The Cosmology Of The Rigveda: An Essay (1887)

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UC-NRLF

B L

1115 W3 1887

MAIN

LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. "7*1

THE

COSMOLOGY OF THE EIGVEDA,

THE

COSMOLOGY OF THE RIGVEDA,

AN ESSAY

H, W,

WALLIS,

M.A.,

GONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

fig

tfa f^ib&ert

OF THE

\

UN1VERS or

WILLIAMS- AND N011GATE, 14,

HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON; AND 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH. 1887.

HERTFORD

:

PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS

BL

N

PREFACE.

THE

of

object

present a

this

is

essay

not

the

of

complete picture

much

so

to

Cosmology

of the Eigveda, as to supply the material from

which such

add references appeared

they

which

an

to

the

indicate

may be

explanation

superfluous

easily

matter,

accessible

Grassmann's references

statements

strictly

to illustrative passages

order to avoid any encumbrance

by

no

leave

to

The

drawn.

without a reference, and

cosmological passage to

may be

picture

endeavoured

has

writer

a

in

Lexicon,

in

sought.

In

of the notes

which

are

not

such

books,

omitted,

which are intended

which are

direction

references

other

to

likely

where

are as

and those substantiate to

be

the

subject

of doubt,

are

reduced to the smallest

number

possible.

The

isolation of the

156447

Eigveda

vi

is

Preface.

on

justified

other hand, the argument which

the Atharvaveda in the

on the of that

collection

Atharvaveda

lies

and

by

Brahmanic development

based

is

internal character

that

tradition,

from

apart

the

drawn from

is

Introduction

by the

attested

fact,

On

grounds.

linguistic

stream

the

the of

on the testimony of

:

residents in India to the superstitious character

modern

of

similarity to

those

Hindoos

of the of

and

charms

the

the

Atharvaveda

the

If,

striking

seems

as

cosmological passages

and

of the Eigveda are to be classified with

the latest

compositions

conceptions

the

in

collection,

the

with which the essay deals must

be regarded as belonging represented in

hymns were

to

still

on the

the latest period

when

the Eigveda,

language did not tion

of

on

European nations.

most probable,

hymns

:

lips

the

earlier

of priests

differ materially

whose

in construc-

from that contained in the hymns which

they recited.

The writer gratitude

him

to

desires here to express his sincere

those teachers

who have

assisted

in his general Sanskrit studies, Professors

vii

Preface.

E.

B.

Cowell,

R.

v.

Both,

G.

Kielhorn, and K. Geldner, some of also kindly suggested

was

while

it

Above

all,

his

which, in the

him

for

now

has

to

MAY,

1887.

whom

through

the

F.

have

corrections in this

passing

essay press.

thanks are due to that Trust first

devote

place,

rendered

it

possible

himself to the study,

undertaken

book.

Biihler,

the

publication

of

and this

TABLE OF CONTENTS,

INTRODUCTION. 1'AGE

The

subject of the essay

1

Limits of the study

The absence

The

.

3

of chronological data

character of the collection determined

by

internal

4

indications

By

2

contrast with the Atharvaveda

The impersonality

of the

7 8

Vedic gods

9

Deification of abstractions

The transference of divine functions and

The general tendency

of the

attributes

.

.

13

Rigveda

CHAPTER

11

I.

THE BUILDING OF THE WORLD. The

significance of metaphors in the

Rigveda

.

The introduction

of the fire

.

.

.

16-

...

17

.........

20

The measuring and building of heaven and earth The firmness of the structure

21

.

Tvashtar, the divine carpenter

23

The Ribhus, the workmen The general character of the

24 description

26-

Contents.

CHAPTER

II.

GENERATION. The

28

application of analogy

Fire and water

29

The metaphor of parentage, temporal, generic, and Heaven and earth, the universal parents The sun

29 31

as the type of generation

32

Elements of confusion in the hymns to Agni

Agni

local.

....

in the waters of heaven

32 33

Gandharva, X. 123

34

.37

'The union of Gandharva with Apsaras

The marriage of Surya The births of the gods and Aditi and Daksha

of the worlds,

The

birth of Agni,

7-10

The

rise of

X.

31.

39

X.

72.

.

.

41

44

the sun, X. 5

46

48

Hiranyagarbha, X. 121 The sun as supreme divinity

50

The Unborn

53

as a cosmogonic factor

Agni The waters

thing,

54 56

Parjanya, VII. 101

The one

52

X.

58 129.

The non-existent and the Allegory and analogy

57 existent

61

62

xi

Contents.

CHAPTER

IIT.

THE SACRIFICE. PAGE

The

64

source of this explanation

The meaning of the sacrifice The popular conception of death

64

The

sacrificial

66

The

fathers identified with the rays of

65

theory

The Angirases The creative functions

Agni

.

.

.

.

68

69 of the fathers

71

Generation through the fathers, X. 56

71

Anticipation of divine blessedness

75

The

fathers in the sun, III. 38

76

The

sacrificial

78

!

prayer

The heavenly

sacrifice

Vigvakarman,

sacrificer

79

and

creator,

X.

81, 82.

Summary

Sarasvati and

.

.

80

....

84

Vayu ......

85

Relation of Vigvakarman to Hiranyagarbha

Vac compared with Purusha, X. 90

.

86 89

of results

CHAPTER

IV.

THE ORDER OF THE WORLD. The

interpretation of abstract words

The general meaning

of the

Special applications of the

word

91

word

The

principle precedes the phenomena, X. 190

The

sons and parents of the ritd

Varuna, the king

91

ritd

93

...

95

96 97

xii

Content?.

PAGE

The vratdni The

of

Yaiuna

relation of

Yaruna

Yaruna

99

The maya

of

100

to ritd

as creator, Y. 85.

.

101

.

102

Asura

104

Monotheism Yaruna's decline

105

The popularity

of Indra

105

Speculation fostered by the Kshatriyas

106

APPENDIX. THE COSMOGRAPHY OF THE RIGYEDA. The form

Ill

of the earth

Heaven and earth

112

a pair

The intermediate space Twofold, threefold,

113

sixfold, ninefold divisions of the

114

world Professor Zimmer's view of a rajas under the earth.

The

.

115

117

course of the sun

Index

of Passages

.

119

Index

of Sanskrit

Words

128

129

General Index.

COEEIGENDA. Page

25, line 23.

Page 40/line 23.

For three read

four.

For XI. 81.

read IX. 81.

4.

Page

57, note 5.

For sun read

Page

67, note 4.

For X. 196.

Page

92, note 1.

For world read word.

4.

son. 4.

read

X.

169. 4.

/""*' "or THE !

UNIVERSITY r

'

THE

COSMOLOGY OP THE EIGYEDA,

INTRODUCTION. RELIGION

the behaviour of

is

man

with respect to the

natural forces and influences of the world which he

regards as manifestations external form of religion

ceremonies which are

of

is

for

superhuman

characterized

will.

by

rites

The and

most part traditions

the

from a forgotten past the inner life is twofold, on the one hand emotional, enthusiastic, and passionate, ;

on the other

The

reflective, speculative,

and philosophical.

character of each of these phases

is

determined by

the culture and civilization of the people professing the

The

religion.

from three

historian

may approach

sides, according as

his

he wishes to

subject

illustrate

the aesthetic, moral, or mental character of the people.

In the following pages the religious hymns of the

Rigveda

will be treated solely as expressions of in-

tellectual

thought.

attempts

at

and

there

The

philosophy,

through

the

stray

which

hymns

guesses are of

and vague

scattered

that

here

collection, 1

The Cosmology of be

will

in

classified

and,

as

the Rigveda.

as

far

arranged

possible,

sequence with a view to discovering the

logical

manner of reasoning

vogue among the composers of the hymns, the nature of the inferences and proofs which they admitted. A critical investigation of the in

recorded results of Indian thought

earliest

expected to throw considerable light on the

may

be

difficult

problem of the growth of Indian philosophy, if a subject can be found which is common to the later and the earlier thinkers.

Fortunately, one great problem

presents itself immediately as pressing for solution in all

ages,

will here be

The passages

most

obvious will

ceptions

be adduced

of

the

relating to this subject

brought together and arranged according

the similarity

to

the

and formation

namely, the origin

existing world.

of

the ideas contained

links

connecting

be suggested only

so

far

;

as

them

in

;

analogous con-

and other passages will they serve

to

explain

allusions in the cosmological passages.

an essential condition of such a study that the limits of the subject should be drawn as closely as It

is

possible

;

that, as far as possible, every

avenue should

be closed upon conjecture and hypothesis

whenever

and

this is practicable, the authors of the

should be allowed to speak their quently, no attempt will be made

of

;

the conceptions found in

own

words.

that,

hymns Conse-

to discover the origin

our book.

Mythology and etymology, the investigation of the stereotyped and formal results of preceding ages of thought, find

Limits of the study. Parallels from the religious

no place in such a plan.

and philosophic thought of other nations, and illustrations from later books, which would have obscured the interdependence of the Yedic ideas on one another,

and

so rendered it

more

the reader to

for

difficult

place himself in the position of the authors, are also

excluded.

The almost

entire

the

of

neglect

chronological

sequence of the hymns in this essay, which

is

a

more

serious omission, is the unavoidable consequence of the failure that

a

by which

criterion

It

is

has as yet attended every attempt to find

generally

to determine their relative dates.

that

supposed

in the tenth book

hymn

occurrence of a

the

affords

a suspicion of the

Forms and meanings

lateness of its composition.

of

words and grammatical constructions, which are of rare

occurrence in the

frequent

later,

date

the

for

has not

yet

would

hymns

also

in

been found

seem

we

indicate

to

which they occur possible

rules of general applicability

we were

on

this

still

guesses

collections,

but

of the

it

any

Even

score.

if

hymns,

be very far from deciding the relative

ages of the ideas contained in them. logical

;

a late

establish

to

able to determine the dates

should

become more

and

Kigveda,

The cosmo-

strung together in the other Yedic

and even in the Brahmanas, occasionally

bear a more primitive character than those in the

Eigveda, though the task of separating them from later accretions is

encumbered with greater

difficulty.

Introduction.

The

illustrations

from geology which are frequently fail to apply in one

introduced in this connection

The opinions held by a

important particular.

man

or a body

of

men

not

are

nor arranged in strata according to age

growing or

continually

relative positions

and

dying,

single

as a fossil

lifeless

they are

;

their

shifting

through interaction one on another; and force of meaning from

they derive their vitality association

with the whole

which they the

ideas

general

A

live.

could

chronological

have

no

as

may

principles

other

be

in

of thought

complex

arrangement of basis than such

from

abstracted

a

comprehensive study of the mythology and ideology of

all nations.

One

question,

which has given

pute, requires preliminary consideration

hymns may be regarded as common thought of the people. the

of

statements

Eishis,

may compare Veda

sufficiently

a

If

Atharvaveda. veda alone,

we

may

A

of

the

consider the of

composers

their

work;

distinctive

1

the

and we

we examine

find there

the

character,

the

of the

Ifcig-

hymns

two clear indications of the

bias of the authors in their exclusiveness

1

far our

productions with the only other

their

of

how

dis-

The question admits

the

hymns, about themselves and

:

representative

We

treatment in two ways.

of

much

to

rise

and their

rich collection of passages on this subject will be found in Dr.

Muir's Original

Sanskrit

Texts,

vol.

iii.,

and in his

article

on the

in the J.R.A.S. for 1866, p. 257. position of the priests in the Vedic age

The

glorification

lias of

tJie

of the sacrifice.

fish is.

They

represent them-

man and

selves as the only mediators between

They pride themselves on the pure orthodoxy

gods.

of their

and

religion

on the correctness of

the true priests

and

1

offerings.

cursed

They

as

and their gods demons and worshippers of demons. 2 Other worshippers

Indra's

men who know

existence,

who

down

the Rishis call gods, selves

no

offer

sacrifice.

3

not Indra,

no

serve

enemies of the gods, haters of the ways, who

by

true faith, with true prayers

of a

the ungodly,

are

who deny evil

their

Theirs are the true or real gods, served

rites.

are

the

Upon

Agni,

men

sacrifice,

of

such people

the terrible wrath of

all

their

and solemnly aver that they have never thembeen guilty of any improper worship of other

gods or demons.

Owing

to

the vagueness of the

references, it is impossible to determine against

whom

the denunciations are levelled, whether at dissenters

belonging to the same nation or tribe as the orthodox or at foreigners

;

they present

picture of a violent

religious

us,

however, with the

and serve

contest,

to

remind us that the Eishis were not the only bidders for authority among the people, even in matters of If the Eishis had any differences

theology.

1

II. 26. 1.

Bergaigne,

2

Y. 42.

V,

10.,

12.,

La

Religion vedique, vol.

VII. 104. 14-16., V. 42.

iii.

10.,

among

p. 184.

VIII. 18.

13., II.

23. 16. 3

ddeva

;

anindrd

cf.

II. 12. 5.

;

dnagnitra

cf. I.

147. 2.

bralimadv'ishah ; anydvrata, avratd, dpavrata ; ayajnd.

;

devanidah

;

6

Introduction.

themselves, their

in the

common

interest at any rate centred The most extravagant and offensive

sacrifice.

verses in the collection are the

unrestrained praises

of the liberality of kings and other rich patrons of

the

sacrifice,

shown It

was the endeavour of the Eishis

make themselves

as indispensable as possible to the

to the priests. to

especially in donations of cattle

great ones of the earth, and for that end to magnify

the sacrifice and

its

accompaniment, the hymn, as

the only means of attaining prosperity favour.

1

There are no curses

they denounce the

and divine

so bitter as those in

which

This glorification of the

illiberal.

the main burden of the whole Eigveda,

sacrifice is

showing itself in the assimilation of all things in heaven and earth to the sacrifice, and in the elevation of the instruments and personifications of the sacrifice to

the rank of great deities.

interest

gress

of

the

of

Eishis

speculative

to

help

thought

was not in the

It

forward

the

pro-

in its advance towards

hedge about their own religious conceptions with a wall of sanctity, and to

philosophy

;

but

rather

to

bring within this compass the wandering fancies of the people, and the enquiring guesses of the thinkers.

Extraneous

thought

source of danger

;

and

criticism

was

to

them a

they sought, therefore, to obscure

the doctrines of their theology by a multiplication of complicated allusions

1

Compare H. Zimmer,

and dark

riddles,

with which

Altindisches Leben, pp. 168-171, 194-5.

The Rigveda contrasted

the Atharvaveda.

ivith

7

they might occupy the minds of their hearers, at the

same time gratifying the native

taste for puzzle

and

The material upon which they worked paradox. consisted in part of the myths and legends which 1

were rooted in the traditions of the people, and partly also of the

rude physics and metaphysics of the more

thoughtful.

These they endeavour to adapt to their

own

sacrificial theory.

The

contents and form of the great majority of the in the

hymns

Rigveda bear

distinctly the

marks of a 2

It complex of doctrine in process of elaboration. would be quite conceivable that this doctrine, the work

was submissively accepted as by the mass of the people, were the

a class of priests,

of

alone efficacious

The Atharvaveda, us with another picture. In it we

Rigveda the only Yeda extant. however, presents find a

collection of

practical uses of

charms and incantations

common

life,

for the

exhibiting a spiritism

and a demonolatry which the Rishis of the Rigveda scorned.

1

We

find

a

of

state

morality contrasting

parokshapriya iva hi devah pratyakshadvishfth,

what

is

recondite,

and hate that which

is

evident.'

'

For the gods love

Brihadar. Up. 4.

2. 2.

" Neither in the language nor in the thought of the Rig-Veda have I been able to discover that quality of primitive natural simplicity which 2

so

many

are fain to see in

the contrary, to be of

it.

The poetry

it

contains appears to me, on

a singularly refined

character

and

artificially

elaborated, full of allusions and reticences, of pretensions to mysticism

and theosophic insight

;

and the manner of

its

expression

is

such as

reminds one more frequently of the phraseology in use among certain small groups of initiated than the poetic language of a large community." Earth,

The

Religions of India, p.

xiii.

8

Introduction.

strongly with the noble moral teaching of the Rigveda,

"We

and a more popular treatment of the Vedic gods.

number of

find, further, a

speculative pieces of rank

mysticism running out in wild luxuriance far beyond the sober limits of the

hymns

are

in

therefore justified

of the Rigveda

as

of the nation, and

point

characterizing the

how

hymns

the main the products of a

in

system independent of

special

We

of the Rigveda.

the

thought

general

in carefully considering at every

far the adjustment of

thought to

have influenced the form of expression.

In

it

may

this essay

the word Rishi will, for convenience, be used particularly

to

denote the

adherents and

promoters of

this system.

On

the other hand,

represent in the

if it

be granted that the

hymns

main a system of theology which was

the work of a particular class of men, rather than the

natural growth of a national consciousness, still

find

the

in determining

manner

greatest

how

of thought.

difficulty

we may

in individual

cases

system has influenced their

far the

The following

description of the

peculiar treatment of the gods in our collection

The

serve as an illustration of this difficulty.

of the Rigveda differ essentially from the gods of

or Scandinavian

may

deities

Greek

mythology and of the Mahabharata

in the abstract and almost impersonal nature of their characters.

They

are

little

physical and moral order

more than

factors in the

of the world,

which none, except perhaps Indra, has a

apart from

self-interested

The nature of

9

Vcdic gods.

the

To the Rishis they are pre-eminently the

existence.

receivers of sacrifice

;

the apotheosis of the Ribhus

is

described as the attainment of the right to receive

They have no

sacrifice.

The mention

definite forms.

of their clothes, or of different parts of their bodies,

serves only to express the nature of their actions or characters.

The strength

of Indra

is

the shaking of his blonde mustachios thirst for

soma causes the poet

capacity of his belly.

his

life to

his

by

insatiable

enormous

to glorify the

Savitar raises

beams of the sun, to give

;

illustrated

arms, the

Rudra

the world.

and the Maruts are clad in bright armour and carry spears, and crack their shining whips of light over their horses to

represent the lightning.

lets fall

her clothes to display her beauty.

Varuna

are throned in heaven

they are not

as

;

The Dawn Mitra and

the other gods, so far

with individual

identified

objects,

wander through the world at will. We hear nothing of temples of the gods, and it is almost certain that the

hymns

recognize no idols

selves present in the different

The

peculiarly

;

the

gods were them-

phenomena of the world.

impersonal nature of the gods

is

seen in the deification of purely abstract notions and agencies.

are those tar

;

The most

striking examples of such gods whose names are formed with the suffix

the divine agents of the processes designated

by

the verbal roots from which their names are derived.

The

most

prominent

of

quickener/ and Tvashtar,

'

these

are

'

Savitar,

the carpenter/

the

That both

r

10

Introduction.

gods were considered as such agents appears from the frequent play on the connection between their names

and the related verbal forms

and from the constant

;

names of the substantive

addition to their

passages where we may with equal '

the carpenter god/ '

Savitar/

'

devd,

'

the quickening god/ or

Tvashtar

god Tvashtar.'

in

plausibility translate

god

who

the god

is

produces the various objects in nature which show the

of an

skill

artificer;

Savitar

always

identified

1

few

exceptions,

quickener of the world, the sun character of his conception

is

is,

however, with

with

the

great

and thus the abstract

;

somewhat obscured.

frequent ascription of the action

The

of ordaining (dha)

the things in the world to different gods led to

the-

conception of a separate god, the Ordainer or Establisher,

"We

poser.

one hymn, of life

Vidhatar

Dhatar.

;

find a devd

2

is

in like

manner the Dis-

Netar three times invoked in

apparently as the Guide of the course

and a devd Tratar,

to

whom

dressed for protection against foes. of deities invoked

by the

Bishis,

prayers are ad-

3

Other examples

whose names bear a

similarly abstract character, are Brahmanaspati or Bri'

haspati, *

the lord of the sacrificial prayer/ Prajapati

the lord of

Aramati

Vac

'

Anumati

things born/

'

'

prayer/ Ija

'

graciousness/

adoration/ Qraddha

voice/ 1

e.g.

IV. 54., III. 33.

2

V. 50.

3

IV. 55.

5, 7., I.

106.

6.

7.,

VIII.

18. 20.

'

faith/ and

II

Transferenee of divine attributes.

The

abstract nature of the Yedic gods in general

shows

in

itself

the indefiniteness of the

sphere of

activity of each one, in the poverty of their individual attributes,

and

This

of

from one god

to

these

another.

the explanation of the principle familiar from

is

Max

Professor '

with which

the readiness

in

attributes are transferred

Miiller's '

name

the

by which the god invoked on

henotheism,

particular

under

writings

occasion

is

as

represented

a

exercising the

functions of other gods, and assuming their attributes.

The more impersonal and the god, the easier

This

to another.

is

abstract the conception of

to attribute his entire activity

it is

particularly striking in the case

who has become

of one ancient god, Bhaga,

Rigveda

little

more than a source from which

in the descrip-

tions of the functions of other gods are obtained, or a

standard of comparison by which their greatness

enhanced.

His name has survived in the Slavonic

name

languages as a general has in the Avesta.

it also

Bhaga would seem sun-worship,

to

be a survival from an ancient shall

His name

is

find

express

the

in

an

epithet

gift of sunshine to

to

men.

invoked along with Pushan and the Adityas,

is

Mitra, sister.

bountiful

traces

frequently mentioned

with that of Savitar, apparently as Savitar's

which

for god, a sense

To judge from the Rigveda,

which we

of

course of the essay.

He

is

1

Yaruna, and

The eye 1

Aryaman.

of heaven I.

123. 5.;

cf.

is

The

dawn

is

his

adorned with Bhaga's

VII. 41.

2.

12

Introduction*

light.

road.

1

The hymns mount up to Yishnu as on Bhaga's Most frequently, however, comparison with intended to express a vague glorification

is

Bhaga

of the bounty of Indra and

points of comparison

Agni

that Indra carries the two

are

worlds, heaven and earth, as is

the only special

;

Bhaga

and that Agni

;

the leader of the tribes of heaven, as Bhaga. 2

This apparent

gods shows

may

itself in

common

there are

the functions of the

confusion of

In the

three ways.

first

place,

divine actions or attributes which

with equal propriety be ascribed to two or more

gods invoked separately or together,

to all the

members

of different classes of gods, such as the sacrificial gods,

and the warrior- gods, or such cases there is no

to all the

gods as gods.

confusion.

real

In

Secondly,

there are attributes and actions expressed in similar phrases,

which,

through

the

different

original

cover

development

common

approximation

however,

was

tendency in

the

mind

their

Of

name

assisted

a

of

by

poet

the

a

of

to

applied

originally

-expressing

more or

less exactly

1

I.

I. 62. 7.

136. 2. ;

;

gods

characters

from

nature Savitar,

are

the

and

the

'father' to different gods.

expression

2

different

such a way as to

this

and

Tvashtar

of

application of the

of

conceptions in

ground.

to

belong

III. 54. 14.

III. 20. 4.

;

This

occasional

existence

traditional

verse or

another

god,

but

the thought the poet

cf.

X.

151. 1.

Confusion of the divine functions.

The confusion

wished to utter. it is

is

in this case real, but

not the result of a direct transference of functions.

Lastly, there

the conscious application to one god

is

of the attributes of another, racteristic

the other god,

of

attributes

the addition of the

often of the most cha-

name

some appellative or expression familiar

cases

with

to the Rishis

The god invoked, who

in association with him.

such

either

of the other god, or with

in

usually Agni, Soma, or Indra, unites

is

with his own functions those of another god or gods.

Agni, Soma, and Brihaspati are expressly identified with other gods

including their entire activity,

as

even without the insertion of any adverb of comparison, as also

it is

said of Savitar that

becomes Piishan." sional

The

1

he "becomes Mitra,

transference here

and of a rhetorical character, and from

distinct

the

of

syncretism

is

the

is

occa-

thus entirely later

divine

Triad.

This fusion

is,

however, but one phase of a move-

ment of thought collection,

a

to

be

through the whole

traced

harmonizing movement by which

endeavoured

to

recognized by

concentrate

the Rishis.

the It

is

theological

it

is

ideas

the result of two

tendencies, both of which would seem to mark our

end of an epoch in the thought of the nation than to a period of

hymns

i

as belonging rather

II. 1.,

V.

pushff, bhavasi

3. 1, 2., 1.

V. 81.

4, 5.

163. 3.

;

to the

IX. passim; X, 98.

1.;

mitro bhavasi

14

Introduction.

active production.

1

The one tendency which

is

pecu-

liarly characteristic of India is the economical desire

and preserve the entire theological stock of

to collect

the nation that nothing be out

a

new path

in

rather than to strike

lost,

of

disregard

results.

previous

Legends and mythical conceptions, as well as deities, derived originally from different orders of thought, are placed side by side, approximated to one another

and confused

The other tendency

together.

is

the

endeavour to define the unity of nature, which to the layman was apparently typified in the light, but

which the Eishi endeavoured

The

sacrifice.

associate with

to

the

various products of this latter tendency

are particularly characteristic

the

of

difference

be-

tween the cosmologies and cosmological formulae of the Rigveda and those of the Atharvaveda. In the Rigveda,

we have

as

seen,

the

divine actions

transferable from one god to another

hymns the

Skambha Kala

1

my

'

are '

in the mystical

Atharvaveda the several elements of

of the

world

;

are

identified

Prana

the support/

time/ Ucchishta

with

'

a '

few abstractions,

the breath

of life/

the remains of the sacrifice/

" For the great majority of the hymns of the Rigveda it becomes, in opinion, more and more evident, that they mark not the rise, nor the

zenith, but rather the decline of the oldest

Indian lyrical

and monotony appears from the unvaried uniformity metaphor, the absence of originality in most of the hymns and these rather negative

of

art.

This

thought and

of the

Rigveda

;

qualities are not indeed limited to particular

books, they extend, so far as I can see, in greater or less degree, over the

whole collection."

Bradke's Dyaus

A sura,

p. 2.

15

Tendency of the Rigveda.

and

others, each of

which

is

for the time tentatively

regarded as the substratum of the universe,

and end. described

its

cause

Neither of these phases can be accurately as

In the

pantheistic.

earlier

book the

gods are not categorically (with one or two exceptions, e.g. Aditi I. 89. 10.) identified

in the later the abstractions

with the universe;

and strange

which the elements of nature are be described as gods.

The

logical

figures with

identified cannot

development of

the one phase of thought ends in monotheism, of the other in atheism.

CHAPTER

I.

THE BUILDING OF THE WORLD. THE

philosophy of nature

classification

of natural

classifications of

be described as the

may

forces

and

The

agencies.

based upon identity or

science are

uniformity of principle discovered by analysis and inductive reasoning

unscientific classifications or

;

mental

associations are the results of superficial comparison.

The former we commonly resemblances, of

destitute

analogies,

science

call explanations,

or

this

metaphors. distinction

the latter

In an age vanishes

;

the

metaphor partakes of the nature of an explanation.

The importance veda

is

of the metaphors employed in the Rig-

seen in the constancy of their application as

compared with the ornamental or descriptive metaphors fixed comparisons are consecrated of modern poetry ;

to particular uses

and endued with a sanction which

can only be explained as the result of a very special sense

of

formation

their

of

propriety.

the

world

recurring perpetually to all

its

we

find

in

describing

the Yedic

the poets

the metaphor of building in

showing that they accepted this comthe form of expression most applicable to

details,

parison as

Thus

The

made in

we remember

If

creation.

of wood,

it is

difficult to picture to ourselves its

the felling of the trees for wood, and

first,

:

not

that the Vedic house was

the different stages in the process of

outline

erection

17

significance of the metaphor.

the measuring of the

site

the

next, the fixing of

;

main-posts in the four corners supported by leaning

and of the two door-posts in the front and lastly, the covering-in of the whole with cross-

buttresses,

beams, to

fill

;

rafters, laths,

up the

and some kind of

We

crevices.

mud

or thatch

shall see all these stages

recur in the allusions to the formation of the world.

That the world should nothing

have

an idea which

is

the

Rigveda;

Rishis

been

finds

no

however,

are,

from

created place

a

at

the

in

to

loss

explain whence the divine builders obtained the im" What indeed perishable material for their work.

was the wood

What

?

too

was that tree from which

they fashioned the heaven and the earth

?

They two

stand fast and grow not old for ever, while

days and mornings wax old." 1

X.

31. 7.

;

cf.

X.

ever to be translated

would seem

to

as contained in

wood. trees.

The The

'

Whether

81. 4.

forest

'

is

word vdna

The

in the

use of the

of

Rigveda

word

is

for cloud

be due to the following associations. The rain is pictured wooden vats. The lightning burns in the clouds as fire in

clouds are

blown by the wind as the branches and foliage of X. 28. 8. appears to refer to the clearing up

difficult verse

of the sky through the thunderstorm

good wood in

" The gods came carrying axes,

;

'

Lex.) they burnt

X. 135.

:

they came with their attendants; they set ' heaven, where there was refuse (perhaps underwood Pet.

splitting the clouds (vdna]

to in

the

doubtful.

many

The measuring

l

it

1., I.

up." 24.

The myth 7.,

and

I.

of the world-tree is apparently alluded

164. 20

;

cf.

A. V. X.

7. 38.

2

The Building of

18 '

the

World.

the two ancient dwelling-places/

in the different senses of the word,

heaven and earth, a frequent topic

is

Thus we read of Indra,

in the hymns.

" he presentative of the gods, six broad

spaces,

excluded;

he

it

it is

as the re-

who measured

the

from which no existing thing is is who made the wide expanse of

earth and the lofty

dome

of the sky, even

"

he

and

l

;

and the thing

again, with confusion of the measure

Indra, broad

measured, "two measures are thine,

and well-measured, the heaven by thy greatness and the earth by thy skill." is

2

The measuring instrument

the sun

represented by

traversing

the earth

in

his course, and shooting his straight beams from East

"Yaruna, standing in the region of the

"West.

to air,

measureth out the earth with the sun as with a 3

Hence the measurers of the world

measuring-rod."

sun- gods, as Yishnu, who excellence are the " measured the regions of the earth, and made fast the

par

dwelling-place on strider,

high,

in three steps."

the surveying

is

stepping forth, the mighty

The natural

place to begin

in the front of the house

;

and so

the gods began their measurement of the earth from

"Indra measured out (vimimaya)

the East.

a house with measures from the front."

1

VI. 47.

3,

4.

For the explanation

of the

'

as it

were

The

idea

4

six spaces

'

and other

cosmographical references, see Appendix. 2

X.

3

V. 85.

*

29. 6. 5.

pracah II. 15.

3., cf.

VII. 99.

2.

pr&cim kaMbham prithivy&h.

I he Measuring of measuring

is

out the earth,

allied

closely

revealing

it

to

19

World.

oj the

to that

the

of spreading

eyes of man,

a

function also ascribed to the gods connected with the

sun and the lightning, in particular to Indra, Agni, and the Maruts. The site seems to have been consecrated

1 by being anointed with ghee, which in our

hymns represents the The fathers (Manes;

rain or light given

and earth

them

see Ch. III.)

"anointed heaven

they measured them with they made them fast and broad they

to rule over

measuring- rods

by the gods.

;

;

;

set the great worlds apart, firmly fixed for security."

Connected with the action of measuring the corner-posts,

setting in

of

the cosmic house

through which world.

"

are

the

portals

the morning light

The Dawn shone with

for us the doors." 3

of

by The doors

frequently expressed

of the same root.

a different form (mi)

that

is

2

of

enters

East

the into

the

and opened The doors "open high and wide brilliance,

with their frames." 4 They are broad as the earth, " extending wide and above all, many in number,

yea very

many

of ghee." 5

;

through the doors flow the streams

They

are

particularly

glorified

in

the

Apri-hymns, as the gates through which the gods approach,

the

arrangement of

1

A. V. III. 12.

2

III. 38.

3

4 5

I.

IX.

I. 188. 5.

5. 5.

place

1.

3., cf. I.

113.4., IV. 51.

Staili

the

190. 2. 2.,

V. 45.

1.

of

sacri-

20

The Building of

fice

assimilated

being

world.

the

to

World.

the

measurement

the covering-in

Lastly,

beamless or the rafterless.

who produced

in the world

"

He

this

the

the house with

of

cross-beams and a thatching of bamboo-canes to negatively in the designation

of

is

alluded

sky as the

of the

was a clever workman heaven and earth, and

fixed the two regions of air in the beamless space."

The

be woven in the trees or clouds.

air is said to

Indra, didst fasten firmly the region of air

"Thou,

in the frame of heaven

The

1

human house

the

excellence in

of

criterion

2

and earth."

was the firmness and compactness of its structure. So we are continually told of one god and another how he holds the heaven and the earth fast and the ;

security of the never-falling sky

of wonder to

human

the

out the broad earth,

the sky,

"Indra spread a great marvel, and supported

heaven and the earth apart." makest secure

secure." 3

is

a perpetual source

builders.

and mighty."

erect

is

"

He supported the " That which thou

The heaven

is itself

called

mdharman, or simply dhdrman, 'the support' or 'the firmament.' 4

was 1

Up.

But the compactness

useless unless the foundations

warned IV.

56. 3., II. 15. 2.;

were

of the sure.

askambhand X. 149.

building " Savitar

1.; cf.

Chand.

3. 1. 1.

3

V. 85. 2.;

3

VI. 17.

7.

I. 56. 5.

V. 29.

;

4.

;

VIII. 45.

6.

This sense seems necessary for dhdrman in VIII. 6. 20. The fuller expression dhdrman divo dharune (X. 170. 2., V. 15. 2.), 'the sure firma4

ment

of the sky

'

or

'

the support supporting the sky,'

is

abbreviated into

The Introduction of

made on

" Vishnu fixed

the earth fast with bands."

all sides

with pegs."

light, rain,

Such house as

it

A

poets.

and

air.

all

gifts of

2

a brief outline

is

When

1

world was furnished with

finished, the

it

"Brihaspati supports firmly

in their places the ends of the earth."

was

21

the Fire.

of

the

metaphor of the

pictured itself to the lively fancy of the

more

mode

special characteristic of the

thought in the Rigveda

is

of

the invariable introduction

into all cosmological conceptions of the fires of heaven

and

earth, the sun, the lightning or the thunderbolt,

and the

fire

of

sacrifice.

logical explanations of ject of so

much

to call the

The

and meteoro-

solar

mythology have been the sub-

controversy of late that

it is

necessary

reader's attention once for all to the fact

that the frequent references in this essay to the sun

and the lightning, as the natural phenomena uppermost in the minds of the Rishis, are in no sense solar

or

explanations of mythology,

fulgural

or of

the origins of the gods; they merely draw attention the

to

conceptions

with

associated

different

The

(perhaps conventionally) in the Rigveda. of the

Indian on entering his

introduction of the sacred

dhdrmani vidharman

2

see

Agni,

"

act

the

who was ever

and perhaps in I. 159. 3., cf. IX. 97. 22. For Grassmann's Lexicon; Bergaigne contests this meaning

La

yantraih X. 149. I.

first

new house was

in III. 38. 2.,

for vidharman also, 1

fire,

gods

Religion vedique, III. 218. n. 2.

1.

;

mayiikhaih VII. 99.

56. 5., III. 30. 11., II. 15. 2. etc.

3.

;

IV. 60.

1

;

cf.

X. 89.

1.

22

The Building

of the

to be worshipped in the house,"

The

house." 1

World.

"the master of the

act of the gods after the forma-

first

tion of the world was to produce the celestial Agni,

From

the sun or the lightning.

the hearth in the

middle of the house the flames and smoke streamed

up towards the the

supporting

presenting the picture of a pillar " the head of is

roof,

Agni

ceiling.

heaven and the navel of the earth liquid counterpart, Soma,

is

"

2

he,

;

as

his

'the bearer of heaven*

" He was set down and the support of the world. among men as a wise priest, welcome in the sacrifice for

he shot up his straight light knowledge Savitar, and supported his smoke toward heaven

his

like like

;

a builder."

3

The sun

is

the gold or bronzen

pillar of Mitra and Varuna's throne

the sky itself

;

4

This function compared to a firmly set pillar. of Agni was symbolized by the erection of a post

is

in the place of sacrifice, the t'dnaspdti of the Apri-

hymns, which was anointed with ghee

to

represent

his light.

The

action

of building

the cosmic house,

corre-

sponding to the rough work of the Indian peasant, attributed for the most part to the gods in is general, to Indra as the representative of the gods,

1

grihdpati, v'dstosh pdtih.

2

I. 59. 2.

IV. 1

6. 2. cf.

V. 62.

7, 8.;

IV. 13.

V. 45.

5.,

2.

VII.

VI. 47.

1. 2. cf.

5.,

III.

X. 88.

1.,

1.

17.

III. 5. 10.

23

Tvashtar, the joiner.

that

and Varuna,

Mitra

or to

in the

is

But there

world.

whose special character the finer works of the be

These

Tvashtar in

the

by

delegated

workman.

the

is

*

forms,"

the

as

who,

hatchet

the

things with

all

In

pair.'

the

he

sacrifice

created

of praise, which is technically described " Tvashtar piece of joinery. produced thee

hymn a

(Brihaspati) after

hymn,

of the his

Ribhus.

whence heaven and earth are called

artificer's

the

professional

the

his

heaven and earth, the parents, and their

in

" adorned also, in general,

thunderbolt of Indra, but

1

gods,

skill

carpenter- god,

with

all

such as would

and

Tvashtar

clever-handed

their

the

to

peasant

are

manufactured

particular,

art,

joiner's

other

are

on

based

is

of

ordainers

the

as

gods

from

all

who generated

Tvashtar's mead. 4

He

2

the

sacred

the sacrifice

to

fire.

is

hymn

also

is

3

he

is

But

His special function in the natural

as

the

5

This

regarded

and of increase in

one

the soma,

the formation of the embryo in the

is

whence

from

things,

the skilled artificer.

chief contribution

world

existing

cattle.

giver

of

function

womb,

children

and

its

connection with the soma will call for further treat-

ment

the next

in

1

X. 110.

2

II. 23. 17.

3

X.

2. 7.,

4

I.

117. 22.,

5

I. 188. 9.

9.,

chapter.

IV. 42,

3.,

III. 55. 19.

46. 9., I. 95. 2. cf.

X.

The menial character

53. 9.

;

cf.

V. 42.

13.

24

The Building of

World.

the

of Tvashtar's activity, and his

harem

the

of

him with a

covered

gods,

with the

association

ridicule in the eyes of the Rishis.

There

certain

no

is

hymn

devoted to his praise in the whole collection.

Indra

own

special

is

him

represented as surpassing

department, the "I the clouds :

making

in his

soma or the rain in

of the

placed the bright milk in these cows,

which even god Tvashtar could not place in them." a baby Indra stole the soma out of the bowls

While

Tvashtar's

in

hide

it.

The same view

workmen a

had

where Tvashtar

house,

tried

to

1

human

of the menial office of the divine

seen in the ascription to the Ribhus of

is

birth,

and in

.

the

that

conception

they

obtained their immortality by their service of the gods.

The

of the

praises

Eibhus

consist

of a certain

number

of actions,

mythological

figures,

the

and soma

like

Tvashtar

chariot of the Acvins, horses.

They

fashioned

;

streams,

1

2

to

X. 49.

lies

They make hymns

and Indra's thunderbolt and

even said in one place to have

are

they

shape

It is said of a strong

the people by the Maruts, as also of

he was formed by Yibhvan, one

that

IV. 34.

which

they produce the wonderful

the cow of plenty in the sky.

the

of

the Acvins themselves, 2 and

king given

enumerations

expressed in fixed

discussion

outside the scope of this essay.

in

10.

;

III. 48.

9., cf.

VI.

4.,

3. 8.

IV. 18.

3., I. 84. 15.

25

The Ribhus.

number. 1

of their

In

particular, their renovating of

aged and decrepid parents, and of the old cow, which they reunited to her calf, would seem to refer

their

new

to the

birth of the world through, the recurrence

and they are once said to have made heaven and earth. 2 We have the names of three

of the seasons

Itibhus

;

but the varied character of their workings

;

in the different departments of nature

is

emphasized

by the mystic number, thrice seven, of their gifts, and we find the expression all the Ribhus employed '

'

as

an

of

if

Their names

number.

indefinite

are

and one passage has the remarkable expression, 'Ribhu with the Ribhus, Yibhva with the Yibhus, the powers with power/ 3 used in the plural

severally

which can these

'

leave

men

legends as

of

vague

doubt

little

the air

;

'

that

was

in

Two

man and

beast.

of

one form of their

works of

chief, or, in the phrase

of the Rigveda, they are his

bestows gifts on

number

as that of the wonderful

Indra figures as their

nature.

the

sons

;

he as a Ribhu

4

legends concerning the Ribhus deserve special

mention

:

their contest with Tvashtar,

when they made

soma

from his one, and their

production of grass on the

meadows by refreshing the

three cups

1

for the

vibhvatashtd V. 58. 4., 42. 12.

2

IV. 34.

3

ribhur ribhiibhih

9.

....

48. 2. *

IV. 37.

4., I.

121. 2.

vibhvo

vibhubhih fdvasa

fdvamsi.

VII.

26

The Building of

World.

the

earth with streams after twelve days' rest, as guests, in the house of

the

discover

the superior

In the

Agohya.

number

Tvashtar's

of

explanation

we may

case

first

in

defeat

the Bibhus, representing the

of

conquest of a combination of inferior beings over a

The legend

single-handed mighty power. explained as referring refer

possibly

to

a

to

merely

is

the three worlds;

usually

may

it

The

ritual. 1

change of

Ribhus, as we shall see was the case with Tvashtar, are brought into special connection with the sun, the

main agent of productiveness *

as

bright

the

sun

in

nature.

'

They

the

(siiracakshasali) >

sons

are of

Sudhanvan, the 'good archer'; "with their father's energy (taranitva) they obtained his wealth and mounted up into the region of heaven " it is, in ;

Savitar who befriends them and procures them immortality and we read of " the dispositions of the Eibhus according to the succession of the particular,

;

dawns."

2

"We are thus brought

to the

end of the

planation of the formation of the world.

cannot

fail to

objective

creation

not

man

the description

;

;

the

end

1

F. Neve, Essai sur I.

110.

6.,

cf.

le

mythe des Eibhavas,

IV. 33.

vidhana ribhunam IV. 51.

6.

of

the Eishis do not question the

Divine

motive of the gods in forming the world.

2

ex-

have been struck with the disinterested,

character of is

first

The reader

1.

;

I.

110.

2,

Paris, 1847.

3., cf.

Ait. Br.

3.

3,

30.

;

The

similarity of divine

and human

actions are

magnified copies of

therefore, a

man must

actions

The

occupations, with this difference

illustrated

;

similarity,

almost say the identity, of the divine and

the object for which also

human

as,

build his house, so the gods

have built the universal house.

may

27

actions.

men pursue

that the

we

human

gods lack

their work, will be

by the next chapter on generation

as a cosmological principle.

CHAPTER

II.

GENEEATION. IN the preceding chapter familiar

logical

is

how

It

to the

and

between induction

distinction

analogy or metaphor. tration

was drawn

attention

was shown by an

illus-

the metaphor, which in modern literature*

employed as a figure of language, was in the

The present chapter

will

analogical

reasoning.

of

or

effects

of

unable to analyse, to lead to the similar

causes.

of reasoning ticularly class in

an

afford

Analogy of

classes

mode

as a

Rigveda of great importance

the

is

of thought.

illustration

effects,

of

comparison

which

we

are

but which appear so similar as

presumption that they are due to In formal expression this method

usually makes use of a type, or par-

well-known

and

which cause and

example of the are found to coexist

obvious

effect

;

one striking instance is singled out as representative of the process which seems to relate the cause to the

effect.

In

the

argument

subject of this chapter the process is

that

of

generation

light and water

at

;

the

dawn and

type

which

which is

forms is

the

the

described

union of

in the thunderstorm;

29

Analogy. the effect which, requires explanation

the origin

is

of the world.

"We

have

Agni

seen

further

the

as

pillar

the importance of

visible

of

the

nature, fire

description

supports

the

of

heavens

presentment in

pictorial

most

two

the

It is the visible periodical

cosmological speculation.

union

in

which

antagonistic

elements

of

and water, seen in the glistening dew

dawn, the brightness of the morning mist,

of the

and the

of

flash

lightning piercing the rain-cloud,

which explains the complicated sensuous symbolism of those hymns in which the generation of the world

is

tion

in

We

described.

warmth and the

shall

find

that

light

or

the chief factors of genera-

moisture,

cosmology

of

the

Rigveda

as

in the

systems of the Ionic philosophers, are not here,

as

they are there, the primary elements out of which the

world formed

itself,

but are always bound up with

the phenomena of the sky, the sun in the clouds,

and the lightning in the

In

rain.

illustration

of

this the chapter before us will treat first of the birth

of the sun as the type of all subsequent births, next of

the action of agencies,

fire

and

and water as productive

or light

lastly

of

the

general

principle

of

generation as applied to explain the origin of the world.

There are three principal applications of the metaphor of parentage in the Eigveda, temporal, generic, and local.

In

the

temporal

sense

it

expresses

the

30

Generation.

appearance of one phenomenon before another

dawn

the

;

the mother of the sun and of the morning

is

sacrifice,

the night

and the

like.

the mother of the morning, 1

is

The parent may correspond when the Maruts, the gods

as

efficient cause,

storm-cloud, are

said

give birth to

to

to

an

of the

darkness, or

again to the material cause, expressing the transformation of one object into another, as when the rain

the cloud. 2

said to be born of

is

head and representative of the sons of the family, as the mother of the daughters Again, the father

is

;

his

personality

metaphor obtains a generic

the

sense, expressing the

most

prominent member of a group

Yayu

;

the winds, or of the storm-gods, of the Maruts and Rudras, of the prayers

The

sons

may

;

Sarasvati

separated from

son

4

or

;

again,

when

quality,

1

VII.

2

VII. 94.

78. 3.

3

II. 33. 1.

yad

etaj

the father

Tvashtar's epithet vi^vdrupa

in

as

the

the Semitic

name

of his

languages,

the

may

be occupied by an abstract

when Agni,

the Maruts and others are

;

I.

123. 9.

1.

4

Veda

the father of is

soma of the plants and the mother of the rivers.

him and becomes

place of the father as

is

Rudra

be considered as inheriting the qualities

of the father, as is

is

them. 3

Thus

continued in

is

jay ate 'patyam sa evayam

the offspring which

bharata, ^antip. 10862;

iti

man

is

born to a

cf.

Brihadar. Up.

is

frutih,

the

2. 1. 7.

"

according to the

man himself."

Maha-

31

Parentage.

'the

called

men

*

sons

large

*

called

is

place

and Indra the

setting free/

Pushan who

strength/ or '

a

in

of

child

the

sets

child

of

of cow-getting. 1

The quiver carrying them as

Lastly, the metaphor has a local sense. called the father of the arrows,

is

a father

carries

his

child in

2

his

arms.

The earth

the mother of the trees and of all things that she

is

bears on her broad bosom, and the heaven the father of

all

that

things

move

the sky,

in

the

sun,

the

3 Maruts, morning and evening. But heaven and earth do not merely contain all things, they also supply the nourishment by which

the harvest-time,

can be

for

instance,

called the child of the earth. 4

The

transition

from the

the metaphor to the

they grow;

local

of

application

Heaven and earth

temporal. in which

all

is

easy

are the dwelling-places

births take place, they are also the first-

born in the beginning, of equal age and common or, what amounts to the same thing, the origin ;

question

is

the older 1

may

mooted, which of the two could have been 5

;

vimuco napat

or again, I.

42.

1.,

by a

VI. 55.

1.

;

characteristic

confusion

goshano napat IV. 32. 22.

perhaps trace the incipient misconception of this idiom,

"We

which does

not belong to the later language, in the explanation of the phrase sdhasas

putrdh sticks

as applied to

(V.

11. 6.).

Agni from the force exercised in rubbing the fireWe must not, however, interpret the etymological

fancies of the Rishis too seriously. 2 3

* 6

VI.

75. 5.

I.

185.

I.

173. 3.

I.

186. 1.

2.

32

Generation.

of thought, they are represented as the two fruitful

who produced

parents,

The

once

at

difficulty

the world for their offspring. 1 arose

of fixing

the relation

of heaven and earth as the universal parents to the

who, from another point of view, have

gods,

also

a claim to be considered the fathers of the world.

The

paradox begat

body."

The

themselves with a

contented

E/ishis

favourite

" Indra

the children begat their parents.

:

and

father

his

his

from

mother

his

own

2

This birth

is

heaven and earth

of

first-born

is

the sun.

one of the most frequent topics of the the most part

Rigveda, hinted at for

rather

than

described in a series of complicated riddles playing

perpetually on the identification

of

of Agni, in the sun, the lightning,

soma of the and earth the

to

meaning

fire

or

on the comparison of heaven

;

two stones between which the

the

soma was pressed enriching

and the

the two rubbing- sticks that produced

to

or

fire,

sacrifice

the three kinds

and other recondite parallelisms more than the expression

;

formal

the

of the

hymns.

in the interpretation

is

A

great source of perplexity

the confusion

of

the dawns

or night and morning, which give birth to the sun, 3

with the waters, the mists of the sky or the rainclouds which

carry the 1

2 3

embryo

of

1. 159. 2. I.

159. 3.,X. 54. 3.

V.

1. 4.

the

lightning.

The Light and

They

are

Agni,

his

The

light

both

alike

mothers,

as

represented

his

33

Waters.

the

nurses,

the

cows of

or

wenches.

sisters,

considered as a liquid, as in the

itself is

familiar English expressions a 'stream* or 'flood of

"

'

pouring light/

light/

liquid flood."

The

as

the

of

centre-point

generation,

The sun mounts upon a

l

of

theory

has been said,

cosmological

the combination of

is

the light with the waters, which presented itself to

the eyes of the poets in the birth

of

the lightning

from the rain-cloud, and in the exhalations which surround the light of the sun. in the waters;

he

ficiently

2

The

home

his

'the child of the waters/

is

who grows by

one eye of heaven, streams/

Agni has

reference

to

'the

the action of the

the lightning

suf-

is

obvious; the part played by the sun in the

paradox, apart from such general expressions as 'the

sun

waters about the

below

on

earth,

'

contrasted with

described

is

as

the

the waters

shooting

or

3 weaving of his rays through the waters of heaven.

The

allusion

dew

to the

is

established

dawn with

connection of the

by the

close

the waters, in which 4

The marriage

she

is

the

sky with the earth, the father and mother of

as

represented

the sun, presented

itself in

1

VII. 60. 4.=V. 45.

2

IX.

3

*

bathing.

two ways.

First, the

10.

where Soma represents the sun I. 23. 17. III. 22. 3., X. 27. 21.; VII. 47, 4., IV. 38. 10., X. 178. 9. 4.,

VI. 64.

4., I.

;

124.

5.,

48. 3;

V. 80.

5.

3.

of

sky

34

Generation.

embraces the earth on

and both are united

all sides,

in the twilight of the East before the dawn.

the fall of the the form of

sunshine or lightning

the

causes of

Secondly,

and the shedding of light in

rain

fertilization

the

of

are the

visible

The sun

soil.

draws the dew as milk from his mother earth, and obtains his

a

as

regarded

which

light,

we have

as

from

liquid,

seen

the

father

his

also

is

1

sky.

These two, the light and the dew or

rain, are inter-

changeably represented as milk or

semen,

celestial

in the

morning

ambrosia, ghee,

2

or soma- juice.

The conception of the rising sun dew is personified in the figure a

of

discussion

illustration

addressed to

Gandharva,

whose character

will

be

the

sun

as

the

of

of generation.

of

birth

of

the

best

the

type

In the only entire hymn which is him, he receives the name of Yena,

which occurs again in I. 83. 5. as an epithet of the In other passages it is translated by rising sun. the St. Petersburg Lexicon longing, desire (or It is used as an epithet of the desirous), wish. '

'

dawns, of Soma, and

of

be applied also to the songs

hymn

describes

his rise

in

a

or the singers.

succession

of

from the morning mist up

his light

is

merged

in

and seems

Brihaspati,

the

poetical

to the sky,

all-embracing

of the heavens. 1

I. 160. 3.,

2

IV. 58.

IV.

3. 10.,

X.

11. 1.

to

The

images

where

brilliance

35

Vena.

X. 123.

"Vena, born

1.

in

1

of the

air;

waters,

the singers caress

the meeting of

at

(lit.

hath driven

light,

hither the calves of the speckled

cow

in the chariot

the

sun with the

'lick')

him here

as

(aerial) sea

;

a child with hymns.

Vena

2.

stirreth a ripple

from out the

2

the child of the clouds hath appeared along the ridge of the bright sky; 3 on high, on the course, he shone their

common

nome,

4

of nature's

to the

bosom of

father (the sky).

The many mothers of the

3.

calf,

who have one

were there, exulting in their common child

summit of nature's course the songs

rising to the (lit.

;

summit

and the hosts sang

;

sip

lick) the sweet ambrosia.

The

singers knowing his form yearned for him ; have found the roar of the wild buffalo (Soma) ; they 4.

performing the

sacrifice

they are come to the stream.

Gandharva hath found the forms of ambrosia. 5.

Apsaras, the maiden, smiling on her paramour,

beareth

him

one to the

in high heaven

bosom

of

;

he

loved

his

is

come

one

5 ;

as a loved

he settleth

there upon his golden wing, even Vena. 6.

As with longing

in their hearts (venantah] they

gaze on thee, as a bird flying up to heaven, the gold1

2

cf. II.

40. 3.

cf.

IV. 58.

3

cf.

VIII. 100.

4

The dawns

two 5

1,

cf.

The

force of

aydm

is

Behold

here.'

11. 5.

VII.

2. 5., or, as

Ludwig

suggests, the waters.

has heen said, practically indistinguishable. his father, the sky; cf. V. 47. 3., III. 1. 9., VIII. 69.

are, as i.e.

7.

The

36

Generation.

winged messenger of Yaruna, soaring eagle

Yama's

to

home, a

;

Upright hath Gandharva mounted into the sky

7.

his

pointing

glancing weapons

in

clad

;

a

sweet-

smelling mantle, beautiful to look upon, he produceth fair

forms as the light. 1

"When

8.

as a drop

with

gazing

2

he cometh

eye in heaven, his light

vulture's

a

to the aerial ocean,

worketh bright-

rejoicing in its gleaming brilliance 3

ness in the highest region." references

Similar

sun occur in

I.

163.

Gandharva

to

and in X. 177.

;

2.,

sings the morning song of the sun-bird

beareth a

song

yet in the

while to

in

his

"

womb;'*

where he " the bird

;

Gandharva

heart,

he beholds

the sky,

rising

where he holds the bridle

2.,

of the horse of the sun

the

as

sang

it

Gandharva mounts up

the forms of Soma, his

all

light shines abroad with gleaming brilliance, he illu1

surabhi appears to be a play on the word gandhd, occurring in the

The

name Gandharva.

third pada

is

applied to Indra in VI. 29. 3.,

That this comparison is no hindrance to the identification of Gandharva with the sun is proved by

including the comparison

I. 50. 5., 2

where

it is

with

applied to sdrya.

Ludwig and Grassmann

are sparks." 3

Literally,

svdr.

Pet. Lex. s.v.

translate

spark

Cf. Cat. Br. IV. 1.

" worketh fairness in

itself

" ;

"

'

'

drapsd

1.

cf.

:

drops of

fire

25.

amntini krinvan of

The

interpretation given above is the one which appears to me to agree best with the different images occurring in the hymn, and with the other references to Gandharva, and is confirmed by A. V. II. 1.,

Vata X. 168.

IV.

1.

;

1.

Grassmann in

his translation, vol.

Gandharva with the rainbow. tions scarcely affects the

The

ii.

difference

p.

400, inclines to connect

between the two interpreta-

argument of the following pages.

The Gandharvas and Apsarases.

37

minates heaven and earth, the parents, brilliantly."

The Gandharvas

'

receive the epithet vayukega,

l

whose '

hair is as the wind/ or borne upon the wind and in X. 139. 4-6. (III. 38. 6., see next chapter) Gandharva Vicviivasu is addressed as " the heavenly '

is

;

Gandharva, measuring the realm of the air." Our hymn illustrates the two senses in which the sun

is

brought into connection with the waters

as penetrating with his

and

the sky, to

light

the

in

assimilation

of

is

his

soma or ambrosia, whence

as

the depths of light become the aerial ocean. association

first,

beams the watery masses of

secondly,

the waters,

;

in

stereotyped

union

the

This

of

the

Gandharvas and the Apsarases, a type of marriage, and in the later mythology of sexual enjoyment.

An

Apsaras,

dpya

mentioned in X.

Gandharva

to

yosha,

10.

4.

2

as

'

the

water-nymph/

having given birth

Yama, the progenitor

race, in the waters

of

and Vasishtha, in a

;

VII. 33. verse 12,

is

represented as

is

with

the

human

late

hymn,

born from an

Through his connection with the light and the waters Gandharva finds his parallel in the

Apsaras.

soma,

which

symbolizes

the

at

same

time

fructifying waters of heaven and liquid light. identification

85.

9-12,

a

of

two

the

hymn

is

addressed

1

IX. 85. 12.

2

X.

11. 2.

is

the

The

most striking in IX. to Soma, where the

obscure.

38

Generation.

Yena

expressions used of Gandharva

small modifications

with,

IX. 86. 36. Soma

in X.

transferred

over

is

men

In

Soma.

to

Gandharva

called "the heavenly

is

of the waters, whose eye

123. are

(nricdkshasam,

but see note 6 on page 68), born to rule over all " " created things the daughter of the sun brought :

the soma, Gandharva received is

who

" Gandharva

it."

protecteth the place of Soma,

who guardeth

the birthplaces of the gods, where he

"The

wise

(singers)

it

invisible."

is

with their songs the rich

sip

milk of heaven and earth on the sure place of the Gandharva." 1 On the other hand, in VIII. 1. 11.

and

66.

and

is

the

sun

he figures

5.

smitten

like

as

In IX.

free.

Gandharva sun

is

now

can

78.

by Indra,

soma,

who

sets

the Apsarases appear

3.

Soma

in the same relation to

We

gaoler of the

the

Tvashtar

Gandharva. 2

as to

understand

the

significance

in the marriage ceremony.

The

of

light of the

considered as a main fructifying influence, not

only in the trees and plants, but also in the

womb,

as

when

the parents protects

it

is

together

the

;

for in

embryo

female breast

said of Vishnu, that

rich

human

he brings

fruitfulness, that

he

womb, and forms the

the

of Pushan, that he grants brides to

and has given birth to all things and of the A9vins, that they have placed the embryo in

his worshippers

1 IX. 113. XII. 98.

3 cf.

X.

3.;

30. 5.

IX. 83.

;

4.

;

I. 22. 14.

;

cf.

X.

80. 6.

;

IV. 58.

4.,

V. S.

39

Surya.

all things.

The waters

1

alone, especially as personified

god of the rain-cloud, will be shown Gfandharva reprebear the same character.

in Parjanya, the *

later to

We

the union of these two influences.

sents

on to the other forms in which

sun with the waters or

the

light or

expressed.

or

hymn,

marriage

40 and 41

In verses

rather

pass

union of the

this

of

the

dawn

the

classical

of

collection

is

marriage

formulae, X. 85, Surya, the typical bride, the daughter

the

of the sun,

the Acvins, to

dawn who

given in marriage

is

in

rides

first to

Gandharva, next to Agni, and

In VI.

of man.

58.

3,

4,

it

the chariot of

Soma,

2

then

lastly to the child

is

another sun-god,

whom

the gods gave Surya as a bride. 3

Soma and Pushan

are associated together in II. 40 as

Pushan, to

two cosmogonic powers giving birth to the world. Again, as we have seen Gandharva called the father of

Yama,

lightning, 1

I.

2

155.

3.

Vivasvat, a

so

of the sun or of the

frequently mentioned as his father

is

;

name

thus

;

VII. 36. 9., X. 184. 1., IX. 67. 10-12; I. 157. 5. " Soma was the 9. bridegroom, the A9vins the two

Compare verse

when

interceders,

Soma

is

of the moon.

The

be considered as

Soma with same

Savitar gave the willing bride Surya to

usually explained in this

hymn

different formulae here collected into one

all

her lord."

in its later application as a

dating from the same period.

The

hymn

name

cannot

association of

the sun-gods points to the conclusion that he has here the

significance as in other

hymns of the Rigveda, though many verses and their compilation may be of later date. There is a hymn doubt in verses 21 and 22 whether we should explain Gandharva Vi9vavasu of this

as the protector of virgins, or, as in the later literature, the violator of virgins. s

cf.

X.

85. 26, 27.,

VI. 55.

4.

40

Generation.

the union of Surya with Gandharva finds in the union of Tvashtar's to Sonne, the

storm-cloud

;

dawn) with Yivasvat, the

The nature

its parallel

daughter Saranyu ace.

of which

fruit

(ace.

to Prof. Miiller, the

Yama. 1

is

of Tvashtar's character was, as

we have

he might have been introduced as an agent in any natural phenomena, which were His special regarded as products of artistic skill.

seen, so indefinite that

was the formation of the embryo in the womb, and it is in this connection that we observe function

his

the

approximation to

We

to the sun.

have

workman who made

He

soma.

is

that he

and

the

frequently associated with

the

among whom we

find

goddesses of heaven, the Gnas,

mention

in verse

VII. 34.

to

make

tion

Rudra and Yaruna, and

the marriage union

to

sun

the

name with

He is

Yicvarupa,

is

where the

1

X.

Compare V.

3

III. 4.

invoked

to

grant

His approxima-

are invoked together

name Tvashtar

triple

epithet

emphasize the reference to the

2

is

the combination of his

The two

Under the

and

fruitful

the father. 3

seen in

Savitar's.

in XI. 81. 4.

4

He

2 Aramati, the goddess of prayer.

increase of cattle.

and Varunani

22., of Rodasi

the female counterparts of also of

more

still

the handi-

is

thunderbolt

Indra's

very

and

lightning

seen

vigvdrupa 4

he

light,

Savitar

serves is

said to

17. 1, 2.

9.,

43. 6. with VII. 34. 21.

VII.

34. 20.,

See Grassmann's Lex.

X. 184.

s.v.

;

cf.

1.

;

I. 188. 9.

Chand. Up.

;

X.

5. 13. 1.

to

64. 10.

41

The Type of Generation.

have nourished and given birth to

all

existing things.

name appears

to

be used inter-

Further,

the same

changeably with that of Gandharva for the father of

Yama and

and Tvashtar receives the epithet 1 We have thus arrived at the agriyd, the first-born. Yarn!

;

following complication in the of the sun-gods

Gandharva, Agni, Soma, Pushan,

:

and Yivasvat are

Tvashtar,

bridegrooms

matrimonial relations

all

represented

of Saranyu, the daughter of Tvashtar.

were this

however, content with

not,

as

the

the daughter of the sun, or

of Surya,

The Eishis

the attainment of

bizarre result of their symbolisms

;

they delight

in describing the complication in its most paradoxical

form, that the father married his

own

with her gave birth to the universe.

2

daughter, and

We

are thus

brought back to the point from which we started, the union of the light with the waters confused with the marriage of the sun, the

dawn, and regarded

as

first-born,

the type of

with the

generation in

the world.

We

now proceed

to the discussion of the principal

hymns, among the most difficult in the Rigveda, which the figurative generation of the world is

in

The

described.

first

hymn X.

72.

contains

the

barest outlines of a cosmogony, the details of which

remain in obscurity.

1

X.

2

V. 42.

There are two interpolations

10. 5.; I. 13. 10. 13.,

and especially X.

61., I. 164. 33.

42

Generation.

the

in

hymn

and

2,

(verses

6,

7)

the

;

original

verses, which are especially closely connected together, admit more readily than in most hymns of separation

from the interpolations.

"Let

1.

births of the

man may

gods,

first

age of the gods the

regions

Daksha

Aditi

existent

was

were born from the begetter (the sky). 2

the

(of

a

1

that the regions

after

;

the

that

praise,

see) in a later age.

(lit.

The earth was born

4.

admiration

utterances of

in

born from the non-existent (of the sky)

with

proclaim

hear them

In the

3.

now

us

from

earth)

was

from

the

and

born,

the

begetter, earth.

the

From

from Daksha

again

Aditi. 5.

Even Aditi had

Daksha

;

after

her

a birth, for she

the

is

blessed gods

thy daughter, were born, of

immortal parentage.

Eight in number are the sons which were born she went forth to meet of Aditi, from her body 8.

;

the gods

1

and

cast the

With

For

seven sons Aditi went forth to meet the

pa<; in the sense of 'hear,'

cf.

X.

with Delbriick, Altindische Tempuslehre,

who 2

bird (Martanda)

3

away. 9.

with seven,

p.

71. 4.

14,

Or we may

translate

'whoever' or 'as one

For the construction cf. VIII. 6. 18. seeth in a later age.' of the air. eip. uttandpadah is quite uncertain ; utland

The meaning

is

used as an epithet of bhumi, but this proves nothing for tittandpad. If we take the word as masculine, and refer it to the sky, we obtain with bhti a

Daksha and Aditi in the next two verses. " The exposure of Martanda (Surya) refers apparently only to his

pair corresponding to 3

sweeping through the sky (updri prukshipat}"

Ludwig.

43

The Worlds formed from Dust.

brought the bird thither to be born

earliest age, she

and die again."

The

interpolated verses are

"

2.

Brahmanaspati welded these worlds together smith

like a

existent 81.

in the

;

earliest

age of the gods the "

was born from the non-existent

(cf.

X.

3.).

"When

6.

gods, stood firmly embracing one

ye,

another in the formless depth, thence there arose from

your feet a thickening volume of dust as from dancers.

When

7.

to

ye,

grow, then

gods, like the Yatis,

ye

was hidden in the

The two

verses 6

brought

made

forward the

all

things

sun,

which

sea."

and 7 are interesting

as containing

the world an independent story origin the gods are said to have kicked up in dancing the of

of

the

We

atoms which formed the earth. the usual mention of

soon

as

5.,

also notice

may

the production of the sun as

heaven and earth were made.

The nearest

passage in the Rigveda is X. 24. " You two strong addressed to the Acvins to

parallel 4,

:

this

:

and cunning ones produced by churning (as with a fire-drill) the two (worlds) that face one another. Niisatya (Agvins), worshipped by Vimada,

When,

ye produced them by churning, all the gods yearned as the two (worlds) facing one another fell away. 1

Niisatyii,' '

again.'

spake

the

'

gods,

bring

them

here

Apparently the A9vins stirred up the dust,

which formed heaven and

earth,

and the gods were

44

Generation.

so pleased with, the production that they wished to have them formed into solid masses. 1 Similarly in I.

formed from

22. 17. the earth seems to have been

the dust of Vishnu's three strides across the heavens.

The passages are, however, too isolated to admit of anything more than conjectures; we return to the body of the hymn. The mention of the non-existent and the existent merely introduces the subject of origins, as will be shown at the end of this chapter. The hymn contains three

moments

heaven,

and the intermediate regions

earth,

gods from their the

is

proved by

chosen

first

parents

lastly,

;

the rise and

represented by the figure of martdndd has the meaning 'bird' the word is perhaps here 38. 8.

II.

;

in allusion

to

semi-divinity and

the

The

mortality of the rising and setting sun.

energy it is

it is

of

meaning '

it

;

is

the

word

opposed

Daksha

to sickness

;

hymns

well as of Aditi

The

traced in the

is

hymns themselves 1

cf.

'active

Ribhus

;

;

the

and occasionally

malevolent activity. as

is

The

at the sacrifice

applied three times to

used of the production of

sense of

ddksha

semi-

relation

of Aditi to Daksha remains to be discussed. general

next,

sun,

That

Martanda.

;

of the worlds, the birth of the

parallel to the birth

setting of

the birth of the three worlds,

first,

;

it

has the

personification of

most probably to be to

Ait. Br. IV. 4. 27.

an old idiom of

45

Aditi and Daksha.

In VIII. 25. language. " Varuna are called the children of the Yedic

the sons of ddksha"

The expressions

Mitra

and

strength,

and

5.

the strong and active ones.

i.e.

common, and translators are meaning. "We find now that the

are

agreed as to their

'

description of Indra as

son of strength/ gave rise

to the conception of a goddess Qavasi, his

and

it

is

scarcely

that

certain

less

mother

Daksha,

l ;

an

unimportant deity whose only characteristic in the Rigveda is his fatherhood of the gods, has derived his personality

from similar expressions. 2

The analogy

of these two figures suggests at once a like explanation

of the origin of the motherhood of Aditi.

hood of the gods

is

The mother-

the only constant and certain attri-

bute of Aditi. Aditi and Daksha are mentioned together

again in X.

5.

and

7.

64.

5.,

a recurrence which

confirms the derivation of both from a like origin.

The

history of the

word may have been somewhat

as

was used in pre-vedic times as an abstract word meaning freedom from bondage/ if the generally It

follows.

'

accepted etymology be correct. of the sons

The determination

of Aditi as a class of gods was caused

by the

association

gods.

The

dditeh

of the expression with '

putrah

t

became the sons of Aditi, and from the 1

name Aditya was

derived.

putrah $dvasah VIII. 92. 14. 2. cf. note 1 on page 31.

;

v. s. v.

ddkshapitar Pet. Lex.

is

qdvasah sunuh IV. 24.

cf.

IX. 87.

2.

'

this later sense

There

X. 153. 2

particular

unfettered gods,

the

no proof 1.

;

Cavasi

46

Generation.

when our hymns were composed

that at the time

word

still

the

bore the supposed etymological meaning of

an adjective and as a substantive in so many and varied connexions that no single conception has yet been proposed 'freedom from bondage/

elastic to

sufficiently

It is used as

suit

all

its

we suppose proper name it

ambiguity of meaning will be explained that

after

word had become

the

The

applications.

a

if

was employed anew, in the same way and in much the same sense as the appellative dsura, with a vague sense of a grand divine significance. 1 In IX. 74. 5.

Soma who

it is

placed the fruit

Aditi's

in

womb,

through which we obtain children and grandchildren. The next passage which will occupy our attention

Whether

a fragment, X. 31. 7-10.

is

same poet who wrote the preceding

the

of the

no,

loose

for

The

alone.

A

or

hymn

sufficiently

1

come from

it

us to is

subject

connection

the

the

treat first

of

six verses

thought four

these

is

verses

birth of the sun.

collection of passages will be found in Professor A. Hillebrandt's

monograph, Ueber die Gottin Aditi, Breslau, 1876. The parallelism of dditi and dsura is seen in the application of both words principally to persons (Hillebrandt,

I.e.

p.

15)

from the two words, aditilrd and sura:

and in such passages

V. 44. 11. with X. 74.

VI. 36. 10. 2.

1.

As

;

V. 59.

8.,

2.

X.

;

as

in the similarity of the

:

IV.

VII. 51.

1. 1.

20.

with X. 50.

63. 3. with I. 131. 1.;

3.

cf.

;

The

I.

89. 10. with

X. 67. 2.,X. and V. 12. 1. an

also

dditi is the cow, so dsura is in III. 38. 4.

epithet of vrishan.

derivatives

and asurd, diti and compared with III. 3. 4.;

astiratvd, cidityd

fluctuating attributes of the goddess Aditi, as

distinguished from those attributes which are derived from her mother-

hood, are, for the most part, borrowed directly from the Adityas.

The Birth of

What

"7. that

from

tree,

and the

indeed was the which,

and

is

;

;

a

As

9.

a Stega over the ground so he passeth over

a mist;

scattering

in the

wood

When

10.

immediately

the wind

where Mitra and Yaruna

there,

on

own herdsman son

first

(i.e.

being

secure

verses

born

is

deal

Compare suryatvac. literal

(the

anointed

daybreak),

(at

beareth,

earth)

she

maketh

who hath her

own herdsman)

from

his

parents,

;

the

when cow

3

which they seek."

(?)

her

with the formation of the three The

Pet. Lex. translates pavitra

l

sieve.'

It

through which the beams of the sun stream. meaning of the word is instrument of illumination or purifi-

would then signify the

A

cation.'

cow

(or herself her

devoureth the placenta

The

at sacrifice).

barren

the

insecure paths

2

as

he when anointed hath shot abroad his light, as

Agni

The

of

source

as the sun.

the earth; 2 he penetrateth the world,

1

mornings

is

own power he maketh his skin 1 light, when the bay horses carry him

the

grow

no other thing besides like unto him of the bull that beareth heaven and earth

There

his

are,

and

fast

many days

heaven

the

fashioned

was

too

old.

8.

he

What

wood?

they

while

47

Sun.

They two stand

earth?

not old for ever,

wax

the

filter

'

similar passage

is I.

160. 3.

Thus the grammatical parallelism of the first and second padas The Stega is a biting or stinging insect.

is

complete. 3

The

passage

sense of vydthih in all passages

cf.

II. 35. 5., II. 4.

word samyam reading

may

7.

as equivalent to

possibly have been

The

is

'an insecure going.'

Pet. Lex. and

For our

Grassmaim take the

sdwyam, a plug or peg.' The original some such word as jarayu (? (

48

Generation.

main components of the universe, heaven, earth, and the sun. Of the first two the poet has little to tell us, and passes on at once to the third. The sun

is

identified with the bull,

Agni

of the sacrifice,

and the earth with the lower rubbing-stick anointed with ghee, which

is

The next hymn of the

sun,

licked

as soon as fire is struck.

up

again a description of the rise

is

the east;

in

his birth

does

of the

the cosmogonic

not

appear till the hymn last verse, which may be regarded as the climax The of the whole, or may be but an afterthought. significance

allusions do not

the

I add

admit of certain explanation.

seem

which

interpretations

to

me

most

the

plausible.

X.

5.

treasures,

"The one

1.

sea

(the

bearing rich

sun)

births, is to

us all a sight

producing many He sucketh the teat on the breast of

of gladness.

his hidden parents

;

in the midst of the fount (source

of light in the East)

The

2.

waters).

the

home

forms in 3.

placed the

home

of the bird.

strong, lusty horses dwelling in a

come

stall

is

together

The wise

with

the

mares

common

(light

(the rays, see Chapter III.)

of nature's

order,

and

guard

they assume excellent

secret.

The two cunning ones (heaven and

earth)

who

which would yield a suitable antecedent to ydd and give an intelligible A. V. VI. 49. 1. With starir ydd sttta compare VII. 101. 3. starir u tvad bhdvati, suta u tvat, where the reference to the earth is still

sense, cf.

clearer.

The Rise of follow nature's order unite to the child,

they form and give birth

;

nourishing him, the centre of

all

that

and that moveth, weaving 1 with insight the

fixed

is

49

the Su-n.

thread of the wise.

For the tracks of nature's course and the

4.

juices

(dews and light) for refreshment follow the goodly child from of old; heaven and earth, clothing themin a mantle, are strengthened nourishment of the sweet drink.

by the

selves

His seven glowing

rich

and waters) as a lover the understanding one bringeth forth from the sweet drink to be seen he who is of ancient 5.

sisters

(rays

;

birth

dome

the 6.

to

halteth

The

sky, and seeking hath found

the

in

of heaven. 2 (seven) wise ones (rays) fashion seven lines,

one of these

The support

of

the

may

home

in the

life

come. 3

mortal

distressed

of the highest, at

the divergence of the ways, standeth on sure ground. 1

Read

2

The rendering

For the thought compare VI. 9. vavrim pushandsya is a paraphrase. The context

vdijanti, cf. II. 3. 6.

of

leads us to expect an expression of the journey of the sun

zenith.

The word pushand

is

an

air.

If

etp.

we

up towards the

retain the text as

stands, Pushan's covering will be probably the sphere of his

For vavri compare IV. 42. 3 The 'distressed' one, daybreak.

The

<

lines

and X.

1.

lit.

4. 4.

'compressed,'

'

maryadah

meaning

;

compare

also

is

the mortal longing for

beams

are the

occurs again in IV. 5. 13. along with vaytina

development of

(pi.),

of

light

the

;

55. 15.

is

word

a word with a similar

saptdra$min.

These

diverge as paths from the point where the sun stands, I. 46. 11.

the sun

it

movement.

beams

"When

just rising there are two paths, the dark and the light, III.

Ludwig

renders the

word here

'

ways,' but assigns to

it

significance following Sayana.

4

a moral

50

Generation.

7.

The non-existent and the

existent are in highest

heaven in the birthplace of Daksha, in Aditi's

Agni

beginning of

a sun-god

hymn

the universe,

of

great power

a lusty bull."

life

In the next

lap.

and in the

our firstborn of nature's order,

is

glorified as

is

from which

the

other

all

powers and existences, divine and earthly, are derived, a conception which is the nearest approach to the of

later mystical conception

The hymn

the world.

the gold-germ,

who

is

Brahma, the

in the last verse

the prototype and

Prajapati,

lord

The name Hiranyagarbha marks the conception with to the sun in the

god

is

from the

earth 2.

;

I.

the other

though

of

references

but the

be abstracted into an as

tentatively

appears

1

;

He

holdeth fast the

what god

is

shall

all

we honour with

the gods perform

immortality and death

we honour with

;

and the

sacrifice ?

whose 3

;

2

;

whose

(light and)

what god

shall

sacrifice?

1

Translated by Prof.

2

A

Max

similar phrase occurs in

Ludwig

heaven here

giveth breath and giveth strength

prescriptions

3

to

born.

things

association

"Hiranyagarbha (gold-germ) was formed when born he was the sole lord of beginning

Who

shadow

of

the

refrain.

X. 121.

being.

figure,

addressed as

is

are equally clear;

already beginning

independent

in the

the light;

hymn

creator of

addressed to Hiranyagarbha,

Miiller,

X. 168.

translates cliayi here

'

Hibbert Lectures, 4.,

VIII. 48.

p. 295.

13.

Glanz,' Grassmann

Schattenbild.'

The Gold-germ.

Who

51

become

king of the who living world, that breath eth and slumbereth ruleth over its men and beasts what god shall we 3.

by

his

is

power

sole

;

;

honour with

Who

4.

sacrifice ?

by

his

tell

they

power,

us,

possesseth

snowy mountains, and the sea with the Rasa whose arms are these regions mythical river)

these (a

;

what god 5.

are

shall

;

we honour with

sacrifice ?

Through whom the strong heaven and the made secure, 1 through whom the realm of

earth light

supported, and the vault of the sky, who traverseth the air in the middle region what god shall we honour with sacrifice ? is

;

To whom the two

6.

his

looked up as they trembled in

support,

there where the risen sun

we honour with 7.

8.

the august waters went,

of all

and producing

we honour with

Who

when they 1

Ludwig and Grassmann

The

[which

receiving the

thence arose the

;

3

is

one]

what god

;

sacrifice ?

energy (ddksha) and

take ugra as a predicate

word

:

but in that con-

'

actively strong, fresh,'

makes a poor

and stabhitdm.

battle begins at

The

dawn.

expression

is

applied to Indra in II.

Dadhikra, the rising sun in the form of a war-horse,

invoked by contending armies; IV. 38. 3

Two

shall

surveyed with power the mighty waters,

parallel to drilhd 3

fire

received productive

struction the sense of the

12. 8.

what god

;

by

spirit,

sacrifice ?

living spirit of the gods shall

2

shines

When

germ

sustained

battle-hosts,

syllables extra

;

ekah

is

5., 39. 5.

suspicious.

is

similarly

52

Generation.

sacrifice who alone is god over the gods what god shall we honour with sacrifice ? 9. Let not the begetter of the earth harm us, nor he who hath begotten the heaven, whose ordinance

begat

is

;

sure,

waters

;

we

who hath

begotten the mighty and shining

what god

shall

these productions;

all

call

upon thee

The hymn repetition

of

;

the

We

beginning,

look, therefore, first

'

the

gold-germ,

is

few verses.

born

giving

other passages Prajapati

with Soma.

or

2

is

In

sky.

invoked for fruitful increase

of cattle, and

once he

identified

is

Savitar also receives the title bhiivanasi/a '

prajdpatihy

the

in

and strength, typifying life the breathing and slumbering

life

and death, king of world, whose arms are the regions of the of children,

"l

wearisome

a

by

most special attributes in the

Hiranyagarbha,

when

pronoun of the general

a great god.

'

become lord

is

possessors of wealth.]

enumeration

relative

sacrifice ?

grant us our desire

may we be an

is

characteristics of for the

we honour with

Prajapati, no other than thou

[10.

over

;

the prajapati of the

world.

'

It

could

not be expected that such a conception as that of

1

The

last verse is

not divided up in the pada recension

;

this fact

and

the absence of the refrain would seem to prove the verse a later addition.

Grassmann

is

not therefore strictly correct in describing the

hymn

as

addressed to Prajapati, and treating hiranyagarbhd as a mere appellative.

Later mythology would incline us to discover in Hiranyagarbha a reference to the mythical primeval

Rigveda, except perhaps 2

X.

egg

there

;

I. 130. 3., to

85. 43., 184. 1., 169. 4.

;

IX.

is,

however, no passage in the

support such a reference. 5. 9.

The Sun

as

would

Hiranyagarbha

53

Supreme Deity. be

limited

and

the sun,

to

indeed in later times the connection with^the sun ;

but that this connection was

as vividly present to

the minds of thej poets as in

the case of Savitar

established

sank into obscurity

is

by

hymn and

Jthis

the references to Prajapati which have been cited.

The following passages

will

further

show

in-

that,

dependently of this name, the sun was in] process elevation

of

the

to

of

position

J

supreme*] and

only

god which was afterwards occupied by Brahma, the In I. 115. 1. the sun is called " the life creator. (dtmdn) of call

it

all

that

"

moveth and standeth."

Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and

strong-winged bird (Garutmat) of the sky it

one (ekam

is

call

sat], it

the poets address

it

They

is

it

the

though

;

in

many

Agni, Yama, and Mataricvan."

ways they " The wise singers in their utterances ascribe to the strong-winged bird, which is but one (ekam sdntam), ;

forms." 1

many

We

have thus seen

the

sun not only figure as

the main type and agent of generation in the w orld, r

but,

in

owing

to the important place

cosmological

speculations, even

which

it

occupies

regarded as the

embracing in himself their most godlike functions and attributes, including The next step was easily the attribute of creator.

most divine of

As he was

taken.

1

all

I.

the

gods,

the

164. 46., X. 114. 5.,

first

cf.

V.

of things born, so

3. 1., 13. 6.,

Val. 10. 2.

he

5i

Generation.

represented as the

is

Unborn

creative functions of Aja, the

us

to

two passages

in

in

The

(aja).

characteristic

Unborn, are indicated

the

manner

clearest

in

which characteristic functions can be indicated, that to

is

In

say,

I. 67.

the

like

by comparison of other gods with him. 5. Agni is said to have made fast the earth, to

Unborn,

have

In VIII.

effective utterances.

the

supported 41. 10.

it

sky with

Varuna

is

" measured out the ancient dwelling-place, and

who

made heaven and

earth

fast,

support like the Unborn."

and the

The hymn

sky with a to

Hiranyagarbha supplies us also with a clue to the next two "It rested on the navel of the Unborn, passages. that

abide the

alone " "

air

these

things

existing six

regions of that

is

1

was stated

the element as

all

form of the Unborn, what

the

in

which

in

who supported

he

;

one?" It

(dkam)

at the beginning of this chapter that

fire

was not regarded in the Rigveda of which the world was made.

a material out

more striking when we consider how large a proportion of the book is directly addressed This

to

is

Agni

the

in

his

varied character as

different kinds of fire

1

X.

82. 6., I.

Ekapad, in X.

164. 6.

and

If

light.

this

Aja

is

embodying the The passages which

to be identified

with Aja

65. 13. the bearer of heaven, the ascription of one foot to

the sun might be due to his appearance alone in the sky as opposed to the dawns and the A9vins, cf. VIII. 41. 8. His association with

AM

Budhnya would then be accounted

for

by the play on the word

'

a/a',

goat.'

55

The Cosmogonic Influence of Agni.

a cosmogonic significance are most clearly the side of shows which Agni his character which represents the light and warmth

approach nearest

to

those in

of the

He

sun.

waters,

said

or he

existing things; of

is

the trees,

is

of

to

the

place

embryo

in

himself the embryo of the things standing

still

and

he places the germ in plants and in all things existing, he produces generation on the earth and in women; he enters the plants, and mounts

moving

up

in

;

them

he

;

is

the herdsman of the nations, the

generator of the worlds and

from him. 1

offshoots

all

There

is,

existing

things are

however, one passage

which would appear to approach very near to the conception of fire and water as primary elements.

The Ribhus

are

represented

as

'

speaking

correct

J

" The waters are words when forming the cups fire is most excellent/ most excellent/ said one '

:

'

;

said another

the third praised the thunderbolt (or

;

the cloud containing the

The

translation

is

lightning)

exceedingly."

2

not certain and the meaning too

admit of any inference as to the allusions In another passage a Eishi proin the sayings. obscure

to

" how many fires, dawns, and pounds the question, " and assures the wise fathers in suns are there ?

heaven that he

is

not putting the question as a riddle,

but really seeking for information. 3 1

III. 2. 10, 11.

I. 98. 2., I. 2

I.

67. 9.

161. 9.

;

;

I. 70. 3.

;

X. 183.

3., cf.

III. 56. 3., IV. 58. 5.

II. 35. 8. 3

X.

88. 18.

;

56

Generation.

We

come now

as the mothers

the waters.

to

the streams, and in particular the

;

Sindhu, are the most motherly

know

mothers. 1

of

the birth of heaven and earth of all

begetters

figure alone

They

moves

stands and

that

They

they are the

;

they are

;

the mothers and wives of the existing world, growing

up together however,

is,

in one home. 2

much more

with the light quoted.

The

the analogy

world

common

those

as

passages

of the

origin

of the

The advance

life.

frequently described in union

such

in

Their cosmogonic activity

experience of ordinary

of the sun into the watery heaven

and the shooting of the lightning from masses

of

the

rain-clouds

is

;

the

signs

of

dark the

Rudra, the storm -

the divine physician, and the waters are his

vivifying medicines therefore, held to

or a

the

are

periodic regeneration of the world

god,

already

conceived on

is

the

;

the world was,

have been due to a primeval sunrise

thunderstorm.

primeval

of

origin

The

3

light

was the

4 germ, the waters were the bearers of the germ.

first

The general

fructifying agency of the storm, which

all-important in India, finds

is so

its clearest

expression

in the figure of Parjanya, the god of the rain-cloud.

He bull

is

;

the god

who

he produces

fructifies

fruit in

1

VIII. 78.

2

VII. 34.

plants,

mares, cows, and

4., I. 158. 5., III. 33. 3.

VI. 50.

2.,

3

Cf. e.g. Val. 3. 8.

*

Cf.

X. 82.

the earth as a rutting

1.

7.,

X.

30. 10.

Parjanya and

women

and

;

The Maruts a

as

hence

the

receives

father. 1

of

title

similarly receive the title because they,

husband,

the fructifying "

place

and in women.

earth

57

the Waters.

Agni the embryo

2

to beget children."

ye both give us strength

The following hymn

3

rain,

Parjanya produceth

may

;

the

in

germ

describes

the most characteristic actions of Parjanya.

VII.

101.

"Speak the

1.

pointed with light,

milk

soon

as

;

as

who

He who

which milk the

bull

words that are

three this

udder of sweet

born he

is

belloweth,

and the germ in plants.

producing calves 2.

4

giveth increase of plants and waters,

god over the living world may he grant threefold protection and shelter, and threefold ruleth

as

;

light for our assistance. 3.

Now

she

barren and

is

he formeth her body

as

now

it

she bringeth forth,

may

mother receiveth milk from the father

whom

In

all

things abide

;

heavens threefold the waters flow vats flow with

1

V. 83.

2

VI. 49.

1, 6.,

10.,

mead on

:

the is

5

through the three the three dripping

all sides plentifully.

VII. 102.

2.,

VII. 101.

V. 58.

X.

63. 15., V. 53. 13.

7.,

;

thereby

;

the father strengthened and also the son. 4.

him

please

3.

3

VI. 52. 16.

4

Perhaps with reference to the comparison of the sacrificial prayers to fire, cf. X. 87. 4., II. 24. 8.

the arrow-like flames of the sacrificial

Mention of the 5

His wife

tisro vficah recurs in

is

the earth,

lightning of IX. 82.

3.

cf.

IX. 97.

A. V. XII.

34., cf.

1. 12.

;

VII. 33.

the sun

is

7.

probably the

58

Generation.

this

May

5.

please Parjanya, the monarch,

hymn

may he accept it favourably may quickening rain be ours, and fruitful plants tended by the god. ;

He

6.

the

is

of maidens

breath of

cf.

(waters that

all

him

in

3.),

moveth and standeth

me

sacrifice protect

III. 56.

multitude

of the

bull

fructifying

this

may

;

thousand years

for a

the

is

protect us

ever, ye gods, with blessings."

The

already in the Rigveda extended beyond the

ever,

We

union of the light and the waters. in one

hymn

we have

in connection with Aja, the

used

also

the

universe

\vhich

much

that cause

later

mysticism

The

identical.

which preludes the to

picture

and the

first

signs of life

first

speculations of the

by a marked those

philosophy

himself the

to

Veda

difference

a

in

the

state

and

of

is

in

effect

strain,

Upanishads, the world,

and growth in

are,

of

of

2

the key to

is

endeavours

poet

'the

and which

accordance with the principle of the

is

met with

already

Unborn,

with

synonymously

This

1

out

or unit

of a primordial substance

one thing' (ekam) which

mention

find

of which the universe was developed.

are

how-

principle of cosmogonic generation was,

it.

The

however, characterized

tone

as

compared with

of the Upanishads in the absence in

them of

the practical end and object of the latter, deliverance

from the world. 1

I.

2

III. 54.

164. 6, 46., 8.,

X.

X.

82. 6.

48. 7., Val. 10. 2.

The One Thing.

X.

129.

I.

non-existent was not, and the

"The

1

existent was not at that time;

there was no air nor

what was the covering in ? and where ? under shelter of what ? was there water a deep sky beyond

;

?

depth

Death was not nor immortality then, there was that one no discrimination 2 of night and day thing breathed without a wind of its own self; apart 2.

:

from

there was nothing else at all beyond.

it

Darkness there was, hidden in darkness, in the

3.

chaos

it

;

here

everything

beginning,

thought,

mind

of

seed

first

searching

the

;

the

in

that was

all

j

by the power of warmth.

So in the beginning arose

4.

indiscriminate

was void covered with emptiness,

that one thing was born

the

an

was

which was

desire,

found

wise

the

heart,

out

by

parentage of

the existent in the non-existent. 5.

Their

above

?

was

line

what

was

stretched

below

there were mighty powers

across

there

? ;

what

;

were

was

generators,

svadhd below,

the pre-

sentation of offerings above. 6. 1

Who

The

Whitney

knoweth

latest of the

who can announce

forsooth ?

it

many commentators on

in the Journal

the American

of

this

hymn

Oriental

are Professor

Society,

vol.

xi.

and Dr. Schermann, Philosophische Hymnen aus der Rig- und Atharva-Veda-Samhita verglichen mit den Philosophemen der alteren cix,

p.

Upanishads, 1887. 2

'

Or praketd may perhaps have here the sense of light-giver, illumiWe which would also he suitahle in I. 113. 1. and I. 94. 5.

nator,'

should then translate in verse night,' and in verse

2.

3. 'all this

'

there was no light of the day nor of the

was a

lightless chaos.'

Generation.

here

it

it

come

creation

this

into being, whether

over

is

eye

knoweth If

it,

we

;

into being ?

Whence

7.

all

or

the

in

may

be he knoweth

accept the text as

line'

beam

a

is

not."

it

it

allusion

by the word

technically expressed

'

'Their

occurs has only the

the

to

their

The word prdyati

of their light.

meaning and the

'

'the wise.'

'presentation of sacrifice'; if

meaning

he indeed

stands, esJidm

it

other passages where

he whose

heaven,

highest

come

is

emission)

(lit.

was ordained or no

it

in verse 5 will refer to kavdyah,

in the

was born, whence

it

The gods came by the creating of who then knoweth whence

is.

the one thing)

(i.e.

it is

whence

III. 54. 5.) ?

(=

this creation

we

retain this

ancient

siwdhd,

1

fathers,

we

obtain

natural parallel to the contrast of the preceding

^,

pada between action

or

enjoyment of of

sacrifice

the gods

which presented

make

to

and mahimanah in the

retodhah

the fathers below and the

The

above.

itself

to the

mind

chief

a division between the upper world and the

that he

purpose

their line across,

introduces

the

:

it '

wise,

is

for this

who draw

dividing heaven and earth.

The primary meaning

of svadha,

unfettered will of the actor

e'no

'

This

however, failed to satisfy him, and he gives

solution,

the fathers

difficulty

of the poet was

lower, to bring dualism out of unity

1

free

:

is

'

free action according

' ;

accordingly

it is

dha has in the compound almost the sense of our

dddhanah

to the

used of the happiness of

II. 12. 10., aghtisya dhatfi I. 123. 5.

do, as in

The Non-Existent and

61

the Existent.

The principle of problem in despair. the whole generation, on the other hand, underlies the

up

a

as

self-evident

(kdma,

the

is

ep&>
first

the seed of thought

is

'

1

non-existent

The hymn

to

is

generation

it

;

;

'

the

of the existent in

the fathers are represented as retodhtih,

;

how

explains

desire

:

the wise find the Idndhu,

parentage

Hence the

the generators. preferable

cosmogony

requisite of

f

or

relationship

of

principle

'

asceticism

c

translation

'

for

tdpas

the

;

'

warmth

is

warmth

the process of birth became possible.

l

remarkable for the clearness of expression

of the automatic evolution of the world; the universe

represented as emanating of itself from the one

is

thing, like a stream issuing from a fountain-head.

Lastly we come to the expressions dsat and '

the dsat

sat

1

cf.

in

the

1.

clear

is

The

'

and

;

before it is

as

us.

sat,.

The word senses,

an

as

the converse

In the

first

equivalent to asatyd, k&ma and tdpas in 'kamayata of the Brahmanas

question as to the relation of

these verses to the later tdpo is

existent.

speech

passage

meaning

X. 190.

*

'

'

with vdcas

as

case the

and the

the Eigveda in two

used in

is

adjective of

'

non-existent

"*

tapyata and

so

a part of the general question of the relation of the Rigveda to the The cosmological importance of warmth in the view of the

Brahmanas.

M. Emile Burnouf's La Science " Trois phenomenes ont frappe 1' intelligence des

ancient Aryas receives a full treatment in des Religions, pp. 207

Aryas, des

le

if.

temps ou

ils

n'hahitaient encore que les vallees de 1'Oxus

ce sont le mouvement, la vie et la pensee.

leur etendue, embrassent tous les

He

proceeds to show

all three

trois choses, prises

:

dans

phenomenes naturels sans exception."

how warmth was

forms of action.

Ces

regarded as the principle explaining;

62

Generation.

the unreal or the

When

1 really the fact.

is

in

invariably

mt

we

a trice

are or

;

two

words dsat

junction,

may

are

in

the

'

but

non-existent,

3

jayamanam

sat,

to

It is not colourless as

the negation of

is

it

of

potentiality

'not yet existing/ as

opposed to

nothing/

'

the

jdtdm, and bhdvyam to bhutdm. our word

by a conThe dsat must

sat.

itself

not merely

'

Where

together

coupled

elsewhere

is

is,

creation. 2

first

almost be translated the

bhdvat

;

translated

mentioned as in our

are

sat

had

is

it

;

that

character

Indra made dsat into sat in

always precedes

have

therefore

existence

and

dsat

cosmogonic dsat,

belonging to the

as

hymn the

from

that

told

a

occurs

it

dsat precedes sat or dsat becomes

modern idiom,

sat;

used with sat

of

passages

said to be born

is

into

the converse of that which

false,

sat.

Thus

the whole meaning expressed by these dark words

nothing more than the process of becoming, the

is

beginning of development or creation.

The as

of this

subject

illustrating

1

V.

2

X.

12. 4., 72.

1,

8, 12, 13.

VI. 24.

Suyana on verse X. 129.

5.,

1.

dsati nir avindan in verse 4.

is

X.

cf.

5.

of special interest

is

between

the relation

VII. 104. 2.,

chapter

Laid IV.

7.

The

the

symbolical

5. 14.

philosophic

comment

disproved by the expression sato If

we

must assume a stage between those which dsat was present, but there was

treat the

hymn

philosophically,

states described in verses 1

as yet

no

sat.

The

of

bdndhum

we

and 4 in

context,

how-

shows that the poet merely wished to shadow forth a condition in and the presence of dsat is denied which absolutely nothing existed ever,

;

was inseparably associated with 96. 7., A. V. VII. 1. 19.

because 3

I.

it

sat.

Allegory and Analogy. or

allegorical

manner

of

63

which

thought,

an

is

the formation of mythology, and the analogical or metaphorical method of early In the one case forces and agencies speculation. factor

important

are

in

with

clothed

a

distinct

personality,

endowed in some measure with an character

;

they

are

will

and

in the other the actions only are viewed

as partaking of the nature of

poets of our to

active

analyse

hymns

the

feel

processes

human

actions.

The

themselves less constrained of

creation,

the

mode

of

working of the different productive forces, than to and specify the nature of the agents. The

define

nouns

borrow the phraseology of grammar their anthropomorphism sooner than the verbs. to

lose

The

two metaphors which have now been passed in review, the metaphor of building and that of generation, are used

almost

indiscriminately

of any creative agent

we

shall

;

to

express

action

and in the following chapters

meet with no further attempt

the process of creation.

the

to

elucidate

CHAPTER

III.

THE SACRIFICE. IN the explanations of the origin

of the world

which

were described in the two preceding chapters there was room for considerable difference of opinion as to the extent to which sacrificial is

system

they were

influenced

by the The theory which

of the Rishis.

the subject for consideration in this chapter

may

be regarded as specially characteristic of the Rishis.

In the former

cases

was natural

it

to

assume that

the motive of speculation was the desire to discover a plausible

the present

explanation of the origin case

we

of things;

in

unable to decide whether

are

the motive was purely speculative or the outcome of

the exigencies of a system.

The

glorification of the

sacrifice,

which was the main task of the Rishis, led

them

represent

to

the

sacrifice

in

the light of the

supreme cause of all successful action in the world, and it may have been only in consequence of this representation that they extended creation

The

its

working

to the

and ordering of the universe.

sacrifice,

as it appears in the Rigveda,

means of gratifying

a

god

by ministering

is

the

to

his

The Efficacy of

65

the Sacrifice.

enabling him to perform his wonted an instrument through which a relation actions; of mutual friendship between a god and his worshippers wants, and so it is

is

The

established.

contract between

later idea

man and

a

of

the sacrifice as a god, which

his

him

be used against a god to force

could

perform the

to

our

will of the sacrificer, does not find expression in

Those

hymns.

passages

through the omission

might seem of

man

cases

or

On

either

the

through the

other

and in an

deceased ancestors earliest

survive

hands

in

well of

gods in their

or in a state of ecstasy

The worship

divine power.

forms

are

sacrificers

themselves with the gods

after-life

is

the

co-operation of

human

hand,

divine

to

referring

as assisting the

sacrifice,

participating in

very

as

assuming the

as

represented as associating

actions,

the gods

ascribe to the sacrifice in the

to

explained

sacrificers,

as

Rigveda,

the mention of

of

which

a power independent of the gods, can in all

be

gods.

the

in

known

worship,

form

every popular

which

of

traces

of

of

be one of the

to

The

religion. '

Rigveda allows unusually

common

clear

us

in

of

line

conceptions

this

of

to

particular

distinction

death

as

draw an

between

they

existed

the in

the minds of the people, and the peculiar colouring

given to them by the bias of the Yedic Rishis.

According to the popular view, the

who

first

died, the king of the land of the dead,

One passage added on

to the last

hymn

OF THF

{

UNIVERSITY OF

]

ancestor is

Yama.

but one of

The the ninth book, where inserted with a

if

Sacrifice.

entirely out of place as

is

it

careless

contempt of

perfect

" where

and

bliss

"

prays the poet,

hymn Yama

is

this

home

past

the

all

wishes are fulfilled;

as

represented

"the

brightness,

exceeding joy are

make me immortal."

of goodly foliage,

showing favour

reigns as king in

undimmed

rejoicings, joy,

be found, where

to

Yama

It is a land of

bliss.

contents,

happy land of the dead

gives us a description of the

in the third heaven, where

its

on a tree

revelling

the people,

lord of

father,

The

to our ancestors."

there,"

In another

l

fathers found

the blessed

by following his footsteps dreadful watch-dogs, and he prepares a of

2 place there for the dead in Vishnu's realm of light.

the

to

According

existence

Eishis,

and the superhuman power of the

fathers

upon the due performance of the sacrifice said to be conferred

is

the

for

god reward of ;

upon the

patrons 3

of

is

The

fathers,

Eishis,

the

in the spirit-world,

Indra

with the gods. 1

IX. 113. 7-11.

2

X. 135.

3

VI.

4

A

X.

1.,

1. 4., I.

figure in

14. 2.,

31. 7.

many

;

X. 18,

I.

depend

immortality

by a

sacrifice

sacrificial it

is

the

not primarily a sacrificer. 4

ancient popular deity, of

;

Yama, on the other hand, the

liberality.

position

priests

the

death

after

is

the

ancestors

of

the

is that of a partnership " the maintainer of the

13., I. 154. 5.

125. 5, 6.,

X. 107.

respects analogous to

2.

Yama

is

that of Trita,

who

is

represented as an ancient primeval warrior, and whose connection with the sacrifice is limited to the pressing of soma.

67

Association with the Gods through Sacrifice.

the

poets,

the

of

friend

time."

old

in

fathers

l

"

They were banqueters with the gods, the wise men of old, who observed the sacred order; the fathers found the hidden light, with effective utterances they 2 begat the dawn." They are associated with different gods as friends or assistants in carrying out their In particular they assist Indra characteristic works.

when he

in his battle with the demons,

cows of light and

even

rain,

weapon the thunderbolt. with the gods and fathers his

increase in cattle. 4

In

this

supplying

him with

in

agreement

3

It

is

that

or

the lord of the sacrificial prayer,

who

assistant,

with the

But the

figures

alliance with

deified sacrificers

Indra

is

are

Brahmanaspati, is

also Indra' s

passages

slayer

sons.

not confined to the

;

in his combats, and supply

of Vritra," exclaims

" will unite for victory."

5

him

"I and

with the thunderbolt to strike the demons. thou,

along

his

called

the priests on earth also associate

him

themselves with

many

who

ancient Eishis

occupy

particular they

in very

gives

Prajapati

a similar position to Brihaspati,

and

sets free the

one bold Kishi,

In X. 120.

the poet,

9.

Brihaddeva, even identifies himself with Indra.

More

striking

1

VI. 21.8.,

2

VII. 76.

s

I.

VII.

significant

is

the

relation

33. 4.

4.

121. 12., II. 11. 4.

X. 196. 5

cf.

and

X. 44.

4.

9.,

V. 30.

8.,

VIII. 62.

11., cf.

VIII. 69.

7,

16.

of

68

The

Sacrifice.

Agni, based perhaps on an

the ancient fathers

to

earlier sun-worship.

The

of the origin of the to the Rishis the

from Agni. the Acvins

familiar mythical conception

human

of the

origin

from

race

fire

becomes

ancestral sacrificers

Agni, as also other gods

of the light,

and the Adityas, 1 is the blood-relative of the fathers, and of the sacrificing priest himself ;

he

their

is

father.

fatherly

that the

close

and

father,

himself

2

a

father,

The connection with Agni 3

light,

the

sun

which

with

Indra and Agni." 5

united,

so

which are not regarded as

inherent in the sun, the lightning or the " It 4 as apportioned to them by the gods. of

is

even identified with the

are

fathers

rays of Agni's

beams

in the

the fathers, the most

sense, the friend of

technical

our

The rays

but

fire,

is

fathers

these

were

are mystically

represented as seven in number, parallel to the seven rivers of

are the

heaven and earth seven

;

the seven ancient Rishis

friends of Agni, his seven horses, or

seven heads. 6

This connection of the fathers with the light, of

1

III. 54. 16.,

2

I. 31. 10.,

3

I.

*

5 6

115.

e.g.

X.

11.29.3,4.

IV. 17.

2., cf. (^at.

17., et passim. Br. I. 9. 3. 10.

12. 7., cf. III. 2. 12.

I.

109.

A

very frequent designation of the fathers as ancient sacrificers

ndrah.

7.

The

identification of the fathers

with the rays of light

is

may

' perhaps explain the difficult words nricdkshas who is the sight of men,' and vai$vanard who embraces all men,' both primarily attributes of Agiii '

or the sun; compare especially III. 2. 12., 14. 4., I. 146.

4.,

X. 45.

3.

69

The Fathers Identified with Agni's Rays.

which

are

they 1

the

and

embodiments

the

alone sufficient to explain their action

is

guardians,

both

in placing the stars in the sky

the sky with

a black horse with

as

stars

" the fathers adorned

:

jewels

;

they gave darkness to the night and light to the day." free

2

Indra and Atri, an ancestor of

demon who

the sun from the

Since light

sacrificers,

causes eclipses. 3

the type of wisdom and knowledge, 4

is

the fathers are regarded as especially endowed with divine insight, and light

that

is

it

they receive

The general character illustrated

particularly as the rays of

the

'

appellative

the

wise

'

of the fathers will be best

by a consideration

of the most

important

family of priestly fathers that finds mention in the

Their associa-

Rigveda, the family of the Angirases.

tion with the light is so pronounced that

Roth

(Pet.

beings

Lex.) defines them as a race of higher

between

and men, and regards

gods

priestly character as a later development.

Weber

Professor

conjectures

priests of the earlier

and Persians. 6

that

were

they

common

The following

X.

154. 5.

X.

68. 11., cf. I. 68. 10.

3

V. 40. 6-8. III.

originally

1. 5.

5

I. 164. 5.,

6

Indische Studien, vol.

X.

the

description will limit

2

cf.

Professor

religion of the Indians

1

4

their

88., I. 185. 1., i.

p.

X.

291.

5.

70

The

itself

the conception

to

the E-ishis

which

ritual

must follow

later priests

the offering of

friendship and immortality (X. 62.

an

2

Angiras.

Brihaspati

;

them

For

1

of the

Angirases." Indra's

they obtained

sacrifice

the sons of the gods

the pattern

is

hence the frequent

;

" after the manner

expression

By

are

They whose

sacrificers,

Angirases held by regarded as the

the

of

themselves.

first

typical

Sacrifice.

Indra

1.) is is

they became

;

himself called

have

to

said

demon Yala; or he had been worshipped by them

recovered the cows and slain the again,

it

was

after

that he was able to achieve his of VI. 18.

5.

victories.

The poet

3

prays for such a friendship with Indra,

which he was praised by the Angirases On the other hand, Indra is and smote the demon. as that in

mentioned as himself their leader, the most Angiraslike,

and

with the Angirases; 4 or his name his characteristic actions

to the Angirases. 5

are

attributed directly

gifts like

They give

omitted

is

Mitra and

they Bhaga, and are invoked along with the gods 6 set the sun on high and spread out the earth. ;

is

Agni

Angirases 1

2 3

the

similarly 7

;

he

is

e.g. I. 31. 17.,

the

X.

62.

132. 4., VIII. 14. 8., 63.

4

I.

100.4., 130. 3.

5

IV.

6

X. 68.

7

Angiras,

the

1, 4.

I.

3.

;

15., 3. 11., I. 71. 2, 3. 2.,

of

oldest

139. 9.

devdptitra rishayah

2.

or

best first

III. 53. 7.;

jyeslttham dhgirasam,

X. I.

62. 3.

127. 2.

I.

62. 5.,

X. 111.

4.

the

Rishi,.

71

The Angirases.

The dawn, as also Soma, 1 The Virupah, the dngirastamd.

the friend of the gods. receives the epithet

group of nine and the group of ten, different classes of Angirases, are said to be born from the fire. 2 The group of nine are expressly identified with Agni's 3

rays.

The

who

fathers are the guardians of the sun,

4 give the light.

of the eye with a

Through beam of

the confusion of the glance

they are represented

light,

upon the earth, upon the creation of the and even reflexively upon Agni 5 they are world, as looking

;

6

the spies of Mitra and Varuna. in

on

Their participation

the creation and ordering of the their

Agni.

with

association

"

They measured

the

world

forms

different

with

devising

based

is

of

calculation

(heaven and earth) of common origin and a common home, they weave again and

the pair of

again a

twins

new web

in the sky, in the

(aerial)

the sun to rise and spread out the earth." place in

the building

is

metaphor

nected with Agni of the sacrifice a place for him, their father,

of supporting the heaven.

"

is

;

1

IX. 107. 6.; VII.

ddgagve saptSsye, IV. 51. 4.

3

VI.

4

X. 107.

5

I. 164. 4.,

6

VII. 87.

7

I. 159. 4.,

154.

75. 1., 79. 3.

5., I.

3., cf.

X.

Their

especially their

parallel

;

X. 62.

6. 3.

X. 177.

7

con-

preparing to

the act

They prepared an abode

2

1.,

ocean,

"The Angirases made

the wise and brilliant ones."

115. 2.

1, 2., I.

IX. 73.

62. 3., cf.

185. 1.

7.

V. 44.

6.

5, 6.

72

The

Sacrifice.

their father, they provided him skilfully with a large and glorious abode they supported their parents (heaven and earth) apart with a support for

;

;

sitting

down

they placed him there

(in the sacrifice)

1 upright and powerful."

(as a pillar)

Again, through the identification with

the

light,

are

they

was through

It

that their ancestors were enabled to give birth

Agni

their

the

fathers

connection

into

brought

with the metaphor of generation.

to

the

of

2

successors.

and

Dawn,

children. 3

In a

The

with

desire

hymn

fathers

to

are

her

to

Soma they

united with

male

beget

are mentioned

along with the morning sun as having placed the in the earth

germ and

4 ;

and the

fruitfulness of

which give birth

earth,

to

heaven

gods and men,

is

described as produced by the fathers. 5

The mystical union of

the

is

light

of the fathers with the rays

fundamental

abstruse allusions of the two

idea

underlying

hymns which

the

will next

In the first hymn (X. 56.), occupy our attention. which is a funeral hymn, the poet bids the deceased

man

unite himself with the beams

light

;

he

takes

occasion

and greatness of the 1

is

III. 31. 12.,

cf.

proved by verse

X.

92. 15.

2

I. 68. 8, 9.

IV.

2. 15.,

*

IX.

83. 3., cf. I. 164. 36.

5

X. 64.

14.

fathers,

celebrate to

That the abode

9.

3

X.

to

61. 10, 11., cf.

of the heavenly

VI. 44. 23.

whom is

the

power

the spirit

the place of sacrifice

73

Generation through the Fathers.

and ends with a of the departed is journeying statement of the success of the journey for which ;

he has prayed. "

1.

One

and yonder another,

light hast thou here,

unite thyself with the third (and highest)

l

uniting

;

thyself with a body mayest thou be welcome and

dear to the gods in the birth place on high.

May

2.

that

body of

thou strong horse, 2

thine,

bearing thy body provide us with good things, and

mayest thou without swerving

thee with protection;

establish the great gods here for a support as thine

own

light in the sky.

Thou

3.

art

strength mayest thou go

on an easy path sky, according

an easy path

Of

4.

to

to

horse

2

this

by

;

thy

the yearning maidens, 3

to

the (land of) praise, and to the

the

to the

a

as

strong

and true ordinances, on

first

gods with an easy

flight.

their greatness the fathers also have obtained

a portion the gods have placed insight in them as 4 and they have embraced in themselves all gods ;

;

1

The same is

light

idea finds expression in

X.

the light in the highest region

from the place where the speaker

16. 5.,

stands, cf.

Similarly Vishnu's third step upwards

is

X.

The

14. 8.

third

the reckoning naturally hegins

;

IX. 86.

27.,

X.

1. 3.,

the step which lands

123. 8.

him

in the

highest region. 2 3

Ludwig

A

takes vajin as the man's name.

metaphorical interpretation

is

most consonant with the context;

hence probahly they are the waters of the sky or the dawns. 4

III.

For

this bold application of the

7. 7., 54. 17.,

IV.

2. 17.,

Altindisches Lehen, p. 205.

name devd

VIII. 48.

3.,

to the sacrifices,

X. 53.

4.,

and

see

compare

Zimmer,

74

The 1

energies; bodies.

Sacrifice.

these (go forth and) enter again into their

2

With power they

5.

stations

things

in their bodies

;

through the whole

they enclosed

3

produced

they

;

strode

measuring the unmeasured ancient

region of the air,

all

many forms

in

existing offspring

from themselves in continued succession.

Here and on high 4

6.

as sons they

brought and

up the Asura-god, who bringeth light (Agni MI the sacrifice below and above); by their third action set

as fathers they

power of

have placed their own offspring, the

out continuously.

As

7.

in

a

the

upon

fathers,

earth,

a

thread spun

5

ship

over

a

flood

hath

Brihadukta

with blessings mightily translated his offspring, over the regions of the

air,

over

all

the impassable ways,

placing them in the heavenly as in the earthly regions." The interpretation of one or two expressions in the

hymn

The rays

is

uncertain

;

the

general sense

is

clear.

of light are here the bodies of the fathers,

which emanate from the sun, assume the forms of all

things on the earth and of the later sacrificers,

the descendants of the fathers, and again return to 1

The meaning

assigned to dtvishuh in this passage in the Pet. Lex.

'excite, call into life;'

tvishe in

VII. 82.

6. is translated

arise.' 2 3

4 *

Compare

I. 72. 5, 9.

lit.

they caused to stream forth from themselves in succession.

lit.

in

two ways.

Compare A. V. X.

2. 17.

is

'to cause to

75

Anticipation of Divine Blessedness.

their

had

the sky from which they

in

birth-place

extended themselves.

In the

same general

the

who

fathers

the

mystical action of

the poet himself

is

it

the

of

conception

but

hymn we have

next

This

the position of the ancient sacrificers.

spirit

form

peculiar

of

thought,

;

desires to attain in

recurring in

frequently

the later literature, by which the aspirant identifies himself with the object of his aspiration, in two

ways

is

exemplified

Either the poets describe

in the Rigveda.

the ecstasy caused by the performance of the

sacrifice-

and the singing of hymns, or perhaps more exactly

by the intoxicating draughts state of

divine

glories

them

we

in

are

as

of light.

become immortal

of

the face of

We

which

as

appear

a

to

have drunk soma,

we have reached

;

"And now

the gods."

the sight

attained

"

soma-juice,

they anticipate the

or

;

world

heavenly

visions

we have found

me

blessedness

the

of

of

the light,

that I have

Yaruna, his face seemeth to

Agni

the light that shineth in

;

heaven and the darkness may he, the ruler, bring me thither to behold their form." 1 The same idea a late

occurs in

hymn

(X.

136.),

which

describes

the free course of the ascete (muni] through the air

1

2.,

VIII. 48. VI.

9. 6.,

knowledge

is

3, 11.,

X.

2.

VII. 88. 2-4.

3.,

VIII. 78.

;

1.,

cf.

I.

125. 5.,

X. 130.

obtained purmhatvdta V. 48. 5.

6.,

X.

31. 3., V. 30. 1,

I. 25.

18.

Ordinary

Such passages may contain

the original form of the later conception of inspiration that the were seen by the Rishis.

hymns

76

The

and contains a further resemblance with

as a spirit,

our

hymn

Sacrifice.

representing the muni as walking on

in

the road of

Gandharvas, whereas

the

passages (except IX. 113.

in

other

all

the Rigveda recognizes

3.)

one Gandharva only.

"I

III. 38. 1.

will meditate a

as a carpenter,

hymn

galloping as a fast horse at a strong pole

towards

l

the heavenly desirable

striving

;

I long to

regions,

behold the wise with insight.

Seek then the mighty generations of the wise they by steadfastness and well-doing procured an 2.

;

abode in the sky; these are thy profitable guidances; 2 they

whom

the

mind

now come

are

desires

the

to

firmament of heaven. 3.

There they assume 3

and

heaven

earth

hidden forms, and anoint

them

over

rule

to

measuring

;

them with measuring- rods, and making them fast and broad, they set the great worlds apart, firmly fixed for security. 4 4.

They

adorn the

all

splendour he moveth with his the

is

1

mighty

In the translation

The form

form

of abhi

of

the

2

For the form

3

Grassmann

;

own

clothed in

;

brilliance;

that

he

who

Asura-bull

;

mdrmrifat I have followed the Pet. Lex.

occurs here only in the Rigveda

145. 4., II. 10. 5

(sun)

rising

prabhi mdrmri$at

of expression

I.

;

hut compare abhi mri^e

I.

140. 5.

compare X. 32.

in his translation neglects the

7.

Aim.

p., cf.

X.

5. 2.,

III.

1. 8., I. 6. 4. 4 '

The

translation of dhayase

zur Nahrung,' Grassmann

'

'

is

obscure,' Pet. Lex.

zur Labung.'

Ludwig

renders

The Fathers

77

Sun.

in the

possesseth all forms (vigvdrupa) cometh to of ambrosia.

The

5.

first,

the more excellent bull 2

manifold

his

are

waters

tlie

1

sons of heaven

invigorating

3

is

born, these

draughts.

Ye two

of Dyaus) through the

(or

hymns

of the sacrifice possess the sovereignty, ye two kings,

from of

old.

Ye

6.

adorn in the

sacrificial

kings, the three worlds, all

saw

assembly,

the dwelling-places; 4 I

coming thither in the

there,

ye two

(mdnasd),

spirit

the Gfandharvas in their course, whose hair traileth in (or as) the wind. 5

That companionship

7.

the forms of

the

6

cow (dawn) with

of the bull

strong

establish

they

clothing themselves in one and

here

;

another Asura-form

the cunning artists determine his shape.

That golden

8.

1

The

Pet. Lex. translates is I.

passage

35. 6.,

compare

2

The

3

Of the two kings one

sun,

cf.

V. 44.

*

'

Yama

The many

cf.

X.

'

the forces of eternity

also

X. 139.

hath

Savitar

' ;

here

a somewhat similar

6.

8.

be Mitra, or Indra, or probably

which

light,

Varuna

will almost certainly be

Soma

IX. 95.

cf.

;

the other

VI. 75.

4.,

18.,

or

may more

14. 7., 97. 16., 123. 6.

places of sacrifice,' according to

Lud wig's

explanation

;

he quotes V. S. 23. 49., " I ask of thee to learn it, friend of the gods,, if thou art arrived thither in spirit (mdnasa) where Vishnu receives, sacrifice at his three steps s

cf.

VIII.

7. 8.,

on which

all

the world

is

set."

III. 14. 3.

" But here there Save what from heaven

is

is

no light

with the breezes blown."

Keats, Ode to a Nightingale. 6

This

is

the meaning for sdkmya suggested in the Pet. Lex.

78

The

Sacrifice.

me

shed forth, none shall keep from

1 ;

he covereth

the spreading worlds with praise as a young

woman

covereth her offspring. 9.

In the form of that divine blessedness which

ye have established in the great and ancient one, 2 all the Virupah, the may ye two embrace us ;

cunning artists, behold the works of

him who standeth

protecting (the world) with his tongue (fire)."

The

description of the cosmological importance of

the sacrifice would, however, be incomplete without

a reference to the prayer or

mentioned

is

prayer

through which obtain children. 3

and ghee

as

especially

Eishis

the

bride

;

of complication to

element

the

instrument

their

works and

as

effect

It is coupled with the

their

soma,

fire,

and thus adds one more the interpretation

cows and nurses of Agni.

different

The

the sacrificial priests.

of

regulated utterance

of sacrifice, the

hymn

But

it

of the is

also

mentioned once or twice alone as a power influencing " Adoration the course of nature. (ndmas) hath 4 supported the heaven and the earth."

1

Ludwig

translates,

"that

is

The

place

the light of this Savitar, not mine."

with Grassmann we treat the clause as

elliptical,

we must

If

supply some

sense of frequent occurrence with ndkir', for such a sense compare I. 69. 7.,

VI. 30. I.

3.,

2.,

155. 5.

VI.

7. 5.,

IV. 30. 23., VII. 32.

The general meaning

5.,

VIII. 28.

4.,

X. 132.

will be that of the Gayatri III.

62. 10. 2

lit.

what

of the ancient ye

have established of the great, divine

blessedness, be ye around us. 3

*

prajavata vdcasa,

VI. 51.

8.

I. 76. 4.

:

V. 45.

11. etc.

The Heavenly of

Vac and Yacaspati

be dealt with

in the cosmogonic system will

In

later.

79

Sacrifice.

II. 24.

5-7. the

sacrifices,

old and new, are personified as kavdyah, and repre-

sented as discovering the "devices

the

of

Panayah

against the laws of nature, and bringing back

hidden

fire.

the

1

So far we

have

been considering

the power of

the earthly sacrifice in causing the great works of nature,

and in elevating the worshippers

to a position

of friendship and almost of equality with the gods.

The

peculiar

analogical

or

typical

logic

of

the

Eigveda receives, however, more striking illustration from the heavenly sacrifice. The whole ritual of sacrifice

with

all

its

appurtenances,

its

and

priests

were bodily translated from the sphere of human action to the world of the gods. The gods

offerings,

become the rich patrons performed,

the

for

ydjamanah

whom Agni,

;

the sacrifice the

mediator

between earth and heaven, becomes their priest

;

he

by the gods in his priestly office, as " First 2 sacrificer. the gods produced

established

is

the

typical

the

hymn

so

is

of praise, then

Agni became their

Agni, then the offering,

sacrifice/' 3

He

is

the purohita,

the appointed priest, of the gods, or perhaps, in the

The gods are sense, their family priest. even said to have obtained immortality through the classical

1

cf.

2

VIII. 23. 18.

3

X.

III. 4. 5.

88. 8.

80

The

by drinking the soma, or

sacrifice

'

title

of

or

Agni

who

Brihaspati,

father

seem

would

Sacrifice.

that

it

therefore

gods/

was

the

the

gift

of

the

receives

In X. 53. 10.

1

of all the

as

it

soma made by the

Kibhus through which the gods obtained immortality. Heaven and earth, the primeval father and mother, in

are, is

the

particular,

first

whose priest

sacrificers,

8 Agni, their first-born, the sun or the lightning.

The cosmological finds

in

expression

particular

Two

tenth book.

significance of the divine sacrifice

three

hymns

of the

of these (81 and 82) are addressed

god Yicvakarman, who combines in his person the characters of a primeval divine sacrificer and of to a

We

have already seen these two functions We have further seen how the united in Agni. a creator.

sun, or an abstraction derived

from the sun, under

the names of Hiranyagarbha and Aja, figures once the germ and the creator of the universe side

sacrificial

or

priest

is

1

characteristics,

literature

identified

In many passages the word

sacrifices, III. 32.

"

the primeval

as

sense

the creator of

embodied in the person of Yicvakarman, thus a parallel figure to Hiranyagarbha, with

ancient sacrificers.

meaning

this

the

;

is

many common later

character,

and in

father,

the world,

who

of Agni's

as at

(leva

with

may

him.

The

name

refer primarily to the deified

The Maruts, however, are particularly represented as and probably this is the2., Y. 29, 3, 6., X. 122. 5.

of their attribute vedhds.

IV. 56.

and who was in tha

2., II. 2. 3.

;

81

Vigvakarm an.

Yicvakarman occurs twice more only in the Rigveda, both times beside vi$vddera. all

"Thou, Indra,

art over

thou hast made the sun to shine, thou art the

;

all-

worker (I'igvakarman), the all-god, the mighty one." 1 In the other passage it is an epithet of the sun,

"by whom

all

existing things are brought to light,

A

the all-worker, possessed of universal godhead." 2

third passage, in which the form vigvdkarma occurs, is

The hymn seems

ambiguous.

mouth

the

of Yacaspati

speech, slayer of rivals/

would seem

hymn

first

to point

but the

;

be

to

'

sapatnahdn,

3

The mention

a reference

hymn

is

placed in

the

lord

of

of Yacaspati

verse 7 of our

to

rather to be compared

with the incantations of the Atharvaveda, in which less

is

regard

paid

to

the

deity invoked,

than to

the form of invocation.

X. as

"He

81. I. 4

Eishi, as

father

the

he

;

first

2.

sacrificer,

desiring

worshipper,

What was

1

VIII.

2

X.

3

X. 166.

all

who, sacrificing

his

down

sat

treasure

5

existing things,

(for

sacrifice)

by prayer

among men on

our

entered,

earth. 6

standing-place ?

what was the

98. 2.

170. 4.

For another interpretation

4.

of this

hymn

see

Zimmer,

Altindisches Leben, p. 175. 4

Some

verses of these

hymns have been

Miiller in his Hibbert Lectures, p. 293 6 cf.

X. 45.

11., 46.

2.

The only

kavichdd, an epithet of Indra and

translated

by Professor F.

similar

form

Agni III.

12.

to 3.

prathamachdd ;

cf.

is

the translation

remains doubtful. 6

Max

f.

11.34. 11. 6

82

The

support

how was

?

it ?

Sacrifice.

whence Yicvakarman pro-

l

duced the earth, and revealed the sky by his power, the

all- seer.

3.

He who

a mouth, on

hath on

all

an

sides

eye,

an arm, and on

all sides

on

all sides

all sides

a foot,

producing heaven and earth, weldeth them together with cf.

arms

his

X. 72.

that

wings

was the wood

indeed

tree,

?

all

things

The

by your

when he

and the middle

sacrificial

Yicvakarman, and

also those

fast.

stations, that are thine,

here, teach to thy

companions

do thou

;

heaven

his stand

highest, the lowest,

blessed one

flame,

what too was

Seek, ye thoughtful men,

thought, that on which he took

5.

?

from which they fashioned the

and the earth

made

the

fanning

(i.e.

the sole god.

2.),

What

4.

as

at the

sacrifice,

sacrifice to thyself

thou

2

delighting

thyself. 6.

Yicvakarman,

do

offering, thyself sacrifice to

other

thou,

delighting

heaven and earth.

in

the

May

men

about us be fools;

We

invoke Yicvakarman, the lord of speech

let us

have a beneficent

lord. 7.

1

The

first

pada

is

too short

by three

syllables, or the second

by four

;

the employment of Jeatamdt 'which,' not 'what,' referring to one of a known class, may point to a corruption of the text. Yerses 3, 4, 5, and 7 have each an extra syllable. 3

The

may be translated with Ludwig and Grassmann own body." Yerse 6 and the comparison with X. 7. 6.,

expression

"sacrifice thine

VI. 11.2. render the interpretation given above more probable.

83

Yigvakannan.

who moveth

(vdedspdti),

in our arduous

verse

5)

favour,

work

hear

who bringeth

all

workings are successful."

X. 82.

"The

1.

'in the sacrifice/ as havfohi,

(i.e.

he

may

;

at a thought, for help to-day

our

all

with

invocations

good for our welfare, whose l

father of the eye,

wise in

produced these two worlds,

in

soon as

fast,

submerged the eastern ends were made

spirit,

ghee

;

as

heaven

and earth extended themselves. Vicvakarman, whose power is wide as his wisdom, was the ordainer and disposer, and the highest 2.

apparition

their (the fathers') offerings revel in rich

;

juice, there where the one, they tell us,

is

above the

seven Rishis.

Who

is

our father, the generator, the disposer,

who knoweth

the stations (in heaven and earth) and

3.

all

existing things

who ordained

;

gods, even he alone;

information 4.

(i.e.

to

to

him

forms of the

other beings go for

learn their destination).

The ancient Rishis

abundance as

all

the

singers

offered

to

him

treasure in

who, settled in the earthly

;

2

and

heavenly regions, prepared these things that have come into existence. 5.

1

That which

Sadhiikarman.

is

before

2

(

sacrificial

cf.

is

is

obvious.

primarily to the special meaning

work.'

Eeading nishattdh.

svar 'shine,'

and before

The play on Vi9vakarman's name

Probably in both words the reference of Tcdrman

the heaven

The

Pet. Lex. derives astirte stirte from the root

alurta, adrislitn,

K.Z. xxvii.

p. 63.

84

The

the earth,

before the

the Asuras)

where

what

;

Asura-gods

(or

The waters received

the gods were collected

Unborn

gods and

the

germ did the waters

first

the gods appeared together

all

6.

the

Sacrifice.

that it

;

first

?

receive,

l

germ, where

rested on

all

the navel of

that alone (ekam], in which all existing

things abide.

Ye

7.

things

;

will not find

him who gave

another thing hath arisen

birth to these

among you

;

covered

with darkness and stammering, wander the wanton singers of

In

hymns."

artistic

are

hymns If we

composition and arrangement the two

as

weak

as the

hymn

eliminate the play on the

to

Hiranyagarbha. vifva and the

word

general expressions of creation, the nearest analogy to the figure of

character

is

Yicvakarman

is

Agni, whose

own

tanxain

yajasva

the expressions

'

the father of the eye/

The

self."

derivation of the conception from the sun

(the latter

sacrificial

especially alluded to in the phrase svaydm " sacrifice to thine

'

is

seen in

the all-seer

an expression applied elsewhere twice

'

to

the sun and once to Soma), 'the highest apparition/

2

Yerses 5 and 6 of the second in verses 7

and 8 of the

hymn .find their parallel hymn to Hiranyagarbha.

Aja, the Unborn, seems here to be identified with

Yicvakarman.

There can then be

the motive of the two hymns. III. 54. 9., V. 44. 6, 7.,

1

cf.

2

IV.

1. 6., 6. 6., for

X.

little

They

doubt as to are based on

61. 19.

other references see Grassmann's Lexicon.

85

Vac.

the conception, already described, of the sun as the first-born of the world

and the prototype of subsequent little more than an adapt-

generation, and contain

hymn X. which may

ation of this conception (not necessarily of

121) to a sacrificial god, an

adaptation

be ascribed to the special bias of the Eishis.

In connection with of speech also

is

the

sacrifice

'

requires

special

title

'lord

The

examination.

Soma.

applied twice to

the

title '

'

Yac,

is

speech,

two whole hymns, X. 71. and 1 X. 125., of which the former shows that the primary application of the name was to the voice of the hymn, celebrated alone

the

means

earth

at

constant

the

of nature

communication

of

the

to

in

sacrifice.

heaven and

between

The other hymn

assimilation

of

the

;

sacrifice

the all

varied

illustrates

phenomena

that has a voice in

nature, the thunder of the storm, the reawaking of life

at

birth

the

dawn, with songs of rejoicing over the new of the world, are embodied in this Yac in

same way

embraces

all

as

it

is

said

things that

are.

of Brihaspati,

that he

thus

another

It

is

expression for that idea of the unity of the world,

which we have seen crowning the mystical speculation of all the more abstract hymns of the collection. Again, as the natural phenomena corresponding to

Hiranyagarbha and Yicvakarman are the phenomena 1

The comparison

of verses 2, 3,

and

7 of this

hymn with VIII.

10, 11., I. 164. 34, 35, establishes the accuracy of the tradition

connects the

hymn with

Vac.

100.

which

86

The

of light

so

;

also

Sacrifice.

much

though in a very

Yac we

to

corresponding

marked

less

find,

degree,

the

analogies of the breath of the wind, and of the flow

of

the

voice,

the breath or

is

itself

of the

3

nVd.

Sarasvati,

The

of the gods (dtmdn}, and

life

with

the embryo of the world; unites

river

1 frequently compared to streams.

hymns being wind

by the

represented

death

after

Sarasvati

2

and

earth

fills

man

the lord

called

is

Vayu

;

the soul of

it

air

she

;

is

4 continually coupled in invocation with the prayers;

an impersonation of language. The two verses of X. 125. will suffice as an illustration

and becomes last

later

general terms in which

of the

Vac

the nature of to the father is

forth

over

my

head

on the summit of the world,

all

I

universality of "I give birth

finds expression.

in the waters in the

place

the

things,

existing

touch

sea

my

birth-

thence I spread

;

with

yonder Heaven.

crown of

the

I too breathe

a strong breath as the wind, supporting the

all

existing

the

heaven, beyond earth, I beyond have become so great by my power." The hymns to Vicvakarman make no attempt to explain in what way the process of sacrifice could things

;

an

be regarded as little

act

of

creation.

"We are

more than that he was a primeval 1

V. 11.

2

X.

5., I.

sacrificer

113. 18.

168. 4., X. 16. 3.

3

VIII. 26. 21.

4

VI. 61. 11.

;

X. 65.

13.,

VII. 35. 11.,

cf.

I. 3.

told

12.

87

Purusha.

and

we have no

also a creator;

hint

how

to

the two ideas into a harmonious unity. the

hymn,

of the Rigveda,

hymns

The legend

difficulty.

one

Purushasukta,

the

of

an attempt

is

my thologists

Kishis adapted the

X.

90.

thousand

a

heads,

l ;

this

all

here

well

we

see

known

how

own

to

the

ends.

(purusha) had a thousand and a thousand feet he

eyes,

covered the earth in

latest

to solve

is

to serve their

myth "The Man

1.

very

of the formation of the universe

from the different parts of a giant comparative

combine

The next

;

directions,

and extended ten

finger-breadths beyond.

The Man was

2.

all this

that hath been and will

be made, and a possessor of the immortality which

groweth great by food (offered in sacrifice). 3. Such was his greatness; yea, the Man was mightier

;

all

made was one quarter him were the immortals

that hath been

him, three quarters of

of

still

in heaven.

With

4.

three quarters the

quarter came here again

over

sides

all

that

Man mounted

up, one

thence he strode out on

;

which

and that which

eateth

eateth not.

From him

5.

1

cf. e.g.

2

seem

Orphic

Hymn

whose name

Viraj,

the Yiraj

2

was born, and from the

26, page 202 in Abel's edition.

in

X. 159.

3.

appears to

mean

'queen,' would

to be the female counterpart of Purusha, as Aditi of

72. 4,

5.

;

cf.

Brihadar.

translation of this

Up.

4.

2.

3.,

Daksha

in

X.

and Dr. Muir's note in his

hymn, Original Sanskrit Texts,

vol. v. p. 369.

88

The

Yiraj the

Man;

Sacrifice.

was born, he reached

as soon as lie

out over the earth eastwards and westwards.

When

6.

Man

summer was

the

butter,

was the

on

victim

a

anointed the

Man who

him the gods

sacrificed,

When

8.

the

they

grass

(sacrificial)

was born in the beginning; the Sadhyas l and the Eishis. formed the beasts of

it

it;

of the wild places, and of the village.

air,

9.

and the autumn

the sacrifice was completed, they collected

the dripping fat from the

the fuel,

the sacrificial

offering.

As

7.

the gods prepared -the sacrifice with the

the offering, the spring was

as

When

the

was completed, the Rig-

sacrifice

hymns and the Sama-hymns were born from it, the incantations were born, the Yajus was born from it.

From

10.

that have

from

it

;

from

When

11.

were born the horses,

it

two rows of teeth it

;

the goats and sheep were born.

they disposed the Man, into

What

2

did they form

him

?

his arms, his thighs,

and

his feet called ?

parts

His mouth was the Brahman

12.

made the Eajanya

;

1

The

2

Or

Siidhyas 4.; also

elliptically,

2.,

his

;

VII. 21.

7.,

arms were

the

Yaicya

;

his feet.

would seem to be divine ancient

X. 191.

how many

are his mouth,

thighs were

his

and the Qudra was born from

X. 109.

the cattle

all

the kine were born

sacrificers.

Compare

and X. 130.

following Professor Avery's suggestion, Journal of the

American Oriental Society, vol. xi. him." parts into which they formed

p. cxlix,

"dividing him into

all

the

Purmha. 13.

89

The moon was born from

mind, the sun

his

from his eye; Indra and Agni from his mouth, and Viiyu was born from his breath. 14.

From

came the

his navel

air

from his head

;

arose the sky, from his feet the earth, from his ear

the regions 15.

they formed the worlds.

so

;

He had

seven

enclosing

thrice seven layers of fuel

the

sacrifice,

16.

164.

(=1.

sacrifice

when

;

they bound the

So

50.)

sacrificially

as victim.

the

gods the

sacrificed

a

sacrificial

first

Those mighty ones attained

ordinances.

and

fuel,

Man

they were

:

of

logs

the gods performed

to heaven,

where the ancient Sadhyas abide as gods." We have now passed in review the three most circumstantial

In the

world.

work of

known

art

origin of

that

natural,

world

and of

the

of

origin

was regarded as a and since the principal manufacture first

men

to the

wood, the builders

;

the

of

explanations

chapter

of

the time was the working of

was

pronounced a production of In the second chapter the

joiners.

the

visible

it

was

world process

as opposed

to

ascribed

which

is

mechanical,

the

to

the

agency

cause

of

production.

all

In

argument of this chapter the origin of the world was supposed to have been effected by a

the

similar instrumentality to as

that which

the most efficacious in the

formal

sacrifice.

The

mutually exclusive;

three

hands

is

represented

of

explanations

any two of them or

man, the are all

not three

90

The

Sacrifice.

The

are frequently combined together in one verse.

adopted in this essay

classification

be regarded

therefore,

is,

to

one of practical convenience only.

as

must not be supposed that what is here as the system of the Eishis was their

it

Further, described

exclusive possession. There may have been laymen whose views were more sacerdotal than those of the priests

whom

were, priests to

On

ritual. 1

may have

there

as

;

the

and

been,

speculation was

other hand,

a

doubtless

dearer than

based

classification

on later forms of thought would have been positively

We

misleading.

some

that in

may

very easily persuade ourselves

isolated verse

we have

discovered the

starting-point of a later philosophy, where the com-

parison of similar passages shows that

the poverty of our imagination which

meaning within our

own

is

not

a

was only

confined

the

particular range of thought.

The Rigveda must be made It

it

infrequent

complex of modern ideas

own commentary.

its

occurrence finds

its

that

a

whole

most happy and

an old term, or a proper appropriate expression name or attribute, or in the words of an ancient in

The words

saying.

nothing lost

to

their

oblivion,

the first

when

have

themselves

formation

of

the

ideas

meaning and were

fast

contributed ;

they had

falling

into

the breath of a spirit from another

sphere inspired them with a

1

cf.

X.

new

71. 11.

vitality.

CHAPTER

IV.

THE ORDER OF THE WORLD. ATTENTION has already been drawn to the narrow boundary-line which often separates the expression the

of

guesses

superficial

of

thinkers

unscientific

from the expression of the profoundest results of modern philosophy and science. We meet continually in

our

at

first

hymns with forms to

sight

placed side

by

Some general

side with puerile

rule

the interpreter. it

may

of expression,

appearing

be the vehicle of grand thought,

is

and

foolish conceits.

needed for the guidance of

man

In the case of an individual

be an impossibility to draw a line of circum-

scription

marking out the range

of his thought

;

in

the case, however, of a class of men, the difficulty will naturally be increased

of defining the capacity

of the deepest or acutest thinker

we can draw

among them

but

;

inferences as to the construction which

they as a class will put upon a given expression,

and

so

author

reflexively

addressing

understood.

The

as

to

the sense

in

which

an

t

them

expects

difficulties

of

his

the

words critic

to

be

will

be

found to concentrate themselves for the most

part

The Order of

the World.

Common on the interpretation of abstract words. experience teaches us that an unscientific speaker makes a large use of a limited number of abstract words in

different

senses,

the time

for

neglecting

being in each particular application of his terms the

which

senses,

other contexts he would

in

The terms

intend by them.

himself

are rich in the variety

of their meanings, the connection of which with one

another

connotation

is

Rigveda scientific

;

of the

appear

strictly

terms

in

The character

limited.

is

not

may

in

logical;

individual

of

the

but the

expressions

hymns

general anything but philosophic or

consequently, in order to find the motive

the use of particular words or phrases

for

bound

to

seek on

every occasion

meaning which the context time remembering limitation

the

of

that

will

no

most

are

special

admit, at the same

such

was probably present

the

we

need of a

to the

mind

strict

of the

author.

The word used order

of

the

universe which of

action

to

world is

be

may

denote is

ritd.

the 1

conceived as said

to

conception of the

Everything

in

the

showing regularity

have the

ritd

for

its

most general application the conception expressed by the word occupied to some extent the place of natural and moral law, fate, or

principle.

1

In

its

The account which

in his

Professor F.

Hibbert Lectures, pp. 237

Max

ff., is

Miiller has given of this world based on his view of the etymology.

93

Rita.

the will of a 1

It is the great and supreme god. which gods and men obey, and beside

mighty ritd, which the Yedic

gods

angels or heavenly

spirits.

sink

the

into

The

ritd

was, however,

in itself too stationary, too conservative,

regulative

endowed with

be

to

necessary to a god

and was not an object of

More to the

the

remained

it

;

of

position

and purely

individual life

an

abstract

idea

direct adoration.

usually the meaning of the word as applied

world connects

natural

itself

with the

alter-

nation of day and night, the regular passage of the

sun through the heavens, or the unswerving motion of the rain in its fall from heaven and of the streams This

along their courses.

may have

determined

celestial

regular

special sense of

its

The

the later language. to the

last application of the

limited

'water' in as applied

meaning

phenomena

is

word

illustrated

by

the phrase, 'the place of the ritd' used specifically for " the sky. The Maruts come from afar from the

ritd.

the ritd."

of

seat 5

This sense

association

of the

antithesis of light

1

mahdt, brihdt, " He

The

cf.

2

is

Vishnu

is

the embryo

of the

perhaps also the ground of the

word

ritd

with

the metaphorical

and darkness, the types of happi-

brihdt svdr

might not

:

no,

though a primeval god

:

sacred seasons might not be disturbed."

Keats, Hyperion. 2 3

paravdtah sddanad ritdsya IV. 21. I.

156.

3.

3.

The Order of ness and distress,

The word

World.

the

and of moral right and wrong.

used interchangeably with satyd 'reality,

is

truth/ and hence 'light/ 'belonging to the light;' dnrita is the most usual antithesis to satyd. l The

sun figures in connection with both terms earth

is

by

supported

the sky

truth,

is

;

supported

"The

by the sun, the Adityas exist by the ritd." flowing of the streams sun's light

on

set

the

sure

the expansion of the

ritd t

is

The sun

truth."

is

"the true light

is

the

of

support

the word

;

on earth was

therefore specially employed

is

in the sense of sacrifice.

The

the ritd? bulls,

The

has

and the

cows,

reference

ritd

said

"We proceed

sacrifice

its chariot, its ship, its horses,

in

like,

which cases the

all

becomes the place of

to

the

discussion

The

naturally to those passages

cosmic

expressions as

sense,

where

'

'

offspring

or

juice were produced at the

place

limits

ritd is

on

putting

sacrifice.

the

of

discussion

one

'

embryo

Agni and Soma, because

applied to

to

primarily or exclusively to the sacrifice.

is

seat of the ritd

its

is

Agni

the ritd in cosmogony.

in

To the

:

sky."

Eishi, however, the type of regularity

the sacrifice

" the

employed side

'

and soma-

The

sacrifice.

such

the ritd

of

fire

of

itself

principle

of the order of the world, of the regularity of cosmic

1

VII. 56.

VII. 49. 2

X. 85.

12., cf.

3.

1., I.

3 I. 75. 5.

V.

IX. 113.

4.,

III. 6. 10.

12. 4., Brihadar.

105. 12.,

X. 170.

2.

Up.

;

IV.

1. 4. 14.

5.

5.,

VIII. 62.

12.,

Rita

phenomena, was conceived existed

a principle

as

95

as a First Principle.

Rishis

the

by

manifestation

the

before

have

to

of

The argument would seem to be any phenomena. The phenomena of the world somewhat as follows. are

fresh

constant;

but

produced,

same the

;

idiom

the

phenomena

This parentage

and

ritd.

is

it

principle

phenomena

continually

re-

remains

the

order

existed already

appeared

the

in

;

when Yedic

has given birth to them.

exactly parallel to that of heaven

Heaven and earth

earth.

to or

of

principle

their father,

is

it

the

are

phenomena

the principle, therefore,

earliest

but

changeable,

periodical recurrence of

the

regulating is

and

shifting

by reason of the ritd The view that the

x ;

rather

first

according

the gods are born of

principle

must precede

be the motive of the

the manifestation appears to

following short and

are the

incomprehensible hymn,

2 probably one of the latest in the collection.

X. 190.

"Order

1.

(ritd)

and truth were born from

kindled heat, the night was born, then the watery flood. 2.

From

the

watery flood

the

year

disposing day and night, the ruler of

all

was

born,

that closeth

the eye. 3.

order,

The Ordainer

(dhdtdr)

and heaven and

and the

formed sun and moon in

earth,

the regions of the air

light." 1

X.

2

Since

12. i. it is

not divided up in the pada recension.

96

The Order of the World.

It will be observed that the year, day,

come and

into

The hymn

of progressive

In no other

the

stages in

hymn

moon, heaven,

unique in its enumeration

is

growth of the world.

the origin of the world viewed

is

Account must, however, be

a gradual process.

as

the sun,

existence before

earth.

and night

taken of the necessities of the style in which the are

hymns

composed,

of

admitting

fragmentary

allusions of every kind, but not of the full treatment

In one passage well-known physician's

one time of any one thought.

at

the

at

of

beginning

the

hymn, we read that "the plants came l

three ages before the

any cosmological

gods."

significance,

this appears very improbable,

into

being

If the passage

has

and from the context it

is

still

too

isolated

form the basis of an argument. Rigveda The expression born from the ritd 2 is indistinguishable from the equally common phrases in the

to

'

'

'born in the

more

ritd

last of

ritaja,

which

rite jdtd.

ritd

are

born of the ritd' ritdprqjata,

The

is

X.

97.

1

triyuffu-m

or the

'

embryo

ritdjdta,

separate

manifestations

expressed by the plural

phenomenon

In

riteja^

'

9

analysed in one passage (YI.

is

into

2

or 'according to the ritd,

indefinite expressions

the ritd,'

of

9

itself

ritani,

regarded as a

ritd.

7.

the 1.)

of the

where each

Thus the

1.

II. 13. 1. ritu, the mother,

the Atharvaveda, xix. 53 and 54, as the parent of all things.

is

it is

prohably the time of sacrifice. In time in general, kald, that appears

97

King Varuna.

gods are the protectors or leaders of ritd\ the dawn the dawns or the sun directs the reins of ritd ;

produce

and

principle,

the

earth,

again, the causes of these mani-

may be

festations

that

Or

ritd.

so

sons

we

the

as

regarded

of

causes

the

return to the familiar paradox their

begat

Heaven

parent.

morning and night, are the mothers

of

and the

ritd.

The

best

connected with

of the ideas

illustration

the order of the world will be an examination of the chief of the lords of

the character of Varuna,

Yaruna

natural order.

the great king over the

of

god

peaceful

warrior Indra.

down upon

all,

all

dominion

From

1

in the Bigveda primarily whose throne is in the sky,

is

as

his throne

to

opposed

the

on high he looks and into

that happens in the world,

"He

knoweth the path of the he knoweth the birds, that fly through the air he knoweth the way of ships as lord of the sea the spreading, high, and mighty wind and he

the heart of man.

;

;

;

knoweth those who dwell above with insight

that

done and yet all that

1

to

which

is

be done."

it.

hidden, 2

He that

beholdeth

which

As king he

is

ordains

happens on the earth, and as legislator he

VII. 82.

5.

A

full description of

Varuna's character, together with

a discussion of the origin and development of the conception of the god, will he found in Professor A. Hillehrandt's Mitra and Varuna, Breslau, 1877. 2

I. 25. 7, 9, 11.

7

98

The Order of

down the

lays

from

impulse

Varuna. 1

The Maruts

laws.

but

Indra,

His

World.

the

their

activity shows

itself

receive

their

instructions

from

pre-eminently in

the control of the most regular phenomena of nature,

Mitra and

the course of the sun, and of the rivers.

heaven as a shining chariot. Varuna "King Varuna made a path for the sun for it to 2 The seven follow," and a path for the streams. set the sun in

In

are under his control.

his explanation

is

moon wanders

24.

I.

verse 10. the poet

go in the daytime, and that "Varuna's laws are inviolable;

wonders whither the

the

rivers of the earth,

sky, as the seven

rivers of the

stars

Mitra

shining through the night."

and Varuna have ordained the succession of

And

3

and days.

months,

limited to the natural world his

own moral of

forgiveness

mentioned

as

and

code, sins

the

as

;

is

soldier

1

invoked for

especially

who

courses of action

1

X.

2

V. 63.

3

VII.

*

X. 113.

6

For the etymology

'

or

Indra

'

language vratani

ways

of

life.'

5

is

offenders

punishes

English translation of the word

is

It

;

the

perhaps is

used

66. 2. 7., I.

24. 8., VII. 60. 4., 63. 5., 87.

1., II.

28. 4.

66. 11., I. 25. 8. 5.

in the Journal

of the

of the

word vratd

see a note

American Oriental '

*

power is not he administers judge

fellow-men.

against

4 against Varuna's laws. These laws are in Vedic

nearest

years,

Varuna's

Course of action, behaviour,

is

by Professor "Whitney

Society, vol. xi. p. ccxxix.

the meaning he assigns to

it.

99

The Ordinances of Varuna. with

especially

verbs

of

motion

or

and

'after/

vratd alone

of the

these constructions

in

equivalent to ritdsya pdnthdh, the path

is

It

ritd.

it

and with the prepositions dnu

l

converse dti\

its

following,

the words 'as

in one place with the addition of

were with the feet/

of

used of the characteristic occupations

is

A

good wife is a wife who The vratdni of a follows the vratd of her husband. of gods and of men. 2

inferior

Indra

are

power

superior

the

;

vratdni

he places

;

said

of

himself

to

the

overcome those of an other

above

gods

to

other vratdni

all

he conquers the vratdni of the

yield

flood.

great

3

;

All

4 things are said to be in the vratd of a powerful god.

Thus the meaning

of the

the person to

whom

the vratdni of

Yaruna

The

Soma

vratdni of

it is

is

word takes applied

:

its

colour from

a description of

a description of his activity.

Yaruna

are

royal ordinances.

his

compared to a king whose vratdni and the ordinances of king Soma are good 6 The praised as the vratdni of Mitra and Yaruna. criterion of excellence in a good lawgiver and judge twice

is

5

are

is

;

the

What

and

firmness

of

impartiality

he has once

determined

1

V.

2

IX. 112. L, X.

3

VI.

4

Indra III. 30.

5

IX. 20.

6

I. 91.

his

must

decisions.

remain as a

67. 3. 37. 5.

14. 3., III. 60. 6., 4.

;

28.,

Parjanya V. 83.

5., 57. 3.

3.=IX.

VIII. 32.

88. 8.

5.

X. 111.

4.

100

The Order of

rule

bind

to

all

are

fast,

O

unalterable

thou that none

on a

vratani as

Yaruna that

(dhritdvrata)

may

deceive,

"

mountain.

we

Hence

decisions.

subsequent

are continually told of

World.

the

his vrattini stand

"For on

.

thee,

the immovable

rest

They

are

the fixed

ordinances according to which the sun travels through

the streams

heaven,

men

of

actions

are

flow into ruled.

and the

the ocean,

The other gods follow

1

the vratani of Mitra and Yaruna, they are in their Vratd]

pray that they may walk in Yaruna's and Mitra and Yaruna follow the vratd,

poets 2

cratd

;

which they themselves have made, follows his

own

a just king

precedents.

Thus Yaruna occupies a nearly as possible

position

that of the

to

corresponding as ritd,

of which he

His

almost be considered the personification.

may

vratani are the vratani of the ritd

the

called

principle rule

as

3

;

of

ritd

of their

;

the ritd

and Yaruna

Mitra

;

is

itself

is

it

the

according to which they

activity,

they are the guides and protectors of the ritd

;

and Yaruna punishes offenders against the ritd. 4 This sketch suffices to show how Yaruna, the maintainer '

and ordainer of

all

that

is

constant in the world,

1 II. 28. 8., cf. X. 65. 8.; VIII. 41. 1., I. 24. 10., X. 12. 5, " The king's heart is in the hand of the Lord as the watercourses he turneth it whithersoever he will." Prov. xxi. 1. :

2

VIII. 41.

3

IV. 13.

2.,

V. 67.

III. 4.

7.,

II.

*

VII. 84.

4., cf.

7.,

X.

36. 13., I. 24. 15., II. 28. 2., VII. 87. 7. 3.

28. 4.,

VII.

83. 9.

X.

85.

1.,

V.

63. 7., II. 27. 8.,

VII. 40.

4.,

Relation of Varuna

could be considered

He

from the

differs

he

in that

is

in no

the

as

101

Rita.

the world.

of

creator

mentioned in Chapter II

deities

way

to

a productive agent in nature,

an inference from his presihe differs from the ritd in that

his creative function is

dential

he

capacity

;

an agent and not a mere regulating principle. of the clearest hymns in which

is

The following is one Varuna appears in

this

and

maintainer,

orderer,

general

character

therefore

creator

of

the

of

the

world.

Y. 85.

hymn

to

Varuna

;

" I will sing forth a mighty and loud

1.

the king of

who hath

acceptable

all,

renowned

to

struck out the earth, as a slayer

of victims, a skin to spread forth before the sun. 2.

He

hath woven the air in the trees

placed speed in horses, and milk in kine

hath placed understanding in hearts,

he hath

l ;

fire

;

in

Varuna water,

the sun in the sky, and soma on the mountain.

Varuna poureth forth the wards, over heaven, earth, and 3.

king

cask, air,

mouth downwherewith the

of all the world wetteth the land, as

rain a

corn-field. 4.

Varuna wetteth the

land, earth

time he wisheth to draw milk themselves in cloud

;

and sky, what

the mountains clothe

the tempestuous warriors

;

let loose.

<

1

Pet. Lex.

2

Maruts, V. 63. 4,

clouds.' 6.,

IV. 54.

5.

2

are

X

102

The Order of

World.

the

This great design of the renowned Asura, of

5.

Yaruna

I

will

region of the

proclaim

air,

standing

that,

the

in

he measureth out the earth with

the sun as with a measuring-rod.

This great design of the most wise god hath

6.

none

assailed,

that

the

swift

rivers

streaming

fill

Dot the one sea with water. 7.

What wrong we

comrade or

to

friend

have ever done,

Yaruna,

play on the names

(with a

Mitra and Aryaraan), to companion or brother, to one of our own tribe or to stranger, loose it from us. 8.

we have cheated

If

at play as dishonest players,

be our sin real or such as we

by and

know

a curse), cast all from us,

us be thine own,

let

The word and 6

calls

derived

translated for

from

think/ and

is

special

an

not

(i.e.

J

Yaruna." '

'

design

in

(mayti)

comment.

obsolete

imposed

god, as loose bonds,

root

It

ma

is (

verses 5

apparently

= man),

'

to

used in the sense of planning a work

of art, or a malicious attack on an enemy.

It was,

however, by the Rishis approximated to the existing root

1

ma

(mi),

'measure/

2

and

is

thus applied to the

The comparison with the Old Testament cannot For such a comparison there

fail

to

suggest

no more instructive chapter than Joh. xxxviii. there is scarcely a metaphor in that chapter which does not find its exact parallel in the Vedic descriptions of Yaruna. The tone is, itself.

is

;

The Hebrew poet is illustrating in detail the however, very different. incomprehensible power of Jehovah, contrasted with the frailty of man. 2 IX. 83. 3., cf. II. 17. 5., I. 159. 4., III. 38. 7. see the article La '

;

maya

et le

Revue de

pouvoir createur des divinites vediques

1'histoire des religions, vol. xii. pp.

237

'

by M. Regnaud,

fF.

in the

103

Maya. skill

measuring

of Mitra and

Yaruna

in laying the

foundations of the earth, and in directing the course

The

of the sun and the waters.

original

meaning

of

the word, denoting the artistic designing or planning

of a work with the mental calculation of an architect, rather than the manual skill of a builder or carpenter, will

to

how

explain

Tvashtar,

1

it

is

that

and only once

only once applied

is

it

to

the Eibhus. 2

The

sun goes to his work knowing the design of the 3 In V. 63. 7. the mayti of the Asura is placed gods. side

This

dhdrman of Mitra and Yaruna.

side with the

by

may a of the Asura, D}^aus pitar, whose worship

was practically a thing of the past at the time when our hymns were composed, 4 is mentioned elsewhere the

only in

instrumental case;

send rain according the Asura

5

to,

the sun

;

is

or

by means of the design of

anointed (with light) according

The may a

to the design of the Asura. is

in

is

name

or the

the

called

" These two

1

X.

of Mitra and

mdya

children

(sun

and moon) wander one

53. 9.

mdnas.

3

X.

4

Compare Dr. Bradke's Dyaus Asura, Halle, 1885. V. 63. 3.

6

88. 6.

VIII. 41.

3.

;

;

;

is

2 III. 60. 1. parallel to yde7t dht,

5

Yaruna

omitted and we are told "6 " maydya according to design

of the god

that the sun shines

of the Asura

simply transferred to Yaruna

other passages

the sun

Mitra and Yaruna

III. 61. 7.,

cf.

V. 63.

4.

;

I. 160. 3.

104

The Order of

World.

the

after the other according to design, they

go dancing

round the place of

beholds

things, the

existing

the sacrifice

word

'

sacrifice

is

one

the

;

other

ordaining born again and again." l

The English

design/ contrasted with the plural

*

designs/

same time the malevolent sense of

illustrates at the

the plural

all

times of

the

Yedic

of the

a

word,

sense

associated

with the singular in one or two passages only.

The contemplation of this august god Varuna, who at first sight would appear worthy of exclusive recalls

adoration,

of the testified

extent

us,

advance

of the

by our hymns.

conceivable

by which

the

to

finally,

consideration

monotheism

towards

There are only two ways a religion can rise from a Either one of

polytheistic to a monotheistic stage.

the polytheistic gods can be elevated to a position of unique supremacy over

the others

all

;

or a

new

god can be introduced who shall supplant the old gods and reduce them to the condition of inferior spirits,

demons,

or

The

non-entities.

elevation

of

an indigenous god may be caused by the influence of an external religious system, or in the absence of direct foreign influence

may

result

from the gradual

development of the religion through the action of philosophic thought or national enthusiasm working

upon the existing

religion,

religious

or

through

conceptions.

1

X.

85. 18.

systematization

That

the

of

impulse

UNIVERSITY of

SiL Monotheism.

towards

monotheism was

religion

of

the

outcome of the

the

not as

priests,

10->

to

presented

us in the

Bigveda, will be shewn by an examination of the shortcomings of the two principal gods of the Rigveda,

Indra and Yaruna.

Yaruna was compromised by

his position of equality

with Mitra, and his association with the other gods Essentially a god of peace, he

classed as Adityas.

could not be invoked in

the

struggles for victory

over hostile tribes, that blessing which lay nearest to the hearts of the kings

as a stern

of the sacrifice; attraction

little

was

who were

set in heaven,

common

the

to

god of

the chief patrons justice

people

and thus he had a

he offered throne

his

;

limited, almost

local, existence which offended the metaphysical sense

Very soon

of the philosophers.

hymns he was reduced from

the composition of our exalted

his

to

position

after the period of

that

of

the

of

god

the

midnight sky, or of the waters.

The

favourite god of the Rigveda is Indra. Heendowed with the functions and attributes of most

is

of the other gods

of Yaruna.

He

1

1

I.

6., cf.

3.,

X.

VII. 66.

set free

The following

101. 3.

VII. 47.

is

list

Varuna are ascribed 111. 3,

8.,

11., I. 25.

tation of IV. 42.,

La

pantheon, including those

from the limitations of

The whole universe cannot contain

space and time.

characteristic of

of the

contains passages in which actions to Indra:

VIII. 37. 8.

3.,

Compare

VIII. 40.

VII. 98. also

Religion vedique, vol.

iii.

6.,

8.,

V. 40.

II. 24. 12.,. 8.,

M. Bergaigne's p. 143.

X. 138.

interpre-

106

The Order of

him

;

if

and a thousand

him

he embraces

;

of a wheel

all

nations as a felloe the spokes

he holds the two worlds in his

;

all

in his sight. 2

His dominion

and present,

it

extends over

too

The conception

much

hampered

legends, and

not limited to past

is

to be born

of Indra

above

is

in

;

him

of his

distinctness

patible with absolute

great god, the

however,

was,

with

association

by

his character too

popular

pronounced as that of

Brahmans

a warrior, to be acceptable to the

unusual

He

all time. is

;

dust

deeds that have been done and will

are all heroic

be done.

fist

creatures are as a grain of

that has been, and that

3

would not equal

suns, they

the earth and

all

World.

there were a hundred heavens, and a hundred

earths, x

the

personality was

He

supremacy.

;

the

incom-

remained

a

of the Devas, but never became

first

the highest deity.

The

verses of our

hymns which

refer to

an unique

supreme being are not to be explained as products of the natural development of Yedic religion as represented to us

by the

lights from an entirely which is represented

Eishis.

different later

in

They

are

stray

order of thought,

the

Upanishads.

Tradition points unmistakeably to the inference that

1

VIII. 70.

eva syad

5.

Atha ima

atistutaya ity acakshate 'pi va sampratyaya

mahabhagyad devatayah.

I. 100. 15., 173. 6.,

VI. 30.

2

III. 30. 5., I. 63.

*

VIII. 89.

6.,

1.,

VIII.

Nirukta 13.

1.

X. 119.

63. 6.

6.

1.

Similar passages are

107

Brahmans and Kshatriyas. the

which

speculations

particularly

we

these

characteristic

the

of

were

contain

latter

royal

class.

*

If

consider further that in the Vedic age the priests

had not yet attained

to

authoritative teachers

the high position of

sole

the people which they

among

afterwards arrogated to themselves,

it

will not perhaps

be an improbable conjecture that the lay philosophy

which these verses bear witness was in

to

the

production

of

of

the

independent

members narrow

of

its

princely

system

of

the

origin

families Bishis.

Their introduction into the Eigveda shows that the

were

compilers of that collection

not

conscious of

any incongruity, and may be taken as a sign that the ideas which they contain were the property of the

The

few.

Eishis, for their part, were already inclined

the character of the gods to

more importance than whom it was offered.

The same

'seen in the indefinite-

regard the

to

1

"

We

sacrifice

indifference

may hope

as

of

which

is

in course of time, in view of the wealth of material

extant in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda, and the Brahmanas, to be able to

by step how the sparks of philosophic light struck in the Rigveda glimmered brighter and brighter, till at last in the Upanishads they burst into that clear flame, which even now has power to enlighten trace step

and warm

A

us.

these thoughts

was

number

of tokens indicate that the real cherisher of

originally the caste of the Kshatriyas rather than the

caste of the priests,

which was sated with ceremonial observances

:

over

and over again in the Upanishads we come across the situation that the Brahman asks the Kshatriya for information, which the latter after various reflections (cf. 1.

Brih. 2.

1.)."

1.,

on the impropriety

Kaush.

4.

1.,

of the proceeding imparts to

him

Brih. 6. 2., Chand. 5. 3., 5. ll.,Kaush.

Deussen, Das System des Vedanta, p. 18.

108

The Order of

the

World.

ness of their conceptions of individual gods explains to

some extent the

fact

they had not energy

that

enough to develope their theology into a monotheism. Their religion remained essentially polytheistic l but ;

side

by

side

though not in

with

the

hostility

religion,

independent of

with

there was a

it,

of mystic philosophy cherished

by

1

germ

a few speculative

who recognized one supreme bowed down in devotion before it. thinkers,

it,

cause

and

Compare on this subject an article by Professor "Whitney in the Revue de 1'histoire des religions, vol. vi. p. 129, of which a summary is given in. the Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. xi. p. Ixxx.

APPENDIX,

APPENDIX.

THE COSMOGRAPHY OF THE RIGVEDA. THIS appendix

will

contain a

short

sketch,

of the

conceptions of the form of the world, the stage on

which the cosmological actions are performed, consisting of earth, heaven, and the intermediate spaces.

The

descriptions

of the several parts of the world,

in particular of the sky, are so various that

it

would

be folly to attempt to reduce them to uniformity; the object of this sketch

is

only to supply the reader

with a rough indication of the nature of the Vedic ideas on cosmography,

quotations

of

the

which are referred

essay,

with

special

to in the

emphasis on

those points where a misconception would be likely to arise.

The earth presented poets

as

above

all

mahi, vdrah prithivytih,

extended

(uttanti),

itself

the

to

the

broad place

mam

minds of the urvi,

(prithivi,

prithivi vdrlmabhih), the

the boundless (apara).

It

is

the

substratum of the universe (bh&mi, kshdm, gma) ; " or the place here, simply " this (iddm) as opposed

112

Appendix.

what

to

is

"We have mention of the four

yonder.

points of the compass

thus

one

in

receives

X.

(e.g.

19. 8.)

the

passage

;

and the earth " four-

epithet

cornered" or "four-pointed" (Ihiimim cdturbhrishtim

X. 58.

More

3.).

where the speaker stands

the

however,

frequently,

point

represented as one of

is

the regions of the earth, raising the number to five (pdhca pra-digah IX. 86. 29.) in X.

42.

world

11.

krishtdyafi). (I.

35.

seem

is

containing

and

continents,

would

as

8.)

the

as

The earth

seven

be

to

they are enumerated

the

Similarly

described

are

;

inhabitants tribes

five

of

*

the

(pdnca

depicted in one passage eight

streams

originally

three

mountains, the

;

enumeration

mythical,

and

the

corresponding objects sought to suit the previously conceived

The sky has

numbers.

streams flowing

down from

also

seven

its

the clouds which are

its

mountains.

The conception

of

naturally modified

earth into a pritJmi,

form of the

the

by the

From

dytiva-

Together they are the two great

kshoni).

two halves

In one passage they

(II. 27. 15. ubhav drdhau).

the semi- spherical appearance of the sky they

receive the

other*

was

coupling of heaven and

single dual conception (rodasi,

ones (maht, mdki, urvi, vam). figure as the

earth

name

(samlclne

'the two bowls turned towards each dhishdne,

1

and apparently camvh III.

v. s. v. A-HsIiti, Pet.

Lex.

The Cosmography of 55. 20.), or they are

113

the Rigveda.

compared

wheels at the

to the

two ends of an axle (X. 89. 4.). They are equal in size, and both are copies of Indra's greatness (pratimdna)

Heaven (dwy

light

web

,

is

rocandm

rocand,

of light (yybman

realm

the

as

represented

of

shining

woven

the

as

divdh),

urau pathi vyute III. 54.

cf.

It is the height (scinu, prishthd y vishtdp} or the

of the world supported on high (see Chapter

we

times

find

(divo naka) in

More

air,

stars are fixed.

the conception of the intermediate

is

same extent

and may therefore

scientific

The

between heaven and earth.

not personified to the earth,

It

conception.

soil;

word may have been

quasiinter-

The

rajas.

word occurs three times in the Kigveda of the dust of the

a

called simply the

is

air is

heaven and

as

be considered

mediate space (antdriksha) or the

latter

in the plural

the original sense of the

associated with the fine motes

1 (mdrlci) glittering in the beams of the sun.

obstructs

At

I.).

mention of a firmament above the sky

which the

peculiar

space of

9.).

roof

the rays of the sun (Y. 59.

The

rajas

and can

3.),

thus be regarded as the cause of darkness,

whence

when

medium

the epithet 'black*

;

illuminated

it is

through which the rays are conveyed (X. 53. 6.). so

rain, 1

A

the

somewhat

purisha,

cf.

As

the

to the

earth

the dust of the earth receives the

dust

of

the

air

is

permeated with

similar combination of meanings occurs

pdntha artndvah

I.

35. 11.,

and

see

K. Z. xxvi.

in the p. 62.

8

\

word

114

Appendix.

moisture, and hence rajas can bear the epithet

mddhumat

(apt-yarn I. 124. 5.,

I.

watery

The

90. 7.).

'

'

limits of

the region of the air are said to be indiscoverable.

These three, heaven, earth, and

are the favourite

air,

group of three in the Rigveda, underlying all manner Some whole hymns of applications of the number.

have no other motive than

number

the

common idiom

III.

34.,

(I.

the

of

this

on

continual play

Rigveda the three

a

to

According

56.).

be

may

denoted by any one of the three names; they are

mentioned together as the three earths, the three heavens, and the three airs; 1 more complication

even

all

still

is

occasionally

singular of one

caused

member

by the addition

of the trio,

when

in

the

the three

have already been mentioned. The twofold division, again, into heaven and earth, is combined with the

we have mention

threefold division, and thus

worlds,

or six rdjdmsi.

of six

These were originally mere

freaks of language, but the expressions led to a sub-

In the Rigveda we read of an upper, middle and lower heaven (Y. 60. 6.) one passage (I. 108. 9, 10.) speaks of an upper, middle sequent real subdivision.

;

and lower earth

the word earth seems in this passage

;

to be used in a loose sense (cf.

VII. 104.

Atharvaveda, however, the division

(A.V. VI. 21. ticularly

1

For a

1.).

marked

in

The

triple

is

11.).

clearly defined

subdivision

the case of the rajas.

similar manipulation of the

In the

numbers compare VII.

is

par-

In the

33. 7.

The Cosmography of

highest of the three rdjdmsi (tritiye)

The two lower regions are

waters.

of our perception

115

the Rigveda.

are the rain-

within, the range

the third belongs to Vishnu, whither

;

he stepped with the third of his ascending (VII. 99.

cf.

1.,

terious rajas

155. 5.)

I.

(ddbhutam

it is

;

X.

quently, however, the rajas

the invisible, mys-

More

1

105.

is

strides

7.).

fre-

divided on the twofold

principle, the one half belonging

to the earth (par-

thivam rdjah), the other to the sky (divo rajah}. Prof. H.

Zimmer

in his book,

'

Altindisches Leben/

357, has alleged the existence of a rajas beneath

p.

the earth to account for the course of the sun in the night

:

we

will close this sketch with a discussion

of his hypothesis.

It

cannot

the majority of cases, where

A

earth.

perfectly

parthivam rajah 81. 5.

"he

rajah

1

instance

above

to

above the that

prove

the

earth

is

(I.

I.

divl,

the earthly rajas and pressed against the

The

epithet

mddhumat applied

90. 7.) can scarcely refer to

The presumption

the earth. cases the

earth.

clear

situated

all

a paprau parthivam rdjo badbad/ie rocand

filled

sky."

is

that in

two or three rdjdmsi

mentioned, they are conceived as

are

all

doubted

be

same words refer

Zimmer

The conception

is,

to pdrthivam

anything under

therefore,

to a rajas

refers to three passages,

that in

above the

VI.

9.

1.,

of the highest region as hidden above the light, or

hidden in impenetrable light, offers an explanation of some passages which have caused difficulty to interpreters, e.g. X. 114. 2. pdreshu gtihyeshu vrateshu

cf. I.

155. 3. and IX. 75. 2.

116

Appendix.

VII. 80. ca

dha$

1.,

and Y.

Zimmer

vedy&bhih.

The

81. 4.

krishndm dhar

first

m

ca

drjunam

passage reads vartete

rdjasl

" es durchrollen

translates

die

und schwarze Tageshalfte offenkundig die beiden "We must compare I. 185. 1. m vartete

lichte

Luftkreise."

dhanl cakriyeva,

wheels/*

i.e.

"day and night

circling

round from east

consider that

obliged

the

excludes such an interpretation

of

dawn "unrolling

" beide remarks, limits,

both

mvartdyantlm rdjasl

:

things."

stossen

rdjasl as (cf.

1.),

which border

Here Zimmer

aneinander

however, coincide just as well

and west

may

Gebiete

all

is

The next passage

the two rdjasl,

on one another, revealing

one

either

sdmante amshkrinvatlm bhuvandni mgvd (VII. 80. the

two

no way

are in

progress

continued further below the earth.

like

to west, the

We

rising as the other goes down. to

revolve

if

" ;

the

we regard

narrowing down together towards east V. 47. 3.), or the adjacent borders

be the horizontal plane which separates them.

The question is decided by the only one moment is described, daybreak;

the

dawn

is

consideration that

that

namely,

represented

unfolding both together, and at the

as

of

unrolling,

same time as

On the other passage giving light to the world. utd ratrlm ubhaydtah pdrlyase, Zimmer V. 81. 4., observes, Seiten.

"

"die Nacht umwandelt Surya von beiden

The

verse

is,

however, addressed not to

Surya but to Savitar, who, though in some sense a

god of the sun, has a

special

character as

god of

The Cosmography of

I translate then, "and thou encompassest

the evening.

the night on both sides"

But

we

if

the earth,

IX. 86.

(cf.

6).

dismiss the hypothesis of a rajas under

how

did the poets of the Rigveda explain

the course of the sun ?

appears to be offered; ishanat

117

the Rigveda.

In one passage an explanation the words are aydn'i cakrdm

ny etagam rlramat sasrimdndm

stiryasya

d

\

Im juhurano jigharti tvaco budhne rdjaso asyd yonau (IY. 17. 14.). Indra stops the chariot of the krishnd

sun, and, turning

darkness,

night- sky,

it

round, flings

the sun

is

into the concealing

apparently the darkness belonging to the the

way

that

said to turn

A

came.

it

Brahmana

occurs in the Aitareya

in

it

round

(3.

similar idea

4.

44,),

so as to shine

downwards In the

the daytime and upwards in the night.

same way we are told that

accompanies the sun to the light with

which he

his horses

draw

or the

dark

(I.

is

is

it

another rajas which

east,

rises (X. 37. 3)

now

bright,

where

from the

different ;

the light which

now dark

(I.

115. 5.),

path along which his horses travel becomes 164. 47.).

Such an explanation was, however,

and one poet asks in wonder, which are set on high, and appear at

inapplicable to the stars,

" These

stars,

night, whither do they go in the daytime ?"

and even in the case of the sun a doubt in the question, "

many dawns P"

how many

(X. 88. 18.)

(I.

is

24. 10.)

;

expressed

suns are there and

how

INDEX OF PASSAGES, An

asterisk is affixed to those passages

or partially translated, or

comment.

RIGVEDA.

which are wholly

which form the subject

of special

120

I. 98. 2.

Index.

...

121

Index. PAGE

PAGE

,

76

11.4.

.

67

4.7.

12. 5.

.

5

4. 9.

12. 8.

,

51

5. 10.

12. 10.

.

60

7. 7.

13. 1.

,

96

12. 3.

15. 2.

.

20

14. 3.

15. 3.*

.

18

14, 4.

17.5.

.

102

20. 4

12

23

22. 3

33

79

30. 4

99

57

30.

II. 10. 5

23. 17.*

24. 5-7.*

,

.

...

24. 8

105

24. 12

26.

1

27,

8.-

.

.

.

.

.

5

.

100

27. 15

28.2. 28. 4.

...... ... 98,

28. 8.* 29.

3,. 4..

33,

1.

.

.-

34, 11

35.5.

.

.

.

.

.

III. 4. 5.

33. 3

33. 6.

100

38.*

100

38. 2.

.

77 68

106 21

....

72

.80 .56 10

...... .....

38. 3.*

30

38. 4

38. 7.

22

81

,

...

68

47

40

73

32. 2

112

100

.... ,

31. 12.*

100

79

...

.

76 21 19

46

..... .....

35, 8

55

48,4.-

44

53. 7.

39

54. 5.

35

54. 8.

.

54. 9.

,

40.3.

,

5..

38, 6.

......

.

.... .... ....

38.8.-

40,

.

30. 11

.81 .

,

37

102

24 .

.

.

.

70

.....

60

...

58

.

<

84, 113

.

69

54. 14.

.

.

*

.

.

12

1.8.

.

76

54. 16.

,

.

<

.

.

68

1.9.

r

35

54. 17.

,

.

.

.

73

.

22

55.15.

,,.-.-.

49

III. 1. 5.

1.

17.

2..

10, 11.

2. 12>

55

55.19.

,

68

55. 2Q.

*..*-.'*

t

t

.

.

23

.

113

122

Index.

....

III. $6. 3.

PAGE

55, 58.

PAGE

IV. 51.

103

60. 6.

51. 6.*

99

60, 3 61, 7.*

103

62, 10

78

4.

54.

.

54. 5.

6

... ...

55. 5, 7.

26 10

.

101

... ...

80

,

56. 2.

IY.

71

.

.-

10

84

56.3.*

1,20

46

58

2. 15

72

58.

2. 17

73

58. 4

38

3. 10

34, 70 49

58,5.

55

1.

5. 13 5.

62

14

22

6.2.*

V.

34 1,

1.

4.

3.

1..

.84

13.2

100

11.5,

22

11.6.*

....

17.14.*

117

68

17. 17

3, 1, 2.

12.

24

12.4 13, 6

45

15. 2

32. 22

31

29.

33,1.

26

29.4.*

,

.

.

.

19,.

86

46

3, 6.

62 .

53 20

.... .....

80

20

,

,

.

.

.

25

30.1

75

,

.

,

.

.

24

30,8

67

34,9 34,

13

5

.93 ,

32

53

31

1

18, 13

1.

... ... ... ...

12

21.13 24,

35

11

6. 6

13,5.

20

69

37.4.,

,

,

t

.

.

25

40. 6-8

38. 5.

.

%

,

.

.

51

40. 8

33

42. 10.

.

51

42. 12

25 23, 41

,

38. 10

39. 5.

,

,

,

.

42. 1.

,

.

,

.

.

49

42. 13

,

,

.

.

23

43. 6

,

.

.

.

21

44.6.

42.3. 50. l. 51. 2.

, ,

19

44.6,7.

105

.....

5

.40 71

....

84

123

Index. PAGE

V.44.

8.

.

.

.

-.

-.

44.11

77

46

PAGE

VI.

9.

..

.

46

9. l.

.

116

19

9,6.

.

75

45. 2.

...... ...

22

11.2.

.

82

45. 10.*

.....

33

14.- 3..

.

99

78

17. 7.*

.

20

45.

1.

.

.

45. 11

47.3.

35

18.5.

.

70

48. 5

75

21.8.*

.

67

50.10

10

24. 5.

.

5

53.13

57

29. 3.

.

36

25

30. 1.

.

106

57

30. 2.-

.

58

58.4. 58. 7.,

.

.

*

.

.

22

59. 2.*

59.3

.113

59.8.

46

60. 6.

114

22

62. 7, 8 63. 3, 4..

....

63. 4, 6..

.

63. 7.

.

...

67. 3.*

.

.

..... 81.4,5., ....

80. 5.

81. 4.*

83.

1.

,

83.5.

fc

.

..

.

85.2. 85. 5.*

VI.

3. 8.

49,10

57

50. 7.

101

51,8.*

33

116

52. 16.*

55. 1. 55. 4.

13

60. 4.

57

61. 11,

27

64,4.

101

75. 5.

20

75,18,

18

87.1.

24

,

.

.

.

.

..... .... ..... .....

VII.

1. 2.

72 18

56 78 57 31

39 39

58,3,4

63.5.

..... ..... .

22

.99

83.6. 85.*

..... 47.3,4.* .... 47.5. .....

103

98, 103 99

46

36. 1.

44.23.

......

..... ..... ..... ..... ,

i

.

.

98

86

98 33 31

77 98

22'

6. 3.

71

2. 5.

35

7. 1.

96

21.7.

88-

124

VII. 33.

Index.

4.

.

.

Index.

VIII 98

2.

.

125

126

Index. PAGE

X.

23

46. 9.

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

48. 7. 49. 10.* 50. 3.

53. 4. 53. 6. 53. 9.

54. 3.

56 *

.

61

.

.

.

58

85. 9.*

.

.

.

39

24

85. 18.*

.

104

46

85. 21, 22.

.

39

73

85. 26. 27.

.

39

113

85. 40, 41.*

39

80

85. 43

52

32

87. 4

57

72

88. 1.

22 103

88. 6

41

88. 8.*

72

88. 18.*.

84

89. 1

71

89. 4.

63. 3

46

90.*.

63. 15

57

92. 15.

64. 5

45

97. 1.*

64. 10

40

97. 16.

61. 10,

1.1.

61. 19. 62. 3.*.

...

..... ....

64. 14

72

65. 13

54, 86

71

85

110. 9.*

71. 4

42

111.

71. 11.

90

111.4

72.*

42

113.5

.46

.....

82,*

83

120. 9

17

121.*

56

122. 5

54

123.*

85. 1.*

.....

.

.

100

96 ,

.

.

66 .

,

.

.

123. 6.

88

23 105

99 98 .

.

,

.

.

115

,

,

,

.

.

106

53

114. 5.*

81. 4.*

82. 6.*

77

.

114. 2.

119. 6.

.......

,

..... .... 3,8.

81

82. 1.

-

13

109. 4.

81.*.

72

115

107. 2.

74. 2

....

1

98.

98

62, 82

*

105. 7

46

...

55, 117 21

.

87

67. 2

72. 1, 2.

79 .

113

66. 2.*

..... ......

103

85. 6.

112

58. 3

PAGE

X.

67

50

.80 .

,

,

,

.

,

35 77

Index.

X

123. 8.

.

.

127

128

INDEX OF SANSKRIT WORDS. PAGE

qfd

54

dditi

45 f

PAGE

prdyati

prdcah

60

.....

ddlhuta

aydm

35

avamqd

20

dsat

61f

rajas

46

vdna

20

vdnaspdti

42

vavr'i

dsura

uttdndpad

.... ....

ritd

.

askambliand

.

ekam

.

.

.

.

92 ff, 100

.

53 f, 58

.

115

guhya

....

19

tt

113ff

..... .

.

.

.

vdyukeqa vidharman vibhvatashtd

virdj

tdpas

61

vigvdkarinan

ddhha

44

vigvdrupa

devd

.

.

.

,

.

10, 73, 30

.

vedhds

drapsd

vydthih

dhdrman

20

vratd

.

.

.

.100 47

pav'itra .

.

.

.

.113

prajapati.

.

.

,

.

purisJia

praketd

17

22

.37, 77

... ...

20 24 31

87

36

dhritdvrata

.

....

31

.

.

49

vimuco napdt

Icavdyah

49

maya

69

goshano napdt

18

....

115

.

81,

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

<;amyam

61 f

sdhasas putr ah stegd

svadha

98ff

47

sat

52

80

47

......

59

83 40

.

.

.

.

.

31, 45 47 .

60

129

GENERAL INDEX. Aqvins, 38 ff, 43 f, 68. Aditi, 15, 42, 44 ff. Agni, 5, 2 If, 32 ff, 47 f, 68,

Air, 113.

95,

1

Henotheism,' llff.

Indra, 18, 20, 22, 24,45,67, 70, 98, 105f.

Aja, 54.

69 ff.

Kshatriyas, 107. 8.

Apsaras, 37fF.

Mahabharata,

Araraati, 10, 30.

Martanda, 42, 44. Maruts, 57, 80.

Asura, 46, 103.

Atharvaveda,

7,

14 f, 81.

Mitra, see Varuna.

Monotheism, 15, 104ff.

Atri, 69.

Bhaga, llf.

Brahma,

90,

113.

Hiranyagarbha, 50 ff, 84 f.

79.

Arigiras,

Heaven, 3 If, 42 ff,

53.

Netar, 10.

Non-existent, 61

ff.

Brihaspati, 21, 23, 43, 67.

Parj any a, 57ff.

Qavasi, 45.

Plants, 96.

Daksha, 42, 44 ff. Dawn, 39 ff, 72.

Prajapati, 52.

Dhatar, 10, 95.

Pushan, 38 ff.

Dyaus, 103.

Eibhus, 24ff, 55, 80. Eishis, 4ff, 21, 64 ff, 85, 87,

Earth, 3 If, 42 ff, 80, 95, 111. Father, 12, 29ff.

Purusha, 87.

90, 106

ff.

Fathers, 66 ff.

Rudra, 30, 56.

Gandharva, 34ff, 76.

Sadhyas, 88.

Gnas, 40.

Saranyu, 40 f.

130

Index.

Yena, 34

Sarasvati, 30, 86. Savitar, 9,

13, 26, 40, 116.

Soma, 22, 30, 38 ff, 99. Surya, 39

ff.

Yiqvakarman, 80 Viraj, 87.

ff.

Yirupah, 71.

Tratar, 10. Trita, 66.

Yishnu, 18, 21, 38, 44, 66,

Tvashtar, 9f, 23

f,

38,

40

f.

115.

Upanishads, 58, 107.

Yivasvat, 39, 41.

Vac, 85

Waters, 56.

Tampa, Yayu,

f.

18,71, 97

86.

ff.

Yidhatar, 10.

ff.

Worlds, 112. Yama, 37, 39

f,

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