Survival and Sustainability: Environmental concerns in the 21st Century

Environmental Earth Sciences

Series Editors James W. LaMoreaux P.E. LaMoreaux and Associates, Tuscaloosa, USA

For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/8394

Hüseyin Gökçeku¸s · Umut Türker · James W. LaMoreaux Editors

Survival and Sustainability Environmental Concerns in the 21st Century

123

Editors Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Gökçeku¸s Near East University Dept. Civil Engineering Nicosia, North Cyprus Mersin 10 Turkey [email protected]

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Umut Türker Near East University Dept. Civil Engineering Nicosia, North Cyprus Mersin 10 Turkey [email protected]

Prof. Dr. James W. LaMoreaux P.E. LaMoreaux and Associates 2612 University Blvd. Tuscaloosa AL 35403 USA [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-540-95990-8 e-ISBN 978-3-540-95991-5 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5 Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2010925151 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: Bauer, Thomas Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Foreword

The International Conference on Environment: Survival and Sustainability, held at the Near East University, Nicosia, Northern Cyprus 19-24 February 2007, dealt with environmental threats and proposed solutions at all scales. The 21 themes addressed by the conference fell into four broad categories: Threats to Survival and Sustainability; Technological Advances towards Survival and Sustainability; Activities and Tools for Social Change; Defining Goals for Sustainable Societies. Activities and tools that move the society towards greater sustainability were emphasized at the conference. These included environmental law and ethics, environmental knowledge, technology and information systems, media, environmental awareness, education and lifelong learning, the use of literature for environmental awareness, the green factor in politics, international relations and environmental organizations. The breadth of the issues addressed at the conference made clear the need for greatly increased interdisciplinary and international collaboration in the survival and sustainability concept. The exchanges at the conference represent a step in this direction. It is hoped that this book will serve to contribute to increase in awareness towards various environmental issues as well as drawing more attention to the urgency of international cooperation and collaboration in pursuing sustainable environmental management.

Near East University, Nicosia North Cyprus

Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Gökçeku¸s

v

Contents

Part I

Conservation and Management of Biodiversity

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 for Application to the Rhizoremediation of Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . So-Yeon Koo and Kyung-Suk Cho

3

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden: Rural Heritage and Resistance Against Wolf Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Annelie Sjölander-Lindqvist

15

Seas, Ecological Balance and Sustainable Environment. Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica – Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suzana Aliu, S. Jusufi, Majlinda Daci, and Shefket Dehari Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes for the Follow-Up of the Components Sand-Vegetation in the Area of Mecheria, Algerie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Haddouche Idriss, Mederbal Khaladi, and Saidi Slim Biodiversity and Actual Status of Narta and Dukati Lagoons in Albania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liljana Elmazi and Evelina Bazini Approximation of Sea Surface to Optimize Tide Gauge Network . . . . A.N. Vlasov, D.B. Volkov-Bogorodsky, V.A. Kurochkina, M.G. Mnushkin, and C.J. Blasi

29

37

51 61

Improvement of Germination of Three Endemic Species of the Sierra Nevada (S. Spain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Díaz-Miguel, F. Serrano, and J.L. Rosúa

67

Early Growth of Quercus castaneifolia (C.A. Meyer) Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Masoud Tabari, Javad Mirzaei, and Hadi Daroodi

75

vii

viii

Contents

The Role of Plant Diversity in Sustainable Exploitation in Highland Rangelands (Alborz Mountain – Iran) . . . . . . . . . . . . R. Safaian, H. Arzani, H. Azarnivand, and N. Safaian

85

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants: An Indian Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pooja Joshi and Nilanjana Rao

91

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Habashi, S.M. Hosseini, R. Rahmani, and J. Mohammadi

103

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spiro Grazhdani and Spase Shumka

117

Tolerance of Different Wild Oats Biotypes to Different Oat Killers and Their Impact on Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Imtiaz Khan, Gul Hassan, Muhammad Ishfaq Khan, and Meher Gul

129

Effects of L-Proline and Cold Treatment on Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Anther Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dudu Özkum and R. Tipirdamaz

137

Examination of Some Parameters for Ecological Growth of Maize in Pelic Vertisol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. Stoimenova, E. Djonova, A. Taleva, and N. Kaloyanova

145

Effect of Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of Carbon Dioxide from Soil in Semi-arid Climate in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rashmi Kant, Chirashree Ghosh, Lokendra Singh, and Neelam Tripathi Part II

151

Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany . . . . . Chiara Certomà and Paola Migliorini Evaluation of the Sustainability on Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors in Architecture from a Tourism Point of View: Ayvalik Historical City Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olcay Çetiner and Ay¸segül Çetiner Gökyilmaz Preserving the Mediterranean Landscape: The Role of Local Traditional Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giovanni Quaranta and Caterina Salvia

165

179

187

Climate Change Critical to Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. Brimblecombe, C.M. Grossi, and I. Harris

195

Cultural Landscapes and Conservation Issues: Side Case . . . . . . . . Elmas Erdogan

207

Contents

ix

Survival of the Vernacular Environments in North Cyprus Through Sustainable Tourism Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Özlem Ogaç Türker

223

Environmental Basis of Sustainable Tourism Along Sensitive Coastal Areas – Principles and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Orhon, H. Gökçeku¸s, and Seval Sözen

235

Part III Economics, Development, Sustainability and Risks Medical Waste Survey in a University Hospital: Do Intern Doctors and Emergency Nurses Know and Pay Attention to Segregation of Wastes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Nur Aksakal, Evin Aras, Mustafa N. ˙Ilhan, and Sefer Aycan An Investigation of Appropriate Economic Instruments for Preventing the Negative Impacts of Construction Projects on the Environmental Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javad Jassbi, Fatemeh Razavian, and Hanieh Nikoomaram “Breaking Eco-limits” in Coal Mining in the Ústí Region in the Czech Republic: Possibilities, Decision-Making and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iva Ritschelová, Miroslav Farský, and Egor Sidorov

245

253

267

Relationship Between Tourist Education and Development Perception About Environmental Impact of Tourism Development . . . R. Shakeri and A. Barati

279

Assessment of Dangerous Substances Release from Construction Products to Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicoleta Schiopu, Emmanuel Jayr, Jacques Méhu, and Pierre Moszkowicz

289

Challenges of the Implementation of the WEEE Directive in the Danish Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chiara Gobbi

303

A Sustainable and Economically Recycling Real Estate Development Project: A Case Study for Istanbul Park . . . . . . . . . . H. Demir, F. Balik Sanli, M. Gur, and C. Goksel

315

Analysis of Land Use Changes in Nigeria: With Application of Integrated Bio-economic Spatial Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Igbekele A. Ajibefun

329

Green Marketing Willingness of Bulgarian Market: Comparison with Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teodoro Gallucci, Giovanni Lagioia, Julia Uzunova, and Vesselina Dimitrova

341

x

Contents

The Distribution of Carcinogenic Heavy Metals in Cyprus Soil . . . . . M. Ertan Akun, Rezan Fahrio˘glu Yamacı, Christophoros Charalambous, Savvas Lechtvich, and Mustafa B.A. Djamgoz

353

Biotechnology: A Powerful Tool for Human Survival and Sustainability Anwar Nasim

361

Ecotourism – Environment Relationship in Contemporary Eastern Europe Countries. Its Facts, Myths and Challenges. The Case of Albania and Macedonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liljana Elmazi and Jovan Stojanoski Earthquake is Manmade Catastrophe Rather than a Natural Disaster: Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Özgür Yilmazer, Özlem Yilmazer, Ali Özvan, Yasemin Leventeli, and Ilays Yilmazer Mitigation of Seismic Risk on Earthen Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marcial Blondet Land Use Conversion and Agricultural Intensification in Tropical Hill Slopes: A Geographical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . David Lopez Cornelio

371

383

391

401

Part IV Energy and Development: New and Renewable Energy Role of Renewable Energy in Development of Self Sufficient Housing in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Debashis Sanyal

425

Energy and Environmental Significance of an Alternative Fuels Utilization Produced with to Liquid Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nenad Kukulj and Tomislav Kurevija

435

Sustainability Concept for Energy, Water and Environment Systems . . Naim Hamdia Afgan Energy and Sustainable Development: Environmental Impacts of Energy Use in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muawya Ahmed Hussein

447

471

Economizing the Energy Consumption in Circular Surface Aerator . . Achanta Ramakrishna Rao and Bimlesh Kumar

481

Sewage Biogas Conversion into Electricity by Using Small Systems . . . Suani Teixeira Coelho, Sílvia Maria Stortini González Velázquez, Osvaldo Stella Martins, and Fernando Castro de Abreu

491

Algae Biofuels as a Possible Alternative to Environmentally Doubtful Conventional Methods of Biodiesel Production . . . . . . . . . Tomislav Kurevija and Nenad Kukulj

499

Contents

xi

Investigation of Combustion Kinetics of Five Waste Wood Samples with Thermogravimetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sema Yurdakul Yorulmaz and Aysel Atimtay

511

On Integration of Mirror Collector and Stirling Engine for Solar Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.F. Yousif, Ammar Al-Shalabi, and Dirk G. Rilling

521

Part V

Environment and Health

Antioxidant Activities of Molokhia (Corchorus olitorius L.) Extracts . . Nilgün Öztürk and Filiz Savaro˘glu

535

Solid Medical Waste Management in Healthcare Centers in Palestine . Issam A. Al-Khatib, Mohamed Abu-Dayah, Hussein Hajjeh, and Tayseer Al-Shanbleh

545

Sustainable Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in Hospital Buildings . . . . . . . Çi˘gdem Belgin Dikmen and Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin

557

The Regional Level of Microelements in the Food Materials . . . . . . . Aida Sahmurova, Gunay (Yildiz) Tore, Atakan Ongen, and Suna Ozden Celik

567

Microbiological Pollution Levels of Some Vegetable Specimens Taken From Public Markets of Three Central Towns of Konya-Turkey . K. Gur, H.N. Uçan, and S. ¸ Dursun

581

Assessment of Metal Pollution Based on Multivariate Statistical Modelling of Soils from Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Rivers . . . . . . . M. Bakaç and M.N. Kumru

591

A Commonly Used Pesticide Endosulfan in Diet Could Cause Hepatomegaly and Kidney Tumor When Combined with Nitrosamines Recai Ogur and Omer Faruk Tekbas

599

Effect of Different Time and Temperature of Various Cooking Methods on Sulfonamide Residues in Chicken Balls . . . . . . . . . . . M.R. Ismail-Fitry, S. Jinap, B. Jamilah, and A.A. Saleha

607

Reassessment of Tritium Dose Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Melintescu, D. Galeriu, and H. Takeda Approaches on H5N1 Avian Influenza Spreading in Relation with Human Health Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monica Popa, Daniela Cur¸seu, Dana Sîrbu, Ioan Stoian, and Adriana Manciu The Relationship Between Infant Methemoglobinemia and Environmental Exposure to Nitrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniela Cur¸seu, Dana Sîrbu, Monica Popa, and Alina Ionutas

615

623

635

xii

Contents

West Nile Virus: Risk Factors of Spreading, Prevention and Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dana Sîrbu, Monica Popa, Daniela Cur¸seu, Ovidiu Ghiran, and Adriana Manciu The Determinants of Improved Water Supply for Rural Households in Kenya: A Differential Diagnosis Framework for Community Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David W. Nerubucha Health Effects Due to Indoor Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John A. Hoskins

641

653 665

Part VI Environmental Awareness, Education and Ethics Promotion of Nursery School Teacher and Junior Grade Teacher Education for Environment and Sustainable Development in the Republic of Croatia According to the Concept of Lifelong Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vinka Uzelac and Dunja Andic

679

Spatial Analyses for Environmental Impacts of Landfill Areas . . . . . D.Z. Seker, S. Kaya, N. Musaoglu, H. Demirel, A. Tanik, and E. Sertel

691

The Ethical Basis of Environmental Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tapan Narayana

699

The Creation of New Ways of Acting in the Water Administration Field – the Implementation of the EU-WFD in Sweden . Petra Adolfsson

707

Education for “Sense of Place” in a Wide, Complex Land. A Challenge for Environmental Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andrew Brookes

719

The Humanly Dimension of Media that Affects Masses and Various TV Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arma˘gan Gökçearslan

729

Engaging the Public in Environmental Decisions: Strategies for Environmental Education and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . Martha C. Monroe

741

Reconstruction of the Worldview as Strategy for Environmental Survival and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibrahim Shogar

751

Public Participation in Environmental Decision-Making on Major Energy Projects in Turkey: The Case of BTC Crude Oil Pipeline Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nuriye Say and Deniz Babu¸s

759

Contents

xiii

From Human Social “Matrix” to Perception of Social Structures and Corporate Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Schnaiter

769

Negative Effects of Creating Environmental Awareness of Public Relations Applications by Alming of Political Propagandas . . . . . . . Emel Tozlu Aslan

777

Part VII Environmental Science and Technology Monitoring of Wetlands by Using Multitemporal Landsat Data; A Case Study from Fethiye – Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ˙I. Ozdemir, K. Ozkan, A. Mert, and S. Gülsoy Analyzing Changes in Coastal Biospheres using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System Techniques, Northern Nile Delta, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Effat, M.N. Hegazy, and H.El. Gameely Exploring the Egyptian Terrain Characteristics from Space for Strategic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M.N. Hegazy and H. Effat Composting and Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City . . . . . . . . Md. Niamul Bari, Md. Kumruzzaman, Mohammad Harun ur Rashid, and Md. Muzibur Rahman Assessment of Dissolved Pollutants in Krishna River Using Mass Balance Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Chandra Sekhar and B. Shailamber Copper (II) Removal from Water by Natural Zeolites . . . . . . . . . . Sukru Dursun, M. Emin Argun, Nazan Celik, and Fatma Celebi

785

795

805 815

825 831

Biodegradation of 4-Chlorophenol in Biosurfactant Supplemented Activated Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ayla Uysal and Aysen Turkman

841

Use of Silk Industry Waste – Silkworm Pupa: A Remediation of Environmental Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Noroozi, S.H. Bahrami, and M. Arami

851

Using Susceptibility Measurements on Polluted Areas by Exhaust Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ali Aydin

861

Biowaste as a Resource for Bioproduct Development . . . . . . . . . . . J. Pieter H. van Wyk

875

xiv

Contents

Textile Azo Dyes Decolourization by Combined Ultrasonication and Microbial Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Tu˘gba Gümü¸sdere, Tuba Artan, Afife Güvenç, Gönül Dönmez, and Ülkü Mehmeto˘glu

885

Identification of Wastewater Leaching into the Wells by HPLC-SEC Using UV and Fluorescence Detection . . . . . . . . . . Hilda Marta Szabo and Tuula Tuhkanen

893

Removal of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution Using Cotton Stalk: As a Bioadsorbent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Murat Erta¸s, Bilal Acemio˘glu, M. Hakkı Alma, and Mustafa Usta

899

Removal of Cyanide from Solutions by Air Oxidation and Adsorption . Ersin Yener Yazici, Hacı Deveci, ˙Ibrahim Alp, Tu˘gba Yılmaz, and Oktay Celep

907

Effects of Various Backwash Scenarios on Membrane Fouling in a Membrane Bioreactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Yigit, G. Civelekoglu, I. Harman, H. Köseo˘glu, and M. Kitis

917

NOx Formation of Co-combustion of Sweet Sorghum – Lignite (Orhaneli) Mixtures in Fluidised Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Handan Çubuk, Derya B. Özkan, and Özlem Emanet

931

Pretreatment of Ceftriaxone Formulation Effluents: Drawbacks and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. Tezgel, F. Germirli Babuna, I. Arslan-Alaton, G. Iskender, and O. Okay

943

Reducing the Toxicity and Recalcitrance of a Textile Xenobiotic Through Ozonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Germirli Babuna, N. Oructut, I. Arslan-Alaton, G. Iskender, and O. Okay

955

Bioidentification of Xenobiotics in Water as a Part of Pollution Control Valerii Tonkopii

967

Biosorption of CR+6 from Aqueous Solution with Activated Sludge Biosolids (Ref. NO: MT11-OP-475) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aziz Sencan, ¸ H. Cahit Sevindir, Mehmet Kiliç, and Mustafa Karaboyaci

973

Effect of Chromium on Growth Attributes in Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Fozia Anjum, M. Anjum Zia, M. Ashraf, and Z.M. Khalid

985

Use of Surfactants in Soil and Groundwater Remediation . . . . . . . . Aras Gezer and Ahmet Karagunduz

995

Co-digestion Approaches to Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste with Primary Sludge for a Municipal Treatment Plant in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 R.K. Dereli, M.E. Ersahin, C.Y. Gomec, O. Ozdemir, and Izzet Ozturk

Contents

xv

Radiochronological Methods as Tools to Study Environmental Pollution 1015 H.N. Erten Are Certain Invertebrate Species Sensitive Bioindicators of the Air Pollution? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 Liliana Vasiliu-Oromulu, Viorica Honciuc, Sanda Maican, Cristina Munteanu, Minodora St˘anescu, Cristina Fiera, Mihaela Ion, and Dorina Purice Determination of Heavy Metal Pollution in Some Honey Samples from Yozgat Province, Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037 Ahmet Aksoy, Zeliha Leblebici, and Yavuz Ba˘gci Removal of Direct Orange-46 from Aqueous Solutions Using MN-Diatomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 Selay Aksoy, Mesut Tekba¸s, Güleda Engin, and Nihal Bekta¸s Environmental Problems from the Open Dump in Gümü¸shane Province and Investigation of Biological Recycling for the Organic Solid Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 S. Serkan Nas and Adem Bayram Adsorption Behavior of Radionuclides, 137 Cs and 140 Ba, onto Solid Humic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065 O. Çelebi and H.N. Erten The Fate of Chlortetracycline During the Anaerobic Digestion of Manure from Medicated Calves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087 Osman A. Arikan Adsorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution onto Bentonite . 1097 J. Krsti´c, Z. Mojovi´c, A. Abu Rabi, D. Lonˇcarevi´c, N. Vukeli´c, and D. Jovanovi´c The Evaluation of the Pb(II) Removal Efficiency of Duckweed Lemna Minor (L.) from Aquatic Mediums at Different Conditions . . . 1107 Ya˘gmur Uysal and Fadime Taner Biodegradation of a Tannery and Chemical Plant Producing Asetilsalisilikat Wastewater Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117 E.U. Cokgor, O. Karahan, and D. Orhon Boron Removal in Seawater Desalination by Reverse Osmosis Membranes – the Impacts of Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 1127 H. Köseo˘glu, N. Kabay, M. Yüksel, S. Sarp, Ö. Arar, and M. Kitis Respirometric Evaluation of Strong Wastewater Activated Sludge Treatment for a Complex Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . 1139 E. Ubay Cokgor, G. Insel, E. Aydın, S. Ozdemir, and D. Orhon

xvi

Contents

Cellulose Acetate-Polyethersulfone (CA-PS) Blend Ultrafiltration Membranes for Palm Oil Mill Effluent Treatment . . . . 1149 Ani Idris and Iqbal Ahmad Rehabilitation of Wastewater Treatment Plant of Sakhnin City in Israel by Using Advanced Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1161 Yasar Avsar, Hussein Tarabeah, Shlomo Kimchie, Izzet Ozturk, and Hadi Naamneh Removal of Mn(II) Ions from the Aqueous Solutions by Cotton Boll . . 1171 H. Duygu Ozsoy and Halil Kumbur Optimization of Electrochemical Oxidation of Textile Dye Wastewater Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) . . . . . . . . 1181 Bahadır K. Körbahti Dynamic Modelling of Bioconversion of Domestic Wastewater Sludge for Cellulase Enzyme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193 N.A. Kabbashi, Md. Zahangir Alam, and Khadijah B. Abdul Rahim Treatment of H-Acid Containing Wastewater by Wet Peroxide Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 Zhao Binxia, Li Hongya, Wang Jin, Bai Weili, Zhang Xiaoli, and Jin Qiting Ambient Ozone Levels in the Eastern Mediterranean Region and Assessment of Its Effect on the Forested Mountain Areas of Southern Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213 Evrim Akkoyunlu, Rukiye Tipirdamaz, Saime Ba¸saran, Halil Sariba¸sak, Dudu Özkum, and Gülen Güllü Physico-chemical Study of Bagasse and Bagasse Ash from the Sugar Industries of NWFP Pakistan and Remediation of Environmental Problems Caused by Refused Bagasse Ash . . . . . . 1225 Khurshid Ali, Noor-ul-Amin, Tahir Shah, and Saeed-ur-Rehman Adsorption of Different Reactive Dyes onto Surfactant-Modified Zeolite: Kinetic and Equilibrium Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237 Bulent Armagan, Mustafa Turan, and Dogan Karadag Water Quality Index for Municipal Water Supply of Attock City, Punjab, Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255 Humera Qasim Khan Reaction Kinetics of Spent Reactive Dye Bath Ozonation Process . . . . 1263 T. Ölmez, I. Kabda¸slı, and O. Tünay Copper Adsorption from Aqueous Solutions by Usıng Red Mud – An Aluminium Industry Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275 Semra Çoruh and Osman Nuri Ergun Global Warming: How Much of a Threat to Tropical Forests? . . . . . . 1283 Philip M. Fearnside

Contents

xvii

The European Sea Level Service Information System for Coastal Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293 Christoph J. Blasi A Review on the Impact of the North Sea – Caspian Pattern (NCP) on Temperature and Precipitation Regimes in the Middle East . 1301 H. Kutiel Wave Damping and Retardance by Emergent Vegeatation . . . . . . . . 1313 Oral Ya˘gci, Umut Türker, and M. Sedat Kabda¸sli The Effect of Sludge History on Aerobic Sludge Stabilization Efficiency G. Insel, H. Gökçeku¸s, S. Sözen, E. Dulekgurgen and D. Orhon

1321

Morphological and Physiological Features of an Aerobic Granular EBPR Biomass Fed with Propionate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327 Ebru Dulekgurgen, Nazik Artan and Derin Orhon Part VIII Integrated Water Resources Management Water Quality Variation in a Tank Cascade Irrigation System: A Case Study from Malagane Cascade, Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345 Kushani Mahatantila, Rohana Chandrajith, H.A.H. Jayasena, and Sampath Marasinghe Investigation of Flood Event Possibility over Iran Using Flood Index . . 1355 Kazem Nosrati, Mohsen Mohseni Saravi, and Afsaneh Shahbazi Analysis of First-Flush Load from Urban Catchment in Isfahan, Iran . 1363 Afsaneh Shahbazi, Kazem Nosrati, and Mohsen Mohseni Saravi Assesment of Ecological Flow for Mountain Rivers of the Kura Basin . 1369 Rovshan Abbasov Effictiveness of Water Resources Use in Aral Sea Basin and Lower Reaches of the Amu Darya River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381 M. Ikramova, A. Khodjiev, and K. Misirkhonov Uncertainties in the Water Budget Computations of Develi Closed Basin in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397 Ibrahim Gurer and F. Ebru Yildiz Impacts Assessment of Newly Constructed Highways via Spatial Information Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409 H. Demirel, M. Çetin, and N. Musaoglu Water Resources in the Slovak Republic and Their Protection . . . . . 1421 Jozef Kriš, Faško Martin, and Škultétyová Ivona E-Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433 Santosh M. Avvannavar, Ravi Kiran Mutnuru, and S. Shrihari

xviii

Contents

Extreme Rainfall Events and Uncertainty in the Mediterranean Basin . 1439 Hadas Reiser and Haim Kutiel Part IX Pesticides in the Environment and Food Commodities An Investigation of Pesticide Transport in Soil and Groundwater in the Most Vulnerable Site of Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451 Anika Yunus and A.H.M. Faisal Anwar Conservation of Beneficial Insects for Sustainable Agriculture . . . . . 1463 M. Anjum Suhail, M. Arshad, Jalal Arif, and M. Dildar Gogi Organochlorine Pesticides in Soil and Sediment from an Urban Zone of Novi Sad, Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469 Nataša Ðuriši´c-Mladenovi´c, Biljana Škrbi´c, and Jelena Cvejanov Conversion of Agricultural Wastes into Value Added Product with High Protein Content by Growing Pleurotus ostreatus . . . . . . . 1483 Ahmad Al-Momany and Kholoud Ananbeh Plants as a Source of Biopesticides for Pest Control: A New Perspective E. Hassan and D. Prijono

1491

Study of Some Factors of Variation of intake on Course by Dairy Ewes T. Najar, Aziza-Guesmi Boubaker, A. Rigueiro-Rodríguez, and M.R Mosquera-Losada

1501

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509

Contributors

Rovshan Abbasov Hydrometeorolgy Scientific Research Institute (HSRI) A2 1073, Baku, B. Agayev St. 100(A), Azerbaijan, [email protected] Fernando Castro de Abreu CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil, [email protected] Mohamed Abu-Dayah Institute of Community and Public Health, Birzeit University, Nir Zeit, Palestine, [email protected] Bilal Acemio˘glu Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Science, University of Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam, Kahramanmaras 46100, Turkey, [email protected] Petra Adolfsson GRI, School of Business, Economics and Law, Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden, [email protected] Naim Hamdia Afgan Instituto Superior Tecnico, Lisbon, Portugal, [email protected] Iqbal Ahmad Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia, [email protected] Igbekele A. Ajibefun Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, [email protected] Evrim Akkoyunlu Department of Environmental Engineering, Hacettepe University, 06532 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] F. Nur Aksakal Department of Public Health, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Ahmet Aksoy Faculty of Art and Science, Department of Biology, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey, [email protected]

xix

xx

Contributors

Selay Aksoy Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Institute of Technology, 41400, Gebze, Turkey, [email protected] M. Ertan Akun Chairman, Department of Industrial Engineering, Cyprus International University, Haspolat, North Cyprus, [email protected] Md. Zahangir Alam Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Unit (BERU), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur 50728, Malaysia, [email protected] Khurshid Ali Institute of Chemical Science, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] Suzana Aliu Study of Polytechnic Center, State University of Tetovo, Tetovo, Macedonia, [email protected] Issam A. Al-Khatib Institute of Community and Public Health and Faculty of Engineering, Birzeit University, Ramallah, Palestine, [email protected] M. Hakkı Alma Department of Industrial Engineering of Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, University of Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam, Kahramanmaras, 46100, Turkey, [email protected] Ahmad Al-Momany Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan, [email protected] ˙ Ibrahim Alp Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] Ammar Al-Shalabi Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Malacca Campus, Multimedia University, 75450 MMU, Malacca, Malaysia, [email protected] Tayseer Al-Shanbleh Faculty of Engineering, Near East University, Nicosia, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, [email protected] Kholoud Ananbeh Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan, [email protected] Dunja Andic Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka, Trg Ivana Klobuˇcari´ca 1, 51 000 Rijeka, Croatia, [email protected] M. Fozia Anjum Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] A.H.M. Faisal Anwar Department of Water Resources Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, [email protected] M. Arami Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, [email protected]

Contributors

xxi

Ö. Arar Department of Chemistry, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Evin Aras Department of Public Health, Resident, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] M. Emin Argun Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] Osman A. Arikan Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul 34469, Turkey, [email protected] Bulent Armagan Environmental Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Harran University, 63300 Sanlıurfa, Turkey, [email protected] M. Arshad Department of Agricultural Entomology, Insect Biodiversity and Biosystematics Research Laboratory, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] I. Arslan-Alaton Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Nazik Artan Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey, [email protected] Tuba Artan Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] H. Arzani Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] M. Ashraf Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] Emel Tozlu Aslan Faculty of Communication, Near East University, T.R.N.C – Nicosia, Cyprus, [email protected]; [email protected] Aysel Atimtay Department of Environmental Engineering, Middle East Technical University (METU), 06531 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Yasar Avsar Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Santosh M. Avvannavar Department of Chemical Engineering, Technische Universiteit, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, [email protected] Sefer Aycan Department of Public Health, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Ali Aydin Geophysical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Pamukkale University, 20017 Kınıklı, Denizli, Turkey, [email protected]

xxii

Contributors

E. Aydın Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Ay¸segül Çetiner Gökyilmaz AB Mimarlık, Necip Bey Sitesi Ku¸sadası, Aydin, [email protected] H. Azarnivand Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] F. Germirli Babuna Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Deniz Babu¸s Department of Landscape Architecture, Çukurova University, 01330 Balcalı, Adana, Turkey, [email protected] Yavuz Ba˘gci Department of Biology, Faculty of Art and Science, Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] S.H. Bahrami Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] M. Bakaç Buca Faculty of Education, Department of Physics, Dokuz Eylul University, Buca – Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] A. Barati Natural resources faculty, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran, [email protected] Md. Niamul Bari Department of Civil Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh, [email protected] Saime Ba¸saran Ministry of Environment and Forestry, West Mediterranean Research Institude, Antalya, Turkey, [email protected] Adem Bayram Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] Evelina Bazini Marketing and Tourism Department, Faculty of Commerce, University of Vlora, Vlora, Albania, [email protected]; [email protected] Nihal Bekta¸s Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Institute of Technology, 41400, Gebze, Turkey, [email protected] Zhao Binxia College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Taibai North Road No.229, Xi’an, 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] C.J. Blasi Federal Institute of Hydrology, D-56002 Koblenz, Germany, [email protected] Marcial Blondet Catholic University of Peru, Lima, Peru, [email protected] Aziza-Guesmi Boubaker Institut National Agronomique de Tunis, 42, Av Charles Nicolle, 1082 Tunis, Tunis, [email protected]

Contributors

xxiii

P. Brimblecombe School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, [email protected] Andrew Brookes La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3086, Australia, [email protected] Fatma Celebi Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] O. Çelebi Department of Chemistry, Bilkent University, 06800 Bilkent, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Oktay Celep Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] Nazan Celik Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] Suna Ozden Celik Environmental Engineering Department, Corlu Engineering Faculty, Trakya University, 59860 Corlu-Tekirdag, Turkey, [email protected] Chiara Certomà Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy, [email protected] M. Çetin Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Muallimköy 41400, Gebze Kocaeli, Turkey, [email protected] Olcay Çetiner Department of Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Barboros str., 34349 Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] Rohana Chandrajith Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected] Christophoros Charalambous Frederick Institute of Technology, Nicosia, Cyprus, [email protected] Kyung-Suk Cho Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea, [email protected] A. S. Çıggın Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] G. Civelekoglu Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] Suani Teixeira Coelho CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil, [email protected]

xxiv

Contributors

E. Ubay Cokgor Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] David Lopez Cornelio Correo central de Huanuco, Huanuco, Peru, [email protected]; [email protected] Semra Çoruh Department of Environmental Engineering, Ondokuz Mayıs University, 55139 Samsun, Turkey, [email protected] M. Handan Çubuk Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Heat and Thermodynamics Division, Yıldız Technical University, 80750 Yıldız, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Daniela Cur¸seu Environmental Health Department, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected] Jelena Cvejanov Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] Majlinda Daci Department of Chemistry, University of Prishtina, Prishtina, Kosova, [email protected] Hadi Daroodi Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Siences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran, [email protected] Shefket Dehari Study of Polytechnic Center, State University of Tetovo, Tetovo, Macedonia, [email protected] H. Demir Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34349-Besiktas Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] H. Demirel Faculty of Civil Engineering, Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] R.K. Dereli Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Hacı Deveci Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] M. Díaz-Miguel Departamento de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain, [email protected] Çi˘gdem Belgin Dikmen Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey, [email protected]

Contributors

xxv

Vesselina Dimitrova Department of International Economic Relations, University of Economics Varna, 77, Kniaz Boris I blv., Varna 9002, Bulgaria, [email protected] Mustafa B.A Djamgoz Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, UK, [email protected] E. Djonova Department of Soil Microbiology, N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, 7 Shosse Bankya Str., 1080, Bulgaria, [email protected] Gönül Dönmez Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Ebru Dulekgurgen Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, 34469, Turkey, [email protected] Nataša Ðuriši´c-Mladenovi´c Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] M. Sukru Dursun Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] H. Effat The National Authority of Remote Sensing and Space Science (NARSS), Cairo, Egypt, [email protected] Liljana Elmazi Faculty of Economics, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania, [email protected] Özlem Emanet Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Heat and Thermodynamics Division, Yıldız Technical University, 80750 Yıldız, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Güleda Engin Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Institute of Technology, 41400, Gebze, Turkey, [email protected] Elmas Erdogan Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Di¸skapi, Ankara 06110, Turkey, [email protected] Osman Nuri Ergun Department of Environmental Engineering, Ondokuz Mayıs University, 55139 Samsun, Turkey, [email protected] M.E. Ersahin Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze/Kocaeli, 41400, Turkey, [email protected] Murat Erta¸s Department of Industrial Engineering of Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, University of Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam, Kahramanmaras, 46100, Turkey, [email protected] H.N. Erten Department of Chemistry, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]

xxvi

Contributors

Miroslav Farský Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Jan Evangelista Purkyne, Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic, [email protected] Philip M. Fearnside National Institute for Reseach in Amazonia (INPA), C.P. 478, 69.011-970 Manaus-Amazonas, Brazil, [email protected] Cristina Fiera Institute of Biology, Romanian Academy, 296 Splaiul Independentei, Po Box 56–53, 060031 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] D. Galeriu Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Horia Hulubei National Institute of R&D for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, 407 Atomistilor St., PO Box MG-6, RO-077125 Bucharest – Magurele, Romania, [email protected]; [email protected] Teodoro Gallucci Department of Geographical and Commodity Science, Section of Commodity Science and Ecology, University of Barivia C. Rosalba, 53, I-70124 Bari, Italy, [email protected] H.El. Gameely The National Authority of Remote Sensing and Space Science,(NARSS), Cairo, Egypt, [email protected] Aras Gezer Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze/Kocaeli, 41400, Turkey, [email protected] Ovidiu Ghiran IPA S.A. R&D Institute, Cluj Subsidiary, Romania, [email protected] Chirashree Ghosh Centre of Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystem (CEMDE), University of Delhi, New Delhi 11007, India, [email protected] Chiara Gobbi Department of Industrial Management and Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, DTU Building 423, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark, [email protected] M. Dildar Gogi Department of Agricultural Entomology, Insect Biodiversity and Biosystematics Research Laboratory, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected]; [email protected] Arma˘gan Gökçearslan Department of Graphics, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s Department of Civil Engineering, Near East University, Nicosia, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, [email protected] C. Goksel Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469-Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] C.Y. Gomec Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469-Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]

Contributors

xxvii

Spiro Grazhdani Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania, [email protected] C.M. Grossi School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, [email protected] Meher Gul Pakistan Sport Board, Islamabad, Pakistan, [email protected] Gülen Güllü Department of Environmental Engineering, Hacettepe University, 06532 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] S. Gülsoy, Faculty of Forestry Department of Soil Science and Ecology, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin Faculty of Technical Education, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] H. Tu˘gba Gümü¸sdere Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] K. Gur Environmental Engineering Department, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] M. Gur Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34349-Besiktas Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Ibrahim Gurer Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Civil Engineering Department, Gazi University, Celal Bayar Bulvari Maltepe, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Afife Güvenç Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] H. Habashi Natural Resources Faculty, Tarbiat Modarres University, P.O. Box 46414-356 Noor, Mazandaran, Iran, [email protected] Hussein Hajjeh Institute of Community and Public Health, Birzeit University, Birzeit, Palestine, [email protected] I. Harman Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] I. Harris Climate Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, [email protected] E. Hassan Integrated Crop Management, School of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Queensland, GATTON 4343 QLD, Australia, [email protected] Gul Hassan Department of Weed Science, Faculty of Crop Protection, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar 25130, Pakistan, [email protected]

xxviii

Contributors

M.N. Hegazy The National Authority of Remote Sensing and Space Science (NARSS), Cairo, Egypt, [email protected] Viorica Honciuc Ecology Taxonomy and Nature Conservation Centre, Institute of Biology Splaiul Independentei, 060031 Bucharest, Romania [email protected] Li Hongya College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710069, China John A. Hoskins Independent Toxicologist, Haslemere, Surrey GU27 2 JH, UK, [email protected] S.M. Hosseini Natural Resources Faculty, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Muawya Ahmed Hussein University of Dhofar, Salalah, Oman, [email protected] Ani Idris Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia, [email protected] Haddouche Idriss Département de Foresterie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Tlemcen BP 119, Tlemcen 13000, Algeria, [email protected] ˙ Mustafa N. Ilhan Department of Public Health, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] M. Ikramova Central Asian Research Institute of Irrigation (SANIIRI), Karasu-4, 11, Tashkent 700187, Uzbekistan, [email protected] G. Insel Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Mihaela Ion Romanian Academy Institute of Biology, Buila-Vânturarita National Park Administration, Romania, [email protected] Alina Ionutas Environmental Health Department, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected] G. Iskender Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] M.R. Ismail-Fitry Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Putra Malaysia, [email protected] Škultétyová Ivona Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, Radlinského 11, 813 68 Bratislava, Slovak Republic, [email protected] B. Jamilah Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serangor, Malaysia, [email protected]

Contributors

xxix

Javad Jassbi Department of Industrial Management, Faculty of Management and Economy, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] H.A.H. Jayasena Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected] Emmanuel Jayr Sustainable Development Department, CSTB – Scientific and Technical Centre for the Building Industry, 24, rue Joseph Fourier, 38400 Saint Martin d’Hères, France, [email protected] Wang Jin College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] S. Jinap Centre of Excellence for Food Safety Research (CEFSR), Faculty of food Science and Technology, Universiti Puta Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Selangor, Malaysia, [email protected] Pooja Joshi The Energy Resource Institute, New Delhi, India, [email protected] D. Jovanovi´c Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, ICTM, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] S. Jusufi Department of Chemistry, University of Prishtina, Prishtina, Kosova, [email protected] N. Kabay Department of Chemical Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] N.A. Kabbashi Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Unit (BERU), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur 50728, Malaysia, [email protected] I. Kabda¸slı Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Ayaza˘ga Kampüsü, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] M. Sedat Kabda¸slı Civil Engineering Faculty, Division of Hydraulics, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey, [email protected] N. Kaloyanova Department of Soil Microbiology, N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, 7 Shosse Bankya Str., 1080, Bulgaria, [email protected] Rashmi Kant Yamuna Biodiversity Park, School of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, New Delhi 110007, India, [email protected] Mustafa Karaboyaci Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Süleyman Demirel, Turkey, [email protected] Dogan Karadag Enviromental Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, 34669 Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]

xxx

Contributors

Ahmet Karagunduz Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze, Kocaeli 41400, Turkey, [email protected] O. Karahan Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] S. Kaya Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey Z.M. Khalid National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] Mederbal Khaladi Centre universitaire de Mascara, 29000 Mascara, Algérie, [email protected] Imtiaz Khan Department of Weed Science, Faculty of Crop Protection, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar 25130, Pakistan, [email protected] Humera Qasim Khan National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] Muhammad Ishfaq Khan Department of Weed Science, Faculty of Crop Protection, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar 25130, Pakistan, [email protected] A. Khodjiev Central Asian Research Institute of Irrigation (SANIIRI), Karasu-4, 11, Tashkent 700187, Uzbekistan, [email protected] Mehmet Kiliç Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Süleyman Demirel, Turkey, [email protected] Shlomo Kimchie Department of Environmental and Water Resources Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technion Institute for Research and Development, Technion City, Haifa, Israel, [email protected] M. Kitis Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] So-Yeon Koo Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea, [email protected] Bahadır K. Körbahti Faculty of Engineering, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Mersin, Çiftlikköy, 33343 Mersin, Turkey, [email protected] H. Köseo˘glu Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] Jozef Kriš Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, Radlinského 11, 813 68 Bratislava, Slovak Republic, [email protected] J. Krsti´c Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, ICTM, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxi

Nenad Kukulj Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] Bimlesh Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, [email protected] Halil Kumbur Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Mersin University, Mersin 33360, Turkey, [email protected] M.N. Kumru Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Ege University, Bornova-˙Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Md. Kumruzzaman Department of Civil Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh, [email protected] Tomislav Kurevija Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] V.A. Kurochkina Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Moscow, Russia, [email protected] H. Kutiel Laboratory of Climatology, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel, [email protected] Giovanni Lagioia Department of Geographical and Commodity Science, Section of Commodity Science and Ecology, University of Bari, via C. Rosalba, 53, I-70124 Bari, Italy, [email protected] Zeliha Leblebici Faculty of Art and Science, Department of Biology, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey, [email protected] Savvas Lechtvich Frederick Institute of Technology, Nicosia, Cyprus Yasemin Leventeli Yilmazer Education, 8. Cd., 89. Sk., 9/8, 06460 A.Ovecler, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] D. Lonˇcarevi´c Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, ICTM, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] Kushani Mahatantila Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected] Sanda Maican Academic Românã, Institutl de Biologie Spl. Independentei nr.296, 060031 Bucureti, România, [email protected] Adriana Manciu IPA S.A. R&D Institute, Cluj Subsidiary, Romania, [email protected] Sampath Marasinghe Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected]

xxxii

Contributors

Faško Martin Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, Radlinského 11, 813 68 Bratislava, Slovak Republic, [email protected] Osvaldo Stella Martins CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil, [email protected] Ülkü Mehmeto˘glu Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Jacques Méhu INSA de Lyon – National Institute of Applied Sciences of Lyon, Laboratory of Environmental Assessment of Industrial Systems and Process (LAEPSI), 9, Rue de la Physique, 69100 Villeurbanne, France, [email protected] A. Melintescu Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Horia Hulubei National Institute of R&D for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, 407 Atomistilor St., PO Box MG-6, RO-077125 Bucharest – Magurele, Romania, [email protected] A. Mert Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] Paola Migliorini Department of Agronomy and land Management, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 18, 50141 Firenze, Italia, [email protected] Javad Mirzaei Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Siences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran, [email protected] K. Misirkhonov Central Asian Research Institute of Irrigation (SANIIRI), Karasu-4, 11, Tashkent 700187, Uzbekistan, [email protected] M.G. Mnushkin Institute of Applied Mechanics, RAS, Moscow, Russia, [email protected] J. Mohammadi Agriculture Faculty, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran, [email protected] Z. Mojovi´c Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] Martha C. Monroe School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, PO Box 110410, Gainesville, FL 32611-0410, USA, [email protected] M.R Mosquera-Losada Crop Production Department, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxiii

Pierre Moszkowicz INSA de Lyon – National Institute of Applied Sciences of Lyon, Laboratory of Environmental Assessment of Industrial Systems and Process (LAEPSI), 9, Rue de la Physique, 69100 Villeurbanne, France, [email protected] Cristina Munteanu University of Bucharest, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Research Center, Spl. Independentei, 91–95, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] N. Musaoglu Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Ravi Kiran Mutnuru Department of Applied Physics, Technische Universiteit, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, [email protected] Hadi Naamneh Towns Association for Environmental Quality (TAEQ)-Agan Beit Natufa (ABN), 1093 Sakhnin, Israel, [email protected] T. Najar Institut National Agronomique de Tunis, 42, Av Charles Nicolle, 1082 Tunis, Tunis, [email protected] Tapan Narayana Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India, [email protected] S. Serkan Nas Gümü¸shane Engineering Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 29000 Gümü¸shane, Turkey, [email protected] Anwar Nasim COMSTECH Secretariat, 33-Constitution Avenue, G-5/2, Islamabad, Pakistan, [email protected] David W. Nerubucha Lecturer of Economics, United States International University, Nairobi, Kenya, [email protected] Hanieh Nikoomaram Department of Environmental Management, Graduate College of the Environment and Energy, Science and Research Campus, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Noor-ul-Amin Institute of Chemical Science, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] B. Noroozi Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Kazem Nosrati Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Recai Ogur Department of Environmental Health, Gulhane Military Medical Faculty, Ankara, Turkey; GATA Halk Sagligi AD, 06018, Etlik, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected]

xxxiv

Contributors

O. Okay Faculty of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] T. Ölmez Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Ayaza˘ga Kampüsü, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Atakan Ongen Environmental Engineering Department, Corlu Engineering Faculty, Trakya University, 59860 Corlu-Tekirdag, Turkey, [email protected] D. Orhon Civil Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] N. Oructut Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] ˙ Ozdemir Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Suleyman I. Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] O. Ozdemir Kayseri Water and Sewerage Administration, Mustafa Kemal Pasa Bulvari, 38090 Kocasinan, Kayseri, Turkey, [email protected] S. Ozdemir Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] K. Ozkan Faculty of Forestry Department of Soil Science and Ecology, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] Derya B. Özkan Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Heat and Thermodynamics Division, Yıldız Technical University, 80750 Yıldız, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Dudu Özkum Near East University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nicosia, Northern Cyprus, Mersin 10, Turkey, [email protected] H. Duygu Ozsoy Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Mersin University, Mersin 33360, Turkey, [email protected] Izzet Ozturk Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze/Kocaeli, 41400, Turkey, [email protected] Nilgün Öztürk Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Anadolu Tepebasi, 26470 Eskisehir, Turkey, [email protected] Ali Özvan Yilmazer Education, 8. Cd., 89. Sk., 9/8, 06460 A.Ovecler, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] Monica Popa Department of Environmental Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxv

D. Prijono Department of Plant Pest and Diseases, Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia, [email protected] Dorina Purice National Institute of Wood, Romanian Academy Institute of Biology, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] Jin Qiting College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Taibai North Road No.229, Xi’an, 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] Giovanni Quaranta UNIBAS, Potenza, Italy, [email protected] A. Abu Rabi Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] Khadijah B. Abdul Rahim Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University, 50728 KL, Malaysia, [email protected] Md. Muzibur Rahman Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh R. Rahmani Natural Resources Faculty, Gorgan university, Gorgan, Iran, [email protected] Achanta Ramakrishna Rao Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, [email protected] Nilanjana Rao Environmental Consultant, E-50, Lajpat Nagar I, New Delhi, India, [email protected] Mohammad Harun ur Rashid Department of Civil Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh, [email protected] Fatemeh Razavian Department of Environmental Management, Graduate College of the Environment and Energy, Science and Research Campus, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Hadas Reiser Laboratory of Climatology, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel, [email protected] A. Rigueiro-Rodríguez Crop Production Department, University of Santiago de Compostela 27002, Lugo, Spain, [email protected] Dirk G. Rilling Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Malacca Campus, Multimedia University, 75450 MMU, Malacca, Malaysia, [email protected] Iva Ritschelová University of Jan Evangelista Purkynˇe, 400 96, Ústí nad Labem, The Czech Republic, [email protected] J.L. Rosúa Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Fuentenueva s/n 18071 Granada, Spain, [email protected]

xxxvi

Contributors

Saeed-ur-Rehman Institute of Chemical Science, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] N. Safaian Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Mazandaran, Mazandaran, Iran, [email protected] R. Safaian College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran, [email protected] Aida Sahmurova Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul University, 34320 Avcilar, Istanbul, [email protected] A.A. Saleha Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Malaysia Caterina Salvia UNIBAS, Potenza, Italy, [email protected] F. Balik Sanli Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34349-Besiktas Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Debashis Sanyal Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology Raipur, P.O. Ravishankar University, Raipur Chhattisgarh 492010, India, [email protected] Mohsen Mohseni Saravi Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, [email protected]. Halil Sarıba¸sak Ministry of Environment and Forestry, West Mediterranean Research Institude, Antalya, Turkey, [email protected] S. Sarp Department of Chemical Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Filiz Savaro˘glu Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Arts, University of Eski¸sehir Osmangazi, 26480, Turkey, [email protected] Nuriye Say Department of Landscape Architecture, Çukurova University, 01330 Balcalı, Adana, Turkey, [email protected] Nicoleta Schiopu Sustainable Development Department, CSTB – Scientific and Technical Centre for the Building Industry, 24, rue Joseph Fourier, 38400 Saint Martin d’Hères, France; Laboratory of Environmental Assessment of Industrial Systems and Process (LAEPSI), INSA de Lyon – National Institute of Applied Sciences of Lyon, 9, Rue de la Physique, 69100 Villeurbanne, France, [email protected] David Schnaiter Division of Social Medicine, Department for Hygiene, Microbiology and Social Medicine, Medical University of Innsbruck, Sonnenburgstrasse 16, A-6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxvii

D.Z. Seker Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] M. Chandra Sekhar Water and Environment Division, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506 004, India, [email protected] Aziz Sencan ¸ Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Arts and Science Faculty, Chemistry Department, Süleyman Demirel University, Almaty, Kazakhstan, [email protected] F. Serrano Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Fuentenueva s/n 18071 Granada, Spain, [email protected] E. Sertel Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] H. Cahit Sevindir Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science-Arts, University of Süleyman Demirel, Turkey, [email protected] Tahir shah National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] Afsaneh Shahbazi Department of Environment, Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences, Tarbiat Madares University, Iran, [email protected] B. Shailamber Department of Civil Engineering, Water & Environment Division, National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506 004, India, [email protected] R. Shakeri Natural Resources Faculty, Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran, [email protected] Ibrahim Shogar Kulliyyah of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia, [email protected], [email protected] S. Shrihari Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar, Mangalore 575025, India, [email protected]; [email protected] Spase Shumka Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania, [email protected] Egor Sidorov Jan Evangelista Purkyne University, Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic, [email protected] Lokendra Singh Centre for Inter-disciplinary Studies of Mountain & Hill Environment (CISMHE), University of Delhi, New Delhi 110007, India, [email protected] Dana Sîrbu Environmental Health Department, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected]

xxxviii

Contributors

Annelie Sjölander-Lindqvist Centre for Public Sector Research (CEFOS), Göteborg University, Göteborg Box 720, SE-405 30, Sweden, [email protected] Biljana Škrbi´c Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] Saidi Slim Département EMVT-CIRAD TA 30/E Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, [email protected] Seval Sözen Civil Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Minodora St˘anescu Institute of Biology, Department of Ecology and Natural Protection, Splaiul Indenpendentei Street 296, 060031 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] Ioan Stoian S.C. I.P.A. – S.A. Subsidiary Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, [email protected] I. Stoimenova N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, Sofia, Bulgaria, [email protected] Jovan Stojanoski Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Bitola, Bitola, Macedonia, [email protected] M. Anjum Suhail Department of Agricultural Entomology, Insect Biodiversity and Biosystematics Research Laboratory, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] Hilda Marta Szabo Environmental Engineering and Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, Fin-33101, Tampere, Finland, [email protected] Masoud Tabari Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran, [email protected] H. Takeda National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Environmental and Toxicological Sciences Research Group, Chiba, 4-9-1, Anagawa, Inage-ku, Chiba-shi 263-8555, Japan, [email protected] A. Taleva Department of Soil Microbilogy, N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, 7 Shosse Bankya str., 1080, Bulgaria, [email protected] Fadime Taner Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Mersin University, 33343 Mersin, Turkey, [email protected] A. Tanik Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxix

Hussein Tarabeah Towns Association for Environmental Quality (TAEQ)-Agan Beit Natufa (ABN), 1093 Sakhnin, Israel, [email protected] Omer Faruk Tekbas Department of Environmental Health, Gulhane Military Medical Faculty, Ankara, Turkey; GATA Halk Sagligi AD, 06018, Etlik, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Mesut Tekba¸s Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Institute of Technology, 41400, Gebze, Turkey, [email protected] T. Tezgel Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] R. Tıpırdamaz Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Beytepe Hacettepe University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Rukiye Tıpırdamaz Department of Biology, Hacettepe University, 06532 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Valerii Tonkopii Institute of Limnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 196105 St. Petersburg, Russia, [email protected] Gunay (Yildiz) Tore Environmental Engineering Department, Corlu Engineering Faculty, Trakya University, 59860 Corlu-Tekirdag, Turkey, [email protected] Neelam Tripathi Centre of Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystem (CEMDE), University of Delhi, New Delhi 11007, India, [email protected] Tuula Tuhkanen Institute of Environmental Engineering and Biotechnology, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, Fin-33101 Tampere, Finland, [email protected] O. Tünay Environmental Engineering Department, Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, Ayaza˘ga Kampüsü, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Mustafa Turan Environmental Engineering Department, Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Özlem Ogaç Türker Department of Interior Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazima˘gusa, Northern Cyprus, [email protected] Umut Türker Department of Civil Engineering, Near East University, Lefkosa, North Cyprus, Mersin 10, Turkey, [email protected] Aysen Turkman Department of Environmental Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Tınaztepe Campus, Buca, Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] H.N. Uçan Environmental Engineering Department, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected]

xl

Contributors

Mustafa Usta Department of Industrial Engineering of Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon 61080, Turkey, [email protected] Ayla Uysal Department of Environmental Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Tınaztepe Campus, Buca, Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Ya˘gmur Uysal Kahramanmara¸s Sütçü ˙Imam University, Av¸sar Campus, 46100 Kahramanmara¸s, Turkey, [email protected] Vinka Uzelac Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka, Trg Ivana Klobuˇcari´ca 1, 51 000 Rijeka, Croatia, [email protected] Julia Uzunova Department of Marketing, University of Economics Varna, 77, Kniaz Boris I blv., Varna, Bulgaria, [email protected] Liliana Vasiliu-Oromulu Romanian Academy Institute of Biology, Spl. Independentei 296 Bucharest-6 Romania, [email protected] Sílvia Maria Stortini González Velázquez CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil, [email protected] A.N. Vlasov Institute of Applied Mechanics, RAS, Moscow, Russia, [email protected] D.B. Volkov-Bogorodsky Institute of Applied Mechanics, RAS, Moscow, Russia, [email protected] N. Vukeli´c Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] Bai Weili College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] J. Pieter H. van Wyk Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Limpopo, Box 225, Medunsa Campus, 0204, Medunsa South Africa, [email protected] Zhang Xiaoli College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Taibai North Road No.229, Xi’an, 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] Oral Ya˘gci Civil Engineering Faculty, Division of Hydraulics, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey, [email protected] Rezan Fahrio˘glu Yamacı Laboratory of Forensic Genetics, Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus, [email protected] Ersin Yener Yazici Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected]

Contributors

xli

N. Yigit Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] F. Ebru Yildiz Department of Research-Plan and Highway, Bank of Provinces, Opera, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Tu˘gba Yılmaz Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] Ilyas Yilmazer YY University, Van, Turkey, [email protected] Özgür Yilmazer Yilmazer Education, 8. Cd., 89. Sk., 9/8, 06460 A, Ovecler, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Özlem Yilmazer YY University, Van, Turkey, [email protected] Sema Yurdakul Yorulmaz Environmental Engineering Department, METU, 06531 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] B.F. Yousif Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Malacca Campus, Multimedia University, 75450 MMU, Malacca, Malaysia, [email protected] M. Yüksel Ege University, Department of Chemical Engineering, 35100 Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Anika Yunus Department of Water Resources Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, [email protected] M. Anjum Zia Department of Chemistry (Biochemistry), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected]

Part I

Conservation and Management of Biodiversity

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 for Application to the Rhizoremediation of Heavy Metals So-Yeon Koo and Kyung-Suk Cho

Abstract Many soil sites in industrialized areas are contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metals. These pollutants are highly accumulated to ecosystem and human body and cause serious ecotoxical effects. To remove heavy metals from the soil, a potential strategy is the ecologically sound, safe, and cost effective rhizoremediation using the symbiotic relationship of plants and microbes in the rhizosphere. Serratia sp. K1RP-49 was isolated from the rhizoplane of the barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) which had grown in oil contaminated soil. Serratia sp. K1RP-49 could produce various organic acids such as oxalic acid (174 mg l−1 ), maleic acid (137 mg l−1 ), citric acid (15 mg l−1 ), malic acid (2 mg l−1 ), formic acid (117 mg l−1 ), acetic acid (79 mg l−1 ), and succinic acid (203 mg l−1 ). The pH of the culture broth was decreased due to the accumulation of these organic acids. This bacterium could produce a indole acetic acid and a siderophore(s). The K1RP49 had a moderate resistance of Pb. The results of root elongation assay indicated that the growth of radicular root of maize could be enhanced by the inoculation of Serratia sp. K1RP-49. Keywords Metal · Phytoremediation · Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria

1 Introduction Heavy metals have been discharged from industrialized areas, easily adsorbed at soil particles, and remain at the ecosystems for a long time [24]. Heavy metals in the soils are transferred to human body, and then cause DNA damage and carcinogenic effects.

K.-S. Cho (B) Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_1, 

3

4

S.-Y. Koo and K.-S. Cho

Soils contaminated heavy metals can be remedied by chemical, physical and biological techniques. Rhizoremediation as an in-situ biological method is ecologically sound, safe and cost effective, and their efficiency of remediation is mostly satisfied [17]. For rhizoremediation, the symbiotic relationship of plants and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in the rhizosphere is very important: Plants can offer nutrients and good habitat to rhizobacteria, and PGPR can also protect plants and promote root growth. It have been reported that PGPR could promote root length under soils contaminated with Ni or Pb [4, 13]. The mechanisms of the promotion of plant growth by PGPR have not been fully understood, it has been considered that the following properties of rhizobacteria cause the promotion of plant growth: (a) the productivity of plant hormones such as indole acetic acid (IAA) [10]; (b) the synthesis of siderophores [5]; (c) the solubilization of mineral phosphates and other nutrients [14]. In this study, a novel bacterium, Serratia sp. K1RP-49, was isolated from oilcontaminated soil, and its ability to promote plant growth such as IAA and organic acid production, and siderophore(s) synthesis was characterized.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Isolation of a Bacterium The banyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) and its rhizosphere soil were sampled at an oil refinery plant, South Korea. One g (wet weight) of the banyard grass rhizoplane was ground using a mortar, and then diluted with 9 ml of sterilized water. One hundred microlitres of the rhizoplane suspension was spread onto the LB-agar plate, and then the plates were incubated at 30◦ C for 3 days. Some colonies were selected by the morphology and the color characteristics, and their abilities for IAA production and siderophore(s) synthesis were compared. A bacterium showing best ability was named as K1RP-49.

2.2 Identification of the Isolate The colony of K1RP-49 on the LB-agar plate was suspended with 0.05 N NaOH and then treated at 95◦ C for 30 min. The solution was centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 10 min, and then the supernatant was used as the template for PCR. PCR R amplification (GeneAmp PCR System 2700, Applied Biosystem, USA) was performed using eubacterial universal primers, 27f (5 -AGA GTT TGA TCM TGG CTC AG-3 ) and 1492r (5 -TAC GGY TAC CTT GTT ACG ACT T-3 ). The conditions for PCR were as followings: 93◦ C for 2 min for pre-denaturation, followed by 35 cycles of a denaturation at 92◦ C for 1 min, an annealing at 55◦C for 1 min, and an extension at 68◦C for 45 s, and a final extension at 72◦C

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49

5

for 2 min. The sequences were determined using an ABI Prism 373A automated DNA sequencer (Perkin Elmer, Foster, CA) and were compared with those present in the GenBank database by the BLAST (basic local alignment search tool) search.

2.3 Heavy Metal Resistance The medium for the resistance assessment of heavy metal was the 10% LB media supplemented with heavy metal: Cd of 0.2−1.8 mM, Cr of 0.01–0.2 mM, Cu of 0.2–1.0 mM, Ni of 1–9 mM, Pb of 0.5–3.5 mM, or Zn of 1–5 mM. The K1RP-49 was inoculated to the each medium and incubated at 30◦ C for 3 days. The optical density (OD) of the cultures was measured every hour at 600 nm.

2.4 IAA Productivity The productivity of IAA by the strain K1RP-49 was tested in the modified DF medium [8]. The composition of the medium had the following compositions: (NH4 )2 SO4 , 2 g; KH2 PO4 , 4 g; Na2 HPO4 ·12H2 O, 15 g; MgSO4 ·7H2 O, 0.2 g; FeSO4 ·7H2 O, 1.0 mg; B (as H3 BO3 ), 10 μg; Mn (as MnSO4 ·H2 O), 11 μg; Zn (as ZnSO4 ·7H2 O), 125 μg; Cu (as CuSO4 ·5H2 O), 78 μg; Mo (as Na2 MoO4 ·2H2 O), 17 μg; distilled water, 1 l. The strain K1RP-49 was inoculated in 5 ml of the medium amended with 0.5 mg ml−1 of L-tryptophan, and incubated on a rotary shaker (160 rpm) at 30◦C for 5 days. One millilitre of the culture broth was mixed with 2 ml of Salkowski’s reagent (150 ml of concentrated H2 SO4 , 250 ml of distilled water, 7.5 ml of 0.5 M FeCl3 ·6H2 O) and allowed to stand at room temperature for 20 min. The developed pink color which indicates the production of IAA by the strain was measured at 530 nm with a spectrophotometer. The experiment was performed in triplicate.

2.5 Organic Acids Productivity The strain K1RP-49 was inoculated in the minimal salts medium (MSM; KH2 PO4 , 1.5 g l−1 ; Na2 HPO4 ·12H2 O, 9.0 g l−1 ; (NH4 )2 SO4 , 3.0 g l−1 ; FeSO4 ·7H2 O, 0.01 g l−1 ; MgSO4 ·7H2 O, 0.15 g l−1 ; CaCl2 ·2H2 O, 0.01 g l−1 ) amended with 30 g l−1 glucose, and incubated on a rotary shaker (160 rpm) at 30◦ C. During incubation, OD at 600 nm, pH, and the concentration of organic acids of culture broth were measured every 4 h. For the analysis of organic acid concentration, ionchromatograph (Dionex, DX-500 with ED40 Electro-chemical Detector, IonPac AS11 (4 × 250 mm) column, ASRS-Ultra II Anion self regenerating suppressor) was used with KOH as eluent.

6

S.-Y. Koo and K.-S. Cho

2.6 Siderophore(s) Synthesis Siderophore(s) production by the strain K1RP-49 was detected by the method of Schwyn and Neilands using blue agar plates containing chrome azurol S [25]. Orange halo around the colony on blue agar was the indicator for siderophore(s) excretion. The plate inoculated with the K1PR-49 was incubated at 30◦ C, and the surface area of orange halo around the colony was measured.

2.7 Root Elongation The promoting activity of plant root elongation by the K1RP-49 was determined using the modified root elongation assay of Belimov et al. [3]. The colony of K1RP-49 grown on LB-agar plate was suspended in sterilized water (OD 0.4–0.5 at 600 nm). Experimental conditions divided into four treatments; with/without inoculation of K1RP-49, and with/without tryptophane. The mixtures of bacterial suspension and tryptophane (0.5 mg ml−1 ) were supplemented with 0, 15 and 30 mg l−1 of Cd or Cu. Six millilitres of the solution was added to glass Petri dishes with filter paper. The seeds of Zea mays were surface-sterilized with a mixture of ethanol and 30% H2 O2 (1:1) for 10 min, washed with sterilized water and placed on wetted filter paper with 10 seeds per dish. Primary and radicular root length of seedlings was measured after incubation of closed Petri dishes for 8 days at room temperature in dark condition. The assay was repeated twice for each treatment.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Identification of a Plant-Growth Promoting Rhizobacterium, K1RP-49 Based on BLAST analysis, a plant-growth promoting rhizobacterium, K1RP49, was closely similar with Serratia plymuthica (accession AJ233433, 99% (1135/1139) similarity). S. plymuthica has been isolated from the rhizosphere of wheat, oat, cucumber, maize, oil-seed rape and potato, and frequently been associated with plants [1, 11, 16]. S. plymuthica had antifungal effects including antibiosis, siderophores, fungal cell-wall degrading enzymes (chitinases), and β-1,3 gluconases [16]. A strain of S. plymuthica isolated from the roots of a plant belonging to the Brassicaceae family had a heavy metal resistance and the accumulation ability of heavy metal [6]. S. plymuthica has been reported as an endophytic bacterium providing beneficial effects to plant [22].

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49

7

3.2 Heavy Metal Resistance Serratia sp. K1RP-49 could grow in the medium with Pb, although it couldn’t grow in the medium supplemented with Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni or Zn. The growth of the K1RP49 in the medium with Pb (0–1.5 mM) is shown in Fig. 1. Serratia sp. K1RP-49 could hardly grow at over 1.0 mM of Pb. In the medium with 0.5 mM of Pb, the specific growth rate of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 was approximately the half of that in the medium without Pb, and the average growth rate reflecting lag time was only 1/2 of that without Pb. Although heavy metals in the soils are almost adsorbed at the soil particles, bioavailable heavy metals are leached and formed soluble complexes by organic acids producing soil microbes and root exudates. Many soil microbes have tolerance against heavy metals or can uptake heavy metals into their cells. They can also influence the solubility and the bioavailability of the metal to the plant, thus the efficiency of the accumulation process can be modified [6]. (a)

(b)

0.10

0.05

0

20

40

60

80

100 120 140 160

Time (h)

Average growth rate Specific growth rate

0.06

0.12

0.04

0.08

0.02

0.04

0.00 –0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

Specific growth rate

0.15

0.00

0.16

0.08 control 0 mM 0.5 mM 1.0 mM 1.5 mM

Average growth rate

Cell concentration (g-DCW/L)

0.20

0.00 2.0

Pb concentration (mM)

Fig. 1 Growth of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 in the liquid medium amended with Pb (0–1.5 mM), (a) growth curve; (b) average and specific growth rates

3.3 IAA Producing Ability IAA production by the growth of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 in the modified DF medium containing L-tryptophane is shown in Fig. 2. According to the growth of Serratia sp. K1RP-49, the amount of IAA produced was increased. Phytohormone such as auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, and so on, can regulate the physiological functions of plant. Auxin is the general term for plant-growth hormones, and IAA is one of typical auxin [26]. IAA is a common metabolite of L-tryptophane by several microorganisms including PGPR [9]. The effects of IAA are different with the concentration: Primary root growth is promoted under low concentration of IAA. High level of IAA can induce radicular root growth, but inhibits primary root growth by the synthesis of ethylene [23]. Therefore, the PGPR can regulate the growth of plant’s root by producing of IAA. These promoted roots system of plant by beneficial PGPR can enhance the phytoextraction of heavy metal.

8

S.-Y. Koo and K.-S. Cho 0.12

50 Cell concentration IAA concentration

0.10

40

0.08 30 0.06 20 0.04 10

0.02 0.00

IAA concentration (mg l–1)

Cell concentration (g-DCW/L)

Fig. 2 Time courses of IAA and the cell concentrations of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 in the modified DF medium containing L-tryptophane

0 0

1

2 3 Time (h)

5

4

3.4 Organic Acids Productivity To enhance metal-bioavailability in soils, synthetic chelates like EDTA have been used directly to the soil, but low biodegradation rate of these strong chelates enhances mobility of the metal in soil excessively. Metal leaching is associated with the risk of groundwater contamination [7, 19, 20, 27, 30]. The use of easily biodegradable chelates such as organic acids has been proposed to enhance bioavailability of heavy metals and accumulation into plants while avoiding leaching risks [21]. The production of organic acids by Serratia sp. K1RP-49 is shown in Fig. 3. The pH of the culture broth was decreased according to the growth of the K1RP-49. The amount of organic acids produced by the K1RP-49 were arranged in higher order as succinic acid (203 mg l−1 ) > oxalic acid (174 mg l−1 ) > maleic acid (137 mg l−1 ) > formic acid (117 mg l−1 ) > acetic acid (79 mg l−1 ) > citric acid (15 mg l−1 ) > malic acid (2 mg l−1 ). Many soil microbes can discharge organic (a)

(b) 250

1.5 6 1.0 5 0.5

OD ODat at 600nm 600nm pH pH 0.0

4 0

5

10

Time (hr)

15

20

Concentration of organic acids (mg l–1)

7

pH

Cell concentration (g-DCW/L)

2.0

Oxalic acid Oxalic acid Maleic acid Maleic acid Citric acid Citric acid Malic Malic acid acid Formic acid Formic acid Acetic acid Acetic acid Succinicacid Succinic acid

200

150

100

50

0 0

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

Time (h)

Fig. 3 Time courses of pH, the cell concentrations of Serratia sp. K1RP-49, and the concentration of organic acids

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49

9

acids to the soil [15]. Therefore, heavy metals adsorbed at soil particles can be converted to bioavailable forms by the bacterial organic acids without artificial chelates, and the accumulation of heavy metal into the plant can be increased.

3.5 Siderophore(s) Synthesis Ability The expanded surface areas of the orange halo around the colony of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 on blue agar are shown in Fig. 4. The siderophore(s) synthesized by the K1RP-49 taken up the iron from a blue CAS-agar medium, and the color of medium was changed to orange color. The amount of siderophore(s) was increased steadily. Due to the physio-chemical properties of iron which exists in the trivalent state as oxyhydroxide in an aerobic and biological pH, iron is virtually insoluble [25]. Heavy metal-contaminated soil is often associated with iron deficiency in a range of different plant species [18, 28]. Iron deficiency inhibits the synthesis of a chloroplast and chlorophyll, and induces production of ethylene which acts as stress matter to plants, eventually leads to the decrease of rhizoremediation efficiency [12]. Many microorganisms use a ferric-specific ligand, termed ‘siderophore(s)’ of a high affinity low-molecular-weight to take up essential element iron [25]. These microbial iron-siderophore complexes which bound iron can be taken up by plants as an iron source [2, 29]. 10

Area of orange holo (cm2)

Fig. 4 Time courses of the orange halo area on the CAS-agar medium

8

6

4

2

0

0

5

10 15 Time (h)

20

25

3.6 Promotion of Root Growth The effect of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 on root elongation of Zea mays in the existence of heavy metal (Cd or Cu) are shown Figs. 5, 6 and 7. The root length with heavy metal was shorter than that without heavy metal. It means that root

10

S.-Y. Koo and K.-S. Cho (a) Non-heavy metal 12 Length Average

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Radicular root length (cm)

Primary root length (cm)

14

Length Average

10 8 6 4 2 0

D.W Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

D.W Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

Treatment

Treatment

Fig. 5 Primary and radicular root length of Zea mays seedlings with/without tryptophane or Serratia sp. K1RP-49 in the absence of heavy metal

(a) Cd 15 ppm 18 Length Average

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Radicular root length (cm)

Primary root length (cm)

14

9 6 3 0 Cd 15ppm Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

Treatment

Treatment

14

18 Length Average

12 10 8 6 4 2

Radicular root length (cm)

Primary root length (cm)

12

Cd 15ppm Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

(b) Cd 30 ppm

0

Length Average

15

Length Average

15 12 9 6 3 0

Cd 30ppm Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

Cd 30ppm Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

Treatment

Treatment

Fig. 6 Primary and radicular root length of Zea mays seedlings with/without tryptophane or Serratia sp. K1RP-49 in the presence of Cd

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49

11

(a) Cu 15 ppm 35 Length Average

15 12 9 6 3 0

Radicular root length (cm)

Primary root length (cm)

18

15 10 5 0 Cu 15ppm Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

Treatment 14 Length Average

10 8 6 4 2

Cu 30ppm Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

Treatment

Radicular root length (cm)

Primary root length (cm)

20

Treatment

12

0

25

Cu 15ppm Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

(b) Cu 30 ppm

Length Average

30

Length Average

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Cu 30ppm Tryptophane Isolate Isolate+tryptophane

Treatment

Fig. 7 Primary and radicular root length of Zea mays seedlings with/without tryptophane or Serratia sp. K1RP-49 in the presence of Cu

elongation was inhibited by metal toxicity. Compared with the control, the growth of primary root with heavy metal was not significantly affected by the bacterium or tryptophane compared with the control. However, radicular root length was increased by the addition of bacterium or tryptophane except the results in 30 mg l−1 Cu. The primary and radicular root length of 30 mg l−1 Cu inoculated with the K1RP-49 was inhibited by fungal contamination. The effect of the K1RP49 was similar to that of tryptophane in the filter paper with heavy metal. As a result, the inoculation of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 can promote the growth of radicular root. It is suggested that the application of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 to rhizoremediation will be helpful to enhance the metal remediation efficiency by increasing root surface area.

References 1. Alström B, Gerhardson B (1988) Differential reactions of wheat and pea genotypes to root inoculation with growth affecting rhizobacteria. Plant Soil 109:263–269 2. Bar-Ness E Chen Y, Hadar H, Marschner H, Romeheld V (1991) Siderophores of Pseudomonas putida as an iron source for dicot and monocot plants. Plant Soil 130:231–241

12

S.-Y. Koo and K.-S. Cho

3. Belimov AA, Hontzeas N, Safronova VI, Demchinskaya SV, Piluzza G, Bullitta S, Glick BR (2005) Cadmium-tolerant plant growth-promoting bacteria associated with the roots of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern.). Soil Biol Biochem 37:241–250 4. Burd GI, Dixon DG, Glick BR (1998) A plant growth-promoting bacterium that decreases nickel toxicity in seedlings. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:3663–3668 5. Burd GI, Dixon DG, Glick BR (2000) Plant growth promoting bacteria that decreases heavy metal toxicity in plants. Can J Microbiol 46:237–245 6. Carlot M, Giacomini A, Casella S (2002) Aspects of plant-microbe interactions in heavy metal polluted soil. Acta Biotechnol 22:13–20 7. Chen Y, Xiangdong L, Shen Z (2004) Leaching and uptake of heavy metals by ten different species of plants during an EDTA-assisted phytoextraction process. Chemosphere 57:187–196 8. Dworkin M, Foster JW (1958) Experiments with some microorganism which utilize ethane and hydrogen. J Bacteriol 75:592–603 9. Frankenberger WT Jr, Brunner W (1983) Methods of detection of auxin-indole acetic acid in soil by high performance liquid chromatography. Soil Sci Soc Am J 47:237–241 10. Gaudin V, Vrian T, Jouanin L (1994) Bacterial genes modifying hormonal balances in plants. Plant Physiol Biochem 32:11–29 11. Gimmont F, Gimmont PAD (1992) The genus Serratia. In: Balowes A, Trüper HG, Dworkin M, Harder W, Schleifer KH, (eds) The prokaryotes – a handbook on the biology of bacteria: Ecophysiology, isolation, identification, application, 2nd edn, Vol. 3. Springer Verlag, New York, pp 2823–2848 12. Glick BR (2003) Phytoremediation: synergistic use of plants and bacteria to clean up the environment. Biotechnol Adv 21:383–393 13. Grichko VP, Filby B, Glick BR (2000) Increased ability of transgenic plants expressing the bacterial enzyme ACC deaminase to accumulate Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. J Biotechnol 81:45–53 14. Gupta A, Meyer JM, Goel R (2002) Development of heavy metal resistant mutants of phosphate solubilizing Pseudomonas sp. NBRI4014 and their characterization. Current Microbiol 45:323–327 15. Halvorson HO, Keynan A, Kornberg HL (1990) Utilization of calcium phosphates for microbial growth at alkaline pH. Soil Biol Biochem 22:887–890 16. Kalbe C, Marten P, Berg G (1996) Members of the genus Serratia as beneficial rhizobacteria of oilseed rape. Microbiol Res 151:4433–4400 17. Kumino T, Seaki K, Nagaoka K, Oyaizu H, Matsumoto S (2001) Characterization of copperresistant bacterial community in rhizosphere of highly copper-contaminated soil. Eur J Soil Biol 37:95–102 18. Ma JF, Nomoto K (1993) Inhibition of mugineic acid-ferric complex in barley by copper, zinc and cobalt. Plant Physiol 89:331–334 19. Madrid F, Liphadzi MS, Kirkham MB (2003) Heavy metal displacement in chelate-irrigated soil during phytoremediation. J Hydrol 271:107–119 20. Meers E, Hopgood M, Lesage E, Tack FMG, Verloo MG (2004) Enhanced phytoextraction: in search for EDTA alternatives. Int J Phytoremed 6:95–109 21. Nascimento CWA, Amarasiriwardena D, Xing B (2006) Comparison of natural organic acids and synthetic chelates at enhancing phytoextraction of metals from a multi-metal contaminated soil. Environ Pollut 140:114–123 22. Nicole B, Serge G, Dominique LQ, Leila D (2000) Bacterial-mediated induced resistance in cucumber: beneficial effect of the endophytic bacterium Serratia plymuthica on the protection against infection by Pythium ultimum. Biochem Cell Biol 90:45–56 23. Pilet P-E, Saugy M (1987) Effect on root growth of endogenous and applied IAA and ABA. Plant Physiol 83:33–38 24. Rajkumar M, Nagendran R, Lee KJ, Lee WH, Kim SZ (2005) Influence of plant growth promoting bacteria and Cr6+ on the growth of Indian mustard. Chemosphere 62:741–748

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49

13

25. Schwyn B, Neilands JB (1987) Universal chemical assay for the detection and determination of siderphores. Anal Biochem 160:47–56 26. Sergeeva E, Liaimer A, Bergman B (2002) Evidence for production of the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid by cyanobacteria. Planta 215:229–238 27. Sun B, Zhao FJ, Lonbi E, Mcgrath SP (2001) Leaching of heavy metals from contaminated soils using EDTA. Environ Pollut 113:111–120 28. Wallace A, Wallace GA, Cha JW (1992) Some modifications in trace elements toxicities and deficiencies in plants resulting from interactions with other elements and chelating agents. The special case of iron. J Plant Nutr 15:1589–1598 29. Wang Y, Brown HN, Crowley DE, Szaniszlo PJ (1993) Evidence for direct utilization of a siderophore, ferroxamine B. in axenically grown cucumber. Plant Cell Environ 16:579–585 30. Wenzel WW, Unterbrunner R, Sommer P, Sacco P (2003) Chelate-assisted phytoextraction using canola (Bassica napus L.) in outdoors pot and lysimeter experiments. Plant Soil 249:83–96

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden: Rural Heritage and Resistance Against Wolf Propagation Annelie Sjölander-Lindqvist

Abstract The politics and the underlying reasons for the recuperation of a Scandinavian wolf population are increasingly contested. According to the official policy, wolves shall be guaranteed place in the Swedish fauna. The conflict regarding whether Sweden should host a wolf population polarises between on the one hand, views and understandings as regards biodiversity and sustainable development, and on the other hand, perspectives expressing that local traditions and livelihoods are at stake as a result of wolf occurrence in the landscape. The diverging environmental imaginaries at play in the debate can be seen as constitutive of spatial indifferences. States’ and nature conservation organisations’ desires to implement measures understood to provide conditions for the survival of the wolf are counterbalanced by local actions groups and community residents who struggle to maintain the conditions for the conservation of summer pasturing agriculture, continued and unchanged opportunities to perform hunting with sporting dogs and other recreational activities such as mushrooming and the picking of berries. Considered not only by themselves as of high natural and cultural value, the European Union like wisely appoint that small-scale ways of farming are important to maintain for the upkeep of the landscape and the promotion of conditions guarding the survival of the values associated with these ‘agri-environmental’ habitats. Keywords Agricultural policy · Environmental policy · Wolf population

1 Introduction No other predatory animal has attracted as much organized opposition as the wolf. The reaction is due in part to the greediness of the wolves, and also to the fact that nobody ever eats the meat of an animal that has been touched by a wolf [25].

The above quotation illustrates an opinion of wolves that was prevalent in Sweden until 1965 when the preservation act came into force, but this view is not uncommon A. Sjölander-Lindqvist (B) Centre for Public Sector Research (CEFOS), Göteborg University, Göteborg Box 720, SE-405 30, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_2, 

15

16

A. Sjölander-Lindqvist

even today. At that time, the wolf was seen as a threat to humans and their activities in forest and farm landscapes. While the numbers of the wolf population were considerably reduced to as low as 10–35 individuals, mainly as a result of hunting and organised battues, they amount today to some hundred individuals and are still considered to jeopardise the lives and values of people living in the vicinity of wolves. These views illustrate the controversies we find among people regarding nature and natural assets. The above statement is not only a portrayal of views of and feelings about the wolf as a dangerous and uncertain creature, it also tells of struggles over the access to, use of, and ownership of environmental resources. Disputes over ‘Nature’ are politically charged—issues of power exercise and dominance range from the supranational level of negotiations over directives and agreements concerning sustainability and biodiversity, to the local level where global discourses are to be implemented. Politically decided regulations and practices may, however, from a local point of view be perceived as illegitimate, and hence neither receive support nor be complied with. The concerned public’s experience and perceptions of the implementation process as being fair and just has been found to influence acceptance by the public [10]. The politics and the underlying reasons for the recuperation of a Scandinavian wolf population have been, and continue to be, increasingly contested. According to the Swedish official nature conservation policy, wolves shall be guaranteed place in the Swedish fauna. The conflict regarding whether Sweden should host a wolf population polarises between on the one hand, views and understandings as regards biodiversity and sustainable development, and on the other hand, perspectives expressing that local traditions and livelihoods are at stake as a result of wolf occurrence in the landscape. Wolf sceptics maintain that the occurrence of wolves in the surrounding local environment will lead to the demise of forests and farm communities. The effects of the presence of wolves—wolf attacks on livestock and hunting dogs, potential attacks on people when growing wolf populations no longer have enough game to prey on, declining game stocks—will, according to the informants, cause increased marginalization of rural people and the depopulation of margin areas (cf. [32]). Although numbers steadily increasing, environmentalists and authorities still consider the Scandinavian wolf population1 to be in jeopardy of extinction due to not only a poor pedigree. According to the biological predator research community, the unlawful killings of wolves are another threat of considerable weight [24]. The view that the Swedish Government should take actions to make it possible for the wolf population to survive is supported by nature conservation organizations,2 the

1 The wolf population is generally referred to as ‘Scandinavian’ since some of the wolf territories is to be found to pass the national border between Sweden and Norway. 2 Such as Svenska Rovdjursföreningen (the Swedish Carnivore Association), Svenska Naturskyddsföreningen (the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation), and WWF (the World Wide Foundation).

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden

17

public at large [6, 7] and individuals.3 The ‘pro’ wolves groups withholding that wolves have the ‘right’ to exist is an argument—grounded in the environmentalist discourse recommending actions to be take to restore an ecosystem understood as being under threat—that others4 confront by emphasizing that the landscape and the local traditions of the rural Sweden are jeopardized as a result of the occurrence of wolves in Swedish countryside, and due to the present wolf policy (cf. [32, 36]). Thus, while some argues for protective measures to halt high inbreeding5 and illegal hunting,6 yet others oppose the practices in question [30]. In this paper, focus will be drawn to how the adoption and the implementation of a coherent policy for large carnivores in Sweden—the Coherent Predator Policy— besides its aim to enhance measures for an environmentally friendly society, may result in a transformation of the Swedish rural landscape—spatially as well as symbolically. Squeezed between policies promoting the safe-guarding of the predatory populations of wolves, the preventing of cruelty to animals and demanded-for activities by the agricultural program of the European Union, farmers residing in areas with residential wolf populations have come to take part in processes that may bring about a reinforcing of rural identity. The presence of wolves in the countryside of the middle parts of Sweden—where the majority of the Swedish wolf population is to be found—has caused considerable disquiet among some of the concerned stakeholders. Farmers’ and hunters worries that the survival of the rural landscape and rural heritage are at stake due to wolves residing in the local environment are encoded with symbolic meanings of the landscape and the local traditions carried out in farmed and forested areas. Disputes between different stakeholders regarding what should guide the achieving of biodiversity has besides a policy quandary given rise to discourses on morality and ethics what regards the keeping of livestock and domestic animals. A questioning is taking place pertaining to space and place—as reproducing dimensions of cultural identity.

1.1 Theoretical Departure Veined by the assumption that conflicts between people regarding the biological environment involve different dimensions, such as the aspect of place attachment and the meanings of property, the article is inspired by a ‘first world political 3 Including

informants and people who have been expressing their opinions at debate meetings, in radio and TV programs. 4 Groups and organizations such as the ‘the Swedish Forum for Predatory Animal Issues’ (authors translation for Svenskt Samarbetsforum i Rovdjursfrågor) and ‘the Swedish Hunting & Outdoor Recreation Club’ (authors translation for Svenska Jakt & Fritidsgruppen), as well as individuals. 5 It has been found that the Scandinavian wolf population was founded be three individuals. By drawing up a pedigree for 24 breeding pairs it was found that the inbreeding coefficient F varied between 0.00 and 0.41 in the period between 1983 and 2002 [13]. 6 See for example the web page of the Swedish Carnivore Association (www. rovdjursforeningen.se).

18

A. Sjölander-Lindqvist

ecology’ [18, 19]. That people in industrialized countries have relations with ‘nature’ is the main outline of this approach; irrespective of taking place in the ‘first’ or in the ‘developing’ world, environmental conflicts are socio-culturally informed [18, 23]. The article thus employs a landscape and place oriented anthropological approach in the sense that perceptions of the environment might serve as a frame for the rise of local desires and struggles to maintain social and cultural values and practices which can turn out to be in conflict with other wishes and agreements taken at other societal levels (e.g. [11, 16, 17, 20, 29]). Informed by cultural value frames that have developed during times and years of ‘dwelling’, to apply the vocabulary of anthropologist Tim Ingold [12], local residents can be said to find themselves in a ‘configurative complex of things’ ([5], p. 25). Besides relating to the natural and social worlds in ways that reproduce collective memories [26] and the meanings the traditions of the rural landscape bring to its practitioners, people’s understandings and experiences of the contemporary world is also informed by other actor’s endeavours imposing other sets of values (cf. [15, 27, 28]).

2 Promoting Environmental Diversity—The Encapsulation of Different Values and View Points Understood as being under the threat of destruction, the ecological system has become an integral part of national policy. Politically motivated, regimes for the management of natural resources have been established. Policies for collective control and the public administration of, for example, the management of the Scandinavian wolf population, have developed during the latter decades. Measures for the conservation of natural resources follows internationally negotiated treaties that have been ratified by the Swedish Parliament (e.g. the Bern Convention). These treaties, aiming for a sustainable development and caretaking, have served to inspire and direct environmental protective measures in the promotion of a biologically diversified society. In 2001, the Swedish Parliament laid down a ‘Coherent Predator Policy’, which stipulates that the Scandinavian wolf shall be ensured long-term survival through the implementation of protective measures. The recovery of the wolf have, however, been increasingly contested. Although the decision can be labelled as democratically agreed upon, the decision has turned out to be highly debated. While the view that Sweden should take actions to preserve and maintain a wolf population is widely supported by authorities, nature organizations and a large public, others disagree, emphasizing that local traditions, values and meanings are at stake as a result of recovery aims and wolf management. These disputes tell of struggles over the access to, and use of environmental resources. As an issue of power exercise, the controversy regarding whether measures should be taken or not and if the survival of the wolf is to be considered as a matter for Sweden to deal with, can be said to highlight dimensions of space and place. The controversy is thus to be regarded as not only a matter of how to understand a biological habitat, commonly referred to as ‘Nature’. Most importantly, the voices raised for or against activities taken to ensure a long-term survival of

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden

19

the Scandinavian wolf, can as well be encapsulated as a reflection regarding which values that should guide rural reconstruction. The implementation of policies for the protection of natural resources brings many interests into collision. The wolf issue is thus to be considered as a meeting-point between authorities, ‘green’ organizations such as the Swedish Carnivore Association (‘Svenska Rovdjursföreningen’), interest organizations as for example the Swedish Association for Wildlife Hunting and Management (‘Svenska Jägareförbundet’), and organizations assembling wolf sceptics—the ‘Swedish Forum for Predatory Animal Issues’ (author’s translation for ‘Svenskt Samarbetsforum i Rovdjursfrågor’), the ‘Swedish Hunting & Outdoor Recreation Club’ (author’s translation for ‘Svenska Jakt & Fritidsgruppen’). ‘The Association for Safety in Rural Communities in Sweden’ (author’s translation for ‘Sveriges Glesbygds Trygghet’) is another local/regional association, generally referred to by the acronym SGT,7 that similarly to the previous mentioned, demand that Swedish predator policy and management to a much greater extent must consider the living conditions of people residing in rural Sweden. Decision-making concerning wolf occurrence should be made locally instead of nationally and regionally, since, as they argue, such decisions must have their point of departure in local realities and knowledge. The organization ‘Peoples’ Campaign for a New Predator Policy (author’s translation for ‘Folkaktionen Ny Rovdjurspolitik’), organizes today many wolf sceptics and some of the above mentioned wolf sceptic associations have become transformed into this national organization that was founded in 2005. At the core of their demands stands that dialogue between local stakeholders and authorities must be increased since, as they say, without dialogue and real participation in decisionmaking, predator policy can never become sustainable and reach acceptance. Thus, network building and mobilization of opinion are taking place. While wolf sceptical organizations make complaints and protests concerning Swedish wolf politics and management, wolf protectionists join nature conservation organizations to support the protection of threatened species. We thus see a division between protectionists and sceptics. From reasons of solidarity with other countries efforts to protect endangered species, Sweden should also take actions for the furthering of biological diversity. That Sweden is obliged to actions since they have signed international treaties is another reason mentioned by the protectionists. But above all, as they argue, the wolf has the right to reside in the countryside since it as all other creatures has the right to exist.

3 Wolves in Scandinavia According to an integrated predator policy, laid down by the Parliament (the Swedish Riksdag) in 2001, the Scandinavian wolf (together with four other large carnivores—brown bear, lynx, wolverine and golden eagle) shall, through the 7 In

popular parlance among certain groups referred to as ‘Shoot, Dig and Shut Up’.

20

A. Sjölander-Lindqvist

implementation of protective measures, be ensured long-term survival ([21], p. 57). The politics of and the underlying reasons for the recovery of the Scandinavian wolf population have, however, been increasingly contested. While the view that Sweden should take actions to preserve and maintain a wolf population is widely supported by authorities, nature organizations and a large public, others disagree, emphasizing that local traditions, values and meanings are jeopardized as a result of recovery aims and practices of wolf management. Thus, although the political community has decided democratically that Sweden shall strive to follow international decisions and legislation in species conservation, others argue otherwise, saying that wolves do not really belong in the Swedish landscape. Whether or not we should save the wolves from extermination, is thus a highly debated matter. In order to secure the wolf population in Scandinavia, policies for collective control and public administration have been developed and adopted. The Swedish official nature conservation policy follows treaties that have been internationally negotiated and ratified by the Swedish Parliament. Serving as a background for the research carried out did the understanding that contestations over the biological environment have been an issue both in earlier times and today. While the Scandinavian wolf population of today amounts 35 territories with wolf packs,8 scent-marking pairs9 and single stationary individuals10 [35] representing 109–117 individuals,11 the population was estimated at 1,500 individuals some 180 years ago. Whereas we today see protective measures governing the wolf population, laws and opinions of the wolf as being detrimental to humans and human activities, led, in the past, to wolf persecution. Provincial laws from the 15th century, for example, stated parish members’ obligation to take an active part in wolf battues. The women of the parish, its vicar and the clerk of the parish were the only ones exempted from this duty. The hunt for wolves was successful. Until the preservation act in 1965, the larger part of the wolf population was exterminated during the 19th and 20th centuries. Using a variety of methods—traps, nets, weapons, and battues—people throughout the country managed well in their wolf hunts. Additionally, bounties were imposed in 1647 to encourage the hunt for wolves, and these remained in force until the wolf preservation act came into force more than 200 years later. Some tens of years before the wolf protection act in 1965, the wolf population was estimated at less than 40 individuals. Approximately 20 years after the establishment of the protection act, traces and observations point to a growing wolf population in Scandinavia. In the 1980s, it was estimated that there were about ten individuals and during the following years, we see a growing increase in the number of wolves, packs, scent-marking pairs and other residential individuals.

8 Estimated amount: 76–79 individuals. A wolf pack consists of a breeding

pair and their offspring. amount: 26–28 individuals. 10 Estimated amount: 7–10. 11 Besides wolf packs, scent-marking pairs and other residential individuals there are also migratory wolves. 9 Estimated

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden

21

4 Study Area and Methods Ethnographic methods were chosen as the main strategy for empirical investigation. Data was collected primarily from the conducting of in-depth interviews. Informal observations have also been carried out at various meetings. Readings of newspaper and journal articles and the visiting of different web sites have given additional insight into the ‘wolf issue’—its structures, actors and the mains of the debate. The informants were asked to discuss the situation surrounding having wolves in the forests. Through conversations, local residents expressed their opinions, values and collectively shared dimensions of everyday experiences of wolves and local practices in farming and forest communities, thus providing glimpses of the social worlds of the people interviewed. The investigation of the concerns of residents living in the wolf territories employed an ethnographic approach. Such methods have found to suit research situations when it is of crucial importance for the outcome of the research carried out to establish trustworthy relationships with the informants [3]. The interview results on which this paper rests were carried out in three separate areas; the county of Dalarna and the two wolf territories Dals-Ed/Halden and Hasselfors—although all to be found in the middle parts of Sweden neither study area are located next to one another. The fifty-two interviews that were carried out the summer and autumn of 2005 consisted of people holding ‘pro’ as well as ‘anti’ wolf attitudes and through which opinions and values related to the presence of predators in the landscape were collected. Gathered by convenience sampling, particularly the groups of hunters and farmers were interviewed. Besides interviewing residents in wolf territories, members of the research team have been carrying out observations at meetings, generally announced as ‘information meetings’, and the annually held ‘Wolf Symposium’ where interested parties have the opportunity to take part of talks regarding different aspects of wildlife management nationally as well as internationally. The interviews lasted from two to four hours and consisted of a set of general questions as well as follow-ups on issues raised by the respondent. A written list of questions and topics served as a guide throughout the conversation. Detailed notes were taken and later transcribed. A tape recorder was not used during the interview since the wolf is a rather controversial issue and in some cases the parties involved have been under threat of violence. It was therefore considered important to guarantee individual anonymity as far as possible.

5 National Environmental Conservation Policy The status of the Scandinavian wolf is based upon the classification works of plants and animals carried out by the Swedish Species Information Centre (ArtDatabanken), a body shared by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the Swedish University of Agricultural Science (SLU). According to this classification, building on a system of six categories reflecting the risk of extinction

22

A. Sjölander-Lindqvist

in the Swedish flora and fauna, the Scandinavian wolf is on the Red List and is classified as Critically Endangered [9]. As such, the wolf is understood to be exceptionally endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the very near future. This classification system, built on a global classification system that was outlined by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in 1994, is one of the measures taken to protect biodiversity. In Sweden, policies for collective control and public administration have been developed to deal with the political goal of specie conservation and today’s controversy regarding the wolf. Through the Coherent Predator Policy, laid down in 2001, the Parliament has agreed that measures to minimize conflicts regarding predatory animals must be taken to ensure their long-term survival ([21], p. 57; see also [24]). A Council for Predator Issues was founded in 2002 to assist the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) in implementing the Coherent Predator Policy. As an advisory consultative body, the Council deals with issues concerning general and overall policy, surveys and developments of the populations of the five carnivores covered by the Predator Policy. Besides striving for the reaching of 20 reproductions of the Swedish wolf population, representing approximately 200 individuals, the Parliament decided in 2001 that regional predatory animal management, as other environment protection, must involve local participation and strong support by those affected by the conservation efforts ([21], p. 57; [33], p. 173). The need to encourage local participation ([21], p. 57) resulted in the establishment of Regional Predator Groups (RPG) in all counties having residential large predators. Today, we find 17 of these groups across the country, comprising representatives from hunting organizations, voluntary nature conservation groups, farmers’ associations, the police and prosecutors, municipalities and county administrative boards. Besides striving for local empowerment on issues of predator management, the RGPs are by the authorities understood to be a means for an increased information exchange between different regional and local groups, and as such, facilitating the dissemination of information to the large public. Cooperation between the central authorities and the concerned NGOs and groups is by the decision-makers considered vital for the accumulation of knowledge— by the authorities assumed necessary to enhance more ‘nuanced’ perspectives and opinions of what has turned out to be a rather controversial question for the Swedish countryside. The solution on the wolf controversy, the authorities (regional as well as national ones) say, is to raise the level of ‘acceptance’. Their work focuses therefore on the process of attaining a local consensus regarding what they refer to as a politically based initiative. Local compliance with a highly debated political decision, regarding wolves’ living conditions and their future in the Swedish fauna, is thus sought for at the same time as the regional authorities strive for the realization of a national goal through the implementation of intermediate aims, such as regional minimum levels for wolf recovery in each county [31]. By incorporating concerned stakeholders and interest organizations into the RPGs, the central authorities assume that consent on the predator policy might be achieved as a dissemination of information will take place when the information given to the group members is passed on to their mother organizations ([34], p. 146). Understood as nourished by debates

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden

23

and inconsistent opinions on the causes and effects of wolves’ occurrence in the countryside, the central authorities appraises an increase of a scientifically based knowledge as central for abating worries regarding the effects of large carnivore presence [31].

6 Rural Lives at Stake According to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union, the farming sector has a multiple role to play. By their use of rural land, the farmers produce a variety of products for consumption but they do also contribute to the diversity—and the survival—of the countryside. Through their work, the farmers have a role to play in the maintenance of rural area. Wolf sceptic informants, however, maintain that the occurrence of wolves in the surrounding local environment will be detrimental to the survival of forest and farm communities. According to the informants, the wolf’s presence has entailed changed routines and fear and anxiety about the future of traditional work and ways of life locally. Among local residents, the wolf is considered to be an animal with the potential of bringing harm to livestock and humans. The effects of the presence of wolves—wolf attacks on livestock and hunting dogs, potential attacks on people when growing wolf populations no longer have enough game to prey on, declining game stocks—will, according to the informants, cause increased marginalization of rural people and the depopulation of margin areas (cf. [32]). Among local residents, the wolf is considered to be an animal with the potential of bringing harm to livestock and humans. Therefore people feel that they, their families and ways of living are jeopardised as a result of wolves living in the area. Since the wolf is not in jeopardy of being exterminated internationally, informants feel further that there is no reason why the Swedish rural population should be exposed to the risks the presence of wolves brings to people living in the countryside. Fear and anxiety is not only a matter restricted to the outdoors. Peoples’ homes and households are by several of the informants experienced as threatened by wolves’ occurrence in the environs. One of the female informants mentioned that she did not dare to go down to the basement since she was afraid that wolves might enter the house meanwhile. Social anthropological research has shown that members of households draw safety and comfort from these entities when they experience that the surrounding world is exposed to threat and change [2]. Local reports that the wolves passes close to dwelling-houses and that women and children cannot feel secure, even close to their homes, show that the meanings people attach to ‘home’ and ‘property’—as fundamental social institutions—are disarranged. Implementation of goals of society may thus bring about that peoples’ self-images and ideas about society and life are put under pressure. People may feel violated when ‘agents of change’—represented here by the wolf—trespasses what people regards as basic principles upon which human activity is structured (cf. [8]). Network building and mobilization of opinion have taken place, making complaints and protests concerning Swedish wolf politics and management. The ways

24

A. Sjölander-Lindqvist

in which people sceptic to wolf presence in the Swedish landscape become involved varies. A most obvious action that has taken place to counteract the implementation of the predator policy is the ‘Dala Revolt’ (Dalaupproret). This rebellion by hunters in the county of Dalarna who during a period of approximately 1 year (2004–2005) refused to trace animals injured by traffic (otherwise a normal task for them) until their demands—unrestricted access to outdoor recreation for people living in the countryside, a continued preservation of the country’s moose stock, and a predator policy that more explicitly takes into consideration local knowledge and rural living conditions—had been met. The boycott was, however, brought to an end in spring 2005 without the movement being able to achieve their demand of a changed legislation concerning the rights of livestock and dog owners to defend their animals against attacks from predatory animals and grant permits for the controlled culling of wolves. Generally, the presence of wolves in the landscape is understood to affect not only rural livelihoods and people’s customary ways of living—in terms of restricted opportunities for hunting, fishing, berry and fungus picking, horseback-riding and orienteering—but the biological diversity is also felt to be endangered. According to the wolf sceptic informants, wolf presence has led and will lead to a depopulation of the countryside since landowners, livestock breeders and mountain pasture farmers will give up their livelihoods when the threats posed by wolves appear to be too heavy a burden. The moving of livestock to summer residences is a historically rooted tradition. Restricted possibilities to graze in the village have, since agricultural land in the county of Dalarna in the 19th century were not partitioned as in other parts of Sweden, made the way for the use of unfenced summer forest pastures. Farmers who employ agricultural seasonal foraging consider themselves as part of a local heritage. By taking their cattle to summer grazing pastures they carry on the traditions of a historical past. Besides the keeping of old customs, the informants are of the opinion that they continually contributes to the up keeping of an open landscape and that seasonal foraging have developed in correspondence with the ecological environment of the constraints and possibilities of the Swedish rural landscape. However, the presence of wolves in the landscape threatens summer pasturing agriculture since the farmers have very limited possibilities to defend their cattle from wolf attacks. They say that their way of living and the old customs of cattle grazing in summer pastures are at stake. Instead of continually contributing to the up keeping of an open landscape and a rich fauna through unfenced cattle grazing they must leave their cattle nearby the chalets on the summer pasture. Since the grazinggrounds next to the chalets are very limited they will be forced to bring fodder from the farm in the village to feed their cattle. If forced this way, the environmental benefits of summer pasturing agriculture will be lost—and the farmers will not be able to fulfil the conditions the European Union asks for when granting economic support. Besides the environmental benefits such as a rich flora and fauna, the municipality and the region do also benefit from the maintaining of the cultural heritage of agricultural seasonal foraging since it attracts many tourists during the summer months (June-August).

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden

25

Similarly to results from Norway [32], feelings of injustice prevail among farmers regarding their experiences that their activities are improperly acknowledged. As they say, their ways of small scale farming has contributed to an open landscape, a diversified flora and fauna and a cultural heritage, which they see as being under threat due to the wolf residing in the forest. The farmers believe that the traditional ways of sending livestock out to grass—fenced or unfenced—will decrease since they fear attacks by wolves. When no longer the possibility exists to deploy forest pastures, small scale farming and agricultural seasonal foraging will decline, adding to the dying out of rural Sweden. Similarly, it is argued, decreased possibilities to go hunting without exposing hunting dogs to wolves’ search of prey will leave the Swedish forests empty of hunters. Informants’ feelings of uncertainty regarding continued farming and hunting reflect that the landscape is a lived reality, holding significant meanings to people locally. As suggested by Cantrill and Senecah [4], ‘. . . our conception of the natural environment is framed by our experiences bound to local settings’ ([4], p. 186]. The landscape, then, is experienced through activities. Through practices of performance, representation and action, people socialise the landscape [1], as for example through hunting—an activity that in Sweden assemble nearly 300,000 people— meanings are created and established. When hunters gather and hunt, they establish and uphold social relationships and networks since the hunt for elks, in particularly, is carried out in hunting parties. The landscape and the locality as a dimension for social life [1] and where feelings of fellowship, solidarity, and relationship building are established, create a sense of belonging [1, 5, 14, 22].

7 Discussion The presence of wolves in the countryside of the middle parts of Sweden—where the majority of the Swedish wolf population is to be found—has caused considerable disquiet among some of the concerned stakeholders. Due to wolves’ residing in the local environments, farmers (including farmers who employ a transhumance system of agriculture) and hunters worries that the survival of the rural landscape and rural heritage are at stake. The presence of wolves in the landscape is understood to affect not only rural livelihoods and people’s customary ways of living—in terms of restricted opportunities for hunting, fishing, berry and fungus picking, horsebackriding and orienteering—but the biological diversity is also felt to be endangered. According to the movement, wolf presence has led and will lead to a depopulation of the countryside since landowners, livestock breeders and summer pasture farmers will give up their livelihoods when the threats posed by wolves appear to be too heavy a burden. According to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union, the farming sector has a multiple role to play. By their use of rural land, the farmers produce a variety of products for consumption but they do also contribute to the diversity—and the survival—of the countryside. Through their work, the farmers and their farming activities are thus assigned as essential in the

26

A. Sjölander-Lindqvist

maintenance of rural area. The implementation of policies for the safeguarding of the Scandinavian wolf is giving rise to a policy quandary when farmers are expected to use production methods which are addressed as compatible with environment protection. Dependency upon the European Union’s economic grants (CAP Reform 1992)—received if environment protective production methods are employed—and authorities’ expectancy that they must adjust to the risks carnivore presence bring to the rural communities have come to cause disquiet and frustration among the informants when they are not given the possibility to safeguard their livestock from wolf attacks. Disputes between different stakeholders regarding what should guide the achieving of biodiversity has besides a policy quandary given rise to discourses on morality and ethics what regards the keeping of livestock and domestic animals but we can also see that a questioning is taking place pertaining to space and place—as reproducing dimensions of cultural identity.

References 1. Appadurai A (1995) The production of locality. In: Fardon R (ed) Counterworks. Routledge, London and New York, pp 204–225 2. Birdwell-Pheasent D, Lawrence-Zúñiga D (1999) House life: Space, place and family in Europe. Berg, Oxford 3. Boholm A (1983) Swedish Kinship: An exploration into cultural precesses of belonging and continuity. Gothenburg Studies in Social Authropology 3, Acta Universitatis, Gothoburgensis 4. Cantrill JG, Senecah LS (2001) Using the ‘sense of self-in-place’ construct in the context of environmental policy-making and landscape planning. Environ Sci Policy 4:185–203 5. Casey ES (1996) How to get from space to place in a fairly short stretch of time: Phenomenological prolegomena. In Feld S, Basso K (eds) Senses of place. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM, pp 13–52 6. Ericsson G, Heberlein TA (2002) Attityder till varg och vargjakt i Sverige. SLU, Uppsala 7. Ericsson G, Sandström C (2005) Delrapport om svenskars inställning till rovdsjurspolitik och -förvaltning. SLU Umeå/FjällMistra & Umeå universitet/FjällMistra, FjällMistrarapport, Rapport nr: 10, Umeå, Sweden 8. Fitchen JM (1989) When toxic chemicals pollute residential environments: The cultural meanings of home and homeownership. Hum Organ 48:313–324 9. Gärdenfors U (2005) Rödlistade arter i Sverige 2005—The 2005 Red List of Swedish Species. ArtDatabanken. SLU, Uppsala 10. Grimes M (2005) Democracy’s infrastructure: The role of procedural fairness in fostering consent. Department of Political Science, Göteborg University, Göteborg 11. Hornborg A (1994) Environmentalism, ethnicity and sacred places: Reflections on modernity, discourse and power. Can Rev Sociol Anthropol 31:245–267 12. Ingold T (1993) The temporality of the landscape. World Archaeol 25:152–174 13. Liberg O, Andrén H, Pedersen H-C, Sand H, Sejberg D, Wabakken P, Åkesson M, Bensch S (2005) Severe inbreeding depression in a wild wolf (Canis lupus) population. Biol Lett 22:17–20 14. Lovell N (1998) Locality and belonging. Routledge, London 15. Löfgren O (1997) Mellanrum: Vita fläckar och svarta hål i storstadens utkant. In: Saltzman K, Svensson B (eds) Moderna landskap. Natur och Kultur, Stockholm, pp 45–69

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden

27

16. Mairal Buil G (1996) Social disarticulation and water policy in Aragon. In Second International Conference on Resettlement Issues: Oxford 9–14 September 1996. Refugee Studies Programme, University of Oxford and World Bank. Oxford, UK 17. Mairal Buil G (2004) The invention of a minority: A case from the Aragonese. In: Boholm Å, Löfstedt R (eds) Facility siting: Risk, power and identity in land use planning. Earthscan, London 18. McCarthy J (2002) First world political ecology: lessons from the wise use movement. Environ Plann A 34:1281–1302 19. McCarthy J (2005) Guest editorial. Environ Plann A 37:953–958 20. Nesbitt JT, Daniel W (2001) Conflicting environmental imaginaries and the politics of nature in central appalachia. Geoforum 32:333–349 21. Prop.2000/01:57. Sammanhållen rovdjurspolitik [Coherent Predator Policy]. Miljödepartementet 22. Riley RB (1992) Attachment to the ordinary landscape. In: Altman I, Low SM (eds) Human behavior and environment: Advances in theory and research. Place attachment. Plenum Press: New York, pp 13–35 23. Robbins P (2002) Obstacles to a first world political ecology? looking near without looking up. Environ Plann A 34:1509–1513 24. Sand H, Wabakken P, Liberg O (2004) Vargens biologi: karaktärer och konsekvenser för små populationer. In: Jansson G, Seiler C, Andrén H (eds) Skogsvilt III. Grimsö forskningsstation, Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet, Riddarhyttan, pp. 58–65 25. Saxon JL (1935) Jakt och jägare i gamla tiders Närke [Hunting and hunters in old time Närke]. Saxon & Lindströms Förlag, Stockholm 26. Schama S (1995) Landscape and memory. Alfred A. Knopf Inc, New York 27. Scott JC (1998) Seeing like a state. Yale University Press, New Haven 28. Sjölander-Lindqvist A (2004a) Local environment at stake: The Hallandsås railway tunnel in a social and cultural context. Human Ecology Division, Lund 29. Sjölander-Lindqvist A (2004b) Vizualising place and belonging: Landscape redefined in a Swedish farming community. In: Boholm Å, Löfstedt R (eds) Facility siting: Risk, power and identity in land-use planning. Earthscan, London 30. Sjölander-Lindqvist A (2006) Den är ju inte i fårhagen på studiebesök—om lokala perspektiv och uppfattningar om varg och rovdjursförvaltning. CEFOS, Göteborgs universitet, Rapport 2006:1, Göteborg 31. Sjölander-Lindqvist A, Serena C (2006) Negotiating ’Dead-end’ Decisions: Organizing REGIONAL Groups in Predatory Animal Issues in Sweden. in New Perspectives on Risk Communication Conference. Göteborg 32. Skogen K, Olve K (2003) A wolf at the gate: the anti-carnivore alliance and the symbolic construction of community. Sociol Ruralis 43:309–325 33. Skr.2001/02:173. En samlad naturvårdspolitik. Miljödepartementet 34. SOU 1999:146. Rovdjursutredningen—Slutbetänkande om en sammanhållen rovdjurspolitik. Miljö- och samhällsbyggnadsdepartementet 35. Wabakken P, Åke A (2006) Ulv i Skandinavia pr. 5 april 2006. Foreløpige konklusjoner for vinteren 2005/2006. Høgskolen i Hedmark, Oppdragsrapport nr. 5 36. Wilson MA (1997) The wolf in yellow stone: science, symbol, or politics? Deconstructing the conflict between environmentalism and wise use. Soc Nat Res 10:453–469

Seas, Ecological Balance and Sustainable Environment. Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica – Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi Suzana Aliu, S. Jusufi, Majlinda Daci, and Shefket Dehari

Abstract Water is a must need for the life and none of the living creatures could exist without it. But, in meantime water could became a cause of some diseases and the death. With the social society development, improvement of the well-being and increase of the number of the residents in our planet, also the individual and economical need for the water is increased. The permanent human being is used only to take things from the nature not to contribute to the “nature”. However human egoism in rapport with nature and the vital environment, which is exploited without control and without any care can destroy the entire ecosystems. All of this is returned to the humans and seen in their life and health. The aim of this paper was analysis and determination of heavy metals like Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in water samples of different prophiles from Ohrid Lake. Studied water samples were taken in different locations and different depths (0, 20, 40, 75, 100 and 150 m). The presence of toxic heavy metals in food chain was studied in fish species – Belbica (Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi). Determination of analysed heavy metals was done using Atomic Absorption spectroscopy using a Perkin Elmer 370 A and 370 flame – air acetylene and AAS Peyunicam 926 model. Keywords Water Belbica · Conservarion · Heavy Meta

1 Entry Metals occur naturally in the environment and are present in rocks, soil, plants, and animals. Metals occur in different forms: as ions dissolved in water, as vapors, or as salts or minerals in rock, sand and soil. They can also be bound in organic or inorganic molecules, or attached to particles in the air. Both natural anthropogenic processes and sources emit metals into air and water. The effects of metals in the environment depend to a large extent on whether they occur in forms that can be taken up by plants or animals. Uptake of metals in S. Aliu (B) Study of Polytechnic Center, State University of Tetovo, Tetovo, Macedonia e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_3, 

29

30

S. Aliu et al.

an animal involves metal ions crossing a cell membrane. Often a ligand, or a carriers, executes this transport. Sometimes there are additional specific carriers within the cell. If an organism’s uptake of metal is greater than its ability to get rid of it, the metal will accumulate. Heavy metals tend to accumulate in storage compartments. For example, cadmium accumulates preferentially in the kidneys, and lean in the skeleton. The accumulation can continue throughout the organism’s life and is the major cause of chronic toxicity. In contrast to organic pollutants, metals accumulate in protein tissues and bone rather than fat.

2 Ohrid Lake Is situated in the Southeastern part of Europe, with Albania and FYR of Macedonia as the only two lakeshore states. It is peculiar for it’s rich biodiversity, that derives of it’s very old age. Ohrid Lake is the biggest and the deepest from all the lakes of the group known as “Desaret”. It is called a Museum of living fossils and it offers a living environment for too many organisms typical for mild waters, which, in the Balkans Peninsula and Central Europe are found only in the fossil form. Another typicalpeculiarity of this Lake is its the only flow – the river Drini i Zi, with an approximate flow of 22.4 m s, for most of the time. The beautiful parts of the lake can be viewed on the pictures below.

The dirty parts of the lake can be viewed on the pictures below.

Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica

31

3 Living Species Ohrid Lake is well known for its 17 kinds of fish. They are all autochthonous species. Ten of them are commercially important. Another peculiar feature of this lake is its ability to self regeneration. Its water comes from different sources as well as from its water accumulating basin. Because of these peculiarities, beginning from 1980, Ohrid Lake and the city itself are under the protection of UNESCO.

4 Experimental Engagement 4.1 Material Gathering and Working Methods In this output, the presence of heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn) in the water on its vertical profile was analyzed, beginning from levels (0, 20, 40, 75, 100 and 150 m depth), as well as their impact in the nutrition chain. Three exemplars of fish known as Belbica (Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi), B1, B2 and B3 were examined. From each of them organs like gills, liver, muscular tissues and bones were dissected. After the dissection, the determination of the concentration of the heavy metals, such as: Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb in each of the organs was done. To achieve this, SAA – Spectroscopy of Atomic Absorption – the flame technique was used. The measurements were done by Spectrophotometer of the atomic absorption of the type PERKIN – ELMER 370 A and 370. Flame – Air– Acetylene and SAA PEYUNICAM 926 (4).

Belbica (Gjuca) – Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi 1844

5 Experimental Results Achieved results are presented in charts/graphics as follows: Charts 1–5 to represent the achieved results of the concentration of the heavy metals on the studied samples through experimental work.

32

S. Aliu et al.

Graphic charts from A to E represent the same results – the results from the previous Charts 1–5, added is only a better visual representation of them.

6 Discussion of the Results After having thrown an analytic view on the results given above through the charts, both numeric and graphic ones, one can notice very clearly that on the vertical profile of the lake waters, the concentration of the metals were traced, as follows: Concentration of Mn goes from 0.10 mg/l in 20 m to 1.91 mg/l in 150 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Iron – Fe was represented in concentrations 1.0 mg/l in 20 m up to 1.91 mg/ in 150 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Zinc was registered on minimal values from 0.41 mg/l in 20 m, up to 0.45 mg/l in 100 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Copper was registered from 0.07 mg/l in 20 m to 0.07 mg/l in 100 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Nickel gave these results: 0.38 mg/l in 20 m up to 0–85 mg/l in 150 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Table 1 Determination of heavy metals in the water on the vertical profile of the lake by SAA – mg/l Sample

0m

20 m

40 m

75 m

100 m

150 m

Fe Mn Zn Cu Cd Ni Pb

0.8 0.15 0.33 0.05 – 0.26 –

1.0 0.1 0.41 0.06 – 0.38 –

0.9 0.14 0.37 0.06 – 0.3 –

1.2 0.21 0.29 0.07 – 0.27 –

1.0 0.24 0.45 0.07 – 0.18 –

1.91 0.25 0.4 0.06 – 0.85 –

2 0m 20m 40m 75m 100m 150m

1.5 1 0.5 0 Fe

Mn

Zn

Cu

Cd

Ni

Pb

Chart 1 Concentration of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Ni and Pb in water on the vertical profile of the lake, determined with SAA (mg/l)

Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica

33

From the analyses done on the studied water samples, about the concentration of the above mentioned metals, one can easily understand that, with some exceptions, their concentration on the lake waters is not of a high level. That’s why, we can say that the waters on the vertical profile of the Ohrid Lake belong to the waters of the first or second class (Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). In order to have a realistic view about what was stated above, during the determination of the presence of the heavy metals in the organs of fish, our results have shown the values given below:

Table 2 Parameters of analysed fish Sample

B1

B2

B3

Length cm Weight g Gills g Liver g Muscular tissues g Bones g

14 22.205 0.183 0.255 0.725 0.05

12.5 16.67 0.242 0.205 0.506 0.02

13.5 21.37 0.241 0.203 0.672 0.02

Table 3 Determination of heavy metals on gills of fish with SAA – μg/l Sample

B1

B2

B3

Zn Cu Cd Pb

115.3 25.9 9.3 74.16

30.64 126.6 0.92 1.27

24.6 139.6 0.77 13.9

Table 4 Determination of heavy metals on liver of fish with SAA – μg/l Sample

B1

B2

B3

Zn Cu Cd Pb

127.4 285.6 1.4 −

162.2 210.3 2.38 −

142.2 164.5 6.32 48.8

Table 5 Determination of heavy metals on the fish muscular tissue with SAA – μg/l Sample

B1

B2

B3

Zn Cu Cd Pb

3.8 21.5 0.45 2.9

2.12 22.1 1.08 38.4

1.46 27.1 1.91 0.52

34

S. Aliu et al. Table 6 Determination of heavy metals on fish bones with SAA – μg/l Sample

B1

B2

B3

Zn Cu Cd Pb

7.72 486 1.36 3.8

26.8 403 1.3 2.12

30.5 18.9 1.4 1.46

Chart 2 Concentration of Zn in the organs of fish, determined with SAA (μg/g)

180 160 140 120

gills

100

liver muscular tissues

80 60

bones

40 20 0 B1

B2

B3

Minimal amount of Zinc was accumulated in the muscles 1.46 μg/kg B3 (Table 5, Chart 2), up to 162.2 μg/kg in the liver B2 (Table 4, Chart 2). Copper did give these results: 21.5 μg/kg – B1 in muscles (Table 5, Chart 3) up to 486 μg/kg B1 in the bones (Table 6, Chart 3). The amount of the concentrated Lead goes from 0.52 μg/kg in muscles – B3 (Table 5, Chart 4), up to 74.16 μg/kg in gills – B1 (Table 3, Chart 4). Results of the Cadmium have shown that the gill of B3 possesses a concentration of 0.77 μg/kg (Table 3, Chart 5), up to 9.3 μg/kg in the gills of B1 (Table 3, Chart 5).

180 160 140 120 100

gills liver

80

muscular tissues bones

60

Chart 3 Concentration of Cu in the organs of fish, determined SAA (μg/g)

40 20 0 B1

B2

B3

Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica Chart 4 Concentration of Pb in the organs of fish, determined SAA (μg/g)

35

80 70 60 50

gills

40

liver

30

muscular tissues bones

20 10 0 B1

Chart 5 Concentration of cadmium in the organs of fish, determined SAA (μg/g)

B2

B3

80 70 60 50

gills

40

liver

30

muscular tissues

20

bones

10 0 B1

B2

B3

7 Conclusions Presence of the heavy metals in the leaving creatures is done by their penetration through the cell membrane. This process is frequently done through some conductors specific for the cells. Metals get accumulated in the organism in cases when the conductivity of a given metal is bigger than the capacity of the organism to get rid of it. It is typical for the heavy metals to get themselves accumulated in the accumulative organs. This way, cadmium initially is accumulated in the kidney, copper in liver and Lead in skeleton. This process goes on during the whole lifetime of the organism and occasionally it brings it to the level of chronic poisoning. From the above results, one can notice that the fish belbica does accumulate a higher amount of heavy metals and this amount get bigger together with the weight of the fish. From what was stated above, one can conclude that the accumulation of heavy metals by the leaving creatures that do live within water ecosystems, is an ongoing process that is not preferred because it represents a sort of threat for their mere existence as well as for the nutrition chain to come.

36

S. Aliu et al.

References 1. Hart B, Hines T (1995) Trace elements in rivers. In: Salbu B, Steinnes E (eds), Trace elements in natural waters. CRC, Press, Boca Raton, Ann Arbor, London, Tokyo, pp 203–221 2. Beckett R (1990) Surface and colloid chemistry in natural waters and water treatment. Plenum Press, Melbourne 3. Hong J, Calmano W, Foerstner U (1995) Interstitial waters. In: Salbu B, Steinnes E (eds), Trace elements in natural waters. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Ann Arbor, London, Tokyo, pp 117–150 4. Spirkovski Z (2002) Teški metali i pesticidi vo ribite od Ohridskoto Ezero. Hidrobiološki zavod Ohrid 5. Balvay R (1991) What is the best time reference to express biological results. The calendar year or the ecological year. Verh Int Verein Limnol 24:928–930 6. Risteski K, Davitkovski B (1997) Ekološko pravo, Shkup. pp. 18–22 7. Goldman CR (1983) Horne, limnology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York St. Luis-San Francisko-Auckland, Bogota- Hamburg-Toronto, pp 464 8. Arsoski M (1974) Nekoi pogledi vrz genezata na Ohridskoto Ezero. MANU. Simpozium za problematikata na regulacijata na Ohridskoto Ezero, pp 76–85 9. Naumovski T (1985) Oligomiksijata na Ohridskoto Ezero. Hidrobiološki zavod. Jubilejno izdanie, 1:217–226 10. Hadište J (1992) Dosegašnite sovetuvanja za problemite na zaštitatata na Ohridskoto Ezero so negovata okolina i novi predlozi za nivno rešavanje. DEM. Zbornik na trudovi “Ohridskoto Ezero i negovata zaštita”, pp 19–26 11. Naumovski T (2000) Fosforno optovaruvanje na Ohridskoto Ezero. Dokt. Diser. Univ. “Sv. Kiril i Metodij” PMF – Institut za biologija; Shkup, pp 1–37 12. Hecky R (1993) The eutrophication of lake Victoria. Verh Internat Verein Limnol 25:39–48 13. Ntakimazi G (1992) Conservation of the resources of the African great lakes. Mitt Internat Verein Limnol 23:5–9 14. Twenddle D (1992) Conservation and threats to the resources of Lakes Malawi. Mitt Internat Verein Limnol 23:17–24 15. Naumovski T (1999) Promeni na alkalnosta na nekoi regioni od Ohridskoto Ezero kako rezultat na nutrientnoto iskoristuvanje. Zbornik na trudovi. I Kongres na ekolozite na Makedonija so megjunarodno u´cestvo, pp 268–275 16. Ikonomi, Gj. (2002) Ndikimi i aktivitetit minerar në Liqenin e Ohrit. Kumtesë. Inst. Hidrobiologjik, Ohër 17. El-Hasani S, Al-Dhaeri S, El-Maazawi M, Kamal M (1999) Polarographic and voltammetric determination of some toxic heavy metal jones in the treated Waster water at Abu – Dhabi, UAE. Water Sci Technol 40(7):67–74. IWA Publishing 18. Meany M (1995) Determination of Pb and Cd in seawater by F – AAS using preconcentration trace elements in seawater htm. Dublin City University

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes for the Follow-Up of the Components Sand-Vegetation in the Area of Mecheria, Algerie Haddouche Idriss, Mederbal Khaladi, and Saidi Slim

Abstract The Algerian steppe has become for a few years the theatre of an ecological and climatic imbalance. The intense degradation for this fragile medium (stranding wind erosion, overgrazing, clearing, salinisation . . . .) inducing the turning into a desertification require a better comprehension in order to see how to fight against this plague and to adapt an adequate installation to him. Thus, this work lies within the scope of the follow-up of the phenomenon of the turning into a desertification on a space with the heart of the high Oranian southern steppe plains, in fact the area of Mecheria. Techniques of numerical cartography, since the satellite image processing until the geographic information systems (SIG) for the realization of the charts sets of themes, being able to highlight this calamity. The use of the approaches based on the exploitation of the satellite data multi dates (1998 and 2004) of the sensor Thematic Mapper (TM) of Landsat 5 permitted us to obtain a gathering of an interpretative photo maps and vegetation index which, in their turn, helped us to see the changes arrived in the medium, copiously regressive that progressive. Keywords Desertification · Remote sensing · Steppe · Mecheria · Algeria Résumé La steppe algérienne est devenue depuis quelques années le théâtre d’un déséquilibre écologique et climatique. La dégradation intense de ce milieu fragile (ensablement, érosion éolienne, surpâturage, défrichement, salinisation . . .) induisant la désertification, nécessite une meilleure compréhension en vue de voir comment lutter contre ce fléau et lui adapter un aménagement adéquat. Ainsi, ce travail s’inscrit dans le cadre du suivi du phénomène de la désertification sur un espace au cœur des hautes plaines steppiques sud oranaises, en l’occurrence la région de Mecheria. Les techniques de cartographie numérique, depuis les traitements des images satellitaires jusqu’aux systèmes d’information

H. Idriss (B) Département de Foresterie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Tlemcen BP 119, Tlemcen 13000, Algeria e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_4, 

37

38

H. Idriss et al.

géographique (SIG) pour la réalisation des cartes thématiques, pouvant mettre en relief cette calamité. L’utilisation des approches basées sur l’exploitation des données satellitaires multi dates (1998 and 2004) du capteur Thermaux Mapper (TM) de Lands 5 nous a permis l’obtention d’un ensemble de cartes photointerprétations et des indices de végétation qui, à leur tour, nous ont aidé à apercevoir les changements parvenus dans le milieu, copieusement régressifs que progressifs. Mots clés Désertification · Télédétection · Steppe · Mecheria · Algérie

1 Introduction The degradation of the dry and semi-dry ecosystems in Algeria has become a fact which shows down the progress of rural development [1]. In these milieus, the lack of vegetation is apparent and the eolian erosion predominates. The ecosystem has a long hot season and a weak rainfall. In these areas, the phenomenon is called desertification. The emergency of the struggle against this phenomenon is imposed by the process itself, when man’s intervention doesn’t come on time; it creates situations forbidding the possibility of arranging these areas [2]. In the case of the steppes located north of the Sahara, the degradation process of the soils, has been studied: the covering rate of the vegetation decreases, and hence gives birth to dunes. The sensitiveness of the desertification appears as a set of indicators synoptic adapted to the evaluation scale. Hence, an indicator may be defined as a tool which enables to characterize the milieu, the constraints and the answers. The pictures sent by the observation satellites of the earth, are an important source of information. They allow us to collect the information about the resources of earth [3]. Taking this advantage for granted, it is useful to conduct a map survey with the help of a tool “remote sensing” as an applying help over a dry area, located in the heart of the high plains south of Oran, called Mecheria.

2 The Milieu Study 2.1 The Geographical Setting As far as the administrative point of view is concerned, our area of study is located in the commune of Mecheria, wilaya of Naama. It’s geographically bordered in the North and the West by the commune of El-Biodh, in the East by the wilaya of El-Bayadh and in the South by the commune of Naama.

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes in Mecheria, Algerie

39

Fig. 1 Localization of the zone of study

The main physical sets of the area of study are as follows: • A dune in the North; • The city of Mecheria lies in the centre of the area at the bottom of Djebel Antar which is 30 km long and 1,712 m of high point. • The “sebkha” of Naama, in the South. It could be collected on a topographic map at 1/100.000eme with following coordinates (Fig. 1): • Longitude: 0◦ 3 00 –0◦25 00 West (Greenwich meridian); • Latitude: 32◦ 40 22 –32◦51 52 North.

2.2 The Natural Milieu The climate of the area of Mecheria is a Mediterranean climate dry with cold winters [2] and [4]. It is characterized by two (02) contrasting seasons. The first is cold and wet, and goes till the end of October until early May with an average temperature of 10.05◦C and a rainfall of 147 mm, the other is dry and hot and runs from mid May to mid October with an average temperature of 21.77◦C and a rainfall of 86.49 mm. The area of Mecheria is composed of three (03) types of formation (Fig. 2): • Djebel Antar corresponds to an anticlinal composed essentially of formations of Jurassic age; • The plains; • The recent depots.

40

Fig. 2 The geological setting of the area of Mecheria

Fig. 3 The slope map of the area of Mecheria

H. Idriss et al.

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes in Mecheria, Algerie

41

The map allows us to distinguish 4 categories showing the geomorphologic diversity of the milieu: Category 1: 0–3% Category 2: 3–12% Category 3: 12–25% Category 4: 25–88%. This information varies between 0% (the lowest points) until 88% (the highest point) that of Djebel Antar (Fig. 3). The types of soils in the area of Mecheria are lithological, like greys types, calcareous, marine and clay. We can distinguish: • • • •

The sand soils; The colluviums; The alluviums; The calcareous glacis.

3 Used Data For this application, we have used satellite pictures data of two different dates (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4 Picture TM 4.3.1 (1998)

42

H. Idriss et al.

Fig. 5 Picture TM 4.3.1 (2004)

• Picture LANDSAT 5 Thematic Mapper (scene 198/37) of October 24 1998; • Picture LANDSAT 5 Thematic Mapper (scene 198/37) of March 27, 2004. We got interested in the spectral field of the TM captor by the combination of three bands (4, 3 and 1) for the two pictures. The picture extracts are 1000 × 1000 pixels, whose contours are more or less equidistant from the city of Mecheria. The resolution of the pixel of TM picture is 30 × 30 m.

4 Methodology The work conducted on the area of study (set of treatments and photo interpretation through computer) based on the use of satellite multi temporal pictures and different software of the treatment of pictures. The approaches used are synthesized and represented in the form of an organisation diagram (Fig. 6). The mapping way is based on two types of criteria:

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes in Mecheria, Algerie

LANDSAT TM image (1998)

Auxiliary data

Pretreatments: -Geometric correction -Radiometric correction

43

LANDSAT TM image (2004)

Extraction of windows of region study

Image extract TM 4.3.1 (2004)

Image extract TM 4.3.1 (1998) Specific treatments Classified image (1998) NDVI 1998

Ground reality

COMPARISON Index change

Sand map (1998)

Classified image (2004) NDVI 2004

Sand map (2004)

Comparison and detection of changements Fig. 6 Organisation diagram methodology

• the criteria related to the satellite picture: geographical location; colours; geometric forms; • the criteria of environment: topography, vegetation, climatic data, . . .etc. These criteria allow the recognition of the homogeneous units of the level of vegetation cover, there delimitation and there representation [4] and [5]. Consequently, the diachronic approach contributes to the evolution of the milieu between two (02) dates (1998 and 2004). Thus, the mixing of the two NDVI will help us get a final image presenting different changes which happened in the steppic area.

5 Results and Discussion The interpretation allows providing a thematic cartography. The superposition of three bands of the TM, hence the supervised classification (Figs. 7 and 8) and the indices of vegetation (Figs. 9 and 10) have shown that there has been a very

44

Fig. 7 Classified image by maximum likelihood (1998)

Fig. 8 Classified image by maximum likelihood (2004)

H. Idriss et al.

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes in Mecheria, Algerie

Fig. 9 Vegetation index “NDVI” (1998)

Fig. 10 Vegetation index “NDVI” (2004)

45

46

Fig. 11 Change index

Fig. 12 Sand map (1998)

H. Idriss et al.

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes in Mecheria, Algerie

47

Fig. 13 Sand map (2004)

important regression during the last 6 years between 1998 and 2004 (Fig. 11). This is due to the degradation of the vegetal cover caused by an over exploitation. The sand remains a very important factor in the area. The sand map obtained by the unsupervised classification for the two dates, showed us a reverse effect (Figs. 12 and 13), due essentially to the date of the two pictures, one in autumn and the other in spring. We have compared the physiognomic types of the units in 1998 and those of 2004 where there is a change for the elements on the surface of the ground (Fig. 14). The rate of recovering of Alpha (Stipa Tenacissima) group has a decrease from 11.18 to 2.37%. It’s a species which regenerates because of the problems of overexploitation. Unlike the Alfa, the “psammophites” species have known a high increase of their recovering rate from 1.42 to 40.66%. The appearance of species of Peganum harmala, Salsola vermiculata and Noea microphila is the sign of the degradation of the vegetal cover. This is due to the impact of the human actions on our milieu principally with an increase of the urbanisation rate 0.38–2.52%. However, other mutations less significative are due to the shade effect, considering the difference between the angles of elevation and also the dates when the images were taken.

48

H. Idriss et al.

Fig. 14 Comparison between the physiognomic types (1998–2004)

6 Conclusion The use of these approaches based on the exploitation of the satellite data (1998– 2004) of the captor Thematic Mapper (TM) of the Landsat 5 allowed us to obtain a set of maps photo interpretative and signs of vegetation which helped us to see the changes which happened in the milieu. Hence the movies of the degradation of the milieu in the area of Mecheria. The area of Mecheria identified as degraded on the whole, is the result of human actions. If urgent measures are not taken, this degradation, stressed by the phenomenon of dryness, may engender one or many processes of desert advance, endangering the natural milieu and the sustainability of the resources (soil, fauna and flora). Thanks to remote sensing, it’s possible to bring a help to the prospector provided the elements of surface may be discriminated and to reduce the duration of the prospection of the field in varied milieu and difficult of access.

References 1. Haddouche I, Mederbal K, Bouazza M, Benhanifia K (2004) Utilisation de la télédétection pour l’étude de la déforestation. Cas de la région de Djelfa. Colloque Méditerranéen sur la Gestion Durable des Espaces Montagnards. Dept. Sc. de la Terre et Agronomie, Univ. Tlemcen, 10–11 Oct. 2004. 10p 2. Halem M (1997) La steppe Algérienne : causes de la désertification et propositions pour un développement durable. Thèse de magistère. UNIV Sidi Bel Abes. 180p 3. Scanvic JY (1983) Utilisation de la télédétection dans les sciences de la terre. Manuels et méthodes dans les sc. de la terre. Manuels et méthodes. BRGM. France. 158p 4. Haddouche I, Benhamouda F, Djili K (2001) Cartographie pédopaysagique de synthèse par télédétection «images Landsat TM.». Cas de la région de Ghassoul (El Bayadh). Actes du

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes in Mecheria, Algerie

49

3ème COLLOQUE « Géophysique des sols et des Formations Superficielles » 25–26 Septembre 2001 Orlérans, France. INRA, Paris. ISBN: 2-7380-0991-3, pp 61–65 5. Benhanifia K, Haddouche I, Smahi Z, Bensaid K, Hamimed A (2003) Characterization of the deforestation effect in a semi-arid region by the use of satellite images. Proc. SPIE vol. 5232, RS 2003, pp 324–332, Remote sensing for agriculture, Ecosystems, and Hydrology V; eds. Feb. 2004 ISBN-0-8194-5142-8

Biodiversity and Actual Status of Narta and Dukati Lagoons in Albania Liljana Elmazi and Evelina Bazini

Abstract In this paper we have emphasise that sustainable tourism depends on community involvement and participation, communities should benefit from sustainable tourism, tourism is closely linked to the preservation of a healthy environment, which in turn is an essential element of tourism development and helps to raise public awareness on some biodiversity issues. An assessment of the interlinkages biological diversity and tourism was endorsed. This included consideration of the economic importance of tourism and its interrelationship with the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, as well as the potential impacts of tourism on biological diversity, including economic, social and environmental impacts. The management process comprises ten steps for management of sustainable tourism and biodiversity: (1) Baseline information and review; (2) Vision and goals; (3) Objectives; (4) Review of legislation and control measures; (5) Impact assessment; (6) Impact management; (7) Decision making; (8) Implementation; (9) Monitoring; (10) Adaptive management. Also we analyse the biological diversity in Albania, especially in Narta and Dukati lagoons. Keywords Biodiversity · Lagoon · Sustainable tourism

1 Biological Diversity and Tourism Within the Convention on Biological Diversity The fact that tourism is expanding in all regions, including in remote and sensitive areas such as islands and new mountain areas, and Antarctica, and that the main areas where tourism is based include: small island developing states and coastal

L. Elmazi (B) Faculty of Economics, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_5, 

51

52

L. Elmazi and E. Bazini

regions; mountains; species-rich and protected areas; and urban areas, emphasise the growing pressure on biological diversity [3]. Tourism has been discussed in the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as a cross-cutting issue for a number of years. The CBD was signed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro [1]. With 182 parties ratified so far, it is the most successful environmental convention. The Convention has three basic objectives: • Conservation of Biological Diversity • Sustainable use of its components • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits At the fifth Conference of the Parties (COP5) in May 2000 in Nairobi, Decision V/25 on Biological diversity and tourism was adopted, which recognized that the scale and expansion of tourism has major implications for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and for attainment of the Convention’s objectives. Decision V/25 noted the increasing importance of tourism for social and economic development at local, national and regional levels, and that, in relation to the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity: • sustainable tourism depends on community involvement and participation, • communities should benefit from sustainable tourism, • tourism is closely linked to the preservation of a healthy environment, which in turn is an essential element of tourism development and helps to raise public awareness on some biodiversity issues. An assessment of the inter-linkages biological diversity and tourism was endorsed. This included consideration of the economic importance of tourism and its interrelationship with the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, as well as the potential impacts of tourism on biological diversity, including economic, social and environmental impacts [2]. Furthermore, Decision V/25 accepted the invitation to participate in the international work program on sustainable tourism development under the Commission on Sustainable Development process with regard to biological diversity, in particular, with a view to contributing to international guidelines for activities related to sustainable tourism development in vulnerable terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems and habitats of major importance for biological diversity and protected areas, including fragile riparian and mountain ecosystems, bearing in mind the need for such guidelines to apply to activities both within and outside protected areas, and taking into account existing guidelines, and requests the Executive Secretary to prepare a proposal for the contribution guidelines, for example by convening an international workshop.

Biodiversity and Actual Status of Narta and Dukati Lagoons in Albania

53

2 Draft International Guidelines for Activities Related to Sustainable Tourism Development in Vulnerable Areas The International Guidelines for activities related to sustainable tourism development drafted at the Santo Domingo Workshop are intended to assist Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, public authorities and stakeholders at all levels, to apply the provisions of the Convention to the sustainable development and management of tourism activities. They will provide technical guidance to policy makers, decision makers and managers with responsibilities covering tourism and/or biodiversity, whether in national or local government, the private sector, indigenous and local communities, non governmental organizations or other organizations, on ways of working together with key stakeholders involved in tourism and biodiversity in order to contribute, interalia, to functioning ecosystems; sustainable tourism in functioning ecosystems; fair and equitable sharing of benefits; information and capacity-building; restoration of past damage.

2.1 Scope The guidelines cover all forms and activities of tourism, which should all come under the framework of sustainable development, in all geographic regions. These include, but are not limited to, conventional mass tourism, ecotourism, nature-and culture-based tourism, cruise tourism, leisure and sports tourism.

2.2 Management Process Steps The management process needs to be undertaken through a multi-stakeholder process. Interdepartmental and inter-organizational structure and processes should be established to ensure coordination to guide policy development and implementation and to improve awareness and exchange of knowledge among stakeholders at all levels. A consultative process, based on multi-stakeholder participation, should be established to ensure ongoing and effective dialogue and information sharing and the stakeholder engagement and participation in the whole process. The establishment of partnership should be encouraged. The management process comprises ten steps for management of sustainable tourism and biodiversity: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Baseline information and review; Vision and goals; Objectives; Review of legislation and control measures; Impact assessment;

54

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

L. Elmazi and E. Bazini

Impact management; Decision making; Implementation; Monitoring; Adaptive management.

2.3 Notification Process and Information Requirements Proposals for tourism development and activities at particular locations in relation to biodiversity, are to be submitted through the notification process. Proposers of tourism projects, including government agencies, should provide full and timely advance notice to relevant authorities and all stakeholders who may be affected, including indigenous and local communities, of proposed developments through a formal process of prior informed approval. Information provided should be made public, and public comment invited on all proposals for tourism development and activities. Government response to notification of proposals for tourism development may range from approvals, with or without conditions, to refusal of the proposal. Further information from the proposer and further research by other agencies may be requested by Governments.

2.4 Public Education and Awareness Raising Public education and awareness raising campaigns need to be addressed to both the professional sectors and the general public to inform them about the impacts of tourism on biological diversity, and good practices in this area. Public awareness campaign will need to be tailored for various audiences, particularly stakeholders including consumers of tourism, developers and tourism operators. The private sector could play an active role encouraging conservation among clients. Education and awareness-raising is required at all levels of government. Awareness should also be increased within and outside governments that vulnerable ecosystems and habitats are often located within lands and waters occupied or used by indigenous and local communities. It is also important to raise awareness within the academic sector responsible for training and research on issues regarding the harmonious interaction between biological diversity and sustainable tourism.

2.5 Capacity Building Capacity-building activities should aim to develop and strengthen the capacities of governments and all stakeholders to facilitate the effective implementation of

Biodiversity and Actual Status of Narta and Dukati Lagoons in Albania

55

these guidelines, and may be necessary at local, national, regional and international levels. Capacity-building activities can include strengthening human resources and institutional capacities; the transfer of know-how; the development of appropriate facilities; training in relation to biological diversity and sustainable tourism issues, and impact assessment and impact management techniques. Local communities should also be equipped with the necessary decision-making abilities, skills and knowledge in advance of future tourist in-flows, as well as with relevant capacity and training regarding tourism services and environmental protection. Capacity-building activities should provide assistance to stakeholders in undertaking all the steps of the management processes and in strengthening mechanisms for impact assessment. Capacity-building should also include the establishment of multi-stakeholder processes and the training of tourism professionals. Information exchange and collaboration regarding sustainable tourism implementation through networking and partnerships between all stakeholders affected by, or involved in tourism, including the private sector, should be encouraged.

3 Case Study: Narta and Dukati Lagoons 3.1 Historical Introduction The fisheries activities in Narta and Dukati lagoons are some of the oldest and most traditional activities in our country. Due to sensible alterations of the productions in different years, there were made important studies such as: “Study of the Narta lagoon in its hydrological, hydro chemical, hydro biological and fishing aspects (1987–1988)”. The same studies were carried out for Dukati lagoon in 1990. The coastal area of Narta and Dukati lagoons was monitored for the heavy metal presence, the physical and chemical parameters, the bacterial abundance and the dynamics of bivalve mussel populations (the mussels that have socio-economic importance). In 1994–1996 in cooperation with the Montpellier University (Hydrobiology lab) were made some expeditions in Narta lagoon about phytoplankton, the suspension matter and some physical chemical parameters. From the statistical data, the production has had great alterations in years and in species components. The species with the greatest alterations are: for the fish group, eel (Anguilla anguilla), gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), sand smelt (Aterina sp.) and crab (Carcinus aestuarii), and for the mussel group we have in Dukat, grooved carpet shell (Ruditapes decussatus), golden carpet shell (Venerupis aurea) and in Narta donax (Donax sp.)

56

L. Elmazi and E. Bazini

3.2 Mussel and Ichtyc Species Status It’s important to say that we don’t have species going toward extinction. However we must not forget the dystrophic crises and hydrological conditions and in the recent years also the irresponsible fishing and human intervention, which have caused serious problems for these ecosystems, which are crucial in the renovation of the fishery stock of the coastal area. These ecosystems have a typical Mediterranean hydrological structure and are similar with other Albanian lagoons. There some changes, especially for the Narta lagoon: The growth rate compared with other Albanian lagoons is lower of 20–40% The species compositions is worse than elsewhere High yield is obtained by high intensity fishing efforts and efficient fishery tools. The total of species are included in important species, threatened species and species that have socio-economic value. In this lagoon we don’t have species that are in extinction danger, and actually it is a clean area and we don’t have any critical conditions. However these ecosystems are threatened by: Uncontrolled fishing The income of polluted waters, which are potentially eutrophic The development of tourism and the urbanization, which threatens the biotopes of the species. 3.2.1 Rare Species These lagoons are typical Mediterranean and their ichtyofauna and malacofauna in general is the one that is present in Adriatic and Ionian coast. Studies show that the only rare species is the gastropod (Hydrobia ventosa) of Fam. Hydrobidae in the Narta lagoon. This gastropod inhabits the western side of the lagoon Priority for the existence of this species like for all the other species remains the improvement of the lagoon connection with the near coast. 3.2.2 Endemic Species The Narta and Dukati lagoon don’t have endemic species because their ecosystem has active connections with the near coast. However the experience of other Mediterranean countries suggest us that in function of the abiotic conditions the most representative species form local populations. The new FAO Codes (Art. 9–10) aim that the lagoon has to be populated only by its local population, made possible by an extensive aquaculture center.

Biodiversity and Actual Status of Narta and Dukati Lagoons in Albania

57

We must emphasize that the lagoon ichtyofauna is subject of coast-lagoon migrations, happening all year due to factors such as: abiotic, nutrient, habitat and reproduction conditions. 3.2.3 Important Species Narta Lagoon The main species of Narta lagoon, not only in the socio-economic meaning, but also as an indicator of the ecosystem state, are: Eel (A. anguilla), katadrom fish is the main species for the most of fishermen. Its production in different years changes with a maximum rate of 1:6 due to lagoon state, distrophic crises and in recent years related with decline eel stock in Mediterranean. When the eel migrates massively toward sea, its size shows the state of ecosystems, because although it’s eurihaline and euriterm species, temperature and especially high salinity are very restraining factors for its growth, often accompanied with massive losses during distrophic crises. Mullets Fam. Mugilidae, flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus), thinlip mullet (Liza ramada), leaping mullet (Liza saliens) have economic importance, especially (M. cephalus) who is also an indicator of the coast exploitment rate, sea communication and the fishery tools used, things that create conditions for a normal and sustainable of the lagoon and of the coastal area. The lagoon is rich with detrits, that shows the growth dynamic and a very high production over the past years but that nowadays is deteriorated. Sea breams, especially the gilthead sea bream (S. aurata) is a species that indicates the abundance of the mollusks in the lagoon, because they are its normal feed. It is also an indicator of the hydro chemical conditions, because often in winter due to lack of wintering places and low temperatures, the new generations are very reduced. Sea bass, European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), stotted sea bass (D. punctatus) are very greedy species, which hunt the lagoon ichtyofauna such as mullets, sand smelt etc. They are euriterm and eurihalin species and their production is in function of the coastal stock state and reproduction conditions, because it’s from the coast that their feed comes. Sand smelts, Mediterranean sand smelt (Atherina hepsetus), big-scale sand smelt (A. boyeri) can reach the 30% of lagoon production, they grow in weed areas, and migrates toward sea only in winter when temperature is lower than 5–6 C. The production alterations for this species is linked with hydro meteorological conditions and water level in the lagoon [Dedei Z, Bego F, Marika K, Kapedani R (2005) Unpublished]. Mussels Donax clams (Donax trunculus, D. semistriatus) are spanned in the coastal area of the Narta lagoon communications channels. They are not only of economic importance, but also of an environmental one, because their population dynamic shows the coast state alluvium and the area clearance.

58

L. Elmazi and E. Bazini

Dukati Lagoon The most important species are the one that we met in Narta lagoon, but we must note some other mussels of great importance. Grooved carpet shell (Ruditapes decussatus) and golden carpet shell (V. aurea) are concentrated in the lagoon-sea communication area. The density for surface unit is linked with the intensity of the communication lagoon-sea and from the respecting of biological exploitment parameters.

3.3 Species Habitats in Narta Lagoon Mullets, sand smelts and eels are widespread during the spring season and located in central and western side during other seasons. Their biggest concentration is near the lagoon-sea communication channels. Sea bass, sea bream and other fish of the Sparidae family are located in the areas with at least 50 cm. Depth and in the western side of the lagoon. In Dukati lagoon the ichtyc species have a uniform dispersion, meanwhile R. decussates and V. aurea are in great quantity near the channel. Ichtyofauna and malacofauna have had great alteration in their population dynamic, the maximum and constant production was reached in 1990 with great deterioration during 1994–1998 and now it has some improvements.

3.4 Main Endangered Species M. cephalus has had a drastically decline in the last years, for these reasons: the intensification of the fishing being one of the preferred species (especially his salted eggs), the diminution of the juveniles in the coastal area and the lagoon-sea channel malfunction. The endangered sea bream species are: stripped sea bream (Lithognathus mormyrus), common two bonded sea bream (Diplodus vulgaris), white sea bream (D. sargus), annular sea bream (D. annularis) and saddled sea bream (Oblada melanura). Their situation is deteriorated especially in 1997–1999 from bad communication lagoon-sea and the bad wintering conditions. The species that live in the aquatic plants populated area like: million (Lebistes reticulates), (A. fasciatus), (A. ibrus), (A. dispar) are threatened because nearly 900 ha of their habitat during summer and autumn is converted in soil, aggravating their population situation. These species are important because they feed with Anopheles, controlling their breeding. In the lagoon outfall we noted a sensible diminution of greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili) intensified fishing with trawling nets often under 20 m depth, which is prohibited [Dedei Z, Bego F, Marika K, Kapedani R (2005) Unpublished].

Biodiversity and Actual Status of Narta and Dukati Lagoons in Albania

59

In the Dukati lagoon the most endangered species is gilthead sea bream (S. aurata) because of the reduction of mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), and of the small quantity of fingerlings that enters in lagoon. R. decussates and V. aurea due to the great export demand were overfished, which has led to drastical diminution of the production. In Narta lagoon M. cephalus is, in function of the age widespread in the lagoon. The sea bream populates the central and western part of the lagoon, meanwhile L. reticulates and Aphanius sp. Populates the shallow areas and the economy channels with great concentration in the northern part. In Dukati lagoon S. aurata is located in the northyern and central part, meanwhile Ruditapes sp. and Venerupies sp. inhabit the lagoon side of the communication channel. The communities status in Narta lagoon: M. cephalus has become a rare species from a common one, it was before. The sparidae has become rare and concentrated only in the western part, Lebistes sp. and Aphanis sp. has passed from abundant to less that common. In Dukati lagoon S. aurata has a low abundance index, especially in the last 5 years, meanwhile R. decussates and V. aurea are in the normal abundance level [4].

3.5 Species Use and Exploitation In Narta & Dukati lagoon the main activities has been fishing, grapes and olives cultivation. Fishing has always been primal, not only for fish and mussel catch but also for the lagoon maintenance. The main activity of fishing are linked with the sea communication channels where the main part of the fish is caught, were the migration gates. A great number of fishermen are occupied all year in fishing with tools like eel nets etc. The mussel catch, which is a big activity, is made by hand or by dragging nets. In the fishing activity of the lagoon are other activities such as communication channel maintainment, the opening of channels inside lagoon for fish wintering, fresh water fish in order to attract fish to the lagoon. In the last decade these ecosystems were overfished from illegal fishermen, which are the double of the legal one. This has led to the diminution of the production and alterations and to selective high quality fishing, due to external demand. The same phenomena has happen with the mussel exploitation. The mullets are destinated for the national market, except for (M. cephalus), which altogether with its eggs is exported. Until 1990 the main part of eels captured were conserved and exported as smoke-cured eels. Sea bass, sea bream and sand smelt were exported and marketed internally. Today, with the great market value fish have, the trend is to catch 3–4 times more than lagoon capacity. It’s imperative the strengthening of fish administration and ecosystems protection as it occurs in all Mediterranean countries. Coastal lagoons are intermediate areas between land and sea, so they require a very special attention, even more than other coastal areas. In the surround

60

L. Elmazi and E. Bazini

area of Narta lagoon are caught mainly from 50,000–80,000 kg of mussel/year exported. Studies made by I.K.P. Durres show that are caught also the under 22 mm individuals, problem that need attention and further monitorization. In Dukati lagoon the average production in 1990 has been of 7,000 kg of fish and 1,500–2,000 of very high quality mussels Fish and mussel value in the lagoons is growing up and these ensure big incomes. In Narta lagoon are employed 100 fishermen and 20 mussel collectors and this makes it the main activity of the area. With the improvement that must be made in the fishing and administrable aspects and the improvement of the extensive aquaculture, this lagoon can stabilize production and be well administrated in order to grow socio economic value. In the Dukati lagoon are employed 12 people with fishery and mussel activity. The fishery administration must be seen in a wider point of view and analyzing its physical, biological, economical, social and cultural components [4].

4 Recommendations and Outlook While the guidelines were developed focusing on vulnerable terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems and habitats of major importance for biological diversity and protected areas, they are appropriate for tourism and biological diversity in all areas. The participants of the Santo Domingo Workshop strongly recommended that the guidelines should be demonstrated through the implementation of pilot projects, including new or existing projects. Parties should be actively encouraged to submit to the Secretariat reports and cases- studies on the findings of such projects which could be based on different levels of protection and tourism development impact in different types of ecosystems. There is no doubt that such regional alliances and cross-sector partnerships imply certain risks like national egoism, industry opposition and NGO difficulties to link with government and industry in a common scheme While a SADC-based agency would do the actual auditing and accreditation on a regional and cost-effective basis it could link to the global process being investigated by the Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council, a process described in other papers presented at this event.

References 1. Antolovi´c J (1998) Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) habitat in Vis Archipelago, the Adriatic Sea. Monachus science. The Monachus Guard 1(2):8–9 December 1998 2. Antolovi´c J (2005) Mediterranean news. The Monachus Guard 8(2):20–21 December 2005 3. Casale P, Freggi D, Basso R, Argano R (2005) Oceanic habitats for loggerhead turtles in the Mediterranean sea. Marine Turtle Newl 107:10–11 4. Haxhiu I, Uruci S (1998) Some data on marine turtles in Albania. UNEP (OCA)/MED WG.145/4 Annex IV, 1–5

Approximation of Sea Surface to Optimize Tide Gauge Network A.N. Vlasov, D.B. Volkov-Bogorodsky, V.A. Kurochkina, M.G. Mnushkin, and C.J. Blasi

Abstract Nearly all kind of activities on coastal areas need water data. These data are mostly provided by water authorities who are also responsible for the tide gauge. These gauges are located on various positions and for different purposes. Despite today’s possibility of remote control systems, tide gauges have to controlled and maintained by technicians, which means that this has a time and costly effect. Therefore investigations have been undertaken to find methods and tools which can the network optimize without the loss of information. There are various methods which can be used to find the best network. Most methods are using the required accuracy of the network purpose, the installation and the maintenance cost to find the optimized network under the given constrains. The methods are quiet well used on networks on inland waters. For coastal waters and especially with tidal influence the established methods are sparse. The allocation of tide gauges on coastal area depends mainly on the behaviour of the water surface. The physical processes which are in involved can be described and used by numerical models. But numerical models are not always present at every authority. Therefore a new method was required which only uses water level data. The new method is based on the Meshless Method were weight functions play a major role. The area of investigation is divided in sub domains were the tide gauges are the associated nodes. The paper describes the new method show an example. Keywords Coast · Meshfree Method · Tide

1 Introduction Nearly all kind of activities on coastal areas need water data. These data are mostly provided by water authorities who are also responsible for the tide gauge. These gauges are located on various positions and for different purposes. Despite today’s C.J. Blasi (B) Federal Institute of Hydrology, Koblenz, Germany e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_6, 

61

62

A.N. Vlasov et al.

possibility of remote control systems, tide gauges have to controlled and maintained by technicians, which mean that this has a time and costly effect. Therefore investigations have been undertaken to find methods and tools which can the network optimize without the loss of information. There are various methods which can be used to find the best network. Most methods are using the required accuracy of the network purpose, the installation and the maintenance cost to find the optimized network under the given constrains. The methods are quiet well used on networks on inland waters. For coastal waters and especially with tidal influence the established methods are sparse. The allocation of tide gauges on coastal area depends mainly on the behaviour of the water surface. The physical processes which are in involved can be described and used by numerical models. But numerical models are not always present at every authority. Therefore a new method was required which only uses water level data. The new method is based on the Meshless Method. The area of investigation is divided in sub domains were the tide gauges are the associated nodes.

2 Applied Methodology As the allocation of the tide gauges depend mainly on the physical processes of the particular region a method have to developed which is able to reconstruct sea surface in the given area by using the water readings of stations within the region. To optimizing the location of the tide gauges presents as a problem of limited number of gauges in a huge area. In the area of investigation gauges appear in linear position (along the coast line). In addition to these, each tide gauge has an immense huge amount of data. The above mentioned special conditions determine the mathematical methods to solve the problem. The probability theory and mathematical statistics methods were used for statistical data processing. Data concerning each tide gauge were considered as realization of a random variable. Correlation and regression analyses were performed to optimally position of gauges. Approximation theory methods were applied for data approximation for the whole region of investigation and illustratively representing water surface level as well as differential geometry methods (curvature determination) to optimize positioning of tide gauges in the observed area. A new methodology was suggested which uses radial basis functions. The approximation method being developed for the region can be classified as the “Meshless Method” [1], based on the idea of local approximations in sub domain blocks, which means areas of influence. For each tide gauge with its abundance of minute-by-minute measurement data an analysis and one-dimensional approximation were performed in order to considerably reduce the volume of stored information without loss of accuracy. The accuracy of the applied methodology is in the same range as the accuracy of tide gauge itself.

Approximation of Sea Surface to Optimize Tide Gauge Network

63

To solve the problem of optimally positioning tide gauges, an approach based on differential geometry methods was offered which allowed determining the most critical locations in the water area through analyzing the curvature of the constructed surface of the value being approximated [5]. If the surface is defined by equation ϕ = ϕ (x, y), the first and second quadratic form coefficients will be respectively determined as follows: E = 1 + ϕx2 , F = ϕx ϕy , G = 1 + ϕy2 , ϕxy ϕyy ϕxx L=  , M=  , N=  . 1 + ϕx2 + ϕy2 1 + ϕx2 + ϕy2 1 + ϕx2 + ϕy2

(1)

Principal curvatures κ 1 and κ 2 are determined as roots of quadratic equation: κ 2 (EG − F 2 ) − κ(LG − 2MF + NE) + (LN − M 2 ) = 0

(2)

As principal curvatures κ 1 and κ 2 of the surface are determined from a quadratic equation, in accordance with the Vi˙eta theorem for mean H and Gaussian (total) K curvature we get their formulae through the first and second quadratic form coefficients as follows: H=

1 LN − M 2 1 LG − 2MF + NE , K = κ κ = . (κ1 + κ2 ) = 1 2 2 2 EG − F 2 EG − F 2

(3)

Substituting expressions (2) for the first and second quadratic form coefficients into (3), we obtain the expressions for the mean i Gaussian curvature:     2 ϕ − 2ϕ ϕ ϕ + 1 + ϕ 2 ϕ 2 1 + ϕ xx x y xy yy ϕxx ϕyy − ϕxy y x 1 H=  , K =  2 . 3 2 2 + ϕ2 1 + ϕ 2 2 x y 1 + ϕx + ϕy

(4)

To solve the above problems the Sea Mirror program was developed and implemented which allows accumulating, ordering, storing and processing raw data within the database. For each tide gauge, the Sea Mirror database collects water surface level extremes Uk and instants tk at which they are attained. Approximation is applied over the intervals between extremes, which significantly reduces the data volume to store. The  approximating function in the interval tk , tk+1 etween two subsequent extremes has the form: U(t) = φ0 (t) + Uδ (t),

Uk+1 − Uk Uk+1 + Uk + cos φ0 (t) = 2 2



π tk+1 − t 2 tk+1 − tk

 , (5)

64

A.N. Vlasov et al.

Fig. 1 Local data approximation

Uδ (t) =

Mk

Aj φj (t),

φj (t) = sin

i=1



tk+1 − t , πj tk+1 − tk

Mk ≤ 8.

(6)

There are measurement errors in the neighborhood of the extremes which contribute to the estimation error of its attainment instant (Fig. 1). Therefore, additional approximation to obtain more accurate instants textr and extremes Uextr is used in these neighborhoods. As a result, high accuracy is achieved comparable to the accuracy of gauge itself. To reconstruct water surface in the given area, the approximation based on the least squares technique was performed using measurement data for the whole region. The approximation used the system of basis functions that are bound to specific tide gauges and represented analytically as those with a set of free parameters. The distinguishing feature of the system is that it simulates the data at the measuring points identically. Functions used are modified Gaussian functions [4] which belong to the class of radial basis functions [3, 2, 6]:



(x − xk ) cos θk + (y − yk ) sin θk Ak  

(y − yk ) cos θk − (x − xk ) sin θk 2 − Bk

2

ϕk (x, y) = exp −

(7)

where (xk , yk ) are local coordinates of a tide gauge in the approximation region; Ak , Bk and θ k are parameters of some ellipse with center (xk , yk ). This ellipse defined by semi-axes Ak , Bk and rotated by angle θ k is the influence domain of the function in approximation. In the interior of the influence domain, function ϕ k (x, y) varies no more than e times the value at the tide gauge itself (e is the base of natural logarithms). In the exterior of the influence domain, function decreases exponentially and asymptotically approaches zero at infinity. The function represents a specific bell-shaped surface with level curves in the form of ellipses.

Approximation of Sea Surface to Optimize Tide Gauge Network

65

Fig. 2 Region of investigation and locations of tide gauges

The proposed approach was developed and tested in the North Sea area near the Port of Wilhelmshaven, Jade Bay, Germany. Figure 2 shows the region of investigation and the location of the tide gauges. The areas of influence of each tide gauge, which called sub-domain blocks are shown as circles in this case. The data relevant to this region were entered into the database of the Sea Mirror program and statistical processing and analysis were performed over a long time span. Statistical series comprised the data starting from 1935 up to the present. The water level time-dependent deviation was calculated using the Sea Mirror program by the algorithm employing measurement data approximation with Meshless Methods. Figure 3 shows the fluctuation dynamics of the sea level in August, 2001, on the change of tide (time span was taken equal to 20 minutes). These plots clearly demonstrate just the opposite behavior of flow and ebb tidal waves at the mouth of the bay: where the flow wave level rises, the ebb wave level decreases.

Fig. 3 Fluctuation dynamics of the sea level in August, 2001

66

A.N. Vlasov et al.

3 Conclusions The analysis of data approximation with harmonic and trigonometric polynomials and Gaussian exponential basis functions in the total observation region demonstrated that the best results are obtained using Gaussian basis functions. The approximating functions simulate the water level values up to the accuracy of tide gauges at the measuring points and smoothly connect these values accordingly to the form of the influence domains between the points. There is an opportunity to control the approximating surface by varying α k and β k values, thus making it more or less smooth in the domain of drastic data changes by means of enlarging or reducing the influence domain of these functions. It is also possible to take into account the features of the flow wave advance nearby the coastline by choosing the influence domains geometry. Trigonometric polynomials prove most effective in one-dimensional case for time smoothing and approximation of data at an individual measuring point.

References 1. Belytschko T, Krongauz Y, Organ D, Fleming M, Krysl P (1996) Meshless methods: an overview and recent developments. Comput Method Appl Mech Eng 139:3–47 2. Broomhead DS, Lowe D (1988) Multivariable functional interpolation and adaptive networks. Compl Syst 2:321–355 3. Buhmann MD (1990) Multivariate cardinal interpolation with radial-basis functions. Constr Approx 6:225–255 4. Haykin S (1994) Neural networks: a comprehensive foundation. Macmillan, New York 5. Pogorelov AV (1974) Differential geometry. Nauka, Moscow 6. Wendland H (1995) Piecewise polynomial, positive definite and compactly supported radial basis functions of minimal degree. Adv Comput Math 4:389–396

Improvement of Germination of Three Endemic Species of the Sierra Nevada (S. Spain) M. Díaz-Miguel, F. Serrano, and J.L. Rosúa

Abstract Three shrub species—Genista versicolor, Reseda complicata and Thymus serpylloides subsp. serpylloides—endemic of the Sierra Nevada (Spain) and used in the process of replanting the ski slopes of this zone have been studied with the aim of improving their germinative capacity. This work presents the results from a laboratory experiment conducted at three different temperatures (15, 20 and 25◦ C), studying the effect on germination percentage and rate after the application of certain plant-growth regulators: Inabarplant IV, Ethrel, benzyladenine, and gibberellic acid 3. From the results, it can be concluded that the three species studied present different optimal germination temperatures: 15◦ C for G. versicolor, 25◦C for R. complicata and 20◦ C for T. serpylloides. With respect to the phytoregulators treatments, both in G. versicolor as well as T. serpylloides, the action of the benzyladenine was notable at 10 ppm and 25◦ C, which prompted an increase of 114 and 49% over their respective controls. In the case of R. complicata seeds, the treatments were generally more effective. Thus, Ethrel at 10 and 100 ppm improved the germination indices by 60 and 76%, respectively, benzyladenine at 10 ppm registered a 60% improvement, and GA3 at 100 ppm a 60% improvement, in all cases at 25◦ C, the optimal temperature for seed germination in this species. Keywords Endemic species · Germination · Mediterranean high mountain · Plant growth regulators · Sierra Nevada National Park

1 Introduction The Sierra Nevada massif in the SE of the Iberian Peninsula, forming part of the Betic Sierras, measures some 90 km in length and covers roughly 200,000 ha. In contrast with the other Betic mountains, which are predominantly calcareous, the M. Díaz-Miguel (B) Departamento de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_7, 

67

68

M. Díaz-Miguel et al.

central core of the massif, with the highest peaks, is siliceous and furthermore presents the highest elevations in Europe, after the Alps, reaching 3,482 m asl (Mulhacen). In addition, the Betic range is the most southerly of the continent, at 37◦ north. All of these characteristics have contributed to make the Sierra Nevada one of the richest reserves of plant diversity in Europe. Its great floristic importance, harbouring more than 2,100 vascular plants and, among these, more than 80 endemic species [8], has been one of the main reasons for granting this area the highest degree of legal and environmental protection, being declared a National Park in 1999. Within the geographical limits of the park, stands the Sierra Nevada Ski Station, between 2,000 and 3,325 m asl. As in other Alpine systems in which skiing is practised seasonally, this zone is subjected to perturbations related to the presence of the ski slopes. It has been amply demonstrated that the conditioning the slopes in summer with heavy equipment disturbs the uppermost layers of the soil, damaging the vegetation [6, 14, 22, 24, 27, 29, 32]. In winter, the preparation of the slopes and the skiing itself compacts the snow, which loses its isolating capacity, exposing the underlying vegetation to temperatures as low as –10◦C [24]. By contrast, in the areas with loose snow, temperatures rarely fall below 0◦ C [23, 25] All this disturbance has consequences for the composition, diversity, and productivity of plant species in these habitats, exerting a negative impact on the functionality and stability of the ecosystem [19, 28, 32]. Restoration of the plant cover on the Sierra Nevada began in a partial way in 1986 [11]. With the World Ski Cup, held on the mountain in 1995, the slopes were submitted to ambitious conditioning work that inflicted heavy impact on this zone, which harbours many of the endemic species of the Sierra Nevada. Therefore, in 1992, more extensive corrective measures were implemented in an effort to counteract the deterioration. Among the actions taken, the affected zones were replanted, using a series of species that form part of the natural dynamics of the plant communities of this habitat [26] in accord with the authors that point out the need to use autochthonous species in recovery processes of Alpine vegetation [20, 30]. In the Sierra Nevada, the recovery involved asexual reproduction as well as direct sowing, which was more economical and advantageous in relation to gene variability [12, 15], although in the latter case the results desired were not achieved. As the first step in any type of replanting of altered zones, knowledge of the different factors governing germination success is essential in these types of wild species, which often present some type of dormancy [5, 7]. Temperature is one of the most important environmental factors related to the regulation of the germination. In addition, phytohormones are presumed to be determinant in this process [17]. Despite that studies on autochthonous plants of the Iberian Peninsula are becoming more frequent [10, 13, 18, 21] little information is available on the endemic species of the Sierra Nevada [2, 3]. Therefore, we undertook the present laboratory study on the behaviour of three endemic species used in restoration work in the zones affected by the ski station, examining the above-mentioned factors in order to contribute to better knowledge of the germinative process of these species for their potential use in the currently degraded areas as well as others that might be affected in the future by any type of habitat alteration.

Improvement of Germination of Three Endemic Species of the Sierra Nevada (S. Spain)

69

2 Material and Methods From three endemic species of the Sierra Nevada, Genista versicolor (Leguminosae), Reseda complicata (Resedaceae), and Thymus serpylloides subsp. serpylloides (Labiatae), seeds were collected in the natural habitat of the plants, between 1,900–2,650, 2,400–3,050, 2,200–2,800 m, respectively. Once separated from their fruits, the seeds were cleaned and sorted for uniformity in size and colour, eliminating those having any type of seed-coat damage. The seeds were stored in a chamber at 4◦ C for at least 2 months before beginning the experiments. For the germination study, the seeds were surface sterilized with sodium hypochlorite at 1% for 5 min and then washed with abundant distilled, sterilized water. Samples of 50 seeds from each of the species were placed in Petri dishes 10 cm in diameter, over filter paper moistened with 10 ml of sterile distilled water (control) or with the same quantity of the solutions of the different treatments tested: Inabarplant IV (0.2% indolbutyric acid, 2% naphthalenacetic acid, and 15% fungicide captan), Ethrel (2-cloroethylphosphonic acid), benzyladenine, and type-3 gibberellic acid. All solutions were applied at concentrations of 1, 10, and 100 ppm and adjusted to pH 6.2. In total for each species, four replicates were used for each treatment and concentration. All the manipulations were performed in a laminarflow chamber with green light. The germination assays were made in darkness in a thermostatically controlled chamber at 15, 20 and 25◦C. Each day, in all cases over the 20 days, samples were taken from the dishes to calculate the germination percentage, considering a seed to have germinated when radicle protrusion was visible. In addition, the T50 was calculated as an estimate of the germination rate, expressed as the time needed to reach half of the maximum germination level in each case. Lost moisture was replenished every 6–7 days with sterile distilled water. The data were submitted to an analysis of variance and the means were compared using Duncan’s test.

3 Results and Discussion From the data presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3 as well as a comparison of the data of the respective controls (seeds incubated in water), it can be concluded that the germination of the three species studied differed in their behaviour with respect to temperature. Thus, G. versicolor germinated better the lower the temperature, although these differences were not statistically significant (37.5, 32.5 and 17.5% at 15, 20 and 25◦ C, respectively). In any case, at 15◦ C the germination rate expressed by the T50 value was higher than for the other temperatures (6.6 vs. 10.5 and 9). In the case of the R. complicata seeds (Table 2), the opposite was true, and 25◦C (the highest temperature of those assayed) presented the best results (50% germination), doubling the values registered at the other two temperatures (20% at 15◦ C and 25% at 20◦ C), in this case with statistical significance. It is noteworthy that the germination rate at this temperature had a T50 value of 2.3, as opposed to 11.8 and 11.0 at 15 and 20◦ C,

70

M. Díaz-Miguel et al. Table 1 Degree of germination and T50 in Genista versicolor seeds 15◦ C

20◦ C

25◦ C

Treatment

% germination

T50

% germination

T50

% germination

T50

Control IP 1 IP 10 IP 100 E1 E 10 E 100 BA 1 BA 10 BA 100 GA 1 GA 10 GA 100

37 ± 12 a,b,A 30 ± 4 a,b,A 20 ± 4 b,A,B 20 ± 4 b,A 33 ± 9 a,b,A 43 ± 3 a,b,A 53 ± 5 a,A 48 ± 12 a,A 50 ± 4 a,A 33 ± 5 a,b,A 30 ± 4 a,b,A 30 ± 11 a,b,A 30 ± 0 a,b,A

6.6 6.0 12.0 12.0 8.7 6.2 5.2 11.2 8.3 12.8 9.3 13.0 9.3

32 ± 5 a,b,c,d,A 17 ± 6 d,A 32 ± 6 a,b,c,d,A 30 ± 7 a,b,c,d,A 20 ± 7 c,d,A,B 18 ± 6 d,B 40 ± 0 a,A,B 35 ± 3 a,b,c,A 38 ± 5 a,b,A 28 ± 6 a,b,c,d,A 22 ± 3 b,c,d,A 22 ± 5 b,c,d,A 22 ± 3 b,c,d,A

10.5 14.1 5.4 7.4 10.2 7.2 7.2 10.0 5.8 7.6 5.5 12.6 11.0

17 ± 3 b,c,A 22 ± 13 a,b,A 7 ± 5 b,c,B 17 ± 8 b,c,A 3 ± 3 c,B 10 ± 4 b,c,B 28 ± 6 a,b,B 28 ± 5 a,b,A 38 ± 6 a,A 10 ± 4 b,c,B 27 ± 6 a,b,A 10 ± 5 b,c,B 10 ± 4 b,c,B

9.0 7.0 15.0 8.6 5.0 5.0 6.9 8.4 10.2 5.4 6.7 10.0 13.1

Concentrations of treatments are expressed in ppm. Values of T50 are expressed in days. Each value of germination is the mean of four replicates and is accompanied by its standard error. Results followed by the same letters in lower case in each column and by upper case in each row show no significant differences (p = 0.05) IP: Inabarplant IV, E: Ethrel, BA: Benzyladenine, GA: Gibberellic acid type 3

Table 2 Degree of germination and T50 in Reseda complicata seeds 15◦ C

20◦ C

25◦ C

Treatment

% Germination

T50

% Germination

T50

% Germination

T50

Control IP 1 IP 10 IP 100 E1 E 10 E 100 BA 1 BA 10 BA 100 GA 1 GA 10 GA 100

20 ± 4 c,d,e,B 8 ± 2 d,e,C 8 ± 2 d,e,B 3 ± 2 e,C 60 ± 0 a,A 38 ± 10 b,c,B 58 ± 6 a,B 23 ± 8 c,d,B 43 ± 3 a,b,C 23 ± 6 c,d,B 33 ± 10 b,c,A 20 ± 7 c,d,e,B 13 ± 3 d,e,B

11.8 6.7 14.8 4.5 10.4 7.7 5.9 11.6 10.5 11.6 13.2 10.0 9.4

25 ± 5 c,d,e,B 20 ± 4 c,d,e,B 8 ± 5 e,B 22 ± 3 c,d,e,B 48 ± 14 b,A 68 ± 6 a,A 68 ± 3 a,B 65 ± 2 a,A 70 ± 0 a,B 33 ± 3 b,c,A,B 30 ± 4 c,d,A 28 ± 5 c,d,B 13 ± 6 d,e,B

11.0 10.0 10.8 9.4 9.3 11.4 8.8 9.2 9.5 10.2 10.3 9.7 9.5

50 ± 8 b,c,A 40 ± 0 c,A 50 ± 8 b,c,A 63 ± 3 a,b,c,A 60 ± 4 a,b,c,A 80 ± 4 a,A 88 ± 6 a,A 60 ± 0 a,b,c,A 83 ± 5 a,A 48 ± 8 b,c,A 50 ± 4 b,c,A 63 ± 3 a,b,c,A 80 ± 4 a,A

2.3 2.7 2.3 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.5 3.4 2.9 3.7 2.4 2.7 3.4

Concentrations of treatments are expressed in ppm. Values of T50 are expressed in days. Each Value of germination is the mean of four replicates and is accompanied by its standard error. Results followed by the same letters in lower case in each column and by upper case in each row show no significant differences (p = 0.005) IP: Inabarplant IV, E: Ethrel, BA: Benzyladenine, GA: Gibberellic acid type 3

Improvement of Germination of Three Endemic Species of the Sierra Nevada (S. Spain)

71

Table 3 Degree of germination and T50 in Thymus serpylloides seeds 15◦ C

20◦ C

25◦ C

Treatment

% Germination

T50

% Germination

T50

% Germination

T50

Control IP 1 IP 10 IP 100 E1 E 10 E 100 BA 1 BA 10 BA 100 GA 1 GA 10 GA 100

60 ± 4 a,b,c,B 70 ± 5 a,b,A 50 ± 4 b,c,A 48 ± 8 b,c,A 59 ± 5 a,b,c,A 58 ± 3 a,b,c,A 60 ± 7 a,b,c,A 40 ± 4 c,A 63 ± 3 a,b,c,A 40 ± 4 c,A 70 ± 4 a,b,A 78 ± 9 a,b,A 78 ± 9 a,b,A

2.8 2.8 3.2 3.3 3.5 5.0 4.7 4.0 4.1 4.0 3.1 2.8 2.3

72 ± 5 a,b,A 88 ± 5 a,A 47 ± 11 c,d,A 41 ± 3 c,d,A 35 ± 3 d,B 28 ± 3 d,A 44 ± 11 c,d,A 38 ± 10 d,A 50 ± 10 c,d,A 28 ± 3 d,A,B 72 ± 3 a,b,A 38 ± 5 d,B 60 ± 3 b,c,A

2.0 2.5 3.8 1.8 2.3 3.2 3.2 2.8 2.0 5.4 3.6 2.6 2.8

50 ± 4 b,c,B 38 ± 5 b,c,d,e,B 28 ± 3 c,d,e,A 60 ± 8 a,b,A 15 ± 3 e,C 47 ± 16 b,c,A 54 ± 6 a,b,A 28 ± 3 c,d,e,A 75 ± 9 a,A 22 ± 6 d,e,B 40 ± 3 b,c,d,B 47 ± 8 b,c,B 60 ± 3 a,b,A

3.3 4.7 3.7 4.5 5.6 3.8 3.3 1.8 4.1 4.6 3.5 1.6 3.2

Concentrations of treatments are expressed in ppm. Values of T50 are expressed in days. Each value of germination is the mean of four replicates and is accompanied by its standard error. Results followed by the same letters in lower case in each column and by upper case in each row show no significant differences (p = 0.05) IP: Inabarplant IV, E: Ethrel, BA: Benzyladenine, GA: Giberrellic acid type 3

respectively. In the case of T. serpylloides (Table 3), the germination percentage in no case fell below 50% (25◦ C), reaching a maximum of 72% at 20◦ C, this value being statistically significant in comparison with the other two (60% at 15◦C and 50% at 25◦C). In the zones to be restored, within the area of the ski slopes of the Sierra Nevada Ski Station, previous field assays used the phytoregulator inabarplant IV as a rooting stimulant [26], and thus, given that the auxins in some cases promote germination [4, 17], whether directly or indirectly, by inducing ethylene production [1], in the present work this compound was used to determine whether it encouraged germination. In none of the cases studied, was any beneficial effect detected, and at times it in fact inhibited germination, as in the case of R. complicata at 15◦ C. In G. versicolor, only the application of de 10 ppm at 20◦ C matched the germination rate reached by control, though the germination rate was higher given that a T50 of 5.4 was registered, as opposed to 10.5 control. These results reflect that its effect is post-germinative, favouring the formation of roots but not directly promoting germination. On the other hand, in G. versicolor and R. complicata, the imbibition of the seeds in ethrel, a compound which at pH > 4.0 hydrolyses and produces ethylene, acts positively on germination, implying that, at least in these two species, inabarplant IV does not promote ethylene synthesis. In any event, in G. versicolor, ethrel did not provoke significantly higher germination percentages than control, although germination values did surpass control by 40%, as in the treatment E100 at 15◦C. More notable were the results for R. complicata, where E 1 ppm at 15◦C surpassed control values by 200%, E 10 and E 100 at

72

M. Díaz-Miguel et al.

20◦ C by 170%, and E100 at 25◦ C by 75%, all these differences being statistically significant. On the other hand, the ethrel treatments in general notably increased the germination rate in these two species, as reflected in the T50 data (Tables 2 and 3). This was not the case with T. serpylloides, in which ethrel did not encourage germination and at 20◦ C even caused inhibition at the three concentrations tested. The imbibition of the seeds in benzyladenine gave quite similar to those described for ethrel. In fact, this phytoregulator boosted germination of G. versicolor and R. complicata seeds, which reached total germination values that practically equalled those reached in the case of soaking with ethrel, although the germination rate was not so high. Similarly, for T. serpylloides, in all cases except at 25◦ C (where 10 ppm benzyladenine surpassed control by almost 50%) this compound behaved the same as ethrel, inhibiting germination (Table 3). The fact that cytokines can stimulate ethylene production [9] could explain the similar results for BA and ethrel application. Many reports credit gibberellins with promoting seed germination [16] and in fact the exogenous application of this type of phytohormone not only augments germination but can often break dormancy [7]. Nevertheless, this same type of gibberellic acid is not always involved in these processes. In the case of G. versicolor, it is clear that GA3 is incapable of breaking primary dormancy of seeds at any of the temperatures assayed (Table 1) and the same occurred in R. complicata at 15 and 20◦ C. Nevertheless, at 25◦ C, the behaviour of this phytohormone proved more favourable and in fact with 100 ppm reached a germination rate of 80%, this being statistically significant as opposed to control seeds at the three temperatures studied, despite the increase of more than 28% with 10 and 100 ppm (Table 3). From the results of the present work, it can be concluded that, at least under the experimental conditions tested, the germination of seeds from the three species studied improved with some of the treatments applied, a step preparatory to future studies under field conditions.

References 1. Abeles FB, Morgan PW, Salveit ME Jr (1992) Ethylene in plant biology, 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, CA 2. Angosto T, Matilla AJ (1993) Variations in seeds of three endemic leguminous species at different altitudes. Plant Physiol 87:329–334 3. Ayerbe L, Ceresuela JL (1982) Germinación de especies endémicas españolas. An. INIA. Ser. Forest 6:17–41 4. Bandursky RS, Cohen JD, Slovin JP, Reinecke DM (1995) Auxin biosynthesis and metabolism. In: Davies PJ (ed) Plant hormones: physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 39–65 5. Baskin CC, Baskin JH (1998) Seeds: ecology, biogeography and evolution of dormancy and germination. Academic Press, San Diego, CA 6. Bayfield NG (1996) Long-term changes in colonization of bulldozed ski pistes at Cairn Gorm, Scotland. J Appl Ecol 33:1359–1365 7. Bewley JD, Black M (1994) Seeds: physiology and development and germination, 2nd edn. Plenum Press, New York

Improvement of Germination of Three Endemic Species of the Sierra Nevada (S. Spain)

73

8. Blanca G (2002) Flora amenazada y endémica de Sierra Nevada. Junta de Andalucía Ed., Granada 9. Brault M, Maldiney R (1999) Mechanisms of cytokinin action. Plant Physiol Biochem 37:403–412 10. Castro J, Romero AT (1999) Dormancy and germination in Cistus clusii (Cistaceae): effect of biotic and abiotic factors. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 54:19–28 11. Chacón J, Ortega F, Pulido A, Rosúa JL (1989) Estudio de impacto ambiental del anteproyecto de reparación y acondicionamiento de la pista del río para el Campeonato del Mundo de Esquí Alpino con instalación de nieve artificial y nuevos remontes. University of Granada, Spain 12. Cuisance P (1988) La multiplicación de las plantas y el vivero. Mundi-Prensa, Madrid 13. Escudero A, Carnes LF, Pérez- García F (1997) Seed germination of gypsophytes in semi-arid central Spain. J Arid Environ 36:487–497 14. Haeberli W (1992) Construction, environmental problems and natural hazards in periglacial mountain belts. Permafrost Periglac Process 3:111–124 15. Hartman HT, Kester DE (1989) Propagación de plantas, principios y prácticas. C.E.S.A., México 16. Karssen CM, Zaórski S, Kepczyñski J, Groot SPC (1989) Key role for endogenous gibberellins in the control of seed germination. Ann Bot 63:71–80 17. Kucera B, Cohn MA, Leubner-Metzgor G (2005) _ Plant hormone interactions during seed dormancy release and germination. Seed Sci Res 15(4):281–307 18. Merlo E, Alemán MM (1996) Efecto de la temperatura sobre la germinación de especies de Astragalus L. y Genista L. (Leguminosae). Monogr. Fl. Veg. Béticas 9:135–146 19. Mulder CPH, Uliassi DD, Doak DF (2001) Physical stress and diversity-productivity relationships: the role of positive interactions. PNAS 98:6704–6708 20. Papst WA, Morgan JW (1992) Using indigenous species for alpine rehabilitation. Indigenotes 5:5 21. Peña J, Aparicio-Tejo P, Sánchez-Díaz M (1988) Dormancy mechanism and the effect of scarification in the germination of Halimium halimifolium seeds. J Plant Physiol 132:54–58 22. Pröbstl U (1990) Skisport und vegetation. Stöppel, Weildheim, Germany 23. Rixen C (2002) Artificial snow and snow additives on ski pistes: interactions between snow cover, soil and vegetation. PhD Thesis. University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland 24. Rixen C, Casteller A, Schweingruber FH, Stoeckli V (2004) Age analysis helps to estimate plant performance on ski pistes. Bot Helvetica 114:127–138 25. Rixen C, Stoeckli V, Ammann W (2003) Does artificial snow production affect soil and vegetation of ski pistes? Perspect Plant Ecol Evolut Syst 5:219–230 26. Rosúa JL, Martín JC (1996) Propagación de especies propias de la alta montaña mediterránea y su utilización en la restauración de la cubierta vegetal. In: Chacón J, Rosúa JL (eds) 1st Conferencia Internacional Sierra Nevada: Conservación y Desarrollo Sostenible, vol V, Granada, pp 77–87 27. Ruth-Balaganskaya E, Myllynem-Malinem K (2000) Soil nutrient status and revegetation practices of downhill sking areas in Finnish Lapland: a case study of Mt Ylläs. Landscape Urban Plann 50:259–268 28. Tilman D (1996) Biodiversity: population versus ecosystem stability. Ecology 77:350–363 29. Titus JH, Tsuyuzaki S (1999) Ski slope vegetation of Mount Hood, Oregon, USA. Arct Antarct Alp Res 31:283–292 30. Tsuyuzaki S (1995) Ski slope vegetation in Central Honshu. Japan Environ Manag 19: 773–777 31. Watson A (1985) Soil erosion and vegetation damage near ski lifts at Cairn Gorm, Scotland. Biol Conserv 33:363–381 32. Wipf S, Rixen C, Fischer M, Schmid B, Stoeckli V (2005) Effects of ski piste preparation on alpine vegetation. J Appl Ecol 42(2):306–316

Early Growth of Quercus castaneifolia (C.A. Meyer) Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation Masoud Tabari, Javad Mirzaei, and Hadi Daroodi

Abstract The influence of shading, irrigation and weeding on survival, growth and morphology of 1-year Quercus castaneifolia seedlings was studied in north of Iran. The seedlings were grown under eight treatments including full-light versus artificial shading, irrigation versus non-irrigation and weed presence versus weed removing at three replicates. At the end of the first growing season seedling survival in all treatments was 100%. Weed removing had positive effect on height, diameter growth, slenderness coefficient and leaf area of Q. castaneifolia. Irrigation enhanced diameter growth and leaf area, and shading increased leaf area. Irrigation had no significant effect on plant growth where the weed was removed. In weed plots seedlings growth and leaf area were greater in shading than in full-light. The results indicated that for 1-year Q. castaneifolia seedlings, weeding, in contrast to irrigation, is an essential factor. Where the weed competition is a difficulty, plantation with higher stem length should be applied. Keywords Growth · Irrigation · Quercus castaneifolia · Seedling · Shading · Weed competition

1 Introduction Caspian forests are the most valuable forests in north of Iran covering the northern slopes and foothills of Alborz mountain range in southern part of the Caspian Sea. Quercus castaneifolia (C. A. Mey) is one of the most prevalent species growing in these forests [12]. Reduction of standing volume as well as defect of natural regeneration in Quercus stands has made concerned Iranian silviculturists. To this reason, its natural regeneration problem has led forest managers to use the artificial M. Tabari (B) Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_8, 

75

76

M. Tabari et al.

regeneration, where regeneration establishment is difficult [27]. Some factors negatively affect growth and establishment of artificial regeneration. In literature has been referred that weeds directly compete with seedlings for soil moisture and nutrients, and have a negative effect on its survival and growth [4]. Likewise, strong radiation can limit plant survival and growth by photo damage [22] and by reducing soil water content through evaporation and transpiration [28]. Numerous studies have addressed the issues of how the performance of planted or naturally established woody seedlings are affected by shade [33, 28, 1, 10, 23, 30, 21], herb competition [24, 2, 25, 9, 11, 13, 25] and irrigation [6, 15]. The interaction of irrigation, shading and weeds on this performance is complicated. For instance, shading may have a positive direct effect on seedling establishment and humid content [19], but a negative indirect effect mediated by an enhancement of weed growth. In addition, weeds directly compete with seedlings for resources (especially water and nutrient), a negative effect, but they also diminish radiation and may increase low winter temperatures at the ground level, indirect positive effects that may facilitate seedling establishment and increase seedlings growth [25]. Furthermore, soil moisture may have a negative effect due to enhancement of weed growth, but a positive effect on seedling growth and establishment. Generally, it was believed that in Caspian forests intensive sun light, low water availability and weed competition are the major factors negatively affecting growth and establishment of man-made Q. castaneifolia seedlings, particularly in dry season (summer). So, in this experiment, the interaction of shading, irrigation and weeding on early growth and establishment of Q. castaneifolia seedlings was studied in the first growing season.

2 Materials and Methods A field experiment was carried out at Tarbiat Modares University, north of Iran (51◦46 E, 36◦47 N, 15 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 1). The experiment was conducted in a flat, deep soil and homogenous area that was formerly a mixed oak stand. Mean annual

Turkey Afghanistan Iran Noor Iraq Pakistan

Fig. 1 Position of the study area in north of Iran

Growth of Q. castaneifolia Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation Temperature ( o C)

77

Precipitation (mm)

80

160 Temperature (° c)

70

140

Rain (mm)

60

120

Dec.

0

Nov.

0

Oct.

20 Sep.

10 Aug.

40

Jul.

20

Jun.

60

May

30

Apr.

80

Mar.

40

Feb.

100

Jan.

50

Fig. 2 Embrotermic curve of the study area, based on meteorological data

rainfall is 803.4 mm and a distinct rainy season occurs between August and May. Mean annual temperature is 17◦C and the dry season comes about between May and August (Fig. 2). In April 2005, 384 naturally regenerated oak seedlings with height = 10.9 (±0.1) cm, diameter = 2.7 (±0.2) mm and age∼30 days were collected together with acorns connected to root, under a mature tree near the experimental area to minimize the variation in genetic composition. The eight treatments were included of the factorial combination of artificial shading (shaded (SH) versus full-light (L) plots), weed removing (weeding (W) versus weed (G) plots) and irrigation (irrigation (I) versus rainfed (R). There were three replicated plots per treatment (24 plots 1 m × 1 m, in total). Some sixteen 1-year old seedlings were transplanted with a regular distribution in each plot, being separated from each other by 20 cm. The experiment was set up as factorial with completely randomized design. In the field, several wooden frames (120 wide × 120 cm long × 100 cm tall) were built to support neutral density shade fabric. Fabric densities were draped over the frames to provide two levels of light availability, 100% of full sunlight (no fabric) and 50% of full sunlight. Irrigation was carried out using a sprinkler at 4-day intervals (1.5 l for each seedling) over the growing season. Weeds were removed manually six times through out the growing season. The main weed species in the field experiment have been listed in Table 1. Diameter (D) and height (H) of seedlings were recorded at the beginning and end of first growing season. Seedling diameter was measured 5 cm above the ground. Survival was calculated at the end of period following recording the seedlings number. Leaf area was registered by measuring leaves of two seedlings randomly

78

M. Tabari et al. Table 1 The list of weed species grown in the field experiment

Species

Family

Age

Growth form

Frequency (%)

Myosoroides alopecorus Calystegia sepium Carex rogusa Digitaris sanguinea Equisetum ramosissimum Geranium pyrenaicum Oxalis corniculata Paspalum distichum Potentila raptanse Setaria verticilata Solanum nigrum Halepense sorghum Vicia sp.

Poaceae Convolvulaceae Cyperaceae Poaceae Equisetaceae Geraminaceae Oxalidaceae Poaceae Rocaceae Poaceae Solanaceae Poaceae Papilionaceae

Annual Perennial Perennial Annual Perennial Annual Perennial Perennial Perennial Annual Annual Perennial Annual

Ph Th Cr Th Cr He He He He Th He Cr Th

5 1 5 15 4 3 5 5 5 25 1 10 2

Ph = Phanerophyte, Ch = Chamaephyte, Th = Therophyte, He = Hemicriptopyte

selected in each plot and measured with a Leaf Area Meter at the end of the growing season. Height growth and diameter growth, leaf area and slenderness coefficient (H/D ratio) were tested with Kolmogorov-Smironov for normality of data. The resulting data were subjected to ANOVA. Means were compared for significant differences using Duncan’s multiple range tests.

3 Results Seedling survival was not affected by any treatment. It was 100% in all treatments, showing no died seedling was found in any treatment at the end of the first growing season. Only weeding (p = 0.000, df = 1) and interactions of shading and weeding (p = 0.000, df = 1) affected seedlings height growth (Table 2). The best response Table 2 Three-way-ANOVA for seedlings height growth Source

df

f

p

Artificial shading Weeding Irrigation Shading × irrigation Shading × weeding Irrigation × weeding Shading × irrigation × weeding Error Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 374 382

0.348 189.74 1.53 0.115 14.68 1.43 1.19

0.556 0.000∗∗ 0.216 0.735 0.000∗∗ 0.232 0.274

∗∗

Significant at the 1% level of probability

Growth of Q. castaneifolia Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation 30

a

ab bc

25

c

20 15

d

d

10

de

L+I+G

SH+R+G

SH+I+G

SH+R+W

SH+I+W

L+I+W

0

L+R+G

e

5 L+R+W

Hight growth (cm)

Fig. 3 Height growth of Q. castneifolia seedlings at different treatments (L = full-light, I = irrigation, G = grass, W = weeding, SH = shading, R = rainfed, Values are Mean ± SE). Columns with the same letter have no significant difference (p = 0.01)

79

Treatment of height growth was found in weeding-full-light areas, with and no watering (LRW and LIW) (Fig. 3). In weed plots height growth was lower in shading than full-light. Where the grass was present the greatest height growth was in irrigated- and rainfedshaded plots; the lowest in rainfed-full-light plots (LRG) and the intermediate in irrigated-full-light (LIG) plots. Seedling diameter growth was affected by weeding (p = 0.000, df = 1), irrigation (p = 0.000, df = 1) and interaction of shading and weeding (p = 0.008, df = 1) (Table 3). It was greatest in LRW, LIW and SHIW treatments (Fig. 4). This showed where the weeding was done; the seedlings had greater diameter growth particularly in irrigated plots. Where the grass was kept, diameter growth was lowest, particularly in non-irrigated plots. Seedlings obtained intermediate diameter growth in SHRW and SHIG treatments. Weeding and its interaction with shading, as well as interaction of all treatments had significant effect on seedling slenderness (Table 4). In rainfed-full-light plot, where the weeds were removed (LRW), seedlings attained the highest slenderness (Fig. 5). The smallest slenderness coefficient was found in rainfed-shaded treatment Table 3 Three-way-ANOVA for seedling diameter growth Source

df

f

p

Artificial shading Weeding Irrigation Shading × irrigation Shading × weeding Irrigation × weeding Shading × irrigation × weeding Error Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 374 382

2.41 779.21 20.72 2.76 7.18 0.00 0.84

0.121 0.000∗∗ 0.000∗∗ 0.097 0.008∗∗ 0.967 0.357

∗∗

Significant at the 1% level of probability

80

M. Tabari et al. a

4.5

a

4 3.5

a b

3 2.5 cd

2

d

1.5

d

d

SH+R+G

L+R+G

L+I+G

SH+I+G

SH+R+W

L+R+W

0.5 0

SH+I+W

1

L+I+W

diameter growth (mm)

Fig. 4 Seedling diameter growth at different treatments (L = full-light, I = irrigation, G = grass, W = weeding, SH = shading, R = rainfed, Values are Mean ± SE). Columns with the same letter have no significant difference (p =0.01)

Treatment

Table 4 Three-way-ANOVA for slenderness coefficient Source

df

f

p

Artificial shading Weeding Irrigation Shading × irrigation Shading × weeding Irrigation × weeding Shading × irrigation × weeding Error Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 376 384

0.183 32.06 0.00 0.532 7.18 8.91 6.84

0.669 0.000∗∗ 0.974 0.466 0.003∗∗ 0.146 0.009∗∗

Significant at the 1% level of probability

70

a

60

ab

abc

bc

bc

c

c

50

d

40 30 20

Treament

L+R+G

L+I+G

SH+I+G

SH+R+G

SH+R+W

SH+I+W

0

L+I+W

10 L+R+W

Fig. 5 Sslenderness coefficient at different treatments (L = full-light, I = irrigation, G = grass, W = weeding, SH = shading, R = rainfed, Values are Mean ± SE)

Slenderness coefficient %

∗∗

Growth of Q. castaneifolia Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation

81

where the weeds were kept (LRG). In weed plots the highest slenderness could be detected in rainfed-shaded treatment (SHRW). Artificial shading, weed removing, their interaction and irrigation increased seedling leaf area (Table 5). Where the herbaceous species were eliminated, leaf area did not significantly differ in shaded and full-light plots or irrigated and rainfed plots but it was greater in weeding than weed plots. In weed plots greater leaves were found in irrigated- and rainfed-shaded plots and the smaller in rainfed-full-light plots (Fig. 6). Table 5 Three-way-ANOVA for seedlings leaf area Source

df

f

p

Artificial shading Weeding Irrigation Shading × irrigation Shading × weeding Irrigation × weeding Shading × irrigation × weeding Error Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 376 384

5.79 147.02 4.42 0.41 5.1 0.01 0.00

0.017∗∗ 0.000∗∗ 0.036∗ 0.520 0.025∗ 0.901 0.943

∗

Significant at the 5% level of probability; level of probability

Significant at the 1%

35 30

a

a

a

a

25 b

20

b bc

15

c

10

L+R+G

L+I+G

Sh+R+G

Sh+R+w

Sh+I+W

L+I+W

0

Sh+I+G

5 L+R+W

Leaf area (cm2)

Fig. 6 Seedlings leaf area at different treatments (L = full-light, I = irrigation, G = grass, W = weeding, SH = shading, R = rainfed, Values are Mean ± SE). Columns with the same letter have no significant difference (p = 0.01)

∗∗

Treatment

4 Discussion The study revealed that all treatments influenced height growth, diameter growth, leaf area and slenderness of seedlings but had no effect on seedling survival. Seedling survival in all treatments was very high (100%). Weeding and its interaction with shading had positive effect on height growth and diameter growth, whereas both characteristics were greater in weeding plots than in weed plots.

82

M. Tabari et al.

The same results were obtained by Kolb and Steiner [14] and Lorimer et al. [18]. Generally, weeds compete with oak seedlings for moisture and soil nutrient, and influence negatively plant growth [17, 5, 16]. So, weeding is essential for young oaks [25]. The results of current research showed that shading did not significantly affect diameter growth and height growth. This confirms the results reported by Gardiner [8] on Q. pagoda, Welander and Ottosson [32] on Q. robur and Fagus sylvatica and Fuchs et al. [7] on Q. garryana. In the current research the newly regenerated seedlings along with their acorns were transplanted in plots. Acorn reserve could be probably the main reason for growth homogeneity in shaded plot as well as in full-light plots [9, 8]. This reveals that in the first growing season nutrient reserve of oak acorn is caused growth and establishment become independent of lighting (or shading). In this study it was found that diameter growth was prominently depended on irrigation. This result is supported by Fotelli et al. [6] and Kolb et al. [15] on oak seedling and Madsen [20] on beech seedling. It was revealed that weeding and its interaction with shading had positive effect on slenderness of seedlings. In fact where the weeds were present, seedlings attained a higher slenderness in shaded than full-light plots. In the similar studies, Phares [26] and Thadani and Ashton [31] showed that higher slenderness occurred at low light intensity. Leaf area was affected by weeding, irrigation and shading. As a matter of fact, oak seedlings obtained larger leaves in shaded than in full-light plots. Similar finding was reported by Ziegenhagen and Kausch [33] on Q. robur and Cardillo and Bernal [3] on Q. suber. Generally based on results of this study, weeding-full-light, with and without irrigation (LRW and LIW) and weeding-shaded with irrigation (SHIW) treatments increased growth and development of seedlings. With respect to similarity in some growth characteristics of seedlings grown in irrigated and non-irrigated plots, irrigation is not a demand for Q. castaneifolia seedling during the first growing season. However, for better seedling establishment weeding is necessary. Where the weed was present; seedlings in shaded plots compared to full-light plots had higher growth and development. So in clear-cut areas, where the weed is dense, seedling plantation with taller shoot length is advised. Shelter is not essential for seedling growth in its first growth season, so, Q. castaneifolia seedlings can be grown in full-light, but weed control is a critical point.

References 1. Bardon RE, Countryman DW, Hall RB (1999) Tree shelters reduced growth and survival of under planted red oak seedlings in southern Iowa. Northern J Appl For 16:103–107 2. Caldwell JM, Sucoff EI, Dixon RK (1995) Grass interference limits resource availability and reduces growth of juvenile red pine in the field. New Forests 10:1–15 3. Cardillo E, Bernal CJ (2005) Morphological response and growth of cork oak (Quercus suber L.) seedlings at different shade levels. For Ecol Manage 222: 296–301 4. Davis MA, Wrage KJ, Reich PB, Tjoelker MG, Schaeffer T, Muermann C (1999) Survival, growth, and photosynthesis of tree seedlings competing with herbaceous vegetation along a water–light–nitrogen gradient. Plant Ecol 145:341–350

Growth of Q. castaneifolia Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation

83

5. Duplissis J, Yin X, Banghman MJ (2000) Effects of site preparation, seedling quality and tree shelters on planted northern red oak. University of Minnesota, Staff Paper Service, No: 141, 29 p 6. Fotelli MN, Radoglou KM, Constantinidou HIA (2000) Water stress of seedlings four Mediterranean oak species. Tree Physiol 20:1065–1075 7. Fuchs MA, Krannitz PG, Harestad AS (2000) Factors affecting emergence and first-year survival of seedlings of Garry oak (Quercus garrayana) in British Colombia, Canada. For Ecol Manage 137:209–219 8. Gardiner H (1998) Growth and biomass distribution of cherry bark oak (Quercus pagoda Raf.) seedling as influenced by light availability. For Ecol Manage 108:127–134 9. Gemmel P, Nilsson U, Welander T (1996) Development of oak and beech seedlings planted under varying shelterwood densities and with different site preparation methods in southern Sweden. New Forests 12:141–161 10. Guo K, Werger MJA (1999) Different responses to shade of evergreen and deciduous oak seedlings and the effect of acorn size. Acta Oecol 20(6):576–586 11. Holl KD (1998) Effects of above- and below-ground competition of shrubs and grass on Calophyllum brasiliense (Camb.) seedling growth in abandoned tropical pasture. For Ecol Manage 10:187–195 12. Jafari M (1977) Four article on forest. Technical Publication of Research Institute of Forest and Rangelands, No: 176–1977, 121 p 13. Jose S, Merritt S, Ramsey CL (2002) Growth, nutrition, photosynthesis and transpiration responses of longleaf seedling to light, water and nitrogen. For Ecol Manage 180:335–344 14. Kolb TE, Steiner KC (1990) Growth and biomass partitioning of northern red oak and yellow poplar seedlings: effect of shading and grass root competition. For Sci 36:34–44 15. Kolb TE, Steiner KC, McCormick LH, Bowersox TW (2003) Growth response of northern red oak and yellow poplar seedling to light, soil moister and nutrients in relation to ecological strategy. For Ecol Manage 1–2:675–678 16. Lhotka JM, Zaczek J (2001) The use of soil scarification to enhance oak regeneration in a mixed oak bottomland forest of southern Illinois. Proceedings of the 11th Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research, Knoxville, TN, USA, pp 392–395 17. Lof M, Gemmel P, Nilsson U, Welander NT (1998) The influence of site preparation on growth of Quercus robur L. seedling in a southern Sweden clear cut and shelterwood. For Ecol Manage 109:241–249 18. Lorimer CG, Chapman JW, Lambert WD (1994) Tall understorey vegetation as a factor in the poor development of oak seedlings beneath mature stands. J Ecol 82:227–237 19. Madsen P (1994) Growth and survival of Fagus sylvatica seedlings in relation to light intensity and soil water content. Scand J For Res 9:316–322 20. Madsen P (1995) Effects of soil water content, fertilization, light, weed competition and seedbed type on natural regeneration of beech (Fagus sylvatica). For Ecol Manage 72:251–264 21. McLaren KP, McDonald MA (2003) The effects of moisture and shade on seed germination and seedling survival in a tropical dry forest in Jamaica. For Ecol Manage 183:61–75 22. Méthy M, Damesin C, Rambal S (1996) Drought and photosystem II activity in two Mediterranean oaks. Ann For Sci 53:255–262 23. Morris HM, Castillo PN, Mize C (2000) Sowing date, shade, and irrigation affect big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King). For Ecol Manage 132:173–181 24. Morris LA, Moss SA, Garbett WS (1993) Competitive interference between selected herbaceous and woody plants and Pinus taeda L. during two growing seasons following planting. For Sci 39:166–187 25. Owens MK, Wallace RB, Archer SR (1995) Landscape and micro site influences on shrub recruitment in disturbed semiarid Quercus-Juniperus woodland. Oikos 74:493–502 26. Phares RE (1970) Growth of red oak (Quercus robur L.) seedlings in relation to light and nutrients. Ecology 52:669–672

84

M. Tabari et al.

27. Rasaneh Y, Moshtagh Kahnamooi MH, Salehi, P. (2001) Northern Iran forests qualitative and quantitative investigation. The Proceeding of Northern Iran Forests Management and Sustainable Development 1:56–82 28. Rey Benayas JM (1998) Growth and mortality in Quercus ilex L. seedlings after irrigation and artificial shading in Mediterranean set-aside agricultural lands. Ann For Sci 55:801–807 29. Rey Benayas JM, Navarro J, Espigares T, Nicolau JM, Zavala MA (2005) Effect of artificial shading and weed mowing in reforestation of Mediterranean abandoned cropland with contrasting Quercus species. For Ecol Manage 212:302–314 30. Sack L, Grubb PJ (2002) The combined impacts of deep shade and drought on the growth and biomass allocation of shade-tolerant woody seedlings. Oecologia 131:175–185 31. Thadani R, Ashton PMS (1995) Regeneration of banj-oak (Q. leucotrichophoraA. Camus) in the Central Himalaya. For Ecol Manage 78:217–224 32. Welander NT, Ottosson B (1998) The influence of shading on growth and morphology in seedlings of Quercus robur L. and Fagus sylvatica L. For Ecol Manage 107:117–126 33. Ziegenhagen B, Kausch W (1995) Productivity of young shaded oak (Quercus robur L.) as corresponding to shoot morphology and leaf anatomy. For Ecol Manage 72:97–108

The Role of Plant Diversity in Sustainable Exploitation in Highland Rangelands (Alborz Mountain – Iran) R. Safaian, H. Arzani, H. Azarnivand, and N. Safaian

Abstract The rangeland managers, by understanding the importance and role of diversity in sustainable exploitation of rangelands, paid much attention to evaluation of plant relative frequency. This has been worked out in this research. As there is the probability that social and economic factors dominate the ecologic importance of this procedure (biodiversity conservation) and plant diversity is endangered by the kind of use, which in this research, was carried out in part of Alborz rangelands of Iran, the plants of the region were investigated as follows based on regional conditions: Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Low Risk (LR), (IUCN: International Union Conservation of Nature, classification system was used). In this research the following botanical structure of 375 plant species were recognized: Poaceae: 12%, Papilionaceae: 26%, Rosaceae: 12%, Lamiaceae: 24%, Asteraceae: 17% and other species: 9%. Based on comparison of Critical areas with Reference areas, the highest plant species decrease, in the first place is from family Poaceae for excessive animal grazing and then from Papilionaceae as forage and industrial plants and Finally from Lamiaceae as medicinal, industrial and fragrant plants. It seems that endangered condition and change in plant structure can be controlled by rangeland management, but change in rangeland use for development along with ecosystem degradation are the main threat and danger for plant diversity destruction in the region. Keywords Diversity · Conservation · Exploitation · Sustainable · Highland rangelands · Alborz mountain · Iran

1 Introduction Plant diversity indicates sustainability and kind of exploitation from an ecosystem. In degraded rangelands, use of plant diversity (food, medicinal and recreational uses) is a management tool procedure. If we accept that by correct use of natural R. Safaian (B) College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_9, 

85

86

R. Safaian et al.

habitat, the biodiversity is also sustained, then the next question is that the exploitation should be at what level, so that beside sustainable use, the plant diversity is also sustained. It is because the complete conservation may not give maximum plant diversity [10]. Koojimam and smith in 2001 investigated the effect of grazing on organic matter and soil nutrition dynamics in Netherland rangelands and showed that grazing decreases tall grasses and increases species diversity. Chapin et al. [1] stated that interference of human being in world environment, has destroyed world organisms. They recommended human interference for world environment conversation and biodiversity. Gough and Galus [3] investigated tundra richness of species in north Alaska. It was concluded in this research that species diversity in northern area is a function of non-alive environmental gradients (topography, soil moisture, pH and soil natural fertility). Yuguang et al. [13] investigated the relationship between species diversity and grass land conditions. This results showed that species diversity has increased from poor to good condition and decreased from good to excellent conditions. Due to importance of conservation of species diversity, to be informed of hazards or reasons for plant species reduction, the ecosystem researchers at world level [2] in species duration commission IUCN (November 30, [4] in Gland, Switzerland), determined the plant species situation and approved and wrote in red book of species classification. As the species extinction is a world loss [1], this study was carried out in mountainous Alborz rangelands (Iran) to be informed of the hazards, decrease and or increase of plant species.

2 Materials and Methods The mountainous rangelands under study is located in central Alborz, 90 Km north of Tehran. The area is 13, 250,000 ha. The longitude is 50, 36, 50 to 50, 53, 20 and latitude is 36, 19, 19. The elevation is 1,700–4,100 m MSL, the mean annual ◦ temperature is 4.48 C, the mean annual precipitation is 698 mm. The climate is semi-arid cold and cold humid based on Emberger method of classification [12].

3 Research Method Sampling in ecological unit (homogeneous plant types) was carried out by randomsystematic method and using bar-point, by setting 56 transects 50 m apart and at different rangeland condition. In this method, the relative frequency of plants in study unit was evaluated. The species diversity was calculated from Shanon-Wiener formula (1948) [10]:

The Role of Plant Diversity in Sustainable Exploitation in Highland Rangelands

H=−

s ni i=1

N

ln

87

ni N

where, H is Shanon-Wiener indicator ni is the amount of importance of each species N is the total showing the importance of species. Plant recognition and their places in IUCN classification were carried out with the help of references [4, 5, 7, 8, 9].

4 Results In Table 1 the plant diversity is observed in different rangelands condition. In Table 2, the evaluated plants are observed in IUCN classification. Table 1 Diversity in different rangeland conditions (poor, good, excellent) Sample

Rangeland Rangeland Rangeland condition Diversity Sample condition Diversity Sample condition Diversity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Poor Poor Poor Good Good Good Excellent Good Poor Poor Good Excellent Good Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Poor

2.9 1.95 1.1 5.44 4.1 3.96 3 3.81 2 2.12 3.9 3.67 4 4.56 3 3.76 3.5 3.68 1

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

Good Good Good Excellent Poor Poor Excellent Poor Good Poor Good Excellent Good Excellent Good Excellent Excellent Good Poor

4.06 4.99 3.8 3 1.83 1 3.62 2 3.83 2.99 3.83 3.2 3.9 3 4.12 3.01 3.67 4.07 2.83

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

Good Excellent Poor Good Poor Good Good Excellent Excellent Poor Poor Excellent Poor Poor Good Poor Excellent Excellent

4.8 3.73 1.4 3.85 2.2 3.9 4.8 3.74 3 2.17 2.9 3.3 2.6 2.35 4.9 2.02 3.5 3.57

Table 2 The evaluated plants in IUCN classification Page of red book Status Life form

Scientific name

Family

Habitat Number

294 306 312 325 339

Ajuga chamaecistus Mentha longifolia Nepeta denudata Salvia hypoleuca Thymus daenensis

Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae

IT IT IT IT-EU IT

LR LR LR LR LR

Ch H Ch H Ch

1 2 3 4 5

88

R. Safaian et al. Table 2 (continued)

Page of red book Status Life form 340 341 25 45

LR VU DD DD

Ch H H H

673 682 682 685 696 96 105 115

EN DD LR LR LR LR LR LR

H H H H H H H H

125 128 129 169 22

LR LR DD LR IT

H H H H Ch

178 202 559 559 214 374 343 347 216 18 606

LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR

H H Ch Ch H H H H H Th Ch

Scientific name

Family

Habitat Number

Thymus kotschyanus Ziziphora clinopodioides Caccinia strigosa Trachelanthus cerinthoides Ferula persica Malabaila dasyantha Malabaila porphyrodiscus Pimpinella tragioides Zosima radians Achillea talagonica Centaurea aucheri Cephalorrhynchus brassicifolius Cousinia calocephala Cousinia commutata Cousinia crispa Echinops polygamus Helichrysum oligocephalum Jurinea heterophylla Tragopogon caricifolius Acantholimon scorpius Acantholimon sorchense Aethionema stenopterum Alcea longipedicellata Allium derderianum Allium shelkovnikovii Alyssum bracteatum Amaranthus blitoides Amygdalus eburnea

Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae

IT IT IT IT

Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Asteraeae Asteraeae Asteraeae

IT IT IT IT IT IT IT IT-EU

Asteraeae Asteraeae Asteraeae Asteraeae Asteraeae

IT IT IT IT LR

Asteraeae Asteraeae Plumbaginaceae Plumbaginaceae Brassicaceae Malvaceae Alliaceae Alliaceae Brassicaceae Amaranthaceae Rosaceae

IT IT-EU IT-SS IT IT-EU IT IT-EU IT IT IT IT-SS

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 173 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Note: IT – Irano–touranian region floristic; M – Mediteranean region floristic; SS – SaharoSindian region floristic; E – Euro-Siberian region floristic; LR – Lower risk; DD – Data deficient; EN – Endangered; VU – Vulnerable; Th – Therophyts; H – Hemicryptophyts; Ch – Chamophyts; G – Geophyts; Ph – Phanerophyts; En – Endemic.

5 Discussion and Conclusion Based on the results of this study, the variations in plant species is effected by exploitation and activities of living organisms (human being and animals) in the nature. The results showed that plant diversity increases in poor to good conditions, but decreases from good to excellent conditions. The result confirms the results obtained by Yuguang et al. [13]. This phenomenon can be useful and efficient as management procedure (use of medicinal plants, aromatic plants, etc) for planners.

The Role of Plant Diversity in Sustainable Exploitation in Highland Rangelands

89

Botanic formation and floristic composition show decrease in the family Poaceae and increase in plants of the family Labiatae. The result is similar to the results of [6]. Use of special plants, those plants that people like: Ferula, Prangus, Thymus and Astragalus, made them susceptible to damages. Due to world importance of these species [1], their conservation is necessary by managers. Prangus, as one of the best rangeland species, is under extinction, and is not mentioned in Iranian Red Book. Due to difference in climatic-ecologic condition in the world, it seems that the classification made by species duration commission (IUCN) for each region floristic is necessary.

References 1. Chapin FS, Zavaleta ES, Eviner VT, Naylor RL, Vitousek PM, Reynolds HL, Hooper DU, Lavorel S, Sala OE, Hobbie SE, Mack MC, Diaz S (2000) Functional and societal consequences of changing biotic diversity. Nature 405:234–242 (ISP 3-018/CRN-012) 2. Fitter R, Fitter M (1987) The road to extinction. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 3. Gough L, Galus R (2000) Vascular plant species richness in Alaskan arctic tundra: the importance of soil pH. Ecology 88:54–66 4. IUCN – International Union of Nature Conservation (1993) Draft IUCN red list categories. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 5. Jalili A, Jamzad Z (1999) Red data book of Iran (A preliminary survey of endemic, rare & endangered plant species in Iran), Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands (RIFR), Iran, 748 pp 6. Koojimam AM, Smith A (2001) Grazing as a measure to reduce nutrient availability in acid dune grasslands and pine forests in the Netherlands. Journal Ecological Engineering 17:63–77 7. Mace GM, Stuart SN (1994) Draft IUCN red list categories, Version 2.2. Species 22:13–24 8. Mace GM, Lande R (1991) Assessing extinction threats: toward a reevaluation of IUCN threatened species categories. Conserv Biol 5(2):148–157 9. Mace GM, Collar N, Cooke J, Gaston K, Ginsberg J, Williams NL, Maunder M, MilnerGulland EJ (1992) The development of new criteria for listing species on the IUCN red list. Species 19:16–22 10. Odum EP (1983) Basic ecology. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, PA, 613 pp 11. Rechinger KH (ed.), (1963–1998): Flora iranica, Nos 1–173, Academische Druk-u Verlagasantalt, Graz 12. Safaian R (2005) The multiple use of rangeland in Taleghan, Ms Thesis, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, 200 pp 13. Yuguang B, Abougundia Z, Redmann RE (2001) Relationship between plant species diversity and grassland condition. J Range Manage 54:177–183

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants: An Indian Case Study Pooja Joshi and Nilanjana Rao

Abstract Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have become a part of traditional system of medicines and have gained importance, more so in today’s world. According to the estimate of World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the population of developing world are making use of traditional medicines. The medicinal plants have been used for widespread purposes since ancient times in countries particularly India, China, Greece, Persia etc. In India, according to a report of AICEP, Anthropological Survey of India, 1994, it is estimated that over 7,500 species of medicinal plants are used for therapeutic uses. The major floral species which are widely used as medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) include Ephedra gerardiana Wall., Rauvolfia serpentina, Swertia chirata, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, Rhododendron anthopogon D. Dun., Peganum harmala L. etc. The widespread use of these medicinal plants for both internal consumption and export purposes have led to their large-scale exploitation, resulting in loss of biological diversity (both at genetic and species level). Most of the medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina, Gentiana kurro, Alpinia galanga, Saussurea lappa have become endangered and threatened. Overexploitation along with lack of initiatives from government bodies, absence of proper management systems and loss of traditional knowledge are some of the factors responsible for rapid biodiversity loss. Indigenous people and biodiversity complement each other and the former has played an important role in conservation of biodiversity since time immemorial. The rural communities over the period of time have gathered a pool of indigenous knowledge/know-how for cultivation of the medicinal plants and their propagation. In the meantime, the importance of local knowledge systems in conservation and preservation of the germplasm of medicinal plants have also attained global significance. In India, various programmes on medicinal plants and their conservation based on traditional knowledge are being carried out by the local people, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), Community

P. Joshi (B) The Energy Resource Institute, New Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_10, 

91

92

P. Joshi and N. Rao

Based Organizations (CBOs) at various grass root levels such as the districts and villages. Though an unorganized sector, the local people are playing their role in the propagation as well as conservation of the medicinal plants through the application of the concepts of herbal gardens and local “mandis” (markets). There is a need to strengthen these linkages and build upon the indigenous knowledge base of the local people through proper documentation and building of a strong database. This paper deliberates upon the importance (therapeutic, ecological and economic) of medicinal plants and threats to their biodiversity. The communication also describes the details of some of the local efforts, which are being carried out at local levels in India for conservation of medicinal plants through the use of indigenous knowledge of traditional medicines. The paper also highlights the need to integrate indigenous knowledge into national policies and strengthen the participation of the indigenous communities in order to harness maximum potential of medicinal plant biodiversity along with sustainable management of these resources. Keywords Aromatic plants · Biodiversity · Medical plants

1 Introduction India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s land area and yet contributes 8% to the world’s biodiversity [8]. India’s biogeographic location at the tri-junction of Afro-Tropical, Indo-Malayan and Paleo- Arctic realms (http://www.envfor.nic.in) is responsible for its unique and rich biodiversity. Ten distinct biogeographical zones have been identified in Indian peninsula, each characterized by distinct topography, climate and biodiversity. Among the 25 hotspots identified all over the world [11], two, namely, the Western Ghats and Indo-Burma region (covering Eastern Himalayas) extend into India. India has 47,000 species of flowering and nonflowering plants (representing almost 12% of the world’s recorded flora) of which 2,532 species are endemic to Himalayan region and the remaining 1,782 to peninsular India (http://www.envfor.nic.in). This floral diversity is an important natural resource, which makes a rich contribution to the gross domestic product of the country. Besides contributing directly to the economy of the country, the floral diversity is a source of fuel, fodder, food and medicine for rural communities of the country. The floral diversity, especially the medicinal plants has been an integral part of Indian culture and heritage. In fact indigenous communities in India and their traditions, rituals, beliefs as well as the age-old systems of medicines such as the Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Amchi have evolved deriving sumptuously from the rich floral and faunal diversity of the region. The Ayurvedic system of medicine, first described in Agnivesh Tantra by Agnivesha, is believed to have originated in the Himalayas, about 5,000 years ago (1,000–600 BC). Charaka Samhita, one of the earliest treatises of Indian medicines, reported the use of about 2,000 herbs for medicinal use.

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants

93

The Siddha system of medicine originated and flourished in Southern India, owes its origin to Lord Shiva. Indigenous communities, as defined by the United Nations are those which having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems. These include the tribal people, the natives of the area concerned, marginalized sections such as the scheduled castes and also the farmers living on the fringes of forest areas. The association of medicinal plants and indigenous people has made the two traditionally, ecologically and economically inseparable. These communities have their day-to-day practices, rituals and traditions linked with the indigenous flora of the area, which essentially happens to be of medicinal value. For instance, Saussurea lappa locally called brahma kamal, is an important ethno-religious medicinal herb of Garhwal Himalayas where it is offered during prayers to Lord Shiva. Similarly, plants such as Ocimum (tulsi), Azadirachta (neem), Aegle marmelos (bel) are all considered sacred, ethno-religious plants used for prayers and rituals and most importantly recognized for their medicinal uses. The Naga tribes of Nagaland make use of the leaves of Psidium guajava, Houttuynia cordata and the stalk of Lasia spinosa for their anti helminthic properties for tapeworm infections. The anti-fatigue properties of Arogyapcha plant (Trichopus zeylanicus) were known to the Kani tribes of Western Ghats in the Thiruvanthapuram district of the state of Kerela. The legacy of traditional systems of medicines is still carried on by approximately two million traditional and village “dais” or mid wives, vaidyas, bonesetters, herbal practitioners and wandering monks. Besides, being the bearers of this unique traditional knowledge, the indigenous communities have strong conservation ethics. The religious beliefs of these communities have contributed to the conservation of biodiversity. The sacred groves or virgin patches of forests dedicated to local deities are befitting examples of conservation. The present day depletion of medicinal plants and traditional system of medicines is directly linked with the dwindling population of indigenous people and the erosion of their traditions and culture. The efforts, which are currently made for conservation of medicinal plants, need to be integrated with conservation of the traditional customs, practices, rituals, knowledge and wisdom of the indigenous people. The present communication is an attempt to highlight the importance of medicinal and aromatic plants vis-à-vis India’s traditional systems, its economy, their depleting status and efforts towards conservation of medicinal plants with active involvement of the indigenous communities.

94

P. Joshi and N. Rao

2 Significance of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) The significance of medicinal plants is highlighted by the fact that worldwide more than 50,000 plant species, covering about 13% of all flowering plants, are estimated to be medicinally important [14]. According to estimates of World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of the population in developing countries relies on traditional medicines [6, 2]. It is very important to realize that traditional systems of medicine are important for the poor and marginalized sections of the society, especially in the remote areas where modern medical facilities are not available [3]. This is validated by case study of India where per capita annual consumption of drugs is Rs.124 only (∼ = US $3), the lowest in the world. Additionally, interest in herbal medicines and natural products has increased substantially in developed as well as developing nations, mainly due to non-toxic nature of plant materials and no known side effects. This scenario is well reflected by the available trade figures. The international medicinal plant trade, estimated at US $60 billion, is presently growing at a rate of 7% per year [3]. This is besides the fact that a substantial part of the trade goes unrecorded, partly because much of it is illegal. Further, a large proportion of medicinal plant material is used domestically (India) and these figures are again not documented, hence the total trade of medicinal plants remains far greater than the suggested figures. The leading suppliers of the world market are China, Singapore, Brazil, India and Egypt. China and India constitute more than 40% of the global biodiversity. India is the second largest producer, second only to China. China earns US $5 billion per year from herbal trade, while India manages US $1.43 billion only, which is estimated to increase by US $2.2 billion by the year 2010 [2]. The international demand is largely from the United States and European Union (EU), with Germany as the leading trade center [3]. Besides contributing to the trade and economics at international level, the cultivation and collection of MAPs is an important means of livelihood generation among the rural and marginalized sections. Though the local and indigenous communities had always been dependant on forest resources for fuel, fodder, food and medicines, a substantial increase in collection of local medicinal and aromatic plants have been reported over the last 50 years, implicating that the collections are usually for commercial utilization. It has also been observed that it is the marginalized section of the society such as the scheduled tribes, scheduled castes, and women and the poor that depend on collection of MAPs for their livelihood. It is reported that the total income from sales of MAPs and Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) from forests in Madhya Pradesh, India was around US $2,000 per year [16]. The government in the state of Meghalaya benefits from the gathering and collection of MAPs where a single district provides around US $1,000,000 per year of revenue from the sale of about 3,000 tons of Bay Leaf products [7, 17]. Also, the cultivation of medicinal plants, hitherto not much in vogue, is slowly gaining acceptance among the farmers and commercial plantation of MAPs namely, Cholorophytum, Mentha, Geranium etc have proved to be economically beneficial. On the whole, it is evident that MAPs form an integral part of

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants

95

the rural society and have an important role to play in socio-economics of the local/indigenous communities.

3 Threat to Medicinal and Aromatic Plant (MAP) Biodiversity The established medicinal and emerging socio-economic importance of MAPs is having serious implications on these resources. A drastic decline in species diversity has been observed over the years. This is basically attributed to increasing anthropological pressures, habitat destruction, over exploitation, and lack of cultivation of the much-demanded medicinal and aromatic species. Of these, habitat destruction due to developmental projects is one major reason of genetic erosion of the biodiversity. It is estimated that India has lost 4,696 million hectares of forestland to non-forestry purposes in the period spanning 50 years after independence [10]. Such increasing human encroachments leads to fragmentation of large populations of species into small fragmented and scattered groups, which are rendered vulnerable to inbreeding depressions, high mortality rates and are more prone to extinction. Similarly, the rising demand by pharmaceutical industry leads to overexploitation of the medicinal plant species from the wild. Despite the immense importance of medicinal plants, the raw material is still not cultivated and about 95% of the medicinal plants are collected from the wild. According to a study, more than 1,300 tons of MAPs are collected and traded in a single district of Pithoragarh in Uttaranchal state, most of which is illegal [13]. A case study of Ayurveda industry showed that over 70% of the plant collections involves destructive harvesting mainly because of the use of plant parts like roots, bark, wood and whole plants. The estimates show that the various plant parts used by the Ayurvedic industry in India are as follows: bark 13.5%, roots 29.6%, rhizome 4%, stem 6%, whole plant 16.3%, wood 2.8% and the rest being contributed by flowers, fruits, leaves and seeds [2]. These medicinal plants include both herbs and trees and have major implications for conservation and management of supplies of raw material. Further, indiscriminate collection of medicinal plants from the natural stands leads to change in community organization, which in turn effects the regeneration potential of the rare and endemic species resulting in their endangered status [9]. Medicinally important species like Picrorhiza kurrooa, Rauvolfia serpentina, Saussurea lappa, Taxus wallichiana, already figure in the list of threatened and endangered species of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html. As per the recent International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) guidelines, Southern and Northern India has around 200 species of medicinal plants that are rare, endangered and threatened [15]. This could mean a tremendous loss to the world of modern allopathic medicine as well as traditional system of Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha, which the human race surely cannot afford.

96

P. Joshi and N. Rao

4 Loss of Indigenous Knowledge and Threats to MAPs As stated earlier, the traditional knowledge of the indigenous communities and the medicinal plants are inseparable. A decline in the traditions, rituals and age-old systems of the indigenous communities directly reflects on the conservation status of the medicinal plants. Though, India has one of the richest traditions of using medicinal plants in health care, most of the traditional and indigenous knowledge associated with the rich natural resource of the country remains undocumented and is passed down either by word of mouth from generation to generation or is described in ancient classical literature, and therefore remains inaccessible to common man. Even our traditional health systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani, which are very well documented, are codified in languages such as the Persian, Sanskrit and Tamil, which are not well understood internationally. The undocumented Indian Traditional Knowledge (ITK) is facing challenges from the developed countries in the form of “biopiracy” and “gene robbing” [5]. The need for protecting Indian traditional knowledge (ITK) has been vehemently brought forth by many well-known cases of misappropriation of traditional knowledge that includes the patents granted for medicinal properties of brinjal (Solanum melongena), bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), neem (Azadirachta indica) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) to name a few. Therefore, documentation of existing knowledge on various traditional systems of medicine, which is available in the public domain has become imperative in order to safeguard it from patenting of non-original inventions. Further, the effects of urbanization are fast catching up with these native people as it has with their plants. The effects of urbanization are not only evident on the declining species diversity but also have resulted in developmental and socio-cultural adaptations among the indigenous people. Due to technological advancement and change in lifestyles, the traditional knowledge in these local communities is disappearing, with younger generations opting for new livelihood options. Also, the impacts of urbanization on the socio-cultural lifestyle has led to erosion of religious and cultural values, which in turn has repercussions on the status of medicinal plants. This is exemplified by the scared groves or community forests, rich in medicinal flora, which were once dedicated to the local gods/goddesses by indigenous communities. Ecologically speaking scared groves form a compact community structure at its climax and harbor many rare and endemic species. The dilution of religious values and socio-cultural aspects has led many communities to lose their unified identity, instrumental to their conservation practice, and to destroy resources in their sacred groves in return for short-term commercial gain. The losses incurred due to such changes in socio-cultural patterns are further augmented by developmental projects such as highways, dams and railway tracks, which have either totally destroyed the sacred grooves or else have irreversibly disturbed their community structure, which has left many of the rare and endemic species vulnerable to threats of extinction.

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants

97

5 Conservation of Traditional Knowledge and MAPs – Requirements and Current Efforts 5.1 Documentation of the MAPs and Traditional Knowledge The first and foremost task is to document the vast traditional knowledge, which the indigenous communities possess. Unless and until this vast knowledge is preserved, we will not only lose the traditional system of medicines but also the genetic diversity of the medicinal and aromatic plants. The medicinal plants are known by their local names and it is often seen that different plants have the same name in different parts of the country, which creates unnecessary confusion. Therefore, taxonomic databases of ethno medicinal plants with the help of traditional practioners and experienced taxonomists should be prepared immediately. The role of research institutes and universities come into the foray for proper and scientific identification of plants and plant products. With this perspective, National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR) and the Department of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM&H) have come up with a novel concept of traditional knowledge digital library (TKDL), in which all information for a target species is available in world languages such as English, French, German, Japanese and Spanish (www.niscair.res.in). This attempt at digitalization of ITK gives legitimacy to the existing traditional knowledge and enables protection of such information from getting patented illegally. A well documented database will help in “bioprospecting” a term used to assign economic value to plant species. Bioprospecting will further strengthen the value of traditional system of Indian medicine in the international market. Thus, documentation and conservation of these resources will simultaneously lead to an understanding and awareness towards the medicinal plants and hence care for them.

5.2 Protection of Intellectual Rights of Indigenous People and Benefit Sharing The indigenous knowledge, which is the dominion of the local communities, should be protected and cases of bio-piracy should be prevented as discussed earlier. Further, the indigenous people should also get a profit sharing from the marketing of their medicinal plant use. One prominent example is the development of “Jeevani” medicine based on the traditional knowledge of the Kani tribals of Kerala. The tribals used fruits of a tree that they called aarogyapyappacha which kept them energetic and agile during their arduous treks across the forests. The detailed investigation of the plant revealed that it contained certain glycolipids and non-steroidal compounds that had anti-stress, anti-hepatotoxic and immuno-modulatory/immunorestorative properties. Eventually the drug “Jeevani” was formulated from this plant, which was later, identified as Trichopus zeylanicus, with three other plants’

98

P. Joshi and N. Rao

ingredients. The license to manufacture “Jeevani” was given to a private company for a fee of one million rupees (∼ = US $22,000) for a period of 7 years. The Kani tribals received 50% of the license fee as well as 50% of the royalty obtained from sale of the drug. Such instances not only enhance the livelihood means of the communities, but also instill a sense of pride and utility for indigenous traditional knowledge. The communities become more conscious of their inherent traditional resources and hence more aware towards their conservation.

5.3 Cultivation of MAPs and Enhancement of Livelihood Opportunities Cultivation of medicinal plants is one of the viable options for not only meeting the market demands and in improving the socio-economic position of the local people, but also helps in conservation of the endangered species in their natural habitat. The case in point of Nardostachys jatamansi, an endangered plant of the Northwestern Himalayas illustrates this. The plant have been included the schedule of CITES to ensure its conservation. In India there is a need of 300 metric tons of the plant [1, 18]. This increased demand can certainly not be met through wild collections only and hence cultivation is the only viable solution. This scenario holds true not only for N. jatamansi in particular, but also for other rare and endangered medicinal plants such as Picrorhiza kurroa, Swertia chirayita, etc. Keeping this in view many cultivation/domestication studies have been conducted for different medicinal plants [4, 12]. In a study in Ghese village of Chamoli district, Uttaranchal (India), cultivation of a highly prioritised medicinal plant, Picrorhiza kurrooa (commonly called kutki) was conducted on an experimental basis [12]. According to the calculations, the net benefit to the farmer that comes from conventional crops such as potato and rajma (Phaseolus vulgaris) is a mere US $280 and US $118 per acre, respectively. On the contrary, kutki cultivation would yield a net profit of US $1961. Such studies augur well for conservation of medicinal plants as well as the local people who will definitely benefit from cultivation of elite germplasm of economically valuable medicinal and aromatic plants.

5.4 Policy Initiatives at the National Level In the present scenario of increasing demand of medicinal and aromatic plant species with a simultaneous decline of the resources, conservation and sustainable management are the need of the day. The Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoEF), the nodal environmental regulatory agency of Government of India, has devised many policies and programs to enhance the conservation of the medicinal and aromatic plants throughout the country. A number of institutions affiliated with the ministry are involved towards implementing these programs. Almost 4.2% area of

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants

99

the country has been earmarked for the extensive in situ conservation of habitats and ecosystems and under this program various national parks, Biosphere Reserve Programs have been initiated. Similarly, concept of botanic and herbal gardens have been instituted under the ex situ conservation programs. More recently, under the aegis of Ministry of Health and Family welfare, the government has set up the National Medicinal Plant Board (http://www.nmpb.nic.in), with the objective to establish a board that would be responsible for co-ordination of all matters relating to medicinal plants, including drawing up policies and strategies for conservation, proper harvesting, cost-effective cultivation, research and development, processing, marketing of raw material in order to protect, sustain and develop this sector.

5.5 Involvement of Local Communities, Non-Government Organizations/Community Based Organizations Cultivation of the medicinal plants can serve as one of the potential employment avenues for local communities, youth and women. Community based approaches have been successful in the conservation and livelihood generation programmes. Many non-government organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs) are doing commendable work in this arena. In India, the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) is the pioneer and has been recognized by the Government of India as the “centre of excellence” in the field of medicinal plants. Many programmes and projects of such NGOs are running successfully in this country. Amongst many others, one such initiative is the Medicinal Plant Conservation Area (MPCA) programme, created by the FRLHT and implemented by another NGO, Medicinal Plant Conservation Centre (MPCC). The programme is a multi-approach effort to conserve the medicinal plants within their natural ecosystem and production of traditional medicines aimed at providing primary health aid through participation of local people. This also provides a supplementary source of income. However, for any such community based effort to be successful, the direct beneficiaries i.e. indigenous people, marginalized and poor farmers, women and youth should be involved right from the project conceptualization and planning stage.

5.6 Role of International Organizations Realizing the importance of the MAPs and the efforts of local NGOs/CBOs and the local communities in conservation of biodiversity, many international organizations like World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), International Development Research Centre (IDRC) are sponsoring many conservation programmes. One of the core areas of the UNDP’s Global Environment Facility (GEF) under its Small Grant Fund (SGF) is the conservation of biodiversity including medicinal plants. The Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia is

100

P. Joshi and N. Rao

another initiative aimed at long-term sustainable and equitable use of MAPs of the IDRC and Ford Foundation. The involvement of international bodies in the existing national and local programmes further strengthens the efforts, which are currently being made towards the conservation of medicinal plant biodiversity and enhances India’s position in the global scenario of traditional medicines.

6 Conclusion India occupies an advantageous position related to the rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants and have an old lineage of traditional knowledge in indigenous medicines. In spite of this fact, the current scenario is that the age-old indigenous knowledge of the local and tribal communities is at a threat, thereby endangering the diversity of many of the species of medicinal plants. Over-exploitation of the plants from the wild due to excessive commercialization of herbal medicines and effects of urban trends on the socio-economic lifestyle of the rural and indigenous people are the major reasons cited for the alarming situation of the medicinal plants and the traditional system of medicines associated with them. Though efforts are being carried by the government, research organizations, local NGOs and even the local communities at their individual levels, however an integration of all the parties is required for not only enhancing the income levels of the indigenous communities and safeguarding the traditional knowledge, but also for conservation of medicinal plants and the promotion of the traditional system of medicines.

References 1. Ahuja PS (2003) Medicinal plants in India. In report and directory. Institute of Economic and Market Research, New Delhi 2. Anonymous (2000) Report of the taskforce on medicinal plants in India. Planning Commission, Government of India, Yojana Bhawan, New Delhi, India. http://planning commission.nic.in/aboutus/taskforce/tsk_medi.pdf 3. Belt J, Lengkeek A, Van Der Zant J (2003) Cultivating a healthy enterprise – developing a sustainable medicinal plant chain in Uttranchal – India Bulletin 350. KIT Publishers, Amsterdam 4. Chauhan RS, Nautiyal MC (2005) Commercial viability of cultivation of an endangered medicinal herb Nardostachys jatamansi at three different agroclimatic zone. Curr Sci 89:1481–1488 5. Dubey NK, Kumar R, Tripathi P (2004) Global promotion of herbal medicine: India’s opportunity. Curr Sci 86:37–41 6. Holley, J., Cherla, K. (1998) The medicinal plants sector in India. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Programme in Asia (MAPPA) ADRC/SARO, New Delhi 7. Karki M, Tiwari B, Badoni A, Bhattarai N (2003) Creating livelihood enhancing medicinal and aromatic plants based biodiversity rich production systems: Preliminary lessons from South Asia. Oral Paper Presented at the 3rd world congress on medicinal and aromatic plants for human welfare (WOCMAP III), Chiang Mai, Thailand

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants

101

8. Khoshoo TN (1996) India needs a national conservation board, Current Science, 71: 506–513 9. Laloo RC, Kharlukhi L, Jeeva S, Mishra BP (2006) Status of medicinal plants in the disturbed and the undisturbed sacred forests of Meghalaya, northeast India: population structure and regeneration efficacy of some important species. Curr Sci 90:225–232 10. MoEF (1999) National policy and macrolevel action strategy on biodiversity. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi 11. Myers N, Muttermeier RA, Muttermeier CA, da Fonseca GAB, Kent J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858 12. Nautiyal MC, Nuatiyal BP (2004) Collaboration between farmers, research institutions and industry: experiences of Picrorhiza kurroa cultivation at Ghese village in Chamoli district, Uttaranchal, India. In: Alam G, Belt J (eds) Searching synergy: stakeholders views on developing a sustainable medicinal plant chain in Uttranchal, India. KIT Publishers, Amsterdam. KIT Bulletin No. 359, pp 63–72 13. Regmi S, Bista S (2002) Best practices in collection and cultivation of medicinal plants for sustainable livelihoods in Himalayan communities. Paper presented at the regional workshop at wise practices and experimental learning in the conservation and management of Himalayan medicinal plant, 15–20 Dec, Kathmandu, CECI-Nepal 14. Schippmannn U, Leaman DJ, Cunningham CB (2002) Impact of cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants in biodiversity: global trends and issues. FAO, Biodiversity and the Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Interdepartmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and Agriculture, Rome 15. Shankar D (1998) Medicinal plants: a global heritage. Proceedings of the international conference on medicinal plants for survival, 16–19 February. IDRC, New Delhi 16. Singh MK (2003) Non-wood forest products based joint forest management in good forests. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun, India 17. Tiwari BK (2003) Biodiversity enriching and livelihood enhancing forest management practice of war Khasis of Meghalaya, India. Proceedings of wise practices in sustainable management of Himalayan medicinal plants, PPI and IDRC 18. Uniyal MR Uniyal RC (2002) Utilization of medicinal plants by pharmaceutical industries in India. Paper presented in workshop on ‘Vanaspati van’ WII, Dehdradun

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran H. Habashi, S.M. Hosseini, R. Rahmani, and J. Mohammadi

Abstract The mixed beech forests (Fagus orientalis) are the most important industrial forests with the highest degree of naturalness in Hyrcanian forest, Iran. These forests commonly dominate by shade tolerance species with irregular uneven age stand structure. The aim of this study was to analyze the stand structure and spatial pattern in order to identify specific structural patterns. We investigated the stand structure and spatial pattern of trees in mixed Beech forest in the Shastkolate Educational Forest to examine the coexistence strategies of different species. Data was collected from an 16 ha permanent plot on an 400 × 400 m quadrate area that divided to 64 micro-quadrate (50 × 50 m). We mapped all stems >7.5 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh) on permanent plot. The stand contained nine woody plant species and 4,901 living stems with a combined basal area of 32.8 m2 ha−1 . The density of living trees >7.5 cm dbh averaged 291.7 ha−1 . The six main species were divided into two groups based on density and stand structure. Group A (F. orientalis, Carpinus betulus and Parrotia persica) had higher density than group B, as well as reverse J or L-shaped dbh distribution of live stems. Species in group B (Alnus subcordata, Acer velutinum and Diospurus lotus) had bell-shaped dbh distributions. Species in group A have clump spatial distribution pattern in all layers but clump intensity is more than in under storey layer and size of patch clump is small in this group. This phenomenon for group A may explaining by having numerous coppice, sucker and patch regeneration in the under storey layer. Middle storey and under storey stems of the six major tree species were patchily distributed throughout the plot but for Alder and Maple species common pattern in canopy layer was complete spatial randomness. The distribution of Beech and Hornbeam trees were negatively associated with other species. These results suggest species differences in favorable canopy condition. Differences in life history strategies and site preferences may explain the coexistence of these species.

H. Habashi (B) Natural Resources Faculty, Tarbiat Modarres University, P.O. Box 46414-356 Noor, Mazandaran, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_11, 

103

104

H. Habashi et al.

Keywords Stand structure · Spatial distribution pattern · Spatial association · Beech forest · Iran

1 Introduction Beech forests commonly dominate the intermediate elevation regions of the northern temperate zone of Iran. These forests are the most important forest communities in natural forest landscape in Iran and usually consist of several canopy tree species. In this site, including Fagus orientalis, Carpinus betulus, Acer velutinum and Alnus subcordate are the most dominant, while Prunus spinosa and Diospyrus lotus often co-occur. Because Beech forests are widespread and represent the potential natural vegetation of many areas of Hyrcanian landscape, it’s of interest to identified stand structure and spatial pattern of major trees in these forests. The spatial and temporal pattern and the consequences of that pattern for the dynamics of populations and ecosystems are two fundamental and related themes in ecology [23]. Patterns can exist at various scales in time and space [2, 44, 34]. In nature, these patterns can appear as patches, gradients, or other kinds of spatial structures at spatial scales ranging from ecosystems to the area occupied by an individual organism [45, 43, 37, 18, 23, 13, 27]. Accordingly, many studies have attempted to quantify the patterns of heterogeneity within plant communities. These studies described and tested the effects of environmental heterogeneity on individual plants and plant-plant interactions at scales of centimeters to dozens of meters [7, 37, 18, 16, 11]. The results have demonstrated that significant spatial variations exist in soil attributes at finer spatial scales, and that plants appear to respond to these variations. It is possible that the pattern and dynamics of the fine-scale variations in soil resources may hold the key to understand mechanisms of plant-plant interactions. Furthermore, some studies have revealed that plants can modify the spatial variability of soil attributes through litter production and its composition, absorption of moisture, oxygen and nutrients, and the release from roots of organic molecules [36], suggesting the significance of plants in creation and maintenance of soil resource heterogeneity. The relationship of plant species and communities to site factors has also been the subject of extensive study [19]. Plants that repeatedly occur to gather in areas with similar combination of soil water, nutrients, light, and other factors are perceived to have similar recruitments or tolerance and are therefore grouped together [4]. The structure of different forest vegetation has also been analyzed in the context of scale dependency [1, 6, 26]. This was because various ecological phenomena often depend on the scales analyzed. Thus, we must pay attention to scales observed and analyzed in evaluating the characteristics of vegetation. Traditional research on plant spatial pattern has emphasized testing for departures from complete spatial randomness (CSR). Tests of the CSR hypothesis have also been applied in studies of competition effects on dynamics of even aged homogeneous forests [47, 12, 20, 21], mixed species temperate forests [8, 41], semi-arid shrub dominated stands [46], and savanna vegetation [40]. In general,

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran

105

the competition is assumed to cause a systematic change in the spatial pattern from random or aggregated to a regular pattern as a result of density-dependent mortality. Model of forest dynamics that incorporate spatial interactions among trees and other forest vegetation have been used as an alternative approach to testing hypotheses about the influence of forest structure on spatial pattern. This mechanistic approach has been applied to describe the spatial structure of tropical and temperate forests [24] and as a component of models simulating forest dynamics (e.g., Busing [5]). The objective of this paper is to identify stochastic point processes that can simulate the non-random spatial patterns of trees in mixed Beech forests, Iran. The point processes were selected to provide realistic reproduction of the observed patterns under a simple set of biologically plausible assumptions. This study assessed: (1) the characteristics of stand structure, including the stand structure of the six major species and canopy and (2) the characteristics of spatial distribution patterns of the major species. On the basis of the results of this large-scale study, we discuss the coexistence of Fagus and other species in the Shastkolate Forest permanent plot.

2 Methods 2.1 Study Area The study area is located at the Shastkolate educational forest in the North-East of the Hyrcanian forest, Iran (36◦ 45 N and 41◦54 E) (Fig. 1). Permanent plot located in parcel 32, district 1 with 79.9 ha. Near the study stand (at Gorgan city), mean annual precipitation is about 6,506,144 mm and the mean monthly temperature is highest in May (27.9◦C) and lowest in November (8.71◦C). The study stand is situated at an elevation between 820 and 960 m up to see level. There were no signs of human or major natural disturbance. Canopy height was typically about 30 m and Canopy cover is about 55–100%.

2.2 Field Methods In February 2005, a 16 ha (400 m × 400 m) permanent plot was established. The forest on the 16 ha plot was well developed and contained many species within the study stand. All woody stems >7.5 cm dbh were measured to the nearest 0.1 cm and the location of all stems was mapped. The trees were tagged, identified to species level, and classified according to state (living or dead) and position in the canopy by measuring height of all trees. In our analysis of spatial distribution patterns and spatial associations among the tree species, we considered layer I to be the canopy layer (height is greater than 40 m) and layers II (height between 20 and 40 m) and III the understorey (height is less than 20 m). The plot was divided into 64 contiguous 50 m × 50 m quadrates, and all trees coordinate were recorded. The condition of the forest floor within a quadrate was recorded by visual estimation as percentage coverage [39].

106

H. Habashi et al.

Fig. 1 Location of study site

2.3 Data Analysis We described the stand structure of the major tree species using stem density, maximum dbh, basal area, dbh distribution. We determined the spatial distribution of each species using the number of stems in each layer. The spatial distribution of stems of major species >7.5 cm dbh in different layers was analyzed using First-order Nearest Neighbour Tests; Clark-Evans Statistic. Probably the simplest measure of spatial pattern is the first-order nearest neighbour distance; that is, the distance from an event to its closest counterpart. The measure was described in an ecological context by Clark and Evans [9] who provide estimates of the expected nearest neighbour distance under CSR (Complete Spatial Randomness) as well as significance tests for detecting departure from CSR in spatial point processes. The Clark Evans statistic (RCE ) is the ratio of the observed (rA ) nearest neighbour distance to that expected (rE ) under CSR. Under CSR, RCE ∼1.0. When RCE < 1.0 the point process is aggregated (RCE = 0 for maximum possible aggregation) and when RCE > 1.0 it is maximally spaced (the maximum value of RCE is 1.0746/λ). In any given distribution the mean observed distance to the nearest neighbour is RCE times as great as would be expected under CSR (at the same density). Thus, an RCE

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran

107

value of 0.5 would indicate that nearest neighbours are on average half as far apart as expected under CSR. Spatial associations among major tree species and stems in different layers were analyzed using Morisita’s index of interspecific correlation, Rδ [30, 31]. First, we considered the following function: 

q  nxi nyi − Nx Ny 2 q Rδ  =

i=1

q(δx × δy )Nx Ny

(1)

where q 

δx =

nxi (nxi − 1)

i=1

(2)

Nx (Nx − 1)

and q 

δy =

nyi (nyi − 1)

i=1

(3)

Ny (Ny − 1)

Where nxi is the number of stems of species X occurring in the ith quadrate, nyi the number of stems of species Y in the ith quadrate, Nx and Ny are the total number of stems of species X and Y, respectively, and q the number of quadrates. If Rδ  ≥ 0, then Rδ = Rδ 

(4)

And if Rδ  < 0, then ⎛

q 

⎞

nxi nyi ⎟ ⎜q ⎜ i=1 ⎟ Rδ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ Nx Ny ⎠

(5)

Rδ expresses the degree of spatial associations, taking a positive value when the distributions of the two species or layers are positively associated and a negative value when they are negatively associated. If the two species or layers are distributed independently of one other, Rδ = 0. The scale of spatial associations is determined by computing Rδ values for quadrates. The size of quadrates is same at Iδ . Because both Iδ and Rδ tend to vary erratically where the number of samples (stems) is small, layers II and III were pooled to increase the sample size for the analysis of spatial

108

H. Habashi et al.

distributions and spatial associations. There are various examples for the use of the Rδ index in the analysis of spatial associations of tree stems [25, 17].

3 Results 3.1 Floristic and Physical Characteristics In the 16 ha permanent plot, we found nine tree and shrub species with a dbh >7.5 cm: F. Orientalis, C. betulus, A. velutinum, A. cappadocicum, Alnus subcordata, Ulmus glabra, P. spinosa, D. lotus and P. persica. We counted 4,901 living stems (292 stems ha−1 ) and 314 dead stems (18.7 stems ha−1 ), with a total basal area of 55.2 m2 ha−1 (living) and 24.3 m3 ha−1 (dead). Here we considered only the living stems of the six main species that each made up >95% of the total stem density: F. orientalis Lipsky, C. betulus, P. persica, A. subcordata, A. velutinum and D. lotus (Table 1). Most of the ground surface was covered by Ruscus hyrcanus, although bare rock and exposed mineral soil occurred locally. Table 1 Stand parameters of living stems >7.5 cm dbh for major tree species in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest Iran

Species F. oreintalis C. betulus P. persica A. subcordata A. velutinum D. Lotus

Stem density (ha−1 ) 107.5 71.5 76.4 2.5 8.5 23.7

DBH (cm) Mean 6S.D.

Maximum

Height (m)

33.84630.01 29.19623.9 22.45616.4 62.99621.6 38.6628.6 12.464.3

150 112 98 119 154 40

21.29 21.03 15.03 32.25 24.29 13.39

Basal area (m2 ha−1 )

Crown diameter (m)

17.3 8.0 4.6 0.87 1.53 0.32

6.16 6.02 6.64 5.9 5.66 6.36

3.2 Size and Stand Structure Stand parameters varied among the major tree species (Table 1). A. Subcordata had the largest mean dbh and basal area, whereas F. Orientalis had the highest stem density. The dbh distributions of living stems of D. lotus, A. velutinum and A. subcordata were bell-shaped. The mode of A. subcordata was 60–70 cm and that of A. velutinum was 20–30 cm and fot D. lotus was 10–15 cm (Fig. 2). Live stems of F. orientalis, C. betulus and P. persica exhibited reverse J or L-shaped distributions. Canopy layers varied among species (Table 2). The four species had stems in all layers but D. lotus hadn’t stems in layer I and 68.3% this species stems is related on layer III. A. subcordata had far fewer stems in layer III than in layers I and II. P. persica had more stems in the lowest layer, and A. velutinum had more stems in the layer II.

Fig. 2 The Stand structure and dbh class distributions of the major tree species in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest Iran

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran 109

110

H. Habashi et al.

Table 2 Density (ha−1 ) by canopy height of living stems >7.5 cm dbh for major tree species in each layer in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate forest, Iran Layera I

II

III

Species

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

F.oreintalis C. betulus P. persica A. subcordata A. velutinum D. Lotus

17.7 5.9 0.48 1.1 0.95 0.0

16.5 8.2 0.6 45.2 11.2 0.0

47.2 43.4 31.7 1.3 6.0 7.5

43.9 60.7 41.5 52.4 70.6 31.7

42.5 22.2 44.2 0.05 1.5 16.2

39.6 31.1 57.9 2.4 18.2 68.3

a Layer

I: Canopy with height is greater than 35 m, Layer II: middle storey canopy with height between 15 and 35 m, Layer III: Under storey canopy with height less than 15 m

3.3 Spatial Distribution Pattern Dispersion maps of individual stems of Beech and Hornbeam species in each layer illustrate their spatial distributions (Figs. 3 and 4). Stems of four species in the plot were clumped in canopy, middle and understorey layers, but A. subcordata and A. velutinum were complete spatial randomness pattern and RCE > 1 illustrate maximum space between stems. In the canopy layer, A. velutinum stems were aggregated in a large sized clump (4,518 m2 ), P. persica was clustered in large sized clump (8,885 m2 ); and A. subcordata, C. betulus and F. orientalis were aggregated in small clump (552 and 400 and 144 m2 ). Because we found few A. subcordata stems in the understorey, we did not analyze the data for this species. Understorey stems of F. orientalis were aggregated in small patch (41 m2 ) and P. persica were (32 m2 ) patches, whereas stems of A. velutinum and A. subcordata were aggregated in intermediate (1,038 and 862 m2 ) clumps. Stems of all species were found in the understorey, distributed independently of canopy conditions. The following tables illustrate spatial distribution analysis in three layers with use of Clark and Evan’s indices (Table 3) [9].

3.4 Spatial Association In permanent plot, F. orientalis and C. betulus stems were negatively associated with A. subcordata and A. velutinum stems, although the relation was stronger with A. subcordata. The sole exception to this result was that C. betulus was distributed independently of other species specification A. velutinum and P. persica in big quadrate size. A. subcordata were positively associated with D. lotus in quadrates 145,000 m2 but were negatively associated with other species in the smallest quadrates. Stems of A. velutinum were distributed independently of the D. lotus

950.00

1000.00

950.00

500.00 550.00 600.00 650.00 700.00 750.00 800.00 850.00 900.00 950.00

1000.00

650.00

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

500.00 550.00 600.00 650.00 700.00 750.00 800.00 850.00 900.00 950.00

F.oreintalis Lipsky- Intermediate

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

900.00

950.00

1000.00

1050.00

1100.00

1150.00

1200.00

500.00 550.00 600.00 650.00 700.00 750.00 800.00 850.00 900.00 950.00

F.orientalis Lipsky- Understory

Fig. 3 Distribution of individual stems of Beech tree in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest, Iran. Large circles: stem with dbh greater or equal than 80 cm; medium circle: stems with dbh greater or equal than 40 cm and less than 80 cm; small circles: stems with dbh greater than 40 cm. Scale in meters

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

900.00

1050.00

1050.00

900.00

1100.00

1150.00

1100.00

1150.00

F.orientalis Lipsky- canopy

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran 111

500.00550.00600.00650.00700.00750.00800.00850.00900.00950.00

650.00

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

900.00

950.00

1000.00

1050.00

1100.00

1150.00

1200.00

500.00550.00600.00650.00700.00750.00800.00850.00900.00950.00

C.betulus-Intermediate

650.00

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

900.00

950.00

1000.00

1050.00

1100.00

1150.00

500.00 550.00 600.00 650.00 700.00 750.00 800.00 850.00 900.00 950.00

C.betulus- Understory

Fig. 4 Distribution of individual stems of Hornbeam tree in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest Iran. Large circles: stem with dbh greater or equal than 80 cm; medium circle: stems with dbh greater or equal than 40 cm and less than 80 cm; small circles: stems with dbh greater than 40 cm. Scale in meters

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

900.00

950.00

1000.00

1050.00

1100.00

1150.00

C.betulus-Canopy

112 H. Habashi et al.

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran

113

Table 3 Spatial distribution analysis parameters of living stems >7.5 cm dbh for major tree species in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate forest – Iran Species

Parameter

Canopy layer

Middle layer

Understorey layer

F. oreintalis

Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R

294 12.02 0.38 98 20.03 0.39 7 94.26 0.45 19 23.5 2.31 15 67.22 0.91 0 0 0

789 6.72 0.34 729 6.91 0.36 528 8.66 0.35 20 29.36 0.25 99 17.01 0.33 124 13.33 0.27

718 6.39 0.30 372 7.85 0.27 740 5.68 0.28 0 0 0 26 32.22 0.32 271 8.17 0.25

C. betulus

P. persica

A. subcordata

A. velutinum

D. lotus

and P. persica in quadrates 12,500 m2 but were negatively associated the smallest quadrates. D. lotus was strong negatively associated with P. persica in all quadrates (Fig. 5).

1

F.orientalis with all other species

0.5

Rδ

0

2500

37500

75000

1125000

130000

–0.5

137500

145000 160000

Fagus&Carpinus Fagus &Alnus Fagus&Acer Fagus&Diospyrus Fagus&Parrotia

–1 Quadratee size (m2)

Fig. 5 Rδ quadrate size relations of living stems >7.5 cm dbh for tree species in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest, Iran. Rδ is the Morisita’s index of interspecific correlation [31]. Rδ quadrate size relations stems in F. orientalis with other species

114

H. Habashi et al.

4 Discussion 4.1 Stand Characteristics In many mixed Beech forests, Fagus. spp are found at a much greater density than other species [38, 35, 22]. In the study stand, the density of F. orientalis was much higher than that of C. betulus, A. subcordata and A. velutinum although A. subcordata and A. velutinum occupied the largest basal area. Total dead wood volume is similar to other reported from Hyrcanian mixed beech forest [15, 14].

4.2 Stand Structure Beech forests (F. orientalis) represent the most important forest communities in natural forested landscapes in Hyrcanian forest, Iran [29]. In Beech forest of central Europe mean density of living trees >7 cm dbh amounted to 263 ha−1 and about one-third of the trees (95 ha−1 ) occurred in the upper canopy layer [33]. In our study, mean density of living trees >7.5 cm dbh amounted to 107.4 ha−1 and 16.5% of the trees (17.7 ha−1 ) occurred in the upper canopy layer. On the basis of our results, we divided the species into two groups. The species in group A were F. orientalis, C. betulus and P. persica and in group B were D. lotus, A. subcordata and A. velutinum. The species in group A were the most common, characterized by continuously reverse L-shaped dbh distributions (live stems). Stand structure of beech forest most dominant with L-shaped dbh distributions [29, 33]. The species in group B had bell-shaped dbh distributions (live stems). Group A species dominated the canopy layer and very most stems in the middle layer understorey layer too. Despite their low density in the understorey, however, their longevity may allow for continued coexistence of these two species groups in the canopy layer. In RuscoFagetum association, Diospyrus is usually more abundant in understorey [3] and in mixed beech forest studied Diospyrus trees occurred in understorey canopy layer (68.3%). Group A’s dominance of the understorey may be due to shade tolerance, a characteristic of Fagus species.

4.3 Spatial Distribution Pattern and Spatial Association Individuals of many tree species in various forest communities tend to be patchily distributed [10, 42, 32, 26]. We found a similar situation in our study site; stems of four species in each layer had clumped distributions and the size of the clumps differed among species and canopy layers. A. subcordata and A. velutinum had complete spatial randomness pattern in out site that reflected pioneer species. In our study, spatial associations varied among intra- and inter-specific cohorts in stand structure. Some of species such as A. subcordata were negatively associated with other species in small quadrate size but were positively associated with other

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran

115

species in their big quadrate size. F. orientalis stems were negatively associated with all other species. D. lotus stems was occupied in layer II and III and had strong negatively associated with P.perica that occupied same layer. Acknowledgements We thank numerous institutions and persons for their contribution of the study: Educational Shastkolate forest, Gorgan University. Shaban Shataii, Habib Zare, Gholamreza Daneshvar, Alireza Aliarab, Mohamad Hadi Moayeri and Mr Mirzaii.

References 1. Akashi N (1996) The spatial pattern and canopy-understory association of trees in a cool temperate, mixed forest in western Japan. Ecol Res 11:311–319 2. Allen TFH, Starr TB (1982) Hierarchy: perspectives for ecological diversity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL 3. Asadollahi F (2001) Study of Hyrcanian plant association in north Iranian forest. 1st national conference of north forest management and sustainable development, Ramsar, Iran 4. Barnes BV (1998) Forest ecology. Wiley, New York. 773 pp 5. Busing R (1991) A spatial model of forest dynamics. Vegetatio 92:167–179 6. Busing RT, White PS (1993) Effects of area on old-growth forest attributes: importance for the equilibrium landscape concept. Landscape Ecol 8:119–126 7. Caldwell MM, Pearcy RW (1994) Causes of soil nutrient heterogeneity at different scales. In Caldwell MM, Pearcy RW (eds) Exploitation of environmental heterogeneity by plants. Academic Press, Boston, MA, pp 255–282 8. Collins SL, Klahr SC (1991) Tree dispersion in oak-dominated forests along an environmental gradient. Oecologia 86(4):471–477 9. Clark PJ, Evans FC (1954) Distance to nearest neighbor as a measure of spatial relationships in populations. Ecology 35:445–453 10. Denslow JS (1980) Gap partitioning among tropical rainforest trees. Biotropica 12:47–55 11. Ehrenfeld JG, Han X, Parsons WFJ, Zhu W (1997) On the nature of environmental gradients: temporal and spatial variability of soils and vegetation in the New Jersey Pinelands. J Ecol 85:785–798 12. Franklin J, Michaelsen J, Strahler AH (1985) Spatial analysis of density dependent pattern in coniferous forest stands. Vegetation 64:29–36 13. Gross KL, Pregitzer KS, Burton AJ (1995) Spatial variation in nitrogen availability in three successional plant communities. J Ecol 83:357–367 14. Habashi H, Hosseini SM, Mohajer M (2004) The importance of necromass in virgin oriental beech forests (Mazandaran, Iran). 7th IUFRO international beech symposium, Tehran, Iran 15. Habashi H, Mahmoudi J (2005) The ecological importance of dead trees in virgin oriental beech forests (Mazandaran, Iran). 10th European ecological congress, Turkey 16. Halvorson JJ, Bolton H Jr, Smith JL, Rossi RE (1994) Geostatistical analysis of resource islands under Artemisia tridentata in the shrub-steppe. Great Basin Nat 54:313–328 17. Hoshino D, Nishimura N, Yamamoto S. (2001) Age, size structure and spatial patterns of major tree species in an old growth Chamaecyparis obusa forest, central Japan. For Ecol Manage 152:31–43 18. Jackson RB, Caldwell MM (1993) Geostatistical patterns of soil heterogeneity around individual plants. J Ecol 81:683–692 19. Kashian DM, Barnes BV, Walker WS (2003) Ecological species groups of landform level ecosystems dominated by jack pine in northern lower Michigan, USA. Plant Ecol 166:75–91 20. Kenkel NC (1988) Pattern of self-thinning in jack pine: testing the random mortality hypothesis. Ecology 69(4):1017–1024 21. Kenel NC, Hoskins JA, Hoskins WD (1989) Local competition in naturally established jack pine stand. Can J Bot 67:2630–2635

116

H. Habashi et al.

22. Leibundgut H (1993) Europäische Urwälder. Haupt Bern, Stuttgart 23. Levin SA (1992) The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: the Robert H. MacArthur award lecture. Ecology 73:1943–1967 24. Maguire D, Batista JLF, McKenzie D (1993) Horizontal structure of uneven-aged mixed species forests modeled as an inhomogeneous poisson process. In: Reynolds K (ed) Proceedings IUFRO S4.11 Conference on stochastic spatial models in forestry, University of Greenwich, Thessaloniki, Greece, pp 163–170 25. Manabe T, Yamamoto S (1997) Spatial distribution of Eurya japonica in an old-growth evergreen broad-leaved forest, SW Japan. J Veg Sci 8:761–772 26. Manabe T, Nishimura N, Miura M, Yamamoto S (2000) Population structure and spatial patterns for trees in a temperate old-growth evergreen broad-leaved forest in Japan. Plant Ecol 151:181–197 27. Miller RE, Ver Hoef JM, Fowler NL (1995) Spatial heterogeneity in eight central Texas grasslands. J Ecol 83:919–928 28. Mitchell A, Arnott J (1995) Effects of shade on the morphology and physiology of amabilis fir and western hemlock seedlings. New Forests 10(1):79–98 29. Mohajer MM (2005) Silviculture. Tehran University Press, Tehran, p 387 30. Morisita M (1959a) Measuring of the dispersion of individuals and analysis of the distributional patterns. Mem Fac Sci Kyushu Univ Ser E 2:215–235 31. Morisita M (1959b) Measuring of interspecific association and similarity between communities. Mem Fac Sci Kyushu Univ Ser E 3:65–80 32. Nakashizuka T (1999) Structure, dynamics and disturbance regime of temperate broad-leaved forests in Japan. J Veg Sci 10:805–814 33. Oheimb G, Westphal C, Tempel H, Härdtle W (2005) Structural pattern of a near-natural beech forest (Fagus sylvatica) (Serrahn, North-east Germany). For Ecol Manage 212:253–263 34. Pickett STA, Cadenasso ML (1995) Landscape ecology: spatial heterogeneity in ecological systems. Science 269:331–334 35. Rademacher C, Neuert C, Grundmann V, Wissel C, Grimm V (2004) Reconstructing spatiotemporal dynamics of Central European natural beech forests: the rule-based forest model before. For Ecol Manage 194:349–368 36. Robinson, D., Van Vuuren MMI (1998) Responses of wild plants to nutrient patches in relation to growth rate and life-form. In: Lambers H, Poorter H (eds) Inherent variation in plant growth. Physiological mechanisms and ecological consequences. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands, pp 237–257 37. Robertson GP, Crum JR, Ellis BG (1993) The spatial variability of soil resources following long-term disturbance. Oecologia 96:451–456 38. Saniga M, Schütz J-P (2001) Dynamics of changes in dead wood share in selected beech virgin forests in Slovakia within their development cycle. J For Sci 47:557–565 39. Sinclair DF (1985) On tests of spatial randomness using mean nearest neighbour distance. Ecology 66:1084–1085 40. Skarpe C (1991) Spatial patterns and dynamics of woody vegetation in an arid savanna. J Veg Sci 2:565–572 41. Szwagrzyk J, Czerwczak M (1993) Spatial pattern of trees in natural forests of East-Central Europe. J Veg Sci 4:469–476 42. Taylor AH, Qin Z (1988) Regeneration patterns in old-growth Abies–Betula forests in the Wolong natural reserve, Sichuam, China. J Ecol 76:1204–1218 43. Trangmar BB, Yost RS, Wade MK, Uehara G, Sudjadi M (1987) Spatial variation of soil properties and rice yield on recently cleared land. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 51:668–674 44. Urban DL, O’Neill RV, Shugart HH (1987) Landscape ecology. BioScience 37:119–127 45. Webster R, Oliver MA (1992) Sample adequately to estimate variograms of soil properties. J Soil Sci 43:177–192 46. Welden C, Slauson W, Ward R (1990) Spatial pattern and interference in PinÄon-Juniper woodlands of northwest Colorado. Great Basin Nat 50(4):313–319 47. West PW (1984) Inter-tree competition and small-scale pattern in monoculture of Eucalyptus obilqua L’Herit. Austr J Ecol 9:405–411

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa Spiro Grazhdani and Spase Shumka

Abstract This research presents an approach to modeling nutrient/food-chain interactions in a stratified lake, which gives a general picture of the eutrophication level for lake Prespa and shows general trends of the trophic state of this aquatic ecosystem. Man – made eutrophication, in absence of control measures, provides much faster than the natural phenomenon and is the major reason for pollution of lake Prespa. The model presented provides informations on temporal resolution of eutrophication effects that is extremely useful to water quality managers. This study also provides a means to identify nutrient and light limitation, which is a critical step in controlling eutrophication. The specific nature of the lake has been taken account and embodied in the model. The adequacy of the simulation is assessed by experimental measurements in the lake. The results taken are encouraging. Keywords Nutrient/food-chain · Eutrophication · Algae · Phytoplankton · Zooplankton · Non-living organic carbon

1 Introduction Water quality modeling has evolved a great deal since its innovation in the early years of the twentieth century. In the 1970s the principal water quality problem addressed was eutrophication. As a consequence, modelers broadened their own scope to include more mechanistic representations of biological processes. Capitalizing on oceanographic research environmental engineers developed elaborate nutrient/food-chain models [2–6, 8, 9]. The major modeling advance in this period has been to recognize the prominent role of solid matter in the transport and fate of toxicants. In particular, the association of toxicants with settling and

S. Grazhdani (B) Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_12, 

117

118

S. Grazhdani and S. Shumka

resuspending particles represents a major mechanism controlling their transport and fate in natural waters. Further, small organic particles such as phytoplankton and detritus, can be ingested and passed along to higher organisms. Such food-chain interactions have led the modelers to view nature’s organic carbon cycle as more than an end in itself. Rather, the food chain is viewed as a conveyer and concentrator of contaminants [6]. This research focuses on a seasonal nutrient/food- chain model for a stratified lake. A limiting nutrient is integrated into algal – zooplankton scheme to complete the picture of nutrient/food chain interactions. Following a simple kinetic scheme the resulting equations are written. The equations form a completely closed system where nutrients are turned into biomass by net production and recycled by respiration/excretion and death. We are focused in this research on a specific group of microorganisms, algae. We refined the plant growth framework by developing a more complete model of an important group of algae, the free-floating microorganism called phytoplankton. Chlorophyll a is considered to be directly proportional to the concentration of phytoplanktonic algal biomass. Below are given the factors that contribute to algal growth. The growth rate of algae is not a simple constant, but varies in response to environmental factors, such as temperature, nutrients and light. At low levels and in some instances at high levels, these factors can limit growth. A variety of formulations have been developed to represent the effect of temperature on plant growth [10]. A more commonly used form is theta model. There are several ways in which the nutrient limitation term can be refined. The most important relates to how nutrients are handled. For such cases, separate limitation terms would be developed for each nutrient. At the other extreme is the case where the nutrient in shortest supply controls growth. This type of approach, which is similar in spirit to Liebig’s law of the minimum [6], is the most commonly accepted formulation. The effect of light on phytoplankton growth is complicated by the fact that several factors have to be integrated to come up with the total effect. These factors are diurnal surface light variation, light attenuation with depth and dependence of the growth rate on light. In the previous paragraphs are outlined some external physical and chemical factors, such as temperature, light and nutrients, that limit phytoplankton growth in natural waters. There are a number of processes contribute to the loss of phytoplankton. Some of these are transport related such as settling and diffusion/dispersion. Others are kinetic such as respiration, excretion and death by predation. In water quality modeling, two losses are emphasized: non-predatory and predatory losses. The non-predatory losses consist primarily of respiration and excretion. Respiration reefers to the opposite process to photosynthesis where the plant utilizes oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Excretion is a process focused on the release of nutrients. However, algae can also release organic carbon as extracellular byproducts. It should be noted that although they are often treated as a single

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa

119

process, the division between respiration and excretion should not be considered a trivial distinction. This is particularly true as nutrient/food-chain models evolve toward more accurate representation of the organic carbon cycle. In such cases, processes that tend to generate carbon dioxide and liberate available nutrients (respiration) should be separated from processes that liberate organic forms of carbon and nutrients (excretion). Predatory losses include the factors that limit algal populations by causing their death due to grazing by zooplankton that employ the algae as a food source. To provide background for this phytoplankton – zooplankton interactions, general mathematical models have been developed to simulate predator-prey interactions. Summaries of the data for all aforementioned parameters can be found in Chapra [6] and Bowie et al. [1]. This research has been designed to illustrate how predator-prey kinetics works, and to show how they can be integrated into a more comprehensive nutrient/foodchain computation. It relates to the ecological state of Lake Prespa.

2 Materials and Methods The present framework handles physical segmentation (two vertical layers), loadings and transport in the same way as the two-component model described in [6]. Mass balance for a substance in the epilimnion and the hypolimnion (Fig. 1), can be written as: V1

dc1 = W(t) − Qc1 + vt At (c2 − c1 ) + S1 dt dc2 = vt At (c1 − c2 ) + S2 V2 dt

(1) (2)

where V = volume, c = concentration, t = time, W(t) = loading, Q = outflow, vt = thermocline transfer coefficient, At = thermocline area, and S = sources and sinks.

Fig. 1 Physical segmentation scheme and transport representation

120

S. Grazhdani and S. Shumka

As depicted in Fig. 2, the model consists of eight state variables. These can be divided into three major groups (Table 1). Mass balance equations are written for each of the state variables for each of the layers. The source and sink terms for each state variables are described below.

Fig. 2 Kinetic segmentation

Table 1 Model state variables State Variable

Symbol

Units

Food-chain 1. Algae 2. Herbivorous zooplankton 3. Carnivorous zooplankton

a zh zc

mgCha m−3 gC m−3 gC m−3

Non-living organic carbon 1. Particulate 2. Dissolved

cp cd

gC m−3 gC m−3

Nutrients 1. Ammonium nitrogen 2. Nitrate nitrogen 3. Soluble reactive phosphorus

na ni ps

mgN m−3 mgN m−3 mgP m−3

2.1 Food Chain The food chain consists of a single plant group along with two zooplankton groups.

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa

121

2.1.1 Algae The algae growth is a function of temperature, nutrients and solar radiation. For the hypolimnion, algae are also gained by settling from the surface layer. Sinks include respiration/excretion, grazing and settling losses. The differential equation that governs the growth and production of algae (chlorophyll a) is formulated as following: V

da = kg (T, nt , ps, I)Va − kra (T)Va − Cgh (T, a, zh )Va + νa At au − νa At a dt

(3)

where kg (T, nt , ps , I) = the algal growth rate [d−1 ], kra (T) = losses due to respiration and excretion [d−1 ], Cgh (T, a, zh ) = grazing losses [d−1 ], νa = phytoplankton settling velocity [m d−1 ], and the subscript “u” designates an upper layer. The growth and the grazing rates are dependent on environmental factors as in [8]: kg (T, nt , ps , I) = kg,

20

1.066

T−20 2.718

ke H

 −α  e 1 − e−α0 min



p nt , ksn + nt ksp + p (4)

and Cgh (T, a, zh ) =

a Cgh θ T−20 zh kSa + a

(5)

where nt = total inorganic nitrogen = na + ni , and other parameters are defined in [6]. In addition, the respiration rate is corrected for temperature with the theta model: kra (T) = kra, 20θ T−20

(6)

All other temperature-dependencies are corrected in this fashion. 2.1.2 Herbivorous Zooplankton Part of the consumed algae is converted into herbivorous zooplankton. The herbivores are depleted by carnivore grazing and respiration/excretion losses: V

dzh = aca εh Cgh (T, a, zh ) Va − Cgc (T, zc ) Vzh − krh (T) Vzh dt

(7)

where aca = the stoichiometric coefficient for the conversion of algal chlorophyll a to zooplankton carbon [mgChla/gC]. 2.1.3 Carnivorous Zooplankton Part of the consumed herbivorous zooplankton is converted into carnivorous zooplankton. The carnivores are depleted by respiration/excretion losses and the



122

S. Grazhdani and S. Shumka

first-order death due to grazing by organisms higher on the food chain (primarily fish): V

dzc = εc Cgc (T, zc )Vzh − krc (T) Vzc − kdc (T) Vzc dt

(8)

2.2 Non-living Organic Carbon The non-living organic carbon is divided into particulate and organic fractions in order to distinguish between settleable and non-settleable forms.

2.2.1 Particulate Inefficient grazing (egestion) along with carnivore death results in gains to the particulate non-living organic carbon (POC) pool. For the hypolimnion, POC is also gained by settling from the surface layer. Sinks include a first-order dissolution reaction and settling losses: V

dcp = rca (1 − εh ) Cgh (T, a, zh ) Va + (1 − εc ) Cgc (T, zc ) Vzh dt + kdc (T) Vzc − kp (T)Vcp + νp At cpu − νp At cp

(9)

2.2.2 Dissolved DOC is gained via the first-order dissolution reaction and lost by hydrolysis: V

dcd = kp (T) Vcp − kh (T) Vcd dt

(10)

2.3 Nutrients The nutrients are divided into inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus. The former is split into ammonium and nitrate nitrogen. 2.3.1 Ammonium Nitrogen Ammonium ion is gained due to hydrolysis of dissolved organic carbon and from food-chain respiration. It is lost via uptake and nitrification: V

dna = rnc kh (T) Vcd + rna kra (T) Va + rnc krh (T) Vzh + rnc krc (T) Vzc dt − Fa rna kg (T, nt , ps , I) Va − kn (T) Vna

(11)

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa

123

where Fa = the fraction of the inorganic nitrogen that is taken from the ammonium pool by plant uptake: Fa =

na ka + n a

(12)

where k = a half-saturation constant for ammonium preference.

2.3.2 Nitrate Nitrogen Nitrate is gained due to nitrification and it is lost via plant uptake: V

dni = kn (T) Vna − (1 − Fa ) rna kg (T, nt , ps , I) Va dt

(13)

2.3.3 Soluble Reactive Phosphorus (SRP) SRP is gained due to hydrolysis of dissolved organic carbon and from food-chain respiration. It is lost via plant uptake: V

dpS = rpc kh (T) Vcd + rpa kra (T) Va + rpc krh (T) Vzh + rpc krc (T) Vzc dt − rpa kg (T, nt , ps , I) Va

(14)

By employing the kinetic interaction from Eqs. 3 through 14, Eqs. 1 and 2 can be written for each of the eight state variables. The resulting sixteen ordinary differential equations can be integrated simultaneously using a numerical method such as the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method [7].

3 Results and Discussions Physical parameters for Lake Prespa during the 2001 are summarized in Table 2. Note that the hypolimnetic temperatures are simulated with a heat balance model. Loads and initial conditions are summarized in Table 3, and model parameters are listed in Table 4. The model equations were solved numerically for year 2001. The results are summarized in Fig. 3. Figure 3a shows results for the food chain in the epilimnion. Note that zooplankton is expressed in chlorophyll units to allow comparison among the variables. The results indicate that predator – prey interactions are taking place with peak of the algae, herbivores, and carnivores occurring at approximately days 160, 180, and 240, respectively.

124

S. Grazhdani and S. Shumka Table 2 Hydrogeometric parameters for Lake Prespa Parameter

Symbol

Surface area Thermocline area Epilimnion volume Hypolimmnion volume Thermocline thickness Epilimnion thickness Hypolimnion thickness Outflow Thermocline difussion: Summer stratified Winter mixed Start of summer stratification Time to establish stratification Onset of end of stratification End of stratification

As At Ve Vh Ht He Hh Q νt

Value

Units m2 m2 m3 m3 m m m rn3 yr−1 cm2 s−1

0.13 13 100 58 315 20

d d d d

Table 3 Boundary (loading) and initial conditions for Lake Prespa Variable

Units

Loadinga

Initial conditionsb

Algae Herbivorous zooplankton Carnivorous zooplankton Particulate organic carbon Dissolved organic carbon Ammonium Nitrate Solube reactive phosphorus

μgchla L−1 mgC L−1 mgC L−1 mgC L−1 mgC L−1 μgN L−1 μgN L−1 μgP L−1

1 0 0 0.8 0.8 15 220 14.3

1 0.005 0.005 0.12 0.12 15 250 12

a Multiply b Same

by outflow to convert to mass loading rate for epilimnion and hypolimnion

Table 4 Model parameter values used for Lake Prespa Parameter

Symbol

Value

Units

Algae Growth rate Temperature factor Respiration rate Temperature factor Settling velocity Optimal light P half-saturation

kg,20 θa kra θ ra νa Is ksp

2 1.066 0.025 1.08 0.2 350 2

d−1 d−1 m d−1 Ly d−1 μgP d−1

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa

125

Table 4 (continued) Parameter

Symbol

Value

Units

N half-saturation Background light extinction

ksn ke

15 0.2

μgN d−1 m−1

Herbivorous zooplankton Grazing rate Temperature factor Grazing efficiency Respiration rate Temperature factor Algae half-saturation

Cgh θ gh εh krh θ rh ksa

5 1.08 0.7 0.1 1.08 10

L mgC−1 d−1

Carnivorous zooplankton Grazing rate Temperature factor Grazing efficiency Respiration rate Temperature factor Death rate Temperature factor Herbivore – half-saturation

Cgh θ gh εc krc θ rc kdc θ dc ksh

5 1.08 0.7 0.04 1.08 0.04 1.08 0.4

L mgC−1 d−1

Non – living carbon Particulate settling Dissolution rate Temperature factor Hydrolysis rate Temperature factor

νp kp θp kh θh

0.2 0.1 1.08 0.075 1.08

m d−1 d−1

Nutrients Nitrification rate Temperature factor Ammonia preference half − saturation

kn θn ksam

0.1 1.08 50

d−1 μgcha L−1

d−1 d−1 mgC L−1

d−1

d−1 μgN L−1

Results for epilimnetic inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus are illustrated in Fig. 3b. According to the calculation, the lake is overwhelmingly phosphorus limited during the summer stratified period. The fact that there is excess nitrogen and phosphorus in the water indicates that lake’s production is light limited during the remained of the year. The organic carbon cycle for the epilimnion is shown in Fig. 3c. This plot indicates a clear difference between the productive summer months and the rest of the year. High organic carbon generation during the stratified period has several implications. First, it eventual decomposition can have an impact on oxygen content of bottom waters. This would be particularly important for water bodies with smaller hypolimnion (and, hence smaller oxygen reserves) than for lake Prespa. Second, the transport and fate of toxic substances can be strongly associated with organic matter.

126

S. Grazhdani and S. Shumka

Fig. 3 Simulation results for the epilimnion of Lake Prespa as computed with a nutrient/foodchain model. (a) Food chain with all components expressed as chlorophyll, (b) inorganic nutrients, and (c) organic carbon

4 Conclusions The model provides predictions of features like peak chlorophyll levels and, hence, produces information that is extremely useful to water-quality managers. This is because the public is often most concerned with extreme events in water body, rather than in seasonal or long-term average conditions. Because of its daily time step, the nutrient/food chain model is capable of generating both types of information. Identifying the limiting nutrient or whether the system has significant light limitation is a critical step in controlling eutrophication. By mechanistically including

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa

127

several nutrients and light, the nutrient/food-chain model provides a means to make such identifications. By providing predictions of organic carbon levels, nutrient/food-chain framework provides a means to assess both oxygen and toxic substances in lakes.

References 1. Bowie GL, Mills WB, Porcella DB, Campbell CL, Pagenkopf JR, Rupp GL, Jonson KM, Chan PWH, Gherini SA, Chamberlin CE (1985) Rates, constants, and kinetic formulations in surface water quality modeling. US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD, Athens, GA, ERL, EPA/600/3-85/040 2. Canale RP, Owens EM, Auer MT, Effler SW (1995) The validation of a water quality model for the Seneca river, New York. J Water Resour Plan Manage 121(3):241–250 3. Canale RP, de Palma LM, Vogel AH (1976) A plankton- based food web model for lake Michigan. In: Canale RP (ed) Modeling biochemical processes in aquatic ecosystems. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI, p 33 4. Cerco CF, Cole T (1993) Three dimensional eutrophication model of chesapeake bay. J Environ Eng ASCE 119(6):1006–1025 5. Chan CW, Orlob GT (1975) Ecological simulation for aquatic environment. In Patton BC (ed) Analysis and simulation in ecology, vol III. Academic, New York, p 474 6. Chapra SG (1996) Surface water quality modeling. McGraw-Hill, New York 7. Chapra SG, Canale RP (1888) Numerical methods for engineers, 2nd ed. McGraw – Hill, New York 8. Di Toro DM, Fitzpatrick JJ (1993) Chesapeake bay sediment flux model. US Army Crops of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Tech. Report EL-93-2 9. Mitreski K, Koneski Z, Davcev D, Naumoski T, Mitic V, Sumka S, Guseka D (1998) An ecological model of lake Ohrid. Proceedings of the IASTED international conference: Applied Modeling and Simulation, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 12–14 Aug 1998, pp 32–35 10. Thorton KW, Lessen AS (1978) A temperature algorithm for modifying rates. Trans Am Fish Soc 107(2):284–287

Tolerance of Different Wild Oats Biotypes to Different Oat Killers and Their Impact on Wheat Imtiaz Khan, Gul Hassan, Muhammad Ishfaq Khan, and Meher Gul

Abstract The ecological starting point for crop health requires knowledge of what is in the soil (microbes, insects, weed seeds, etc.), methods to prevent herbicides resistance build up in the crop, and knowledge to maximize the plants ability to defend itself. The focus of most current crop production practices is weed control with little effort applied by herbicides. Cropping practices that degrade soil and limit genetic diversity contribute to increasing weed populations. A field experiment was initiated at Malkandher Research Farm, NWFP (North West Frontier Province) Agricultural University, Peshawar during Rabi 2005–2006 to figure out the tolerance of different wild oats (noxious weed) biotypes to herbicides. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design under a split-plot arrangement, with three replications. The experiment comprised of four wild oats biotypes assigned to the main plots, while 3 herbicides along with a weedy check (Sencor, Isoproturon, Affinity and Weedy check treatment) were kept in sub-plots. The Ghaznavi-98 variety of wheat in a sub-plot size of 5 × 1m2 was planted on November 13, 2005. The data were recorded on tillers plant−1 , wheat spikes m−2 , number of grains spike−1 , 1,000 grain weight (g), biological yield (t ha−1 ), grain yield (t ha−1 ) and the protein content (%) in grain. The statistical analyses of data exhibited non-significant differences for tolerance of biotypes to herbicides in all the morphological and agronomic traits, while herbicides and their interaction with biotypes were significant for all the traits examined except wheat plant height. As a consequence of phytotoxic effect on weeds, the herbicides increased grain yield and yield components. The herbicide Affinity out yielded rest of the herbicides. In general, the highest grain yield was harvested in Affinity treated plots across all the wild oats biotypes. The interaction of biotypes with the herbicides exhibited a differential competitive ability or tolerance to different herbicides. It is thus recommended that judicious thinking is desired to control different biotypes infesting farmers’ fields because wild oat (Avena fatua L.) is one of the most troublesome weeds in the weed community. The I. Khan (B) Department of Weed Science, Faculty of Crop Protection, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar 25130, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_13, 

129

130

I. Khan et al.

Pakistani prairies are a semiarid region prone to soil erosion, and appears to be an appropriate site to adopt conservation tillage practices. Due to the environmental concerns and the development of herbicide resistance, it would be desirable to integrate all aspects of crop management systems, rather than solely rely on herbicides, to manage wild oat problems. Keywords Wild oat · Biotypes · Herbicides

1 Introduction Production losses due to weed in wheat may occur from initial stages to the last stage of maturity, harvest, Threshing, winnowing and storing of wheat grains. Weeds of wheat such as, wild oats and Phalaris minor mimic wheat morphologically, hence weeds could be segregated from the crop, consequently could not be removed manually during the early growth stages. Weed plants are more resistant, hardy and making faster growth than wheat. Because, until the wheat plants establish, weeds bind over the plants and wheat fails to capture the space and weed deprive it from nutrients, solar radiation, space and moisture. Some weed species, nourish insects pests and diseases and provide shelter to them. Wild oat causes yield reductions directly by competing with the crop for moisture, light, and nutrients. Such losses occur early in the growing season. Most of the yield loss occurs before the crop is 45 to 50 days old. In addition to yield losses, wild oat may cause dockage at the elevator, increased tillage, reduced yields from delayed seeding, and increased expenditures for herbicides. Compared to herbicides used to control broadleaf weeds in small grains, effective wild oat control herbicides are expensive. Wild oat infests 28 million acres of land in the United States only. Wild oat is extremely competitive and difficult to control because i.e. it has delayed germination. It shatters its seed before most crops are harvested. Its growth habit is similar to that of wheat, barley, and domesticated oats (Paterson, 1976). Wild oat plants rarely produce more than 200 seed, but viable seed are produced rapidly, generally within 7 to 10 days after heading. The twisted, bent awn that rises from the back of each seed is straightened and rewound repeatedly by moist conditions and often serves as a mechanism for covering freshly shattered seed [7].

2 Experimental An experiment was conducted at Malkandher Research Farm, N.W.F.P Agricultural University, Peshawar during the Rabi season 2004–2005. The experiment was laid out in Randomized complete block (RCB) design with a split plot arrangement having four replications. In each replication, there were four main plots (wild oats biotypes). Each main plot consisted of four sub-plots. The number of rows in each

Tolerance of Different Wild Oats Biotypes to Different Oat Killers

131

sub-plot were five 5 m long spaced at 25 cm. Four wild oats biotypes collected from across the NWFP were assigned to main plots and herbicides were kept in the subplots. The sub plot size was kept at 5 × 1 m2 . The seed of Ghaznavi-98 wheat variety was seeded at the rate of 120 kg ha−1 on 13th November, 2005 at Malkandher farm with the rabi drill. The wild oats biotypes were sown right after wheat sowing. All the recommended cultural practices were carried out uniformly in all the treatments during the experiment. The detail of the experimental materials are as under: Wild oats biotypes (main plots) i. ii. iii. iv.

Peshawar D.I. Khan (White) Mardan Malakand

Herbicides (Rate kg ha−1 (sub-plots)) v. vi. vii. viii.

Isoproturon 1.25 kg i.e. ha−1 Sencor 1.25 kg i.e. ha−1 Affinity 1.75 kg ha−1 Weedy check.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Wheat Tillers Plant−1 Data regarding wheat tiller plant−1 are presented in Fig. 1. Analysis of the data showed that wild oat biotypes had no effect while herbicide and their interaction had significant effect on wheat tiller plant−1 . Among the herbicides means maximum (8.77) wheat tiller plant−1 was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (5.37) wheat tiller plant−1 was recorded in Weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (9.07) wheat tiller plant−1 was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) × Affinity. While minimum wheat tiller plant−1 (5.00) was recorded in Mardan X Weedy check (Fig. 1). The logic behind significant interaction could be the various control techniques that affected wild oat biotypes and their growth was checked thereby diverting nutrients. Solar radiation and moisture channel towards the development of wheat (clum), fully utilizing space and converting assimilates into various food components for vigorous growth of wheat. Similar results are also reported by Akhtar et al. [1], who reported that application of herbicides increased fertile tiller density.

132

I. Khan et al.

Number of grains spike−1

80 a

70 ab b b

60 50

d d

cd

cd

cd

Peshawar

c cd cd

D.I.Khan(W)

40

e

30

e e

e

Mardan Malakand

20 10 0 Sencor

Isoproturon

Affinity

Weedy check

Herbicides

Fig. 1 Wheat tiller plant−1 as affected by different wild oats biotypes and herbicides

3.2 Number of Grains Spike−1 Number of grains spike−1 is another important component of yield. Change in number of grains spike−1 drastically influence the final yield. The analysis of the data showed that biotypes of wild oat, herbicides and their interaction were evaluated as significant. The data in Fig. 2 exhibits that among the wild oats biotypes, maximum (43.20) number of grains spike−1 was recorded in Malakand biotype while minimum (40.00) number of grains spike−1 was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) wild oat treated plots. Among the herbicides means maximum (56.15) number of grains spike−1 was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (27.18) number of grains spike−1 was recorded in weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (61.33) number of grains spike−1 was

Number of grains spike–1

80 a

70 ab b b

60 50

d d

cd

cd

cd

Peshawar

c cd cd

40

e

30

e e

e

D.I.Khan(W) Mardan Malakand

20 10 0

Sencor

Isoproturon

Affinity

Weedy check

Herbicides

Fig. 2 Number of grains spike−1 as affected by different wild oats biotypes and herbicides

Tolerance of Different Wild Oats Biotypes to Different Oat Killers

133

recorded in Malakand × Affinity. The minimum number of grains spike−1 (25.13) was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) × Weedy check. The results are corroborated with results of Khan et al. [3, 4, 5], who concluded that herbicidal applications produce more grains spike−1 than untreated control.

3.3 1000 Grains Weight (g) Thousand grain weights is an important yield parameter. It is evident from the data (Fig. 3) that the 1,000-grain weight (g) was non-significantly affected by wild oats biotype, while herbicides and their interaction had a significant effect. The mean data manifest that among the wild oats biotypes, maximum (28.17 g) 1,000-grain weight was recorded in D.I. Khan white biotype while minimum (25.25 g) 1,000grain weight was recorded in Mardan wild oat treated plots. Among the herbicides means maximum (32.24 g) 1,000-grain weight was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (21.15 g) grain size was recorded in Weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (33.17 g) 1,000-grain weight was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) × Affinity. The minimum 1,000grain weight (21.15 g) was recorded in Malakand × Weedy check. Sohail [9] reported similar results, who concluded that herbicides significantly increased the 1,000 grains weight in wheat.

1000 grains weight (g)

40 a a a

35 30

ab a-d

a-c a-d

25

ab

a

a-c

a-d

b-d cd cd cd

d

Peshawar D.I.Khan(W)

20

Mardan

15

Malakand

10 5 0

Sencor

Isoproturon

Affinity

Herbicides

Weedy check

Fig. 3 1,000 grains weight (g) as affected by different wild oats biotypes and herbicides

3.4 Biological Yield (t ha−1 ) The total dry matter produced by a plant as the result of photosynthesis and nutrients uptake, minus that lost by respiration is called biological yield [8]. Statistical analysis of the data revealed that wild oat biotypes had non-significant while herbicides and their interaction with wild oat biotypes had significant effect

134

I. Khan et al.

on biological yield (t ha−1 ). The data show that among the wild oats biotypes, maximum (8.033) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Malakand biotype while minimum (7.567) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar wild oat treated plots. Among the herbicides means maximum (9.867) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (4.167) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (10.27) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar × Affinity. While minimum wheat biological yield (3.467 t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar X Weedy check

3.5 Grain Yield (t ha−1 ) The grain yield is the most important attribute for obtaining higher production from wheat crop. The components that determine grain yield include the number of plants, number of heads per plant, number of seeds per head, and weight per seed. A decrease in any of these factors can decrease wheat yield. Statistical analysis of the data showed that wild oats biotypes had a non-significant, while herbicides and their interaction with wild oats biotypes had significant differences on grain yield. The data in (Figs. 4 and 5) show that among the wild oats biotypes, maximum (1.961) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Malakand biotype while minimum (1.604) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar wild oat treated plots. Among the herbicides means maximum (2.600) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (1.043) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (2.867) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) × Affinity. While minimum wheat grains yield (0.908 t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar X Weedy check. The significant increase in grain yield might be attributed to the effective weed control in affinity treatments and consequently wheat crop efficiently utilized all the

Biological yield (t ha–1)

14 a

12 10 8

a-c b-f

c-f

f

a-e

ab

a-ca-ca-d

ef d-f

Peshawar D.I.Khan(W) g

6

g

g g

Mardan Malakand

4 2 0 Sencor

Isoproturon

Affinity

Weedy check

Herbicides

Fig. 4 Biological yield (t ha−1 ) as affected by different wild oats biotypes and herbicides

Tolerance of Different Wild Oats Biotypes to Different Oat Killers 3.5

a

Grain yield (t ha–1)

ab

135

a

3 2.5

cd c-e cd c-e

cd cd

c

bc

bc Peshawar

2 ef ef

1.5

ef f

D.I.Khan(W) Mardan Malakand

1 0.5 0 Sencor

Isoproturon

Weedy check

Affinity

Herbicides

Fig. 5 Grain yield (t ha−1 ) as affected by different wild oats biotypes and herbicides

available resources. These results are in line with Awan et al. [2] and Tunio et al. [10] who reported more grain yield in plots applied with herbicides.

3.6 Wheat Grain Protein Content (%)

Wheat grain Protein content (%)

Proteins are some of the most important basic nutrients and are essential for growth and development. The data regarding the grain protein content in Fig. 6 show that there were significant differences in the herbicides, wild oat biotypes and their interaction. Evidently, protein content increased by herbicides tested for different wild oat biotypes as compared to weedy check. Among the wild oat biotypes, maximum grain protein content (12.02%) was recorded by Mardan biotypes. The minimum grain protein content (11.05%) was recorded in the Malakand biotype. 16 14 cd

12

bc a-c

d-f

d-f

ab ab

c-e c-e

a bc

fg

fg

fg d-f g

Peshawar

10

D.I.Khan(W)

8

Mardan

6

Malakand

4 2 0 Sencor

Isoproturon

Affinity

Weedy check

Herbicides

Fig. 6 Wheat grain Protein content (%) as affected by different wild oats biotypes and herbicides

136

I. Khan et al.

Among the herbicides, maximum (12.73%) grain protein content was recorded in Affinity treated plot while minimum (10.65%) grain protein content was observed in weedy check. Taking into consideration the interaction of herbicides and wild oat biotypes maximum (13.10%) grain protein content was observed in Mardan × Affinity interaction. Minimum (10.17%) was recorded in Malakand × Weedy check.

4 Conclusion Herbicide affinity show best results control both grassy and broadleaf weeds. It increased grain yield and protein content (%). So it is thus recommended that judicious thinking is desired to control different biotypes infesting farmers’ fields. Acknowledgement Acknowledgement goes to HEC (Higher Education Commission) of Pakistan for their kind and financial cooperation through out my research.

References 1. Akhtar M, Hamyn Q, Gill MB, Nazair MS (1991) Comparative study of various crop management practices on weed growth and wheat yield. Sarhad J Agric 7(2):91–94 2. Awan IU, Iqbal M, Ahamad HK (1990) Screening of different herbicides for the control of weeds in wheat corp. Gomal Univ J Res 10(2):77–83 3. Khan I, Muhammad Z, Hassan G, Marwat KB (2001) Efficacy of different herbicides for controlling weeds in wheat crop-I. Response of agronomic and morphological traits in wheat variety Ghanznavi-98. Sci Khyber 14(1):51–57 4. Khan I, Hassan G, Marwat KB (2002). Efficacy of different herbicides for controlling weeds in wheat crop-II. Weed dynamics and herbicides. Pak J Weed Sci Res 8(1–2):41–47 5. Khan N, Hassan G, Marwat KB, Khan MA (2003) Efficacy of different herbicides for controlling weeds in wheat crop at different time of application-II. Asian J Plant Sci 2(3):310–313 6. Peterson JG (1976) The distribution of avena spp naturalized in western Australia. J Appl Ecol 13:257–264 7. Radford BJ, WilsonBJ, Cartledge O, Watkins FB (1980) Effect of wheat seeding rate on wild oat competition. Aust J Exp Agric Anim 120:77–81 8. Shah P, Nazir S, Bashir E, Bantel R, eds. (1994) Crop production. National Book Foundation, Islamabad, pp 238–245, pp 499 9. Sohail N (1993) Efficacy of weedicides to control weeds in wheat. M.Sc. thesis, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture. Faisalabad, Pakistan 10. Tunio SD, Kaka SN, Jarwar AD (2004) Effect of integrated weed management practices on wheat yield. Pak J Agric Eng Vet Sci 20(1):5–10

Effects of L-Proline and Cold Treatment on Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Anther Culture Dudu Özkum and R. Tipirdamaz

Abstract Comparison of cold-shock treatments (at 4◦ C for 48 and 96 h) of pepper buds with a control (not subjected to cold treatments) has no effect on the production of embryo from cultured pepper anthers. The effects of cold shock treatments were not changed when the L-proline was added to the induction medium (40, 125 and 500 mg L−1 ). Cold treated anthers showed a lower response or non response than control anthers. Regeneration frequency did not appear to be affected by the presence of L-proline in the induction medium. The highest numbers of embryos (12.5 embryos/100 anthers) were obtained from the control anthers that were cultured on induction medium, MS medium, containing 4 mg L−1 naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 1 mg L−1 benzyladenine (BA) and activated charcoal without L-proline. Keywords Anther culture · Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) · Cold shock treatment · L-Proline

1 Introduction Anther culture has been used for producing haploid plants in a variety of higher plants but the low frquencies of haploid plants restrict the use of this technique in plant breeding [2, 8]. Altough many species have been successfully anther-cultured, others have not, even among those that do respond there is considerable variation in embryo yields within the species [8]). However, the yield has remained extremely low in many cases. It is possible that low embryo yields from particular plants may be a consequence of the environmental conditions improved during the anther culture period rather than absolute non-responsiveness [3]. The method can only

D. Özkum (B) Near East University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nicosia, North Cyprus, Mersin 10, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_14, 

137

138

D. Özkum and R. Tipirdamaz

become useful for applied agricultural projects when the haploids are produced in large numbers. Some treatments can be applied before or during culture in order to increase the success in anther culture. It has been shown that the addition of activated charcoal [1, 25, 24, 16], inclusion of different concentration of L-proline in the culture medium [5, 4, 9, 19, 7] and cold pretreatment of whole buds or anthers [12] or different concentrations of NAA and BA combination [20, 21, 18] could increase embryo production. Beneficial effects of temperature shock treatments on anther culture productivity were known. Although the mode action is unknown, temperature shocks are believed to improve androgenesis by diverting normal gametophytic development into a sporophytic pathway leading to the formation of haploid embryos [14]. To date, very little work has been done relative to the effects of L-proline on androgenesis [23, 19, 7]. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of cold shock treatments in combination with L-proline on pepper anther culture.

2 Materials and Methods Plants of Capsicum annuum L. cultivar Malatya were grown under field conditions. After a cold pretreatment (at +4◦ C for 48 and 96 h) of buds, with anthers containing uninucleate or 1st polen mitosis microspores [16], were selected and surface streilized (20% v/v sodyum hypochloride for 15 min). The control buds were not subjected to cold conditions. The anthers were then cultured on induction medium. The induction medium consist of MS basal salts [13] with the addition of 30 g L−1 sucrose, 8 g L−1 agar and 4 mg L−1 NAA and 1 mg L−1 BA or 1 mg L−1 NAA and 4 mg L−1 BA with or without 0.25 % activated charcoal and with different concentrations (0, 40, 125 and 500 mg L−1 ) of L-proline, adjusted to pH 5.8. The cultures were incubated at 29ºC in continous light conditions (40 μmol m−2 .sn−1 ). Three months after culture initiation, embryos were counted and transferred to regeneration medium (hormone-free growth medium, MS basal salts, 20 g L−1 sucrose, 7 g L−1 agar, pH 5.8, at 29ºC in continous light conditions (50 μmol m−2 .sn−1 ). Experiments were performed on 20 replication per each treatment (each replication consisted of one petri dishes, with 10 anthers). Data were collected after 3 months’ culture. Data were analyzed by Multiple-way anaysis of variance using ANOVA and the differences in the means were evaluated statistically at p = 0.05 by LSD test. Statistical analyses were done angular transformed percentage data [22].

3 Results and Discussion Production of embryoids was differently affected from cold pretreatment of buds, different concentrations of NAA/BA combination, activated charcoal and L-proline in pepper anther culture (Table 1). According to the results of the statistical analyses,

0 0 0 0 40 40 40 40 125 125 125 125 500 500 500 500

4+1 4+1 1+4 1+4 4+1 4+1 1+4 1+4 4+1 4+1 1+4 1+4 4+1 4+1 1+4 1+4

+ − + − + − + − + − + − + − + −

Activated charcoal

84.5 100 88 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Percentage of callus in anthers

0h Percentage of callus in anthers 97 100 97 99.5 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

12.5∗ 0 6.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

48 h Numbers of embryo/100 anthers

α = 0.05 significance level difference observed (p < 0.05) based on LSD

(mg. L−1 )

∗ For

L-Proline

NAA+BA (mg L−1 )

Cold Pretreatment

2.5∗ 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Numbers of embryo/100 anthers 98 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Percentage of callus in anthers

96 h

2 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Numbers of embryo/100 anthers

Table 1 Effects of cold shock treatments combined with L-proline containing (0, 40, 125 and 500 mg L−1 ) induction medium on the production of embryo from anther culture of pepper (200 anthers were cultured for each combination)

Effects of L-Proline and Cold Treatment 139

140

D. Özkum and R. Tipirdamaz

the effects of all the factors as well as interactions between the factors, except few, on androgenetic capacity of pepper were found statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05). There are significantly differences among the treatments. Activated charcoal and additions of different concentrations of NAA/BA combination to MS medium were significantly increased embryo formation compared to the other treatments. Besides there are significant differences between used hormone combinations and concentrations. Control anthers of C. annuum L. cultured in MS medium containing 4 mg L−1 NAA and 1 mg L−1 BA and activated charcoal were most responsive, producing 12.5 embryos/100 anthers. Anthers cultured in MS medium containing 1 mg L−1 NAA and 4 mg L−1 BA and activated charcoal were producing 6.5 embryos/100 anthers. Likewise it has been suggested that the additions of NAA/BA combination and also concentrations to MS medium can increase androgenetic embryo formation [20, 21]. On the other hand the promotive effect of activated charcoal in anther culture medium has been described earlier. Generally, the effect has been attributed to the adsorption of inhibitory substances (phenolics, abscisic acid) from the medium [10, 6, 24, 15]. The cold pretreatment of flower buds before excising the anthers for culture has been described as a means of increasing the androgenetic response [11, 12]. However Vagera and Havranek [25] in pepper and Tipirdamaz and Ellialtio˘glu [24] in eggplant anther culture reported that no significant effect of cold pretreatment of flower buds. Likewise in our study 1–2% embryos were obtained from the cold treated anthers. On the other hand a considerably higher number of embyros (12.5%) were produced in the control cultures which were cultivated (Fig. 1). Pretreating flower buds with cold at 4ºC for 48 or 96 h and addition of different concentrations of L-proline resulted in a lower number of responding anthers mainly by causing callus induction from anthers (Fig. 2). And this showed that the pretreatments of flowers buds and addition of L-proline to the culture medium had no significant effect on embryo production. The results

Fig. 1 An embryo obtained from the control anther culture of Malatya pepper cultivar on MS medium, containing 4 mg L−1 NAA and 1 mg L−1 BA and activated charcoal

Effects of L-Proline and Cold Treatment

141

Fig. 2 Callus initiation from the cold treated anthers

of some studies showed that considerable improvement in embryo production were achieved by the inclusion of the L-proline. But it is probably just one factor in a complex series of interactions between genotypes and tissue culture environment. In our study the inclusion of L-proline was not effect embryo formation. In the absence of L-proline better responds of embryo production is obtained. However, Redha et al. [19], working with wheat anther culture, reported that although L-proline significantly reduced embryogenesis but improved embryoid quality. The sensitivity of anthers and pollen to cold stress [26] has been proposed to be related to their endogenous L-proline content. The present results are contrary to this assumption and demonstrate that L-proline, as a component of the induction medium, combined with a cold treatment of incubated anthers, results in not improve embryo production. It has been demonstrated that L-proline is involved in the synthesis of hydroxylproline rich proteins which are known as components of pollen cell wall [27]. L-proline also has been proposed to cause a drop in the water potential inside pollen resulting in dormancy-like conditions [26]. This could results in a reduced sensitivity to unfavourable temperatures. Further, L-proline was found to protect enzymes from inactivation by extreme temperature conditions [17]. It is conceivable that cold stress of inoculated anthers not only provides positive effects with regard to sporophytic development, but may also cause damage within the anther. If this is the case, L-proline, when present in the induction medium, could possibly reduce this damage without interfering with the beneficial effects on embryo production. However work with other species suggests that L-proline may promote anther culture embryogenesis; the promotive effect of L-proline on anther culture appears to be cultivar-dependent [19, 7]. In conclusion these results, together with what is known about L-proline action and cold treatment effect in plant tissue, suggest that the combination of L-proline application with cold shock treatments had no effect on embryo formation frequency in pepper anther culture when compared to the use of different concentrations of NAA/BA combination and activated charcoal.

142

D. Özkum and R. Tipirdamaz

References 1. Anagnostakis SL (1974) Haploid plants from anthers of tobacco-enhancement with charcoal. Planta 115:281–283 2. Bajaj YPS (1983) In vitro production of haploids. In: Evans DA, Sharp VR, Ammairato PV, Yamada Y (eds) Handbook of plant cell culture, vol I, Chap 6. MacMillan Publ. Co., New York, pp 228–287 3. Biddington NL, Robinson HT (1990) Variations to high temperature treatments in anther culture of Brussels sprouts. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 22:48–54 4. Büter B, Schmid JE, Stamp P (1991) Effects of L-proline and post-plating temperature treatment on Maize (Zea mays L.) anther culture. Plant Cell Rep 10:325–328 5. Chu CC, Hill RD (1988) An improved anther culture method for obtaining higher frequency of pollen embryoids in Triticum aestivum L. Plant Sci 55:175–181 6. Chunling L (1992) Successful development of new sweet (hot) pepper cultivars by anther culture. Asia-Pasific Conference on Agricultural Biotechnology (APAB), Beijing, China, 20–24 August 7. Deepinder, G., Raman, G., Gosal, S. (2006) Role of cysteine in enhancing androgenesis and regeneration of Indica rice (Oryza sativa L.). Plant Growth Regul 49(1):43–47 8. Dunwell JM (1986) Pollen, ovule and embryo culture as tools in plant breeding. In: Wither LA, Alderson PG (eds) Plant tissue culture and its applications. Butterworths, London, pp 377–404. 9. Huang C, Yan H, Yan Q, Zhu M, Yuan M, Xu A (1993) Establishment and characterization of embryogenic cell susension cultures from immature and mature embryos of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 32:19–25 10. Johansson L (1983) Effects of activated charcoal in anther cultures. Plant Physiol 59:397–403 11. Maheswari SC, Rashid A, Tayag AK (1982) Haploids from pollen grains-retrospect and prospect. Amer J Bot 69:865–879 12. Morrison RA, Köning RE, Evans DA (1986) Anther culture of an inter specific hybrid of Capsicum. J Plant Physiol 126(1):1–9 13. Murashige T, Skoog F (1962) A revised medium for rapid growth and bio-assays with tabacco tissue cultures. Plant Physiol 15:473–497 14. Nitsch C, Andersen S, Godard M, Neuffer MG, Sheridan WF (1987) Production of Haploid Plants of Zea mays and Pennisetum Through Androgenesis. In: Earle E. D., Demarly Y. (eds) Variability in Plants Regenerated from Tissue Culture. Praeger, NY 69–91 15. Özkum D, Tipirdamaz R, Ellialtio˘glu S¸ (2001) Relationship between endogenous abscisic acid content of anthers and in vitro androgenesis in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). 4th international symposium on in vitro culture and horticultural breeding. ActaHort 560, ISHS, Tampere, Finland, 2–7 July, pp 327–329 16. Özkum Çiner D, Tipirdamaz R (2002) The effects of cold treatment and charcoal on the in vitro androgenesis in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Turk J Bot 26:131–139 17. Paleg LG, Douglas TJ, van Doal A, Keech DB 1981, Proline, Betaine and Other Organic Solutes Protect Enzymes Against Heat Inactivation, Aust, J., Plant Physiol., 8:107–114 18. Qin X, Rotino GL (1993) Anther culture of several seweet and hot pepper genotypes. Capsicum and Eggplant Newsletter 12:59–62 19. Redha A, Attia T, Büter B, Stamp P, Schmid JE (1998) Single and combined effects of colchicine, L-proline and post-inoculation low temperature on anther culture of wheat, Triticum aestivum L. Plant Breed 117(4):335–340 20. Rotino G, Falavigna A, Restaino F (1987a) Production of anther-derived plantlets of eggplant. Capsicum Newsl 6:89–90 21. Rotino G, Falavigna A, Fiume F, Nervo G., Restaino, F. (1987b) Possibility of eggplants (Solanum melongena L.) improvement through in vitro technique. Genetica Agrar XLI(3):314–315

Effects of L-Proline and Cold Treatment

143

22. Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ (1995) Biometry. The principles and practice of statistics in biological research, 3rd edn. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York, USA, p 887 23. Sozinov A, Lugjanjuk S, Lgnatova S (1981) Anther Cultivation and Induction of Haploid Plants in Triticale, Z. Pflanzenzücht, 86:272–285 24. Tipirdamaz R, Ellialtio˘glu S¸ (1998) The effects of cold treatments and activated charcoal on ABA contents of anthers and in vitro androgenesis in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). In: Tsekos I, Moustakas M (eds) Progress in botanical research, Proceedings of the 1st Balkan botanical congress. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands 25. Vagera J, Havranek P (1985) In vitro induction of androgenesis in Capsicum annuum L. and its genetic aspests. Biol Plant 27(1):10–21 26. Zhang HQ, Croes AF (1983) Protection of Pollen Germination from Adverse Temperature; A Possible Role for Proline, Plant Cell Environ., 6:471–476 27. Zhang HQ, Croes AF, Linkens HF (1982) Proline Synthesis in Germination of Pollen of Petunia; Role of Proline, Planta, 154:199–203

Examination of Some Parameters for Ecological Growth of Maize in Pelic Vertisol I. Stoimenova, E. Djonova, A. Taleva, and N. Kaloyanova

Abstract The increases in doses of nitrogen fertilization decreased the depressing effect of the used herbicides and stimulated their biological degradation. The bacteria, microscopic fungi and cellulose decomposing microorganisms took part in the biological herbicide degradation process during the first days of application of herbicides, whereas the actinomicetes and microbes, utilizing nitrogen, took part at the later phases of the process. The observed soil chemical changes and the ratio between the main groups of soil microorganisms had a temporary effect and did not influence negatively the maize development. Keywords Fertilization · Nitrogen · Maize

1 Dynamics of the Soil Microflora, Depending on the Level of Nitrogen Fertilization and Application of Herbicides The herbicide substances show different effectiveness in specific soil and climatic conditions, which is reflected both in the number and the content of the weeds, as well as in the dynamics and the diversity of the soil microflora [1–4]. Therefore their examination during the growth of maize in the particular agro-ecological conditions is required in order to determine the herbicide effect and the danger of contamination of the soil with residual quantities. The purpose of the experiment is to study the effect of the Lacorn combi herbicide (applied independantly and in combination with Atrazine) and its interaction with other forms of nitrogen fertilization on the dynamics and the diversity of the soil microflora. The variations in the species and quantitative structure of the microbial population (at depth from 0 to 20 cm), depending on the studied factors, are studied in the dynamics on selective nutrition media by the decimal dilution test. I. Stoimenova (B) N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, Sofia, Bulgaria e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_15, 

145

3.70 4.15 4.20 4.10 4.65 3.70

N20 + herbicide N40 + herbicide N80 + herbicide N20 N40 N80

4.85 6.30 5.60 5.65 5.95 7.80

6.20 6.60 7.00 7.00 7.90 6.90

90

35

Days after treatment

60

Amonifying bacteria 1 × 106

Variants

1.35 1.40 1.08 0.99 0.81 0.95

35 2.42 3.55 2.65 3.20 1.90 2.90

60 1.70 3.10 2.90 1.65 2.05 2.40

90

Actinomycetes 1 × 106

13.00 28.60 20.00 23.35 41.70 38.35

35 28.45 36.35 31.65 21.75 35.30 18.30

60

39.95 36.70 37.00 35.25 56.65 49.95

90

Microscopic tungi 1 × 104

11.34 76.30 106.80 56.80 72.95 68.35

35

29.35 83.40 97.33 72.20 69.40 71.33

60

Cellulose decomposing microorganisms 1 × 104

Table 1 Dynamics of some main groups soil microorganisms after application of Lacorn combi (5,500 ml/ha)

61.65 96.45 104.80 81.50 94.95 80.00

90

146 I. Stoimenova et al.

7.43 8.51 4.92 8.05 6.45 6.86

N20 + herbicide N40 + herbicide N80 + herbicide N20 N40 N80

5.20 8.60 5.60 5.90 8.93 7.13

4.13 8.00 3.23 4.20 7.60 8.33

90

35

Days after treatment

60

Amonifying bacteria 1 × 104

Variants

3.43 6.55 5.64 4.32 4.03 4.05

35 3.56 5.66 4.83 5.63 10.20 6.56

60 5.56 7.46 5.13 9.96 5.60 8.30

90

Actinomycetes 1 × 104

59.50 36.50 13.00 68.00 33.00 91.50

35 36.00 63.00 10.00 33.00 60.00 53.00

60

30.00 16.00 20.00 26.00 23.00 50.00

90

Microscopic tungi 1 × 103

20.00 81.50 93.00 69.50 99.50 75.00

35

56.00 66.00 71.00 53.00 83.00 93.00

60

23.00 100.00 143.00 70.00 53.00 126.00

90

Cellulose decomposing microorganisms 1 × 103

Table 2 Dynamics of some main groups soil microorganisms after application of Lacorn combi (5,500 ml/ha) + atrazine (1,600 g/ha)

Examination of Some Parameters for Ecological Growth of Maize in Pelic Vertisol 147

148

I. Stoimenova et al.

In maize growth it is found that the soil microorganisms actively participate in the biological decomposition of the herbicide combination Lacorn combi (5,500 ml/ha), and the relative part taken by the different physiological groups depends on the nitrogen fertilization and the climatic conditions (Table 1). On the 35th day after the introduction of the herbicide substance the amonifying bacteria, the microscopic fungi and the cellulose decomposing microorganisms decrease their number up to 30% in the variant with N20 in comparison to higher doses of nitrogen fertilization. In the same period a some stimulation of the development of the actinomicetes from the applied herbicide established, where no effect of the tested doses of nitrogen fertilization is examined. On the 60th day the negative effect of the herbicide substance continues on the amonifying bacteria, the microscopic fungi and the cellulose decomposing microorganisms, again most strongly shown at N20 . With the actinomicetes no significant changes in the population are observed. Until the 90th day the numbers and the structure of the population is almost completely restored. The data on Table 1 show that the applied nitrogen in increasing doses decreases the suppressing effect of Lacorn combi and stimulates the biological detoxification of the herbicide substance. The examined herbicide contributes to the increase of the numbers of microorganisms in the soil, related to the nutrition and the development of the maize. In a field experiment with maize the effect of the herbicide substances Lacorne combi (5,500 ml/ha)+Atrazine (1,600 g/ha) on the same groups of microorganisms in the soil layer 0–20 cm. The experiment has been carried out in dynamic and includes the same periods of soil sampling after herbicide application. The data presented in Table 2 show that the herbicide substances applied in combination with nitrogen norm N40 leads to increase of the population of the amonifying microorganisms, actinomicetes, and the microscopic fungi through the whole experimental period. With the cellulose decomposing microorganisms such stimulation is observed at N80 , distinctly displayed on the 90th day after the treatment. This is probably related to the products, received as a result of the decomposition of the herbicide substance in the soil and the deir different influence on the examined groups of soil microorganisms. In the process of biological degradation of the herbicide substance Lacorn combi+Atrazine the amonifying bacteria, the actinomicetes and the microscopic fungi participate in the first days after the treatment, whereas the cellulose decomposing microorganisms participate at the later stages of detoxification of the herbicides.

2 Conclusions 1. The application of higher doses of nitrogen fertilization decreases the depressing effect of the tested herbicide – for Lacorn combi up to N80 and for the combination Lacorn combi+Atrazine up to N40.

Examination of Some Parameters for Ecological Growth of Maize in Pelic Vertisol

149

2. The determined changes in the microbial population during the two experiments have temporary effect and do not have negative effect on the structure of the microbial population.

References 1. Assae NA, Turco RF (1995) Accelerated biodegradation of atrazine by microbial consortium is possible in culture and soil. Biodegradation 5:29–35 2. Dovies DH et al (1995) Risk evaluation of reduced dose approaches to weed control in cereals. 9th Symposium, Challenges for weed science in a changing Europe, Budapest, vol 2, pp 459–467 3. Parry KP (1989) Herbicide use and invention. In: Dodge AP (ed) Herbicides and plant metabolism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–20 4. Rocha F (1995) Reducing inputs of herbicides on dryland areas. 9th Symposium, Challenges for weed science in a changing Europe, Budapest, vol 2, pp 478–482

Effect of Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of Carbon Dioxide from Soil in Semi-arid Climate in India Rashmi Kant, Chirashree Ghosh, Lokendra Singh, and Neelam Tripathi

Abstract Carbon dioxide concentration in atmosphere is actively increasing since industrial revolution (1800) from 285 ppmv to 378 ppmv in 2005. Carbon dioxide efflux from soil due to floral and faunal respiration in soil, called soil respiration, is the second largest source of increasing concentration of CO2 in atmosphere. Soil respiration produces almost 11 times more carbon dioxide in atmosphere than that produced due to fossil fuel burning [18]. Microorganisms are the most abundant biotic group in soil and huge amount of CO2 is evolved from soil due to bacterial and fungal respiration. The present study investigated soil respiration and distribution of bacteria and fungi in the soil. The study was conducted in semi arid (subtropical) climate around New Delhi in India. Two different sites (Aravali Biodiversity Park and Yamuna Biodiversity Park) with ecologically different soil and vegetation conditions were studied. Three different locations were selected at each site and at each location CO2 efflux and microbial population were measured at three depths, topsoil (0–5 cm depth), midsoil (15–20 cm depth) and Deep soil (40–45 cm depth). Higher soil activity was found at Yamuna Biodiversity Park (YBP) having profuse ground vegetation, sandy soil with high organic matter and moisture content than Aravali Biodiversity Park (ABP) having scares vegetation, rocky area and dry soil with low organic matter content. Higher soil respiration is recorded in the surface and mid soil at YBP than ABP. However the soil respiration rate was slightly more in deep soil at ABP. In most of the cases soil respiration was found increasing from surface soil to deeper soil till 50 cm depth. Rate of soil respiration is highly correlated (R 2 = 0.7) to fungal population. Our study suggests that soil respiration process is a function of bacterial and fungal abundance in the soil. However, fungal population is more responsible for CO2 evolution in atmosphere from soil than bacterial population. Better understanding of soil respiration process can help in reducing CO2 emission and carbon sequestration process.

R. Kant (B) Yamuna Biodiversity Park, School of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, New Delhi 110007, India e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_16, 

151

152

R. Kant et al.

Keywords Soil respiration · Bacterial and fungal abundance · CO2 efflux and semi-arid

1 Introduction Carbon dioxide is one of the Green House Gasses (GHGs) whose increasing concentration leads to global warming. The concentration of Carbon dioxide in atmosphere has increased significantly form 280 ppmv (0.55 g m−3 ) in 1750 to 370 ppmv (0.73 g m−3 ) in 2005 [7, 31] and is increasing at 0.5% (about 3.4 pg) per year [15] (Table 1). The principal sources of increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration are the change in land use pattern and fossil fuel burning. Soil C is distributed among five active global C pools: (i) oceanic pool having 38,000 Pg C (1 Pg = 1015 g), (ii) fossil fuel pool 5,000 Pg C, (iii) soil C pool 2,300 Pg, (iv) atmospheric pool 720 Pg C, and (v) biotic pool 550 Pg C. The soil C pool which is 3.2 times the total atmospheric C pool and 4.1 times the total biotic C pool is very active and play a major role in global C cycle processes. Majority of the C pool in the soil is found on the upper 1 m depth of soil horizon and about 60% is in the organic form. The agricultural and forestry activities are major sources for disturbing the existing carbon pool in the soil. The annual losses from soil C pool are estimated to be 1–2 Pg [3]. It is estimated that about 1,100–1,600 Pg C is sequestered in soil worldwide [14] and around 40–80 Pg of carbon can be sequestered in cropland soils over next 50–100 years [11]. The restoration of degraded soils and ecosystems can led to sequestration of 60–80% C lost due to past mismanagement. People are worried about rate of fossil fuel burning (including vehicular and industrial emission) and its long-term consequences. It may be difficult to reduce the rate of fossil fuel burning substantially enough, to minimize the CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. However, it is worth thinking other sources of carbon emission and the possible steps to minimise their contribution in the emission process. Soil respiration is the second largest carbon flux in terrestrial ecosystems and plays a critical role in Table 1 Atmospheric concentration of CO2 over 6,000 years ([7], BBC News 31 March 2005)

Year

CO2 concentration (ppmv)

4000 BC–AD 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 1959 1990 1994 1998 2000 2005

260–280 280 285 291 300 312 316 340 358 367 370 378

Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of CO2

153

global carbon cycling [35]. Soil respiration contributes almost 11 times more carbon dioxide emission in atmosphere than the total CO2 evolved from fossil fuel burning [18]. Carbon dioxide evolved from soil due to respiration activities of various soil floral and faunal populations is called soil respiration. It includes heterotrophic and autotropic respiration. Both abiotic and biotic factors control the rate of CO2 emission. Soil is not inactive, what it looks like, but it harbours a huge number of different living organisms which makes it dynamic. Microorganisms are the most abundant group of organisms in the soil. The contribution of different heterotrophic organisms in soil respiration is important to understand the soil respiration and carbon sequestration process. However, their contribution is unknown [10]. In this study we concentrated on heterotrophic bacteria (the most abundant microbes in soil) and fungi, which are responsible for majority of CO2 efflux in the atmosphere from the soil. Out of the total organic carbon metabolised by the microbes, only one in three parts is utilised and the remainder is lost in the atmosphere in the form of CO2 . Soil factors like moisture, temperature, porosity, pH, and electrical conductivity decide the quality of soil and govern activity in the soil. These factors ultimately regulate the floral and faunal population in the soil. Microbial growth and metabolism can be limited by temperature, moisture and available carbon in the soil [33]. The pore spaces in between the mineral particles are filled with water or air in different combinations. The relative quantity of air and water in the pore spaces determines the property and activity of living organisms in the soil. The availability of water has various physiological and physical effects on ecosystem metabolism [16] and hence it is an important factor influencing soil respiration processes [24]. However, the air in the pore spaces provides the substrate (Oxygen) for respiration. Temperature is an important factor that regulates the soil respiration process. Optimum temperature is always required by organisms for their activities. According to Luo and Zhou [17], global warming can instigate the positive feedback on soil respiration. Vegetation structure and species composition strongly influence the C allocation pattern [34] and microbial population. Recent changes in land use pattern by intensive agriculture and forestry substantially contribute to increased concentration of carbon dioxide in atmosphere [11]. Study of soil respiration has a long history. Soil respiration has been used as index for measuring soil fertility earlier [27]. The dynamic nature of soil respiration process and its importance in global warming attract scientists to work in this area. The objective of the study was to study soil respiration processes at two ecologically different sites. We estimated the fungal and the bacterial population at these two sites. The study further correlated the soil respiration rate with the bacterial and fungal abundance. This study gives us idea about ecological health of the sites. The information on soil respiration is crucial to understand the terrestrial carbon budgets and to determine whether terrestrial ecosystems are sink or sources of carbon dioxide [23]. Soil respiration, once well understood, can be utilised as a measure for determining the health and quality of an ecosystem [9].

154

R. Kant et al.

2 Methodology 2.1 Experimental Sites and Soil Sampling The study was conducted in semi arid (subtropical) climate around New Delhi in India. Two separate sites Aravali Biodiversity Park and Yamuna Biodiversity Park were selected for this study. Aravali Biodiversity Park (ABP) is situated on the Aravali Hill next to the Great Indian Thar Desert. The area is dry and soil has very limited moisture. The soil in the area is rocky type and loam in texture having slightly acidic pH. The area is dominated by scrub forest with Prosopis juliflora as predominant species and lacking ground vegetations. This made the area dry and limited organic matter in the soil. Another site Yamuna biodiversity Park (YBP) is situated on the flood plain of river Yamuna. The soil is sandy and moist being near to river. Area is dominated by ground vegetation especially Desmostachya bipinnate other grass species. The soil has high organic matter content with alkaline pH. Three different locations were selected for soil respiration measurement and microbial estimation at both the sites.

2.2 Soil Respiration Measurement Soil respiration efflux was measured at three different depths, topsoil (0–5 cm depth), midsoil (15–20 cm depth) and Deep soil (40–45 cm depth) at all the six experimental locations. We used the modified alkali absorption method [6] for quantifying soil respiration. The method is economical and easy [26]. It has been reported that the method underestimates the amount of CO2 efflux [25]. However, Yim et al. [37] found little difference in the amount of CO2 efflux measured using dynamic infrared gas analysis (IRGA) compared with alkali absorption method. Respiration chambers were installed at all the locations of ABP and YBP experimental sites for estimating soil respiration. Glass jar containing NaOH (1M) was placed inside the respiration chamber for trapping the evolved CO2 from soil. The chambers were closed and made airtight. Aluminium foil was also wrapped around the chambers to minimise the carbon dioxide escape. The alkali was exposed for different durations 12, 24, 48 and 72 h while CO2 measurement at each location. The samples were precipitated with BaCl2 and further titrated with HCl (IM) using Thymolphthaleine indicator to quantify the trapped Carbon dioxide. The amount of CO2 -C evolved was calculated using the formula CO2 − C (mg) = (B − X) ME B is amount of HCl needed to titrate NaOH from blank, X is the amount of HCl required to titrate the carbon dioxide absorbed NaOH solution. M is molarity of HCl i.e. 1.0, E is the equivalent wt. of carbon i.e. 6 for C and 22 for CO2 . Soil respiration was measured during different duration like 12, 14, 24, 48 and 72 h at a stretch. Finally the respiration rate mg of C-CO2 per h is calculated for each duration.

Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of CO2

155

2.3 Soil Sampling Soil samples for microbial analysis were collected at all the three depths topsoil with 5 cm depth, midsoil with 20 cm depth and deepsoil with 40 cm depth from all the three locations of ABP and YBP sites. Metallic soil core cutter with diameter 10 cm and length 60 cm was used for collecting these soil samples. Soil samples were collected in the evening of the day on which the respiration was measured. The soil samples collected were kept in airtight zip bag and stored in a dark cool place for microbial analysis.

2.4 Microbial Enumeration Bacterial and fungal population was estimated by colony counting, Most Probable Number (MPN) procedure [21, 36]. MPN method is used to estimate the population density of viable microorganisms in soil, water and food products. Soils are heterogeneous and it is not possible to estimate the exact cell count in the soil. One mg of soil was taken from each sample and appropriate ten serial dilutions were prepared. ◦ The plates were incubated at 37 C for 3–5 days before counting the Bacterial and fungal colonies.

3 Results 3.1 Soil Respiration (SR) Rate at Aravali Biodiversity Park Soil respiration measurement was done at three different locations at Aravali Biodiversity Park (ABP) site is shown in Fig. 1. Soil reparation was observed for different durations at a stretch at each location. Finally, the respiration rate was calculated per hour by dividing the total respiration by total duration. Highest respiration rate recorded was 7.8 mg of CO2 per h at 40 cm deep soil while the lowest respiration recorded was 0.8 mg C per h in the top surface

Soil Respirtation at ABP site

Fig. 1 Soil respiration rate (milligram of CO2 emission per hour per 300 sq. cm) at three locations of Aravali Biodiversity Park site

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 TopSoil

MidSoil

DeepSoil

156

R. Kant et al.

soil. The average soil respiration rate at top, medium and deep soil is 0.97, 3.7 and 7.2 mg C per h respectively. The trend in soil respiration variation along the depth is similar at all the locations at Aravali Biodiversity Park site. Higher respiration rate is observed in the deep soil at 40 cm and least on the surface soil.

3.2 Soil Respiration (SR) Rate at Yamuna Biodiversity Park The respiration rate was found maximum in mid soil in most of locations at YBP site. However the difference in respiration rate at mid soil and deep soil was not significant except at one location. The highest respiration rate observed was 6.5 mg C per h at depth 20 cm while the lowest on surface soil. The mean respiration rate at top, mid and deep soil was 3.07, 5.4 and 4.53 mg C per h respectively. The soil respiration rate at YBP site is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 Soil respiration rate (milligram of CO2 emission per hour per 300 sq. cm) at three locations of Yamuna Biodiversity Park site

Soil Respiration at YBP site

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 TopSoil

MidSoil

DeepSoil

3.3 Bacterial Abundance at ABP and YBP Sites Microbial population is an important parameter for understanding the soil activity. Bacterial population pays an important role in soil decomposition processes. The bacterial abundance, estimated by Most Probable Number (MPN) count, was measured at both the experimental sites and is shown in Fig. 3. Bacteria are more abundant at the YBP than the ABP site. But bacterial count is more in the deep soil at Aravali Biodiversity Park site. Variation in bacterial population at ABP site has no fixed trend. However, there is a decreasing trend bacterial population from surface to deep soil in YBP.

3.4 Fungal Abundance at ABP and YBP Sites MPN method is used for estimating the soil fungal population. The fungal abundance is shown in Fig. 4. The fungal population is more confined to deep soil in most of the locations at the both sites. Increasing fungal population trend from surface soil

Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of CO2

157

Variation in Bacterial Population

250 200 150 100 50 0 DeepSoil

MidSoil

TopSoil

Fig. 3 Bacterial count (× 105 per mg of soil) at ABP and YBP sites. (Black bar indicates ABP and White bars YBP)

Variation in Fungal Population 135

146

Deep Soil

160

130

Mid Soil

0

50

134

128

Top Soil

100

150

200

250

300

350

Fungal count in (100,000)

Fig. 4 Fungal count (× 105 per mg of soil) at ABP and YBP sites. (Black bar indicates ABP and White bars YBP)

to deep inside is observed at ABP site. However at YBP site fungal abundance is more in the deep soil than the surface soil. The maximum fungal population (160 × 105 per mg of soil) was observed in the middle soil depth at Yamuna Biodiversity Park site.

3.5 Relation Between Soil Respiration Rate and Microbial Population Relationship between soil respiration and microbial population at Yamuna Biodiversity Park and Aravali Biodiversity Park sites is studied. Soil respiration

R. Kant et al.

8

SR correlated with bacterial population at YBP

SR correlated with bacterail population at ABP

6 4

y = 0.0574 x – 6.4068 R2 = 0.542

2 0 120

140

160 180 200 220 Bacterial Count (100,000)

6

SR rate mg C/hr

SR rate mg C/hr

158

5 4 y = -0.0212 x + 8.6035 R2 = 0.2938

3

2 150

240

170 190 210 230 Bacterial Count (100,000)

250

Fig. 5 Soil respiration correlated with fungal population at ABP site

8

SR rate mg C/hr

SR rate mg C/hr

SR correlated w ith fungal population at ABP 6 4

y = 0.2973 x – 36.074 R2 = 0.8819

2 0 125

130 135 140 145 Fungal Count (100,000)

150

6

SR correlated with fungal population at YBP

5 y = 0.0644 x – 4.8694 R2 = 0.6483

4 3 2 130

140

150

160

170

Fungal Count (100,000)

Fig. 6 Soil respiration correlated with fungal population at YBP site

increases with increase in bacterial population from topsoil to deepsoil at ABP. However, a negative correlation exists between soil respiration and bacterial count at YBP (Fig. 5). Soil respiration rate is directly associated with fungal abundance at both the sites. Strong positive correlation exists between soil respiration and fungal population at both sites (Fig. 6). It also shows that rate soil respiration is more influenced by fungal abundance than bacterial population.

4 Discussion Soil activity below the ground is very much dependent on vegetation cover. Vegetation density and type is responsible for variation in organic matter content of soil. Soil with high vegetation cover contributes to high organic carbon in the soil [20]. Post and Kwon [22] found significant higher soil carbon stock in high vegetation area. Yamuna Biodiversity Park (YBP) site is dominated by ground vegetation than the Aravali Biodiversity Park (ABP). Soil respiration rate at YBP is 3 times more on the surface soil and 1.5 times more in deepsoil than ABP. The result is supported by Campos [5] findings that soil respiration was 2.5 times higher in grassland than the forest in humid subtropical climate in Mexico. Salimon et al. [28] have also found higher soil surface CO2 -C flux in grassland (2,400 g CO2 m−2 ) than mature forest (1,700 g CO2 m−2 ) in Amazonia. The large CO2 efflux in soil is probably due to high rate of gross primary productivity. Wagai et al. [32]

Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of CO2

159

indicated greater fine root biomass and respiration rate in prairie ecosystem than forest. A similar trend was reported by Raich and Schlesinger, in 1992, a higher soil respiration in grassland than agroecosystem. The vegetation at YBP conserves more moisture in soil which led to high soil respiration. Campos [5] found that soil water content in grassland (51%) was more than cloud forest (40%), which also influences higher respiration in grassland than the forest. Howard and Howard [12] found that soil CO2 emission decreases with draught condition and increases after rain. Bacteria and fungi are actively involved in biogeochemical processes that occur in soil. The microbial biomass is affected by biotic and abiotic factor like N mineralization, soil type, moisture, soil depth and vegetation [13]. Plants influence organic matter content and microbial abundance in soil [1, 4]. Abundant ground vegetation at YBP causes high organic matter content in soil and conserves moisture in soil. This probably harbours more microbial population at YBP than ABP. A significantly high microbial population in YBP than ABP. High C content in soil supports greater level of microbial activity [8]. Soil moisture content is an important factor in controlling microbial population [30]. Higher combined population of bacteria and fungi is observed in topsoil, midsoil and deepsoil at YBP than ABP. High soil moisture might have supported the microbial population at YBP. Orchard and Cook [19] found that low soil moisture could reduce the CO2 efflux by limiting microbial contact with available substrate in the soil. The high fungal population in observed at YBP site. Bardgett et al. [2] also found that fungi play a significant role in grassland soil. The microbial activity in soil directly influences the ecosystem fertility and stability [29]. Soil respiration integrates physical and biological parameters of soil. Activity in soil is higher in area with dense vegetation. Grassland is found ecologically more active than scrub forest. Vegetation influences the soil moisture content and soil microbial population. Soil respiration process is a function of Fungal and Bacterial abundance in soil. However, fungal population is more responsible for higher soil respiration rate. Deeper soil is more active than the surface soil in dry forest. Our study suggests surface vegetation determines the physical and chemical properties of soil, which influence the microbial activity that controls the soil respiration rate and obviously, the global warming and climate change processes. Acknowledgement We wish to thank Mr. VG Gogate, Dr. Anupam Joshi and Dr. Sah Hussain for their help and cooperation during my work at Arawali Biodiversity Park and Yamuna Biodiversity Park. We are also grateful to Ms. Pallavi Saxena and Mamta Singh for their help in sample analysis. The financial support came from department fund CEMDE, University of Delhi, New Delhi.

References 1. Allen MF, Morris SJ, Edwards F, Allen EB (1995) Microbe-plant interactions in Mediterranean-type habitats: shifts in fungal symbiotic and saprophytic functioning in response to global change. In: Moreno JM, Oechel WC (eds),Global Change in mediterranean-type ecosystems Springer, New York, pp. 287–305

160

R. Kant et al.

2. Bardgett RD, Lovell RD, Hobbs PJ, Jarvis SC (1999) Seasonal changes in soil microbial communities along a fertility gradient of temperate grasslands. Soil Biol Biochem 31:1021– 1030 3. Bouwman AF, Sombroek WG (1990) Inputs to climatic change by soil and agriculture related activities: present status and future trends. In Scharpenseel HW, Schomaker M, Ayoub A (eds) Soils and a warmer earth – effects of expected climate change on soil processes, with emphasis on the tropics and sub-tropics Developments in Soil Science 20, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 15–30 4. Brodie E, Edwards S, Clipson N (2002) Bacterial community dynamics across a floristic gradient in a temperate upland grassland ecosystem. Microbial Ecol 44:260–270 5. Campos CA (2006) Response of soil surface CO2 –C flux to land use changes in a tropical cloud forest (Mexico). Forest Ecol Manag 234:305–312 6. Coleman DC (1973) Soil carbon balance in a successional grassland. Oikos 24:195–199 7. Edmonds JA (1999) Beyond Kyoto: toward a technology greenhouse strategy. Consequences 5:17–28 8. García C, Hernández T, Roldán A, Martín A (2002) Effect of plant cover decline on chemical and microbiological parameters under Mediterranean climate. Soil Biol Biochem 34:635–642 9. Grace J, Rayment M (2000) Respiration in the balance. Nature 404:819–820 10. Houghton JT, Meira Filho LG, Callander BA, Harris N, Kattenberg A, Maskell K (eds) (1996) The science of climate change. IPCC, contribution of working group I to the second assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 11. Houghton RA, Hackler JL, Lawrence KT (1999) The US carbon budget: contributions from land-use change. Science 285:574–578 12. Howard DM, Howard PJ (1993) Relationships between CO2 evolution, moisture content and temperature for a range of soil types. Soil Biol Biochem 25:1537–1546 13. Inubushi K, Acquaye S (2004) Role of microbial mass in biogeochemical process in Paddy soil environments. Soil Sci Plant Nutr 50(6):793–805 14. Izaurralde RC, Rosenberg NJ, Lal R (2000) Mitigation of climate change by soil carbon sequestration: issues of science, monitoring, and degraded lands. Adv Agron 70,1–75 Advanced Agronomy, Washington, USA 15. Lal R (2001) Soil and the green house effects. In soil carbon sequestration and the green house effect, Rattan Lal. SSSA Special Publication, Madison, WI, p 57 16. Landsberg JJ, Gower ST (1997) Application of physiological ecology to forest management. Academic Press, San Diego, CA p 354 17. Luo Y, Zhou X (2006) Soil respiration and the environments. Academic Press/Elsevier, San Diego, CA 18. Marland G, Boden TA, Andres RJ (2000) Global, regional, and national CO2 emissions. Trends: a compendium of data on global change. Oak Ridge, Tenn 19. Orchard VA, Cook FJ (1983) Relationship between soil respiration and soil moisture. Soil Biol Biochem 15:447–453 20. Pascual JA, García C, Hernández T, Moreno JL, Ros M (2000) Soil microbial activity as a biomarker of degradation and remediation processes. Soil Biol Biochem 32:1877–1883 21. Porter WM (1979) The ‘Most probable number’ method for enumerating infective propagules of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soil. Aust J Soil Res 17:515–519 22. Post WM, Kwon KC (2000) Soil carbon sequestration and land use change: processes and potential. Global Change Biol 6:317–327 23. Powlson D (2005) Will soil amplify climate change? Nature 433:204–205 24. Raich JW, Schlesinger WH (1992) The global carbon dioxide flux in soil respiration and its relationship to vegetation and climate. Tellus 44:81–89 25. Rayment MB (2000) Closed chamber systems underestimate soil CO2 efflux. Eur J Soil Sci 51:107–110

Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of CO2

161

26. Rochette P, Ellert B, Gregorich EG, Desjardins RL, Pattey Lessard ER, Johnson BG (1997) Description of a dynamic closed chamber for measuring soil respiration and its comparison with other techniques. Can J Soil Sci 77:195–203 27. Russell EJ, Appleyard A (1915) The atmosphere of the soil, its composition and causes of variation. J Agric Sci 7:1–48 28. Salimon CI, Dadvidson EA, Victoria RL, Melo AWF (2004) CO2 flux from soil in pastures and forests in Southwestern Amazonia. Global Change Biol 10:833–843 29. Smith JL, Papendick RI, Bezdicek DF, Lynch JM (1993) Soil organic matter dynamics and crop residue management. In: Blaine Metting F Jr (ed) Soil microbial ecology – Applications in agricultural and environmental management. Marcel Dekker, New York, Basel, Hong Kong, pp 65–94 30. Sotta ED, Meir P, Malhi Y, Nobre AD, Hodnett M, Grace J (2004) Soil CO2 efflux in a tropical forest in the central Amazon. Global Change Biol 10:601–617 31. Sukhman D (2005) Carbon dioxide continues its rise. BBC News, 31 March 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4395817.stm 32. Wagai R, Brye KR, Gower ST, Norman JM, Bundy LG (1998) Land use and environmental factors influencing soil surface CO2 flux and microbial biomass in natural and managed ecosystems in southern Wisconsin. Soil Biol Biochem 30:1501–1509 33. Waldrop MP, Firestone MK (2006) Seasonal dynamics of microbial community composition and function in oak canopy and grassland soils. Microb Ecol 52:470–479 34. Wang C, Gower ST, Wang Y, Zhao H, Yan P, Bond-Lamberty B (2001) Influence of fire on carbon distribution and net primary production of boreal Larix gmelinii forests in northeastern China. Global Change Biol 7:719–730 35. Wang CK, Yang JY, Zhang QZ (2006) Soil respiration in six temperate forests in China. Global Change Biol 12:2103–2114 36. Woomer PL (1994) Most probable number counts. In: Weaver RW (ed) Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Microbiological and biochemical properties SSSA Book Series 5. SSSA, Madison, WI, pp 59–79 37. Yim MH, Joo SJ, Nakane K (2002) Comparison of field methods for measuring soil respiration: a static alkali absorption method and two dynamic closed chamber methods. Forest Ecol Manag 170:189–197

Part II

Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany Chiara Certomà and Paola Migliorini

Abstract Sustainability evaluation with an updated version of MESMIS Framework has been conducted in 5 organic farms in Tuscany, characterised by different management approach. The real differences is, indeed, determined by motivations that explain how the landscape, the work structure and the cultural heritage are organized, giving the present assessment of the Tuscan rural world. Keywords Sustainable agriculture · Social sustainability · Organic farms · MESMIS

1 Introduction The implementation and evaluation of agricultural sustainable methods are one of the most challenging goal in political and scientific research. The use of sustainability indicators is becoming a frequent tool to evaluate agricultural systems [6, 12]. Several lists of indicators exist [26]. Evaluation strategies and methodologies were worked out in order to quantitative describe and qualitative evaluate ecosystem management [9, 7]. A significant research experience with an holistic approach was carried out in 17 countries by a European network for prototype agroecosystem [34–38, 33]. The network developed a management methodology with a list of indicators on the following criteria: abiotic environment, income/profit, nature/landscape, employment, health/well-being. The methodology was applied in Tuscany where a specific long term experiment to evaluate the organic vs conventional sector was established in 1992 at the experiment farm of Montepaldi. Other indicators to evaluate biodiversity and soil fertility were developed [23] and other methodologies to evaluate sustainability were implemented. A network in France [4] proposed different agroecological indicators. C. Certomà (B) Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_17, 

165

166

C. Certomà and P. Migliorini

In Switzerland some researches [5] adopted five criteria: abiotic environment; biotic environment; cultural value; social aspects; economic aspects. In small rice agroecosystem a quantitative approach to evaluate productive and environmental performance has been applied [8]. An environmental account methodology has been developed in order to combine economic with ecological aspects [29, 16, 17]. Other approaches are based on rapid evaluation with on-farm indicators for farmers [28] or on-farm questioners [30] and the environmental impact of agriculture at form level (der Werf et al. 2002). Organic agriculture nowadays, is no more a nice (Willer and Yoursy, 2009). Italy is the third country of the world for presence of organic land and in Tuscany 10% of total agricultural surface is growing organic with 3,000 organic farms (ARSIA, 2006). As an alternative propose to conventional agricultural production, IFOAM organic norms (IFOAM, 2005) include principle1 and social justice in the standards for organic production and processing. Although, some researches (Michelsen, 2001; Guthman, 2004) show that the organic regulations (Reg. CE 2092/91, NOP-USDA, etc.) do not include all the principle of organic movements.

2 Rethinking MESMIS Framework in Tuscan Context Since 1996, when Miguel Altieri and his researching team elaborated the MEMSIS Framework (Marco para la evaluacion de sistemas de manejo de recursos naturales incorporando indicadores de sustentabilidad), this methodology was used in several studies in Mexico and Latin America and it is part of academic programs in United States and Spain. Considering that traditional evaluation systems are not always able to reflect the typical complexity of socio-economic and agro-ecosystems (such as cost-benefit analysis), MESMIS gives a redefinition of problems from a qualitative point of view and provides a multi-criteria model to handle the management of ecological systems [27]. It is a cyclic process. The final assessment is positive when it helps to improve social and environmental profile of managing systems of natural resources and when the whole evaluation has been developed through a dialogic process with experts. The most part of MESMIS framework focuses its attention on small rural villages in the Andes area in which modern conventional agriculture encounters traditional, organic or alternative farm management. The difference between Italian, and above all the Tuscan context, and indigenous systems is deeply rooted in social, geographical and political history but it is a profitable to apply the same methodology on the western farmers activities in order to highlight values and development possibilities of a “non-conventional agriculture” and the social net in rural areas.

1 At the general assembly of Adelaide, the 4 principle of health, ecology, fairness and care were included as preamble of the IFOAM Basic Standards (IBS).

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany

167

In rural Tuscany towns, villages and farms are strictly interconnected in the way that it’s impossible to consider isolated agricultural systems without social, economic and political factors. That is why in the research here presented, MESMIS Framework is used as a methodological reference: it represents a good model to evaluate both agroecological and socio-economic sustainability [21, 19, 13, 31, 24, 14]. In comparison with the present Community Agricultural Policy (CAP) and EU policy support to Rural Development (Reg. CE 1698/05) oriented towards environmental care, the application of MESMIS methodology, for the first time in Italy, was an innovative experience, despite the fact that modifying some passage of the original framework was needed. The phases of the updated method, used in the present work, are the following (Table 1): Table 1 Phases of updated method Step A

• •

Step B

• •

Step C

• •

Step D

• • •

Step E

• • •

Definitions of a key concept on which the research focuses its attention (here “sustainability”); Definitions of attributes, consequent criteria and subsequent general indicators (parameters and indices) referred to the key concept; Individuation of study cases. Setting out of a specific questionnaire for interviews based on the general indicators; Collection of data (multimedia documents, interviews, direct experiments. . . . ). Description of studies through the processing of the collected data according to general indicators. Elaboration of critical points suggested or noticed during the data collection in topic areas; Choice of strategic indicators for every topic area; Normalization of results for strategic indicators and representation by Amoeba diagrams. Problem analysis and individuation of good practices; Discussion with farmers; Elaboration of a report.

3 Materials and Methods In the research applied on Tuscan context, the chosen key-word (Step A) is “sustainability”. It is considered sustainable a system, in a defined time and space, that: – maintains or increases the basis of existent resources – maintains or increases the biological and socio-cultural diversity – satisfies the necessities of biotic component – hangs in or fit in changed conditions – generates risk and consumption distributive structures

168

C. Certomà and P. Migliorini

– shows cooperative mechanism in order to improve the efficiency of productive processes – allows the internal “emergence” of auto-organised phenomena. The following table resume the attributes and related criteria for farms sustainability evaluation settled out from the previous definition. For each criterion, specific indicators (qualitative descriptions,2 parameters or indices) were found and related. As an example, the following table concerns the choosing of socials indicators and sub-indicators for the analysis of concrete case studies. Every indicator is referred to different criteria (indicated by numbers as in Tables 2 and 3).

Table 2 List of “attribute” and corresponding “criteria” used in the research to evaluate farms sustainability

Attribute

Criteria

Complexity

1. Availability (natural and social elements) 2. Diversity 3. Connectivity (richness of relations) 4. Efficiency 5. Productivity 6. Fairness 7. Durability and stability 8. Flexibility 9. Accessibility 10. Multifunctional capability 11. Self organization

Functionality

Interactivity

Creativity

Table 3 List of social indicators and sub-indicators with reference to sustainability criteria Social features of a farm Reference criteria

Indicator

1,2,6,7,1,6

Composition, organization

1,8,10,11 3,9,8,10,11

Movements Territorial relations, activities, projects

Sub-indicators (d=qualitative description, p=parameter, i=index) Social composition (d), managing (d), residents (p), hectare per resident (i), gender (p), age (p), instruction (p) Origin (p), turnover (p), employment situation (i) Training courses (p), agro-ecological projects (p), associations (p), cooperation with private or public organizations (p), syndicates (p), willingness at experimental projects (p)

2 To calculate same indicators, it was used a Likert scale in order to give an evaluation of personal judgment and non-numerical data, based on a five step scale.

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany

169

After having identified the cases studies, the collecting data step (Step B) starts from the ideological, historical and organizational situation of farms, including biophysical, agro-ecological, economical and social characteristics, always referring to the general grid related to the attributes of sustainability (Table 2). The relevance of social matters in the research leads to the integration of MESMIS method with the Participatory Action Research approach [Cuadernos del program de manejo partecipativo de recursos naturales, 1993 2]. It suggests to involve farmers, peasants and institutional delegates in the most part of the research. Considering that peasants’ and farmers’ time has to be respected and not wasted, it is very important to spend time working with them, sharing food and spare time [10]. The aim is collecting the largest part of information informally, before using a questionnaire specifically arranged for a formal interview. During the interviews, it is suggested a Rapid Rural Appraisal3 setting-up: a not rigid grid in which active listen, that allows an “appropriate inaccuracy” for fuzziness typical of complex systems, is preferred to a dual-purpose structure. That is particularly true for qualitative data that, sometimes, give more precise results with respect to the quantitative ones and stress the real perception and intentions of people involved in the interview. The structure of ad hoc-created interview model is the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Determination of farm: administrative, juridical and agronomical classification Orientation: history, ideal choices, philosophical issues of the farm Biophysical features: weather, soil, geological characteristics, water Agro-ecological features: landscape description, wood area, crop rotation and cattle-breeding 5. Economical features: production characteristics, material and financial assets, employment, financial management, marketing management, energy 6. Social features: participants, relationship, organization, connection with territory and research institutions, socio-political and cultural activities 7. Opinions Five organic farms, according to the Reg. CE 2092/91, are chosen in different areas of the region and represent different approaches to eco-agricultural and social managing [20]. In Tuscany controlled foodstuffs, environmental politics and social welfare have a good standard, so it would be important to make breakthrough and pick up samples cases in which a basic involvement in sustainability matters is assumed by the farmers. That is the reason why organic farms managed by farmers with a high socio-environmental awareness are preferred. The sampled analysed farms are located in five different areas, socially and legally organized in different ways and show excellent results in sustainability path (Table 4).

3 See:

http://www.fao.org/documents/advanced_s_result.asp

2005 10 8,3 Olive and fruit trees, vegetables C28.000,00 37% 2 females, 2 males A 4, S 3

1992 79,5 34

Mixed crop

C94.000,00

33%

8 females, 15 males

A 4, S 2

A 4, S 14

1 female, 1 male

3%

C120.000,00

Olive and grapevine

1992 14,5 11,6

Paterna Valdarno (Arezzo), flat, 300 m asl Cooperative Organic

C

A 6, S 1

1 female, 1 male

0%

C18.000,00

Olive and grapevine

1993 3,3 2,1

Podere di Peciano Val di Chiana (Arezzo), flat, 330 m asl Familiar Permaculture

D

A1

7 females, 7 males

0%

C361.000,00

Olive and grapevine

2002 49 24,5

Tenuta di Valgiano Lucca hills, 250 m asl Society Biodynamic

E

b On

a Agricultural

management are define as follows: organic = Reg. CE 2092/91; synergic = [11]; permaculture = Mollison, 1989; biodynmaic = Steiner, 1968 the total outcomes c A = agro-ecological activity; S = socio-cultural activity

Gross production value (2003/04) Percentage of public financingb Farm habitants (2003/04) Numbers of projects runsc

Podere del Grillo San Miniato (Pisa), hills, 47–100 m asl Familiar Organic

La Comune di Bagnaia Siena hills, 350 m asl Communitarian Organic-synergic

Farms name Province Landform Legal organisation Agriculture managementa Organic certified since total farm area (ha) Utilised agricultural area (ha) Crops

B

A

Study cases

Table 4 General description of the case studies farms in Tuscany

170 C. Certomà and P. Migliorini

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany

171

Another very relevant, but not really simple identifiable, feature of the farms, is the motivational approach to farming and the choice of living in the countryside. In the present research, it was given an overview on the different motivations. Specifically, it was considered – the case of a communitarian farm (A) in which participants decided to share all the properties and the work in order to build up an alternative live style that it is at odds with respect to the individualistic style of western societies; – the case of a young couple (B) who decided to rebuilt the grandparents’ farm by taking into account the possibility, according to modern economic and technical instruments, to restore the ancient water managing system and the landscape; – the case of a cooperative farm (C) from which began all of the most significant cultural developments in rural area; – the case of a farm managed by a farmer (D) who is involved in increasing the permaculture approach in Italy; – the case of a classical wine producer farm (E) biodynamical oriented. After having set out a good description platform (Step C), the analysis of the critical points starts (Step D). Taking inspiration from the critical point, focused as weakness or strength points by farmers, five distinguished areas of analysis are settled: agro-ecological structure, work and production, composition and competences, availability, social network. For each one of these, only few indicators, called “strategic” and considered deeply relevant for sustainability in the observed region, are evaluated by using data collected in the previous phase of the research (Table 5). Table 5 List of strategic indicators with reference to the area of interests, algorithm and unit measure Area

Strategic indicators

Algorithm

Unit

Agro-ecological assessment

Wood area Herbaceous strips area Hedges Wood borders

Wood area/total area Herbaceous area/total area Hedges/boundaries Wood borders of the farm/total borders Cultures/lot Computation of kinds of crops in the farm

% % % %

Variety of cultures Crops Work and production

Level of employment Age classes

Agricultural employers/total area Computation of person for farm represented in each class Farm employers farm employers /farms habitants Products (different Computation of different product by kinds) each farm Olive grove productivity Quantity of olives/ha Vineyard productivity Quantity of grapes/ha

% n. n./ha n. % n. kg/ha kg/ha

172

C. Certomà and P. Migliorini Table 5 (continued)

Area

Strategic indicators

Algorithm

Unit

Composition and competences

Gender ratio City, village, countryside origin Geographical origin

Female/male Quantity of people for farm represented in each class Quantity of people for farm represented in each class Quantity of people for farm represented in each class Incoming people/out coming people production self consumed/ total production Amount of public financing/gross production value Gross profit/production costs External income/total income

n/n n.

Previous employment

Availability

Turnover4 Self consumption Dependency

Social Network

n. n. n. kg/kg %

Gross margin External income influence Availability of capital Perception of availability of capital Availability of credit Perception of availability of credit Availability of assistance Perception of availability of assistance

% %

Association forms

n.

Likert Scale Likert Scale Likert Scale

Number of association in which the farm in involved Citizens involvement Average of citizen involved in each happening Participation Average of farm habitants involved in each happening Cooperation with public Computation of collaboration with institutions public institutions Projects Computation of active projects in the farm Involvement in Perception of involvement in territorial policies territorial policies definition

n. n. n. n. Likert Scale

Table 6 Example of normalization for the strategic indicator “Association forms” included in the Social Network Area Not normalised value of strategic indicator “Association forms” (included in Social Network Area): it represent the effective number of different kind of association in which the farm take part. Farm a: 10 Farm b: 6 Farm c: 5 Farm d: 2 Farm e: 3

4 Turnover

Sustainability value [1,5] Value “10” (farm a) = 5 maximum sustainability value6

is calculated on the last ten years. The others indicators, on the last years.

5 3 2,5 1 1,5

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany

173

Table 7 Amoeba diagram of strategic sustainability indicator concerning the social network area Social Network

association forms 5 4 territorial policies

3

involvement of citizens

farm a

2

farm b

1

farm c

0

farm d farm e

projects

collaboration with public institutions

participation

The results of each strategic indicator is calculated for each farm. The following step is to normalise the obtained results on a five step scale not weighted. The value “5” represent the highest sustainability result in our reference system (Table 6).5 The result of all the normalized value for each strategic indicator are represented in an amoeba diagram. Five amoeba diagrams were elaborated in reference to each five different areas, as shown in Table 7, concerning Social network area. The attribution of maximum sustainability value was decided on a related literature basis considering some features as more positive for social and agro-ecological aspect: • environmental and social diversification useful to empower the reliance of the system; • long term planning and flexibility; • social and economic network organization to have an increasing contractual power and help in new enterprises, information and technical support; • multi-functional capability; • decrease of external energy dependence; • easier acquisition of land and financial resources for familiar agriculture; 5 This form of evaluation was choosen in a wide range of possibilities because we found it more suitable to use. The goal of the research was, in fact, to show a friendly methodology that presents understandable results for farmers, citizen, public authority. Moreover, according to MESMIS philosophy, we consider sustainability as a relative characteristic of a complex system, so we establish the cluster of farms as our reference system. 6 0 is not considered as the minimum sustainability value but as the real value 0.

174

C. Certomà and P. Migliorini Table 8 General amoeba diagram of sustainability General sustainability evaluation

agro-ecological assesment 5 4 3 social network

2

farm a work and production

1

farm b farm c

0

farm d farm e availability

composition and competences

• revitalization of territorial society and offer of public utility services; • introduction of farming method complementary to biological standard (such as biodynamic, synergic, permaculture)

At the end a general Amoeba diagram of sustainability related to the farm considered in the research, was drawn in five different areas, calculating how many “5” each farm obtained in the different Areas and normalizing them. It can be used as a guideline for the farmers who take part into the research to have an idea of the path they have gone towards sustainability in order to plan how to proceed in their management (Table 8). A discussion at the end of the research with the stakeholders was considered as a good starting point for a participatory development plan and suggests interesting conclusion to the researchers and the farmers.

4 Conclusions The perception of farmers, who has a good or an increasing feeling about environmental and social matters, is generally correct according to the result of the research, but not always. It is due probably to the fact that farmers, even if nonconventional agriculture oriented, go on evaluating their farms according to the dominant paradigm of conventional agriculture: that produces a persistent feeling of inadequacy to the general standard [3].

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany

175

In the observed farms rural development shows good examples in which, unfortunately, the economic factor is often constraining for a non-market oriented agriculture supported by value and practices that enforces the social structure and the environmental maintenance. Generally a strong relation is evident between social and environmental awareness. Such kind of agriculture goes forth the modernity values, re-interpreters work, land, society and development with new suggestions. In the reviewed MESMIS method, the approach towards involved subjects is essentially dialogic in order to valorise the human aspects of the analysed experiences to create bonds among different but complementary ideas, to get suggestions from a selected group of peculiar cases useful for the whole typology of farms. In the study here presented the social aspect has a particular relevance: it wants to give room to the singular commitment in the general mosaic work. The real differences is, indeed, determined by motivations that explain how the landscape, the work structure and the cultural heritage organize themselves giving the present assessment of the Tuscan rural work. In general, except the agricultural benefits arising from specific managing models or positive economic results, it’s possible to find some peculiar features, for the considered case studies, especially useful for sustainability: the willingness to create social network, to interact with local administrations and to collaborate in organizing social or agricultural projects that involve citizens, the participatory decision processes and the inclusion association with others farmers on particular foci in order to develop cooperative commitments and self aid groups. History, expectations and symbolical value of farmers derived by motivation have had a crucial role in the pattern designed by the research. Moreover the motivational factor probably could explain the reason why, after the modern age in which agricultural activity held the negative sign of “past”, a lot of people, coming from very different productive sectors, decided to engage themselves in agriculture, conceiving it as a “post-modern” choice of live.

References 1. ARSIA (2006) Agricoltura biologica in Toscana. Gestione Elenco Regional Operatori biologici L.R. 49/97, Report N. 10. Firenze 2. Bacon C, Mendez E, Brown M (2005) Participatory action research and support for community development and conservation: Examples from shade coffee landscapes in Nicaragua and El Slavador. Centre for Agroecology and Sustainable food system, Santa Cruz, paper brief 3. Bans C, Dunlap R (1990) Conflict paradigms in agriculture. Rural Sociol 4:592–611 4. Boockstaller C, Girardin P, van der Werf HMG (1997) Use of agro-ecological indicators for the evaluation of farming systems. Eur J Agron 7:261–270 5. Bosshard A (2000) A methodology and terminology of sustainability assessment and its perspectives for rural planning. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 77:29–41 6. Conway GR (1987) The Properties of Agroecosystems. Agricultural Systems 24:95–117 7. Cuadernos del Programa de Manejo Participativo de Recursos Naturales Instituto de los Recursos Mundiales & Grupo de Estudios Ambientales A.C. México, agosto de 1993 8. Dalsgaard JPT, Oficial RT (1997) A quantitative approach for assessing the productive performance and ecological contributions of smallholders farms. Agric Syst 55(4):503–533 9. Douglass G (1984) The meaning of agricultural sustainability. In Agricultural sustainability in a changing world order, West ù Press, Colorado, pp 3–30

176

C. Certomà and P. Migliorini

10. Freire P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum, New York 11. Fukuoka M (1980) La rivoluzione del filo di paglia. Libreiria editrice fiorentina, p 205 12. Girardin P, Bockstaller C, van der Werf HMG (1999) Indicators: Tools to evaluate the environmental impacts of farming systems. J Sustain Agric 4:5–21 13. Gomes de Almeida S, Bianconi Fernandes G (2003) Monitoreo económico de la transición agroecológica: estudio de caso de una propiedad familiar del sur de Brasil. LEISA Revista de Agroecología, ocho estudios de caso, pp 58–63 14. Gonzalez-Esquivel L, Brunett-Pérez C et al (2003) Sustainability and dairy cattle production in highlands of central Mexico. Presented at the IX World Conference on Animal Production, Porto Alegre, Brasil 15. Gulthman J (2004) Agrarian dreams: the paradox of organic farming in California. University of California press 16. Halberg N (1999) Indicators of resources use and environmental impact for use in decision aid for Danish livestock farmers. Agric Ecosyst Environ 76:17–30 17. Halberg N, Verschur G, Goodlass G (2005) Farm level environmental indicators. Are they useful? An overview of green accounting systems for European farms. Agric Ecosyst Environ 105:195–212 18. IFOAM (2005) Basic Standards for organic production and processing. International Federation of Organic Movements, Bonn 19. Lopez-Ridaura S, Masera O, Astier M (2000) Evaluating the sustainability of integrated peasantry systems: The MESMIS framework. Ilea, Dicembre, pp 28–30 20. Lotter D (2003) Organic agriculture. J Sustain Agric 21:59–124 21. Masera O, Astier M, Lopez Ridaura S (2000) Sustentabilidad y manejo de recursos naturals. Mundi Prensa, Michoacan, Mexico 22. Michelson J (2001) Organic farming in a regulatory prospective. The Danish case. Sociologia ruralis 41 (1) 23. Migliorini P (2006) Valutazione della sostenbiltià in sistemi agricoli e colturali bioloici della Toscana. Tesi di dottorato di ricerca. Università degli Studi di Firenze 24. Moya García X, Caamal A, Ku Ku B, Chan Xool C, Armendariz I, Flores J, Moguel J, Noh Poot M, Rosales M, Dominguez JX (2003) La agricultura campesina de losmayas en Yucatán. LEISA Revista de Agroecología, ocho estudios, pp 7–16 25. Mollison B (1989) Permaculture: A Designers’ Manual Tagari Publications, Australia 26. Morse S, Namara Mc N, Acholo M, Okwoli B (2001) Sustainability indictors: The problem of integration sustainable development. Sustain Dev 9:1–15 27. Nicholls CI, Altieri MA, Dezanet A, Lana M, Feistrauer D, Ouriques M (2004) A rapid, framer-friendly agroecological method to estimate soil quality and crop health in vineyars systems. Biodynamics n. 250 p. 33–39 28. Pacini C, Wossink A, Giesen G, Vazzana C, Omodei Zorini L (2003) Evaluation of sustainability of organic, integrated and conventional farming systems: A farm ad field-scale analysis. Agric Ecosyst Environ 95:273–288 29. Piorr HP (2003) Environmental policy, agri-environmental indicators and landscape indicators. Agric Ecosyst Environ 93:17–33 30. Rigby D, Caceres D (2001) Organic farming and the sustainability of agriculturale systems. Agric Syst 68:21–40 31. Santillánt A, Nahed Toral J, López Méndez T (2003) Sostenibilidad y agricultura campesina: la producción agrosilvopastoril en Los Altos de Chiapas, México. LEISA Revista de Agroecología, ocho estudios de caso, pp. 18–23 32. Steiner R (1968) The Roots of Education, Five Lectures Given in 1924, London, Rudolf Steiner Press 33. Vazzana C, Raso E, Pier S (1997) Una nuova metodologia europea per la progettazione e la gestione di agroecosistemi integrati ed ecologici: Applicazione in un area agricola toscana. Rivista di Agronomia 31(2):423–440 34. Vereijken P (1994) Progress Report n 1 Designing prototype. Research Network on integrated and Ecological Arable Farming System for EU AB/DLO Wageningen, 87p

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany

177

35. Vereijken P (1995) Progress Report n 2 Designing and testing prototype. Research Network on integrated and Ecolgical Arable Farming System for EU AB/DLO Wageningen, 90p 36. Vereijken P (1996) Progress Report n 3 Testing and improving prototype. Research Network on integrated and Ecolgical Arable Farming System for EU AB/DLO Wageningen, 87p 37. Vereijken P (1998) Progress Report n 4 Improving and disseminate prototype. Research Network on integrated and Ecological Arable Farming System for EU AB/DLO Wageningen 55p 38. Vereijken P (1999) Manual for prototype integrated and ecological arable farming system in interaction with pilot farms, AB/DLO Wageninen, 87p 39. der Werf, van HMG, Petit J (2002) Evaluation of the environmental impact of agriculture at the farm level: A comparison and analysis of 12 indicator-based methods. Agric Ecosyst Environ 93:131–145 40. Willer H. e L. Kilcher (2009) The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2009, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), Bonn, Germany and Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick-ITC, Ginevra

Evaluation of the Sustainability on Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors in Architecture from a Tourism Point of View: Ayvalik Historical City Center Olcay Çetiner and Ay¸segül Çetiner Gökyilmaz

Abstract Tourism should be evaluated as a sustainable progress tool to obtain the continuity in the areas which acquires cultural heritage and natural values. It is observed that, the two important visual features in tourism are the environmental characteristics and the architectural characteristics of the accommodation buildings that belong to cultural heritage. Environmental protection conception and returning back to nature also affected the architecture. Today, people that have a certain intellectual and cultural level, prefer and look for environmentally interrelated facilities that are peculiar to that district, that are completely in nature, that are providing an interactivity with the local people, and have cultural heritage, rather than facilities that have a common architectural style, that have a good comfort of a luxury hotel and that are indented and self-sufficient. These kinds of facilities are mostly developed by Small Sized Tourism Firms (STF) and Micro Entrepreneurs/Very Small Sized firms. The STF’s are obtained from a lot of different source. Most of them are developed by special investors using small capitals. Some others, especially micro entrepreneurs/very small sized firms are mostly owned and ran by a family. In this study, evaluation of the sustainability on cultural heritage and environmental factors in architecture from a tourism point of view and the characteristic features and design approaches of the STF’s that are already located in or might be located in Ayvalik historical city center are analysed. Keywords Cultural heritage · Environmental factors · Sustainability · Tourism in architecture · Small sized tourism firms, and micro entrepreneurs/very small sized firms · Ayvalik historical city center

O. Çetiner (B) Department of Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Barboros str., 34349 Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_18, 

179

180

O. Çetiner and M.A.Ç. Gökyilmaz

1 Introduction Understanding the space requires understanding the physical and social relations behind the space in an unlimited vivacity caused by various civilizations changing places, expanding and being affected by the geographies they live in throughout the history and today. In other words, social and cultural continuity and changes requires reidentification and explanation of the space. There are places that are left to decay and buildings to be protected in many cities. As a result of the movements in tourism that have become a need, people begin to see and experience the city textures that are the products of different cultures and consequently, reviving old city areas becomes a must. Being a pattern of climate, building materials, tradition and ethnic groups, historical city center areas are the areas that must be protected because of their cultural values. There are civil architecture examples that are not decayed and still protect their old characters in several cities. Recovering and functionalizing city textures in compliance with today’s conditions are very important historical and cultural factors not only in terms of social, economical and cultural quality but also in terms of communicating information to following generations [3].

2 The Evaluation of the Sustainability of Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors in Architecture in Terms of Tourism In terms of cultural heritage and environmental factors, sustainable tourism should attract individual tourists or small tourist groups instead of mass tourism for maximum profit, diversify tourism activities, extend tourism to a longer period and apply tourism to different places. Today’s travelers are people that develop their holiday concepts, personal hobbies and interests, prefer regions where they can experience these, integrate with the environment, endeavor to know people and cultures and show respect to the environment. The expectations of these new types of travelers with their new conceptions are to spend their holidays in clean and environment-friendly facilities that integrate with nature. Quebec Declaration includes principles regarding active contribution to the protection of natural and cultural heritage, participation of the local community, preference of independent travelers and small tourist groups, services provided by small-scaled organizations/companies among the principles of sustainable tourism. As Turkey is a developing country of which the historical heritage mostly continues its presence lively with its natural and cultural values, it is certain that there is a significant potential in several regions of our country in terms of sustainable tourism [7]. Sustainable tourism should be developed without giving any harm to the environment; society; historical, natural and cultural assets so as to contribute to the regional economy and social life. Integration with nature and hospitality of the regional people are considered as the two factors that give the maximum satisfaction to travelers in accommodations.

Evaluation of the Sustainability on Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors

181

For this reason, it was observed that the studies and plannings made without the participation of the local community are unsuccessful in the long term although they seem to be successful in the short term. It is seen that tourists expect local cultural properties of the place they spend their holidays, a healthy environment and a certain level of prosperity especially in the regions of which the economy is planned according to tourism. These expectations show that the local community and touristical developments should complete each other. The cultural components in the social life are cultural elements in natural and historical protected areas, folkloric properties, regional life style, eating-drinkingdressing habits, traditional architecture, handicrafts, customs & traditions, linguistic properties, songs, lullabies, folk dances, folk architecture, etc. These components are used to describe the local identity of the city [1]. It is thought that natural values can be reproduced or can replace each other like cultural values. As the number of regions with cultural and natural values have started to decrease and the concept of locality has begun to stand out, especially the groups that conduct studies with the purpose of protection have started to develop approaches that aim to emphasize the meaning and feeling of places instead of the process of consuming areas/places. Thus, tourism is considered as an “instrument” rather than a “purpose” in order to ensure economic continuity especially in areas that have historical, cultural and natural values [4]. Utilizing old building stocks cause less structuring by using the idle space potential. These buildings cover the expectations of environmentalist travelers by creating visual and cultural variety and providing comfortable accommodation. Thus, historical city textures are protected, infrastructures are functionalized, the interaction between tourism and environment starts to protect and develop both parties by reducing the impact of structuring on the environment [5]. This includes smallscaled and/or micro-scaled tourism enterprises that are acts sensitively about the environment, cultural and social structure. It is a fact that design criteria that include all the plans and designs, which aim to ensure sustainability while using or creating environment, will shape tourism architecture. Because success, future and sustainability in tourism will be achieved with the help of structuring and design that reflect the importance given to environmental values.

3 Certain Features and Design Approaches of Ste’s that Are/May Be Located in Ayvalik Historical City Center 3.1 Tourism Potential and Properties of Historical City Center in Ayvalik Turkey is a country that has the traces of many civilizations. Therefore, it will always attract the attention of the entire world with its universally important historical and cultural values that are richer and more intense than any country in the world not only in terms of geographical position but also long history [8].

182

O. Çetiner and M.A.Ç. Gökyilmaz

Photograph 1 General view from the studied area [2]

From the tourism potential point of view that have been examined in the study have a very rich source in terms of antique cities and historical buildings. They hosted many civilizations until today. The developing civilizations that lived in these regions left several artworks that succeeded to reach today. Touristic properties natural properties, coastal facilities, natural port, climate and physical data positively affect the tourism potential of these regions. This historical and natural heritage that integrates with the green texture managed to reach today. Access possibilities and rich archeological values are also important factors. Ayvalik: It is a very old residential area surrounded by rich forests. Very old artworks can be observed in Ayvalik. Late Byzantine buildings are also seen in the region. Saatli Church, Alibey Mosque, Yeni Mosque and Biberli Mosque are among the significant historical buildings in the city. Being constructed by Abdülhamit II in the 19th century, Hamidiye Mosque is the only building in Ayvalik that was designed as a mosque. There are totally 22 big and small islands in Ayvalik. The main islands are Alibey, Timarhane and Tav¸sanli. Sarimsakli, Altinkum and Duma are the most significant beaches. Çamlik, Ba˘gyüzü Village, Kazak and Alibey Island are green areas that are still being used with their unique views. Being 4 km away from the city, Seytan ¸ Sofrasi is located on a hill where you can see the islands. Natural beauties in Alibey Island and Sarimsak, thermal springs that are good for skin problems and the unspoiled nature along the coast increase the population in Ayvalik by two or three times during summer. There are many springs among the pine and acorn trees in the forests that have touristical values and that surround Ayvalik. This forest region is used for camping and hunting activities. Vacation, cultural-historical, hunting and health tourism are available in Ayvalik. The area that begins with the antique city of Troy in the north and ends in Foça in the south affect the tourism in Ayvalik (Photograph 1).

3.2 Accommodation Design Approaches in Small Tourism Enterprises Most of the S.T.E.’s in tourism sector was formed by private investors that use small capitals. Others are generally micro enterprises that are owned and managed by families.

Evaluation of the Sustainability on Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors

183

Enterprises give importance firstly to accommodation quality. However, the existing facilities in the region should be used by attracting the attention to interesting regional objects and events. They should make applications that improve the promotion of the regions. These applications should include properties that are not known/will attract by the incoming guests [6]. Historical centers are tourism areas where visitors stop off; that are strong in terms of economical and social factors, settling geography and culture and that were once residential areas. The facilities that provide accommodation in historical places are facilities that are easy to manage and that provide catering services or facilities where guests can prepare their own meals in addition to lodging services. In some of these regions, home pensioning has become widespread with the house owners renting some rooms of their houses to the guests. There are two important points regarding the contribution of good design to efficiency in Small Tourism Enterprises; (a) The first impression of the guests can be positive with the help of a well-designed Small Tourism Enterprise. This makes the guests spend longer time in the facility and visit it several times, (b) Well-designed and well-organized service areas can reduce the cost of employees and increase the efficiency by affecting the motivation of employees, as these areas are aesthetical [6]. The texture and technology that is used with the purpose of increasing customer satisfaction are important in terms of customers’ preference. For this, the belowmentioned conditions should be met; • The infrastructure of the communication system should be flexible for improvement (TV, cable distribution system, fast Internet system), • Bathrooms should have sufficient facilities, • There should be more alternatives for artistical objects, antiques and ornamentations, • Designs should be created in order to reflect the regional environment by using artistical objects, • Healthy environments should be created, as there will be guests that give importance to personal health, • Natural materials that are in compliance with the environment should be used, • Modern concepts and objects that reflect history should be combined.

3.3 Design Recommendations for the Usage of Accommodation Spaces It is seen that the most important visual properties that attract the interest of travelers are environmental properties and the architectural characteristics of the accommodation facilities. Among these, environmental properties are the ones that belong to the historical city centers. These buildings that are in historical centers should have facades with properties that will attract attention. In order to establish a traditional place that reflects

184

O. Çetiner and M.A.Ç. Gökyilmaz

Table 1 Examples from accomadation buildings that can be renovated for reusage and exterior facade recommendations that are in compliance with their architectural components of the small turism enterprises [2] Examples from accommodation buildings that will be reopened for usage

Exterior facade recommendations

the regional life style, the first thing to do should be examining the regional architectural style and combining these properties with the interior and exterior design (Table 1). Architecture and interior design for Small Tourism Enterprises should be in compliance with the natural environment and connected to the main properties of the environment. The most important reason of why a guest prefers a specific place for holiday is the natural view and surroundings. This preference depends on transferring interior design components into this atmosphere. To achieve this, design concept should be identified and room and common space design should be examined. Identifying design concept is affected by the answers of the below-stated questions; who are the people that will stop off? What kind of an experience would they like to have? Is there any interior design style that people would like to experience? How is the image of our existing market and is this image a desired image or should a new image be created? Where is settling area? How is the settling area associated with the interior design style? Space can be regarded as a special place in historical centers for residents. Moreover, the materials to be used in interior and exterior designs should be determined. Accommodation facilities can be designed with one or two floors that compose of entrance, reception, kitchen, dining room and bedrooms.

Evaluation of the Sustainability on Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors

185

Table 2 Interior spaces that lead the design for accomodation places that are examined in this study [2] Interior spaces that lead the design Example from rooms

Common usage examples

Objects that enable the connection

For room design; room measurement, room layout, room groups that include the number and type of rooms, recommended furniture and lighting, objectives of the sector, etc. should be taken into account [6]. Rooms of the accommodation facilities that are examined in the study have been observed in two different categories (Table 2). Only basic furniture has been selected for the room furnishing. Special attention paid for the optimum use of regional furniture according to the requirements. The purpose was to make the room look bigger and create well-used interior spaces. Spaces gave been decorated with traditional objects and motifs. Common space design; another point is to create common spaces that will ensure differentiating. Reception, meeting room, dining room and recreational areas can become nice spaces if they are organized with a good programming and design. Regardless of the type of accommodation, all these common spaces should be places around the lobby in terms of design and planning. The guests should be enabled to find different functions with minimum difficulties. A good relation of the common spaces and the rooms should be obtained. Designers should take functional properties into consideration while creating the atmosphere, layout, lighting and furniture.

4 Conclusion The functional usage areas in historical buildings are nearly in the same number with the ones in new buildings. Historical buildings can also be used in every field and every subject. However, usage has a different usage in tourism field. Because historical and cultural values are the biggest resources of the tourism potential of a

186

O. Çetiner and M.A.Ç. Gökyilmaz

country. Countries, which have rich historical and cultural values and give importance to tourism, always utilize these values in order to develop tourism industry. Therefore, there is a very close relationship between the factor of history and culture and tourism sector. For this reason, tourism is the most appropriate and most useful way in the usage of historical buildings [8]. When renewing historical city areas, recommendations that meet today’s needs and increase the image quality of that area should be prioritized and contemporary concepts should be adapted. Environmental properties should be well analyzed for the innovations to be made. Architectural character should definitely be protected and the innovations to be made should emphasize the character. It should be remembered that a careful and authentic innovation would provide urban and architectural richness. The new functions to be brought during renovation should be made by considering the cultural value, spatial requirement and aesthetical preference and livable space should be created. Only a study like this would add richness and dynamism to the space. Facilities that are constructed unconsciously cause changes in the natural appearance, unorganized settlement areas become problems in the most preferred regions and natural resources may be affected negatively. Therefore, tourism can be sustainable by protecting the natural environment, historical heritage and cultural texture.

References 1. Beyhan SG ¸ (2006) Kültürel, Do˘gal Ve Tarihi Mirasın Sürdürülebilir Turizm Açısından De˘gerlendirilmesi Ve Isparta Örne˘gi. Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya. (in Turkish) 2. Çetiner O, Gökyılmaz ÇA (2006) Photos of Ayvalık (Balıkesir – Ayvalık ˙Ilçesi Turizmde Tanıtma ve Pazarlamada Yeni Yakla¸sım – Konaklama Mekânlarında Tasarım Etkileri-, II. Balıkesir Ulusal Turizm Kongresi Balıkesir Üni. Turizm ˙I¸sl. ve Otelcilik Y.O., Balıkesir. (in Turkish) 3. Çetiner O, Gökyılmaz ÇA (2006) Antalya Turizmi Konaklama Mekanlarının Kullanımında Tasarım Etkilerine Öneri, Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya 4. Hovardao˘glu SÇ, Hovardao˘glu O (2006) Turizm Ve Do˘gal – Kültürel De˘gerler Ba˘glamında Yerin Anlamı Üzerine: Erciyes Da˘gı Ve Seyh¸ ¸ saban Yerle¸smesi, Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya. (in Turkish) 5. Kısa OP (2006) Farklı Turist, Farklı Turizm, Farklı Mimari: Çevreci Turist, Ekolojik Turizm, Ekolojik Turizm Mimarisi, Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya. (in Turkish) 6. Negrusa A, Ionescu CE (2005) Design implications in creating a competitive advantege for hospitality small business. Studia Universitatias Babes-Bolyai Negotia, No.1/2005, ISSN 1224-8738. Cluj-Napoca, Romanya, pp 102–112 7. Tosun Ç, ve Sahin ¸ SZ (2006) Geli¸sen ve De˘gi¸sen E˘gilim: Ekoturizm, II. Balıkesir Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Turizm ˙I¸sletmecili˘gi ve Otelcilik Yüksekokulu, Balıkesir. (in Turkish) 8. Türk A, Kıstır R, Sataf M (2006) Tarhi ve Kültürel De˘gerlerin Turizm Amaçlı Kullanımları Ba˘glamında Isparta Aya Baniye ve Aya Yorgi Kiliselerinin De˘gerlendirilmesi, Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya. (in Turkish)

Preserving the Mediterranean Landscape: The Role of Local Traditional Food Giovanni Quaranta and Caterina Salvia

Abstract It is largely recognised that the Mediterranean and its landscape symbolises a cultural heritage for the world as a whole. It represents the place where different countries with different languages and cultures converge. Today all this culture and history seems clearly threatened by extensive desertification phenomena. This paper focuses on the role played by the gastronomic landscape and local traditional food into the process of Mediterranean cultural landscape making and conservation. By conceptualising local traditional food as a part of the entire cultural heritage of a place, the intend here has been to discuss how traditional knowledge, particularly traditional food and food processing, can both environmentally and culturally preserve the identity of a place. The rediscovering of typical agri-food products can guarantee the protection of landscape quality both from an aesthetic and an environmental point of view. It implies the reorganisation of productive systems through the adoption of traditional techniques. In fact, differently from the conventional products, the traditional ones belong to the historical memory of a territory and they have particular characteristics linked to geographical factors, quality of raw materials and processing techniques. This implies that there is a strict relationship between agri-food products and local community heritage and identity. The paper investigates the capacity of typical agri-food products to safeguard and sustain landscapes in a environmental fragile context. The approach leaded to a development of an empirical model validated through a case study located in Southern Italy (Costiera Amalfitana – Campania region), an outstanding example of Mediterranean landscape, with exceptional cultural and natural scenic values resulting from its peculiar topography and historical evolution and with a vital gastronomic heritage. Keywords Mediterranean · Local traditional food · Environment · Cultural heritage · Conservation

G. Quaranta (B) UNIBAS, Potenza, Italy e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_19, 

187

188

G. Quaranta and C. Salvia

1 Introduction The Mediterranean contains a variety of landscapes, all of which have been shaped by the social, economic, cultural and religious activities of people over thousands of years. Scholars agree in describing this territory as the cradle of civilisation, where different and important cultures have followed one another. But the Mediterranean derives also from the combination of its climate, its plants, its sea and its soil. Indeed, then, it is the result of the historical interaction between human and nature. Citing Braudel [5, p. 26] “in both the physical and human sphere, the Mediterranean is a crossroads, the Mediterranean is a heteroclite and coherent image into which everything emerges and settles back into an original unit”. The term Mediterranean, however, evokes also the image of the desert. While the existing deserts are considered as a part of the Mediterranean landscape, it is necessary to underline that desertification or land degradation represents one of its main threats. Desertification, that properly means the creation or enlargement of a desert by natural processes and human activities leading to changes such as the loss of soil exposing, affect, in a differ manner and intensity, almost all the Countries of the Basin [10]. For millennia, the equilibrate use of both natural resources and traditional techniques has guaranteed the survival of people and their territories and the maintenance of a singular landscape. When this synergy broke, the entire ecosystem collapsed generating phenomena of degradation and land abandonment, often irreversible, such as desertification [20]. Thus, coping with desertification and, consequently, preserving the Mediterranean landscape implies the restoration of this equilibrium and, as a consequence, the elaboration of a new paradigm involving environment respect and economic, social and cultural sustainability. Namely, this underpins the “re-connection of people, land and nature” [19]. Moving from this idea, the recuperation and the valorisation of traditional techniques and knowledge, such as those linked with the traditional agri-food products, appears as a new challenge for regenerating territories at risk of desertification. They could start, in fact, virtuous processes of environment conservation and, in so doing, promote a sustainable safeguarding of all the landscape components, including its cultural heritage. As Austad (2000 in Antrop [1, p. 189]) points out “local knowledge and traditions should be combined with concepts of landscape ecology to develop ‘new’ cultural landscapes and agro-systems”. Nonetheless, encouraging these mechanisms is not easy. Their implementation, in fact, needs to take into account all the existing differences in economic, spatial, socio and cultural settings so that it might be possible asses their practical effects. Bearing this in mind, the explicit aim of this paper is then to analyse how traditional agri-food sustains the process of landscape preservation through the exploration of a case study. It is organised in four sections. The first section critically examines three key concepts: landscape, heritage and tradition. The second part focuses on the role played by typical agri-food products in the process of landscape protection. The third section examines the case of Costiera Amalfitana, in Italy. Finally, the last section, draws some conclusions.

Preserving the Mediterranean Landscape: The Role of Local Traditional Food

189

2 Landscape, Heritage and Tradition There is a general consensus that landscape is an evolving concept, generally characterised as ambivalent, fuzzy and multifaceted. Often, scholars [10] prefer its century-old sense of “a tract of land with its distinguishing characteristics and features [. . .], (Oxford English Dictionary)”. While, according to Tuan (1979 in Arriaza et al. [2, p. 115]) “landscape [. . .] is not to be defined by itemising its parts. The parts are subsidiary clues to an integrated image”. Following the definition used in the European Landscape Convention [7], however, “landscape means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”. This definition clearly underlines what Antrop [1, p. 187] summarises stating “landscapes evolve continuously in a more or less chaotic way and reflect social and economics needs of a particular society at a given moment”. It, thus, needs to be contextualised, as it results from the overlapping of different complementary aspects: aesthetical, geographical, historical, etc., forming a whole, whose natural and cultural components are taken together, not separately [7]. The expression cultural landscape, therefore, has been coined to emphasise “the combined works of nature and man [8, p. 18]” and embraces the diversity of manifestations resulting from the interaction between humankind and its natural environment. Once shaped into a landscape, this interaction becomes an historical and cultural piece of document constituting the cultural heritage of both people and places. In other words, landscapes are part of the cultural heritage in which the cultural identity is rooted. Comes to the light, then, that heritage must be considered both as a sort of intellectual capital [1] and as an “identity marker” of groups [4]. In accordance with the Cambridge Dictionary definition, in fact, heritage is the set of “features belonging to the culture of a particular society, such as traditions, languages or buildings, which still exist from the past and which have a historical importance”. More specifically, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines heritage as a legacy from the past, what people live with today and pass on the future generations. Furthermore, this set of shared practices and understandings, inherited and adapted through generations, represents what Ray [21] identifies as local knowledge. The term local here, derives from the concept of locality, which is usually characterised by a twofold meaning: one physical and another social. In physical terms, it refers to a place where people live, work and resolve their activities [23]. In social terms, as Lowe and Murdoch (1993 cited in Selman [23, p. 4]) argue, “locality represents groups of individuals who are associated through common responsibilities, occupations, cultures or interests”. It comes to the fore, then, that the heritage preservation assures the continuity between past and present. Using the Bessière [4, p. 26] words “heritage provides historical depth and permanent pattern in a perpetually changing world”. The notion of heritage becomes clearly the same of tradition. Etymologically, tradition comes from the Latin, particularly, from the verb tradere, that literally means “to transmit or to deliver” [4]. In other words, it suggests the idea of handing something down

190

G. Quaranta and C. Salvia

or over, in order to transmit theoretical and practical know how, behaviour, attitudes and to ensure the continuity among generations [11]. Yet, summarising and following Antrop [1], landscapes posses heritage values and traditional knowledge, such as those linked with typical agri-food products, that should be preserved. The protection of cultural landscapes can contribute to the implementation of sustainable development strategies, maintaining and enhancing the quality of life for the local population and, in doing so, preventing land abandonment. Furthermore, it can sustain and improve natural values of the landscape contributing to preserve ecological functioning and diversity as well as to continue and reintroduce traditional practices, recognised as sustainable.

3 Traditional Agri-Food Products as a Tool of Landscape Safeguarding According to different authors (Giardiello [9], Torquati and Frascarelli 2000 in Miele and Murdoch [13]), typical agri-food products are different from other products existing on the market as they belong to the historical memory of a territory. “Tipicality” here indicates the historical memory, geographic localisation and the quality of raw materials and techniques of preparations. This implies that there is a strict relationship between agri-food products and local community heritage and identity. Given this, typical agri-food products seem to encompass the Sage’s [22] definition of good food. He correctly states that a good food should embrace three basic attributes: specific properties and both ecological and social embeddedness [12, 18]. It is, in the author words, “a heuristic hybrid term for it embodies both nature and culture [. . .] [22, p. 50] ”. Essentially, the mixture of human skills and knowledge with the character of the surrounding ecosystem becomes the main quality of typical foods that needs to be culturally appreciate [13]. Moran (1993 in Ray [21]), referring to French wines, states “each wine is a product of the physical characteristics of the locality and accumulated local know-how, the combination of which, it is claimed, ‘cannot be replicated elsewhere’. To put it in another way, the specific characteristics of the typical food originate from the interaction with the landscape of production or terroir [25], generating what authors [16, 6, 22] identify as gastronomic landscape. The rediscovering of typical agri-food products and the preservation of the gastronomic landscape can guarantee the protection of the landscape as a whole both from an aesthetic and an environmental point of view. It implies, in fact, the reorganisation of traditional productive systems through the adoption of traditional techniques. Furthermore, it is widely recognised that moving towards valorisation of local or endogenous resources, such as typical agri-food products, territories, particularly those marginalised and at risk of land degradation and abandonment, can create new sources of wealth [24]. Some researchers state that “in an era of increasingly competitive agri-food production (competition based on cost and price), there is an emerging hope that the promotion of regionally distinctive products may offer

Preserving the Mediterranean Landscape: The Role of Local Traditional Food

191

an alternative development trajectory for regions less able to compete in a globalised, commodity driven, market place” (Gilg and Battershill, 1998; Jenkins and Parrot, 2001 in Parrott et al. [17, p. 243]). As Parrott et al. [17, p. 257] argue, “the existence of well-known regional products may act as a ‘flagship’ for a region, creating positive associations which may, in turn, create other synergies in terms of tourism and regional development”. They can help to “maintain agricultural profitability in zones that are considered difficult or marginal (. . .) [and] create rural employment, both directly and indirectly, in associated industries such as tourism (Bessière [4] in Barham [3, p. 134])”. The promotion of traditional products works as a catalyst for many actors operating in rural areas: from tourist agents to agricultural operators, local authorities, trade associations and development agencies. In short, the valorisation of endogenous resources and thus of a territory presupposes the creation of what Murdoch [15] named horizontal networks.

4 A Case Study: The Costiera Amalfitana, in Italy The following case study is a valid example through which all the previous conceptualisations can be clarified providing guidelines for a simply model to be replicated elsewhere into the Mediterranean context. The selected case study is the Amalfi Coast, Costiera Amalfitana in Italian. It is a portion of coastline sited in the southern side of the Sorrentine Peninsula of Italy, covering 11,231 ha. It extends from Positano, in the west, to Vietri sul Mare, in the east (Photograph 1). Its natural boundary is the southern slope of the peninsula formed by the Lattari hills that, stretching from the Picentini hills to the Tyrrhenian Sea, separate the Gulf of Naples from the Gulf of Salerno. Indeed the Amalfi coast can be defined as an area of exceptional value resulting from the continuous work of both nature and man. In this area, nature is both well-preserved and harmoniously combined with the human activities. The landscape is shaped by rocks, wood and macchia mediterranea (maquis), but also by citrus groves and vineyards grown using the characteristic terraces (Photograph 2) that cover the steep slopes rising from the coast to the top of the mountains. In addition, the mountain areas are exploited for dairy farming, which represents an activity historically rooted here, based on sheep, goats and cattle breeding.

Photograph 1 Map of the Amalfi coast

192

G. Quaranta and C. Salvia

Photograph 2 Terraces of the Amalfi coast

In some parts of the Costiera, the natural landscape survives, preserving intact the traditional Mediterranean flora, which can withstand the windswept aridity of the area and a rich wildlife. The woods are populated by trees, such as oak and chestnut. The higher mountain areas are also characterised by mule tracks (mulattiere) which represent a notable feature of this landscape. Historically, these served as means for both communication among villages and for catching and channelling rainwater. Numerous are also the torrents, which produce impressive waterfalls. For all these reasons, this territory is listed by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage site. Particularly it has been selected on the basis of three of the ten selection criteria. Mainly, however, because it represents “an outstanding example of a Mediterranean landscape, with exceptional cultural and natural scenic values resulting from its dramatic topography and historical evolution (www.whc.unesco.org)”. As already mentioned, one of the main agricultural activities in this area is the cultivation of citrus, particularly lemons, from which originates the worldwide famous liqueur called Limoncello. Thanking for this process, in fact, as well as for both the peculiarity of the microclimatic conditions and the traditional variety, the local agricultural sector has overcome the high competitiveness of the global markets (mainly deriving from the South of America). As stated, then, this kind of cultivation actively contributes to the process of landscape making and preservation. The lemon trees, in fact, are cultivated in terraces still built with the traditional technique that protects soil, catches and channels waters. The safeguarding of this specific know how avoids also the abandonment of other traditional activities, such as the wood production. For instance, the chestnut wood used for the maintenance of the terraces is produced in the mountain part of the area. The system of terraces, then, has been perpetuated and nowadays constitutes the only landscape associated with this territory. Flagship of this area is, however, the Limoncello. The production of this spirit allows and starts a set of processes which make this area extremely competitive. As a traditional product, it requires “typicality” of both raw materials and technique of

Preserving the Mediterranean Landscape: The Role of Local Traditional Food

193

production. Furthermore, due to its strong linkage with the terroir and, particularly, with the landscape this product acquires also an esthetical value. By getting a bottle of Limoncello, consumers gain also “a piece of the landscape” and this becomes undoubtedly a valid strategy of territorial marketing. In short, this summarise what is known as the business of place or the power of provenance. In addition, using the Limoncello as an ingredient, the local gastronomy becomes a sort of cuisine de terroir, resulting, mainly into the tourists perspective, very fashionable. Yearly, this territory attracts millions of foreign visitors, who are hosted in the numerous hotels and restaurants, which are the core of the local economy.

5 Some Conclusions The presence in the Mediterranean context of numerous fragile territories threatened by degradation problems, such as the considered area, imposes the identification of strategies for halting these phenomena. Particularly, the analysis of the selected case study has had the specific objective to illustrate how a typical and traditional product contribute to maintaining and preserving a landscape, generating a virtuous circle of sustainable development in a area at high risk of degradation. After critically analysing the concepts of landscape, heritage and tradition, the role played by typical and traditional products in the process of landscape safeguarding has been clearly defined. The rediscovery and conservation of traditional knowledge permits a reconnection between human and nature. In other words, combining nature, identity, regional livelihood and a sense of well-being, traditional agri-food products encourage processes of both social and ecological reembeddedness. Moreover, the valorisation of these product has a multiplier effect on the whole local economy. Far from considering the Amalfi Coast as a model to simply imitate everywhere, the main idea in this paper has been to validate some general principles drawn from a successful case study that has shown an interesting working-effectiveness.

References 1. Antrop M (2006) Sustainable landscapes: contradiction, fiction or utopia? Landscape Urban Plan 75:187–197 2. Arriaza M, Cañas-Ortega JF, Cañas-Madueño JA, Ruiz-Aviles P (2004) Assessing the visual quality of rural landscapes. Landscape Urban Plan 69:115–125 3. Barham E (2003) Translating terroir: the global challenge of French AOC labelling. J Rural Stud 19:127–138 4. Bessière J (1998) Local development and heritage: traditional food and cuisine as tourist attractions in rural areas. Sociol Ruralis 38(1):21–34 5. Braudel F (2002) Il Mediterraneo. Lo spazio e la storia. Gli uomini e la tradizione, I volti della Storia. Newton & Compton Editori, Roma 6. Brunori G, Rossi A (2000) Synergy and coherence through collective action: some insights from wine routes in Tuscany. Sociol Ruralis 40(4):409–403

194

G. Quaranta and C. Salvia

7. Council of Europe (2000) European landscape convention. Firenze, 20 Oct 8. Fowler PJ (2003) World heritage cultural landscapes 1992–2002. World Heritage Paper 6, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris 9. Giardiello A (1995) La valorizzazione dei prodotti agro-alimentari tipici. In: Giardiello A (ed) Prodotti tipici agro-alimentari tipici della Campania. Università degli studi di Napoli Federico II, Naples 10. Grove AT, Rackham O (2003) The nature of Mediterranean Europe. An ecological history. Yale University Press, New Haven, second printing 11. Hervieu–Léger D (1996) Tourisme, tradition et ethnologie. Source 27:55–86 12. Hinrichs CC (2000) Embeddedness and local food systems: notes on two types of direct agricultural market. J Rural Stud 16:295–303 13. Miele M, Murdoch J (2002) The practical aesthetics of traditional cuisines: slow food in Tuscany. Sociol Ruralis 42(4):312–328 14. Morgan K, Marsden T, Murdoch J (2006) Worlds of food. Place, power and provenance in the food chain. Oxford University Press, Oxford 15. Murdoch J (2000) Networks – a new paradigm of rural development? J Rural Stud 16:407–419 16. O’Neill P, Whatmore S (2000) The business of place: networks of property, partnership and procedure. Geoforum 31:121–136 17. Parrott N, Wilson N, Murdoch J (2002) Spatializing quality: regional protection and the alternative geography of food. Eur Urban Reg Stud 9(3):241–261 18. Penker M (2006) Mapping and measuring the ecological embeddedness of food supply chains. Geoforum 37:368–379 19. Pretty J (2002) Agri-culture. Reconnecting people, land and nature. Earthscan Publications Limited, London 20. Quaranta G, Salvia C (2003) Risorse agro-alimentari e degrado del territorio nel bacino del Mediterraneo. Il Diritto dell’agricoltura, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane 21. Ray C (1998) Culture, intellectual property and territorial rural development. Sociol Ruralis 38(1):3–20 22. Sage C (2003) Social embeddedness and relations of regard: alternative ‘good food’ networks in south-west Ireland. J Rural Stud 19:47–60 23. Selman P (1996) Local sustainability. Managing and planning ecologically sound places. St Martin’s Press, New York 24. van der Ploeeg JD, Renting H (2004) Behind the ‘redux’: a rejoinder to David Goodman. Sociol Ruralis 44(2):233–242 25. Wilson JE (1998) Terroir: the role of geology, climate and culture in the making of French wines. University of California Press, Berkeley

Climate Change Critical to Cultural Heritage P. Brimblecombe, C.M. Grossi, and I. Harris

Abstract Although modellers have established the type of climate expected in Europe over the coming century, they have not been concerned with the combination of meteorological variables most important to building damage. We have identified the climatic parameters most likely to be critical for architectural surfaces and structures. They have been loosely grouped as: (1) Temperature derived parameters – range, freeze thaw, thermal shock (2) Water derived parameters – precipitation, humidity cycles, time of wetness (3) Wind derived parameters – wind, wind driven rain, sand and salt. We also looked at pollution derived parameters such as SO2 , NO2 , elemental carbon and pH, but neglect these in this analysis which focuses on a European situation with much reduced air pollution forecast for the future. As expected a future Europe will experience less frost damage to porous stone, although higher temperatures can enhance fungal growth on wood. Drier summers seem likely to increase structural problems from desiccated soils and salt weathering of porous stone. Our work hint at likely heritage management strategies for the future. Keywords Building · Climate Change · Damage · Heritage

1 Introduction Our built heritage is exposed to the atmosphere over long periods of time. This means that it is exposed to changes that occur on long timescales and accumulated damage from this exposure. The very choice of the term weathering to describe damage to buildings reflects the view that climate is a key factor in damage, despite the fact that the earliest uses of the word in the 1500s tend to reflect the positive benefits of exposure to weather or a sense of drying. However, architects and geologists, saw the more negative aspects of weathering in its ability to wear and disintegrate, P. Brimblecombe (B) School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_20, 

195

196

P. Brimblecombe et al.

such that 300 years ago architects were convinced that buildings were destroyed by “time, smoke and weather” [3]. The blackening effect of air pollutants had long been known and the poet Horace was able to write in his Odes and Carmen Saeculare of the temples of Ancient Rome: “Your fathers’ guilt you still must pay, Till, Roman, you restore each shrine, Each temple, mouldering in decay, And smoke-grimed statue, scarce divine”

John Evelyn in 17th century London wrote in detail in his book Fumifugium (1661) of the damage that air pollution causes to our monumental heritage. The adoption of coal as a fuel led to increased concentrations of sulfur dioxide in urban atmospheres and from the 17th century there were complaints of the way this damaged stone buildings. Sir Christopher Wren claimed that the sulfate encrustations on London buildings were inches thick in places. Coal became widely adopted as the main fuel across Europe in the centuries that followed [2] such that these sulfate layers became ever more widespread. The 20th century saw a profound shift in the nature of urban air pollution. The adoption of the private automobile increased the concentration of volatile organic compounds in urban air and as coal was replaced by gas and electricity in cities its declined. Governments adopted increasingly well structured environmental regulations, perhaps beginning with the UK Clean Air Act (1956) through to the European Union’s Air Quality Monitoring and Management Directive (1996). Although this legislation derived from health concerns, there are doubtless benefits for building materials from the reduced pollution loads. The reduction in sulfur dioxide concentrations in urban air that paralleled the declining use of coal has reduced the damage from acid gases and the production of gypsum layers [3]. The urban fabric still shows dark damage layers, but these are increasingly the result of soot from diesel engines (see [1, 5]). These layers show the potential for a level of organic chemistry and biological activity that was not known in sulfur dioxide dominated atmospheres. Despite the potential for novel chemistry in dark crusts on buildings in the 21st century, the role of pollution in building damage is likely to be much reduced. There is evidence that erosion rates in the last decades of the 20th century in major cities such as London were much reduced [10]. Reduction in the damage from gaseous air pollutants and a decrease in some components within acid rain have meant that climate factors, which have hitherto been largely ignored, may become more important determinants of building damage. This is not to say that the potential impacts of frost, rain or wind have not been appreciated, but the changing balance of these factors as a result of climate change have largely been ignored. Buildings have to survive centuries such that they will confront increasing changes in climate. Historic buildings were designed to confront a climate very different from those in the future. Some of these problems have been of interest to a project Engineering Historic Futures coordinated by the University College London’s (UCL) Centre for Sustainable Heritage [4]. In the UCL project, the difficulties faced in managing historic buildings, archeological

Climate Change Critical to Cultural Heritage

197

sites and parks and gardens. The report noted many different concerns although the increased frequency of heavy rain or flooding was a general worry. The European project NOAH’s ARK (http://noahsark.isac.cnr.it/) aims to assess the overall risk posed to monumental heritage by climate change. The project title alludes to the biblical story regarding the protection of what we value in times of great climatic stress. It is a broad project that intends to go beyond academic researchers to include practitioners and additionally the insurance industry, which has to confront the costs of climate in a very direct way. The project has excited considerable interest in the media because it seems to include threats that the public find real. This has ranged from worries about the effect of increased rainfall on the traditional English pub with its thatching and wattle and daub walls, through to concerns about climate impact on icons such as the Eiffel Tower in Paris or the Torre del Oro in Seville. As welcome as such media attention has been, the project has broad interests that go beyond concerns over individual monuments. This is because the project is concerned with the pressures on European monumental heritage as a whole. Table 1 The meteorological parameters thought critical in the NOAHs ARK project. Subdivided into groupings – in temperature, water, wind and pollution derived parameters Parameter

Definition and meteorological parameter

Temperature

(1) Range: max (T1 . . . Tn ) − min (T1 . . . Tn ); T = daily mean (2) Thermal shock: (Tmax − Tmin ) > X ◦ C; Counts for X = 7, 10, 15, 20 (3) Mean: mean (T1 . . . Tn ); T = daily mean (1) Number of freeze-thaw cycles: Cycle (1 cross) T (i) > 1∧ T (m) < −3∧ T (n) > 1 i,n,m are intervals of time (2) Frost damage: Crack length ∼ −0.14T 2 − 2.54T − 8, where ◦ C < T > −15◦ C and Fr Frost Index : T − 4 Ig = 0 360.30 T (−5) /30 (1) Mean: mean (S1 . . . Sn ), S = daily sun hours (1) Rainy days: Consecutive number of rainy days, (>0.1 mm): days of rain/time period (2) Extreme events: Z (mm/t) >200 mm/day (3) Sum of precipitation (1) Range RHmax − RHmin (2) Mean RH (1) Number of cycles crossing RH = 75% (2) Daily RH shocks (RH (n) − RH (n + 1) > 25% (1) Wind speed: mean (W1 . . . Wn ); W = daily mean (2) Win direction: Distribution of daily directions for 8 compass points (3) Extreme events: days v >7.5, 10, 15, 20 m/s (1) v.p; where v = wind speed; p = amount of precipitation (daily)

Freeze-thaw cycles

Sun hours Precipitation

Relative humidity Humidity cycles Wind

Wind driven rain Sea salt Gas (SO2 , NOx ), particulate pH precipitation

(1) Salt deposition inland wind speed (see wind) (1) Stone recession by dissolution of carbonate (2) Blackening of materials (3) Corrosion of metals (4) Influence on bio-colonization (1) Stone recession by dissolution of carbonate: Modified Lipfert function: Carbonate Stone = f(solubility of Calcite in equilibrium with [CO2 ], rain, [H+ ]

198

P. Brimblecombe et al.

Individual monuments are of course, exemplars of the processes that may be underway in the future, but these sites are not the focus of our study. The output from NOAH’s ARK will be a damage atlas for Europe, often couched in terms of risk to particular materials: stone, brick, clay rich materials, metals and wood. The changes examined in the project can in principle be subdivided into the following main categories (see Table 1): Temperature Derived Parameters: Range, freeze thaw, thermal shock. Water Derived Parameters: Precipitation, humidity cycles, time of wetness. Wind Derived Parameters: Wind, wind driven rain, wind driven sand, salt Pollution Derived Parameters: SO2 , NO2 , particulates and pH – largely neglected in this paper.

2 Modelling the Future Past climate change can be examined by looking at the long term records collected by meteorologists over the last three to four hundred years. We have drawn on a range of older data sets, although for convenience have used the daily records from central England [8] and Prague most closely. Estimates of future climate of the 21st century is increasing available from modelled output. This allows us to consider the changes in a wide range of meteorological parameters often on a daily basis. In the current study we have relied mostly on output from the Hadley model (HadCM3, a coupled ocean-atmosphere global circulation model from the UK Hadley Centre, see for example [7]). We have paid particular attention to the modelled grid cell that covers central England – stretching from the Welsh borders to the eastern coast of England and includes London. This was chosen to represent a maritime climate. Additionally we have looked in detail at a grid square in the Czech Republic, that includes Prague, and represents a more continental climate. The HadCM3 grid, typical of global models is coarse (2.5 × 3.75 degrees), so the grid squares examined here cover a large area. It is possible to examine the regional output from the HadRM3 model, but this covers a shorter time period (2070–2099) although at a finer spatial scale. The regional model output includes topography, increasing the validity of individual cell predictions. Most of the discussion here relates to the output from the global model. Our analysis of future trends has relied mostly on the A2 scenario (IPCC SRES Emissions Scenarios – Version 1.1 – July, 2000). This scenario describes a very heterogeneous world in which the underlying theme is that of strengthening regional cultural identities, with an emphasis on family values and local traditions, with high population growth. It gives pronounced changes in future climate, so should result in strong signals in terms of future pressures on architectural heritage, that allows us to consider problems likely to be most critical. The daily output from HadCM3 has been used here to calculate the specific values required to assess the potential for material damage in Europe.

Climate Change Critical to Cultural Heritage

199

3 Temperature Derived Parameters Temperature is the most obvious parameter that will change in a world with greater greenhouse warming. Nevertheless temperature changes are often likely to be only a few degrees, so it is necessary to consider ways in which these relatively small changes are likely to affect building materials. One of the rather slow changes in temperature that has the potential to affect large buildings is the annual seasonal change. Such structures can change in response to this annual cycle as a kind of breathing of the building. We have examined the annual temperature range as shown in Fig. 1 for central England both from the period of historical instrumental measurements through to the modelled data that ends in 2099 AD. What we see from this figure is that although both summer and winter extremes in the monthly temperature increase in the future, the annual temperature range buildings experience remains fairly constant. Although our analysis is not complete for the rest of Europe, similar pictures of a relatively small change in the annual range over the next century becomes apparent. One should note the Hadley Model predictions for the minimum monthly temperature are rather lower than found in the overlapping historical record. This is probably the result of the warming effect of the North Sea not being well represented in the Hadley Model. Frost is an important source of damage to wet porous building stone. Freezing leads to substantial volume changes that induce mechanical stresses in the outer layers of the stone. There are a number of ways of estimating the potential for frost damage, but here we adopt a very simple one and suggest that the damage would be 30

Temperature/C

25 20 15 10 5 0 –5 1600

1700

1800

1900

2000

2100

Year

Fig. 1 Long term monthly maximum and minimum temperature and annual temperature range in central England. The historical temperature range is marked by open squares and the range predicted from the Hadley model is in closed diamonds. The historical maximum and minimum values are shown as a smoothed line (11 year running mean). The Hadley model annual predicted values are shown by the jagged line

200

P. Brimblecombe et al.

Fig. 2 Number of freeze-thaw cycles each year as predicted for Hadley grid squares representing the Czech Republic and central England. The values displayed are decadal averages

related to the number of freeze-thaw cycles. These have been determined by examining the daily data from the Hadley Model output for points where the temperature ◦ crosses 0 C between 1 day and the next (see Fig. 2). More sophisticated approaches ◦ are possible. As seen in Table 1, we are interested in transitions between 1 and –3 C, but are also examining the particular temperatures reached and note in particular that ◦ crack propagation is especially important at about –10 C [11]. Figure 2 shows that the number of freeze-thaw cycles is likely to decrease in much of Europe in the future. It is also clear, the milder climate of England is subject to less freeze-thaw events throughout the period. In the far north, although there is a lower density of monuments, archeological sites are likely to experience an increase in the number of freeze thaw cycles. This is a potential problem as it can perturb middens. At Narssarssuaq in Greenland early calculations from the Hadley Model suggest a fourfold increase in the number of days above freezing. There is a very significant change in the number of freeze-thaw cycles during a period when the average temperature changes only slightly (just a few degrees). This emphasizes the way in which small changes in a meteorological parameter can be amplified and have large effects on materials. In a similar way crops can be very sensitive to temperature, such as the length of the growing season, and also the amount of freezing, so there are also biological mechanisms for amplification. Thus subtle changes of a few degrees increase in temperature or small percentages in precipitation might be able to affect buildings. Freezing and thawing is important because it represents a process where a phase change occurs at an exact temperature. Later we will see that phase changes induced by humidity can also be very sensitive to small shifts in climate. Overall Fig. 2 suggests that increasing winter temperatures may make frost damage less frequent in future mild climates such as that of Britain [3]. The temperature change on a greenhouse Earth might also be accompanied by an increase in solar irradiation. This may accelerate deterioration of organic materials such as paint coatings or materials used for consolidation of stone. Although

Climate Change Critical to Cultural Heritage

201

the concentrations of “traditional” air pollutants have declined, changing climate could enhance their effects: e.g. changes in wetting and drying cycles on building surfaces alter the deposition rate of acidic gases, longer sunlight hours increase photochemical degradation of polymers (e.g. as restoration elements). The influence of temperature on the deterioration process for some materials, such as metals, is complicated. At low temperatu