The Efectiveness of Greek armour against Persian Arow in the Persian Wars (490-479 BC)

• • - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GRS:e:K AEvtOUR AGAINST ARROWS • IN TH.e: PERSIAN WAR (490 - 479 B.C.) : AN INTERDISCI...

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•

• -

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF

GRS:e:K AEvtOUR AGAINST ARROWS •

IN TH.e: PERSIAN WAR (490

-

479 B.C.) :

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY ENQUIRY •

by

•

PHILIP HF:NRY BLYTH

Thesis submitted to the Universit7 of Reading in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy.

.

J

-

,

1977.

page

position

251,252

Equ�tions

252

f'3ITor

1.8, 1.10 1.11.

line 15

correction

Rt hand �ide

shown

negative a

=

Rt hand side shd be positive.

-f m

a

=

f

-

m

" ""

line

Livy

Livy

line 11

Rethyema

Ret hyrnnon .

1.7

I

,

Referencos add Balfour

1390, 1396

H. Balfour, Journal of the Royal A!1thropological Institute 19 (1390) 220 ff, 26 (1396) 210 ff.

Coghlan

1970 , II.H. Coghlan, An investigation upon Five 3ronze ArrO'.lhcads, Sibriuln X (1970) 3
Gerhard:

P. Gerhard, Auserlesono Vasenbilder, 1840-1858

•

•

.

•

2.S.1-IasDcy, Hccha.l1ics of FluiJs, London 1968, 251.'

ib.ssoy 1968;

tho iron age forti.ficat-ions etc. 6. Tho Lydian capture of Smyrna, ,A.nn1l<>1 of the Bl"i tish

ncholls 1953/59,

•

H.Y.Nicholls, Old S:.lyrna,

School at Ath0ns 1958/59 128-134.

Sulimirsid 1954, T. Sulimirsld, Scythian antiqui ties in :lestern .:sia, J.siae 17 (1954) 282-334 •

•

/

Force

U' / u

•

•

o

77

7

Oi�placement , w) .

2•

)(

4

•

P .H. iXlyth.

Artirus

TIm E./F.cC'i'IVL!-;PE;3,.:J OF Gl�';F� ..'-,C',OUR llGHIN.:JT '.. iriO':Jr.; IH ;i'lIE II.� {[jI :1' .,J ILR .

(490-479 B.C.)

Interdisciplinary l:.nquiry

Jln

by P. H. Blyth ABSTRACT Asiatic archers proved less successful against armoured troops' eluring the Persian invasion of Greece than •

used

their succe6sors in TIoman and Byzantine ti�es, who similar-looking bows.

Apparently,

quite small variations in

arT:lour or weapono could tip the balance,

but they can onl,. be

discerneel using the historical evidencc and the growing bod,. prin ciple s

of archsoologicRl material if the technological .

under-

governing the dcsign of ancient \-/capon6 and armour �re stood.

This study seeks to inve st ig a te an d app ly sOlDe of

,

those principles in relation to land w arf ar e during the Persian invasion of Grecco,

data.

490

-

479 B.C., Dnd to establish

and methods for use in f�,\rther research.

It is

aSSUT,J0C. on the basis

of historical

logical evidence that Greek armollrers most extensive protection with

a im e

and archneo-

d to provide the

again st hand-held spears consistent

a low, and stead il,. decreasing , limit on

Henco r-.rrOl·/S might poso a special thr eat ,

ve ight .

either if the ir

kinetic energy were higher than thnt in tho spear, or be of their small diameter.

Persian �nd Scythian

The enorgy of cy several metho d s, stHfl1.C66 ot tho

one of which,

arrows

is e st imat ed

cmplo,.ing cstim�tcs of tho

row and ita nbility to "Ii thstnnd the

ar

•

inertial load as it io launcho d ,

may bo now.

Tho

v no

r gy

prodictud is about half thnt ostim�tv� for meuiauval arrows, equal to th�t cstihlct�d for thQ spoar.

and rou8hly

Tho offoct of �rojoctile diameter on tho work ot ,

porforation, projoctilo

whon

n

thin plr.to io otruc!� by a pyrnmidAl

�t compar�tivoly low volocitioo,

cannot yot bo .

,

.

•

thnt in plntes of wood or l enther the work increases rapidl r with pro j ectile d iam e t er , whereas in plntes of shells of

ductile metr�, espe c i nlly thoso with

..

to.

C Ul"vnture convox to

t he direction of impact, it increase s unexpec�cdlr sl owl r e •

Tnk ing into account tho shnpe of the arrowheads. ond •

tho thickness and composition of the nrmoUrt it is concluded thc.t in these battles bronzo armour provided adequotc protect ion against arrows, but that the hoplite s hie ld did not, nnd it is shown thct this conclusion is consistont with

th� lit o r� evidence on4 that from vase

paint ingse

•

Preface

In presenting a thesis for the Degree of Do�tor of Philosophy, the writer naturally expects his work to be •

ing

judged by the highest standards; however, in a wide-

enquiry, which must be completed in a limited time, it is not possible to profess expert knowledge in all departments. I would therefore ask the reader to regard this work as primarily that of an historian,

seeking new sources of

information in technical fields where he is necessarily an

amateur,

and to judge his success not so much by the

completeness of his knowledge there, but by the relevance of

his observations to the historical problem, and their

general +.ruth.

If the overall trend of the argllment, and

the detailed historical interpretation in the last two chapters, win acceptance, I hope that occasional crudi ties elsewhere may be either overlooked or corrected by others.

d in

The thesis is a report on research September 1973 and finished in December

1976.

Exc ept

where indicated by appropriate references, the thesis is based on original research carried out by the author, and •

includes nothing which is the outcome at work done in

collabonition • •

,

•

•

This thesis has not been submitted for a degree �

any other University. I

• •

•

Dedication

To my colleagues in the Teaching profession, in the hope that it may help toward the improvement of specialist education.

P.H.B. •

A r.KNOWLETG F!rJ/E:NTS

This study would not have been possible without the foresight,

generosity,

and cooperation of many people and

It does not often happen that a

several institutions. man

in his forties, in the junior ranks of the Teaching

pr of es sio n, and with a sizeable fa�ily to support is given •

the leisure,

the facilities,

and the assistance to compose

o·

a work which lies so far beyond the confines of his previous knowledge and competence. they were amply met, commensurate,

The requirements were large,

and I hope that my gratitude is

and that the work will provide some repayment.

The enqui ry has been s.'pported from an early stage by the Leverhulme tru.st;

I am most grat�ful to the Trllstees

for enabling the University of Reading to provide a salary sufficient to ensure peace of mind in spite of inflation

and my family responsibilities, and for grants to cover travel and materials.

My

gl'at i tude is also due to the

Vice-Chancellor and Senate of the University for admitting me to a Research Fellowship and me�bership of the Academic Staff, with all the facilities that that implies, for the duration of my re s earch .

The concept of an interdisciplina;ry study using the �ethods of the engineer to contribute to Ancient History was due to Professor A.W.H.Adkins then Frofessor of Classics, and to Professor J.E.Gordon, Profes8vr of Ma terials Technology,

both of Reading University.

This

study was begun under their joint supeI'vision, and completed und�r that of Profesoor Gordon alone, after

Professor Adkins'

departure.

I

am

grateful to them both

for my introduction to the subject and for continual help

•

and encouragement, but particularly to Professor Gordon who has been my chief tutor in scientific matters and much •

else besides.

The choice of topic, however,

is my own,

and neither is in any way responsible for the views expressed.

•

For provision of laboratory and office facilities I vlish to thank Professor P.B.Fellgett,

and Professor '-I.Hirst,

successively heads of the Department of Engineering and Cybernetics, especially Professor Hirst for his personal int'arest in the project and the loan of the compressed air device mentioned in chapter 5.

•

For tuition and help

in engineering and other scientific matters, and also for companionship, encouragement,

discussion and suggestions

lowe a great debt to Professor W.D.Biggs,

and Drs.A.J.Pretlo7e,

C.R.Chaplin, J.F.V.Vincent, P.J.!iusgrove, R.S.Dobbs and

G.Jeronimidis.

My debt to Dr.Jeronimidis is parti cul arl y

great, since he· has not only coped endlessly with my mathematical .

shortcomings but also conducted research on my behalf in Rome, presented in Appendix 3.1.

•

In the depart:1ent of Classics,

I an

grateful to •

Mr.F.Robertson, successor to Professor Adkins ss head of department, and to Dr.J.G.T.e.nde1a, for facilities , dis cus sion, and the provision of contacts.

I also reme�ber with special

sratitude the late Dr.A.n.Ure, Curator of the University -

Classical museum.

Beoause of the respect and affection in

which she was held throughout the world of Classical Archaeology, the introductions to distinguished scholars with which she

comple,nented her advi,oo

were

always most warmly received.

For opport�nities to examine ar�our and archery equipment in this country I am grateful to Mr. Ij' ayne s , then Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiqui ties at the British Museum,

·ooth

for his personal assista.nce and that of his staff;

to the

Keeper of Antiql i ties and his staff at the Ashmolean,

particul ar··

,

ly Mr.I�.J .Vickers, to Mr.H. Bomford,

and to the curat or of the

to J�r H . Rus sell Robinson, Keeper of

National Uuseum of ''<'lakes;

.

Armour at the Tower of London, who also prC'lided infol"mation described in Appendi x 3.1,

on the Vatican shield,

many other matters; Newbucy Museum,

to Ur.H.H . C oghlan,

and on

then Curator, of the and metallurgical

for examintion of a:rrowheads,

-

discussion, to Dr. Inskeep and Dr.Cre�ghton,

successively heads

and to the Keeper of the ',"esteI"n

of the Pitt Rivers Museum,

Asiatic Department of the British Museum and his staff, particularly Mr.J.E.Curtis.

Professor F.G.Maier of

Zurich

brought to England samples of the type A bo dkin excavated by •

him at Kouklia in Cyprus,

and a p re p ublica ti o n draft of the -

•

catalogue, for both of which I am grateful. •

•

For facilities and guidance in Greece, I aID gratefUl to Dr. Catling, Director of the British.�chool in Athen g , and to -

members of the School,

especially Professor Trendall, to

.

Dr. Yalouris and his staft at the National Museum in Athens, especially Dr. Barbara Phillipaki and Dr. Kalligas, to

the curator of the mueeum at Olympia and h is staff, Dr.

especially

Trianti, to Dr. Mallwi tz and other members of the Ge llman

3chool t he re, On the

and to Dr. Romeopoulou,

e n g ineer ing

side, •

I

am

curator

at �alo,11ka.

gratotul to Profes30r Theochar1s

\ •

I

•

of the Technical Un iversity, and his staff, especially to Dr. Paipetes,

both for other help and for the construction

of a measuring device;

for Botanical advice to Dr.Mavrornattes

of the Forestry Commission,

and to Dr.

Zachariades of the

Goulandri mus eum for the identification of reeds. Professor Goldsulith of California,

Also to

then visiting the Technical

University for advice on the project,

relating to impact.

I am particularly indebted to Mr. George Varoufakis,

of the

�ational Steel company of Greece for info!IDation on ancient iron and bronze,

and for thd loan of a hardness tester.

In the chapter on archery, is apparertt.

my debt to �{r.Robert Hardy

l owe much to the members of the group which

has met at Reading to discuss topics connected with archery and armour,

particularly to !�.John Waller and Professor F.L.

Pratt of Imperial College. extends also to chapters

4

debt to Professor PI'att and 5,

on armour perforation,

and there lowe an even greater debt to Jfr.Peter Jon e s, Fort Halsted, for very many suggestions and

of

cri ticisms, including provision of th e de Marre e ql1ation. ... •

•

, • •

.

'

,

In chapters I and 6 I have dI'awn on experiments in the handling of weapons made with the h el p of students •

the Berkshire College of H igher Educ ation, under the •

supervision of Miss Borman, p�d on their reports, for which again I am grateful.

For technical a s s istan ce I am pa rti cul arly g rateful to

14essrs. R.

S tann e t t and

R.Horne ElS well as to othar te chnic i an s

a.nd experimcntnl officers of thi s department.

Secratarially,

'1

.......

. •

!trs.

Collins gave assistance beyond the call of duty at

crucial moments.

.. '

In a list already long,

I mus t give merely

oollective t,

thanks to many others who have given help and enc

but I cann ot pass over entirely the contribution of my own fa;oily.

father , Mr

Without the advice of my wife's

late Director of Operational Research, Treasurer of the British Associa tioTl,

British I do u b t

•

G.Bannett

Rail, and

if the

without

would have been undertaken or completed;

•

s tlldy

her own

constancy and courage it certainly would not • ..

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

.

. •

•

•

•

•

•

•

Content•• '.

•

•

•

Introduction.

•

' l�'" J �� Th e energy�ot Greek hand veapons. '

Chapter 1.

1.1

Foree and energy

1.1.1

Quasi-static thrust

.

'

.

.

1

.

.

.

'

.

,

·

'

.

•

. .' 10 10 10

•

•

Kinetic energy 1.1.,

11

•

•

•

•

13

Linkage •

1.1.4

Close combat

1.5

Long range weapons

18 .

•

,

The design of Greek hand weapons. the orr.

1.2.1

.

1.2.2

•

19

•

•

.'

21

The design of Greek hand weapoDS, practice. . •

1.2.2.1

The spearshaft

-

21 -

•

2,

The spe arBe ad .

1.2.203

The sword

1.2.2.4

The butt spike

.

" 25 27 •

.

·

Conclusion .

-

.

�-'

-

.

,

..

.

.'.

, ArroVa •

.

'.

,

.

Technical introduction

·

31 • ·

-

.

•

•

·

' .

.-rowhead

•

a

·

The

•

The night of the aC1row

.

'

Tho design of the bow

•

32' 32 " ;

.

. ,

·

.,

"

·

.

.

..

•

2.1.4

'

•

. -� ·

.'

2.1.3

• -

•

•

.

Th e

'

The onerg1 ot Persi an and SC7thian

Chapter 2.

2.1.1

-

'

•

• . .'

,

.."

2.1

•

•

•

•

1.2.2.2

•

.

.

33 •

•

2.2

Evidonco trom arrowheads

2.2.1

Tho bodkin, typo A

".

Socketod bronze hoads 2.2.2.1

T1PO C 1 •

2.2.2.2

C 11

"1 •

Comparison with modiaoval and .odorn hoads •

, •

42

•

•

The arrowehaft

•

2. 3. 1

Limits on tho energy of an Arro�

2.3. 2. 1

Length of Scythian arro�s

'2.3.2.2

Longth of Persian arrows

45

Stiffness

1t6

2.3.3

•

2.3.4

Critical

bu ckling forco

47

Air resistance and range

48

2. 4. 1

Theory

49

2. 4.2

Data

51

2. 4

.

•

2. 4.2.1

Drag

2. 4. 2.2

Maea

51 52

•

•

2.4.2.3

53

2. 4.2. 4

Range

2.4.2

Conclusions

2.4 .3.1

Initial vE;locity

2. 4.3.2

Energy loss

53

55

..

The bow

2.5.1.1

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

55

,

.

The Scythian bow (description) .

2. 5.1.2

57

The Persian b ow (description) ••

•

•

59

Variations in acceleration during release •

Distance covered b1 the arrow during the release t and energy acquired

59

•

2. 6

Comparison with later arrows

60

2. 7

Conclusions

62

Cbapter 3.

•

Greek armour of the Eu-11 Fifth Centul'1 B.C.

•

65 •

,.1 3.2

65

Introduction

66

Lito rnt uro

,. ,.1.1

Corinthinn

I

67

(doscription)

Helmots

I I

•

•

67 67

•

•

•

3.3.1.3

Sparton

70

3.3.1.4

Boootion

70 • •

3.3.1.5

•

Lining and padding �

,

72

• ,

,

•

•

3.3.1.6

72

Tho distance betwe"n the hollDet and tho h1'ad •

•

,

Tho corselet •

• •

73

•

•

•

•

•

•

3 .3.3.

The shield

3.3. 4

Extremitios

75

77

•

• •

•

78

Materials of armour ,

.

Thickness

80

,

Damago .

80

..

•

84.

•

Conclusion Chapter 4.

,

Perforations general considerntioDa nn4 pragmatic tests

.

86

•

• •

,

4.1

•

86

Introduction

• •

Literaturo

4.2

88 .,

4.2.1

88

Description

•

• •

•

Discussion

�

•

-.

93' -

9'

•

Pragllatic tests

•

Design of the tosts

,

• •

95

•

•

96

•

•

Projoctilos and tArgets .

97

Exporimental apparatus and procoduro

,

99 .

Results

•

Bronzo

" ,

•

4. 4 1 .1 .

Flnt platos

110 ,

4.4.2

Curvature

,

•

4.4.3

Blunt projoctilos

4.4.4

Bronzo on leather

4.4.5

Loathor

4.4.6

Plywood Canvo.a

•

110 ,

110

113

113

1 1, •

•

•

•

•

• . .

Chapter 5.

Details of perforation obserYod in qllasi.. sta.tic tosts

•

·

,

.' .120 ,

120

Introduction

121

tic tests: apparat,,:g •

A

typic al perforntion

122

Compnrison of tho qunsi-st atic CUl've with dynnmic test results

•

125

•

5.5

Friction

129

5.6

The enlnrgament of tho hole

1 32

!J.7

The f orc e required for initial perforation

13'1

5.8

Dishing

1�2

5.8.1

Critique of the experimental methods

5.8.2

Variation in the work of dishing with cu,.,ature, thickness; etc.

...

nd invnrd buck1ing

•

142

Belulviour under the projeotile tip

1.50

Moment11m effects

151

•

•

Predictions

Chapter 6.

6.1

.5

•

6.1.6

6.1.7 6.1.9 6.2

6.3

•

•

•

The validity of the pragmatic tosts

6.1.4

145

.

.

.

.

.

153

..

. ... 155 . .

Historic� evidence from hon,' , ond Plo.taen·

.

151

•

Mornthon

151

Topo grophy

157

Archneology

160

Horodot us

161

Po.usonios

164

Ot hor writors

165

Disposition nnd numbors of the PorsiMs

168

nnd eq

of tho Persian oentre

110

Dura.tion of tho ba.ttlo

113

Cnsunltios

174

Thormopylno

181

Platoon

18,

•

Chapter

7.

,<

Conclusions

189 .

.

, ,

A rmour perfornti on "

196·

Method. .

.

W

A technological overvietJof the land battles of the P e raion invasion

•

• •

199

•

•

,

.

.

,

(For caso of reference these are dup1icnted

Appendices.

.

.

OD

.-

�

.

.

The first number of the appendix,

coloured paper.

•

.

,

the 2 in A 2.1) refers to the chapter to which

(e.g.

•

it is most closely re1nted). , •

Appendix 2.1

206

Arrowheads

,

.

206

Typo logy

A2.1.1

.

Finds on

A2.1.2

Persian War

,

.

207

sites

• • ,

Acropolis, Olynthus, Koukli� (Cyprus)

207

,

•

.

,

.

.

208

Thcrmopylae, Marathon, P1�taea , ,

•

. .

Appendix 2. 2

The stiffness required in

an

,

209 '

arrowshaft •

,

_

.

_

.

.

. , . .

". . "

.

.

,

209: .

Modern nrrows .

•

•

.

-

.

...

.

-

.

.

.

-

.

.

.

'

. ••

•

•

.

. .

_. ..

Theo retic� pre dictions

.

'

..

. -

.

210 • ,

•

Appendix 2.3

,

•

The 'Cretan' r e e d

,

,

,

•

,

'

Appendix 2.4

EgJptian arrows

Appendix 2.5

The drag on on arrow

•

2 16 ' .

.

Appendix 3 .1

.

213

.

,

,

'

218

.

.

� .

220

The a tructl)re of the s hio l d

,

• .

Appendix 3.2

-

Thll metollurgicr.l st�to of Bronze

IU'mOl1r

.

224.

" -

A3.2.1

Introduction

.

224

•

•

A3 .3 .3

Appondix 4 A4.1

224 Indirect methpds (Obsorvation of anciont distortion, microscopy, obaOI'vation of corrosion, rosonnnce ). 227 Hardno6s t�6ting (Ernst, Mooro & Fodo�hoff, Ingersoll tasters, with critiquo. Vickors micro-hardness tOftt). Tho ballistic pondul

23 4

Thoory Construction •

Ca librat ion

1.4.3

• •

.238' , .

,

,�

,

,

'

,

'

,

'

.. 248

Not e s

•

and re fer e nc os

Abbreviations

2.77

.

•

LIST

•

TI�LES

OF

•

• • •

(For c ase of references,

,

dupli c at ed

·

table s nre

coloured p ape r , tho first figure in ench

on

table-number refers ·

to the chapter

t o which it chiofly relates).

in sporting pr oj ec t i le s

Apppoximate energy

12.

•

in cncient weapons

Conjectural energy

1.2

16

•

•

•

•

•

.'

71

T hi qkn c ss of Late 60rinthinn helmets at Olympia

3.1

•

3.2

(Hardness of helmets.

Removed to Appendix 3,

• •

PI' 230 - 233) •

Damage to helmots at Olympia

3.3

81-83

•

•

ConspectuB of d�tn for perforation tests

4.1

101-102. . , •

Dynamic

perforation tests •

•

.

. .

.-

-

.

.

.

plates of 10�104

in flat

.

,

.

.

.

..

.

annonled bronze, thickness 1

mm '

,

•

Dynnmic

.

•

per for at ion

tests in

flnt pl nt es of

105 .

•

•

.

·

anne�led bronze ,

thickness 0.62

•

4.4

made in 1

Diameters of holes ,

,

mm cold-rolled

106 ,.' •

•

•

•

•

•

,

bronBo. •

•

•

Dynamic perforation tests in cold-rollod •

thickness 0.62. 4.6

" 0'1 1

•

Work dono in qunsi-stntic

por for nt ion by

108

•

projoctilo

4,8 ,

hoads

Dynamic porforation of curvod sholla

112

Dynr..mic porforation ot lilathor

116 • ,

•

l��8 c ont. Dyn nci c porforntion of bronze on loathor

•

• ,

117 •

4.9

•

Dyncuni c porforation of

118

plywo od

119

4.9 cont. Dynntlic porforation of canvas •

• •

•

•

5.1

Work of initial. porlo1o.tion in qunsi-stntic ,:'� ;:'.128 .

,

"

\

.

,

,

,

. ,

,

'

,

"

,

tests compared with cocponent h in

,

dYjlamic porforation.

5.2

5. 3

Frictiono.1 resistance to quasi-static perforntioll- 130 Force required for initial quasi-static per

M

138

'

forntion.

,

,

, ,

5.4 5.5

•

.

'

139,

The materials of the plates teste d

,

.

.

Effect of curvature of plntes t'.Ild shnrpness

,

146

,

of projectile on the force required for

,

.

,

,

, ,

,

,

initinl qunsi-stntic perforation

.

..

, .

,

.

Work done in initial porforation by n sharp

149

beck!!!, quosi-stc.ticnlly nnd at low

velocities •

•

•

230

Hardness of Early Corinthic.n helmets

.

,

Hardness of Middle Corinthicn helmets Hnrdness of Late Corinthi� helmets A4.1.A4.5 Calibration of ballistic pondulnm .

•

.

.

,

.

"

.

--

.

_

.

_

241-245

.

LIST OF FIGURES. .

,

.

:

.

•

•

(All the figures were d'"ovn by Mr. c.e. Preston, of the) .

•

•

-

•

.

.

•

-

Dopartment ot Engineering and Cybernotics, Ronding Universit7+ . .

..

,

:

,

.

.

. •

Sources for drnvings of nrcbtl.oological Mteriru.

nro

givon hero. •

•

, •

Only important fi guro s

nro

liste d

Tho first numbor of ollch . ,

.

-

_

. •

.

. '

drawing rofors to the chapter to which it chiefly rolnto s. •

1.2 1.3

1.4

•

Olympic. 4 (Dio Bron zo n ) 174, pI 44

.

•

•

•

24

no. 1042 , (ropucduood Snodgr ass 19 64, 117 fig 7h). Swords. British J�usouo c� tc.Io gu o of Grook and RooOon Iito,(ropnoducod Snodg ra o s (1967) plc.tos 50,52).

Butt-spiku. Now York J.fH:. 38.11.7. from photo in

Richt�r (1939) 193 fig 4.

26 28

,

, ,

•

• •

•

••

•

2.1

Bodkin

.

rovho a ds froD Kouklio..

35

Froe photo'

o.r

Re adi ng of hoods lent by P rofosso r -

takon nt

.

•

F.G. I�ie r , for Dotnllurgicol oxornino.tion. I fter Bro noor , Hosperia II

2.2

S ock eto d ho ads.

2.3.1

lIo.::dmnr::l range (';.8 a funct ion of initio.l veloci ty and

37

.

•

•

•

the ballistic const:-.nt C . o (Hickecn

/,Iter Rh ein.gons

1947) 248 Chnrt no 2.

Lct� Corinthian helmet.

Froe vase

pai nting in

68

G.M.Richtor, L. F. Hnll, Rod Figurod Athenian Vo.sos in the M1�., •

3.2

(Newh�ven 1936) , plate 12

•

76

Source in text

Shields.

•

.•

9('1

4.1

Thomson's oqn.:ition for perforc.tion energy

4.2

�ork of perforation in fl�t plntes of annealod

· .

1(0 •

•

bronzo.

• •

•

• •

•

Work of

po rforct i o n in flat plntes of cold rolled

1cOA

•

•

•

•

bronze, thickness 0.62

rum

=md sizes of holes

.

·

•

•

in sieilar plates of thicknoss

1.0

•

em

• • •

•

•

• •

.

.,.. �.� • •

•

•

4.4

Work of perforation in curved'shells of

111

nnne
·

.

.

.

.

..

-

.

. . . . '. •

-

.

,'

.

"

-

•

bronze. .

.

.

·

•

.

. 4.5

Work of porfor
le nthor.

•

and bronze on

114

.'

.

• • •

•

•

•

•

4.6

Work of porfo r
Ty pi c ,,-l perforntio n

•

115

•

122

CUI"VO

140

Vnriation in tho force roquired for initial •

perforntion in plntoo of d iffe ro n t Dotals

•

• •

5.8

Coefficionto gover ning var intion in

fo rco roqu5.red

141

for perforntion. o.s a function of tho h��dnooo of tho

pl.:lto.

5.11

Diotrlbution of onorgy in

6 .1

Hnp of tho 1t."U"t'.thon plr.in ,"or

roneons

includod; tho

.

n

tully

p lc o tic collioion

152 158

of cost t no m�p of Thortl0pylno or Plntaon io

tlo.1'O

in Gruntly

(1901)

aro

r\)ootu.londod.

.

.'4.:... . C' :rho

�:rrJ!Qllr _,

-,

_ _ '

490

479

-

UI'l':t
•

B.C. ,

"

•

.

• "

•

J

•• •

The present st u d y is �n essay in the o pplicc tio n of

engin�cring &cionco to history. historict:l quc3tion,

It seeks to clear up

n a mel y whc.t hc,?pcmed ,·!hen Persian orro\"s

of the Groekn during

struck the armour

a mi nor

the la nd batt10s of

the yeurs 490 - 479 B.C., b y co ns i�c ring tho historicel end

ev id e nc e in

<'.rchaeologicu1

properties of ��terials.

of

the v2.lidity

tho light of phy s ice l l.:."-1s and the

In so coing,

the r.Jethod,

it is hoped to demo nstr� tc

nnd to ley £omefoundation for

further o tucies. Th is

:1

p� ro a ch , \!hich is

f�.irly new,

i6 not without its

They c:.rise pt�rtly from the l<:.ck o f pr evio us

difficultie:s.

work in the field,

�nd partly from the �ttempt to m�xry

different disciplines. In the first re l c vunt ,

york is to be histo ri cal ly ".

it lJust h a ve

n

p�rtic u1 ar mount�.ir. or

".rcas of (Juch a

c c rt=. i n brcndth.

'.!e nee d ,

the country be fore filling/in

an outline mnp o f a

place, if the

[;jc.p \:111

v[�lloy,

•.

rid

es it were,

the contours o f

i ne v i tcbly somo of tho

be s l-:o tc hy , or hcve to be C1arked e.G

"

torr:. iucor;nitr..

S e co ndly, th;.; dot �ils ..

th:.t ct.n be.

fill e d in with cemo

prccioion will be dct('rnill�d by tho "historic:,l �nd �rchneoloGicnl "

evidence.

Th�t ia

c.nythi.l{) lib

..

ui tu�".tion.

c.accrlblod,

n

p ctc hy, and it only rcrcly comb in e s to givo

complete

OHce on�:

r>ic tu rc uf

c.

,hyoic;\ lly r.n�lyo:1blo

or t�/(") cuch cOClplctc p ictu r os cnn bo

iool:.�t(.:d vvidoncC' elcowhere cnn bo rcl::.tc.:d to them,

but initir.l.l�·

\"Ie

mU!:lt find ".rc�.n ':Ih..;ru the oVvrlop is good.

"

2.

Thirdly,

questions muot be fr�med in

answernble \d th some rigour.

e

way eo to be

This is a cont in uin g pro blem t It is

in c.n interdisciplinary st ud y.

r.nd e Gpc:cin1ly c.cutc:

a

very sound pr incipl e in natural ocienc� thnt the in quire r st� rts, not by thinking of something \-Ihich it \-Iould be desirable to but by cons ide ring "'That he cr.:n find out,

kno\Ol, apply,

end how they cen be refine d to eliminnte

factors.

Science grows from small beginnings,

to de t;.'.il.

Th�t docs

e x trane ous by adding detail

n ot meon thct we mus t in ev a r y cuse stnrt

with tho smnllont possible pcrticlus; find

what tests he can

it wns

quite possible to

th� laws of re flection and re fraction without understcnding •

the nature of light.

nut it doos muc.n thct

a

problem

must be

•

rcfir.ed so thet only one or two vnriables ere te o t e d at once, �nd

in

e

practic�:l situation that ia often difficult.

It is

pnrticularly difficult in an historicnl context be calJse th e

historian must frequently work the o the r way round, starting not from very smnll considcr�tion of

n

an d

accurately defined f a cts , but from the Thus the value of a particular

bro&d canvas.

,

source or item of information i11ust often be ju dge d by the way

in which it f1ts int o

.

a

larger pattern.

by Herodotus may turn out to

Any single statement

be incorrect, but our tendency to

rcg.:.rd his t.ccount as mainly truo is bc.sed,

not on a statis-

ticcl count of the num be r of hia at::.. taocnts \·,hich cen be verifiod,

.

but on the genor�l cohorence of his narrativo both

"Iith iteelf una with othor sources t/hich we find rolia.blo in

•

the aame 'tiny.

}-Iorcover tho

a. gnos tic isJ:1

of the sciontist, his

rcfucnl to b� drawn be yon d tho limits of hio data, is not alwclYc cvnilcblQ to tho hiD tor inn

.

'Liko tho philoDophur, he •

o!t�n finda th�t hio fiold i8 occupi�d by conjccturo and

•

•

•

,

pr e judice, because it kn o�ll � dg �

is

he can,

s u bst it u t e

st z.n d

Henc e ,

he l p

to

him,

d ocs not

ho

solution l:t.s been achieved; b e t t er

a

guess r a t her than let

at terJpts to dr,,"1

,'{hen he

oft�n tend to �sY-

he will

ext0nd tho answ�r3 t o judge ment '

in t er e st ;

�o�mon

s ,e c ific ones

on

dilemlila

prD.ctic�1

must, if

he

bad guesses

3cient ific evide nce

g e ne r � l

by using

quost ions,

his

or to

'hist or icul

-

.

thc.t

occurs els(;whor:: in

d s, c.nd not

t he ��pplicc.t ion o f science

to

It is only qu it e

leeet in �ngin0ering.

cn

I

It i s, how��er,

The so lut ion t o this d ilomm� is not easy. D.

serve

if he c:.llows thc.t to P::lSS \/ ithout question nnt il a

c o m pl e t ely vorifi... blo

.

of

• ,

re c0 utl y that r-rnct ical

testing

chemists and rne e t i n (!

we c.rc

there has b0cn a rapprochcuent l , e t wee n

of laateri�.16 by

work

of

•

physi ci c ts , and t h 0 rc arc st ill �rcas where t he

is incoo p le t e. concerned,

shells by

engineers .:;,nd the

t he

•

Unf o r tuna t e ly,

namel y

the very are a

t he per f ora t ion o f

plates and

It i s not yet possibl e

project iles, is one of them.

t o ta ckle the quest i on from first

thin

tl ith which

principles;

instead

wo must

•

,

.

dc:vis� pragt1c. t i c tests, and

do

the best

we

can t o link

results with what is known about t he behavi our But this rn i c�a

a

f l]r t h � r

,

ques t i o n .

Tho

tho

, •

of matoria1a. c n� inc o r,

,

,

I

in

,

pc rfo rtl inc h ie prngr.mtic tests ia t:.bll! t o Sl)ocify cortain conditions fairly ex�ctly;

, ,

how f�r is it po ss ibl o to do tho

,

,

a"'o;,) for cn h istoric.:'.l or

I

�\r ch c. oologi c.. �l t o p ic ? '

Pl ain ly tho

•

I

pr n gmc t ic tcctc mUDt bo rel ato d to tho nrch�cologico.18urviv�8, •

,

! ,,

nnd the'.t will lir.1i t our �bility to spocify conditions. ,

Tharo is thus

t.

tC l!l pt nt io n to cut the knot.

If vo ignoro ,

,

aciontlfic Dcrupl�a

nlt oc o th o r ,

we could 8il�ply guoCB All, tho •

vC'.ri:".blul; we do not 1m 0\-1, J:1;'.ku up :'. modol of tho aitu;·.tion which

,

,

•

4. in

o c cu

r ;:

.

t c:

wh e r o

I ll t i v o w h e r �

it

i n ! o rp , t i o n .

; .nu

iG not ,

is ovc. i lc.b l o

rolC'.kc

t o s t r,

on

end pur e l y spo c u-

t hc t .

Such t e s t s ere •

I.luc h

c u . r c.: n t l j' o r \..'

i l l v o gue

r. \; j)(� l· f i c i ," l l y

t h: . t t !l � y

,rov e

·

.

t t ra c t i vu ,

it iG

but

c ruc i a l po i n t ,

o f t en d i f f ic u l t

r o p l i c :u: o:r(;

The-

'I t £'.11.

,-.n y t h i n g

sane

at

i n ;.'. c c u re t �

,

' ,: x f. l.: r i mu n t f'.l o r c hae o l ogy ' ,

C.6

t hrough

t he1

t o S
frv quently

fa i l ur o

a

and

t o t.nc.lysc •

th�

p r i n c i p l .: c

of tho

� e 6 i gn ,

l a c k o f � ncly G i 5 [ l o k e G G i ng l e we 1 1

}:n OWll

o l rc.: ".dy , seck

to

t y pe s " f

t o a?p ly

arr o w G h nf t ,

( it s ' spinl.: ' )

is

b o w from wh i c h

Qe t � l s ,

n

u6

wh ose

e fu l

�nd

guide

t o the

' we ight '

shot

Agni n ,

.

found � y i nd e n t i n G th�m w i t h

t he ir

gui de t o

t ho s t i ffnoss o f

length

be

s t r e n g t h .-:-. nd

�

c. n c/. t h e n

de s ign n n d

t he

to

froD

v:.:.luo hus b e o n pro ve d

i t ha� b e e n found t hat

cnn best

it

t est ,

u:: t : . by .... n.·. l yG i G o f t he

i n r e la t i o n

i s t o s t ar t

OJlly � l t e rno.t i v e

n r c h:-.e o l or, i c :-. l Lr t .) fr: c t s ,

t hC: :J t o

ThuD

c � t rcp o 1 n t i o n .

The

prq;r:Jc. t i c

Ilse ful

l.'Y.: t r�. c t

tho

t h e y arc n o t ,

icposs i b l c t o ext rapo l n t o b c.: y on d the

it

i n ve s t i ga t e d .

cas�

end o v e n whor�

on

o f the arrow

we iGht

or powe r o f t he

tho hordness of

diaMond ,

is

n

u s e fu l

m e t all ur S i c ru. c ondit ion , end

C'•

. •

grant

de c.l c ; . n b.:J

l v Hrnt

: :-

��c

b l.' c n donQ

t h�

on

mo te.l plc. t \,. c with b ulla t e . ".rch.-. c o l o G i c:'.l \J h i c h

will

b.;.

u !j t itlr. t I.l S

t .. n t :-. t i v �

t h. ; n

b� t t � r

..

c::n

b�

T h u !3

wo mc.y

tIt. do ,

v il: b) .

·.

t h .. v ::Ilu l..

.

of

.

�

Somo work , thouSh po r forc.t ing

ho pu t o devise

thin

theso t o p.':'.rnrJc t c re

:.nd r.lt housh t h o s o o o t i Lln t e B

c urr � nt l y in uso ,

. ·.

c on s ide r i ng t ho

o r gy usc d in

end t'. pproxi l:l��to ,

th08�

b C C O W. 8

d e sign b y

By u x t c n dino such t o s t e cos

t lol c h n o l o c: i c .:-.1 tlC�p \'/ h i c h c :·.n bv

(. v i n.:: r. c

�n

f i n d c � n d tlOd,- ls , •

!roc

r.

i n itn c ons truc t ion .

duc t il i t y o f oc tals use d n o t Qu c h ,

bou t

t�cy may y o t bo

nnd

f i l l \! d in

r.

goo d

torm t h� b�c is

g ra dut' ll y .

tor

dot'.l Q

:'\(J tlOr",

.

t i l ...

pr.J o \J n t \lorlt nuot bu

j udbvd n t l o :'ct

-

in p�rt ag•. i n s t

the

IJC'.y n o t r e a c h t he

t .. l �c: .

which

c s t iUJat � e

f i nG l

re p l a c e s

it

gonl , but

it f.!::"y

Thu st o p we

.

et lonst

[love

•

o f gre .? t c r

r.w::.y fror.l .-. po e i t i on c u r r � nt

Th�

o p i n i o n o f hi s t oriann on

nrmour in th� Pcrsinn ears note fro:-:i the

pr�p·_ r

a

l i ni..; o f b at t l", foll ows : ., �GL'.inst

c B t ir::._ t c d

"Kror.� .... ycr

ru e

t r c.- s .

He

' For i n s t c n c u

,

T

c�n d

=

rnngc be cause

is

Hdt .

the n�tllre

th::: t

. as f�r f.'. s ,. The only " b nttl� "

n

d i stan c o be ing

II

=

175 rno t rv c

( hie T8

r. l' c lh,; r o

Greok bl'onz<.: - c l .-. d

rLne,<J t�t

firing

wh ich

1'.11

core

an

targe t . of

o u t of r:.�ngo ( his

e v i de n c e

o.s

for

en

the

ext rcDO Grrow. Pc; l'Gie.n

f��r ns 355 me tre s .

nc i o nt cvidenc ; which conCQrns

to fire in c. c iu"

., A t h.... ratho n the

,.

t he

o f t he

c.

.. f i ft h c e ntury A . D .

.. t ho

of

c quivcl.:nt t o the

is Glrnost

1 55 oe trua ,-.n,-! not

giv�e 600 fe�t

.

r •. ngl:

at

nrchcr could shoot Gn inco ndir.ry l'.rrow

P c r s ir--n

pio c u o f

e.s

o f &rchers

horso is �nB11y stung int o a c t i on by

<:.t lcr.r:;t

r.lcn trninin�

wr i t e G

viii 52. 1 ) , whi c h neede d no

,. The only deduct ion w(: c::n r.1ek� froe the ,. \'k rs is

anu

f.:-.r as 350 - 450

C. S

basad on

-

the Po rsit'.n

.

u

fo o t

n

the higher figure is bnsed on

Hdt . ix 22 - 23 ) , which

=

2

Tl

that

" uDru-oour c.- d hors e s L'.t ..

f i gure

( his

" powe:r o f pcne t r.--. t i o n ,

the e ffe ct ive

of

He treL'.ts

of

o f arrowhcC'.ds ,

into a c c ount

Ilia l owe r

by

H,-.l:u:;10n u .

dist<.; nc (:

1 75 mu t r " c btit not

-

t cku

" incendiGry crrows

r0pr c sc: n t e d

1 00 Iil0 tro o , and Do lbrucc k

i ic l (: o
�:1 .

docs

at

tho p c r i or at io n

0 f fo c t ivc ran ge

th..;

hopl i t c G

· '.:-.rcher ' �t hast 1 60 ·' me tr� o ' .

b�

t -:> t h e p r o b :: b l c

froT.1 c <. r t •. in finds

bronz", - c l; �d

1 00

" t h2Jl

�ay f� irly

h<:: r n t h o n by Pr ofo66or

on

as r c l e v .... n t

Froble!:!

i g n or �n c c .

=

u rc

hu ry in

•

ns tho

pr�c t ico rl��o for

r.nd i t rclo.t ll s to t h... fonrth or VCG, t ius �pit .

r o i mil.

ii

23 ) •

no doubt ho l d tho i r :tirot ohotn unt i l

hopli t � o c.

nlu

wit hin ( HL-.mmond ' lS itul i c o )

r r rou co u l d l1",n .. trat .. 'trco u r .

I eh ould be

6. "

incline d to put this at loss t hen th�

" ne�sur t o

Kroo�y� r ' 3

c s t im�t o

" rcasonab1<J co�prolJisc .

178

of Vcget ius and

me t r o s

I t�ku 1 50 me tres hdre as

.

a

McLe od ' s sugg0st ion thnt the Gre eks at

•

., H�.rathon

"fOr e

·' cxagGer.... t ion .

( p 1 3 ) is

under firc for 200 or evon 300 yarda Onc o the

bnt t le

was

j oine d ,

" pnrt i n the h�nd- t o-hand fight ing" .

( For

-n

C' z

t h e bo,... playc: d no rc.: fercnccs

see •

�

"

f oot n o t e:;

p l- If � )

.

I •

chairman , rathor

KUbcond ' s c o n prom i s c displ�ys the crt o f

t hen tn� cxcoplary scholnrship o f the i s undc- rst<:,. ndnblc-

he

i n so

rest

of his

paper .

Thet

fer c.s ell th:') su g g e s t i on s between which

is ::!djudi c:;,t ing �:re pttrt:ly spe c ulct ive ,

but

h", has failed to

c or-sider the numb " r of c � su['. l t i (H:; �!hich the Atlwnic.ns wou1d h<,.ve . sust .... inc:d i f he ';loro corre ct .

that

if

we

at onc e ,

s upp o s e

It will be shown

6

in c h apt er

t he.t only 2 , 000 archers were able t o shoot thr;: helme t , tho f,�t�,l Ct".sua.lt io s

and consider only

durinG the approach produc e:d by the pe r f o rat i o n he suggests

",euld havol be<:n �bout 1 75.

Thet

figure: i s l i t t l ", Ie sa

thnn tho •

t otal given by He rodotus for t he \thole battle , ;�nd neE!r17 •

•

of the ent ire force -

o ncu

gh

with tho

wounded t o !:mke

•

Z'

•

•

vert

a

•

•

considcr�blc upset in tho On

ad

v nn c e .

•

•

the r.�c:tel lurgict\l c.nd physicnl side , the current

litc rnturu decline; \lith pcrf'or....t ion \1ill be discussed in Chapter 4.

It

tiny b e f.:: ir1y · crdu th.�.t i.:nyonu tryinG to

it

usc

• ,

·

.

•

to cr:t inntCi the l,inorgy roquir\,;d f,-r pf.trf'or'�t ioll by :\n l'.r rov •

•

would find hiras.::l!, dirocte:d to Thol'llc on ' c oquat ion ( Thomson •

1955> ,

which 1c quot o(l both uy Cc1dcr a. Goldsraith ( 1 971 p 866 ) nnd D7 Jon�s ( Hllrdy 197 6 l'

dict ion publioho d . o.n 8

r.:I:.

206 ) bGc.'..u o\,; it is in fao t

t h.�

only prc-

put t ing illtO th•. t oquC'.t ion v:llu�8 rC }ll'osontizac

arro w �JIJ 1· f'Clrn t i.ng h ronz � nl·r.lOUr

1 .2

•

•

•

.

f.lID

•

thie le , ho "ould •

•

·

' .

.

• •

•

• •

•

•

-

•

,.

.

r .:: aul t

is

would URa

it

c nl c ul n t c thct

by

t o o 1 0 \';

on

o

o rd � r

an

ne r gy o f ab out 4

o f n1r.gni t ude ,

That

J oul e s .

r.Jci<:o

end \Youl d

•

... t

pc rfor<:.. t i o n c: r. ny e: v e n

e x t r cn e

:

•

s l im pro j e c t ila t h e

uS0d

we:apons

c l os c

for

e s t iw:! t e: t h e energy c f suggc E t c d t hnt i t s pe :�r , r ::tn g e It

.

r. d

�160 £howr.

is

t:-: : . t

c :1np t 0 r 3

In

wao

r c h c rs were

\'tn O

o nly

ab out

end

l1.rnOur ,

p r a s c r9 c d

i t is ob s e rve d

r:pp.: crn t o hnve heen r�rn . on

atctic

lJuch

•

ere

d i �c U S G c d

t � at s in

(I �Jp i r i cnl

chap t e r

c qu

pL r fc.r.1 t i n r:

in

.:m d �plifi� d 5.

.\

,� n d

It

is

it

i n colloct ionn

t he

the

of

�trl:lour

scalI arne1lDt of

r'-,portcd ,

by r c f Q r o n c c t o quasi-

in jl u r forL.... t i ll g r.1 c t �.l

the

pll.:.t .:. c

work r.�.n

bo

done by rcTlrw.,� D t: c d

� t i on A

=

Bd

+

,;mod ;md po ss i b ly lc.: at hc r by \1

=

B nru C O ll c t � . n t D , . � n cl

A

d

+

Bd

ic

2

t �� d inmc t (.; r

•

il o o t il� .

2.S

•

i c ! c u n d that

It

.

wh�ro

of penct rat ion.

t e s t a on p c ::- f o rr:t i o n nrc

\-/ {'.n"

th�

-

�fc ' nlso c onsider the

pr a gn •. t :i. c

cvrt r. i n pro j c c t i l � c by ::n

a

tho wooden shield.

In c h ep t er 4 and t h o n e

of

but pcrfornt ion jn'- lmttlc

•

-

s inG

gy

end ha rdne G s of

that

•

.

� ne r

The ave rage thi ckncns of

1 . 25 wa , •

It is

\-Ie ri:: r:J. ther we clt.

us.: d

The: t hi ckne s s

.

In

ch r: pt er 2 ve

in

c3x i IJ i

.

o v i de n c u

any

ne w s tart .

-.. xpcnso

on the Greek

ful l y ann e a l e d end duc t ile .

hclce t s

�t t h e

conu�unts , nnd

c r.d

r:.

nb out h�lf t h e

-

c.rro'.lh0 DG.S

r e port

""C

e x ::-.n i ne d ,

r:

ke

S c y t h if'.n ;:rruws .

t n (: i r sho t ::

e lsewhere .

at ClYDpic and iG

t he

the

po r t r �y e d o n v�s c s and

arnour

P .:: r o i c n �nd

of

f r � qu c n c y

El...

c o obnt in nnt i qui t y ,

pr ob cb l y b C: C �IISC

-

gn i n s t

l u v c l o f e ne r gy in the

gcnc:rnl

f � i r l y l ow ,

wcn

to

nc c e G s<.ry

been

ch<:..p t e r 1 we c s t i nn t c the

n

in fnc t

-

would b e uGcless .

h � l �c t

It h<.s th e r e f o r e:

r,'.r.Gcs

f o l l o ''/c

t l�:.t i f t ho (,; r .: o It

•

grr.lcnr

o f the

wac do a ign u d

pro-

•

8. •

initinlly t o keep out

opoer

a

�n arr o\l o f di�co t c: r d/2 end

of di<:'�.:l t c r d ,...nel .:: n

", ne r by

\ lc ul d

U/2

e ne rgy

Ut

pe r fora t e t he:

not

-

-

r:: c t nl

b o dy

6

ch a p t � r

In

rJ i

��rr.lc\Jr b ut

Ght

c o n s i d e r th0

ve

flrcour p � r f or a t i o n nt

to

per forate t he

\fell

hist oricnl

the b n t t l c c

wooden .shi e l d .

e v i de nc e ro li;t ing

I � r n t h on ,

of

Thernopyl�e t

..

ference

fron

narrat ive

no e xp l i c i t inforl;l.:�t ion

Although

and Plctee n .

f i gure s

c asunl ty

the

that

sugge s t s

if

few

�md t h o

dent he

�ny

t hrough the pcr for� t ion o f r.lc t<:.l arl.iour ,

nUr:lb er uf nen

-

run of the

gener.?l

s h o ul d hnve but

in

is give � ,

thc.t

•

o c c urred

qui t e

n

c o o i ng

o�y h
through the i r shi e lds .

Chap t e r •

7

c on c l u d (.; s th0 study ,

pre v i ous c hnpt�rs a S G e ss i ng

th0

nnd

d i s c us s i�b t h e

c o r l pr� r i n g .

t he

re sul t G of

It

oa t hods use d .

e n ds

b�

•

whic h t he Persir.l: end Greek c OlTInanders

." ay i n

c op e d "li t h the. problclJis ruis(:d by un fcf.1 il ic.r

In c onst ru c t i ng differ ine origins i t

en

is

nrgunent

de s irable

ar n c n c n

t .s

.

fr o m �leJ:1cnts o f such

to

have

Gone

o f indi-

ne nns

cat ing the degre � of r e l iab ility or v e r i fiab il i t y o f e a ch

st�teoent .

To

sone

ex t e nt

t h�t c�n be

dono

in English by

the •

uso of thc sub jllnct ive mood to indi cL�t o etatc t!cnts whi c h C�DDot b e. directly vc r i f i (,; d ,

such

aG

' i t is

<' 6

i n th..:

f o un d t hr.t '

or

c on s p e c t us

' it

:i. e

COr,lOG

'o/i th inf\.:runc� G which

pr o ;."l o c: i t i o n

.

iU'O

::: hav .. t r i e d t o

5ho\1O th.::.. t '

inf' r u n c � n wh i ch nru not c c r t � i n ,

'

or

t o indicnto

c G t i w: t � d th::.t '

The g r c l t e s t .

drawn t'l' OLl the.:

UO IJ

Markers •

vcrifi ....ble d:-.tr. , tmd ' i t i s suggc D t e cl tk.t ' to indicRte Gue sse s , �ru a ls o UGy d .

j ust given .

t h � �/ord but

d i f f ic u l t y

t wo typ�G o f

' nrobc.blc -

I

t o mark

b � � c d on v � ri r i � b l � d� to. t

•

•

t.ne t Il.) \lord ' 1 11(y 1y '

t o mnr!:

thoso wh i c h 1'0110'" c i t h<.. r o t r i c t ly

or looooly trOll prc r.l i c o t.l wh ich

co nninc 0 1' t h" \/ord

' c u u r.lD

I

oust

include

b;,; f;,

oom\) gu o o c

.ugv d from

-

ite

The

w o rk .

c on text

• •

•

,

•

.

,

•

in e�ch caso .

In geno r�l tho rules �ro oboyed �or� closo17 .

in those chapt ers which ccnt�in cvidenco of differont types ; •

in chapterG cuch as ch��t �r 2 , which is almost ent irely

•

.'j, or

•

s p e c ul at iv e , nnd chapt er 5 , which is nloost ent irely obnervnt ionnl , more lnt itudc hUG b e e n use d ,

50

as to avoid monoton7

nnd �llow a gro atcr degre e o f definition. Appendices numb�rcd acc ording t o the ch�pter t o which

they

erc

rGl?t � d denl with variouG points of detnil , includjng

tho construct i on

€lnG

ecc ure.cy of the bnllistic pcndulmil used jn

th� perfornt ion toats.

Footnote 1 .

_

'

E

All re ferences �rc given using the abbreviations in the

b iolioeraphy

Hnnnonds note is no 27 on p 1 7 o f

•

T�c refcrcnc�s in it

Hn�mond ( 1 968 ) . •

Kroneyor

=

J. Kroc�y� r ,

nrc :

' Dre i Schlnchtcn ' , Abh . d .

Saochs . Aknd >*(iv ( Le ipzig 1 921 ) P 1 0 . •

Dolbrue ck •

• •

=

H.

( Berlin 1 920 )

•

De lbruock , Geschichto der KriCBS�Jnst i P 60 n . l . .

", . l lcL� o d

=

\"i . HcLe od,

Phoenix

xix ( 1 965 )

p

.

' The ro:ngc of tho enc icnt bow ' , ' .

8. •

•

•

•

1 0. Chapt o r I .

Thu onurgy �nd shop" of h.'"'.Jlu w e np o nB in Greece�

Int ro duc t i on

.

pr o vi l� c

He.nL wen!>ons

con&il1G r�tion of

.-..n c i e

G O o -.".

<:

st c r t in /;; poi nt '-

for n

nt w<.:rfr.rc , b e c,�usc t here f.'.re onl,. two

c unstr.-.. i nts to consiuur : on th� one hnn� the en e rgy which cnn be: d ev elope l�

exert ; to

by the hU[1r'.n bOGY , e.n(1

on the o t her the c.b ility of

t he targut in

a thrust

the

f()rc oJ �,hich i t can

the: "/eapon to ueliver that

or im pa c t .

Each of

these c�n

be

•

dGnlt with fairly sinply .

Al t h o ugh there i s no 6en er�1

York

•

on th.} sub j e c t ,

tnblec

vf c.thletic pcr fcrnc.nc os p�e

the- �ne rgy of the hm1::n b o tly has boen

gener;)lly availl'.blo ,

t reat e d in g eno r el tercs b y

I V . Hil1 ( 1 950 ) c.n cl D. C . lli lki o , .•

( 1 96 0 ) l'.nt:: vc.rious cons ic!cr::.t i one; hc.vinC to do with golf clubs Gn� o t h e r sport ing ine;trununts arc t r c�t c u by C .B . Doisn

1 .1.

Forco <'.nI1 energy. Ve Gt�rt by considerinG

( 1 972 ) .

i n outline the f orc e end ene rgJ

��cking s t i rr up s , we.rriors of the

o f nn anoient weapon .

prc-Christ i�n e re. coul� not effectively

c.ed t h� kinetic energy •

of the herse

t o th.'1t

of their own bo�ics

•

an
have t he re f ore only t o c cn s i dc r tho pot <:lnt ial cf tho •

Thnt cny b e usod in t hr o � wnys : quc.si-otat ica" y in

bOGY. n diroct

weapon

"hi c h

t,

er

;:.s

...

sourco of kine t i c ener('7 fer

Cc,vcs inl1apcnl.ently ,

at in

which S'r.lO of tho kine t i c enorgy o f

of

Each of thl.lso

cocbinc.t ion in

th", body io tulded te th::.t

•

t h e wc�pon .

n

Co

cr.n b.J

lilo:\Gurc ,,' f�1rly oAsily. ,

1.1.1

Qunsi-nt�tic thrust . .

Th� qUQ8i-8t� t ic thrust whi ch c�n bu �ol ivo r � d by ono .t:'ln,!in� r.1an Qe;; ino t C'.noth'-lr is 1 iu 1 t � ll by th", goometry at .

thoir pc.oturolS t o nb " u t 120 N ,

( 24 l-bf ) .

It io a fUnct i on ot

thw v�rt i cQl thruot which C . Ln b\J llu 1 ivo r c ll by th<.; b O �1 t

tipli' � by th\; c oo i n .;) u t t hu r.n{£l c bCl t \loon the bo� ...nd ,

•

II

•

•

. the cround, on,! is o as i17 vorifi c l1 by bnlanco pl:-.c c (l on ;:'. wal l .

if e

Q

g� in s t

s pr i ng

Q

forco is o f c c ur oe incrcesed

The

nucbor of Do n fire lined up ono bohinu th� other , but eTon

lino of t o n co n will

produ�o only •

1ill'.xiUUI!1 .

�bout 1,200 H ( 240 Ibf ) ,

Such fcrc e s �rc f�irly 8aoily withstoou by uno"r.

Ki no t i c

1 . 1 .2

Ene rgy .

2. S ome inuication Q

�

o f t he energy thnt c�n be given by

t o c c rt n in types m f �isBile c�n be ob t�ined froD

��

sportinG perfc,rr.i::nC l: S , �.S in t�ble 1. 1 .

The figureD which •

rol,-.to t� Olympic re c ords for J.lon ere no t!oubt c onoit:cr�bly •

higher th -. n .:-nythins th�:t cc uI<.: be nchicvcd on the f i c l t:. of ..

b:-.ttlo , �nd thu t o chniquez ;;:.r� c?e c i:-.l isQ c .

Moreover the

rc c�rl1s fer th� j av � l i n i n r o c � nt yc�rs ��re �ffcct� c::. by tho •

usc of

Qc r

r.n

o-.!yn:'.lil i c

cesign �/hich rCBulto in

.:'..

glide .

the.t re�son the:sc uOvel in the t �bl(: ;�re (1ruwn frcra

is

h

rau c

e:-.rlier

tho gcne rul p i c t llro thCl.t urJcrges

Nc verthelecs t

C GlIIpc t;. t ion.

"n

For

us we shoul� �xpe c t .

In

th�

first place ,

thu

overall energies produced by

body �ro lew c Ol!1p�...ru tl vi th thcs(; produced b1

•

the

Tbe

l!1u�zlo T�locity of t ho Ame ri c �n curvico pi s t ol i6 of tho order of

800

ft .

230 grain

-1 s

or 225

(35 G )

lil . s-

1

( Rolaton

1970

p

235 ) which with

bullet G ives cn e norg,y of 2050 J ( 1520 It •

Tho Iiluzzlo velo c i ty vf

h�ne Gun

;�n o.:rly

barrel would bo c l �pnr�blo

( Villi:-.cs

\l i th

15 inch

1974 p 1 11 ) •

a

lb )

•

(31.'

•

Sec ondly ,

dcpIolncls t o

n

til

..

onergy thnt c. :n be givun t o

conoi t!o rL'.blc onunt on its unss .

On the on�

tva quito t�M ili � r tr. c t ors . muzt QOVCI

t �s to r th:-.n

�

onorliY t but thcl pow'ir (; t apc«.i d

,.f

c cntr(\oU .on .

hand ,

c.

Distiil�

•

'l'hCl t i s cluo to

,

I

� light Diaoll.

her..vy onc i t it 1 0 t l i hnvo t h" 8.'\UO r.

DUGel, vnrio a invvraol, with tho

( H ill ,

1950 , '.tilkiu , 1 960 ) .

On the

othor t t h� thro�/llr tluot I!! v V� pnrt or r..l l ti t hiD tlW bO�1 r • •

,

1 .1

Tabl e

Approximate Kine tic Energy of sp ort ing proj e c t i l e s .

Men ' s OlYmpi c s

1 908

�lomen ' s Ol�mpi c s Men ' s ulYwpi c s

1960

1908

Range

Mass ( kg )

Vel o c i ty (m s-1 )

Sho t

7 . 62

12 . 3

15

545

400

Shot

4

12.7

16

, 328

240

24 . 5

60

240

180

61

182

13 5

?

110

75

Missile

Javel in

. 80

(m)

Energy ( Joul e s )

( ft l b )

,

\lomen ' s OlYlOpic s Dai sb

1960

Jave l i n

. 60

Basebal l

. 140

24 . 5 , 40

•

,

,

Dai sh

C�i cket ball

'. 182

30

?

82

60

Dai sh

Golf ball

. 046

70

?

107

85

Dai sh

Gol f club head

. 200

50

-

250

185

Longbow arrow

. 040

50

220

50

37

Te sts ,

Hardy

•

•

,

I t is assum ed that th e m i s s i l e l eave s For field sports vel o c i ty and energy are cal cul ated from range . the th rower a t approximately 420 and that a i r re s i s tance is ne gl ig ibl e . Figures for ball game s are The arrows from the cal cula ted from vel o c i t i e s achi eved by profe s s i onal s and m e asured by timing . l ongbow were t imed al so .

13.

during the

t hro w , c.nJ t h...

p r op o r t i o n

("; f

S 0DO

t el

dcs ir�blD renge ,

obt�in

v o l o c i t y in

hi gh

�

while ia�nrt in� body t h � E: ("

t .:: e !:n i ques

or

i n t h ..:

C'.s

c lub , ..-.n(: t hl.: j nv c: l in-l.-:unchor

it ,

Howcvc� th e s e Lo v i c e s

de vice

itself

cn;)r GY su:?pl i 0 l1

pr o j e c t i l e

1Il0!!lc:ntu[l 1 . 1 .3

l:l

0f using

n

by

th�

elas t i c

3("

s c. r.l�

�n

st i ck ,

the

P 1 1 0) and

o f e n e rgy

t o t�o the ::IS

the

e ither by

(,r

nIl

of

tht.;

c f f e c t iv �

nest

in which

hond . and t he "ToOopon i o3

SO/ilU mo t h o l'.s c f

porhnpo

1 972 ,

-

the: use

onploy the

b e i n g repr� scnte d

onu

:!n

l;w.intninc l1

Thct

cl

i m i t � t icn

uf

the

U00

it

lanco

c:ly nl.sc pike , anl.!

fCrt1B o f th�

I t tll�

thol body

is explo i t e d

•

a .:: m�

l ink

during . the

pr i nc i� l c

h:.ntilinr; the rolOc.�rn bny,,' nu t ;

r.!E:tho1

e ffe ct ive

pot c �lt inl enerGY

tlU c.pon .

h",vo bvon c r.llJ l uy',: � ()c.rl i e r wi t h

10

inc l u de

c.od

or b o t h •

.""ulc c
is autlc.: i! t r) t lw t cf thu in

the

•

h c. n t: we upon

t h.:.t

Wi t h in

use: r ' s bOl1y . b ecnuse

by t h o

e nergy

sl owly

n ot �llcw the mi ssile

do

strn.in ,

the

m.:.vo

./h ieh

D.-:ish

i gh t thcrc fc.. r,) seem thr.t thv

b .:: t wc -.: n t h e blow ,

it ,

lew

o f t h J elb ow

they

of

SC:fJ 0

-

Linkage . It

to

r(; t2.ins .::. c onside r,.blc ,!.Daunt

loaves

or

el

s l inG , the tlU'c.\·!ing

t:cubh: pc n c.u l ui.l e f fe c t dcscrib ..: ,� by

L.c:

to

' fl i c ks '

b u yo nu

it is c ftun

order t o i n c r c n s c the

t h e b O Gy

of

th0

include:

t hr.;.,·li ng ;

s t r ingLJ ,

up ;>..1 1

Since

fast tlot i c n t l' th� �issilc .

a

.rrist invcl vo �-: in lovers

pu r t s

r G �'1crful

t h u lO\ior the

r e c c;i v D unless

will

c u upl c x t e c hn i q u e s must b e �ovise d

hc�vier ;':a (� 1.1 0rO

of

it

t c r c Ju c c the wc.atc g c .

ua� �

�cv i c u is

(; nc rgy th,:t

t o t.;l

th'�

'd& c..p on ,

l i G ht e r the

by

tho

r.:o .1inovr:l !miCht .

thl.i uoe: r ' n G i �0 , io

rrq)o l l u ,'.

1

C l'

rc.: &;; t -.) �:

;. 1'·./. : 1.· ·. 1:;1

I . L:

n vd n c. t h i o ohuulc.!..:r ,

f;� a t

;w

poc n i b l u .

Thu

nne.! the body t ,-t .-. l kin.: t i c

•

14. enerCy is t h e n thi·.t o f tl�:; b O LY , S;:-.y 70 kG . , coving at say

5

s

D

-1

(644

t h . , or�er o f 375 J

cf

S0

ft Ib ) .

u ff� c t

i s l"'. iD1<: c �t in thu lun t;" with the r•.picr ,

in th<:

t ct r�icht left '

•

t !�:.t •

l'.nt!

t

in

."'

.

A

simi lar

( E'.nc! inl1c c c!

in b exinG ) , nne it miGht be thcught

s t <:lbbinr; bl oH ,·lith

�

•

(iasg('r or s,.,orl1 , the kine t i c

enc rGY c f th0 arm <-.n�: hnnd c .:.·ulc� like:"tifio b e nl1�o d t o thnt o f t h e weapon .

Ho\:e: v c r , th<:lt ene rGY C<:ln only be: cmplCly c c c ff <.; c t ivcly I'rcvi tlc: �� t h<:'.t t h t.: l inkCl ccnnl< ct inc the various pc.rt s o f the m�Gs �re: s u f f i c i e nt ly r i g i d .

"rcc.pon is r(: 6 i s t � (:

by the

the force wi t h which the

If

t .. rgo t

is gr .:: ... t c r th�n t h.:: m�ximum .

•

f0rcc whi c h t :w b C, l:Y c:.n apply t c it , b c. Ly ;:-.nc: wec-pon viII mevo inl!cp.:: n:, .. ntly , r.nd the c: xt r:-� •.:1lergy will b ", t/'.st e c .

lrJC'.t: \-ihich c�.n

sustr.ine ": by

be

r.

h,o-hr.n .:l(: �

The

grr.op c.. t hip lovol

iG prob::-..b ly c f tho.: c r cor c f 1 , 400 N ( 300 lb f ) , r.nc t he turning mODont nt the shoulder i s prcb ..b ly

be

soen below th�t

r c s i s t <:'. n c e t o

n

�

go�c! de.� lClwor.

It

vi])

fo r c e o f thct order is

qui t e enEily ntto.inc :! in c.rmour , .:'. nc it m::�;r wi;l l he.vc been the most i [Jport nn t nn": prnc t ic ::. l o.io vf the armonrcr t o nchicvc . •

such sopnrnt i o n .

• • •

In th<.: c<:'.oo :.f

stc.b b i .: [ blo w ,

c.

limit i3

0.

pla c e c! on the

fcrce of tho t hrust not only by the strcmsth vf tho wriat but by tho clas t i c

l'J o vO r.lo n t

by ctc.bbir.(S wi t h

cf

tr.. :

f l o sh

cf the h=-.nc!.

.

n

sbcrt woollon shaft r.t •

. 11

hccvy

mC.eo

Te sta

woodon block •

• •

a::: II b r ll ist i c punl�ulum show<.: (� that .

i t o:::do no cifforcnco

•

t o the mOVOth: n t

c; f tho block

\ Ihc t h o r thu hr:.nd

grippo u

the

Gunft t iGht ly Jur inG the impnct , or r olc.xu J �n inatant b a f ere ; cvvn th� uGh tho of •

f�rcu

o f thu

the. Itino t i c o noray (.t th�

im��ct wac qui tu henll r:.n(l

arn

\-' "a

l e w , h ardly �ny trr-.nsfurrc d t o

IS.

1 . 1 .4

Close C o rnbnt . at t c

If th0

::rp t

hes b � un foil u � . � y

whe. h01C�B ,' n

t tl

h � rn c; 6 B

to

thu kin e t i c encrGY of the b c t!y

.

,

h i n we e.pon i s l i k r!l y t o got

thl.: "iC t.!pon t !w.n

\'/ho thrc,ws it .

o n l:

c los\) up t (; h i s e:nc ny

he

1(,:65 energy i n t o

Bc cl'.usO he

maximum

2.

r

.

Clc.ssi cQl

n c c u r a cy ,

tirne:s

i ncrec.se

t (;

in

rnc.rk ef c iv i l isct ion .

i f i t wo re

ns

8 0 0 1,]6

the cxtrn energy

c.n� spe e d cf ntt nck

frequency ,

de- s t:

t e n (:cncy t o

c.nt� inde c t! the

5t •. n uing

c co l c: r c. t i o n o f the:

Hv TI1 C.Y "/0 1 1 be pru :;?aro ll t o G C1. cr if i c c: in fcv ou r o f cre n t 0 r

:! S

c � nn u t r.ffor(l 'o i t h o r tho t ime: or t he

s (; lf-ex:posur\) r e q u i r e l: fur •

the wnr r i o r

oppon e n t s us ... of nrm c ur ,

'-.n

t he c e n t inu i n£; _1 i <.>. l c(;ue b� t'-Il.: e n t hl!

j :w c l i n r-.nd

But

the Gtnbb ins

•

s iJ c c:.r cak..: s i t c l t; :u' th •. t there Horu LLv.::.nt C1.(;(; s on e ither G i ue ,

b n l nn c c

the

suppose some

(·n�

thnt

sert

in

w;:y n

�r

t l10

(. the r . ,.,hore

c o nt (;xt

of pr c t u c t ivc

pene: t rnt ion c. f thl..

51';)[.11 t e: c h n i c ..--.. J.

qui t c

t :lr-.t

�.nc! i t nay be

c oul c! swny

It s � � m s reascDE.blc

t h�

n

1 , 400 N (300 as

rc si s t �n c o t o

Ib f ) ,

n

hnnc-held

\-/oco.pon

oc.y

h ev i ng

nbout hnlf t h e kine t ic cner�7 which it would

. t h rcl-m ,

b<: rCG2.rucu Gyncllic�.lly

nnJ t ") c t s

c c nj c c t u N .

It

\-l i t h

a

to

t roops on b o t h s i eles have

c lot hin g £ i v in G

eruc r of

Chr-.nbCS

i f i t \tore

n

rili ssile

bcvc

if

b a ll i s t i c �enlluluc support th�t

:;?roi.l:;hly h c. l� a b o t h for s t nbb i n G \-Ieapo:u� ::nc.

for t h o se us.; �: i n slcshir.t;; nn� c h o pping .

\;'.:; thcr.:: fc, r ;; rut urn

t o the Idnll t i c ono rgy in t he weapen

•

its<.: l f ,

,'.n �� t "

purl':ISO

W(J

in

Il

T· .. b l w

hnn·l

2

t hl..

thr.t

f::;c to'o

r o q u i l' u pnr t i cul�\rly \/eC\pIJn ,

[j uch

oW

t\

l if,1i t a

apo�r ,

so t o ("lit (': o t irllt'. t <.: o f e r tho

it .

For

tho

•

pro s C' !lt

c v mpl.1rioon !l o t w .J c n th<: ene rGY ...

.

nl: t h�t

in �n nrro\-l.

hr.ncl wc apono .

The tnblll

•

I

,

Table

1 .2 Mass

\leapen

Conj e c tural energy in a nc i e nt

•

I

I

Range

Mode a! Del ive r�v

(kg )

•

weapons . (m )

•

I

Ve l o city 1

(m s- )

Energy ( Joul e s ) ( ft

Ib )

,

,

1 30

96

65

48

21

198

146

29

17

III

83

15

12

60

49

2

Swung wi th both �ands , in c l o s e combat . '

: Club , axe : or sword

1

with one hand , in cl o s e combat . '

: Jave l i n

0.8

Thrown with run .

44-

Jave l i n

0.8

Thrown taking one pac e .

Javel i n

0.8

Thrown standing .

Club , axe I or sword ·

,

i,

I ,

•

·

I •

·

• •

,

•

•

I

,

i

0.8

Cl o s e combat .

Jave l i n

0.8

Thrown from he ight

Javo l i n

0.8

Thrown from hcight 10

or

s wo rd

•

• ·

Sari ssQ. Jave l in •

?8 0.8

3

m. m.

Swung both hond s wi th

pacc

forwo.rd . Thrown wi th loop, taking one paoe .

9

30

23

14

84

64

19

140

103

5

100

, ,

118

160

?40 ,

??

20 ,

•

,

I

I

I '.

2.

T h� t for the v o l o c i ty o f thv Sc ri sl3::: i3

Est i;d['.tos f,1r the u ffoct cf

3.

��

[1lJ 1' (;

guess.

t hrowin6 strl'.p or

C'.

w i th

II

t hrowinr ' s t ic l : . -

4.

E:... t hJ['. t 0 C for t he hc.nd-hc:lu. j nvc li n

dori V0 .� frolil tho sport inG

l�C.tf.'.

L'.nl�

s t ['.bb i ni,.; spc c...r r:ro

in t['.b l \) 1 , by moltinG the

f o l l o \l inC C.ssllop t ions . Thu

a.

pcrf<:. ru;::mc c of

bet ter th.... n n ns

t h� t .

r.:['. le �thlc t (: .

b.

F0r

0.7 ('I

Fur

c. l'.nl�

I:l

5

io

-1

,-:n E'.rb i tre.ry fiGur(: , vn<.:rgy i s reduced CD

•.

0 . 865 t o 1 . n

str:ndinG posit ion , t h e

rc �uc c d by thu e a t innt c �

vo l c c i ty

�f

vuloc ity the run ,

,

ve l o c i t y

furt h,-,r r{:�u c t i on of 50%

['. 1. D •

m<1.Ue , to all�,w for

The ust ir:1Lt O S :::. r u thus only

['.

lowor t h[.n that o f

but

f.

cloGe c �.'rJbnt

2� in

thlut o ,

c!

weapon thro�n fre m

['.

o f the wc �ron ab out

f c ual",

("

v el o c i t y

0 . 75 to 1 ,

b e s l i c:; h t ly

worrior in bat t le mc.y

l'.

��

possible carGin o f error of 5��.

in enerGY ,

the shorte r swinG.

v e r y rOUGh gui de ,

with

p �r t i cul c.r , thosc for

In

•

thc h:;�nL-thrown j av e: l i n •

ordinary alIa",

s t r e ng th ,

sc.:;;e

IiH.: n

[:=-y b � on th..

t o c.chicvc

exporir.icnt \ofCjt' l c? bv

the usc

r�thcugh

I! e c e

h i Ch s il�c

o f heav i e r

h i Gher c ne r(;iU6 t

s s...._ry in

orl1cr

ii•.-.n

ovc:n

h

D uc

uc::�r i nc; on

r.n,: wcctpon in

rOUGh

th(:

c s t i��t u6

by armour i s suf f i c i ent t v its own

kine t i c vnu r�Y t

io e l v l�rly l\ i; ro n t

qu i c k l y

by

best �tch

Ncv(;rthele ss ,

c:['.ch c.ppl i c c.t i o n .

<.� e o ie:;n i.; f nrl:lcur .

JIc-:.n of

nissil�s miaht

t v fint� thu

provi�(: v['.lu�blc:

e.

nnll c c nsic!ernblc.

•

be twc(;n

fer

t c. c t ic�l i nsi ch t s

If thu �rot e c t :i. Q n nffordod

lind t thu u no r3Y .;,1' t h c woo.p"n to tho monna l\lr�nuy

c.1�v..'nt C'.ttc

in c o m i n g

to

du ccrib� G t

c lo s u

thurc

qu:-.rters ells

�a V O D � i b l c , nnd in provunt ing un o ppo n � nt troe

(!u l i v<.:rinC c:nC;ulnr bl own cuch

('.0.

thocu \/i t h t h ..:

ruc c .

Furt hor

-

I V .

c c�ny

i s very � r e nt .

w�l t

Lcn,. U

c n .:: r cy

ThL c. J!(; ::IY

o f \-l�c'pc ns

.... '.my

.t'c.r

-".G

r�n r.u missiles oJ

th ""''

-

� l l' A-lJ ��•

.. ;,

,,

.'.I f, c:

c� n .

·

be

i n th·:; t

<:.S ,o ss ibl .:: ;

l i n i t t.: t: by k e e p ing the c:.sc v.:: l c c i t i c s

ust b e

m

•• •

h l· � 1 .\.: r , ,

..

.,

" ! '"

•

.

-

.

.

.

� ff i c i c. n c y

6 \..

.

f i rst l y

f2vour

-

Th� t

will p cr t ic ul nr l y

th� �rrn0ur f o r c l o s o

cnc

o c c u py h i gh gr::: unu ,

poin t o out

1'rcp:-.rc� t o

who l c c l :

these

s e- c onelly t h o G 0 who

X c no ph on

l o v� r .

i n th3 Cy ropeu ��0 i � )

brinG t ho::

t h i r d ly ,

t h os e who

s l i n G ..:n(4 the: ,

h (; l �

�nd

::..ny uf ttl: b a t t l e

influc n c (. (. n the

ilcvc loplii o nt

tul l � t ,

oovnlry ,

s l i n r, :: rs on

:-'6

H..:

p os c i b l e

a

The r:-.n5" o f t h e sling

of ('.rr.lo�r _

t h,- tIC iC·:ht (:f th<:

i n his

( F(jotno t � 1 ) .

sites .

th�rc fc·r.:: n o � t: only c Olls i c (; r th..: G l i n G here

f01"

the

cny sl i!1�-bullcts

Nor h;. v e:

coniliticn::; whi c h ('.re re fuG � d .

v.7.'.rie:c "Ii til

....ere

(J f f..: rE t v l.� cntl 2 , 000

\otnorc G c l ul1

t(I� 0 t h o r w i t h c r c l:�rs

t h u Grc�ks

cn

or �r�

b C\OI .

V I ! 1 58 . 4

been f.- un.:

-

lL.rgc st nUT.lb .:: r e: f t r oops int o buttle .

The: Gl i n e i s n e t ;�ont i o n c c by H 0 r o J e tUG , e xc e p t i n

( �s

c�n

hist ori c,:l lJe::�ns for nc.hicving v <:.: ry lone r ...·.nGcs

The

t�

c ombat ,

but

n

rc a s .:; na b l o ,1;'�bC

•

24 6 - ( 0. 85 o z ) lcc1(1 bullet

tc

Sl: CrJO

h:-.vc b � <.:n b etween

•

of

30 - 36 J . ( 22

•

27

ft lb ) .

GuC1J ourDr i o i nsly l i �ht , �n.:

Tl..

:!.��. t�

�

o r th",

fl.-'. r.1 ..:

fltrilc;. c w i t h

1'.

crt " r

�

no thct in

b l unt

il.1lJt:. Ct

"

the:

\.: nc r � h , s c '. :rI" .: sponl.!incl,. love

t h;..

c c.. ur. t � r tho:; r.lios iloo c f t h .: oppc a i nr; io

b u l l e t s u s c c by

Sinc", th.:. e ne rGY

j�;. � n ,: wonpon ,

n

vc r

n i uc .

l'.

in fluo; :1 c w \/hich the G l i n(" i� lik.::- ly

l : .r� ioh to

h i l e t hl.; bull.:t

w

;�rc�\ ,

h:�v� 1.:.,:

t !�� only em

�rr.l0ur i6

in

�-

_

.

-

i nc re <'. s ing th", are<: th :t t;ust be

c c ·u:re d .

...

thc.. t niGht b e pr ot o c t ':' l:

h.�n'-.

frc·Ul

,� r the body

Par tf>

",c :'.. p ona 'by p..'.. r ryinc; would -

rCl:.lnin vulnur: .blo t �. ;" . ahv\o!er of bull e t s . .

Th :; b c t-l , on the other h:::.nt! ,

pleyc :1

such an important

p�rt in the Fcroian arIilBIilent th�t it must be l e.t .:: r chepter

�n�J. y s c � in

n

•

•

1 .2.1 .

Tho

'

de sign

Sho\'/s th::t thc

'-Ic:.y

to nchieve tho highest

c oncentrr.t i cn of unc rgy in ::. h��cl teol or we:'.Fon The he •. d v f

cwinsin[; b lo\-l .

theo!'.?

-

•

1 .2

T"'.blc

of ClaBBical. Greek h:'.nd wenpon3

':ll

cr

i s t o nse

h:'.[�rJer trevels f{'.!iter ,

th;-.n th� h�.n(� 'lhich �del(!s it , r.ll{� it r.lsc tr<'.ve ll3 iti£tr.ncc: , .

•

n ,

�llcwinB

l onge:r period of

e

sleohin� � c t icn is

vary

... c colerf.'. t i on

G::.sily lcc..r nt , ��G

&rc:-�t er

r.

Mor e c ver

.

m�y be

instinct ivc ; •

•

•

( note 2 )

Xenophon

tho " ll.:.cheer",, ' , to

<::n

•

c lr i r.lS

i s r-s

nr-.t urc.l to

its hooves tc

ox,

tlv"'.t tho

.

r.

no;) w:�

e"f the r.O

slc.shing sword, '

the use of it£:

h o rs o , or its t usks 't o

;::

herns

bo ...� .

\
niGht thcre ft,;rc expe ct the we ...p<.ns of beevy �.r�j(; '� inf;.ntry to .

be dcsign� � f�r swin ging or slcshing , �nd t o c o ns is t ef a�ces , h;:.lber :S , pick-·-: x.Js ,. -.nel the like ..

•

•

•

llo\lcvvr , :: warior in b;:.t t lc hes to

f;:,c tors

c ..:� nsider

•

\olhich ' de nc·t effe c t the use r of •

. teel .

::

A . D. ·

In tho 4th .

the ,:iBc.��v" .nt�.gcfj c·f th .:: sl:-.shinG blow r.Pllc :-.r<.:u t o Vc gct iuB t o be

f c llc\OlS :

r.n

I :.

e

l r e hi nc blo\.,. , hc,\lcvcr :;rcr.t i t s cno rBY , r :.-.r o l,. killB , .

•

'b o cnutiC

tho vi tC'. l p:�rtlJ ;. ro protuctvG b oth

th� honos ;

1:'.

t\-/c inches t o .. vi t " l ·," l-' ''' . "t • .. "

... •

..

t h ru D t , b e;;

(Ill

r.rr.lour :.nu b,.

the "thur h.:-.n c! , w. s only t(. pcn<.:trnt o

f<'.t.:'. l , fer ..�ny .:l� (;p po notr:.ti on nuot r�r.ch

Furthcrr,'l�r(J ,

bluw , th... ribht Crt:l :�n l! o i do •

by

uurinc tho dolivury {; f :-.l"\l

CX�OSO (! t who rons

d" l ivor� J with th0 h c Jy ccvorc d , .:-.n� wuunas th�

0.

t".

slc:.ching

thrust . i s

o nocy

,

bo tcro

.

r.6"Mc,'.! 'ti l t h

H ! ",

r nr.i:,ro i &l ( wi t h

..

c t: r t .�. ilJ

rC601'v�t ioDIJ )

-

bocr...

i t i 5 �·., !': o d n o !. on�1 on pb)'si
(, ) 'l :! C c

� l in j .icvi tr.blo

i. -' ';' .'. i j. ::' :l oi t il"

.... e apon

t hl'. t

ti••

vo r.llov moro

if'

, we ('.leo

tbe

for

cllow 1i10re t ime tor

•

0Pii,:·i, .: ; l '.,: i; o l'tlT�J t hr.t

lilu,c �cnt ; :l: :' t o

B U "::

nt r.n :":tSlo

t h O H;

tho

i t is clao

t o tho l i no

inevitr.ble

of sight 1s o::.ehr to

<.� f tho bod)' present ::: ;] t o:

r. :- C o.

principles

t ho b low ;

thr.;.t t t.<: oxt o neion o t the

cnl1

pro cic t .

s wine; :i. D -:=-.JaB�1! I,ll

c.vtlit!

0:\.'

c:-c

wa

l l known t o

in

Ulil An

Cl

O?pouc:nt .

boxors and

oc

{enc o r e . (2 ) h�r

r.

V�6o t i uo ' an8umpticn

th�t

�

must b. dolivGled

el�h

l ( · r." C (!F,C :!.�l'1 i C B �hr-.t he is th inltins pris.ri1:r o t tho

6 :;1::rd ,

...

.

nxo ; h � wh ich �.

ne t )'�t is nl,.t urC'.l , onco the aword he.s superseded tho ��o me rely

:

.

'

omi t t e d

the ro �son for

t hr. t

tha

p'. f)br.bly thc.t �lso reeponaiblc fur

be.ts l'be d �.n criek
or

bl\aeball :

loncth

of tho

sine D thCl s wi ng t:-.k.;a

•

in

"u

is nt: ...r tho oye , nccurQc1 in tha rct-inl

r.:t"c Wht'flO c �ntre •

t�.r£ot

coordi��to is �ifticult to acti�vG whon tho

;lnu eo t�o cht'.ll c ca of atri.1t ina

placo

0.

is �tins .

ilit ('.re incrcnsoc! b1 oxt.on�iD8 tho

D"rfn cc rnc!ir.lly , o,s in fig 1.1.

•

1="19- '•1 IA

� 1ItOl:.ron ,

tab inCrOQBos tho t".roa. of tho iJD�ct . £,.11.1 .0 in

hUiIJ ot onora p.,r un it cron tho alcllhiDg woapoll ",in. fJr

".�v�nt�go froUl i t s crOt.t or ovorall onor�J.

bO

(3)

lUtou

H o wovor ,

littlo

thu �£ euJDpt ion� th�t it th� right :

i t will }:)y v\·.ln" r�b l . , r..n �� t. h:-. t

tho point •

�

thruot with

•

•

t o ro(,u� � f!" �1'J t. h .. f • . 1 lurc o f tho Gr", cl: ;�n� RO!'J:'.n ;'"rmoure:rs
J q' r.!" " ' " c h .)u J. '

.

.� J

.

" ';;

•

.

Th u ri �h t ('.r a W:-.Q ua ur.ll y bl'.rv t u th o

:''' t.� :.\. r,- r s .

oh t: ·..n

-

Ch t:'. pt Q r 3 ,

nt th u nu ol: :-.n t! Gr oi n who re

r.

.. nu

th or c: wo ro cn ps pr.r t i culn rl y

po in t u d wo r.p on o ou le s l i p t hr cuCh

.

UDobu c � � .

,

In v l"w ot th1a i t ia not ao aurl'ria ins th:-. t thll hopll t o) wo .. p(.no II') ro rostric t o (� t c. eo aiD810-ht'.n'�� thrust lnc oponr , n

r.nd

D inGlo hr�do� aword whi c h plr.y o J r. aoocn��y rolo . . o lo t c-.o Pr a on l\p �:\i nd U k oo l Gr 0A a1 The Do a1 lSn ot Cl na

1 .2.2.

•.

'!'hO Sol WCltlpOnS ,

whlch r.rol \10 11 r..t tO.tol� by vnao pel1Uti,DCs

( ... :' p
bear

{J"',

t'lult� va ll tho o at llDt".tCl s

8pr�tA ) , The

. nto r.bovo .

•

aPQr.r01> t .1 t 1a lone r�1l thln ,

nil

•

it tho toroo whioh 1 t w('.8

roquir� � to tr��mlt Vt\S qul to lewl

tho spot'�ho r.� is abAp04

t o out tl�oh r�� porhnpa lonthor , r�thor thr.n t o pioroo bronao or w�od l

tho swor� is aomo tlaoa �t tho

out-r�d-thrU8t

p�ttorn ,

ac. llc; t ir.;� a a ourvod anchot ... tor slnahlne :-..lono , but In o itho&"

or.ao

t1

slr.sh woul� hnyo

to

intliot inG sorious �nr�o l

botol"O

m�ko n lonG 'ont ln

th� onl1 nraour pioro lnG dOYioe

r.ppo�ra to bo c lon« bron&u spiko fittod t� tho r�r.r ond ot aotlo spo�re , w:'loh c�·.JaJa tr.llCln

wlth n

to

hnvCl boon uao d tu finish ott

dOVDwr�d

a

thr.t

would aohioyo A

oonaldornbl, hlsh�r onor87 thnn n torv��d

thrust.

A

Wo

brlo tlr oonaidar tho OYldonco tor eAoh ot thoBO point e .

1 .2 . 2 . 1

The sponrahnt t .

Tho lOftCth ot the spo nrahntto BhOWD In r�t Y��loa between

tho holght ot t1

to hnlt �.a auoh

BOf\rlng in alnd

Horodotus ' romr�ks thct tho Groek spe��. woro long�r

the

Po rsi:::..n .

21 1 )

V1 1 .

(e .g.

:::..n u tho

fi t t h lt a:)nc e C".vnil�b le , typ i c :-.l ,

in

::nc1

J\n

c n t i i i ,. t i n c

this

Of

to

pc i nt � r

"/ ::SO

p . 37 )

l e n g t h the

s p c C' rhe nd

c i sh t

fe c t

o c c up i e s

.

08

( 1 928 p.55 )

f ol l o ws KrorJl".ycr

l l: n[:;th ::s b e t w(;en BCVl.. n ::nl1

t :1C

( 2 . 1 - 2 . Lr rn ) .

:'.

1::t t 0 r l e n g t h li1i�y b e t nl:en

the

d o r s o n ( 1 970

ne0� of

betveen

,

ano

s i xth �n� one

t ho

sp ik""

wherc

SOEe t i m e s shown

(14

fifth fitted,

<,.bout

in ch c s

the

0. 35 - 0. 5 m ) �nd

,

A h::-.nd-grip is

sarno .

of tho

1 6 7 . 2 ) ct ::bout t wo t h i r ds

FR

( o . g.

20

-

-

lc:ngth T.1c 1'.surinG frora t h e p o in t . Thu

the sIt::ft

dil'.r1c t e r of

is

.

the inte rn::l e i <'.@ e t c r o f th� s o c ke t s o f the v<'.ry b e t ween 1 6

These

om

The

( lIe: b e r 1 944 , P 151 ) .

::nd 1 9

"

"' n L

@u ,

n hc f t

e

i n e i c c t e tl t o s om

c... .

tote!

extent by

f i tt ings .

ne t n l

.:rc; rare ly l:-.rgcr

pnd

r.lr.y hcvo t ::pcrol1 sODevhnt , ,

have b e en sl i tih t l y t h i cker in t he ci udle o f i t s length,' but first plc. c o ,

In t h e

Duch .

not v e ry

in the :'.r t i s t i c rcpre sent,�.t ,; wh

grect 0 s t st rength o f t h e socke t ;

e re

thirdly

, ' :15 ;

s e c ondly ,

t he

He r o d ot us

theD with

t he

s pe �r

,

62 ) .

-

ROUGh cnlc ulr.t i ons s u g ge s t

he n d s t u c k fnst

n

•

lb f ) · ·

sh c f t

n i c1.,:lc

gr i p

� f the "l i t h

th,r ,t

S:1."h::

en"

.

:" n l� it

.. 10.:'.l1.

:

c � u l ,!

its

� i C'.I.lc t o r .

-

.

':.

-

-

.

.. -

sidovnys

n

on

r",

It

tho

c.s

j us t

bchin� the

tho socke t by

s o c ke t

"l i t h th",

s o c ket ; t o breri

6rl � z i ng

( r.nd

h:-.nclo

) t vculd

t he c c nt rr-.l hemd

four t icl.IG

to

n.....

by

6l'ent t

.

:::

th..'"lll

.o t ronc; 1:1.�n in (� cap(. rr.tc

y bo b c. rn� in r.li n t! t h"�. t

rc,un c.! ohC'.ft

cs

t h .... t muc h hiGhe r f o r c o s

CUPPOBO C V0 1l

.

the

oth�r

the

(' b o u t

358 11

of

c rd e r

,·"mor woul cl h c.: l d on t o::

0 ;) e J:o rt o (�

c ir c ur.u,; t;�n c '" tJ .

of

� i a;:: e tcr

l

hr.nc r nd

i a c i f f i c ult

ntroneth

( n o t \) -4)

of the

with :: for c e.:

wcule break tho shaft

assur:linr; t h r t r(J quirc

'

tlat � il .

oppon<; nt ' s b o ��y ,

<'.l1

nt

•

wronch o n the hC".ml

( 80

in

end

the ;r

.

,

( IX

the

the Pers;rns

s t i·�t o s t h::: t

its

sh.,ft ne·:: ds

t he.: s t r c ss i s c onccntr:::.. t ed r.t

Pl:::t cc :: b r oke the Sportcn spc::rs b y gr�spinG hl'.ll d s

discC:l"ned

no tnpcr c.�n be

incror. o u o

C', 8

th.;;

t he

bun ..:inc

f o u r th l)Ov,r

of thu

,

22e

The f i gures g iven for the f rac ture strength of sp ears on p . 2 2 should be

A

inc reased by about � .

sp ear maker would no t use a

' t yp i cal hardwood '

�ne

( Lete

1.5) ,

Frin c e s .

he would use ash ,

and selected a sh at that .

Ri sborough table s

(Ministry of Technology For e s t Pl'oducts

R� searoh ,

1969 )

8,.:80

116 .. 16 · 6 -

Bul l e t in SO ,

The str ength Prop ert i e s of Timbers ,

g ive the bend ing strength of

N

UUII

-2

of about 125 N Hili!

,

-2

Engl ish

have

s el e c t ed t imber might

so

Furthermo r e ,

•

.bIsb as

in a roWld

st reng th

a

sw..tt this

f igure should be r�i sod by � f�rm fa ctor of 1 . 18 (British StGndGrd Code of Pract i o e , 147 . 5 N IIlIn- 2 .

Of 11 2 ) , i . o . to �bout

�t the hc.nd1e So the breaking load/for fracture c.t the

so cket will be about 528 N

( 119

1bf ) ,

for frccture thore , ubo ut 2112 N

( 47 4

and

in the

b e r _i sed

•

( 1 . 19 :!

10 4

N

0 . 317 )

iab .lah .is si?en us .

'

.

.#

.

.

x

104

e

ce nt r

Ibf ) .

In the scme way, the buckl ing loud mus t c.bout 2� . The E of

•

.

, -2

by

. •

,

not

2 as (lssmood in no t e 1 . 5 . -

23 J:.n 7 7 .

•

•

23.

Be inE; so thin , the ohr�ft o.n c.xi�l

in

l�t i L ns of

lor-.d.

.bcut

AS6 ur.l inG

r.

n o t e 5 SUgG0 s t

'Loa

crit i c�l

(t if f) l.6 f )

tv

'.nc

.:t

c

c :)l:ciL�o rr-.bly lower IO:lcl.

r:D

::

pikE:: ,

it

b ut

t o t r::: n s n i t

�!0uL.l b IJ qui t o

L�i.::rjQt(]r of 20

C 0ustc.nt �

t end t o buckle under

\,loulll .: 160

1l1lil ,

buckling

lo�C for Euler

d'.st ic

cr.Icu-

would st�.rt

bucklinb

So th(;: spccr c ould not be

th<.: full Idnet i c energy well .:blu

t e.

of

use d

the body ,

cope with the forw..rd

thrust

•

of

•.

s inGI .:: ::-.ro . and . tho ' bUckl ing [tight :tcducc tho ahocI:..

1 .2.2.2.

-

Tho apecr�c�c1. l·k�t cric.l a .

Alth'..;uGh 6th. Century

GO:;;O

bronze spec.rhe:'..C.f;

h.C'.ve been

:-.t

l(:['.st

fe-und r-.t Olympio. , th,"

�r(.: �f iron , �nc the letter Dr-.y h�vu been

the

c.s IC'.te

lil� j or i ty

[;r e r t .

the

univcrso.l in

poriUl: \,/ith 'ilhi ch we r'.re c oncerned. (Note 6 . ) Unfortunntcly corrosion i s so br-.u that tiet •.llurSi c nl eX':-.l.linat ion is r�ely possible , though V<.'.roufclds ( 1 974) has found isInnc1s of po:>rlitic

steel

in tID corroclec: r.:: rmins of

7th . Century B . C . froD Myceno.o , r.nd. 11ns •

"..::.s i!:1pcrt o j , possibly. frolit .

spo •.rhend

e.

Ue must in nny c::se

.

c.ssurJt: th:-.t til:.: &lot ...l

Wl"..S

l'.t lOr'.st ::�s sood

it replace d. , o.n ·l c r.rburiscC: in such ... w••y

both

hr-.rcl

th£ 6th -

th::-.t the cetci

shown

Asir-. l·iinor.

�f

as the: CoS

to

bronze

which

render it

.DC toueh .

•

Sh�.pc . The oh:;pu

r:

f th,;;

in c orpor..

finc.:3 h:'.CJ �lso

bn�ly from corr�oion ; thuTC is �n oxccpt i on nt illus t r : .t u tl !,)o. t t " rn r.:uat

by

Ueb o r

( 1 944

pl u t o

be rc c (;nstruc tuu

[I S

frll l:1

th'

),

Oly&l,i�

b ut tho

bron:o

ouff<;r.lu

gunoro.l

hor.,�o

.::H��k; •

nrt i a t i c

ruprCl t'l o n t ,"'. t iono .

S i neQ tho l:-.ttvr ;·.lwr.yc show •

ir.s ist inL: th·;t only t h o l�,.. f-ohr.p� ,' :1'inl�o ,·.r..: cpclI:rhC tHls , -

•

all tn,.. !our-s il!<.;d Ii toc,nts ,

r.nd tht'.t

S(.,lilf'J ot which

pruvio usly boon c laosad ns spo�rhonJs , 1 9J9

(Ri�htcrt

ncld Fiburv

1 95 > .

p.

B7 frx thu

oxccllcne � · .

8po�r pr�

OUDt be butt-spikos

type t both on

cost

,"n ti in the finus �t Olympk. , is that

VE'. o c s

fi� 1 . 2 , which Sno�gr�ss ••

had

( 1 964

p.

1 23 ) de s c r ib e s

as

show

in

' tho l on g

Fig. 1 . 2

•

•

•

The length of the head vc�i o s considerably , betweon nbout 20

and 50 co , ( including t he socke t ) with 30-40 c� ( 1 2-1 5 in. )

em

The mexinUl:!

t he Doat common . 4 . 5 ca , ( 1 . 4 bl�do ,

rcinforc ud by

socket .

. a

a

The h�ad c o nt ral

The ed8es ot tho blado

lonBth

t ip at

in) .

1.8

-

with .�

or

more

a

n6l o

n

vnrics from 3 . 5 CD t o

brlle.dth

c onsists of A

spine which

mergos

cake

.�

cut in

10s6 constant

radi�

and thoy

tho

thoir coet �t the •

.

0

30

of cbout

If such

•

head

a

it

lo»g (0. 6

�\VO to go do e por ,

nnd �ould

•

•

tho torso i t woul�

to porfor:ottG '

weuld AnVO

Cll

hclcot .:.bout

1 .5

\lOre

to ponotr�to �t

in ) to do sorious �s�go ,

tho

into

convex throughout

ar�

holme t t .:nu Ilssucing tb&�t it would noo u

least 3 cm ( 1 . 2

two edgod

in) ;

to

nttc.cking

roquiro

a

cut •

nor�ly tho

full

width

thore woule! 0180 b o

'I!

-

.

.. " "Y" , �.��;t t\l , �'�"';.f:.��

of tho blade , any ,

aO&:lCl sidO \tays tonring

e�

( 1 .2 in) .

r.nd bonc1inc ot

tho ao cute miGht roquir o :\bout �,hO sNile onern ," ''' '''':� '' � : . . �� " ��'�"r4:"j,1J "

'\ J ,� !':'' ''

oYI1lDot ri ct".l holu s

( 0 . 8 in)

_''

uf

'

' � '

ilin!mum

rQepo ct ivel,..

dirimotqr

'

Sinco the

ae

'.-

1

CQ

( 0. 4 in) and 2

CD

•

1 .2.2.3.

The C w o r � .

Frot} the

l: i s c uGs i on " .b c v l: i t i s n (' t s t:rp r i s i n s t o

th:-. t

t he: S i,nrt .. nz u s ec r1

t h .. t

B':l c,r d i s c a l l o c t .;; ::

cn� rl�to 1 0 ) , Elsewhere

.. n � i t

..

.. n c!

C i S C US6 U l�

woul d

h .. ve

•

by i.nLo rson ( 1 970 p . 38

n o e f f e c t cn

..

•

•

b!O t y p � s

Ev i c c n c c for

stt::. b b i n G l;\·/ or.:� .

::;h0rt

\"Icre useG

ri nd

( f ic;s

Enc h i s

r�our

1 .3

,

n

•

& b).

.

/" "'lib it,.,.. .

-

-

-

1 . 3 ( n! •

'. .

.

-

r=

-

" •

1.3(b)

l!b out

bl0

feet

( 0 . 6 Ll )

lonG ,

can

nctldnc

do

else .

t V \-![.rLs

tho en
slnshinG blow ; inue e d

r:.nu capable o f d e l i v e r i nG :::'

type

h e r:.vy

On V�6CS ,

swcrds shown

scnbb ..r e r:.rc prc�loDin..ntly of the: fi rst t ype ; 8e cone type , wh i c h i s !lul!zons ,

..

Iso

fre quent ly sho'om b e in G use
is

the

in

hOl/ever the

in the hL'.n
shown

se c cn
the

P e r s i ans

nnd

p e rh l! p s •

bat tle , •

bec�usu

it

we.s Tdor .::

Once <.G�. in

picture sque .

the £.It' t o r i •• l .

h�

•

c o rro s i o n ,

suffered by

type hUG been s h o \-In •

cltcrn�to benes

of

to

b ut '.n Etrusc::.n S \'lore o f the

h.:>.vo

•

(2.2

( Dioc:nsi ons

lb ) .

l�in.:>.t e �: c o ns t r u c t i o n

pe�rlitc nne

(P.�nscri 1 957 ) .

•

..

sec ond

ferr i t �

The \�e i G ht -

of s c: v c r � l

riiving

�

ha r d

\·m G prob:-.bly

cx .. tlplcc

vith :::.n d

:b o

;

ut 1 kg t

r:.ro Given by

An�c rson ( 1 970 p . 37 ) . Such

a wcapon \/oul ll c h i c fly

po rts o f the t \�O Llpo c i C'.1

b o �y ,

b u t r.G;� i n n t

un:-.rT.lour(H l

CrJll OUr i t oiCht in tllc ory prcaent

t h N ata : h i t t i n :� t h ..

th roUGh \/hCl'''' t h l.' curv:\t ur�

th rc r. t <.: n tho

olwul l:l:ro i t oight

:,. l low() d finly

:�

:.> h

£l i c o

O l t port i "n '

of the

•

-

_ . _ - -- -- _ ._----

26 . blrv'.O

t o c,n.::.�.cc ; h i t t i nG til" h .... hlO t i t :-: i {jh t

callAo

c oncuDs i o n .

s t r ", n ct h o f : . rr., �·�r , n o t \.: ,

�1 (: C :-.t.:.D0

.

fir�t

Tr. e t �:v

c. f t h e l3 (;

c : e C (l n l�

c " . s t c S ('l:O l i ght

it

it h o r

r o l o v c.n t

i6

i f: not ,

o

but

[Io r i t a

�o

tv tho C

IJ •.

l. a v·J IVO L .

••

'l'b:

'1 1:vrgy n c: c l'.c ,� t c

ror-.cll

but

£lust b .;: w'.lle

Let

<.1e: ptll

Lo t

of

t hr.t

ell� l e t

B

B C r U SG

chorJ

cut be

tho

the

y is tho

( where

sh o u l d e

the

hc1cot ( 8

x

such clents

r

10

l'.ro

(8

�f

cute ( �uo ssin� 4

2 . 1+

in.

t i l:l�B

n3

-

cr.l ,

helme t )

l on � r.s

(4

CD

in )

b e e quiv.:.l..:: n t t o

dent .

Then

using

1 .5 )t

x

11

=

wo shouI\! pre dict

7.7

c c , ( /+ . 4 ...beut l'.

1 .6

in nt

-

D �Y

en.:

c nl.l

310 nucr

CD

).

in

(3

in )

In n

�.

W�l'.C.

uy

60

J

-

dent

in tho

Likowiae

cn,

cb()ut twico end

pru j o c t ilo

nb �ut

II

the

nn c c.l c d bro:1zo

IJro j o c t ilo .

n

of

hnl f , �nt! trice ,

t'/OUlll bo rOtlpo c t iv-lly t ho s o

('��

tho she ul
i f th.:. ol;:nhinc; �:Qnp�n hna

ot r.ul> inl: wonron

.-

=

5

c r.ua.:. ·.: by

t h (.;

. -

10

Q

-

r e s :,o c t l v e ly

t ho s o

f.)r th.:.

x

1 . 5 )t

x

s i ze v r

r. o ,

-

i1eYe

at t h u de p t h of pe ne t r at i on ,

r:1cli'Us cf c nr vc t u r c )

t h :l

t hroo

- - --

u e nt

the

( O . C in )

cn

de p t h c: f pc nctr;'. t i on , L i s thu length

chorl1 C'.llc' r t h"

--

1 .5

l e: t the curve

l e ng t h o f t h o

he l f t h e

y

0.

curv�

thr.t

r.ppr�xi[lc.t i on

t�o

at

•. T, ·.�

curve ,

t h e: l e nG t h (, f

cut

fo110\l6 .

c.s

5 em ( 2 i n ) r.t the shcu1�er ,

c c n 6 t �n t r�(iu� c f i n t h o he1l:"1c t .

t h e:

DS

(lent r.1r.ue be r e- ro c u t t i n g

o f p c ne t rr. t i o n rQqu i r e � be

of

so

b e e n i n vcs t i gC'.t c d c xpcr-

(I f t h ..:-

s i ze

po i n t

hiCJ:.: s t

curve: u pl < � t c

probC'.b ly (lC:1'on,1(; e n t h e: l e: nG t h of tho

it

:!nl� on t h e

tho

r'.

t hrcul)h

II r Cl u Gh EUO S S CC'.Jl be c{'.c'c:

cr.n s t r-.r t .

the

s l i c e:

i s un<.� o rnl)('. t h has n(,t

whet

i rl (; ll t �lly ,

frur.!

rginnl,

lovole; o f c n u r g"J

(,n t ho

'

to

tb.�t or

of 1

CD

t \licu thv .J nera of

it Wvul'� soom tl"�t the sh;-uldor

-

27 . e

i Ght no c (�

t:o

just

s p o c i l' l roinfc..rc c ncnt , �ut t h:-.t t ho .

ug:d llst the:

woll

just

B

11

c.t 1 1

-1

r'.nc t h,;t i t s itlp�ct

If

the :-.v<.: rc.Gc wher� G

is the:

�ho

hcr-.t:

nne C

thl'.t t h o 60 J of

<'.

t o thr:t r; f

£1:\t

in 1

". f t e

C r.1

An :'.ccclc:rc.t i cn o f

I

G,

r

c

gynnast whose

c

1<'.11

1.1

cf

0,

200 G , cctJsc
�;uul:l p r ob .::b l y b � sc:ri cus.

butt spike .

b ut ttey sOlle: t i ecs ene. ..,i th

lonG

a

svDet imcs with

ike usuall y

thin h<'..5 t een

, c aus 1ng •

shoul d b e: <.bout 1 1 0

The b u t t s c,f spe�rs e n Greek vas c s l'.re

np

1 Kg t r!'.velling

Gr:-.vi tc.t i ona1 cOllst:".llt .

s h (· u l u b � t t'lerc.b1c .

hc <'.vy club ,

tho

I

4 Kg l'.ml the h o 1ee t 1 Kg ,

s i t u;:t i cn i s t hus Bir:1i1�r

Tho

should

stl'.bbing

is f\1lly pl u st i c

c f the he�;.'.

is b r o u ght t o rest by

1 .2.2.4.

l'.ssurJ�n

the hocd 1'/O i ghs

l c r.:: t i cn

.

ccce

l�

ncnt i o n .:; c is l'.ch iov.: d by

,

cent 1 cn (lo e p .

C. G

noto 7

tn for c oncu s s i c n , l:in c t i c oner GY

swore

ho lcc t

a

h:>.ve

t o be

sp ike .

raise.:!. ring

sho\! thc.t s t uc k

often pl:dn ,

c onicc.l ferrule ,

short

four-siul:'!

t.::.k(:n t o

c.ll o�1 th.: spear

c

quito

;:ora

Both the ferrilla

bo lo\#

:"nd

tho s o c ket , nnd

the ir pricL'.ry pnrposo

to

¥os

upright in the Crcun
7h eir shc.po

pr e v e nt in G the shc.ft frcQ Goine too d� cp. {'.lso j;1'.kC them e f fe c t ive e.s IIc:!pons ,

looks so

un n C V r ( us t h:-.. t ,

fer orucrhc.:c:lo in

t he ir

c.ne t he: fonr

survivin� c�.'.t:lploB richt .

at-Ill

( nc. t o

•

voUl.d ' typo

silled

r c nt first •

\Je

8).

In viell

tt'ion

of tho •

.

cviconc.:: fretl

cr

t ( :acht .:: r 1 S39 p . 1 95 )

th;�t c ; : nno t

bo t:ccepte
•

t ut tho numb e r v ! hoh z fluch

in

surviving ... roour \/hich woul!! fit

s;/ik," B is su f f i c i e n t t c.

,

w:kl.

it \'; orth cons i!!erinc' both

their G!\CPI,) :-.nl1 t ho o v i !uncv fer thv ir uoo . Buch c;-ikon i o I.luch

tli:lr, l l u r

,

( Weber 1 944 P 1 55 ) , i n

G}l i t .:

:'ll\t�o 1;. 1'

i il. •

b r ,,·nz..: ,

: ,I 1 ,�

rj ",

I

Tho n,Jobor

of

I

th:�n th:-.t I)! tho 611or.rhc:\t::l ,

o f the r,h, ct

r .... l i l:u l�'

,

thnt tho)'

t u curvivlO .

I,

,

\lore'

,

ulSu..�ll)'

typic::.l

•

1 . 4,

shepo is thRt sllown ill fiG

which is t � kc n froD

•

•

•

•

•

•

Fig. 1. 1.

•

Richter

( 1 939

1.2 em ( 1 6i (8

in

rinG ,

)

lOX-\! 50 ... ftor

sc c t icn , •

to

r.

in

1 93 fi6 . 4 ) .

p.

),

The length of thd

( 20

�/lfi ch

in ) .

Be low t he ••

Eocl;:d

thc: spiku t:-.pers .... ith

fron nbout

2 x 2

(0.8 x 0.8

C CI

t ip lo/hich is o ften broken or

20

f O\l)l (� beb-/c c:n

�nc.l Clthcr cx..-.:;plc3 �.re

CD ,

exnmple

t he re is

is cm

�

rniscd

four-sided cross-

n

in.

ili!mngc d ,

)

below

the

socket ,

but o:-.y be c.bout

•

0 . 6 % _9.6 CD (0.24 % 0. 24

i n ) be for e roundinB off.

Tho sides

•

of the spikc :.rc sOIJetincs ccncnvc in the u�p�r port ion , os

In

in t h e present exnnple . throueh orDour ,

orGor to de l iv e r

bC'.vo t o

the spike woulc1

m.. ke .

0

fntal t hru st

C'.

hole

about

•

0 . 9 x 0.9 more nnd

cm,

( 0 . 36

0 . 36

x

thnt

or lcsz C 0 n3tnnt C'.t

5

co

(0.4

For tho

in uso

l'.Jld 2

in

sinco its cross-sect ion is

in) ,

)

...t

dist�nce: G betwe�n

f1.'OD tho:; t i p .

vf the: opiko ,

beon n ot e d b;y Hi �s Ri ch t l.l r

aiz�

t\l\:' p i c t oril'.l

:' n o t he r .

( 1 939 p . 1 95 , 1 95'. p . 55

ot;�bb ir.G l�<.)\nn"". rtlo

of

thoir OI'l)(;J1 o n t c .

Hunou;:! ot

Got!c1cso

SN.hJwh ... t

( probnbly

CD

oxcoplos 11.."W O

In tho tODoUO G i G.:-.nt uo::-.chy on n v:,.sc in tho Louvr\) both J.th"ne anI!

1

n

82) .

(rR

p

•

196 ) , . •

DCL1o tor ) :-oro shoun

UIl(; " llV incin(;; ly t o \·/:'.r<'o the shiol's

On r. crev" r.lCnUtlll nt now in

tho J.ic: trcl'olitron

Art in Nu w Yorlt ron 1. t h .:: n il".n hOIJl 1 t i. 10 shown

29 .

s ho ...m ncko u .

1 970 ,

pI

spik;::

(Richter

10 ) .

1 954 p . 55 n 82 , rcV:coducod

He ither o f thes,",

is ovi uence of th�

use o f the

but

['.gcin coes

The I i t c r.-.ry eviie:nc .:: i s n:·r0 ph. nt i ful t

not sUGl!o s t

usc

•. gcdnst

r.l t c rn .. t ive .1 y M(IU�IIl Tnp

Th� sp ike \·I,.S c::lle (�

.. ril(.-ur .

or

in Anderson ,

C"TUPClt

, cnd

bo th He a :r c h iu s ,:ncl

•

the SOU(�,... re c crc

"

which t he former glosses

verb cTuomdt;1Il

':Ic-unel ' .

' to

Polybius ( V I 25 5

-

9)

r e c e r cls th�t the Rooc.ns a d op t e d the

ele vice fr o n tho Greeks , .. lcnG i t vr.lur.ble

�·!h(;n the

wi t h

other iaprovo�ent s ,

SJ!or.r br oke t o h.. vc

fin �in[

sec o n e. wer�p o n .

['.

He

-

•

... Philopo eDc n UG o : ::: 15 0 Gtr�t QS t'.ll� .&..

..

t hrust with t he but t -spike

t o finish o f f the Spc:rt ::n tyr .nt h::ch;:nidcs L�t E.... nt inoe c , after

first thrust -:lith the p o i n t ; the Grnphic cc c ount o f the

c

c c t icn ""hich Plub.rch

( PhilopoeDen

e re c t .:! .} s c on "ftcr1fI. :rc:s r.t b low ,

10. 1 2 )

bcse cl on

but t hct �cy n�e Fclyb ius t

1 12 ) ,

2 19)

c c c u u nt

the

( in

Plut'·.r c h '

o f I·i::-. sist ius

... �.. .. �

cu t t h r c u Gh 'l:hL ,

The (�:':'::ll'.rC f i rst EJUCG c s t ,

r-.r o o ur

,

c. bs",rvr.bl.::

in tho

(:i f fc r c nt 3 t O ry .

c :);.1pl c t v h e: li.lc: t o in t h..: nqu .. rv h o l \,; s wh i c h

eye-hole of tho killing

c ould b tl fl:-und

to

i.r i s t i �es 1 4 ) . '. r o

our

n u s (� un

wc ul � fit

at ClYlll !;i:.

Jis is s h o �1D in

t:-.blc 3 . 3 , .:t lcast nin� ( f the.; r o u C h l y

or

( Xc n . He ll . VI

..

"': ..1

111

Pel . VI

..

s r:' th"r susp e c t cc ccunt of

Pl<.t�c .. , :.hc n nc e t her

cre dible .

U nt h .

cn.:! thc jnsertion i f t he spike thrOUGh the

he loe t

Co

Qcre

the bec.t ine o f rc c ..lc i trr.nt o f f i c e rs

.

s cu lpt 1lr e

Delphi doc s not ment ion the secenel

Othe r ref..: r c llccs ro corll the killing of ueer cnd

a

tlic;ht c.t

Chnpt ;..: r 3 ,

two hundre d

enu fifty

::.nc; A�1 0 t hc k.: hnvo eithor rcund s u c h spik� s ,

nn

..

th�t

lIowover wo o::.y n<.tv

is

cas ily

thr.t

nest •

( r.lCr\.l e e l ,l"lonly ) r.t t h.J .. . ::: ..:

/

f t llu hc lr.1vt I

:�r-;

if

t"

::.llow

it

30 . hung up .

t o bo

c.� Jwmtnrd.s ,

iF:

holo

In o i t h. .: r c�sc- tho:: blc�1 is pr ob ::.b ly cnue

wh iclt

nll owlJ

c:

sl i g h t ly s:K'.llcr

[;rcr-.t or (:nu rgy ,

C.ll G thu size of

t h •. n t l:r t re quiroc.� f0r .

r'.

tho

deep p£:ne-

tr�t icn by tho · s p iko . I t cr.y be

thcrof(;ro ,

I

h::vl.: tn.kon the: l in.;

use

(:onc:

nc i c n t �rI:lOUr C r WQuIc '"

.

such ;'. \tor-.pon ,

used for tho ,c oup

e

H o wevo r ,

l ike J.lr-.sist ius .

f (·r c.n:/, '/c.y ,

f0rc(: c f

50

J

opportunity

be

i f i t c ould

in th0 C:ownt-,,:r d thrust wcuIe:

hole no l"rger th;'.n 0.6

;�

m

�e

enc \;; ' yvu nrf.: lyin:;; r:t h i s fe e t , y o u .:1ro pr ob 2..bly

l. " ... ... . ,

nrr;'.nsed th c.t ]]<'.1:0

r

w<'.s b C G t dcnlt \iit h by g i v i nG �n o pp on o n t

Greco" tc

thc.t

th::-. t r:n

x

0 . 6 co ( 0 . 24 x 0. 24 in ) -

se uuch the b u t t o r .

1 .3.

COllc l us i o n . I t hr-.s b o e n sUGco s t e d t h::'.t the

e ner GY

in hr.nC

riv['.ilnble

,

•

\/C::',pons is c (,nsiucr�bly liLJit G G. by t .:'.. c t i c :: l c onsiC!.c r�t i onS t ::n<.� thr-.t t ::c t i c s lovels

10\'1 .

n iGht

b e cl o l ib :: r::t e l y L�e s ignc J

t c. keep energy

In cluse hene: t o h�
th::t cnurgi c s bcb,ccn 30 �d 60 Jeules c 0uld b e given t o wo::pons .

Fron the shepe

of the: wc ::pons i t seeDS

t h�t

s ::t i s f � c t t ry d e gr e e o f pret e c t i �·n woulll . b e prc.'vided .

...:hich woull� re qu ir e energies o f l� iru:o t,)r up t o

\dth

r..

1 co ,

(0.4

in ) .

th.:-..t crecr t o o..�kc Such

� r ",o ur

� •

by

�I'lionr

."

e

hele:

should nlsc

cope

s l�s hi n G blr.\·/ o f up t e. 60 J , r..n(� r.bscrb sufficient

ene rSy t c �v � i d c c ncuo a i o n . ,

of •

31 • •

Chapt �r

,

2'••

Tho EnerbY o f Pernien end S cyth icn Arrows .

In this chapt e r

80el: to cst imnto

,�e

o f the arrcw iomo �intoly bo fcr�

iQpa c t .

tho l:in e t ic enorgy Tho

'iscuc e i on is

,

c on f ino d t o S cythicn and Pors inn arrows , great � s t part

in t he crchacoloe i c �l

r e c or �D w i t h whi c h we [lre c oncerne d , arro� ,

ns we ll

as

no

s ince thesc play the

wel l

but

t h B historical

�s

some

other types o f

several t e chn i c �l point s , nre d�nlt

with

i n eppe nc i c e s .

2.1

T e c hn i c al introduc t ion . Anc i e n t archery has r e c e iv e d conside�ably oore at tent i on

t hon hns b e e n Ci ven t o hc.nL� weapons , uynnoi c s i s c oncernc G .

It

iE

lenu ins i t s c l f t o s c i e nt i f i c ,

n

at aay rat e

os

far

as

c oopl e x �n� nt t r c c t ive SUb j e c t ,

cnd

h i s t cr i c al , �rchcc olo6 i c cl ,

�nu �lGO to i�it�t ive expericent ,

e t��oernph i c inve s t i gat i o n ,

crcwing upon t he eT-pa r i e n c e �n� skill �f rnc�ern t arge t erchors nne hunt ers .

There is

Ant i quaricn l.rcher e ,

n

tho S o ciety of

o o c i o t y in Englan ll ,

"/h ich publishes

t o historicr.l cspo c t s o f crchery ,

c

Journn' devo t e d �nt irely

CI.� there

�r e

publicnt i ons coalinG with other rel.::.t c\l t opics . t e c hn ical t o p i c s publ isho c in �tier1c& between

anny Art i c les

on

1 92 9 and 1 946 • ,

are colle c t o G in

• :.rchcry

,

tItu Technical. S ido '

by

,947,) anel tho discussion is carriod furthor by apI.eDta C e s t.") liardy P e t o r Jonoo ,

c.nt! tho prt.1scnt �Iritor .

considorL'.t ionG ar\) UGu£'.lly

pnoso\.;

�� iocuosinc or doocrib inc bow'

.• Dt!

whun me.kins imitnt ivu e xpor!lIIo nt s . b o sin w i t h cnn be

0.

brio ! curv�y

U30 � to into rpru t

in do tnil .

of

( 1 976 )

by Pro f . P .L.Prntt t

Unfortunllt e ly ,

(lYlU'.Dic

ovo r by his t orians 'o.nd oth.:lre arrtJ�/s ,

(1 )

nn'.�

C/von by nrc here

Wo shell thoro toro

tho t o c hnical princ i�l o o wllich

t llu ov iJonco bo f�ro c on8ido rin� it

32. 2.1.1.

The

CIrowhecd. ancient

1� rou gh guile to the energy of

provi de d

arrows is

by the size of the: flesh-cuttint; c.rrol-/heu,'.s. c

Hhcrens the upmL'.t;;e cone by

the

bull <: t exten��s f<'.X bC70nu ••

rc
a

s harp Corro\l cuts nectly through, •

cnel it must sever rn�jor nerves or blooL-vessels if it is to disable.

1963,

(c.f. Pope,

p.

used fer hunting bi,; gm;:o,

C1.rL10Urcd

So the he:!cs of crre,.,s

..

or in \icrfc-,rc for

men or horses, shoulu bo es broc. cl

t he ot he r han L ,

tho siz£: of the hec�

cs

11n-

possib l e .

is li�iteJ (c)

On

by the

The l�rger the hc�c, th� gr ea t e r

of energy eluring flight. nc rody n cmic

attacking

drive it into th� target, (b) by the loss

energy cvailable to

its

61)

drcG,

nnel

the greater also its tcn�ency to •

•

civcrt th(; nrroH; hence it require:; more steednG,

le.rger fletching, which o.lso i nc r c [ s e s the dreg. .

and so So the

arrowheo.c1 must be ke pt small anel r c d:ct i v e ly in eff e c ti ve , •

e ither if the initio.l energy imparted by the bow is low. or if the ar row is used ct l on g range.

In whic

h

�C:itio n ,

some evitlence of the maximum force with

t h e (U'I'OW is

expected to hit the target c�n be fonne

el

from tho di�metor of the socket of an crrowhen
2.1.2.

The shaf t

..

•

.

\/hort: actunl c.rrow

ohl"'.fts h•.vc s1!rvived, r.n;:"� where their

length and stiffnoss Can bo ooasurctl, we c�n ca1c�lato the •

maximum force which If

it is

coul�� bo appliod to

o.lso posoiblo

to mOaDuro or c�culatc the froquenc1

of their lateral vibration of

thorn I!uring shoc.tiJl{;.

n

GOo�

i n ci cat io n cen

bo obtain�c

the velocity vi th which thc.y woultl mc·at cloMly l onv� tho

bew.

Thu80

mothoJs h(�vo

ustimnto tho onorCy !�nc!

Loon

U$UU

v o locity

by

Prr.tt (Hr.rc!y 1976) to

of mo�inev:\l

arr"w8,

uith

.,

•

•

arrow6 by tho

they nrc being cpplied to EG yptian

end

intercstin� results,

present \!riter.

Unfortun;:>.tely ,

nlthough nrrow-

shafts hC'.ve beon f.lxcC'.v<.tte� from Scythicn tombs,

no (�i{'.moters

Pond little e�n be: l�ono on thoSE> orrO':l&'

hnv(: been publisheu,

•

until further infor�ation

2.1.3.

is

�vnilnble.

Th� fli[5ht of the nrro't'.

Given the: she.po

�n'

(..� ...

L mass

of .nn �rrow we

in flight.

e ffoct of air rcsistc.nce on the ;:.rro't/ �

enn obtain

�!c Crul also obt ain

�istnnce travelled).

o

't:hich governs th�

power of

ranejng

the

ranee for a given initial velocity �nJ Usine the

and

C.nl� s is the

ballistic constant e..rr ow

,

i.c. its

ngle of release.

find

tho kinetic

v e locit ie s

fer

a

energy from fi gures for

Here too evidence rel atin g to Pcrsic.n and

r ang e .

Scythian {'..rrows is somewhat 2.1.4.

U

u

cnn estioate jnitial anJ fin.:'.l

eiven rnnee,

maximum

that ve

constrmt in conjunction with stcndnre ballistic

\10

tables,

a

Froll

dUles ( where

measure of the rate of energy 1065

is the kinetic energy of the arrow in flight,

C

c� estimate the

thin.

The design of the bow. An upper limit to the

tho arrow energy

leavoD

\�hi

the

bow c�.n be provh!ed by estililntinc;

c h can bo storc �l

thu pr o porti on of thnt

w

hich

initial kinetic energy with

ac

e l�D ti

c strain

enerGY likoly

to

tho

b ow , c.ne

in th e

be tr�sforred to

Sincu no bows have s 1J!'vivocl in •

th(;l arrow durinG tho

relee.oo. •

corpore from t ho period, this pro �u e c o nly

n ve ry

rou�h

pictorial ovie�nco an(�

it

on

otho � c�n

m

in tho pre s ont instence

6uoss, br.soe on litorRry cnu compnrativo

.

is

In principle,

m�tcriol.

a mntte r or c�)mbininc el'.ta or guosaos

rolat i ng

to

four

•

vl\rinblos,

,

•

(0)

thv

iaum forcu F U6�H1 by

max

tho

"reher in \lrawins

tho)

bOWl ,

.•

,

. �...

(b)

thrnugh

the distance D

...,hich

bo (�raWS back tho

string ; tho go omet ry of the bow which govorns tho buil d up

(c)

tho

D,

the energy store d;

force durine tho draw, F-nl1 hence, with F �U

The m at e rial and design of the bow-arms and the

Cd) ,

of

'

stri n g; thoso govorn the eMS, of the

orrow ,

a

Jditi onol

to that

which Dust be accelerate� durinG the

role�so, nn� tha

proportion

of tho stored energy

which remains in the bow as th� nrrow loaves tho str ine .

1.11 of theso mothol1s should ideally point in the Sl'.L1e direction,

and it will eppeer that for the bowe �nu nrrows •

,

un.!er t!iscussion cnch sugGests about h .....lf the: enorgy of

a

on

clDe r gy

250

of acout

-

!�J

powerful fJodcrn hunting bow, ��nd

'c.bout one third of the enera ostieated for the eeclinovci lonsbow.

en

Tho evidence will ba trente� in

to thnt of th o principles just enumcratot!, from the nrrowhea�s, bow, cbout

�:hich

order correspon�ing

�Iorking backwards

about which we know a eood denI,

wo know littl e .

to

th e

"

'2.2.' Evidenco from Arrowhen'�s.· The typology and provcnnnco of the arrows thou�ht to om'v ivo froe tho Porsinn invasio n of Greoco is briefly S\lt out in nppend!:: 2.1,

sUtlr.taril3inc; the work of 1-1i8s Er(loann

(1973).

J,rro�/hoa(�s h:-.ve boon foun�1 on overy no-jar bRttlo"sito t if we

inclu�c two,

from

which nro not mentioned by Er(1m�nn,

snid to

PltltnoC!. nne! nt ono ti r.to in tho mu so Ur.t at Borlin.

However,

b" foro (1iBcuI3Gin� tho a

crucially impor tant typo

wo must

firot notiou

2.2.1.

Thu bodkin, typ� A.

Thin tyI"1.: if)

tho

tY!>lJo 'v;hich hnvc

!our-nit!utl,

tancoc!

coco

( noto 2)

boen faun;!, \l

'botlkin'

hich hnu not.

hc.:nu,

fiG 2. 1

•

•

•

•

•

•

4rl

rl----'�----��----.

_

so�ctimes in bronze, �ore often in iron,

Gescribc� as type

It Boons primn f::cie t<, he: desiened for

in the :::.ppcndix.

crmour piercing, and in sh�pe it closely rcscoblcs 1nter •

HnccGonian, Turldsh,

The type

nn(� i·jceinc:vnl EnGlish henl!s.

wns foune in larGe nULlbcrs durillZ cxc8.v['.ticns into the siege

mound r�ise� Cyprus.

for tll�

(n ote 3)

Persien ntt�ck on the town of Paphos in

Th<.t nttcck took p1�;cc in

498

B.C.,

l�uring

•

the Ioninn revo] t \-ihich Ie.: to the invc1ve1l1ent of the oo.in1nnd . Greeks,

c.n..! inGirect1y to the Persinn inv .....sion of G r ee c e with

which \-ie nrc concerned. •

on

what type

bO\-l

However

(".0 not know \o/ho sho t them •

\·10

of sh:::.ft they l/ere Bountcd,

they vere launched,

cor.;r.lon 1nter in

taia

Greece,

type of

were

used

The type has 0. 10ns

�unor nnc in Cyprus;

nnt! Fors.ly]�c

t

'f/hn

- nor in fnct \-Ihether they

in Greece durine the: invasion at all. previous history in

or from

it was quite

(1919/20)

thOUGht that

some dubious cxr.np1os in the British !:usoum s�i(: to have been founu

with the

'in

n

tor;!b on the K-.rnthon JI 1:::. in '

tho inval�crs.

(note

There

Persi::.n navy (U(1t VII 195),

loct in the stcrm boiero

h:wo coul� in

3)

como over

llc.vc

the

l:ntt.'.blo

\Oi th

l�ci,1 Creel: BOiJ..

(nlthcuGh 0.11 but one \loro

\' bi to

' i.rtemisiuf.1) so '\

e

sr:o. ll nUClbor caul\!

would

cerry;

the bnttlcficl�s �nd 7ho

in Ilr.inl .. nL� Grooc� .

\�ere Pophi:,.n ships with

tho :�chcr5 thoy

boen shot on

r.1iGht heve CODe over

.

corro�cd awo.y

(';nly

c�r.r,lploG

GO

bcfurc

l�50 D.C.

r.N

•

or tho\W .. n�5

fer pooitivoly

twe notod by

-

Dr.

M�llwitz �nc1 tho prosent writor 4'.Il1ong BCtle iron spe�-

he
a\'/ni tinC; c�taloguin6 <'-t OlImpin,

It in c(Jnceivablo tJ:;.at tho y were

bank of tho Stadium thuro.

doelicntetl

foum1 in the north

o�rly �s tho Persian holmct ",hich wa s �lso foun:!

�s

••

ken

in the bn n inG ::>.nl! ,·:hich may \wll have ;,een t a

k

but they could be e::>.rlior or

somewh�t Inter.

Olynthus nn(� Therl:Jopyl:".o <'.ro attributed nnd

are

in any ccsc slightly differ�nt;

C::>.rapnnos at Douona,

E x am ples froD

the fourth centm'" t

those found by

and probably identical with two in the

Nntionfll Musoum at ;�thens, Speculati on

to

at Ni\rl:'..thon;

(n o te 4).

c[.nnot be elated.

<,-bout the presence or absence of these

<'.rrowheads on the basis of the archaeoloGical evidence alo ne is therefore

point le ss;

type already

existed

presents

�

o ther

on the

hend the f ..,ct that the • -

�nd must have been known to the Persians

historical probleQ

·<"

-

C '.L

....

kind "lhich it is the

business of this enquiry to examine.

The best th�t can be

done is to leave tha ty pe on one sice ,

disc u s s

uat::. thct we hav e on other types , in

•

chap ter 7,

th e

positiv e

and return to the

pro blem

w hen we have considered all the other evide nc e •

•

By then we shall nt least h ave some icea of how much energy

•

•

perfor ation ,

these ar ro w s woul d requ ir e for

bows of the nrmy could supply thnt enerGY,

whether the ordinOl'1 ::>.nd what the effect

would havo been if lerce numbers had bee n suit nbly

,

that way th� riddle of tho type

shot.

In

heed mny add n cort �in fcc

A

to tho onquiry.

2.2.2.

So c k o t o u

Bronzo Honds

description.

-

Tho majority of tho nrrowhcads fouOl� on Perl3ie.n War bnttlofiolds in Grooco nro rnnuo of cnat bro n zo , nn'! typi ca l

oxc mpl o s .

ineivi�unl fin t lo

nrc

ohl..'\m

in ties.

boinC �ivon in

sockct�

2.2 (roferonceA to

ppo n uix 2.1)

n

with

• •

•

•

• ,

,

b

a

c

e

d

•

9

f ,

Fig. 2. 2 o

-

•

Er(�m�nn' s c <'.t �l c �ll e of th0 &.rlA'uhc S .

collection (Erdmann 1913)

I.

dis t in G ui sh es hlo Main typel; t'.lll! two

r.:njor

subdivisions,

as

follows:

C 1

throe -

cc c� he�;l6, more:

\1in

tho.n

120 ccrt�inly fOlln
•

100 in LlUSOllC

on bnttlesitos, plUG morc thuri ,

collections cn� Fi8

C 11

2.2

Co

-

cl niue e

to cono frem bnttlcsiteG.

c. 5 on b�ttlcsiteo,

threc-si�o� pyrlllJiunl.

40 in mUl;OUCS. Fie ,

nore

th�D

2.2 d. "

D

1

leci 8hnpe� with

centrel

opino,

tho socket beinG

con1;itlorebly sneller tn:-.n the bln(�c t into

D 11

it.

incorl'or::.toc1

5 on b �ttl e o it o s nbout 20 in ouoouos.

,

nunll

t:'.n�1

lon1'-che,o��, tho

J

G o c :ct

tho blo.l�c nnl� or c.bout tho

buinG

cnr.l�

so

pn rn to

lon r,th .

2

!rorJ

on b:&ttlc-

•

10 in musoums.

sites,

consider euen

�le sha ll

2.2.2.1.

C 1.

Type

The three

South Vest

to

of the 7th.

Fig 2.2 of th"EG

•

•

g. �YJlcs in

serne

detail.

•

•

•

winGc� hOQ�

the S cy t hi cn

tsic �urinG

Century, end

thought to

is

other

up by the Persip�6

pe opl es who c�me into contact

w ns

thore

b ee n introuuce d

Ci�rnerian invcsions

an�

to hcve been taken

cnel th en by the Greeks en,:

with it thereafter.

If

the

this was it.

Ach::lel!leni<:. army,

have

c

stcndnr� arr owhe a d for

Ho wever it is no tab le •

th�t

oul � in the British MUseum,

� D

been use;! to cast wax lost wax �a

of

pr ocess , C

type

Greece.

.

,

C 1 .

�

to

ccsts

1 aD'.�

rether sllu>.ller

aki n g

cf which two

thoueh the lQ,ttcr is

of type D 1,

1 hcnH�3

D

fonn e

.

.

in

In tho Acropolia find, the pr opo rtion

hc nr�s is about

have

'.rro'tfhea�s by the

henes at a time ,

three

one

m

to

..

than Dost of the type

(note 5) D 1

blnnks for

which is thought

of

to one i at Thermopyl ae it is

two

•

about three to one . mea

Typical

surements

J.

LenGth

C 1

head as found in Greece

•

are ns fol l ows : •

of the

.

28- 35

me •

•ie.xit.1um bren<:.th of each blade

•

6

•

Thickness

the

(moasurinG from

of

bIndo

0.6 - 1.5

Outside diamotor of socket

4.9 - 9

l

averaGe cbout

centrel r.xis of thu bIr.t!c). cm.

6.0 -

6 7 .

mm

•

Insiue clintlotor of s ocke t 4.2 - 4.8

Tho v�iation in size is considorcblo,

.

oxum�lco

nru found

in Scythian

1IIr.l .

and some much

tombs. (note

6)

finor

•

•

,

'

Tho impact str�nGth

of

thOBO hoaGB is clso vcry

•

•

vnrinbl�.

•

• •

Host ccmconly,

thu throo blndos nro joined only

-

each blacc is

along tho central axis of the Drrow, so that al l

s(;p��te frem its neiBhbours

the wny frem the

arrow until the blade c.buts on th(' secket.

is 10ft

h£ ads the tip •

metres (fig 2 .2n ) .

�s

e asy

moule.

HOWClver in

<:.

£0..,

�_ . .

pyramid for

sclic1

This Day be

design, �nd it wculc bo portion of the

n

tip of the

sev er �l milli•

mo(;ification of the st�Df.i e.rd

by

to produce

away

cutting

a

The strenf,th of the st�nuard �esign •

may be estimnto� from exnmples from the Acropolis and elsewhere a

which appc�r to have hit distorted quite ba d ly , bronze armour.

rock.

an� would

((:tL

a

io d heau with

to bene further beck,

the

where

not ha ve perfcrated

clearly

tlO dif

Tho

soliu tip woul d have

<:re

ttin:;s

They hnve

2.2.f)

fig.

bror.tier,

.-:nc wou1�

havo withstooc a larger force. •

The impp.ct of the

6 ol i�

he�d,

the

on

oth�r hnn�,

would

have been limited by tho crushing strenrrth of tho wooden .

•

fore shaft ,

which can be estjmutecl from

Because of the

vel o city of the impact,

sufficient tim e to oblique

angle.

the an

socket

Drrow aces

buckle unless it hits at

(In this

it

resembles

0

(liaoeter.

a

not

have

se r ionsly

tent pe g , -

can

which

•

be �riven in with

a

blow from

n

mallet but which bends or

snnps uneer tho tyro's boot; nails also work cn the s�e •

principle.)

The arrow-maker nee�s therefore to c o nsider only

the c rushin g

stre ngth, no t the bo ndin� with

o hnrdwoo(�,

a-2. (7,000

1".

cru shing

s trong

psi) like th.'1t of

d i ame te r would provide a

th

strength.

�lonG the groin of 50

tonk, a cross-section of 6.5

rosiot�nce

of

in thu

boon luft vor� nlucll

ftC

of tho t ypu

C.1. huo.�

chap ter 5 bolow. OuOQ

to havo

cn st in tho majority of cnaus.

outot�n�inG uxc�r,tiono, (o.g. thu •

o.s tho tlexiraUr.1 forco

porforntion "f bronze plc.tos in

The c uttincr ouCes

!:it!

somo 1660 N (372. lbf»

which woult! soe&1 ttJ be of the snClO orl1or founr:

If he used

Sc y th i n n

Tho

hcn�a Dontionod

•

40 • •

note 6)

above, a

r e inforce tte rulo; they "re gr o unc to gi ve

of 30°,

h�lf-anglc �onG the ed3e

each sico of the arrowho?(�

cn� that oUGgests th at

rubbe � ...long

wes

a

flC'.t surface,

",

In contrcst th e

is much the most econo�ical procec!ure.

which

edges of t h � bl�ueB in the hecLs thouGht to be cOl.!l1only sho.., a ccnsic1cr�bly gre�ter angle, difficult to crinel.

Tho lost

\otrX

'as ccst'

which would be

eethocl of c�stinG,

t'hich

•

�as herdly chcnCou free thnt de.y to this,

gives extremely

accurate cn,; clean c�stings, r.nel the cast heads could. have been quite sharp,

but they woulL have been fnirly soft.

The t yp o C 11 hend.

2.2.2.2.

The socket dianeters of the pyrcmidal type C.11 head nre •

• ,

sioilcr to those of the typo Greece is clso sicilar.

C

1,

enc their distribution outsicc

It rn�y be that it was

an

hC:lG c.ttached. to nrrcws o f the sauc generel foru.

alternative Er(1rJ nnn ,

•

follouinG Petrie, perf ora t e

consic1ers thnt the type was �esigneu to

lecther rmd

cnnvr:s,

r.nd

just possibly bronze.

As

we hcve just seen, the socket �iaootcr does not rule out the

latter.

•

The overall, 'size of the head is sl'!laller t hnn that of tho

•

•

•

type

C

1. breadth vl'.ricG

bc t \-Ieen 6...,.1

betwoon 15

mc

r.ne!

26 rom

MeGS is typically botweon as low as

Tho

9rno,

Md 8.

5

OUtsiue sockot diooetor botwoen

Longth

and

3 e

en!

4 g,

but socetiaes

2 e.

.

hon(;" nro auch shortor

anu

what n�.rrowor, thnn tho bc�in typo

.

. .,

" ,

also

aOlllo-

rnontiono� nbovo.

Thot

lightor,

E

emu

.. "

.

, , ,

would 800m to imply nrrOW8 cf lower enorgy,

quitu possibly

,

,

• • • •

a thinnor ehntt th�n 1mplio� by type E.

,

•

•

• •

"1.

n

Lonf-shnpcd nrrowHeods with

centrnl

o

s pine

re

frequently fount! ossociated "lith op6r�.tions by the Persion

nrmy,

nt

(thouGh only two have been foun�

P�phos).

C 1 nn� C 11,

size is similar to thnt of types

The

socket

�� elthouch the

'

is somewhat grenter th� either - typic.:'.lly ::.bout 6.5 g -

rimas

The

they could probnbly be nttncheL to the sc..me l'.rro",sh'�fts.

45 - 50

length is typicnlly

15 - 19

mm .

mm,

nnd t h u mcximum breedth

C 11

hon�s.

so mc whnt

c

They miGht therefcre require

fletchinG than the

•

ln r ge r

The design is elegent,

with

t!le secket fully incerpC!r�teu in the diruuond-shc.pe ff')rme:il the blal:ee,

�.nJ

ccrging into

n

rib,

"iith

a

this typo also Becc

much •

l'.re

row. 'Examples of •

f c un e to h.."lve bent on impr

.

de

2.2.2. 4.

C 1

smcll

Si

eDS

•

•

of Crin ding •

11.

Typo D

Tho

not show

the

.;t, nnc!er

con�itionB vf force ent! energy os type

The: edges of this typ� to o

•

di
or

2.5 mm, which runs the full length vf the

by

lecf- sh n pu with sep� rn te

B oc k et

secDS

to ��vo

•

developed earlier th� tho D

1973)

(

1,

��rce numbers

we

nre

.:'.n� th�re

re

sov� ral sub

-

found nt Smyrnn,

type s

nppnr�ntly ,

shot by tho Greeks nt tho Lyc!inn

(Nicholls 1958/9}

besiogers

but thu typo olso

('Iceurs

,

in 600, wi

elo ly

B.C.

in toBin

•

en� in soutihern Russie. incl udinC •

thtl

Thyy cro'somowhct short�r, tho length

socltot boinG botwoon

35

c.nd 45

mm ,

of which the ,

bl(�t.�c provi�\Js about holf , :�nt� tho

outsido clincoter of

.

sockot is sometimoD ros smnll cs mcr� common.

10.5

mm,

oml'.ll

I�nll

Tho hrcc.l!th

or tho

5

mm,

thoueh 6

,

n

li(Sht

io prob::.bly

bln�u v�ios b�twoen

th\.:y eivo thlol impression

orrows with

mm

,tlotchinSe

or

th(:

8 aa��

boine; \!CSiCnC.H! ,

fer ,

42. 2. 2.3.

Comparison "lith

mo(!.in,;,vlll

In comparing tho brcn�th

sepc.rate bln�es in

three winGo�

the

mc�o

cut

of the

c.�� t O B eth u r

probably rensoneble to

it is

and modern henus. nrrow

the breadths of

C 1.

type

?�

by

This

•

the

provides

cver�gc fi6urcs ns f ollows, C

1

D

1

15 mm

D 11

9 mm

Ovarell breadth (3x6 mm) 18

sight to

shnpod

bu cOBpcrnbl� w ith

he nd ,

16

type

�n�

the type s C 1

The breadth of

in

(13/16 t hs

mID

the i nc h )

(11/16

(3/8 ths in c h )

D 1 soems

�t first

common n�dinevnl leef

th�t of tho

CE'.tuloC;uc vi the:

the

i nch )

Lon.:!on 1·1useum. •

e

That type hcs

i.e. (2

3/8 ths )

x

h e n� ,

::'..ntl s pe

q uali ty of the steel in the

nnd

head,

1i n

- 44

the

WaS

only for

ft.

lb. 55 n

J.

16 is

n

l c ethc r nnd

e

an

cie nt

Tho Dcuiecvnl

b re adth between

havo

been

1i

in

�nd

shot f ree

e norgies

of

Whe t he r it was shot in war, or

Ilrovil.!c.u

with

•

thu

by the hnnting -

in (18

Thu tirct

third of atouI, and

arrows

52, PInt o s 10 -

heads of 3/4

51, 52 nnd platu 13) .

of obsi�inn,

initial

(Pvpc 1963, pp 50

Ho chows throu nrrowo

bln
typo

m�tter of dobate. (note 7)

deacrib'll� by Snxton Popa

pp

the

80 lb draw woight, usually at short ranGes

huntinG io

(nos 8, 9, 12

invostigetcu,

pcrfornte

This is thought to

A cl os er comparison is

13) .

thct

ordor of 60 yards , 54 m, G ivin g

order of 40

the rhomboidal

the. brondhond, (typos 14 - 15

catalogue ) wit h

mm.

bo w of at lenGt

of the

far

so

s o cocpnrnble in

-('.Trow

Loncon Museum in. 28

ci me ns

socket ,

o f the

the outstanding

which is consi�crnbly Gc�ller.

flesh-cuttinc; the

stil l more

st re n Gth o nc u. to

head,

possibly nrmo1!r,

11

Howevor

Hnr�y 1976 p. 201) ind icat e

in

dual-purpose

C

th� diameter

3/4 in. , 18 mm.

=

cross-section of the

(Pratt

tt-dce

brcQ.c!th nbout

rom),

two h�vo

all th ro �

woro

•

•

•

cf

woulG have Civon nn initinl energy J.

24

,

the

j,merice-.n Indian hl!Dtine hove Oll":

.

20 - 60 y nrcs, (18

. orJor of

Pope himself useu �

bo ut 28 ft.

a breadth 1

1i

r.n�

-

54 m).

On

68 Ib bow, Giving nn

a

(25 - 31 li1IJ)

in,

be�rs at ranges between 40 ditlensions and energies

P.n�

"ore of

�xro

60 y crds, (36

enorgy

of

ws with heads

-

•

ether hand

�/ith these he shot

typic;,.l of

I::re

tho

hi ch

of

rr..ncc:c

initil'.l

mcuc

J) for which he

Ib, (38 -

rr o w o ,

a

\
18 ft.lb,

order of

Those uimensions nnli energies l'.pper.-..r typicnl •

thc

40 lb bow,

Co

inuion Ishi with

shot by tho aboriginal

•

of

deer anl

54 m), anli

these

the modern hunter

( c.f. the arrows portr�ye� in �r�], 1976, p. 181) Thus,

r

eckoni ng

10se6 b et w een

below

7

section

enc

that

15 J

�

over

distance

50 m an ;::rrcw

2.4 and cppcnuix 2.5) it would seorn

energy with which they

(see

depen�ing en th� fletching,

mc.Qern hunter mnt ohe s the breu�th of

1

of

his arrowheads

will strike by r e ckon ing

mm breadth for Cl'.ch Joule.

The

t hnt a

d es i g n

of

i.e.

we have described as 'flesh cutting',

t o t he

very rough17

the h ea d s

which

C 1, � 1, D 11,

•

ve ry hr.:.rcl, C'.nd

their brea
purpoocs they woult1 require

18 J

for

�..n
typos C 1

finnl energies of

1, 10 J

porhaps bo vcry dttnGorous for

half

t h at

thiC;h

a

.

e

no rgy.

pyramidal point

sovoral Joul�s Nono of ot

tho

nrrows,

vnvrc;y at

\-/hr.t

of

a

type

D

11.

lmprotcctoll fles h

For initial

thu prosent writor

for

the

They

a

BhC'.rp

of

woul�

tlown tl) about

perfor�tion of thu

found thc.t

ordor

skin of

tho

.

boukin arrow with

bo ut 450 r o quiro u 1 ft. lb,(1.35 J, and

nora woul� bo ro q uir � J

to do

surious �acnc�.

this tcllB us,anythinc; nbout tho ,inl t,inl ono rC1 but it wno

eoce

Givo

conoillorccl to

nn

in�ioQtion �t tho strikinc

be tho

or�intlry rnn{;o fer

--

-

•

44. war arrows, whatever that was.

Closer consideration of the

drag and the rango in section 2.4 may make thut datum. 2.3

a

useful

•

••

The nrrowshaft.

•

The arrows \lsed by modern a rchers nro so designed th2.t

their freq ue ncy of lateral vibration matches the velocit7 with which they pass the handle of the bow (note 10).

However,

arrows in archa eo logica l and ethnographic collections tend t o •

be much less stif f than modern arrows (e.g. Pope, 1963, pp 43 - 46, and onr appendices 2.2.1 and 2.4), and spec ial skills are inv olved in shooting with then, as Pope points out (1963 p 60) .

Hence the catching may well be diffe rent, end it

•

is not possible to use the design of un ancient arrow directly

•

to estimate its optimum initic.1 velocity in the mann er used by Pratt for mediaeval arrows (IIc.rdy 1976 pp 202 - 204) .

the other hand, appendix 2. 2 suggests �nother

a

On

pp roach , which

allows a c��cula tion of the ��ximum kinetic energy in the errow, as follows.

Limits on the energy of an arrow.

2. 3. 1

or

Tho totnl kinetic energy which Can be given to

ro w -

.-

by the bow d ur ing its. discr.arge may be regard ed as the" product

of the

of the avorage forco exerted by the string on the arrow mul tiplio d by the dis tance it leaves thu s tring.

•

le ngth

of tho draw

travelled

But the dis ta nco

'

by the arrow before tho

is l imitod to

tha n tho lo n gth of tho

.

(usunlly just leos

arrow ) 10s 8 the 'bracing hOight' or distance botwoen tho string and the handle whon tho bow is

lim itod

io

s trung but not drawn.

Tho forco

by tho tondoncy of the nrro\l to buclu.o under tho •

inertial lond,

in tho ��nor of

n

t hi n

s trut undor

ond

l�ding

•

(Eulor

bondin6 ) .

In

ap

pond ix 2.2.2 it is shown that in

unifom ohaft Buch bucklin!) r;\uot occur 'tlhon the

•

lond

1s

a

.

F crit where

m

m

-

+

M

m + H

7

I

is the oass of th� shaft, assumed to be distributed

evenly alonG its length, M ie the

mass

of the h end ,

L

ie the

length of the s haft , E the Young's modulus of elasticity, end I the second moment of

0.. ,.ea..

of the cross-section of the

shaft about the neutral axis in bending.

(Both E

also assumed to be llniforc along the length. )

and I

exe

If the force

exerted by the string exceeds F ' for nny au prec iab l. crl. t distnnce, the nrrow will fall sideways out o f the bow, or snap, and there is no menns by which the archer, however skilled,

CDD

prevent it. We cen there fore estimate the •

mexiul!m

energy which

CDn

•

be given to en arrow of giv en design by if

\OIC

n

bow of

n

given type

know the length llnd stiffncss (EI) of the arrow, the •

bracing b.eight of the b ow" and how the average load is l ik el y to be related to the maxir.mc load. will be dis c us se d •

in section

The last two c haracteristi c s

2.4; in this sec tion we shall

c onsider the first two, ".nd estioate tho criti cal for c e

• •

•

The length of Sc ythian arrows. Minns

(1921

P

7 0) stntos that the S�ythian arrows(e. g.

those at Che rtomlyk,)were about 30 inche s long th� sace length

no

t he strung b ow.

(76 cm), much •

However the gorytus, the

c o mb i ned b ow-ense r�d quiver, was only 49i c m long, ib id. )

(19.5 inches,

In reprosentations the bow sticks out of the gorytus

for abo ut ono quarter of its le ngth, b oing coverod b y

n

soft

flap, but the orrowa �re c ontnined within it, and if they hnd not boen tho flights wo uld hn vo boen liablo to da ma ge theroforo looke

in tho

the

ao

tho ugh tho noronl lengtll for Rrrowo cnrriod

gorytuo Mould havo b oen nb out

g ravo s

It

.

mny huvo boon uxc eptionul.

50

CQ.

Thoso found in

Ebort ( 1921, p

9 0)

.

•

.-

.

froa

uo

gives the length

40 - 70

em;

hie

#

1imits SGec ruther

wide, but he may be nearer the avercge thnn Minns

•

•

The length of Persian arrows. The lar[;e quivers on the backs of figures in Persian sculpture ( e.g. the Dieulnfoy relief froll! Susa now in the Louvre) clearly imply arrows about perhaps

a

little longer.

76

cm

(30

•• •

in) long, or

A long arrow is also implied by the

size of the bow, v.nd by Xenophon, Anabasis

3.4.17,

where the

Cretnns are able to use the Persian prrows because they

are

l arge, in comparison, presumably, with the core familiar Scythian arrows. Stiffness. Both Scythian and Persian arrows were usually made of reed ( note •

The vc.riety of reeds used is not known,

11).

£!.rc exact dicensions,

but outside estimates can be made, Dnd

they are quite instructive.

Some guidance io also given by

the parallel caterial discussed in appendices

( a)

nor

2.3

nnd

2.4.

The Young's modulus E of reeds is likely to lie

4 GN m-2 (1.4 x 106 p.s.i. ) and 1.66 x 10 4 GN m-2 between 10 6 The forr:acr is an approxicate figure (2.5 x 10 p.s.i. ) . •

Plinii ( appendix "

found in bending tc:sts on

2.3) ,

and

the latter is a cocmon value for bamboe.

(b )

•

The I of

a

hollow cjlindcr in bondin6 is •

I

-

whero d is th o outsido diamctor and d' the insido diametor.

Typical v alu e s for tho I nnd tho stiffness EI o f reod shafts are thorefore as follows:

Extornal din�lutcr .

"

(rnrn)

7.5 8 9 9

10

I

Intornal dinmeter

(em)

5.5 6 7 5 7

(om

4

110 137 200 291 373

)

I E Cll.n

2 (N m ) 1.10 1.37 2.00 2.9 1 3.73

•

E I cu 2 (N e )

1.83

2.38

3.33 4.84 6.20

•

(c)

The

to �atch th�t n

e xt e rn a l

of

socke ts on

the

ah�£tB does not noed

diometer ot the c�

tho

rowhe nds oxactly , since

w oode n foreshcft is nocessnry between the socket nnd the

•

However the shaft )'Just presumably be e.ble to pass

reed.

th rough n h ol e mado

by the head, t'.nd maximum d il' me t o rs of 8 .

rna

for the smaller heads and 9.5 likely.

Egyptian

iI!I!I

for the l�rger one s seem

arrows nre very rcrely more than 8

diameter, and the stiffness seeas to be

n

b out EI

em

in

0.99 N

=

V'2

m

,

(appendix 2.4) while Erianthus Ravennce, which may b e t he

'Archer's re ed' dcscribud by Theophrantus produc e s n

about the same dinmeter with

stiffness of

atafts

ab ou t EI

=

of

1.2 N

112

m

,

larger re e d s were aVlJ.ilt�ble ("lppendill 2.3). •

though

Thus the st if f ne s s

t he

they have

2.0 N mVl, 'tI2

5.0 N m

and

s�nller

thct of

EI

of S cy th ia n

arrows,

he�ds) might be be t w een l'.rro"/s

Persian

between

( asauoing

1.1

thnt

2 � and N o

2.5 Nmll2. ond

•

Critic� buckling force. A ssum i ng that

the weight of the

hend

is b etween one eighth

and one quarter of the weight of the shaft, the fector m +

MV(0.5m

+

M) in equation

2.3.1

lics betvecn

1.8

end

•

1.66

•

•

Hence

the criticcl buckling forca for the S cyt hin n arrow will •

lie betwoen -

=

1.66

x

7 2 If

9.87 x 1.1

0.25

( 16

N

lbf)

•

and

x

D

Likowise thc.t for tho

142 N

N

( 32 lbf).

Porsian arro\o; will lio botwoon

•

,

2

•

-

Fcrl. -t

1.66 x 9.8

-

7

o.

5

71 N

-

ond

7

N

x 2.

(16 lbf)

•• •

Fcr].

.t

154 N

=

In

1.8 x 9.87 x 5.0 , 0.57i'

-

N

,

<34 lbf).

each cesc the higher figures arc extreme limits. Comparing thesc figures with those for modern arrowa,

mey note froc the reforences and argument in

in tho modern

l ongb ow F . cr].

t

ve

ppendix 2.5 t hat

a

seems to be about one h a l f the ,

'draw weight' of the bow, (i.e. the force on the archer's fingers at m::!ximnm draw) and that that allows a

fety fector

-

of about 2.

With the safety f:::.ctor reduced to 1.25, end drav-

assuming a sirnilnr pl:'..ttern of acceleration, the maximum force in the bow would seem likely to be greater than

by 2

x

2/1.25

=

(51 - 110 lbf).

Fc�t

3.2, and so to lie beh-Teen 230 and 490 N,

Once again, the higher figures are nbsolute

mnxiEk�, end the lower end of the scale is more probable

•

•

The energy which such, a critical force would allow is • ,

discussed in section·2.S.3. •

2.4.

•

Air resistance and range. Having dealt at some length with the strength of the

arrow shaft, we sh�ll trect tho evidonc3 rol nt ing to r nngo jn n

moro summnry mann�r.

Onc� again tho publication of the

ArChaoological evidonce o oits

en

im port��t datum, si nco no

woights nre currontly nvc.ilc.blo for Scythian nrrowshafts, as a result tho l imits ostimated must be widor than tho y would

oth�rwioo bo; howevor thoy aro atill of bo m:::.uo moro

ccurate

a

co

a o mo

v�luo , and can

moro ovidonco io obtainod.

Ho

consid"r first a r.lnthomC'.tic:::.l clodol, thon tho da ta , nnd then

put them

2.'.1

togethor.

Theory.

In vocuo, tho rllngo S of n pr o je ctil e is give n by the stond�d formulo s

whero

=

Sin

2 g

2.4.1.

is the' angle of r eleaso, V 9.8

gravitationnl constent,

m

2 s-

tho

velocity and g the

-2 ) . ft s

In c.ir,

the

ve l ocity is 'reduced as the projectile continues bccouse it must ove rco me

c.

resistance R ,

ns

n

where k is

n

which c.t crrow

vol oc it ies

furi

es

2.4.2

-

d rn g fector due t o tho shape and size o f the

O ve rcoming thin rcsistnnce a b s or bs some of the kinetic

crrow.

e nergy of the projectile, which is U

=

(whore m is tho projectile mass) ::nd so tho velocity end the

range nre reducod.

If we

cen estinato tho mass,

dr� fact o r

k,

end the englo of rolense o f the nrrow we can calculate both

the initial velocity Y roquired o tho energy U' remai ni ng in after it haA

tra vellod

a

reach a given range , �Dd

arrow l aunchod with that velocity

required

to roach

a

given range tor is

projectile of known charactoristics and anglo of

calculatod

ro ponto d integration, ho�v.r st8nd��d tables

by

havo boe n publishod by Ingalls (1918), and from

In

thom

by

order to

,

n given dist�co S'.

ve loc i

The

on

to

Rhoingons (1936) is

n

ropDoducod

graph proparod in (fig 2.3.1).

uso theso tnbles n ballistic coofficiont is

calculatod •

whoro A

io

n

Aa k

conotnnt \'/ith

,�

2.4.4 ,

vnluo, undlJr etn nda r d

utaoaphoric

,

50

-r

.

.

....

-

•

900

...,. •

.

000

Vl 0 >-

I UJ I!> Z <4: et: �

:> � -

-

x '" -

�

4

700

SO(; I

..

-

.

'J!'2'20

I ,

300

....r

:

.

'

.

-==f ,

_.

._---

-t

-i . -

•

l·L::j]Q. � y., .. o

200

v.

100 -0I,

.

. '

-

•

-

,

400

.

.. .

..

.'

v-zt,C •

•

.

•

N�

6ea

.

.

-lJ

·18 ,22 -26 -� -34 BALLISTIC COEFFICIENT Co -

-38

, .. ..

.

-

range in yard. as a function of Fig. 2.3.1 Max the Balli.tic constant C , for projectiles of different velo c ity . Velocity give8 in feet per second (after Rheingan., Hi ck"'an 1947, p. 248, chart 2, data f IngaUs (1918).

•

51.

-1 2 s-2 conditions �nd nt c.rrc.w ve loeitieo ot 1. 96 x 10-4 N kg m -5 -1 2 -2 (4.96 x 10 Ibf Ib ft s ). The a

fJS

eeon be' enlcul{�ted by noting t h c. t over

f ene cW

short difJtancc

the projectile loses

an

amount of kinetic

energy -dU where R is the

R.dS

=

c.verage

resistance over the distnnce

thot ignoring emaIl voriations over the distonce ,

dS,

and

nn

d

combining equntions 2.4.2 nnd 2.4.3 R

,

2JtIJ m

=

2. 4. 6

•

where U is the average energy over the distance dS. dU

=

U

7 7

and

2. 4. 7

2k.dS

-

7

C

integrnting both 'sides

7 7

we

Then

find an energy U' recaining in

the projectile after the projectile hos trav e l le d

c::.

dist..ncc

S ' given by log U'

=

-

2kS' 7

'

m

+

C

2.4. 8

and

,

U' (since where S 2. 42

=

2 . 4�9

-

0, U'

=

U ' the initiol kinetic energy.) o

Data

2 . �.2.1

Drag.

f ac tor k of Dodorn target arrows bes been 9 ( E s st to ht ig fl in th bo od at ig st ve in

Tho

drag

�

od b,. ys al , an t 35 19 et ff & Mo s or g od (R s st ta el nn tu wind is found V�i) k to . ) 7 19 y d 6 r o 6 H n i t t a r P , Rhoingans 193 -5 6 2 -5 2 ( 8 o. x 10 s mN 10 6 botwoen 3. 8 x 10 x and 1 -6 2 t lbf f 3.5 x 10 -

82)

•

.

Rhoingano' analysis io it showo

thnt

tho

aumcari8ed in app�nd ix

lnrgollt componont

2.5.

nnd

in the drng-factor 1s

,

52.

\"1e may be fcirly confident

usually supplied by tho fletching.

therefore in putting most o f the arrows with which we �ro conc e rned nt the l ower end of the Gcale, because the fletchings shown in G re e k vase pninti n gs

erc

quite smn ll.

the very c a re fu lly dra.,rn RF pina..x by Epietf1;us,

For exonple

( London BM E6,

ARV 55 10, ill u s trate d HGVP pI 98, Vos 1963 pI 9 a) shows

2 inche s (5 Crl.l) long ''lith

feathers cbout

pr o fi l e and a maximum he i gh t

1.6 of

about

5

em

2

c.bou t

two shaft-widths, say

Each side of the feather will have an area

(0.64 in).

em

of

a bnrrel-shnped·

2

(0.8 in ) and

we may nSS11me that there �re

three of them, as the re were on E gy ptian arrows froc an eerly date.

The total orca counting both s ides will thus bo about

2) 2 4 S 30 cru ( . i .

�

f or

a

co de rn

That would be consid ered a light fletching

Hi CY.tlZln

c.rro\l.

(1934) has shown thot many rilOdCl'n

nrro\'/s nrc over fletch e d, but the cen :;re of gravity is ciso very im port nnt,

<.nd if

the reed arrows hAd a so lid

fore shaft

ond were lighter than the solid modern shaft they would in

nny

case require less fletching.

Hero

notes t ha t t h e

Lycians had reed crrows with no fletching at all (xaAQU(vou� . •

Ihn!pou� t

VII 92).

2. 4.2.2

Mass.

•

Tho we igh t of tho hends has already been shown to vaiY

between 3g and 6g.

In

tho ab �enc e of published fi gur o s for

the Ghafts wo can only aay with certainty thnt tho lattor unlikely to hc.vo weighed leso thnn 10 g,

( like

tho EglPti C.n

6 ) 2 c:n g, o th ro m or a hu nt ia Er of ta �r sh d an ts she-i we igh t for

n

( ii in A ppo ndi co s Pl do un Ar of t af sh

2.3

(c t7Pic� and

2.4).

ws v g of ro th in ar ch ot n o th el r.n th ns lo o th th bo c r v o � , o n

suggest a wo i G ht BomowbC'.t Corrow, and

Lm

100lS them thnt of

nIl-up weight ,ot 15

-

n r.loelorn

20 g is thlolr"toro

t �r eo t more

52. usually supplied

\10 lilay bo fc..irly con fident

by the fletching.

the o.rro�/s

therefore in puttinG most of

with which

::'.O .I'

we

concerned at the lower end of the Gcale, beccusu the fletchings •

aho�n

in G re e k vose paintings ere quite amall.

the very cC\l"cfully

For exacple

dra�:n TIF pina=< by Epictft;us,

(London BH E6t

ARV 55 10, i ll u s tr ate d HGVP pI 98, Vos 1963 pI 9a) shows c..bout 2 inches (5 em) long

feathers

1.6 cm (0.64

in).

2

08

three of thern,

there

.... 0

may assume

and

area

that the re ere

were on Egyptian arrows fr o o

·2 1n ) •

modern

That would be

•

c.rro\l.

co n sidered

on

eerly

jmportc.r.t,

a

light fletching

HickLJ�n (193'�) hes shown that many lilodern

c.rroHS nrc overflctchedt but the cer. very

on

side of the fcather will have

•

} ;0 cr (4.8 a

bcrrel-shaped

The total orca countin g both sides will thus be llbout

dLltc:.

for

Each

2 (0.8 in ) and

Ctl

5

of about

a

maximum hei&ht of c.hout two s!kut-widthst say

a

profile nnd

wi th

.re of gravity

<.nd if the reed nrrowa

had

a so lid

is

ciao

fo res haft

lighter than the solid modern shaft they would in

were

any coso require leSB fletching.

Herodotus notes thc.t the

had r e e d ::'..I'rows with no fletching Cot all (JiaAC1U(vou� .

Lycians

&�T{pOU�,

VII 92).

2.4.2.2

Mass.

Tho weight between 3g

nnd

the Gho.f'ts

\-/0

of the heads MS nlready been shown to VDZ'Y

6g.

In tho nbcenco of published figuros for

can only Gay with

certainty thn t tho Int tor

(like tho Egyptic.n g, 10 :m th sa le d he iG we vo hc to nnlikely Gh�fts

C'.nd

wci�llt •

for

HOl% ver ouggcot �rrow,

shnfto n

of Eri nnt h us ) or moro tht�

typic:u

4 • ) s d ce , 2. cn di 2. on pp (A ii in Pl do un Ar shott of

both tho lo n s t h a

26 g, (c.

('.nd tho

!lotching

of thv arrOW8

woight aomowbC".t 100B th�n thf.'.t of

('.n d L�n

:-oIl-up weight of 15 .

•

-

20

g

n

r.lod o rn

t:lrc.>t

is thl.!rutoro moro

likely then one of 30 2 .4.2.3.

g.

Angle.

Archers ('.re sa 1d o!:) seen on ling

le ,

thoy

:-nd

nre

V�GOS

shooting ct a high

frequently sho\'In shooting in the front

r�nk of tho ph�lanx, n ever bohind it (Vos 1963, p 71). implies

a

fairly Gonll initial angle

shots could be ciced. s

=

60

eq

a,

Ta.kinb V

=

50

tUlcl c

n

ronge

Thnt

nt which the

-1 nnd the s

rl'.nge

as

ua tio n 2.4.2 gives -

-

and

0 for d ra g nn nn g le of about 10 seen on VGGes is

� lo winS

l'

realistic.

•

0 other hand, the optimun anglo of ju st under 45

On the must

a.

be

s c ctio n

ssume d for the

mnxirnurn r nn ge s

Xenophon (An:-.basis III 4

.

discussed in the next

17) stl7s that whe n tho •

Cretans obtained porGi�n arrows, they 'practised

with

shooting

a

high t raj e ctory '

(�£llTCI)V Totlu£l,v

dw hVTE:,

Rex Werner's translation), so presumabl.y

lIQJlPc:lV.

tho •

p�rsians did the s ame .

• •

•

2.4.2.4

Range.

The range! of the

ancient bow is discu8sed by McLeod collection of evidonco ond

(1965) with

a

li tera.t ur o ,

• . ) YJlOmic s d o th g in or id no co t ou th wi h ug (tho

very thorough

Bo

•

concludes (p

8)

thct ' bOWDon woro quite accurato up to 50

t 0 as od at 16 lo nd to ex o ng rn o iv ct fo af r oi th nt th ; Dotros m ot ros , but not as far waD

cn

0.3

350

-

oxceptional flight shot.'

450

-

175

otros . and thnt 500 Detro.

�

Hio mutbod

is

opun to sODO

w l y id m u o fr co on id ev s ow ll a o h objoctiono in that poriods ,

60

-

scpa.rntod

it il u ib to th y os ht po iG wo h ug no e Ve! gi t no end dooo

o ou l vi f o c:-; o i pr l1t co Q ly t gh ri o i ot dovoloplUont, but ho ,

-

.

54. t'.r9

conjectures, cnd his own conclusic.na

p lc.usiblo .

Leaving csido tho flight shot as too ll'.ta (3 00 B. C.) for our purposc, the most importc.nt testimonium for mroci!.illQ rrutge is HcLeod' G T ( 1 ), Herodotus VIII 52 .1 .

This.. stc-.tcs that

the P�rsians shot· fire-c..rro\lS froT.! tile Areop...gus t o the barricadeo on the site of tho Propyl�ca, a

of �bout 1 55 m, end cn

like

c

..

Greek

horizont� dist�nce

verticc.l rise of �bout 30 m.

It re�ds

eye-witness cccount, �nd its grent Bignific�ce

(which is missed both by tIcLeod nnd b y H ..mmond (1 969 p1 7-27), .

lies in the modification of the r:rrows, which were ack.pted by wrapping tow around the shcft cnd lighting it.

Cal c ul�tions

in eppendix 2.5 suggest th�t the drag of the tow vculd �ve reduced the ballistic coef ficient C

o

to between one h�lf

r. n

d

one fifth t hat of the unmodified arrow, and ins pect ion of the

greph, (fig 2 . 3.1 ) shows that thct implies mr:ximurn rl'.nge o f b e t,.,ee n 25% and 50%.

a

Gronted, tho7

jn

So with their standard

arrows this group of crchera would have had o f at le as t 235 m.

red uction

.nnge

a

have bean spocinlJ7

selected for their strength end sk�ll , but the

nrchers

should hnvc b oe n able to manege at least three qur..ters of •

-

•

thnt diston ce, say 175

m•

•

2 . 4 .3

Conclusions

2.4.3 .1 .

Initial velocity. 0.

2 .4.4 wo havo

From oquo.tion

ballistic constant

•

1 . 96

X

f.m/k whGre C,1

nnd k

It

k�

section

2 .4 . 2 .1 wo havo

auction

2 .4 .2 . 2 , wo h�vo

iii

a

ro in Qotric nnits.

3.8 x 10 15

botwoon

evidonco fa vouring tho lowor figuro. • •

min C o

1. 6

x

-5

1 0-

,.8

4

x

x

10

1

•

-2

N m cnd

=

FroCl

2

s , and from

30 g, with SOCle

Hunca C

2 x 10

�o

o

lieo betwoen

and C

o

mnx

O. If 4

=

•

ballistic tcblcB a ra n ge o f 230 m would a IHl ....C 1./0 J4" S"' -:: &haJ 1611 re q u i r e a velocity of 66 m 0-1 on tho lo wer Froe

tho

higher.

on th e

Tcking

I' S

-

,

=

mass assuecd in c � lcu l � t ing e� ch

the

coefficient, the li ghte r nrro w r equ ir e s en initinl one rgy u

= 32.6 o

J,

the

h eavi er

is t h ough t to have

hed

If thc average arche r

a shorte r r�nge , the initic� energy J.

is reduced in the scme pro po rt i o n, t o about 24 2. 4.3. 2.

Energy l o sses.

Putting the figure s for class arch(r inte

U'

-

9 o f scc t i o n 2.3.1 we o bt ain

e qua tio n

10-58' 2 x 10-

- 2 x 3.8 .

32.6 e

-

li ght arro w shot by a firet -

a

1.5

x

J

Fo r the h o avy �rro w t he

\lh ere S' is the range in metre s. expo nent is halved.

7

F

A 6t �ndnrd t abl e of .,.

e

=

-x

g iv e s

vnl u es as fo ll ows

Distcncc S'

Kjnctic energy U' reMoining in light arrow

Kinetic energy U' r er.K" in ing in heaV7 arr ow .

( J)

( J) 40 100

30

27 20 12

200

Even if t hes e enorgio3

•

26 20 ��o

roduced

by

25% fo r a wo3ker

arch er, the light �rrow rotnins sufficiont onergy to penotrate

flesh nt 200 m; on

tho

othor h��d tho 10SS08

100 m nro considerable ovon in 2.5

n

o ve r

th o tirst

h eavy arrow.

Th e Bow. a ny p ir ago o , m� qu d l u o ro w w bo o th f o t n o m t A full t roa

cnd will not

to t h o

bo �ttoli1ptod horo.

argumont,

' rolnting to

tho

It

would add

littlo

CODcrote

p�rtlY bo c a uso thuro is insufficiont ovidonco

h ic wh o, c or t wra d um im max

limits

tho enorgy

•

which cen bo s to r ed in th o bow, ��d partly because th o

dyn��icR of thu bow ,Ie inoufficicntly un derst ood to allow a ,"

reliable e s ti m n te of th o efficiency wi�h wh ich th nt energy could be t r�nsmi t ted to the nrrov to bo me do on any othcr "

grounds th�n comparison with existing bows, and that c�n be

done just as well without .n�lysis.

We shcll therefore

briefly describe the Scythinn <�d Persian bows (2.,.1.1,

2.5.1.2) �nd then confine our �ttention to three points which ar c relevent to t he evidence on the nrrow al rea dy d iscussed . Thes(: �re;

(2., .2) the reletion beh-Ieen the mnximllm forc e

the arrow durinG the Qisc��rge ��d the average force,

wh

on

ich

is governed p�rtly by the design of th� bo w ; (2.5.3) the distcnce over which the <'IrOH is accelerated bofore leaving t he st ring, and so (with the previous evidence) the maxionm energy �/hich could be put into

erra." of given stiffness;

and a comparison (2, .5 . 4) bet\o;een the energies so estirnDted •

�nd those produced by la t e r types of bow .

It is obse:J:·vcd

that the cstimctes gi ven for Scythion and P e rs inn orrows are lo w compa red with the energy of arrows shot from the English longbow Dnd of those froo the Turkish bow, and soae possible reasons are sug g est e d.

2.5.1.1.

The Sc ythian Bow.

The 'Scyt hian' bow is very

we

ll re pres c nt o d on Greek

y ll e ua is it er us ) wh 63 19 a, Vo by d te ea tr ly nt le el xc (e s vas e s, ee of (s li re ic ol op rs Po o th on d �n o, � hi yt Sc ce-rried by

d 11 e as s wo H by d o ie rr ca is it o r e wh ) 64 19 n ma e.g. Ghiroh by Sc, thioDs ,

bu t not,

apparently, �

Porsic.ns.

r i vo qu cd in l:lb cO o th in cnrriod roC'.dy a t rung cn ll � d

a

whon kept

or

a

'

go ry t u s '

,

nn d

aD

WOoS

It

bow-cClso

which shove that it did not 'lot down'

pcrm�nuntly

atrune

h c u o g n i g n i r t o l tl u o y

0

�D

a

woodon

bow dooe.

A

picturo

bow ainglo-hcnded �nd without tho

•

of a s tr � p

use

occurs on e

R.F. kyliT.

by the Pc nr.e tio B pair-tor,

(hRV 213.3, illust r a t ed Vo s p I 17n). Tnrk; ... s h

was not as stif f os the uSl.ng •

ns

�

a

That s u gges ts that

fl .Lu ;cht b0w , wh 'c 1. h

felse string, while both fect we re pre ssed ogainst the (Klopsteg 1947

bow c

h�s the shope of

p

87).

The bow

when strllng

f our-br;rred greek capitol sigmc, th� c en tre

being stiff, and the outer bars f orming the

s pr i ng .

unstrung the erms are recllrved, (i.e. they curve

When

o utwnr ds ,

the opposite direction to th:!t in which they "'ill curve

when the drown,

bow

is drown).

When the bow is s trung bu t no t

they are virtu�lly strL",ight, except for

which is probably permanently stif f.

n

cur ved

The bow th us

developmen t from the Assyrian angular bow, wi th set

s trnng

W'" .... 6

strnp runn in g round the wa ist nnd at ta ch ed to the bow

centre of the

in

it

looks like

the h�ndle

th e tips stiffened, but it is much

immrds oneI

ti p

s

h orte r ,

•

being usually about 75

long (30 in).

CD

The 'bracing height',

or distance from the strinG to the handle when

strung but not

drown,

n

bo ut 20 cm (8

is

in),

the

bow

r.nd the

is

an

gle

between the line of

the moos nod the string is very large.

This size end shape

erc

rODi�iscent

shooting bows, which give a

very

of some modern ve l oci ty to

high

flight-

a light

,

arrow. Tho P ers i a n

2.5.1.2.

'lorgel bows

Tho ,

bu

Bow. referred to by Herod otus (VII 61) Qust

the oimply curved bovs "Iith r o c urv e d t i ps soon on tho

Bohi e tu n

monuments (o.g.

froD SUSD. now in

tho

Ki ng , 1907) �nd tho Dioul� !o y reliet

Louvre (!llustrntud o.g. by Gh ir shmon

1954, pl 18, ond very fr o q ue ntl y in populnr works on tho Persian Wnr:3.) p�intings

(o.g.

It 0100

tho Nolan

occ urs

occ�Dionc.lly

in

in N�w York,

Grouk

VelDO

illuotrotod

-

e.g. JdI 1911 say s

P

th�t th e se

�iede s, but

the

in view of the

AJA

285 fig 4,

bows

p

1932

27 fig 1)

c a rried both by

were

the l e tte r

Herodotus

the Persians

statctJe nt is difficult to unde rstand Perhnps the li e di an

Per sep oli s reliefs.

c a rri e d it while th e ir oa valry used the Scythian type.

guards on the Di c ul a foy Elanites,

( as

I�rnortals, and

bow was

IL'Ige

at

Susa ) ,

n -

166).

but ns

Scythian bow was more powe rful

infcn try The

dress to be

their

spears nre

carried by the

is g�ne rally

Xe nophon confirms

( Anr>.bnois III 4).

13.21), but. this does

their

(VII 41) de scribes

thGt ide ntification

(Ghirshman 1954

from

relief s e e m

we nisht €XFect

those which Herodotus

and by

a cc e p te d

thnt the Persinn

Ctesins asserts that the than the Persinn (FGR

not appe:u' likely

688 F

from H ero dotu s 4 128,

when the Sc yth ian cavalry defeat the Pe rsi� n

cavalry but

ccnnot defeat

hcve done if

th e i r

infnntry , as

they

should

they

could outshoot them. The length of the bow is about 1.2 nr�s

I:I

(47 i n) and its

h<:>.ve a simple curva tllre rnnning through the handle, on l y

the tips being recurved, starting about 20 em (8 in) from each end.

The brncing he ig ht is quite large, about 22 em (9 in).

This bow too seer.lIJ to be

the guards nre sho\,n on duty while the

strung for long periods, since

kept

...:ith

both hands

in

a.

a

sp er:r ,

bow hE\ngs over the loft shoul der , which is thrus t /,

botween the strin� and tho bow arms. Dame

holdi ng

shape but longor (1.47 P n rt hi an

L1,

composi to bow o f tho

58 in ) has boon found at Yrzi,

gravo da to d botwoon the 2nd contury B.C. ond the

�icht bo pos siblo to ueticato

3rd contury A.D. ( B rown 1937).

It

tho dra.w forco, but thnt has not

yet

boon done conVincingly,

. ul tf ub do is o t n um r 6 a t on oo pr un d its ro I ova.nco to tho thoro cnn bo no

doubt thnt

tho

Howovor

porei.:m bow of the 5th contury

•

•

st r in gin g .

was c om po s it e an d re cu rv c d be fore

Var iat ions in ac c olerat ion durinG the release . Th e fa ct or s go ve rn in G the shope

the fo rc e- di splace

o�

me nt c ur ve as th o arrow io ac c ele rat e d by the st ring insuf fic iently r:-.t io •

R

D ' , the displac e rnu nt of the bow-tips . R

s t ill

underst ood, but one of them is certe.in1y the

DID ' b e tl:e cn D , the displacement

=

nr c

vnries during the release in

c.

of

the nrrov , and

(Hickman 1 937 )

•

cooplex m�e r , tending t o

b e low e.s the string leaves the fingers and ri si ng t o infinity \;'hen it

as the str ing s traightens at the end of the shot .

reaches very high velues , we might expe c t the oreti cally that the t ransfer o f energy t o the errow would be very high , but in feet the opposite scema to happen (Hickmon 1 929 ) ; the Geering

is

hend , when

t oo high , and transfer drops off. R

is very low ,

a

On the other

c onsiderable <".Daunt

of

kinetic

energy is tnken up by the DODentu� of the bow- arQs , end very little o f that is in

g ecr1ng r1SC S . •

•

fect

trnnsferred to the arrow when tho

I t tbere fore pays the bowyer to ke ep

valu e o f R fairly steady fo r

�

o f doing that is to oake the

how

b ows

t ho se

on the bow-arms .

long , so that its geometry The other

In

the

is

to

USe

Turltish Illld Tator

t ips or ' o ers ' becomo very long ; in the Scythian

and Persian b ows thoy nre experimental

c spc c ially

e

in

found in

st ill

W it hout

fairly short .

vido nce tho o ffect ce� only be �ucsso d , tho

forco was as much as

One vay

long as possible .

alters loss during the discharce . r e c ux'v o d t ips

the

S cythian

bow it may b o

as t wo-thirds tho

that the

mlX imu&1 ,

b�t

ave rage

instocd o t h:-.lt .

tho long-bow.

Di st c.nc o covlt r,od by

th o C'.rrow du ri nG

di sc hargo , cnd

ono rgy acquire d. o Sc yt hi �n h t f o ht ig ho Th o b r� c in g

b ow hns

bo on so en

to

•

•

60.

20 cm ( 8 in ) .

be about

drawn unt il the head

wi ll

b e in

ab o ut 58

-

in ) ,

c m boyond

c ontact with tho string dur i ng 20

=

em long is

bow , the arrow

the discharge for

t he reed port ion t o

was

e b ou .

t 23 e m ,

havo b e e n de c i de d e ither

the draw will

�nd the length o f

of

t he

Pe r si nn bow

the

by the length of the arrow , about length

arrow 60

( 1 5 in ) .

�p

38

b r a c in g he i ght o f

The (9

pro j e cts 2

on

thnt

Assueing

76 co (30 in ) or by the foreshcft

which a

may hnve b e en

at tache d , - perhaps nbout 66 ce ( 26 in ) . Thus

the nccolernt ion distance will have been oithor

76 - 2

about

-

23

forc e

5 1 ce , (20

thcs� figuros

C ombining bucluing

=

in)

with

or �bout 1 0

those for the crit icnl

2. 3.3 , and

in 6e c t ion

co , (4 i n ) less.

the fec tor of 2/3

suggest e d in section 3 . 4 . 2 , we should pro dict that the kinetic

energy on r el e aD e

from

the

Sc y t h inn bow would lie

b et we e n

U o

U o

Dnd

=

2/3 x 0.33

=

18 J

=

2/3 x

=

36 J •

0.38

draw

x

72

J

x 1 42

J

••

•

Tcking tho l o ng e r

gi ve

tho

Persian bow should

be t w e o n

tl.

=

-

•

nnd

=

2/3

24

X

0.51

X

0.51

x 154

71

J

J

2/3

x

J •

=

If bo

d i s t anc o ,

tl.b

•

•

2 .6 .

o ut

52 J

s i co on st di nw dr or t or sh o th

20%

1000

nasume d, th e;, e ne rgy will

•

C o m p a r i s o n "lith

Unloss wo tn l�o

u nl i k e ly , t h o ono rgy

tho

I n.t o r

arrows .

highoElt pO lSsiblu f iguro s , which

D r w n o � l p s P w Q o r r t a n o i c n n o h t of

1\1'0

in

•

•

61 . •

compar� son wi th bo th th e English l on gb ow DDd tho Turkish •

Us ing

composite .

of 75 lbf C 40 N) �n

weighing 50 g

oodern longbow "li th

n

a

a

maxicum drnw force

skilled archer c.:n give c.n nrrow

initial kinetic cnergy of nbout 50

J,

r:nd •

mediaeval E �chers may have done consirler�blJ better ( Pratt �n •

•

nardy 1 976 p 203) .

ISeec t o h... Ie h..�d

a

The Turkieh bows us�d for flight shoot i n g g iven n

simil.ar rlrat,-we ight , �nd to have

•

similar eJ ergy t o nrrO'<'B Since

t �e

we

ighin g about 1 2 . 5 g .

arrows wero ligh t er end faster , t he jr

much g : eat e r ,

Dnd so

( Uote 12) . r��ge was

was t ho skill required t o CODstruct the

bow. A l owe r level of energy therefore re qu ire s s ome

e xpl;

nll t

ion

.

soce

of

wh i

ch ;-:re c on j e ct1:ral .

(a)

�"e m cy

draw C\ttent ion t o thE: following po int s ,

The draw distance of the Scythion b ow WDS short er

tha i thnt of later bows. t o allow

arrow-guide (b)

long draw

The t;tax.imum draw

have been lower .

e.s

a

Turkish flight-shooters used

follows

w

a

ith

an

arr ow .

sh

ort

force of the ancient bows may

Soe e di sa dvantage s o f

a

high draw-ferce are

: •

•

It

r equ i res ( c. f.

good foeding . levies

gre nt er

s t ren g t h

me.y no t havo beon woll fe d , though tho Ieeortals bad

( ii )

VII 8 1 .

l owors the rat a of sho oting .

It

. h 6t o th of s or ch ar ian a r Po .t t ho t hl'

a

lo wer

ah oo ti n g

arm

ce nt ur y

draw-forco t han th o Roman ,

Procopi\IS ass ert s

A.D. "s od bows

but had

r.

hi gh er ra to o f

( P e ra i on Wars I 1 7 , 32-34 ) .

( ii i ) •

Tho Persi!"!n

Hnrdy 1976 p 1 32 , 133)

their own cocmi6�r i&�.

of

in t he crcbcr , and s o

It

roquiros that t ho bow bo shot with the strongor

hol d in g t ho string .

t ho S c y t hinno

Accordinc t o

Plat o .

(Lnvo 7 795A )

ins i a t e d on b o ing nblo to shoot with

e ithor

hnnd.

•

62. (c)

An c ien t b ows mey havo beo n les s e ffi c i e nt bec aus e t he

st ri ng wn s ma do of si ne w , (Note

1, )

wh ic h ha c

a

lo w mo du lu s of el as t i c it y • •

In c omparisen with the s ilk used by

the hemp or linen us e d by the English ,

the

Turks r�d

tho sinew strings Dust •

o i ther h�ve b e en he avier ,

or

( more l ikel y ) hnv e stret che d at

the end of the discharge , end in e it her caee the e ffic iency 'rIould b e lower . <:.

is in nny cnse harder t o ge t energy int o

light e.rrow than into a heavy ono . ( d)

Finally ,

around the a

It

the whole syst em may

avnilable r e e ds ,

to the days when the l imit e d the

' pi nc h '

b e en designed

chosen for tho ir lightness t o give

��ti possibly influenced by

good r�nge ,

heve

n

trad i t i on going back

met hod of holding the string

draw-force t o about

1 80

( 40

N,

Put t ing these fac t ors toge th," r ,

Ibf ) .

est irnat ec

\-Ihich

give

the r.-.rrows b e t ue e n one half nnd two thirds the e nergy achieved The energy is also

by lat er archers oppe ar re asonnble .

to

likely

shot

have b e e n

much

less th�n that of the heavy arrows

frOD 10nbbow6 by the Cnrduchi ,

which Xenophon records as

going through b o t h shield nnd c orselet

2."

(Anabas is

IV 1 8c 2 ) .

Conclusions •

While it cannot be said thct our understanding of the .

archery of tbo Persian arcy is so curo , seo�s

to be 1.

picture

as follows : .

Many o f th� troops wero carrying tho

bow w i th a

ort

oh

draw distance ,

c on si d�rab l e range w i t h o f t h os o

the ge ne r e.l

arrows was low ,

a rnnge of 50 m ,

typo

de s igne e t o a c h i ovo a

a l i ght ar r ow

.

nn d th e ir ro ta

th o en or gy mny

t S cythian'

Tho ini t i ol e ne rgy

of lo ss

was hi gb .

At

hnvo bo en about 20 J , foll in g

y d h ul nc h co t ra o m t i 0 20 nt J 9 d an , m 0 10 r.t J t o c.b ou t 1 5 thu

l�a t distnnco .

2.

A

smal le r numb e r , bu t in c lu di ng ::.1 1

th e in t e.nt ry

d � s c r i b e d by H0 ro do tu s as Pe rs ians , an d the Im mo rt al s and pc rh �p s t he Me de s c c.rr i e d

n

lo ng er bo w \li t h

a

gr ea te r dr�w-

In it �' n1 energy o['.y have been up t o 35 J, and tho

d i st c.n c � .

nr ro \'/s we re pr ob e.b ly he av ie r .

Energy on strik ing rnc.y have been

up to 30 J at 50 m , 26 J at 1 00 C , 20 J c.t 200 m .

3. •

Most o f the heads were of the flesh-cutt ing type , =:nd

l ia bl e t o b e n d on h i t t in G ",rmo ur .

There were however pyr,:!J:Iid:-1

hea ds whi c h wer e s t ron g eno ugh t o pie rce lcc. the r , wo od , or b r onze plnt e i f they ha d suff i c i ent ene rgy and i f the JD3ximllM force during the impact did not exc e e d c.b out 1 2 00 n ( 270 lbf ) at the point whe re the he�d jo ins the shaft .

In o r d<: r to

perforat e , the heads woul d ne ed t o mnke c. hole

o f m in i mum

mm c. n d

diL.me t e r b e t ween 7

4.

9 mm .

C omparing the est ir.1nt e s in this chapt er with those

given i n chapte r 1 ,

we observe thc.t tho Persian arrows may

have had much the sarile energy as the.: Greek spears , the SCythi...D .

arrows ab out t wo-thirds thc.t .

Whon at tacking the helme t , the

c r i t ical s i z e o f hole lIhich would allow serious wound

\orno

c.

spear t o

est im� t e d as e quivalent t o

,

holo o f minimum dir-.me t e r 10 mr.1 ,

n

c aus e n

symmetrica1

\'/h ich is gre at er th".n thnt of

the hole r e q uired by t he �rowhead by about a quar t e r . •

attac king

n

s h i e l d or cuirass ,

When

t he spoar must pas s ri ght through ,

and t he holo was e s t ima t e d as having an eq u iv nl Q n t dinmoter ot

20

mm ,

wh i c h io

ab o u t

2i t im os gr un te r th �n · th}1.t ot th e C'.rrov.

S o a Pe rs ia n nr ro w f i t t o d a d v� nt a g a

oy o r

t h o ap oa r ,

Hl.l d i a o v n l o t n ndar do .

on th o wny

\oti th

su ch

n

h o c d sh oul d havo some .

ov on t hough it s cn or gy is

H O �I

grcC'.t the

c dvan ta g o .

would be deponda

on i a ri a s v at or rf pe of rk wo Ile t h ic wh in

11" dinmu t o r .

lo w by

wi th proj oe t-

64. 5. t h e r e \I e r e

��ong s o m '.]

tto

other typ es ,

i r o n - t i ppud '.' ..." .' �

it

is

just

po s D i b l u

t � �t \:i t h

, '. r t:'l c u r

pio r c i n E;

do

kn o ';j \/ho e h c t t h e ", .

n -: t

�.r r C "'6 ,

,

Ch a p t e r

3.

of

t h e e ii', 1' 1 '.1- '1:.- � f Lh ... _

In t h i a c h a p t e r �le c c n s i d c r t ', e

ma t e ri el o f th e t hJe

t '!l £: p r o t e c t i v e

Br eo ur

H e Pe r::; ia n \-Ia.r.8 .

O J. 4!'

c ·�t e �it

' ,

,

,_' .

.

e n t ury

•

The

p e r i o d Was

i s su ff i c i e n t

e v i de n c a t o -

he lm et u t l e a s t o n th a t

3.1

one

&rchaeolo�i cal

•

of - f u:J.r1y r ap i d change , .

f urn 1 S h D. .

an u t a e ma j or pa rt

.

usef ul

de sc r i p t i o n o f the

o f th e

c hapt e r

r e as on s .

Fira t ly ,

of

c o n c e nt ra t e s

t h e e arl y fif th Ce ntur:,- is rat her

for nost

of

the p r e c e d i ng c e n t ur y ,

t h e p ra c t i c e

't,n i c h ,':as

g r e at shrine s .

C O LlIJO:u.

('1 c.e rli

c a t in

e arJ i e r t

o f t he surviving s p e c imens ,

e n t irely by t h e; mi d dle o f t he

c e nt ury .

a

lar ge

� e a s ur

ab ou� 500 B . C . , the di ve rs e .

It

t oo he avy ,

incr ease

S e c ondly ,

pat t e r ns aft e r tha t t i!!1e

.

le o

a

teo

d i f f e r e n t I,le as ur es t o the field o f

vi s i on

,; n e lll C V O Iil f 0 ;r. o d e e r f :e t a e gr t hc r ig h t arm

t0

w er e a b a n d on e e ,

l l e g- G u ll r do .

w o u l d w � r l:

old er typ e

p on s i b le

t h a ir

Tl r o v i d e d h i !.. own

!- he . ) '� �l n d

almost l-/he reas tIL,

•

th e

•

was found

w a y t h r o u � h � n army i n

an d

· t" .. ... ...pt �

.. .'·. '

\'lc d o n o t kn ow ho �., q u ic k ly

.

which

t o al lo \·,

to

w er e

th e

ou ch ch anges e a c h man

t o s e t o .t' f o a f a e r e h s t i t i d n a , o q u ipment

n i g n i l i u v e r p n o fnnhi

f O l "/ a r d .

more

ar::lour g e ne rally ,

e v e n t u a ll y ,

.

with t h e

c omb i ne s

bec ome much

l:e lrn c t ,

t !�c

"O t c " '"

�o ,

out

are our down t o

o f arI:1our

li �h te n

fr c);l

a t the

an d th at d i ff er en t

l'e st ri ct iv c ,

'

o u r wnj'

re s

c e ase d

e o f stan dard isat i on in

s e e m s tha t - t ne

an d

c i t ie s t OCiX

� � �rt

our

o f vase paint ings and i n c orpor e sllr vi vals

e v i de n c e

r.1 e t u.

are

for tuo

s e e rnG t o have gone

and t o have

sh o w

;:;

ane! i s

.

o f f ashi o n durinG t he pe r i o d ,

.

-

In t r o du c t i on .

har t': er t o s t udy than t h a t

to

but th e r e

i t e rn .

Gr e e k arm our

to

C•

t y t h e C r e ek s at

c �rr i e �

,

e v i d e nc e .

•

�� ,a 1 . Ck ness , an d

,

1n th e l ig ht of the

.L ... '-

B

S ll o u t

550

B.C.

and work

,

66. C o c t i on G CUi' c e s ,

3.2

b r i e f l y c on s id er s t h e l i t er a tu re

S e c t i o n 3 . 3 u os cr ib e c th e 8l ie.pe ,:. ne: w ei gh t o f the

arr,10u r , .::.n u th e co ve ra ge d B v e lo pn e n t

Hll

of the

th en c o n s i d e r n.r •.1C tlr

T.l e t .::. l

Jl.ppe n d i c e s s t ruc � ure hardn c s F.

\"lith the

c.e al

'

o f th e ex tl"'� mi ti es

7

is

an d .

7

( 3 . 3 . 4) .

,

(3 5 ) •

:t'inally we

•

7. ;J.

2) •

5

,

7

of the developlllc l�t ( 1 S67 ' .

SnodSi'3.ss

E.:l.tlC

Hore

aut hor ' s

Early

o f anc ient Gre e k

As

b ef its

a

semi-

detail , but the earlier

in

do �m t o about 520

st ory ,

).

( 1 964

and on methods use d t o test

it is sOlilc\-/hat lacking

the

by

(A

o f e v i de n c e on the

source s .

A . Il.

given b y

of th·;}

anount

small

in bronze armour .

general a c c ount

c ove

E.C.

is much Clore fully

A.rmonr and weapons

Greel�

de ta i l e d studies also mostly c oncerned with

e ar l i e r ,{ork cont inue to

are based mainly on the are

e r in g

the shield ( A 3 . 1 )

of

p opular work ,

t he

a ov

( 3 . 4 ) , cm d J.' t s th 1' c'-e "'s A . H u

,

7

A

pai't

( � . 3 . 1 ) , t he c or se le t ( 3 . 3 . 2 ) , th e

e v i de nc e on th e c ompo si t i on and hardness o f

L i t e r�turc

a rmour

tr ea tinG se para te ly the

e v i d e nc e of damage done by \-leapons t o the armonr ( 3 . 6 ) .

l o ok at

2

i t I'l'o'Yide d ,

he lm e t

( 3 . 3 . 3 ) an d th e

s h i e h�.

an d

be pUbl ishe d by E. Kunze .

G e rman disc overies at Olympie ,

c oncerne d with typology ,

They

and

decoration and dedi.cations. •

•

•

Kun ze ' s \Jork Oly rnp i s c he

in

t �lI:: s e r i e s o f Olympis che ' Bo r ic ht e ,

Forschungen

is

ac c oClpanic d

helme ts �nd frac o e n t a

o f many

.

Th�

very fine

u:;

and

•

•

�hotographs

e arlier works b y

L ipp e rhe ide

neral typology , on ge lc ab lu v� l il t G c ar ) 6 93 1 ( ft knh Ku and •

•

an d

so

lm c t ha n i� on o h t on I rk wo t en c re i s t ho

( ��ri ch ( 1 96 9 » .

r e t� on th la c itl cQ t n ev n tll r r,o im eo id f,n d c r so n ( 1 97 0 ) p r ov P il o s ty p e

n O nio \" h a t t ho

l". o l m e t ,

l a t e r t ha n

a:..' t i c l c f;

w h ic h howo v or

t h e.:

,o/(\ S

F o r o i a n war3 .

p r ob ubly

in tr od u ce d

These worl:o 6unc roo dc •

1',\ u l y - li i o l3 o ,,-'a •

f o s o. i u o p o l c y c n e o h t in

and

wh ic h ue ro anyuny mu ch l e s s v a lu ab le o n

nn d Darc !Jb er g- Sa gl io , C O f� n G i v c

t; l::m on o f f c n s i v e Heapons .

£.rT.l 0 U l'

Co ll e c t i on � o f b ronz e &�oour ha ve in � \: n � n t '.. T r).- t '-" r-, -,.. .:. ;.t

.

th e ,., J. o�·�cr of London ,

the Nat ional j·;t�soum at J!. t he ns ,

an ,J ab ov e a l l at Ol vlil '' ' <> J '1:''' )' <4 .

In """'.II

20 shield

�'O

plnt e s ,

He

st u d i e d by th e

n" · 1 1 :u so um , t l10 As hIilO 1 c an l1us e 1l!:I , .. l.· t l.sn

'·n � · •c

•

OX fO l, (1. ,

be en

c overs and

" 0 i.i 0

..,

'7.00 h 0 1 1:1" C'> " �v S , 0

;;

•• •

b reas t

l e g gu a r d s have b e e n i n sp e c t e d .

i .3 �:ra t e fu:!. t o t Il :'!
for th�ir i nterest �nd c o opc�ct �on , an� for pe rm i s s i o n t o Clcasure and mal�c ha rdn e n 3 t ents . L1a{::;

of a

c1isccrtation

c ontaiLG the

results

-.lloys frcn

by Dr .

In nddi t i on ,

the C l llS s i c c? l

c opper

•.

in trw

Brit ich }iuseuT:1 al!Q the

has been

F . T . Craddock ( 1 975 ) ,;;hich

1 1 00 atomi c

of

use

pt i oll

I. cb s or

\.;arld

in ob j e: c t s c urrently

! shmol e an ,

and of

,

i :e t .:::. l l c ;:r<:: p hic appendix t o Early

analyn e s of

C . S . Smith ' s

Cr,- tan ;'l.rnourers (HoffI!lcn

P.at:l: i t s c llek 1 967 ) .

and

3 . 3. 1 . He lmet s . 3.3. 1 . 1 .

he lme t been

In t h e r;:i dclle c·f the Sixth C(; ntury ,

l:nO\'lll

at;

appears t o have

' m id(1.lc Cor 1nthian '

liorn by all

the type of

hop l i t e s of s o ut he r n Gre e c e . ( note 1 )

n.c

The shape i s an e l c bu n t exaggerat ion and smoo thing o f tho •

.

. •

•

curves o f t ho surfac c a t o

skull· , I:ith no at ter.1rt

do f l e c t

.

c ont inuins tl.c

,

a

sici.c G

fz. ce

is c o ve: !' c d

ICy

ncar J.y •

.... • ...

· e ... ... i1. .... ..

-

,

o i ;::.

t

c yC: -t: o c !< o t "n u th e

t ho e

Ie f t

w:�:3

th t; he: ioht

in h e l r . c t a I. r;

a :1 C'. jll.. 1J.yY .

Tte

,

wh 03 C

h !UiI ;n b o 1 o H ,

a

oye -ho1os

bc inii si mi l� .r to th at of

ou te r co rn Ol'3 b e ille a 1o nG i.t e d ;

d u t o rc ir.o d by a �r o c: e oo

t r:l c o a

by

... nd br inging

,

r e in f or c o d n oo e p i e c e C.O\lJ1 b c t �-;oen the eye o .

l e f t arc· fa i rl y l.::. rc.l

pr ov i de sloping

o f the �1clmc t t o forr.� cl1001.. :pi e c e s and

, unt 1· 1 u UU :t:"O c ur vi ns th or.1 •

The

wce�on .

to

m&.de

rJf

th ei r

t r i al. an d o rr or ,:h ic h has

uc un

oy e- ho l e s h.wo t h i s tYl?tI

\.,00 •

en lt;.l· CU U n ft or

o f' t � u ruther t hick ,

•

••

61

,

A lIo d i t 1 c a i;l o � � r

5}O B . C .

t l� i n 'l'ha

w i t h t ho t ho

T a oe

t ho

cr ovn o f

h e a d b ut .

t. :l .L H h � l r4o t

t h'fl t "' �p p e � ::�!'a... "ce

ia

first

of

tho ' Lat e

p u ln t 1n g s o f E x ok ias ,

A m as ie ,

h el m ot no lo n g e r fo 1 10 w 8

rieos t o

no t i c o d

th o

aronnd

Corinthian ' •

an d AD d o c i de s . c on to nr s of the

a p ea k a l o n g t h e t o p o f th e he a d , a n d is

•

o f fse t

f r o m t he f o r e h e a d

c un i n g

an d

t he s i d o s

of

.

r i dge , ( t i g ' . 1 ) .

the

he lm et b7 a

Figure

It .ay be that the

firat

motive

to l i ght e n t ho armour ae a •

reprosentati ons oc c ur s

on

for tho change a in c o

whole,

one

3,1

was

n ot

in fact

or t ho oarl�

the famous ' di c e players '

vas. b� . •

Exekias,

in

ar.

,

Inde.d

whic h both plnyors wear t high guards , and one

i n addi t ion to the sta ndard c uiraao and

the e

aD

tho holmet.

l ee ',1&1 no t h"ve bo�n mucb light e r

ioet

anyvay , and the metal Qay have differo d l i t tle iro. that ot tho previous sty l e .

Howovo r ,

t he

in c orpora tinda show that

tho now ahapo ao on allowed th� uae o f thinnor metal tor t he whole Cap ,

which vas probably l o f t

the

c ol d

t ha t thu

-

wo r

ke d to a c onsiderable were

e xtent .

In spito o f

c: xtendo,:

do wn vo r dc at tho tron t , tho ro aul t w.a an ove rall

l iGhtoning o t th�

bronze

tac t

aho l l .

cheek-pi e c e a

Wh4lreo.a ••

tho

nov

oarly Cor1Dth1u

"

h o l me t o h a d �.) i .. h u d " ", pe r i o d ,

-

ant! thODO

' ltg ,

_

3.}. 1 .2 .

The

had

weiGh\J d

p. 1 6 7

-

9. )

ah el ls 'A'c ig h ab ou t 0. 9 Kg

an d the whole ho la et may have be en �1ghter

-

mudern

J� t o O o r i n t h i� -ll

IV

Iiiddlo

(,I the

6 th (:c n tury

" 1 .6 n "S ( 1:\o �� 'r t wanGl'Ct - 01 lap in

the b U 6 �_�_ �r c 6 o r v c d

Il

1 . Co""_�,

in th e: e a r l ie r p a rt o f th e

b c t wc :.' D 1 . 2 5

than

A ... rO'A" n d

ahe ! A tt i c

h o l m o t ouch

M

tho

U.b.

�I

( 1 . 1 1 Es . )

1

Hc �o t . "

.2 I

-

Li ght e ni ng al so �p pc �r G i n the de vo lopucn t -

he llil ot ,

t/ld c h is sh ot,'l1 a(l ea rl y

mas t e rl y cu p by

So a ia e

-

i D s ho� bi nd ing

Up

( Berlin F

-

490

in th e

n.c.

22? 8 , nGVP 1 1 8 ) .

Achillcs ot

upper al'M

P&.t roc l1l8 ,

d by an al'row pcrlulps through

Both mon �oar sCMlc corsele t s , which will be

doscribed b e l o w , 2'.nd neither

has vcry light sandals .

whic h l ie closo t o the to

500

\loutld in the lo tt

A

"ho appears t o hE.vw been the shie l d .

i'.S

o f tho At t i c

wears

gre aves , thou�h Achillea

Achilles woars a hclget of scales skull and come down veIl over

-

meot tho collor of his corsolo t .

The

-

are s�nl l e r than those

than 1 cm broad.

the neck

SCalCD on the helllet

on tho corselet , and appoar

Lined choe k pioc os

are

to

atta ched b1

be IOES

a

•

l.a vin g tho car fre e , and the cro st 1s att ach ed t o a cUi lod Glotal rib runnina froll tha torehoad down t o tho back of the •

hoad.

Pat roc lus h�s romovo d his hel me t , and wears a skn11-cap

o f otitched felt which prosuuably supporte d it .

Tho

bronso o At an th th ot th r ve lo ly ab or id ns co be vo iBbt sh cul d

of ck o la th d aD t fi or os cl o th of 0 U8 ca be shull

suud .

, e or rp co o in d v vi 8ur v" ha os pl flo oxea

-

a

he�Y.J

an d sc al oD

. o c e a r G n i d n u o f y l o ar t y �o aro r

of vitia

hel ... t of web tho e t a l p g n i t t i f e s o l c a t ho o c a l o typu o ct th in ta 1s it d , an s so a v ic t t A n o 8hD.p� is Il l a o a e e n n w o h s s 1 h c i h w r � latt f 1 S h t i n S P o r s i aD o .

1 tl r t h r c o i p Crooke h O w O S A V O B O h t n o

r o h t o s wn o o t h o o r & S Q S . V C ft o (T h

in

n Ano

•

BO"lon ,

Den 3 7 ( 1 9(; .3 ) 579

raro .

Pr a G u�ab l y �ilt !ndc8 b�u8ht h im so l f

or

othor

e asy

Aga.in ,

typ�, a f h r dc�lic ll t inG tho) L� t e

round with

on i t �t

h i s n;·.!Ilu

who t!ler

t o Imow

6C2 } .

-

' . -

t h at

wos

t o bel ieve that still

Corinthians

Ol yr:tp i u ;

o<: loro

u n o � h�lmot

Cor iut�ian

it would

boon

c.

interesting

Of:

i t is

quito

nUMb e r of �'\te

thc n a

S partan Helme t s .

3 a 3 . 1 . ,3 .

!)c t , d ls or tho armour \iOrn by Spartans

nrc

5th Cent ury

e nt ir(tl� lack inc .

c.xT,lour �t

dcdicL'.. t c

be tor",

the lato

The Spartnns did not

( Plut .

the chr incs thc!!lsc lveA

I-Ior

224 }")

nor

dl.· d

did

not L r c c t cl�� orat e funcrL'..1 �cnu�ur.tc , nor puint the_selves ·

tl1" i r � _

apponr end

n�ck

yo�rs later ,

havo worn

to

b are

often manage t o 3tri� the: sla in.

ene m l. C S •

Fifty

on pott�ry.

the

' Pilos ' Q

end rosembled

smo o thl y t o a c c ntrnl point .

in

t h e Peloponnusian

� helmet wh i c h

simple

brimloss felt hat , r;r.� ng

a

r of

by

artistic

b t ol ian �l'l'OV8

as per forn ted by tho

Spart iat es wore dofo �t c d on Sphacteria in 425 . •

•

when tho

in hi s

the1

It is probably tho itew ment

repre sonta t ions . ( note 2)

by Thucyd ido 3 4.3 4.3

war

lo tt the f�ce

type io discuss�d

This

Anderson ( 1 970 p 29-37 ) , who gives -

ot �o

hol •.:!t

or aftar Harethon :

thert: �oul u hav\:

�round

in c orporo tinda cro

Gow;ae · ,

co mre on tary 3u gges ts th r.t Thucyeido G �e nt ionB the

piloe because it is

Q

new-t�glad device :

i ! h� i8 ri3ht ,

tho

Spartflll t: I!.t Flc.tao4 are likctly to h�;ve b e e n �oaring tho Late •

CorinthiQn type • 13000t iELn

Holmots . 7

•

7

7

Co.ro.po.nos thought that th o th e

�nd in

B oo ot inn h el m o t , w h ic h

'

Pil os ' pa tt l.lr n VQS th d ot

wh i c h is ment io n e u by X on ophon

lJ ay e ) 4 9 IX L ( s o n o h t G llc m o

Mi c on ' lJ p c i n t i n g

ot

w n c;

w o r n b :r

t ho b Q t t l e o t Marat h o n .

( 1 96 7 p S 4 ) h�1J sh own e c � d

and othe re ,

t h o ilat Howevcr Snoderaao

nn ti oo o B ho t g in y if t en id n r to rC QD O

Table 3 . 1 Thi ckne ss in mm o f Late Corinthian h elme t s at Olympi a .

a�-�t�-'l�-�-'�'�-lN�m�'�wb�e�r�----� .

0 . 75

Right cl"> eek

1 . 25

1 . 25

1 .0

1 .0

1 . 25

1 .0

0 . 75

0 . 75

1 . 25

1 . 75

Left cheek Beside right eye Beside l e ft

1 .5

1 . 25

0 . 75

0 . 75

0 . 75

0 . 75

1.0

1.0

1.5 •

5.0

1� . 5

1.5

3.5

5.0

4. . 0

2 . 75

1 . 25 2 . 75

Forehead left

1.0

1 .0

1 .0

Temple l e ft

0 .875

Top o f head

1 . 12

4. . 0 •

0 . 75

0 . 75

1.0 0 . 75

•

Temple right

1.0 •

Rear (hori z ontal )

1 .0

3 . 75

Forehead right Forehead c entre

m

1 . 25

eye

Uasal top

m�

0 . 75

2 .0

1.5

•

0 . 75

0 . 75

0 . 75 0.1

1 . 75

•

1.5

0 . 8 75

0.1

2 . 75

0.1

0 . 75

0 . 75 •

Rear (median)

1 .12 0 . 75

Neck right .

1 . 75

. Neck ce ntre Neck rear =

7.. __

eo 2 _ . .

•

2

_ •• _ _

0 . 75 0 . 75

0 . 75

0.5

1 .0

�

1 . 25 1 . 25

....:l �

h e Imo t

8

b r i r.m c d

broad

t h o p e t F. c O I) ,

hat , the

ns

T i g r i s in g i ve

�o � l d

tho

v � ry

Li n i n ·

3.3. 1 .5.

Ther l)

� S h tl 0 ). e ( . c

good

rim

oust

ha v e

no

t h ere ure

linings

Ono

rim ;

but i t ,",oul d

�rc

the]

when

fairl] c o ft ,

row

of

Holrne t o of thE middlG

n

l i n i ng

on t �

t he

What look Tery

to

aro bont back t o o:XI,ose

th o

linin� of thu earlier

order

in

t o bend round the

insert into t h o ridge d ' cap '

Corinthian typo a stirr lining Qade o t t wo pieces

�ewn

to;c ther along the ridge , and with

c: dcoa o f tho l inin!:

•

be l o\.,

necessary

b r im

chovn in vace paint ingG on t ho choek

ao pnrat o d tho CAp frum t ho cons ider

The

has been fol ded OTer

other at t achmc nt o .

be possiblo

o f leather or h i du ,

b ott om

froll

l ining of the

for the

lin in g

woul d ewppo�e that

�UBt hav e b&on

Int o

b� laet

��OFri�G � i �G i l o s .

b e a n �vail�blo for gluing

t ype

tho

fr�m

felt

�lr�a dy di spcnse� with that . �nd some

At t i e h c llDc t e ,

fac e .

in the

�r o t e c t i nn

e dge whcr� a

me thod

the

a

( 5 n o d � r n � 8 1 � $ ? FI 5 t ) .

t o f �e t e n on thn out s i de .

l ike glue d-on

in

Earlier Corinthian hel!lle t s aho\-I a

how� vc r had

t a l , r. incc

another

7 , P

� ri o d

pi O C O G of

c orpora

in

011

and

the

rive t s around

me

O C C ur :. ill:,

i s n o i n c orporo evide n c e

l
t h e rno t�l

il. n d

. '. t fa i r . Ili c d e l l 3 d

( c haptor

7)

re st ing

011

thG ledge

rost o f

the helmo t .

",hethc:r

r.

for t he o ffoc t ivcnosG ot

uch

tUG

&.

which

�e shall

l inin,

would bo

or

h�lmot ,

who ther a

s o t t e r l i nin� woul d to ado q ua t � . .

Tha di8tnr. c� but wc "n the hclrr.ot lInd tht. hea d. ,.

-.

Hoat Grook

t h o br ow o t th e

Ho wo vo r , t h o o� ul l

ot

co ,

,, .,.

( wh i c h 1n • '

b., t we c n ";J �

)

c\C"vaturo

nn d DO OID to ot nnd o t t

q U i t o c lo se ly ,

c: 7 • .,

holoe t o follow

•

o r.;

ba o at I n t1 t o n rl r.:. nJ 6

·1 0"

In to tho

tront

-

bout 1

a

of em

th" sk1lll

( 0. 4

Co ri nt hi on typo do cs

a c� va tur �

i t l e drO\tn ( r..,

.

Of 5 � . I.

1n )

in ) .

no t

o r rn di u8 �bout

for wnr d , :ln U b30 •

At:.

,!l

to ll ow

1"l.i ilu l t

&

ro diua

th o no al) -

-

73. mo
�uard is

c b se ur c v i s i o n , io ru in s

P.

� n s t :: � u

of

,

O!: l'. th e

E'�1t·J.IO \·! b e n d

0::

t op

iE ,,;) Qu t 1 0

( 4

cn

Ac

in ) .

the

pr oC;r c s s 1 v e ly nh ar pcr j

.J €: e or.l C�

�nd t � o pr o f i l e

c orrOU0 U .

d i s t nn c e b e t uc c n the

appears t ::> have b e c n ab o u t

(o.B

em

2

timl t 11<:: t

t ou c h e d the h C L'.d ,

v c ry prcno'.!n c o d .

up

to

es

1

in )

fr oLl th::.

( C . l•

in )

ov c.. r t Il(:

foro:10<:d

thc re s t

of

over

),

2

\-Ihcrc

in

'.-!h i c h

in

the helmet

tmintaincd

�1Lich the slope 3 c ;uratcs the

i�

' c ap '

cm ,

1

of

-

of

the

p<:: d ding .<

given

thE: ue:lmet ,

i

r·py muQ

clearance

o f about 3 CD ( 1 .2 jn ' �jld in

( o:�c cpt

in the �xamples rith an

c;] pudding 'f� hcre

T:lC

of

the sides of the •

A t t ic ty:pe would be: restricted t o

1 c� ull ove r.

ac out

3 . 3. 2 .

?hc DO lin

c oroc lc t . t o th e

c or se le t sn ol-rl1 ' 1: c � l '

,

011

" .. ' j .. \:

c.m d

o f tl:(, 6 t h .

th e

Vl'. El C G

•

n

G a nt nl' Y the st Dnd�rd dc vc l o£, oo nt

c ont inuo

b\ · t mt in lj' in rny th ol oc. ic r..l

to

c. r

th o Illc tcl

appec.r

sc on l.:$ ,

•

in tho

�nd in

�

new

"'c 1" ) · n •• ". ·' '�· l ,. ' I·' j· u "' ,,�.

rop roduc inr...; t!\O r:1u£ c ul,� tur o of the

.:: ::

.. :I:lpl o o h;lVO l. v c n found in COl·:>or.., in

.

.

A l t h (\\It7.h

, . CJ U 1.11. I"" ""� · 1'" f' " ... " .. n t" , d tJ t ...

io

Ho t n l c orG u l o t s

c .� rL.> c l c t .

5 t h . C c r. t ur y ,

•..1

f o r .. hcad

the t C !'nula s .

tl�e crown

...Ii t h

11cad.

he l.::o t t 01!ch th,"

C 1l U r ..-

and

cap

UXU&Gcrat c d :pcak

t o take

s i ck s ,"lOu1 d gi ve �1 cxtr�_ clc �rC'.n c e

late Corinthian !\(: lr;!c t r,my have

the

be us e d

ill t�� centre ,

c:x'.' Glplcs

L i!;o\"lisc· the r i dg.J

Allcwinf, fa:: the e f fect

the

)

it:; al s o co re

d i s t �n c ,,) nay have ::'e(:11

ir: t h o s o

::: e ak , cxcc;.;, t

o f the:: helmet

in

the.t J:c ak

helm et ;Da the

ati.c:it ion t: :.- tIl.:: thicl:no Gs o f t h e padding

t l: c

met al

c op i e r c ould n o t

(3

whose ra d ius

de ve lo pe d ,

st yl e

cm

•

The

c urvat ure o .

�lonG

".b out ? 5

ho \Ie v e r till;;

•

as no t to

sl op e d ba ckwards ,

e c r. fc. rrn i n[; t o t h .., t o p of th e hO R d , •

•

is

t �:e he lr. c: t

pe nl: o f r ['. d i u o

or

so

G IC B ,

,

.

.

.

4').' .I.. 0 111

tho

l� t h

C C l I t llrj' .

th .:: y hr.vc

no t bo un

•

fo un d in Gr e c c n "• \/C 1'0

,

It l.· s pOS C l.. � �� _u t h.�t thl)se) :-,c t ually produ ced

f e r c c r c r.:c:, ni al us e ,

�r "" L or

W

t h e i r r e :, ;re se nt e. t i on s on po t t O l"�' ar c th e ;lC: r o ,

on

;,;.

l':.i th

pnr

hC'.s

,

P e r s ian wer Deri o d .

l t n Iy ,

nn

d

t"' -t ,�

t o re pr es e nt

<:'nd ( ac c or di ng t o

II.cwe ver A n d erEO� ( 1 970

an int err;lC diE'.t .::l

C:ist inGuishe d

in � ".

c on vo nt io n

a

11c r o i c nu di ty ,

J"o r i :::� r ) th e L o c o t ian sh l.· cI a' .

..

C1UD 1� l.nG '

p

20)

type on vase s of the

This hee the general she?e of the ' 3el1 '

-

c or s c J. e t but \-lit h ana tom icc l fea tur es ind icc. t e d 1.:po n it ,

l.n •

a

rudi::,, � t � ry fash i on , and with tho pro j e c t ing rii.1 at the b o t t om r c p l <. c e J by hing e d flapa ( t pt u ruges t ) •

.s c.. c. �

flaps are somc-

t i ce s �lso set t o guarG the arm-hol e s .

��6C

A t h e nian scul�turc nod c.

c C!:1,ositc cor s e let , r:a(�c

paint ine ,

1 970 P 2 1 )

500

from c.b aut

B . C . by

o f ntrupo an d pnnels o f a flc,.;:iblc

�at c rial , o f t e n c ovared in

(Ande rson

;n

the rnetc.l c orselet is r�plac e d

; :ore cor.u:tonly ,

whole: or in part by I,letal scale s .

Pre c i s e ly s imilar c or.oele t s arc t".lso

shown on the vases as ",orn by Persians

( c . C o New

York l!mphora ,

06 1 020 1 1 7 sho\m Bovon op c i t ) though they do not occnr on Pe rsian monument s ,

deve lopment as

d � s c r ib c �

an

Since: At!leni:-.n hnve

it i.o po ssible th�t

o f tho linen corselet ,

Qent i ono Ground

rJay

nnd

which

Egyp tinn inve nt ion ,

cne

hun�rc d

nnd

whic h Alcn eus of tosb os

yc�rs earlier

( frng 54 ,

t: or.:c

Diehl ) .

troopo W01'O hc lpin� tb) Ionir.ns in 499-8 ,

::a l.o lc of Ar is t io n

e

l' r p � r .

t o be e it he r

Tho dr np o of th e mo. te ri nl shown on

1001:A

li ko t hat of

n fnb l ic ; '

on th o ot he r

s ,p rr or st ld ou ::;h l\,; tl of c n di n h<.l c i t h o) n nt ic lC'.5 t c. V I;) :'

V n t i c :� 1 1

tho,.

broucht the: style b�cl: t o Athens \dth t hom then.

o f l in (' n or o f lo nt ho r .

hn nG

design i s a

H�rodotu.o ( 2 . 1 32 )

d ul wo ct cl ro Co e th f o n ic t ck un fo Th C/

t 11 c

tho

•

t il o

a h ou l do r

( flO n n l c y

on th e fl.'unoua

0, ; I+ . 1 ,

Am:' •

U i.J C !'I'!V·

J.' ,.,1

A ch il l e :; '

X1. ) .

ft .., .. ...

vn ll c

c1 tllo

"'IlY • 01

w il o:' c thoy o f th o in whic h ,

•

75 . o t rnps s t i e : : u p

tho

wllo l l

:::; U '.I f? t�.J l.! o t

rclecs c ti.

] e � t : · ··, .... ,.�

. a _ _

fc-r

_

•

( I . 21 . G )

c o mM0 � t c d nlilch I n t e r �. � ,- r. l.· ll � .- . UG(;· l c � IJ-c �

but c.J. t l� o U b h

h un t inc ;

o r c o nrl e t c l � �nd

sllur p

• .., ...

ec.:;> or.s

s o rJo

e Xll o;.::"e on }leo.troc lns ,

Cll d

thDt l i n e n clono

::;':. 1.n 1 y use d

'tm.;J

c or s e l e t e ':', rc r.. h o,m

c itllc r

found .

rare ly

�(o t�l

D ee l o s

�ould of e ouroe

•

c O I1 G i C:cr�.c ly i n c r e c: s e t h e llC i G h t

A t r onze

pl�tc

t h i c J ;:n e o G of 5

( F010

1

a

[10

plat e

c oroo l c t ,

.0

f or l e D t i.l e r Dnd

�/hi e h without

m:;J for l inen.

thick woul d we igh some 3 . 5 kg . ,

onu ,

;:0

... oulll

w i thout S C :,lc-I;

·

5 . 53 kG . ,

while

r:bout 2 kg .

for the:

t h e ;1 1 2 \/ci st c oct prot:.u ccc

c omp�ri oou ,

errny we ighs

\-/l1 i10 t :le ell ny l on veEt T 52

�Cier ic.n

wcighs

Rol l c t Oll 2 3 . 8 )

3 . 5 k�.

coroo l c t t o o b e nd c; ct

This

by s ho r t fleps , s t op

r.::J

linc.:n

l c: :-. t lH ; r or

o f tlw c or s e l e t ,

�bout hr.l ! �s muet DC

t h e o �o ul d ve iCh H

p.... rt l y

c o v c r l e w i t h �ie t � l l s c n l c.: o meny others IDCI: t he � ,

oe�].c s a r c

c.cclu:1inG

f or

.

short oi

the waist ,

:;nll is continued

'tJ;:.i c h j UG t c over the b ut t o c ks

the

ge n it c l E �nd lower

ut the ba c k

.nd

gr o in in front - c.ppcrently

t o avoid re s t r i c t i o n in r�� i ncr .

The shie ld .

•

7

E

•

•

I� c c o r d i n(.; t o Snodgrn:3G

chiold rocnin� c �hnt

c en tUJ>Y .

-

39 ' in ) .

� i f lc �� nc e

In

is t ruo 80 ,

I t w'.y

in pr of il o

of t h � \:i t h

�.

hoplitc

5th

rom� ino d

t rue 0 1'

tho pro fil o ,

r;t

�nd

di ff er en ce s in st ru ct ur e .

( no t e 3) 10

fn. il°J .y ahal 1 NI di sh ,

\li t h

n

5

cr.l . ,

ul op i n;-, :.'\i r1 y gl·�duc.l ly

c.n <:

pr o j u c t il :r; r i r'l o f. (·.b cu t

t l , o IJ C:G �

\lhich

tho

1' ro f i l o io ce r.c ru ll y

t ho

:�B

to

f o ro of thc

(a C'.I:let or bu tw c<: T. 0 . 3 m t'.nd 1 .0

tlC Y im pl y

nh ow n r',

fr on t v i ow ,

bo� tOV �l' ::" 0 lec s

th e S ix t h C" nt ur� C1

95 ) the

mor� or lean c c notcnt t t�oug ho u t

c i:- cu lnr cr n o n r!y

C 3�

(1 967,

( I: . � ; .

dO j1t h o f .,b ou t

lIG V!' �9 , Ex ol : io. 3 , f i b _ 3 . ) ;

ca .

i t o.l 'p un ro i n

(,.. t" t h a ,4,90,' 15

�:-

.....

.

(: ,- I. -.t

ll. c t o f

•

no •

t" II

�·� e �

bmil OV Clr

15

C l1 .

doop

( HCVl' 1 1 8 ,

f1g. 3.4 ) ,

•

•

Fig 3 . 3

Fig

3.4

•

a pro nou nce d g r oov e just

wit h mor e etc� ply slop iuS s i de s , nnd &b o

ve

rim.

the

More over �hnt looka like

�

c ircul ar re infor c� -

me nt i & v ieibl·3 runnin� round tho ine1dc at ! the radius , Tory clo s e to tho rad ius at which t h e g ra�!ont of t ho sides st�i'ts

t o ch :m g c

The shi eld is st ill s t r on g onough t o sit on

.

( rrGVP 1 1 8 )

DO

it

c�n hnrdly bo made of hi do nlono ,

now ahape suggo s t s strongly Q

that there haa boen

t ogethor , to

l ami neted.

The ra is

c hango from

t ur n o d froa solid

rolaUvely simplo structnro , perhaps

pl ank s Slue d

a

the

but

a , cOlilpo s i t e stx'uctUl'o , p os s ib

d ir e c t

a little

lr

a

surport for such

COD

j o c t ur e in the in corpo::"o finds (discussed in appondix ,.1 ) & •

Howevor i t was arrcnge d , was � artnin11

at tached

wh en the

wood or leat hor .

tho r1� ,

sh iel d w�s i n

t h e s h oul d e r whon

t ho l o ngth of o

thi

bronze orm-band

t o provido

use , �� d it

w aG

a

n ot .

�

�8

trip for tho lott

mo tho d

c kn e s s

b out 2

a

0111

(0.8

o t sli nS ing

No study

th e r1 vo ta and DQ1lo , th o1

ph o t OG ra ph s t o b o

o t t ho

A

o f the shiol4

tho ins1do by rlvo t o , and cords wore attach.4 to

j ust i ns i do

n a ila

from

on

cf

the main b o dy

in )

I.�nd

o t th e ch1 0 1 40 in wh ic h

h�8

tho sbi old

b � o n uadG of

wo ul d appo�r troN

mn)'

si ve

t ho y w or o

ell

1n dic ct iol1

f ixo d .

76

The

intro d u c t i o n

of the type 2 sh ield

c o n s l d ercbly

e�rl ier t h�n 490 ,

o c c ur s o n the

� ew York B . F . l e c ythos

I.4.BV 536 , 41 , illustrated in Vo s l e Q s t one of

a s stated on p

was

76 .

It

(� 26 . 60 . 76 . ,

( 1963 ) pI 8 ) ,

wh ere at

�nd �t l e � s t one hns the old er

It d o e s be come much mo r e comillo n - ind eed p redominant

if no t univer s ul i t i s r�re

into c.c count

Ce nt ur y , end

in Red Fig ur e of the 5th

in Bl Gck Figur e .

a c id on the

sides ,

( f ig 3 . 4 )

th e hop l i t e s shown c ro uch ing b e s id e the

S c ythicn � r c h ers h � s one , t yp e .

0

d evelopment of

There is much more to be

t JK ing

the hoplit e shield ,

the Bo - c�11cd Bo e o t i,jn typ e , with o ut -out

wh ich o c c urs on Boeo t L �n co ins of t he 4th o entury,

c.nd u l so o n the Persepo 1 1 s relif s ,

b ut it i s too lo"ge a. •

t o p i c for t h i s stud y .

I

em conv in c ed

th � t

Lorimer

m i sh ,nd 1 e d the evid enc e; in Homer r.nd th e Monument s , '

by

f � i1 i ng to g iv e d ue � t t €nt lon to the Per si�n eviden ce.

It i a ::. 1 80 no t i c ec.bl e th:l t the fa.il ure of Bra si:L s ' shie ld ,

( Flu t . � r 190 B e t c .

)

1 s roughl y co nt �

w ith the f �il� c of the �c.rton he lmet s Co s

on BPh�ctorlu ,

it exp eriment in th e Sp c.r t;:.n ::-.rmy dur ing

Pe10ponne si � W�

were

go ing too f � .

�ry

the

•

•

•

• •

•

•

77. outs ide , tho c c n t ..' c o f tho shie li'. to ld

On t h e b I c z on ,

"'un ..."'e , <:>

b o c r:ulJ;,;

l e s s t tcn 0 . 5

( O . OO/f

c oul d b e

.

'

_,"

\"1[".6

w i ll o w

,

of t he

(The n['.m(; r.Jc.kcs

c.

she e t bronze ,

c,"

c ove r .

,·IO.S

This t oo

" . ' (.. : J j

o f the: rio ,

s i l!l i h:r S:lgce s t i on ) .

3.1

The whi ch

very

•

l!u i ll o c he p:-. t te rn I

t'.

s h i e l d clcscrib (; c. in App e: n d i y.

•

o rde r of 0. 1 - 0 . 2

of t� c

clso prot e c t e d by

c.h:c.y s c c rr i c f:;

l',ic!w r .

:

� nd

�nd CGd� c1 l i t t l e t o the prot e- c t i or.. .

e:t enoion

ell

.... nll D.l:;lOst

•

in ) ,

nnio l!.l

rim of the

but it wc.s probc.bly c onsidcrcbly

c O l'res i o11 ,

( . 02 i n )

�n

0.003

-

i:'1i t�t(.)

of

b r onze

t llicklle SG o f the sheet is fi ff i c ult to

c r i s i nnl

Th�

��cet .

t h i n bronze

covered \lith t hin

c o cl d h e compl � t o J.y

or it

E'.

"t!l1n , .

,

.

L',S i f t Cl

cognctc vith On t h e Et;z-u s c nn

. the bro!lze i s sc p�rL'.t " d froCt

t h e WOO t!CD r itl by o pccers t-;h ich pr o t!u c e :"". gc.p o f about 0. 5 co

(0.2 is

in ) bet\of(: o.)D thl:! two .

The purpose o f thc.t i s obscure , nor

llO.S

it ktiotln ,,:hethor it

•

0.

fre quent or rogulnr feature of the

hopl i t o Ghie ld. •

If

t:1C:
a

c hnngo did tc.Lc pln c e in the struc t ure , " w. 01'e

en

t o t he t h i c kn e s s o f the ne,'1 one .

Ghicld .�lreo.dy �ent ion� d i s .

['.n(1 t...·Ul

Co

o! · c

The Et l"ns c �n

solid wood f['.irly close-grained,

( i mply in�

t14iclcnes3 of some 2 c m . ,

0.

weiGht , with its

•

t h iri b ronze co·verine; I

ot

a

Lee

of

Enfield r i f l e

r:.bout 8

(3.6

l�? ,

kg ) .�ncl

a

( L'ofJcwhcrc be t we en thc.t Bren Gun

( 1 1 . 3 kg . » .

,

Thr:.t t!liC!C1CSfi s e e ms t o f it ',icule: o t i ll b� c ov e r e d ,

O O :'IC

with b ro nz c ,

b u t iJig!lt r.ot b c rlluch t h i c kor tb�n .

;�bout 1� . 5 kG. , frur.1

tho

The nev shield

o f th(.: ri"Ic t s .

1

C.5

lC; I;�

t :lt' n

CI,I . ,

ir.l�lyinG

it

in

ft\r fron:

c l c c.r

c.

thick ,

\lcieht

• •

J.. n tl,ron could b e f i t t " t!. bu low i t but

OJ:l

to

!te .)p

hOVI C OI::r.1on this

of

nrrovs

vn.s .

( no t ..; 3 ) •

G t !l Cuntu:-y

VC'.O(J

,�. i n t illC;::: nppo:', l" t o hr;v(: ",-,en drapp,-, l' by the

-

the 5th

b e ginning o f

o f tho

;:pp0i:.:&' \Ii thout

-.re s t i l l ';lOrn b y most

..

� i cht ing PcrD icns ,

shown

t r o eps

Gre�vcs

c e n tt!ry .

thcrl .

but

'.inC!. tJ!cy b e c one progre s s i v e l y r:-rer

cn.

H O \/c·.e r ,

[.nd 80 I C

::-:! l l�

1

�ll o,dng

12

around

;!c r e

1 3 kg .

0:

.:'..

1nciccrl b a t t! sh."leE .rend

r.lO

1 . 9 kg.

it

.-!ith

h ( n�c! t o I2.l1kl e ,

the

t or

kg. ,

Ho pli t O f;

vchi c105 .

double

Llore

arc

frequently

jn

protected froQ

Greek was

prot ect ion frolil

shield c.nd

t horux &nc �bdoQcn ,

The

:.aG t l!ighs .

but not over

f e e t ,·/e re complet ely expose d ,

groin

the

e y 0 3 c c ul d only be p r o t e c t e d by

Mu t e: r i Ll c 7

5

0f

Ec t ::,. l 7

_TO

=

brnsc

5 5 5 _ -

A l l t he:

5

in

i t enle

wl: i c h

!lClve

b r on ze ,

l c �d- fr e�

h.: � : : !'\ � : ly o c �l

t�e shield .

'

of

Gre e k nr� ou r .

•

e i ther iron ,

GO f:-.r

wi t]1

t h r e c: hc li;lc t O

.

'-" " , "

."

� v r · r � ' ·' '" -· l · �

< .

nnulYBod

t i n co nt en t .

in tho Dri t iElh

C) . ... r;t'; �. .

been

hi 6 h

n

:.�rsenical

It )

( No t e

t h� t f o ttnd 1 ' n � n I_ 1 C o o � n A � h t

lJ( � t \IC (:1 l 7 . 1 :'.n L, 1 1

•.nd

i;I'r.Jeur .

c i ens !!;:: ve b e E: n foun(�

v ir t ua ll y

ruther

gunner ( 1 5 kG . )

•

c o ppe r or

the

o f ?bout 30 kg .

burden

\�holc

,;eight , t he

ove r his shoulde rs ,

•

the

�he Greeks i n

ri fl(:[lcn .

the

f i v � in

for n s w o r d ,

inst i t ut e d at Clympiu i n 520 BC .

In re t urn for the

No

Thus ,

e S l)c c ic.1Iy :>.ft cr [cbot!t 530 Be nnd a ra.c e

shown running ,

•

kg .

,-,nd ccrly 20th ccn�urie5 by t roops who

c �rri(;
( 1 9T;; )

1 .4

;:;e c ond. \"' o rl fl "'!".r Bren

c o n c i c orub l:r l e s.'3 thnn

c u iras s

c e n t ury goes

•

c;�rr i e (� cbout 21

he.vo

t hen H: :.: c ::;.uipr;�!_t

WUB

:l;hc

tfi::li c h is C or,lpc.rcblc \'d th the \"Ie i gh t c <'.Tri c d

previcuG c e n t ury

nrT:l0Ur

<,.s

cnrric d by the t r oop s in b et t I e r!lcy h:'!vc been

t

in <.: c t ion by S :.:: c o n d �! orld "';'.r

but

tho 30s ioo

probe.b ly s t ill populnr in the 4<;; 0 ' 6

for :'! spe nr �nd

kg.

-

on

pe i r t/OUJ.
a

"e igh

ovcr�ll

.lc.rr10rs

Gre cV(;: z ".re not shO'Tn

c up ,

t hey

B one

•

.

the ,., .L ... , .....

cOll t o n t

con · t "... llt

E'.TO

of

a

Cr a dd o c k

1·;UCC Ur.l and vnrioB l.' n four

•

79. p i e c e s o f b o c! y

:",

r r.! (') u r

c O r.J pn r C G l · i t h t h c: C.B.

�... r; b e t l·y' c"....' n 9. .,/ c:.c,. '.'

t i n c on te nt

6 t l1 c e nt ur y

S m i tll i n

c :-.re

duc t i l e

a l lo y . ob j e c t s

c o mnon

v�l· i nb l c .

\I�f3

t in c o nt e nt

the

,

l ie t � l l o G r�phic

t e s t s b y Smith

prcsent

a

wr i t c r o f

fbrc!r.ecG t C G t !: , th0

on t h e

other h.:-.nd ,

520 .

from onc s c a l �

c orcclet o f the

5th

in

i n t :-. b l o s

A p�· t

c e ct ury ,

tIle

3.1 ,

wh e r e

is

it

phasc .

r i gonr ,

ouinE; t o

c '\r r i e d out ,

it

100 D , bu�

hac!

Q

D e lver; e n n c c c eJ l3 ,

uy

the

hO\lcve r ,

oa tlll

lcd

c l';.b l y r.lor(!

nrocnd

•

170

D,

...r. d

t .... vo b e e n f r i r ly .

c. lao t i c i ty o f i nply

n

the

� l! c t i l i t y l o f t

l�6tuJ.

given nn

n(<<:d

'mdcr

it

h .. rd .

in

vhich

-usat oarlicr

BOo e ,

with

�

h�rdne s s

1 60

B.

in t he

The one Gcnle

BC OJ:l13 l iko ly th.::. t fl O "'3

All

mctal .

t o I.c o p thoC\ theGo

b:.rd-

relluc t i o n in t h i c lmoGG o r t h.::

o f only .. . bout 2 a;,� ;

r o l l o J :J l l.:.- c i r.c n fJ

ore

l a t e r euriZl t;d�n � e lr.ie t [: \Olo ro l e ft

hnl" dne Go o f

grenvo3 1:0.100 c:u :; t

De tails

o

c o l d �orkc d s t : t c � / i t ll a hnr dn e � s �ro und toot e d

c on f in e d t o

the c ond i t i ons

is probable

h c l Qc t s were u � i n l y nnnc �le d .:-.t

-

S c y thinn

d�ta ob t ai ne d b y Smith �nd

,

t e u t a we re

n

from

t e s t a were

o c curring at

;;:n
in the pre s e n t e nquiry , l .:-. t t c r lackn

show

shown th�,t nl th ough t herc is

unro s o l ve d c on fl i c t b c t ve e n t he

....

t

of

a

show

l e r:st o f h e l me t s ,

and r:!ainly t o Corinth ian helme t s .

hc lmc t G ,

u n r. �

)

•

d o appear t o

t i me a f t e r

o f 95

:-.nd

S c y t h ian s c nle also

ct

the

.. •

and Dore

( op c i t

m�nufnct urc

ch ange

the

c la s s i c el

0,;:i4e l3 .

Ghol-/O o.

t h.... t

is

i n st atUQS and

�.11 11 a small amount

c o nt e n t ,

•

G o me

Th er e

( H o f fm �n ) .

i G c O�DDnly c onsi dcrnbly lowo r ,

Ex�oi nation by t h e

a

fo un d by

c l e e rl y t L.J;: e n t o produce a s t r ong

B y c ontr a s t

f r: i r l :; l ou oxi de

·s ".n d t h 1

i n c O::1pos i t i o n (�urin� the

no G i en o f L:.ny ch;,nCe end

1 1 . 05%

-

C r o t r : D cr no ur

•

pe r i o d ,

o f 9 . 5�

10 . ry f , .' ,

""' :-,r.l

in

If

t h e ro

I'/oulcl t llcn b o c o n s i d

t i l \,.' �rr.\our than in tho> c o l d c o r r o o i on

i3

�

cuido to

vor�

80. h nr de ning in r-.ncicnt :;,.rnour , l'oth greaves

i. .

\/hicn se.:!;!; quit� lH:<;)ly since

n{� s cnlc s ere uSl:=:.lly he:avily cor:-odcd,

( thouGh

un co rr o cle t: grc:�v';)s � ••vc: bee'l found in to nbs in h..".codoJ:ia ) ,

" •

r;;.t.'..y be c o n j e c t ur e u th�t orc�sti'I._te3 '-lore shield cov" - r... n�J. t,-'

were hnrd.

30ft,

while

� �n 1.L .. woul'� any c':'s h�"'1 e been ... ... e ....

-

·

usu.:..lly

it

difficult to give the shield covering � finnl �nDe 1 without 3 burnin � � .

\

it,

s; ... nce

th� mot1 -. �

��l)c�r ��.. L. 0

�jhethcr cold ,...orked or c.nneL1.1ed, the

to hnvc been very thin.

such bronze iG superior te

( c. 5:�

comr;crcially t:vail:,blo phocphor bronze: Eh�et

3.5

tin ) .

Thic��oss.

•

77

Gnly 0110 brcDstplc.te: fren lfainlnnd Gr�ecc Has in c. sufficiently ullc orr c ded str.tc \-12..S

fOl:n'2 tv b�

1

oc.

to oc;:'"surc,

�.nd the thickness

No grcnvos could be mehsllrec, •

bec<1use

of corroraon. •

•

The thi'ckness of eight I.::.te Corinthian he ll!1 ets, l,-:. , '. -

it could be ncc.surcd, is given in tc.bl�

3.

.

.

:.

.

"

.

of the hcltlcts is rcc.sonnbly uniforr.; bet\!een

1.25

it.

,

,-

The thickness

0.75

IJlJ

end •

no,

except of

course fer the thic�ened nose-guard,

for s ooe tun dencj' to thicken •

,

\!h(;re

Just what tho Iknger

the forehend

':1<15,

�nd

�:hicb. [mst support

which required such

a

strong

lloso-g unrd does not cppe ...l' froo the helmets thc&lsolves:

•

�n

.

no case

_

�':as

there e vid c nc � of

t'..

slc.shinS bIO\-I

{'.nd moot ot h er tyl'oo o f he1o<;)t dispcr.ned Howtlvcr,

6unrd i".1to�othcr. 13.612,

in which

c.

across th-= face

"lith

the nosc:-

c.n c.nGwor is 11uggcsted by !lied

b1o"'l frot.

c.

haa � very unpleaaa�t ef!cct.

stone o:.t the top of' the nose

The

thi ckn u s � of middle

Corinthicn helr,leto tendo to bo hi6hcr th".n th:"t sho�m fer Intc

Corinthi�nG by �bout 0.25

nM.

Sllriou.; d.:-.rr.=-Ce to ::':-::i0 l!l' c.:-.n

bo OlJr.�l·vcJ. but if

th..: •

81

Table 3.3

TIl'l.mage

Olyr.tpia.

to aL:nour at

(Note this list is not exhaustive and is based on a rapid sUJ'V'ey of sone 250 helmets plus fragments. ) Types of helnet:

EC Early Corinthian, MC l'liddle Corinthian, LC Late Corinthian. Ber. followed by a Roman Numeral denotes pl9.tes in the appropriate Ol,ympiabericht. 01 denotes numbered photographs in the collection of the DeutscbesArchaeologisches Institut in Athens.

Illustratio;ns: •

Catalogue Number Helmets

:e 5? B59

Type

Illustrated

Debased LC

01 1082

MC

EC

B 62

LC ?

B 353

?

•

Scars.

Square perf. at rear. Bericht V 139

•

LC

Details

Square perforations at rear, also blow on right neck, banana shaped scar.

B 61

B 193

Several s quare perfs. from inside. 1" scar due to th"ust.

Ber. VIII 78

•

Blade th"ust perf.

•

B4l72 B4259

Possibly cuts over nasal.

? •

Early MC

Blade thrust through several times, once outwal"ds •

•

B456l

EC

Ii" scar above :eft eye.

B 4697

LC

Several from inside

•

B47l5

B482l

I

01 5133 01 5125 01 5124

EC

perfs. •

Blade perfs. 2", It", also square perf. at rear. Scar It" long on left te!lple.

Late IllvriDn ...

Ber. VII Scar from blade above

MC •

35.1

? blade Scar across left temple.

MC LC B509 5

?

B5213

. LC

B52l4

EC

left teJ!lple.

Ber.

VIII 57

Square hole ou twa(� s . Cut on forehead.

•

Blade thrust through left check. 01 1080 01 1081

Sc�r on forehead. Cont i nued.

•

I I

I

I!

Table 3.3 (Contjnucd) Danage to amour at Ol;r-pia. Ca.ta.logue NUl'lber

Type

Helmets

( Continued)

B53l5

Illyrian

Details

•

Two Sl!lall square scars

B6087

MC

Three inpacts - one perf. all on left side.

B 7030

?

Possibly cut.

B70 70

MC

Scar caused by sliding of blade along right teMple.

B7977

�a.rly MC

Oval perf. above left

tenple about 1

BE276

EC

BE694

EC

Ber. VI 41.2

One scar 3

Br.9074

EC

Ber. VI 43

Dent. scar

Ber. VI 41.1

. Dent thr;ust 1 scar.

Br. 11535

•

III us t. rated

EC

em

long.

Three square holes round neck. One scar on brow. Crl.

Thrust 1. 5 cn.

•

Crl

.

M 24

MC

Five blade cuts on left side of nasal.

M 29

LC

Square perf. �t rear.

No number

E. Ill.

No num.ber

EC

Cut on left side above eye.

EC

Cut on right side above eye.

No ntulber Cheek Pieces

Ber. VI 44

Dent and slash.

No nUllber Thracinn

01 7041

Stab holes.

No nunbar Tnracian

01 7357

Round hole.

B 19 3 le ft

LC

B4530

MC

Scar 2 Bar. VII

23.4

01 3477

Dent

en.

•

•

Dent. Continued.

Table 3.3

(Continued)

Do.:Jo.ge to amour at Olyopio..

Cat3.logue NutIber

Type

Illustrated

Details • •

Mitra 064

Scar and perf. 2 em ., •

.l

co .

Thigh Guard K 403

Perf. with one-edged blade outwALUS length 5 en., nax. width 0.9 co.

Shin G".lards About 120 have no scars. Several scars, sone outw ards

B 554

•

B4708

Mid. 6th cent.

B4862

Mid. 6th cent.

•

Blade·perf. Square hole.

B5097

Possible blade perf

B5136

Outward knife th"ust.

B5188

Several blade perfs.

Earlv 6th cent. 01

Shelf •

1772 - left

•

Poss. penetration by blade.

•

Shelf 1781 - right.

Poss. scars fron pointed object •

•

•

.

on,E

84. armour found ct Olynpin io

typic�l s�mplc,

n

to be fe> i rly rare.

Tc.1Jlc 3.3

the helmct ::; in the

hUGe. ur;: e n d

.

it �ould cppcar

lis t ::: the obGurvc.ble oc.,rs in

Apctlwl-:e th e re

::nd the •

�rcportion[: �ra

1.

CD

follo vs:

150 hclticts

Abcut

natel (c;o�e,

-

'3 no \01

houever,

onl:.. dents,

tlith

no sccrrinb by

hr..vc piec�s wissing t hrough

corrosion ) . 2.

li'orty tb fifty hevc sWlll indent.... tions \1hich could be due to st(.nco. Three

-

•

ho.'TC pos !libly

"

been

perfor�ted in bettIe. l�.

Scv,)nte:cn 5ho"_; cub: or stc.bo w hich coulel h:!Ve been uedo Of these,

in b�ttlQ. due to of

5.

a

slashing

�ll but five

blows,

but none

l1rc

is convincing

fatel blow.

Nine cho,., p c. rfo rati on by squnre or circular

with the h c l�et

renovod

and at tile rcnr,

-

�

sp e ar .

in dente rs ,

in c�ny c�s es noer the edge

c..s if fer hc..nging the helmet up .

holes may have been [lade by a nail, of

evidence

The

or by tho butt spike

These hQleshavc c dic..c cter of between

"

0.5 c.nd 0.0 cm.

6.

Six r.t lc ns t (::nc1.

pOG:1ibly nll t!l(;

doubtful grec.v cs ) .

have.: becn tilrust throuzh with

C'.

blndc \/hi10

eopty,

often

out�tU'ds. •

7.

None proDento

n

convincine cnsc of tho

fre quo n tly doocribcd by Hornar.

r.rlllour

in

war

perforations

(Note 5)

Tllere cra no literary roforenccG to the PcrBi ....n

�rrn our

the porforation

of

r- � ri o d .

.c0ncl, TllU

n u mbe r of hclcct£

13Umsccto thr·.t

,

UtI)

which oho\' no flcarrinc whntcvcr

cfficicllc�' of

•

arr.:Ol1l' CZ�iJlot herd weapons

-

-

".0===

_.

-

was broadly

ncc o ;, t e d

in h•.nd-to-!lr.nn

. ,

1: J.1� '"

-

blo�,'s ;'!ere nil.1cd t'.t the [,::-.ps. cz:erGY S" "1""1 � \,.;:,

of

a

bl ow by

t.

i;::'nct)

for ,c:r:!'orC:'.t i on by

hanc1. �:er..)cn �.t

speer.

t!

rl:::rgin .

wos kept to n ninir.1Ure, core

f',rro�'/S \':ould stril �e a man could be speD.rs,

oo st

:1;::VC e::;tih:::!tcd the

c,rouncl, 30J,

i'�

were

On th e other hand,

of oubsequent perforation by n ail s the

we

cnerGies s].iSlltly in e�ce3S of this

;:..� J.. "I�.'1...

L

\lould required

the ev i d ence

or spoor butts shows that i n order to save \'/eig:ht.

or less at r:m dOIl! ,

nnd if t!ley

co deEigne:d to perforG'..te nt lot:er ene rgies than th ey could \-mll b e dangerous.

siGnr. that,

9.'here arc

b e gi nning before tl:c PCrSiL.D

continuil�e nft<:r it,

there \-Jas

co.

....ar

n lso

cle ar

period end

tendency to reduce tlle

we ight ,

of th e

::-,riJour by every [ie�nS l)Ocsible.

30410 jmprovouer.t could

,

be g.:dncc1. by rnc.ldng th e r:.roour thinner but he r der , .

effect of that ,·till be cX'Clored below. -

the

[lrr.1Ou!' too hoavy,

p .. rts of it .

were thereforc uorking to

a

\;ere

<..nd the

Hhe n thct still left left off.

v erJ tight lilfirg in

.

The

eJ'i1I ourcrs

Dnd seem to

have achieved weights less then half the 34 kg esti mat e d by ,

Rucstow r�d Koechly repented.

(la�2)

-

an

cstimate still sOr.1ctimes

86. Chapter 4.,

Perforation:

General C ons id o rations and

Pragnatic T0sts.

,

\;e now turn to tho central topiCl. of this en quir y , n8coly "

the

penetrative capac.ity cf ancient \Teap ons vis-",-vis the -

typos of nrmour ��ployod.

This chapter co n tains a

introduction to the topic

(4.1),

g e ner al

a brief survey and discussion

of the scientific literature p e rt ainin g to the perforation of thin platos at low velocities,

(4.2)

,

and an account of some

pragr.ntic tests, in which pr o j e ct i le s were shot through thin plates or

sh ells

(4.3

-

4.4);

and their final velocity caasnred

by r.:(lans of a b a ll i st i c pl:lldulun. is given in an o.ppondix, tho

A

4.)

(An

acc oun t

of the pcndulun

The ldn e tic energy lost by

pr o j ectile dur i n g pcrforo.tion of each taree t is set out

in t abl e s and sraphs at the end of the

chapter, and

briei

a

concc-nt is cade on tho general pGttcrn of t h e results.

A

fuller di scus s ion of the results is post p one d to the following chapter,

dotail,

4.1

which wit h

c:xac.i�cs the

process of pe rf orati on in

the help of q uasi st atic t e st e . -

Introduction.

It must bo stated at the out3(;t thc.t of tho problem, at d i

SODe

f f er ent

a

rigorouB solution

which would allow pr e babil i t i e s of perforation

rangeD for weapons of diff e r (; nt ty pe s to b�

deduced from f�rB t p r inci ple s ,

is out of thu

question.

There

•

are far too many variables,

and tho p hy sica l aspects of perforation at low

inBufficient, volocities 18 to

oro

oxnoino

t h e archaeological ovidence is

to o little undorstoo�.

c�n

do

pragoaticnlly whet ch�rnctoristics in tho

weapon end tho Qr�our hnvo tho �oct p�rforntion,

Tho best that wo

�nd then,

c"locting

ODO

icportnnt

in!luonco

or two of thoQ,

on

to sea how

vnrintions in tho60 chnr�ctoriatica affoct tho work of

perforation. one

typo

Th � n ,

cnn Gstab1ish the effectiveness of

'110

of arcour under one: set of conditions,

p ar a me t e rs •

if

we can use the

to predict its effectivenoss

•

con litione ,

or tho effect

of

uDd er

other

changing sone of its characteristics • •• , ,

Since the ba.ttles we are consid ering involve tho use of archers ugainst heavy infantry who ha d praviollsly been e.ccustomed to fight

ma inly

wi th spears an d swords,

int�rcGt in the case of weapons will be

in

in which arrows differ froc hand weapons. diaoe tcr,

an� sharpness.

thos e

our chief

char acteristics

Those ere ve lo city ,

An oxacination of the scalI anount

of technical literature which is both relev�nt �n� available

to th� p ubl ic shows that nothing is gonerally known about sharpn(:ss

( at

any rat,) ,.bout the sfJClll variet:i:ons w!iich occur •

between cast bronze heads and hacmcrcd or honed steel onos ) . that the difference in volocity between spears and arrows is

pr ob ably lmicportant for perforation, but that diz:1eter is likely to be vcry In armour, be

affe c te d

iClJortant. •

things are tloro complicated.

by tho material,

['.nd size of the

arDour,

shape,

thickness,

Perforation can support, backing,

as w e ll as by the dir o c tion

of

attack.

Tho o nly roliable gu i danc e given in the literature on any of t he se pointo c oncorns the codo of support, i.o. tho sid�ways spr e a d of tho distortion due to icpact on a p la t o , nnd th o volocity a.t which it propngatos. pa p o r producod 'for tho Fronch

Th o re is aloo

Fortunatoly,

unpUblished

artillory in 1886 which givos

ch raey i h w d '�n , cl ta. at o qu i l ob on co gu ida.n

ethor point t�o litoraturo it!

aU

be roliablo.

oith�r oilent

On oV0rJ

or misloading.

c t o r provides n d i lo c ti oc oj pr th wi n or nc our co •

Borno

clue

ati6n W

to

in to

tho

1abJr i,nth

If wo divido thQ work

•

•

ot portor

two parts w

=

(4.1)

•

,

• •

88 •

.

o� wbich RdC 'Iurioo with'tho pro j e c ti le diamoter d end A is indepen dent ef it,

wo find that sooe of th� ch arQctoristics of

the artlOUr affect only A.

}<;oreover, Qg � in very fort un at e ly ,

r.lOst of those which affect Bd

of the: velocity of impact, conc erned ,

C

e,ppcur to de so independently

\-Ii thin tho li:'lits with "/hich we arc

So,

so that they can be exe�inod quasi-statically.

by cont rolling A,

we cu n obtain

variationa in B und C, and produce

fairly good grasp of the

a

und having got that \-/0 cun cooc back accura te ,

rathe:r less

but still useful esticates

(Host of A consists in fa ct of work done before initial

of A.

•

perfora tion t<=.kos place, necessarily for

s hields,

and so, for body F.rtI01Ir thou gh not . it is th e

,

oore

iu p or tQnt cocpo ncn t ) .

,

These tactics ell ow us t c. start by oaking rather arbitreay pragcatic tests on sample caterials, chapter.

These

give

which

�re

r e port ed in this

the variation in p e rf o r ation

energy

with

diameter for pro j e c t iles of a c e rtuin shape in soall plnt e s and ,,

shells of several different cuterials.

Then in chapter

5

ve

explore the process of perforation (chiefly in bronze plat� s ) in greater detail,

so as to allow for variations not provided

in the dynamic tests.

all the Those by no merulS exhaust -

possibilities eJf a very cooplcx topic , but they provide

a

bas;s

for predictions of the perforcanc� of arcour cade in ch apt c r 7

which ac cord quite in chaptor

6,

well with the historicQl o vi dence discussed

Llnd the:y cay provide a,!raccwork for fu r ther •

,

invostigations.

4.2

Litorature.

4.2.1

Doscription. d to in by po oc at pl in th of n io at or rf p� o h T h o topiC o f t ,

s d ha it , an ux pl D ce ry v� ia �8 ti ci lo vo projoctiles at low

receivod 5�nll

l ittl u

proctic"l

truntcont.

io � � rt ly

That

bucauoo it has to�ny

• •

i�port�nco, excopt

in

r e: l ati on to the porforntion

•

of aircraft panels by G�nll particlos, (and oven ther e iopact velocities tend to be higher th�n nrrow volocitios) and part ly

because it doeo not lend itself to cnalytical treatment.

'. Until quito recently I as Goldsr.lith and hiG colleagues h£'.vc pointed out (Goldsoith Liu to describo

a

&

Chulay 1965) att empts were made

particular type of plate behaviour and to

predict

th.:l tlOrk of perforation cs if only that behaviour w ere contributing to the work.

The predictions wer e so�ctimes

successful when applied to

c

(a)

narrow range of conditions.

Thus Zaid & Paul (1956) used

a

pr e dict

ent ULl approach to

moc

•

the velocity drop in perfcrating

a

-

•

Av

-where p

high-speed cylinuro-conical projectilc

n

thin Detal plnte as

2 p � _"If...::;.; ho!. III

Vs

Sl.n •

a

is the density of the plate, h its thickness, o

the cass of tho pro ject il e , r its caxiclln rL".dius, .

velocity and

CI

the

half angle of the conc.

v

s

is

0

the strike

Th.:: analysis o.ssuccs

that th e !!letal pe rfo ret c d spl i ts into 'petals' which

ar

e

alig n e d nlong the conicel surfacIJ of the projectile during perforation

like a '\'/ot rag', ctild c elculnt c s the mocentum •

Proeictions agreed qUite well with

trnnsferrGd to thoc.

1 expericont at velocities in the reei on of 3,500 ft s -1 s ).

(1050

a

arrow

but

Such a vulocity is far higher tban that

an

of

the rosults arc relevant to tho interprotation of

(&) .

•

( b ) T h o as c n (1954) suggeotcd that the work

hoad in porforating

a

W

dono

by

0.

conicel

pleto of r.letol whoso yiold stross is Y

•

will bo

•

•

whore. r/L ic thu t ango nt pal't

ot

ot

this !'oroula rolntoB

tho hnl!, cono nnglo. to

t he

mnao

of tho

Tho oocond r.lo

tnl d1splllcod,

90 • •

Bronze 700 fliN m-z Work

(J) ••

Steel

•

•

Y-Z40MNm-2

30

•

I I

I •

I AnMQlad

20

Bronze

y= IZOMNm-2

•

(0

• •

1--- Arrow

5

10

7-

di

20

IS

Projectile Diameter

ZR

(m m )

12

Z5

30 •

, a 2 � e t e am e i l d i t c e j o r p f o n o i t func a a a n o i t a r o f � e p Pig. 4.1 Wo�k of , on ti ua eq 's b d y e t c i d e r , 8S p 5 2 . 1 • b s for platea of tbicknea o 2 ) /L VR p( + it a h w • n o o W o r k o f p e r f orati e h t a i L I , a y t i a n e e h d t l i en, p v i a l a h t g n e r t a d l e i y e h t l i e r t e (wh e h t y f t o i c o l e e v h V d n a , d a e h e l i t c e j o r p tan half anRle of the

•

91. and provides pr edi cti ons

agreo

assuaee

part

w

d ync..nic

0.

yiuld

kno�tn for no.ny r.iatorie.lE:>, tho modo

Moreov�r,

e.

nd

of l o ad ,

petal

for�ation found

Dillkes

no

in

it ignore:s

graphically in fig 4.1

a

nllowance

for platies of

too low.

fact far

2040

100 - 500

ft

s

-1

a

(30 - 150

c

1 s ).

a

thickness

ne w

po in t out th�t

of plato the plostic work

to

and

not

of 1.25

start,

em.

in inve st i g nt jng

end

�nd tho strain

velocities behwen tion

of

f�r a gi ven projectile dynamic perforation is

of quasi-statiC perforation, and tho.t

appoars constant over thu

a

No attempt at

and type

experi oontal

This paper did

Tests were ¥'.de at ir:pa ct

that

by

platee, chiefly in eild steel �nd

other than

than

hc.rdening.

the splitting

fer

deforo�tion under iepact,

is cade,

great�r

which is not

of

The work of Goldscith and his

historios of tho target

aluuiniuril.

first

The

Its predicti ons are set out

results.

collaborators therofore repr c se n ts

force

work

.

And

rotating eandrol through

iepact cases.

include �ny expo ri ae ntal

the actual ncde of

velu(:

the

(1)

of dofor�o.tion assumed is that f011nd

sheet

in

vo lo c i ti es

high

nt

ntross,

G.I. Taylor (1948) in pushing

Thoy are

differ froQ those of

i th expcri�unt

well

less

which

range of volocities testod.

observations which ere rcl�vant to this

it

The

enquiry

are as follows:

(c)

Goldsm ith (1965)

1.

d te an ni fi in an th bo on n lo ob pr ct pa io Tko �lastic

clnr.lpod circular plo.tu WOos triangub.r-ohapud

solved for

an arbitrarily specif io d

f or c e function concontratod ut tho po in t of was found

botWOOD

ex

pe rico ntnl icpact

iopnct.

G o o d agrooment

dnt�

n, io it nd co ry da un bo o 4.lc f '" p ty th two

for

thooruticnl

p ru d ict i o no . pul e o

of thu o t r a i n

6.2

X

10

3

r:I

-1

0

a

and

Tho n�tual volocity

the ot 115 Ut.1 i n i r.l u l n 0 2 i n 20

corrcspondinc • •

o t propagation o

rdor

of

.

.

•

(2)

Af ter tho initial porfuration, the materiel no longer

formod a sh ell around the surfaco of

had been as slltled by both plat e

ca

t e ri al

Zaid

&

a conical

P::.ul end

project il e ,

Thotlson.

a8

Inste ad ,

the

•

dir e ct ly

under tho nose of the

projo ctile

fractured and formed potals which were subseq uently push e d o u twa rds by the further cotion of the bullet, while cu rling radially.

(3)

Th o force histories

a coni ca l

act ually

fOllnd for perf o rati on by

projectil e arc not such as

al ys e s of

an

Zaid

& Pnul or Thonso n

.

be pre d icted by the

would

In:;t ead , the CUl"ves seen

to consist of two nearly lin�ar sections , one sh owing a st eep drop from first contact to a point just after ini ti al •

pe rforati on , and the s�cond a slower drop from that point to comp le te perf orati on .

(4)

Comparing qu as i

static

and

dynami c

perforation, the

permanent plato de flection is nore localised in the dynnmic caso, and the deflect ion close to th� point of impact is

larger.

On the other hand the petals are

bo ut 2� snaller.

a

Tho raaxitlutl force required in· a quasi-static run was about 1/3

the poak f orce , and about 60% of t he force nt initial perfor-l ation, during dynaClic perforation by a sir.lilar bulle t at initial velocity v (d) . 1.

a

=

3121 inches .

-1

(79

m

an

-1 & ).

(Cnlder, 1971) The

s pre a d

of plastic deformation in alwnini11D during

impact indicates tho propagat io n of n hingo at a nearly constnnt 1 ) to n radius of 3 in (7.5 cm) 1 (224 m s volocity of 8800 in 8 -

eubao q uontl y •

clampo d

nt

falling to about hnlt

a rndius

0

that

valuo.

In

plntoa

f 7� _ in, (19 4 cal th o doforClation duo to •

o e t t h a o r y t l n a p u d o o b h t h c a u r , t o n d i d n o i t n r o f r o p c i m a n dy and

tb�

e ly e r fr to at et th l r. ao aa
!Suopondod

l�

. s o t a l p ) m c 0 2 1 x Ll C l"t x '+ 1"t (120

•

93

•

•

2.

Th� energy obsorbo� by plostic defor�ation

static perforation with

a

i

in

a

qua si

(1.25 cn ) dia�leter sphere was

in

•

approxinately half thot abs orbed in a dyn��ic perfora tion with a silJilar sphere at v a

(e)

Sone

=

300ft s-

1

(91

0

1 s- ).

prngnatic tesLa un th0 penetration of steel

plates

by arro\'/s of thc tlediaeval type are rep or te d by Mr. Peter Jones

o f HARDE, in an appenuix to Hardy (1976).

on oblique attack, which is not

interesting inforoation

e nquiry

treated in this

In the course of a cost v aluab le

.

discussion of general principles the equation, in

These provide

and albo an empirical

article quotes Thotlson's

equati o n produced by Do Ha�ro

1868, for the critical v e locity V at which a niBsile whose •

angle of

a t t ack

is twill juot perforato the target,

4.4

-

3 d .

where d is t he �inceter of tho projectil e , C i8 a constant, and a has a v alu e between 1

and

2.

No

e

vid ence i8 offered

as tG the applicability of �ither e qu ation to low velocities. Do Harre's

equation was

g iv e n

Harino Toe XIV 1886, which

in Hctloirs

.,tao

de L'Artil1crie

on gene ral sale, and has

not

not baen c':::.lulted.

(f)

Incl ud ed in tho file '!he Long bow ' (Hardy 1973) is a •

sequunce of high

-

e ed p h o t O Graphs

sp

of

m�dia�val typo arrow on etuo1 armour. such an arrow Clay 1l1akl.:

(loro

tho impact of

Co

This rovoa1s that •

than ono ir.:pact during porforation.

d ho is to bu bl ta os it w lo al t no us do e il f Unfortunatoly tho whothor tho

s \J p nr at i on

aftc.;r tho first ia:poct is duo r.lainly

to rutrvat by t h v arDour

(g)

or to

ruc o i l by tho arrowh�ad.

nto on th� dyn�r:lic o D i r o p x c t o 3 r p � r ) 0 6 9 (1 A pnpur by Pian

t n n ,) tho cv t o l r u o r h c i h w c l l u ah D u i n rooponeD of thin aluwi . r u lo r r o � � v r u c b�hoviour uf

( Thu

ruGultn of this �rc

qu o t � d

93A. from Johnsen (1971) ; the original

'tms

not consulted. )

HeJaisph erical aluminiut1 shells, thickncs s 0.010 and radius 2 in (50.8 om ) wer� - ...�� ...pact the bob of sreciaen

a

LJaY

ballistic pendulum.

was

(0.254 III!!)

by mounting as

romarked that a

ab s o rb 2(Yt6 core energy during dynamic loading than

under static loading for th e

(h )

It

I OBd ",d

in

A paper by &lark

&

same

rnaximut1 deflection.

Wood (1957) shows that the strength

•

and ductility of cost metals are greater under dynamic loads imposed at velocities between 5 - 6o static loading. there is

a

s

I!l

As predicted by von

-1

than under quasi

,

K�rDan

critical v elo city for octals with

•

(1942, 1946) , definite 710ld

a

point, above which there: is

a

an j�pulsive tensile load.

For SOLie ruct�ls hardened oither b7

carked drop in elong�tion

nn

der

alloying or ccld work, this velocity is of th� order of 60

•

-1 s ,but critical velocitics of th�t order were not

c

found for unalloy e d metals in the annealed condition. The general works on inpact by Goldsmith (1960) Dud

(i)

(1972) were consultcG during the enquiry, and pr ovide

Johnson

Jaany insights but no specific data directly relevant t o t he •

problem. 4.2.2

,

Discussion.

g : in e ts ov th in ll po t� fo no y wa we ey rv su g in go re fo o th Fron Tho

e ers (8 s p of ty ci lo ve o th n ee tw be difference of nrrowe (40

m

m

s-1 -

-1 s

o lf e t in i ce an rt po im lQ tt li to be of

.

Both vo locities involvo

•

e ngth propertie s r v s t h t ch i wh t a e os h t n strain rntes highor tha

n h a t o b , d y l l a c i t a t s i s a u q d n u o of caterials can bo f IO"'/�r than th .:.: opee:d ... d l ower th:!n the spo"

-

-

n

far

nd also considerftb17

of

s ou nd in L1C:t .... 10

of

thv strain puloer. dcoerib�d in d (2 ).

k r r. l C y b d n u o f y Th� critical v o loci t with

ero

d u f in it � yi o ld

�

n.ne!

�!oou (1957) in ooto.la

p oi nt , at which thero is

n

dra st ic

c

-

in elongation under nn ir:lpulsive tensile load, is also likely to be considerably high� r than � rrow

( The

in half hard bronze. of steel, affected,

a t B n y rato

case Dny be different in some type s

and sOlJe L1ediaev�1 al"cour co uld conceivably be ,"

but such armour 'is not known to have been used in

tlle ancient

world. )

Calculation of 106ses due: to tlo[')onturJ transfer would

2.

r equir e detailed knowledge

of the movenent of each part of the \"hieh is not available.

p lat e during dyna[lic perforation, Tho

v e lociti e s ,

sideways momentum of tho p e tals,

as discussed by Zaid

& •

will be very sl'iIall nt these velocities, and the caGS of

Paul,

the: petals is much scalIer than that of tile.

On the othe:r hand,

long thin pr ojec

a

-

the: L�terial of the

'dish'

of metal

surrounding th� hole which is p ush e d back by tho impact cay be of

tho

acount of

The eaximllm

Barile crder &s that of an arrow.

kinetic energy wh i � h it could acquire in a fully

plastic icpact would be ono quarter of the

kinetic

the arrow imnediatoly b e f o r& iepact (following the

iJro tho nox�' chilpter).

5. .

section

energy of

arguccnt in

It appears froIl the

tests that the actunl acount

m&7

be about helf

that, and that

is what we eight expoct from

th e

shape of the 'dish'. ,

3.

The imp o rtanco of the diam�ter of tho projectile

soem to be very groat,

(4. 2) , (4

or . 3)

(4.4)

er e

to accept any of

if

wo

w

abov

e,

all o�

ich

wh

migh t

th e

aqua

tond to relate

the

work of perforation to the cross-sectional area of the pro jectilo.

In ballistiC studies in goneral such

iD UDually taken for

hao

Granto d .

boun shown tc bo ro l o vnnt

of ovidunc.: pointo tf.l quito it

wao

shown

n

relationship

However neno ot those

tc

l�w velocities,

ooccnd phaoo,

equations

�nd on o

differont rolationohip.

u th of ry o et hi c o or f o t h � t th

two phaoee, w ith tho

a

proj o ctil o

pioco

In c(3) toll

involving lower I v v o l s

into

of

95. boginning shori:'ly

forcC', l.S

what

very t1uch

•

a

sh ou ld expect from tho

W0

crack or cracks in the pl ate ,

and then to extend the crecks, the bent

perforation.

.

Now

'petals',

�ll o f

W

bend the

h"l.C h

requires

that

generel theory of

looks es though the projec tile has first

fracture; it in itiate

·t10 · 1 �n�

D.ftor

to

•

using. a large force, cetal, and n

pasa between

lower force per

•

unit tirJe or unit. distance.

Tho first of the phases

un affected by the overall diaI:1ete= should

expect

a

of

should be

the p ro j e ctil e ,

ond we

relation \i

where

A 10 quite IArg��

4.3.

Pragmatic

=

A

C Bd

+

(4.1) -

tests •

•

4.3.1

Desi�n

o f the tests -

. -.

FroI:1 the hi6toric�1 point of view, equation 4.1

the ccmponent

above is obviously very important, maximum a:<1ount

represents the

s in ce it

of energy which armour cen

b egins

absorb bilforc perforation

A in

.

He

Ghould expect armonrers -

to try to ensure th�t

th at

energy

was

greater thon the kinetic

energy of I:1ost of the weapons which their armour had to meet, -

<'..nd

the a.rchnoological evidence suggests thnt they had

deal of success.

On

cor,lponunt to test. to

the

a

good

other hand, it is cuch the hardost

The first phase of perforation i s likely

be very strongly affected by difft.:renccs in the curvat11re

and tho

s es o pn th er by sh d an e, nt pl o th of t or pp su �othod of •

and velocity of

th e projectile,

-

that is, by all those

l ro d nt �n to in co la mu si to t ul ic ff di st r.lo c variabloo which ar 0.

r.1odol which is to

ro plic ato

10

Ccnvorsoly, thu second phaso

, h t s n � r t s o h t n t o n o d n � P dQ

likoly to bo Much moro closely

thic knoss, und toughne8a

pInto. It

tho bohnviour of nctulll Ilrmo"r.

d c d i c ck ' i.. r o f o r o h \10.0 t

ot

tho

thnt th� r;l�dn nir.1 of tIlIl tecta

should bo to asc�rtain the p attern

variation in the work of

(i.o. the constant C in

the second p h a s e ,

kee pi ng

of

cqua tion

(4 1) , •

the work of tho first phase ns low alid a s constant

pos si ble .

Th�t was done by

USi ng

as

flat plates of &letal, on a

r i gid support of sonl l diameter which could also be put into the compression cage of a tensomcter. projcctilc head was chosen,

having some resccblance

and four

archae olo gi call y ,

iron heads found

An arbitrary shape of to the

different sizes

Thoso were shot through bronze plato s of two

constructed.

thicknes£c s , SODC annealed �nd SO&le cold-rolled, and the energy lost in perf oration was calculated.

The results so

we re

cocpared with work done by the scme projectiles in quasi-static perforation of similnr plates.

On the basis of that

comp ar iso n , which is explnin&d in the next chapter , values werc found for the c ons tan ts Band C, the value of C being unity in cost of the o�tal plates.

The value of A was then

found by subtraction. For c ODparativc purposes,

•

sooe dynac ic tests were also •

made on curved sholls, on bronze plates supportod on leather, and on p i o c o s of plywood, leather and canvas, and those wore •

co mpar e d in

tho

same way with quasi-static

tests.

SOlie

of

the

pr o jec ti los vero blunted, to re pre ncnt the burring of a bronze

r owhead

ar

.

F inallY, fu rther quasi static

on bronzo shells which

we ro

too

thick to

tosts vore

porforate

d ynnmi c a}] ,.

•

with tho appnr atus

availablo and also

on plato s of

other metala.

n io at ul &lo· a lc sO ca gh ou h t ( , d � t t es t no ro ve HOI:!CntuD affocts •

arc

givon

at

tho end

of

chapt�r 5), and

trials wero mndu re l a t ing

only

to obliquo impact,

vary cursory which will bo

discutltled in chapter 7. . a t o g r a t d n a s u l i Projoct t n c r � t f i d r u o f ! Arrowhondo c

u iar.1o to ro wor(,l tlCldo trOD

97. silver steel rod, tho diameters being

5/16

(11.12

(14.29 om).

1/2

mm),

(12.70

in

om)

9/16

in

(7.94

in

mm), 7/16 in

Each hoed

vas ground to a four-sided pyramidal point, tho included angle ..

•

0 30 •

between oppOSing surfaces at the tip be ing

A cylindrical

section was left at the end of each head, the length of the section, as measured from the corners of th9 py ramid being 0.5 in,

After Grinding the heads were heated,

quenched and teopered,.

�lhen tests h�d been made in the fully

some of the heads were blunted by grinding a

sharp condition

flat approximately

0.5

rom X

0.5

no

on the tip and dulling the

edges of the pyramid.

Each head vas

aluminium shaft di;m. 6

om ,

lenGth

200

on a tubular

mm, and shot froa a

cocnercial crossbow. Targets.

The materials t�sted wore:

Bronze, BS

'''''

O.a

mc

407/2

and 1

mm.

cold rolled end annealed, thicknesses

tJt,'"cti Hardness 1I-PII 16s.Annealing vas dODe •

by raising to red heat, followed by quenching in bright dip, -

a hardness of VPN 65Leather, a medium grade sole l e at her , ial hido, thickness 5nm• off-cut fro� the edGe of a c

producing •

•

•

-

_

Wood •

.

Gaboon 5- pI,.,

Canvas �ar II,

9

-

-

.

mm •

A wobbing bolt as British nrmy issue in World

thickness

2.8

mm.

All the spec im e n s were simply supported on a sto ol ring, •

44.5

CI'l

insido diameter, thu ring bo ing rigidly

a stool block.

tta ched to

a

•

2 ons s 5 im o Wa ec th sp of h dt wi m mu Tho mini

p s r i st g o n l of rt pa od rm fo ly and tho y moot

OQ ,

.

h sp � ric al a en v i g ro we t o D a l p zo on br o th Sor.lo of

turo

beforo annealing. . e r u d o c o r P & s u t n r a p p a I Q t n Exporic� Perforation

�

no rgi uo wore �oasurQd by shooting

ft

projectilo

� the initial and r h i n t o b j; n l r u ., o. o n d n o , th rough thll spociml.:n

•

Initial volo city was o�asurod a photocoll

e nd

a

digit&l

vo Io city by �oanD of a

Both r,luthoC:o involved s omo

ballistic pendultm. a n d each wi ll be

finel

ticer,

ele ctron ica lly , using

inaccurl'..cios

d�scribed nor� fully.

Tioing.

A

beaD of li ght was directed at

connected b y

an

ctro nic eate

u

photocell whi ch was

fJcchanism to

e lo

10-5

EI�ctronic8 TC11 digital tiner rcnding to

EI.D

Advanco Each tiQe

s.

the boan of li ght was interrupted, a p ule o was received by the tinor,

Dnd the i nter val botweon tho first two p uls c s rec�ived SODO diffi cu lt ,. wns found in ensuring thet the

was recorded.

co rr e sponde d

two interruptions of the: boac oh/ays

dieplacooont and

of

tho

nrrow.

tho arrow i t so lf

WAS

It two culls

use d to

and

interrupt

two

to t ho srne

beams wore used, it was

the beDQs,

trequently found that diff<.:ront parts of tho arrow intorrupte:c! •

each be 81'1a

A

cardboard

attached to the

ai'l' ow,

tub

a b out

20

tn,!

long was therefore

to intol'l'upt the be ams , end when one

photocell failod ond proved difficult to roplace, a ttach o d to tho

( the

nil'OW, 1 42

00

two tabs ve re

apart, to interrupt a single benne

e

work of tearing off th se tabs during perforation is

ostiQatod in ch.

5) . ,

Velocitios calculatod from the into nals so r e co rded shovod variations botween tho crossbow ltowoyor,

a t tho ��o

+2%

-

and

�

-

in sorieo of shots

so tt ing and with the s�mo projoctile.

thu d",ta froa tho ballistic pondul •

crossbow was

GUggostod

r.loro consistent thcn this;

in

t ns e ai ed th ag at br li ca s wn um ul nd pe o ti is wh en tho ball o or th ow sb os cr o th of g in a givon sott

WftO

th.�t tho

fact

ticer at

vory little corrolation ,

botwoon

r o d eu th by d te ti on ca di in ty ci lo vo in ns io the vnriat •

. un ul nd po o th by od ut ic thoso Ind

torI) rund

DS

Go "t 1\11

nn nv o

r l\ •

1niti",l yolocitios woro there

thooo rocordod in

a

so riu o

with

•

a given projectile and at

a

given setting of the crossbow

Ballistic Pendulum.

•

•

Alth ough the Ballistic Pondul uD is

n

\-/ell known dc:vice, a

short account of the theory is given in pp a e ndix 4.A, partly to

explain the calibration procedure, and partly because there is no handy account available elsewhere. the pcnduluT.! was

Although the design of

so[]ewhat crude, the �.ppendix shows that the

errors to be ex.pected from it <'.re st1all�r than thoso due to the In

method of ti�ing the initial velocity.

the tabl�s of

results, tho pcndulun re adings are given both in their 'raw' form and as corrected by f actor s calculated in the appendix and

set out in table 4.1. 4. 4

Test results. The r e s ul ts of the porf0ration tests are given nw�crically

in table s 4.2

4.8, each table clculing with one type of

-

The detailed

target, <'.nd graphically in figs 4.1 - 4.5.

prvcesses involvod will be di s cussed jn the next chapter; ve

consider hero the values which tho results provide fr;r the

constents A, •

B

4.4.1.

•

•

•

•

•

& C in equation 4.1

•

•

•

-It·.,

,

4.4.1.1.,lnt plat••• (Tables4.2 fig. 4.2 1.

Up to

si opl

c

a

L

and

4.3).

c e r tain projectile diSljJo te r there appeers to be

rolationship

b e t wo on that and tho work of porfcration,

C . i.o r, oa lin be y ma ip sh on ti la and thnt ro

•

1, and not C

in

o q uati ons 4.2 an d 4.3.

rollod b r on zo ,

In

SOCIO

increase

od bronzo, tho

to f of s op dr o n ti a r o f r po in thu wo rk of grJ

2

ca008, notably 0.62:cold

and probably 0.62

8 . 12 n uc w o t b or t mo ia d o projoctil

=

1M ...

•

as

a

n

vory low lo vo l at

and 14.2

Mm .

That

is

. o t i l p s o t a l p o h t o s u a c o probably b 2. •

-

..,

.....

_.

, ..

, 6 . 4 nd a 4 . 4 , .3 4 , 2 . 4 In fisa

n

l i n � haa boon d r a w n

ic t t n �a te , et ia a qu in o n do rk wo o th r�rroBonting

,..

.

'"

. . ..

.

----

,

.

•

100 40

( x) x x

• • •

x

•

xx x

(KE,- KEz)/ d ·2'1 7 J

30

•

x

x

+

I

(+'

+

+

+

+

(+)

(KE, .;;, KE-JI d

+

5

=O'85J

(+

+

, ......

+

•

in O'Smm x Perforations in 1'0 ( ) Blunt projectiles

10

Projectile diameter( mm)

20

'il' 4.2 tho 10.1 of klnetlr .norKY by .harp And •1lahtl, bluat projec:t itu perfuratinl aunuhd brunz,". thh·kn . . 1 1.0 and (On. blunted 0.62 • A • • fun c t i on uf proj.ctll. diamet.r. pr\\jecti lc fallod to pufnrate 1 _ bru n ze with k.E •• • 42 ,J,). Prnj ...C'tU •• All pl at e t luppurl.d on .UGJ r in. " i .d. 44.5 DU . di.;)lI\f'ter. cyllndro-pyulftidal lteol headl on aluainium .h.. ft 6 u � 1 n;tu Crull rob 1tt. 4.7 fa" hal£ angl'> be.tw"'n opp08 ing �� . and·4.H." •

•

,

,

E

-

40

.... •

...

+

diamdar of holt in I mm

platq, after removal o f projectile (KEz.O)

o·lv

ptrforntion o f by sharp projectile

plctc

(+) perforation .,

30

•

of O' mm platt by blunt pro jtctilt

-

+ +

(+) +

(+)

+

++

•

•

• •

20 •

•

•

•

..,

•

•

N LIJ :lI::

(+) (+)

t

-

LIJ lII:

•

-"�S---- ----��----�IS�--�ZO�--

-------

d'

and d (mm)

FiR. 4.3

Penetration and pertoration e nerg ie . in cold rolled hrunze plate. AI a function of prnjectile diam�l�r d for c a.p l e te plAte. and of h�le diameter d' for renetration perfor_tion of 0.6 of I All plat . . . upporc.d on • sue1 rina i.d. 44.5 plat,.. hd ium on min d" .. alu I" iJ t al shlll mld pyu rC'· ,.. ind til j.(" ("yl Pr� len,th 200 lID . hd£ an&l� bf'lw"�n oPP,,"inK lac •• diameter 6 Data fra. Table. 4.9 and 4.10. o! ru i n c ISO. .

..

• •

Conspectus of data 4.1 t se ch ea ts se 5 in t ou d ie rr ca re Perforation tests we The sets are numbered in chronological order. Table

I

I

4'

I

2

teble

Frojecti1e diameter Frojectile mass Projectile length Distance travelled in time t er of timed a�ots Average recorded time ':f 5tandard deviation in t Initial Velocity of projectile, Standard deviation, in �

g mm

•

•

mm

ms ms -l s m -

�

m

-

Initial kinetic enel� of projectile,K.E.1 Standard deviation iil K.E.1 .

J J

a I

for Perforation Tests. containing al l the tests with

r.!-+'

�_� �

8-" 2

A4.2 11.1 16.4 200 ' 14.2 7 2.089 +-0.063 .O � -2.0

1\4.2 11.1 15.9 200 , 14.2 17 2.077 !O.119 �8.3 �.O

A4.2 7.9 10.5 200 14.2 14 1.844 !O.056 �7.0 -2.4

37.9 +2. 3 -

37.0 +4 .0 -

31.4 +1.7 -

•

one projectile. "_L �..

6.-: ,.

-

---

A4.3 �4.4 14.3 12.7 22.1 27.1 200 200 14.2 13.7 29 22 2.293 2.530 :!:0.096 !O.062 �6.1 9.7 � -2.2 -1.5 ,

39.5 +2.1 -

42.8 +3.2 '

,

'

-

-

Continued

•

•

•

•

,

1 ,

Table 4 .1.

C onspectus of data for Perforation Tests (continued). •

Set 1

Corrected displacement D" of p endululII for calculation of f in al p roj ect il e velocity u2 2 (as f ound in fig. ) in tems of actual d ispl a cem ent D. StandaIii deviation in D" Hul tipl ier N for calculating

(N

=

mgf/(m��)Lt)

rom

+3

Set 3

1.06D+13 +3

-

,

-

Set 5

1 .06D +13 1 .06D + 3

1 .06D + 3

+3

+3 -

0 . 6'1'1

0.6 2 5

Set 4

+2

-

0 .974

,

-

0 .379

0 .'16'1

•

•

•

Standard deviation in final projectile N D" .. v el oci ty l!leaSUrements, �

m

-1 s

+ .9 1 -1

1:3

•

m

Maxim1lm final projectile velocity in tests final kinetic energy, .-

J

.

I

!.:

-1

I 39

•

:t 1.9 60

:t 3 .0

!.l. .1

70 .1

23 . 5

:t

0.9

,

57 . 5

, ,

Hal{iJ'llllii stand81ii deviation in measnrements of �

1�06D+13

rnrn

� f rom D"

Set 2

• •

+1.6 -

+1 .6 -

+1 .4 -

+o .? -

I

+1.7 -

-&I__________�I______________________________________________________________________________________________�

______________________________

Since the d evi ati on in measurements of fi�al kinetic energy in the projectile, KE is always less than that in the ini tial kinetic energy , the deviation in measurements of the ener " lost by the projectile during perforation, KE, KE , is taken as equivalent to the deviation in KEl• •

-

--

--

-

2

�

o f\l

.

- .

Table

4.2

D,ynamic Perforation Tests in flat plates of annealed bronze, tbickness

} ro j ec t ile Diameter Tip Mass Set

d

m

P�ndulum Displacement ,Measured Corrected D

'

D" (See Table

(mm)

(g)

(iiiII')

,

.

(mm)

4.1 )

Q ecti1e Ve1Q.city

nl.

ia1

Kinetic Ener5,Y of Plvjecti1e Initial Fl.nal L o s s K.E· K . E·2 K.E·1-K.E·2 1

u2

1 (m s )

) l (m s

mm .

•

Fina].

u1

1

(J)

(J)

(J)

I

7.9

sha"p

11.1

shax'p

12.7

10.5 3 II

II

16.4 1 II

sharp 22.1

5

20 39 25 43 41 47

3�3 ¢.3 39!3 58:!:3 56:!:3 53Z2 5�2 54±2 57:!:3 62±3 67±3

,

50

48

,

.

14.3

sharp 27.1

4 II ••

51 56 60

77.2$2.5 77.2+2.5 77.2-2.5 68 �2.0 68.0-2.0 59.7$1.5 59.7+1.5 59.7-1.5 + 56.1+2.2 56.1+2.2 56.1-2.2

33.1$2.9 52.5+2.9 37.9-2.9 36.2$1.9 35.0-1.9 24.6$0.9 26.�0.9 25.0-0.9 21.6$1.1 23.4i1•1 25.3-1.1

..

31.4$2.8 31.�2.8 31.4.:!:2.8 37.9$2.3 37.9-2.3 39.5*2.1 39.�2.1 39.�2.1 42.8$3.2 42.8;3.2 42.8-3.2

5.�1.0 7.&:: .1 10.7�.3 10.0-1.3 6.7+0.5 7.5;0.5 7.�0.5 6.3:!:0.6 7.5;0.7 8.8-0.7 +

+

+

25.�2.8 16.�2.8 23.8.::!:2.8 27.3$2.3 27.�2.3 32.8$2.1 32.°+2.1 32.5:!:2.1 36.5$3.2 35.�3.2 34.0-3.2

Continued ,

, ,

,

,

,

.� •

'0 \)I

•

Table

Projectile Diameter Tip Mass d m (Mm)

11.1

c Perforation Tests in f lat

4. 2 Set

Pendulmn Measured D

(mm)

(g)

blunt 15.6

-

12.7

blunt

22.1

Displac em en t Corrected t I D (See Table

(mm)

Projectile Velocity Fina Ini tial

u2

u

l

4.1)

6�3 50!3 6?:!:3 5 I I Perforation complete but missile caught at end of . - shatt.

2 II

plates of annealed bronze, thickness Imm.

l (m s )

49 35 51

1 ) 9 m ( 41.8$1.9 32.2+1.9 43.1-1.9 0 II

68.3!4.0 68.3�.0 68.3-4.0 59.7-1.6 +

-

I I

l

(Continued)

Kinetic Energy of Projectile Initial Final Loss

K.E·

1

K .E·

(J )

(J)

K .E·1-K.E·2 2

(J) •

37.0=4.0 3 7.0:!:4.0 37.0!4.0 39.�2.0

14.0!1.2 23.o!4.0 8.3!0.9 28.7;4.0 14.8:tl.2 22.2�.0 0 �39.�2.3

• •

•

14.3

blunt 27.1

4 IIPerforation incomplete.

56.1:!:2.2

o

42.8!3.2

o

<:42.8

•

,

•

-'

~

,

Table 4. � Dynamic Perforation Tests in fla.t plate of annealed bronze.

Projectile

Dia�eter Tip Mass m d

(mm)

(mm)

-

(g)

7.9

sharp 10.5

3

"

53 57

12.7

sharp 22.1

5

"

117 92 102

14.3

sharp 27.1

4

11

11.1

blunt 15.6

2

II

14.3

blunt 27.1

Projectile Volooity Final Initial U ~ 2

Pendullll!! Displacement Corrected Measured D" D

4

II

(See Table 4.1)

1) 5 em

( mm )

em

1 5 )

o. 6

thickness ... Kinetic Initial K .E · 1

(

J)

l- t11 ""

Energy of Projectile Final K.E.2

(

Loss K.E·1-K.E·2

J)

(

J)

69:t3 : 1 73 3

77.0:t2.4 77.01:2.4

6 7.2:!:1. 71.1:!:1.

+ 31.5:;1.8 31.5-1.8

127 2 100+2 111-2

59.7:!:1.5 59.7$1.5 59.7-1.5

59.0:!:1. 46.01:1. 51.51:1.

39.51:2.0 39.51:2.0 39.51:2.0

38.51:1.2 23.81:0.9 29.41:1.0

0.51:2.0 15.71:2.0 10.11:2.0 16.11:3.2 13.8:!:3.2 9.81:3.2

$

2.0 24.01 : • 26.8�2.2

4 . 'r-l.8

,..

... +

108 112 120

117;3 122 3 + 130-3

56•1;2.2 56.1...2.2 56.1:!:2.2

44.31:1. 46.2:!:1. + 49.3-1.

42.8=3.2 ,42.81:3.2 + '42.8-3.2

+ 26.7-1.3 29.0:!:1.3 33.0::!:1.4

29

3 :!: 2 9 1:3

68.31:4.0 ,-" + ....o,d. . 3 -4 0

62.5:!:1. 59.9:!:1.

3?0:!:4.0 + 37.0-4.0

31.11:1.9 28.5::!:1.9

5.9:!:4.0 8.5::!:4.0

56.1:!:2.2 56.1 2.2 56.1-2.2

40.21:1.1 42.8:!:3.2

21.9:!:1.1 24.5:!:1.1 34.01:1.1

20.9:!:3.2 18.3:!:3.2 8.81:3.2

97 103 122

106±3 112 3 132-3

;

t

'

•

;

42.4:1.1 42.81:3.2 50.01:1.1 42.81:3.2

•

•

,

•

�\ .

I

•

I

I I

Diameters of holes made by cylindro-pyr��idal projectile heads in Imm cold rolled bronze. Holes are rectangular, diameter measured perpendicular to the sides.

Table 4 .4

�oJectile Diameter

Tip

(mm)

Mass

(g)

Set

(g)

Initial Velocity

l ) s m (

Kinetic Energy

I

Hole Diameter� (mm )

(J)

,

I

t •

?9

ShS1"P

10.5

3

11.1

sh8!'p

16.4

1

12.7

s hS1'p

22.1

5

14.3

sharp

27.1

4

77.0 + 2.5

•

31.4 +2.8

-

-

x

6.5 6.9 5.5

x

x

6.5 6.6 5.6

1.5

37. 9 +2.3

'7.4

x

7.0 7.0

5 9.7 + 1.5

39.5 +2.1

9.5 9.5

x

9.2 8.6

68.0

+

-

-

-

56.1

+

-

7.1

-

42.8 +3.2

2.2

-

•

•

•

•

11.0 10.9

x

x

x

x

10.6 10.2

,

• •

I•

I

I

I

I • ,

�

~

� Rasults or •

�ble 4.

Pendulum Displ�cement

Proj�cti1e Dinmeter Tip Mass Set d

Measured D

m

(mm)

(g)

(mm)

?9

sharp

10.5

.?

shnro

22.1

•

D,ynamic Parror�tion Tests on cold rolled bronzo, thickness

311 II 5 - -

•

"Projectile Velocity

Corrected D" ( S oe Table 4.1) (mm)

42 42

58:t3 58:3

79 70 74

III

8712 77!2 81!2 . . 12112

Initial ~

m

-1) s

Final

u2 1 (m s )

0.61 ,it,.t\.

Kinetic Energy of Projectile Initial Final Loss K.E·2 K.E·1 K.E·1-K.E· 2 (J) (J ) (J)

77.0:t2.5 77.012.5

56.512.9 56.512.9

31.�2.8 31.4.!.2.8

16.9:!:1.7 16.91:1.7

14.�2.8 14.s!2.8

59.7$1.5 . 59.7-1.5 59.7$1.5 59.7-1.5

40.4$1.3 35.7-1.3 37.�1.3 56.1-1.3

39. :2.1 39. -2.1 39.5;2.1 39.�2.1

18.0;1.2 14.2-1.0 15.�1.1 34.8-1.6

21.�2.1 25.3!2.1 23.912.1 4.712.1

.3

sharp

27.1

4

9? 89 97

10�3 97-3 105!3

56.1�2.2 56.1-2.2 56.1:!:2.2

39.8*1.1 36.7-1.1 + 39.7-1.1

42.813.2 42.813.2 42.81:3.2

21.�1.1 18.�1.1 + 21.�1.1

21.�3.2 24.�3.2 21.313.2

11 1

blunt

15.9

2

65 62

14.3

68.314.0 68.3!4.0

411 .ll

87 93

52.8$1.9 50.9-1. 9

37�0:!:4.0 37.0±4.0

22.3=1.6 20.G1:1.5

42.8:!:3.2 42.8:!:3.2

18.o:!:l.0 20.3:!:1.2

14.714.0 16.4!4.0

blunt

27.1

82:!:3 79!3

.

•

96!3 102!3

•

56.1;2.2 56.1-2.2

36.41•1 38.7-1.1

+

24.8!3.2 22.s!3�2 -

� .......

•

•

Table 4.'.

6

Work

in Joules done in quasi-static porforation by projectile heads.

9 7.9 11.1

12.7 14.3

'Ill

�.!:I t'lt!

Cl°;':

I!T!l

Gaboon

Plywood

lS.l

bead bead

Shoe Leather nI'l

•

h ead

Ratio of work, w to dia�eter of projectile, (d in �n). •

I ,

I

I ! I ,

I

I

32.0

19.3

35.0

32.3

projectile.

•

I

2 � WowlO+0.124 d

\o.h5+0.135 d

at initial perforation,

I I

0.62

mM

1.4

+

6.2

MJ!l

Bronze Annealed 1 mm

2.S + 13.7

1.1 + 14.4(metal sp11 t) 3

�l.l+l.S d

1.4 + 11.6

2.S + 30.S

�1.4+0.S7 d

�2.S+2.17 d

Fi tan a, where Fi is force a is half angle at tip of

I

Bronze Annealed

•

•

I I

I

0.62

1.1 + 11

9.3

•

,

Bronze Cold Rolled

24.3

•

he ad

5

R

1.79

2.14

1.0

)

All projectile beads cylindro pyramidal,

half an gl e between opposing fnces at tip 150

at initial perforation taken from Table 5.3.

•

The force

F.l.

I

,

�

•

,

f$

109. whon the largost �rojQctilc

wue

us�d to �nlarge �n initial holo.

( Tho reBults of thoso qUUSi-6t�tic test s Art f tj" �. J. 'hI ¥. j

/ ... ".6). !

in tnblc

,

�o

agrC0tlent is

p o s o o a through tho origin, becal160

line

found between the

pattern of the dynamic

of t h e

A good

slope o f t h c G e l i n e s a n d

the

results , b ut in 0.11 c usc s except thc t

cold-rolle(: bronze there is n vertical d i s plnc c oe nt of

re B ult s

on th� Gr�p - h, (0

In

nuc<:ricc.ll,.

done before initi21 �crf �. rL� " tl·on h 0.5 r be e n iGnorod.

work

the

gi vc n

th e

case

<

Btl cg eG t· lnb <

d

)

n

-

of soft bronze,

w

a

law

+

-

Bd

const nnt 6 h ave

the

� pproxicat e

values Plate

th i ckn e ss

•

A�

1 mr.1 0. 6 2

r.1m

Cr.1

2.17 B", 0.85

B'"

'"

2.6 J.

~

so th�t the v a lu e D fr,r th<.: 1 tir.1CS thoBe of the 0.62

7.5 J.

ph.tc

�rc

J

III.•

-1

between 2.5 .:lDd 3

is closo to the

T11is

plnt�.

'"

J

-1

2 proportion between the Bqunr�� 0f th0 thicknesses, (1/(0.62) =

2.60.). In order to cOr.1pare

tho va r ia t i o n in A with thct in B

it is convenient to obtain

diccnBions

of

di ane t c r ,

a

effvctive diaceter of tho

1

plat e it appElD.r3

In

tho cold

if it we re

as

of the

th.:-.t

S

:::

r.lrJ,

in tho

cons i le r od

on

mO t

hvr

e it

DS

In tho

0.62 p lc:.tc

rollod bronze, thickness 0.62

•

s:t

3.0.

the recults side �f the

t y vo li ca to o op at l p e th of cy on nd te � th of but in view

i Gn or o n I:

addition to tho

perforation.

ly �n ov r te at sc to t eh si t rs nt ar fi appo

linot

on

which hes the

It ma,. be

initinl 3.5

AIBt

=

th e projectile.

'virtual dinnetort

[lID

coduluG S

a

�nd o n i l y h t w o o l b n t l u 08 th� r

12.8, A

:::

J,

n

bot wo on

that in oimilar

to

tho

bronzo by

�if!�ronco i

goot

1.5 �nu 1.8 J

o w o h o o m-: o r b u ..: l l o r d l T h U G t h v co tho anngol�(\

cu g

n

.:\

values

�s

-1

r.1Q

and

for S

�

0.9,.;0.

v:.luCi for B groater t�n

fac t o r ot nbout 2, which is

n tonoil�

strength o! about 2.2.

•

•

110. On tho

ot

hu r h:.�d

tho ccr::ponont l.

11.... s ..

n'.t r isc. n proportiona tc17,

• •

cnt! �von C'.�'pc.·.r13 svl.K:Nhnt lower.

Th .. c(",l� rollo� orc:'lz,:"

l)r: j.:.ctil.cs hceti l:'�J

...li th the

hee.(1s

t h icl:nc:ss

still

1.0

Cub.lcldec!

om

in th� hole.

rc.e.cr...:d th.:: cylin('ri.::c.l portie n; it

required

•

of

890

...nc".

l�,

t:

\'lOrk

(,f

C'.b out

.5 J.

stopped nll the

7.9 tUD

The

a force

to push it tkL'ough.

I. dding

th ic \'/url, t o tho in it iC'.1 kinl;tic energy of the p ro jecti le t

(31 .6 J) 6u6Gosts

�ii th

cC'cparoc

n

tot e l �/ork of p�rforution of C'.bout •

f1.

36

.

•

31 .5 J

work �f

•

•

.5

J,

c:onc in qunsi-st;:tic pcrf"r-

Tho cliar.l;Jtcr c·r th.:: hol(:s left nftel' rooovn1 of the

;>.tic.n. •

prcj�ctncs is give:n •

in

tabl\)

4.9 .-..n(1 plottt;.d on fig. 4.4

4.4.2 CUl'v�turc. " 7

7

•

•

•

.7 ..

4.7

T::J.blu •

£11,;)\,16 t!�c warl..: of p cr f , rr.ti o n in c1li"V'ed

4.4

shells for two cf t�c: projoctiles, �n� fig

done

with tho \lork

cocpereG

this •

by the s"'.rJe projoctilcB in fli'..t p!c.tcs.

Ttl.: nuob(;r of tests is tc,rt sr..all for cert.:-.inty t
0.62

�ncr�

mr:l

6hc.lls r'.re difficult tv interpret, �nd �rhaps

In the 1.0

•

shells,

om

�nc /. upponro to hr...ve increased to .

•

•

th� fiburo for flnt pIntos, g i ving

the vnlu c of

14

::. bout

S

a

J.

Be! is nenrl1 tloublc

-

v�lue of

.5 or 6.

The cldef effect cf bluntinG t:1.:' projoctiles seeJiiS to bc"n t.· incr c i:�G .., tho) scattor in the (:xperim
1

pl::te t hor \)

on

rosults.

significant incressu in

a

iIIC,S

1'het couJ.d

"I(;>r}, ,'f fl"r!oratic,n fur tho lor;;oGt projectiles.· b� c �nnect o d �ith the luw to ro i nnl ,r o j � cti I O U t

behaviour. t;l;'.t

si:'lc�

&

hnrpnoss

vclocitio& of'

thoso

certainly �ffccts

l-str.tic

•

For the sK;:dlur proj..:ctilos thoro 10 no oyidonce

shnrl'nCJGs

.

.

.

'

.

ia nn r.uvM�nt''''ao, and it might oven bo

,

•

1\

Blisht

• •

•

dio:'.c1v::.ntngo. •

haye

.

•

•

,

.

"....... 0., t� �nn�o.lcd .

' .

Tho Horl.. "f r ., rt .:: rc t i " n ot ""f., . l• .; '1./ tic 4.S itl .

I�

•

,

•

.

brunz�,on '

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

,

cloQuly cOClpDol'"nbl
•

,.

•

•

•

_'.1.

vith' the '. A

.

•

---_._------

,',"

-------

'"

,

o • •

(1(£, KEz)f d = 2-11 Jmm-' -

o o

o

xx )It

liC

f·Omm anntolid

A

... o

+ •

•

'.

to +

•

(KE,- KEZ)/d

+

=O'85Jmm-1

•

10 rl,.4.'

The

Projectile DiClntter (

10 •• of kinetic .neray b, .barp

prnj.r.lil�. per.b�IJ •• thick... .

roratin, anneal.d bruna. plat". and a. a function nf pruj.C'rii. di ... ,.r. • 1.0 _ and 0.62 All "peei ..n • •upported on a .r.�l �ina. l.d. 44.5 .. . Pr"jectiJ •• c:ylindru-pyra.ld"r .t .. l Mad. nn alua1 .. 1-. .haft. half anAl. betveC'n oppoainl (a� •• ISO.

-

-

Table 4.7 \lork of Perforation in cm'ved shells of annealed bronze by sharp projectiles. Thickness (mm)

1 1 1

1 1

1 1 0.62 0.62 0.62 ' 0.62 0.62 0.62

CUI'v

ature

(mm)

(g)

Initial el. Final Vel. Initial (m s-1) (m s- ) (J)

75 75 75 75 75

7.9 7.9 12.7 12.7 12.7

10.6 10.6 22.0 22.0 22.0

4 4 60 60 60

12 5 125 100 100 100 100 100 100

12.7 12.7 7.9 11.1 11.1 11.1 12.7 12.7

22.0 22.0 10.6 10.6 15.5 15.5 22.1 22.1

60 60

76.7 76.7 68.7 69.7 58.2 59.7

o 26.8

21.5 20.6 0

31.4 31.4 39.5 39.5 39.5

14.7 0 50.7 50.7 50.7 53.6 44.4 44.7

39.5 39.5 33.0 33.0 38.2 39.4 39.1 41.2

K.E.

Final

(J)

K.E.

o

•

3.8 5.1 4.7 0 2.3 0 13.6 13.6 19.9 22.3 21.8 22.1

Work. Obsel�ation 32+

27.6

of

34.4 34.8 42? Embedded, 3mm from rear of head. 37.2 40+ Caught on shaft. 19.4 19.4 18.3 17.1 17.3 19.1

Initial velocities averElged trom electronic timer. Final velocities m.easured by ballistic penduluill calibrated by shooting ttmed shots at a velocity which produced a pendulum displacement equal to that recorded in the pertoration runs. Work of perforation accurate to ;!3J. � � I\)

SUD of th.: \-Iork clem.:: in sicilc.r p""l'flJrc.tiol�O of the two J:l .. tcrit'.ls .

attc.c!<:<:d R<.:pc.ratcly.

The: 7.9

•

etC projoctile

•

•

4-.� "�4'�

Leo.ther (Table

4. 4.5.

•

)

uas unsuitl".bl�

fC'r tcsti:1g in tho

0rt�nic catcriclo bcccuso th� difforonco betw<':cll the diocotor

thv h(.;(!(.�

{I f

th",

�'1Ic! th.-.t

fri c tion betwecn

'"

f th.;; ahaft

WllS

cODpar�. t iv\,)ly 80"11, and

the tnrgot nnd tho ahnft

�I£l.s thur"fcre (Thu \lff�ct

thio projectil.l othora. with O.!1tCir thll n thl\ with r G

)

is shown in tho rosults for bronzo on 10Ather .

•

consoquonco th.. rosults c.rc difficult t,· intorl'rot. aonllro.l pattorn auggusts

d

•

12.7

followod by

nn ,

stoop riso bQtwoon d

n 0.

Tho

11.1

•

•

nn

and

distinct flattoning , o.s if tho vork

night bo following 0. cuba l�w until toaring 8t�rtB.

T�

.lt�,;)�� ;�t;.;. {t.uL: �.,,) .;ono •. J .. � .il .•· (,;�rVet .i..._w-'.- ... c t ... c r 4�'" t::ro�':!.L t;.e �rl.;;ir.f Deo USt: .a.<.. ��t; c ... rVE: Coot:.;, :.�t ';'.L .t· 1,,) . ..; u:';L>r; �,�rl�r_t.ioL C�_l ... . ct lie _��-_r t.;;':. �yn-lt�c .1.6 ",1. -'.�.11_�. tLl� c��e clo��l; -�-�t.tic r�_ult� .�e i __

..

•

.

.'•

...

•

.

.

..

.

.

..

-

..

Onoll c!nin blunting thv projootilw SOODO t� hr.vo littlo

eftoct ;�t thooCl volocitios, unlos8 it ia liIAl"ainAllJ to lovor tho work ot perforo.tion •

•

•

(TAbla

4.".

tis

""6.)

BDre ft8nin thoro le � stoop riau tollcwod bJ a tlattoniD, • •

i-statio rosults oontirm tho tlattonins. nnd r.�o about 4 J the" d7..n"1o roaulte.

loss

aUow 0 to b"

1'8 dooe Dot

Tho I''".nao ot

tio

rtnin�dl trom obaorYction ot tho

toeto 1t would be oXfoot"d tc hay. 1\ YAlue ot "bout 2.

MoACL

•

-

.. ..

5""",.. ..,.tt. _'c-•• , .... � ,."'"

•

et.

:) A'__ iii.. .

•

(TAblo

It.·.,.

•

ti, ,..,)

ot roaulto. ud tho cl1ttioultJ ot per tio taste rostriot iDterpro tatioa.

torrlins comparo.blo •

• •

Howovor it eoa.. likolJ thAt iD thUllAterial, nloJlo �t .

f

tostud, th" results r.1AJ' lio C'.loq a ,

orisin, it so, 0

•

1, B

•

.

•

1.2 J

-1

1iDe

tho

•

, A

•

O.

•

bJ toar1n6 L:.lonl: the woot with thft VaI"p throada trn.ot"l'ins u4 pul1iDa out at dittol'8nt longtha.

I

40-

------

·

•

•

+

114

__ __

u _

+

•

+

•

( +)

30

(+)

( .)

• •

• •

•

•

•

( .) •

2

.

..

.

.

�VH":-Sh"'''''

-

5

J ,t .ll5 S"+-O work.:.

...,

N I.&J �

•

"�

•

I UJ :III:

•

I

•

•

.

•

.

.

.•

+

.-

I

S

Plrf. of \tClther . of bronze

( ) Blunt prOjectile • Qwsi stlltic I

on

15 Projectile diametfr ( mm) 10

Ica ther

20

II.S ParCoratiun e1lerg'" in le3th.r. and in O. "II1/II 80ft bronze on leather, as 4 func:t\un of p r oj e t t ilet dinmeter d. All plah. lIimply supp\JrtH Pi

•

•

·

Ld. 44.5 aii . Pruj",·LU(.t9 cylindro pyramidal .teM' heads on ulu.lnium .haft di�lIIeter ,h"l f ancl .. b .. rwt't'n opposinS & . ) "nRth 200 fa,'"'' lit proj.,·tU" tip ISu• LULI",'r fh)m (Idle of lI�dium r.rad. c,,.... rciaa .h,) ... .ol. hide, thit"kne •• 5 aa . Initial projertll. vetodttt'll h"t",� .. ft 72 CI ,,-1 and 54 II .-1. Dolta f rom Tubl. 4. 9. ... ... ...

on a st�el

ring.

4.' (",",60';'

S"O\o.").

(J.,

.

�)

Wood

• • x

Shcrp Blunt Quasi static

•

40

( ) .

•

,

••

(x) •

( )C) 30

( ) .

•

I •

•

+

•.

.:l

20

tv

lJJ liI:

I

+

-

+ +

•

,

10

•

qk.t!(j

1... )1

rfl

�

_

�hh'.

/0'"

0 .Il.�

,) 1.

(+)

J

+

(+) Canvas

+

(+)

Sharp Slunt I

5

15

10

20

fig. 4.6 Pc.>rfurotiun ont'r"lC's in ply"'()I1� 3nd ('Anv••• u • fun(·tiun of projf'('tile diol1lf'h'r d. Wood. �.b(\on ply. 9 ii.a ('f\mlllf' rd� \ g rad(' CanvAs. J\ri t i �h AI"IIIY ",..iat-b,.ll. thickn",," 2.8 All IIIIltl!r lala dl1lply a\lpport�d on M Itl!f'l ring. 44.5 i.d. ProjvC'tiloa C'yl1ndro-pyrul1Ifdnl at"el henda on alu",iniuTII IIh .. tt. diamt'Lrr 6 • h'I\Kth 200 h:11 C /tn�l,,' b�t",..on o,'po8ill� (,h'U at projectile lip 1 5" ' lnitial 1 - �4 DI ,,-1 pr.,j.,'1 i h· velod liu bt'twcen 7 • • (�j'c"";,, It" �"Ch' DnLM frllm Tabl" 4. q •

•

•

It(h'l.f.

Projectile diameter

•

•

•

s st on Leather, Te thickness 5mm., and annealed Bronze, n io at or rf Fe ic a� Dyn of lts su Re Table 4. 8 thickness 0.5mm• on Leather. �, Projectile Velocity Fendul1iill Displacement Projectile Kinetic Energy of Projectile Corrected Initial Final Diameter Tip Mass Set Measured Initial Final Loss D" D u d m K.E· K.E· K.E· -K.E· ~ 2 2 2 1 1 (See Table 4.1) 1 1 (mm) (m s ) (lllIiI ) (m s ) (g ) ) (J) (mm (J) (J) LEATHe:9. ALONE .

11.1 12.7 14.3 I

•

I

J •

sharp

• •

15.9 211

snarp 22.1 511 •

sharp

27.1 411 - -

11.2 14.3

blunt

• •

15.9 211

II - -

blunt 27.1 411

60 65 67 70 57 62

•

77±3 82:3 84!3

68.3±4.0· 68.3:4.0 68.3:: 4 0

49.5±1.9 52.8$1.9 54.0-1.9

37.0±4.0

77±2 63±2 69±2

59.7;1.5 59.7+1.5 59.7-1.5

35.7$1.3 29.2-1.3 32.0±1.3

39.5$2.1 39.5+2•1 39.5-2.1

.

37.0:4.0 37.0::4.0

•

19.6$1.5 22.3 1. 6 -

17.�4.0 14.7:4.0

23.�1.6

13.6:!:4.0

14.2$0.7 9.�0.6 11.3!0.6

25.3$2.1 30.1+2.1 28.2-2.1

83 70

91±3 77±3

56.1$2.2 56.1-2.2

34.5-1.1 29.2±1.1

42.8±3.2 42.8±3.2

16.2$0.9 11.�0.8

26.6$3.2 31.2-3.2

70 76

87±3 93:3

68.3$4.0 68.3-4.0

56.1$1.9 60.0-1.9

37.0+4.0 37.0-4.0

25.0$1.7 28.6-1.8

12.0:4.0 8.�4.0

74 92

81±3 101±3

56.1$2.2 56.1-2.2

30.7$1.1 38.3-1.1

42.8$3.2 42.8-3.2

12.8:0.8 19.9:!:1.1

30.0$3.2 22.9-3.2

+

+

Continued -

e'\

•

Table

4.;8

'P1't'ijectile Diameter Tip Mass d

Set

Measured D •

(g) 7.9

Pendu1tilil

m

BROll�;;:

ON T,'EA.THI':R

sha"p

ic Perforation Tests on Leather, mm . on Leather. ( Continued).

ts of Thickness O.

10.5

3

• •

II

11.1

blunt 15.9

2

II

12.7

sharp 22.1

5

II

-Minus values tor

nun

)

Pr

(Ihili)

of of

(n ••

shaft shaft

1 s )

77.0�2. 5 77.();!;2.5 68.3�4.0 68.3-4.0

52!3 47±3

59.7 �1.5 59.7-1.5

Caught at rear of shaft Caught at rear of shaft

K.E_2

~

(See Table 4.1)

Caught at rear Caught at rear 37 32

oj ec tile Initial

Displacement Corrected D"

•

thickness Vela

5

mm .,

C'ity

Kinetic Initial

Final u

K.E·1

2

-1 (m s )

0 0

end annealed Bronze,

(J ) 31.4:2.8 31.4!2.8

Energy

of Plvjectile

K.E . 2

Loss K.E·1-K.E·2

(J)

(J)

-1*

>32.0 >35

Final

-�

+

37.0:;4.0 37.0-4.0

9.0:;1.0 7.3-1.0

0 0

39.5=2.1 39.5:2.1

0 0

33.5:;1.9 30.2-1.9

+

estimated by pulling shaft through quasi- statically

+

28.01:4.0 29.74.0 �39.5 "'39.5

•

•

• •

•

� �

�

•

Table

Results of Dynamic Perforation Tests on

4.9

Pen:iul1ml Measured D

Projectile Diameter Tip Mass Set d

m

(mm)

PLY'JOOD 11.1

14.3

Ini ial

shar'p 16.4 1 II 22.1

5 II ,

sharp

27.1

44

41

68.0- 2.0 68.01:2.0

-

48

32

59.7;1.5 59.7-1.5 . 59.7=1.5

12

16:!:3

56.11:2.2 56.1:!:2.2 56.1:!: 2 2

411 Perforated, but did not

blunt 15.9 211 • •

40 35

.

68.3$4.0

55=3 50:3

0 68.3-4• +

68 .3 4.0

Deflected, caught on shaft

-

•

14.3

blunt 27 .1 411 • •

42

48:!:3

Caught on paper 'llag' Ditto

Final

u2

(m

-1 s )

Kinetic Energy of Projectile Initial Final Loss K.E· K.E. K.E. �K.E. 1 2 2 1

(J)

( J)

(J)

•

37:!: 2 ¢.2 37:!:2

32

.

-1 s )

68.0� 2.0

6O:!:3 56:3

reach pendulum Ditto

1 1.1

(m •

• •

sh81'p

u.,

4.1)

• •

halted

12.7

t

Corrected D"

(mm)

(g)

Gaboon plywood and a canvas webbing belt.

Pro e e i l e Velocity

Displacement (See Table

9mm.

56•1;2.2 56.1+2.2 56.1-2.2

37.5$1.9 3 4.3 -1 . 9 0

l 7.2:!: 0 .9 25 1 0 .9

$

17.2-0.9 .

38.0:!:2.3 38.0::2.3 38.0::2.3

39.5: 2.1 3 9 . 5: 2. 1 3 9.5:!:2'.1

11.5;1.0 9.7-1.0 0 3.2:!:0.2 7.0 0.3 3.2-0.2

$

42.8:!: 3 .2 II 42.81:3.2 42.8:!:3 .2

0.51: .01

35.4$1.9 32.2-1.9 0

37.0:!:4.0 37.0$ 4.0 3 7.0 -4.0

10.0+1.1 8.3-0.9

18.2 1. 1 0

42.81:3.2 42.8$3.2 42.8-3.2

4.51:0.1 0 0

6.11:1.1 · 0

0

+

-

0

•

* 2.3

2 6.5 ce

.

>

0

. ,

0

38.0

36.3:!:2.1 32.51:2.1 36.3:2.1 42 3: 3 .2 42.8 42.8 2 7.0$ 4.0 28 .7-4 0 > 37.0

0

+

28.3-2.3

.

38.3:!:3.2 >42.8 >42.8

•

~

Continued ,

,

-

-

co

----

.

Table 4. qResults of Dynamic Perforation Tests on PendUluiO Displacement Measured Corrected D" D (See Table 4.1)

Projectile Dinmeter Tip Mass Set m d (mill)

(1lIttl )

(g)

CANVAS 11.1 sh8l'P 15.9 2 I I • •

12.7 14.3 11.1

67 70 78

sharp 21..5 5 I I sharp 27.1 4 I I blunt 15.9 2 II

90

94 75 79

-

•

(1II1t. )

84Z3 87:!::3 9&t3 98:!::2 103:!:3 92:!:3 97:!:3

9mm.

Gaboon plywood and

a

canvas webbing belt. (Cont'�

Projectile Velocity Kinetic Energy of Projectile Final Initial Initial Final Loss u K . K . . . E . E K E 1 X · · E · u., 2 1 2 2 1 -1 (m s ) (m s ) (J ) (J) (J) 68.�4.0 68.3+4.0 68.3�.0 59.7:!::1.5 56.1:!:2.2 68.3�.0 68.3�.0

54.1$1.9 56.1+1.9 61.9-1.9 45.5:!.':0.9 39.o±l.1 59.3;1.9 62.5 -1.9

37.0$4.0 37.0i4.0 37.0�.0 39.5:!.':2.1 2.8:!:3.2 37.0$4.0 7.0-4.0

23.4$1.6 25.0:;1.7 30.�1.8 22.8-1.8 20.7:!::1.1 28.0$1.8 31.1-1.1 +

13.6$4.0 12.0:;4.0 6.6 il.O lG. ?t2. 5

9.0;4.0 5.9�.0

-

-D

120. Ch apte r

5.

'

.

"

Detci16 of pl:!rforntion obocrved in qu:�si-st.:-.tic t us ts .

Introduction

5.1

�x � c riue n

ThL

th�t und0r c o rtein

�8

doccrib�( i n thu pre vi c us ch � p te r sh� w

conditions tho

platoI;' and

[",nd thr.t in [jet:.-.l cf

0f p c rf or 3ti c n of thin

work

cet�" r.r!]our v:'-.rics lin c crly with the

weepon,

dinr.lotcr c.� the

sh ell s thore is l'.n initi ...l <.connt •

wc.r!: tc be c1("'no beforc cny perfcrct ion occurs r.t ;-.11

vAries cQnGidcr�bly B ef o re

w�

w

ith

re

su l ts t�

tho int o rpr c t � ti o n of

exanine

::ncient \/c.rfc-.ro we £lust first

i n so£le clet:.:il the

precess of p c rfc. rc.t i (; u end ho\/ it is r.ffcct(;C!. by tho

nt!

...

Since; tL",o

.

inv est i c; .::t i on

of

';/hich

t

tho chcrnctoristics of the arDour.

c�n cpply thcne

of thu t.:: st s

"

work by Cald e r & G " l d scit h

uid not •. llow Co tho r ough

r",SullrC(;S

tho dy n<.:mic ;rcc�ss t

(1971)

en

ccnditions

on tht:

lin.::s of

.... lu::liniun

•

the

pl:ltos,

the

•

pr i o c ri ly by qu asi

eA��incticn wes cede

coopering these with the Jynccic �ith

-

st c ti c tests.

of th� last

tests

ch ap

By

ter , �d

th� observations oi C.... lder & GuldSr.lith (1971), it is "

possiblc t�· \md�r both

distinguish sor.\o c

�/hic h

processes

ope:r:lte

siail<'rl7

ondi ti on s , .... nd others which do not, and it t urns •

out th:"..t tho strain-r{:tc

dopcndent llroceGses

nrc.

[iainl.y

confinod

,

tc the w.:,rk of initial

p c rf c r:".. t ion .

(This point will be

�i6cucccd At e�ch stn�e in th� dd scripti c n

" The

•

of topics

c.rr..n�.::t:cnt

of th(lll

is

conoidllrc.,! is ao

f c ll " ws .

�n

it

�riscs.)

sCr.1L'uhct 1.'.rGo, cnd

T1:u

•

tho

ccnd1 tions of tho

qucsi-str.tic teota ".r" firot d",ocribor! (auction 5.2), l'.nd :l

siniJlo t<.lot io t ....lcon no nn c.rb1tr:\ry norm ....nJ

deocr1bod

Thu typic..,l f<:rco-C:ofloction curyo :::0

1';:uucl

chor'lt..:r

113 cCllIl,r.Nd with the dynncic rl.13ultc (5.4·).

'l'h<.ln

·�h..:

of

cur.lpononto "f the: curvy,

tho proviouo ,

...

.

nd dor·�rturQO •

121. oro ox:-.r:1ined,

tc.kin� thorJ in r.:;v",roo chr ,

ci clr..rlty.

t hi.) 6:-.h.:

divioiollS o"'.rl>

Tho

b"tw,,�n th.:: Tlr r oJ' � ctile ::-.l'.r t11.J pl�t " ·· ... .

(5.5);

the work ocn(l in

u nl:-.r si n g

th ..

hele

.-

r.c loBi

(.s

dis h ing '

,

order for

fcollv....s: tho friction

ftc.:r initir-.l pvrfcr:"tion

(5.6);

the: force required f!"r initial p(;)rf�,r..\tion '

c nl

CD th� projoctilo p�DSOS

,

•

thl'eugh tl:.o.:. hole:

'

(5.7);

cr inlr..!rt'. buckling of the plc.to befc.ro find during

plastic bol!::. vi ottr in the.: pli.:tei::ltleclictGly under the pr o j � ctile

(5.9);

tip

�oo"ntufl tr<':nGfe:r frl'c1 the projlJctile: t" thu In c on cl us i on ,

tb"

i:·.l'.rlc

(. b6"rv�: t ions

pInto (5.10).

':uring qUru5i-ot�tic tests

�ro u5\)d tc aGOOSS th" rclicbi1ity cf th� eyn�oic tests oooel of tho l'urf't·rr.tic.n of' nctu ... 1 E:.rnour .

c.f the dyr."�lJi c t':6tS,

(5.11), nnd

a

as

r"su1ts

f.!oG.ifiecl by these con sidorct i on s ,

...:1;

are: uocc1 to predict th,; rcV:.tivl:: effcctiv"no66 of crmc"r of

di!ierent 5.2

types �g�in5t p r o j e ctil e s of

Quosi-stdie tests.

diffc ront dinaetor. (5.12).

Appcr.1.tus.

Plt.t",s p..nt sh.:1ls �:t:ro perforated qu,'lsi-stntiec.l1y tlsjng •

the comp r c.: s si0 n enge: of

spociuc.ns

1rIorCJ UClu....lly 50

Th�

H u un d sfi (:l n tonsooctor. t1D

l.;cl

•

\lill b ... (liSCUCB.:d in oocticn

tb�

thr o uch th�

tvnoouotyr

.liopl�cur;(:nt. projuctil�c

ClO t

.::0

a

in tho (.yn�.uic

scall sizo of tho spocic�no v�s duo to tho size

th", ct'tlpr::s3ion c�Su; it

�n ind�nt�r

Tho

si r.:pl y support\:u on

squnrC:ll,

�1i.�;et..:r 44.5.

stool rin6 of internr.l t�8tO.

Po

,lcttin:

ccc'.ai:m�\llj

5.8.

cp�cic�n,

Tho cnu

tc

of'

C!if fic ul ti� s which

cv�prcBsion COt,;1l forced �

tr�c� was produced by

tho fcrcv �n thu

indQntQr cg�inat ita

Thu ir.dcnt.;.re usod it.cluded tho;.· h01'.ds �',f t.h\l

�cDcrib��

B..Iv",rc.l
in th�

,nc1;;.u,

1\

lact cbapt�r, Alae hluntQcI.

c\.\n�,

con�o

(tln(\u by

�f

puahinc

Q

, -. --

• •

•

eborr, •

brl168

r n cl i u s oC

int"

CGhQ

n

,�bout .75 mLl,)

I:2Qdinov(.l

approxit.:�toly

5.3

tho

the

tip with

hClU'inl;!J of eCTcr:.l dil1o�ter8,

tho

U,

e.

n

r�plicR of

of whi ch !ol":lC d

c.ngle bct... ltlSn oppo e ito

a four-

fecos being • •

pcrfcration.

sbowe tho

pushed

projectilo wne

thick, radiuc

a

60°.

A typic&l

Pig 5.1

with

hond,

r.r':lOur-ph·rcicg

sidGd PYl'acid,

&1'1'.11

of onE;lo 600 I ('.nd

eot in cl.iDical holdors

producocl

brAeo plate:, �'/hich

of

trace

produced

"hon

the: hc �d

�r the

0.62

thrGugh a shell of ennonlon bronv,e

curvature

"10

co,

sicply supportod

(;n

cnrYcturo CODYfJX t(.t tb" dirflction of lond.

n

7.9mQ mm

ring

Ita ahnpe

•

Proieo=tile ,

dimensions

Force

•

V

U

W b

•

c

•

a

,, •

b

X

•

Z

Y

4-C

o

OisplQcement

X

Z' •

4

Fig. 5.1 auggoata that

we

can diTido th.,

•

.

perforation

into G�"l.goa,

tollo"s •

'

StagG

1.

(tho

amoll cr3tor in flattens,

.

(fig

e"" ve

or)

Tho point ot thv

indenhr llakes

•

tho surfaco, �d'�n 5.2.)

Tho

&ro.

of

a

the ahell

lc.tor portion tJf the.

C"rtO

sub.tA�ti41ly linoar. •

•

Fig. 5.2

,

as

en is

it

•

•

Stage

•

( tho

2.

e'�v�

TV)

direction of the. loe.d, fig at s oma diet�nc� froe o ut wo rd s

th"

8S

bU6klo�

Tho ehell

tho

.5.}.

in

tho

•

J.. plL'.st1c hingo f-f is fOl'uod

centre of loading, .�d this travols

J�t t�H'

land lncrollS�8.

thv load r�cciv�s

i2modiutely undor

downwards,

�

sCrJC

tirJu

g-a

the �rea

cur7�ture c�ncave to tho

diroction of •

f

:&

•

Figure 5.3

tor i al

ca

loading, and tho

hingo also strotchc8

rB di a ll y ,

�ntoriE�

work hard�ning

.

within tho r�dius of the plastic

thv

stress, and th, radial strosses in

the dist ance

wl11

( Th ore

around it.

noar

tho

b ucklins

Staaa

ht'.s

, ( p oint U)

SODO

will also bo

Goldsolth

got

that

bu confinod to

strut chins , but it contributes

Caldor 8c

&

1971

p

shell must be inTer8�17

frOID tho c en tro of

radial stretching is aroatost radial strotching

in

is approximatoly proportional to the

•

proportional to

Sinco th� str�1D

�s at b.

.

�

tho •

o ntro , and

fairly scall

circtJaforont101

litt lo to

866)

c

load,

work,

thu

Tho C",(',o TU is

linoar

onco

under war.

Tho plato fails l1nd(fr tho contrv of load • •

This is part17 bGca��o the t hiokno ss •

ro duce d

thore b7 tho

factors appeAr th� c�ntro ot

orator

load, and

plnt�.

Tho

Dlochanicl:'.l

on

of th.,

1, but tho chiof

tenslon, which

is IroAt�at

bondins, which suporimposoa

th� baok (th� dl&tal s ido ) of tho

modo of failure ddP�nde proportios

baa been

•

tho cono�vo

furthor tenall. strosses

th� plato

formo� in st�6�

radial

to bo tb�

of

pla t6

on tho unCI .)n

thicknoss and the IIhnpQ

of

the

-

pro j e ctilo

tho strain r.6t�.

tip, nnd also p08sibl, on

Soft

bronZii �tt:\ckod by " shr..rp point drr.ws l�Own to pr o du c e du c tilo fa il-ur\

1n fig 5./�Q; ha rd bron�e uD'Inlly fails b7

30

cracking a8 in fig

5.4b.

Under

astorial vill f�il

ar ound

tho

es

5.4c,

in ti g

3

blunt in d e nte r ,

a

duc t i l e

•

circumforenco ot the crea of

•

contact,

a

n

to produce

'CQ�I

or 'plug', drawing

down at one •

5·40

5·L.b

•

freD wbich

point on the circ,�leronce

n

S·4c

thon

crack

-

spreads

round.

Stage

•

4..

Curve

UV. The hole io

starts to pass through.

plcce by

Tho �nlcrgeccnt takos

extension vI crocks from the

in d u nt or

Ctnlnrged, l".nd the

initial

ond

perforntion,

the

the

curling back of tho segmonts betwoen t�cn, t o fora 'petnle'.

Tho

onlargcment continuc s

the head

pos s c s

through

evonly

as the pyrCQi��l portion ot

tho hole, until thu

port i on of

V-WI p�rhaps becauso the tho

l orc e

hole, �nd the stross in the

plato is

no

ge s

ros cope

m ic

with

Q

grn ti cul e , ahovs that

nnd in dynp�ic p � r t� r atio n th� down to

bout

a

in tho plane StagG

5.

�Alt its

•

ini tial

# •

Onco tbo

indontor haa full ,. entoNd thl) duno in .nlar6in� it,

•

�otal

braDS., uing

a

t

both in quasi-statio

bas foiled after

thicknoso,

ftS a

rosult of tonaion •

pl�t o .

ot tho

Cm-fo Z Z

pot'tc)ration

cd

0.62 ..

of th� pot��s in

so tight17

ExaaiaatioD ot

•

od

at

thu bead ontors

l onger

concontrnt�d as it VQS b7 the sharp cornaro.

th o

rises

�Qd

o7 11ndrical portioD of the bolo,

thoru is

no Dora work

tho only r8siDtan�. to

is t.hAt duo to

f r ic ti on

.

furthor

Thic rflt,ietaQoo

rogiu

125 •

el.'Of:1:;?l,"

conctcnt in t}ta :pr� ::; ;.. :: t

bt:;en buil�inu·'

fr :lrJ Z tv z"

dur::':<:-. �- t:iw ;Jrcvi. .

-

l·f thc.; ::.)ocl.

•

'UG

Et"t"'(; �,

,

wh,"r� the

C'..n c unt

but tho

prcjcctil\.: n.pp ... nrs tr

Gr�c_Giq; the

in
of

1.1C�V;:: littlo

offuct or. tho tut.:l 'tJ('rk (,f pcrL-r.J.tiG4,

but this ncy be

pr(,viGos s uffi cient lubricotion c..nywc..y.

(Conpl�t� clcanljnccs

in r.:c:t<:.l

5.4

G urfcc c s

is kno\-1D t::, intr;:.ct:cl.l severe fri ct ionnl

Coo'mri£wn cf thL

qucsi-.::;t:-:tic curvo with th0

It w;)ulJ r..pp0zr pri!�.:. f",cic t h �t the:

results.

.-

.

U'CC'.

X

the

5.1 c;·lOultl ;::casurc tlw qu::.si-l3t;:tic e:quiv;>"lcnt

curve OU in fir;

of th" cooponcnt !. in the: the pr o j o ct i h .

dync lJic

dial �.::t(;r,

clync.",I.:ic \Icrk,

bcinfj indopcnd.:nt of

\>lhih: th.: for.:: ..... Y under til;,;

c urvo UZ'

Deasurcs the: quosi-stntic c:c:uivali.nt of the cOT:lponent Bd. Y is governed by th� dionutor ccntrclG the: curv" ZZ

\

It Bd

-

;J.::mGt4,

if:> worth

th� prc j e: c t il v since that

cow�");:,.ring

o <:.c:-. an

Lf

•

conpon·.. nt

A,

tc:.l:CJG pIece.

by

drcwinL

4.6)

A

of tllJ

nnd in viQW �f t��

which �c th�

w

..

r��r�cantillg

nnd

·f th�-,

..

d.::eucti.:ns froe tho

iopcrt<:.ncu �f th� b�f�r� nny pcrf�r�tion

'-Iork

On;.; ,:::.y of (binG tllio

lin�

'" th�EC ].)D.1rS, I:,.-.... •

the

i.1�iGht intc the rrocIJss ct

dYll;�tlic p�rf(.rc.ticn ,':'11<\ tht.. v::.li�i�y prccrztic testo,

of

cf the cllrv<: VW r.n(� thc

in crc.o:," t.::· gnin

Y(d),

of

YCd)

hilt"

nlrundy bv�n

cn thu

rk �r �yn:lcli: pwrf!ration.

.;xploit.:ld,

grcphs (tics 4., (For wood and

1 26 • •

t o " x�� l1inc;

C'.

pori'e ret i on .end then r (; b oll n t� ;

BU:;C(. st l.. u b y tIw

1 .0

in th� wee

e.c c i ll-:nt

hol (; ,

s t i l l wit 1lin th0

c omparison thc.. t The

t i en ,

Bd,

..:160

there

l ont;" r 6e

i s rec.son t o

7.�

so[!ll it

�m

order

( o f thIJ

( ii )

f ·:· r

X

\lork

tho

(X

dyne.roiie \'1ork

1

alse

tll!l .

5 . 1.

p r c c c durCi

of

f a i r ly

bolow th.:.t

r: ri:; u ,:: (�

ir.vo lv i nt;

In t he

( t ha t

t o be

in f r i c t ion.

c or.lpluto

subtra c t ing t he. c o o p o n c nt

Dd

any orror in cas� Gsing Bd vill

v quD.l. nnlt oppoB i t c ClrrCl' in A .

t.�hll.l

be a

c ol d-rolle:d

� s t i[)c.t � d

i t \·,ill b ..

by

Wed)

c o opar is 0 n is no

th.:.t tho

inereasu appeared

Ho ne o

val u � B i o o c t ccninst

Thi ll

pl o t t e d a g a inst

t horo Day

\lerk c o uld be

C O r:1put c
t h (. c (;

.

.

for � n t i r o ly by �n incr,:: u G �

work H . em

by

•

the

d i s t inGui sh<,' d the ,

I)

+

t o t il. l

o f A in (;XpOritlcnts

bc:�n

hno

t ot nl

n;� t c h o c

cc.. n b e

dynruli c \lork i s h i s he r .

o f 1 5% ) ::�nu

n c c o unt v �

Tho v,,� luu

r · c r for:'.t i on

be

b ut �pproxi�;e t (; ly wit�l i t s

bul icve

dynenic

p ro j e c t i le ) ,

C Q ul d bo

frou

the

nnd l (; at ho r ,

In wo o d

l incc..rly ,·t i t h the

hO�iovc:r in t he

c l o s o.} nnt. th�t tho

one c e sc whe re the:

platE:: ;

on

c or.rpC'.rablc

;

For c cld-rcllud bronzo ,

0.62

the

second phnso of pc rforai n v -.. l ue t o the

�:.,t c lh : S the vari C'.. t i on i n the

cet eh i n the pltlt o

three r.l(;tho(�s

soft bronze .

2 d e.n u wher .:: no v � lu "

closely .

very

in

quesi-st at i c

p ro j ect i le �ms h•. l t -: d

foll o ws . i n the

pro j e c t i l e ,

tidrd is

cylindrical port i en

\.rorl� o f p l. r f vr..-.. t i o n v;:-.ri e s nut

vC'rid i on i n tIw

d

i s as

e c oponont I ( d )

cl i ane: t e r d o f t ill': squarc ,

its

a

the: fr i c t i o n c c ul d b c

t hat

npp(;<:'.rr, t e b.:: v e ry c l ose

th.::

i.ll;l

Using t h ..: s o

c c rJpon .... nt

ciyntlf.ji c

quas i - s t at i c

wh "rc

otlc rge:s

7.9

�/ldl,-,

GO

r.JC<:'.6uroc:. qUll.s i - s t a t ic ell y .

(i)

tho

tlll'.t

c o l d r oll El d pl n t o

1.11:;

A se c om! Dethod. is

b y l L'.unc h i r. :; ;ro j e c t i l e s �/h i c h

w,_rk I. dir(; c tly ,

the

i n i t i a t ..:

j u ::;t

on c nnv o?G . )

t � f: t s \-Iure f.1; � :1v

q IlD13i- atnt i c

tho is

c " n t .:\ i n o t h.:: r o l U J 1 o ll t � b " o i dv El

to.

t.lblo

quosi - o t n t ic valu(; B f o r

X

up..: n t o thu ob j e c t ion that t l l ..

w"rk o f i n i t ial

of in

I. will

porx'(;r:. t i l.lD ,

127. not ably tho friction cf the �rrcw Eh�lt

'''', J.LOSt.

purftrr.t ing \/0ut:

pe: r L rc.t ing clcs.:ly.

On

t ..b)

u<:.r ;;in

r.

thus

c.

eV0r.:tgc

jj:,�t cL e c

4 J

high(;r th.:-..n t!l':: qu nsi -st cti c

\.!<. r!{

t!w qunoi-stf'.tic

very n

gr i p C'f the: tl.;nsoci:t"r tc tho ".rro�·: �c1 tho

cn.:

.

on

shepo

J.ik" 1y to vnr-: Hi th thv

'.r0

of

th� Bi�cs

.:tlso fc,unc, th:- t th.: 'dork <;f tec:.ring off

\;[:5

It

oth.:.r tc

t:<'.s

l o nt h {; r

(c..t tr! ch i nS

tnl.>

0.. . -'".. f"c ts

�Gcinst

c:;nsu[�"cl bc.;b/(;l,;n

0.01 J �.n.2 0.9 J.

Thvrc is

of (;rr:·r :'n t he: c,,-lcl!1ction of r e-! u p tv

4J.

othor h'.n
t!10

Hhich will b0 euscrib�d below, tOGether \-lith tl1CS� r o prt u cl by Calc..r 8: Gol(;�;mith •

.

-c !1C: ,

qu C' s i s t c tic u.;:.rk, -

.

<:.bout 1.2 : 1,

r::!tic [1.'.-:/ be

errc.r t�.blc: 5.1

\/hilc in n

.

�'icrk-b:-.rtknc:d

and :-.llmring

SODe

shews the

(1971)

for

cnc

the

expcrimenta1 The table thus

propcrticns.

urcvidcD adcition.....l confirt:cticn of tnu Lli'-tch b u t wc c n

-

Bd llnd

1(<1).

• •

•

stc t i c c.1 1 1 ;

t"/�:

in��0d

':Jf dynlll:lic

prcc(;ss,"s

,-'bs.;.rvc.d

pc.r... 11_1 ":ith thcG�

.:: xact ly

purfor....tion :'.r.:.

H.::..t

th,.t tho:.

Hon" c.f this provus

.

tlll:.y <'.ru ne t ,

it will

�d

t�.;; si!:lil.-.rity in the w.;rk (".f cnlc.r.:;in�; th" holl;; in tho

c ...e�a .

fJCC hnni3r.J

1oJ

nus t .

In

••

l:'.

s cr 1 ,0 v (1 .

t'........ :>l� .

.•

t·

...

.

-

o�r.lv

t oJ

,..,.... �.. ··..··l.;C!l ... .

,

.

. '. . 11 <.;C-U1 ... r 1 u' •.. : -

,

o\Jv .. r�1

seol.,

cr

bo

.. ...

..

opor:-.ting

i:.; �/1,.··rth •

durin;; f.-"rf(,:t'<:.tion. l'\�rf.luil1(-.,

�n,�

,: ...

v�ri�bl"c tl� tll

....

lTov..:rth ... loBo th-"

shall c\ , na id .; r uf;rk cf �i;rf

·);'.rnllcl

-

th\: �::lr.trib\lU("'r. uf Cif1'cr.lnt

r�ti�n Dt�B� by

�t:go,

in tho

128. Table

5.1

Work of initial perforation X in quasi-static tests with component A in dynamic perforation tests.

X

Plates

0.62

mm

annealed bronze cll'"V'ed, radius 10 cm

0.62

mm annealed,

0.62

mm cold rolled,

1.0

111m annealed,

1.0

IIIIlI

flat flat

flat

annealed, Clll"V'ed 10 em radius

A

(J)

(J)

1.42

? 5.5

0.8

2.6

1.07

1.6

2.1

7.5

3.8

9.5

•

All plates simply supported on a steel ring, i.d. 44.5

•

Projectiles cylindro-pyramidal steel heads, half angle The component A

0 between opposing faces at tip 15 •

is

fOllnd by subtracting from the overall work W of dynamic perforation an amount Bd representing the component which varies in a linear manner with projectile diameter

d.

A includes the work of stripping off of two canlboal'l •

attached with anhesive tape to the shaft, to these.

or friction

tabs

due

The maxim1l111 work of teadng off the tabs was

estimated at 0.9

J

each, but it can also be

negligible

•

•

129. 5.5

Friction.

Tho

: .:,rt plr.jl..d by frictic'n iJ: r .. Gie:t,":r.cc: to pcrfcrnticn

5.2 {;iv':G

T�.b10

t!_� rQ::n:lts c;f ;.: suall nunbcr (·f tosta,

cl.r.lbinctiol1 bciq; t(;st.:: t�

usuc.lly co: ns t r:nt

1'.6

on

<�

c

l" ...

.

\�,,6

f th" pl:!tc

lenGth .:f thl: cylindric.:l :. po:rtiun tl:"t natcri::t:i..

The forc e .:es

sincl� Gp<:cir.h.;n.

tb, cy l i nd � r !,�ss ... d thrClush,

�:h(.;r .... the: tb ick lH.; s 3

plywood,

...

r

<;

.:;xccpt in

Gr��t�r than the:

t!l" hcc.�;

r�c"nt til" r..::sist ....nc� :.t

c�ch

oc::-.surcocntG in

t:isi',lc.cl.:i:;c:nt

Tb.:::

b\,;f�:r,;; t!l,-.t i.t \·,hich rC5ist�nc(: foIl t� Zl:ro.

9

llil

tc.blc also

sr..-.m tl.� rr.tiv l:·.:tWC:l.iJ! Ii f th.:.: fr'icticn,'!l r�5if)t<.ncc:, �nd R

n

the r�ru:i;:;u�i r"sitrl�.!1cc

.::x'

•

cf ttl.: plc.tc (�lIring earlier st"-Gcs •

Tcble:

snC\/S

5.2

vr...ri�ti.(;J: in

th .. t tht:

,

t�(.: frictione.l

\::ith the projectile ci::-zc: t e r :i is ouch

resist.-..ncu, nt, .

... . c vc..r:Lr.'.t· l.("n l.6 '"b .

.

" th.:: I"J.n,)� l.n

i:.C

we

Clctal pll'.t(;s,

but in tho;; lC4.thcr .::.nc! ply....{;od . Hf incrccsos as the: squ2rc of t�.; !l r � j c c til.. tliru:!ct"r, p1 nt"c. th "

r.j(.: ';';'._ J

�. �

�

.

.r ." 1 Ilnt 'l

U n'

lettor

C�GO,

tarL,; ... t is

t��.;.:

f:n:l

lin

..

4"

_

t!l�

prosGur<J

:....l.ly ',lith t!h.

c.r�f',

.!t

l. 3t f'r

llrobF.bly

bC.:cc.usc in the

.

r'" :>� - ��l.' -

-

,"'s]." on. C rr�T.Jr'" --

In tho

I'ruj"ctil.::: in ccr.t�ct Hith the

( �:bc;r",

h is t!�v thicy.ncs!3 ."cr unit ;:lrcn)

•

i.u.

r.z;

Kd,

Be

\lUI tcn(. tn:·.t

Th" put::l",

r'.F.l ..

.

e;f t!1..

cinn"tur,

'''t t rl' �.,.

5'

r,.·· I... "

'" .·.inl .

( thQ fvrcu

f-:.rc.;. �lill incrur.llo . I..; "i.i G

'-, ..

1rdh

88

io

Thnt

:::r';scs 0 ... t':o rrcJ'\Jct';lu � � "_ 5l.·e'.'5 .. , .... .. :·rcc Gn t�·" "

" r l.· .,,,,.1 '" ••

"t 1.

e,.2.

the cn

to rise overall

tilt) otlh.;r

hnnd,

r":cl.cl;J.,,, DtiffnIJoc of t:l",

Table

projectile throl.l�h

5.2

The resistance Rr or t�in p lates to the slow passage of the cylindrical portion of a cylindro-pyramida I)' during perforat�on. the hole made by the p�,ramidal poX1tion, and its relation to the maximum resistance

I\nax

,

Di�eter of Projectile

Material & Thickness

0.62

mm

1.0

mm

0 62 .

1.0

rom

annealed bronze

annealed bronze

cold rolled bronze

nm cold rolled bronze

9.0

ill'" gaboon plywood

5.0

1'1111

Rmax

va

shoe leather

:f

.'1j

f'

ax

(N)

(N)

�ax

-

(N)

f

ax

f

eN)

T4."'3"

f

Rmax

53

1 4%

89

23%

89

11%

178

22%

10"h

67

178" . •

230 89

•

7.':f/o

'3 2% 18%

.

578

52%

ried with projectile di�eter in the plywood and leather.

supported,

f

TI.

53 4

178

40%

27%

356·

15%

890

66%

356

36%

,

It was constant in the metal plates.

forces ceasured in compression cage of a Houndsfield tensometer.

�.

plates smply

·In cold rolled bronze, perforated quasi-statically, splitting occurred at a projectile di'3..Tleter or about

12 !"r.l . 1.0 lIl!'l

In 0.62 !liill plate the resistance of the plate dropped by more than 50% when the plate split. In plate it dropped by about 20%. The figure for 1!0 mni plate gives the actual r0sistance rocorded..

··In pushing the 7.9 head through a hole made dynamically, after the projectile had been hulted by the pIa with the cylindrical portion filling the hole, n force of 890 N was racorded. •

~

o

petc1s tho f r icti o n c1 r�oistcnco d0u G not vary n u [,l r y as nuch �s

c

IIooko;·n ncde1

r.:rf(.r"tion

nnd

-

WCU].{ EUggcvt

'.t nny r.. to in qua si

-

potQl

.

if: �r{;bcb1u tt<.t c;:trn otiffn es s in th<:

it

(ur the

contact Hit:1 tJ10 projectile,

.

c

fer by tllO ruct cf t!l�

ic

e tc t

.

-

grev.tor distc:lC0

frot)

ti p of th o crack) to th � p oi nt of �

'

�nd t:l�:t this pro�uc.JS

c

lo wer

proportion botwuen th� lead �t that pcint �nd th e b c n �i n g

An�

�ocunt� in th� pe tn l.

this .:quilibriuD

in the c01�-ro110e plcto by tho Wl�n projcctilus

\·It'..S

;t 4

of tIu:

wore

60�LiS

r.:rJ

1

stoppc� by thu

l��,�d the.

bo cff�ctod

velocity l:f tIIC proje ctil0. �n

lc� o cold rl

feunel thnt they \"Iorl..; v�ry tiGhtly 110ld,

7 .')

t,

an� in the case

force r<.;o.uiru
porti on ti:rouGh quasi-stL:ticnlly to cr.nplotc.: the perforation was scoe

five tir:�G t;l�t reccrrl0� for

bc:on begun quc.Gi -s'i:c:·,t ic<:.lly. , bout

Intt.Jr cnsa \-/as th \:I

(1y n L' r.:l1 c

1

J7

�

pe:i.�l ·: rnt'l.on.

.

.

1ms

p�rf. ration

lost

.

Th (;-

r.::st.)

e:1C\6tic li!.!:i.t

The:

chort",r.

\ii th

c.bout

5

,;yn:Lr.:ic

::'on n ..

•

is

uynrunic porf o r:: ti en when it vas .

It DC-Y b", th<:.t ill c1yn <.nic pcrfcration the

hiGhu r ,

and th:. t thi.! c:istc.nce fror.1 the point

crncl�6 bl.< t\-/eon the pet..:l6

•

(11.1·'), ll.

£;0 it

13,"".:10

l'

� '" ,

�o not differ

thc u"' n,h i\'1

,

but th e

oft"�n r'.·I

cl"' J n.-.oic

th::.t tlt<.. cff.:ct of fricti<.' n on

:-f Qr�tion (Jf l.lvt;�ls with

c·.;nci(l"r: .�·le,

to cCT.!p1cte

;n �u� t 0tl c. Hor.� done "' "' � _ "'1 �· Sl.·_rt�+l.·C

rQ�ius of curl i ns in·th� po t � 1 c T)C r1'·:r;;. t

J

•

np 1ot c co is n io nt .:ir rf r.>.: cn �'h th r.b 1c 1:1o.!\surnb1y in

•

had

c e;nt r.11:IG5t (.;;�nctly cquivl

by the !;rojectil� in the

,

which

friction['.l work in tho

cOI:lpr.rc.:d

•

br::;uGht te:

( Tho

)orfornti0Ds

••

•

n

hiC;h "lo.stic 1ir.lit

tho

o;.y be

o i .:. r.l c r n y l b l.'. b o r �1 t i t: l r. ·t (lucti1", uv

132. 5. 6

Tho cnh.rgcnc ..t of the hele. The fld !Jor ti cn of th�

rcr.J.�r!mbl·:

;.n�

I

c.lthoush it

(;quilibriul1

At;;.!\';

;.rhic� it i3

Tinint�i:lcd I

prcb:.hly

ro sult s

fr,xl ::. ccnp10x

bu Liv�n of the: ccnuitiollS unc1cr

i:;u s t

�.ecount

sooe ...rhnt

curVll UV in fiG 5. 1 is

it il;

bcc cus (;

1 in;.;zri ty c1

th.J

�0rf(r<'.tic,n,

\.'hich is hlport ".nt

rC!STicnoiblc for the

cC[jponcnt Be ill th0

u:Jrl, of dyn.:".Oic

tv the

:

•

historical argUDunt.

!,i0 I:.�.:'J n0tc th.:: f01lo\\inr; points. Sinc\,; the f�ctor

B

l.ns ...

in Dd

Qfly rclat0 it to t�c forc� F , b

'�h l. <4l.0 '· r;nS1cnr-; .

"

0f �

\10

fe·rcc,

whic!l in ro pr (:sent e d as the: thc.t

D

k F

""

'"

b

t ;m

6

whore 9 ic th� l�::lf �ngl� of th� projectil� tip ..n� k

to 1;� unity I t!'w

of F., 1.

prcvic;..u

fcrcu

;:t

th::t

F

b

( i.e:. no further

illiti<� ;.crforation,

( ii )

projectile

R�thcr surprisinGly,

very close to raisc(:

by

Co

prcviucd that

dc..:.s net rise.) is c on s tr:.nt , it is usuc.lly wl!",rc F b

in qunsi-6t�tic pcrfvrntiQn,

blunt point.

�

dishinG tcl�cs pl['.c(: ��ftcr initial p.::rfore.ticn, the: force on the:

l.S •

1.

(Tl:o r.1ost coJJtwn exception is in

';rcrk-llC�rt!:)l:"l: )lc.tc, c.tt�ckccl by:: b.:-.:a-.:ntlcc: projecti1u t evcD th�ro tr.u tlrop �.ftcr

ini ti::1.1

:r,�rfor('.tion

I.:n
I/hich i::;

nut

l

o xp cn�ti o n

is

even when F.

is

nl't

c.

�ncl

very

:;r�r.t,

tl:c lcv"l !cuncl with •

is o!f�rcd for this phoJnor.lcnoD,

i,;:',sily ruconcil�e \1i t� tn.;,; obocrvc.tion

th;- t .

blunt •

.... hich

•

,·"'>.::r.rt\ t�) •

•

•

tit the

•

(iii)

Sinco Fb [lunt includ,.:;

v nrio G

\lith tho prejo:.ctilo

in t:�(.;

curv�)

iLO r.ct

cbc...:rv"cl.

133.

•

c� i nr ;o t c r

e,

tc

F

the rice in

,�G

1.r,cr�.-.6....

tho

auch

b

=

cr'.ck lenGth,

to )orfc.r.::tion w.y �n1y bL: rCBist�nc.:;

(i v)

i::; 10\!,

Thcro is

petnln ':.ncl the lest w!!cn

the

It cr.n

t'.t \"I.

:-.6

::;01:(:

1.

further l\]?=.rt by the

.

.b o ut

:

pot�l t� its ce ntre

line.

the prc.jcctil,;. ho.".I'::

the n

1

b.:ltt/ccn

is

Ao

shifted f�r e.s

U nn� tf.

�f the

(v)

tho narr.:;.w .... r .'\0

c:�n

be

co ... n

incr��nc l in � nrly

or th..:

tho

to

frictic,n:-.l

thli: cff;,.ct

th;;: bc:ndin[.; of the which is

tho hole,

Th\,)

cen,). {'.

tLc

cenl,; cust be to

f'rou

t::bJ

\/ith tho

varir.t1cn \:i1l 1:.-

\J

5.3,

However,

it is not

to dl)pond on

tip, (r.ne l:ic.in t:-. in

th\! torco

c1cccribc,! b"l�"/t

" . .

I'i

n

c

se: th(l lol1Cr fl:�t cur ve . dace not

v1nto.

s tro n Gth ot tho

T!!, w;ot li).�·!.:.r \·:xplc'.11r.ticn (Jf

concerned,

ri c ing curve botwoon

oocco

cur.,;;,

shi1rpcr

frou the eu£;cs ot the

tho petnl is

r:.

rcsiJoblus

ct'nc producoi:l3

Fi},

serves

,,·theN the

(H (d»�. f

al.... :-.yo th..: c.' 0(,; thc.t ..

29.

t.s

th:�t \'!hcn th::-.t hc.ppcns, the point of

prrJjectile

of tho con"

lonG

G 1o)inS si:':c s

it is in tho annc:::1 .... tl :pl•.te,

•

nnelu

ao

cylindric:-.1 portion of the ho�d e nt e rs

The flatness

whvro

boon secn

c:xtC::1sion (,f tho cr:lcke bot\".:;on then,

contnct \-lith the

ris o

.:-.nc! so itJ eff e ct en tho totclresistance

equilioriur.l

be se�n

n

riso

ktl

+

F.

cf th� prujcctilu heed, friction on those sides il!c!"�nr;..: tlw

hns

if; probt.b1y thc.t

.

fJc.t.)ri,�l iG b.:il!� puchcd

n

is 0n11

re � sc n

The

Howav�r

projectile

(wo0d & 1D�thor) ,:hl..re l� i3 :'. ccnstO'.nt.

OXkiC:Ct

c .at: cf \"OOC .:nc1 lc nth o r t

I! in th� cylin�ric�1 perti!';n of th� f •

rJiG l lt

�/;'

ouch

EV'.m in th.::

�nd nt

f ric t io n ;�l olor.ll,;nt nt'

t.

prOlj�)O

Tho

p�tt\)rn

F . i

tll ... o\,· i.i\"ol.rvl:ti·;.nv

"tJul.\

•

I

stroDS at

tb"

,·r tho crack.

tip

C urvctllt'C l.t tbo J:et�ls, •

projvc�ilo tin,

ths

•

�ncl tr.c: lc.rger t ho angle of •

s�allo�

Morcovur/bio

( t i g . 5.5).

the

..... "cvntrt.te

th� ooncentratl�n viII be

other g90�Gtric�1

tho

efr�ct8 can also

I

I

•

I

•

I I

•

(0 )

(b)

Fig 5.S The influenc� o� on the

angle

)C

to the

p�tal

c..urvature

distQnce from the

tip of

cr'lCk

and of cone point of contact

the

•

lower

the stress

heavily dished,

(n) il th� pl�te

c�ncontrp.tion.

es

ls

nlre�d1 I

in fig 5.6.

,

I

A�

Fig. 5.6

•

I

II •

,

I

,

(b)

11 the petal

Tho seftor

bends rcund

the projcctil�

1-,

cir�uforentiall1. J.

tho metal, tho more eaail1 it will bond in both

60

directions, and tho morc it will disht an�

the love r

the

.

A berd

stress concentrntion viII be. circwmforontial bending, nnd

It is

likel7 that th� etio!

cause the

vnlue

metel viII rosist ernck

to

fork instead.

of th� cornors of

or pris��tic pr�jo�til� 110s in tho provontion

n

pyrccidal

of circucforcntiGl

bending �nd cireumforenticl stroteh!ng in tho pot�ls. As thG

•

tho

t ip

crack

will incruaeo.

p06siblo b1 tho

p14etic

set� lengor,

we

It wUl wn

tho

otru88 eoncontrl�ti"n

ot course

stross

c�epooitcs

Auah

0I1urt�t"8, thll

ao lonthor.

bl! rodl.lcod whore

rolieviDg

nd � , c.l ot m e U ct du in n c!c4!'orrJntio now.ver

whero

at

coehanisaa, nDme17

weu

intorfncce

iA

no ith�r of these

w o l tl l e a n o l l i w n o i t o. r t n o c str"so c;)n

tbe clut1c

I

I

I

I

I

,

135 •

•

str�in \;InorGY stor.:lG by thu do fcrw·.tivn cf the plate t o

prc;pr·(F·t� thu cr.::ck ;·.lct-st �tithcut ('.soist:-.nc� frC'[J the pr(,j�ctill.;,

pro::ucir.r� t.:

cn�!'!�y io usc L.. up. �

::.

c<�tc�str(jJ.')hl.·c

pl l.· t u·

_

_

UL

0

IZ

. " 11�2pen r� th'·ur s ooner 1n t"

l·'1'1' ..... .... <.:··,r'" '-'

This

"' _

'.

•

th2.n in (�yn::-.tlic, but it h�ppens Seen '-!ncugh in (�yn�cic p�rf.r2.tion tc c:ncl�ur':;Gc tho ::rm.;:,urcr to c�nsi�c:rnblu Cuctility l.n

�

lc�v�

.L"

•

.

I.nl.n errJour,

rL'..te

�t

t

•.

tho becl-:. cf th\) ?l�tc. In

we r:.-.y ccnclu(1..: th:::t

SUil,

'. '·',' P·-..;·rr vr� I.t l.· n" 1'1 ..... 11 - ... ,�. .\..;.� tj _,I

'

·-� .. .. .

,·

_.0

our

�

.

:,

wcll-,�(:oigne� pr�jectill}

Thu curvu \:ill net rise,

f:.-�t curve.

c..n the:

�,

.

.

substr.nti:.lly

b;:;c,:use llthl:rwis(; the

plr.to will �bs(.rb ::"urthcr wc·rk in dishinG; 1'f 1't ,.!(:r-:: te. f :�ll, ..

�.

likely tc ,ror.:ucc

t her r�...nd

th.-.t w0ull� illply thr.t t!lo J?roj�ctil(.; :-.nGlu .

h:-.::� bo(.n !J��C�" fin.::r tnE.n nuccssr.ry, ;·,n': · _�·� · sl.· 'rn-e:r ..:) ...:... '" 1"1 · , · l.·n-r· ... '

Ill...:

.1.

BO

the pr o je ct il e

The pr � j u ct i lc s us�d

frictic,n-.:.l 106s.

in the praGIJ::tic t(;6ts �·'.;;re thercfcrc �o:!crc.tcly well

The e:nquiry

, --

, .

... .

.. "'"'

consh�cru.:: ii1:pcrti.�nt.

nc.t invl.:stigc.te: two points

bronza

�

E'.�{�

lIC,

f1� iaJ).r �r'" p ..... .fs

E'.J�!�VCZ;�ODW.;:

pl.�tu3.

\:Iork Be: ;-,n". tIlu

or::y be

The firs t is tho rclt�ticn between the

. \Jerk (,f cnl c.rbi r. J the: h(.,l

.

which

o.:.tr.h

the uork of fractur..l • ..,. tt. ,t-

;lisloc�.tion (.n"r�y in

er(�cl. tip,

at:

in

•

•

•

rt brc.;nza, ns follc�s .

Tlr�b:.bly ..:i:inly c.len,; slip •

•

lin..:.3 �t '-'.nt-lea ::lbl'ut

cr:::ck. it e.n by

1

�lip invc.:lvcG

Th�

bu

c::

�

45°

h

� wn

tc th�; lino the

2 ...) , x

il:; I'.b\'ut

10

B

, f rr�.pn�,.... ti"n Gf tho

r.lovvrlont ,,1:

t��t th� enorGY n

..

�"'ialcct'..tions,

rcquir�� t� �av�

clvc trc·n vc\It D,

•• ill .. ' l..� nn ... . ()c�t , . "l "i

10

10

rm

-2,

..

.

,

'

nr� tll.t thoy

r.lO\'",

�iol�c�tiLn

cr 4.54

Supposin.; . croos o..seti(.u Clf th ...

�

E'.r.:':

�

" 10- J.

tho nuob\)r or

pInt" t(i be ;.bcut

..,n c·.v\Jl·.·. i;; v ,�ir:t:·.l1e\,;

,·t 1

ec,

f:-.chr cf

tho.;

cr::ck.

ribht

1.02 J

-

-1 9",-"

•

1.13 J

=

an

1

f'.r i'G rf, ;r:-o t i "ns 1n •

!J",

-1

4

snr,u1c: thus (.x�,cct .:..n <.mercy of ..

w�

.nGl.:;s,

•

1n

0.62

DC p1,:t.:: •

11I!l

�n2

plntu,

..,. ••

1.C2

B�

tho h01e,

(0.62

2.17

=

pId .:;; ) .

'.:1'1

J

DD

(1

., \.. It Wru' �,

w�rk Ccn� in enl::rGin� tho h�lc

" �. ., :! .... r in til=!.5 '
"..

thu

plnte ) nn� Bd

en

;.n�.� on tho

,:isloontion energy of L�ll

=

u nl c.rGi nG

0.35 J

00

1

ether h:'.n'� thc.t Dost of �urin ;,; p.:.rfr,rcth,n.

!lK, t

,

-

.

.

1 c is brC:l'.c11y 6iDi1:-.r,

usin,; riffer cncc in the

0.62

x

in �nll�c.Ie� brcnzc c.. n be

,:uctility of th� ;�(!t,'.1 if: cxh..:-.uste:.�

Sinc\:) t'H.:

10-

t:1urofcru th.::.t !Jest of the

-

.

x

Thl;6C: fi t:;uro:; '.ro cc.L1p.. rr.ble

with t!1csc: fcun·.� in tho l ..st C:l;-.�t"r fer th ... \�crk cf

-1

4.54

1

c

c!iffer"nt t1et:-.l •

::;.\ffi �t th.;; c.lgos of the

-.w:',unt

••

to COl'l'e:l<::.t:-: sicply with (:iffcr.:ncl.ls in tho w·;,rk (;f purfcr.:tticn.

Th..:

soc("·n": is th:.. cff.;;ct 0f i:1clusi0ns c.ni� f;�ultn in the n;,:t:-.l.

In br"nz .. nost (;f th�s(: \lil! be hnJ�.r.:r.:;.r� O�lcCt,

or.

oxit�..: F.rticll;s, .::nu in

st C:!' t! :e :1 ,dIl t",n;! tr: ccnGrcbnto in

E'..

fibres

t:'.'i'" little; cff.:c;; en tho r"sist:::. nco (f tliC sheet to t-.nsivn l.' n •

t''-. t pl�" ..

I

... .

.

.. ....

• ,

en ",,"�...,Iw

its ,

th.:.

ohcot.

Since beth th0S.

I1cch:·,nir.O.lG ·':'.l>p .. .:\r tc

b" involve(: .

it io �ifficult t� pr� �i ct

I

Cl·:,C.�I;

t; '

.

run

'In t"I''''

\.l.rI.iC t'lCl� ,

cf

rl.' 11'l!lL, :,,11', •

t'.lO V!"'r�c t 0 r

I

•

•

137 • I.

.

." .'-V -

• .

-

�hc Forc," r.:ouir",(� ft.r Initi:.l Pvrfvrction. -

T::bl.'

5.

f�l'C� F. r�quir�t frr initiol Q"0511 •

ph.tes,

Gt,:tic p,"rfr:-rl'.ticr. in vr-.ril;UG

E',6c\.. rt.-'inc(� froc the

in f�'rcc is roquir\..(� t,� pro(:uc(: f1lrther l'ispl<'.c';:[ii..nt "f the The [;L'..tcri�l pr(;!.:rtics of thi: plnt(:s testo': '.ro

prC'j(;ctilc.

It

t!4'..S

f:unC th-.t thi!l pl£.t,,:;

beinG c:erfor<.tc� if they t:crl: initiclly fl:',t. fere ;;ivcn S(J

tltr-.t

£.

l',

c!Jhl.'ric.�l CUl"v=..tt:rc of radius

They were th.::r",-

0.10 bef .. rc cnncal;ng

f'.r�,:;.: "vcr the; support inc rins, end

pll'.stic hin:.:c

m�te:ri;".l (:\!t:Ji::� t!l::O rinG CLl!l'.: not

fc.:rc.;: "'.s nCblieiblc. t!�·.S

I.f I.!uctilo

clEW

It V"S

be drcwn

inw.:-.r�·:8.

T.::st:;

f.:W1": th•.t th" fc·rce:

F

i

strc,�ly icflucnccL by t!ll: nhap" of thu in��nter in cost

of th.:: plct l.' s ; �vevor thin effect weo scall�r in the:

}:l<.t.:.£ tt.,n th ... seft, ccn,�itionG.

iln� it g.:y not be. co great 1Int:or c!Jll.,n;c

w:-.s

I.tt(.:ntic:n

!Joints '.lith :,n :-.nGlc

here!

c. t

ccnccntr.�,t.:l! on resiste,nec tG aba••; •

tee: tip typic.:".l of .:.nei.:.nt hcatlD, Tbo f�reo F probably bccrs little i

rol�ticn tc th .. feree

'f

initir.l porfor::ticn un':vr L1n;!oiC

een.!i tionn, but fer rv8sono \;hich c.ro nl,;t lcn,,�:r. it ('.pp��s tc Givo

•.

�urin G

G"o�: in,:ic.�ticn of F , tho:: b

tbv cnl�rb�c�nt

or

tho

ferce l'"siating thu prajcctil�

halo. plots thQ rcr.ulta Givun in

tnblo

5.3 for

pl�.t.;, cn .'

r.hnrp projectiles �S�inot th� thicknoss or tho

IcC-lOG ecnb.

th .. r..:lr.til)nchip

l:ll1..: r.. t in th�

F

Th-.) ploto appear linolc.r. OUt;t.:.Jeting

1

thieknua"

(,r

th ..

pl:-.t.J,

'

:.r.. ,

1:

... •

, I

•••

•

•

., • •

r.ro

ccctf'iciclli•

•

Table 5.3

Force in Kilo Newtons plates and shells. Condition

Metal

Hardne ss

( Brinell ) Cold Cold Cold S emi

Bronze

rolled rolled rolled so rt *

Annealed Annealed Annealed -

Anne aled

Mild steel Annealed Annealed Annealed Annea led Anne al ed

AI\JiI'1Dl 'un .

•

Annealed Annealed Anne al ed Anneal ed

Copper

Annealed

Brass Lead

160 16 0 160

80

69 69 69 69

100

100 100

15 15 15 15 42 42

62

4

required for initial quasi-static perforation of thin

Thickne ss

Mediaeval Bodkin

(leN)

(mm)

r N oD E N ToE R 0 45 90 30 Pyramid Cone Cone

(leN)

(leN)

1.07

0.62 1.0 1.7 1.0 0.62 1.0 1.7 3.3

0.89 1.73 6.01

0.67 1.33

0.38 1.10 2.68 7 .7 4

0.38 0.80

0.62 0.9 1.2

0.62 1.33 2.25

1.25

0.62

(kN)

3.56

1.91

4.89

2

Win

Ball

1.69 3.20 6.12 3.9 0.53 3.77 9.34

1.47

3.50 •

1.0 1.7 3.3

0.20 0.44 0 � 93 4.36

1.0 I.?

0.89 2.89

1.02

•

•

•

1.05

1.0'

1.0

0.0045

•

0.222

All l1atorials as spe c ifi ed in Table 5.4 All' annealed p lates had spherical cu"vature ralO cm. approx. spe c im en s supported on st e el rings, 1.d. 4.4; cm., o d •. ;.1 cm. The double 'plate, item 2, consisted or The semi-sott plate , marked . , was annealed before being two tl a t plates la id one on top ot the othe r. . pre s sed to )l)her ic al C UI'vatnre , but not atterwards. -

.._- -

_ . _ -

•

..

.

._ -

--

-

---

--

-

.

---

---

... W 011 • ..:-

- -

-

139.

Table

5.4

The materials of the plates tested in Table

5.1 ,

Metal

Specification

O. C',h

Tensile Elongation HsI'tlness Strength (50 111111)

Proof Stress

2, 2 m m ) (l'IN (MN ,

(ftIlf)

(%)

Bronze

BS 407/2 Annealed

106

328

42

69

Bronze

BS 407/2 Cold rolled

470

530

14

170 • •

Copper

Commercial

Alll!(Jini

BSS 1470 SIC Annealed

46 -

265 (63-37) 92.7

Brass

BSS

Lead

Commercial

-

Mild

COllimercial

0.5%

Steel

Proof

232 .

216

55

42

58

60

15

340

55

17.7

309

•

65

64-

4

28

100

---

-

-

-

_.

-

.--

• ... --_

..

-

-

-----

100,000

((N) •

•

•

10.000

5000.

., ,

4000

I I I I I

3000

ZOOO

1000

X Hard bronze

e;) Mild steel A Ailnealed bronze • Aluminium

,

5 Pig-

S."

•

I

2

:3

t(mm)

-4

5

10

Variation in for�e ( fur initi31 qU4�i-.t.tic pl"rC"rf1t fun a . .. fUl1cti"n 'If lhe thh:kn" .. of Sharp polnt i� th.t of 300 eunp th� pl.to 2 dU . Lng-to,; 11\·.11 •• fir b,,'-'kin IIrruw.

Q

3

.,,/

-

-

Q

-

3 K X 103 (�l

-

•

• "

2

2

•

I

I

I

•

-

1

r (

•

•

•

• "

•

I

10

2()

30

-

•

•

•

"

«>

fi,. S.

t

SO

I

60

3

•

I

-

-

LUHlNIUH I I

"

•

SOFT SftOHl[

I

70

I

80

•

I MILD 5iHL I 1 I

,

I

90 100 110 120 130 Hardness ( Brin�lI. no's)

Plot of coefficients

a

and K

a8

a

I

140

functioQ of

I

ISO

,

160

hardnes8

I

HARD .ROMZt

170

.z:

-

Gh:J".IS hc.,: "nch Tnrics \-Iith thv hr.rcin0sf; (;f thG

plo-.to .

eM

prG�(.;rtion<.lly lIit!1 th..: hnrcJw G.:J, JI"OIoortiunC'.lly,

fret:

r(\lle�: bronze.

The vL'..r i f' ti on ,

i�pe-rt: :nc l.; , cf

:;: 1.1

:'

.

thin plf'.h:s inv('lv(.:s

b .J nLing,

c.:ntr ....tic;n 11..·1(ie:r the c0ntrc

aore thnn :;: 3.6 in coll' ..

\�hich is of c cn si J" r :-.bl :: pr:-.ct ic�l

fe.ct tc::. t t1:1(; pe:rfcraticn

to the:

..

a ru the r

in i.�IUi.liniurJ t" :-.

.

is prob: bly clue:

incr Clt>..6 d l r:- thor 1(,;60 thnn

k

• •

which incrc;:-.;s"s stress con-

hard Il.:::t ..ls

cf lC'o.c.;

rre

i:1crc

Gonsitivo t.) str<:Gs-cc:nc:.:ntret ie-ns th:::.n G�ft ;:lOt! {:ucti1.l on O B ,

;cnll 6C their �ppr.:.r\:nt strc:nbth is Jisproporti(.'Det c 1 y 10"1 t'.nc r c: c c vcrs- ::lOr..:: repi'-'.l:;

tr ;:;y r.r.: thin, ..

So'

incro,1sc.r:;. s::.

�:s

th-.: thicY.llcSG

nrt;curcr i1,: rkinC in .... h'.r': ro::tl,)ri� c.·.n pro�ucc

�n

vcry !.�L'...:"k",'. incrl.;�Sc in str c n:;th for c. v;;ry (;:::; . ·

ill vory

thin plC.tcB

DiohjriB ond 5.8.1.

by

choosinu

a

strcnt;;cr

[;.':'

t.:lric.l

..

•

Inwnru Buckling. ..

Critiquc of tho expcriJ:!ClD tr.1 [iE:thc.:"s. Bofc.r.:: c (msiC.:: rinb

the

obtt'.in"C for the

results .

to ini tid. p.;rfcrL'..tion, cr

icprOToocnt

.

•

of

..11 incr(;<'.so

-

but c..:.n'lcrscly it is (�ifficult to G"t Duch

in LIas::;,

when

r <. ra '

srcciuon

o i z .,;

It

;'.�,:

tho

p1L'..stio w,.rk

o ".

IJ o th

,

:uc

.

t-:. tho suC'.ll

cf suppo rt.

\-/.::,(; rO:.I�rk�('.. in o v cti c n

\'It,;rk .!cno bof..l'� initin1

the prc·bc.bility

\Ie iJust first csnCES

in tluL'..surinG th..

\-Iork

5.' (&tC.g� 2)

purfvrnticn

cc;noi:3t.:.�

�bOT''::'

thL'..t tho

r••:,.in1y

or

•

(n).

rn \!iC' 1

(b).

c(:ncnv.::: bon�inf; :..:.round

(c).

the

.

r.1C1r.lbr�n\)

c tr u t c:h i nl) .... ! th...

th..l point

f(.rr.lC1.tion ;·.n.! r.lovClI,ICint cf

,�.

pl::.tu of

ir;pC'.ct

circuator .. nti nl

pI not ic hinge. In th� illitir.�l w:'ct iI.�p . rt;:Jlt .

p' r f '. r�t i on of

cl..r.!pon.:nt of' th ..

w(,r�:

;:

!ll�t "lnt\.: (n) io ... n,'..

it

v:,c

th\,)

!urth.Jr rol3t:rkul!

..

oxto�t

that th¢

() f th\l r.:-..tlil'.l etNt ctil'lR is

of th.::

fd l i nl ot·'

rl'.dic;l tl�tlbrnJl" e t ross

di8t�nC\l froQ the c �ntr� adtzrinl

n

In

d th

peror.nont stretching

tho

plntu nftur

flnt

�f

l i�it

t!iot�nc � ,

until

l i !Jc.nr11 with the

o f l e n,} .

�o !inHo

n

is

it rCt\cheo

bOC4UOO

fro� tho

t ho

profilu

plnt e

bu t.·ro

e ither

profile �t •

a

outsi do tho

tho oc!ge o f

tho

pll'. t e

or

angle to

the

planu

ot tho

nn

( olthoush it is at

indentt".t ion )

l imit ot

T i rt�al11 8t r�i8ht for a considorablo

•

pl�t i c hinge ,

t hG

1 i o l e. point

ob8orvo �

can b e

i ndan tnt iol'l ,

th�t strotc hing

the

ted by

:l

( f ig 5 . 7 ) ,

•

5.7

F i g.

In

full,. duc t ilo me tnl thoro

a

a

is

but the

portioDS o f tho profilo never bec('110 qUito otr('.it;ht ,

strdn boeo,lc s wi t hi D

radius in t hi s

way

projClctile G

In quosi-static porlor..�t iOD tho

negligible .

�hich po rpnDODt r:l.diol

del

sharp projGetil�

In

tho

har�un�d bron�c �bout

1

IW,'

rft�iU8

I

t i on is

oftluu

I::mn

bron ze ,

vee ebout

h�lf tha t .

1

ca ,

Bonco tho

ho-.:o vcr ,

thil stl·e t c hinc

•

ane! u�

In

anne tU.ol!

t � tho o d.o

(197 1 } tig

at""l

ball

6

p

bron�o t.hu pro f ilo

01 271 )

115

an� in

tho 8upportins riDs.

in (),JlR!!I l c

found thnt

into 20'+0

cOIlIt:i.4!crrbly luther

ftlumlniua pCr:1CDont tho.a in

n

In

riDg

t11D1lIII1 c

c "'t(:n8ive ,

",rreciab17

(Cnldor

br

vor�

support inc

:::u ch liIoro

wt\B still

of the

porfortltod

d14 not materiallJ effe ct t ho racial str� tchins. p.rt�ratioD ,

obsorvnble

whero tho t ip

is quito small , us�c

i s ahnrp.

out�r

tllo

sitd lC'.r pnt t o lJ' i

C 'lrfod

• Ool4eDith

iDdoDtntione ua1D, Cl

,�o floct 1on ox t.nc:1ed

quaei·IStetic in�ontnt t.. O D.

De

•

• •

that for

qt'.ll G i

e t r:-'Uc pcrfo:'ntion t\ill� t hf.l t! 1ffcrcnc·) in

do fle c t i on wos

o xt ent of po rmur. e n t 08

a

pl�B t i c t he o ry

6 i�plv

cleo h�vc boer.

sof t

on

of

bronzQ �r�

cur vnturo

[lovoL:

c nt

sh eIla

at the

.

further �haBc 6 ,

o t the

supp ort

the

.

Tho

of the

plas t ic hi nge contributes

end that

is seriously affected

c UGo cf tho shell .

In

G

omo of the

CUi'Ve ccrr" sponl!1ng

to tho

( TU in fig 5. 1 ) was interrupte d by tvo

1nwar d b UClt.L1.ng . �

co�pensr.tcd b�

the radinl s t rc t chlnil . but

tectod the load-de fle ction .

sligh t ly too low;

diff.,r"nt for curvet! sholls .

work,

ir;l!,ortr.nt pc.rt o f th9

by the conc i t i ons

prob�bly

nnd coulu bo

liai ta

itself probc.bly

t ho fc.rAl'.t ion on

scmewhat

•

Hunco tho r e s ul t s fonnd

the plostic hingo bozido

is

Tho coeo

-

wcul� 6UG�ost , though there may

thouGh tho d i ffo ronce is sunIl ,

the f�ruct i on

12

very npproximat o l y

vel o c i ty e f f u c t s . )

i n dynnoic t e s t s

tho

CB

in

fig

5.8.

At

a,

th e outer c ircunfor6Dce

pleat ic hirlgo roc c h o d the adgu of the: shell , cut!

dofle ct ion beC80&

auch eos10r .

while ct b

inner

th�

of tho hinb9 rec.cha d

U' /

Force

Cl ,/

,/

,/

o

u

•

Oispla::e ment ( w ) Fig,

the

/

suppor tins ring ,

S'

8

buckling c.na� ,

)C

4

an� turth�r

conoi8tG � ontiro ly o f rll�ial 8trotching , unt il ocourrod c t U ' .

By nBlIl'oinS thllt

lclrg(.;r support noi th¢r an� pro j o o t ing Ta. t o U ,

of �

in

a.

t!et�t1OD

portorClt1oll

la.rgor oholl

the s\) proco8s u S wuultl

hc.y.

c vrro c t � � vork ct init i��

OIl Cl oee

,

�rf�1.'tioll

•

c ,ln be

ccl cul t'.t 0 � t

Ul.l:\I b'! tho::

l1 i f f.:: r..:: nc ..::

8� !>O C 1·,*C D

•

t '. ,... \..' UI\. ... · \' '�"" "

.. .

"

•

c ,. l ur.lt1c :-. r·· -

t �i ..

•

" n ".'

Ol ' Z ''

�.n l·'

•

11

�.n(�

l.' n r".. l'�t -

12

· � '-.: s c -

... . .

6hQ�; t h \.(:. u�. t ·.'·

c ( .rr0 ct ienc;

sc

c :.�.c uln t c. t-: ,

�hich

"'... � , "' ll . ,.,�.

V�r i�t i o ns i n t ho �/or){

0f

cury�tur� ,

� i G h i n� vi t h

t h i cknuss o t c . Al t h,... ubh tho l.!yn1'.rn i c \fer), �('1l": in b uc!ui n r

-

i':.

•

v i t h c urv�turu

5.5

t �b l u s: m';'-

c

�nJ

t h i c )�n c B o

i n th� S�g\.. rrr port i cnG ,

5

( \-li t h t !lv

c o rr .:: c t i or.s

c ol\.\mn

r t hu vr.r iat i ons i n t h .�

p rc l:i c t th..l whole

Uf

curve:

pl"c omcnt ::,t �win t ,

thu thro shc· l ·�

r.n (� the elope

of tho

t He paint s.

u c t wo ," n those

,· f

t �l'\ t

t�

1'.

Now

1 25 mm , 1 . 5

1 . 75

mm

f,�, r

"

foro.; r.t tho

til.:.:

-

.

tlr.t

0.

ohvll rr.c1iuo 75 r.1m.

r"re ..' lit U .

�hutiu

.'. 1' 0

r.�lIl\m

Q/i!v

T c.p�:-rs

of curv�tur", ot the

bll in:; :-.bout in

Honeo

tor

w

tut

fc.rco �t

th...

uho ll rCl!ius

throohul ·.t c f b u c lcl inG , '1' ,

V,

( rut": honce: th..:

t h e: u i s plcc':' Ll(; n t nt

for

shollS

Fi ct

fClrco- l!isplC'.c uocnt cnrytJ

e;o o o n(.'t vcry vory mu c h ,

nho ll rl�(�iuo

11)

l:now the t1is-

\I..:

if

cn�

Since

fv!:ci:

pc.int ,

bucltlillG , T ,

t o b o lnrg<Jly clo t(J r&lino�� by th� rntliuG sholl , r�n(� it

c ol mm

i n the

Ul1(!or it )

w, \r;� rC!ll' o a a n t � 11 by t ilv I'.r u :�

in

C;l!nl3 i - c t :. t i c cce" .

111.vv ;�lrc n;.y "x"'luin,J(� th.:: v: : r i r.t i t.: nll

C i�n

CUI y(;� shell

1 .25

100

tor t

or��r t o

I'\n\� t;\.;. elope.; Ci t

tho

ty!,lc.�l shoU..

OIJr.,...

•

J

t'..

}lr o j (J c t il(Js in tr.b1o 5 . 5 o o lur.l1l8 a , 9 l'.n,� 1 0 , (�I! 1l1uotl"e.to tho

•

foll owln c p� int u .

0 ,)

W1 th N G'·· r�� tIl th.; nhnpiJ o f the J'lroj ", c Ul� Up, it

I·' I'PV.-:'.�·tl t h:,\ �

Iollt'lrpn\l IJlI

11 1',0

VI,) ry 1 i

tt ),10 •

IJ

1't 10 <: t on th' thr� .h,lcl •

tl\Jn(Jh lur,\bl�, c t tlJ c t (In t h v

" l cpiJ ,1P/,tw

fr

or t", U. ,

..

·r.1

•

•

York done i n i n i t i al quasi - static perforation

Table 5.5

of thin bronz e plates and shel l s , showing some effects cUl"valure , thickne s s , and work-hardening , and som6 effec t s o f th e sh ape of the pro j ec ti l e tip. te i ck

ne s s

ne ss

2

�/mm ( Vl.ckers)

0.62

Jinnealed

65

ius ot

(mm) 100

/.nneal ed .mnealed Anne al ed .l.nnea1 ed

65 65 65 65

flat

�·.nnealed 65 Se m i s o ft 80 Col d rolled 160 Cold rol l ed 160

100 100 100

1 .0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Anneal ed

65

100 100 100

-

Semi-soft Cold rol l ed Cold rol led

nnaeal ed �nne aled

1.7 3.3

80

160 160 65 65

•

II

0 15 ° 15 0 15 0 15

••

0 22 0 22 0 22 22°

flat

2 2 2 2

flat

mm mm

·mm

100 100

b al l ball

ba ll '11,11 ba ll

0 22 0 22

Def1 ection(w)

1.42 2.1 4.2 3.8 3.7 6.4 5.0 7. 6 4.8

Thre shold Force

dP!dW

.

(N )

(mm )

)

0 15

I

Maxim1lOi

Work

I (Half

125 100 75

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

' ''' tual

tip

Cur'Vature

•

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Proj ectile

II

I •

20 . 2 27 . 5 15.6 11.7

9.0

42

5.0 9.7 10.2 7.0

155 55 63 69

10.7 6.2 6.7 6.0

85 156 184 288

12 . 7 11 . 6 9.5 7.0

I

I

94 280 330 360

Perfn . Fo rc e

eN ) 366 I 750 801 810 790

init

of

Corrections work Defle c ti on

(J)

�rnm

0

+1

?

? •

•

+0 . 5 +0 . 4 0

+

1.5 0 0

•

267 551 7 64 -

1152 1224 1691 1 731

137 202 313 540

309 527 526 -

3770 3900 3200 3780

+28 . 6 +12.5

228 274

1121 '1/18 5

2680 7600

-5.7 0.5

+0 .45 0 0 ? •

o ? •

0 0 0 ? •

+13.8 +7.4 o ? •

•

18.8 72.6

11.1 15.5

-2.6 0

simply supportod on a ring , i . d . 44 . 5 mm . Coluliln ( 8 ) shows the slope of the force-de flection CUi"Ve from the threshold o f buckl ing shown in Col . (9) to ini tisl perforation . The corre ctions shown in Columns (11) and ( 1 2 ) are nec e s sary because the outside edge of the pl astic hinge r e a ch ed the edge of the pll and/or be cause its inside edg� reached the supporting ring , and the corre c tions are found by pro j e c t ing the slope of the force-deflec tion cm've dP/dW found be.fore either ot the se oc curred to the force at perforation g�ye !L i ll . Cq� L 0.<21 ,-

.lU I

s pe c i o en s

.

�

- -.

.

_

_

. - - -

- . .

.

,

-

In qunsi- sta t i c p�r f L rnt i � n thi a i n � rv r.s � in slo no is , ..

r;l�t ChC L purfc ..

·

. .

by

c {lrr osp c.n, :in L; r i G e in th� f � rc .;; r.t ini t inl

c.

t i un

U , ('.n :�

th�ro i s tll· I

..

ini t i::,;l l:crf I..· r�t i o n .

l�ync,r.tie

amnII

Th", n()n-,:-, ;p,J:�rt.nev c f similnr v:-.r iL.t ions

Gizo of

the

b lunt t ip ,

•

l�U"

nn'1 pr.rt l:;' t c the

:-..n iner..,�o·,,: in n�.l

the met .. l rrvc.ue U G .

three v:;ri ..bl(,;u ,

(�/':\l

ricu in t :,�, w�rk o f

l irni t inc the inerc:-.se in fere " .

c: ff'-l e t

(ii)

•

C'.

...

ah<.'.rpn\.ol SD in th.:. dynnci e t e s t s 10 ,rob.·.bly

v i U. pl'\;j .: c t i I v p�rtly t c H.. ,.

refcr

,.,

tho feree nt

b.., t �/l.i c n th":lil.

HO\le V�r ,

I,

f (·re c nt

tho

or.lnll

n

•

V

�·.IH!

«,

.� JJc.unt of

the slope

....

crk-hnr;!cning

in b r : n z... c .,n i ncr\.olt�a..:: t h..: slopt.: L�P/':W by much 1.1or.:.: thE'.n it incr,,;:ouz t h u if. r e o 1\t U .

pr obt:bly b(.; cnus .. th·� \J{.t"lt-

T!l!". t i c

h�t�cninc in brunJo j)ro e �H) '!s in t \lO phnslJ E , the f i rc t o f which

prollucce

n

tJuc h s t c c1'ur Gtrc Bs/c trnin c urv � th.:-.n the Gcc on�1.

If the s t r:-.in� involve d in most (If t�"

w:-tile thoc,-

t

c. i 8hi nL� '

invol v" \; in the. ini t il'.l :')o r for:-. t i on

pri ...r w� rk-hl\r'!v n i ng 'tIhieh tl'.kc(; .

ot (�ishinc.; c o n c i d c r nb ly

v

i t h c ut

Co

up t h ,"

('.r e :-':v

:mnll , l.'.r�o ,

n

firat pht.G� cf \Iork•

c orrc sp,.Dl1iDE in cr ci'. s c

1D

the:

•

rQsiat:-.DcCl to porforl".t ion.

t!YDt>.Tolic cun,1i t i ll n o ,

no

11"

this " tfo ct :-.lso occuro ,

i t w� ll Cl�y ,

undvr

the wo rk ot I!ishin:; in

hnl f-hl'.rt! bron:.: will \) � Ol),PrClc iably lO\'l�r tht.n thn t in •

\)s1'o c 11'.1ly ",he; rc t h" l'ro j u c t ilc Up il:1 oh:-.rp.

Th1f: 'I:'.y

-

nnc i ll n t brCJnzo nrmour.

(Ui)

Vnrir. t iClnL.l ill t illJ t h i cknu os o t thu p1nt ll t h, cppor..r

t e, I\ftlo c t tlL", ((.1'''0 nt t ho t hr(.II!1 h CJ1,\ Qt buol(11nci, �' ,

"�\\I\1'o o f th", t h i c ltnc.: urJ , h2 , nn�� t.hy '\1I1� U l1nu l l r1y Whl,',t

\0 ...

cu, h .

n1(11'IJ (\P/\�w

th o

\)I' t �\l (ln

'l'hu Ura t ,� t th .. G!u J'wnul tt it v o,J 1.·Y uuoh

ahoul .:, \l ;(l)\) c t in th .. lllr..I'J U o b ll hl�vi (; \lr .:J t ..

" s

r.

•

ch,.'ll , �n� •

•

i o lik ely t c h ., l \l

,·.y

r : r th"

n .:i.; i c

C::Ei C

r.:1

::a

\;;;) 1 1

ouC".si-

the

•

5t:-� t i c . r.lc ch: n im:

'./h i c h

e ffa c t i v u

�t

cpr c::,!s

(;c f ,·r,.1 .... t i0n in suc h :: way

th..;

hiGh vQ l � c i t i e s .

In

1S

the

toot s ,

:,�n ,�

ml'.y h o

smr:o. llcr.

hI,]

to

111:1 ,

the,;

c urv.: ,1

r:l.�. t C \o:ith

':'.

.

o �'ft

\:i11 b , '

brl nZ0

£; 0 0 11

thu pc r f c,rut ion io

one t hi r

in

1

r.Jnd�

I,w.

nt low

t h.:: \II :;rk X

.

cctcl.

h£,l'(l br..:;nzc "hen

�ynnmicr:.lly.

tho

o f t!iDhinc with voloc i t y .

\I,")r1: �:oni.;

Tho i n u(' l1 t .:. r

cyHl1.;!(Jr c. r

SeODS

E'. 3 n work-h� .1 c. no i.l c;no ,

cvc rt cl�c s tho

UI.'II,) :: in t�u quc.ci - s t �.'. t ic t e st e ,

l�luld.n i ul.1

t c i n i t iol

lIIaoe

uSeJ d

nDt:

\:0.0 t hl.

p\:rfcrnti.:n

�yn c.oic�ll)· b()(�kin crrov

i t \i"C t.t tnch(: .�

0. 22.7 l:g , l!inc(J t o r

�

in

to o.n

( 1 , em) ,

(.11-1

Dh�.,t :'o l t, n c

th�

rOl) O Ull': �n .! �llow� d both furwnrd � n ! rQ t urn vol o c i t ioG

J:t;

\1 ;',"

r.

go

much one re)"

L1hu llfl qu:,.s i - o t ... t i c nlly "'i t h t h•. t �lJnc

To l :.' ci t ics .

75

l ;) � brcnzo , but

� i n the \i,-'rk-har�cnu
the

qui t e sma1 l .

,

p c r f urnt i c n

th,; worl�

5 . 6 c orJpnroo

the

.

(' nn o n

shell rc quirua n .:.: e.rly

b"low i t

VnrinUc-no i n T •. bl0

in

t� oub l ,-, (1 by th;,; curvr.turo

" n i n i t inl quns i-st .::.t i c

5 . 8. 3 .

ellc 11 ,

s t ..: t i c

thi ckness

,d th

( 8 ) t v bv

c el .

-

r t" (� i us o f

l'.

b o tweon

!1.1 t

•••

, , anI ,

ls ,

5.5

i n c r () '�sc ,� by (.; nly r:.b out H(;nc ,-'

� hu l

i s shc.wn in Lb l c

r.:-:ut;:lly

... nu

i :l i t i �.1 pcrfcr::t ic:n , X ,

t ho

raciuG c f c u rv:--. t ur i.l (. f

1 25

•

f o un ,� i n q u.:: s i

th", slop.;: ('iP/l�\I ,

vi� r i1.� t i c l1 o f

vnri�t i ':l1 of th.:) \.'<: r1:: t �

:1.nl:

•

i l1 c r ;;: � s c i n the \lcrk c f (lishinG w i t h

T11"

( iv )

the 1ncrc�sc 1n

the.t c�se •

to

r.s

.

trl' uGh c o n t r. inint; air j l> t ti "h i c h ccntroll\l�

r':;UI.�\

t hd: � t v \l l o o i t i()C1

c f t h� ..., r � ... r

ot

10

I'J

.

-1

II

,

Tabl e

5.6

Work done in initial perforati on quasi-statically and at l ow vel o c i t i e s , by a sharp bodkin- type arrowhead •

.

Material

Condition

•

Bronze

Cold rolled

Quasi-static

9.42 .Anne aled

•

Copper

Anneal ed

(Joul e s )

Perforation just vi sibl e Perforation just vi s ible

Quasi - static

7 . 62

Energy Lost By Proj ectile

Resul t

tial Final elocity Vel o c i ty l l (m s ) (m s )

-0 . 78

. 50

-1 . 09

. 06

-1 . 00

Quasi- static

-0 . 61

-0 . 58

Perfor&.tion just vi sibl e Indentation Perforation j ust visibl e Perforation 1 x 1 Perforation just visible Indentation Pe rforation

0.8

of

x

0.8

mm

10 . 31 10 . 66 6.2

6 . 33

11 . 97 1 3 . 39 4. 6 5.49

6.05

annealed metal thi ckness All tests were carried out on she l l s a 1 !!iii! , with a convex ClJl'vat;llre of 10 em radius , supported ring , i . d . 4.45 cm , o . d . 5 . 1 cm .

on

t h a t dono

twice

h (. .. 1 • • -

.

.

•

.. L: n \",,:

-..

•

,

.

o f t l10

I

o.. ,

t/as g r : a t u r by �bcut

bronzy it

•

s in i l � r p � r f l r �t i u n quas i - stct i c nl17,

n

in

( � f l e c t i 0 n i� t ilu eyn�:� i c

very s i ni lnr t o t !IC t the

n nn u ul c c

fer

CnIde r

nlun i n i uo by nuch \/Ol'!:

\I;;�S

A

s t e e pe r

&:

Gold.slilith ( 1 97 1 P 878 )

t;onl.! {�ynarJic :. l l y as qua si ..

in tnblc

-

i n i t i c l pe r f " rr-..t i on

C'_c

The

c ur'lnturc .

s t i '- t

5.1

2040

fc;unt� in

wh�r.;: t \l i c c

i c:,lly

;:!s

:p ... o�uc e

to

th(; c c&:;-cncnt

b e t uc oll

in t h e: �y n a[! i c w'_ rk o f perfcrat ic-n an� t h 0

x (, f

thu F r o f i l e o f

but

b r onz.: c CIiI?::lres with that

(lo l l w::. � �l t h e: r o l c t i cll f : tmc •

n

C�Ga

e a ch

in�Gnt�t i on was in

quas i -st�t i c ,

in d e n t a t i o n s 6hvwcll

:�y nL,r.dc

rC fnllt

i n thu

The ncx irnnD de pt h

15%.

-

quusi-stntic wr.,rk

r,iC 2.sur.:.d frcI.i the

t 0 nsooc t Q r

t r C' c ':" s .

•

.

5.9

'l,'h.: jcctile

i1.:

·

have clrcacy b � Q n

t ip

both

i n i t i c l l y du c t i l e ,

2

;;10

c:uc t i l c

tip.

s t probable :J c ..-: cs o f b o h nv f,:, ur ullcur the pro-

t h " fc i l ;Jr c: s

the

�ro j c c t il e

B c h�vicur un � c r t he

were

'

except

�ll

5 . 3)

( s e c t i on

.

i n cnnenl c c unl� ccl�� r01lcc b r o nz f..

thoee pr o nuc e c quasi- G t�t i cuI17 by

whorl:: f..: il ur o

ball ,

� c s cr i b c �

.

c r a c k inG

occurruL by

fE'. ilurc:J t hJ bc.ck surfac .:: c. !

tho

In thc

_

•

plate:

" 12.5

c�rawn r i gh t

-

{�C,.-n

until nt

onc point i t ml:: t the front .

c..n ncnlcc

t o ndo n c 7 in the

fo i l n (; � r thu c c n t r ,"

fQ r � n c � of

th�

f:liGht ly More c. t icnn _ fi\ i lur�

nt

f Ol·r.;I.i "� '

I'I t t: (.; l by

by a bltmt p o int t o

l o :.(�in .:; rl'.th .:r t ht'.n � t

aren o f c c n t a c t ,

c cr.U.lt,;n

n t t nc k .:: c

t!1,: c i r c ".,

-

nn 1 this ��p� �rc C t o bo

in I!yn •. n i c thl!n in

q uns i- s t r: t i c

porfor-

sh:tpu

Cthorttiac no �i ff e r c: n c � was ob&.:: rv(: (� i n t h e

� f s u r fcco wt'. O

of

brunze

S L OC

Thc. r.::. U<:.D

ai f f e r � nt flow ; ', 6

ve l o c i t ie s ,

Rnd t hcru

wnc

no

e v i �cnc o

b � f (:ru p�rfr rct i l; n - ill �Dr t i c ul�r no

hnn

b e c n cboc rvc (� in thu p c r for:� t ion

Jonc G ( Uc.rc.:y , 1 976 ,

pp

20G , 207 . )

of

r.r

c Or(ln� t uil�

15 1 . l : c. m c ::. t urJ e f f J c t e .

5.10

t e- the

I n e�Li t i c c

" n o rSy ::b .:, , rb c (: plcG t i c .-..l l y , _

.

..

whi c h wo

,

•

L: ne r o -V � t D L rb � , . 1:1.· n L: t �• c -:·. 11·J· ' J the

_

rL l::: t iv(: Thcr(:

(1 ) .

I. c 0 LlplL t c ly p l a s t i c

uIJ

pi clw

L .:

•

the C.rnour

t:.:.kiilC

pcrf crat i c D i 3

Lli·.SS

(· f

� :::.

-l. l · k" � l y t ()

nplJ�r.5

" f f"� ...

ct

i n F e r f ( rc.t i u n .

wh,-,r� t Iw }1r o j u c t i 1 �

.

:-. [;-. i n s t th(: b () l:Y \ihi10

it

is

H

Ll;:' f; 6

they

n,

.

l
pl[tc e .

e n t ire pi .;; c ..; ( f �r:':l·lIr c· f pro j e c t ile

, .n ·.-.

i Uj) c t ,

f 1 in[;s

.....

t l1;. •� t v �

•

wor t h c o c � i � c r i n � .

C;. G IJ S

t uc

.

o f :-.r r .: HS

o f f i c i uncy aro

O J' I: c .. .

.

e ne rc;y

i 6 cb sorb c C: by

.'C c c l' l <; r.:'.t .... c: t hus by

�� i l l b e t h ,

(; ive:n t i\JlJ ,

on

r e nch

o quc 1 v .:: l e c i t y Vi

V'

-

-

t1

v ' ;cn"',, V ' nrc

't/h crc

cn(� t h..;

\'..:: l o c i t i t: f; of t h.::: �ro j c: c t i lc

O.

=

'0" tho init i :o.l

FiG 5 . 1 1 plo t s

U'

::.13

n

c loi

t �.k..; ::::

2

kio(: t i c e n o rcy o f th.:: pro j e c t ile .

propert ion w f u for v .... ryinC proport ions =

0.25

while

cnly ubuu t

u 'rlhvn

=

M.

\/h i c h thy n c c � lc rnt ion cr.D •

d th",

�bc u t hell :. lJilliou c(.nl: t o

a

0

1 cr.l , r.n '.� t h.,; t rnns f .. r o f m..:tl� ntllD

l i ci t v '. by thu (�urat ion

o f i t e iLlpnc t

IU"UOllr

u

Howeve r , th4.: c�iotc.nc\l cvc. r

bu

init ial

(CI+N)

thv cp.y.i;;mo b c inc; U '

t�ke plc.c c..: i o

nn

The kine t i c e ne rGY ac quir.:..! by tho

will b �

't/hcrc u is

have

nni! t he ilrrJour is nOGunoi! t o

ve loc ity V =

wil l

H

rl"iJour r C :3 p(; c t ively , v i s t h e i n i t ial vc l o c i t y of tho

pr o j e: c t i l .. ,

M/n ,

f i n" l

the:

+

v

io ;blJ ut 2000

= pu.\r t r�vc l l i J\� ;�t

N,

t i l",

nbcut

icp ulo o .

t rnv<.i l 1 C lll ,

qu nrt � r

will prc.; :.uc .: nn il�:'ulo<.; l : . :J t i n g f l l u r t i r.l .

.;n.� thu

ir.:pul c ..: \d ll �nc

..

;J

QO

I t a.n nrrcw

bv

r"rco

... b c u t

.

St

1 N

� r t ha t v o l o c i t y

lon,:; , nb c.. u t 4

N

8.

.

-'- �

,F

I •

•

..

-

90

• •

t

•

-

.

...

u •

•

o· �

�

• 0

•

~ '-

.. e UJ u

�

.-

..

80 ,

70 1 60

40

d

30

.-

eJ

e

tli"ttic EnlrcJY in missi le afttr collision

Enel(JJ diisi patad plosti�lll;y t' r 0 tharwisQ

•

•

"

•

.

_0

0-

•

•

•

I

•

•

•

•

I I •

'-

\00

I

•

SO

.S

�

I

inatic En�rQY of

lO

a r m ou r

10 O' 3 Fig. S . 1 1

0 ·5

I

z

5

3

10

1 00

-

M/m ( l o g)

Di . t r ibut ion o f en. r RY a s a re.u l t o f fu l l y p l a s t i c cu l l i s ion b e t w.�n j ec t i l e o i mass m and armour o f ma s s M . •

a

p ro

1 520But in or�u r

tc

t r ::. n s f u r tl�"

[l�.:d lJu:;; .'f

. , ....- ,, ·' l· jJ � t - l y . ·k'r ..... -

•

to

.l

ve l o c i t y r. f

;:

�

. .

:?pr oy. i �.1;:'.h ly

t o n c c u l � r� t o

t DO

r: •

c to

12.5

�

10G�

80

D

0- •

�

give th�t

n in th

one:

&bout

v.

=

l' t 6J ,..

Th"

c.rrc'W

. ..

-

2

by t h " [lOt10n tllo b .� l �.nc c . of i t o

cubGt.�ticl p�rt

t�

V'

..

40

0

"'.i n wo i r.h V D t

S

'Wc.ulc havc

-1

on� that wou1� in v o l v e encrGicc

1

hclr;c t or br�c.c; t pl,'. t c; ,

t i�IC

...

\..0

•

.

or ono o f

•

n11 o wc (�

tho ca

··

�c i Ghin � 25 g t (,

piac a

c n c ll n c o l!s t e

�ller �'J ,

� n�rGY if

4

9

(I f i t o ini t i:.:1 e:n.:; rGY ,

Wejul t1 en1y

on Q ;-tr •

•

it

lq; ,

\'lOighine Gay 1

v� l o c i ty cf only

,:

But

well ov�r

9cve � �n ent ire

[',n� it 'of(.: ul d

-1

0

have

, r � preocnt inb

im:: t 0;:l'.

cnc qu�tcr

of

c1lu\1C l� by tho] T.lctll: n t Uj] b;:lc.ncl: .

th.-m th..... t

loot

the: or��r o f ct r iki n g ��ulc

a

by

t rnna fe r 2/9

5 L'.nt! 10 J

-

c.m�

0

rac\,; <: vit h by the

th..:

On

2Z� of

e

i Ght

be

( qui t� apart rrc tl

In

th .... t

1.

the.: ccr.les ) ,

in (l ott

!;)ro j c c t ih

plc..o tic itJr....c t

in

g

10 b

ell

bctvcen

-

a

conc i J�rablc

;-c.....:y

pl t! t ... c ,

...

.

o

.:�

s t r i l,�

cr.n be

inp:'. c t

with

bnin

�nt:

..

l'.:!vl'.ntcGc prcvic!e: d t hio

W".y

he l p

�::l i c h ill ci fUcu l t tv

a hi o l c'

tr" r.t " l:

no

('.D<�

if vf

P(!CC

throuGh i t .

7 '

v

-

an

it \furo

oln::;t ic/

rc atitut i o n , •

V'

to

thnt Civ�:n to the sc;-,l.;:c.

nc (;� t ivc c c o f f i cicnt c

to

t c th e

tIl .. o t r.\,;r h::-.n.: t h .. lJc.rJcntu� o i ven

' (�ish '

cnoc th..:

':ibhin<; 20

�ncr�

its

t Ilt)

oGt irJ.�t(,; c.:x:,.ctly I d. �h t b� c o lilrr.rC'.blol (2)

...

·

in sri tchinb fro� plate: t o Gcol",, ::; when

'We rkin£) ·: f

Po r G i ....n \nrs .

�b o u t

S o th�r�

C'.rr, wc ,

cold

cc tt'.l in

err'-=�I

of

s,c,,"r strikinG the cc,,"l i.?o \,1GulJ t rt?.nGfcr

trc.nfcr

t:oncnt11:l

or

tht ,

virt unll y nothing. frl';1J

'.:n

group � f sc�leo en 1 c :.:th� r we ibhin�

n

lo'We r

tho ill<�inul..: ci ffercnc� be i ng

oI>cc.r ,

On the o t h e r h.. nc

3 J.

h t 1:r

c l i ;�

cf "ne ri,'Y 0:11y

by 0090ntUj:: trl�nof", r ,�.n '::' I �ount

•

Vi

- V

•

,

,

,

is

bront�r t h�n

enerGY l'.br:orboc!

by

th ..

:

, U'

V' ,

of in

�ast<:,. c ..; s in

this c��Cl�

c.bnorb t h e

sh ::' u l ll t r.

hn::o

th0 C

.

io

i i.1 : the.

thv sour c c s vi

u rr c

calculable , sIJt".J.lcr to the \Jerk

.

� .' .. ..:J _

-.

of i up � ct

:�y \!cll bo.:

£r �l'. t

onxir.lurJ cncrf,y

.

C'. •:v ...nt 2.Go

by

The

.

C\llc\-I

t ho

•

•

tho l.1oClontuc

the e c!gc I t'.nd the

11l:: c.r

bOC:11 seen thr.t

. It h:-!o

t"l3tO

tIl.:: prngrJC'.t ic

then

eno\\Gh t c

l: UBc

th� qucoi-ntOlt ic

trnv(.:rs(: of

:-.in rc ......ssurinG.

r in

nc;".r the

i or

.

...

o f initiC'.l

Idne(ic

t �· l'.llOH

pr�vi(k·:'

irJ" ;:ct if>

th�

this

Th·;: out C l,:JI: of ph(.:notH:n�;

cdjustc �� •

tl..

c onsi c!cr�bl�

:::

The

"

C '- .n

6hi .:: L: ,

bnlr.ncc , part icull'.rly i f arrC�T

_

o.

=

.'

u

-

r o t :�t i cn�l cuvecc nt

' l

\.. ' Su:LC

" n ... " Ett;C'.in V

�.

/' .

•

t:ru

in thv

. i Gh t h,' v" bc.:.:n expecte d ,

il

Alcrfcr�t i�n A .

The

,

•

cain

nne! con f inc. d

o.:lin issuos nrc

UG

,

(i).

The

ol;;p.ll

size of

tho;) tc.rGcts

�.nc! thoir supports doos

•

hew.:

0.

very cono i dorabl;;: effe c t in li:Jit inG tho dopth

cv"l'n11 co fl .:: c t i (;n , but thu

io net no �rly ( 0. )

O�

th�ru

cr o nt .

ia

tho t o t.\1

e ffect on

o f t h(J

pl no t i c

lfurk

Thl'.t is becnuso

li t t le i f �ny furthvr

uishinG ni t e r

init ial

porturat icn ;

(b)

cCI.l:>onl.:nt

th;.; nt;Gt if.i�crtt'Jlt

rnll1al Dtr�t chinc I ... n(1 t h r. t 10 mli nly

d th ..., plns t i c w\.,rk uenu

continu .!

t(,

Q. amt\ll llNt.

Ilroun(� t h ... ptJint "'- ! iCIJnct ;

(0)

Ill(\I.I t .l a 't i l

..

.

i n Po c u rv.::: 1! lJ1C\t� ,

h1n!;� it: lir.l i t !.' (\ b y

th.! (I1\t�tr\rl\ fwvonc;nt o f thlJ

thv

curvC'.tuN

r\l o 1t1t� " l C" t o J'l�rt"rl\t 1tm r..t tl'lJ

rJ!l.: l l n t " o t \; �

t ho uh(Jll ,

,

ancl by

lJoint u f 1f1l'",ot I :l.n t ho .

l.II:'. :d.f.IU::l ��:i.atnl\c,· r�acl"H 1 b y tho .

' Yl'lr.l'oIic., l l y t h ..

of

.

,

p

lr.o t i c hinGe v<:s o i t he r lesf) them thCl rc.,�iuE3 o f the support ,

prc � i c t e � t u bo not

ouch greet e r ;

' Th ::;, 1;10 (,(;

( J.' J.' )

o f r-coentuT.I t rm' s f" r ,

o f GUp:p c rt

or

in the qU� O i - 5 t � t i c t u s t s

e f fe c t

c o r te.inly r .:- 2.l! c "; l�. thu

but tho nnxir.lur.l t rnJlofl:r in t:". ct ual err.lOur

h�s b e e n cnlcul� t e � E 0 rcrct o l y ,

�n� fron t h i s ��int

of vi�w

•

( iii ) m.. nt

Th.::: ·;; xt rr. ':wrk o f :pe:rf or,. t i e n due

o f c .-.r�b (j ;:" � tabs t o the:

io

wcrk

c.rrc'-Ish� ft

th�

the

e rr � r i s iCGu f f i c i u nt t o upnct

( hI' )

Th� �r[u[Jc nt th,. t

o f s I' v Hrs r.nt: th::t o f b r � nzc

It

( cs

4 J

unlikely t o C �C 0 0 �

but

thct

in the

tho ; ct t o rn o f the r Ci s ul t s .

c�i f fcr�nccs b -.! t t{(; .;.-n tho v e l o c i t y

c. f "rrcws ::: r o uninportc.nt

f:)r the pc ric.r[:t i on

perfo r'.t icn i6

a

�ynnn i c �t tcck than fc,r

t h i s c1i ffcrc ncG

qua s i -st ::: t i c at

i s alrcp.cy c·b s :.: rvr.blo

7.5

to

be l i t t l 0 le6s c.t c.n init inl v e l o c ity o f

t h�n nt

on

ini t i c. l v e l o c ity o f

TII O

0

6

the: &lCQCntUIJ o f th.:.-

t

\J�; rl� o f enlnrGi nr, the hole

quasi-stat i c it

to

� �'

70

-1

{�ish t

.:-.ppc:-.rs

t",

10

en d

Il

6

-1

•

On the other han(�

bo

the

in b e t h

SC.::IC

'.nl�

tuo.

in t h � o t f c c t o f fri c t i cn c�D �rvu J i n pcrfor� t in c

s p o�r v � l o c i t i v c ,

(v )

,

ui ffcrencc being

i s unl ike ly t c: be l e we r ::-. t v l,; l o c i t ics b v t we o n th .. incrccGa

-1

�ut

c.:ync.IJ i c po rfur::t i ::ms � t �rrl);t v u l c c i t i o s ,

c o l �� roll� u brcm �': �.t .':'. rl'(·w vc loci t i a s

ct

the

one ,

s

n

::: p pc urc

t he

rnd

worst c� s e ,

we l l ns orG·�i c nnt e r ials ) appccrs t o b e u:ph c l c .

c

r-robnbly c1u�

a t t ach-

int r o�uc c s cor.1pl i c � t i ons ,

hns b o o n she wn th�t the: Herk t) f init iel

gre at e r fer

t o thc

'1'h .:

o inco

ia

o.lac l ikely t o hol�

i t ��rs i s t s c v � n wh�n t he cisoilu

<. f f .;; c t o f 9u p u r i l.l p o c i t i (. n ,

by

,�h i ch

t h ..

work

"

cqui v.::. l .:mt t o tho

B UL:

c adh

o f jvrf t l·::.t in;:;

r.n,� c;�n b o

L'.lsc h c l J s qu <:'.. s i - G t .:-. tiC lllly , •

-

-

-

pIn t u ecpnr::t c Iy ,

e :.cpl:.1in,,(� cn tho Groun d s

•

of �K r f' :: re.t i o n .

cn

t h�

th� e f fect

Qt�c.l i t i : t i v c l :r

os

t we C 0 �p o n � n t G ie

of

the: l: iffc r u n c .:! s

f o ll o ws : •

�'.nythin� \lh i c � i n c rc .::. s c .s oc: t nl ir.. c re:<:::: o s s

tl.,) j..:� t al is rc �uc c c thw

f::c t r)l' :U ,

till cs

l�u c t i

but

lc

l l not

"J i

it

\0''-13

•.6 i t

incruasc I\. unleSfl i� nyt h i n G l!hich

b u f·:)ro .

�uc t i l i t J o f thu �otcl w i l l t en�

of the

r c �uc c f .

t�

lluc t i l ity t C: l l d.s t ·:; produce (;n :,.b s c· l u t u r (; ��u c t L � n in Ii.

of

.:�n·.·. c.h,nYfJ r o :.!u c c s

thin plat c 6 ,

!?crf�,r;�t il)n

S

;:nnc <..l '-! c:

=

br ...'ll z e

c.l�pruxi w�.t " l y I\. t h i clmcGn ...

�'( rl�

. .!Gn - t th.1' c�c:n1ng 1 t ho

0 t'.le r

t'�c

II:

2 h t

B

•

both cOBponcnts l'.t

CE .

SUCeest

h1 . 6 , A/'J

;::::.y shct' t h r t .

in

of ini t i�.l

'-

, quasi-st •. t i c t \.: s t s

teste

II:

;

,

ny r.-.tc in

n.n

illcro::sc

of

hO . 4 , ( where h is the of accuracy

the t\lO c 0l1Iwnont o

incrc::'.Bc

c qu::.!ly.

Qr le sa

(vii)

°n

the: r.Jot!ulus

of the l1l�t c ) , but H ithin the ir lir.li t o

:"yn:'.[;ic

Dor�

"'/B .

t o incrcnl::l e:

ar"JCour t .:: n��s

th

t !w

t c ns i L : s t r c nct h

th,:

Sor.. l l

':iffc rcnc v G o f cl1rvnt�rc (��) net

of p"r fcr:!t i �n very

h� lul.lt(j w:. ul d r l: r t .. r � t i -:n 1-. ,

Th;::

.

.

c u rt brcnzo ,

�ff�ct

in

� . 12 .

Prl.l �ict i onG .

cc l�-roll��

oc t�l .

but

n

ff� c t

th�

•

CUl'v::.tur.;; z oi.>sorv .;J d

np:pre':dtl ... tcly t� " .Clubl .. th.;

G v dJ

in

t:u c h .

•

in

\I�r!: o f ini t i�l

t o::, h�vc cnl:r qui te

�

snnII

•

•

...-. L.o ,.

w

/; b� cXprCG:hH:

' " .J.. ' .

.....

L0 �

\ ".... u.

••

t }l�

tot�1

p l �o t i c

be

porfor'-oti ur.

{'.n.:� 1 <.: t

,A .J" '

-

in

.\

term.

C

+

B t.,

r.

f B by

{'.

mot:ul us

I./B

-

so t hr:t 1I

7hc n the: c;rJL!.ll o r for

l'.

l�.r[;c

s ot : l l (,ncD

•

S,

-

Lnt: U. 0 l�r bcr C ,

thu eos ier i t

tril l be

.

pro j e c t ile t o ]Jor fcr<..t" <'.rr.tour (�cs ignC! (: t o ke op out .

The c.:t:: cCln6i�cr," '.1 f.1.bovc

r.pprOXiLi:lte vc.l u c: s fc.. r tnnc�l� � bronz�

S Ec C

s 5 00 2 . 5 mo 2 . 5 r.tCl 1 00

( curv<.: � ) ( flut )

Hork J!�;r{l<:: n e� bronze

C;>.nv=..s '}o oel � �thcr

s ugC <.: s t th<.: foll c.. w ing

( curve d )

( nd )

o

'3 . " ......

( & HiLe ? )

l 1.f...

_

C 1 1 1 1 1 2 3

In at!ci t i on t o the pll'.s t i c :�';rk there is .:llso tho work o f

w�y wh<.:n cttuckinu ...t

so

Cles t ,

the

c.ttacldn�

cdvunt.:'.gc

.:bout cnc fifth a t

whvrl.l:-.s l".

c.

spenr

Cl·O '.lcn t 1Jo tr �nG t�r , ..

c.n o rrow

of n

cnn

e

spear

will loso

,

thol arrcw

5 t � 1 0 J , 1'y

-

v�ry I i ttl.::

strikuo

one

(:

3 J

c�n

losl:

tlOI:l," ntuc tr:lnsfer

in tr..::. t wc.y .

In c.tt.:.eking

qunrt ... r ot its onc:rgy by

in tho<: richt

pIneo ,

whorons

will losv vvry littlv .

�o on beth CC\tnt s , Co 81.1.:-. 11 !'lrG j o c t i l c !-.L'.s

ch:'. ncc.

only

Conversely ,

the �rrov is sJ:ll'.ll .

1050 up t o

i t it

lose little: encrf:,"Y in this

s o ft plr.tc

i t s c nu r r-;y

spc:.r los�s

the

� ?l i .... l�� ,

haru plut e , but

Bcnlc s cr

•

whun

Rl'rcw sh oul l!

An

aoo.:.utuQ t rc-Dsfe r .

f p. r f

..

1rr. t in.:;

(\

H\:-ol�"n

�

r.iueh bo t tor

chi<.:lC: thc.n Clct:-.l armour , supp-

1 57. -

eht\ptor 6 .

H i s t oricc.l �vic1cncc

The rtlopylae

fr'_ c r :nra tho n , -

and Pl e. t o. e a . In this c hap ter

\-!c

l ib rary , a nd at t e c p t t c

nove

frof.! th", laborato ry t o t he uhr-.t ::'.ct�lly h app e ne d

p i c t ur e

in somo -

usinG the l it e ra ry OD e c e rnrd i c

Persian Wnr b o t t l e s ,

The

r:.t t
in v ol v e s

n

mltjbers t o qunl itativc evidenc e t o all o w

of � ra t ho n , the

cnc

I nutlbers Gace I ,

st nt c tl c nt s ,

put t i ng r:,.t h':lr orbit rcry

but thero is just suff i c i ent

or tHO plausible eue s se s .

f igure s c i v e n

evidence ( 1 ) .

In the case

by Herodotus fer the Athenian

eeed , soetls r e li oble , ( 2 ) OJad althOUGh it is very scC'.ll it

of

pr Clb � b l y ineluccs theso killed in c..ll thre e phnscs .

b C'.t t le ,

the r.101ce ,

the r..p proaeb ,

C'.m: the rou t .

By

o s t ieo t in g

figllr e a fer t h e lat t e r tva phase s and !lubtract ing them th� t otal , t hC'.t

,

we c��

ob ta in

t o gc t h <.: r with

r.n

c

on e st imn t e for the f i rs t ,

st i f.lr t e .

o f th

we e n n sue Ds the p r ob able nlmber of

I

nucbe: r c f

the

frem

c�d froo

c.rrows shet t

pc rf orct i ona of aroonT.

At T h e r copyl no nrehaeologica1 evidence

give s some

idee.

of

tho

typo o f orrowa usod in tho final phos o of tho b ott le , ond tenda t o c onfirtl HoroGotus ' ncconnt

fro e

elusions drown

tinrothon.

fig"ros oro less rel i ab le ,

the

L� c e a. e conians

of

it , nnd

At P1otoea ,

so the con-

tho cosnolty

but the account of tho

conduct

ob t n i n

[lakinG a chargo ,

on i�oc of tho o ffo c t iveness of tho

•

�1uch work h=.a bOlln clono re c o ntly on all

h op li to shio 1(1 .

theso bc.ttle a ,

nnc!

\/0

sh.."'.ll only �ioeuoo points which oro

ctrictly rolevc.nt t.,- tho) p r o o o nt

6.1 . 6.1.1.

of

t.nd Tagoans during the finc.l e nc oun t e r ,

whe n the y ac.t o u t a bcrr:".go cf nrrc.WB bof.;re:

e�.n bo u3e e! to

al

nrcurilo nt . ( 3 )

H:-.ro. than.

T o p o craphy ( 4 ) . Tho p lni n o f ll�r=thon

( fiK . 6 . 1 ) is

a cODotnl atrip

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1 59.

between tho TJcuntninG :-:!:(� io j ust over

It

The

S.E. r'.

<. �)

�l�.rG�·! ,

... �

c.l; �tlt

�

h�lf

6 kn l o ng ,

...rhich

is

Soul i .

r'.

sendy s t r i p ,

J.bny

with uobra lln pinea . -

( 6) ,

dry i n Gunoer

but there is n good

nenr the ood�rn villege

spring on the inl�� , we stern c ornv r ,

l o ne; ,

r unn i n g NW -

w�s unt il rec e nt ly oc c up i e d by

(� o t t e (�

p �x t s o f t h o �rxsh were

o f Ke.t o

c c cs t o f .'.t t icn.

which ",::s I3 c i�r'. r -.t c li frOl:l the sec. by

Schcc nin ,

the

2 ItT.1 wi(�.:: "' nt'

ncrth-o �stern

on til;) Eo.st

tho scc ,

Bandy

The Scho (;!nin f o ros a

beac h e'l:ou t 3 . 2 ktl

its e :1stern enel b y :-: rc.cky protlont ory ,

pro t e c t e d et

tho

•

Cyn o s o urn . (7) , nnd

It woul e pro� i c1c reOA t o

:-:r.(� Hnur i c o ost

e nc r'. lnp (; (�

t e e th�t i f en nr�y uiscmbcrkcG there

e ither t c the: S0ut he8st or t h e Nort h o f tho

mr.rsh t hu ro ,,:c ul d bo eno ush

Clulra.drn

Souli nnd the

villegcs of Ocnee , f(;r

�.

we e k ,

r.n

in

2

dieging About

c

we t e r

Jbrat hon ,

(8).

b e l ow

( S c hn c herce yr 1 951 ) .

t he soil in

c.n ot

end next t ..:: thr.t by

hc r , n

182 8

Unt o r i s nlso o�t by

e.s

Tho

' very use ful for tho

( 9 ) , nnd s o it \-,ould provi do

(10) .

the GGuth"To stcrn ene ,

by

24 , 000 men

nvur::.C;c �.ut umn

sood forcGo for h or s e s .

anti q u i t y

th;) sprinG ::.t Kc.to

and Bo i, t o Inst nbcut

pns t nri ng of cettlc in s UOJilo r '

in

frc�

streao \1hich suppli o s the mollcrn

mc. r s h \1l:".S de scrib e :! by Leake

At

250 ships

Crew up nbout

th..: pl n in any ho.ve been closod

6onll cr , m�roh 0n

lJount�.in , :.c:rieliki t

t he const , ( 1 1 ) on t he northwest orn •

Gic!e o f

n fit ron.:: pr o vi C: c c \ln t u r n o \<, uso d by t h.:: villl'.co

�,hich

o f Vrana .

of Ag�iol iki

�n

� nc

l osuro found by

Sot c ricdo a

junt to tho 80uth o! thu otroo.m ,

d =-. t in g t o tho 5th

C ont ury ,

c

i t a i �Qnt i ! i c �t i on witl, tho

Gro � k c�cp , but

,.,oul ':: hnvo b o e n

}J", rcul o o IJc. nt iono e by Hc rot�otuo hna

(12 ) ,

who ,ro fero

:l

B it o

bl.lun

0.

o.t tho foot

�nd

•

p o o ai bl y

\\Qo ful pln c e for pr� c inct ot

'� iaput CJ '� by

H:".I.lr.10nd

on tho no rth o i ,\o (I t t ho stro�r.' ,

o.t

1 60.

tho foot

( 1 3)

of ot . Ketroni.

s t re c.:::J nne:! tho Chc.rc.erc. [10nt ioncd nbove

Both the Vrc.na

{!isappcar

frc·m

the sur fa c e •

cf

has a b e el running t e.· the: sea , t h <::

o ....rsh

t h e pl :-:. in in SUL1T:ler.

�;h ich b isects tho plein b e t ween

:,:n..! Mt '�Grieli ki , :mc.

1 8 feet ( 5 . 4 iii )

i n pla c u s

wh i c h

f1c.\1o :l

and at sor.le periods i t s e e r:u; t o h:lvE: ucrsh ,

e

lins

depth o f up to

its C c,llrse is easily alt e re d ,

but

,

The Clll'.rc.dx'o.

�nd not over th� p l a in at �l .

int o the gre at

(14)

The plc.in Dust

f o r me rly hc.ve been sub j e c t to frequent flooding in wint e r , and

h�s

t he level of the land by c itrul'i groves C'.ncl

t re e s

:-.S

,lo ll

c.s

f(l( t ..

foun d t o cover

(16).

in

0.

an t i q u it y .

which

we.s

kc both

1 893

oxc�v<�t c t1 by S t e.i s i n

lC'.rgu crcrmtion o f t he e �r11 5th CcntlJl"Y

by

P

c r s i cn

possibly by oth�rs somewhat ll'.tor ,

in 1 828 ( 1 8 ) , ruld

.

cd

very

thoUGh nono \fere fount! by

or S te is dnrin£ the ir cxce.vo.t ions. D c c op

( 17 )

Pnusonic.s ,

e.nc/or Scythi�.n arrow-

heaus were found on its snrf::.cc by Lenke

eight h:wo beon

1 .5

th� fcot of Kctroni there is a

covering the i.th()nion co nd.

(19)

(15)

�p?rc�inctcly

It is ac cepted e.s th�t uont ioncd

Schlicr.l.:-. nn

lnrgcly o c cupi e d

r.nc t he r e o.�y hr.vc b .:: cn

�nc c f the plc.in ,

tho Soros ,

todc.y

It is

gnr ( k ns ,

of Acr i e l iki

lo.r c; e t unulus ,

ond

o:,:.r ket

shrul::. s on it

Ne�r th0 s . \! . frc D tti.l

risen .

up with tho eOI'�b

whe n

Arrowheads

tho t llfjulus W::l.S

b u il t .

;. r.luch sr.:c.ll " r t Ul1ulU!J S(.I:I<: 2 to the North o f Sc. t c.:ric.doo I cxcr .v:.--. t c l.l by Narinf.'. toe ,

10::

to tho \-Iest ,

20 nnl� 25

( 20 ) c-.nl.!

Ii ttlC!

founl! t o conte.in b'lri:-.la o f

yo nro 01(1 ,

\lith onu oldor

Thi o ar.)' U .:.

:In\:

n

oncl osuro , hC'.3 r e c e n t ly boen

th� cn:.10 t�:.".tc co tho c r c nc.t iono in tho Soros.

uun b�t\-/(J l:; l1

nnd

ol:-.v(; o ncnt ionv ;! by Pr.u:;cnic5 ,

th,}

(21 )

t or.lb

thvuCh

Host nro o f

<: �O

-

35

),cars )

of Ploto.oans i t io

tnrthor

161 . froo the Soros

o i Gh

th an

� r.lD.rble

have b e en e xp e c t e d •

t

ob se rv (: u in the 19th. C e ntury near

c o l ur..tl was

•

the Church of l·;i sospor it issa , anel

Vanderpool

( 22 ) .

in 1 965

the S oros ,

anG about

fraGTJent c

T:.e church is ab 9ut 2 . 5

kn N .E. of •

1 . 3 kn fron the s e a .

The c oluon i s

t!hi t e stone trophy oentioneel

probab1y tho

f oun e by

\-lC re

by Pausanias ,

(23)

j ust b e f o r e he Dent ions the ab senc e of Persian eraves anel

shortly

b e fore he describes: the oarsh into \�hich ,

t rc.elit i o n

hel d , the barbarians fe ll i n the ir fl i Ght (not knowing the

losses.

paths thr ouGh it ) and whi c h acc ount e:c1 fo r t he ir heavy The base o f the tUlluln:; \-IaS fa un el surrouncinG plE'.in , {'.nd

whole

wh i l .:::

thnt

3 oetrcs

b e l ow the

docs n o t inply that the

plain has rison b y t hd aLlonnt ,

i t i s likely that

Ged�lcnt froo floodin3 hee: covered cost of the ot her r e l i c s

( 24 )

o f the bat t l e .

H e r o d o t us Her o dotus '

.

less detaile d

acc ount of ��rnthon is

HIl ,1oeB net

those of Thernopylac and Plataen.

s e c ;;;

than

to

have

vioit e d tho site , and p o s s ibly ho , lik� other Greek hist orians

after hio , found it difficult and

cxc:.ccerat c d

unr evnrding

.

clains of tho i.thoniaDs as

yet'.re (25)

Ho

t he y

to s i ft tho

increaGed over tho

following point s .

� ivo s t he

The Porsians Inn(� ", <1 at Hnrathon nft�r rc t:uc in.:.: Erctrio..

otnye d

EretriaDe hf'.
Fl.re

th.;, to

hnu

'lithin the ir wIl e ,

aftvr

0.

siz dAy

bOlln bc trnyof. b,. t ,.,o l .. c- d ine c i t i z u ns . .

T he

hope u t o llo t o tho ;.thcni::.ns whc.t thoy hau donv t o

Erctr ir.lnO . l:ro tria ,

r.nt1.

( 26 ) .

Mc:. ra t � on

cuit:-.b l",

( 0.

W��

chosen bo c�usc i t was

for cavalry _

t ranoport o had buon built , a n ,- o c c,rt

t".n d

The

(27 )

Spo c i al horoo

�nd six hundred t rirocco forc�d

c C' nv"nt i ono.l D"ob o r in }[oro,lotuc ,

:'ond a curo

C10BO

1 62.

sign

of oxuG6ornt ion ) ( 2 8 ) .

�ithonir.na tlnrchv 1 out Horr.cle s . ( 2 9 ) nrcy

woo

a f ie f of

the

but thtl d e c ia i o n was

G�llipoli peninsuln ;

in the

T h a r n c i o. n t ribe s thero he

o f Gre eks at t a c he d

cc ntinG�nt

of tho

offic inlly in c co�n nd

th(; t e n Gencro.la , whoso

one of

tho

r n d took uk' posit ion in tho Pre c inct o f

Tho Polco��ch

Cc,lli i:l(".chus ,

Hi t t ir.cc o ,

Borie uo dcbc.t o ,

i. ft C:l"

in

�

•

du e t o

InrCe ly

-

.

csto.blish� d

fanily had

dd i t i on t o his experience

had per a onal ly c O[lrJa nctcd a •

t o the F o rsio.n C'..rr:.y C.uring Darius '

ho ni an s

expe dition t o Scythia . ( 31 ) .

Tho

to Spnrta t o o.ok for he lp ,

the Spnrt�s wero dolnyed by

but

religious f o s t i val ( probnbly

the Co.rno ia ,

the

Tho snol l t own

of Plataeo. sent its

0.

occasion )

nf't�r tho

b ::t tlo ,

gr ininc ..

' nnt i l

ent ire croy.

naon6 the generals j ii l t ia ce o

jl fter furthor t!ebatc

·

on q;rcc[lcnt t o C'.t t�clc , but ho

'

roto.t ion ccong the ton ge ne ra l s

this is

�.n

nnnchronisD

i s divide4, ::

Polor:.r.rch was o.lroa�y onl�

eelayed

own l e ado r c h ip cnoe rounc '

the <1..-.1 of his

( by the

.ns Herocotus snyo ,

.. l ... annu.

ce ssonger

Pers ian ee c.e bc fGr..: they vore buried. (32 )

in t itle t o 3 .: e

for soce dnys

:m

Co

sent

2 , 000 orrivlJd soor.

unt i l :�ft (; r the full Doc·n ;

suc c ocC:ed in

,.t

).

.

nocinnl

Opinion on vhether

i t oue�e sts tlk...t tho ,

elo ctcc by lot ,

wh.;:roos t he r.uthor o f :. th Pol >ox i i

5 puts

tho introt!uct i (Jn of tho l o t fer tho c lw c t ion of tho nino

487/6 .

:. rchons in

enC. poss i b ly

eivo or.ch

of

thl) cieputo boon

0

scao)

BotC'.t icn of cot!O:-.nd i s voll known olaovhorc3

rotf'.t ion of tIl... ordor of thw tribos would •

th� �onoro.ls th� paver o t vot o for on� V:-.O

:\8 b i t t tl r

�

Horodotus iopliue ,

�y .

,

If

i t coull!

htlvo

Horodotuo Deys t��t DOCO ot tho

vey o f 80ttling it .

eenoralo on thv pr o c o d i nc d.,,,ye offero d 11ll t iadoc t ho ir OW l)lac" in tho.: rotc q but th:'.t conco iv:-.ul ... thr.t if thvru W�B

pre c o do d by

thODO c d

ho �icl not tnko it .

\l�e

1'.

ro tnt ion IoIllt i��lle '

eevor�l

(;

r h ie

18 quito

It

•

•

own �7 •

•

.

. .' ,

.

but vould

•

he.s not

It cl.onrly

��cse of his oP?onc n t s .

hcvo b e e n succoeee� by

o c c urre l! t c. He rodo t us tIl;:t t he r e o::..y h �v e beun n

t a c t icnl ronsen for t he

[lust he.vo b e o n

th;:� thcore

wo

d e l ;:y , but

t�ct ico.l

�.

infer froc thct

Ci�ot

r e ::.. s o n fer not cel ny in3

furt h e r . ( 3 3 ) On the ll:-.y of thu be. tt l e ,

orc!er ( 34 ) ,

e.r r]y

with t he Pl::.tnenna cn the

in t h e c o nt r c

,

we.o

le ft

ou t

IcC:

winG .

in cue

The lino

t h;:t of th·J enc oy by t h i nn i nG t h o

c qu:-. l

w�.s IcnGt henec t c re.nks

the

leaving the \.fines ::.. t full strenGth.

The "neny hr1.c t h e i r b e s t t roops ,

( 35 )

S cyt h inns ,

thu Pcrs icns and

The rcoo.inder o f the t r o ops nrc unspec if i e d •

in the

c o nt r� ( 36 ) .

but oc-y hc.ve inc luccd G r e e lm fran ;. ::.io. H i nor The:

t h e islt'..Il d s

o oc n s u," re t �.1�en nnll f o un d favournblc , whereupon ' le t go '

the i.thc.-n ians 'iere run ,

�n;!

( 6 p�1l!:1 •

),

o r :'..t

( ch£ i&na:xv

)

nn� set off at

n

l e c s t ouch f::..s t o r t h ..�n th o usuo.l pnce ,

the.: d i s t ::.. n c e beh10en th0 two lines be ing e iGht sto.des ,

( 1 500 m ) . ( 38 ) Tho b nt t lc c ont inue d for

centro the Pe rsions and hnn d ,

t r o ke t he Grc �lc

( 40 ) .

es ,

On t he

win

They

l i ne: , ruld

ur ,

"

Gt:-.rt c � t o pursue th(:c inl�n(!

opp one nt "

t!1I1

tnc !jut t rl(�rJ t o

<

"11..' ru "

"'

niCht too.

c.. t t h e flc .> i n C cen wi th their c;:chtl to-

: tho ni c.. no

Pole.:r.lt:'. rch , S t o ailnua

sc� , ,

runcnou tho

wero killc�

�I rll. c.ynllt;ir U8 t h e brother � f the

, " ch i 1'0

bettor ;

an:� then swung inwnrdG

where

( 41 )

they tric J t o burn or copturo the ahips.

COoll in::-ochulS ,

did

t he !�theniC'.ns an(� Pl;:tnc:lOs

hewine

.

the

stcrte� t o h�in the upper

) unt il they

I��.ny f't"J'lou:::

In

( 39 ) .

"

\/ho ha d br eke n t hr OUGh ,

followo C:

lon� t ine .

S cyt h io.ns

t he y rout e d their icce :li.:-.t o o n those

:'..

at this point ,

on.>

includina

o f' tho t � n cenornls ,

pO,)t ;• .; ochyluo .

Sevon

1 64. The reat of the oh ips pushod eff , picke d up tho •

Eretrinn priaoners froo a c onveniont i 6 l�nu whero t hay had �nC sai l e d r

b o en left ,

Suniur:l hopinG t o reach 11 t hcnn

'"

very

hed �n cCreo r:-u:mt with the the t l c oa o oni da o

nobles ,

see n

weD

o ignclli

his tlot ivos �.nG

ellegcd thnt t h e y

fnr , i ly o f A t h o niOon

impor t c.nt

.

nnd s o ce one

to hlL� d ove r tho c ity ,

nc with a shi e ld t o t he Persian fleet , nft er

le ft the sho re ;

it � 1

,

L ruo our

( 43 )

r et urne d .

be rero tho :truy

trOoc e d , •

the o ignnl ler woos ne ve r

but

pr ove n an c e

<'Xc

( 44 )

unknown .

fe s t

The I. thcnions c:-.rcfic d bncl: as

�nd

cs they coul.! ,

�d

•

rel'.ch ec tho haDe

ccnst lino be foro the Persinn flo e t . ( 45 )

Tho j th (!n i�

dc r.c! arc given

.

t ho

1 92 ,

cs

Perainn 6 ,400.

(46 ) . Pnuscu ios .

6 . 1 .4.

In his de s c r ipt i o n

C!otl'.ils Sto n ,

of

f.t t ic n , F'·.USDnias cive s valnabl.e

both of Mic on ' s p�intinG o f t h o battle in the Poekilo

�C! o f tho bett l c fie ld

The po i nt i ng ,

( 47 ) .

/f\.A...

e ar l i er / Her o dot us ' s

which oey be sODc wh�t

'"

nc.rrl'.tivo ( 48 ) , ��d

e

ench other into

r sh ,

•

at

M......rc.thon

pr.ne l showine the bnrbarinns pushinG

n ma

in hoadloD6 flight , and locel. trndit ioD

tho

in P�:llsnnic.s ' s dny ,

c asualt i e s

stct c d thnt !:'lost of t11.; invaders ' a

� �

rs h

.•

cc

d in

( j ointly ,

J.j�rathon

it

n o thur

e

voul

' for thi.t first

r iilt i��ca r: nd t ho

d

sooc )

t ioo I ,

,-,he ..,or.: thr own i n t o w�.O C'.100

.

n

,

.

" ' .. -'\. �"

�

.

'.

( 50 ) ,

","

�,,,,,, ..,

.

,

"

.

.� . . � .

,

,

t'.m� '.

." ...., . �

rlonuc.;.;nt t o l1ilt i:-.llos , , '

�lntQoans

docroo

No coun� c o vc r o ,l

�ro nch

,' t.

t ho

slaVO B hr.vina foucht

' ac cordins tel thQ

' "11' ;.J! •

-

" . '

1"

c iv inG

tUDulus ovor the

� t h o ni �n B ' ( 51 ) . ,

existence of a tUl'Julus

vhich hc.4 sl� s on it

�C!

t r ib u by tribe ,

t'.n:! o ln vo B

notQ � thu

P�us�nias also

over the :.thonian dcr.d ,

nt

M':

I D. ,

which is �r ob ab l y thnt nt tho Northeastorn and of tho

plnin. ( 49 )

n�ca ,

secODe c ent m'y

'

.

,

.

"

n

r.t ..

r�mlcc

. ",,, , " �. •. .I'••

•

,

tho

( 52 ) .

Thore

..

...•.. ..

' ,'

at

tho

l o.t t o r

l,robr.bly

n�t"

.;' the

.

;.part Iror. tho ( al t h o uGh a

relicf

T.1:'.

rsh

( 53 )

.

�,... int inG ,

of which nc copy

Loe s s urvive b�a � d

s urvi ve s

on t h o l�t p�ncl

of the

•

sori o s , showinG tho bottle at the ships ) (54) co at

iteIDs in

• •

•

c :' n b e checke C: , as

thi.s list

·

•

•

have s e e n.

\'10

.

C ompcrin3

P<'.usonios ' inf orr.U'.t icn \-lith lIerodvtus ' n.r:rrot ivc , notic cc.b lc thc..t on the onc

iuportant foc t or increas in� c..c c cunt reads Qorc c.nll

H er o dot us hes

hr.nd

h r ve .

... thcnian

he r o i c al ly th:-.n it would o t her w ise have �cne

t o �rn slaves ,

s ince: t h e

the

r;.-.rb l<: Gl ...ta

nr.t!e s on the

would

Hiltindcs shculd mve

Why

wc..nt el:

rcc�;ne d

•

wh

e n ab out 20 , 000 c iti z ens is

behind b e cause they h�c no arcour ,

co n ' s b o dy scrvnntG

li ke ly ,

on the ether i t

•

have been e c..s ily c ::: nnt e d .

SOLlC

so thl'.t his

been diffic ult for hio t o lIDdcr8 st inate

losses ,

ru1

OJJi t t � ::

the Pers inn losses ,

that he also ooi t s the sIeves t but that

tlOuld

it i s

fore iGn

n

nppnrentl7

£'.t

had BI'e c i �l skill

G l eve s would

use ful

bo

C� ncc:ivably ,

oystery.

on

cor e

1l.l·I!lS , or ,

pntr ol be cause

they

spoke th� relc vcnt lanGuaGe . ( 55 ) . -

Other Writers . �part from Goce /. r i st o rh:-. n " s , on

isolct o d references �y

all oth<:r te s t i co ny

( floru i t 350 � i p l ococ Y t

B.C.

)

Co

:-.

..-,jor scurc e

wl'it",r

on p oli t i c s

onG

il:lncinc.t ion

"thon ho cr.LlO to battloo.

have

t/ho io quito

but who allc��

Rr'ntaonu

tiny

bo rieht

Hilti:tdvs 5 , C'.:ld poss iblr

Nepoo ,

i lut -.rch

lc t or .�t thie05ro.phor such

WC'.O

Dow.in ( fl oruit 300 t . C . ) ,

n

.

h ic h

u

sonne.!

ro in to his

froo

th":'. t tho iocc di:-.to nourco of ".rist idoD 4 ,

ond

raln.t;n&; tc mratlton drnvs

writ ten scurc e s , nne! it seecs thc.t

boon Eph o ruc ,

hosch7lus

T.licht ollu w

th:-.t

CoS

of tho

Be-CO

lCJ cal clo tdlo do r iv l.l frol:! orr l tro,di tiOD, but the br�'� . svo "P .

,

o f i'!O; OB ,

\lith hia

ut t�r , cortC'.inty

as

tQ o t rat o:y t cncl utt�r

v�guene BB 8E t o t a ct i c s , ouggest that behind the A t thidographer l i e s a wri t e r of un iversal hist ory , and an unre l iable one at t hat .

In part i c ulc;.r , Nepos make s the Persians a t t ac k f ir st

with 1 00 , 000 foot and 1 0 , 000 horse . < 56 ) .

,

•

Four po int s r e le vant t o t he pre sent st udy have me t

wi t h

sow� ac c e rtance frorn modern scholars . (1)

The number of t he A t he n i an s .

Plutarch , ��r . 305 B , •

g iv e s

9 , 000.

•

This cons ort s we l l "lith the 8 , 000 at Pl at ae a

( llorodotus IX 28 , 6 ) , allol-ling for 1 , 000 a"/ay with the f l e et

(2 )

.

There '-Iere scattered trees l-/hich the A t hen ians cut •

( Nepos

and dragge d i n t o l ine t o prot e c t the ir fl&nks .

This woul d be a g o od idea ngainst caval,'Y : it

Milt iade s 4 ) .

would seCD a very bad i dea against archers .

If i t is

accept e d i t i mpl i e s that the Persians had a considerable force of cavalry t o o p e r at e on the flanlr.B , and may lw.ve kept their infantry line fairl y short .

( 3 ) Y�l t i a dc s at tacke d on informat ion thct the was w i t h drawn ,

( or

cavalry

s i gnal l e d by Ionian Greeks ge t t ing up t o

int o ) the tree s .

(The Souda , a dictionary of

about

1 1 00 A . D. on the p rove rb ' The c avalry ar c g o ne ' •

) (57 ) . although tho sonrce is

This i s

(;0 l a t o

ox t r o ma ly

ivo ,

that t here is Gome dirricultT

in cxplcin ing how it c oul d havo reQaine d in the traditi on for so long \/itho ut other quota t ions. a c o l l o c t i on

( HmJmond

c. t t r ib ut c s

it to

o f pr o vo rb s by t ho samo Atth idographor whom bo

detec to behin d Nepoa , but it is diffi cult t o soo how the wr i t e r c ould mC'.ko

bnttlo ) ( 58 ) .

both sido a tnl':.o thll init ic.t ivll in

Tho only

o i lc nc �

tho 150Il10

whi ch roally mat tora ia that

o f H o ro d o t uo , sinco it io c l oc.r thc.t nono o t tho other lJuror iv ing wr i t oro r,l=.do cny SN,�t o 1" f or t

to got t o gripa with

•

"he

t l o d i t i on . '

Schc.chermcyr ( 1 951 21 if ) sugge sts that by

Herodotus t iuo it h�d boen cOl1von i ent ly forgot ten in At h o ns , b C C o.t\6�

it tende d t o diminish the A th c ni e-n

"'l..�"t",ut

but that

it U�fl re meobe red in Ionin , bec�usc the infortln t ion had been signalle d by Ionian Greeks .

That is very cre dible ; we have

only t o c ompare the diffe rent versi ons of Wat erloo curre nt in Br i t ish regi ments , or the diffe rent vi ews of Worl d War II taug ht in t he scho ols of Brit ain and Russ ia .

Herodotus '

failure t o ment ion the Pe rsian cavalry during t he bat tle does •

suggest that t hoy ,.;cre not there , ( pa c e Hignett 1 963

64f ) ,

although as a minimum explanat ion ,,,e lilay observe that a at tack might qui t e tIC ll have got in be fore thoy

C 2.ma

dawn

up from

their laager , just as Xcnophon ' s ten thousand werc able t o �ake

a

mile or two ench day b e fore the cavalry harassjng thom

came up ( Anabasis III 3 . 6 , 4 . 1 ) , and t hat once tho r out had star t o d thoy might have been withdrawn , or have been of little •

However if this passage is

usc , O,s at Plataca .

a

c c e pte d it

do c s go far t o explain t he muc h more puzzling statement o f Herodotus t hat the Porsie-ns ' pushed off froa the shoro , and

taking the Eretrian slavos from the island whQrc the,. had le ft the m , sail ed rOlm d Sunium , hoping ,t o �i? t,o t.he c ity b e,foro tho !lt hc ni,an ' s c O,m ing. ' ( V I 1 1 5 ) .

For it must be takon to mQOD

that thu cavalry had o mbarke d during the ( noonlit ) n ight , so that thoro lIould bo a flying squtldron Claldnz for Athons whilo tho do t oa t � d infantry wer.:: forrie:d (tcrosa to th.:: island.

( Hammond ' s

s U6go ot ion t hat tho lonians mor ely

th,�t thv cnvtllry wor o Int o bac k from

n

told tho Athoninns

night ' a torn ging won ' t

do , bo co.u/3o i t dool3n ' t translato th-:l crook , and in an,. cnso t h"y could no t know ho,', long thll dol:ly would bo . )

(4)

Finnlly ,

r c c ord i n !; .

(58)

to Plutarch t tho t rib o Ant iochis

168. rnd it wns

was in the cuntrc during tho b�tt l e , ('.t tho cnc! t o

guu- c!

h igh

the spoil , oc c �.use of the for hono st y .

o f its cO!l.r.nd�r , Ari stidc s ,

loft

b o hind

rcputr.tion

By a c c epting both

fact o , b u t re j e c t in� the explanat ion , some scholars have con,

c lude � that the tribe had received exceptionally heavy casual t i e s ; however the first statement may be fals e , and the e xplana t i on given for the s e c ond i s perfe ctly cre dible .

6 . 1 .6.

( 59 )

The s ize and dispo s i t ion o f the Persian Army. The only

firm ev idence on the size and disposit ion o f

by 1cngthonin

the Persian army is that the Athenians were able , the ir line ,

t o mat c h that o f the Pers ians , that the distanco

iror.J the Gre e k line t o tho Persian tla s o nly

a

mile , and that

fight ing took pl�co near the Soros , a mile from b o t h Kotroni •

and A gricliki .

Since t he Greeks were e ithor on Agrie liki , •

or Kotroni ,

or in

t ho val loy betwe e n , the Persians would seem

t o have co.e very well forward , and any features on

the!

ve havo

no knowle dge of

plAiD npal-l from the sea and the

\"lhich t/ou1d have l imi t e d the length of tho ir

have

cannot

b e on much narrower than

it is

th01 o ith01'

2 kg l one ( 2 , 300

ab o ut

}.lll11r icc , 1930)

or

filled

yards )

tho

from

ontiro

The plain

notl at this

We must

b ocauso tho Soros is quito nenr the soa .

assume t11at

line .

p le in ,

Kotroni

e nd ,

t he r e fore

with

a lino

t o tho sca , ( with

lo ft ono or hoth f1vnks op e n . ( 60 )

The first o f thu so possibilities is well dealt with by Prit cho t t ( 1 960 , 1 44 ) .

Ho shows

maximum lengt h which c ,�n

btl

o f tILIl

o rdo r of

oc cupie d by

1 600

tho

pl a c o .

that tho .

o nvisc. sod for tho Grook l ino is ( 1 440 m ) , tho contro. l third beines

2000 men four doop end tb., winRs by 4000 on

Cl ith;)r cide , e ight of

yards

convinc ingly

deo p , �nd th::.t

that

tvo arC:l8 in \'/hich tho forming hut i! th'lt

\-Jc.S

al o o

t ho

Uto woll up could

with o ithor

havo to.kon

l e nG th a t tho Pllrsio.n lino ,

t hat seems rr.ther short , l'.:ld The most

thct the Pe r s i an

obvious c o n c l usion wc u l d b e

happen c � t o cover that di stance �t the ir normal

in fantry just

thct they ,"!e re use d to Guarding the ir flanks with

dept h ,

and t h n t

c a v al ry ,

cnywo.y

the y did not ne e d t o fecr

�ttock from th� Greeks .

Greeks scem

c

t o have

o.hmys

It does not seem from t h e course o f the

head-on . any

re q u i r o s Dome expl nno. t ion .

t ro op s \Jer e

he l d in res orv e , o.nd a

l ine �ight be ten men , gi vinS

flank at tacked

thnt

battle

maximllm use f ul dep th o f

a t ot al b e t ween 1 6 , 000 and

20 , 000 . But c o u l d

who

t ho Pers ian force have boen

s t art s b y ins ist ing ,

Hammo nd ,

so small?

right ly , that the b�t tle narrct ive

must be c o n e i de r c d wi thout prior speculat i on on strategy, t h� t tho Pors i r�s bro ugh t

n c v e rt hele68 css�c s

t o decl \l ith

crmy

and

in t he

•

L.ll o f tJhom ,

t r oops ,

ba t t l e .

least 1 5

comb ine d forc es o f Athens r:nd SJmrtn

the

Corint h , so thct it c omprise d at

possibly

m en ,

a suffic ient

least

ex ce p t perhaps 1 000 c aval ry ,

( 61 )

Thct \10ul d

give en

25 , 000

wore ;nvolvcCl

avernge depth

which seems fnr too large for

o ffic iency ,

On the

e spec ially in view of the type o f nroamcnt .

o f nt

othc.r

h�nd , Schache rmcyr ( 1 951 ) has sugge sted thnt tho i nvas i on ves quite

de l ib e ra t e ly do lo.yc d ( c . f .

the S!,artc.n Cnrnein , \·, hen it not

",c s

l c � v c Sparta ,

and thct

in

c.t

Ero t r in ,

en d as

a b e t rayal , I-iore over ,

as

i f t h" c n v n l r y

t .':'. kcn sor;lC in for. try Itcad .

110nQ o r

t :1C n i zc o r 1 0\1 f i Guro

tho

wi th

ny

�

Hdt VI 1 02 )

\01011 case

arrive d

the

H i pp inG

t he m ,

w�th

thc.t they could

Pcr8i�no e xpe c t e d muot hcve !,ro m i ao d.

he. d :-.lrco.dy l o ft , thuy

\lould hc.vo

i f onl y to guard th" bOtlch •

.

thC 3 � orGumClt t s ia by forc o ,

known

t o c o i nc i de

i ts e l f

Gutf i c iont t o fix

b u t any ono of them woul� oxplnin �

c.t on t o.c t i c f' l .

t'. nd

t o p o g r aphical crounda.

170

•

Grundy

( 1 901 ,

th.�.t

1 04n ) \-1011 argues

h�ve buen much Gre�t cr than

Pcrs5.an dead ,

\>1:10

force is unlikely t o

th.::

t hree t i me s

•

the tot�l o f t he

muot have compris(;d clmost

ent ire centre

the

•

•

The armament end

e quipiDent

The ccsunlt ico in the

" 0

S O..1O

troops

extent on

the

in pm'sui t ,

be affected by

.

Pe rs ian centre .

the , •

centro will

h��c

mob ility of the Pers ian nnd

Dnd we

the ir

Greek

of

must cons ider

e quipment .

depende d Scythian

brie fly how th�t vould

long robed figures o f

The

tho Dieulcfoy relie f , so often use d t o illustrate popul�r work; the P e r ::>i c.n

on

t o move tho

at

c ontrast , 1

though they arc propared

�oint ing

Pe r sepol is end

out thnt they , like

Bchistun, repre6cnt

ceremonial dr e s s ,

officers in

(note

is worth

fast , cnd it

�cliefs

:loS

wars , do not look

not •

dre ssed

for b at t le .

material c olle c t e d from Gre e k vases and gems

the

ebovc ) shows something much more practical , and

t ho ugh even then not c omple tely . ( 62 ) ao

In

•

thing much more closely c orrcspondong with

is

gucrds or

SOI!lC-

Her odo t us VI 61

The general picture

follows .

Cl o t hing

.

Both P c rs ic.ns and S cy th ians g::-.rme nto pc.ttcrno.

"/i t h

ere

clad in close fitting

long slcev .:: s and hos.:: , tlecorated with bold

Over

theoCl t h er e

is somct i&1t:G shown

less coat , perhaps of leather , but mor� often either of leather or li ne n ,

plat ua.

II � r o d otuc

and

men t i on s n

me tel ocaloD ( 6 } > b u t

thic

n

�n

open sleeve

light c orsclei

very similcr in pnttern to tho

' c ont ll IJFor�y Gre ck cors ele t ,

10

been confined t o o ffic oro or

somc t iYl.;o s c ove re d

lonG slcllvu d

me t::'

tunic covered wit

n o t 80en on vaoo o , c n v� lr y .

with

and

�vo

Such a c oct would bo

h(lavj' , r.ncl \:ould t ond t o l irni t tl ob i l it y t whvrcao tho il:Ipr Q sa i

thv

v:\::;.;; o io

or oold ioro \'lho �!lo\\ld bo l".blc to

c.t any

r�.�t o for

ch

e i v U l1 by

fact ,

,

rnOTe

or t diot:m c o a :'ond unt il th�y got too

171 . hot .

On

the i r

c r i s t i c coft c omi nr;

JlUp f,� (j C(l

�.rc

.

\lhilu

again

,

Heithor

by

worn

an

)

l'd t h long fl c. ps

Sc ythic.ns \-re�.r the

the

but

gives pro t e ct i o n

he lmut at Olymp i a inscribed :.le do s ,

�:ith a clulract-

mr.-. de o f felt ,

e qually neither restr icts moveoent

fro:n t he

�ho'm

( 1': {� o , luraYrf�

tho:: shoulde:rs ,

cro\:,"D . ( 6 4 )

t he

the P e r s i :- n o

f<:1t h"lmc..-!:

down t o

p o i nte d

heads

CD

g i ft

c.

and thought t o

or

sti f fene d in

C'.g�inot spe ar s , but

( T he b r o nz e

vision.

from the A t he nians ,

was probc.bl�

come · from Ho.rcthon ,

officer , nnd it is in cny caso

vcry l i ght ,

h{'.vi ng

only the t op of t he

he ad )

•

0.

1.frnm ,

and

c. overing

B o th Persians

cnd

Sc ythians woar light boo t s .

th ic kne s s

( 65 )

oi

Shielc1n . says

se ldou c arry

one .

a

S cy thian

buckle r .

c � ry i n g

n

the earl ier vas�s

on

very I!:uch i n the style

u s c f ul

arc is

his

t o rec.ch fr oe shoulder to wc.ist , top

hi e l d for thc S cythinns ,

without any shi e l d

left

broc. d o.s

in as

s

a pp

.

\·,hich i t tIoul d bo c..

kil 0 r; r:'.::' or so ,

"

car i ng t o fold over pe lt o .

' \/Oul d

:-.nt:

'

0 :1

n \lnb � r o f

Men

C'.

g c rr h on '

It

.

no od

in c on j un c t i on

10

a �uch honvior nffa i r .

v�s e o

Cl.O

a.

te.ll oblong ,

or c};oqucro , �rr�ngod in benda ,

rtorc than

On

tho

to '''h ieh Uorodotuo «i vuo t ho

( 67 ) ,

�nd r � t hc r brondo r . ( 68 )

ngc.inst

\-lo igh no

not r o o t r i c t mOVOI
ohio l cl ,

at tho

It looks

o f t�1C Scythians ,

oxu

cry e ffo c t i v e

other he.nd the. Po r s i a n

nOlno

-

0.11 , nnd

r�d long enough

long ,

very c o nv i nc inG , nnd appears elsowhere c.lao , wi th tIl.: Bacnrie , tho b r tt l e

ct

l ine o f

l ooking wicker

the Thro.cio.n

of

{'.

( 66) which s hows

froe Nola now in Berlin

infnntryco.n

It

0.

i t is n o t c re dibl� t hn t

However

ho r �

ut

c.ppc�r

\lho

in fcntry should he.vo b e e n c.m p

ab o

not hing

and the Scyth i{'.n crchers

is nn

.

•

He rodotus

there

tckeI

It

hCl.ri

an d

l1 CI.

o o.r ly

I t a p 'P o a. r o 00

high ao

a.

pCl. ttorn of chovrona

�lt l\ough t:l�BO e ould bo

•

172. mere de c oration , ( 69 ) ,

\'/h i c h has

8.

P a rt :� ian shield found &t Doura Eur opos

s imile.r di me n s i ons ,

sUG[ ! s t s a d i f fe re nt weav ing st i c k s

c : pl ana t i c n

p a t t ern o f che vrons or

0 . 80

m by

m )

This shie ld was made by

.

o f leather 'o1h i 1 0 it was we t .

int o a she et

The s t i cks run v e r ti cally ,

( 1 . 55

and provi de

chequers "/oul d be made b y p i c ki ng o u t

To judge

the ban ds wh e r e t he s t i cks poss under the leathe r .

t he shield can b e made t o s t and up by i t s e l f .

froe the va s e s ,

(70)

p e r h ap s Yl i t h a st r ut at

shields t o form

a

pnlis�dc

Flc:.taea ane'. at } ;y c c.le

.

d e s c r ib e d by

is

(71 )

- b" t"/e en 2 . 5

re strict running .

would ne e d t o c�rry t he m ,

4.5

( 72 )

b oth

at

s hap e would severely

nnd i t s

wo o d ,

i t must have

but

depcnCling on �he thick-

Kg ,

not all t he in f ant ry

other hand ,

On the

H e r o dot u s

Tho shield cen also be picked

anu

ness o f tho leather and the

and t he use of such

t he back ,

up rmd l1S (; U t o fend o f f hig� b I m-/S , b e e n he avy

a

{lnd

s t i f fness ,

and Pcrs innu inf antry are

frequently shown with no sh i e l d nt

quite

all.

\ieapons . Her odo tus

de scr ibe s t he Per sians

3pe ars npp ear o n Pcr sin n gem s

as having short spe ars .

( 73 ) , and occ asionally on vases ;

on the reli e fs at Suaa nnd P e r s e p ol i s

the

hold.

b ut t e d spenrs only sl i ghtl y l on g e r th�� n shield ,

vaGes

the y may no t. hnv.; b ", c: n llnivcrenl ,

.,re

o f t e: n shown \-li thClut .

when

and

150 probnbly

thu Grooko

d � Gc r ib e a t llun A ri ot op h:-. n v c

Th e

for the

Like tho

(74)

mnn. •

;.nd P� raians

In any cnse ,

the stand.lrd a c t i on in th� IJ ursu i t ph=-.so ,

1 I,,; Clllt ,

ronnd-

i t .�ppoas

for

P o r s i an s , wc.'3

on

th:lt

t h... Groc.lt8 at

tl shi n g .

Thus

sl

fin.....lly rout .: d t h o Pcrsi.�ns , Hurodotuc tl C

ap fl olt

' h o wiIIC ' ,

( x6nt ovt & �

!)r ou dly o f hnvillcr

c l oo o -q un l' t o r \o/\l a! lon o f

)

and

th o old

�en

ua od th (l sw or d. (7,5 )

t h� P� rs iana

\� Q

o it ho r

a

kopi8

1 7}.

of

from thnt

pn t tern indist ingUislmble

a

corr i o d by tho Gr ee ks , •

•

shn p e d

' b owie ' knifo , with one edge s harp e ne d

like on

throughout its length, the other only near tho t ip... carried on tho right

Hoximup

l e ng t h ....as

n d coulu e i t her stab or slosh .

n

side

ab out 21" in � � 52 em)

The Scythinns ere

( 76 )

a

th') head h a s

st e e p

a

like

s

•

an d

Persepolis r.:!lic fs f or

is

hen d l e is

humr� arm ,

and

nnd a verticnl.

Exompl�s o f the huad , mode

•

,

lope s in....ards t oward th� hondle

Scythion tombs , (77 )

more common , (73 )

Its

i ce-pi ck.

on ono s i de ,

c urv in� spike

��glc .

do occur in

an

hnlf t i m e s the length of t he

on th� other whose edge

blad�

�t

n

tho cv�ro.ge rhth e r l e ss .

o rt e n shotm on vases with t he

a s ingle hnn de d axe rat he r about one ond

Thi s wos

the a!:innkcs is

b ut

the h�nd w eopo n

S c ythions as

in cast br on z e , much

sholtn on the as He de s nnd Persians.

ell

....

The dur ot i on o f the b ot t l e .

6.1.8.

It w ou l d be a help

in

es t ima t i n g the likely casunlties •

if

....e

��ve

s ome i deo of the duration of

had

m n de in two ways .

been

(1 ) c.rrive

the bat t le , end attempts

t ho Pers ians intended t o

Hammond asserts thnt

off

Phalerum in d:1jlight ,

on

o f t he

tho eveni ng

bottle ,

and t�t th� Atheni �ns must h�v� roache d C7Dosorges by

tho b�ttle fiold :".t 9 o r 1 0

(7 9 ) .

so

l eav i n g

is

no n.::l o d l or t h i s C'.ssumption , ::linea tho lDOon

l'al3t the

��D

full ,

in

August or

Soptcmber ,

a.m.

\thon

6 . 30

But thore

wne

only

just

tho moonlisht

m o v o mon t aasy.

(2)

If t ho

shiold sign�l mcntionod by Horodotus wae

ucccl in tho

mannor of a heliogroph ,

by r.bout 10

:-. • 1:1 . ,

to

h:-.vo tho

D

it ",auld have

un nt n oui t:-.b lU

tho holioGrClph pr1nc iI"1� io d i f ti c ult

to uoo

to

bo

nnel0 .

mndo But

with c o rtClint y ,

p.1

50 as to b o sure

ne e os50ry .

and it io not

dire ct ion , hillside ,

thct the flash hes gon� in the right

one e�n sec

e

enr

Looking down from

roof seve rol miles awoy , re fle c t i n,

the di ffused light from tho sky , �� d 0

from

shie l d would stond out

hillside in shadow in much t he same way •

. On tha othc� h�nd ,

the Persians

at least hlo thirds o f t h e ir force , troops

n

( end 1 8 , 000

with

1 , 000

par e nt ly

ap

had t o embark

1 0 , 000

i . e . at least

)

horses according t o

t oge ther lIith an unknown , but probably large numb ers of noncocb�tant s from

c

narrow beach ,

and thet

would take t ime ;

i t c oul d not be done in a wholly disorganised mann e r .

It

would seem that the Athe n i ans must heve b e e n held up Oft the neck

of the Schoenia for

a

c onside rable t ime ,

if,

indee d ,

.

they did not pause and r e form , as Delbrue ck suggest e d

( 80 )

( 1 887 ) .

•

All that can b e

, there fore ,

reason t o shorten the batt l e ;

i s that we have no

the c oll a p se o f the Persian

wings was b y no meaDS imme d i at e ,

acc ording t o Herodotus , nor

nce d the Persian c entre havo given in qui ckly , t aken

in

the flank.

onco i t vas

The r e s i stance could have been quite

fierce unt il the Persian Cocmander turne d �nd rode for the ships .

Both Dat is and Arte.phel"n.s surviv e d .

cst im::;.te s about ono hour for th� de fe At of thoJ b ased on

nn

ana logy with Pyd ,,-.,

H�m/Jond

gs

\-I i n

ond

ceni

Md this soems quit e probnbl«

•

Ca sualt i o s . Th6 f.osoib i l i t y o f nss o osing tho o f fe c t i vono ss of tho

Greok armour

ot

n gn i n

arrows from such meagro o v i denco

obviously rest o on tho r o l iab i l i ty of t ho casualty figur o s . Jl.coul:lint; thnt

t hey arc c orre c t ,

"'0

can

pr o c o e d

no

follows .

1 15.

Tho deaths w i ll have been distribut ed bo two e n the

1.

throo phaoe s o f the b £'.t t l e ,

socondl y the melee ,

o.rro ...,- storm , w�s

broke n

or to get

2.

firetly tho approach through the

or pushe d

bock ,

in which the Athenian centro

t h i rdly th� struggle at tho ships ,

to t he ships .

H e ro do tus

were heavy ,

soys that the lossos in the third pha se

and include d

mao,.

Athenians of not o ,

of whom one was th e Polemarch ,

Callimachus, cnd cnothor

o n � o f t he gone rnl s �

stosilaus ,

naming threo

It is di fficul t t o put a

totol on t h i s , but the f ighting was clearly b i t t er ,

and it

is vnt ircly c rodible t hat t he loss e s should h ave been heavy , since the crows "QuId do fend t he ships with nave.l pikes as mentioned in tho Pers icn crmy l i s t

( 83 )

in the Ilio d , t he S ch o e n ia ,

(

,82 ) ond os described

Furtheruoro , os the Atheni ans presse d up "

the ir unshielded right s ide s would be expose d .

Thirty deaths might be

abs ol u t e

en

might lie be t ,.,o on

50

i

l:l in m"m ,

ond

a

more l i ke l7

an d 10 , bearing in mind that

sevon ships wore captured.

3.

mele e , wa

In

ordor to e s t imate the nuab e r of deaths

must cons ider the e ffo ct of a brenk in the

in the hoplito

t roops to

line , r�d tho ab ility o f tho Persian ond SC7th oxploit it .

thc.t

It we.s woll known , and indeod obvious , of a hopli to p!u:l.lo.nx dependod on

i ts

mon stnnd ing shoul der t o shouldor , thoir sh i o l ds ,

r�d

r:;.c..... ining

c oy or i ns

t ho satot7

unbrokon ,

each other wi th

tho roar rnnko re in f or c i ng

the front both

with thoir wo ight o.nd with tho ir long spoars . "Armour in armour lockod ,

with

and shiolds in shields.

Spoors loon on spoare , on tarso ts tnrgo t s t hro ns Holms stuck to holms , and man drOYc/ o.1ons"

•

•

176.

Q�dCClVT C !: 6r!rv 6oW, ( , ".,.()! C !; crdx £t 1[PC.a£�dpVI�' · &c d � t!p ' &. -1: {6 · £p n li £ . x&p v� )(tpw t &vipl"l 6 ' r\v�,, '

+a��v 6 ' � n �6)(c �� )( t.p � � !; V£V�Vtll"V

�a� �potn �

�dAo L a L

; . :

....

"

•

,

'

.

I

r •

Once the line was broke n , and a retreat start e d , the si�es It is in fact

and rear o f a warrior were under attack. possible t o swing

a

round shield to the rear , ( though this

is , as far as I lmow not illustrat ed on any �

d� fi r. r i b c d

or monument t

vase

by any anc ient author ) and it then

the

c overs

back just as 't,ell as it previously c overe d the front ( 85 ) , but thore is no protect ion e ven then for the

back o f the legs

and there i s no way of prot e c t ing the right s i de of t he with

shield strappe d t o the left arm.

a

retreat f or

a

De liuDI , ( 86 )

warrior to face his foe s , v.s

b ut

it required creat

flanks were expose d . have

could

have

s tre t ch i n� ,

c�

Go.f�ly

WaG la.i d bnr ll . Gurround�d

th�t

at

have

the Persians

The lino

brench .

c hcrg o ,

through

bringing dotm

a

consequonces of

ospoc ially to t h o

' t ollC'.rda

ovcrin

faw

prov i d o d thnt the c r! nt ro "as thin.

Unleso

All that

tha broach

•

filoo whos() right

flnnk

thoy rotroa.t o d tho y woul d be quickly

thll

Ac e o rd i nB

fo o t .

tho i nt e r i o r '

\'/ ould dopCJ nd on

e mpl o ye d.

Socrates d i d

b r e ak .

mclting the first

an d push�d oft t h o i r

thcy rotrcat od

e::.vu�l t i C 8

in

sey is t hnt thu

\-10uld bo scrious ,

." c ::-.po ns

n

through lucky shots

or

in

courage to do so , once the

pal'led during the init ial

tho front rnn!<s , wo

prevent

do e s not hO\-1cver follow

killed many Athoni�ns

body

Tho Athenian centro would

dono its utmost t o It

It vas best

,

,

end

spoo d of

thu

t o Horodot us ,

number o t

tho pur su i t

end the

•

177. In the fi rst plnco,

. the

P er sian horse been

have

wu

ruled out cr-valry.

eblo to ex� loit

n

Had

breakthrough in the

contro, the bi..ttlc would olmost cortainly hc ve gone tho oth er wcy,

end

c entro

wherever th e cavalry was,

it d i d not rido through the

1'ho Pcrsir..n8 and ScythicUls to whom H o ro dotus refers

.

\lere therefore infantry.

Wo hav e seen

.

above that the Scy th ions corteinly, c�d tho

PersiC'.11s if t hey were not e ncumber ed by shields, \Iere well equipped for pursuit

Hnving dis pose d of their bows d uri nG

.

•

the lest seconds of the ch�ge,

( tho Scythians putting t hom

into tho wooden bowccse ct their waists, ) they should be

ab lo

to run fr.st(;r th.:-.n the Greeks, et (,.11y rct.l if the lc.tter kept

hold of their shields t o evoid disgra.ce.

on .:-.ny

pouncu

who hnd been

They would alao

tfounde d enrl ier in

th e engngeme nt t

Cif they had not yet been removed by thoir se rvant s ) and dc spntc h them; an arrow-shot through th e foot during the first

ch�gc might thus prove fotal

.

It is difficult to sccfewcr

th;:n 40 Athenians k Ulc: d durinc this phoso, sny 10 files of

4 mon

ea c h,

ab ou t

or

2.2%

of two tribes ea.ch 900 men strong.

It is quito cosy to imagine up to 90, which would be �, proportion B imil�� to thr.t of the

Pl �ta oa , whon

losoos by th�

Thobans

n

nt

dofe cted by tho Athoniono.

Finelly, we havo to concidor the poss ible donths nmong

Athuniano olsowhero in tho moleo. very fe w.

Ao long

as tho Greek

Thoall may woll hr.ve boon

c,onrs

held out,

.

tho

barbarians would h�vG boen ��rd put to it to get cloBo onough to inflict much da�ge. i nto tl y i n g to rnrry '

Hoat of thuir oDorgy must hnvo gone

sroer

thrusto �t their

tact(ld honda.

In e Grook phnlnnx, oight ran ks doep, who ro oach �n carrios a 9 ft.

(2.7

m

)

opoa.r,

tbu hO!1ds o f moot of tho

o ponrs

oeD

•

178. pro j ect into the enemy r�nks, �nQ thu

G ff u ct

•

hulrnetcd

c dl"o r sary

is frieht..:ning

�' -{

evun to c

H owever,

(8,).

just

bec::;use of their lenGth, ��nd thu slenderness which is requirod if th<J spec.r is to be wielded \/i th onu hc.n d , tho speors c�m be fcirly en s i ly div�rted, c.nd �160 fnirly ees ily broken as \-Ie

hevc seen

A skilful

.

BHordsman might

before being st c.bbe d, end thu

m�n

brc�k severnl

.

Hero do tus

como eventuolly to grips \·ri th tho front r ank

nnd

do likewise,

behind him might

describes the nttcmpt of tho Pursians to do this at P�tnee. �

•

r'

(8jf

Even c.t

to the Greeks by their holmets wns enormous, but it is hard to

holievc thnt the entiro Athenian line

eme r g e d

un s cnth e d

.

A se cond nnd erirnGer possibility is th�t a fallen enemy might rise

cs

the Grcek lin� pessed over hil1l to del iv(: r Tyrteeus mentions 'iounds in the groin

beneath.

bo caused in this wc.y (34).

Again

t!l�t

bl oW' from

"fhic h

could

the occurrenc(; "fould be Of the roughly 900

uncommon, but it would nlways bo fatal. files ,,:hich constituted th�

c.

"/ingG of the army we might gucss

bettwc:n one in fifty :-.nd one in tuenty might lose a mp.Jl,

giving n total 1050 betwocn 18 �nd 45 Adding

.

these very G;.:eculr.tivo figures toguthcr we obtdn

a tot:-.l for t ho Be killed by ot�lcr "rcapons thr�n arrot:G lying botwoon }O tho 192 �;ould

i(205

40

+

tlo nti ono '

SOOlil

-

+

88 )

18

=

88 end 70

+

by Heroeotuo, thv

to Ii.: bl.it\lc"n zero �.nd =

41 .

BoforlJ

\fll

90

+

45

numb \: r

94.

\li th

=

205, GO th ....t of

l::ill..:d by :-.rrowo ro.

rJ.?:'.n

of 192

-

c�.n t'.aerib.;. :.ny of thos" to thoJ

puri'orr-.t ion o f armour , h ow ever,

''Iu must

1'irot eonsidor tho

opp ort un it i us prcoo)nt ... d to ::'on arro"l by tho ec p:lrtf> of thl.l body

tlhieh \/.;:r;,; unnrmourod. Th", un."'.rr.lour(.:d

r".rc::l.o

C\r� in prineiplll thu

0yOH,

thll n\lclc,

179. :".n<1 th l: thi�hs.

In prnctico, not �ll of thoso vould bo

c x pos" d r.t onc\.!, but th') e�liuld is of ouch :l siz\J thnt

ordin:1.rily cith ... r th.:.: e:yos or p.:1rts of the thigh will bo �dit docc not u�ttcr vory much for

our purposes running

down the

end the

�C:l

cychol�G in

be:ccuso in thu thigh only tho bl oodvussols

which,

inside of

tho leg ccnotitut<.: a vitel tcrgct

the:y pre60nt io not much bigg�r thnn th�t of tho

n

hoplite helme:t.

We m�l therefore guess

Dn �cn

2 2 of about 25 c� (4 in ) in cither c�sc, as constituting the fat::1l t�rgct fo r space ebout it is

c

single file.

a

T�c ontiro file occupies

90 crn (on� yard) �ide, �nd bC:lrinJ in cind thnt

movinG for�nrd, �o th:.t some arrows �y �,ss ovorhecd, short ,

nnd s ome fall

wo

or.y suppose that the vortic=.l sC:lttcr

of the: arrows is �bout 3 c, for eist�t ahote, 60 th�t the errows att:lcking a p�rticular filo C:lY fnll at rendoM within iii

an :lrcC'. of 2.7

2

.

At rengcR below

be considered as aiaed,

tI,

70

nnd falling within

ell tho; shots Ct'.y

a rad ius of 60

CD,

•

(This liould be considered fcirly poor shooting).

Assuoing t�t arrous f�ll ct r�ndom within thoae

:lrocs, thu chnnce thnt one: will etrikc be cbout

1/1080 for diDt�nt shots, ��d

�

fatc l croa viII thon .

1/452

for cloao shota,

resulting in about 0. 93 deaths por thousnnd errows ct a distc�ce, and

2.21

doctho pur thou��nd at closo rengo.

We hevo of courso no r.lo:ms of knowing tho;: nUQbor ot arrows ahot, espocially bcc�usc wo do not knov ho w th� troops on tho) winge w�ru arrJud, but r.t i t o lowc ot , suppos ing th:1t only tho Poroians and tho Scythiano in thu c�ntro had bovs, th.:..y rJ�y

h.-wo \J�:tond"d

l or

r.bout 200 tilol!l

oach.

Thon

uUJlpcoing thr.t throo l.l0n in oac h 1'110 among tho SC)'th1 :u18 c ould choat r.t

::.

tico (with on.> 1."1�.n knooling) :\ncl oDl), tvo in

180. eo.ch file

rJ,]o ng

in nll.

Fin:-.llj,

t;0 stop:,.t ,

5

the Porsi:-.ns,

co tr c s

).

o.s

fcst

tlinutc, On the:

5,

Thv -1

c.dvanc.; of tho

Greeks

c�row every have b o e D

might

.7 mph) gi ving the �.rchers only hclf

7 orrowa, 2 of

in which each would shoot

theD

•

0.

aiced.

pr ov iouf: e.r[;uu-.:nt, 5,000 l ong ra nge arrows should kill -

nrrO�J6

ciLled

E ho ul

d kill 4, ClC'.king 11 deaths in

If on tho othor h:-.nd there \1erC ot

800

15<> Cletres, nne

theo stc.rt t o shoot nt

(

0

Cl

nnc4 2,000

all. in

;;

cs

b e 1,000 shooting

shoo t i n g �t the r�to of �nc

,

o

secondo

le:t

thu r o \:ould

c.nd

filcs,

the titlO for which they shot

a-1 ,

and

r.

WOos

b out 5<>

r educing

the

would bo 11 o.rrows

l.. r

(adding 20 rJetr�5 to oach end,

seconds,

l e o.a t 2, 000 archcrf

•

speed to

c

2.5

o.rchcr of uhich

6

mph,) thure

2.5 \/ould be cir:!ed,

th...t c stinc tc for th� erc�crG u� is corte.in1y no

ond thirty kills.

well bo

too low,

need to CG5U!l(: �y perforati on of

Even

�d there arco ur

D.';

0.11.

l et

Putting the orguucnt the: othe r woy round,

thnt the ortlonr bccotlo pcrfornblc.:, G�y eatin�tc, the

nreo.

prcs c llt c d by

just thro\l tioos the o.rce. r o pre se nting th� ostir.).-.t:;:

)

the cost conservctivo.)

pc rfornbl c

for

th�

chooks

at

100

Lot

a

us

\18

(Kro�.ycr's supposo tho.t

filo h:'.d � orcc of

of tho oyeholos in

end forehoo.d.

75

•

CQ

•

single holnot.

Thon OD thu

lowost

nut:bl.:r of c�ro", ahots, wo find G extr:1

•

doo.th3 fron unc.ic�d

G hot n,

oclting an ovorall tetel

and 13 oxtrc froa nill\ld ODOG,

of 19

+

11

=

30 dvnths,

o.nd on

high�r erro", f'igurvs 12 extra troel uncirJod shots c.ir:ocl onos, bolo .... th(.

clono ,

c.

giving

totnl

cf 45

+

30

=

75.

And .3.3 froa

Tb..'\t is still

u·'l�iQW.1 p030ibl", but it 10 :.lroa.dy 1Jncoctort::a.b17

and it

purfor:'.tion.

ur.k

...

o

no nllowancCJ tor thu pOGslbilit7 ot ah10:

It will bw

ol,;�n bolu,., thr.t ahi�ld pllrfora.tio: •

1 81 .

::-.nd so

is Llorc probable than arcour p e rfor�ti on,

could on17

it

be cr..int�in€:d thc..t denth through the pcrforc..tion of crootJr by :'.I'rows

\o,:::'s

a

serious dnnger a.t Mar::-.thon i f

shot

both thnt the total nucbor o f �rrows

is nss uc e d

it

wne 10l",

end thnt

in the other phnscs of the br..ttlc wero faw .

de:::.ths

The

second of these propositions runs countar to Herodotus.

•

On H�ccond's estima.te of 150

D

we should

shots,

between 5,000 and 10,000 further unaioed (50

+

30)

80 nnd (100

=

+

75)

=

add

giving betweon

175 deaths.

TherLiopyl:::.e.

6.2

In considering the en r lio r ph a.s e s o f Tberoopylo.e , I :::.c

oust confess thnt I

c.

at

disndvnnt;,·.gt;! in n ot

•

huving

viden c e .

the ground, Ccnd puzzled b y the published

e

clear

Greeks were

frot1 Herodotus' n:::'T:-:::.t ivc that the

ch.:rgo tha Pcrsicns

epe � t o dl y on

r

being shot to pieces,

·.

:".Ilt,

nlrc::dy of R�rathon.

(93),

the

lk 'U'

ve ry

But on the b n s i s

::b

le

to

row f ro nt, wit hout

out whnt Ime

th{'.t borIS

It is

b ee n

s:lid

of Grundy's descriptioD

'Gk�tchoG by Eduo.rd Lenr which he in cl ude s (94)

hi s Olm s ko t ch e s oi

r.

v is ite d

nnd photographs (95), it appe:'.rs

and

in tho

thd

ddlo ��GG wh e re th� f ighting teak p ln co , nod in the widor

�cn boy ond do not

ccce

into which tho Gro e k s down sheer to their

fin::lly ndv�.ncod, tho cliffs

bt'.so, but I:ro linod

::t •

tho

•

bottom by

I'".

sloping rock f::ll, ,,,hich ro:".cl\os up to tho 300 ft

contour lino

( fig 6.2) .

Tho

nnrrow l�so , nod tho widor 8p�co

beyond Iny b�twe�n tho edge of this f:::.ll nnd

hao now roccd\)d) (96) . runo to

UI)

r.\r.!tl,;

to tho 300 0110 I fJ

foot

Tho

'phocinn' wall

contour.

tlO

tho soo. (w hi ch

rko d

by

Grundy (97)

Grnntod thnt it is difficult

w�y ov"r ouch brolton gl oun d t through the '

and low sc rub which enc uob 0 r th c hillsi d"G in

woul d

thnt it

G:-ceco, :-.nd

hn70 beell inpccoibl<: for trooPG to £love

c oherontly over it, surely p os s ible �

i ne i vidu..... l tlOV(':r.1Cnt

neve:rthcloGIJ

is

otherwise \lhy ( nnd nowl::did the Groeks

rebuild the wn ll ? the Groeks woul d

f ind

r oc �� ,

�rchcro could get ont o t he

If

(98).

it h"rd to get th ea

off,

.....nd

they

should h�ve boen �blo to enfilnde th e h o pli t o s in tho pass bolow,

pnr t i cularly in the: fincl phnso whe n t hey energed

However Herodotus snys nothing �t all �bout

t he n::'.rrows . thio,

froe

I c:-.n only

nor do I know of �ny rJodorn d i s c uss ion .

sugg-':Gt th.:'.t oince the Greoks had th.:l broken ground on their left,

shieldG.

they would hc"'.vo h... d SOL10 prot ect ion fron thoir

Although t h:-.t

�/ould

kept cnslltlltios

C'.

not bu

to an

conpleto

it eight lmvo

answer,

acce p tab le level,

provided

th ...t tho

know how rony Greeks

r.rcLers �:orc not too mnny.

lIe do not

foIl

Herodotns' acc ount of tho

dnring tho attacks, C".nd

f ight ing

i s lieit ed

to tho official Spartan

c l o arl y visited

though he •

-

In the last phese,

wall'to t he.

Perai�

tho site himself. (99).

Ho r odo t

docs cention orrows:

-

by

Ml'.rinl'.toa (1 01) ,

arrowho�ds have boon found. ooon (102)

thoso

arrowheada of

l'.

nro

The

Grooks with missiles (100) ) .

eXCCV:l ted

vers ion ,

when the Gre eks retreated behind the

hill Colonus,

overwholaed t h e

propagnn�

and

Tho hill has been

a largo nm;;bcr of bronze

Howover, as

nonrly r.11

wo

:lnve alrondy

of n !losh-cutt ing-t,.po .

llaniot ic or Jtacodoni('.n

type.

Iron

wo ro found

n oarby , DO tho soil is not too ac id to hr.VC pro so rvod iron It would thoro foro SOOr.l th:\t at staso thy P¢roir.no woro ru1yinB

of thClir s ho ts ,

COl.linS

in

this-

on tho nurJbor end diroction

r..t :\11 nllgloo, t o

tinel

thoir wuy

-

pa st shields nnel armour.

Which is very much \/hat

He rod ot us

implies.

6.3.

Pla taea. At Plata ea

tho arrows

of

the Persian c a va lry c lear l y

pl ey ed a n import nn t part in se perati ng the Greeks from their •

water supplies (103), account

and

Herodotus g ives an arrows

of the failure of Greek a

pe net rate

coat c ov e re d with iron

episod c s

is

and javelins to

sc a l es

cavalry General Hnsistius, (1�f), but

int e r e stin g

worn by

ne it her

dir ect ly ro lo vant t o t h is enq uiry

the Pers ian

o f these .

Our clerrest

vietl of the ef fect of crro':ls cn the Grook panoply is given by

Herodotus' narrative

of

the final

phase of th e bat tle

( And here he docs sooo to he.vo cOII",Sr'l1d \lith an

(105 ) .

his O\in topogra p hy

o ye witnes s account). -

The G re e l�8 hed at tel!lpte d a night retreat during which se vernl c on tinge nt s wen t ast ray , ond the Lacodacmoninns and

Tegeans

fonnd themsolves at

of Mt. Cithaoron,

nep�

Kriokouki�

•

dawn i solat e d on one of the spurs

the site of tho modern village of Herodotus

soys thnt th e y 'halted

around tho river I-Ioloois, in the pieco of land callod Argiopion

( or the trgiopian land' ) . (106).

prob�bly Grundy's stream A 6. (107) MOano

n othi ng,

and

tho

shrin o

of

The Holoois is

The word Argiopion nov

Do mot or

hns vanished, but

thy ston o s m:'.y havo beon usod in buildin� Kriokouki, for tvo •

insc rip ti o ns

the

fron a t�cplo of Do me te r woro found

n inetee nth

cent"",._

(108)

thore

in

Tho expr e s sion '.£pt .oTa�aV

'around the rivor' "hero wo might havo oxpo ctCl d '.P�(' 01' 'mf'(l

• ,

'bosidu th� rivor', is sOQowhat unusual; it ruish t perhaps correspond bottor

tributnrios of

w i th a pos i tion across oomo ot th o upper

thu Holoois on r i dgo

1, as suggustod by

I

184. Pr itchett

(.109)

tho.n

"'it h we

resting on t he most

stc r� y

2

with the right fl ank

of the streams,

as

suggested by

(110).

Burn.

Herodotus makes it p os ition chosen for was prevent ed

P c u sanias ,

a

arrival of t he

(111).

Persian horse.

Greeks, and

were e xp osed t o t he Pe rsian army.

full

fOl'CC.'

the Lacedaemonions and Tegeans of l-:ardonius'

( 1 12).

is no further

An argumentuxl\

interrupted by an attack

ilentio

of the

half

up,

in consid-

•

may pause at t his

t here

the Athenians to his

infantry soon c:>me

l-inrdonius'

crable disorder. We

S1U,liu on

horseman to

At henian m arch was

medising

t he

arrive

but that further movement

the withdrawal,

b y the

sent

but the

side,

clear that this was not the final

soon as they were attacked, the Spartan comma nder,

As

from

o ne on ridge

point to not� that once the infantry

m ent ion

is always

of the Pers ia n cavulry. dangerous,

but in this

case it docs seem reasonable to draw t wo conclusions.

(1)

The cavalry could not

get round to ta..1(o the Greeks

in

the rear.

PausaniaG must hAve found a position on the ridge where his flonks were protected by streams - Fobably Grun dy's bnnks further back must hnve been gltarded, Helots,

&6-

perhaps by armed

whom Herodotus rcpcntedly �entions but nover de scri bo s

in acti on

( 1 13).

proba bl y

limitod, po rhn ps to about

(2)

This implies th�t tho enemy front was also

1.3

km

•

•

Tho Porsian cavalry must havo beon tho ught les8

offoctiv o ag ain st hoplitee th�� thoir infantry.

botwoon cavalry end hoplitys In Hdt

IX

18,

�ro

doecribud

Actions

oarlior

in tho

a mock atUlclc is Mda by the Porsicn

cnvc lr y on tho Phoci�n contingent within thci� own Qrmy. Tho cnvn l ry

Urat

throat�n v�rbally to kill thom ....ith javelins.

(J� XIJ'faXOVTL£L O'qt:aS ) are

unmov e d

and then

In Hdt IX

.

draw the i r bows.

20 - 22 a

Tho PhociDns

d ivisi on of cavnlry

nnd o r

Masis t ius at tac ks th e Jiegnr ian s, who nre hard prossed until reinforcad by an Athenian contingent 't/hich includes archers.

An archer shoots Mns ist iu6 horse under him; he falls

heav ily

ond the Athenians run forward to kill him and take posse ssion of t he body

They

.

s ucc e ed in

doing

this in s pi te of heavy

counter-attacks, end in spite of be ing out of the line.

It

would seem that against hoplit c s the cavalry could only u s e missiles, nnd their arrows were l'rcbably lighter than those of the infantry,

as we have seen.

probably only be dangerous b oth shiold and

In

that case they would

if they struck obliquely, avoiding

armour.

So the cavalry �ithCrew, ond the infantry se t tle d to the at tac k .

They

(�pa�aV'tE� 'fa ylppa arrows ( 1 14)

sc t up their shields to form a fence

)

and laid

down a b arrag e of

They would naturally hope to prolong the

bar rage until their arrows ron out, Dnd they could keep it up for a ve ry considerable timo.

If each archer c31ried

a

minimnm of 30 arrows, ( 128) anel they were drawn up ten deep in such a way that two mon in each rank. could shoot at onco, a bar rago could last for �bout 30 minutes, shooting

an

ave rago of 20 arrows per minuto per file, allowi ng for the chnn go over.

PaUBonias did not cbor30 str ai ght away, as Miltiades hael don o at Kcrathon, o ct o nsibly bocauso tho omons woro not fav ourablo.

It has boon s uggo s to d t�t tho dolay

duo to a dosiro to allow tho onemy to crowd in

roall;r

bohind their

f ront ranks ( 1 15), and it is q uito likoly that that would have b oo n tho effect; altornntivoly it mr.y bo that Pausaniaa

-

•

the Athenj:ms

did not know thnt

hnlted.

had bee n

Whatever

•

ve

the renson, his troops shields

\-fo

unde d.

who may

have

cnn

y

indeed the hnndsor.Jest

was shot in tho side ( pe r haps in

",

"

.

'•

.

Greek,

.

:. •

priests

of four

in tho army, who

tho ll1ng) 'as he sat in his the rear

was carried to

bitterly d isappo inted .

the bnttle',

•

cas ualty was Cnl licrates, the hnndsor.Jest

Laccdaoconion,

He

slain ,

texts ond t rans lat io ns ns 'young

One

(118).

werc

ass is t with the sacrifice,

men') (117).

place'

us, mnny

rest or es the status

been standing up to

wrongly described in

.

•

(Burn perceptively

their

kept crouched down behind

(116) while, ns Herodotuo tell s

and for liIore •

re

) cay imply

.

and died

ou tsi d e

The phrase 'outside tho thnt his death was not

included in the official totnl of 92 Spcrtiotc dead (out

5,000) which is given as t��t of 'all

tho

or 'in

attack'

(ot

thos e in tho cngagoQcnt'

.dVTt� l� Tn �BoAn •

•

) (119 ).

We

therefore cnnnot use

th�t totc.l, nor thnt

(16 out of 1,500) in

the Mme way all the MnrathoD figure.

Finally,

to join

away their

PrOVidentially, the OQens

As the Greeks ap proac hed

bow s,

TegonDs

and 1�'.1sl:lnias launchod tho LnceMeaoniaDs

chnng e d ,

nnd

excopt to note th�t

bitt�r a nd

(120 ).

•

thco.

for the

PnuMnias was still praying, the Tegcans

while

stood up and charged immediately

of

wo

,

the

•

Persians

put.

noed follow tho battle no further,

tho hand-to-hand fighting that ensuod

p ro longe d ,

and

would

linS

oasily account for all tho •

fatal caDualtioa. All that this bnrrago of

nr

narrative givos us is that a prolongod

rows cnucv d

troops \-/ho woro crouchod

cns\\r.ltioo

c.

nuobor of

tios to armourod

bohind their rshiolds, th:-.t tho •

woru aufficient to brenk tho disciplino

at tho

•

Tegenn trooPG but not of

not Gufficient to p rev o nt

we r e

r egi oe nts .

At a

very

thousand,

(rGckoning the files implied by of

is

the b:Jrr�go

like 5

�

So very roughly

one

gnin

'

n

m

ore

n

50 wounded and 5 deaths

i one d

oc: nt

� b ove .

100 t o 200

c.rrow in 350

cause d

ollY

The duration

.

a.rrows

n de a th ;

per

caused 0.

h�ve

the

f il e .

wonnd,

e st imnte

gr.y

factor of up to three, e ither way, but not Duc h

w�at we Iilay b e able to work out

.

25 files

Iilntter of guess,.,ork, but it s ounds

i tlply i n g

and one in 3,500 lJ�y h�v e

b e out by

ty

death in every

1

�nd

totals

to 10 l1inutca,

thu sort of

eight d eep ) , nbout hnlf th e rate

nt

Herodotus'

suc cessfu l chcrgo by both

could bo

wound e d

10

or

�

bro�d gue ss ,

rnte thnt oight be i oplie d per

L�cedneQonions, rnd thr.t thoy

tho

froe this is whethor

shi e l ds , or w o nt round.

thesc r.Trows cnce through the

A n�n crouching behind an 80 cc disc io v ery well

covered.

He

t hough this

can in fnct hide his hend a.s woll as his body,

Hi s bodJ projects

is not shown on vases (121).

backwards fo r about 60 co, and evon though it is not porfoctly c ent ro d , it will l io inside

an

equiletoral triangle whoso

base is the d i::U:lo t o r o f th e shield.

Covor is

by

tho bowing of tho shield, which is about 10 CQ deep. if tho crrows nrc t o cooc i n sidoways thoy Qust be shot at

an anglo of

CON

thoD

30

o

t o the noro�l Qxis of the shiold.

If t ho y nro t o hit a v ital aroa, thoy must COQO in at of ooro t ha n

450•

It

SOOLIS

a rche rs as described by

diagondly,

Incc ll p t

v ory

lfo rodot u 8

unlike ly

would

that

aD

anglo

lino of

hnve boon shooting

on thu wi ngs , and ospocially in tho

diso rd e rly conditiono of thio battle.

Troops oro normally

c o nce rned to deal with tho oppono nt s r·loat likoly to attQck theD,

whi ch nrc

thoDo itloodintely

ouch ncuto angloo

uould

do c rOQse

to th" front, tho

affectivo

vory

1 88. co n s ide rably Can

.

the

arrow s

than hcvo coco ovor tho top of the

It is �OGt unlikely th�t some were dcliborcte1y

shields?

Bonlac, be ca u s u bei ng hollow thoy

shot high , like thoso at

a lread y

were much lighter than Qedi�eva1 arrows; we h�vc considered the expect

drag 106ses that this entailed.

One would

the Persian infantry, faced with cn eneoy without long

range weapons, to close to nbout 60 Til and shoot straight , in which case the arrows might have taken just over one second to

reac h th� target, and have been falling with a

-1

velo c ity of about 1 0 � s

50

�

-1

s

anglo rc..ngc,

, so at

C':ll

e nd

a

forw�rd velocity of �bout

. -1 anglo of S1n

0.2,

about

12

was tluch ste e p e r, then t hat would ir,lp1y ru'rows

an d since all tho

cust t hen be

o

0.

greater

coci nc nt th:lt

the shield could be raised to coet the a

�ng1e,

If the

•

We thcre-

.

fore discount thin possibility also. But equally,

A

through.

all of

n ot

h opli t c offore; on

crouching

CODe

t h e arrows cr� have

unorcourod

targe t ,

•

includin g

nr �s ,

tiDY

perhnpe 1

t highs , and n eck , bo vital.

2

of cbout 0.15 m

t

of

which

Tho sto.tionnry targot beiDg 'YO'r7

ouch oa si er to hit, wo nay distribute the arrows this t� over 1

2

D

per filo.

Thoro should then bo about 150 wonnde

and 15 deaths par thousand arrows,

or ono wound for

sovon arrows ond ono doath for ove ry so venty .

fifty tblOS

�hc

This io

numb�r ostiTJatoa froe Hur odot us '

Md suggosts thnt about shields with onouch

2% of tho

o norgr

o.rr ow o

narrat ivo ,

'-lent through tho On c.vuro.go

10ft to do dOL�go.

oa c h can i n tho front r�� miCht have had on o

arrow eODovhoro

through his shiold at tho ond ot tho firet fivo and that 100119 to b� of tho right

ev0r'7

ordor of

minutoD,

magnitudo in

tho

light of H�rodotu:::'

n�!'r�tivo.

throuGh the hoplito ehiele io

(122);

�'hct �rrcwa could c ona

v:'..se p£'.intings

indicct<:d by

thnt they didn't very often i3

implied by

thu whol e

tenor 0; the Grede accounts o f the wnr. Applying theso figureD to I'fnr�thon,

•

we might expect

about one tenth of the casualty rnte 8lw6sed for Plnt a c o ,

and tho greater r ang o o f Oruly o f

becnusc of the f>hort';}r tiee

T h i s given

the shots.

on

c st inn t o of

45 vound<:d �nd 4 kille(!

throuGh the shield.

Conclusion. All of theso fig U!'� 6 arc spoculat ive, used in th" reconstruction writer's experience of Grcelm an it

s u b jective

nology for

0.

nt least as

NeverthelcsG there is

'feel' for

subjective

Bofo,

0

place in history for

events, just os t hore is i n tcch-

'foel'

for gn.teri��s,

'foola'

C ominG �go.inst the PerGion arrows,

•

to tho

fo ro of warfc.r� quitv unknowll to the

n

Buboit t .: d thr.t this account

reosunably

m uch

docs to study o f tho literary :'..nd grophic

records (123). the

OW\1(;

and the i�ngino t i(

r�d

it is

right on both counts.

Greok

the

but not to tal l y so •

h opl it o s

folt

Thoy wore roasoD�b17

a�fo becr<.uGc thvi r ortlour ke p t tho t'.rrows out, but t hey ho.4 •

bare foot, thighs, nocks and ey08, o.nd o�c or two crrovs •

l!nuld

ennc.

t hr ou v.h thCt ahiold.

C h t'. pt o r 7.

Conclusions.

This chapt� r first drcws together the •

p re vious chapters , in order to CnS\ler

resu

lt s of the

th� centrel question,

and to indiccte the points left unanswered.

It th en

disc usse s

the m�thod6 which hnvo b (� cn employed, nne'! what lessons can b e ••

lenrncd for future enquiries o f the seme sort

.

Fin ally i t

considers how the t e chno lo gica1 insights gnined affect our view of the P�rsien Were 7.1.

Armour perforation. Heny o f the conclusions in the for e goin g

pngcs ere

tentative or e�proximct c , end we now have to c o ns tr uc t a 'technologicnl m ap ' o f whnt resembles a boggy area ( th e Mar�tb Illt'.rsh?) , with

c

few scattered patches of firm ground .

\Ie

must first sec \/hetl.ur the m:�p is internally cons ist e nt

-

whether it cen be tri�ngulated, cs it were, - be fore t rying to read it. Our first premise was that the Grec:k

crm ollrors

knew the

trade; that assumption seems to be borne out bot h b y the ir

compe t ence. in be c-t ing shells of uniform thickness into compl( shcpes, and by their solec tion of n consistently high tin •

content in the

•

It aay also be supported by th�

•

in su rviving holmets.

cmount of serious battlo

The

sllc ond prem iso was thct the t'.rmonr was designed to ro sist c

h end weapon with en energy of cbout 30

sharp poi n t - e.g. a spear.

+

-

15 Joules , and

n

How fer nro thoso tw� nssumpt�

compatible with the archcooloCiccl evidonco on tho thickneSI of tho holmots cnd our rosults on perfora t ion energy? •

•

.

.. •

This quustion woo nvcidod or.rlior, bo�auso ot nncurtc

about the lining of tho arcour.

If the bronzo was not

otrong onough, tho nrmourur could alwcys r Q info rc � it with hido, loathor, cr or.nvno.

vo ry we •

For thin nrmour that is

• •

•

190. worth doing, becnuso orgc.nic th�n bronze but up to

a

&lc-.tflrinlR

oro

ccrt�in thickness thc y

protection for their weight.

a

(In s uc h

n

p r o vide b e t te r

c ocp osite

mo ur

ar

to raiso the initi�l

the function of tht: l!1et�l \/ould meroly be force to

nut nn�y cbOClpor

level which would breck the grip of the han d on However, from tha e mpir icnl

stnbbing weapon).

chapters 4 nnd 5 we should

cxpect there to

tests in

be a t hi ckness at

which bronze .is j ust as good

as

thickness the nrmourer would

get bettor protection per unit

weight by thickening the bronze

leather, and th�t

tlith

thickness,

by ad ding a lining,

than

because the resistnnce of the bronze

ab ove t�t

increases exponentially

whereas the increase due

t o leather would be

•

lineor

•

. . -

-

..

The cross-over point is easily

figures for

perforstion

calculated

If the work of perforntion

energy.

in bronze increases with the thickness h as the \lork done by the enoe of bronze and leather,

from the

p roj ect ile

a

h , nnd if

we kno,

in perforl'..t ing samples p re d icted

the crossover c� be

at

a

thickness

1 a

Pe rf orat io n t tion per un

•

where h 1

-

5

'

ronze

•

is t he t hicknoss of t h e bronze snmple.

de nsit y of leather as 1.1, nnd that of bronze as

4.9 ��d 4.11) as 33 J tor lonthor,

nnd a

=

fer

o no rgieo

average pe rf or at i o n

2, we

h 2

12.8

mm

=

1.17

th ickness found in

thoir job , nnd woro

,

(from tables 5

bo somewhat lowor,

So if thu

trying t.o pro duc o

8.9, the

28 J for

In any caoO i t is

most holmots.

Taking the •

:lor a bronzo wit

mm .

a higher t in c ontent the crossover would

t".nd p er hap s nbout 1 mm.

head

bronze c�d

1.0

find

n

•

•

lowor thnn tho armourera know

mnximum protoction

•

191. per unit weig ht, rogf:'.rdlcfls of cost, wo should not expoct them to h n v e used tho lining of the helmot to mnko

c

so rio us

to tho protection; they �/ould ht'.vo used soft

contribution

m�tcri�ls for comfort �nd lightness,

re ly ing on tho sholl to

do

its o ..rn \fork.

the 1

A h el me t or breastplate c o ns tructo d out o f ..:ould

{'.nnenled bronze used in these tests

thc.t st{'.nd�rd.

Th� w

2 .1 7

-

of th�

where d is the di�meter we nllow for

perfo r ati on

work of

momentum effcctG

(5

+

-

d)

not in fa ct roach

foun d

vas

to bo cbout

J oules, If

pro j e cti le in millicetros.

�b6orbing nbout 3 J o ules

,

n

sper.r �/i th l'.n initial enerGY of 30 J \(ould pr o c uc e n pcrforotion of dinmeter .. � -_ ;...-

=

(5 x 2.17) .1

7. 4

em,

and that would allow a ho�d with a half engle at the tip of

0 15

to pcnotrntv fer

distance of about 15

a

hnrdly be acc ep table in

r.

mm ,

w h ic h would

c loso fitting helmet.

On tho other hand the bronze used for the

tests had

�

tin content of only :.:bout 5%, and it \.,as fully annealed. Allowing for

a

3OC� in cre as e in strength proporties duo

to high�r tin content r.nd liaited cnnoaling

( i.e. a Brinoll

hardness of 100 as found in the holmots, instead of

65, as

found in tho specimons),

and that the work incro oces with the

8qu;�ro of tho thicknosB,

wo

sh ou l d

prodict thu work of

pcrfor�tion W as follows: mm

0.75 1.0

mc

plato,

plato

1.25

mm plc.to

1.5

lOrn

plato

=

11

+

1.6d

J

=

17

+

2 8d

J

d)

=

24

+

4.2d

J

d)

.. 31

+

5.6d

J

+

1.6(5

+

d)

3

+

2.8(5

+

d)

=

3

+

4.2(5

+

=

3

+

5.6(5

+

w

=

w

=

W

.

•

"l. Tor

vher., d hi thG �i.om\ltt.·r o f tho holo.

work

Sivos

0.7'

1.5

mm

IIIID

follov8'

as •

plat e , 16 J, 1

p1�to, 28 J, 1.25

mm

mm

It thB lr.tor ho lmo ts hr.d

•

J.

an

holo thi.

•

•

plate t "

�

11

•

hcrdoning, tho figures .ilht

b. up to

�

41 J,

p1nto, r.

sreAter wor�

bigber •

Thoee 8stimP.tes �. of the right order •

.

fho

would eppe:u:o to be cutthg mor be correct, in viow of •

tho tendoncr to 1el1v6 large

Arooe

•

d altogether.

of tho bod)-

•

well

.

Ther aleo fit quito

witb tho holoe .�do b1 the butt .piku, A.suming A downwar4 thrust with

•

to an •

�n

energr ot about

r.ttocke on

be somowhAt obliquo t somewhat "roa,

a relat.

•

11 cUrTed hul�ot or breaatplat6

curved

thicker thon

a

•

equation

(4.4)

projectile .trikes

�

at

t".

aiJbt

tlr.t pll1te of the 8r�e weight per as

•

tho de K�ro

8upposins .. in tis

shove.

aoet

"�1 bet rognr4e4 Aa eft.ctiv4i

but this must not bo exaggeratod, •

ne..

Since our

impr.ct Dormol to th.., surfnce ot the sbell , vherena

of th\l octur� .

60 J.

,

7.1. thr�

G

8phortccl. .heU, ot rl1 diue I QDd thick-.

,

to tho norael ot 9, GIld thl1t it ,..•••

an

through the shell without

diroction.

'he

of tho pleto in the direction of the path of tho pro�OGtll.

will thon be ,

.;..

-

·r -

-

-

-'

•

Figure 7. 1 R

,

•

t

193. ,

•

,

•

•

h'

=

•

wW eb

h/c os Q , nnd tho rllilius wi t h ir:

h'

will b e r

thiclmcss o f c.n gle in

and

•

•

"

..

�.

For :, n in cr o c. s c

R s i n 9.

e . g . froo h

2m;,

be llpproximat e ly 'Q

=

II

[� ,

t h i c kness o f 1 .25

� 2 cm ,

1 . 25

$''/

=

qilnoi-sph"rical eb:: ll ·dith

�I II

DC

c f f e c t iv e

in the

to h'

ane: s i n 9

mm ,

=

1 .5

=

0 . 55 .

t he Hence

ra d iu s c f c urv�ture o f 75 r:l1l

t h e t nr c c t �rcn with an e f fe c t ive <:l

rodiu5 of 41

thickne s s h '

1 . 5 till will have

area of 54

llbout one t�ird cf the t ot al .

•

•

·

n

Du s t

=

c1ire c t i c,n l e s s thD.n

a:-.;:c

e ff v c t ive t h ickne Es 1i1e<:lsurcd in tl:"

on

Lit\) sholl hne

r;!IJ ,

nnd an

S o the

•

'.

.

� .. ·"

..

m o ot

curvat,1rc of

,.

""

hel oo t s , ;-.nd of ;:.11 b renst plr-.t :"s ,

However it is clenr jn :-.ny Cllse th�t

a r r o ws

of up t o 35 Jo ul e s would not p r e s e n t

a

of ... thickness o f 1

(The Cr owe

OlY[Ipin ,

o r grent er.

!

leaves

nn

of

crc our

Garious thrcct t o

c orsele t at om ,

square holes of side about 5

\'/hi c h Goes have

energy

,

npparently Clade by ;:-.rrows , !1C'.s ( note

1).

II

t hickn e os

of cbout o.?

I f the sqnnr e -sE: c t i oned he C'. d s of the P npho s type

describ e d in c hapter 3 velC usee during th� Persinn invasi on , they woul d hc ve n o e de d be effe c t ive ,

nnd th.:'.t

cn

would ioply special

•

th�

C'..rr o w

-

sh r f t s .

ond

If the conclusions in chC'.pt er 2 on

probnbly speci�l bows.

t ho powe r of

energy o f about 60 J in order t o

c o rre c t ,

bow C'..re

•

it would not havo boen

worth i S Guing 6uch �rows t o the troop s us i n g tho Persian bow, end •

•

•

st il l

lC:6s t o thODe

usinC t!:!c

Scythian bow; nor would t hoi :

throe-s ided :pyrc.tlidt-.l h.::c.«!s h:-.vc: b o o n o ffc c t i v G

n

gC'. i ns t t ho

Greok bl!onzo . I. p pl y l n g

tho 20 ,

"

.

'.

c.

sil!lilc.r

::trGuulont

t o the.; do s ign of tho

mm thi ckness o f tee V�ticc� shiolds would B O U C

b o o n part ly duo to

n

Providod

did

th n t thoy

shiole , to

h::tvo

fonr o t cpl i t t ing i n tllo Gol i d woo d . not Bpli t ,

t hoy \/oul d hrov(J a

work

of

19". p erf o re t io n b e t we e n

sho\.c d

Th� t e s t s

20

r.

crld

o f b r onee

might

for

did no t

woul d re q u i r e

other s i de , nnd mo t re

launched \ot i t h sh i e l ds a t

20 - 25 wide

deduc t ions rce.sonD.blc

Llm

7

arr"""

more

J

,

J to

5

� g ,,- i n s .

\-/ou l

t

15

jill'!

b o th

d r e quir e t he

on1;

r:rrcw

J in travelling

t he

i nf an t r y arrows ,

rC}jrescnt

c.

clc.ng er t o

t �u cavalry arrows lcunchcd wi t h

b ut

shie l d .

they c��e

nnrrat i v e

in at a sufficientl;

f i t s qu i t e well with t h e

Thct ,

tlnd i t soeras a

gue ss thct the s h ie l ds us(: d by

o f the thin ,

t h i n l�yer

Re ckoning that the arrow

25-35

frOril Herodot us '

e.

with

i n order t o do damage on the

h;�mles 6 unless the

•

s� i ns t hond

provided thc.t

lIoul d lose cbout

rnngc ,

n

p<:rforr\t ion of

pr ot e c t i o n

•

an energy o f

miss

e.

J f or

sho ul d expe c t the

we

c lo s e

to

7

tbet it

s,

J t o be

ang l e

60

ern ,

12

o f U�.y

it pene t rat e d .

cb out

very Dorsly

cct i 6 f �ct ory �e f u n c e

Howev<:r sucll a shi e l d

p c r f or nt i o n b y ". e.s

c c of wood diaplccQ d.

per

(; c..b o o n ply \1r'.S

t hc. t wcul d p r o v i d �

b r c a!<

first Bo

rim

re quire up t o

spears cnd jave l ins . J

c

J o ules

g o o l! b ir c h ply

dicneter , <,.ntL

15

9

t hr.. t tho

thick e nou g h t o pr o vi d e

spec.rs ,

40

end

the Sp-�rt �ns were

lnminr..t c d pa t t e rn rether t�,n

the

heavier solid

type .

to sc.y cuc h . pro o f , c.

in f o r me t io n is insuffic iel

to the c o r s e l e t ,

With regard

We

c r.nn o t b e

thct

c c rt ci n

c ors e l e t s

were

spoCJ

end the y coy have becn dosigne d p r i orx ily t o re s i s t

sl as h i ng b l ow ,

was done

or c.e:

('

s e c ond lint' o f defonc o .

.

No work

on alc.shing .

Tho

c

v i do nc u

Gr�ok he I�o t

is har d t o aDBOSS .

incrocs o d

vulnol·c.b illty

c urvn t ur o

Mny hnvo co�puna c t u �

L i t t l .., ror plc.t v .

lisht�ning

on t h o hf'.rdoning r.nu

c:'.n b �

It

t o arrO'll D ,

eai c!

on

It oay b u t ll�t

th<.; it

mny

b ut

b o thnt it

of tho � gino)

tho extra fr i c t i on

l'.I

for t hat . t c n d o n c ),

tc D ubsti t ut o

GC:u'c

prov id� d incron3ud prot Q c ti�

•

1 95. a ga ins t

rrrows , both for Qocuntum rensons , end t o caus�

cllowe: d the use of hard met •. l , but

tlor o

it

eXQopl(;s should be

inve st igat e d me tallurgicC'.lly in order to prove the lat t e r p o int . sa i d

Nothin8 hes b6cn £'.rr,lonr ,

the

e i ther on the economic cspects of

i!;lport C'.llt

01 t hough this clearly weB

It m:-..y be

.

thct the Grcuks fonnd i t e as i e r th2.n the Persiruls t o obtein tin,

��d that thet is why they could afford bronze helme ts for

£'�l their in f rultry , whereas

prot e ct i on for

l acke d

mo s t

of those on the Persinn si de

th e he ad.

Ncr hcs any invest iget i on

b een made of the propert i e s of iron plato at tho

b e that it wes t o o difficult to

oake

plat e

a s trong

It Rny

•

b e ceus e

•

of impurit ies ,

or thnt only steel would hav e b e e n str ong

e nough in a thin

plet (l ,

and the technicnl

it into helcets werc too great .

probl ems

o f forging

Assyrirn iron helmets of the

8th C c nt ury B . C . were vcry hcevy , C'.nd iron or steel only starte d t o replace br onze for helr.,e t s jn tho Rottrm QrIJY 4 st

.

century

A.D. ,

when th e y became

aycil cblc in

Finally , the res ult s hold onl y for the

of bow �d arrow studied.

It was open at

;n

the

( no t e 2 )

Gaul .

��rticulr.r typos

nny

for .

st r ong er arrows to be use d ; ond hen ce stronger bows . •

It i s

places in tho l.nciont •

ent iroly likely th.-:.t at other t imes cnd

worl d c.raour p ier c ing arrows were effc.:ct ively nse d.

woul d , however , alvays b.: oasior t o cclto

ucour them

an r.rrow-rCJ siatcnt up , A

To Due

oh

i o ld

lC(lcp

ri gh t arm t ohiold

wo u

ld

tho

happ1l7

ro ly upon

out both P l: rs i c. n ('.n d Scythian arrows ,

if ho woro thoa.

tr.r trol.l cO Llpl ll tQ

On tho

th<.;

OYOD I

no ck wo ro particularly yulnornblc .

Hie

hio c.rmour .� n d

body

•

Grook ho pl i t o could qu it o

anu on hio hrunetpl�t� �nu areQV08 ,

otho r hl'.nd ,

nrr ow-r\.:s istont

•

his bronzo h o loot t o

It

providu

wr.tS

c u o qu c t �

prot oction

t

and

�gninst r.rrowe treD

,.

•

•

tho Scyth inn bow ,

which wne

c ::ux' l e d

b,. SOLO o f the oppO l! i r g

i n fc� try �c� porh�pa al l t ho ir CCT�r,. ,

but not ,

�t ahort

r�ngc ��c inst thos e !ro� tho P�re ion i n r�nt r;y bov. coo r.�n d o r , n

A Groek

thore foro , C G uld not �f rord t o exposo his men t o

infr.n try br.rr�Ge c.t c leGo rr.ngo for long por i o ds ,

he �vy

i f ne ccosr.ry r.:: pe:-:.t c dl,. , in ardor to k(: t.: p tl�e

�.lUflt c h�gc , c nur.!), C.t

c! i o t

r.

but

n c (;

..

or cest roy thcr:: .

ThoBe t�c t i c s �.ro we l l

illustr:-.t c.- u by X c n ophon ( t.n:-.b:'ls i s I I I 3 ) , l'.n d i t is not ( 3 ) t h ... t T i s 8 :.ph � rnoo

nc ccss:-.ry t v suppose , as Delbruock does W�G

.

thore l o t t ing t ho Gro eks off OQsily .

The Gro ek

c�suol�ico b o t h c.t tI....r c.thon �nd Plctc.oo we re cOClpnrct iTel,. l i ght , bC C:luse: t ho por i o e! o f exposuro was chort : thllY would h�Te bccn Cluch hocvior in th� lat t e r bot tle hnd Pnusnnics •

nttcoptcd t o ndv�ce boyond the ASOPU3 , c.s some h i s t ori �ns •

•

( note 3 )

sUGgest th�t he int ende d .

7.2.

Me t h o d . 7

It

5 7

the cnquil'1 eight }w.vo boon shortened

is l'.ppcront t h .... t

c ons i der�bly bed c.t tont i on boon confinod t o tho throo-vingod end loof-ehc.pod the Persicn

heads ,

�r-r

whi c h varu t�GSC aost c omnoDl,. ueod b7

i n Grecco . he::� , nor would it beyO oxpl::inod

do::lt with the

vhy the Pursians die not c h�nco tho de sign o f tho hoods , or

d ho� thoy don�

whnt would h�vo

Apart from t!l..�t short cut ,

00. c.

it doos not sooa th....t

probloe in historic� t echnology c.� bo s o t t lod without t •

into account both t ho hist oricnl cond i t iono undor which ort o t�ct wco UGu d , end tho ph,.s icol ono t u c hnolocicnl princ iplos govornin� i t s po rforanncu , inctancv

hr ood11

�

points hAvc •

boaou unquiry.

�ieo n. •

onu th�t uocs r�quir� in tho

•

On t h v

W1

firat

tho tollow iDc

Cond it iono

1.

It

is

of usc .

iQPortcnt

b y t h", l ... ws

by

0

of

t e ch n o l o gy

ht

5i tU.- .t i o n ,

.

�h c s e

:l

b e useful t o hnvc:

BO[ICwh.:-:t

o f constreint s ,

It

v e o po n 5

i s not

or.

.

conccrnu d ,

nnd it f ir G t c l:lsG

t ho l i nc:s o f the t nb l e l3 g i ven by

Vi c t ori:ln

of

to

:llwayc e � s y

fnc tars :l f f c c t i ng tho uce

�re

hr:nc1book dealing "lith t ho

for the p c rf o rf.l:l n c o 2.

b y tht: hur.l::'.n body :-.nd

::ro a t i l l o ft e n c on f u a c e b y h i s t orian a

..

.

ir.�pClG e d

c�nc. t h o t e l:lpOr:ll"Y c Clndi t i on a i r.:po s c d

phys i c s ,

e sp e c ially where

end oth e r s , oi g

r.

of

ch :lr:lc t e: r i s t i c s

p � r Mnno n t

t o � i s t 1 nguiBh b o t w e o n th �

c:'re.ft

M ille.ls .

dist inguish tho cost

o f '.n r.r t c: f nc t .

i cport �.nt

e xac pl o

For

5)

( not�

,

the

rcnge of r..r rO"JS hns r (: c e ive d far core n t t c n t i o n t hl'..D t h e ir e ne rgy ,

cyan free pr�c t i o i n g �rche:rs l ik � Saxt o n P o p e .

ioport �nt t o c o n s i der tho

there fore

This will i n t h� fnirly "d de ly ,

c.s

firat

q u e s t i o r. s ,

concerned .

In t h ... t

context

is

of uae .

i n s t nr.c c require cn e n qui r y t o renge

p r e: s a n t

in t h o

un:lnswo rable

who l e

It

whe ra

cnsc ,

archac c l o gicnl e v i c10 n c u

nne finding

is

only cede b y r e c o gn i c i ng

c n s e progress is

t hat the problec exio t s ,

end i t oo.y raise

:l

wc.y t o c o n t :lin i t -

thr.t is , by f i n d i n g pnr::'.T.! d a r n t/h ieh w i ll bo r c l e v ::n t wh:lt e ver vclue the unknown v:lriab l u s cny hcvo . in::b ility t o pro v i de

c.

In tho

prcsu nt ec.se , •

•

full d o o e r i pt i o n of th<.: arcour we.a

dC::llt with by e oopn ri ng c.rrOW3 with specrG , and pl o t t in g p c r fo rct i o n C: l1c rgy �.5::-. inst thu dic.wet e r o f tho pro j e c t il e . F i n ding and

j ua t ifyinC t h�t

s t e p w�s tho ��do et port �t the

onquiry .

3.

Th� uc scription o f �rt o fn e t o . At

�

moro o pc e icl i sc u lovol , � e a oun t

ohoul d t�kc

into

thin chou lcl

o. l w ny a

tho dcscrip t ion o f �rtof:lc t8

t he ir fun c t io na l propo rt io n .

bll ,l onu

.

I

Ido�111

.

o vv n in rout i no nroMoologi cnl

•

1 98 . d o s c r i p t ions .

Thug i t

is iCiportnnt

that

ell

thw dice noions

o f no ob j e c t sh cu lJ bo gl.· ve n ; fo r � ��pI 0 th Q � ul.ace ' t or

0f

�

r�e

nrrow-sh<'.fts

well

c.r:;

the i r l l'ngth ,

ond

if possible the ir

t he we ight o f nrrowhenes nnd the diCJJo ter of the i r

s t i ffness ;

so ckets or t :-.ngs ( n s

Dr .

Er cr.mnn nov r i ghtly docs ) ;

thickness of arcour , �d s o o n .

It

the

is nlso irnport�nt

censure the hardne ss of netnl ob j e ct s ,

to

<'.6 we ll ns their

c Or.lpon i t ion. •

4.

Fre quen c y . It

i s obviously d i fficult wh�n nssossing archae ologicnl

ev idence t o dec ido whether 0.

typicnl

the ob j e c t s which survive repre s o nt

snDpla of thos� use d .

usu.'!lly wide ,

nnd t e chn o l o g i c nl nsseSS1:lOnt Dust therefore be

Dnde in the fore o f pcr�ct � r 6 ,

vnrint ions ,

S t �t ist i c nl scntt e r i s

showing the e f fe c t

rather thnn ns p o i n t dnta.

purpos es such pc.rn mc t cr s a•.y hist orinns ony s e c k

Boeo

e ffect ivene s s ,

Fo r hist o ri c cl

lInGnt ir:;fnct ory ,

nnd

�tn in thu fore o f ' go - n ot -go ' stnte-

It i s therefore desircble

cent s .

of

to indicnt e thresholdG ot

where this c� be dono .

The npp l i c n t i o n of t e chno l og ic nl p rin c i pl e s .

5.

It follows frOD p o i nt s

1 , 2 , ond

nbove th�t siople

"lt ic t o s t a on IlOde l s of p ar t i c ul cr .'!1"t o f o c t s prog.... •

r.re

o f litt lo

on i gat r� by i of t d s o e oll inv ntr o c nre y the ess unl vnluo phy s i c o l

pr inc ip lo c involve d.

frequently c omplex ,

��d

But theso pr i nc ipl o s

tho

ero

soco o f theo h�vo re ce ivo d little

•

in vo� tig n t i o n froo sciont ist � nnd ongin� ors.

This cnn crento

an unsn t isf::-.c tory s itu C' t i o n whoro on the o ne h:";nd o.rchneologisto .

porforc inco nclusive t o ot s , and on thu other scientiots otfer

( ouc h

armch:,,; i r Bolut iono

woul�l

0000

as tho Tho�son o qu � t i on

4.3) .

It •

•

t hr.t in such C nsOS Q ooporo.t ivo e ffort is no o clc d t o

199. l'.

c s t nb l i sh

Bo t o f p...--.ro.riotorc

i n r(;g:�rd to a C lo.flO o f nrtof::-.cts ,

whi ch \-lil l on t h 3 one hr.n d b o rir; oro usl y t o s t r.bl (l onel o t h � r provide u s e ful h i s t c ri c n l c o op c r r. t i o n t o t eke plr.ce i t

p r o bl e m

unGc r s t cnt! t h 0

tho

In order for suc h

4 e c e ss �r y

for b oth s ides t o

in t h e t e rns i n wh ich it C L'.n b'e

The: p r o s ent writer hns he el the g oo d fortune t o work

s ol v o u . with

is

cat � .

001

c on s i uc r�blo nunber of scholrxs rond s c i ent i st a who

n

unGc r s t o o
the

but nt

OOr.lO

this e nt c i l s r.1uch b e tter t hcn he
tine it "ms i m pr e s sed upon h i D thct such

understanding i s at tho

Doo e nt

unc ommon ,

cad

is p o s si bl y

inhib ited on both sides by t ho presunt tendency t o s pe c i a l isat ion in o duco.t ion . provide

c

Vho th�r

like the present one

suit able vehicle for brood�ninb tho s c opo of

s p e c i r.l ist

stUdies ( as wns hoped at the outset of the ehquiry )

is debate.blo ,

but i t would d o student s of the humenities no

hcrm t o leern to f o ll o w n r {;um e n t ,

nor

0

�nd expc r i mo n t ::'�

qunnt i t e t i vo

students of thf: sciencos to nttempt the bclnnced

judgement of e viden c e of

fl t u t!i o s

-

h ist ory �nd

nnd pr ob eb i l it i cs involved in tho study The outc ome o f such i n te rdisc i p-

nrchac ology.

li nnry work should be an appr e c i e t i c n o f humen i s conditioned by

:- c t i on DS .

technological c o ns tra ints , �d we

any

it

•

•

conc ludo this onquiry with a survey o f the inoights it MS p r ov i do d .

7 .3.

� t o c hn o lo e ic :-� overview o f thu lend bnt t l e a of the

Pers ian Invasion • Ho

Itlu o t

•

start with

:-

.

c nv e r.'. t .

l�iacua sin(; militol'Y tochno lo(O' ,

It

is

all to� caS1 t

..then

t o ovorsi mplify tho problo ms .

Ono r�aoon why nrmi �o �ro slow to :t�pt thoir ercamonts is

t h�t thu c o m mcn u � r e �ro pro occup i u � with p r o b l oca o f supply anu

org�n iot\t 1cn , tho

' tn i l '

iB

nrmy marc hc e on

as import�nt ns th�

t t � u th t .

ita A

ot

o ma c h and

B � c o ncl

tho

ro�aon has

•

-

•

to do with mornle nnd training ; it is oft on bot tor to allow mon to usc weapons which thoy know

on expo ri men t al chnnge an

nnd

trust , than t o mnke

A third raas en c onc e rns ralinbility ;

.

old de s i gn which is rol iable mny b e b e tter t��

whi c h is not .

n

wholo of useless .

Fo ur t hly , n

now

n

design mey n ot so l ve

new ono

tho

problem , nnd

a

F�r eL�mple ,

t he shields triod by the infantry at

mny bl) worse than

prxtial solut ion

the beginning of the first World War stopped - bullets, but morc vulnernblc

rendr:ret! the ir

by

to art illery ��d mort�s

( note 6 )

r e s t ric t in g their movement .

Nevertheless , there r.re c�se8 wh e re failure to o.dt-.pt is c ulpablc , end whero tho o f fic ioncy

of

on

orgr� is at i o n

which delivers lr.rgc mmburs of men to a battlefield whe ro • •

•

cnrnl'.go nnd

the ir equipment i s l1seloss only incroases the

the loss

Tho mu ste r i n g of tho levies o f tho

.

for Xelxe s '

A

point . given

in.asion

of GrC E:ce would sc:om

f i rst reading of

Persian be

to

a

the Persian army list ,

by He rodotus in Book VII , pro du cos

e mp i r o

cas e in ns i t i s •

a

feeling of horror

not "nliko that produced by the: photographs of infantry entrnining fer the battlo of the he in tondo d thet it should.

o.l'OY has nl reody be on of boats.

Sommo , cnd

The list

it lIII'.y b o thnt

is doll\J'od "ntil tho

lmm c h c d into Europo

Buco will-powor

•

rold �r s r� i 8 in s

Ooc ro

ss tho

bridp

nbility hns boen

dovotod to tho 8ssombly of �n cnor�OU8 bo dy of mon l but with o n�

or

two possiblo oxcoptions (the: LydiC'�s nod t h o Assyrinns ,

ne ithClr of wholl

is

:-.t Plntnot'. or •

ac nt i on o d

ywho ro elsa )

Oon

thoy nro hopo lo s sly vulnornb10 t v thu Grook sponre .

•

Thoy ero

:11 woering the trQ�itioDQ1 gnrb of thoir sovornl nat ions , dovo 1opod tor other conditions s�nurnti¢n8

bo foro ,

nnd no

thought whntoy o r sooms to hnvo b � o n Givon to fitting thoa for

201 . the task in

hand. porsion. torcos had on oooasions boaton

It is tru� thnt

For

Greeks .

excrnplo at ��leno ( H . VI

succeeded in holding

n

2 9 ) their intnnt ry

terce of loniana r�d Aeol ians

'

hn d a

fo r •

great'

while ' unt il tho Persian c nv�lry c�oe up .and put t ho •

But we de not know the detnils ,

Greeks to rout .

s�mu

nnd the

ferce of Greeks hk�d r�ready defeat e d a considerable

Persian force under Harpngus .

It o�y be thnt at Mclene thoy

wer� outflanked Dna prevent e d froo charging.

Provided thnt

the Greeks could prot e c t their flanks end re ar , tho e quipment of the Porsian nrmy was clearly inadc q Either t h e

ment was vital .

t e , ond aooe

improvc-.

•

bow oust be mndo capable of

pierc ing armour , or the close c ocbat e qui pm e nt must be im,

•

Marat hon , r�d even core s o •

prove d ; thC'.t

was obvious

after

aftor Thormopylae . lmprovcocnt t o tho bow was cert ninly conce ivable . X�nophon came across archers in

tho next century who posso s sod a heavy

Anatolin ( the Cherusci ) in n

longb o w

arrow t hrough both sh i eld nnd

reason to

c.

think it

r o co nt invention .

c apcb l e o f shoot ing .

armour , r�d there

.

is no

The arrowheads fonnd . .

nt

KonJdia , fro o

tho

probably dosigned a bow

the

to

Porsian do

t ho snme , whothur they were shot froa

or from some or�ly fora o f catapult .

Persinns and Scythians wo r o Emphas is hC'.d

tho

But the bows of such

not dosigned to shoot

b o o n lnid on incroa sing r�go rnthor •

t�� perforr.t iQn , at lQast sinco t ho

South Wost Asia in

in 498 B . C . vero

siog;) of Pnphos

650 ' s B . C.

Scyt hian invnsioDS ot It WAS tho Scythion

pattorn o f �rch�ry which Cynrnxos had adoptod wh on ho modornisod

Thr.t &lUst havo

•

•

prOVQU

its worth

aGninst thQ

bUQviur Assyrian

oquipcont l it

-

202 .

probably influonc o u t h u �cvolopmunt o f tho Pcroion b o w , n�� long rnngo shoot ing re cc in o<� .

c

pre occupr.t ion , nut lcc.st bCC�.U80

the n0nc� hors c u c n t o the �orth nnd Ecst r ernc ino d tho most

In

s e rious thr eat t � t h� Pers i n n Em p i r e . armour we hove

soen thr.t th e •

o rde r t o pi�rc&

•

pOt/or c f th <: bow nnd t h o strength

of th(; nrro\,/s woul u havQ t o be roughly doubl e d ;

it Eight b e

nc c o sscry t o sUb s t itute wooden crrcv shn f t s for reeds . t o do nIl

�n�

th •. t for cne ccmpniGn �/n8 out of th{; ques t i on.

On the othor hond , n ot hin G prevente d t h e Pera icns froD lengthening tho speor ,

ns D��iu s II Int ur l e ng th e ne d his

c <'.v.-:o.l ry lc.n c c s b e fore ;.rbel ... to rJ�tch t h e a .:: o f !.lox=.ncler . IIc rodotuG blace: s the: shortness o f t h e: Pcrs i�n ape��s b oth at •.nd

The:rnopynl�e

.

r.t Pll'.tner. ,

� nueber o f o t P � rsepolis ,

...

;:nd i t DUst hov\) bc.:m obvious nt

l on g speors nppear on the monurJcnt s •

nti thero dues no t seon coy goed renson vby

chr.ng(; coul d not hnvc; beun f.l<'..LO ,

wns wintering in Thessc.ly i n suppli e s c f cornel thoro ;

c.t the lctest \o,hen the

480/479.

nre:

oDple

18

feot

( ncte 7 ) .

tho Pors i�ns would �vc: invente d , or adopted ,

lk.c c donic.n snrisso

0n ay

tho Pors��a us�d t��t wood for

the ir spoor s , r.nd tho trunks gr ow t o e f f.:: c t ,

There

n

150 yours b e: f uro

Phi l i p .

In the

It is tho

no. tur:-.l c c u n t o rp•. rt t o co.vc.lry . On t ho Grock sido , likowiso , tho cDmpnign o f Platae. shows up tho riGidity o f thu Spe�tnD co�mnnL.

Given

the

o ff o c t ivonoss o f t ho P� r s ia n cavalry , �n� thoir supor iorit7 o f th�ir horses to thero

was no

to havo

SOQO

po i n t

any t h � GroekB could provide , ( Hdt VII 1 96 ) in tryinc t o tlnt ch tho m ; but it waa yitnl

cisDilo woapon c cpnblu

o f tonding th�c otf trOD

th� infcntry , - e i thor bOWD or slings .

Aa th� 1 0 , 000 found ,

a f t u r Cunaxo. ,

� von quitu

a

annll !crcQ o f nrchora, nnu alinCora

•

" •

could ke ep cavclry

r'.

c.t

•

(liS\;o-" ,..n ..

The At he ni ans , who sh o we d thcr::se �"" " R hh ;hly n cl� pt nblo throuGhout the wcr , both on lr.nd nne at sea , produolld

n

"'1:", J.J

forc� �f nrc hers at PI�tcon , prcbcbly frorn the ir own c it izens , •

. .

and perhaps using ccpture u e quipoont .

"

Meyer ingeniously ". •

(:st imd e (� the ir nUlilber £'.t 800 ; Ctes ics ' statement that toe archers of the �theni�.n ships �t Salcni s were Cretens i s 0.

probably ( note 7).

cere guess , for he is elsewhere highly unrel iable They had inde e d had the cdvnntcge of fr.ail i�xity

with the Scythi� archers whcm Poisistrntus iwporte d , an� who had stayed in Athens down t o (�bout .500 B. C . , when Dcxius invaG&d their hoacland; if they learnt to shoot as boys they niGht well hava been able to use bows end arrows collocted ..

frco the �rchers killed at Marathon.

There eust have been

a br isk traGc in ' wnr surplus ' �oods nn� souvenirs then as now ; enemy weapons hayc always attract e d the collec tor , and -

the organisat ion o f such a body is just whnt we should. expect floa Themfstocles

•

Jrerodetus sho\"IS tht:.t they gave

good.

•

acc ount of themselves. On the othor bnnd , tho Spartnns cppear to he.vo dono

•

.

We

nothing , nor do tho other Peloponnosicno .

do not know

how tho Helots yore arLlo d , but if they hod hau bows

"

"

wo should have he�d of i t .

..

0.

weedon bow also re quiro s sldll , c.n

It tekes

c ocp o s ito bow , c.nd it r� quirQs skill ;

•

not hnVCl hn�

•

slings

Tho bow would obviously bcvo

boon di fficult to supply , excopt froD the onooy . n lone t iee to coke

or

souo tice , r.nt! it' misht

r.nt!

adoqut:'.t\l . r:-.nco r.ny.,;::.y .

ot tllu Grooks on11

/

t ho CrCltano normaUy mnuo bows ( PausC".ni::U5 1 , "). 3 , 4 ) ; thoy woro pr eb �b ly rnncc (\ by

wo odon , r.n� Xu nophon ro c�rdo that th ey woro outthu Poroinn coupuoituo.

But thu

o�a�

doos not •• .

"

-

-�--�--

-

-

-

-

204. apply t o t h o sl in6 ;

i t ex cuse the f n i l uro

nor docs

S i c il icn C'.rchero nn{� sl i n G u r s tll'.dc

tho offer of

to tcke up

b7 Gelon .

(as He ro do t us

The chief reason io li kely t o h�v0 b c � n p o l i t i c � l ,

t o lls us

it

cnse )

was in tho lr.t t e r

t h e deeper issues o f Greek

on

ro t ros pe c t

In

t h ey hc.(i p a i d

,

se De

.:nll t hct t hr ovs

ie ty

s oc

6000

.

o f t he i.thcnicns t h o ught t hnt

e ve n

hcc.vy p e nc. l t y f o r thdr a llr.. pt r..b i l i t y

r.

Plato ( note 8 )

Persian wnrs .

li{;ht

in tho

remarks that aft ar S�l�t1is t he •

D��os be gc.n t o got �bove its e l f ,

t h e n a v�l bat t l e ;

by the thetcs in the

other

ha n d ,

were

' bO C C I

by the b e t t e r c lass o f

Pausanias tr oops ,

himse l f ,

was

More over , i t t owart:s

lat c �

o f w�nt ing t o

G o l a n but c.lso tow,l rds I. thons ,

supremacy in

t h e Peloponne o o ,

a3 t o defeat the Pcrs icns .

Victory ,

but

0.

there fore

Tho

us ing

back �nG it th�

t e nth pnrt

t I-. u b r.t t l o ,

T he b e s , c.nd [Ja in t c.

n

flung

0.

c f t ll Q opo i l

c �·. n u i (;ornl>ly

t he ;r

re l y

n

•

or with their own inferiors

a

Po.

Pe r s i ans to

b e i t for t h � i r own trnp .

v o n t u r i nG

c�vclry ( 00

r o na ino d GO.

tht:.t

To he-.vQ shl'.red

the i r h o p l i t e s .

s t ::-. I(; -rJ:".. t .: ,

at ono ,

crily

I.rgos ,

in

ce

they w�n t e c n o t

his fcreve ns

ro.ll i u � t h v

oiaht hnvu

be:hnviour n o t

hopinu t c to mpt t he

forwar� ,

re sult wao v o r y nCIC'.rly

h e en kill c � b y

t hoc.

re gre to.blc , c.nd possibly dangerous.

b lunde r e d

and

So

i op o rt o d troops

would hev c b e o n

l ight -aroed

end i f po ssi bl e: furtho r Nort h ,

victory won by

it o i thcr with

.. t Sparta ,

e n f r�nc h i sc

least as c oncerned t o

on

•

who had U6C � th� h e l o t o as

:'.ccus e L

Pl at c.c a ,

t hey wore won

the hopl it c s .

people ,

were at

t ne k ,

be cause

c l e ar froo their ge:n<:rnl

is

o f t he pr� t p l ay e d

Hnr�thon r� c

b at t l e s ,

th-" Spartans

et

because

'.nc; toe

ho.� I-L.�r donius not closo t

but

Ghi rBrulo.n 5U�BOG t9

Zoue Wll i c!1

w oul � r.. p poar t c W�3

b u t t � r th r..n

eo dicct � d P:,.uo�.niao

s t ay e d

( noto

ha ve

9»

onrno J

to him att u r cn

rn o cl

hie.

205 . This viow of

l!.ataeo. is

Herodotus by \Inr
v o ry

( neto 10) ,

s iJ:Iilllr

to

thc.t found in

•

one �e; \o�ith cr.ny recont

invc at ig�t ions into tho �rch�coloGY �n� topogr�phy o f the WDr ,

n

technoloGical s tU'v ay ends by l.nCra�G1ne; our r e sp e ct •

•

•

both for tho judgeoont of the Fcthor o f History cne f o r t he

f. then inn •

spirit which he rJost ndtlircs . •

206 Appondix

2.1 •

The bost tre�trnunt o! errov� c�s o!· thu Persinn �?�

per i o d i s thnt by E1 i zab vth Erdrnnnn , in her

��t ic1 0

on tho

• •

so- ce1 1od ' Mc-.r �th cn · :,�r owh
K,..,r1sruhe .

A.2 . 1 . 1

1 973)

Typology .

w� ndopt !e r c1nssi!icntion.

•

ns

Erdme�n d ist inguishes four ��in type s

follows :

A

T�g� d h e r. �s of r�ctnngu1r� cross-s e c t i on ( fig

B

Tnnge d he�cs of rhomb o iunl cross-sect ion Socke t e d llC l'\cs "lith three wings ( fig

C i

C i i S q cke t c d

-

c)

hecus cf tri�.ngulor cr o ss s c ct i o n nnc -

pyrnmi(�� form ( f i g

2.2.d)

S o c ke t e d h�nlis with 1e �f-shnpoc o r ainmon� sheped

D i

( fig

blades

D

2.2.a

2.1 )

•

2.2

0

& f)

i i Small s o ck e t e � hea�s with 1 e a [-shr.pc d blndcs

( fiL;

spur or be-.rb . To thesc Dey be

cudc �

n

•

nnd

2.2 g)

furt he r

type , not nt

,

but found in the Ag ora , nnl! described by Erc10ann in her forthco�ing cntc�oguo of

E •

th o

•

Pnphos finGs

TCl.ngc l'. h e nus with 1 e ::-. f sh npc \1 -

Typ�

� hes

b r i o fly

CG

Typo

.

•

b�on dis cusse c in thQ

Type B is gone rn11y nc ccl'te �: c u nc o rn us .

b1n�es •

roo

The cistribut ion

text , (sect ioD 2 . 2 . 1 ) .

b e int:; Cret:-.n ,

nn�

c o os

not

o f tho other typos is Y6ry

[ o llo,,'s : C i

is feu n

S cy thi an grnv oo c.n�

vcr

r.

vory wido r.r� � , Cvs t notchly

�t Po rs op ol i s .

that it wne int rodu c c (� to oc;u thwe et

t\l1,1 C immo rinn invD.siona

It is gonornl1y

Ad "

.

.:lurin6 th'-l

o f tho 7th. Cllntury ,

nnl�

ncco ptod Scy thi:-.Jl

wea thor.�t{:r

ad(J ptc (l b y tho Po roi nn army ' r.nt' r.la o by Qro ok mor con cri oa . (SulicirDki

1 9 54 ) .

in

20 •

Typo C i i has sever:.l fo rms , end its distribut ion paralle l s thnt of typo C i , though it is l e s s c orn�on . Typo D i occurs in nt

ene

inatcnco as e l:rl y

£'.0

730 B . C . ,

Byb los , cnd i t is not C OLlmon in S cyth il'.n t OLlbs .

OSGoc i:-.ted with

well

is

opc r:>.t i ons by the Per s i�n r.rLly ;"'.t Rhodes nnd •

Pr-.phos , as

It

Et6

•

tho Greek mc.inl:-.nu.

on

However , finus P.t

are few.

Pephos

Type D i i develop e d e crlier th�n D i , c.nl� is fClunll in large numb e rs C'.t tho si e e e of

Smyrrm

(600 B . C . ) Nicholls

( 1 953/4 ) l".rguc s thc.t it tiCS shot \'y the de fenders , eithor Greeks or the ir mcrccn�ric s , ngcinst tho Lydip� b e s ie g ers . n

Typo E has clso

It i s

foune in large

Nimrud , poss.i.bly in connect ion with the s iego of

numbers :-.t

612 B.C.

l ong history .

It may bo Assyrinn

in origin , but it is associcted

with o p e ra t i o ns by the Porsi�n

r�cy , �n� eppears in considera

numbers at Paph o s , in tho s ieGo mound. A . 2. 1 . 2 1.

Fin�s on PersiC'� war s ites

The North slopo of t he Acropolis . ( Broneor , Hosperin

II

341 , Hesperio IV 178 ) . C i , ( ct lecst 21 ) , C ii •

(5)

D i ( 1 1 ) , D ii. ( 1 ) , E ( 1 0 ) .

•

>

.

•

The position o f those hends an\! the accornpnnyine pottery •

it c e rt n in thr.t t ho y were shot durine th� Porsian attncks

1 tho c ita del in 4,0 B . C . Acora in IV

e

Fur the r exc.rnpl�c wer o funnJ in tho

hous o nor.r the Thos e

, ( Th(;r.lpSOll H"s:pcrio Suppl

31 , 33 , H�spo rin 27 1 5 1 , flo sporio 6 1 3 ) . ,

E (1). 2.

OD

C i ( 9 ) , D ii ( 1

•

Olynt hus ( D . M . Robineon , Oly nthus X 397 ff ) C i (70 ) . Tho se

p.ru corte.in

to C l.i my frora thtl Po r s i::m oiogo of

Lt79 B.C. ( f".nc iont Pc-.ph08 ) .

publishod by

l::r c!mC'.nn ' 0

t hy lJ . ,\ . I . in 1 �7 6 or 1 977 .

cc t:.IOl�UO will bo PQI)h�o

woo bosiogod

.

by the Porsians in 498 B.C. T ype A ,

'

( 27 in iron 5 in br onze , but to those

to �ud at lanst ns ��y

ng � i

I sh ou l d

profor

n frcrn the he�vior he�GS cl�ssed

as javelin hC:!.t�/3 ) , C i ( 49 in b r c nz e , t"/O , rcrnnrkl'..b ly. in iron "

wit h

n

tang ) , C i t ( 2 ) ,

fragments ,

D.

E ( about 32 , i nc lu,Hng

i (1) ,

but �gain more might be

�duod

from tho

.

l ist o f

j�vcl in points ) . •

4.

( ��inl'..t os Therrncpylae 1 951 p 65.

Thermopylne .

in A . A . 1 940 p. 222 fig 47 ) . ll'.rgc ) D

( 6 ).

i

hill Colonus .

i1 (1

C i ( 26 ) , C

+

Picture

1 very

These were founJ at Thormopylc.o on the

Thc7 nre ncc epted

os

bclon8ing t o the finn!

stege of the battle in 480 B.C. 5.

Lecke , on his sec end visit to the rJoun
.I.:'.rnt hon.

brcnz� errcwhcnus in the soil , 1 72 ) .

It

•

S C C J:IO

of

type C

likcly that tho arro�/he c.c.s formerly in

Breslau ( over 1 00, ��;n]y of typo C nn(l pos sib17

ascrib e d

(Le��c 1 829 ,

1.

sae Erdmann ad loc )

1,

als o th(.s c in K.."'..rl s l,,,be , rulJ sorJO of thoAo

t o ' Mc.rl'..thon ' in the British Museum ,

cnme

re po rt s C

1

£'.n7

(3)

C

fi nds of £rrowhct'�;!s .

11

(18)

' Mara th on ' coll ec ti on C 6.

Platoon.

1i

D

ii 9,

nn u

Staos

At �-..rlsruho ErWnAnn

in tho Br it is h Musoum

(32 ) D 1 ( 1 ) D

Two nrrowhon�s of typo

D

ii

1 at

(1 ). ono

t im� in

B(:rlin war\) st'.icl to como frc.m tho battlo f'iuld (A. Huolltlr •

Bc.urne ist or 1 889 2042 ) .

•

freD thoro .

However the full scale oxc�vct ions by Sc hlio rnnnn end di el not ro port

•

1n

.

Appendix 2 . 2 The stiffne ss re quired in an arrow- shatt. Vie may e s timate the stif fness ne cessary for

an

arrow

ei the r by considering modern pI"actice , or from first principle s . •

UodeI11 arrows .

A2 . 2 . 1 .

The modern archer measure d the stiffness of arrows by •

suppo rting them hori zonta lly at the head and the no ck , suspending a weigh t of l·�·lb ( 682g ) at the mid point , an d measuring the deflection .

Th i s provi des a measurement of

' spine ' in GNA3 units , OLe unit being equal to a deflection of one hundredth of an inch , ( 0 . 254mm ) .

Typi cal figures

for modern bows of different maxi mum draw force , taken from Pratt (Hardy 1916 p 199 table 2 ) , are given below, ( table A2 . 2 . l . )

Typi cal value s for the initial kine ti c energy of

the arrows have been added , and a figure for the stiffne s s ,

EI , calculated from the defle cti on y , and the load P , us ing

the s tandard beam fo riDul a y

=

3 PL /48EI , and assuming that

the length L between the supports is 65 cm ( 26 in) , Table A2 . 2 . 1 Haxi mllm Draw Force

of Bow

Spine and � tiff.ness of modern arrows . Energy of Anow

( Ibf)

(N)

(J)

30 40 50 60 10 100

133 118 222 261 311 445

20 21 34 40 41 68

.

These figures represent an op

Spine

S tiffness (

(G1TA'3 uni ta) 81 61 49 40 35 25 '

(Nm2 ) 1 . 94 2 . 58 3 . 17 3 . 94 4 . 50 6 . 34

, for the average

mode 111 archer, and i t i s clear that the arrows in m.any archae ologi cal and ethnographi c colle ctions are much sotte r .

However, the ecp.erience of l eading •

including Mr . Robert

Hardy and Mr . J ohn ''fall er wi th whom I have discussed the

•

problem is that

an

arrow designed for a ' thirt,y

•

or

' forty pound ' bow canno t be sho t at all frolll an ' eight1 •

pound ' to .... ,. and may even shatter dllring the releaS8 , there would seem to b e a

80

stiffness which ia about

Table A2 . 2 . l is thus qui te use:tW. 1D

half the optl�lm. •

con s i dering arrowe with "(ery

light heads ; however

a

•

hea...,.

'Jarhead will obviously require greater stiftness . Theore ti cal Prediotions .

A2 . 2 . 2

The theory of 0

spine , developed by Bhe11lf58"a

( 1 936) and Nagler ( 19'7) , depends on matching the vibration frequency of the arrow to the v�looi ty wi tb whi ch 1 t leaves •

the bow , ( i t therefore also considers the mass ot the which

has been omi tted stiffne ss just

from table A2 . 2 . 1 ) . men t on e d

i

Allro."

HoweTer the

would aeem to be thAt

required to prevent a cataatrophi c buc1cl1ng, ( Euler under the inertial load .

That

can

be calculated

•

, provided that we know the end-conti tlcme

a

of the

, snd the load .

figure A2 . 2 . 1 shows P and di stribute d load p

a

straight uuit01'll bar

per tmi t

end Ice" .

The eli tl oal end

• •

p

P1, . A2 . 2 . l .

211

�.

load P

will then depend on

and the criti cal unit load p

If one end i s free and the

the end condi tions of the bar.

o ther fixed a clo s e approximation i s given by pi

,,2EI

=

O . 3pL

-

4L2

( A2 . 2 . l ) •

( ref: Timoshenko , 1936 ) ;

,

.

•

if b o th ends are hinge d , by p'

(A2 . 2 . 2 )

O . 5pL

-

-

( ib id . ) . In the case of the arrow, P

Ma , whe re H i s the mass of the

=

arrowhead and a the a cceleration .

Similarly p

=

rna whe re m •

is the mass per uni t length of the shaft .

But the a c celeratio

i s goveI11 e d by the force F appl i e d by the string Al\d the total mass of the arrow , p

=

Fm/ (H

+

a

=

P/ (M

)

+

Hence

.

P

=

�J/(H

+

mL) ,

mL) .

So the equations (A2 . 2 . l ) and (A2 . 2 . 2 ) can be rearranged to gi' ' . a cri ti cal force F from the string,

8S

follows .

On tbe

as sumption that one end is free and the o ther f ixe d , ]"

-

+

-

•

2

,, EI

, •

4L�-·

•

•

On the assumption that botb ends are F'

-

•

+

•

•

ed ,

,

;ihi ch of the two conditions appli e s is not immediately obvi ous : but each is easily ta s ted against the observations in the previ ous se ction .

In a target arrow, the

•

s of the bead ,

M i s negligible compared wi th that of ths shaf t , and 80 the

left hand expre ssion has a value ot , . , in the fir8t case and

second . in the 2

The length L i s ab out 0 . 7 1m ( 28 in) , and

so n2/L2 has a value cl os03 to 20 m-

2•

So , a8 sUming the first

condition ,

•

F

16 . 5 EI

I

l� .

J

�s��ing the 8� cond t F'

40 EI

N.

The torce F in a modern longbow has an average •

.

•

tha shot at the order at one quarter the

(An

as given in table A3 . 2 . 1 .

"

draw-force

ma

tion ot one bow b7

Hi cklDan ( 1929) shows a peak at

1/3

by a 1dve1l1ns otf at 1/6th

foroe , followed

max . draw

So it the fira1

draw force ) .

tion (A2 . 2 . 3 ) appl i ed , the arrows speoified in table A3.2 . "°111 d fail .

For example the

t

•

thirty

bo" produces an

average foroe on the nock o f 33 If ( 7 . 5 lbt ) ; the EI of the arrow

rec01Idlended 1s 1 . 94

would

predict P

."

'0 ' .

,

80

U\at

tion (A2.2 .3)

e

On the other hand the e

for a s trut hinged at both ends giving a safety factor of about

(A2 . 2 . 4)

predi ot. 1 "

•

that the

an'ow 1s inde\3d in a condi tion approaching that ot

an

end

Al tholl8h the head 1s free

sldawaY8 , the entire a"row 1s tree to follow tba't

to

•

Fig. A 2 . 2.2

p t

(0 ,

'b) p

.,

2 , as observed .

Fortifi ed by thi s evi dence , we

loaded strut hinged at each end .

78

f

f

f

213 and the only re sul t of the di spla cement i s that the inertial loads P and p are now a t a s in fig . A2 . 2 . 2a .

an

angle to the axis of the arrow ,

Re solving the s e loads into forces •

parallel wi th the axi s and perpendi cular to i t , and ignoring P whi ch is negligible in a targe t arrow , we have a si tuati on analogous to that shown in fig . A2 . 2 2b , where a s tru: •

inged

at each end i s gub j e cted to an end load F and a distributed perpendi cular 10ad� �As i s well known , the elasti c buckling in that cas e depends on the end load alone , and i s unaffectel by the perpendi cular load and the defle ction caus e d by that . To allow for a heavy arrow-head couple s may be adde d reI

pre senting the re soluti on of P and i ts effect in di spla cing the res t of the arrow , but the principl e i s the same . I rovided that the angle o f displacement i s slIlall , the axial loads on the arrow will b e almos t equivalent to the to tal inertial loads P and p .

Appendix 2 . 3 The ' Cretan ' Ree d Theophras tus Ris t . Plant . IV 11 .11 i s translated by •

Ho rt. as follows ' Some distjn��i sh the various kinds ( s c . of reeds) by different name s ; commones t perhaps i s the pole-reee ( donax) • • • Qui te distinct again i s the ' archer ' s reed , ( toxic whi ch some call the ' Cretan ' : this has few joints and is .

fle shier than any of the o thers ; i t can also be mo st freely bent , and in general , when warmed , Inay be tlU11e d about as olle pleases . ' . Pl iny ( N .H . 16 , 161) i� rather less specifi c : '

•

•

no ree d is more sui table for arrows than that whi ch grows

in the river at Bologna , the Reno , wh i ch contains the largest D,lnount ot pi th and has a good flying weight and a balance

•

214

•

••

that offers a s turdy re s i s tance even to gus ts of wind

-

an at tracti on whi ch doe s n o t belong in the same degree t o

The reeds of Cre te al so

the shafts grown in Belgium .

have the same valuable property , al though those from India are" placed highe st of all ,

some people believing that they

belong to a different s pe ci e s

•

•

•

•

,

( translati on by H . Rack

Loeb , 1945 ) . Pi tton de T011l'nefort ,

the bo tani st who vi s i ted the Le'

at the beginning of the Eighteenth C en ttll'y found some arch

•

still pers i s ting , and interpre ted b o th Theo phras tns and Fl: as refe rring to the common Phragmi tes ,

the short plume d ret

whi ch is s e en very commonly in damp places throughout Greet

' II y a apparence qu ' i l s empl oyo i en t pour leurs flt che s et pi quante ,

�

ce tte petite e sp ce de roseau dure , menue ,

qui nai t dans les sable s de l ' i 91e . ' Theophras te e t Pline en

ont par1� ; Pro sper Alpin en a donn� une as sez me chante

figure ' .

( Prosper Alpin , Exo t . 104 , Amndo graminea ,

acu1eata .

de Tou(lle fort , 1713 , p 33a ) .

nowever , even i f 1

Cre tans at that time were using the Pbragm1 tes , which i s somewhat diffi cul t to cred! t , unl ess they had a superior

•

variety , fi t i t .

-

the des cripti ons of - Tbe ophrastl1S and Pliny do no t The diameter of the stem i s

4

J.1y about

,

and rarely more than 5 jll!1I , and there i s no pith , nor are the wall s parti cularly thi ck .

Thi s resu1 ts

in a aha, ft whi ol

would be too w�ak for serious use , and al so very light .

•

( I have been told of boys who 6�t round the l a t t � r difti � l ' -

by s tuffing arrows made of Phragmi tes ,n th mud , but there i s no dvi d�n ce of that in antiqui ty , and i t would no t improve the stiffne s s . Note

1).

•

•

"

On the o th� r hand , there i s no single reed now common

in G re e c e whi ch does f1 t both tha anoi l3nt dasc ript ions . -

-

{-

"

21 5

•

Fl iny ' s de s cri ption , wi th i ts eillphas i s on weieht , b e s t fits Arlmdo Fl ini i , a re la tive of the very common ' pole ree d ' , I t has a s traight and slender s tem up to

Anmdo Donax . about 3

m

) e ? ' th la s th t i ha pi no �u1 me ' ( h oug th d an , long ' sa rc o de s ' )

s tu y s sh ra e ph fl eo ' te Th i ( qu ' e ar m te s e th f o s wall

When qui te dry , the s te ms may we igh up to 35 g

and th ic k .

Like mo s t timbe rs an d re eds i t i s easily defol'14 eO

per me tre . when heated .

However i t can hardly be sai d to have few j oin1

the j oints are only about 20 cm al ter the line of the s tem .

(8

in) apart , and qui te often

Moreover the thi ckne s s and

stiffness vary con s i d�rably s o that i t migh t be diffi cult to produce

a

matched s e t o f arrows .

There i s a cert:ain taper

al ong the s tem , but the lower porti ons are often very stiff • .,%r

•

•

�

Eight shafts colle cte d near Re thymn,," in Crete had an average diame ter of 9 . 6

1.8

±

cm , and a s tiffness ( EI ) measured by

defle cti on after drying , 6 . 03

2 ± 2 . 5 If m •

Shafts cut from

the higher part of the s tem ha d a diame ter about . - 2 s tiffne s s about 2 . 6 Ii m •

8

mm , and a

)

Theophras tus de s cri ption se ems to fi t better with Eryantrr Ravennae , whi ch came to my notice whi l e I was l ooking for Al'llDl Flini i , an d sampl e s of whi ch were i d�ntifi e d by Dr . Zachariades o f th� Goulandri musellM in Athens .

I t grows commonly in the

sandy riv er bed s of the F orthel'n Pel oponnes e ( for example along the �dil way b e twe en Diakopton and Ela ion , an d at Olympi a: i • •

and o c curs in Cr ete

( fo r

e xample n� ar Ag ia Tr ia da no te 2 )

•

I t i s easily r�cogni aed by i ts s traight s tems whi ch emerge in

group from a bushy clump o f l eave s at the bEse .

a

The sterne

ar� over 2 m l ong , ond the di atp� c� b�twe �n j oin t s i s at least ;0 cm , th� j Oint rnrcly altering tho l in� of the stem.

The

shaf t walls aro not v� ry thi ck , but the centr� 1s ti l l e d with

p i th

.

Ylhen dry , thair w� i gh t i s of tan l d S S than 1 5 g per

. .JoIi

215

Fl iny ' s de s cri ption , wi th i ts eillphas i s on weieht, b e s t fi ts Arundo Flin i i , a rela tive of the very common ' pole ree d ' , Al"lln d o Donax . about 3

m

I t has a s traight an d slender starn up to

long , and though i t has no pith ( ' medulla ' ? ) the ' sarco de s ' )

wal l s o f the s tem are ' qui ta fle shy ( Theo phras tus '

When qui te dry , the s t�ms may weigh up to 35 g

and thi ck .

Lika mo s t timbers and ree ds i t i s aa sily deformed

per me tre . when heated .

Howeve r i t can hardly be sai d to hava few j o ints ;

th� j oints are only about 2 0 cm al ter the l ine of the s tem .

(8

in) apart , and qui te o ften

Moreover the thi ckna s s and

st iffness vary con s i d� rably s o that i t might be diffi cult to produce

a

matched s a t o f arrows .

There i s a certain taper

along tha stem , but the lo wer portions ara often vary s tiff . •v

•

;

Eight shaf ts colle cted naar Re thymn" in Crate had an averaga diame ter of 9 . 6

1.8

:t

cm , and a s ti ffne s s ( EI ) measured by

defle ction af ter drying , 6 . 03

± 2.5 N m • 2

Shafts cut from

the higher part o f tha s tem ha d a diame ter about

8

mm ,

and a

stiffne s s about 2 . 6 11 m • 2

'

Theophr'Ustus de s cr i ption seams to fi t ba tte r wi th Eryanthus Ravennae , whi ch came to my noti c� whi le I was l ooking for Al'Imdo Flini i , and sampl e s of whi ch wera identified by Dr . Zachariade s of tht:! G oulandri musal,lm in Athens .

I t grows commonly in the

sandy river beds of thd l" o rtha111 P el o ponn e s e

( fo r

examp l e

al ong th e rai lway o a twe cm Diakopton and Elaion , and at Olympia) ,

I

,

and o c curs in Crate ( fo r exampla n�ar Agia Triada note 2 ) . I t i s easily r�cogni oed by i ts s traight s tams whi ch emerge in

a

group from a buahy clump of l aav3s at the be se .

The stems

ar� over 2 m l ong , and the d i 3 t� ce betwean j Oints i s at least 30 cm , the j oint rnro ly altering tho lin� of the s tem .

The

shnft wal l s aro no t v�ry thi ck , but the cen tr� i s fill e d wi th ,

pith .

'.'lh en dry , th
,

216 e

13 shafts sele cted from a slightly larger

me tre .

collected at Olympia , Agia Triada , and Poli tika in Euboea had an average diame ter of 6 . 4 :t 0 . 25 N m • 2

of 1 . 213

:t

0.8

l1li11 ,

end a stiffness ( El )

The se figures appeared typi cal , wi th

one l�rger specimen not in clude d in the average s , havIng a diame ter 7 . 9

lIIiII ,

stiffne ss 3 . 36 N

•

2

m

The average shafts

•

would not ba sui table for modern at'rows ; they are , however , somewhat stiffer than the Egyptian arrows de s crib a d in the n ax t appendix , and the i r uniformity may have been a great advantage . I t i s tlms

ql]j te

possibl e that �eopbf'a s tns and Pliny

are writing of diffe rent reeds , and that the thjnne r Erianthus was used in ecrl i er time s , the thi cker Plinii later.

A heavier

arrow head may have been adopte d by the Cretans in the 4-th •

Centu,·y ( ErGmann ' s type B ; on the daofie

•

1973 p 39) ;

if so the s tiffer shaft may h�ve come in wi th i t •

•

Appendix 2 . 4

Egyptinn Arrows .

)lnny arrows have b��n re cov�red from Egyptian tombs , from mnny different poJr1 0ds .

Tho se I ho.v� men sured , by co,U'tesy of

tho c.utho r1 ti .:: s of th03 Ashmole an Mus eum , hIlv�

6.8

and 7

( 30-33

in )

.

9

mm

( 0 . 26 8

of wh i ch

-

abo u t

0 . 31 1

23

em

in ) ,

n

a

di C'lme tar b\! twe en

l ength of about 75 -83

( 9 in ) is foro 3haf t , an d

a

em

217 t 1s tha g t 5 ou ch i ab o f wh , g 5 . 2 1 d we ight be tween 10 g an of the fore shaf t .

look very similar.

Arrows in o ther

. of mb to m a t t fro tha se 1s g in st re te in A pa rt i cularly O d or xf eum rs tt �rus ve Pi in Ri � th in w no a y st n dy th 6 the 2

•

•

The arrows were fo un d wi th a compos i te b ow of the angular,. in

type seen

Assyricn monuments , nnd i t mey b e that the bow

was brought to Egypt by

660 B . C .

on

As syrion during the inv2.sion about

That i s the o pini on o f Balfour , who discus ses ths

bo w ( Balfour 1890 , 18 96 ) . 84 em long

The arrows are be:twe�n 81

em

and

( 32-33 in ) , of whi ch 2 8-30 cm ( 11-12 in) i s foresbaf

and 51-53 em ( 20-21 in) i s re e d .

There wcs probably a wooden

no ck at the rear , now l o s t , os frequently shown on vase pa intin of 3cythir-.n orrows .

In one of the fortJshafts thare is a tenged

l.:?of -shape d nrl'o whead of hammered bronze ,

broad ( 1 . 4 the heed i s

x

0 .6 7 in) , with

unusual

private

0.

35

centl'al spine .

long by 17

liiili

The design of

; i t i s not on Assyrion type (J . E . Cl1rti s ,

cation) but i t indicates that the

al'1ows

wers

used for something more than target shoo ting or fowling • •

•

However the di�meter o f the reed shafts i s nowht3re greater

( 0 . 3 in) and i s mostly about 7 . 1 or 7 . 2

than 7 . 5

( 0 . 28 in:

and so similar to that of othar EBJPtiRn arrows . The sti ffness of two of the se arrows could be maasuretd, 6 and dafle cti on tes ts showed EI = 9 . 99 x 10 N mm4 . Thi s i s of tha snme ord.lr as the stiffness found in Erianthus as described in Appendi x 2 . 3 • I t shoul d be po ss ib le to tJs timate the ' d,uw-weight ' ot •

the bo w from i ts st ru c turtJ .

a

fi gure

A fi rs t approximation sugge st s

of about 180 N ( 40 lb f ) , on d that i s similnr to

es timo te s of the draw-w ei gh t o f Egypt ian se lf-bOWS made by �y e by Mr . R ob �r t Hardy ( priva ta

woul d np pet nr

to

t cr. ti on ) .

b� to o so ft fo r such a bo w by

n

The arrows ta ct or ot about

"

2.6,

a c cording to the

218

,

table in appendix

2 . 2 , and thi s shows

that the bow c ann o t have been very e ffi c i en t - i . e .

a large

propor tion o f the s tored ene rgy must have remaine d in the b� •

a t the end of the sho t .

Appendix

The drag on an arrow .

2.5

By analysing the r e sul t s of wind tunn e l te sts made by

Rodgers & Hof fett

( 1 935 )

Rhe ingans showed

factor k could b e divi d e d k ' I

in t o three components , as follows .

a factor for the head of the arrow , governed by its

cro s s - s e c ti onal area , and i ts shape . by a cons tant B , having a B

2.3

=

B

=

the value o f k

l

•

Re presenting the shape

value

1 for an ogival head

=

B

( whe re d

( 1936 ) that the dr.

7

for a

60

0

cone

•

,

for a blunt head

is

i s the diame ter of the he� d in mm )

,

( where d i s in inche s ) .

factor for the shaf t , governed by the l engl ,

k ' 2

a

L and the diameter d .

With both L and d in

wi th L and d in in che s

k

( imperial ) 2

=

3 . 5 x 10

-8

L d

k , a facto r for the fl etching governe d bl the 3

area F of the fea thers , counting both sides of each . F in

2 cm k3 ( me tri c )

wi th F in square inches

-

-

-2 2 N m s

with

• • •

r.

219

Taking for example an arrow of diame ter 8 length of 700

2

( 0 .; 2 in) , a

mm

2

( 6 in ) of fle tching

( 28 in) , and 38 . 7 cm

•

the metri c fi5�res give " 6 k x 10 6 . 2 1

•

•

N m

-2

s

2

-

Thus , with a well designe d head about half the dl'ag comes f •

•

'. ..

the fletching •

.. . ... . .

.J.• -

Making a guess at the �ffe ct of wrapping tow rOlmd the

I-

.

"

.

'.<

•

•

arrow , as described in se ction 2 . 4 . 2 . 4 , we have to allow both for the enlargement of the cross-secti onal area , which -

affe cts k and for the extra longi tudina l

As

sllr"face .

•

•

that the tow at least doubles the diame ter of the arrow, • • •

increase by a factor of 4 , and unl ess the wrapping •• •

• •

-

•

.

is very cleverly done there will be a �lrther increase

•

... :-t ,. I ;. �

If there 11

an alteration in the shape , whi ch increases B . •

such alteration ,

78

x

·

,.

•

if the longi tudinal effect i s merely �

double k , the arCher might get away with k

•

•

•

( 24

=

32

+

22:

+

2 -6 -2 2 s which i s about daub 1 e tha t tor the p1 ain 10 N m

•

•

arrow ; however i t would seem likely to be consi derably bi@)u 1

•

•

-

•

,

.

-

•

•

•

•

,

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

..'

�

•

.'

.

• •

. '

".

•

Appendix 3 . 1 Evidence for the structure of hoplite shields • •

Traces of woo d indi ca ting the struc ture of hoplite shi elds have been found in thre e cases ; each suggests a different design and me thod " of manufa c ture • •

The simplest i s that of

A3 . l . l

•

an

unpublishe d Etr�scan

shi eld now in the Vati can whi ch i s fOI"med from bowl .

•

solid wooden

a

I am indeb ted to Mr.H . Rus sell Robinson , Keeper of •

Armour at the Tower of London for infol111a tion of i ts S " y r,,� � "')(!.o.tc. of the Vatican exi sten ce , and to Profe sso r Roncal li , Museum for permi ssion for my coll eague , Dr . G . J eron1mi des , to examine i t , and to Dr.J eronimides himself for the •

report , whi ch I have abbreviated in places • •

" The shield seems in fai rly good condi ti on , al though .

.

the centre of the bowl and some se ctions of the rim have been corroded away .

The WOo d insi de i s not laminated , and about

half the original quantity remains .

The shi eld has not been

re stored in any way , and vari ous b i ts of woo d and o ther metal The outer bronze i s very smooth and .

fittings are loose .

etc.

wi thout any design , engra

" The shape i s nearly ci rcular , 82

em

by 81 . 5

em .

"The thi ckne ss of the bronze cover i s about 0 . 1

em

or les s .

There is no sign of weapon damage , " The width of the bronze rim i s 3 . 8

around the

OlD ,

almost oonstant

The rim has seven holes

erence .

about 0 . 3 cm) more or l ess e

spaced .

(

They seem to be

rive t or nail hol as , but no rivets or nails remain . p� tal e of the holes point inwards .

The

The edge ot the rim 1s

about 0 . 8 om deop. " Tho woo d seems to b e

e

long-!ibred spe cie s .

There 1s

,

.•

•

ovid ..m oa ot some glue d j oints whi ch. indi cate that tha wooden

bowl hoe

two or aore cane4 piece • •

le4

a.

'!'hi e 1e oont1 ru d by th e ' taot that the arain dino

i. no t nlwa18 the

•

wcod thi ckne s s il about

At the centre of the bowl the

2.0

2.5

-

wooden bowl bal been carved al

lower part ot

the

of the

•

1 below.

in ti

wooden ria bae

B

!be

eo rt of rib glue4 to i t , o

•

�

and

/

a

/

,

Fig". 1

, .g I

,

I

.e conA rib ie glue4 on the bren.e .

!he two ribs

pl-ovide the contact. (tig . 2 ) .. ,

---

:--

,

Bronze

Rib ( GIr 4

-

5 mm thick'

Rib I� I mm thick.

, •

Figure 2

a14e of the woode bowl ta.

- The G

tbin lB73r of leather ( about 0 . 25

the ria.

The,

..

jUDcUcm betna the bowl

th' ck) , 1•• •

It &

U.,. 1&th. J

U. a lethe to

•

• &

'modem it.

A word lIH4

b7

•

,

·�OPv£uTo-Aup -aa. ,6o -.�d�

to

(Birds 491 ) , is

mean ' a maker of lyre ( b owl ) s and shi elds on the lathe ' , and the slight divergence from a true circle could quite well be ac counte d for by play in the bearings .

Such a mode

•

of manufa cture , if it were the earli e s t , woul d help to account for the round shape , which would no t Beem otherwise

>.

the most desirable . A quite different s tructure was observ ed by G .�.Hy1ona8

A3 . l . 2 .

in a shi eld found at Olynthus (A. J .A . 43 ( 193 9) p 5 7 ) . " The interi or of the shield was made of crossing pie ces of wood ( ptuches ) probably covered in the centre with hide . Within the broad rim were found pie ces of charl"ed wood 6

CIII

wide ,

five small bronze rings , one With a hook attache d , two - 1s • na1

•

11 •

Thi s structure suggests a laminated construction, very much •

•

like that of the Roman shields found at Doura Europos (Pulliont ftcampaign ,p1.4) whi ch in turn correspond to the description of the legionary shield given by Folybius ( 6 23 2-5 .

Other

to the struc ture are collected by Fiebiger, Pauly �i S80wa2 II A 1 916 ) .

•

Two shields found at Olympia and de scribed by E.

A3 . l . 3 .

( Olympiaberi cht III ( 1959) p 81 ) , show yet another pattern. "Bei S child 3

ie i chneten

ersetzten Reste der UDter-

•

sich in den

•

,

vi

zwei in Gegensixm

lage

tige hoel zeme

f

Staebe klar ab, die in der �itte dar "ioelbung , wo die Boegen e

dar nahe kom,nen , durch s chraege Hoelze r verstrebt

ware.. .

•

Auf die gleiche Eolzkonstz'uktion tuehren zwei entsprechande bogenfoer-mige Spuren auf der Innensai te von �child 7 , die sich aehnlich auch bei 6 :tinden .

}liar scheint sogar del' 81ch

verbreitemde Riss , der �er ueber die �oelbung des Be hinweggeht mi t dem hoel zerzlen Stabwark der Untarlage ,

zu stehen l

denn

sdine seitli che

a

223 folgt fast durchweg den Verlauf der gebogenen Folzstaebe . Die Beobach

rei chen no ch ni cht

aus , 1m

von der

te chni schen Ferstellung der hoel zernen :lchildunterlage ••

. '

e�n voellig klares Bild zu geben .

Saviel ist j edo ch

•

s i cher , dass s chon im Intere sse der ?e stigkeit auf tecbnisCh vollendete Zusam10enfue gung de s Bolzes dar groesste "Iert gelegt wurde . " Whatever the main covering of the shield may have be en , it would seem to have needed these

cUt've d

struts to

support i t , so i t mus t have been fairly thin , and i t cann o t have been made from the solid wood like the first shield.

With due respe ct for Kunze ts caution , i t would seem

mos t l ikely to have been rawhide or leather.

Such a

covering might be the easiest way of producing a shape such as that in fig . 3 . 4 .

•

Appcndiz 3 . 2 h 3.2.1

The me t nllurgicd stnto o f Bronze :.rmour .

Introuu c t i o n . •.

Copp�r

nu

c o ppor b��LJ(H1 cllc.ys very vary ccnsi �c:r�bly

in stren�th �nu Juc t il ity �cc ording

t c the: �eount of c old

nnne nl ing •

wc.rl:ing which t h o :Jetal has re c e ived since thl;! lo.st

only

•

It is thorefore import�,nt

to c.scert.,in not

tho che&Jicn1

composi t i on of cn crt cfcc t but also its mctnllurgiccl stcto if we wish to e s t icate i t s strength. doinG th:::.t is

The traditional way

of

to ceas\lro tho res istcnco of tho l;le tal to

inde nt n t i o n ; for e xam pl e ,

•

under suitable condit ions a metal

will deform plasticnlly un�er a pyr �ei dal indenter at which is about

3.3

plc.stic�lly

in

a

pressure or

' V ickero H:-x
..

a

stress

t imes the stress c.t which it yields

t e nsile test .

( i. e .

Vickers in den t ati on

the

3.3

is about

'yield

t iD�a thv

stress ' . Tcb � r 1 95 1 ) . ei

However in c.roour \-Ihi ch hr-.s l�in buried for condit iuns may b<: f<'.r from i�et1.l .

Aay

granular corros ion

of

cc i

pitt ing

u for

Tho meta l cay b e so!t�n�d by losing

cenu!ncture c it ho r

Yet c.gr.in ,

may havo

in c.Do io nt

hl'.r (�nc: ss f.

On the one bond inter-

On the other ,

soee t ime s enhancod by the usc

through \:i!!usion.

3 . 2 .2

or

t u st cr s it Inuirc o t

A 3.2.2.1

:.

c old

beo n GODe in mo cln rn

ti J:lo s: .

nn� voi &3 , nny lovor

cleaning ,

�l oyin g

r

working

clocontG

subso que nt

o t rn.j. erJa+ " ,, '; "' a

"

1"\11+

hi c h

t:'. r�l

r h� ot or id ns co o t ll wo as is

br oc ,lly quo.l it r.tivo ��n(:

ht".vo

b(J n n �r.11o

in

ohcot �� t�l or wire tc: n�8 to bond in ",

.. .. .. . ,

ev 1(lon co .

IJ o t h o (!a

known to

uni 1'crm rr. ..;ius ,

to

So ba foro using s1!r f c. ce

CO tl,lot o l;y

n011-

(loot .! �,.t i,,� r.'I ot.ho d is t o .:;osc: rvc tho u i s t o r t ion s ill u

the

raise the res istance t o in�entat ion

( ' corros ion h...... rdening ' ) .

it .

l leni ?

ho ron.

:-.nt iquity . c

curvu

�t

c.rcour

AnnQc.lo (� mcr�

wrk-hl\l'llo nQ cl r.lo tnl betule

or

I1loro

1088

225 along the line where yiolC!in� first occurs.

It s o hnppons

th... t hell!1ets wl;)rc frequently rondcrec! usoless l'.ft.,r cc.pturo by b�n�ing back th� check-pieccs cr the noso-cu�r� or both,

IL'.rgo

l'.nd th(:re nrc hL'.5 been done,

numbern

of

detnchec! piUCCE.

t/horo th.... t

untl ,,,hero �llowl'.nco c<:n be lII£".dc fer stross., ,

.

concentr�tion due to the 5tn�c of the hell!1et,

tho pnttorn of

benuing TiJ;:'y ill�ic�te the met...llurgicL'.l state. Applying this criterion,

it �ppe�rs thnt Diddle

Ccrinthir,n helmets tended to bend gra.!uclly, which would imply

�

37 , 49, 32.3,

plctes ,

1956

(

)

25

ond

E.

of

Kunze,

BE 799, N.Y. Mctropolitnn

(Cataloguo no.s Olympia

On the other hund 'ChL'.lcic!ic' helccts, 'I llyriL'.n' hclccts tc.gcther with

of prior cold-working:

.

(Chnlcillic)

,

for

c.

ntlgbcr of late

large

bend

chPx£'.cteristic

inst[mco'thcse shown in plL'.tes

79

35 Be 41 (Into Corinthil'.n) c::.nc! 58 (l;-.te . --

.

.

(Kunzo

Illyric.n) of Kunze Olycpicboricht VIII. (C�tr�OGuo no.s Olympin ,

r.nd

lc::.te Ccrinthic.n,

Corinthi� cheek-pieces, shew thc shorp

Be 80

Olynpir.bcricht VII

07.286.105, :.thene lkt. Mus. 15151, 15153 respectively.)

liuseuTiJ

l£'.to

in

very ductile condition: for instc.nce those ohown

1958

).

B3007, B5605. B4504. B5155 , B4502

,

respectively.)

3.2.2.2

A

section,

Where

it

is

possible to polish r.nL etch

n

tha shl.:pl of tho grr.dns revenIs tho C.lilcunt of cold

work, .-.nu

n

micro-hardness tonter c�

bo

usee.

�his has

boon

eon.:! of somo fragnonts of Crot�n nrmour of tho 6th Contm.) b,. ,

C.S. Seith

(r.pponJix to Hotfmt.nn BeR....ubitschok 1967).

Ho

oho,'/s o quil',xuc. greino indicntinlI nnnor.lin{;. but hardnossos th� renso

144 - 165 Vickers (120 - 140 Br�oll).

consic!.:!ro th":'.t r.ccopt:�blo for

high-tin bronzv in tho

r.

nnnoclc� stnto, but th�t is f�r froQ ,

Smith

,

obvi ous, and

somo .

,

currosion procoos r.11:'.y

bu

rosponsiblo.

Bolton's quote

n

in

226

•

of 97 Vickers

. •

85 Brihsll fo r fully IJ.nne�lo(� 10% tin bronzo.

=

(Bolt e n & Sons Bronze Hnndbook, Froghnll, Stoke cn Tr e nt ) . A

3. 2.2.3

to observo th�

third �othoC, ns suggeete� in the chapt�r, ie

A

c�rrosion, crr,uin� th�t cold-worked

de c r u o Gf

o�tnl is uore liablc tv c Q rr o de .

This �cthod too suSgeets '. •

thct l�te Corinthinn heloots wore oore heavily worke� th�n thoir pre��cessors, corrosion being rais�Q A

'

p� rticuln rly

severe in the

c� p ' of the holQet.

3. 2. 2.4

Fin�lly the re son��ce cf helmets gives scme

in�ic�ticn of hardness, resonnnc� being greater in herd metF.�

th� in soft. pencil

��d

A cru�e method is to strike the h�lcct with

n

count the sccon�s until tho ringing dics �way.

The oetho.! cnn only be c c ep n r ntive , .

closely similar shnpe,

nnd

requir\:B pieces of

ore ov e r it is upset by cr�cking, or

lJ

tho existence of looso pieccs, nnd c�nnot be used with Henc" it is of no use with the leta

corroded helmets.

Corinthiana, but it docs provice some e vi de n ce of col d we rking -

in ll'.ter Etrusc�.n Dna ROIll<>.n bronze hellilets, which hl'.8 be�ring on the general prin ciple.

( In contr.7.st,

Dr.

n

Al"n

Villines, of M�nche5ter Univers ity, who hn s specinlised fer soce yoers in the Iiletnllogr�phic exnrni��tion of mediaeval iroD nm�

steel r.rmour, infercs

whntever of A

c ol d

3.2. 2. 5

-

laO

thnt hc has found

DO

evidenco

we rking in thnt armour ) .

Non e of those cethouB, howevdr, donla with the

possibility of pnrtinl

�nn

o�ling.

It h�s b�on found thnt

0 annoaling nt 600 C. lonves �n' 8% tin bronzo sumo 32% hardor

tho to

ornturo gonorally used.

1.wkJ ':,

C��",(c )�,,� 11i7-."'�"'--) (J.R. �lroch�l, Induotrioo no 397, (1958) 378. / l.ctUt�l liguros; 0 cnDo�lin3 nt 800

..

I\,.

c.

r,ivoD 68 IlV, 6000 C. eivos 90 HV).

Tho

'halt-hard' condition producvd in this way c�ul� conc�ivnbly

hnvo �orno �io�dv�ntngos, ns ohown in ch. 5, but it could cIao

•

227

•

in SODO circumstences be veluc.blo, C'.nll nccurcto figuro8

are

thercfcro desirable. A 3.3.

Surfaco measuremcnts.

Meas1lremonts

ct

the surface hardness of holmets r.nd

•

fragments in muse"D collections ere given in tnbles •

•

i.

3.1.3.

A

3.1.1 -

Through tho kinGneos ot the mUSCUD l:uthorities and

of various sciuntific establishments, it wes possible to use severd moas1lring devices.

The rcsulto ere not ('.lw2,.s con..

•

sistent, but the inconsistencies can usuall,. be expl�in�d,

end

•

• "

cny be en p.dv�ntegc.

For thet re��on no cttcopt

been

has

mado to average the figures, which are given as read (though always convertc� to Brinell Har
p�d

It is suggested that thnt supports

the arguments in the previous sections, r:.n� th�\t helmets ere cold-worked to 140,

=

general

c

g ive a

the

Brinell Harllness

later

of

aronnd

Vickers 160, implyinG a ,.ielti stress of nbout 50 kg

2

ng- , (500 MN m

-2

2 , 32 tont/in ).

th� n..'Xililtlm which Dotal and leaves

c;::n

n

over hall

be achieve': without �t1brittling the.

goed

the earlier helDets

Thnt is slightly

denI ot Guctility.

appear

On the other hand

to be annenled, with BriDell hardness .. 2

f�bout 100, HV 112 yield stress about 32 kg mm (320 MR . 2 20 Toni/in ). The yield 8tress is thus similar to that mild stool, but thu ductility should be much muro thnn twico th\l extension before rupt ur o

-2

m

•

'

of

creater, allowing .

The instruoonts used, with thoir characteristics �nd typiccl A

orrc�s, aro

3.2.3.1

��

follows.

•

J'.. h:�d-hold Ernst test(lr (IE'

by the. dcpc.rtmont of J.lot. llurgy, .

.

indantor i8

Ilic.r.lo nd pyrr.mil!,

C\

tho C:opth of in
r.

sprinC.

in

t ho tablo8) lont

Ir.lpcriol C oll ogo .

Tho

nnt� th41 instrumont lileesuro8 r.

10m!

npplilld by

t ho honcls Md

B�nco it will hn�l to rond 10\1 if thor• •

•

•

228 ll itt ing,

io

scnlu

the holmets while th;;; loci! �

wher�

convex curvnture.

The

Difficulties w�re experienceu in supportinc

is Brinell.

of London,

r:.

hieh if tho mote.l h�6

Wf'.S

l'.ppliec1,

except :�t the Tower A jig m�ce

il w�s nv�il�ble.

suit�ble

by the Techniccl University in Ath�ns �lloweti the tester to be • •

supporteG upside down, l'.

.

be

nn2 helmets tv

pushed onto it using

The mot:::l wns not polished

pestlc placc:�� inside the helmet.

before testing. •

of

lent by the Nction�l Steel Cocp�ny

polishec surface, using

e

tho t able s) ,

& F in

Grecco.

This operntos

pushin� a 10 rom bell into

on the classic Brinell principle, n

(M

� Moor� an� Federhoff tc,ster,

3.2.3.2.

A

screw controlleJ by

�iarnctar of the inaent�tion is �easured with

�

a

spring.

microscope

ani! Grnticule.

It will tenu to read low if the m�teri�l

cont�ins VOiUB,

or if the surface is irregull'�.

usee w�s usually

5000 N,

but

a

force of

10,000

The

The force

N (1 tonf)

wes USC(! occcsionnlly, to check the effect c.f voids. An Ingersoll tester tho Dcp�Itment of Mechanic�l

Univo rsity . depth

of

valucs

indcntation

wero

to tho size w era

ivcn

This 2.1S:·· uses

I.

l'.

ball

of be.ll chosen,

.

br:- kote

tond

and scr ew, but moasures the

(Har��ess

tho

Brinoll scnle).

Due

he re

to HB 100.

All ether roadi

Tho mot�l wes to be hi�h

low whore thoro

Athens Technical

Rockwell principle.

therefcre convorted t�

Rondin88 will

of

the

in the tabl es), lent by

Engineering,

..

accux'cto

curvaturo,

cn

('I'

not polishou

beforo

horo tho plat(J hn(�

't/

wora voiun.

nnc1

a

tosting.

convox

low ('.bove tho figuro

HB 100.

3.2.3.4

1\11 tho

•

toota t".ro subject to orrors uuo

corrosion nnd tQ tllO strnichtoninc of clonts,

to

whicll wi ll tond

229

•

to produce

typically high ynlues.

"3.2.3.5

:. Vickers

ReedinG to

tos t

J:licro-h:lr(�nces

scr.les [ror.! Scythian

;.shlJolcf:'.n J.!usCtuc.

These h::u!

equivelcnt to Brinell 150 t working.

tester WDS used et al'mour , lent by tho

evcrr.ge hL'.rUlOSS of BY 175. ••

nn

ani!

the gro.lnfl

showell

severe col�

Hardness (Brinell) ot Early Corinthian Helmets.

Table A3.l.l

Ha",]ness Reading

.t

Catalogue

Comment

--YIIlP

(Nose-gua111s) . Br 13514 Br 2203 Br 1734 (Cheek Pieces) B m8 B 4579

E

B 8758

I

•

I

101 101 .100

I

-

I

I

-

Tover ot London

E

47 1109 IV 541 100

E

ot Nat. ot Wales) No Number (bent cheek pieces) Bo JI1'f'iber (po lis hed )

. .(116) (114) 120 110 100 11 0 110 100 150 140 100 140 (104) (111) (119) 100 (115) (113) 100 (116)

I

B 1505

104

95 105 110 105

-

Bent. (114)

•

110

150

E

95 94 102 100 150 160 172

E

100 110 105 100 95 125 102 90

E

'..

(Dents Straightenedl •

Tnfltrwaen'ta: e raoll, Rockwell •

I.E

K

•

+

readings conve rt ed to Brine11 equivalent, size of s. se he nt re pa in n ve gi e ar e es th e nc he e, at cur readings above 100 iDac

Eel-g..".

7

•

Koore ADd P e d e rhott. --

ball used renders ·

~

tJ.)

Table A3.l.2

Ha l'dness

( Brinell) or

Olympi a

473 0

B

4320

B B

Halilness Reading

Instrument

Catalogue

B

Middle Corinthian Helmets.

E

E M&F E I

.

E I

4530

B 4260 B 5863

B 26�6

B 1326

(Nose-guard s) B 616

E M&F

95

110

170 150

200

100 140 280 (114) 112

150

100

76

160

110

M&F

114 96

(Cheek Pieces)

I

B 4586

B '1'1

I

•

Severe corrosion.

120 109

110

110

(107)

140

Comment

100

100 105 120 110 100 (118) (120) (125)

115 90 72 (1000 Kg)

I

110

130 100

E M&F

M&F

150

•

100

130 100 96 (500 Kg)

Corrosion pits.

(106) •

(109) (119)

(108) (118)

(110) (113) (118) 100 (114)

�estiDg Ins trllli. ents : I • lngersol,Rockwel1 readings converted to Brinel1 equivalent, size of ball used renders readings above 100 inaccurate, hence these are given in pare nth eses E "

•

+

E,·,.s;'. ]' • Moore and Federhott.

.

•

•

~

UJ

.-..,

Table A3.1.3 ,

Hardness (Brinell) or Late Corinthian Iloll!lets. "

,

;

-

; �talogue

Hardness R� �ding

�

\

.

_.

oymp1& :

COllU!lent

•

_ __ £

B 4544

B 4408 ; B 42?5 -

�

�

4321

,

B 905 B 4322 42?5 193 -

�

B 5173

B 5004 B 500b - B 8757

E E

E

E M&F

lro

150

150

1�

160

1�

160

170 119

110

114 (114) (112) 118

1�

I M&F

99 (102) 130

E M&F

,

E M&F

115 119

89

1�

160

130

99

1�

1�

140

120

I M&F

Dome bending.

130

(126)

(105)

120

Cleaned with acid.

109 109

E

E I

1�

150 148 180

E M&F

E E

120

,

•

,

115

120

170

220 230

1'70 110

220 200

150 120 160 98 84 (103)

•

93

93 (101)

· · N Continued

OJ .... \

•

Table A3.l.3

1 ess (Brine l1) ot Late Corinthian He1�ets (continued) HS'1n

•

,

' --.. ........................................................................--..----

t

Catalogue

Ha(-.nness Reading

Comm ent

(Helaets and Cheek Pieces) B 1827

(con tinued)

E

B 4324

at 10085

140

180

180

E

120

160

180

220

E

190

200

104

120

•

__ _

•

B 7383

B3042

BE 833

I

I

I

(116) 88

90

82

77

(Ill)

( Ill)

(109)

??

Testing Instrufbents: I - Ingersoll, Rockwell readings convert ed to Brinell equivalent, siza ot ball used rende rs rendings above 100 ina cc urate , hence these nre given in parenthosos. E • EC'Dst. M + • - Mooro 3nd Federhott. •

•

l)J

.

,

234

A4.1

Theory.

In outline; th<.: bnllh;tic pc.nuulnri: rcprc£;onts ?r in cipl <.: s

c.;.pplicc.tion of the:

a

sililple

.

-

of cons,"rvntion of

tlOIil"ntuliI c"..nd •

ccns�rv�tion of enarCy. Let

c.

body of

lcs� string of length

its centre of Gc.es by velocity

Let

u.

the

running

c.xi£;

projectile of nne£; c

c.

by

pivot

e.

Cc.so-

.

it thCln be struck clong �n

L<.:t

c

so t�::t it in c.t reet r�lctive: to the

L,

.

ground.

Ii bl.. ouspcnd.:.t1 froLl

r.c.ss

i�pnct b0 fully

with

plne ti c,

so

a

through

etrike

thnt r�ftor

it

•

the body r.nd the: projectile tr�vc:l togcthor with v.:locity

v.

1

th� dir c ct i �n of u,

in

Then, by the cons\)!'v<:.tion

of m

u

-

,

�nd l<.:t the:

initi el

nn

whole tr�nGaction

IiICI.l<;nt uliI ,

(1 )

7

D + H But

kinetic

as

(g

H,

trnv�ls,

it will rise and conv�rt tho

eno rgy • .

into v otcntinl e nergy due to v i

L ie l ong wmt

p� nd ul�J

the:

enc.ug h,

it uill cOl.le

.

to rest r.t

a

Provided t�_t .

•

ve rtical dicplaco-

where

being the grL\vit.'.ti/_�JU".1 constL.nt), nr:.d

honcc

•

•

Any

rit o

tlccnr

coasuror.1ont of

B will .

r.lcnsurv whoN or

u.

e is

But

t.ho

thv owinc.

H

c:

L(1

-

lJrovid",d

oc:rvo

to

.

(4)

cos e)

nngulr.r difl;?lacur.lont lIorc:ovor,

thorufcro

of tho string at tho top

thr.t

t!lO

L".oglo

io

omull,

•

•

~

(l'J/L < 0.1)

ain e II D/L �:... I'L ... .... , ..". "I .

+

g

H

It..,

tn.1,..

(5 ) (6)

2 35

Only �liJhtly le e:: :.ccur;:t.)ly, 2 CNl e \10

2 oin & :-.nd tho;)

1 -

=

c.

th� �xpr"sflion

( usinG

ppro:r.i;.:.:-.tion

(1 - r';)i

'"

'"

(4)

n:,.y rcwrit(;

H

=

D

1 -

';c.>

2

7

•

7

2L

into (6)

cnd substituting t:li s

c icplif yin g

cnc!

,

(8)

u = r: +HD 5

Thin

5

D

: f'proxir:r.tion

the strike v.::locity of tho

ShO\l3 u,

•

pro j c ctih :.s

•.

YOlO the

pe:nduluTJo lest;; thr-.n

0.1%.

th o

c·'.:':"

ide ; : l

th..:

c1ispl•.co !:!c n t of

tho

diDc.:nciona us(;d in the

tostG the �rror

is

It io : .nd

-

.... pp::.rcnt vclocity u

vhor� K r�d C

1)endul . r.t:.

re[:,;-.rd�d

lin.1"'.r

r c l:-.te d

Ku

n

+

C

r';ra const:-.nts.

will bv due: to

•

-

c

('.s

t'.

K

diffaronco bctwuen

tho ro.:-.l cno r,cy be :'.ccor:ul)dr';tud by

u

the

ii:!'Dlivs t!l;'.t thu

, 1s(;

.

60 th·t th<.. true strike velocity u \-ti1l "'"

function , to

D, the

lin c :.r function of

n to \'lhich rccist tho

c lo)Du

in !'Ir o porti on to v

2 i

•

Those

incrc:-.oing th<.: tiC-SS Ii of the

oCJ v(:Du nt

of

e lcDo nt s c�n be

pundul uQ

bob,

.-.nd tho

r;cst icpo��t �rc

(r';) (b )

Ci:.OS(;S

•.cs oci:-.t e: G

...Iith

tho

r\Ocordinc device,

tho t vi rt u �l r;;-.l3s' of th ... Lir c.ccvl..:r::.t.)d by the pondulnD; for � cylindr::'c�·.l b ob , th.: virtu;.l DCSS h:-.a bo\;n to und to boo oqu:-.l to th.:t of tho volufJO of <�ir displr.cod by tho bob; tor :". ephoro thu virtu:..l Dess ia th...t ot hel! th� vclu[lCl dieplccud: ( c.f. 1i::'.l3s�y, 1970, 251):

.

(c)

th" ;·.ir trnpp.;d insi<.1.o tho bob, it ;:n open struct ur e (0.1$. wh o ro r. etre.\l cr r. r oll of 1'01t io uood to nvoid ct.... [lngc projucti1�).

tho Dr.OS th'lt hr.o tr:rgot to t hu

"r

On th.;; other lu:nd,

r�cieto

th�

the',t io

r-=='.Imnnbly

nov�l�ent with

C will :.'(l:prCls�nt .. �ny CJlutlc"nt which �

c�nct,:nt

torcQ F,

01:,,11, .:nd it thul!: d�I:I!l

providod

with nny

thnt

trict ion

236 thv J:.;l;·.curing d c v ic ..

in

F.

but

thu :rorl:

h.-- v<.:

:'.g: .inct th"

r<.-el U c c d l:; by

.--

.

dD ia

'rho

(10)

force }O'

ovor

th.:. uistr.nco D will

(11)

FD

=

10

D.cD

�n� if

[ollowo.

C! u.�.n tit Y

6E Diff<.:runti�ting

U1

2 + ,J;)G D, , 2L

( f.J

-

cl.n bo eh/own

Tbit:;

.

(12)

cn�ll,

6E

'"

err:

'" '"

dD

'"

6D

h � nc Q

an d

rn

",

'"

'"

'" 10 Hence;

th..:

a

constr.nt rnrc

dif3plcc�ocnt,

eitf"runc.: 4U

=

FL +

(14)

�;}g.

F inplics

...

(13)

D +JI

-:c const.-.nt dittcr(.:nce at) in

::nd by c<,uction (8) th::t ioplics :: const�t

C bott: c:n thl: nctu.:.l velocity r.nd the I!ppC'.runt ...

v.:-locity, vithin the liuits of r.ccur ....cy of th .:. .-.pproxic."\tions. .

It in

r.;;rhc.ps

,,"orth

vut t!1:.t the

pt.ir.ting

kinC/tic onQrS7

c:·.lcul;·.tiona ;".t .:ny point.

A4.2

Cor.�truction. J.ny

Ji4:t"riC'.l 7

"

7

r·..-:-.tvri.

.

l nr.:J

be

nienil"

..,i1l pcnutruto or r.dh.;)ru

uc:-.;d to

r.v e i e'

1,'1:

.

(l;:Ul\gc,

incr\..·.-:� ... c.l by thv

un�d in

th�

t�ot�

uo .. d

to, but

th o clivctiv.;)

:1.:'. 00

fer th(.l ponclulwi which the

tltlOB

it

r.

loon ... ;:j.�t(.lri"l io

c.! tho !l�n�uluu

('If :'ir trt'.ppod inDid.., it.

duocri.bud

bulow

..,�o

r.

ci x

turc

",111

'.rho ::lL\tl.lric.l

of c:.rp�t felt

2.17

•

0.;;.;;;;;'

011

'1'0 �Y61C! COupi!cl.tione, thu J'C 1l 4u1UD 0.4,,1 bo kept

•

t roa r o t �t i n £ �bout its

OVll

c�ntro of ��ss b7 arrnns1nc etrilll8

in parcll�l pairo.

4111(

u F7

7

•

Fig. A 4.1

Each

pair �il1 proyellt th� rot�t1on 1n tho plane

C

to tho

•

strings,

r�4 pro. i dod that all the strings ��o

to tho diro ction of u whon �hich

D

•

0, proyi40d that the p1.ot. fra.

tho7 Aro SUSPOll46d all 11e in tho

��d proY1d�4 that tho bob ot thu

sea.

�o pointe at which tho7

p" ndulua

in

lio

•

aD

nttach.a to

otea.

in tiS.

tiona, �ill inhibit rotnt i on

torv�r d aomolltua, but it

can

•

A sot of 8

in �n7 plan..

in th o horizontal plAnO

Ia tho

vora

Att�ct tho

affoct

initial

th� air roeist�co, an4

also t� coeuraor of aoaeurogent. .Mot�od "of gOaDurOI'JOD,t,. lIGan. of 0.

tr r. c o on Gcok�4 Sbaa.

•

•

•

It ia quito eimplc, to moaovo

n st7lu,c"hiCh will oi t ho r mark

•

A4.1 or 1n othor

teet doscribod below, oD17 tho yorticnl etrinss Rotation

•

s1.aSlo

aotion in tho diroctioll of u will bo etrings, which CAn bo arrangod

ere

•

a

pap�r

l) ,117

vith iJl1c

nowo'V'or it is siaplor sUU

01'

to .nov •

•

•

238.

C'.

pundului,: to pUGh

tho

Blot! :-.lonG

t.-.bl\l plc c o d

n

boneath it.

.

to

Tho friction,.l forcCi on tilt; slc.t', t:ust btl oufficicnt it fro[� olicang und.;;;r itc own r":oncntur.t,

io co nc;tn nt viII (!L:inioh

of

u

a

pr o v e n t

providu d thnt

....nd

by�. conGt�t �JJount.

it

Tho moss

• "

th .. r.l"d ':ill increE'.sc the rinss of the: pe:ndulw.l cs :-.. d ire ct

r c: p c rtod

n

pc ndul uo ,

cnrdbonrd slod

"no

pusher:

forw..�rd

by the end of tho

th� lr tt or being forot·J o f rolled felt. .

The di�onsionG of the: pI:ondulul:1

w or "

s tr ings

Length of

b,. ..:o igh ing

( �"s air )

in

:-"5

follo\-Is.

1.20

App.�r\;nt J.Ic.GG (of bob

0

"'01110'

} 0.05 o

length

0.45

D

front.:-.l nrca.

0.11

ri

o.�so of

"

}.570 Kg

found

•

A4.}

In tho tc:sts

since the penduluLl bob docs not roti!te.

e.ddition,

sled

C�libration

The pc.rfor� tion tests .

using

n

(except

Bi

nglo

pe ndu lum 'Ioro

tho se

croBGbow beine s�t to provido

�

gi v e n

b,. tho

givan b,. th" tblcr

t � ro;na]

of th�

each sat

be ginning of cech sot

ho ad ) the rondings

c ocpc.r o d \lith

velocitios of tho ardor

Iil.:lde i n fonr sots,

At the

projl.lctile.

with tho 8

thnt

er e

w

v c l o ci t,.

s�rios of low

e

nt

xpe ct ed ,

ve l ocit,.

tho

ots

ah

end th� eiosilo projocted strlliGht into th' pondulurl without pessing thr �u gh

a

target .

pc:nC:ulun should h.wCI othor forco them

tho eiaeilo thu

An

idonl distnncu D', by

o v o d bnckwc::.rda '.l4... d it bOCtn subjoct to no

c

gravity,

W:.1l

COJ:1putcd froJ:1 thlJ tiJ:1. token b�

to �nDo tho photocoll,

a c tu�l llilltL.nc ...

r.\ol\fJurod.

of thoDO c':'.librl�tion

ntt\lr tl\'� I;!('.in

w hich tho

Dorioe

nnd

D' wno compnrod with D,

Tho tnbloD

ohowing tho rooulte

t"lltc, L\Dc1 of onc tu ot ....

rtl g1\'vn b(llow

in

o

bof"ro

ono

teet

chronoloUic:'.l ordor,

239. J.. 4.1 - A 4.5)

( T�blC:G

I'lnrl tho J'Jcultc of tilt-los

J..4.4

arc plott�ct graphic�lly in fiZ_

toat

wes perforncd not li]

be.ck

l\

Th�'leGt c�libration

2.

sheoting, but by

munsurl.:d dist<'.llc(o,

and

A4.2, A4.3

drc�otine th.:. pcndulll�

r:llo\"line it to suing, and t;:king tho

•

•

The s1l::d wns

difforvncc in L::ngth be:ttIC"n the two h2.lf st/ings. •

•

push�Q

fcrw.:-.rd during the second hlllf-s�ting.

The tablc:s are

.

giv�n in chronologic;.'.l ordc�. tho tests in tabl�s

1.4.4

havinr; been lilc..d� on

th," sam.::

•

day,

A4.3

end

the remc..inder at wider

intcrv<..ln.

of

On ��uination

th � se tables tho consistancy of the

readings given by the pcndulun for a Given projectile at a

found to be

givon velocity within each s�ries is however the graph

shows

(fig 2)

quite good; between the

inoonnistency

aCD� •

results

of

testa in different series, and one

nanoly thu lnnt sot

of

results in tcblc

•

serious

anomaly,

A 4.3.

To investignto th(.:so differcnccs wo Dey rewrite equation

(9)

above

in terms

of displaceccntt

D' in \-Ihich we

should CX1Jcct r.: to o'

caGs accclClratGd, o

K

Tho

cay

I!laSS

�v"

and a

vc.1u;:

til.:. sled

as

3 0.05 1:1

•

+

C

account for

C to account

of

�bout

has b e" n

-3 about 1. 2 Kg c • and

air is

givon

of

ID

=

Since it

1.06, Dade

Given as

YaS

cado of

not

for

woighing tho

••

'virtual ones'

voluno.

tho 6%

of air accolcrct�d

Adding th�D�

'.57 Ka givl)n

aD

va

the

•

•

th(.:

90

up

Tho

g.

follows.

as

density

of

tho volut:� of th\) bob 11..--:.s boon

that volwlCJ wns t::.kun

in

in

for friction.

f",lt, most of account��

difforonces

obt�in

tltl8S

c

a

f� irly looso cc..rput

up with

bob,

air, whoso mass

nnd thoro is

outsid� th� bob, tot�l or

of th4: bub,

.21

e

further

of tho

Kg to

WIl"

saQO

incroa8�

an incr'::J:lont of nbout

�,., . •

•

•

•

(e)

•

.

•

',

z

-- � ----•

•

•

10

•

..

-

•

•

•

•

•

(+ )

•

•

30

20

ria. 2

-'e --i

•

"

40

,

.

50

60

D( mm)

70

90

80

•

Plot of result. of ralibration t •• t. of Ballistic Pendulum shown in tabl.s A4.2. A4.3. A4.4. IrackeL. are placed round r ••ult. wher. D' may be erroneou •• due to �rror. in clain,. Stral,ht Un •• are drawn at 0' D· 1.06 D + 13 aMi' IIId D' l.Ob D + 3 D' • 1.10 9 ... -

-

•

•

,...,

.t: •

,...,

24 1 .

Table A4.1 Calibration test of Ballistic Pendulum using timer. Legend: M:: = mass of pendulum 3570 g. rn = mass 'of projectile 14.8 g. d = distance covered by arrow in time t, 142 Iiil", t = tiMe recorded by timer, (milliseconds). L = length of pendul ,1200 D = maximum displacement of pendulut:\ in tbe direction of impact, as l!1easured. (mm) . D = average of D. � -2 g = gravitational constant, 9.8. s D' = ideal disp1acenent of pendul1l1!l calculated d/t assuliling zero losses, as •

D'

=

m+M

•

d t

•

D'

av= average of D'. D" = corrected average displacement, calculated !�om av equation shown.

t (ms) 1.9 2. 0 2.0 1. 8 1.8 1. 8 1. 9 1.81 1.85

.

D'

( 1lTCl) 108 103 103 114 114 114 108 114 111

D'

av

D" av

D

(1 . 06 Dav

(.tlln )

•

94

:t 110 6

•

,

92. 5 90. 5 92.5 92. 5

102 93 89 93

+

1 3)

:t 93 3.6

113 .

242. Table A4.2 Calibration test of Ballistic Pend ul

using timer

•

•

Legend as for table A4.1 except: '. m = 17.4 g1 . n t = 241 t- nlln . Groups of shots at diminishing settings of crossbow draw •

•

t

D'

(ms )

(mm)

2.2 2.03

110 119

2.07 2.35

117 103

2.65 2.68 2.66

91 90 90

3.15 3.12 3.13

71 71 71

3.62 4.05 3.74

67 60

65

D' av

53 55 53

5.23 5.28 ?

46

? ?

5.6

45 ?

43

D"

av D�v

(1.06

(1IIIIl )

(1�1I1l)

114

95

95

114

110

87 89

88

106

90

60 77 74

70

87

77

61 64 61

62

78

64

50 51 50

:

)

•

40

•

50

66 •

42 38

40

55

45

33 47 38

. 39

54

43

29 33 31

31

45

54

? •

?

Dav

(1Inl)

(

.

4.56 4.36 4.59

D

+

•

13)

243.

•

Tab le A4. 3 Calibration of Ballistic Pendulum using timer. ' Mass of projecti1em Remainder of'variab1es as Table A4.1. 1 Dr = 389 t- • Groups at different settings of cross-bow draw. "

-

•

•

•

2.47 2.57

157 151

•

161 185

? ,

244.

Table A4.4 Calibration of Ballistic Pendulum using timer. Mass of prpjecti1e 23. 1 g. Distance d moved"by projectile in time t, 137 tilin . Remainder of variables as for Table A4.1. 1 I"101. D' =. 309 t Groups at different settings of cross-bow draw.

,

•

,

D'

t (ms)

(1:1[11 )

3.47 3.41 3.38 3. 41

89 91 91 91

4.73 4.80 4.98 4.84 4. 76

65 64 62 64 ,

65

D' av

D

D av

D"

am

(1:1111)

(mm)

(!'IU1 )

(1.06 Da v (IUltl )

90

82 84 82 85

83

92

64

60 58 58 59 60

59

65

3) +

245.

Table A4.5 Calibration of Ballistic Pendul ., by releasing pendul ",

from rearward displacement D

1

and measuring maxim ,

,

displacement D , 2

both displacements measured from

forwan}

the

vertical position of the pendulum along the line of swing. Pendulum variables as in Table A4.1. ,

65 171

-2

77

69 170 105 75

1 3 2

135 138 113 230 160 113

128 138 113 226 154 105

7 0 0 4 6 8

lOB

,

,

•

2.3 ± 3.0

•

246 • •

C

lIIL'.y h�v.:

c::rdbo . rd .

b ...

.

ponduluOJ

.

·

.

;>rc.b... bly

t:.

Tc.king

c

H
.3 ll..1.

� out

bout

•

'i

1. 2

=

=

D'

t'.

-th� eftocti VI.: bl:

!'Jean

�hio i� sccn t�

.003

+

eds

ct

3

no

w�ll �ith thv

•

fer C ( i. e.

th.:

S'::.: ..lC

slt:d goes

tc show

firat two

4.4, t:nd

tabl;.) I.

feet th.) uost int�rr..... lly consistvnt sote. lnst sc.t in t
(16)

c

c�.librf.'.tioll for(1ula

fit cuit�

beth

of the.

r.bout 4 Kg., c.qnntion

0.1

x

1.06 D

=

of

Thu fJ.(ltinward

0.1.

x

pr c c!ict

.c.m1.

T�lU e oo ftic i v nt

the. tJ(lVOL!�nt c·f tho pc.nduluc

tdssilc tl)eoth"r to

thl;

of tt.:bh A4.3

cf

terce; ro(.iatinl)

0.1

bout

r.ne

valu..:

,.�,cr is

on

tL� fricti-:n.:...l will

I:'

r.

these

aota

.::ro in

In ccntrr.st. tho

lc�r(;.; nOGativ,", v.:..luo furt:u;r thnn prcc!ictoc!)

c.:.csidorc.bly

•

snd in t�bloo A 4.1 end A 4.2 C c;puors to ��vo 13

+

-

vcluo

c.

of •

r.J::I .

Th� nctativu valuv for

C

well bo duo to tLe

Cl:y

sled �arting eocpcD7 with the.

, i:.luost incodiatc11

£ftc.r th� lntt":' bns att�.inocl its

ollxiD11tJ

t�at c�so the elc.d vill cc�u to rost in D

8

"l · v•

=

and whore. vi is larBo end the. displnc .. t;.;;nt

r:-f

1.1

n

distance

,

is ctl.."'.l.l. D cc.n bo li\rgcr o

tho) pc.ndul\1o.

at thnt

di ct �nc o �nd

coof!iciont

•

nbout O. 41

.175

WelS

a 0

•

•

•

-1

•

a,

an�

A slido

thnt initi&l v�locity wvuld roquiro

ot friction �

wno

D,

The; .worusu distanco

t4i'" trovoll""tl in the. c:!De.s,,"w1d.Ola wo are concorned th� v�locity ot the. bob, V ' i

In

volocity vi.

a

247 which is very cloG u to tho at

On the oth�r hanu,

thnn

D

lo'.... .:.:r

0.1 nllowed elsewhere.

=

D

voloci ti ... s, .

should be slJc.llor

D

•

•

Th� A

f�gur o of

4.1 and

Qost li lc� ly c xpl an �t ion of th� discr e p a nc y in tcbles A 4.2 is t h�t both t he sled end t he point o f i n p act

of t he pro j e ct il 0 were to one p o n dulun ;

th<:t

'tlas

of t ho central axis o f the

side

free to rot2.te,

only verticu1 strings.

since

it

Ro t at ion di d occur,

'tICS

by

6 u sp c. nd c d

and quit .::: a snaIl

dis p1 ac ec ent froD the ccntr�l �xis would be suf ficient to pr oduce the discrepancy.

[,'. ir 1 y

It is

if th ... dislllncer.lont froT.1 the centrel axis and

�

C

fc::ctcr of

and £raphs in ch. .

ah/ays the

and not th�t in velocity,

inaccllr:=J.cie s in de terL"!ini n g uni oportant

6:!OC,

•

It may be n ot e d th�t DincD we ure concerned

drop in energy,

.

H�S

13 has bcc.:n �llowc:d in the relevant tables

=

4

as

con6t[�nt, however,

with

th e

oven quito large

the 10H terninal

v " l ociti C: 5 are

cO[lpared ,dth qUite sr:.all erroro in dcterrJining

the ouch hi ghe r initial velocities. 'tlas lioi h d by the latt er ,

Tabl� 4.1(

The

a ccuracy

o f the tests

not by the b allistic pc ndul

�!?JtiJg3)thc

details of tho cali br ation tes ts •

and sets out the c orr e ct io n required for each sot,

in order

calculate DI.

a�c r aging

Tho tnblv

�lso shows the rOGults of

tho tilJOB recorded durin b .:.:ach

svrice

initial volocitioo and encrgius,

t

.

to

o f tests, to obtain

nd th� Oy.?oct�d doviati on

in

each svrica. •

In wlln

te sti n g thv curvod plntoo

n

e h ort� r

c�libr&tion procoduro

f.::llo�ICd, which consistod 1::vroly of ad j usting th" crossbow

until :: direct fihot l'roduc .:; d th\,; p �n duluo

DC

th� v � l ocit y

hnd

or.r.1v

dieplccoment ot tho •

boon r u c c rdo d niter p�rforation, uud monD'lring

of thy pro j o ctil o

with the timer.

•

246.

Notes

to Introduction

and Chapter 1. N o te s

Introduction.

1.

E:iven usin g

All references are

the abbreviations in the

'Ham:.nonds note is no. 27 on p 17 of

bibliography.

d (1968).

,

The reference K r omayer

in it

are:

J .Kromayer,

=

'Drei

Schlachten', Abh.d. Saechs.

Akad (Leipzig 1921) p 10. •

Delbrueck

=

H.Delbrueck, Geschichte derKriegskunst i (Berlin

1920) p.60 n.l. W . 1JicLeo d

W .I1cLeod, 'The range of the ancient bow', Phoenix

=

(1965) p.8.

Chapter 1.

1.

There

is

a lead sling-bolt

Ashmolean lfuseuiD at

Oxford.

said to be from Hnl�thon in the

�ven

if that is true, 8.'rld not as is

•

far more likely a dealer's invention, it is certainly later than

I

I

,

the Persian ':lars, and probably belongs to the Fourth Cen tUI'Y.

(C.Foss, Greek Sling Bullets in Oxford, Archaeological Reports

,

,

I,, ,

I ,

I

of the S.P.H.�. 1974-75). 2.

Xenophon, Cyropaedia 11 3, 9-10.

NUv 6', l�n. f,ptv Mat 6&{XVUTa� pdxn, nv l� dp� IdvTa" dvO�lou, 9Uo&1. h I. OTall � vou�. woup y& xat 'tc5Ua r;aa h(oTa'ta( nva lIdxnv lXaOTQ o66i lap' lv�, aAAou paed vTa n I�pa T", 9dc��, O (" V 6 soo, xipaTL la{£Lv, d tlIC� dIA�, d M�V cTdllaTL. 6 MdlPO, 66&VTL. xot ?uAdTT£a&�{ y. , lQf'I. QlaVTa TaOTa tl{cTaTaL &�' �v lIdA�o'ta 6&t, xat TnO� &(, �U6£�, 61.6aoxdlou .JIOT£ QOI.T�OaVTa. xat t�, lfn, tx IaL6{ou £U&�, .�oSdAA£�ea, h1tl.:nd llTlV IP� TO\!TWV � TI. I�nv 1l'1Y�tl'£�bL' d 6� 1111 ClUo IIn6h lXOLIl'. T� x£tp£ I�O�XWV tvtlo6Ltov � tL t6uvdllf'lv t�V T.a(ov't�· xal 'tOOTO tIO(OUV �U 6L6aC'xtflltvo�, dAH M':Jt t.·a�tt;) 'to\1T(1' I<1Ltfll£VO'. d IP?fir&Ao(IIf'1V. )ld'xcuClCiv y& lI�V lD�W �IW' eEt lallBdv&Lv h' If'JPc\ 'I"' cpoo£w" .. , tyc4 ,'nIL. ho (ow yoOv JICIt TOOTO MwAudll£VO,. OV ��6noMdll£vO'· �a1£� xat c5AA3 l�tLV � £l�ydp£voc .at \�I� lIT1Tpll, )I",t �I� laTpa, �I� 'I"' 9\10£1.11' IpdtTuv �wyxacdll'lV . .. t vat �a 6(0 l�L�V y& T� lIaxa(p� 15v 6 T� 6uva(lInv Aav&dv£l.v. c� ynp IIdvov �d�cl. �Vt w�n£P T� B�h(C£�v x�t t�{X£l.v. &AAa x,t �6u IP�' 'I, Ic�uxiVQ' T"OTO t�&MU tll'L tYV'll..

I

;

I

249. -. ,. S 1 ,;." -4.

3 - "

"And now , " he coot bu... . ""e bav� beeD tait i.ted !oro a _t1MNl of f liht l na . vbfr.b , I ob• • rye . a l l .-0 natut a l ly uod.�'laD4 . ja� I . f a t he � •• e of o t her t re a t ur • • • arb under.lead • • � .. t� � of l«.rn�d I ra. aa1 o t beT .our�. tbaa f ight ing vht�h i t ha. f tOli ia.t h e l : for f aar.80': . , t h. bul l k r.ove bow t o f i ght vi tia M. horn • • the hor, e vl tb h i. buol • • the d�3 " i fh hi. t eeth . the ..ar bov to prot e( t t b...� l ves . t�. aa&1. wi th h i , t Ult. . ADd a l l k tb tha I f r � vbi�h they .o.t need prote c t ion , .ad that . r o� , h •• e n�er goae to .,boo J to any t • • ( he r " . 3.

•

Vegetdl • • De a.. Mi l i tari . 1 xii

CQcsig pu��tos non 801ua fnc ile vicorc sod . ti�� derl oero

•

Ceo fo 8nim , qUOY!s icpotu Tonint , DOD

frc quont�r interficit ,

cum at erais Tit��ia

•

de f

.t

unc iae ��ctc .ort�ia oat ,

08sibus r �t c�ntrQ puncta

Do coeso o st enia , ut Yitr.lie �onotrct qui c qui d iaao rgi

•

Ik:in
"

infertur (: t a
Qut OD tuc tc ccrpore •

sr.1Ic int

r�to qu�� vide�t .

L

Fig. 1.5

r��

n

aidewQ1s load P 10 �ppli�� r.t tho bnn�-srip,

in thy outer fibro8 ot tho ahnft whor� t��t enter• •

ccntilo""or

bOQD .,

-

r

1 .1

.

VAoru r 1s tho rAd i us of thu ohnft , L i. tb� lon8th fro. the .cck� t

t o th�

hon d-srip , AD� 1 18 tho aocon� .amuat of •

aroa •

01 tho cross-so ct ioD ot th� chnft �bout ita noutrAl •

I

IHfl'ES I noximuLl

Thus the

lo c ,�

:hicl c <.n b e r.ppli\.oc b c f G r-.: rupture: is Ie '

..

max

rL

c

nr

..

3

Gf

to

2

l�

-2

JlIIII

=

.. 11'*'

p

cax

s

nr4/4

x

729

r

-

c.

9

Iw.rd'tlOoL

ty p i c � l ,

<.

,

jillI,

we

::s

obtain

x

1.4

358 N (80 Ibf)

The sam: shnft lont�c(� centr:1lly .:lnu suppvr t c ,� ct e ::ch end CX1� c r i c n c c

,

1 .3

for

m,

1.6

shnft .

S O thi..: forou1o.

4L

L

•

=

thu woo d i n the:

a'

Tc.kint; the: no(�uluG c f rupture ..

I

c ir cul<.r c ross-se c t ion

p max

at

1. 2

in the uo �ulus of rup t l1r e

a

But f e r

5

-

·..

.

p

4

25 0

hdf the

b c n c ins ::lemont c.t the ccntr� c quc.l t o

land r.lult iplie: (� by h•. lf the l e n G t h ;

will

henc", tho snnu crC6S-

se c t i on will be c.blc t o support four t ines thu loe.. � .

5.

AS6uming thct the end c on � i t i ons o f

c.n nxinl loc,l b ·.:. t w� e n t he

hnll J-Grip' l".nc.

thin s t rut p i n- j o int o t� c.t ,

• ,

eacb

6pc�r support;nB

•

cnd,

•

c r i t i c::l bucklint l o•. c is � iv,.;n by :Suler ' s fornulc

cnt

l'.

hnrJwo o u of E

cliatr·. nco frl)1i1 nn;� othor

4

10 'N

t hl.; h ....nc.lc tv

� inlv nD iona co p

,.

=

cnt •

�,�

I .S

•

whoro E iz Y 0 unG ' o rJ(Il�ulu;j o f olast icity. f"r

t he

•

• •

•

•

,

•

•

p

thosi..: of

t i p r.ro

•

-

.

th�

c

Or.!

-

t he..

b�f( ro

2

,

ASSUr.linC

('.nJ tAkinG L

t ip of the" this

•

n

r.ll nov t ho

speer-hon.!, 1 . 8

g i v�s 1 .6.

( 1 . 8 :< 10

vi".luu

D,

251

NOTES

6

I

1.6

.

. . SpC c:r.h,; ..... ·...:.S

111

..

t l ! O G " c r.:c t r i c pc r i u t': \/0r0 '.l:.J·� G t

0 x c l u s i ve: l y

of

:-.n ·':: t h::. t the m o s t rl;"'� G onnb lc i n t u r ;-,rct.:-. t i on i a t hc.t sccc

hO;�LS

b r on Z0

prO(�U C C L �.l (,nGs i (�"

l'/ cr(:

(;f pr�' l�u c t i c n .

c c: n t r c c

r.:ey hc\,[cv;,:r b e

p c i n t ,, ;l 0Ut

on t h e ;'.S

tt;.t

bronze: is very l i t t l e i f nt \t i l l not b� aub j c c t v L h:

in the OC'.in

he s·�.ys , our in fc·ro:'.ticn is too

As

6 p 0 c u l n t i on

J;l o :-��rc t o :-. 1 1 0 \1

the: ir o n ,

011

t h�

C.

IJr'.h : r ic.l for

i nf er i or .

Sinco

spe:-.r-hcc,'s ,

n

sponrhcad

bending s t r . i ns t.'..s th;:t o f

5 : � r.l '::

:.

i t c ,�.n b e \-/1.: rk-!"..".rLe: ncu by hc.rJlJcr in[; t (J prcvic1c

s'tlo r (! ,

the

t.'..

ru i s s i l e:

is fully pl o s t i c

cc.n b o fc unG by �� sunin� thct tho icpc.ct

, - i.c.

th:-.t t ho

fr e e to cove.

tlissilc

In thct

ceee ,

D c t r ikcs c hcloe t e c1 hcnL o f t o tel cnss

v e lo c i t y V1 ,

tho

�;! e s net

scpc.rnte

ir:.l p�ct �.n c1 thd the hcatl is

i t s e l f frnl the ho nG .:: f ter the c o m p let e ly

of t h e head when

:'.c c c l c r :-. t i o n

J.n epprOXi&;let i on t .�· tho::

struck by

if

M

a

u i s s i le

w i th

c

o f Gass

relat ive

ve locity nrter t ho icpact will be Lotcrcincd

by th.:. c0nGcrv:-.t i on of mODe ntuC1

na

-

1.7 . •

.

ove r

Thu 106s � f comuntutl by th� uiss ilo mUGt tc.ke plcce

diotanc

,

tth i c h

c:�nno t be leGS th.,n tho c!opth o f the dent in •

th.;.;

hulLlo t . Tho r.c colorntion of the ho:. :! tt ill bo

thu !4:.r CCi npp l iu(;

r.lt\cn i t u,;v t ' wonpon .

n

e very Gh nr p c Lba .

bas is f:.·r

7.

it

re'.G c n f o r t hl) cl".':Jlge ;

tho

Hy nco

by

tho wo o-po n t \,.

�ppo fli t l.

t

f �' rco

= ,

t

7 7

:'

.

the hon !! ,

=

tIM

on ..;

whoro

t

a quol in

- ! whi ch c!oc.;, l<.rrn tos tho

1.8

,

NOTES I wh<:: ro

252

,

6

t i s t1:(: t ir.lll c f th� ��e c .., l.., r : t i on .

if

But

th..,

r.1e c o lor:·,t i cn i3 uni f orr;l , •

'II

is �pprcxiJ:ll\toly

,

r"

t

t

': 0 -

V

,

-

1

1 .9

V

$ 7

2

th,-,t is , the t i m: t:-.lwn by the m issile t eo ferm the ilunt

r.s

it

�ovos into the helmot with �n evcr�Gc r � l�t ivD vuloc ity o f

(1 . 9 ) int o ( 1 . 8 ) ,

Subst itut ing e qu�.t i on

Wm

f '" '"

2s

,

•

7

7

r:J

1 foe , H

=

=

5 Kg , V1

=

dividing by the mnss o f the hc: :-,·�

n =�

1

-

�

Cr<'.vity , 9. 8 m s 8.

-2

oX

11

s

\0/0

Olympia

by Purnic � , prc scntc�

to

-1

,

s

=

1

CY ,

and

obt<'.in tho �cccler�t i on

1 21 (.1

-

x

,1/6 ),2,

5

'

•

-2

800 t1 8

80 G , where G i s the �cc ule r�t ion Cue to •

Cl:-.ssificr-.t icn :-.6 spoC'.rho ni:s ;

5 , 95-6 ,

1 .1 1

z;•

,

2 x 0.01

H

o r npproxjo�to ly

E

28

"

Tnl:inG

1 .10

,

( 1 .7 )

nn',� sub s t itut inG from e:qu.... t i c n f '" '"

,

f

4 ( die Brc.nzc n ) 1 75-6 .

:.1. 1 5 ( 1 900 ) 1 00 , and Will in� ni �Gowny

275.

o'3S

do Do1phos ,

l.s sl)o nrbut t s ,

BOQ.-.nquo t , Essoys

first

nn{� Studios

•

lTotes

2

1

-

4

253

No te s to Ohapter 2 . 1.

As a rll] e , differen ce s with other writers are no t pl1rsued exce ption may be made in one case , where -

in thi s s tudy , but P o pe ( 1963) makes

an an

-

error whi ch i s both serious and ins tructive .

He s tates tha t a Tatar bow which he tested (pp 25-27 ) was a poor weapon b e cause the range of the arrow whi ch i t shot was only

100 yards ( 90 m) , and concludes that i ts graat -si ze , end tbat of the arrow whi ch i t shot , must have been intended •

intimidate an enemy than to damage him .

more to

However , calculating

the velo city of the arrow from the range , and the energy from the velo city and the we ight of the arrow , i t appears that the arrow had an energy of about 90 J , whi ch i s higher than all but the very highest estimates for the energy of arrows from the mediaeval long-bow.

I t i s thzrefore much more likely

to have been a very dange rous weapon for use at short range , and Pope has been mi sle d by hi s concentration on range .

2.

A . Mueller in A Baumeister , Den1<maeler des kla s s i s ch en

Al tertnms 3 ( Muni ch & Leipzig 1889) 2042 s . v.

3.

' Waffen ' .

E . J . Forsdyke , Some al'rowheads from the Battle field of

Marathon , Pro ce.�dings of the SO Ciety of Antiqua ries of London

2 Ser e 32 , 1919/20 , 146 ff . 4.

•

Carapanos , Dodona et aes Ru1na s , 1878, pI 58 nos 13 and 14.

Th03se are probably no ' 3 891 and 892 in the National i-fus eum at Ath�ns .

Tho forffiul' may bu

a

lpnce heed , but the latter i s

smal ler , and bu�rs a strong r03s embl nncu to those found at •

Koukl i a .

Thi s type di ffars from the later bodkins

thos e found at

(e.g.

Olynthu s , and shown in D . M. Rob in s on , excavati ons �

at Olynthus X ( 1941 ) p I 124) in that the head 1 s not cut s quarely wh�re i t n

me e ts

th�

,

so as to give the shaft

parpendi cul ar surfa c� ' to b�cr on , but e l op e s down into i t .

254

Notes 2 ,5 ,-, 10

5.

Illus trated and discus sed by J . Underwood , Man Feb 1958

6.

A group of three-winged heads from

a

S cythian tomb now

in the Ashmolean i s pnrti cuar1y fine in both sonses of the word.

Th� heads have

has outside diamc t�r 5

weight of about 3 . 6 g , the so cket

a

mm ,

ins i de 3-3 . 4

mm .

The wings ere

•

del icate , and sweep backwards to fo rw berbs , so that the overall bre adth of cut i s about 7

mm

thd heavier tyPe s found in Gree ce .

for each blade , es in

Farti cular care M S been

taken in shaping and sharpening the blade s end the tip , and the dnergy requi red to drive them through cloth or fle sh would be very low. 7.

�/ard-Perkins in the Medi eval Catalogue of the London

Museum sugge sts that the broadhend arrows , type s 13 , 14 and

15 in the catalogue , are hunting arrows , and he sugges ti on of the typ� 16 , whi ch i s leaf shaped .

s the Pratt ,

(Hardy 1976 p 201 ) agre e s that the broadheads are hunting arrows , but shows goo d evidence for regarding type 16 war nrrow for 8.

US e

as

a

at long ronge ��d against horses .

I sbi ' s archery i s des cribe d at length by Pope in

'Hunting wi th the Bow and Arrow ' 1925 . 9.

For example M.Ko

finds tl�t the ac cul'a cy of

arrows

suffers if heads are used wi th a mass of more than about

7 g , end hence that heavi er he ads

t a 1 thar be for

Wbr

arrows , where ac cura cy doe s not matter or for javelins . He should use stiffer arrow shafts . G'l'lJndnommkla:tur

10 .

( Di skussion der

S te in �nil e r Pfeilkoepfe , Aroha�ogrnphie 197' ) . '

W . R . Rheingnns &: F.Nag1 er , Spine end Arrow deSign ,

•

Archary Reviaw Jun-Aug 1937 . P . Klo ps teg , Fho togr�phing the Paradox (Archery Raview

April 1933 ) . Some now Light on the P a radox of Arohery (Archery Rliv1ew De c . 1933 , continuo d J nn 1 934 ) .

255 � o te s

2

10-13

Phys i cs of Bow and Arrows (Ame ri can J . of Physi CS , •

1943 , pp 1 57-189 , esp pp 178-185 ) . E . S .Hodgson , Analy zing th� Paradox ( Archery Review, Apr . 1932 ) . P .L . Pratt , Appendix 2 to Hardy 1976 , ( pp 199-200) . The arti cle s from the Archery Review are reprinte d in •

Archery - the Te chni cal Side , by Hi ckman Nagler &: K1opsteg , NFAA 1947 , ( abbreviated as Hi ckman 1 947 ) .

11 .

Scythian arrowshaf ts :'

JAinns ( 1 913 ) p 6 9 ' nainly nf

re a d wi th some wo o d ' - but i s the wo od merely a foreshaft? Herodotus VII 61 is silent , whi ch could imply wood , since he seems to b e s ingl ing out re e d arrows as unusual .

Pliny N .H .16

160-161 says ree d , but in a passge in whi ch be seems to be

menti oning al l the archers be knows of , as a tribute to the Persian and 11e dian arrowshafts , Herodo tns

propertie s o f ree d .

VII 6 1 . 12 .

For type s of re ed in Gre ece , see appendix 2 . 3 .

Arrow we ights , Klops teg 1 947 , p 84 .

!!:nergy calculated

range

of 400 yards and assume d ball i s ti c constant C o l implying a ve locity of about 90 m s- . Ingo Simon , who from

=

0.6,

achieved a sho t of 460 yards with a Turkish bow in 1 91 3 , 1s re porte d to t£ve sai d that he had never handled a Turkish •

bow with a draw weight greater than 80 lb , ( 360 N) .

13 .

Wainwright ( 197 5 ) 101 give s values for E as follows ( see

references there ) .

N m-2 )

7 8 - 11 1

Hemp ( dry ) Fl ax ( dry ) Silk Sinew (we t)

0. 2

In dry tendon i t 1 s d1ff1 cul t to me a sure cro ss-se ctional

area , but E appe ar s to be about 0 . 12

10

10

The reason . fo r prefe rring hemp to flax fo r long-bow strings may have be 3n tha t the fib res are l onge r , and coul d be use d as straight ett eo 1 ve .mod us . f1 lament s , Vlheren s flax mus t be spun , so .Lo we r g the If so , the di ffe ren ce in the stiffness of the strings i 8 ve ry grea t.

in order to

The

us e

a b s orb

of soft s tring

x

•

b e delibe rate ,

�ne rgy at the end of the shot whi Ch

w�u1d otherwise damage tho bow.

If so , i t is

a

and an indi cation of ineffi ci ency , not a cause .

oonsequenae ,

256 -

No tes to Chapter 3 . 1.

•

The ' I oni an ' helme t inve stigate d by E dri ch (1969) doe s not

ap pear at Olympia or on Atti c vases , and the ' I llyrian ' type an open-faced variant of the Corinthian whi ch does appear at Olympi a , is thought by Kunze to have been made for cavalry •

and for export ( 01 . Beri cht IV) . 2.

An

Dodona

in corpore example was found at Dodona ( Carapanos , et ses r1l1ne s 187 8 , pI 56 , no . 7 ) but has since

di sappeare d .

One very similar to that has now been porchased

from a dealer by the National Museum in Athens . thi ckne ss of around 1

mm

I t bas a

wherever the me tal is un co rro ded ,

and probably weighed l i ttle more than 0 . 5 - 0 . 7 Kg ( 1 . 1 . - l . � 3.

The apron i s di s cussed by Anderson ( 1970) p 17 , pp 260-

262 no tes 15-19 , an d plate s 4A , 13 ) .

I t seems to have been

borrowed from tbe Asiatic G reeks by the Athenians dnr'lng the P ersian war period , and to have bean abandoned by them there.' . after, and i t i s remini s cent of the canvas

'

pa rab lemata ' used

to shield trireme craws from arrows (Xen Hell . 2 . 1 . 22 ) .

The

effectivene ss of sucb banging curtains has no t been dis

ed

•

elsawhara in thi s anquiry , but i t might be considerable .

A

fl axi ble material allows kineti c energy to be taken up gradually , and al though the basi c problem of all armour that both momen tum and anergy

t be conserved in any

there will be a good deal of sideways mo tion in the whi Ch will also absorb anergy,

•

,

curtain ,

In addi tion , thara will be

a good deal of fri ction , and the path of tha arrow may be divarted . 4.

There is

a

bras :) helme t in the British Huseum from the

1 s t century A . D . ( PRB Reg . 196i 6 . 5 . 1 ) nnd iron helmets Wdre

used by thtt As syrian s .

A

hdlma t from Kouyun j ik (BM22496 )

now weighs 3kg . ot whi ch up to one quarter may be due to ,

257

oxidation:

two bronze helmets from Urartu (BlU34611 & 135061�

of very s imilar shape we igh . 700 and . 862kg . re spe ctively .

( S. G.

C r-d" J , p "':""" b.

CI

... _ " ...

,'(. c...I .a.. .)

The difference in weight may well reflect the diffi culty of preventing cracking in the shells of wrought iron when that i s made by a primi tive process .

5.

There are suc cessful perforations of he

in the

Iliad , e . g . 4 . 459 ; 5 . 99 ; 11 . 95 ; 20 . 3 97 ; and success�11 re sistance 11 . 351 ; stone : Iliad 12 . 384 ; and

16 . 104 ; e.

e.

helme t i s crllsh ed by a

skull crushed inside a helmet

1 6 . 412 ; H e ctor i s s tunn e d by a spear on helmet 1 1 . 354 , corselet perforations o ccur in Iliad : 13 . 372 , 3 97 , 439 ,

507 ; res istance to an arrow in 13 . 587 ; to a spear 15 . 52 9 .

and 17 . 606) .

•

258 Notes to Chapter 6 . Tho more important li terary source s for each battle

1.

•

are li sted in the notes appended to the relevant chapters Further tes timonia relating to Marathon

by Munro in CAlI IV .

•

.

are colle cted and di s cussed by Bacan , Eerodo tus IV - VI vol 2 •

appendix 10 , se ctions 1 1 -30 .

The li terary tes timonia on

Plataea form the sub j e ct matter of a dissertation , H . B . Wright ,

The Campaign of Plataea , New Haven 1904 .

Pi ctorial matter

displaying P ersians in battle is colle cted and di s cussed by H . S choppa , Di e Dars tellung der Perser in der Griechis che Kunst bis

zur

-

Begin des Hellenis1il1.ls , ( di ssertation , Coburg

1933 ) ; by B . S chroeder , Mikons Gemaelde der Maratbonschlacht

J dI 26 , 1911 , pp 28l ff . ; by A. Bovon , La representatin des re . � Guerriers Perses e t la Notion de Barbare dans la 1 moitie .

•

:

•

du V

e

• •

Sie cle , BCH 87 ( 1 963 ) 579-602 ; by A.V . W.Jackson ,

'H erodo� 7 . 61 illustrated from Iranian Sources ' , in Classi� Studi e s in honour of H . Dri sler , New York 1894 , ( including al so some interesting Ii te rm') material on Persian anliaments and atti tude to war) , and outstnndingly well by A. S . Gow, Notes of the Persae of Aes chylus , JHS 48 ( 1928) 133-157 . On the Scythions , Vos ( 1963 )

now sup ersede s

The Bresci a Sarcophagus , thought stage at

Marathon

to

all o thers .

reproduce the last

is reproduced and discussed by Vanderpool ,

a monument to the Battl e of Marathon , (Hesperia 1 966 .Fl 35 ) .

2.

Argued in

n o te

46 bel ow .

The tuJlest recent tretltment of Marathon ( 1968) who g i ve s

H in.

hi s

the G ree ks

thnt

o't

use ful l i s t of previ ous s tudie s

Bm"n re pli e s to Hammond ' s cri ti ci

note 1 , p 13 .

Persia �n d

a

is

l

•

( 1962)

in JHS

89 ( 1969 ) , and .

co g entl y

own use of Ii te ro.ry SO\lrce s .

o't

oriti ci ses H ammond ' s

Hammond ['.l s o draws on Pri tchett ' • •

•

•

. �.

259

•

I! OTES first acc

6

3-7

t of Maratbon ( P ri tche tt 1960 ) , but not on

B

se cond , ( Pri t che tt 196 5 ) , whi cb i s mainly topographi cal but contains s ome remarks on t3cti c s . P�ter G re�n,

' Th� Yeer of Salami s '

Marathon and the other battl e s wi th

( London 1970 ) tree

fresh eye �Dd much

a

common sense , as well as ddep s chol arshi p , though he has On

insuffi cient space to arg:ue: a11 his conclus ions .

l!i gnett ( 1 963 ) colle cts an d di scusses eerlier work , but � in a review ( CR 1964) p o ints out l imitations due to lack first hand knowledge of the

BUhl t S

•

0:

account ( 1970)

i s ba sed on his O'RIl obs e rvations and i s accepted by Pri too• . .

( 1965 p72

n 6 ) , whos e own study

k

,

1962 ) is also

On ta cti c s Mauri ce ' s remarks in ){anri ce ( 1930) s till dese�

•

, •

attention .

., ,, •• • • ,

.

(AJ�

On Flataea , Bur'll , Higne tt and Gr e .m sach d1spl!

the merits shown in their treatment of the other battl e s .

•

•

The fundamental problems COnCel'ti topography , on whi ch BUl'll ( 1 970 ) i s again outstan

hi s

,

observations ( 1954) and

to those o f Grundy ( 1901 ) Myre s ( 1 953 )

Pri tche t t ( 1957 ) , and the s i z e of the Persian force . , • •

• •

,

tha. t , Maj or G enersl

,

•

•

and convinCing , end

•

ce 1930) i s

( 1970 p 511 ) COl"l'oborates bis

derived trom Delbrueck (188 es timate by a mos t ingenious method / The ganera1 r�marka

•

• -. ,

P .lIa\1I'1 ce ,

On

.

•

by ','lhatli3Y ( 1964) , and by Hammond at the

'. •

,

.

of

Hammond U968 ) , are a tbely warning agains t tha spe cula •

preval en t in much ot the previous Ii tera ture

•

•

Pri tche tt ( 1960) i s fundamental , wi th furthe r

0

t1

in Pri tche tt ( 1965 ) , Hamiilond ( 1968) i s also essential . 5.

Leake , ( 182 9) p 1 6 8 , quo ted in HamQond ( 1968) 21-22 .

6.

Leak� , ibid .

7.

A.rgument thr.t tho shi po

Pri tche tt ( 1 960 ) 157- 9 .

were

drawn up on the Schoenle ,

On numbers , Mtluri co ( 1 93 2 ) 20 , ( 2'

$'Ir/If ': · , . - ,

-_. _-----

.

"

,

" •

26(

•

..

NOTES . 6

•

..

,

at 14 yards

7-11

per ship), Hammond (1968) 32 ( 300 at 10 yard

per ship) . Hammond assl1mes that the transports were beae and the trire�es kept a t anchor _ In view of the diffic1t

of sleeping and the impo ssibility of cooking

on

b oard

a tri reme , i t i s much more l ikely that the transports

•

were at anchor , at

any

rate during the nigh t ,

Whether

they then beached each morning as a matter of routine , -

after the trireme crews had breakfasted and left , we cann o t say . ,.

•

( The success of the final embarcation , wbi�

•

• ·

" . .

, , -

,

"

J

);

;

to raise

counter-atta ck elsewhere on the coast , i s b

"

·

d:

apparently left the def eated army r\3ady to make an

,

• •

the suspicion that either the di sembarcation was incomp1c way

in the first place , or embarcation was already

before the battle began ; thi s suspi cion tends to be grea1 ..

, � � .. . .

among those wi th experi ence of saa-bolua landings) .

" ,

.

, . .

8.

"

.

Mauri ce ibid .

The spring is mentioned by S trabo C �

and Pausanias 1 . 32 , 6 , and was identifi ed by Laake ( 1829) 9.

Leake ibid.

10 .

This could make up for quite a number ot trees about

the plain , when estimating i ts S1]i tab!li ty for caval "y . To avoi d the dangar of letting the hprse s into it at nigh grooms could cut forage by day .

: ,/ '. ' J,

•

•

,

· , •

Hence pe rhaps , the ' s ton

mang ers of Artaphexn es ' shown to Fausania s , ( 1 . 32 .7) .

,

, .. • • •

11 . ,

Hammond ( 1968 24) argue s for the existence of the in antiquity , against Sotariades (Praktika 1935 24)

, • •

end Prit che tt ( 1960 154 ) , both of whom found shards in

.. . . .'

,

,

.

,

. ,

" ,

'

the marsh earlier than the 5 th Cdn tl]('y B . C . , as had previt travell ers .

His argl ment is not whol ly convinCing , but �

de ba te st rongly emphas i se s the lim tation ot

..

•

" ,

,

-

of the anc ien t top ography , in

an

·

• .

-

•

..

knowle dgt

area sub je cted both to

,

•

our

te ctoni o movement and alluvial d�posi tion .

There cmJ1d

�

. 6

-

,

26]

11-1

,

b e en o ther boggy areas , restri cting the battle line s , w are now drained by the Charadra .

I t i s also possible

the plain has grown considerably in width over the year, as Green (1970 ) sugge sts .

12 .

•

, Soteriades Praktika 1935 , 84-158, and other pub1i.

liste d in Pri tchett 1960 138 n . 4 .

Soteriades identifi �

of thi s enclosure wi th the temenos of Heracles mentionec by Herodo tlls (VI 116 ) i s now re j e cted by Pritchett ( 196� p 89 ) , as well as by HaMmond ( 1968, 24) , though each hal different reasons .

,

.. ·

,

" , -•

13 .

Hamlllond ( 1968) 2 5 .

14 .

Pri tche tt 1960 156-7 , on the grounds of heavy scal

at the base of Mt . stavl'okorak i .

15 .

Hammond 1968 p 39 asserts that i t was treeles s , be

Hero do tus s tates that i t was most sui table for cavalry ( ,

102 ) .

•

But Hdt only says tha t i t was the mos t slli ta •

,

part of Atti ca, and could be incorrect at that.

There ' ,

tree s and vines below Oeno e , at some peri od in •

,

anti qui tt ,

the inhabi tants watered by diverting the Charadra.

l1epo:

mentions tree s , (Miltiadas 5 ) , and thi s could be 10 ,

tradition jn his source , c . f . note 48.

,

16 .

.

,

•

Deltion ArCha eologikon 1890 65-71 , 123-1 32 , 1891 ,.

"

97 , Ath. Mi tt. 18 ( 1893 ) 46-63 .

, '>

" . . �... �

';" ,l..

Also by Thucydi des , II 34 . 5 .

17 .

1 . 32 . 3 .

18.

Leake (1829) 172 .

But on a previous

.

ha repor ts only flints , found at the bottom

•

,

f, �'

•'

. 'f.� . f' 1., .. � •

Il". �.

•

· '.

�,

( Travel s in Northe rn

.-

"

in 1806 •

'"

�

·

-� :: :;1 t

,

,

'

," "

.- .

the mound .

2 (London 1835 4'1 )

,.

...

.

G re e ce ,

of

•

.

•

•

•

;" � ,� ,

'

,

19 .

S chliemann , ( 1884) 85-88 .

level

of the

Be cause

of

the rise in t

,

• ".

:.> .

<: ..

•

H

,

" ·

,

-

,

" ,

,

plain (note 24 below) , tba heads describe d a ,

•

' from Marathon '

in Chapter 2 . 2 above must ,

if senu1ne ,

'

-

,' · '

,

;;

'.

.,�. . .

·

'3J1 ,

.'

• ,

•

,

..

,

•

come from aome tmuuJ us or just possib ly from the Cbar ,

G . Finlay ( 1839 , 365 quo ted in Pri tchett 1960 l4ln) re

•

that by 1839 the Soros had been ' half dug open by spe in anti qui ties and cut into deep furrows by the rain "

'.'

than two thousand three hundre d years •

20 .

•

i i i (1�7 ) , 63 ff , 153

liarinato s , AJ..A

Marathon ,

I

•

•

•

,

• •

OJ •

1970

1970 , 5

-

349

ff,

fj

5 ff .

28 .

Froc . Ath •

21.

Pal1sanias 1 . 32 . 3 .

22 .

Sighting by W. Banke s reported Leake (1829) 173 �

•

•

Ergon

Exoava�ions at �rathon ,

•

•

•

0

.

•

Vanderpool (Hesperia 1968) 93 . 1'1' .

" .' , "

-

��. ; "v •

'(

,.

.

·

'

•

,

'

"

I'ausanias 1 . 3 2 . 6

.

,

24 . 25 .

,

Stai s

OPe

•

ci t . (n 1 6 ) .

Pri tche tt ( 1 965) 87-8. ..

Date of compositi on , perhaps 455-445 B . C

,

,

'

-

.

Failure to visit the s i te , inferred by l!ignett

28)

•

•

60 , challenged by Hammond (1968) 48 , unconvlncing1y. attempt to estimate nl,mbers o�

:

•

abstention from

any

·

•

•

..

..

•

•

,

i s in s trong contrast to hi s practi ce elsewhere .

�or :

"

,

numb ers c . f . Plato Menexenus 240 A , (500 , 000 ) .

Simonides ( 90 , Bergk ) . (90 , 000 killed ,

•

b:

amen ded

Bergk to 90 , 000 put to rout ) i s defen de d by

on

ground that with rowers , grooms e t c . the Pers 1ans did

J .

..

at least 80 , 000 .

Ancient cri ti ci sm of exaggerati

,

.

debunking is coll ected by We ck' ain , 38.

'

Berodo tn8

f

.

,

,

cri ti cised on th03 oppo s i te grounds by the author o� De •

".

Persian 8la ·

Malignitate , that he gives numbers for the

when everyone knows that they were innumerable . .,.

, ,

.

,

.

, ,> •

•

,' .

" . \

�..

.

.

� ,, .

(Plut.

862 B) .

•

.

,

•

.

J. .

,"

, . . •

,, \ , "

26 .

Hdt VI 100-102 .

· ,,

,.

27 .

," , .. "

' , ' .

,

• .

•

., ', ,

,

"

Hdt VI 102 .

\.

.

.� -,

. .: �

This is one ot the tew points in the ,

°

.

•

.

· ,

Marathon narrative where Harodo tus olaims inSi2ht

'.

.-

-' .,.

.

,

h,m

, '" -

,.

'

. NO TE S

6

261

11-19

been o ther boggy areas , restri cting the battle lines , whi ch are now drained by the Cbaradra ,

I t i s also possible that

the plain has

cons id erably in wi dth over the years , . as Gre en Cl970 ) sugge sts. 12 .

Sot eri ade s Praktika 193 5 , 84- 15 8 , and oth er publi cations

l i ste d in Pri tch ett 196 0 138 n 4 . .

Sot eri ade s i dentif i cati on

of thi s encl o sure wi th the temenos of Heracles mentioned by Herodotus (VI 116 ) i s now re j e cted by Pri tchett ( 1965 p 89 ) , as well as by Hammond ( 196 8 , 24) , though each has different reasons .

13 .

Hammond ( 1968) 2 5 .

14 .

Pri tchett 1960 15 6-7 , on the grounds of heavy scaz'ring

at the base of Mt . S tavrokorak i .

15 .

Hammond 1968 p 3 9 asserts that it was treeless , be cause

Hero do tus s tates that i t was most sui table for cavalry (VI But Hdt only says that i t was the most sui table

102 ) . part .;:; :...

and could be incorrect at that.

There were

trees and vines below Oenoe , at some period in antiquity , whi ch •

the inhabitants watered by diverting the Charadra .

Fepos

mentions trees , (Mi l tiades 5 ) , end thi s could b e lo cal tradi tion in his source , c . f . no te 48.

16 .

Deltion Archaeologikon 1890 65-71 , 123-132 , 1891 34-67 ,

97 , Atb. Mi tt. 18 ( 1893 ) 46-63 . Also by Thucydides , II 34 . 5 .

17 .

1 . 32 . 3 .

18.

Laake ( 1829) 172 .

But on a previous -; ::' J it in 1806 •

he reports only flints , found at the bottom of the mound .

( Travels in Northern Gre e ce , 2 (London 1835 431) . 19 .

S chl iemann , ( 1884 ) 85- 88 .

Be cause of the ris e in

the

l eve l of the plain ( not e 24 bal ow) , the heads des cri bed as ' from Mare th on ' in Chapter 2 . 2 above mu st , if genl,ine , •

•

NOTE S ,

6

262

19- 27

c o m e t>rom some tu 1 IIll1 US o r j u s t po s s i b ly f r o m th e Charadra .

in an t i qu1 t i e s

�n d

cut in t o d e e p furrows by th e raul o f mor e

than two thous an d thre e hun dre d y e a r s . 20 .

M a r i n a t o s , AAA i i i

( 1 �7 ) ,

Jiarathon ,

6v � ff ,

Ergo n

1 9 70

153

ff,

349

ft .

5 tt .

� o av a » i o n s a t �rathon ' Fro c . oAth . Arch .'lo c .

19 7 0 , 5

28 .

21.

Paus anias 1 . 3 2 . 3 .

22 .

Sighting by W. Bank e s reporte d Leake ( 182 9 ) 173 .

-

Van d e rp ool (Hesperia 1968) 93 . ff . 23 .

F'ausanias 1 . 32 . 6 . ,

ci t . ( n 16) .

Pri tchett ( 1 965) 87-8.

24 .

S tai s

25 .

Date of compo siti on , perhaps 455-445 B . e

OPe

1968

Fai lure to vis i t the s i te , inferred by l! i gne t t (1963 )

2 8)

60 , challeng e d by H ammond ( 1968) 48 , unconvincing1y . abs tent ion from any attempt to esti mate numbers

Herodotns '

tant s

of

i s in s trong contras t to his practic e elsewhere .

�or inflate d

numbe rs c . f . Pl at o Menexenus 24 0 A , ( 500 , 000 ) .

Simon ide s ( gO , Be rgk ) . ( 90 ,000 kil le d ,

,

amended

by

n m R e efe by d d an the d am an s i ) t d rou to put 0 00 , 90 to Be rgk i d rs di ans e . Pe c th t e ms oo gr , rs we ro th wi at th gr oun d a t l e a s t 80 , 0 00 . de

in8

Ancient crt ticism of exagg e ration, and

i s co ll e ct ed by We ck1 ein , 38 .

He rodo tus

is

f De u r o e o a y th th b ds oun r g te i s po op cri ti ci s e d on th� e r th fo rs be num s ve gi he t a Mali gn i tate , th

Pe rs ian

l b ra . e e e r um e w nn y i e h t t a h t s w o when e v e ry o n e kn

( Plut.

lIor

86! B ) . 26 . 27 .

H d t V I 100- 1 0 2 . H d t VI 1 0 2 .

,

This i s one of the few points in th e

o t e t h s n g th m i i i s a l in c s tu o d o r a lT e r e h w e v i t a r r a n n Maratho

6

NOTES

I t is

Fersian thinking .

.

27-34

probably a

so cavalr;y

guess , and i f

mus t have been landed in some numbers , not just mounts for

in spi te of the diffi cu1 tie s noted by MauJ'i ce

the general s ,

I t may have been easier to handle th em than

( 1 932 17) .

Uaurice thinks b e cause they were far smaller than the modem •

cavalry mount or hun te r , about the size of an

or pony

j udging by the Fersepolis re liefs .

28.

Trireme s , Hdt VI

29 .

H dt

95 .

tuaYlilvo LO' L

VI 108 .

' draWll up ' implies

that

they were using i t as more than just a camp or depo t.

30 .

Hdt VI

31 .

PolemarCh the actual co mman der s Higne tt , H i story of

103 .

the Atheni an constitution

TAl'A 86 ( 1955 )

M . H . Ja;neson , H dt IV

32 .

( 19 5 2 ) 170 ff .

81 . Mili tiades in Scythia ,

137 .

Hdt

VI 106 .

The fes tival was probably the Calneia ,

whi Ch however is parti cularly difficult

ye ar .

Miltiades po s i ti on

(Bul'll 1970 24On) .

interfered wi th They were

warfare l

in fact

to date for that

Other o c casions on whi Ch 1 t Hdt VII

only one day

206 , Thuc. V 76 , 5 .

late , a c cording to

2400 ) .

( 33 .

Hdt VI

110

Di s cussed by Hammond

1968 49-50 .

Pri tcbett

( 1960 148- 149 ) sugga sts that tha order ot the tri bes rota ted .

The of

of

passing

co ul d re sul t

in

the pnrsn1 t

enti ral y contradi ctory stratagi es on al t al'tAate daje , •

e

.

(

g.

Corinthian Rufus

war) ,

agains t -

Livy

;!!J ' U"

liann ibnl )

of

( Fab ius

Max1 mus and

us

•

•

Hdt VI 112 . tis; dl£�t"O'av sh ows

tha allies in the

Fri tchett ( 1960 145-149)

that this canno t re t� r to

the order i s irre coverable .

a

se t ordor ot

H nmmond 1968 49

o.

trib es ,

and

141 agrees .

•

6

NOTES

264

34-38

For the normal depth of the phalanx , see Pritchett 1970 ,

35 .

144 , and Pri tchett , Ancient Greek Military Fractices ,

(Berkeley 1 9 7 1 ) 134-143 .

The expression 'mv61l\l £ (

•

used of the Plataeans in Edt VI 108 may include light troops , • "

but Hero do tus does not mention any Athenian light troops . They would have been kept to the rear , c . f . BUJ11 , 1 970 248. 36 .

Hdt VI 113 .

37 .

H dt VI 37 .

38.

Hdt VI 111 is qui te spe cifi c and emphati c on thi s point ,

and it is hardly one that could be forgotten .

If i t i s

re j e cted , the re st of Berodo tllS ' te stimony on Hal"athon must also be regarded as unreliable .

F evertheless i t i s

re j e cte d , or explained away , by the maj ority of scholars . I t is worth pointing out that they may have been influenced not only by over estimates of the weight of the hoplite ( e . g . the estimate of Rustow and Ko chly ( 1838) of 36r4 79lb) , but by the experience of modern troops wearing ( I owe thi s pojnt to Professor

JE .

Gordon)

•

It is quite true that troops so dressed , even without any at all , will be seriously fatig!1ed by l'lwn1ng a mile ,

b'orden

and the at

an

re880118

are rather intere sting ; but

easy pace with bare legs

and

rllnning

a mil e

either bare feet or

•

light pllmps shoul d not reasonably healthy man

man .

caus e

distre ss or fatigue to any

The Greeks did no t smoke , and ever.y

was ex hypoth esi re ckoned to be fit enough for a goodish

bout of hand-to-hand fighting ;

anyone

who i s more than •

pleasantly wal� attar ten minutes of j ogging wi th a 10 kg . weight di stributed over the top half of his body would do well to stay out of that type of combat .

The other reason

for scepticism i s that Yerodotus baa failed to give any

•

NOTES

6

265

34-46

•

reason for the haste , but it seems better to take that as

BUl'n ( 1968 24 9n) supports Gl"lmdy

a �lu� to the ta cti cs.

( 1901 l88n) in taking 6pc111(�

as a ql i ck march , against

How ( 1919 ) , but he fails to explain how i t could have been unheard of in Rerodotl,lS time to approach the enemy at a qui ck march , or what Herodo tlls could have said if he had really meant

( it being abundantly clear from vas e

' l"un '

paintings that hopl i tes often did s o ) .

)

39 .

•

Wha t thi s means by the

•

clock i s anybody ' s gues s , ( e . g. Buren ' s 1970 231 ) , but the battle was clearly longer than some , so the casual ties would not be negligible.

40 .

i . e . towards the interior ot

A tti ca , still called

'

II £O &,.(UO

,

Thi S

,

indi cation of the po si tion of the Greek

camp ,

give but

there i s no reason why the purslli t should take place at right angl es to the line s of battl e , so i t canno t fix their orientati on.

41 .

Hdt VI 113-115 .

The action wi th the sword was well

remembere d - e . g . by the

•

42 .

Hdt VI 115 .

43 .

Hdt VI 116 .

44 .

H dt VI 115 .

45 .

Herodo tus VI

46 .

Hdt VI

117 .

..usage

seller in Ad stopbanes ,

Eq. 781. .

116 . The A thenian numbers could be che cked

against the names on the memorial slabs noted by Pausanias . The Persian numbers are l arge , but would probably have b een much larger had there bean no check on them ( and Herodo tUB might have refused to quo te them , as he quotes no tigure tor fersinn losses atter Plataes) .

De1brua ck (

)

6

NOTES

266

�6-55

shows that after the battle of Murten in the including eyewi tn e sse s ,

war unoff ici al repor ts ,

tended to

give a number of enemy sIa n greater than the total number of the enemy force ,

lar a

and modeln experience i s very • •

III 2 . 12)

Xenophon ' s ane cdo te ( Anabas is

that the corps e s

had to be counted to s e ttle the number of goats due to Artemis by the J'olemarch ' s vow may therefore be correct. At one goat per head the number proved to b e too great for imme diate se ttlement , at

•

7 . �.p

and

qui te a good re t11l11 .

1968

47 .

Pausanias 1 . 15 . 3

Stoa) , 1 . 32 . 3-7

48 .

M . O . B . Caspari ,

p

year -

to the

Further references

vow are colle cte d by Ham.:Iond ( the

500 a

was comliluted to

41 .

t '3tray not e s on the

( ba ttlefi eld) .

Parsian

-;fa,.s · ,

JH� 31 ( 1911 ) 51f.

49 .

•

1 .32.7 .

Pausania.s

He se ems t o be at the nortbeastel'll

end o f the plain at thi s point.

50 .

1 . 32 . 3 .

51.

VII 1 5 . 7 .

52 .

1 . 32 . 5 .

In the mid-ninete enth century

.

a

'

•

Sl1l'v eyor mapping

Monnment:

Soro s . Trophy

54 .

plain noticed

( quo ted Green

in thi s nre a .

53 .

the

37) .

1 . 32 . 5 ,

menti one d j us t b efore

The Bresci a sarcophagus , illustrated

55 .

For •

·-ii esbaden

did

of

the

is

The 9pnrtan

after the

spring ,

ibid pp

slaves in warfare , see ( di s s . )

use of Felots at TharmoP11as •

not cpi te perellel , because

not include very many ,

'

•.

•

Vanderpool (Besperia

Unfreie im entiken Kriegsdiens t ,

1974 .

and PIe taaa probably

3toa painting ,

a gendral treatment

Welwei ,

of

large mass

P allsan i as 1 . 32 . 4 , mentioned just

1966 ) pI 3� Relation to K. ',v

a

their population

poor oiti zens or perioeci .

NOTES

6

267

55-57

Helots may have served as hoplites at Thermopylee - see

Buen ( 1970 ) 37 9 .

At A thens there were all the future

rowers ; tha t they took l ittle if any part at Marathon is

an

argumentum ex silentio , but a parti cularly s trong

one , be cause

by the time that Herodo tus was wri ting

that class w�s the chief cons tituency in the Peri clean If there had been any grounds for representing

demo cracy .

the vi c tory as one due to the whole citizen body , it would •

have been 1Jsed ; but the tradition that Marathon , like Plataea , belonged to the 'be tter ' ci tizens remained unshaken . c . f . Plato , Laws IV 440 c . man

A t PIa taea there was one light al'Dled

for every hoplite , apart from the Spartans (Hdt IX 29) .

56.

1968 , 5 0 57 . -

�epos was f�r long accepte d as

an authori ty by Ge l'man scholars , see the

in Pri •

1968 70.

The verdi ct on Ephort1s was first passed by Poly-bius , /

see Pritchett 1968 , 147- 8 , and on hi s general reliabili ty , •

A. �1.

tary on Thucydi d es , 1 , (1945)

, Histori cal 54- 84 .

57. Adn6o� tll8aAdV'to, c(,

A Tn xilv

'to�, -IfIMJ ' .,aCv t a�'to� , dvtAtdVTOCI, ht 'tA 6iv6pa <7TIlICI ev£ w Tot, 'Mnva Co " , . w, £ltv x�t , o t t •• £t" xal M.A't�d6nv auv (tvta T"V d.ox�na"v aUtav aupaaActv O�T.' xat V \ x"oa ,, · �tV xal Tilv wal"p Cav Atxt"va " l.t TQV Tdt "v I.. 6 \aAooVTW . '

' i�en Datis invaded Atti ca , i t is sai d tha t the lontan s ,

when he ha.d lef t ( or wi thdJ'awn )

cama

up to the tre es , ( or

into the trees) , and signified to the A •

that the

cnvalry were a.way ; and Mil tia des unders tanding the ir depar tllre ( wi thdrnwal ) thus atta cke d end won the vi cto ry . '

( Btllil ' S

trnn s lntionJ ' into the trees ' suggested by S

,

who thinks they climb ed the tre �s on the Schoani a ; ' wi an d ' wi th drawa l '

to hi s tent . .

by liammond , who thinks that Da ti a wi thdrew

,

268 NOT£S

6

58-62

,

58.

H ammond ( 1 968) 53 .

5&.

H a.nmond ( 1968) 39 n . 117 .

P. ow

' unders tanding

cnn

their depar ture ' or ' }mowing that they had wi thdrown ' meeD ' knOwing that they woul d not be back bef ore dnw.n ' , the vti thdrawcl ',ms

an

ess

i rrevocable or t ime- consuming pro cess

l ike embarking on shi pboard?

Hammond assumes that the

cavalry went fomging every night anyway , so their departnre waul d not be news .

�'lhe ther it is a good idea to climb a

tree in order to make signals , depends on the tree , eDd the I f the tree i s an umbrella pine , end you will be

condi tions .

silhoue t ted against the sea , po ss ibly above morning mi s t , i t coul d be a very good i dea .

Climbing the tree s on the

S choenia woul d be a way of getting the infol"illation past the ch on any interpre tation

l'ers inn camp ,

t have

between the G reek barri cades and the I onians ,

59.

Doub ts on Plutarch ' s placing of Aianti s ,

60 .

The o ri entation of the line CAnuot now be

1970 25On.

the evi dence ; howeve r , like Maul"i ce, I find the hypothesis tha1i

the P ersian s chose to draw up wi th their ba cks to the sea and their line ot comnumi cation Dnd thei r own

camp

on

their

flank , when they bnd thE; oppor t,mi ty to do the opposite , incre dible .

Nor

can

I sae how the Athenian lett

must in that case hava pushed its 0

ts more or les8 into and Ie t the

the sea could , phySi cally , have

The di s tance trom the Soros to the sea is

get away.

as the length ot each ot the

61.

Fammond ( 1968) 43 .

62 .

Due to

an

at

about the

' The

( in Rus sien) , (Colle ot10n at

Archae ologi cal �ources Dl-4 , :�oscow !ns t . ot A cademy

P erai8Jl

•

ovars ight, the work ot A . J .Hel jukova .

t ot th e 3 0y th1ens '

, which

,

Science s , 1964) ws no t consulted in pre pal" q thi.

6

NOTES

269

63 -79

s tudy . 6' .

VI I 61 , IX 22 ( Ma s i s tius ) .

64 .

Rdt VII 61 ( Pers i ans ) VII 64 ( S cythians ) .

65 .

Olympia ccta10gue B 5100 .

Kunze 01ympiabericht VII

Thi ckn e s s ibid p 1 2 90 . ••

( 1961 ) 129-137 , pI 5 6 , 5 7 .

Mo s t of

the helmet is qui te uncorroded and re tains i t s orig1na1 dull golden colour. Berlin catalogue 2331 , reproduced in B . 3chroeder J dI 26

66 .

( 1 911) 281 ; end Gow ( 1 928) .

67 .

VII 61 , IX 61 etc .

68.

Illustrations in Schroeder and Gow , opp cit .

69 '

P . V . C . Baur & M . I . Ros tovzeff , �xcavBtions at

'irst Season ( 1928) 16-18 and fig .

70 .

Gerhard· 166

71 .

IX 61 , 99 .

72 .

E . g . The etc ,

7' .

s •

Eul'opos ,

4.

p ARV 262 , Oxf ord .1911 . 615 , Bovon ( 196 ' )

e c.

Gow (1928) 156-7 , pI 9 .

Confirmed by texts in Jackson

( 1921 ) . 74 .

•

Length of spea r, from Dieulafoy and Pers e pol i s

reliefs .

The frequency of portz'nyal on vase s does not of con'sse refiect frequency in real life .

75 .

Hdt VI 113 .

76 .

For sl

•

•

Ai'istophanes Eq. 781 . ,

BS

well BS goo d indication of shape , see

Daremb erg-Sagli o , s .v . Acinnce s , fig . 60 , taken trom aD embo �s ed scabbard . the

77 .

han d

A more predi ctable hold , thl'us tlng

lo w , Go w ( 19 28 ) pl 9 .

Lell8th , !finns , CAH II I 198 .

e . g . Ro etovzeft , Iranians and Gr ee ks , pl 5 . 1 ,

in Vo s ( 19 62 ) pl

16 d.

78.

MinnS , ibid .

79 .

1967 , 2l6n , 1968 '6-37 .

wi th

repro dUce d

6

NOTES 80 .

270

eo 9Q

I t i s no t ne cessary to assume that all the non-com�tants

go t away .

They would count as b oo ty , and would no t show up in

He ro do tus ' to tal . Hammond ( 1 968) 2 9n , based on Plutarch Aemilius , 2 1 . 1 ,

81 .

-

22 . 2 . 82 .

Edt VII 89 .

83 .

Iliad 15 , 678.

84 .

.

85 .

The spear i s 15 cubits long .

P op s ' s translation .

Iliad 13 , 130-3 .

The reader may repeat this experiment with a broomstiCk.

upright in front of the body as 11' 1 t

run s

the bandle inside

Then drop the hand to the side , so

the rim of a shield . the stick

were

tbat

fore-and-aft , and then bring the band round

to the small of the back wi th the

downward .

is once again verti cal , but the other way up . can be moved in just the same is

it

and hold

Grasp the sti ck in the middle wi th the left

mann e r.

The stick

The shield

Whether i t was done ,

qui te another matter.

86 .

Plato , SymPOSi11m 221 B.

fJ7 .

In the

eY1'l1S i s made to say that he

it useless to have ranks so deep that th e men

C8tlDo t

the enemy wi th their weapons ; tb1 8 pre

refle cts

reach

own view, and implies that the rear ranks did more thaD lend we i gh t to the front. 88 .

Herodo tus IX 62 .

89 .

Tyrtaeus 10 .25

's

3ust

Xen. eyr. VI iii 22.

( Th e old

man

clut ching his blooq groin) •

•

go .

Hardy ( 1976) 68

•

' I t is perfectly possible to shoot,

aat of a bo w of 70 Ib ( 32 kg ) or so , 15 reasonably aimed

arrows

in

toroe ; i t

a m1nute ' .

( Th e weight represents

has been sugge ste d in

draw-

chapter 2 that the draw-torce

of Pe rsian an d 30 yth ian bows at thi s period wa s about tha t,

or lower) . Hardy allows 10 per minute tor Mediaeval archera with strong bowa .

NOTES

•

91 .

Kromayer

6

271

91 -102

( 1921) alre ady mentioned.

H e doe s no t ,

in

fact think arrows woul d pi erce arwOl1r at all ; he gives thi s

as

the maximu.n effe ctive range , for reas ons whi ch are rightly reThe equa ti on b e tween effe ctive-

).

fute d by UcLe o d ( 1963

ness and the abi l i ty to pierce armour i s Hammond ' s .

( 1 968 pI 7 , n . 27 , quo te d i b i d . )

92 .

Hammond ,

93 .

G . B . Grundy ,

94 .

Parti cularly tha t fa cing p 263 .

95 .

Parti cularly the pho to a t the b o ttom ,

96 .

Or b e tween the e dge of the rock-fall and the marsh whi Ch

( 1 901 )

edge d the wi der p o rtion ,

2 84- 2 91 .

Map at end .

then as now.

fa.cing p 311 .

VII

(Pdt

176 ) .

The sea

has of course re cede d . 97 .

Grundy ( 1901 )

288.

r�arjnatos t � cava tions of the 113011 (-' � ,\ -<.I4.J \' ,

fieet1op , s e e reports cited in note 101 and Pri t che t t , AJA 62 ( 1958) 211ff . 98 .

Edt VI I 176 . •

•

•

99 •

For a very jus t e s timate of Hero d o tus ' account ,

sober hi s tory and the

"

s e e Burn ( 1970)

100 .

Edt VII 225 .

101 .

S .Marinatos , Thermopy�.ae ( i11us tra.te d pamphl e t )

195 1 .

Prel iminary repo rt , Beri cbt d . 6

' somewhe re

( te n)

407 .

Athens

Intel'nati onal en

Kongres 9 fuer Archf'.e o1og ie , Ber lin 1 93 9 , 333 -34 1 .

( 'rbi s

includes

.

the iron arrowheads from the south side of the

heads were .nainly on the north) .

199 t ,

•

Chap ter 2 .

Appendi. 2 . 1 •

Bronze ( 1 939)

AA has photo

Al l heads no w toge th er in

J.. ationol UU8 3U,D , Ath en a . 102 .

Summar ies 11. JRS 5 9 ,

AJ A 43 ( 1 93 9 ) 700 f , AA 1940 , 1 98-20 2 .

ot the bron ze haada .

hill .

a case in the

272

103 .

Hdt IX 49 .

104 .

Hdt IX 22 .

105 .

H d t IX 56-70 .

106 .

hdt IX 57 .

107 .

Pr i tche tt 'New l igh t on P1 at ee a AJA 61 ( 1957 ) ha s

sub s tan tia lly mod ifi ed the con clu sio ns of Gran dy ( 1901 ) , but the la tte r ' s S1J'l"'ley and map i 3 s til l fundamental .

,

108 .

IG, VI I 167 0 , 1671 .

109 .

Pri tche tt ( 1 957 ) 27 .

110 .

Bu111 ( 1970 ) 536 .

111 .

lldt IX 57 .

112 .

Hdt IX 60 .

113 .

Hdt IX 28 , 2 9 , . ( numb ers ) , 85 separate burial .

114 .

Edt IX 61 .

115 .

e . g . BUn1 ( 1 970 ) 538.

116 .

IX 6 = ( The Tegeans s tand up to charge) .

,

�ee Pritche t t ( 1957 ) 28.

Hoplites

are

shown crouching a ccompanied by S cythian archers , on 6 th

o�

vase a , e . g . the Black Figure lecytho s , New York

Modern Art ca t . 2 6 . 60 . 7 6 , illustrated Ri chter , Fandbook the Greek Collection of the pI VII I .

.

o�

, ,

"

M .A . pI 43 h , and Vos (1963)

ASV 536 , 41 , and the

B.P.

amphora, Berlin 1865 . ,

pI.

Illustrated Gerhard , Auser1e sene Vasenbi1der (1840-1858)

,

65 , ,

Vos ( 1963 ) pI VIb . 117 .

Blun ( 1970) 541 ,

118.

Hdt

119

•

.

IX 72 .

Hdt IX 70 , 5 . Bu1n ( 1970 ) 541 .

He ro do tus do es not

to give overall tigure s tor the Greek torce s .

F1utarCb (Ar1st"

1 9 ) give s a total ot 1360 killed , probably hop11 tas ot a nominal total ot 3 8 , 700 (Hdt

,

IX 29) . N early halt of the

10ssee would be aocoun ted tor by the Megarians , who were caught

NOTES

6

119-123

in di sordsr by the Theban cavalrJ , (Hdt IX 69 . 2 , ) losing 600 out o f a nominal 3 , 000 (Hdt IX 28 . 6 ) , about 2�: .

The

of killed for the re s t of the alIDY works out at about

�,

much as at r�al'athon . Thess may have been typi cal figures for the dead on the vi ctorious aide in a G reek battle . 1800 Companion cavalry at the G rani cus lost about 25 men ( Arl'i an 1 . 15 .4) .

Be tween 2 5 , 000 and 35 , 000 infantry at I s sus

( e s timated at the l ower figure by lane Fox ( 1 973 ) 170) ars said to have lost 302 kille d , 4 , 000 wounde d . wounded to be about ten times as

many

We should expe ct the

as the killed.

120 .

Hdt IX 62 .

121 .

See vase s in n 11 6 .

122 .

Perforations o f shi elds and aI'!Jour are a favou,-i te topi c

of ' Cbalcidi c ' Black Pigure painters (now thought to bave worked in S . I taly , not Chal ci s ) , but the pi ctures are not ver,y convinc ing - they look �ore like inag1nary re constructions of Romer than drawings from contemporary life , the shields being

particularly uusatisfactory . ( pI 139 , 142 ) .

Exai..!lple s are , ( 1 ) Rumpf 151 ,

Orvieto Museo dell ' Opera 192 ,

through a shield , ( 2 )

.

a

Rumpf 152 , ( pI 146 ) Tarquini a

R. C . 5655 , spear through shi el d , ( 3 ) Rumpf 104 Len1ngxad

l:.ermitage , Inv. no 1479 , Penthesilea shooting en aJ"row tlh'o1J8h Achille s ' shield .

However the Red figure cup , p 2411' ,

.n •

display in the Agora museum i o very carefully drawn , end shon •

an arrow piercing the shield.

The Sosias cup already mentioned

( ch I II ) may represent the e fter-effe cts . Plutaroh YOr . l90 B 14 10 the nest genera tl reports a � aTel1n pieroing a apartan 123 . At the 'Hampshire Grenadier' level I 81':) no doubt ODe influenced by training as a temporary subaltern in the Light Infantry , end a brief pe ri od of aotive servi ce in

8

fo rward

company of the COn'llJonwea.1th division in Korea in 1951 .

274 Note s

1

1 - 8

N o te s to Chapter 7 . 1.

P ow on di splay at Olympi a .

Found in the Alpheus river Furtwaeug1 e r

bed , ' I . J . Still;nan , BCH ( 1 883 ) 1 ff . pls 1-3 . Olympia IV (Die Bronzen ) 1890 154

ff

( drawing ) ,

I t then

di sappeare d , and reappeared re cently in the market .

late st

dis cus 3ion wi th bibl iography and colour photo , Roffman & Raubitschek , Early Cre tan Armoure rs , ( 1972 ) pp 50-53 , pl 25

•

•

Hoffman conclude s that i t i s Yel oponnesian or perhaps Atti c , not Cre tan . 2.

•

H .Ru8sell Robinson , The AX'!llOllr of Imperial Rome London

197 5 . 3.

Delbrue ck ( 1887 ) .

4.

e . g. Grundy ( 1901 ) 462 , BU111 ( 1970) 502 .

5.

I .X.BI'UDel1 , A Treatise on the Horse , ( in W Youatt , The

Hors e , its Breeds , management and di seases , London 1857 , pp 403-45 2 ) e . g . pp 316 -7 . 6.

Ro11sten , ( 1970) 23-4 .

1.

Area , Halacey , ( 1901 ) I 694 . Size , Theophras Llls ,

8.

Por a full dis cussion of Ctesias ' sins , see Jacob,y in

P-� XI

2

2, 2032-2073 .

H . F . IV.

I t i s no t just that he makes howlers

l ike putting P1ataea before �al8m1 s ( as

, wi th J acoby

op. cit. 2060 61-67 , that he i s the source of Dio Chruyasostom XI 145 ) , but that he just doesn ' t care .

To Ktesias all archers

were Cre tan , just as all ships do ctors And engineers in novelette s are �co tsmen .

Cre tans were

Herodo tus VII 169 says that the

d off by the l>elphi o Craole before

The �rchers used by the Greeks in that battle (A e s chylus

s.

Parsse , 460) wero there fore most probably Athenians , nor i. the s1

tion likely to have changed by the time ot Plataea.

Later the Athenians oer tainly hod citizen erchors , see P la . sart , ( 1913

)

,

•

-

-

275 N o te s

7

9-11

9.

Laws 707 c

10 .

R . Ghirshcan , I ran , 1 95 4

11 .

A . E . '·iardnum , Tacti cs and the tradi ti on of the Persian

192 .

#ars , R i a toria 1 95 9 , 49-60 .

.-

276 N o tes to Appendix 2 . 3

..

Notes 1 .

" •

Informati on from Dr . K . Cassios , of the Greek Foresty Commi ssion , re colle cted from his boyhood at Amphyclia , near Livadia .

I al so have to thnnk Dr . Havrommetes of the Forest

Re search Ins titute in Athens for dis cusglon of the identificati on.

•

Reed at Agia Triu..&8 colle cted by Mr . J .Hutchinson , a s tudent at the British S chool of Archaeology in Athens . ~

I found none at Rethymn* .

277

-

Ande rson (1970): J K . Ande rson , Ifili tary theo ry and p:l'ac tice in the age of Xen ophon : Berk eley Uni v. of Cali forni a , 1 970 . •

A .A:

J dI , q.v) .

Archaeologi s cher Anze iger (Beiblatt

A.J .A:

American J ournal of Archaeol ogy.

Anderson and ,Leaver ( 1 969) : J . e . Anderson and K . D . Leaver , Material s S cience , LOndon 196 9 . Atheni s che Mi ttei lungen des Deuts chen Archa eolog is Ath Mi tt: chen Instituts . B . C .H :

Bul letin de Correspondence Hel

•

: Black Figl1re . 1 : F . E .Brown ' A recently discovered composi te Brown bow , Seminarium . 9 ( 1937 ) 1-10 . Baume i s ter 188 : Denkmaeler des Klas s i s chen Al ter tt1rnS 3 t-4lmi ch Ii Leipzig 1889) . R . A . Bul1t , Persia and the Greeks , London 1970 t of 1st e d i ti on 1 962 with additions) . • •

A . R. Bu'1l , �T otes on Marathon J P. S .

.

.

89 1969 118-120 •

on C . A. Calder and � /.G oldsmi th , Pl asti c Calder 1 1 : oration of Thin Plates resul t'lng from. Projectile , an }Ie Internati onal J oulila1 of 301ids and SL'uc tures 7 Impact . ( 197 1 ) , 863-881 . :

,

M . Caspari , StIUY note s on the Persinn Wars . ( 1911 ) .

Clark a: '.lo od (1957)' D . 3 . Clark and D . ':3 . Vlood, The tensile prope rties of 80me me tals and alloys . !lSnsaCtions , Ameri can SO Ciety for Me tal s 42 ( 1 950) 45-74 . P . T . Craddock , The compo sition of copper 81101s Clas si cal !1orld. Ph .D. Thesis , Institute of Archae ology , London , 1 97 5 .

,

C . B . Dai sh , The Physi cs of Ball Games , ties Press , 1 9 72 .

Engl1 ah

Die Perserkrieg und die Burglmde :rlcl'i eg , •

Edrich De r ionische Helm Di88 . Goet t1ngen 1969. Suedl'u8 sland im Al tar tmn • Buecherei del' chte 12 , 1 921 •

•

,

Kul tnr

P . L . English , Bxte ri or bBll18ti cs of the the Franklin Institute 19'0 005-819.

,

•

278 Elis ab e th 3rdmann , Di e �og en8nn ten Marathon tzen in Karl s rUhe , A . A . 1973 30-5 8.

E . J . Forsdyke , 30�e Arrowheads from the

20 :

of Marathon , Pro cee dings of the '3o cie ty ot a e Anti quari e s of London , 2 ;er . 32 , 1919/20 . ,F ox

R . Tane Fox , Alex ande r the G reat , London

1973 :

F .R:

A . Furtwaeng1 er and K . Re i ct�old , Gri e chi s chen Vasenma1 erei

1904-1 932 .

R . Ghirshman , Iran ersi on , Par is 195 1

hi

1954 ,

( Translation

•

Impa c t s Theory and Physi cal C olli ding 301ids , London 1960 .

( 1965) 1

G oldsmi th

London

VI . G o 1 dsmi th e

our

Go1

1973 .

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