominica

໮㉇ሐ‫ܟ‬

Duōmˇî níkè

Roseau

㔫㋶

Luósuoˇ

Dominican Republic

໮㉇ሐࡴ݅ ੠೑

Duōmˇî níjiā Gònghéguó

Santo Domingo

೷໮ᯢ৘

Shèngduō mínggè

174

3.1

Proper names

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Grenada

Ḑᵫ㒇䖒

Gélínnàdá

St. George

೷Ш⊏

Shèngqiáozhì

Haiti

⍋ഄ

Haˇidì

Port-auPrince

໾ᄤ␃

Tàizˇî gaˇ ng

Jamaica

⠭фࡴ

Yámaˇijiā

Kingston

䞥ᮃᬺ

Jīnsīdūn

Saint Kitts and Nevis

೷෎㣼੠ሐ 㓈ᮃ

Shèngjīcī hé Níwéisī

Basseterre

Ꮘᮃ⡍ᇨ

Bāsītè’ěr

Saint Lucia

೷श㽓Ѯ

Shènglúxīyà

Castries

वᮃ⡍䞠

Kaˇ sītèlˇî

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

೷᭛Ể⡍੠ Ḑᵫ㒇ϕᮃ

Shèngwénsēntè Kingstown hé Gélínnàdīngsī

䞥ᮃᬺ

Jīnsīdūn

Trinidad and Tobago

⡍ゟሐ䖒੠ ໮Ꮘહ

Tèlìnídá hé Duōbāgē

㽓⧁⠭␃

Xībānyágaˇ ng

Port of Spain

North America

࣫㕢⌆

Beˇ imeˇ izho¯u

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Canada

ࡴᣓ໻

Jiānádà

Ottawa

⏹໾ढ

Wòtàihuá

Mexico

๼㽓હ

Mòxīgē

Mexico City

๼㽓હජ

Mòxīgēchéng

United States

㕢೑ˋ㕢߽ മড়ӫ೑

Měiguó/ Měilìjiān Hézhòngguó

Washington D.C.

ढⲯ乓

Huáshèngdùn

Europe

⃻⌆

Ouzho¯u

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Albania

䰓ᇨᏈሐѮ

Ā’ěrbāníyà

Tirana

ഄᢝ䙷

Dìlānà

Andorra

ᅝ䘧ᇨ

Āndào’ěr

Andorra

ᅝ䘧ᇨ

Āndào’ěr

Austria

༹ഄ߽

Àodìlì

Vienna

㓈г㒇

Wéiyěnà

Belgium

↨߽ᯊ

Bˇî lìshí

Brussels

Ꮧ剕าᇨ

Bùluˇ sài’ěr

Bosnia and Herzegovina

⊶ᮃሐѮ੠ 咥าહ㓈䙷

Bōsīníyà hé Hēisàigēwéinà

Sarajevo

㧼ᢝ⛁ぱ

Sālārèwō

Bulgaria

ֱࡴ߽Ѯ

Baˇ ojiālìyà

Sofia

㋶䴲Ѯ

Suoˇ fēiyà

Czech Republic

᥋‫ܟ‬

Jiékè

Prague

ᏗᢝḐ

Bùlāgé

Denmark

Ѝ呺

Dānmài

Copenhagen

હᴀજḍ

Gēběnhāgēn

175

3

Functional language

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

England/ United Kingdom

㣅೑ˋ㘨ড় ⥟೑

Yīngguó/Liánhé Wángguó

London

Ӻᬺ

Lúndūn

Finland

㢀݄

Fēnlán

Helsinki

䌿ᇨ䕯෎

Hè’ěrxīnjī

France

⊩೑

Faˇ guó

Paris

Ꮘ咢

Bālí

Germany

ᖋ೑

Déguó

Berlin

ᶣᵫ

Bólín

Greece

Ꮰ㜞

Xīlà

Athens

䲙‫݌‬

Yaˇdiaˇ n

Hungary

ࣜ⠭߽

Xiōngyálì

Budapest

Ꮧ䖒Խᮃ

Bùdápèisī

Iceland

‫ބ‬ቯ

Bīngdaˇo

Reykjavik

䳋‫ܟ‬䲙᳾ ‫ܟ‬

Léikèyaˇwèikè

Ireland

⠅ᇨ݄

Ài’ěrlán

Dublin

䛑ᶣᵫ

Dūbólín

Italy

ᛣ໻߽

Yìdàlì

Rome

㔫偀

Luómaˇ

Liechtenstein

߫ᬃᬺ຿ⱏ

Lièzhīdūnshìdēng Vaduz

⪺ᴰ‫ݍ‬

Waˇ dùzī

Luxembourg

शỂ෵

Lúsēnbaˇ o

Luxembourg

शỂ෵

Lúsēnbaˇ o

Monaco

ᨽ㒇હ

Mónàgē

MonacoVille

ᨽ㒇હ

Mónàgē

Netherlands

㥋݄

Hélán

Amsterdam

䰓ྚᮃ⡍ Ѝ

Āmuˇ sītèdān

Norway

᣾࿕

Nuówēi

Oslo

༹ᮃ䰚

Àosīlù

Poland

⊶݄

Bōlán

Warsaw

ढ≭

Huáshā

Portugal

㨵㧘⠭

Pútáoyá

Lisbon

䞠ᮃᴀ

Lˇî sīběn

Romania

㔫偀ሐѮ

Luómaˇníyà

Bucharest

Ꮧࡴࢦᮃ ⡍

Bùjiālèsītè

Russia

֘㔫ᮃ

Éluósī

Moscow

㥿ᮃ⾥

Mòsīkē

San Marino

೷偀࡯䇎

Shèngmaˇ lìnuò

San Marino

೷偀࡯䇎

Shèngmaˇ lìnuò

Spain

㽓⧁⠭

Xībānyá

Madrid

偀ᖋ䞠

Maˇdélˇî

Sweden

⨲‫݌‬

Ruìdiaˇ n

Stockholm

ᮃᖋḐᇨ ᨽ

Sīdégé’ěrmó

Switzerland

⨲຿

Ruìshì

Berne

ԃᇨሐ

Bó’ěrní

Vatican/Holy See

ẉ㩖‫ˋݜ‬ᬭᓋ Fándìgāng/ Jiàotíng

176

3.1

Proper names

Middle East

Ёϰ

Zho¯ngdo¯ng

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Iran

Ӟᳫ

Yīláng

Tehran

ᖋ咥݄

Déhēilán

Iraq

Ӟᢝ‫ܟ‬

Yīlākè

Baghdad

ᏈḐ䖒

Bāgédá

Israel

ҹ㡆߫

Yˇî sèliè

Jerusalem

㘊䏃ᩦ‫ދ‬

Yélùsālěng

Jordan

㑺ᮺ

Yuēdàn

Amman

ᅝ᳐

Ānmàn

Kuwait

⾥࿕⡍

Kēwēitè

Kuwait

⾥࿕⡍

Kēwēitè

Lebanon

咢ᏈႽ

Líbānèn

Beirut

䋱剕⡍

Bèiluˇ tè

Oman

䰓᳐

Āmàn

Muscat

偀ᮃ୔⡍

Maˇ sīkātè

Qatar

वศᇨ

Kaˇ taˇ’ěr

Doha

໮જ

Duōhā

Saudi Arabia

≭⡍䰓ᢝԃ

Shātè’ālābó

Riyadh

߽䲙ᕫ

Lìyaˇdé

Syria

ভ߽Ѯ

Xùlìyà

Damascus

໻偀຿䴽

Dàmaˇ shìgé

United Arab Emirates

䰓ᢝԃ㘨ড় 䜟䭓೑

Ālābóliánhé qiúzhaˇ ngguó

Abu Dhabi

䰓Ꮧᠢ↨

Ābùzhābˇî

Yemen

г䮼

Yěmén

Sana

㧼䙷

Sānà

Oceania

໻⋟⌆

Dàyángzho¯u

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Australia

▇໻߽Ѯ

Àodàlìyà

Canberra

෾෍ᢝ

Kānpéilā

Cook Islands

ᑧ‫ܟ‬㕸ቯ

Kùkèqúndaˇo

Avarua

䰓⪺剕䰓

Āwaˇluˇ ’ā

Fiji

᭤⌢

Fěijì

Suva

㢣⪺

Sūwaˇ

Marshall Islands

偀㒡ᇨ㕸ቯ

Maˇshào’ěr qúndaˇ o

Majuro

偀ᴅ㔫

Maˇzhūluó

Federated States of Micronesia

㳰‫ܟ‬㔫ሐ㽓Ѯ

Mìkèluóníxīyà Palikir

Ꮹ߽෎ᇨ

Pàlìjī’ěr

Nauru

⨭剕

Naˇ oluˇ

Nauru

⨭剕

Naˇ oluˇ

New Zealand

ᮄ㽓݄

Xīnxīlán

Wellington

ᚴ♉乓

Huìlíngdùn

Palau

Ꮹࢇ

Pàláo

Koror

⾥㔫ᇨ

Kēluó’ěr

Samoa

㧼ᨽѮ

Sāmóyà

Apia

䰓ⲂѮ

Āpíyà

Solomon Islands

᠔㔫䮼㕸ቯ

Suoˇ luómén qúndaˇ o

Honiara

䳡ሐѮᢝ

Huòníyàlā

177

3

Functional language

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Chinese

Pinyin

Tonga

∸ࡴ⥟೑

Tāngjiā Wángguó

Nuku’alofa

ࡾᑧ䰓⋯⊩

Núkù’āluòfaˇ

Vanuatu

⪺ࡾ䰓೒

Waˇ nú’ātú

Port Vila

㓈ᢝ␃

Wéilāgaˇ ng

South America

फ㕢⌆

Nánmeˇ izho¯u

Country

Chinese

Pinyin

Capital

Argentina

䰓ḍᓋ

Āgēntíng

Buenos Aires Ꮧᅰ䇎ᮃ㡒 ߽ᮃ

Bolivia

⦏߽㓈Ѯ

Bōlìwéiyà

La Paz

ᢝᏈᮃ

Lābāsī

Brazil

Ꮘ㽓

Bāxī

Brasilia

Ꮘ㽓߽Ѯ

Bāxīlìyà

Chile

ᱎ߽

Zhìlì

Santiago

೷ഄѮહ

Shèngdìyàgē

Colombia

હӺ↨Ѯ

Gēlúnbˇî yà

Bogotá

⊶હ໻

Bōgēdà

Ecuador

क़⪰໮ᇨ

Èguāduō’ěr

Quito

෎໮

Jīduō

Guyana

ഁѮ䙷

Guīyànà

Georgetown

Ш⊏ᬺ

Qiáozhìdūn

Paraguay

Ꮘᢝഁ

Bālāguī

Asuncion

ѮᵒỂ

Yàsōngsēn

Peru

⾬剕

Bìluˇ

Lima

߽偀

Lìmaˇ

Uruguay

Рᢝഁ

Wūlāguī

Montevideo

㩭ᕫ㓈ⱘѮ

Méngdéwéidìyà

Venezuela

ྨ‫⨲ݙ‬ᢝ

Wěinèiruìlā

Caracas

ࡴᢝࡴᮃ

Jiālājiāsī

3.1.13

Chinese

Pinyin Bùyínuòsī’àilìsī

Administrative divisions in China: municipalities, autonomous regions, provinces and their capitals, and special administrative regions Administratively, there are four municipalities, Ⳉ䕪Ꮦ zhíxiáshì, that function directly under the central government, five autonomous regions, 㞾⊏ऎ zìzhìqū, twenty-two provinces, ⳕ shěng and Taiwan, and two special administrative regions (SAR), ⡍߿㸠ᬓ ऎ tèbié xíngzhèngqū, in China. Each of the above has its own abbreviated name, ㅔ⿄ jiaˇnchēng. Municipalities

178

Municipality

Pinyin

Abbreviation

Pinyin

࣫Ҁ

Běijīng

Ҁ

Jīng

Ϟ⍋

Shànghaˇ i

≾

Hù

໽⋹

Tiānjīn

⋹

Jīn

䞡ᑚ

Chóngqìng

⏱

Yú

3.1

Proper names

Special administrative regions Region

Pinyin

English

Abbreviation

佭␃

Xiānggaˇ ng

Hong Kong ␃

▇䮼

Àomén

Macau

Pinyin Gaˇ ng

▇

Ào

Autonomous regions and their capitals Region

Pinyin

Abbreviation

Pinyin

Capital

Pinyin

ᑓ㽓ໂᮣ㞾 ⊏ऎ

Guaˇ ngxī Zhuàngzú Zìzhìqū

Ḗ

Guì

फᅕ

Nánníng

‫ݙ‬㩭স㞾⊏ ऎ

Nèiměngguˇ Zìzhìqū

㩭

Měng

੐੠⌽⡍

Hūhéhàotè

ᅕ໣ಲ㞾⊏ ऎ

Níngxià Huí Zìzhìqū

ᅕ

Níng

䫊Ꮁ

Yínchuān

㽓㮣㞾⊏ऎ

Xīzàng Zìzhìqū

㮣

Zàng

ᢝ㧼

Lāsā

ᮄ

Xi¯n

Р剕᳼唤

Wu¯luˇmùqí

ᮄ⭚㓈਒ᇨ X i¯njia¯ng 㞾⊏ऎ Wéiwú’eˇr Zìzhìqu¯ Provinces and their capitals Province

Pinyin

Abbreviation

Pinyin

Capital

Pinyin

ᅝᖑ

Ānhuī

ⱪ

Waˇ n

ড়㙹

Héféi

⽣ᓎ

Fújiàn

䯑

Mîˇn

⽣Ꮂ

Fúzhōu

⫬㙗

Gānsū

⫬ˋ䰛

Gān/Loˇ ng

݄Ꮂ

Lánzhōu

ᑓϰ

Guaˇ ngdōng

㉸

Yuè

ᑓᎲ

Guaˇ ngzhōu

䌉Ꮂ

Guìzhōu

咨ˋ䌉

Qián/Guì

䌉䰇

Guìyáng

⍋फ

Haˇ inán

⨐

Qióng

⍋ষ

Haˇ ikoˇ u

⊇࣫

Héběi

‫ݔ‬

Jì

⷇ᆊᑘ

Shíjiāzhuāng

⊇फ

Hénán

䈿

Yù

䚥Ꮂ

Zhèngzhōu

咥啭∳

Hēilóngjiāng

咥

Hēi

જᇨⒼ

Hā’ěrbīn

␪࣫

Húběi

䛖

È

℺∝

Wuˇ hàn

␪फ

Húnán

␬

Xiāng

䭓≭

Chángshā

ঢ়ᵫ

Jílín

ঢ়

Jí

䭓᯹

Chángchūn 179

3

Functional language

Province

Pinyin

Abbreviation

Pinyin

Capital

Pinyin

∳㢣

Jiāngsū

㢣

Sū

फҀ

Nánjīng

∳㽓

Jiāngxī

䌷

Gàn

फᯠ

Nánchāng

䖑ᅕ

Liáoníng

䖑

Liáo

≜䰇

Shěnyáng

䴦⍋

Qīnghaˇ i

䴦

Qīng

㽓ᅕ

Xīníng

ቅϰ

Shāndōng

剕

Luˇ

⌢फ

Jîˇnán

ቅ㽓

Shānxī

ᰟ

Jìn

໾ॳ

Tàiyuán

䰩㽓

Shaˇ nxī

䰩ˋ⾺

Shaˇ n/Qín

㽓ᅝ

Xī’ān

ಯᎱ

Sìchuān

Ꮁˋ㳔

Chuān/Shuˇ

៤䛑

Chéngdū

ѥफ

Yúnnán

⒛ˋѥ

Diān/Yún

ᯚᯢ

Kūnmíng

⌭∳

Zhèjiāng

⌭

Zhè

ᵁᎲ

Hángzhōu

Táiwān

ৄ

Tái

ৄ࣫

Táiběi

˄ৄ⑒˅

China considers Taiwan to be part of the PRC, but Taiwan does not.

3.2

Festivals Spring Festival is the most widely celebrated and most important festival in China, and people generally get three days off from work. Students begin their winter vacation during this period. Various minority nationalities also have their own festivals. The following are major traditional Han Chinese festivals and they are generally based on the Lunar calendar: ᯹㡖 chūnjié, Spring Festival, also known as traditional Chinese New Year: the first day of the first month of the lunar calendar, usually falling between early January and late February on the solar calendar. This is celebrated by family reunion, visiting friends and relatives, setting off firecrackers, wearing new clothes, and eating plenty of food. It is often compared to Christmas in the West. ‫ܗ‬ᆉ㡖 yuánxiāojié, Lantern Festival: the fifteenth day of the first lunar month. This festival is celebrated by making lanterns to parade or display, and by eating ೚ᆉ/‫ܗ‬ᆉ yuánxiāo, sweet rice dumplings. ⏙ᯢ㡖 qīngmíngjié, Tomb Sweeping Festival, also known as Clear and Bright Festival: usually in the third lunar month, or around April 5th. Activities include making offerings at family grave sites and going on spring outings. ッज㡖 duānwuˇ jié, Dragon Boat Festival: the fifth day of the fifth month of the lunar calendar. There are dragon boat races on this day and generally people eat ㊑ᄤ zòngzi, sweet rice dumplings wrapped in bamboo leaves.

180

3.4

Family relationships

Ё‫ܗ‬㡖 zhōngyuánjié, Festival of the Ghosts, also known as 儐㡖 guîˇjié, Festival of the Hungry Ghosts: the fifteenth day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar. This is a day on which people burn paper money and/or make offerings to the souls of ancestors and others. Ё⾟㡖 zhōngqiūjié, Mid-Autumn Festival, also known as the Moon Festival: the fifteenth day of the eighth month of the lunar calendar. This is a day to celebrate the harvest and have family reunions. People also take advantage of the occasion to view and appreciate the harvest moon. Special food for the day is the moon cake, ᳜佐 yuèbîˇng. 䞡䰇㡖 chóngyángjié, Double-Ninth Festival: the ninth day of the ninth month of the lunar calendar. People take advantage of cool weather to make autumn outings and go mountain climbing. 㜞ܿ㡖 làbājié, Eighth of the Twelfth Month Festival: the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month. For some, this is an important day in the twelfth month of the lunar calendar. It is a day to pay respects to ancestors. It is said that this was the day on which Buddha achieved enlightenment. People eat congee cooked with mixed grains, nuts and dried fruits, known as 㜞ܿ㉹ làbāzhōu.

3.3

Holidays A new policy on public holidays came into effect on January 1, 2008. According to this new policy, there are a total of eleven days of official public holiday, ⊩ᅮ㡖᮹ faˇ dìng jiérì. They are: New Year’s Day, ‫ܗ‬ᮺ yuándàn Spring Festival, ᯹㡖 chūnjié Tomb Sweeping Festival, ⏙ᯢ㡖 qīngmíngjié May 1st International Labor Day, “Ѩϔ”೑䰙ࢇࡼ㡖 wuˇ yī guójì láodòngjié Dragon Boat Festival, ッज㡖 duānwuˇ jié Mid-Autumn Festival, Ё⾟㡖 zhōngqiūjié National Day, ೑ᑚ㡖 guóqìngjié

1 day 3 days 1 day 1 1 1 3

day day day days

The Spring Festival holiday starts on the day before the first day of the Lunar New Year. Linked together with the preceding or following weekends, it works out that there are two seven-day holidays: Spring Festival and National day. The other five usually become three-day holidays in practice.

3.4

Family relationships The family is the most important unit in Chinese society so it is very important to know how the members of a family are related to each other and how the relationships are named. The following shows 181

3

Functional language

how the members of a family are named from the great grandparents’ generation to the grandchildren’s generation: Great grandparents’ generation Relation to self

Chinese

Paternal great grandfather

᳒⼪⠊ zēngzuˇ fù

Paternal great grandmother

᳒⼪↡ zēngzuˇ muˇ

Maternal great grandfather

໪᳒⼪⠊ wài zēngzuˇ fù

Maternal great grandmother

໪᳒⼪↡ wài zēngzuˇ muˇ

Grandparents’ generation Relation to self

Chinese

Paternal grandfather

⼪⠊ zuˇ fù/⠋⠋ yéye

Paternal grandmother

⼪↡ zuˇ muˇ /ཊཊ naˇ inai

Maternal grandfather

໪⼪⠊ wài zuˇ fù/㗕⠋laˇ oye

Maternal grandmother

໪⼪↡ wài zuˇ muˇ /໪ယ wàipó/ྐྵྐྵ laˇolao

Parents’ generation

182

Relation to self

Chinese

Uncle, father’s elder brother

ԃ⠊ bófù/໻⠋ dàye

His wife

ԃ↡ bómuˇ /໻࿬ dàniáng

Aunt, father’s elder sister

ྥཛྷ gūmā

Her husband

ྥϜ gūzhàng

Father

⠊҆ f ùqin/⠌⠌ bàba

Father-in-law, father of wife

ኇ⠊ yuèfù

Father-in-law, father of husband

݀݀ gōnggong

3.4

Family relationships

Relation to self

Chinese

Uncle, father’s younger brother

ন⠊ shūfù/নন shūshu

His wife

ন↡ shūmuˇ /၊ᄤshěnzi

Aunt, father’s younger sister

ྥྥ gūgu

Her husband

ྥ⠊ gūfu

Uncle, mother’s elder brother

㟙⠊ jiùfu/㟙㟙 jiùjiu

His wife

㟙↡ jiùmu/㟙ཛྷ jiùmā

Aunt, mother’s elder sister

ྼ↡ yímuˇ / ྼཛྷ yímā

Her husband

ྼ⠊ yífù

Mother

↡҆ muˇqin/ཛྷཛྷ ma¯ ma

Mother-in-law, mother of wife

ኇ↡ yuèmuˇ

Mother-in-law, mother of husband

ယယ pópo

Uncle, mother’s younger brother 㟙⠊ jiùfu/㟙㟙 jiùjiu His wife

㟙↡ jiùmu/㟙ཛྷ jiùmā

Aunt, mother’s younger sister

ྼཛྷ yímā/ྼ yí

Her husband

ྼ⠊ yífù

One’s own generation Relation to self

Chinese

Brother, elder

હહ gēge

Sister-in-law, his wife

႖ᄤ saˇ ozi/႖႖ saˇ osao

Sister, elder

ྤྤ jiějie

Brother-in-law, her husband

ྤ໿ jiěfu

Cousin, paternal older male cousin

ූ‫ ܘ‬tángxiōng

His wife

ූ႖ tángsaˇ o

Cousin, paternal older female cousin

ූྤ tángjiě

Her husband

ූྤ໿ taˇ ngjiěfu

Cousin, maternal older male cousin

㸼હ biaˇ ogē

183

3

Functional language

Relation to self

Chinese

His wife

㸼႖ biaˇ osaˇ o

Cousin, maternal older female cousin

㸼ྤ biaˇ ojiě

Her husband

㸼ྤ໿ biaˇ ojiěfu

Self

㞾Ꮕ zìji¯/៥ woˇ

Husband

Ϝ໿ zhàngfu/‫ ⫳ܜ‬xiānsheng/ ⠅Ҏ àiren

Wife

ྏᄤ qīzi/໾໾ tàitai/⠅Ҏ àiren

Brother, younger

ᓳᓳ dìdi

Sister-in-law, his wife

ᓳྍ dìmèi

Sister, younger

ྍྍ mèimei

Brother-in-law, her husband

ྍ໿ mèifu

Cousin, paternal younger male cousin

ූᓳ tángdì

His wife

ූᓳྍ tángdìmèi

Cousin, paternal younger female ූྍ tángmèi cousin Her husband

ූྍ໿ tángmèifu

Cousin, maternal younger male cousin

㸼ᓳ biaˇ odì

His wife

㸼ᓳႇ biaˇ odìxí

Cousin, maternal younger female cousin

㸼ྍ biaˇ omèi

Her husband

㸼ྍ໿ biaˇ omèifu

Children’s generation

184

Relation to self

Chinese

Nephew, brother’s son

՘ᄤ zhízi/՘‫ ܓ‬zhí’er

His wife

՘ႇཛ zhíxífu

Niece, brother’s daughter

՘ཇ zhínü

Her husband

՘ཇၓ zhínu‥ˇ xu

3.5

Forms of address

Relation to self

Chinese

Son

‫ܓ‬ᄤ érzi

Daughter-in-law, his wife

ႇཛ xífu

Daughter

ཇ‫ ܓ‬nüˇ’er

Son-in-law, her husband

ཇၓ nu‥ˇ xu

Nephew, sister’s son

໪⫹ wàisheng

His wife

໪⫹ႇཛ wàishēng xífu

Niece, sister’s daughter

໪⫹ཇ wàishēngnu‥ˇ

Her husband

໪⫹ཇၓ wàishēng nu‥ˇ xu

Grandchildren’s generation Relation to self

Chinese

Grandson, son’s son

ᄭᄤ su¯nzi

His wife

ᄭႇཛ sūnxífu

Granddaughter, son’s daughter

ᄭཇ su¯nnü

Her husband

ᄭཇၓ sūnnu‥ˇ xu

Grandson, daughter’s son

໪ᄭ wàisūn

His wife

໪ᄭႇཛ wàisūn xífu

Granddaughter, daughter’s daughter

໪ᄭཇ wàisūnnu‥ˇ

Her husband

໪ᄭཇၓ wàisūn nu‥ˇ xu

When there is more than one person of a generation, then “໻ dà,” “Ѡ èr,” “ϝ sān,” etc. can be added to name them. For example, the eldest sister is “໻ྤ dàjiě,” the next is “Ѡྤ èrjiě,” etc. A stepfather is “ৢ⠊ hòufù or 㒻⠊ jìfù” and a stepmother is “ৢ↡ hòumuˇ or 㒻↡ jìmuˇ ,” while a stepson is “Нᄤ yìz and a ‥ˇ .” stepdaughter is “Нཇ yìnu

3.5 Forms of address It is important to use an appropriate term to address a person. It shows that one is cultivated and knows how to show respect to the other person, and it clarifies the relationship between the people concerned. 185

3

Functional language

The following are different forms of addressing people: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

186

Using family relationship: Unlike common usage in English, one should not address a family member using just the first name. One addresses them using their family relationship (refer to family relationship section) terms. For different aunts: ྥྥ gūgu, ྼཛྷ yímā, etc. For different uncles: ԃ ԃ bóbo, ননshūshu, 㟙㟙 jiùjiu, etc. For the same generation: ໻ હ dàgē, Ѡྤ èrjiě, ූહ tánggē, 㸼ྍbiaˇ omèi, etc. Husband and wife address each other using first names or 㗕Ԉ‫ ܓ‬laˇ obànr, old companion, if they are older. Using family relationship terms in a social situation: If the speaker is younger, he/she might address people as: নন shūshu, uncle; 䰓ྼ āyí, aunt; ⠋⠋ yéye, grandpa; ཊཊ naˇ inai, grandma, etc. More polite: Surname + one of the following: ‫ ⫳ܜ‬xiānsheng, Mr.; ໿Ҏ f ūren, ‥ˇ shì, Ms.; ᇣྤ xiaˇ ojie, Miss. For madam; ໾໾ tàitai, Mrs.; ཇ຿ nu example: ᓴ‫ ⫳ܜ‬Zhāng xiānsheng; ⬄໿Ҏ Tián f ūren, etc. Using names: Full names or personal names are generally used among colleagues and people who know each other well, as in the following variations: (1) using full name; (2) for both sexes: 㗕 laˇ o (older), ໻ dà (similar age) or ᇣ xiaˇ o (younger) + surname. For example: 㗕ᓴ Laˇ o Zhāng, ໻ᴢ Dà Lîˇ, ᇣ⥟ Xiaˇ o Wáng; (3) using only first name: generally only used among the same sex, older to younger, husband and wife, close friends, schoolmates and neighbors. Surname + laˇ o: For socially respected and accomplished persons of both sexes: ਼㗕 Zhōu Laˇ o, ⬄㗕 Tián Laˇ o. Using the person’s profession: Only using the name of the profession or surname + profession. These can be: ᬭᥜ jiàoshòu, professor; म຿ bóshì, Dr. (Ph.D.), 㗕 Ꮬ laˇ oshī, teacher or someone accomplished in a field of endeavor; ໻໿ dàifu/ए⫳ yīshēng, medical doctor; Ӯ䅵 kuàiji, accountant; ᕟᏜ lü` shī, lawyer; ໻Փ dàshîˇ, ambassador; খ䌲 cānzàn, counsellor; ᘏ乚џ zoˇ nglîˇngshì, consul general; 乚џ lîˇngshì, consul; ᘏ㒣⧚ zoˇ ngjīnglîˇ, president (of a company), etc. Using position titles: (1) using only position title; (2) surname + position title; (3) full name + position title. Here are some position titles: 䚼䭓 bùzhaˇ ng, Minister (of a government department); ⳕ䭓 shěngzhaˇ ng, Governor/Premier; Ꮦ䭓 shìzhaˇ ng, Mayor; ໘䭓 chùzhaˇ ng, Bureau Chief/Director; ᷵䭓xiàozhaˇ ng, President/Principal; 䰶䭓 yuànzhăng, Dean; Џӏ zhuˇ rèn, Director. Addressing strangers: (1) For a young person to address an older person: 㗕໻⠋ laˇ odàye, “grandpa”; 㗕໻࿬ laˇ odàniáng, “grandma”; (2) to address a store

3.6

Social interaction

clerk, a taxi driver, etc.: Ꮬٙ shīfu, “master worker”; (3) to address young children: ᇣ᳟ট xiaˇ o péngyou, little friend (s); ᇣྥ࿬ xiaˇ o gūniang, young girl; ᇣӭᄤ xiaˇ o huˇ ozi, young chap.

3.6 3.6.1 (1)

Social interaction Greetings general: Դདʽ Nîˇ haˇ o! How are you?; Good morning/afternoon/evening! ᙼདʽ Nín haˇ o! (polite form of above) ԴӀᮽʽ Nîˇmen zaˇ o! Good morning everybody! ᮽϞདʽ Zaˇ oshang haˇ o! Good morning! ᰮᅝDŽ Waˇ n ān. Good night. དЙϡ㾕ˈᙼ䑿ԧད৫˛ Haˇ ojiuˇ bújiàn, nín shēnti haˇ o ma? Long time no see. How are you doing?

(2)

⃶䖢⃶䖢ʽ Huānyíng, huānyíng! Welcome! more famliar, intimate, more casual, or when running into each other: ৗ佁њ৫˛ Chīfànle ma? (Have you eaten?); How are you doing? Ϟ⧁এ˛ Shàngbānqu? Going to work? ϟ⧁଺˛ Xiàbān la? Just off work?

187

3

Functional language

Ϟ䇒এ˛ Shàngkè qu? Going to classes? Ϟા‫ܓ‬এ˛ Shàng naˇ r qu? Where to?/Hello! Ꮉ԰ᖭ৻˛ Gōngzuò máng ba? Busy with your work? ᆊ䞠䛑ད৻˛ Jiāli dōu haˇ o ba? Everybody fine in your family?

(3)

䑿ԧད৻˛ Shēnti haˇ o ba? How are you doing?/Are you doing well? by addressing a person, ⿄੐ chēnghu: ਼㗕Ꮬʽ Zhōu laˇ oshī! Professor Zhōu! 㗕⥟ʽ Laˇ o Wáng! Hi! Wang! Responses: smile, nod, or ask the same question in return.

3.6.2 (1)

Introductions introducing others: ៥㒭ᙼҟ㒡ϔϟ‫ˈܓ‬䖭ԡᰃ໻ЎDŽ Woˇ gěi nín jièshaoyixiar, zhèwei shi Dàwèi. Let me introduce you. This is David.

(2)

ᙼདDŽ䅸䆚Դˈᕜ催݈DŽ Nín haˇ o. Rènshi nîˇ, hěn gāoxìng. How do you do? I’m happy to know you. self-introduction: ៥ি⥯߽DŽᙼ䌉ྦྷ˛ Woˇ jiào Maˇ lì. Nín guìxìng? My name is Mary. What is your honorable surname? ‫ܡ‬䌉ˈ៥ྦྷ૤DŽ Miaˇ n guì, woˇ xìng Táng. Please do not say ‘honorable’. It is Tang. ᑌӮʽᑌӮʽ Xìnghuì! xìnghuì! So fortunate to have met you!

188

3.6

3.6.3 (1)

Social interaction

Farewells general: ‫ݡ‬㾕ʽ Zàijiàn! Goodbye! ‫ݡ‬Ӯʽ Zàihuì! (another form of above) ᯢ໽㾕DŽ Míngtian jiàn. See you tomorrow. ಲ༈㾕DŽ Huítóu jiàn. See you later. ϔӮ‫ܓ‬㾕DŽ Yìhuîˇr jiàn. See you shortly.

(2)

‫ݡ‬㾕ˈϔ䏃ᑇᅝʽ Zàijiàn, yílùpíng’ān! Goodbye, bon voyage! when seeing off a guest: ᜶䍄ʽ Mànzoˇ u! Take it easy./Drive safe!/Drive safely. ᳝ぎ‫ݡܓ‬ᴹ⥽‫ܓ‬DŽ Yoˇ ukòngr, zài lái wánr. Come to visit again when you have time. Responses: 䇋⬭ℹDŽ Qîˇng liúbù. Please do not walk me any farther. 䇋ಲDŽ Qîˇng huí. Please go back.

3.6.4

Apologies ᇍϡ䍋DŽ Duìbuqîˇ. Sorry. ໾ᇍϡ䍋њDŽ Tài duìbuqîˇle. So sorry. 189

3

Functional language

ⳳᇍϡ䍋DŽ Zhēn duìbuqîˇ. Really sorry. ⳳᢅℝDŽ Zhēn bàoqiàn. Truly sorry. ᇍϡ䍋ˈ៥ᦦϔহˈད৫˛ Duìbuqîˇ, woˇ chā yíjù, haˇ o ma? I’m sorry. May I interrupt? 䇋ॳ䇙DŽ Qîˇng yuánliàng. I beg your pardon./Please forgive me. Responses: ≵݇㋏DŽ Méi guānxi. That’s all right. ϡ㽕㋻DŽ Bú yàojîˇn. No problem. ৃҹDŽ Kěyi. Fine. 3.6.5

Requests 䇋䯂ˈ३᠔೼䙷‫˛ܓ‬ Qîˇng wèn, cèsuoˇ zài naˇ r? May I ask, where is the washroom? 䇋᜶⚍‫ܓ‬䇈DŽ Qîˇng màndiaˇ nr shuō. Please speak more slowly. 䇋ᐂᐂᖭˈད৫" Qîˇng bāngbang máng, haˇ o ma? Can you help me, please? ࢇ偒ˈ៥ⳟⳟ䙷ӊ໻㸷DŽ Láojià, woˇ kànkan nàjiàn dàyī. May I trouble you? I’d like to take a look at that coat. ៥Ӏᰃϡᰃ᳔ད߿ᠧᡄҪ˛ Woˇ men shìbushi zuìhaˇ o bié daˇ raˇ o tā? Would it be better if we do not disturb him? ៥㛑ϡ㛑ⳟϔϟ‫ܓ‬䖭Ͼᮄ⬉㛥˛ Woˇ néngbunéng kànyixiar zhège xīn diànnaˇ o? May I have a look at this new computer?

190

3.6

Social interaction

ᯢ໽ᠡএˈৃҹϡৃҹ˛ Míngtian cái qù, kěyibukěyi? Is it all right if we don’t go until tomorrow? 咏⚺Դˈ䇋䕀ਞཌྷϔϟ‫ˈܓ‬㸠৫" Máfan ni, qîˇng zhuaˇ ngào tā yixiàr, xíng ma? May I trouble you to tell her?

3.6.6 (1)

Refusals more direct: ϡ㸠DŽ Bùxíng. No, not all right. ϡདDŽ Bùhaˇ o. No, it’s not fine. ϡৃҹDŽ Bùkěyîˇ. No, you may not. ϡ៤DŽ Bùchéng. No, can’t do it.

(2)

≵᳝DŽ Méiyou. No, we do not have any. more roundabout: ᇍϡ䍋ˈҞ໽ϡ㸠DŽ Duìbuqîˇ, jīntian bùxíng. Sorry. It won’t do today. ៥‫ݡ‬ᛇᛇ Woˇ zài xiăngxiang. Let me think it over. 㗗㰥㗗㰥DŽ Kaˇ olü` , kaˇ olü` . Let me think it over. ‫ⷨݡ‬おⷨおDŽ Zài yánjiu yánjiu. Let me think about it some more. 䖭ϾˈᘤᗩϡདࡲDŽ Zhège, koˇ ngpà bùhaˇ o bàn. Well, this won’t be easy. 191

3

Functional language

ⳳϡᎻˈ៥ϡ㛑এˈϟ⃵‫ݡ‬䇈৻DŽ Zhēn bùqiaˇ o, woˇ bùnéng qù, xiàci zài shuō ba. Unfortunately I cannot go. Perhaps next time.

3.6.7 (1)

Invitations informal: ᯳ᳳ݁ˈ䇋ᙼϔᆊࠄ៥Ӏᆊᴹৗᰮ佁ˈད৫˛ Xīngqīliù qîˇng nín yìjiā dào woˇ men jiā lái chīwaˇ nfàn, haˇ o ma? We would like to invite you and your family to come for dinner on Saturday. How about it? 䙷ˈ໾咏⚺њ৻˛ Nà, tài máfanle ba? But, that’s a lot of trouble for you, isn’t it? ϡ咏⚺DŽ݁⚍ᴹˈད৫˛ Bù máfan. Liùdiaˇ n lái, haˇ o ma? No trouble. How about coming at six?

(2)

ད৻DŽ Haˇ o ba. Fine. more formal: ᯳ᳳϝᰮϞϗ⚍ˈ៥Ӏ᳝Ͼ令Ӯˈ䇋ᙼ੠໿Ҏ‫ܝ‬ЈDŽ Xīngqisān waˇ nshang qīdiaˇ n, woˇ men yoˇ u ge cānhuì, qîˇng nín he f ūren guānglín. We are having a dinner party at seven in the evening on Wednesday. We would like you and your wife to join us. ᙼ໾ᅶ⇨њDŽ Nín tài kèqi le. That’s so nice of you. ᙁ‫ᙼ׭‬DŽ Gōnghòu nín. We’ll look forward to seeing you then.

3.6.8

Compliments ⳳⓖ҂ʽ Zhēn piàoliang! So beautiful. ⳳẦʽ Zhēn bàng! Great!

192

3.6

Social interaction

໾Ầњʽ Tài bàngle! Marvellous! དᵕњʽ Haˇ ojíle! Excellent! ⳳϡ䫭ʽ Zhēn búcuò! Really good! ໾⌕߽њʽ Tài liúlì le! So fluent! 3.6.9

Self-deprecating responses ા䞠ા䞠DŽ Naˇ li, naˇ li. Not at all (reply to a compliment). ϡᬶᔧDŽ Bùgaˇ ndāng. (similar to above) ϡདᛣᗱDŽ Bùhaˇ oyìsi. I’m embarrassed (by the compliment). ៥䇈ᕫ≵᳝ԴདDŽ Woˇ shuōde méiyou nîˇ haˇ o. I do not speak as well as you do. 䖬ϡདˈ៥䖬ᕫ໮ᄺдDŽ Hái bùhaˇ o, woˇ háiděi duō xuéxí. Not so good yet. I need to study more. 䖛༪䖛༪DŽ Guòjiaˇ ng, guòjiaˇ ng. You flatter me.

3.6.10

Regrets ⳳ㊳㊩ʽ Zhēn zāogāo! That’s awful! ໾ৃᚰњʽ Tài kěxī le! It’s such a pity!, That’s too bad! 193

3

Functional language

ⳳ䘫ធʽ Zhēn yíhàn! Really unfortunate!, That’s really regrettable! ⳳϡᎻʽ Zhēn bù qiaˇ o! That’s a pity!, What a shame! 3.6.11

Thanks 䇶䇶ʽ Xièxie! Thank you! ໾䇶䇶њʽ Tài xièxie le! Thank you so much! 䴲ᐌᛳ䇶ʽ Fēicháng gaˇ nxiè! I’m very grateful! ໾咏⚺ᙼњʽ Tài máfan nín le! I have troubled you so much! Responses: ϡ䇶DŽ Bú xiè. Not at all. ϡᅶ⇨DŽ Bú kèqi. You’re welcome. ≵ҔМDŽ Méi shénme. That’s nothing. ≵݇㋏DŽ Méi guānxi. No problem. ϡ咏⚺ Bù máfan. No trouble at all.

3.6.12

Polite expressions 䇋തDŽ Qîˇng zuò. Please sit down.

194

3.6

Social interaction

䇋ୱ㤊DŽ Qîˇng hēchá. Please have some tea. 䇋ৗDŽ Qîˇng chī. Please have (eat) some. 䇋ㄝϔㄝDŽ Qîˇng děngyìděng. Please wait for a while. 䇋⿡‫׭‬DŽ Qîˇng shaōhòu. Please wait a bit. ໮໮ֱ䞡DŽ Duōduō baˇ ozhòng. Please take care. 3.6.13

Emergency expressions ᇣᖗʽ Xiaˇ oxīn! Be careful! ᖿᖿ Kuài, kuài! Hurry up! ᴹҎଞʽ Láirén a! Help!/Somebody help! ᡒए⫳ʽ Zhaˇ o yīshēng! Get a doctor! ি䄺ᆳʽ Jiào jîˇngchá! Call the police! ☿ Huoˇ ! Fire! ᬥ☿ Jiù huoˇ ! Fire! ᬥੑଞʽ Jiùmìng a! Help!/Somebody save me! 195

3

Functional language

៥ⱘ䪅ࣙϡ㾕њʽ Woˇ de qiánbāo bújiàn le! My wallet is gone! ᳝ᇣًʽ Yoˇ u xiaˇ otōur! Thief! ᳝䌐ʽ Yoˇ uzéi! Thief! ᤝ䌐ʽ Zhuōzéi! Catch the thief !

3.7

Directions Compass direction words in Chinese: English

Chinese

Pinyin

East

ϰ

dōng

South

फ

nán

West

㽓

xī

North

࣫

běi

Northeast

ϰ࣫

dōngběi

Southeast

ϰफ

dōngnán

Northwest

㽓࣫

xīběi

Southwest

㽓फ

xīnán

The conventional way of saying the cardinal directions is “dōng, nán, xī, běi” and the other way is “dōng, xī, nán, běi.”

3.8

Measurements The metric system is the official system of measurement in China. However, the traditional market system, Ꮦࠊ shìzhì, is still in common use. The following shows equivalent units in the market, metric, and British systems:

196

3.8

3.8.1

Length Length 䭓ᑺ chángdù

Market Ꮦࠊ shìzhì

↿ háo

3.8.2

Measurements

Metric݀ࠊ go¯ngzhì

British 㣅ࠊ yi¯ngzhì

0.0033 cm ݀ ߚ gōngfēn

0.0013 inches 㣅ᇌ yīngcùn

६ lí

10 háo

0.0333 cm

0.0131 inches

ߚ fēn

10 lí

0.3333 cm

0.1312 inches

ᇌ cùn

10 fēn

3.3333 cm

1.3123 inches

ሎ chîˇ

10 cùn

0.3333 meters ݀ሎˋ㉇ gōngchîˇ/mîˇ

1.0936 feet 㣅 ሎ yīngchîˇ

Ϝ zhàng

10 chîˇ

3.3333 meters

3.6454 yards ⷕ maˇ

䞠 lîˇ

150 zhàng

500 meters

0.3107 mile 㣅 䞠 yīnglîˇ

2 䞠 lîˇ

300 zhàng

1 kilometer ݀ 䞠 gōnglîˇ

0.6214 miles

Area 1 square kilometer = 100 hectares = 4 square lîˇ = 0.386 square miles 1 square meter = 9 square chîˇ = 10.764 square feet Area 䴶⿃ miànji¯

Market

Metric

British

ᑇᮍ६ píngfāng lí

100 ᑇᮍ↿ píngfāng háo

0.0011 cm2 ᑇᮍ݀ ߚ píngfāng gōngfēn

0.00017 in2 ᑇᮍ㣅 ᇌ píngfāng yīngcùn

ᑇᮍߚ píngfāng fēn

100 píngfāng lí 0.1110 cm2

ᑇᮍᇌ píngfāng cùn

100 píngfāng fēn

11.1108 cm2

1.7216 in2

ᑇᮍሎ píngfāng chîˇ

100 píngfāng cùn

0.1111 m2 ᑇ ᮍ݀ሎˋᑇ ᮍ㉇ píngfāng gōngchîˇ/ píngfāng mîˇ

1.1960 ft2 ᑇᮍ 㣅ሎ píngfāng yīngchîˇ

0.0172 in2

197

3

Functional language

Area 䴶⿃ miànji¯

Market

100 píngfāng ᑇᮍϜ píngfāng zhàng chîˇ

11.1111 m2

13.2888 yd2 ᑇ ᮍⷕ píngfāng maˇ 0.0965 mi2 ᑇᮍ㣅䞠 píngfāng yīnglîˇ

Market

Metric

British

ߚ fēn

6 píngfāng zhàng

66.6666 m2

79.732 yd2

ѽ muˇ

10 fēn

6.6666 ares ݀ ѽ gōngmuˇ

0.1647 acres 㣅 ѽ yīngmuˇ

之 qîˇng

100 muˇ

6.6666 hectares 16.4737 acres ݀之 gōngqîˇng

Land Area Land Area ഄ ⿃ dìji¯

3.8.4

British

22500 píngfāng 0.25 km2 ᑇᮍ zhàng ݀䞠 píngfāng gōnglîˇ

ᑇᮍ䞠 píngfāng lîˇ

3.8.3

Metric

Weight 1 kilogram = 2 jīn = 2.205 lb

198

Weight 䞡䞣 zhòngliang

Market

Metric

British

䪅 qián

10 fēn

5 grams‫ ܟ‬kè

0.1764 oz Ⲣ ৌàngsī

ϸ liaˇ ng

10 qián

50 grams

1.7637 oz

᭸ jīn

10 liaˇ ng

0.5 kilogram ݀᭸gōngjīn

1.1023 lb ⺙ bàng

ᢙ dàn

100 jīn

0.5 quintal ݀ ᢙgōngdàn

110.2310 lb

3.10

3.8.5

3.8.6

3.9

Calendar

Volume Volume ԧ⿃ tîˇji¯

Market

ゟᮍᇌ lìfāngcùn

1000 ゟᮍߚ lìfāngfēn

ゟᮍሎ lìfāngchîˇ

1000 lìfāng cùn 0.0370 m3 ゟ ᮍ݀ሎ lìfāng gōngchîˇ

1.3080 ft3 ゟ ᮍ㣅ሎ lìfāng yīngchîˇ

ゟᮍϜ lìfāngzhàng

1000 lìfāng chîˇ 37.0370 m3

1308 ft3

Metric

British

Capacity Capacity ᆍ 䞣 róngliàng

Market

Metric

British

ড় hé

10 ࣎ sháo

1 deciliter ߚ݀छ fēngōngshēng

0.1750 pint ક 㜅 pîˇntuō

छ shēng

10 hé

1 liter ݀छ gōngshēng

0.2200 gallon ࡴҥ jiālún

᭫ doˇ u

10 shēng

10 liters

2.1997 gallons

⷇ dàn

10 doˇ u

100 liters

2.7497 bushels 㪆ᓣ㘇 púshì’ěr

Temperature In China temperature is told in Celsius, ᨘ⇣ Shèshì, although Fahrenheit, ढ⇣ Huáshì, is also taught in schools. Therefore, the normal human body temperature 36.8° C is expressed as: ᨘ⇣ 36.8 ᑺ Shèshì sānshiliù diaˇ n bā dù, but it is 98.2° F which is expressed as: ढ⇣ 98.2 ᑺ Huáshì jiuˇ shibā diaˇ n èr dù. A temperature of –10° C is: ᨘ⇣䳊ϟ10ᑺ Shèshì língxià shí dù.

3.10

Calendar There are two kinds of calendars in use in China: the official calendar is the Gregorian calendar, but the traditional lunar calendar is also commonly used. 199

3

Functional language

The Gregorian calendar is used for day-to-day purposes. The Gregorian calendar is called “㽓ग़ xīlì , Western calendar,” “݀ग़ gōnglì, public calendar,” “䰇ग़ yánglì, solar calendar” or “ᮄग़ xīnlì, new calendar.” In recent history, the Gregorian calendar was officially adopted in 1912 which is the first year of the Republic of China. It was in disuse for a while but was readopted officially on January 1, 1929. Since 1949, all the years, months, days, and days of the week are named according to the Gregorian calendar, in line with the international standard. When China was still an agrarian society, it was and still is, important to help farmers plan their activities and the solar calendar system is more accurate than the lunar calendar system. As a result, the twenty-four solar-based seasonal terms were devised and called “Ѡ कಯ㡖⇨ èrshísì jiéqì, twenty-four solar terms.” This way, both the farmers and other people can plan their seasonal activities accordingly. The dates are fairly close to those of the Gregorian calendar. The starting dates of the four seasons are according to the Chinese solar calendar system and are different from those of the Gregorian calendar. A list of 24 㡖⇨ jiéqì, 24 solar terms: Chinese name

Date

Meaning

1 ゟ᯹ Lìchūn

Start of spring February 4/5

begins to get warm

2 䲼∈ Yuˇ shuîˇ

Rain water

February 18/19

rain starts

3 ᚞㳄 Jīngzhé

Awakening of insects

March 5/6

animals come out of hibernation

4 ᯹ߚ Chūnfēn

Vernal equinox

March 20/21

day and night equal length

5 ⏙ᯢ Qīngmíng

Clear and bright

April 4/5

clear and warm

6 䈋䲼 Guˇ yuˇ

Grain rain

April 20/21

rain increases

7 ゟ໣ Lìxià

Start of summer

May 5/6

gets warmer

8 ᇣ⒵ Xiaˇ omaˇ n

Ripening grain

May 21/22

wheat ripens

9 㡦⾡ Mángzhoˇ ng

Grain in ear

June 5/6

other grains ripen

Summer solstice

June 21/22

longest day

10 ໣㟇 Xiàzhì

200

English name

3.10

Chinese name

English name

Calendar

Date

Meaning

11 ᇣᱥ Xiaˇ oshuˇ Minor heat

July 7/8

becomes hot

12 ໻ᱥ Dàshuˇ

Major heat

July 22/23

hottest

13 ゟ⾟ Lìqiū

Start of autumn

August 7/8

starts cooling down

14 ໘ᱥ Chuˇ sh

Limit of heat

August 23/24 heat will be over

15 ⱑ䴆 Báilù

White dew

September 7/8

cool at night

16 ⾟ߚ Qiūfēn

Autumn equinox

September 23/24

day and night equal length

17 ᆦ䴆 Hánlù

Cold dew

October 8/9

temperature drops

18 䳰䰡 Shuāngjiàng

Hoar frost

October 23/24

frosty

19 ゟ‫ ހ‬Lìdōng

Start of winter November 7/8

cold begins

20 ᇣ䲾 Xiaˇ oxuě Light snow

November 21/22

begins to snow

21 ໻䲾 Dàxuě

Heavy snow

December 7/8

heavier snow

22 ‫ހ‬㟇 Dōngzhì

Winter solstice December 21/22

longest night

23 ᇣᆦ Xiaˇ ohán Minor cold

January 5/6

24 ໻ᆦ Dàhán

January 20/21 coldest

Great cold

fairly cold

The traditional lunar calendar is based on the moon’s waxing and waning cycles which take about a month. A greater month consists of 30 days and a lesser month consists of 29 days. There are also 12 months in a year, with an intercalary month, 䯄᳜ rùnyuè, added every few years, in which case there will be 13 months in the year. Depending on where it is inserted, the intercalary month is called “rùn X yuè.” For example, if an intercalary month is inserted after the third month of the lunar calendar, it is called “䯄 ϝ᳜ rùnsānyuè.” The names of the months are: “ϔ᳜ yīyuè, Ѡ᳜ èryuè . . .कѠ᳜ shí’èryuè,” with the first month also known as “ℷ ᳜ zhēngyuè” and the twelfth month also known as “㜞᳜ làyuè.” The traditional Chinese calendar, known as “‫ݰ‬ग़ nónglì, agrarian calendar,” “䰈ग़ yīnlì, lunar calendar” or “ᮻग़ jiùlì, old calendar,” 201

3

Functional language

is used for dating the traditional festivals such as the Spring Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, etc. Some people also use the traditional Chinese calendar to choose auspicious dates for weddings, the opening of a business or the inauguration of a new building. Chinese artists also tend to date their paintings or calligraphy using traditional calendar dates. Many Chinese calendars now denote the year, month, and day using both the Gregorian and traditional systems. The years in the traditional calendar are not continuous, but are expressed in sixty-year cycles. They are arranged by matching the ten heavenly stems and twelve earthly branches. For example, the year 2000 was ᑮ䖄ᑈ gēngchén nián, and the year 2007 was ϕѹᑈ dīnghài nián. After each cycle of sixty years, another cycle of matching will begin, and so on. Each of the heavenly stems corresponds to one of the Five Elements, Ѩ㸠 wuˇ xíng: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Each of the earthly branches is represented by one animal and together they are known as: कѠ⫳㙪 shí’èr shēngxiào, the twelve zodiacal animals. A person born in a given year is said to “ሲ shuˇ , belong to” the animal of that year, modified by the matching element. For example, a person born in the year of the dragon is said to “ሲ 啭 shuˇ lóng.” If he/she was born in the year 2000 which is a ᑮ䖄 gēngchén year, that person is a 䞥啭 jīnlóng, metal dragon. The ten heavenly stems and their corresponding elements: Heavenly stem

Element

Heavenly stem

1

⬆ jiaˇ

᳼ mù wood

6 Ꮕ jîˇ

2

Э yîˇ

wood

7

☿ huoˇ fire

8 䕯 xīn 9

3 ϭ bîˇng 4

ϕ dīng

fire

5

៞ wù

ೳ tuˇ earth

ᑮ gēng ເ rén

10 ⱌ guîˇ

Element earth 䞥 jīn metal metal ∈ shuîˇ water water

The twelve earthly branches and the animals representing each year: Earthly branch 1 ᄤ zîˇ 2

ϥ choˇ u

3 ᆙ yín

English

哴 shuˇ

rat

⠯ niú

ox

㰢 huˇ

tiger

4

ृ maˇ o

‫ ܨ‬tù

rabbit

5

䖄 chén

啭 lóng

dragon

㲛 shé

snake

6 Ꮗ sì 202

Animal

3.10

Earthly branch

Animal

English

偀 maˇ

horse

㕞 yáng

sheep

⤈ hóu

monkey

叵 jī

rooster

០ xū

⢫ goˇ u

dog

12 ѹ hài

⣾ zhū

pig

7

ज wuˇ

8 ᳾ wèi 9

⬇ shēn

10 䜝 yoˇ u 11

3.10.1

Calendar

Year The year is expressed in numbers as in the West and followed by the word: ᑈ nián. Some examples: 1911: yījiuˇ yīyī nián 2000: èrlínglínglíng nián or liaˇ ngqiān nián 2008: èrlínglíngbā nián or liaˇ ngqiānlíngbā nián If it is “BC” or “BCE,” the word “݀‫ ࠡܗ‬gōngyuánqián” or “㑾 ‫ ࠡܗ‬jìyuánqián” precedes the year. The use of “gōngyuánqián” is more common. For example, “221 BC” is “݀‫ࠡܗ‬221ᑈ gōngyuánqián èr’èryī nián.” There is no specific word for “decade” which is simply “कᑈ shínián,” so “three decades” is “ϝकᑈ sānshi nián.” The word for “century” is “Ϫ㑾 shìjì” and “three centuries” is “ϝϾϪ㑾sānge shìjì.” “Twentieth century” is “ѠकϪ㑾 èrshi shìjì” and “third century BC” is “݀‫ࠡܗ‬㄀ϝϪ㑾 gōngyuánqián dìsān shìjì.”

3.10.2

Month The months are numbered rather than named. To say how many months, one only has to insert the measure word “Ͼ ge” between the number and the word “᳜yuè.” For example, eight months is “ܿ Ͼ᳜ bāge yuè” and twelve months is “कѠϾ᳜ shí’èrge yuè.” Month

Pinyin

English

ϔ᳜

yīyuè

January

Ѡ᳜

èryuè

February

ϝ᳜

sānyuè

March

ಯ᳜

sìyuè

April

Ѩ᳜

wuˇ yuè

May

᳜݁

liùyuè

June

203

3

Functional language

3.10.3

Month

Pinyin

English

ϗ᳜

qīyuè

July

᳜ܿ

bāyuè

August

б᳜

jiuˇ yuè

September

क᳜

shíyuè

October

कϔ᳜

shíyīyuè

November

कѠ᳜

shí’èryuè

December

Week The days of the week are numbered rather than named as in English and Monday is considered the first day of the week. “One week” is “ϔ᯳ᳳ yìxīngqī,” “ϔϾ᯳ᳳ yíge xīngqī” or “ϔ਼ yìzhōu.” The other term for week, which is older and is still used often orally, is “⼐ᢰ lîˇbài,” and “one week” is “ϔϾ⼐ᢰ yíge lîˇbài.” “Weekend” is “਼᳿ zhōumò.”

3.10.4

Day of week

Pinyin

English

᯳ᳳϔˋ⼐ᢰϔ

xīngqīyī/lîˇbàiyī

Monday

᯳ᳳѠˋ⼐ᢰѠ

xīnqī’èr/lîˇbài’èr

Tuesday

᯳ᳳϝˋ⼐ᢰϝ

xīngqīsān/lîˇbàisān

Wednesday

᯳ᳳಯˋ⼐ᢰಯ

xīngqīsì/lîˇbàisì

Thursday

᯳ᳳѨˋ⼐ᢰѨ

xīngqīwuˇ /lîˇbàiwuˇ

Friday

᯳ᳳ݁ˋ⼐ᢰ݁

xīngqīliù/lîˇbàiliù

Saturday

᯳ᳳ᮹ˋ᯳ᳳ໽ˋ ⼐ᢰ໽

xīngqīrì/ xīngqītiān/ lîˇbàitiān

Sunday

Time of day In telling time, the following units are used: Time

Consists of

English

⚍ diaˇ n

60 fēn

o’clock

ࠏ kè

15 fēn

quarter

ߚ fēn

60 miaˇ o

minute

⾦ miaˇ o 204

second

3.11

Currency

Time is told from larger units to smaller units. Therefore, “8 o’clock, 45 minutes, 8 seconds” is: “ܿ⚍ಯकѨߚ˄or ϝࠏ˅ܿ⾦ bādiaˇ n sìshiwuˇ fēn (or sānkè) bāmiaˇ o.” When telling time on the hour, the alternative to “⚍ diaˇ n” is “⚍䩳 diaˇ nzhōng.” For example, 11 o’clock is “कϔ⚍䩳 shíyī diaˇ nzhōng.” 3.10.5

Duration of Time The duration of time is expressed with the larger units first, followed successively by smaller units. Thus, “8 days, 8 hours, 15 minutes, and 8 seconds” is: “ܿ໽ܿᇣᯊकѨߚ ˄or ϔࠏ˅ܿ⾦ bātiān bāxiaˇ oshí shíwuˇ fēn (or yíkè) bāmiaˇo.” The units for duration of time Time

Duration

English

᮹ rì/໽ tiān

24 xiaˇ oshí/24 ge zhōngtóu

day

ᇣᯊ xiaˇ oshí/ 䩳༈ zhōngtóu

60 fēn

hour

ࠏ kè

15 fēn

quarter, 15 minutes

ߚ fēn

60 miaˇ o

minute

⾦ miaˇ o

3.11

second

Currency The official currency in China is Ҏ⇥Ꮥ Rénmínbì, People’s Currency. The abbreviation for Rénmínbì is RMB. The basic unit of RMB is the ‫ ܗ‬yuán, a dollar. Next is 㾦 jiaˇ o which is 1/10 of a yuán and is like a dime or ten cents. One tenth of a jiaˇo is ߚ fēn, a cent. This set of units is usually a written form but is also used by some as an oral form. There is another set that is used more often orally. The two sets cannot be mixed. More written

More oral

‫ ܗ‬yuán

ഫ kuài

㾦 jiaˇ o

↯ máo

ߚ fēn

ߚ fēn

205

3

Functional language

Thus, three dollars and thirty-three cents is ϝ‫ܗ‬ϝ㾦ϝߚ sānyuán sānjiaˇ o sānfēn, which is usually expressed orally as ϝഫϝ↯ϝߚ sānkuài sānmáo sānfēn. All numerals can be put in front of the units to count money, except “two” which can also be spoken as “liaˇ ng.” For example, two dollars is Ѡ‫ ܗ‬èryuán (but not èrkuài) or ϸ‫ ܗ‬liaˇ ngyuán or ϸഫ liaˇ ngkuài; twenty-two thousand two hundred and twenty-two dollars is ѠϛѠगѠⱒѠकѠ ‫ ܗ‬èrwàn èrqiān èrbaˇ i èrshi’èr yuán (or kuài) or ϸϛϸगϸⱒѠकѠ‫ ܗ‬liaˇ ngwàn liaˇ ngqiān liaˇ ngbaˇ i èrshi’èr yuán (or kuài). Twenty-two dollars is only expressed as ѠकѠ‫ܗ‬ èrshi’èr yuán (or kuài), and twenty dollars is Ѡक‫ ܗ‬èrshi yuán (or kuài). Paper money is 㒌Ꮥ zhîˇbì and coins are ⹀Ꮥ yìngbì.

3.12 3.12.1

Numbers Numerals There are three ways of writing numbers in Chinese: the Arabic numerals which are used in general practice and in mathematics; a set of numbers in Chinese characters; and a more formal set of numbers in Chinese characters which are used to prevent unauthorized changes, much like spelling out “3” as “three.” The basic numbers are one to ten. Eleven is “ten one,” nineteen is “ten nine,” twenty-one is “two ten one,” etc. until ninety-nine which is “бकб jiuˇ shijiuˇ ” (nine ten nine). “Zero,” líng, is written as “0” and “䳊.” The written character for “zero” is the same in both the simpler set of Chinese characters and the formal set of Chinese characters. Arabic Pinyin Chinese Formal

1 yī ϔ ໍ

2 èr Ѡ 䌄

3 sān ϝ ক

4 sì ಯ 㙚

5 wuˇ Ѩ ӡ

6 liù ݁ 䰚

7 qī ϗ ᶦ

8 bā ܿ ᤠ

9 jiuˇ б ⥪

Another way of looking at numbers and the way the larger numbers are formed:

206

English

Arabic

Pinyin

Simpler

Formal

One

1

yī

ϔ

ໍ

Ten

10

shí

क

ᣒ

One hundred

100

yì baˇ i

ϔⱒ

ໍՄ

One thousand

1,000

yì qiān

ϔग

ໍҳ

10 shí क ᣒ

3.12

Numbers

English

Arabic

Pinyin

Simpler

Formal

Ten thousand

10,000

yí wàn

ϔϛ

ໍϛ

One hundred thousand

100,000

shí wàn

कϛ

ᣒϛ

One million

1,000,000

yì baˇ iwàn

ϔⱒϛ

ໍⱒϛ

Ten million 10,000,000

yì qiānwàn

ϔगϛ

ໍҳϛ

One hundred million

yí yì

ϔғ

ໍғ

100,000,000

Symbolic values attached to some numbers

Some numbers have taken on symbolic meanings, notably: 1.

2. 3. 4.

The odd numbers are considered to be 䰇 yáng numbers and are viewed as more dynamic or potent. Therefore, “jiuˇ , nine” which is the highest single digit yáng number is considered the most potent. The б啭ຕ jiuˇ lóngbì, nine dragon wall, in the Palace Museum is a symbol of the Emperor. The even numbers are considered to be 䰈 yīn numbers which are less dynamic but more stable. “Sì, four” is considered by many to be an unlucky number, because it sounds like “⅏ sîˇ, death.” “Bā, eight” is recently considered to be a very lucky number because it sounds like “থ fā, to prosper.” A special numeral: ֽ liaˇ

“ֽ liaˇ , two” is a contraction of ϸϾ liaˇ ngge. It is only used for people. For example: ҪӀֽᰃᕜདⱘ᳟টDŽ Tāmen liaˇ shi hěnhaˇ ode péngyou. The two of them are very good friends. 3.12.2

Ordinals Ordinal numbers in Chinese are formed by adding “㄀ dì” in front of numerals. For example: “2nd” is “㄀Ѡ dì èr,” “3rd” is “㄀ϝ dì sān,” “99th” is “㄀бकб dì jiuˇ shijiuˇ ” and “1,001st” is “㄀ϔग䳊ϔ dì yìqiānlíngyī.”

207

3

Functional language

3.12.3

Decimals A decimal point is called a “⚍ diaˇ n” in Chinese. For example: “0.03” is “䳊⚍䳊ϝ líng diaˇ n líng sān”; “99.99” is “бकб⚍бб jiuˇ shijiuˇ diaˇ n jiuˇ jiuˇ .” Conventionally, the number or numbers after the diaˇ n are expressed by saying each number individually.

3.12.4

Percentages Percentages are expressed by “ⱒߚП . . . baˇ ifēn zhī,” that is, “of one hundred parts.” Therefore, 89% is “ⱒߚПܿकб baˇ ifēn zhī bāshíjiuˇ ,” that is, “of one hundred parts, eighty-nine”; and 100% is “ⱒߚПⱒ baˇ ifēn zhī baˇ i,” or “of one hundred parts, one hundred.”

3.12.5

Fractions Fractions are expressed by “ߚП . . . fēn zhī,” that is, “of how many parts, how many.” For example:

1. 2. 3. 3.12.6

“8/9 (eight ninths)” is “бߚПܿ jiuˇ fēn zhī bā.” “1/10 (one tenth)” is “कߚПϔ shí fēn zhī yī.” “1⅔ (one and two thirds) is “ϔজϝߚПѠ yī yòu sān fēn zhī èr.” Multiples Multiples are expressed by adding “‫ ס‬bèi” to a numeral. For example: ϸ‫ ס‬liaˇ ngbèi, twice as; क‫ ס‬shíbèi, ten times as.

3.12.7

Approximate numbers Approximate numbers are expressed by stating the approximate numbers in sequence. For example: “five or six” is “5ǃ6/ Ѩ݁ wuˇ liù.” Here are some samples of approximate numbers:

1. 2. 3. 4.

208

8 or 9 times/eight or nine times: 8ǃ9⃵/ܿб⃵ bā jiuˇ cì. 16 or 17 students/sixteen or seventeen students: 16ǃ7Ͼᄺ⫳/क݁ ϗϾᄺ⫳ shíliù qīge xuésheng.” 117 or 118 people/one hundred seventeen or one hundred eighteen people: 117ǃ8ϾҎ; ϔⱒकϗܿϾҎ yìbaˇi shíqī bāge rén. 1,300 or 1,400 dollars/one thousand three hundred or one thousand four hundred dollars: 13ǃ400‫ ;ܗ‬ϔगϝಯⱒ‫ ܗ‬yìqiān sān sì băi yuán.

4 Letters

4.1 Addressing an envelope Normal format for addressing an envelope 100002 䚂⼼ Ё೑࣫Ҁ ⍋⎔ऎᄺ䰶䏃30ো

ᴢ⬆ҩᬭᥜᬊ ࡴᣓ໻↨㽓ⳕ⏽હढ36㸫⥟ᆘ When addressing an envelope in Chinese, the receiver’s postal code (zip code), 䚂ᬓ㓪ⷕ yóuzhèng biānmaˇ or 䚂㓪 yóubiān, is written at the top left corner of the envelope, followed by the receiver’s address. The address is logically written from larger units to smaller units: country + province/state + city + street + number. The receiver’s name follows the address and is written in the centre of the envelope with slightly larger characters to show respect. The order is: last name + first name + title of address + “receives.” The title of address for the recipient may be: ‫ ⫳ܜ‬xiānsheng, Mr.; ‥ˇ shì, Ms.; ᇣྤ xiaˇ ojiě, Miss; ᷵䭓 xiàozhaˇ ng, President (of a ཇ຿ nu university) or Principal (of a high school or elementary school); ㋏ Џӏ xìzhuˇ rèn, Department Head or Chair; Џӏ zhuˇ rèn, Director; ᬭᥜ jiàoshòu, Professor; ᘏ㒣⧚ zoˇ ngjīnglîˇ, General Manager; 㒣 ⧚ jīnglîˇ, Manager; ᘏ㺕 zoˇ ngcái, President (of a company), etc. The last part on this line may be: ᬊ shōu, receive; ਃqîˇ, open; ໻ਃ dàqîˇ, open (respectful term); ᭀਃ jìngqîˇ, open (respectful term); ҆ ਃ qīnqîˇ, personally open/personal. 209

4

Letters

At the bottom, more to the right, is the sender’s address and surname. Normally, the full name of the sender is not necessary. The last part is the word: ᆘ jì, send or 㓘 jiān, seal. Points to remember when writing an envelope: (1) do not use red ink, which has negative connotations, and usually indicates breaking off a relationship; (2) do not use a pencil, because it may be erased and it does not show respect; (3) it is best to use black or blue ink.

4.2 General form of a letter The figure shows the normal format for both informal and formal letters. In fact, it is a format for writing e-mails as well. Normal format for letters ⿄੐ chēnghu, salutation: ℷ᭛ zhèngwén, text ⼱䇁 zhùyuˇ , a (good) wish, ‫ֵݭ‬Ҏ xiěxìnrén, name of the writer + Ϟ shàng, presented ᮹ᳳ rìqī, date (year, month, day) Note: The name of the writer and date can also be written on the left bottom corner, two or three lines down from the good wishes.

4.3

Informal letters Salutation, ⿄੐ che¯nghu:

Unlike in English letters, in Chinese letters the word “dear, ҆⠅ ⱘ qīn’àide” and “my dear, ៥҆⠅ⱘ woˇ qīn’àide” can only be used for people who are very close to the letter writer. There are many different ways to address the person or persons to whom the letter is written.

210

4.3

(1)

(2)

(3)

Informal letters

For close family members, a name is not necessary: ᭀ⠅ⱘཊཊ jìng’àide naˇ inai, respected grandmother; ҆⠅ⱘཛྷཛྷ qīn’àide māma, dear mother; ໻હ dàgē, oldest brother; Ѡྤ èrjiě, second older sister; ྍྍ mèimei, younger sister, etc. For the younger generation, if there is only one son or one daughter: ៥‫ ܓ‬woˇ ’ér, my son; ཇ ‥ˇ ’er, my daughter. If there is more than one, then precede the ‫ ܓ‬nu ‥ˇ , relation with a name: 䲘‫ ܓ‬Xióng ér, my son Xióng; 㣅ཇ Yīng nu my daughter Yīng, etc. For other older relatives: first name + address. For example: ೑䲘ন Guóxióng shū, uncle Guóxióng; 㕢Бྥ Měilì gū, aunt Měilì; ⦆䰓 ྼ Ling āyí, aunt Ling. For younger relatives or friends: name + relation or just names. For example: ᇣढ՘ Xiaˇ ohuá zhí, nephew Xiaˇ ohuá; ᇣढ Xiaˇ ohuá; 䖒 ढ՘ཇ Dáhuá zhínü, niece Dáhuá; 䖒ढ Daˇ huá; ᰧᯢট Xiaˇ omíng yoˇ u, friend Xiaˇ omíng; ᰧᯢ Xiaˇ omíng; or ᇣᴢ Xiaˇ o Lîˇ. Good wishes, ⼱䇁 zhùyuˇ:

These can be: ᭀ⼱ᅝᒋ jìngzhù ānkāng, respectfully wishing you good health; ᙁ⼱ϛџབᛣ gōngzhù wànshìrúyì, respectfully wishing that everything goes well with you; ⼱䑿ԧ‫ع‬ᒋ zhù shēntîˇjiànkāng, wishing you good health; ⼱ᱥᅝ zhù shuˇ ’ān, wishing you peace during the hot season; ⼱ᮄᑈད zhù xīnniánhaˇ o, Happy New Year; ⼱ᄺϮ䖯ℹ zhù xuéyèjìnbù, wishing you progress in school work; ⼱⫳᮹ᖿФ zhù shēngrìkuàilè, happy birthday, etc. Note: Normally the words “ᭀ⼱,” “ᙁ⼱” or “⼱” are written on one line and the wish itself will follow in the next line or with a line of space in between.

Name of the writerˈ‫ֵݭ‬Ҏ xieˇxìnrén:

This can be just the first name of the writer or a signature, but usually it should be clear enough that the reader would have no difficulty in deciphering the name. An expression identifying the writer’s relation to the reader can also come before the name. For ‥ˇ ’er, your daughter; ᓳ example: ᄭ sūn, your grandson; ཇ‫ ܓ‬nu dì, your younger brother; Դⱘ᳟ট nîˇde péngyou, your friend. After the name, a polite word or two often follows: ᭀϞ jìngshàng, respectfully presented; 䇼Ϟ jîˇnshàng, carefully/solemnly presented; Ϟ shàng, presented.

211

4

Letters

Sample informal letter: In informal letters, the language can be more plain and the tone more personal. ⠌ǃཛྷ˖ ᙼϸԡདʽ 䇶䇶ᙼⱘᴹֵʽᬊࠄᙼⱘֵˈ៥ⳳ催݈ˈг䴲ᐌ໮ 䇶ᙼᇍ៥ⱘ݇ᖗDŽ ៥ᴹ㣅೑䇏кϡⶹϡ㾝Ꮖ㒣݁Ͼ᳜њDŽᯊ䯈䖛ᕫⳳ ᖿDŽ䖭݁Ͼ᳜ᴹˈ៥ⱘ㣅᭛Ꮖ䖯ℹњϡᇥDŽ෎ᴀϞ਀䇒੠ᑨ ᇍ䖯䗔Ꮖ㒣≵ҔМ໻䯂乬њDŽᬭᥜӀг㾝ᕫ៥᳝䖯ℹDŽ೼㣅 ೑ⱘ⫳⌏៥г↨䕗дᛃњDŽৠᯊˈ៥г䅸䆚њ޴Ͼᮄ᳟টDŽ ៥Ӏ䰸њϔ䍋‫ࡳخ‬䇒ǃ㒗д㣅᭛੠䬏⚐ҹ໪ˈ䖬᳝ᯊএ਀䷇ Ф੠ⳟ⬉ᕅDŽ៥ⱘ⫳⌏г↨䕗㾘ᕟDŽᏠᳯᙼϸԡᬒᖗDŽ ᳔䖥䖭䞠ⱘ໽⇨ᕜདˈᕜ㟦᳡DŽᏠᳯᙼ䙷䞠ⱘ໽⇨гདDŽ ៥ᕫ‫خ‬ѯⷨおˈ✊ৢ‫ݭ‬᭛ゴDŽ ϟ⃵‫ݡ‬䇜DŽ 䇋ҷ䯂⠋⠋ǃཊཊདʽ ᭀ⼱ ᅝᒋʽ ‫ܓ‬ ᇣᯢ ᭀϞ ಯ᳜ܿ᮹ Translation: Dad and Mom: Greetings to both of you! Thank you for your letter! I am so very happy to have received your letter and I thank you very much for your concern about me. Suddenly it has been six months since I came to study in England. How time flies. My English has improved a lot in these six months. Basically I do not have much problem listening to lectures and for my daily life. My professors also think I have made progress. I am also more used to life in England now. At the same time, I have made a few friends. Besides doing homework, practicing English and doing physical exercises together, we also go to concerts and movies sometimes. My life has become more routine too. I hope you will not worry about me. The weather has been nice and comfortable. I hope your weather is nice too. I have to do some research and then write a paper. I will write to you again. 212

4.4

Formal letters

Please give my best regards to Grandpa and Grandma! I wish you Best of health! Your son, Xiaoming April 8

4.4

Formal letters Salutationˈ⿄੐ che¯nghu:

To address a person in a formal letter, we may use: (1) ‫⫳ܜ‬ ‥ˇ xiānsheng, Mr.; ໿Ҏ fūren, Madam; ໾໾ tàitai, Mrs.; ཇ຿ nu shì, Ms.; ᇣྤ xiaˇ ojiě, Miss, etc.; or (2) if a person’s official position is known: surname + official position title. These are some official titles: 䰶䭓 yuànzhaˇ ng, Dean; ᬭᥜ jiàoshòu, Professor; म຿ bóshì, Dr. (Ph.D.); 㨷џ䭓 doˇ ngshìzhaˇ ng, President of a board; ᘏ㺕 zoˇ ngcái, President; ᘏ㒣⧚ zoˇ ngjīnglîˇ, General Manager; 㒣⧚ jīnglîˇ, Manager; Џӏ zhuˇ rèn, Director, etc.; (3) If the letter is written to an organization whose specific recipient is unknown, one may start the letter by saying: ᭀਃ㗙 jìngqîˇzhě, the respected person who opens this letter (equivalent to: Dear Sir or Madam). Good wishes, ⼱䇁 zhùyuˇ:

The good wishes are more formal: ᭀ⼱ᮄ᯹ᖿФ jìngzhù xīnchūnkuàilè, wishing you a Happy Chinese New Year; ⼱Ꮉ԰乎 ߽ zhù gōngzuòshùnlì, wishing everything goes smoothly with your work; ᙁ⼱໻ᅝ gōngzhù dà’ān, respectfully wishing you peace; ᙁ ⼱џϮ݈䱚 gōngzhù shìyèxīnglóng, respectfully wishing your work will prosper; 䆮⼱⫳ᛣ݈䱚 chéngzhù shēngyìxīnglóng, sincerely wishing your business will prosper; 乎㟈ᭀᛣ shùnzhì jìngyì, taking the opportunity to show my respect; ℸ㟈ⳳ䆮ⱘ䇶ᛣ cîˇzhì zhēnchéngde xièyì, here I send you my sincerest thanks, etc. Name of the writer, ‫ֵݭ‬Ҏ xieˇxìnrén:

The writer usually identifies himself/herself by giving an official title, for example: ࠥḹ໻ᄺᬭᥜ Jiànqiaˇ o Dàxué jiàoshòu, Professor at Cambridge University; 㕢೑䖒‫݀ܟ‬ৌ㒣⧚ Měiguó Dákègōngsī jīnglîˇ, Manager of Daker Company in the USA, etc. As with informal letters, the name is followed by ᭀϞ jìngshàng, respectfully presented, or 䇼Ϟ jîˇnshàng, solemnly presented. Sample letter:

Vocabulary used in a formal letter is usually more “literary” and the tone is more impersonal, for example: 䌉᷵ guìxiào, your honorable school/university; ៥᷵ woˇ xiào, our school/university; 䌉݀ৌ guì gōngsī, your honorable company; ៥݀ৌ woˇ gōngsī, our company; 213

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䌉ॖ guìchaˇ ng, your honorable factory; ៥ॖ woˇ chaˇ ng, our factory, etc. If the letter is a very important one, in addition to being written on official letterhead, an official seal, ݀ゴ gōngzhāng, should be stamped at the end of the letter. Sample formal letter ᓴ㒣⧚˖ ᙼདʽ 䌉݀ৌ᳔䖥ⱏᑓਞ᢯㘬᥼䫔ਬDŽ៥ⳟࠄℸᑓਞৢˈ 㾝ᕫ䖭ӊᎹ԰ᰃ៥୰⃶‫ⱘخ‬Ꮉ԰ˈгᑨ䆹ᰃ᳝䌘Ḑৃҹ㚰ӏ ⱘDŽ᠔ҹ‫އ‬ᅮ⬇䇋DŽ ៥ᰃএᑈଚᄺ㋏↩Ϯⱘᄺ⫳DŽ೼໻ᄺ᳒㒣ᄺ䖛ϝᑈ ⱘЁ᭛DŽ↩Ϯৢˈএ࣫ҀজᄺњϔᑈⱘЁ᭛DŽ⦄೼㛑䇈ǃ㛑 ⳟˈг㛑‫ݭ‬DŽ 䱣ֵҬϞ៥ⱘㅔग़ˈ䇋ᶹᬊDŽᙼབ䳔㽕᥼㤤Ҏⱘྦྷৡ ៪᥼㤤ֵˈг䇋ਞⶹDŽ៥ӮሑᖿᆘএDŽ  Ⳑᳯⴔᙼⱘಲ䷇DŽ ᙁ⼱ ໻ᅝʽ ᰮ 䰚ᵄ߽(Jerry Lucas)ᭀϞ 2008ᑈ8᳜8᮹ Translation: Manager Zhang: Greetings! Your company has recently advertised a position for a salesperson. When I read your advertisement, I felt that this is a job I would like and I think I am well qualified for it. Therefore I have decided to apply for it. I graduated from the Department of Commerce last year. I studied Chinese for three years at university. After graduation, I went to Beijing and studied Chinese for another year. I can speak, read and write Chinese now. Attached please find my resumé. If you need any names or reference letters, please let me know and I will send them to you as soon as possible. I look forward to your reply. Respectfully wishing you Great Peace! Sincerely, Jerry Lucas August 8, 2008

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5 Grammar

The first Modern Standard Chinese grammar book: Ma’s Basic Principles for Writing (1898), 偀⇣᭛䗮 Maˇ shìwéntōng, was written just over a century ago by 偀ᓎᖴ Maˇ Jiànzhōng (1845–1900), who was strongly influenced by grammars published for European languages. Of course this does not mean that Chinese were unaware that they were speaking in accordance with shared grammatical rules. It may never have occurred to them that rules should be systematically compiled, categorized and described for purely structural analysis apart from rhetorical effect. Similarly, it was about one and a half millennia ago that the Chinese scholar ≜㑺 Shěn Yuē (441–513) wrote the first treatise, On the Four Tones ಯໄ䈅 Sìshēngpuˇ , describing the four tones of the Chinese language, even though speakers had been pronouncing the same syllables in four different tones for many centuries before he wrote his treatise. It was the challenge of translating Buddhist sutras into Chinese from Sanskrit and Pali, particularly transliterating untranslatable names such as Avalokiteshvara Bodhissatva into pronounceable Chinese syllables, that caused scholars to pay more attention to the structure of their own language than they had for centuries before. In the nineteenth century, it was increased contact with Westerners and their languages that made some Chinese feel the need to systematize the rules for speaking well-formed sentences in their own tongue.

5.1 The main features of Chinese grammar 5.1.1

Absence of morphological change Perhaps the most salient feature of Chinese grammar is the absence of fixed rules for changing the form of words when their grammatical function changes. There is no change in the form of a verb expressing a present, past, or future action, and no change for subjunctive expressions; there is no gender differentiation among nouns, and no difference between singular and plural nouns. This feature was illustrated earlier in this volume. 215

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5.1.2

Frequent ellipsis China’s “high context culture,” as defined by E.T. Hall in Beyond Culture, is reflected most clearly in language usage. Once the subject, topic, or even the verb is understood by both speaker and listener, it is commonly omitted. As long as the topic, subject, object, or the verb is understood, it may be omitted in subsequent utterances until the topic, subject, object or verb is changed. Elliptical sentences are usually responses to questions and they are context-dependent and therefore do not stand alone without a context.

(1)

(2)

216

There is no single word for “yes” or “no” in Chinese as there is in English. The shortest possible “yes” or “no” response to a question is to repeat or negate the verb or auxiliary verb used in the question. Therefore such short answers are elliptical sentences. ҪӀᰃ⊩೑Ҏ৫? Tāmen shi Faˇ guórén ma? Are they French?

ᰃDŽˋϡᰃDŽ Shì./Bú shi. Yes./No.

ҪӀᯢᑈএϡএ⊩೑ᮙ␌˛ ˇ Tāmen míngnián qùbuqu Faˇ guo lüyóu? Will they visit France next year?

এDŽˋϡএDŽ Qù./Bú qù. Yes./No.

ҪӀӮϡӮ䇈⊩䇁˛ Tāmen huìbuhui shuō Faˇ yuˇ ? Can they speak French?

ӮDŽˋϡӮDŽ Huì./Bú huì. Yes./No.

Short answers to questions with question words: 䇕䇋ҪӀএ佁佚ৗ佁˛ Shéi qîˇng tāmen qù fànguaˇ nr chīfàn? Who invited them to eat in a restaraunt?

ཌྷDŽ Tā. She.

䙷ᴀ㣅᭛ᴖᖫᰃ䇕ⱘ˛ Nàběn Yīngwén zázhì shi shéide? Whose English magazine is that?

៥ӀⱘDŽ Woˇ mende. Ours.

៥ⳟϡ⏙ˈ䙷ᓴ㒌Ϟ‫ⱘݭ‬ᰃҔМ˛ Woˇ kàn buqīng, nàzhāng zhîˇshang xiěde shi shénme? I can’t see clearly. What is written on that piece of paper?

ҎৡᄫDŽ Rén míngzi. Someone’s name.

Դⶹϡⶹ䘧ҪӀϟ᯳ᳳএા‫˛ܓ‬ Nîˇ zhībuzhīdao tāmen xiàxīngqi qù naˇ r? Do you know where they are going next week?

ᖋ೑DŽ Déguo. Germany.

ᯢ໽ᮽϞ޴⚍㾕䴶˛ Míngtian zaˇ oshang jîˇdiaˇ n jiànmiàn? When are we meeting tomorrow morning?

क⚍DŽ Shídiaˇ n. Ten o’clock.

5.1 The main features of Chinese grammar

5.1.3

Դⱘ᳟ট㽕೼Դᆊԣ໮Й˛ Nîˇde péngyou yào zài nîˇjiā zhù duōjiuˇ ? How long are your friends going to stay in your house?

Ѩǃ݁໽DŽ Wuˇ ǃliù tiān. Five or six days.

ҪӀҞᑈ޴᳜↩Ϯ˛ Tāmen jīnnian jîˇyuè bìyè? When do they graduate this year?

ϗ᳜DŽ Qīyue. July.

Mutual influence of monosyllabic and disyllabic words Although each monosyllabic Chinese character is meaningful, there is a tendency in Modern Standard Chinese to use disyllabic words, which we may call “binomes.” For example, the English title of this book, Using Chinese, could be translated into Chinese as “⫼∝䇁 Yòng Hànyuˇ ,” but that would sound less natural than “Փ⫼∝䇁 Shîˇyòng Hànyuˇ ,” which consists of two binomes. Similarly, we could translate “Chinese cuisine” directly into “Ё೑令 Zhōngguocān,” but the preferred expression is “Ё令 Zhōngcān.” A Chinese could say “ᠿ㸫䘧 saˇ o jiēdào, sweep the streets,” or “ᠧᠿ㸫 daˇ saˇ o jiē, sweep the streets,” but surely would prefer “ᠧᠿ㸫䘧 daˇ saˇ o jiēdào” as a balanced pair of binomes, or even the single binome “ᠿ㸫 saˇ o jiē, sweep the streets.” Chinese linguists refer to this phenomenon as ঠ ䷇࣪ shuāngyīnhuà, binomization.

5.1.4

Differences between spoken and written forms Written Chinese characters never have been primarily phonetic representations of the spoken word, so it should come as no surprise that some modes of expression in written Chinese will differ from modern spoken Chinese. One of the ways written Chinese differs from spoken forms is in its preference for brevity. For instance, in spoken Chinese the word most often used for “time” or “when” is “ᯊ‫ ׭‬shíhou.” In written Chinese it will often be abbreviated into the single character/syllable “ᯊ shí.” The reason is very simple and practical: when listening, we cannot “see” which of the many “shí” the speaker has in mind, because there are more than twenty-five different characters pronounced “shí” in the second tone, at least four of which are very common: ᯊ shí, time; क shí, ten; ⷇ shí, stone; and 亳 shí, food. The written form disambiguates the meaning for the reader, whereas the listener’s key for disambiguation is the second syllable of “shíhou,” which would be written “ᯊ‫׭‬,” as opposed to “⷇༈ shítou,” “亳ક shípîˇn,” etc., in speech. As stated above, the rules of Chinese grammar are fewer and less complex than those of most Western European languages, and are far fewer and far less complex than English grammar. When Chinese

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speakers utter a verb they need not worry, for instance, about distinguishing between past, present, and future forms of the verb: (Yesterday) I went to his home (yesterday). ˄៥˅᯼໽˄៥˅এҪᆊDŽ (Woˇ ) zuótian (woˇ ) qù tā jiā. (I) yesterday (I) go his home. (Today) I am going to his home (today). ˄៥˅Ҟ໽˄៥˅এҪᆊDŽ (Woˇ ) jīntian (woˇ ) qù tā jiā. (I) today (I) go his home. (Tomorrow) I shall go to his home (tomorrow). ˄៥˅ᯢ໽˄៥˅এҪᆊDŽ (Woˇ ) míngtian (woˇ ) qù tā jiā. (I) tomorrow (I) go his home. (Every day) I go to his home (every day). ˄៥˅໽໽˄៥˅এҪᆊDŽ (Woˇ ) tiāntiān (woˇ ) qù tā jiā. (I) every day (I) go his home. The reason there is no need to change the verb form is simple enough: if the time of an action or state of affairs (past, present, or future) is significant enough to be mentioned, then it must be placed before the verb, hence removing the need to imbed a tense marker in the verb. The placement variable in the four sentences above is the subject, the first person pronoun, which may either precede or follow the time expression. In English, we may place a time expression at the very end of a sentence, because the verb’s tense marker will have made it clear whether the action has or has not yet taken place. The time expression then serves to locate the point more specifically, as “yesterday,” “last week,” “tomorrow,” “next year,” or “when I was young.” Nor is there any need to change verb forms when distinguishing between indicative and subjunctive moods: If I were you. . . 㽕ᰃ៥ᰃԴˈDŽDŽDŽ yàoshi woˇ shi nîˇ (literally, “if I am you”) Nor do we need to make any changes to nouns when we distinguish between singular and plural: One mouse, two mice, many mice ϔা㗕哴ˈϸা㗕哴ˈ䆌໮㗕哴 yìzhī laˇ oshuˇ , liaˇ ngzhī laˇ oshuˇ , xuˇ duō laˇ oshuˇ (one mouse, two mouse, many mouse) This is because having said “two” or “many,” we know beyond all doubt that we are referring to more than one mouse, so there simply 218

5.2 Word order and syntax

is no need to distinguish between singular and plural forms of a noun. Sometimes this may frustrate or surprise non-native speakers of Chinese, when they hear the announcement: ᅶҎᴹњʽ Kèren lái le! guest arrive and have no idea whether it means “the guest has arrived,” “a guest has arrived,” “the guests have arrived,” or “some guests have arrived.” To the Chinese speaker, the reasoning is very simple and obvious: if one person is expected to arrive, the utterance means: “The guest has arrived.” If more than one is expected, it means: “The guests have arrived.” If no one is expected to arrive, the proper utterance would be: ᴹᅶњʽ Lái kè le! come guest (s) Non-agency and non-anticipation of “guest arrival” outweighs the need to distinguish between singular and plural. We see a similar inversion of normal word order in expressions like “ϟ䲼њʽxiàyuˇ le!, It’s raining!” or “ߎ໾䰇њ chū tàiyang le, The sun’s come out,” where something happens without agency and without volition on the part of the speaker.

5.2 Word order and syntax Word order is paramount in Chinese speech. “Subject–Verb–Object” is the normal word order, with additional information, such as time of action, location of action, manner of action, extent of action, result of action, inserted into this core. As with English, the only difference between “Mom scolds the horse, ཛྷཛྷ偖偀 māma mà maˇ ” and “The horse scolds Mom, 偀偖ཛྷཛྷ maˇ mà māma” is word order. Time of action may be placed either immediately before the subject to focus attention on the time, or more often between the subject and the verb: ཛྷཛྷ᯼໽偖偀DŽ Māma zuótian mà maˇ . Mom scolded the horse yesterday. or ᯼໽ཛྷཛྷ偖偀DŽ Zuótian māma mà maˇ . Yesterday Mom scolded the horse. The location of action is expressed after the subject and before the verb:

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ཛྷཛྷ೼䰶ᄤ䞠偖偀DŽ Māma zai yuànzili mà maˇ . Mom scolds the horse in the courtyard. If the time and place are both stated in the same sentence, the time expression precedes the location: ཛྷཛྷ᯼໽೼䰶ᄤ䞠偖偀DŽ Māma zuótian zai yuànzili mà maˇ . Mom scolded the horse in the yard yesterday. The manner of an action is expressed immediately before the verb: ཛྷཛྷ᯼໽དད‫ܓ‬ഄ偖偀DŽ Māma zuótian haˇ ohāorde mà maˇ . Mom gave the horse a good scolding yesterday. The extent and/or result of an action, since they cannot be known until after the action has taken place, always follow the verb: ཛྷཛྷ偖偀偖ᕫᕜ߽ᆇ. Māma mà maˇ màde hěn lìhai. Mom scolded the horse severely. If an action takes place without the volition or anticipation of the speaker (without “agency”), the noun and verb are expressed in reversed order, often, but not always, referring to the weather (the “le” particle indicates a change of status): ϟ䲼њDŽ Xiàyuˇ le. It’s raining. ߎџњDŽ Chūshì le. There’s been an accident. ϟ䇒њDŽ Xiàkè le. Class is dismissed. ৗ佁њ! Chīfàn le! Dinner is served! ᬊᎹњDŽ Shōugōng le. It’s time to quit work. ᬷӮњDŽ Sànhuì le. The meeting is adjourned.

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5.3

5.3

Topic-comment sentences

Topic-comment sentences Chinese has been called a “topic-prominent language,” meaning that the topic is what is being talked about, and the comment is what is said about the topic. On the surface, this may sound not too different from the basic division of an English sentence into a “subject– predicate” structure, but in fact it is not the same at all, as illustrated in the following typical sentence: 㗕ᓴ䑿ԧདDŽ Laˇ o Zhāng shēntîˇ haˇ o. Zhāng is in good health. In this sentence, “Laˇ o Zhāng” is the topic, “shēntîˇ haˇ o” is the comment. The comment itself consists of a subject, “shēnt and a predicate “haˇ o.” The first reaction of an English speaker might be to express this type of sentence using a “topic marker” before “Zhāng,” like “As for,” “Concerning” or “Speaking of ” but the natural English stylistic equivalent is simply “Zhang is in good health.” The topic may even be preceded by a contextualizing statement, such as: এᑈ㗕ᓴ䑿ԧདDŽ Qùnián Laˇ o Zhāng shēntîˇ haˇ o. Last year Zhang was in good health. The time expression “qùnián, last year” could also be placed after the topic and before the subject: 㗕ᓴএᑈ䑿ԧདDŽ Laˇ o Zhāng qùnián shēntîˇ haˇ o. Zhang was in good health last year. The “feeling” of the above sentence in English would be “As for Zhāng, last year he was in good health” but the most natural way of expressing it would be “Zhang was in good health last year.” An illustrative list of sample topic – comment sentences follows: ཌྷᑈ㑾ᇣ Tā niánji xiaˇ o. She is young. 䙷Ͼ佁ᑫ᠓䯈ᑆ‫ޔ‬৫˛ Nàge fàndiàn fángjiān gānjing ma? Are the rooms in that hotel clean? ҪӀ䇕䛑ϡᴹখࡴᑻ䇜DŽ Tāmen shéi dōu bùlái cānjiā zuòtán. None of them will come to participate in the discussion. Ҫ᳟ট㜒⇨ᕜᲈ䑕DŽ Tā péngyou píqi hěn bàozào. His friend has a fiery temper. 221

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䙷ᑈ໣໽㩭⡍߽ᇨ໽⇨䴲ᐌϡℷᐌDŽ Nànián xiàtian Měngtèlì’ěr tiānqi fēicháng búzhèngcháng. The weather was very unusual in Montreal that summer. ᠓⾳㒑㑺᳔䌉DŽ Fángzū Niuˇ yuē zuì guì. Apartment rental is most expensive in New York. 䖭Ͼ∝ᄫ㒧ᵘᕜㅔऩDŽ Zhège hànzì jiégòu hěn jiaˇ ndān. The structure of this Chinese character is quite simple. Ҫ䙷ϾҎー᠟ー㛮ⱘDŽ Tā nàge rén bènshoˇ ubènjiaˇ o de. He is a very clumsy person.

5.4 5.4.1

Pronouns Personal pronouns There is no difference in form between singular nouns and plural nouns in Chinese, with the occasional exception that some may put a “men, Ӏ” after nouns which indicate people, for example: 㗕Ꮬ Ӏ laˇ oshīmen, the teachers; ᄺ⫳Ӏ xuéshengmen, the students. In pronouns, ҷ䆡 dàicí, however, there is a difference between singular and plural forms:

Number Person

Singular

Plural

1st

2nd

3rd

1st

2nd

Pronoun

៥ woˇ

Դ nîˇ

៥Ӏ woˇ men

ԴӀ nîˇmen

Possessive

៥ⱘ woˇ de

Դⱘ nîˇ de

Ҫˈ ཌྷˈᅗ tā Ҫⱘˈ ཌྷⱘˈ ᅗⱘ tā de

៥Ӏⱘ woˇ men de

ԴӀⱘ nîˇmen de

3rd ҪӀˈཌྷ ӀˈᅗӀ tāmen ҪӀⱘˈ ཌྷӀⱘˈ ᅗӀⱘ tāmen de

English pronoun

I, me

you, you

he, him; she, her; it, it

we, us

you, you

they, them

English possessive

my, mine

your, yours

his, her, its; his, hers, its

our, ours

your, yours

their, theirs

The word “ᙼ nín” is a polite form for “Դ n or “ԴӀ nîˇmen.” The plural form “ᙼӀ nínmen” is generally not used in the spoken form, but may appear in the written form.

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5.4

Pronouns

The word “અӀ zánmen” also means “we, us” and is used more by northerners to include the listeners, so it is also known as “the inclusive ‘we’.” The word “ֽ liaˇ ” means “two of (persons)” and is always combined with two people’s names or the plural form of personal pronouns. For example: ᓴϝ੠ᴢಯֽ Zhāng Sān hé Lîˇ Sì liaˇ Zhang San and Li Si: the two of them. ៥Ӏֽ woˇ men liaˇ we two ཌྷӀֽ tāmen liaˇ they two 5.4.2

Demonstrative pronouns 䖭 zhè/zhèi 䖭ѯ zhèxie/zhèixie 䙷 nà/nèi 䙷ѯ nàxie/nèixie 䖭ḋ zhèyang/zhèiyang 䙷ḋ nàyang/nèiyang 䖭М zhème 䖭Мѯ zhème xiē 䙷М nàme, like that 䙷Мѯ nàme xiē

5.4.3

this these that those like this, this way like that, that way so, like this so much, so many in that way so much, so many

Interrogative pronouns 䇕 shéi/shuí 䇕ⱘ shéide/shuíde ા‫ˋܓ‬ા䞠 naˇ r/naˇ li ા naˇ /neˇi ાѯ naˇ xiē/neˇixiē ҔМ shénme ҔМᯊ‫ ׭‬shénme shíhou ЎҔМ wèishenme ޴ jîˇ ໮ᇥ duōshao ᗢМ zěnme ᗢМḋ zěnmeyàng

who, whom whose where which, what which ones what when why how many (usually under ten) how many, how much (usually over ten) how, how come how

223

5

Grammar

5.5

Location The following are used to indicate location, relative location and position: Ϟ䖍 shāngbianr/Ϟ䴶 shàngmian/Ϟ༈ shàngtou ϟ䖍 xiàbianr/ϟ䴶 xiàmian/ϟ༈ xiàtou ࠡ䖍 qiánbianr/ࠡ䴶 qiánmian/ࠡ༈ qiántou ৢ䖍 hòubianr/ৢ䴶 hòumian/ৢ༈ hòutou Ꮊ䖍 zuoˇ bianr ে䖍 yòubianr 䖭䖍 zhèbianr/䖭䖍 zhèibianr/䖭‫ ܓ‬zhèr/䖭 䞠 zhèli/䖭䞠 zhèili 䙷䖍 nàbianr/䙷䖍 nèibianr/䙷‫ ܓ‬nàr/䙷䞠 nàli/䙷䞠 nèili 䞠䖍 lîˇbianr/䞠䴶 lîˇmian/䞠༈ lîˇtou ໪䖍 wàibianr/໪䴶 wàimian/໪༈ wàitou ᮕ䖍 pángbiānr Ё䯈 zhōngjiān/Ё䯈 zhōngjiànr ᇍ䴶 duìmiànr ᭰ᇍ䴶 xiéduìmiànr ᑩϟ dîˇxia ϰ䖍 dōngbianr/ϰ䴶 dōngmian फ䖍 nánbianr/फ䴶 nánmian 㽓䖍 xībianr/㽓䴶 xīmian ࣫䖍 běibianr/࣫䴶 běimian

above, up there, on top under, below, down there front, in front behind, in the back to the left, on the left side to the right, on the right side here, over here there, over there inside outside beside, by the side of, next to in the middle, in the center, in between opposite, facing, across diagonally opposite to, kitty-cornered from underneath, under east, to the east of south, to the south of west, to the west of north, to the north of

For example: 䖭᠔᠓ᄤⱘϞ䖍ᰃऻᅸ੠ि⫳䯈ˈϟ䖍ᰃᅶख़ǃ佁ख़੠ॼ᠓DŽ Zhèisuoˇ fángzide shàngbianr shi wòshi he wèishēngjiān, xiàbianr shi kètīng, fàntīng he chúfáng. The upstairs part of this house has bedrooms and bathrooms, and the downstairs part has the living room, dining room, and the kitchen. ҪӀᆊⱘࠡ䖍᳝␪ˈৢ䖍᳝ቅDŽ Tāmen jiāde qiánbianr yoˇ u hú, hòubianr yoˇ u shān.

224

5.6

Measure words

There is a lake in front of their house and there is a mountain behind it. ⥯Бത೼∸ྚ੠ⱑᘽⱘЁ䯈DŽ Maˇ lì zuòzai Tāngmuˇ hé Bái’ēn de zhōngjiān. Mary sits in between Tom and Brian. ៥ህԣ೼ཌྷᆊᇍ䴶DŽ Woˇ jiù zhùzai tājiā duìmiànr. I live right across from her house.

5.6

Measure words Measure words, 䞣䆡 liàngcí, also known as classifiers, are mandatory when specifying or counting nouns. There are between 150 and 200 measure words in Chinese. Measure words also appear in English but there are very few of them. In “a bar of soap” or “two cups of coffee,” “bar” and “cups” are like measure words in Chinese. In addition to the words used for length, area, weight, volume, capacity, year, time, temperature, and currency, there are other specific measure words for specific nouns. The word “᳜ yuè, month” takes “Ͼ gè” as its measure word. For example, “ten months” is “कϾ᳜ shíge yuè.” A formula for the use of measure words is as follows: 䖭 zhè/zhèi, 䙷 nà/nèi, ޴ jîˇ, or ᭄ᄫ shùzi, numeral + 䞣䆡 liàngcí, measure word +ৡ䆡 míngcí, noun These are the most commonly used measure words: ᡞ baˇ

things with handles, a handful

ࣙ bāo

bundles, packets, bales

ᵃ bēi

cups, glasses

ᴀ běn

volumes, books, magazines

䘡 biàn

once over, frequency

‫ ݠ‬cè

volumes, books

എ cháng

occurrences, happenings

⃵ cì  ᠧ dá 㹟 dài

number of times an action is taken dozen bags, sacks

Ⓢ dī

drops

ϸᡞộᄤˈϝᡞ Ӳˈϔᡞ㉇ ϔࣙẝ㢅ˈϔࣙ ㊪ ϔᵃ㤊ˈಯᵃ⠯ ཊ 䖭ᴀᇣ䇈ˈ䙷ᴀ ᴖᖫ ‫ݭ‬ϸ䘡ˈ‫ⳟݡ‬ϔ 䘡 ㄀ϔ‫ݠ‬ᆍᯧˈ ㄀ Ѡ‫ݠ‬䲒 ϟњϔഎ໻䲼ˈ ϔഎ☿ ϔ⃵᠟ᴃˈⳟ њѨ⃵ˈ‫ݭ‬क⃵ ϔᠧ叵㲟 ϔ㹟䴶㉝ˈϔ㹟 䞥ᄤ ϔⓈⴐ⊾ˈϔⓈ ∫ˈϔⓈ㸔 225

5

Grammar

226

⚍ diaˇ n

points, items

乊 dîˇng ᷟ dòng

hats, caps houses, buildings

↉ duàn

paragraphs, sections

ේ duī

heaps, piles

ᇍ duì

pairs, couples

乓 dùn

regular meals, reprimands

ᴉ duoˇ

flowers, clouds

ӑ fèn

copies of newspaper, portions

ᇕ fēng ᐙ fú Ͼ gè

letters paintings persons, most things

ḍ gēn

long and slender things

Ⲧ hé(r)

small boxes

ಲ huí

times, cycles, frequency

ᆊ jiā

families, businesses

䯈 jiān

rooms

ӊ jiàn

articles, items of clothing

হ jù ỉ kē

sentences, utterances trees, cabbages

ষ koˇ u

persons, mouthfuls

ഫ kuài

lumps, pieces, dollars

ϔ⚍ᓎ䆂ˈ޴⚍ ད໘ ܿ乊ᮄᐑᄤ ϔᷟᮻ᠓ᄤˈϔ ᷟ໻ὐ᠓ ϔ↉᭛ゴˈϔ↉ ᯊ䯈ˈϔ↉䎱⾏ ϔේ⷇༈ˈϔ໻ ේ㸷᳡ ݁ᇍ㢅⫊ˈϔᇍ ᮄီ໿ཛ ↣໽ৗϝ乓佁ˈ 偖ϔ乓ˈᠧϔ乓 ϔᴉ㣝㥝㢅ˈ޴ ᴉⱑѥ бӑЁ᭛᡹ˈϔ ӑ⼐⠽ˈϸӑᖿ 令 क޴ᇕֵ ϔᐙϪ⬠ৡ⬏ ϸϾⓨਬˈϔϾ 䯂乬ˈ݁Ͼㄨ ḜˈܿϾ㡖Ⳃˈ ϔϾᗉ༈ˈ‫خ‬њ ϔϾṺ ޴ḍ☿᷈ˈϔḍ 䩜ˈϔḍạᄤ ϔⲦ佐ᑆˈϔⲦ 佭ˈϔⲦ㊪ᵰ ᗢМϔಲџˈ↣ ಲ䛑ⳟ㾕Ҫˈএ 䖛ϔಲ 䙷ᆊҎᕜᖭˈ䙷 ᆊ佁佚ᕜᑆ‫ޔ‬ ಯ䯈ሟᄤˈϔ䯈 ⮙᠓ ϝӊ㸠ᴢˈಯӊ ໻㸷 ϸহ䆫ˈकহ䆱 ϝỉᷥˈѨỉ໻ ⱑ㦰 Ҫᆊ᳝ϝষҎˈ ୱњϸষ㤊 ϔഫ㙹ⱖˈϔഫ ⷪˈϔഫᏗˈϔ ഫ䪅

5.6

㉦ lì

grain, rice, sand

䕚 liàng

vehicles

䮼 mén

relatives, courses, a discipline

䴶 miàn

things with flat surface

ᥦ pái

rows of persons or things

Ⲭ pán

coils, plates

ऍ pī

horses, camels, bolts of cloth

㆛ piān

writings

⠛ piàn

slices, pieces, vast expanse

⫊ píng

bottles, jars

㕸 qún

crowd, flock

ቕ suì ᠛ shàn

years (age) doors, windows

佪shoˇ u

poems, songs

ᴳ shù ঠshuāng

flowers, bunches pairs (two of same kind)

᠔ suoˇ

houses or other structures

䍳 tàng ༫ tào

scheduled transportation, actions such as “go,” “come” etc. sets, suits

ᴵ tiáo

things narrow and long

༈ tóu

heads, animals

Measure words

ϔ㉦⾡ᄤˈϔ㉦ ㉇ˈϔ㉦≭ᄤ ϔ䕚㞾㸠䔺ˈϔ 䕚ᮄ≑䔺ˈϔ䕚 व䔺 ད޴䮼҆៮ˈ䗝 ϝ䮼䇒ˈ䖭ᰃϔ 䮼ᄺ䯂 ϔ䴶䬰ᄤˈϔ䴶 哧ˈϔ䴶೑᮫ ϔᥦᄺ⫳ˈϸᥦ ᵰᷥˈϝᥦὐ᠓ ϔⲬ㱞佭ˈϔⲬ ೈẟˈ䖭Ⲭ㦰ᕜ དৗ ϔऍⱑ偀ˈϔऍ 做偐ˈϔऍ㑶㓌 ᄤ ϔ㆛䆎᭛ˈϔ㆛ 〓ᄤˈϔ㆛᮹䆄 ϔ⠛䴶ࣙˈϔ⠛ ᅝ⳴㥃ˈϔ⠛ぎ ഄ ϔ⫊ৃФˈϔ⫊ ઇ௑㥃ˈϔ⫊䜦 ϔ㕸Ҏˈϔ㕸吁 ᄤˈϔ㕸⠯ ܿቕˈ݁कቕ 䖭᠛䮼ˈ䙷᠛に ᠋ 䙷佪℠ᕜད਀ˈ 䖭佪䆫໾Ầњ ϔᴳ剰㢅 ϔঠ᠟ˈϔঠ咥 Ⲃ䵟 ϔ᠔᠓ᄤˈϔ᠔ ᳝ৡⱘ໻ᄺ 䖭ᰃ᳔ৢϔ䍳 䔺ˈ䇋Դএϔ 䍳৻ фϔ༫ⱒ⾥ܼ кˈϔ༫ᆊ‫ˈ݋‬ ‫׳‬ϔ༫㽓㺙 ϔᴵ㺸ᄤˈϸᴵ 㺭ᄤˈक޴ᴵ剐 ޴क༈ཊ⠯ˈϔ ༈㕞

227

5

Grammar

⹫ waˇ n

bowls

ԡ wèi

persons (polite)

ѯ xiē

some

ḋ yàng

kinds, sorts

义 yè

pages

ᓴ zhāng

sheets, things with flat surface

া zhī

one of a pair, some animals

ᵱ zhī

branches, rod-shaped things

⾡ zhoˇ ng

kinds, species

Ḡ zhuō

tables of

ᑻ zuò

mountains, big buildings

ৗϔ⹫佁ˈୱϔ ⹫∸ ϔԡᬭᥜˈϔԡ 㗕Ꮬˈϸԡ㗕Ҏ фϔѯϰ㽓ˈ᳝ ϔѯ䯂乬ˈϔѯ ད໘ ޴ḋ㦰ˈϸḋ∈ ᵰˈϝḋ⚍ᖗ 䇋ⳟ㄀݁义ˈⳟ њक义к ϔᓴ☿䔺⼼ˈϸ ᓴ✻⠛ˈकϝᓴ Ḡᄤ ϔা㘇ᴉ⮐ˈϸ া䴦㲭䏇ϟ∈ˈ ϝাᇣ右 ޴ᵱḗ㢅ˈϔᵱ ↯ヨˈϔᵱ㳵⚯ ϔ⾡ࡼ⠽ˈ৘⾡ ⳟ⊩ˈ䙷⾡买㡆 ϔḠᅶҎˈϔḠ 䜦ᐁ 䙷ᑻቅᕜ催ˈ䚂 ሔ೼䖭ᑻ໻ὐ䞠

5.7 Ways of asking questions There are seven sentence patterns that are used to ask questions. They are listed below: (1)

Add ৫ ma, to the end of a statement: ཛྷཛྷ偖偀৫˛ Māma mà maˇ ma? Does Mom scold the horse? ཛྷཛྷ≵偖偀৫˛ Māma méi mà maˇ ma? Didn’t Mom scold the horse?

(2)

Use an interrogative pronoun: 䆹䇕偖偀ਸ਼˛ Gāi shéi mà maˇ ne? Whose turn is it to scold the horse? ԴҹЎཌྷᰃ䇕˛ Nîˇ yîˇwéi tā shi shéi? Who did you think she was?

228

5.7 Ways of asking questions

Դ㛑ৗ໮ᇥ低ᄤ˛ Nîˇ néng chī duōshao jiaˇ ozi? How many dumplings can you eat? (3)

Ask the listener to choose between affirmative and negative forms: ཛྷཛྷ偖ϡ偖偀˛ Māma màbumà maˇ ? Does/Will Mom scold the horse? ཌྷᛇϡᛇⳟ䖭ᴀᇣ䇈" Tā xiaˇ ngbùxiaˇ ng kàn zhèběn xiaˇ oshuō? Would she like to read this novel? ᴢ㗕Ꮬᴹњ≵᳝˛ Lîˇ laˇ oshī láile méiyou? Has Professor Li arrived yet? ҪӀ᳝≵᳝ᄽᄤ˛ Tāmen yoˇ uméiyou háizi? Do they have children?

(4)

Insert ᰃϡᰃ shìbushi, into a statement: ཛྷཛྷᰃϡᰃ偖偀˛ Māma shìbushi mà maˇ ? Does Mom scold the horse or not? ҪӀϸϾᰃϡᰃད䍋ᴹњ˛ Tāmen liaˇ ngge shìbushi haˇ oqilai le? The two of them have made up, have they? ҪӀϸϾད䍋ᴹњˈᰃϡᰃ˛ Tāmen liaˇ ngge haˇ oqilai le, shìbushi? The two of them have made up, haven’t they? ᰃϡᰃҪӀϸϾད䍋ᴹњ˛ Shìbushi tāmen liaˇ ngge haˇ oqilai le? Is it true that the two of them have made up?

(5)

Use 䖬ᰃ háishi, to offer alternative choices: ཛྷཛྷ偖偀ˈ䖬ᰃᠧ偀˛ Māma mà maˇ , háishi daˇ maˇ ? Will Mom scold the horse or beat it? Դএ䖬ᰃ៥এ˛ Nîˇ qù háishi woˇ qù? Shall you go, or shall I ? ԴҞ໽এ䖬ᰃᯢ໽এ˛ Nîˇ jīntian qù háishi míngtian qù? Will you go today or tomorrow?

229

5

Grammar

Դএ㒑㑺䖬ᰃ˄এ˅ᮻ䞥ቅ˛ Nîˇ qù Niuˇ yuē háishi (qù) Jiùjīnshān? Are you going to New York or to San Francisco? Դএ⒥‫ބ‬䖬ᰃ˄এ˅⒥䲾˛ Nîˇ qù huábīng háishi (qù) huáxuě? Will you go ice skating or (will you go) skiing? ԴএϔϾ᯳ᳳ䖬ᰃϸϾ᯳ᳳ˛ Nîˇ qù yíge xīngqī háishi liaˇ ngge xīngqī? Are you going for one week or for two weeks? (6)

Use ໮ duō, to ask about degree or quantity: ཛྷཛྷ偖ⱘ偀᳝໮໻" Māma màde maˇ yoˇ u duōdà? How big was the horse Mom scolded? 䙷ϔ໻ࣙк᳝໮䞡˛ Nà yídàbāo shū yoˇ u duōzhòng? How heavy is that big package of books? ᙼ໮໻ᑈ㑾˛ Nín duōdà niánji? How old are you? ཌྷ㽕এ໮Й˛ Tā yào qù duōjiuˇ ? How long will she be away?

(7)

Add ਸ਼ ne, to a word or to a short phrase to ask where it is: 偀ਸ਼˛ Maˇ ne? Where’s the horse? ᓴ㗕Ꮬਸ਼˛ Zhāng laˇ oshī ne? Where is Professor Zhang? ៥ⱘ᠟༫ਸ਼˛ Woˇ de shoˇ utàor ne? Where are my gloves? “ਸ਼ ne” may also be added at the end of other interrogative sentences when the speaker wishes to reveal curiosity and/or doubt, or to soften the tone: ԴҹЎཌྷᰃ䇕ਸ਼˛ Nîˇ yîˇwéi tā shi shéi ne? Who did you think she was? Դএ䖬ᰃ៥এਸ਼˛ Nîˇ qù háishi woˇ qù ne? Shall you go, or shall I?

230

5.8 Auxiliary verbs/optative verbs

ཌྷ㽕এ໮Йਸ਼˛ Tā yào qù duō jiuˇ ne? How long will she be away?

5.8

Auxiliary verbs/optative verbs Verbs that help other verbs to express necessity, possibility and willingness are called auxiliary verbs or optative verbs, 㛑ᜓࡼ䆡 néngyuàn dòngcí. We are familiar with auxiliary verbs in English: the “can” in “I can do it”; the “able” in “I am able to go”; the “may” in “You may go”; the “should” in “I should go.” They appear in Chinese in the following forms:

5.8.1

Capability: 㛑 néng, 㛑໳ nénggòu, Ӯ huì “Néng, can” may indicate a general ability to do something, as in:

Ҫᯢ໽ϡ㛑䎳៥ӀএDŽ Tā míngtian bùnéng gēn woˇ men qù. He can’t go with us tomorrow. ៥㛑໳䇋ϝϾҎ䎳៥এDŽ Woˇ nénggou qîˇng sānge rén gēn woˇ qù. I can invite three people to go with me. “Huì” may mean “can” in the sense of “mastered the skill of,” as in:

៥ϡӮ␌⋇DŽ Woˇ búhuì yóuyoˇ ng. I can’t swim (I don’t know how to swim). ៥ϡӮᢑ⚳DŽ Woˇ búhuì chōuyān. I don’t know how to smoke. (a polite way of saying “I don’t smoke” without making the other person feel guilty for offering you a cigarette) 5.8.2

Possibility: 㛑 néng, ৃ㛑 keˇ néng, 㛑໳ nénggòu, Ӯ huì “Néng, can, may” may also indicate possibility under certain conditions, as in:

Ҫⱘ䔺㛑തѨϾҎDŽ Tāde chē néng zuò wuˇ ge rén. His car can seat five people. ៥Ӏৃ㛑䖳ࠄDŽ Woˇ men kěnéng chídào. We may possibly arrive late. 231

5

Grammar

“Huì, may, might” may also indicate likelihood of someone doing something, as in:

䖭МᰮˈཌྷϡӮᴹDŽ Zhème waˇ n, tā búhuì lái. It’s so late. She won’t come. 䮼⼼䙷М䌉ˈҪϡӮфDŽ Ménpiào nàme guì, tā búhuì maˇ i. The admission tickets are so expensive, he wouldn’t buy them. 5.8.3

Permission: ৃҹ keˇ yıˇ, 㛑 néng, 䆌 xuˇ “Néng” may also mean “can” in the sense of “be permitted to,” as in:

ᬭᅸ䞠㛑ᢑ⚳৫˛ Jiàoshìli néng chōuyān ma? Can one smoke in the classroom? ᬭᅸ䞠ৃҹᢑ⚳৫" Jiàoshìli kěyîˇ chōuyān ma? May one smoke in the classroom? ᬭᅸ䞠䆌ᢑ⚳৫˛ Jiàoshìli xuˇ chōuyān ma? Is smoking allowed in the classroom? 5.8.4

Perceived obligation or likelihood: ᑨ䆹 yı¯ngga¯ i, ᑨᔧ yı¯ngda¯ ng, 䆹 ga¯ i, 㽕 yào: The feeling that something ought to be done, or that something is likely to happen, is usually expressed by the auxiliary verbs yīnggāi, yīngdāng, or the abbreviated form “gāi.” For example: क⚍њˈ៥ᑨ䆹ಲᆊњDŽ Shí diaˇ n le, woˇ yīnggāi huíjiā le. It’s ten o’clock. I should go home now. Դϡᑨᔧᕫ㔾ཌྷDŽ Nîˇ bùyīngdāng dézuì tā. You shouldn’t offend her. Ꮖ㒣ϡᮽњˈ៥䆹䍄њDŽ Yîˇjīng bùzaˇ o le, woˇ gāi zoˇ u le It’s getting late. I should be leaving now. ϟ䲾њˈԴᓔ䔺㽕ᇣᖗ⚍‫ܓ‬DŽ Xià xuě le, nîˇ kāichē yào xiaˇ oxīndiaˇ nr. It’s snowing. You should drive carefully.

232

5.9

5.8.5

Negation

Imperative obligation: ᖙ乏 bìxu¯ , ᖙᕫ bìdeˇ i, ᕫ deˇ i: The requirement (as opposed to the feeling) that something must (as opposed to “ought to”) be done is expressed using the auxiliary verb “bìxū, bìděi,” or commonly “děi” before the verb, as in the following examples: Դৢ໽ᖙ乏ߎᐁᓔӮDŽ Nîˇ hòutiān bìxū chūxí kāihuì. You really must attend the meeting the day after tomorrow. ៥Ӏᖙᕫখࡴ↩Ϯ‫⼐݌‬DŽ Woˇ men bìděi cānjiā bìyèdiaˇ nlîˇ. We have to attend the graduation ceremony. ៥᳝䞡㽕ⱘ㑺Ӯˈ᠔ҹᕫᮽ⚍‫ܓ‬ϟ䇒DŽ Woˇ yoˇ u zhòngyaòde yuēhuì, suoˇ yîˇ děi zaˇ odiaˇ nr xiàkè. I have an important appointment, so I have to leave class a bit early.

5.9

Negation Negation in Chinese may be as simple and direct, or as roundabout and subtle, as the occasion requires. The simplest, most straightforward way to negate a verb is to attach the prefix “ϡ bù” to it. Դএ৫" Nîˇ qù ma? Are you going? ៥ϡএDŽ Woˇ bú qù. No, I’m not going. If a sentence contains a string of verbs, or a principle verb preceded by a string of modifiers, then the “bù” is usually placed at the beginning of the string: ཌྷϡୱ䜦DŽ Tā bù hējiuˇ . She doesn’t drink wine. ཌྷϡ୰⃶ୱ䜦DŽ Tā bù xîˇhuān hējiuˇ . She doesn’t like to drink wine. ཌྷϡ୰⃶ϔϾҎ೼ᆊ䞠ୱ䜦DŽ Tā bù xîˇhuān yígeren zai jiāli hējiuˇ . She doesn’t like to drink wine by herself at home. “ϡ bù” can be used to negate any and all verbs except “᳝ yoˇ u, to have,” which must be negated by “≵ méi”:

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Դ᳝⬉㛥৫˛ Nîˇ yoˇ u diànnaˇ o ma? Do you have a computer? ៥≵᳝⬉㛥DŽ Woˇ méiyou diànnaˇ o. No, I don’t have a computer. The negative adverb “ϡ bù” is used to negate actions and intentions to act in the present and in the future, but for completed actions it is only used to negate the intention to act, not the action itself: ៥Ҟ໽ϡএDŽ Woˇ jīntian bú qù. I’m not going today. ៥ᯢ໽ϡএDŽ Woˇ míngtian bú qù. I’m not going tomorrow. ᯼໽៥‫އ‬ᅮϡএDŽ Zuótian woˇ juédìng bú qù. Yesterday I decided I wouldn’t go. To negate a completed action, we place “≵ méi” before the verb:

៥᯼໽≵এDŽ Woˇ zuótian méi qù. I didn’t go yesterday. To negate sentences with auxiliary verbs, place “ϡ bù” before the auxiliary verbs.

5.10

Particles Just as Chinese nouns and pronouns have no declension, so the verbs have no inflexion. Since Chinese verbs have no inflexion, the role of placing an action in the past, present, or future is performed by stating a time-when expression before the verb: ᯼໽៥䖯ජDŽ Zuótian woˇ jìnchéng. I went downtown yesterday. Ҟ໽៥䖯ජDŽ Jīntian woˇ jìnchéng. I’m going downtown today. ᯢ໽៥䖯ජDŽ Míngtian woˇ jìnchéng. I will go downtown tomorrow.

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It can also be achieved by adding a “perfective aspect” particle like “le” or “guò” to indicate that a specific action was or has been completed, or that something has been done before. ៥䖯ජњDŽ Woˇ jìnchéng le. I went downtown. ៥䖯䖛ජDŽ Woˇ jìnguo chéng. I’ve gone downtown before. Mastery of particles, ࡽ䆡 zhùcí, such as these is an extremely important part of using Chinese properly and effectively. Particles are added to a word, a phrase, or a sentence to indicate various supplementary meanings, grammatical relations, or mood. In this section we will examine the use and function of three different kinds of particles in Mandarin: structural particles, aspectual particles, and modal particles. 5.10.1

Structural particles: the three de Structural particles are added to words or phrases to indicate grammatical relations. There are only three of them, and they are all pronounced “de” (neutral tone): ⱘˈഄˈand ᕫ. The particle “ⱘ”:

The particle “ⱘ” is used most commonly as a “possessive marker,” as in the following sample sentences: 䙷ᰃཛྷཛྷⱘ偀DŽ Nà shi māmade maˇ . That’s Mom’s horse. Դⱘ∝䇁ⳳẦʽ Nîˇde Hànyuˇ zhēn bàng! Your Chinese is terrific! It is also used at the end of an adjectival phrase, indicating that what precedes is a modifier, and what follows is being modified, as in: 㪱买㡆ⱘ།‫ܟ‬ lán yánsède jiákè a blue-colored jacket Ⳍᔧ֓ᅰⱘ∝෵ࣙ xiāngdāng piányide hànbaˇ obāo rather cheap hamburger Note that a single-syllable adjective with no adverbial modifier such as ᕜ hěn or ⳳ zhēn or 䴲ᐌ fēicháng preceding it, as in “དᄽ

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ᄤ haˇ o háizi, good child,” “㑶䔺 hóng chē, red car,” or “ᇣᵃᄤ xiaˇ o bēizi, small cup” does not take a “ⱘ de.” “ⱘ de” is also used as a “subordinate clause marker,” indicating that the preceding clause modifies what follows, often using the pattern “Subject + verb de + noun,” the noun which/that the subject verbs, as in the following samples: ៥ⳟⱘᴖᖫᕜ᳝ᛣᗱDŽ Woˇ kànde zázhì hěn yoˇ uyìsi. The magazine which/that I am reading is very interesting. 䖭ᰃཛྷཛྷ᯼໽фⱘ偀DŽ Zhè shi māma zuótian maˇ ide maˇ . This is the horse which/that Mom bought yesterday. The particle “ⱘ” is also frequently used in elliptical sentences in which the modified word is omitted because it is clearly understood by speaker and listener, as in the following examples: 㑶买㡆ⱘ↯㸷ᰃԴⱘˈ㪱ⱘᰃ៥ⱘDŽ Hóng yánsède máoyī shi nîˇde, lánde shi woˇ de. The red sweater is yours, and the blue one is mine. ໻ⱘᰃԴⱘˈᇣⱘᰃ៥ⱘDŽ Dàde shi nîˇde, xiaˇ ode shi woˇ de. The big one is yours, and the small one is mine. The particle “ഄ de”:

The second “ഄ de” (also pronounced “dì” when used as a noun meaning “place” or “land”) is an adverbial modifier particle that always precedes the verb it modifies, as in the following examples: ҪӀ催催݈݈ഄᎹ԰DŽ Tāmen gāogāoxìngxìngde gōngzuò. They are happily going about their work. ཌྷӀᕜᖿഄ‫ݭ‬ᅠњ㄀Ѡᴀᇣ䇈DŽ Tāmen hěn kuàide xiěwánle dì’èrběn xiaˇ oshuō. They quickly finished writing their second novel. Note: “ഄ de” is often not used following disyllabic adverbs such as “ϔ䍋 yìqîˇ,” “ϔ唤 yìqí,” “ϔ݅ yígòng,” “Ⳍᔧ xiāngdāng” and “䴲ᐌ fēicháng,” unless used for emphasis. The particle “ᕫ de”:

The third “ᕫ de” (also pronounced “dé” meaning “to get” or “to achieve,” and “děi” meaning “must” or “have to” as a verb) is a verb complement particle. It always follows the verb and precedes complementary information which comments on the manner, extent, degree, or quality of the action. 236

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To illustrate: Ҫ䇈ᕫ໾ᖿˈ៥਀ϡពDŽ Tā shuōde tài kuài, woˇ tīngbudoˇ ng. He talks too fast. I can’t understand him. ཌྷଅᕫ䴲ᐌད਀DŽ Tā chàngde fēicháng haˇ otīng. She sings extremely well. To negate the above two examples, we insert “ϡ” after the “ᕫ,” and not before the verb: Ҫ䇈ᕫϡᖿˈ៥਀ᕫពDŽ Tā shuōde búkuài, woˇ tīngdedoˇ ng. He doesn’t talk fast. I can understand him. ཌྷଅᕫϡད਀DŽ Tā chàngde bùhaˇ otīng. She doesn’t sing well. If the verb complement “ᕫ de” particle is used with a “verb + object” structure, such as “䇈∝䇁 shuō Hànyuˇ , speak Chinese,” “‫ݭ‬ ᄫ xiězì, write,” “䍄䏃 zoˇ ulù, walk,” or “⫼ㅋᄤ yòng kuàizi, use chopsticks,” the verb is usually repeated after stating the object, to form the pattern “Subject + verb + object + verb de + adjective,” as in the following sample sentences: Ҫⳟкⳟᕫ໾໮DŽ Tā kànshū kànde tài duō. He reads too much. ཛྷཛྷ偖偀偖ᕫᕜ߽ᆇDŽ Māma mà maˇ màde hěn lìhai. Mom scolded the horse severely. 㗕໾໾䍄䏃䍄ᕫⳳ᜶DŽ Laˇ otàitai zoˇ ulù zoˇ ude zhēn màn. The old lady walks very slowly. To negate the three sentences above, we simply replace “໾ tài,” “ᕜ hěn,” and “ⳳ zhēn” with “ϡ bù” or “≵䙷М méi nàme Adjective, not that Adjective,” or add “ϡ bù” before “໾ tài” or “ᕜ hěn.” If the verb’s complement is a clause rather than a simple adjective, the meaning becomes “to verb so . . . that . . . ” as in these samples: ៥㌃ᕫ䛑キϡ䍋ᴹњDŽ Woˇ lèide dōu zhànbuqîˇlai le. I’m so tired that I can’t stand up. ཌྷュᕫఈ䛑ড়ϡᢶњDŽ Tā xiàode zuîˇ dōu hébuloˇ ng le. She laughed so hard she couldn’t close her mouth.

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The “ᕫ de” particle is also used as a “potential complement” (ᴹ ᕫњ láideliaˇ o, be able to come; ৗᕫњ chīdeliaˇ o, be able to eat up; ᴹϡњ láibuliaˇ o, unable to come; ৗϡњ chībuliaˇ o, unable to eat up,” etc.), as introduced in the “Complements” section above. 5.10.2

Aspect particles: le, ne, zhe, guo When we speak of the “aspects” of an action, we are referring to five different stages, namely: “about to happen,” “in progress,” “in a continuing state,” “in a completed state” and “a state of having been done before.” They are used for actions that take place in past, present, or future. About to happen “њle”:

The typical “about to happen” sentence structure is “Subject + 㽕 yào + verb +њ le, The subject is about to verb,” as in the following illustrative examples: 亲ᴎ㽕䍋亲њDŽ Fēijī yào qîˇfēi le. The airplane is about to take off. ⾟໽㽕ᴹњDŽ Qiūtian yào lái le. Autumn is about to arrive. ཛྷཛྷজ㽕偖偀њDŽ Māma yòu yào mà maˇ le. Mom is about to scold the horse again. To emphasize that the action will take place very soon, we may add an adverbial intensifier before the “㽕 yào,” as follows: ᅶҎህ㽕ᴹњDŽ Kèren jiù yào lái le. The guests will be arriving very soon. ៥ᖿ㽕体⅏њDŽ Woˇ kuài yào èsîˇ le. I’m just about to die of starvation. Note the similarity between the “about to happen њ le” above, and the “change of status њ le” below: ໪䖍ϟ䲼њDŽ Wàibianr xiàyuˇ le. It’s raining outside (it wasn’t before). ໽҂њDŽ Tiān liàng le. It’s getting bright outside (it was dark before).

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Completed state “њ le”:

The aspect particle “њ le” is used immediately after the verb in a simple “Subject + Verb” sentence to indicate that the action is, was, has been, or will have been completed: Ҫ䍄њDŽ Tā zoˇ u le. He left./He has left. While it may refer to an action that has already taken place, it must not be seen as a “past tense marker,” because it may just as well refer to present perfect or future perfect events. When a single syllable verb takes a single syllable object, the “le” follows the object at the end of the sentence: ҪӀৗ佁њDŽ Tāmen chīfàn le. They ate./They have eaten. Ҫᠧ៥њʽ Tā daˇ woˇ le! He hit me!/He has hit me! Note that the verbal aspect particle “le” indicating completion and the sentence modal particle “le” indicating that a new situation has come about, may be used in the same sentence: ҪӀৗњ佁њDŽ Tāmen chīle fàn le. They have eaten. Ҫᠧњ៥њʽ Tā daˇ le woˇ le! He hit me! When the verb takes an object that is quantified, “le” follows the verb and precedes the object: ཌྷୱњϝᵃ∈DŽ Tā hēle sānbēi shuˇ i. She drank/has drunk three glasses of water. ᓴᬭᥜ‫ݭ‬њϸᴀкDŽ Zhāng jiàoshòu xiěle liaˇ ngběn shū. Professor Zhang wrote/has written two books. When the verb takes a complement, “le” usually follows the complement: ᓴ㗕Ꮬ䍄䖯ᴹњDŽ Zhāng laˇ oshī zoˇ ujìnlai le. Teacher Zhang walked in.

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ҪӀ᳔䖥ᨀ䍄њDŽ Tāmen zuìjìn bānzoˇ u le. They moved away recently. Following are more sample sentences: 䇕ᴹњ˛ Shéi lái le? Who came?/Who has arrived? ཌྷфкњDŽ Tā maˇ i shū le. She bought (the) book(s). ཌྷфњкњDŽ Tā maˇ ile shū le. She has bought (the) book(s). ཌྷфњϝᴀкDŽ Tā maˇ ile sānběn shū. She bought/has bought three books. ཌྷфࠄњ䙷ϝᴀкDŽ Tā maˇ idàole nà sānběn shū. She was/has been able to buy those three books. ཌྷфњкᠡএৗज佁DŽ Tā maˇ ile shū cái qù chī wuˇ fàn. She went/will go to have lunch only after she had/has bought the book(s). અӀㄝཌྷᴹњ‫ݡ‬䇈৻DŽ Zánmen děng tā láile zài shuō ba. Let’s discuss it after she gets here. ៥ৗњकϾ低ᄤDŽ Woˇ chīle shíge jiaˇ ozi. I ate/have eaten ten dumplings. ៥ᄺњϝᑈ∝䇁DŽ Woˇ xuéle sānnián Hànyuˇ . I studied/have studied Chinese for three years. ៥ᄺ∝䇁ᄺњϝᑈDŽ Woˇ xué Hànyuˇ xuéle sānnián. I studied/have studied Chinese for three years. The “double le,” Subject + verb њ + quantified object + њ, indicates “done so far, but not yet finished”: ៥Ꮖ㒣ৗњकϾ低ᄤњDŽ Woˇ yîˇjing chīle shíge jiaˇ ozi le. I’ve already eaten ten dumplings (so far, and not yet finished eating them). 240

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៥ᄺњϝᑈ∝䇁њDŽ Woˇ xuéle sānnián Hànyuˇ le. I’ve been studying Chinese for three years now (not finished yet). ៥ᄺ∝䇁ᄺњϝᑈњDŽ Woˇ xué Hànyuˇ xuéle sānnián le. I’ve been studying Chinese for three years now (not finished yet). In progress “ਸ਼ ne”:

The typical “in progress” sentence structure is “Subject + ℷ೼ zhèngzai/ℷ zhèng/೼ zài + verb (+ ਸ਼ ne),” as in the following examples: ཌྷℷ೼ৗ佁ਸ਼DŽ Tā zhèngzai chīfàn ne. She was/is/will be eating. ཌྷℷ೼ৗ佁DŽ Tā zhèngzai chīfàn. She was/is/will be eating. ཌྷℷৗ佁˄ਸ਼˅DŽ Tā zhèng chīfàn (ne). She was/is/will be eating. ཌྷ೼ৗ佁˄ਸ਼˅DŽ Tā zai chīfàn (ne). She was/is/will be eating. ཌྷৗ佁ਸ਼DŽ Tā chīfàn ne. She was/is/will be eating. The “in progress” aspect is negated by using “≵ méi” instead of, or in front of “ℷ೼ zhèngzai,” “ℷ zhèng,” or “೼ zài,” and without “ਸ਼ ne,” as in: ཌྷ೼ৗ佁৫˛ Tā zai chīfàn ma? Was/Is/ she eating? (1)

ཌྷ≵ৗ佁ˈཌྷ೼ᠧ⬉䆱ਸ਼DŽ Tā méi chīfàn, tā zai daˇ diànhuà ne. She was/is not eating. She was/is making a telephone call.

(2)

ཌྷ≵೼ৗ佁ˈཌྷ೼ᠧ⬉䆱ਸ਼DŽ Tā méi zai chīfàn, tā zai daˇ diànhuà ne. She was/is not eating. She was/is making a telephone call.

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Continuous or on-going state “ⴔ zhe”:

When we want to indicate the continuation of an action, or the on-going result of a completed action, we use the particle “ⴔ zhe” immediately following the verb. Typical examples would be: Ҫ催催݈݈ഄ䍄ⴔDŽ Tā gāogāoxìngxìngde zoˇ uzhe. He was/is walking happily. ཌྷᖭⴔ㒭Ϝ໿ᠧ⬉䆱DŽ Tā mángzhe gěi zhàngfu daˇ diànhuà. She was/is busy phoning her husband. Ҫ⦄೼䖬⌏ⴔ৫˛ Tā xiànzài hái huózhe ma? Is he still alive? ๭Ϟᣖⴔϔᓴ⬏‫ܓ‬DŽ Qiángshang guàzhe yìzhāng huàr. A picture was/is hanging on the wall. ҪⱘఈৃϡӮ䯆ⴔDŽ Tāde zuîˇ kě búhuì xiánzhe. He cannot stop talking. ҪӀϸϾҎ䇈ⴔ䇈ⴔਉ䍋ᴹњDŽ Tāmen liaˇ ngge rén shuōzhe shuōzhe chaˇ oqilai le. As those two were talking, they started to argue. ៥ϡ୰⃶キⴔৗ佁DŽ Woˇ bù xîˇhuan zhànzhe chīfàn. I don’t like to eat standing up. ᓳᓳᢡⴔᏈᥠュDŽ Dìdi pāizhe bāzhang xiào. Little brother laughed/laughs, clapping his hands. The progressive and continuous aspects are often used together in the same sentence: ཌྷℷ೼೒к佚ⳟⴔ᡹ਸ਼DŽ Tā zhèngzai túshūguaˇ n kànzhe bào ne. She was/is reading a newspaper in the library. Ҫৗⴔ佁ⳟ⬉㾚ਸ਼DŽ Tā chīzhe fàn kàn diànshì ne. He was/is watching television while eating. ⴔ and ਸ਼ are often used together as an adjectival suffix meaning “extremely adjective,” as in: ໻㸫Ϟ⛁䯍ⴔਸ਼DŽ Dàjiēshang rènaozhe ne. It’s really bustling out on the street. 242

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ᇣ⥟䙷Ͼᆊӭढ़ᆇⴔਸ਼DŽ Xiaˇ o Wáng nàge jiāhuo lìhaizhe ne. That fellow Wang is really formidable. Having been done before “䖛 guò”:

The “experiential aspect” of an action or event, meaning “to have had the experience of verbing before” is expressed by adding “䖛 guò” immediately after the verb. Note that there are two different kinds of “experience”: (1) to have done something ever before in one’s life; and (2) to have done something which one does regularly (i.e., this year, this month, this week, today, etc.). The following sentences illustrate both usages: Դത䖛亲ᴎ৫˛ Nîˇ zuòguo fēijī ma? Have you ever flown in an airplane?

(1)



 Դএ䖛Ḗᵫ≵᳝˛ Nîˇ qùguo Guìlín méiyou? Have you ever been to Guilin?



 ៥≵ф䖛ᮄ䔺DŽ Woˇ méimaˇ iguo xīn chē. I’ve never bought a new car before.



 Դৗ䖛ಯᎱ㦰≵᳝˛ Nîˇ chīguo Sìchuān cài méiyou? Have you ever eaten Sichuanese cuisine? ৗ佁њ৫˛ৗ䖛њˈ䇶䇶DŽ Chīfàn le ma? … Chīguo le, xièxie. Have you eaten yet? … Yes I have, thanks.

(2)



 ԴҞᑈᬒ䖛޴໽‫˛؛‬ Nîˇ jīnnián fàngguo jîˇtiān jià? How many days of vacation have you taken this year?



 䚂䗦ਬҞ໽Ꮖ㒣ᴹ䖛њDŽ Yóudìyuán jīntian yîˇjing láiguo le. The letter carrier has already come today. 5.10.3

Modal particles: a, ba, de, le, ma, ne Modal particles are used at the end of sentences to verbalize emotions and moods that accompany an utterance. A few of the most commonly used are introduced below: ଞ a:

The modal particle “ଞ a” is used to soften the tone of a sentence, leaving the meaning of the sentence unchanged. It may be used at the end of an interjection to express feelings of admiration, regret, contempt or worry, as in the following examples: 243

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䪅䛑⫼‫ܝ‬њˈᗢМࡲଞʽ Qián dōu yòngguāng le, zěnmebàn a! The money’s all spent. What’ll we do now! 䙷Ͼᇣᄽᄤⳳ㘾ᯢଞDŽ Nàge xiaˇ oháizi zhēn cōngming a. That kid is really smart. ৃᚰଞʽཌྷᴹњ䙷МϔᇣӮ‫ܓ‬ህ䍄њDŽ Kěxī a! Tā láile nàme yìxiaˇ ohuîˇr jiù zoˇ u le. Such a pity! She left after staying for such a short while. ҪⳳᰃҸҎ䅼ॠଞʽ Tā zhēnshi lìngréntaˇ oyàn a! He’s truly disgusting! It is also used to show agreement, affirmation, warning, or exhortation, as in the following: ᰃଞʽ៥ᅠܼৠᛣԴⱘⳟ⊩DŽ Shì a! Woˇ wánquán tóngyì nîˇde kànfa. Yes! I totally agree with your viewpoint. Դϔᅮ㽕ᴹଞʽ Nîˇ yídìng yào lái a! You really must come, you know! 㸠ଞʽ៥ӀᣝⴔԴⱘᛇ⊩‫خ‬DŽ Xíng a! Woˇ men ànzhe nîˇde xiaˇ ngfaˇ zuò. Okay! We’ll do it according to your idea. It is often used at the end of interrogative sentences that use question words: Դࠄા‫ܓ‬এଞ˛ Nîˇ dào naˇ r qù a? Where are you going? ⥟㒣⧚᳔䖥ᗢМḋଞ˛ Wáng jīnglîˇ zuìjìn zěnmeyàng a? How is Manager Wang doing these days? And it is often used between items in a series, when pausing to think, rather like “uh . . . .” in English, and often following a greeting: ⢫ଞˈ⣿ଞˈ䛑ᰃᅴ⠽DŽ Goˇ u a, māo a, dōu shi choˇ ngwù. Dogs, cats, they’re all pets. 㗕ᓴଞˈ䙷ϾҎᕜ໡ᴖDŽ Laˇ o Zhāng a, nàge rén hěn fùzá. Zhang, uh . . . is a very complex person.

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Particles

‫ݡ‬㾕ଞˈᇣ咘ʽ Zàijiàn a, Xiaˇ o Huáng! Goodbye, Huang! ৻ ba:

The modal particle “৻ ba” is used at the end of a statement to give the feeling of a suggestion or a request, to show expectation of agreement, or to indicate that the speaker thinks this might be the case, but is not certain: ៥Ӏϡབϔ䍋এ৻ʽ Woˇ men bùrú yìqîˇ qù ba! We might as well go together! Դᐂ៥ϔϾᖭ৻DŽ Nîˇ bāng woˇ yige máng ba. How about giving me a hand? 䙷Դⱘⳟ⊩䎳៥ⱘϔḋ৻˛ Nà nîˇde kànfa gēn woˇ de yíyàng ba? Well then, you and I share the same view, don’t we? ҪӀ໻ὖϡӮᛇৗ޸⟾৻˛ Tāmen dàgài búhuì xiaˇ ngchī fèngzhaˇ o ba? They probably wouldn’t want to eat phoenix claws (chicken feet), would they? ⱘ de:

As a modal particle at the end of a sentence, “ⱘ de” conveys a sense of affirmation and certainty: ા‫ܓ‬᳝䖭⾡䘧⧚ⱘʽ Naˇ r yoˇ u zhèzhoˇ ng dàolîˇ de! How unreasonable! Used in the “ᰃ shì…ⱘ de” pattern, “de” conveys emphasis on the time, place, cause, manner, purpose, or agent of an action, most often a completed action. In a positive statement, the “shì” of the “shì . . . de” pattern may be omitted, but in the negative form “búshì,” “shì” may not be omitted: ⠋⠋ᰃાᑈ⫳ⱘ˛ Yéye shì naˇ nián shēng de? What year was Grandpa born? ៥˄ᰃ˅೼໮Ӻ໮໻ᄺᄺⱘ∝䇁DŽ Woˇ (shi) zài Duōlúnduō Dàxué xuéde Hànyuˇ . I studied Chinese at the University of Toronto.

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㚪ᄤϡᰃϔষৗⱘDŽ Pàngzi búshi yìkoˇ u chī de. Fat people don’t get that way from a single bite. њ le:

The modal particle “њ le” at the end of a sentence often shows the emergence of a new situation, a change in understanding, opinion, ideas, etc. For example: ໽咥њDŽ Tiān hēi le. It’s become dark outside. ҪӀ⦄೼ᰃम຿њDŽ Tāmen xiànzài shi bóshì le. They have now become Ph.D.s. ଞˈ៥ᯢⱑњˈҪϡᰃԴⱘ㟙㟙DŽ À, woˇ míngbai le, tā búshi nîˇde jiùjiu. Oh, now I understand – he’s not your uncle. ៥᳝џˈϡ㛑䎳ԴএњDŽ Woˇ yoˇ u shì, bùnéng gēn nîˇ qù le. Something’s come up, so now I can’t go with you. 䍄њˈ䍄њˈϡ㛑‫ݡ‬ㄝњDŽ Zoˇ u le, zoˇ u le, bù néng zài děng le. Let’s go! Let’s go! We can’t wait any longer. ৫ ma:

The interrogative modal particle “৫ ma” is added at the end of any declarative sentence to turn the sentence into a question. Note that “৫ ma” can never be added to a sentence that has already been made into a question using “question words,” like “䇕 shéi?” “ҔМ shénme?” “޴ jîˇ?” “໮ᇥ duōshaˇ o?” or after using the “Verb-bù-Verb” question form. We may say: 䖭ᰃԴⱘк৫˛ Zhè shi nîˇde shū ma? Is this your book? ᯢ໽ᰃ᯳ᳳϝ৫˛ Míngtian shi xīngqīsān ma? Is tomorrow Wednesday? ਸ਼ ne:

The modal particle “ਸ਼ ne” is used at the end of a sentence to show “shades of feeling,” such as softening the tone of an interrogative sentence (except interrogative sentences ending in “৫ ma”), toning 246

5.10

Particles

down a rhetorical question, or softening an exclamation. Following the utterance of a simple noun phrase or a pronoun, it means “what about . . .?” or “where is . . .?” For example: ԴᗢМ≵᳝এਸ਼˛ Nîˇ zěnme méiyou qù ne? How come you didn’t go? ཌྷᰃ䇕ਸ਼˛ Tā shi shéi ne? Who might she have been/be? ៥ᗢМӮϡⶹ䘧ਸ਼˛ Woˇ zěnme huì bùzhīdao ne? How could I not have known/not know that? 䇊˛Դ໾໾ਸ਼˛ Éi? Nîˇ tàitai ne? Oh! Where is your wife? ៥ᛇৗষϰ㽓ˈԴਸ਼˛ Woˇ xiaˇ ng chī koˇ u dōngxi, nîˇ ne? I’d like to get a bite to eat, how about you? Դⳟˈཌྷⱘ㜌㑶ⴔਸ਼ʽ Nîˇ kàn, tāde liaˇ n hóngzhe ne! Look at her: her face is red! ᗢМࡲਸ਼˛ Zěnme bàn ne? What’s to be done? 5.10.4

Other frequently used modal particles ਫ “bei” ௯ “ma” ଺ “la” ௲ “lei” ઃ “lo” ஑ “lou” ા “na” છ “wa” ਔ “ya” ળ “yo”

to add the feeling that something is very obvious or easy to resolve. to add the feeling of obviousness or the tone of impatience. a fusion of the “change of status” њ le + ଞ a. like ଺ la, but more informal, colloquial, or lighthearted. a fusion of њ le ˇశ o, like the change of status ”њ le,” but more emphatic. a fusion of њ le and ਩ ou, colloquially intensifying the “њ le.” same as ଞ a, but used following syllables ending with “-n” or “-ng.” same as ଞ a, but used following syllables ending with “-u,” “-ao,” or “-ou.” same as ଞ a, but used following syllables ending with “-a,”“-e,” “-i,” “o,” or “ü.” expresses an exclamatory or imperative sense. 247

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5.11

Object inversion: “ᡞ baˇ ” sentences The “ᡞ baˇ ” sentence is one of the most useful and characteristic structures in the Chinese language, because it “disposes” of specific things, or “settles” specific matters, giving the topic and the speaker a sense of completion and closure. An English language nearequivalent grammatical pattern might be: “The Subject takes the object and verbs it.” Another way of explaining the use of the “baˇ ” construction in structural terms is to say that it brings the object in front of an inseparable verb compound, such as “Verb + 䖛ᴹ guòlai” or “Verb + Ϟএ shàngqu.” The basic grammatical pattern is “Subject + baˇ + object + verb + complement.” It is most important to remember that the “baˇ -inverted” object cannot be acted on by a single-syllable verb alone, but requires more syllables. The options are: reduplicate the single-syllable verb; add a complementary particle or phrase after the verb; or add the perfective aspect particle “њ le.” Specific circumstances wherein the “ᡞ baˇ ” construction is preferred include:

1.

Giving a brief command: ᡞᅗৗᥝʽ Baˇ tā chīdiao! Eat it all up!

2.

When the verb takes on a directional complement, “ᡞ baˇ ” is used to bring the object before the verb: 䇋Դᡞкᣓ䖛ᴹDŽ Qîˇng nîˇ baˇ shū náguolai. Please bring the book over here.

3.

When we want to emphasize or exaggerate the way a person feels, or the way a person reacts to something, we may use “ᡞ baˇ ” with an adjective followed by a resultative complement: ᡞཌྷФ⅏њʽ Baˇ tā lèsile! She was thrilled to death! We may take the normal “S-V-O” sentence “ཛྷཛྷ偖偀 māma mà maˇ , Mom scolds the horse” and turn it into a “ᡞ baˇ ” sentence, but we may not say: “māma baˇ maˇ mà,” because “mà” alone does not imply disposition of a specific object. We may, however, say: ཛྷཛྷᡞ偀偖њϔ乓DŽ Māma baˇ maˇ màle yídùn. Mom gave the horse a good scolding.

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5.12 Commands and suggestions

ཛྷཛྷᡞ偀偖ᕫᕜ߽ᆇDŽ Māma baˇ maˇ màde hěn lìhai. Mom gave the horse a severe scolding. ཛྷཛྷᡞ偀偖ᴹ偖এDŽ Māma baˇ maˇ màlái màqù. Mom scolded that horse over and over. Ҫᡞ䪅䛑㢅‫ܝ‬њDŽ Tā baˇ qián dōu huāguāng le. He spent all the money. ᡞ䮼݇Ϟʽ Baˇ mén guānshang! Close the door! Ꮒϔ⚍‫ܓ‬ᡞཌྷ১⅏њDŽ Chàyidiaˇ nr baˇ tā xiàsîˇ le. It almost scared her to death.

5.12

Commands and suggestions The simplest and most common way to make a command is to utter a verb with an abrupt tone of voice: ᴹʽ Lái! Come here! এʽ Qù! Go! ৗʽ Chī! Eat! Often the command may require the addition of a direct object, an indirect object, a resultative complement, or a directional complement, as in the following examples: ᬒ᠟ʽ Fàng shoˇ u! Let go! 㒭៥ʽ Gěi woˇ ! Give it to me! ᬒᓔʽ Fàngkāi! Let go!

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ᬒϟʽ Fàngxia! Put it down! 䖛ᴹʽ Guòlai! Come over here! ߎএʽ Chūqu! Get out! A suggestion, as opposed to a direct command, can be made most simply by softening the tone of voice and adding a “৻ ba” at the end of the sentence: ᴹ৻DŽ Lái ba. Come. এ৻DŽ Qù ba. Go. ৗ৻DŽ Chī ba. Go ahead and eat. ᬒ᠟৻DŽ Fàng shoˇ u ba. You can let go. 㒭៥৻DŽ Gěi woˇ ba. You can give it to me. ᬒᓔ৻DŽ Fàngkāi ba. You can let go. ᬒϟ৻DŽ Fàngxia ba. You can put it down. 䖛ᴹ৻DŽ Guòlai ba. Come on over. ߎএ৻DŽ Chūqu ba. You can go out.

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Comparisons

The sample phrases above may also be prefaced with a “䇋 qîˇng, please” or with “ᑨ䆹yīnggāi, should” or “ϡབ bùrú, might as well” to further soften the tone. To give a negative command or suggestion, the normal and simplest way is to add a “߿ bié, don’t” before the command or suggestion: ߿এ Bié qù! Don’t go! ߿キⴔৗ佁DŽ Bié zhànzhe chīfàn. Don’t eat standing up. ߿ᅶ⇨DŽ Bié kèqi. You’re welcome./You needn’t be so polite. ߿ᛇ䎳Ҫ‫׳‬䪅DŽ Bié xiaˇ ng gēn tā jièqián. Don’t even think about borrowing money from him. ߿ㅵཌྷDŽ Bié guaˇ n tā. Don’t pay any attention to her.

5.13 5.13.1

Comparisons Comparison of equality The following two patterns are the basic ways of comparing similar things:

(1)

A ੠/䎳 hé/gēn B ϔḋ yíyàng Adjective, A is as Adjective as B. ཛྷཛྷ੠偀ϔḋ催 Māma hé maˇ yíyàng gāo. Mom is as tall as the horse. Ё᭛੠㣅᭛ϔḋᆍᯧ䇈DŽ Zhōngwén hé Yīngwén yíyàng róngyì shuō. Chinese is as easy to speak as English. 偀䎳ཛྷཛྷϔḋ催DŽ Maˇ gēn māma yíyàng gāo. The horse is as tall as Mom. ࣪ᄺ䎳⠽⧚ϔḋ䲒ᄺDŽ Huàxué gēn wùlîˇ yíyàng nánxué. Chemistry is as hard to learn as physics.

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(2)

A ᳝ yoˇ u B 䙷М nàme adjective, A is just as adjective as B. ཛྷཛྷ᳝偀䙷М催DŽ Māma yoˇ u maˇ nàme gāo. Mom is just as tall as the horse. 䖭ᆊⱘ㸷᳡᳝䙷ᆊⱘ䙷М֓ᅰDŽ Zhèjiāde yīfu yoˇ u nàjiāde nàme piányi. Clothes in this store are just as inexpensive as the clothes in that store. Note: We cannot say: ཛྷཛྷ᳝偀䙷Мᕜ催, Māma yoˇ u maˇ nàme hěn gāo. To convey both ideas, i.e., that Mom is very tall, and that she is as tall as the horse, we would have to say: ཛྷཛྷᕜ催ˈཌྷ᳝偀䙷М催DŽ Māma hěn gāo, tā yoˇ u maˇ nàme gāo. Mom is tall. She is as tall as the horse.

5.13.2

Negating comparison of equality The two core patterns for negating comparisons of equality are: “A and B are not equally adjective,” and “A is not so adjective as B.” Variations are as follows:

(1)

A ੠/䎳 hé/gēn B ϡϔḋ bùyíyàng adjective, A and B are not equally adjective. ᇣᓴ੠ᇣ䍉ϡϔḋ㘾ᯢDŽ Xiaˇ o Zhāng hé Xiaˇ o Zhào bùyíyàng cōngming. Zhang and Zhao are not equally intelligent. Ё೑䎳ࡴᣓ໻ϡϔḋ໻DŽ Zhōngguo gēn Jiānádà bùyíyàng dà. China and Canada are not the same size.

(2)

A ≵᳝ méiyou B 䙷М nàme adjective, A is not so adjective as B. Ё೑ⱘᘏ䴶⿃≵᳝ࡴᣓ໻ⱘ䙷М໻DŽ Zhōngguode zoˇ ngmiànjī méiyoˇ u Jiānádàde nàme dà. The total area of China is not so large as that of Canada.

5.13.3

Comparison of inequality Comparison of inequality is not the same as negating comparison of equality. When we compare inequality, we state which of two subjects is more “adjective” than the other, as in the following patterns:

(1)

A ↨ bîˇ B adjective, A is more adjective than B. ᇣᓴ↨ᇣ䍉㘾ᯢDŽ Xiaˇ o Zhāng bîˇ Xiaˇ o Zhào cōngming. Zhang is more intelligent than Zhao.

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5.13

(2)

Comparisons

A ↨ bîˇ B 䖬 hái adjective, A is even more adjective than B. ࡴᣓ໻ⱘᘏ䴶⿃↨Ё೑ⱘ䖬໻DŽ Jiānádàde zoˇ ngmiànjī bîˇ Zhōngguode hái dà. The total area of Canada is even larger than that of China.

5.13.4

Negating comparison of inequality To say that one of two subjects is not more “adjective” than the other, we use the following pattern: A ϡ↨ bùb B adjective, A is not more adjective than B. ᇣᓴϡ↨ᇣ䍉㘾ᯢDŽ Xiaˇ o Zhāng bùbîˇ Xiaˇ o Zhào cōngming. Zhang is not more intelligent than Zhao. ࡴᣓ໻ⱘᘏ䴶⿃ϡ↨֘೑ⱘ໻DŽ Jiānádàde zoˇ ngmiànjī bùbîˇ Éguode dà. The total area of Canada is not greater than that of Russia. 㒑㑺ⱘ⠽Ӌϡ↨Ӻᬺⱘ䌉DŽ Niuˇ yuēde wùjià bùbîˇ Lúndūnde guì. Prices in New York are not higher than those in London.

5.13.5

Degrees of inequality by comparison When we want to say “A is more adjective than B” by a specified amount or degree, we may use one of the following sentence patterns:

(1)

A ↨ bîˇ B adjective + number + measure word, A is X-measure word more adjective than B. 偀↨ཛྷཛྷ催ϔ㣅ሎDŽ Maˇ bîˇ māma gāo yìyīngchîˇ. The horse is one foot taller than Mom. ཛྷཛྷ↨偀ⷂϔ㣅ሎDŽ Māma bîˇ maˇ aˇ i yìyīngchîˇ. mom is one foot shorter than the horse.

(2)

A ↨ bîˇ B adjective ᕫ໮ deduō, A is much more adjective than B. 偀↨ཛྷཛྷ催ᕫ໮DŽ Maˇ bîˇ māma gāode duō. The horse is a lot taller than Mom.

(3)

A ↨ bîˇ B adjective ໮њ duō le, A is much more adjective than B. 偀↨ཛྷཛྷ催໮њDŽ Maˇ bîˇ māma gāo duō le. The horse is much taller than Mom. 253

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(4)

A Verb + object + verb ᕫ de ↨ bîˇ B adjective, A verb + object more adjective-ly than B. ཛྷཛྷ偖偀偖ᕫ↨៥໮DŽ Māma mà maˇ màde bîˇ woˇ duō. Mom scolds the horse more often than I do. Ҫ䇈∝䇁䇈ᕫ↨៥དDŽ Tā shuō Hànyuˇ shuōde bîˇ woˇ haˇ o. He speaks Chinese better than I do. ᓴϝᓔ䔺ᓔᕫ↨ᴢಯᖿDŽ Zhāng Sān kāichē kāide bîˇ Lîˇ Sì kuài. Zhang San drives faster than Li Si. ᴢಯᓔ䔺ᓔᕫ↨ᓴϝ᜶DŽ Lîˇ Sì kāichē kāide bîˇ Zhāng Sān màn. Li Si drives more slowly than Zhang San.

5.14

Complements A complement, 㸹䇁 buˇ yuˇ , is a word or phrase that follows the main verb of a sentence in order to enhance its meaning. The following are different kinds of complements.

5.14.1

Complement of degree For an ordinary declarative statement that someone “verbs” well or poorly, quickly, slowly, sloppily, earnestly, etc., we use this simple pattern:

(1)

Subject + verb ᕫ de + adjective, The subject verbs adjective-ly. Used as a particle following a verb and preceding a resultative complement, a complement of degree, ⿟ᑺ㸹䇁 chéngdù buˇ yuˇ , “ᕫ de” lets us know that what follows will tell us the extent or degree of the verbing, as in the following examples: ཌྷ䎥ᕫᕜᖿDŽ Tā paˇ ode hěn kuài. She runs fast. Ҫ䍄ᕫᕜ᜶DŽ Tā zoˇ ude hěn màn. He walks slowly. ៥‫ݭ‬ᕫϡདDŽ Woˇ xiěde bùhaˇ o. I write poorly. ཌྷᴹᕫⳳᮽDŽ Tā láide zhēn zaˇ o. She came really early.

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Complements

Դⴵᕫᕜᰮ৫˛ Nîˇ shuìde hěn waˇ n ma? Do you go to bed very late? ҪӀ⥽‫ܓ‬ᕫᕜ催݈৻˛ Tāmen wánrde hěn gāoxing ba? Did they have a good time together?

The verb “⥽ wánr” presents an interesting challenge for translation. If the subject is a young child, it usually means “to play,” but for teenagers and adults it means “to spend a pleasant time together,” and comes close to the current expression “to hang out.” (2)

Subject + verb + object + verb ᕫ de adjective, The subject verbs + object adjective-ly. For “Verb + Object” phrases, and for compound verbs that behave grammatically like a “Verb + Object” phrase, we use the following pattern: ཌྷ䎥ℹ䎥ᕫᕜᖿDŽ T ā paˇ obù paˇ ode hěn kuài. She jogs fast. Ҫ䍄䏃䍄ᕫᕜ᜶DŽ Tā zoˇ ulù zoˇ ude hěn màn. He walks slowly. ៥‫∝ݭ‬ᄫ‫ݭ‬ᕫϡདDŽ Woˇ xiě Hànzì xiěde bùhaˇ o. I write Chinese characters poorly. ཌྷ਀䷇Ф਀ᕫᕜ䅸ⳳDŽ Tā tīng yīnyuè tīngde hěn rènzhēn. She listens to music very seriously. Դⴵ㾝ⴵᕫ໳ϡ໳˛ Nîˇ shuìjiào shuìde gòubugou? Do you get enough sleep? ҪӀᠧ㖑↯⧗ᠧᕫᕜད⥽‫˛৻ܓ‬ Tāmen daˇ yuˇ máoqiú daˇ de hěn haˇ owánr ba? They had a very good time playing badminton, didn’t they? Asking a question using “complement of degree” pattern: Subject + verb (or verb + object + verb) ᕫᗢМḋ de zěnmeyàng? As in the following example questions: Ҫ䎥ᕫᗢМḋ˛ Tā paˇ ode zěnmeyàng? How well does he run?

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Ҫ䎥ℹ䎥ᕫᗢМḋ˛ Tā paˇ obù paˇ ode zěnmeyàng? How is he at jogging? Ҫ䎥ℹ䎥ᕫ໮ϡ໮˛ Tā paˇ obù paˇ ode duōbuduo? Does he jog a lot? Ҫ䎥ℹ䎥ᕫᖿϡᖿ˛ Tā paˇ obù paˇ ode kuàibukuai? Does he jog fast? ཌྷଅᕫᗢМḋ˛ Tā chàngde zěnmeyàng? How is she at singing? ཌྷଅ℠ଅᕫᗢМḋ˛ Tā chànggēr chàngde zěnmeyàng? How is she at singing? ཌྷଅ℠ଅᕫདϡད਀˛ Tā chànggēr chàngde haˇ obuhaotīng? Does she sing beautifully? 5.14.2

Directional complement Simple Directional Complement:

The simple directional complement, 䍟৥㸹䇁 qūxiàng buˇ yuˇ , is added to a verb to indicate whether an action is moving towards the speaker or away from the speaker. For example, Verb + lai ᴹ = to verb in the direction of the speaker, as in the following examples: ᣓᴹ nálai bring (something) here (where the speaker is). ᏺᴹ dàilai bring (something) along (to where the speaker is). 䎥ᴹ paˇ olai come running (in the direction of the speaker). 䗕ᴹ sònglai deliver (or send in the direction of the speaker). 亲ᴹ fēilai fly here (come flying in the direction of the speaker).

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Complements

If we want to indicate that the action is moving away from the speaker, we use Verb + qu এ, as in the following examples: ᣓএ náqu take (something) over there (away from the speaker). ᏺএ dàiqu take (something) along (away from the speaker). 䎥এ paˇ oqu run (over there, away from the speaker). 䗕এ sòngqu deliver (or send, away from the speaker). 亲এ fēiqu fly there (away from the speaker). Compound Directional Complements:

The compound directional complement, when added to a verb, adds more precise information in addition to whether the action is happening in the direction of the speaker or away from the speaker. For example: in an upward or downward direction; an inside or outside direction; returning to a point of origination; or crossing over. Using the same verbs as we used for the simple directional complement, we may add the further refinements of compound directionality: ᣓϞᴹˋএ náshanglai/qu bring/take up here/there ᣓϟᴹˋএ náxialai/qu bring/take down here/there ᣓಲᴹˋএ náhuilai/qu bring/take back here/there ᣓ䖛ᴹˋএ náguolai/qu bring/take over here/there 䎥Ϟᴹˋএ paˇ oshanglai/qu run up here/there 257

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Grammar

䎥ϟᴹˋএ paˇ oxialai/qu run down here/there 䎥ಲᴹˋএ paˇ ohuilai/qu run back here/there 䎥䖛ᴹˋএ paˇ oguolai/qu run over here/there ᠨϞᴹˋএ rēngshanglai/qu toss up here/there ᠨϟᴹˋএ rēngxialai/qu toss down here/there Sample sentences using directional complements:

ࠡ䮼≵ᓔˈ៥ӀᗢМ䖯এਸ਼" Qiánmén méikāi, woˇ men zěnme jìnqu ne? The front door isn’t open, so how are we to go in? ߿ᖬњᡞ៥ⱘкᣓಲᴹʽ Bié wàngle baˇ woˇ de shū náhuilai! Don’t forget to bring back my book! Ҫ߮ߎএњˈϔӮ‫ܓ‬ህಲᴹˈᙼ䇋䖯ᴹㄝҪ৻ʽ Tā gāng chūqule, yìhuîˇr jiù huílai, nín qîˇng jìnlai děng tā ba. He has just stepped out, and will be back in a little while. Please come in and wait for him. ཛྷཛྷϔᓔ䮼ˈᇣ右ህ亲ߎএњDŽ  Māma yì kāimén, xiaˇ oniaˇ o jiu fēichuqu le. As soon as Mom opened the door, the little bird flew out. ໪䖍ℷϟ䲼ˈ៥ϡᛇߎএњDŽ Wàibian zhèng xiàyuˇ , woˇ bùxiaˇ ng chūqu le. It’s raining outside. I don’t want to go out now. Verb + place + directional complement:

䇋ԴϞὐᴹDŽ Qîˇng nîˇ shànglóulai. Please come upstairs (towards the speaker). ཌྷϟቅএњDŽ Tā xiàshānqu le. She has gone down the mountain (away from the speaker). 258

5.14

Complements

ҪӀЎҔМ䖬≵ಲᆓ㟡এਸ਼˛ Tāmen wèishénme háiméi huísùshèqu ne? Why haven’t they gone back to the dormitory yet? ਀䇈Դ㽕ࠄ࣫ҀএDŽ Tīngshuō nîˇ yào dào Běijīng qu. I hear that you will go to Beijing. 5.14.3

Complement of time Complement of time, ᯊ䯈㸹䇁 shíjiān buˇ yuˇ , is an expression that tells about the duration of an action. The basic sentence pattern for such an expression is: Subject + verb + duration. Some examples: Դ↣໽ᰮϞⴵ޴Ͼ䩳༈˛ Nîˇ měitiān waˇ nshang shuì jîˇge zhōngtóu? How many hours do you sleep every night? Դᴹњ໮Йњ˛ Nîˇ láile duōjiuˇ le? How long have you been here? ៥೼ࡴᣓ໻कᑈњDŽ Woˇ zai Jiānádà shínián le. I’ve been in Canada for ten years. ཌྷ೼䖭‫ܓ‬Ꮉ԰њϝᑈDŽ Tā zai zhèr gōngzuòle sānnián. She worked here for three years. ཌྷ೼䖭‫ܓ‬Ꮉ԰њϝᑈњDŽ Tā zai zhèr gōngzuòle sānnián le. She has been working here for three years now. If the action is a Verb + Object compound, the duration is expressed in either of two ways:

(1)

Subject + verb + object + verb + duration: Դᑇᐌ↣໽ᰮϞⴵ㾝ⴵ޴Ͼ䩳༈˛ Nîˇ píngcháng měitiān waˇ nshang shuìjiào shuì jîˇge zhōngtóu? How many hours do you usually sleep every night? ៥ᄺ∝䇁ᄺњϸᑈDŽ Woˇ xué Hànyuˇ xuéle liaˇ ngnián. I studied Chinese for two years. (I’m no longer studying) ៥ᄺ∝䇁ᄺњϸᑈњDŽ Woˇ xué Hànyuˇ xuéle liaˇ ngnián le. I’ve been studying Chinese for two years now. (I’m still studying)

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(2)

Subject + verb + duration + de + object: ៥Ӏᄺњϸᑈⱘ∝䇁DŽ Woˇ men xuéle liaˇ ngniánde Hànyuˇ . We studied Chinese for two years. (I’m no longer studying) ៥Ӏᄺњϸᑈⱘ∝䇁њDŽ Woˇ men xuéle liaˇ ngniánde Hànyuˇ le. We’ve been studying Chinese for two years now. (I’m still studying)

5.14.4

Complement of quantity Complement of quantity, ᭄䞣㸹䇁 shùliàng buˇ yuˇ , may be expressed using the same pattern as we use for duration of an act, but quantifying the number of objects acted upon by the verb, or the number of times the act has been performed or repeated, as below: ៥фњϝঠⲂ䵟DŽ Woˇ maˇ ile sānshuāng píxié. I bought three pairs of shoes. Ҫ↣໽ୱϔ໻⫊䜦DŽ Tā měitiān hē yídàpíng jiuˇ . He drinks a whole bottle of wine every day. Դ᳝޴ᴵ⠯Ҩ㺸˛ Nîˇ yoˇ u jîˇtiáo niúzaˇ ikù? How many pairs of jeans do you have? ៥⠀䖛Ѡक⃵䭓ජDŽ Woˇ páguo èrshicì Chángchéng. I’ve climbed the Great Wall twenty times. ៥⠀䭓ජ⠀њѠक⃵DŽ Woˇ pá Chángchéng pále èrshicì. I climbed the Great Wall twenty times. Դ㽕ㄝҪ䇋њϝ⃵ᠡㄨᑨDŽ Nîˇ yào děng tā qîˇngle sāncì cái dāying. You must wait until he has asked you three times before you agree.

5.14.5

Resultative complement The resultative complement, 㒧ᵰ㸹䇁 jiéguoˇ buˇ yuˇ , added to an action gives information about the resulting success of the action, clarity of the action, firmness of the action, etc. Examples are: ⳟ kàn, to look + 㾕 jiàn, to perceive = ⳟ㾕 kànjian, to see

᯼໽៥ⳟ㾕ᓴ㗕ᏜњDŽ Zuótian woˇ kànjian Zhāng Laˇ oshī le. I saw Professor Zhang yesterday. 260

5.14

Complements

਀ tı¯ng, to listen + 㾕 jiàn, to perceive = ਀㾕 tı¯ngjian, to hear

៥਀њञ໽ˈг≵਀㾕DŽ Woˇ tīngle bàntiān, yě méitīngjian. I listened for a long time, but I didn’t hear it. ਀ tı¯ng, to listen + ព doˇng, to understand = ਀ព tı¯ngdoˇng, to understand (what is/was heard).

Ҫⱘষ䷇ᕜ䞡ˈ៥≵਀ព໮ᇥDŽ Tāde koˇ uyīn hěn zhòng, woˇ méitīngdoˇ ng duōshaˇ o. He has a thick accent; I didn’t understand very much. ˇ ˇ o, to finish writing ‫ ݭ‬xie˜ , to write + ད haˇ o, well = ‫ݭ‬ད xieha

ཌྷ䖬≵‫ݭ‬ད᯼໽ⱘ԰ϮDŽ Tā hái méixiěhaˇ o zuótiande zuòyè. She still hasn’t finished writing yesterday’s homework. ᄺ xué, to study + Ӯ huì, to know how = ᄺӮ xuéhuì, to master something

䖭Ͼ䇁⊩䖭МㅔऩˈԴᗢМ䖬≵ᄺӮਸ਼˛ Zhèige yuˇ faˇ zhème jiaˇ ndān, nîˇ zěnme hái méixuéhuì ne? This grammar is so simple. Why haven’t you mastered it yet? ‫ خ‬zuò, to do + ᅠ wán, to finish = ‫خ‬ᅠ zuòwán, to finish doing something

Դ‫خ‬ᅠњԧ᪡≵᳝˛ Nîˇ zuòwánle tîˇcāo méiyou? Have you finished your calisthenics? Ҟ໽ⱘԧ᪡Ꮖ㒣‫خ‬ᅠњDŽ Jīntiande tîˇcāo yîˇjing zuòwán le. I’ve already finished doing today’s calisthenics. 5.14.6

Potential complement The potential complement, ৃ㛑㸹䇁 kěnéng buˇ yuˇ , is added to an action to indicate the possibility or impossibility of achieving the desired result or successfully completing the act. It is expressed by inserting the particle “ᕫ de” or “ϡ bù” between the verb and its resultative or directional complement, as in Verb + de/bu + complement. Verb + de + complement = can succeed in the complementing, and Verb + bu + complement = cannot succeed in the complementing. Examples are: 䙷ᴀк៥ᡒњᕜЙˈᗢМᡒ䛑ᡒϡࠄDŽ Nàběn shū woˇ zhaˇ ole hěnjiuˇ , zěnme zhaˇ o dōu zhaˇ obudào. I searched for that book a long time, but no matter how hard I searched, I couldn’t find it. 261

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Grammar

Դ㒻㓁ᡒ৻ˈϔᅮᡒᕫࠄDŽ Nîˇ jìxù zhaˇ o ba, yídìng zhaˇ odedào. Keep on searching; you can find it for sure. ҪӀ਀ϡពᑓϰ䆱DŽ Tāmen tīngbudoˇ ng Guaˇ ngdōnghuà. They don’t understand Cantonese. Դⱘ᱂䗮䆱ˈ៥਀ᕫពDŽ Nîˇde puˇ tōnghuà, woˇ tīngdedoˇ ng. I can understand your Mandarin. ៥ৗϡњ䙷М໮低ᄤʽ Woˇ chībuliaˇ o nàme duō jiaˇ ozi! I can’t eat that many dumplings! ៥ৗᕫњˈԴᗢМৗϡњਸ਼˛ Woˇ chīdeliaˇ o, nîˇ zěnme chībuliaˇ o ne? If I can eat them up, why can’t you? 䍄䫭њ䏃ಲᕫᴹˈ䇈䫭њ䆱ಲϡᴹDŽ Zoˇ ucuòle lù huídelái, shuōcuòle huà huíbulái. Having taken the wrong road, you can come back, but having said the wrong thing, you can’t take it back. 5.14.7

262

List of commonly used verbs with potential complements Complement

Examples

Meaning

ព doˇ ng

਀ព˗ⳟព

understand (listening or reading)

㾕 jiàn

਀㾕˗ⳟ㾕

hear; see (listen + perceive; look + perceive)

ད haˇ o

‫ݭ‬ད˗ⳟད

finish writing, finish reading

ᅠ wán

‫خ‬ᅠ˗ৗᅠ

finish doing, finish eating

ᴹ lái

ᣓᴹ˗ᏺᴹ

bring; bring along

এ qù

䖯এ˗䍄এ

go in; go on foot

ࠄ dào

ࡲࠄ˗䗕ࠄ

succeed in doing; succeed in sending

ԣ zhù

ᣓԣ˗キԣ

hold firmly; stand still

њ liaˇ o

ᣓᕫњ˗‫خ‬ϡњ

able to hold; unable to do

5.15 Expressing whoever, whatever, wherever, however, and whenever

Complement

Examples

Meaning

Ϟ shàng

ВϞ˗ᨀϞ

raise up; carry up

ϟ xià:

തϟ˗ᬒϟ

sit down; put down

Ӯ huì:

ᄺӮ

to master (through study)

䍋 qîˇ

фᕫ䍋˗ⳟϡ䍋

able to afford to buy; unable to look up to

ࡼ dòng

䍄ࡼ˗ᣓࡼ

able to walk about; able to lift

⏙Ἦ qīngchu

ⳟ⏙Ἦ˗਀⏙Ἦ

see clearly; hear distinctly

5.15 Expressing whoever, whatever, wherever, however, and whenever Structures like “whoever,” “whatever,” “wherever,” “however” and “whenever” usually are expressed by adding “䛑 dōu, all” or “г yě, also” after who, what, where, how, or when, as in the following examples: 䇕䛑гৃҹDŽ Shéi dōu/yě kěyîˇ. Anyone will be fine./Whoever will be fine. ҔМ䛑гϡ㽕DŽ Shénme dōu/yě buyào. (Subject) doesn’t want anything at all./(Subject) wants nothing whatever. ા‫ܓ‬䛑г㸠DŽ Naˇ r dōu/yě xíng. Anywhere will do./ Wherever will do. ᗢМ‫خ‬䛑гདDŽ Zěnme zuò dōu/yě haˇ o. It’s fine no matter how you do it./It’s fine however you do it. ҔМᯊ‫׭‬䛑г㸠DŽ Shénme shíhou dōu/yě xíng. Any time is fine./It’s fine whenever.

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5.16

Expressing surprise As with English speakers, Chinese speakers may express surprise upon seeing or hearing something out of the ordinary simply by raising their voice and widening their eyes while uttering a question word: ҔМ˛ʽ Shénme?! What?! 䇕˛ʽ Shéi?! Who?! ໮ᇥ˛ʽ Duōshaˇ o?! How much?! Or they may utter typical expressions of surprise, such as: ઢਔʽ Āiyā! Oh! (sometimes “Oops!”) ઢળʽ Āiyō! Oh!! (more serious than “āiyā!”) ៥ⱘ໽ଞʽ Woˇ de tiān a! Oh, my gosh! ⳳ≵ᛇࠄʽ Zhēn méixiaˇ ngdào! What a surprise!

5.17

Connecting words Connecting words/conjunctions/conjunctives/correlatives are used to connect elements in sentences which have either more than one clause, or more than one predicate or comment related to the same subject or topic. These connecting words may occur independently, such as: ৃᰃ kěshi, but; Ԛᰃ dànshi, but; ϡ䖛 búguò, however ; ৺ ߭ foˇ uzé, otherwise; 㽕ϡ✊ yàoburán, otherwise; ᠔ҹ suoˇ yîˇ, so; ಴ ℸ yīncîˇ, therefore. They may also occur in correlated pairs, such as: ಴Ў . . . ᠔ ҹ . . . yīnwei . . . suoˇ yîˇ . . . , because . . . (therefore) . . . 㱑✊ . . . Ԛ ᰃ . . . suīrán . . . dànshi . . . , although . . . (yet) . . . ϡԚ . . . 㗠Ϩ . . . búdàn . . . érqiě, not only . . . (but also).

264

5.17

Connecting words

The following are illustrative examples of both types: ៥ࡱњཌྷˈৃᰃཌྷϡ਀DŽ Woˇ quànle tā, kěshi tā bùtīng. I pleaded with her, but she wouldn’t listen. ҪᕜᛇখࡴˈԚᰃ㗕ᵓϡ‫ޚ‬DŽ Tā hěn xiaˇ ng cānjiā, dànshi laˇ obaˇ n bùzhuˇ n. He really wants to participate, but his boss won’t let him. ៥㾝ᕫᏆ㒣໾ᰮњˈϡ䖛ৃҹ᳓Դᠧ਀DŽ Woˇ juéde yîˇjīng tàiwaˇ nle, búguò kěyîˇ tì nîˇ daˇ tīng. I think it’s already too late, but I can enquire for you. Դ᳔ད‫ݭ‬᡹ਞ৻ˈ৺߭ৃ㛑᳝Ҏᡒ咏⚺DŽ Nîˇ zuìhaˇ o xiě bàogào ba, foˇ uzé kěnéng yoˇ urén zhaˇ o máfan. You’d better write up a report. Otherwise someone could make trouble. ཌྷϔᅮӮএˈ㽕ϡ✊᷵䭓Ӯ⫳⇨DŽ Tā yídìng huì qù, yàoburán xiàozhaˇ ng huì shēngqì. She is certain to go. Otherwise the principal would get angry. Ҟ໽ϟ໻䲼ˈ᠔ҹ䞢令প⍜њDŽ Jīntiān xià dàyuˇ , suoˇ yîˇ yěcān quˇ xiāo le. It’s raining heavily today, so the picnic is cancelled. ಴Ў䙷Ͼ佁佚ϡᬊֵ⫼वˈ᠔ҹ៥Ӏএ߿ⱘഄᮍৗ佁њDŽ Yīnwei nàge fànguaˇ nr bùshōu xìnyòngkaˇ , suoˇ yîˇ woˇ men qù biéde dìfang chīfàn le. That restaurant doesn’t accept credit cards, so we went someplace else to eat. 㱑✊ҪֵԯᬭˈԚᰃҪ‫ي‬ᇨӮৗ㙝DŽ Suīran tā xìn fójiào, dànshi tā oˇ u’ěr huì chī ròu. Although he is a Buddhist, he will occasionally eat meat. ཌྷϡԚᰃ៥㗕Ꮬˈ㗠Ϩᰃ៥᳔དⱘ᳟টDŽ Tā búdàn shi woˇ laˇ oshī, érqiě shi woˇ zuìhaˇ ode péngyou. She is not only my teacher, but my best friend as well. Note that although normally English will omit either the “because” or the “therefore,” and omit either the “although” or the “yet” in such constructions, they may both be used in Chinese without sounding redundant. Other connecting words are: བᵰ . . . ህ . . . rúguoˇ . . . jiù, . . . if . . . then བᵰԴ㛑এˈ៥ህϡᖙএњDŽ Rúguo nîˇ néng qù, woˇ jiu búbì qù le. If you can go, I won’t have to go.

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Grammar

㽕ᰃ . . . ህ . . . yàoshi . . . jiù . . . , if . . . ,then . . . 㽕ᰃϟ䲼ˈ៥ህϡএ␌⋇DŽ Yàoshi xiàyuˇ , woˇ jiu búqu yóuyoˇ ng. If it rains, I won’t go swimming. ‫؛‬བ . . . ህ . . . jiaˇ rú . . . jiù . . . if . . . ,then . . . ‫؛‬བ֓ᅰϔ⚍‫ˈܓ‬៥ህфϸӊDŽ Jiaˇ rú piányi yìdiaˇ nr, woˇ jiu maˇ i liaˇ ngjiàn. If it’s a little cheaper, I’ll buy two. ϔ . . . ህ . . . yī . . . jiù . . . , once . . . then . . . ໽ϔ咥ˈ៥ህᕫಲᆊDŽ Tiān yì hēi, woˇ jiùděi huíjiā. As soon as it gets dark, I must go home. ᮶✊ . . . ህ . . . jìrán . . . jiù . . . , since . . . then . . . ᮶✊Դϡ⠅ୱ䜦ˈ៥Ӏህএ੪ଵᑫୱ੪ଵ৻DŽ Jìrán nîˇ bú’ài hējiuˇ , woˇ men jiu qù kāfēidiàn hē kāfēi ba. Since you don’t like to drink alcohol, let’s go to a coffee house for some coffee. া㽕 . . . , ህ . . . zhîˇyào . . . jiù . . . if only . . . , then . . . া㽕ϡϟ䲼ˈ៥ህ䎳Դএ␌⋇DŽ Zhîˇyào búxiàyuˇ , woˇ jiu gēn nîˇ qù yóuyoˇ ng. As long as it’s not raining, I’ll go swimming with you. া᳝ . . . , ᠡ . . . zhîˇyoˇ u . . . cái . . . only if . . . only then . . . া᳝ϡϟ䲼ˈ៥ᠡ䎳Դএ␌⋇DŽ Zhîˇyoˇ u búxiàyuˇ , woˇ cái gēn nîˇ qù yóuyoˇ ng. I’ll go swimming with you, but only if it’s not raining. 䰸䴲 . . . , ᠡ . . . , chúfēi . . . , cái . . . , unless . . . ; only then . . . 䰸䴲ϡϟ䲼ˈ៥ᠡ䎳Դএ␌⋇DŽ Chúfēi búxiàyuˇ , woˇ cái gēn nîˇ qù yóuyoˇ ng. I’ll go swimming with you, unless it is raining. 䰸њ . . . ҹ໪, . . . chúle . . . yîˇwài, . . . , except for . . . . . . 䰸њᇣᓴҹ໪ˈҎᆊ䛑ᴹњDŽ Chúle Xiaˇ o Zhāng yîˇwài, rénjia dōu láile. Except for Zhang, everybody else came. ϡㅵ . . . , г . . . bùguaˇ n . . . yě . . . , no matter . . . , still . . . ϡㅵҪ㽕໮ᇥ䪅ˈ៥г㽕фDŽ Bùguaˇ n tā yào duōshao qián, woˇ yěyao maˇ i. No matter how much money he wants for it, I’m still going to buy it.

266

5.18 Emphasis using the “shì . . . de” pattern

᮴䆎 . . . , 䛑 . . . wúlùn . . . dōu . . . , regardless . . . still . . . ᮴䆎ཌྷ䌶䖬ᰃϡ䌶ˈ៥䛑ᕜԽ᳡ཌྷDŽ Wúlùn tā yíng háishi bùyíng, woˇ dōu hěn pèifu tā. Regardless of whether she wins or not, I still have great respect for her. Ϣ݊ . . . , ϡབ . . . yuˇ qí . . . bùrú . . . rather than . . . better to . . . Ϣ݊ᕫ㔾Ҏˈϡབᬍব䆱乬৻DŽ Yuˇ qí dézui rén, bùrú gaˇ ibiàn huàtí ba. Rather than offend someone, it would be better to change the subject. ϔ䖍 . . . ϔ䖍 . . . yìbiānr . . . yìbiānr . . . , (doing two things at the same time) ៥Ӏϔ䖍䍄ˈϔ䖍㘞໽DŽ Woˇ men yìbianr zoˇ u, yìbianr liáotiānr. We chatted as we walked. ϔ䴶 . . . ϔ䴶 . . . yímiàn . . . yímiàn . . . , (doing two things at the same time) ៥Ӏϔ䴶䅼䆎Ӌ䪅ˈϔ䴶ⳟ⬏‫ݠ‬DŽ Woˇ men yímiàn taˇ olùn jiàqian, yímiàn kàn huàcè. We perused the album of paintings as we discussed the price. জ . . . জ . . . yòu . . . , yòu . . . , both . . . and . . . ཌྷজᰃ៥ⱘ㗕Ꮬˈজᰃ៥ⱘ᳟টDŽ Tā yòushi woˇ de laˇ oshi, yòushi woˇ de péngyou. She is both my teacher and my friend. 䍞 . . . 䍞 . . . yuè . . . yuè . . . the more . . . the more . . . ៥䍞䅸䆚Ҫˈ䍞㾝ᕫҪϡᰃϔ㠀ⱘ⬏ᆊDŽ Woˇ yuè rènshi tā, yuè juéde tā búshi yìbānde huàjiā. The more I know him, the more I feel he is not an ordinary artist. ៪㗙 . . . ៪㗙 . . . huòzhe . . . huòzhe . . . , either . . . or . . . ៪㗙Դএˈ៪㗙៥এˈ䛑ৃҹDŽ Huòzhe nîˇ qù, huòzhe woˇ qù, dōu kěyi. Either you go or I’ll go; either way is fine.

5.18

Emphasis using the “shì . . . de” pattern The most common way of emphasizing agency, time, place, means/ manner, or purpose, i.e., who or what, when, where, how or why, etc. of an event in Mandarin is by using the “ᰃ . . . ⱘ shì . . . de” pattern. There are three things about this pattern that are important: (1) the element that appears in between “shì” and “de” is emphasized;

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(2) it is usually used for events that have already taken place; (3) “shì” is sometimes omitted. For example: Ҫ᯼໽೼ජ䞠фњϔ䕚ᮄ䔺DŽ Tā zuótian zai chénglîˇ maˇ ile yíliàng xīnchē. He bought a new car downtown yesterday. (No emphasis) ᮄ䔺ᰃҪфⱘDŽ Xīnchē shi tā maˇ i de. He is the one who bought the new car. (Emphasizing who) Ҫᰃ᯼໽фⱘᮄ䔺DŽ Tā shi zuótian maˇ ide xīnchē. It was yesterday that he bought the new car. (Emphasizing when) Ҫ᯼໽ᰃ೼ජ䞠фⱘᮄ䔺DŽ Tā zuótian shi zài chénglîˇ maˇ ide xīnchē. It was downtown that he bought the new car yesterday. (Emphasizing where) Ҫ᯼໽೼ජ䞠ᰃ䎳Ҫ᳟টϔ䍋фⱘᮄ䔺DŽ Tā zuótian zài chénglîˇ shi gēn tā péngyou yìqîˇ maˇ ide xīnchē. It was with his friend that he bought the new car downtown yesterday. (Emphasizing with whom) Ҫ᯼໽೼ජ䞠ᰃ⫼ֵ⫼वфⱘᮄ䔺DŽ Tā zuótian zai chénglîˇ shi yòng xìnyòngkaˇ maˇ ide xīn chē. It was with his credit card that he bought the new car downtown yesterday. (Emphasizing the means) ҪᰃЎњϞ⧁фⱘᮄ䔺DŽ Tā shi wèile shàngbān maˇ ide xīnchē. It was for going to work that he bought the new car. (Emphasizing the purpose) Other common examples of emphasis using the “shì . . . de” pattern are: 䖭ѯ㦰䛑ᰃཌྷфⱘDŽ Zhèxiē cài dōu shi tā maˇ i de. She bought all these groceries. (who) ԴҔМᯊ‫׭‬ᴹⱘ˛ Nîˇ shénme shíhou lái de? When did you come? (when) ҪӀ᯼໽Ң࣫ҀᴹⱘDŽ Tāmen zuótian cóng Běijīng lái de. They came from Beijing yesterday. (where) ៥ᴹф໪༫ⱘDŽ Woˇ lái maˇ i wàitào de. I’ve come to buy a jacket. (purpose)

268

5.19

Interjections

៥ത☿䔺ᴹⱘDŽ Woˇ zuò huoˇ chē lái de. I came by train. (means) ៥䎳ৠᄺӀϔ䍋এⱘ䭓ජDŽ Woˇ gēn tóngxuémen yìqîˇ qù de Chángchéng. I went to the Great Wall with my fellow schoolmates. (with whom) Note: The negative form of the “ᰃ . . . ⱘ shì . . . de” pattern is: “ϡ ᰃ . . . ⱘ búshì . . . de” and in this pattern “ᰃ shì” cannot be omitted.

5.19

Interjections Interjections, ্䆡 tàncí, express emotions and feelings. Examples are: ଞā ଞá ଞ aˇ ଞà ઢ āi ૝ āi ૝ ài ே ài ℌ/䇊 ē/ēi ℌ/䇊 é/éi ℌ/䇊 ě/ěi ℌ/䇊 è/èi જ hā ઇ hāi ஼ hāi த hài ઇ hai ੉ hē ீ hē ১ hè ఓ hēi ૐ hng ௃ ń or ńg ௃ ň or ňg ௃ `n or `ng ઺ó ઺ò ੌ pēi ୖ wèi ৕ xū

Expressing elation Expressing doubt or questioning Expressing puzzled surprise Expressing agreement/approval Hey! Gosh!, My! (mild exclamation, sigh) Expressing sympathy or disappointment No! (expressing disapproval) Hey! (to attract attention) Ah!, Oh! Huh?, What’s this? Hey! Aha! (expressing satisfaction) Hey! Hey! Expressing pain, sorrow or regret Expressing sorrow, surprise Ah!, Oh! Ah!, Oh! “Tut-tut,” “Tsk-tsk” Hey! Humph! What? Huh? I wonder! I’m suspicious! Okay; understood; agreed Expressing half believing, half doubting Expressing a newly gained understanding Bah! Pooh! Expressing disgust and disdain Hey!; “Hello?” when answering the telephone Wow! Expressing surprise or amazement

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Grammar

৕ ి ੺ ଋ ଻

yū yī yí yō zé

஼ળ hāiyō ઢਔ āiyā ઢળ āiyō ઢଋ ēiyō ୨ଋ wōyō

Whoa! Calling on a horse to stop Expressing regret or surprise Eh? Expressing surprise or disapproval Oh! I forgot! tsk-tsk: the sound of tongue-clicking, “Shame on you!” “Heave-ho” Expressing wonder, admiration, or shock (also ēiyō) Expressing surprise or pain, more serious than “āiyā” Same as “āiyō” above Oh!, Ouch!

5.20

Passive voice

5.20.1

Structural passive Passive voice, 㹿ࡼᓣ bèidòngshì, is expressed by using the passive indicator 㹿 bèi, by/䅽 ràng, let or ি jiào, let. The last two are most often used orally. The passive voice is not commonly used in Chinese, but it is more often used for stress, or sometimes used to express more unfortunate events. The sentence structure is as follows: Object (receiver) + bèi/ràng/jiào + subject (doer) + verb + other elements.

The doer can be omitted (this does not apply to when ràng or jiào is used) or Ҏ rén may be used if it is not clear who the doer is. ᮄ䯏᡹䘧˖ᕜ໮Ҏⱘ᠓ᄤ㹿໻∈⏍њDŽ Xīnwén bàodào: hěnduō rénde fángzi bèi dàshuîˇ yānle. According to news reports, many people’s houses were flooded by the high waters. ᡹㒌㹿϶䖯ൗഒṊњDŽ Bàozhîˇ bèi diūjìn lājītoˇ ng le. The newspaper was thrown into the garbage can. ཌྷфⱘ䙷ӊᕜ䌉ⱘ㸷᳡㹿Ҏً䍄њDŽ Tā maˇ ide nàjian hěn guìde yīfu bèi rén tōuzoˇ ule. That expensive dress she bought was stolen by someone. If an adverb or an auxiliary verb or a negative is used, the order is as follows: Object + adverb/auxiliary verb/negative + bèi + subject + verb + other elements .

If

the verb is more than one syllable, there is no need for other elements.

270

5.21

Reduplications

䖭ᐙᕜ᳝ৡⱘ⬏ϔᅮӮ㹿ҪӀᢡपᥝDŽ Zhèifú hěn yoˇ umíngde huàr yídìng huì bèi tāmen pāimàidiao. This very famous painting will definitely be auctioned off by them. Ҫⱘ᳟টᕜৃ㛑㹿䗝ߎᴹᔧЏᐁDŽ Tāde péngyou hěn kěnéng bèi xuaˇ nchūlai dāng zhuˇ xí. It is very possible that his friend will be elected as the chairperson. 㽕ᰃϡ㹿䗕এ㣅೑ᄺдˈҪӀⳳⱘӮ䴲ᐌ༅ᳯDŽ Yàoshi bú bèi sòngqu Yīngguó xuéxí, tāmen zhēnde huì fēicháng shīwàng. They will really be disappointed if they are not sent to England to study. ཌྷⱘ℠ଅᕫ䙷Мདˈ㒱ᇍӮ㹿ᕜ໮Ҏ⃷䌣DŽ Tāde gēr chàngde nàme haˇ o, juéduì huì bèi hěnduō rén xīnshaˇ ng. She sings so well. She will definitely be appreciated by many people. 5.20.2

Notional passive When the subject of a sentence does not do the action and is the receiver of the action, and when the doer of the action is either unknown or unnecessary to express, the passive indicator 㹿 bèi/䅽 ràng/ি jiào, is not used. This is known as the notional passive and the sentence structure is usually as follows: Object (receiver) + verb + other elements. ≑䔺Ꮖ㒣ׂདњDŽ Qìchē yîˇjīng xiūhaˇ ole. The car is already repaired. ֵ᯼໽ህᆘߎএњDŽ Xìn zuótian jiu jìchuqule. The letter was already mailed yesterday. ៥䅶ⱘкҞ໽ᮽϞ䗕ᴹњDŽ Woˇ dìngde shū jīntian zaˇ oshang sòngláile. The book I ordered was delivered this morning.

5.21 5.21.1

Reduplications Reduplication of verbs Functions of reduplicated verbs:

(1) (2) (3)

to show that the action is short and quick. to indicate an attempt or trial. to show that the action is casual.

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What verbs can be reduplicated:

(1) (2)

action and behavioral verbs verbs with a positive feeling How to reduplicate the verbs:

1.

when monosyllabic verbs are reduplicated: AA 䇋Դ‫ⳟⳟܜ‬DŽ Qîˇng nîˇ xiān kànkan. Please have a look first. ᙼᇱᇱདৗϡདৗDŽ Nín chángchang haˇ ochī bu haˇ ochī. Try it and see whether it tastes good. ៥ӀᎹ԰њϔᭈ໽њˈᰮϞᑨ䆹਀਀䷇ФњDŽ Woˇ men gōngzuòle yìzhěngtiān le. Waˇ nshang yīnggāi tīngting yīnyuè le. We have been working hard the whole day. We should listen to some music this evening.

2.

for disyllabic verbs which are Verb–Object combinations: AAB ᳝ᯊփ␌␌⋇ᇍ䑿ԧ䴲ᐌདDŽ Yoˇ ushíhou yoˇ uyouyoˇ ng duì shēntîˇ fēicháng haˇ o. It is very good for one’s health to have a swim sometimes. Ҟ໽໽⇨ᕜདˈ៥Ӏᛇএ⍋䖍ᬷᬷℹDŽ Jīntian tiānqi hěnhaˇ o, woˇ men xiaˇ ng qù haˇ ibianr sànsanbù. The weather is so nice today, we would like to go to the beach for a stroll. ៥Ӏᑨ䆹ϡᯊᓔᓔӮˈ໻ᆊৃҹ㸼䖒ϔϟᛣ㾕DŽ Woˇ men yīnggāi bùshí kāikāihuì, dàjiā kěyi biaˇ odáyíxià yìjian. We should have meetings from time to time so that everyone has a chance to express his/her opinion. Note: “ϔ yī” can be inserted between the reduplicated verb (A ϔ yī A) to mean the same thing and to have the same function. 䇋Դ‫ⳟܜ‬ϔⳟDŽ Qîˇng nîˇ xiān kànyikan. Please have a look first. ҪᕜᛇএᬷϔᬷℹDŽ Tā hěn xiaˇ ng qù sànyisànbù. He wants very much to go for a walk. Note: “њ le” can be inserted between the reduplicated verb (Aњ le A) to emphasize the completion of the verb.

272

5.21

Reduplications

ཌྷᇱњᇱϡདৗDŽ Tā chánglechang bù haˇ ochī. She tried it and it did not taste good. ᯼໽ҪӀ㱑✊ᕜ㌃ˈৃᰃ䖬␌њ␌⋇DŽ Zuótian tāmen suīrán hěn lèi, kěshi hái yóuleyouyoˇ ng. Although they were very tired yesterday, they still had a swim. 3.

when disyllabic verbs are reduplicated: ABAB Note: the reduplicated part of the verb is pronounced in the neutral tone. 䖭ӊџ៥Ӏ䖬ᰃ㗗㰥㗗㰥‫އخݡ‬ᅮ৻DŽ Zhèjian shì woˇ men háishi kaˇ ol¨ukaolü zài zuò juédìng ba. Perhaps we should think this over before we make a decision. Ҟ໽㱑✊໽⇨ϡ໾དˈҪӀ䖬ᰃᑨ䆹ߎএ䖤ࡼ䖤ࡼDŽ Jīntian suīrán tiānqi bútàihaˇ o, tāmen háishi yīnggāi chūqu yùndongyundong. Although the weather is not very good today, they still should go out to have a bit of exercise. Դᖭњ䖭МЙˈᅲ೼ᑨ䆹ᬒϸϾ᯳ᳳⱘ‫؛‬ӥᙃӥᙃDŽ Nîˇ mángle zhème jiuˇ , shízài yīnggaī fàng liaˇ nggexīngqīde jià xiūxixiuxi. You have been busy for such a long time. You really should take a two-week vacation to relax a bit. What verbs cannot be reduplicated:

(1)

verbs expressing feelings and emotions:

(2)

⠅ ài, love; ୰⃶ xîˇhuan, like; ᗩ pà, fear; ႝས jìdu, jealous; Ꮰᳯ xīwang, hope. verbs expressing change or development:

(3)

(4)

5.21.2

ᓔྟ kāishîˇ, begin; 㒧ᴳ jiéshù, finish; থሩ fāzhaˇ n, develop; ব ࣪ biànhuà, change. verbs expressing existence, judgement, possession: ᰃ shì, to be; ೼ zài, to be at; ᳝ yoˇ u, to have; 䈵 xiàng, to resemble; ད‫ ڣ‬haˇ oxiàng, to be like. verbs showing directions: Ϟ shàng, go up; ϟ xià, go down; ߎ chū, exit; 䖯 jìn, enter. Reduplication of nouns Some nouns can be reduplicated to mean “each and every + noun”: ҪӀᆊҎҎ䛑᳝ᬊܹDŽ Tāmen jiā rénrén dōu yoˇ u shōurù. Each and every one in their family has an income.

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Grammar

ᴀᏖϡᰃᆊᆊ䛑᳝ᄽᄤDŽ Běnshì búshi jiājiā dōu yoˇ u háizi. Not every family in this city has children. ៥໮МᏠᳯ໽໽䛑ᰃ᱈໽ʽ Woˇ duōme xīwang tiāntiān dōushi qíngtiān! How I wish every day was a sunny day! ⼱Դџџ乎߽ʽ Zhù nîˇ shìshì shùnlì! I hope everything goes smoothly for you! ቕቕᑇᅝʽ Suìsuì píng’ān! May you have peace year after year! ཌྷᑈᑈ䛑᳝ᮄথᯢDŽ Tā niánnián dōu yoˇ u xīn fāmíng. She has a new invention each and every year. ҪӀϪϪҷҷ䛑᳝Ҏ‫خ‬ᬭᥜDŽ Tāmen shìshìdàidài dōu yoˇ urén zuò jiàoshòu. There have been professors in their family in each and every generation. ᮄᑈⱘᯊ‫׭‬ᆊᆊ᠋᠋䛑୰⇨⋟⋟ⱘDŽ Xīnniánde shíhou jiājiāhùhù dōu xîˇqì yángyángde. Each and every household is brimming with happiness during the New Year. 5.21.3

Reduplication of adjectives The reduplicated adjectives give a more vivid and lively description.

(1) (2) (3) 1.

Reduplicated adjective + ⱘ de = adjective Reduplicated adjective + ഄ de = adverb Not all adjectives can be reduplicated. Monosyllabic adjectives are reduplicated as: AA The duplicated syllable may be pronounced in the first tone and followed by the “r” ending. The following are some adjectives that are commonly reduplicated: ᖿᖿ‫ ܓ‬kuàikuāir, fast; ᜶᜶‫ ܓ‬mànmānr, slow; 䖰䖰‫ ܓ‬yuaˇ nyuānr, far away; དད‫ ܓ‬haˇ ohāor, fine, well; 催催‫ ܓ‬gāogāor, tall; ⷂⷂ‫ܓ‬ aˇ i’āir, short; 㚪㚪‫ ܓ‬pàngpāngr, chubby; ⯺⯺‫ ܓ‬shòushōur, skinny; 䭓䭓‫ ܓ‬chángchāngr, long; ⷁⷁ‫ ܓ‬duaˇ nduānr, short; ໻໻‫ ܓ‬dàdār, large, big; ᇣᇣ‫ ܓ‬xiaˇ oxiāor, small. ␪䞠⏙⏙‫ⳳ∈ⱘܓ‬䈵ϔ䴶䬰ᄤDŽ Húli qīngqīngrde shuîˇ zhēn xiàng yímiàn jìngzi. The wonderfully clear water in the lake is just like a mirror.

274

5.21

Reduplications

ཌྷ咥咥‫ⱘܓ‬༈থՓҎ㾝ᕫཌྷᕜᑈ䕏DŽ Tā hēihēirde tóufa shîˇ rén juéde tā hěn niánqīng. Her dark black hair makes one think she is very young. Ҫ᜶᜶‫ܓ‬ഄ䍄ᴹ䍄এˈϡⶹ䘧೼ᛇҔМDŽ Tā mànmānrde zoˇ ulái zoˇ uqù, bùzhīdao zai xiaˇ ng shénme. He walks back and forth slowly and I do not know what’s on his mind. ᇣ⥟㋻㋻ഄᢅԣཌྷϡᬒDŽ Xiaˇ o Wáng jîˇnjīnrde bàozhu tā bú fàng. Wang held her tightly and would not let go of her. 2.

Disyllabic adjectives are reduplicated as: AABB These are some commonly reduplicated adjectives: ҨҨ㒚㒚 zîˇzîˇxìxì, careful, attentive; ⏙⏙ἮἮ qīngqīngchūchū, clear; ⓖⓖ҂҂ piàopiàoliàngliàng, beautiful; 催催݈݈ gāogāoxìngxìng, happy; 㟦㟦 ᳡᳡ shūshūfūfū, comfortable; 䕯䕯㢺㢺 xīnxīnkuˇ kuˇ , working hard; ᑆᑆ‫ ޔޔ‬gāngānjìngjìng, clean; ᭈᭈ唤唤 zhěngzhěngqīqī, tidy; ᅶ ᅶ⇨⇨ kèkèqīqī, polite; 䅸䅸ⳳⳳ rènrènzhēnzhēn, serious, careful. ‫ހ‬໽ⱘᯊ‫׭‬ཌྷᘏᰃᡞᄽᄤこᕫᱪᱪ੠੠ⱘᠡ䅽ҪӀএϞᄺDŽ Dōngtiande shíhou tā zoˇ ngshi baˇ háizi chuānde nuaˇ nnuanhuōhuōde cái ràng tāmen qù shàngxué. She always dresses the children warmly before letting them go to school in winter. ᓔᄺњˈᄽᄤӀ䛑催催݈݈ഄএϞᄺњDŽ Kāixué le, háizimen dōu gāogāoxìngxìngde qù shàngxué le. School started and the children all went to school happily.

5.21.4

Reduplication of measure words Measure words can be reduplicated for emphasis to mean “each and every + measure word”: ཌྷ䇈ⱘ᱂䗮䆱হহ䛑ᕜ⏙ἮDŽ Tā shuōde puˇ tōnghuà jùjù dōu hěn qīngchu. Every sentence she spoke/speaks in Mandarin was/is very clear. 䖭ᆊ᳡㺙݀ৌⱘ㸷᳡ӊӊ䛑ᕜདⳟDŽ Zhèijiā fúzhuāng gōngsīde yīfu jiànjiàn dōu hěn haˇ okàn. Each and every item of clothing in this garment company is beautiful. 䙷Ͼ੪ଵᑫⱘ੪ଵᵃᵃ䛑དୱDŽ Nèige kāfēidiànde kāfēi bēibēi dōu haˇ ohē. Every cup of coffee in that coffee house tastes delicious. ҪӀपⱘ∈ᵰ⾡⾡䛑ᕜᮄ剰DŽ Tāmen màide shuîˇguo zhoˇ ngzhoˇ ng dōu hěn xīnxian. Each and every kind of fruit they sell is very fresh.

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5

Grammar

䙷ᆊ≑䔺㸠पⱘ≑䔺䕚䕚䛑ᰃ催䌉ⱘ≑䔺DŽ Nàjiā qìchēháng màide qìchē liàngliàng dōushi gāoguìde qìchē. Every car sold in that dealership is a high-class car. ៥Ӏ㾝ᕫҪ⬏ⱘ⬏ᓴᓴ䛑ؐᕫᬊ䲚DŽ Woˇ men juéde tā huàde huàr zhāngzhāng dōu zhíde shōují. We think every one of his paintings is worth collecting.

5.22 Prepositions The following are the more commonly used prepostions: ᣝ àn: based on, on the basis of, according to ᣝᇣᯊᎹ԰ᬊ䌍ⱘিᇣᯊᎹDŽ Àn xiaˇ oshí gōngzuò shōufèide jiào xiaˇ oshígōng. Those whose wages are paid according to hours worked are called “hourly workers.” ᣝ✻ ànzhào (cannot be followed by monosyllabic words): according to ᣝ✻ཌྷⱘᛣᗱ៥Ӏ᳔ད‫ܜ‬ᄺд∝䇁DŽ Ànzhào tāde yìsi woˇ men zùihaˇ o xiān xuéxí Hànyuˇ . According to her opinion, we had better study Chinese first. ᳱ cháo/ᕔ wàng/৥ xiàng: toward, towards Դᳱˋᕔˋ৥ϰ䍄ϔⱒ㉇ህࠄњDŽ Nîˇ cháo/wàng/xiàng dōng zoˇ u yìbaˇ i mîˇ jiù dào le. Walk 100 meters east and you will be there. 䍕 chèn: take advantage of Դ䖬ᰃ䍕໽⇨དⱘᯊ‫׭‬এᮙ␌৻DŽ ‥ˇ yóu ba. Nîˇ háishi chèn tiānqi haˇ o deshíhou qù lu Why don’t you go traveling while the weather is good. 䰸њchúle/䰸њchúle . . . ҹ໪ yîˇwài: except for, besides 䰸њ␌⋇˄ҹ໪˅ˈԴ䖬‫ⱘ߿خ‬䖤ࡼ৫˛ Chúle yóuyoˇ ng (yîˇwài), nîˇ hái zuò biéde yùndong ma? Do you do other exercises besides swimming? Ң cóng: from 䙷ϾҎࠄᑩᰃҢા‫ܓ‬ᴹⱘਸ਼˛ Nàge rén dàodîˇ shì cóng naˇ r lái de ne? Where did that person really come from? Ң cóng . . . 䍋 qîˇ: starting from Ңϟ᯳ᳳϔ䍋ˈҪӀህ㽕Ϟ⧁њDŽ Cóng xià xīngqīyī qîˇ, tāmen jiùyao shàngbān le. They have to start going to work next Monday.

276

5.22

Prepositions

Ң cóng . . . ࠄ dào: from . . . to, from . . . till ത亲ᴎҢ䖭‫ࠄܓ‬Ӻᬺ㽕໮Й˛ Zuò fēijī cóng zhèr dào Lúndūn yào duōjiuˇ ? How long does it take to fly from here to London? ҪӀⱘӮҢᮽϞϔⳈᓔࠄᰮϞDŽ Tāmende huì cóng zaˇ oshang yìzhí kāidao waˇ nshang. Their meeting lasted all the way from morning till night. ᇍ duì: to, towards Ҫ䖭ḋᇍԴ䇈䆱ᰃϡৃҹⱘDŽ Tā zhèyang duì nîˇ shuōhuà shi bùkěyide. He should not talk to you like this. 㒭 gěi: for, to 㽕ᰃ᳝ᴎӮⱘᯊ‫ˈ׭‬䇋Դਞ䆝Ҫ㒭៥ᠧ⬉䆱ˈད৫˛ Yàoshi yoˇ u jīhui deshíhou, qîˇng nîˇ gàosu tā gěi woˇ daˇ diànhuà, haˇ o ma? If there is an opportunity, please tell him to phone me, won’t you? ҪҔМᯊ‫׭‬ᠡᡞк䖬㒭Դਸ਼˛ Tā shénme shíhou cái baˇ shū huán gěi nîˇ ne? When will he ever return your book to you? 䎳 gēn/੠ hé (the written form is often “Ϣ yuˇ ”): with, from Դ߿ᢙᖗˈ៥ϡӮ䎳Դএढⲯ乓ⱘDŽ Nîˇ bié dānxīn, woˇ búhuì gēn nîˇ qù Huáshèngdùn de. Don’t worry. I won’t go to Washington D.C. with you. ҪӀᛇ䎳ԴӀ‫׳‬ϔϛഫ䪅ф᠓ᄤDŽᗢМࡲਸ਼˛ Tāmen xiaˇ ng gēn nîˇmen jiè yíwànkuàiqián maˇ i fángzi. Zěnmebàn ne? They want to borrow ten thousand dollars from you to buy a house. What are you going to do? ݇Ѣ guānyu: about, concerning, with regard to Ҟ໽ⱘ᷵᡹Ϟ᳝ϔ㆛݇Ѣཌྷᕫ༪ⱘ⍜ᙃDŽ Jīntiande xiàobàoshang yoˇ u yìpiān guānyu tā déjiaˇ ngde xiāoxi. There is an item concerning her getting a prize in the university newspaper today. 㒣 jīng: through, as a result of 㒣ҪӀⱘҟ㒡ˈ៥ᠡ䅸䆚ཌྷDŽ Jīng tāmende jièshao, woˇ cái rènshi tā. I only got to know her through their introduction.

277

5

Grammar

᥂ jù: based on, according to ᥂Ҫ䇈ˈҪ䅸䆚ⱘᬭᥜ䛑Ꮖ㒣䗔ӥњDŽ Jù tā shuō, tā rènshide jiàoshòu dōu yîˇjīng tuìxiū le. According to him, all the professors he knew have already retired. ⾏ lí (the written form can be: 䎱 jù): from, to ⦄೼⾏Ϟ䇒ⱘᯊ䯈䖬᳝कѨߚ䩳DŽ Xiànzài lí shàngkède shíjiān hái yoˇ u shíwuˇ fēnzhōng. There is still fifteen minutes to class time. ཌྷⱘࡲ݀ᅸ⾏ᆊϡ䖰ˈৃҹ䍄䏃এDŽ Tāde bàngōngshì lí jiā bù yuaˇ n, kěyi zoˇ ulù qù. Her office is not far from her home and she can walk to work. Ў wèi/᳓ tì: for, on account of ཌྷᏆ㒣ᰃ໻ҎњˈԴ߿‫ݡ‬Ўཌྷ༈⮐њDŽ Tā yîˇjīng shi dàren le, nîˇ bié zài wèi tā tóuténg le. She is already an adult. You should not worry yourself over her any more. Ўњ wèile: in order to, for the purpose of Ўњᕫࠄ༪ᄺ䞥ˈཌྷϡߚᰐ໰ഄࡾ࡯ᄺдDŽ Wèile dédao jiaˇ ngxuéjīn, tā bùfēnzhòuyède nuˇ lì xuéxí. In order to get the scholarship, she studies hard day and night. ৥ xiàng: from, towards ҪᰃϾདᄺ⫳ˈ៥Ӏ䛑ᑨ䆹৥ҪᄺдDŽ Tā shi ge haˇ o xuésheng, woˇ men dōu yīnggāi xiàng tā xuéxí. He is a good student. We all should learn from him. ձ yī: according to, in light of ձཌྷⱘ㒣偠ˈ៥Ӏ䛑ᑨ䆹↣໽ᮽ䍋ᮽⴵDŽ Yī tāde jīngyan, woˇ men dōu yīnggāi měitian zaˇ o qîˇ zaˇ o shuì. In light of her experience, we all should get up early and go to bed early every day. ҹ yîˇ: with, use, to ҪӀ⡍߿ҹԴⱘ៤㒽Ў偘‫چ‬DŽ Tāmen tèbié yîˇ nîˇde chéngjī wéi jiāo’ào. They are especially proud of your achievements. 䖭ᑻ໻ቅҹ࣫ᰃϔᴵ໻⊇DŽ Zhèzuò dàshān yîˇběi shi yìtiáo dàhé. To the north of this big mountain is a big river. ⬅ yóu: by, for ϟϾ᳜ⱘᑻ䇜Ӯᑨ䆹⬅ԴЏᣕDŽ Xiàge yuède zuòtánhuì yīnggāi yóu nîˇ zhuˇ chí. 278

5.23

Subjunctive mood

Next month’s seminar should be chaired by you. 䖭⾡џᔧ✊ᰃ⬅໻ᄺ᷵䭓䋳䋷DŽ Zhèzhoˇ ng shì dāngrán shi yóu dàxué xiàozhaˇ ng fùzé. Matters like this should naturally be the responsibility of the university president. ⬅Ѣ yóuyú: due to, owing to ҪӀ䖭⃵䞡㽕ⱘথ⦄ᰃ⬅ѢҪӀҨ㒚ⱘ㾖ᆳDŽ Tāmen zhècì zhòngyàode fāxiàn shi yóuyú tāmen zîˇxìde guānchá. Their important discovery this time is due to their careful observation. ೼ zài: at, on, in ཌྷᰃϡᰃ೼फҀߎ⫳ⱘ˛ Tā shìbushi zài Nánjīng chūshēng de? Was she born in Nanjing? ҪӀ೼᳜ܿܿ᮹䙷໽ህ㒧ီњDŽ Tāmen zài bāyue bāri nàtian jiù jiéhūn le. They got married on August 8th. ೼ zài . . . ⳟᴹ kànlái: in someone’s . . . view, from . . . someone’s point of view ೼ҪӀⳟᴹˈᄺᢝϕ᭛ᰃᕜ᳝⫼ⱘDŽ Zài tāmen kànlái, xué Lādīngwén shi hěn yoˇ uyòngde. From their point of view, learning Latin is very useful. 㞾Ң zìcóng: since 㞾ҢϞњ໻ᄺҪᓔྟᇍ∝䇁ᛳ݈䍷DŽ Zìcóng shàngle dàxué tā kāishîˇ duì Hànyuˇ gaˇ n xìngqu. He began to be interested in Chinese since he entered university. For the uses of ᡞ baˇ , 㹿 bèi, ি jiào, 㒭 gěi, 䅽 ràng and ↨ bîˇ, see the following: ᡞ baˇ 㹿 bèi, ি jiào, 䅽 ràng ↨ bîˇ

see “baˇ sentences,” p.248 see “passive voice,” p.270 see “comparisons,” p.251

5.23 Subjunctive mood Subjunctive mood, ‫؛‬䆒ᓣ jiaˇ shèshì, in Chinese is expressed by using certain connecting words, the context of the sentences, or the tone of voice if spoken. 1.

㽕ᰃ yàoshi A, ህ jiù B, when/if A . . . then B 㽕ᰃཌྷ㛑ᴹህདњʽ Yàoshi tā néng lái jiù haˇ o le! It would have been nice if she could have come! 279

5

Grammar

㽕ᰃҞ໽໽⇨᳝᯼໽䙷Мདˈϔᅮ᳝ᕜ໮Ҏᴹখࡴ䞢令DŽ Yàoshi jīntian tiānqi yoˇ u zuótian nàme haˇ o, yídìng yoˇ u hěnduō rén lái cānjiā yěcān. If the weather today were as nice as it was yesterday, many people would have come to the picnic. 2.

(㽕ᰃ yàoshi) A ⱘ䆱 dehua, ህ jiù B . . . , if A . . . then B 㽕ᰃ ཌྷᰃϾⱒϛᆠ㖕ⱘ䆱ˈཌྷህ㛑ф䙷᠔᠓ᄤDŽ (Yàoshi) tā shi ge baˇ iwànfùwēng dehua, tā jiu néng maˇ i nàsuoˇ faˇ ngzi. If she were a millionaire, she could have bought that house.

3.

া㽕 zhîˇyào A, ህ jiù B, if only A . . . then B া㽕ҪӀ㚃ߎ䪅ˈҪӀህӮ‫ڣ‬ԴӀϔḋ⦄೼೼໣࿕་ᑺ‫؛‬њDŽ Zhîˇyào tāmen kěn chūqián, tāmen jiu hui xiàng nîˇmen yíyàng xiànzài zài Xiàwéiyí dùjià le. If only they were willing to spend the money, they would have been enjoying a vacation in Hawaii like you are now.

4.

㽕ϡᰃ yàobúshi A, ህ jiù B . . . , if not A, then B 㽕ϡᰃཌྷਞ䆝៥ˈ៥ࠄ⦄೼䖬ϡӮⶹ䘧ҪӀᏆ㒣এњ㕢೑њDŽ Yàobúshi tā gàosu woˇ , woˇ dào xiànzài hái búhuì zhīdao tāmen yîˇjīng qùle Měiguó le. If she had not told me, I would not have known that they have already gone to the United States.

5.

Instead of 㽕ᰃ yàoshi, which can also be omitted, any one of the following can be used: བᵰ rúguoˇ , ‫؛‬བ jiaˇ rú, ‫؛‬Փ jiaˇ shîˇ, ‫؛‬㢹 jiaˇ ruò, or ‫׬‬㢹 taˇ ngruò.

5.24 Sentences without subjects Sentences without subjects occur in the following situations: 1.

Expressing weather conditions: ߎ໾䰇њDŽ Chū tàiyang le. The sun has come out. ᱈໽њDŽ Qíngtiān le. It has cleared up. ϟ䲼њDŽ Xiàyuˇ le. It’s raining. ϟ䲾њDŽ Xiàxuě le.

280

5.24 Sentences without subjects

It’s snowing. ϟ䳍ᄤњDŽ Xiàbáozi le. It’s hailing. ϟ䳒њDŽ Xiàwù le. It’s foggy. ࠂ亢њDŽ Guāfēng le. It’s windy. ᠧ䳋њDŽ Daˇ léi le. It’s thundering. 䮾⬉њ Shaˇ ndiàn le. It’s lightning. 2.

Expressing time and season: कϔ⚍њDŽ Shíyīdiaˇ n le. It’s eleven o’clock. ञ໰њDŽ Bànyè le. It’s midnight. ໽咥њDŽ Tiān hēi le. It’s dark now. कѠ᳜њDŽ Shí’èryuè le. It’s December now. ‫ހ‬໽њDŽ Dōngtian le. It’s winter now. ೷䆲㡖њDŽ Shèngdànjié le. It’s Christmas now.

3.

Expressing a factual condition: ߎ∫њDŽ Chūhàn le. (Subject +) is sweating/broke into a sweat. ⌕⊾њDŽ 281

5

Grammar

Liúlèi le. (Subject +) is shedding tears/started to shed tears. ৗ佁њDŽ Chīfàn le. Dinner’s ready. Ϟ䇒њDŽ Shàngkè le. Class is going to start./Class has started. ϟ⧁њDŽ Xiàbān le. Time to quit work. ᴹᅶњDŽ Lái kè le. Guests have showed up./We have guests. ⴔ☿њʽ Zháohuoˇ le! Fire!/A fire has started. 4.

Expressing a command: 䆹䍋ᑞњDŽ Gāi qîˇchuáng le. Time to get up. ᇣᖗ≑䔺ʽ Xiaˇ oxīn qìchē! Be careful of cars! ⃶䖢খ㾖DŽ Huānyíng cānguān. Welcome (for a visit by sightseers and other visitors). 䇋߿਌⚳DŽ Qîˇng bié xīyān. Please do not smoke. ࡾ࡯ᄺдDŽ Nuˇ lì xuéxí. Study hard!

282

6 Body language

Body language is a behavioral complement to spoken language and is an important part of communication. It is communication beyond words, a silent language that adds cues to vocal language and is particularly important for face-to-face interaction. Much of the body language of Chinese speakers is the same as, or similar to, that of English speakers, but there is some which is different or even significantly different. On the other hand, not all the Chinese body language described here is shared by all Chinese. Here are some examples of typical Chinese body language: Appearance: Chinese usually stand and sit with a slight modest bend. A person with very straight body and lifted head is considered to be too proud. Long hair and beards are generally worn only by old men or artists. It is rare to see married men and women wearing wedding rings. Most people will dress according to the occasion, but they will seem more casual to the Western eye. Normally people do not wear clothing that stands out too much in design or color. It is not considered modest for older women to wear bright colors. Applause: to praise, encourage, or welcome. Cough: to catch people’s attention or announce one’s presence. Covering the mouth: This is sometimes done by women and children when they feel embarrassed or shy. Distance: Personal space is limited, so when conversing standing up, the distance between speakers will be closer than normal for North Americans; standing too close or too far can lead to misunderstandings. When a subordinate is talking to a superior or when a male is talking to a female, the distance between them is slightly greater than normal. Eye contact: When talking, it is polite to establish eye contact but to avoid direct eye gaze from time to time. A constant gaze is impolite. However, an older person or a superior can look

283

6

Body language

at a younger person or a subordinate for a much longer time. Looking left or right when talking is also considered impolite. No eye contact indicates that one does not value the person spoken to, or the listener is not paying much attention to the topic of conversation. If a person looks at someone from the corner of his/her eye, it means he/she looks down on or harbors suspicions about that person. Women often lower their gaze to show modesty, obedience, and respect. When a child is scolded, he/she is supposed to bow his/her head with eyes downcast to show shame. Facial expression: Most well-brought-up Chinese are supposed to keep their personal feelings inside rather than exhibiting them openly or publicly. Sometimes if one has no facial expression it means this person does not want to express opinions or does not agree with the opinion expressed by someone else. Gestures: Finger snapping: feeling bored; having fun or keeping a beat. Hand and arm extended, palm downward and waving towards oneself: beckoning, “Come here.” Handing business cards, gifts or other objects to someone with two hands: very polite gesture. Index finger pointing to chest or nose: “I,’ “me.” Nodding: agreement; an expression of greeting. Palm facing outward, waving hand left and right in front of face: no, wrong, mistaken, won’t do. Palm facing outward, move hand from left to right and from right to left: goodbye. Pointing: it is more polite to use an open hand, fingers together, palm upward. Pointing index finger to the temple and drawing a circle: think, think please, use your brain. Pointing finger to temple or forehead: this person is stupid or crazy. Putting index finger by cheek and repeatedly scraping from back to front: shame, shame! Scratching the head: hesitating, not knowing what to do. Shaking the head: no, disagree. Stamping feet: angry. Tapping the table with one or three fingertips beside the teacup after someone has poured tea: “Thank you!” Wrinkling the brow: feeling bothered, unable to understand, disagreement, feeling impatient, feeling sad or contemplative. Greeting: handshake, nod, or slight bow. Most Chinese handshakes are not firm, with no tight grip, but they do it 284

Body language

seriously. It is sometimes accompanied with a nod or smile or a slight bow. Shaking hands without standing up is considered impolite. Posture: Good and proper posture is considered important. Some say that one should “stand like a pine, sleep like a bow, walk like the wind and sit like a temple bell” (ゟབᵒ lì rú sōng, ⴵབ ᓧshuì rú gōng, 㸠བ亢 xíng rú fēng, തབ䩳 zuò rú zhōng). Putting one’s feet on a desk, or sitting on a desk while teaching or talking is considered very rude. Sighing: feeling sad, regretful, or tired. Silence: “Silence is golden”: it is respected, tolerated, and customary. Silence is used for contemplation. During a conversation, if there is silence, Chinese do not rush to fill in the void. Silence is sometimes a “no” and is considered much less rude than a direct spoken answer of “no.” Smile: A smile may show any of the following: friendliness, happiness, willingness, agreement, appreciation, request, understanding, apology, refusal, disagreement, regret, embarrassment. Thumbs up: This gesture says: “It’s great!” or “That’s excellent!” Timing: Appointments and functions usually take place in a punctual manner. For a dinner party, it is a general practice that guests leave shortly after the meal. During a conversation, people take turns speaking. Interruption is considered very impolite. Touch: There is generally no kissing or hugging in public, especially between people not closely related or in love. However, adults do not hesitate to touch children to show care and affection. People will also touch older people in order to help or guide them. Although different sexes may hesitate to hold arms or hands, people of the same sex may hold hands to show friendliness, especially younger and older people. China is a large country and many of the habits and customs will differ from the north to the south, and even from place to place within the same region. As a result, some body language may differ in meaning, or the same meaning may be expressed through different body language.

285

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288

Index

abbreviations 178, 179, 180 addressing an envelope 209 apologies 189 approximate numbers 208 area 197, 198 asking questions 228 aspect particles 238 autonomous regions 178 auxiliary verbs 231, 232 “baˇ” sentences 248 binomes 217 blogging 46 body language 283 calendars 199 Cantonese 3, 4, 262 capacity 199 capitals 171 characters 2, 6, 7, 13, 17, 142, 143, 163, 206, 217 colors 145, 146, 147, 153, 156, 283 command 9, 11, 248, 249, 250, 251, 282 common sayings 100 comparisons 251 complement of quantity 260 complement of time 259 complements 254, 258, 262 compliments 192 computer and internet words 44 conjunctions 10, 264 connecting words 264 continents 164 countries 32, 64, 171

currency 40, 205, 225 decimals 208 demonstrative pronouns 223 dialect distribution 4 dialects 2, 3, 5 direction words 196 directional complements 248, 249, 256, 257, 258, 261 duration of time 205 earthly branches 202 ellipsis 8, 216 emergency expressions 195 family relationships 181 farewells 189 festivals 180, 181 figurative expressions 150 formal letters 213 forms of address 185 fractions 208 Fukienese 3, 4 gestures 284 greetings 187, 212, 214 Hakka 3, 4 ˇ 1 Hànyu heavenly stems 202 holidays 32, 181 however 263, 264 ideograms 7 ideophonetic compounds 7 idioms 52, 55 informal letters 210 insulting words 156

interjections 269 interrogative pronouns 223 introductions 188 invitations 192 Jesuit order 1 jiéqì 200 lakes 169, 170 length 197 letters 209 location words 219, 220, 224 mandarin 1 meaningful compounds 7 measure words 225, 275 measurements 196 metaphorical allusion 135 mimetopoeia 141 minority languages 2 missionaries 1 modal particles 243 months 75, 106, 200, 201, 203, 212, 225 morphological change 215 mountain ranges 165 multiples 208 municipalities 178 negation 233 number symbolism 207 numerals 206, 207 oceans 165 online chatting 46 onomatopoeia 139 opposites 148 optative verbs 231 ordinals 207 particles 234, 235 parts of speech 10

passive voice 270 peaks in the world 164 percentages 208 personal names 163, 186 personal pronouns 222 pictograms 7 p¯i ny¯i n 1 polite expressions 194 potential complement 238, 261 prepositions 276 proverbs 100–131 provinces 3, 178 punning allusion 18, 133 ˇ to¯nghuà 1 pu quotes from the classics 46–52 recent words 25 reduplications 271–276 refusals 191 register 7, 8 regrets 193 requests 190 resultative complement 248, 249, 254, 260 riddles 142–144 rivers 74, 167, 168 seas 74, 124, 166 self-deprecation 193 set phrases 55 Shanghainese 3 Sheˇn Yue¯ 215 “shi . . . de” pattern 245, 267–270 solar terms 200 special administrative regions 178 structural particles 235

289

Index

subjectless sentences 280 subjunctive mood 279 suggestions 245, 250, 251 surnames 12, 16, 17, 161, 186, 188, 210, 213 surprise 264 temperature 149, 199, 201, 225 tense 1, 6, 218, 239

290

text messaging 46 thanks 194 time of day 204 tones 5 tongue twisters 144 topic-comment sentences 221 translation issues 18, 158, 159, 212, 214 transliteration 13, 34, 158, 160

volume 199 vulgar sayings 156, 157 week 200, 204, 216, 218, 230, 243, 273 weight 198 whatever 81, 263 whenever 33, 76, 263 wherever 31, 76, 263 whoever 48, 263 word order 219

ˇ 133–139 xiéhòuyu Yán Fù 159 year 6, 62, 75, 80, 127, 200-203, 210, 214, 216, 217, 218, 221, 243, 245, 274 zodiac animals 14, 142, 202