Survival and Sustainability: Environmental concerns in the 21st Century

Environmental Earth Sciences

Series Editors James W. LaMoreaux P.E. LaMoreaux and Associates, Tuscaloosa, USA

For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/8394

Hüseyin Gökçeku¸s · Umut Türker · James W. LaMoreaux Editors

Survival and Sustainability Environmental Concerns in the 21st Century

123

Editors Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Gökçeku¸s Near East University Dept. Civil Engineering Nicosia, North Cyprus Mersin 10 Turkey [email protected]

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Umut Türker Near East University Dept. Civil Engineering Nicosia, North Cyprus Mersin 10 Turkey [email protected]

Prof. Dr. James W. LaMoreaux P.E. LaMoreaux and Associates 2612 University Blvd. Tuscaloosa AL 35403 USA [email protected]

ISBN 978-3-540-95990-8 e-ISBN 978-3-540-95991-5 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5 Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2010925151 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: Bauer, Thomas Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Foreword

The International Conference on Environment: Survival and Sustainability, held at the Near East University, Nicosia, Northern Cyprus 19-24 February 2007, dealt with environmental threats and proposed solutions at all scales. The 21 themes addressed by the conference fell into four broad categories: Threats to Survival and Sustainability; Technological Advances towards Survival and Sustainability; Activities and Tools for Social Change; Defining Goals for Sustainable Societies. Activities and tools that move the society towards greater sustainability were emphasized at the conference. These included environmental law and ethics, environmental knowledge, technology and information systems, media, environmental awareness, education and lifelong learning, the use of literature for environmental awareness, the green factor in politics, international relations and environmental organizations. The breadth of the issues addressed at the conference made clear the need for greatly increased interdisciplinary and international collaboration in the survival and sustainability concept. The exchanges at the conference represent a step in this direction. It is hoped that this book will serve to contribute to increase in awareness towards various environmental issues as well as drawing more attention to the urgency of international cooperation and collaboration in pursuing sustainable environmental management.

Near East University, Nicosia North Cyprus

Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Gökçeku¸s

v

Contents

Part I

Conservation and Management of Biodiversity

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 for Application to the Rhizoremediation of Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . So-Yeon Koo and Kyung-Suk Cho

3

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden: Rural Heritage and Resistance Against Wolf Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Annelie Sjölander-Lindqvist

15

Seas, Ecological Balance and Sustainable Environment. Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica – Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suzana Aliu, S. Jusufi, Majlinda Daci, and Shefket Dehari Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes for the Follow-Up of the Components Sand-Vegetation in the Area of Mecheria, Algerie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Haddouche Idriss, Mederbal Khaladi, and Saidi Slim Biodiversity and Actual Status of Narta and Dukati Lagoons in Albania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liljana Elmazi and Evelina Bazini Approximation of Sea Surface to Optimize Tide Gauge Network . . . . A.N. Vlasov, D.B. Volkov-Bogorodsky, V.A. Kurochkina, M.G. Mnushkin, and C.J. Blasi

29

37

51 61

Improvement of Germination of Three Endemic Species of the Sierra Nevada (S. Spain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Díaz-Miguel, F. Serrano, and J.L. Rosúa

67

Early Growth of Quercus castaneifolia (C.A. Meyer) Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Masoud Tabari, Javad Mirzaei, and Hadi Daroodi

75

vii

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Contents

The Role of Plant Diversity in Sustainable Exploitation in Highland Rangelands (Alborz Mountain – Iran) . . . . . . . . . . . . R. Safaian, H. Arzani, H. Azarnivand, and N. Safaian

85

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants: An Indian Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pooja Joshi and Nilanjana Rao

91

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Habashi, S.M. Hosseini, R. Rahmani, and J. Mohammadi

103

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spiro Grazhdani and Spase Shumka

117

Tolerance of Different Wild Oats Biotypes to Different Oat Killers and Their Impact on Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Imtiaz Khan, Gul Hassan, Muhammad Ishfaq Khan, and Meher Gul

129

Effects of L-Proline and Cold Treatment on Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Anther Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dudu Özkum and R. Tipirdamaz

137

Examination of Some Parameters for Ecological Growth of Maize in Pelic Vertisol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. Stoimenova, E. Djonova, A. Taleva, and N. Kaloyanova

145

Effect of Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of Carbon Dioxide from Soil in Semi-arid Climate in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rashmi Kant, Chirashree Ghosh, Lokendra Singh, and Neelam Tripathi Part II

151

Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany . . . . . Chiara Certomà and Paola Migliorini Evaluation of the Sustainability on Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors in Architecture from a Tourism Point of View: Ayvalik Historical City Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olcay Çetiner and Ay¸segül Çetiner Gökyilmaz Preserving the Mediterranean Landscape: The Role of Local Traditional Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Giovanni Quaranta and Caterina Salvia

165

179

187

Climate Change Critical to Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. Brimblecombe, C.M. Grossi, and I. Harris

195

Cultural Landscapes and Conservation Issues: Side Case . . . . . . . . Elmas Erdogan

207

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ix

Survival of the Vernacular Environments in North Cyprus Through Sustainable Tourism Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Özlem Ogaç Türker

223

Environmental Basis of Sustainable Tourism Along Sensitive Coastal Areas – Principles and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. Orhon, H. Gökçeku¸s, and Seval Sözen

235

Part III Economics, Development, Sustainability and Risks Medical Waste Survey in a University Hospital: Do Intern Doctors and Emergency Nurses Know and Pay Attention to Segregation of Wastes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Nur Aksakal, Evin Aras, Mustafa N. ˙Ilhan, and Sefer Aycan An Investigation of Appropriate Economic Instruments for Preventing the Negative Impacts of Construction Projects on the Environmental Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Javad Jassbi, Fatemeh Razavian, and Hanieh Nikoomaram “Breaking Eco-limits” in Coal Mining in the Ústí Region in the Czech Republic: Possibilities, Decision-Making and Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iva Ritschelová, Miroslav Farský, and Egor Sidorov

245

253

267

Relationship Between Tourist Education and Development Perception About Environmental Impact of Tourism Development . . . R. Shakeri and A. Barati

279

Assessment of Dangerous Substances Release from Construction Products to Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicoleta Schiopu, Emmanuel Jayr, Jacques Méhu, and Pierre Moszkowicz

289

Challenges of the Implementation of the WEEE Directive in the Danish Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chiara Gobbi

303

A Sustainable and Economically Recycling Real Estate Development Project: A Case Study for Istanbul Park . . . . . . . . . . H. Demir, F. Balik Sanli, M. Gur, and C. Goksel

315

Analysis of Land Use Changes in Nigeria: With Application of Integrated Bio-economic Spatial Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Igbekele A. Ajibefun

329

Green Marketing Willingness of Bulgarian Market: Comparison with Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teodoro Gallucci, Giovanni Lagioia, Julia Uzunova, and Vesselina Dimitrova

341

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Contents

The Distribution of Carcinogenic Heavy Metals in Cyprus Soil . . . . . M. Ertan Akun, Rezan Fahrio˘glu Yamacı, Christophoros Charalambous, Savvas Lechtvich, and Mustafa B.A. Djamgoz

353

Biotechnology: A Powerful Tool for Human Survival and Sustainability Anwar Nasim

361

Ecotourism – Environment Relationship in Contemporary Eastern Europe Countries. Its Facts, Myths and Challenges. The Case of Albania and Macedonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Liljana Elmazi and Jovan Stojanoski Earthquake is Manmade Catastrophe Rather than a Natural Disaster: Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Özgür Yilmazer, Özlem Yilmazer, Ali Özvan, Yasemin Leventeli, and Ilays Yilmazer Mitigation of Seismic Risk on Earthen Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marcial Blondet Land Use Conversion and Agricultural Intensification in Tropical Hill Slopes: A Geographical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . David Lopez Cornelio

371

383

391

401

Part IV Energy and Development: New and Renewable Energy Role of Renewable Energy in Development of Self Sufficient Housing in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Debashis Sanyal

425

Energy and Environmental Significance of an Alternative Fuels Utilization Produced with to Liquid Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nenad Kukulj and Tomislav Kurevija

435

Sustainability Concept for Energy, Water and Environment Systems . . Naim Hamdia Afgan Energy and Sustainable Development: Environmental Impacts of Energy Use in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muawya Ahmed Hussein

447

471

Economizing the Energy Consumption in Circular Surface Aerator . . Achanta Ramakrishna Rao and Bimlesh Kumar

481

Sewage Biogas Conversion into Electricity by Using Small Systems . . . Suani Teixeira Coelho, Sílvia Maria Stortini González Velázquez, Osvaldo Stella Martins, and Fernando Castro de Abreu

491

Algae Biofuels as a Possible Alternative to Environmentally Doubtful Conventional Methods of Biodiesel Production . . . . . . . . . Tomislav Kurevija and Nenad Kukulj

499

Contents

xi

Investigation of Combustion Kinetics of Five Waste Wood Samples with Thermogravimetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sema Yurdakul Yorulmaz and Aysel Atimtay

511

On Integration of Mirror Collector and Stirling Engine for Solar Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.F. Yousif, Ammar Al-Shalabi, and Dirk G. Rilling

521

Part V

Environment and Health

Antioxidant Activities of Molokhia (Corchorus olitorius L.) Extracts . . Nilgün Öztürk and Filiz Savaro˘glu

535

Solid Medical Waste Management in Healthcare Centers in Palestine . Issam A. Al-Khatib, Mohamed Abu-Dayah, Hussein Hajjeh, and Tayseer Al-Shanbleh

545

Sustainable Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in Hospital Buildings . . . . . . . Çi˘gdem Belgin Dikmen and Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin

557

The Regional Level of Microelements in the Food Materials . . . . . . . Aida Sahmurova, Gunay (Yildiz) Tore, Atakan Ongen, and Suna Ozden Celik

567

Microbiological Pollution Levels of Some Vegetable Specimens Taken From Public Markets of Three Central Towns of Konya-Turkey . K. Gur, H.N. Uçan, and S. ¸ Dursun

581

Assessment of Metal Pollution Based on Multivariate Statistical Modelling of Soils from Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Rivers . . . . . . . M. Bakaç and M.N. Kumru

591

A Commonly Used Pesticide Endosulfan in Diet Could Cause Hepatomegaly and Kidney Tumor When Combined with Nitrosamines Recai Ogur and Omer Faruk Tekbas

599

Effect of Different Time and Temperature of Various Cooking Methods on Sulfonamide Residues in Chicken Balls . . . . . . . . . . . M.R. Ismail-Fitry, S. Jinap, B. Jamilah, and A.A. Saleha

607

Reassessment of Tritium Dose Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Melintescu, D. Galeriu, and H. Takeda Approaches on H5N1 Avian Influenza Spreading in Relation with Human Health Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monica Popa, Daniela Cur¸seu, Dana Sîrbu, Ioan Stoian, and Adriana Manciu The Relationship Between Infant Methemoglobinemia and Environmental Exposure to Nitrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daniela Cur¸seu, Dana Sîrbu, Monica Popa, and Alina Ionutas

615

623

635

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Contents

West Nile Virus: Risk Factors of Spreading, Prevention and Control Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dana Sîrbu, Monica Popa, Daniela Cur¸seu, Ovidiu Ghiran, and Adriana Manciu The Determinants of Improved Water Supply for Rural Households in Kenya: A Differential Diagnosis Framework for Community Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David W. Nerubucha Health Effects Due to Indoor Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . John A. Hoskins

641

653 665

Part VI Environmental Awareness, Education and Ethics Promotion of Nursery School Teacher and Junior Grade Teacher Education for Environment and Sustainable Development in the Republic of Croatia According to the Concept of Lifelong Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vinka Uzelac and Dunja Andic

679

Spatial Analyses for Environmental Impacts of Landfill Areas . . . . . D.Z. Seker, S. Kaya, N. Musaoglu, H. Demirel, A. Tanik, and E. Sertel

691

The Ethical Basis of Environmental Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tapan Narayana

699

The Creation of New Ways of Acting in the Water Administration Field – the Implementation of the EU-WFD in Sweden . Petra Adolfsson

707

Education for “Sense of Place” in a Wide, Complex Land. A Challenge for Environmental Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andrew Brookes

719

The Humanly Dimension of Media that Affects Masses and Various TV Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arma˘gan Gökçearslan

729

Engaging the Public in Environmental Decisions: Strategies for Environmental Education and Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . Martha C. Monroe

741

Reconstruction of the Worldview as Strategy for Environmental Survival and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibrahim Shogar

751

Public Participation in Environmental Decision-Making on Major Energy Projects in Turkey: The Case of BTC Crude Oil Pipeline Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nuriye Say and Deniz Babu¸s

759

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xiii

From Human Social “Matrix” to Perception of Social Structures and Corporate Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David Schnaiter

769

Negative Effects of Creating Environmental Awareness of Public Relations Applications by Alming of Political Propagandas . . . . . . . Emel Tozlu Aslan

777

Part VII Environmental Science and Technology Monitoring of Wetlands by Using Multitemporal Landsat Data; A Case Study from Fethiye – Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ˙I. Ozdemir, K. Ozkan, A. Mert, and S. Gülsoy Analyzing Changes in Coastal Biospheres using Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System Techniques, Northern Nile Delta, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Effat, M.N. Hegazy, and H.El. Gameely Exploring the Egyptian Terrain Characteristics from Space for Strategic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M.N. Hegazy and H. Effat Composting and Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City . . . . . . . . Md. Niamul Bari, Md. Kumruzzaman, Mohammad Harun ur Rashid, and Md. Muzibur Rahman Assessment of Dissolved Pollutants in Krishna River Using Mass Balance Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Chandra Sekhar and B. Shailamber Copper (II) Removal from Water by Natural Zeolites . . . . . . . . . . Sukru Dursun, M. Emin Argun, Nazan Celik, and Fatma Celebi

785

795

805 815

825 831

Biodegradation of 4-Chlorophenol in Biosurfactant Supplemented Activated Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ayla Uysal and Aysen Turkman

841

Use of Silk Industry Waste – Silkworm Pupa: A Remediation of Environmental Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Noroozi, S.H. Bahrami, and M. Arami

851

Using Susceptibility Measurements on Polluted Areas by Exhaust Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ali Aydin

861

Biowaste as a Resource for Bioproduct Development . . . . . . . . . . . J. Pieter H. van Wyk

875

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Contents

Textile Azo Dyes Decolourization by Combined Ultrasonication and Microbial Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Tu˘gba Gümü¸sdere, Tuba Artan, Afife Güvenç, Gönül Dönmez, and Ülkü Mehmeto˘glu

885

Identification of Wastewater Leaching into the Wells by HPLC-SEC Using UV and Fluorescence Detection . . . . . . . . . . Hilda Marta Szabo and Tuula Tuhkanen

893

Removal of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution Using Cotton Stalk: As a Bioadsorbent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Murat Erta¸s, Bilal Acemio˘glu, M. Hakkı Alma, and Mustafa Usta

899

Removal of Cyanide from Solutions by Air Oxidation and Adsorption . Ersin Yener Yazici, Hacı Deveci, ˙Ibrahim Alp, Tu˘gba Yılmaz, and Oktay Celep

907

Effects of Various Backwash Scenarios on Membrane Fouling in a Membrane Bioreactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Yigit, G. Civelekoglu, I. Harman, H. Köseo˘glu, and M. Kitis

917

NOx Formation of Co-combustion of Sweet Sorghum – Lignite (Orhaneli) Mixtures in Fluidised Beds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Handan Çubuk, Derya B. Özkan, and Özlem Emanet

931

Pretreatment of Ceftriaxone Formulation Effluents: Drawbacks and Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. Tezgel, F. Germirli Babuna, I. Arslan-Alaton, G. Iskender, and O. Okay

943

Reducing the Toxicity and Recalcitrance of a Textile Xenobiotic Through Ozonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Germirli Babuna, N. Oructut, I. Arslan-Alaton, G. Iskender, and O. Okay

955

Bioidentification of Xenobiotics in Water as a Part of Pollution Control Valerii Tonkopii

967

Biosorption of CR+6 from Aqueous Solution with Activated Sludge Biosolids (Ref. NO: MT11-OP-475) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aziz Sencan, ¸ H. Cahit Sevindir, Mehmet Kiliç, and Mustafa Karaboyaci

973

Effect of Chromium on Growth Attributes in Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Fozia Anjum, M. Anjum Zia, M. Ashraf, and Z.M. Khalid

985

Use of Surfactants in Soil and Groundwater Remediation . . . . . . . . Aras Gezer and Ahmet Karagunduz

995

Co-digestion Approaches to Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste with Primary Sludge for a Municipal Treatment Plant in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 R.K. Dereli, M.E. Ersahin, C.Y. Gomec, O. Ozdemir, and Izzet Ozturk

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Radiochronological Methods as Tools to Study Environmental Pollution 1015 H.N. Erten Are Certain Invertebrate Species Sensitive Bioindicators of the Air Pollution? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023 Liliana Vasiliu-Oromulu, Viorica Honciuc, Sanda Maican, Cristina Munteanu, Minodora St˘anescu, Cristina Fiera, Mihaela Ion, and Dorina Purice Determination of Heavy Metal Pollution in Some Honey Samples from Yozgat Province, Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037 Ahmet Aksoy, Zeliha Leblebici, and Yavuz Ba˘gci Removal of Direct Orange-46 from Aqueous Solutions Using MN-Diatomite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 Selay Aksoy, Mesut Tekba¸s, Güleda Engin, and Nihal Bekta¸s Environmental Problems from the Open Dump in Gümü¸shane Province and Investigation of Biological Recycling for the Organic Solid Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 S. Serkan Nas and Adem Bayram Adsorption Behavior of Radionuclides, 137 Cs and 140 Ba, onto Solid Humic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065 O. Çelebi and H.N. Erten The Fate of Chlortetracycline During the Anaerobic Digestion of Manure from Medicated Calves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087 Osman A. Arikan Adsorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution onto Bentonite . 1097 J. Krsti´c, Z. Mojovi´c, A. Abu Rabi, D. Lonˇcarevi´c, N. Vukeli´c, and D. Jovanovi´c The Evaluation of the Pb(II) Removal Efficiency of Duckweed Lemna Minor (L.) from Aquatic Mediums at Different Conditions . . . 1107 Ya˘gmur Uysal and Fadime Taner Biodegradation of a Tannery and Chemical Plant Producing Asetilsalisilikat Wastewater Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117 E.U. Cokgor, O. Karahan, and D. Orhon Boron Removal in Seawater Desalination by Reverse Osmosis Membranes – the Impacts of Operating Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 1127 H. Köseo˘glu, N. Kabay, M. Yüksel, S. Sarp, Ö. Arar, and M. Kitis Respirometric Evaluation of Strong Wastewater Activated Sludge Treatment for a Complex Chemical Industry . . . . . . . . . . . 1139 E. Ubay Cokgor, G. Insel, E. Aydın, S. Ozdemir, and D. Orhon

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Cellulose Acetate-Polyethersulfone (CA-PS) Blend Ultrafiltration Membranes for Palm Oil Mill Effluent Treatment . . . . 1149 Ani Idris and Iqbal Ahmad Rehabilitation of Wastewater Treatment Plant of Sakhnin City in Israel by Using Advanced Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1161 Yasar Avsar, Hussein Tarabeah, Shlomo Kimchie, Izzet Ozturk, and Hadi Naamneh Removal of Mn(II) Ions from the Aqueous Solutions by Cotton Boll . . 1171 H. Duygu Ozsoy and Halil Kumbur Optimization of Electrochemical Oxidation of Textile Dye Wastewater Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) . . . . . . . . 1181 Bahadır K. Körbahti Dynamic Modelling of Bioconversion of Domestic Wastewater Sludge for Cellulase Enzyme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193 N.A. Kabbashi, Md. Zahangir Alam, and Khadijah B. Abdul Rahim Treatment of H-Acid Containing Wastewater by Wet Peroxide Oxidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 Zhao Binxia, Li Hongya, Wang Jin, Bai Weili, Zhang Xiaoli, and Jin Qiting Ambient Ozone Levels in the Eastern Mediterranean Region and Assessment of Its Effect on the Forested Mountain Areas of Southern Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213 Evrim Akkoyunlu, Rukiye Tipirdamaz, Saime Ba¸saran, Halil Sariba¸sak, Dudu Özkum, and Gülen Güllü Physico-chemical Study of Bagasse and Bagasse Ash from the Sugar Industries of NWFP Pakistan and Remediation of Environmental Problems Caused by Refused Bagasse Ash . . . . . . 1225 Khurshid Ali, Noor-ul-Amin, Tahir Shah, and Saeed-ur-Rehman Adsorption of Different Reactive Dyes onto Surfactant-Modified Zeolite: Kinetic and Equilibrium Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237 Bulent Armagan, Mustafa Turan, and Dogan Karadag Water Quality Index for Municipal Water Supply of Attock City, Punjab, Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255 Humera Qasim Khan Reaction Kinetics of Spent Reactive Dye Bath Ozonation Process . . . . 1263 T. Ölmez, I. Kabda¸slı, and O. Tünay Copper Adsorption from Aqueous Solutions by Usıng Red Mud – An Aluminium Industry Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275 Semra Çoruh and Osman Nuri Ergun Global Warming: How Much of a Threat to Tropical Forests? . . . . . . 1283 Philip M. Fearnside

Contents

xvii

The European Sea Level Service Information System for Coastal Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293 Christoph J. Blasi A Review on the Impact of the North Sea – Caspian Pattern (NCP) on Temperature and Precipitation Regimes in the Middle East . 1301 H. Kutiel Wave Damping and Retardance by Emergent Vegeatation . . . . . . . . 1313 Oral Ya˘gci, Umut Türker, and M. Sedat Kabda¸sli The Effect of Sludge History on Aerobic Sludge Stabilization Efficiency G. Insel, H. Gökçeku¸s, S. Sözen, E. Dulekgurgen and D. Orhon

1321

Morphological and Physiological Features of an Aerobic Granular EBPR Biomass Fed with Propionate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327 Ebru Dulekgurgen, Nazik Artan and Derin Orhon Part VIII Integrated Water Resources Management Water Quality Variation in a Tank Cascade Irrigation System: A Case Study from Malagane Cascade, Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345 Kushani Mahatantila, Rohana Chandrajith, H.A.H. Jayasena, and Sampath Marasinghe Investigation of Flood Event Possibility over Iran Using Flood Index . . 1355 Kazem Nosrati, Mohsen Mohseni Saravi, and Afsaneh Shahbazi Analysis of First-Flush Load from Urban Catchment in Isfahan, Iran . 1363 Afsaneh Shahbazi, Kazem Nosrati, and Mohsen Mohseni Saravi Assesment of Ecological Flow for Mountain Rivers of the Kura Basin . 1369 Rovshan Abbasov Effictiveness of Water Resources Use in Aral Sea Basin and Lower Reaches of the Amu Darya River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381 M. Ikramova, A. Khodjiev, and K. Misirkhonov Uncertainties in the Water Budget Computations of Develi Closed Basin in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397 Ibrahim Gurer and F. Ebru Yildiz Impacts Assessment of Newly Constructed Highways via Spatial Information Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409 H. Demirel, M. Çetin, and N. Musaoglu Water Resources in the Slovak Republic and Their Protection . . . . . 1421 Jozef Kriš, Faško Martin, and Škultétyová Ivona E-Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433 Santosh M. Avvannavar, Ravi Kiran Mutnuru, and S. Shrihari

xviii

Contents

Extreme Rainfall Events and Uncertainty in the Mediterranean Basin . 1439 Hadas Reiser and Haim Kutiel Part IX Pesticides in the Environment and Food Commodities An Investigation of Pesticide Transport in Soil and Groundwater in the Most Vulnerable Site of Bangladesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451 Anika Yunus and A.H.M. Faisal Anwar Conservation of Beneficial Insects for Sustainable Agriculture . . . . . 1463 M. Anjum Suhail, M. Arshad, Jalal Arif, and M. Dildar Gogi Organochlorine Pesticides in Soil and Sediment from an Urban Zone of Novi Sad, Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469 Nataša Ðuriši´c-Mladenovi´c, Biljana Škrbi´c, and Jelena Cvejanov Conversion of Agricultural Wastes into Value Added Product with High Protein Content by Growing Pleurotus ostreatus . . . . . . . 1483 Ahmad Al-Momany and Kholoud Ananbeh Plants as a Source of Biopesticides for Pest Control: A New Perspective E. Hassan and D. Prijono

1491

Study of Some Factors of Variation of intake on Course by Dairy Ewes T. Najar, Aziza-Guesmi Boubaker, A. Rigueiro-Rodríguez, and M.R Mosquera-Losada

1501

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509

Contributors

Rovshan Abbasov Hydrometeorolgy Scientific Research Institute (HSRI) A2 1073, Baku, B. Agayev St. 100(A), Azerbaijan, [email protected] Fernando Castro de Abreu CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil, [email protected] Mohamed Abu-Dayah Institute of Community and Public Health, Birzeit University, Nir Zeit, Palestine, [email protected] Bilal Acemio˘glu Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Science, University of Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam, Kahramanmaras 46100, Turkey, [email protected] Petra Adolfsson GRI, School of Business, Economics and Law, Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden, [email protected] Naim Hamdia Afgan Instituto Superior Tecnico, Lisbon, Portugal, [email protected] Iqbal Ahmad Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia, [email protected] Igbekele A. Ajibefun Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria, [email protected] Evrim Akkoyunlu Department of Environmental Engineering, Hacettepe University, 06532 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] F. Nur Aksakal Department of Public Health, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Ahmet Aksoy Faculty of Art and Science, Department of Biology, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey, [email protected]

xix

xx

Contributors

Selay Aksoy Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Institute of Technology, 41400, Gebze, Turkey, [email protected] M. Ertan Akun Chairman, Department of Industrial Engineering, Cyprus International University, Haspolat, North Cyprus, [email protected] Md. Zahangir Alam Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Unit (BERU), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur 50728, Malaysia, [email protected] Khurshid Ali Institute of Chemical Science, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] Suzana Aliu Study of Polytechnic Center, State University of Tetovo, Tetovo, Macedonia, [email protected] Issam A. Al-Khatib Institute of Community and Public Health and Faculty of Engineering, Birzeit University, Ramallah, Palestine, [email protected] M. Hakkı Alma Department of Industrial Engineering of Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, University of Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam, Kahramanmaras, 46100, Turkey, [email protected] Ahmad Al-Momany Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan, [email protected] ˙ Ibrahim Alp Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] Ammar Al-Shalabi Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Malacca Campus, Multimedia University, 75450 MMU, Malacca, Malaysia, [email protected] Tayseer Al-Shanbleh Faculty of Engineering, Near East University, Nicosia, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, [email protected] Kholoud Ananbeh Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan, [email protected] Dunja Andic Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka, Trg Ivana Klobuˇcari´ca 1, 51 000 Rijeka, Croatia, [email protected] M. Fozia Anjum Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] A.H.M. Faisal Anwar Department of Water Resources Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, [email protected] M. Arami Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, [email protected]

Contributors

xxi

Ö. Arar Department of Chemistry, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Evin Aras Department of Public Health, Resident, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] M. Emin Argun Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] Osman A. Arikan Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul 34469, Turkey, [email protected] Bulent Armagan Environmental Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Harran University, 63300 Sanlıurfa, Turkey, [email protected] M. Arshad Department of Agricultural Entomology, Insect Biodiversity and Biosystematics Research Laboratory, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] I. Arslan-Alaton Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Nazik Artan Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey, [email protected] Tuba Artan Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] H. Arzani Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] M. Ashraf Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] Emel Tozlu Aslan Faculty of Communication, Near East University, T.R.N.C – Nicosia, Cyprus, [email protected]; [email protected] Aysel Atimtay Department of Environmental Engineering, Middle East Technical University (METU), 06531 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Yasar Avsar Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Santosh M. Avvannavar Department of Chemical Engineering, Technische Universiteit, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, [email protected] Sefer Aycan Department of Public Health, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Ali Aydin Geophysical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Pamukkale University, 20017 Kınıklı, Denizli, Turkey, [email protected]

xxii

Contributors

E. Aydın Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Ay¸segül Çetiner Gökyilmaz AB Mimarlık, Necip Bey Sitesi Ku¸sadası, Aydin, [email protected] H. Azarnivand Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] F. Germirli Babuna Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Deniz Babu¸s Department of Landscape Architecture, Çukurova University, 01330 Balcalı, Adana, Turkey, [email protected] Yavuz Ba˘gci Department of Biology, Faculty of Art and Science, Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] S.H. Bahrami Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] M. Bakaç Buca Faculty of Education, Department of Physics, Dokuz Eylul University, Buca – Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] A. Barati Natural resources faculty, Malayer University, Malayer, Iran, [email protected] Md. Niamul Bari Department of Civil Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh, [email protected] Saime Ba¸saran Ministry of Environment and Forestry, West Mediterranean Research Institude, Antalya, Turkey, [email protected] Adem Bayram Department of Civil Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] Evelina Bazini Marketing and Tourism Department, Faculty of Commerce, University of Vlora, Vlora, Albania, [email protected]; [email protected] Nihal Bekta¸s Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Institute of Technology, 41400, Gebze, Turkey, [email protected] Zhao Binxia College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Taibai North Road No.229, Xi’an, 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] C.J. Blasi Federal Institute of Hydrology, D-56002 Koblenz, Germany, [email protected] Marcial Blondet Catholic University of Peru, Lima, Peru, [email protected] Aziza-Guesmi Boubaker Institut National Agronomique de Tunis, 42, Av Charles Nicolle, 1082 Tunis, Tunis, [email protected]

Contributors

xxiii

P. Brimblecombe School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, [email protected] Andrew Brookes La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3086, Australia, [email protected] Fatma Celebi Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] O. Çelebi Department of Chemistry, Bilkent University, 06800 Bilkent, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Oktay Celep Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] Nazan Celik Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] Suna Ozden Celik Environmental Engineering Department, Corlu Engineering Faculty, Trakya University, 59860 Corlu-Tekirdag, Turkey, [email protected] Chiara Certomà Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy, [email protected] M. Çetin Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Muallimköy 41400, Gebze Kocaeli, Turkey, [email protected] Olcay Çetiner Department of Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Barboros str., 34349 Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] Rohana Chandrajith Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected] Christophoros Charalambous Frederick Institute of Technology, Nicosia, Cyprus, [email protected] Kyung-Suk Cho Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea, [email protected] A. S. Çıggın Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] G. Civelekoglu Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] Suani Teixeira Coelho CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil, [email protected]

xxiv

Contributors

E. Ubay Cokgor Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] David Lopez Cornelio Correo central de Huanuco, Huanuco, Peru, [email protected]; [email protected] Semra Çoruh Department of Environmental Engineering, Ondokuz Mayıs University, 55139 Samsun, Turkey, [email protected] M. Handan Çubuk Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Heat and Thermodynamics Division, Yıldız Technical University, 80750 Yıldız, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Daniela Cur¸seu Environmental Health Department, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected] Jelena Cvejanov Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] Majlinda Daci Department of Chemistry, University of Prishtina, Prishtina, Kosova, [email protected] Hadi Daroodi Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Siences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran, [email protected] Shefket Dehari Study of Polytechnic Center, State University of Tetovo, Tetovo, Macedonia, [email protected] H. Demir Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34349-Besiktas Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] H. Demirel Faculty of Civil Engineering, Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] R.K. Dereli Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Hacı Deveci Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] M. Díaz-Miguel Departamento de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain, [email protected] Çi˘gdem Belgin Dikmen Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey, [email protected]

Contributors

xxv

Vesselina Dimitrova Department of International Economic Relations, University of Economics Varna, 77, Kniaz Boris I blv., Varna 9002, Bulgaria, [email protected] Mustafa B.A Djamgoz Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, UK, [email protected] E. Djonova Department of Soil Microbiology, N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, 7 Shosse Bankya Str., 1080, Bulgaria, [email protected] Gönül Dönmez Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Ebru Dulekgurgen Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul, 34469, Turkey, [email protected] Nataša Ðuriši´c-Mladenovi´c Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] M. Sukru Dursun Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] H. Effat The National Authority of Remote Sensing and Space Science (NARSS), Cairo, Egypt, [email protected] Liljana Elmazi Faculty of Economics, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania, [email protected] Özlem Emanet Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Heat and Thermodynamics Division, Yıldız Technical University, 80750 Yıldız, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Güleda Engin Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Institute of Technology, 41400, Gebze, Turkey, [email protected] Elmas Erdogan Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Di¸skapi, Ankara 06110, Turkey, [email protected] Osman Nuri Ergun Department of Environmental Engineering, Ondokuz Mayıs University, 55139 Samsun, Turkey, [email protected] M.E. Ersahin Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze/Kocaeli, 41400, Turkey, [email protected] Murat Erta¸s Department of Industrial Engineering of Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, University of Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam, Kahramanmaras, 46100, Turkey, [email protected] H.N. Erten Department of Chemistry, Bilkent University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]

xxvi

Contributors

Miroslav Farský Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Jan Evangelista Purkyne, Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic, [email protected] Philip M. Fearnside National Institute for Reseach in Amazonia (INPA), C.P. 478, 69.011-970 Manaus-Amazonas, Brazil, [email protected] Cristina Fiera Institute of Biology, Romanian Academy, 296 Splaiul Independentei, Po Box 56–53, 060031 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] D. Galeriu Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Horia Hulubei National Institute of R&D for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, 407 Atomistilor St., PO Box MG-6, RO-077125 Bucharest – Magurele, Romania, [email protected]; [email protected] Teodoro Gallucci Department of Geographical and Commodity Science, Section of Commodity Science and Ecology, University of Barivia C. Rosalba, 53, I-70124 Bari, Italy, [email protected] H.El. Gameely The National Authority of Remote Sensing and Space Science,(NARSS), Cairo, Egypt, [email protected] Aras Gezer Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze/Kocaeli, 41400, Turkey, [email protected] Ovidiu Ghiran IPA S.A. R&D Institute, Cluj Subsidiary, Romania, [email protected] Chirashree Ghosh Centre of Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystem (CEMDE), University of Delhi, New Delhi 11007, India, [email protected] Chiara Gobbi Department of Industrial Management and Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, DTU Building 423, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark, [email protected] M. Dildar Gogi Department of Agricultural Entomology, Insect Biodiversity and Biosystematics Research Laboratory, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected]; [email protected] Arma˘gan Gökçearslan Department of Graphics, Hacettepe University, Beytepe, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s Department of Civil Engineering, Near East University, Nicosia, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, [email protected] C. Goksel Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469-Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] C.Y. Gomec Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469-Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]

Contributors

xxvii

Spiro Grazhdani Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania, [email protected] C.M. Grossi School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, [email protected] Meher Gul Pakistan Sport Board, Islamabad, Pakistan, [email protected] Gülen Güllü Department of Environmental Engineering, Hacettepe University, 06532 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] S. Gülsoy, Faculty of Forestry Department of Soil Science and Ecology, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin Faculty of Technical Education, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] H. Tu˘gba Gümü¸sdere Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] K. Gur Environmental Engineering Department, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] M. Gur Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34349-Besiktas Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Ibrahim Gurer Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Civil Engineering Department, Gazi University, Celal Bayar Bulvari Maltepe, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Afife Güvenç Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] H. Habashi Natural Resources Faculty, Tarbiat Modarres University, P.O. Box 46414-356 Noor, Mazandaran, Iran, [email protected] Hussein Hajjeh Institute of Community and Public Health, Birzeit University, Birzeit, Palestine, [email protected] I. Harman Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] I. Harris Climate Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, [email protected] E. Hassan Integrated Crop Management, School of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Queensland, GATTON 4343 QLD, Australia, [email protected] Gul Hassan Department of Weed Science, Faculty of Crop Protection, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar 25130, Pakistan, [email protected]

xxviii

Contributors

M.N. Hegazy The National Authority of Remote Sensing and Space Science (NARSS), Cairo, Egypt, [email protected] Viorica Honciuc Ecology Taxonomy and Nature Conservation Centre, Institute of Biology Splaiul Independentei, 060031 Bucharest, Romania [email protected] Li Hongya College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710069, China John A. Hoskins Independent Toxicologist, Haslemere, Surrey GU27 2 JH, UK, [email protected] S.M. Hosseini Natural Resources Faculty, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Muawya Ahmed Hussein University of Dhofar, Salalah, Oman, [email protected] Ani Idris Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia, [email protected] Haddouche Idriss Département de Foresterie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Tlemcen BP 119, Tlemcen 13000, Algeria, [email protected] ˙ Mustafa N. Ilhan Department of Public Health, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] M. Ikramova Central Asian Research Institute of Irrigation (SANIIRI), Karasu-4, 11, Tashkent 700187, Uzbekistan, [email protected] G. Insel Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Mihaela Ion Romanian Academy Institute of Biology, Buila-Vânturarita National Park Administration, Romania, [email protected] Alina Ionutas Environmental Health Department, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected] G. Iskender Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] M.R. Ismail-Fitry Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Putra Malaysia, [email protected] Škultétyová Ivona Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, Radlinského 11, 813 68 Bratislava, Slovak Republic, [email protected] B. Jamilah Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serangor, Malaysia, [email protected]

Contributors

xxix

Javad Jassbi Department of Industrial Management, Faculty of Management and Economy, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Campus, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] H.A.H. Jayasena Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected] Emmanuel Jayr Sustainable Development Department, CSTB – Scientific and Technical Centre for the Building Industry, 24, rue Joseph Fourier, 38400 Saint Martin d’Hères, France, [email protected] Wang Jin College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] S. Jinap Centre of Excellence for Food Safety Research (CEFSR), Faculty of food Science and Technology, Universiti Puta Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Selangor, Malaysia, [email protected] Pooja Joshi The Energy Resource Institute, New Delhi, India, [email protected] D. Jovanovi´c Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, ICTM, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] S. Jusufi Department of Chemistry, University of Prishtina, Prishtina, Kosova, [email protected] N. Kabay Department of Chemical Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] N.A. Kabbashi Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Unit (BERU), Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur 50728, Malaysia, [email protected] I. Kabda¸slı Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Ayaza˘ga Kampüsü, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] M. Sedat Kabda¸slı Civil Engineering Faculty, Division of Hydraulics, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey, [email protected] N. Kaloyanova Department of Soil Microbiology, N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, 7 Shosse Bankya Str., 1080, Bulgaria, [email protected] Rashmi Kant Yamuna Biodiversity Park, School of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, New Delhi 110007, India, [email protected] Mustafa Karaboyaci Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Süleyman Demirel, Turkey, [email protected] Dogan Karadag Enviromental Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University, 34669 Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]

xxx

Contributors

Ahmet Karagunduz Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze, Kocaeli 41400, Turkey, [email protected] O. Karahan Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] S. Kaya Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey Z.M. Khalid National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] Mederbal Khaladi Centre universitaire de Mascara, 29000 Mascara, Algérie, [email protected] Imtiaz Khan Department of Weed Science, Faculty of Crop Protection, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar 25130, Pakistan, [email protected] Humera Qasim Khan National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] Muhammad Ishfaq Khan Department of Weed Science, Faculty of Crop Protection, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar 25130, Pakistan, [email protected] A. Khodjiev Central Asian Research Institute of Irrigation (SANIIRI), Karasu-4, 11, Tashkent 700187, Uzbekistan, [email protected] Mehmet Kiliç Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Süleyman Demirel, Turkey, [email protected] Shlomo Kimchie Department of Environmental and Water Resources Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technion Institute for Research and Development, Technion City, Haifa, Israel, [email protected] M. Kitis Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] So-Yeon Koo Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea, [email protected] Bahadır K. Körbahti Faculty of Engineering, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Mersin, Çiftlikköy, 33343 Mersin, Turkey, [email protected] H. Köseo˘glu Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] Jozef Kriš Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, Radlinského 11, 813 68 Bratislava, Slovak Republic, [email protected] J. Krsti´c Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, ICTM, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxi

Nenad Kukulj Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] Bimlesh Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, [email protected] Halil Kumbur Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Mersin University, Mersin 33360, Turkey, [email protected] M.N. Kumru Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Ege University, Bornova-˙Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Md. Kumruzzaman Department of Civil Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh, [email protected] Tomislav Kurevija Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, Zagreb, Croatia, [email protected] V.A. Kurochkina Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Moscow, Russia, [email protected] H. Kutiel Laboratory of Climatology, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel, [email protected] Giovanni Lagioia Department of Geographical and Commodity Science, Section of Commodity Science and Ecology, University of Bari, via C. Rosalba, 53, I-70124 Bari, Italy, [email protected] Zeliha Leblebici Faculty of Art and Science, Department of Biology, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey, [email protected] Savvas Lechtvich Frederick Institute of Technology, Nicosia, Cyprus Yasemin Leventeli Yilmazer Education, 8. Cd., 89. Sk., 9/8, 06460 A.Ovecler, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] D. Lonˇcarevi´c Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, ICTM, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] Kushani Mahatantila Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected] Sanda Maican Academic Românã, Institutl de Biologie Spl. Independentei nr.296, 060031 Bucureti, România, [email protected] Adriana Manciu IPA S.A. R&D Institute, Cluj Subsidiary, Romania, [email protected] Sampath Marasinghe Department of Geology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected]

xxxii

Contributors

Faško Martin Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Slovak University of Technology Bratislava, Radlinského 11, 813 68 Bratislava, Slovak Republic, [email protected] Osvaldo Stella Martins CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil, [email protected] Ülkü Mehmeto˘glu Chemical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Tando˘gan, 06100 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Jacques Méhu INSA de Lyon – National Institute of Applied Sciences of Lyon, Laboratory of Environmental Assessment of Industrial Systems and Process (LAEPSI), 9, Rue de la Physique, 69100 Villeurbanne, France, [email protected] A. Melintescu Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Horia Hulubei National Institute of R&D for Physics and Nuclear Engineering, 407 Atomistilor St., PO Box MG-6, RO-077125 Bucharest – Magurele, Romania, [email protected] A. Mert Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] Paola Migliorini Department of Agronomy and land Management, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 18, 50141 Firenze, Italia, [email protected] Javad Mirzaei Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Siences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran, [email protected] K. Misirkhonov Central Asian Research Institute of Irrigation (SANIIRI), Karasu-4, 11, Tashkent 700187, Uzbekistan, [email protected] M.G. Mnushkin Institute of Applied Mechanics, RAS, Moscow, Russia, [email protected] J. Mohammadi Agriculture Faculty, Shahrekord University, Shahrekord, Iran, [email protected] Z. Mojovi´c Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] Martha C. Monroe School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, PO Box 110410, Gainesville, FL 32611-0410, USA, [email protected] M.R Mosquera-Losada Crop Production Department, University of Santiago de Compostela, 27002, Lugo, Spain, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxiii

Pierre Moszkowicz INSA de Lyon – National Institute of Applied Sciences of Lyon, Laboratory of Environmental Assessment of Industrial Systems and Process (LAEPSI), 9, Rue de la Physique, 69100 Villeurbanne, France, [email protected] Cristina Munteanu University of Bucharest, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Research Center, Spl. Independentei, 91–95, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] N. Musaoglu Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Ravi Kiran Mutnuru Department of Applied Physics, Technische Universiteit, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, [email protected] Hadi Naamneh Towns Association for Environmental Quality (TAEQ)-Agan Beit Natufa (ABN), 1093 Sakhnin, Israel, [email protected] T. Najar Institut National Agronomique de Tunis, 42, Av Charles Nicolle, 1082 Tunis, Tunis, [email protected] Tapan Narayana Hidayatullah National Law University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India, [email protected] S. Serkan Nas Gümü¸shane Engineering Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 29000 Gümü¸shane, Turkey, [email protected] Anwar Nasim COMSTECH Secretariat, 33-Constitution Avenue, G-5/2, Islamabad, Pakistan, [email protected] David W. Nerubucha Lecturer of Economics, United States International University, Nairobi, Kenya, [email protected] Hanieh Nikoomaram Department of Environmental Management, Graduate College of the Environment and Energy, Science and Research Campus, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Noor-ul-Amin Institute of Chemical Science, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] B. Noroozi Textile Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Kazem Nosrati Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Recai Ogur Department of Environmental Health, Gulhane Military Medical Faculty, Ankara, Turkey; GATA Halk Sagligi AD, 06018, Etlik, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected]

xxxiv

Contributors

O. Okay Faculty of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] T. Ölmez Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, Ayaza˘ga Kampüsü, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Atakan Ongen Environmental Engineering Department, Corlu Engineering Faculty, Trakya University, 59860 Corlu-Tekirdag, Turkey, [email protected] D. Orhon Civil Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] N. Oructut Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] ˙ Ozdemir Department of Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry, Suleyman I. Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] O. Ozdemir Kayseri Water and Sewerage Administration, Mustafa Kemal Pasa Bulvari, 38090 Kocasinan, Kayseri, Turkey, [email protected] S. Ozdemir Faculty of Civil Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] K. Ozkan Faculty of Forestry Department of Soil Science and Ecology, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] Derya B. Özkan Mechanical Engineering Faculty, Heat and Thermodynamics Division, Yıldız Technical University, 80750 Yıldız, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Dudu Özkum Near East University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nicosia, Northern Cyprus, Mersin 10, Turkey, [email protected] H. Duygu Ozsoy Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Mersin University, Mersin 33360, Turkey, [email protected] Izzet Ozturk Department of Environmental Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze/Kocaeli, 41400, Turkey, [email protected] Nilgün Öztürk Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Anadolu Tepebasi, 26470 Eskisehir, Turkey, [email protected] Ali Özvan Yilmazer Education, 8. Cd., 89. Sk., 9/8, 06460 A.Ovecler, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]; [email protected] Monica Popa Department of Environmental Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxv

D. Prijono Department of Plant Pest and Diseases, Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia, [email protected] Dorina Purice National Institute of Wood, Romanian Academy Institute of Biology, Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] Jin Qiting College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Taibai North Road No.229, Xi’an, 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] Giovanni Quaranta UNIBAS, Potenza, Italy, [email protected] A. Abu Rabi Department for Catalysis and Chemical Engineering, Njegoševa12, 11000 Belgrade, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] Khadijah B. Abdul Rahim Department of Biotechnology Engineering, International Islamic University, 50728 KL, Malaysia, [email protected] Md. Muzibur Rahman Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh R. Rahmani Natural Resources Faculty, Gorgan university, Gorgan, Iran, [email protected] Achanta Ramakrishna Rao Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, [email protected] Nilanjana Rao Environmental Consultant, E-50, Lajpat Nagar I, New Delhi, India, [email protected] Mohammad Harun ur Rashid Department of Civil Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh, [email protected] Fatemeh Razavian Department of Environmental Management, Graduate College of the Environment and Energy, Science and Research Campus, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran, [email protected] Hadas Reiser Laboratory of Climatology, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel, [email protected] A. Rigueiro-Rodríguez Crop Production Department, University of Santiago de Compostela 27002, Lugo, Spain, [email protected] Dirk G. Rilling Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Malacca Campus, Multimedia University, 75450 MMU, Malacca, Malaysia, [email protected] Iva Ritschelová University of Jan Evangelista Purkynˇe, 400 96, Ústí nad Labem, The Czech Republic, [email protected] J.L. Rosúa Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Fuentenueva s/n 18071 Granada, Spain, [email protected]

xxxvi

Contributors

Saeed-ur-Rehman Institute of Chemical Science, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] N. Safaian Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Mazandaran, Mazandaran, Iran, [email protected] R. Safaian College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran, [email protected] Aida Sahmurova Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul University, 34320 Avcilar, Istanbul, [email protected] A.A. Saleha Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Malaysia Caterina Salvia UNIBAS, Potenza, Italy, [email protected] F. Balik Sanli Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34349-Besiktas Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Debashis Sanyal Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology Raipur, P.O. Ravishankar University, Raipur Chhattisgarh 492010, India, [email protected] Mohsen Mohseni Saravi Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, [email protected]. Halil Sarıba¸sak Ministry of Environment and Forestry, West Mediterranean Research Institude, Antalya, Turkey, [email protected] S. Sarp Department of Chemical Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Filiz Savaro˘glu Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Arts, University of Eski¸sehir Osmangazi, 26480, Turkey, [email protected] Nuriye Say Department of Landscape Architecture, Çukurova University, 01330 Balcalı, Adana, Turkey, [email protected] Nicoleta Schiopu Sustainable Development Department, CSTB – Scientific and Technical Centre for the Building Industry, 24, rue Joseph Fourier, 38400 Saint Martin d’Hères, France; Laboratory of Environmental Assessment of Industrial Systems and Process (LAEPSI), INSA de Lyon – National Institute of Applied Sciences of Lyon, 9, Rue de la Physique, 69100 Villeurbanne, France, [email protected] David Schnaiter Division of Social Medicine, Department for Hygiene, Microbiology and Social Medicine, Medical University of Innsbruck, Sonnenburgstrasse 16, A-6020 Innsbruck, Tirol, Austria, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxvii

D.Z. Seker Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] M. Chandra Sekhar Water and Environment Division, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506 004, India, [email protected] Aziz Sencan ¸ Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Arts and Science Faculty, Chemistry Department, Süleyman Demirel University, Almaty, Kazakhstan, [email protected] F. Serrano Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Fuentenueva s/n 18071 Granada, Spain, [email protected] E. Sertel Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] H. Cahit Sevindir Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science-Arts, University of Süleyman Demirel, Turkey, [email protected] Tahir shah National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan, [email protected] Afsaneh Shahbazi Department of Environment, Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences, Tarbiat Madares University, Iran, [email protected] B. Shailamber Department of Civil Engineering, Water & Environment Division, National Institute of Technology, Warangal 506 004, India, [email protected] R. Shakeri Natural Resources Faculty, Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran, [email protected] Ibrahim Shogar Kulliyyah of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia, [email protected], [email protected] S. Shrihari Department of Civil Engineering, NITK, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar, Mangalore 575025, India, [email protected]; [email protected] Spase Shumka Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania, [email protected] Egor Sidorov Jan Evangelista Purkyne University, Usti nad Labem, Czech Republic, [email protected] Lokendra Singh Centre for Inter-disciplinary Studies of Mountain & Hill Environment (CISMHE), University of Delhi, New Delhi 110007, India, [email protected] Dana Sîrbu Environmental Health Department, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected]

xxxviii

Contributors

Annelie Sjölander-Lindqvist Centre for Public Sector Research (CEFOS), Göteborg University, Göteborg Box 720, SE-405 30, Sweden, [email protected] Biljana Škrbi´c Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, Bulevar cara Lazara 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia, [email protected] Saidi Slim Département EMVT-CIRAD TA 30/E Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, [email protected] Seval Sözen Civil Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Minodora St˘anescu Institute of Biology, Department of Ecology and Natural Protection, Splaiul Indenpendentei Street 296, 060031 Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] Ioan Stoian S.C. I.P.A. – S.A. Subsidiary Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, [email protected] I. Stoimenova N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, Sofia, Bulgaria, [email protected] Jovan Stojanoski Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Bitola, Bitola, Macedonia, [email protected] M. Anjum Suhail Department of Agricultural Entomology, Insect Biodiversity and Biosystematics Research Laboratory, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected] Hilda Marta Szabo Environmental Engineering and Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and Bioengineering, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, Fin-33101, Tampere, Finland, [email protected] Masoud Tabari Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran, [email protected] H. Takeda National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Environmental and Toxicological Sciences Research Group, Chiba, 4-9-1, Anagawa, Inage-ku, Chiba-shi 263-8555, Japan, [email protected] A. Taleva Department of Soil Microbilogy, N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, 7 Shosse Bankya str., 1080, Bulgaria, [email protected] Fadime Taner Department of Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Mersin University, 33343 Mersin, Turkey, [email protected] A. Tanik Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected]

Contributors

xxxix

Hussein Tarabeah Towns Association for Environmental Quality (TAEQ)-Agan Beit Natufa (ABN), 1093 Sakhnin, Israel, [email protected] Omer Faruk Tekbas Department of Environmental Health, Gulhane Military Medical Faculty, Ankara, Turkey; GATA Halk Sagligi AD, 06018, Etlik, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Mesut Tekba¸s Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Institute of Technology, 41400, Gebze, Turkey, [email protected] T. Tezgel Civil Engineering Faculty, Environmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] R. Tıpırdamaz Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Beytepe Hacettepe University, 06800 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Rukiye Tıpırdamaz Department of Biology, Hacettepe University, 06532 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Valerii Tonkopii Institute of Limnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 196105 St. Petersburg, Russia, [email protected] Gunay (Yildiz) Tore Environmental Engineering Department, Corlu Engineering Faculty, Trakya University, 59860 Corlu-Tekirdag, Turkey, [email protected] Neelam Tripathi Centre of Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystem (CEMDE), University of Delhi, New Delhi 11007, India, [email protected] Tuula Tuhkanen Institute of Environmental Engineering and Biotechnology, Tampere University of Technology, P.O. Box 541, Fin-33101 Tampere, Finland, [email protected] O. Tünay Environmental Engineering Department, Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, Ayaza˘ga Kampüsü, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Mustafa Turan Environmental Engineering Department, Civil Engineering Faculty, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey, [email protected] Özlem Ogaç Türker Department of Interior Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazima˘gusa, Northern Cyprus, [email protected] Umut Türker Department of Civil Engineering, Near East University, Lefkosa, North Cyprus, Mersin 10, Turkey, [email protected] Aysen Turkman Department of Environmental Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Tınaztepe Campus, Buca, Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] H.N. Uçan Environmental Engineering Department, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey, [email protected]

xl

Contributors

Mustafa Usta Department of Industrial Engineering of Forestry, Faculty of Forestry, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon 61080, Turkey, [email protected] Ayla Uysal Department of Environmental Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Tınaztepe Campus, Buca, Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Ya˘gmur Uysal Kahramanmara¸s Sütçü ˙Imam University, Av¸sar Campus, 46100 Kahramanmara¸s, Turkey, [email protected] Vinka Uzelac Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Rijeka, Trg Ivana Klobuˇcari´ca 1, 51 000 Rijeka, Croatia, [email protected] Julia Uzunova Department of Marketing, University of Economics Varna, 77, Kniaz Boris I blv., Varna, Bulgaria, [email protected] Liliana Vasiliu-Oromulu Romanian Academy Institute of Biology, Spl. Independentei 296 Bucharest-6 Romania, [email protected] Sílvia Maria Stortini González Velázquez CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil, [email protected] A.N. Vlasov Institute of Applied Mechanics, RAS, Moscow, Russia, [email protected] D.B. Volkov-Bogorodsky Institute of Applied Mechanics, RAS, Moscow, Russia, [email protected] N. Vukeli´c Faculty of Physical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, Republic of Serbia, [email protected] Bai Weili College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] J. Pieter H. van Wyk Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Limpopo, Box 225, Medunsa Campus, 0204, Medunsa South Africa, [email protected] Zhang Xiaoli College of Chemical Engineering, Northwest University, Taibai North Road No.229, Xi’an, 710069, People’s Republic of China, [email protected] Oral Ya˘gci Civil Engineering Faculty, Division of Hydraulics, Istanbul Technical University, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey, [email protected] Rezan Fahrio˘glu Yamacı Laboratory of Forensic Genetics, Cyprus Institute of Neurology and Genetics, Nicosia, Cyprus, [email protected] Ersin Yener Yazici Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected]

Contributors

xli

N. Yigit Department of Environmental Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, [email protected] F. Ebru Yildiz Department of Research-Plan and Highway, Bank of Provinces, Opera, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Tu˘gba Yılmaz Mineral Processing Division, Department of Mining Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey, [email protected] Ilyas Yilmazer YY University, Van, Turkey, [email protected] Özgür Yilmazer Yilmazer Education, 8. Cd., 89. Sk., 9/8, 06460 A, Ovecler, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] Özlem Yilmazer YY University, Van, Turkey, [email protected] Sema Yurdakul Yorulmaz Environmental Engineering Department, METU, 06531 Ankara, Turkey, [email protected] B.F. Yousif Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Malacca Campus, Multimedia University, 75450 MMU, Malacca, Malaysia, [email protected] M. Yüksel Ege University, Department of Chemical Engineering, 35100 Izmir, Turkey, [email protected] Anika Yunus Department of Water Resources Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh, [email protected] M. Anjum Zia Department of Chemistry (Biochemistry), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, [email protected]

Part I

Conservation and Management of Biodiversity

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 for Application to the Rhizoremediation of Heavy Metals So-Yeon Koo and Kyung-Suk Cho

Abstract Many soil sites in industrialized areas are contaminated with high concentrations of heavy metals. These pollutants are highly accumulated to ecosystem and human body and cause serious ecotoxical effects. To remove heavy metals from the soil, a potential strategy is the ecologically sound, safe, and cost effective rhizoremediation using the symbiotic relationship of plants and microbes in the rhizosphere. Serratia sp. K1RP-49 was isolated from the rhizoplane of the barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) which had grown in oil contaminated soil. Serratia sp. K1RP-49 could produce various organic acids such as oxalic acid (174 mg l−1 ), maleic acid (137 mg l−1 ), citric acid (15 mg l−1 ), malic acid (2 mg l−1 ), formic acid (117 mg l−1 ), acetic acid (79 mg l−1 ), and succinic acid (203 mg l−1 ). The pH of the culture broth was decreased due to the accumulation of these organic acids. This bacterium could produce a indole acetic acid and a siderophore(s). The K1RP49 had a moderate resistance of Pb. The results of root elongation assay indicated that the growth of radicular root of maize could be enhanced by the inoculation of Serratia sp. K1RP-49. Keywords Metal · Phytoremediation · Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria

1 Introduction Heavy metals have been discharged from industrialized areas, easily adsorbed at soil particles, and remain at the ecosystems for a long time [24]. Heavy metals in the soils are transferred to human body, and then cause DNA damage and carcinogenic effects.

K.-S. Cho (B) Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-750, Republic of Korea e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_1, 

3

4

S.-Y. Koo and K.-S. Cho

Soils contaminated heavy metals can be remedied by chemical, physical and biological techniques. Rhizoremediation as an in-situ biological method is ecologically sound, safe and cost effective, and their efficiency of remediation is mostly satisfied [17]. For rhizoremediation, the symbiotic relationship of plants and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in the rhizosphere is very important: Plants can offer nutrients and good habitat to rhizobacteria, and PGPR can also protect plants and promote root growth. It have been reported that PGPR could promote root length under soils contaminated with Ni or Pb [4, 13]. The mechanisms of the promotion of plant growth by PGPR have not been fully understood, it has been considered that the following properties of rhizobacteria cause the promotion of plant growth: (a) the productivity of plant hormones such as indole acetic acid (IAA) [10]; (b) the synthesis of siderophores [5]; (c) the solubilization of mineral phosphates and other nutrients [14]. In this study, a novel bacterium, Serratia sp. K1RP-49, was isolated from oilcontaminated soil, and its ability to promote plant growth such as IAA and organic acid production, and siderophore(s) synthesis was characterized.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Isolation of a Bacterium The banyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) and its rhizosphere soil were sampled at an oil refinery plant, South Korea. One g (wet weight) of the banyard grass rhizoplane was ground using a mortar, and then diluted with 9 ml of sterilized water. One hundred microlitres of the rhizoplane suspension was spread onto the LB-agar plate, and then the plates were incubated at 30◦ C for 3 days. Some colonies were selected by the morphology and the color characteristics, and their abilities for IAA production and siderophore(s) synthesis were compared. A bacterium showing best ability was named as K1RP-49.

2.2 Identification of the Isolate The colony of K1RP-49 on the LB-agar plate was suspended with 0.05 N NaOH and then treated at 95◦ C for 30 min. The solution was centrifuged at 13,000 rpm for 10 min, and then the supernatant was used as the template for PCR. PCR R amplification (GeneAmp PCR System 2700, Applied Biosystem, USA) was performed using eubacterial universal primers, 27f (5 -AGA GTT TGA TCM TGG CTC AG-3 ) and 1492r (5 -TAC GGY TAC CTT GTT ACG ACT T-3 ). The conditions for PCR were as followings: 93◦ C for 2 min for pre-denaturation, followed by 35 cycles of a denaturation at 92◦ C for 1 min, an annealing at 55◦C for 1 min, and an extension at 68◦C for 45 s, and a final extension at 72◦C

Characterization of Serratia sp. K1RP-49

5

for 2 min. The sequences were determined using an ABI Prism 373A automated DNA sequencer (Perkin Elmer, Foster, CA) and were compared with those present in the GenBank database by the BLAST (basic local alignment search tool) search.

2.3 Heavy Metal Resistance The medium for the resistance assessment of heavy metal was the 10% LB media supplemented with heavy metal: Cd of 0.2−1.8 mM, Cr of 0.01–0.2 mM, Cu of 0.2–1.0 mM, Ni of 1–9 mM, Pb of 0.5–3.5 mM, or Zn of 1–5 mM. The K1RP-49 was inoculated to the each medium and incubated at 30◦ C for 3 days. The optical density (OD) of the cultures was measured every hour at 600 nm.

2.4 IAA Productivity The productivity of IAA by the strain K1RP-49 was tested in the modified DF medium [8]. The composition of the medium had the following compositions: (NH4 )2 SO4 , 2 g; KH2 PO4 , 4 g; Na2 HPO4 ·12H2 O, 15 g; MgSO4 ·7H2 O, 0.2 g; FeSO4 ·7H2 O, 1.0 mg; B (as H3 BO3 ), 10 μg; Mn (as MnSO4 ·H2 O), 11 μg; Zn (as ZnSO4 ·7H2 O), 125 μg; Cu (as CuSO4 ·5H2 O), 78 μg; Mo (as Na2 MoO4 ·2H2 O), 17 μg; distilled water, 1 l. The strain K1RP-49 was inoculated in 5 ml of the medium amended with 0.5 mg ml−1 of L-tryptophan, and incubated on a rotary shaker (160 rpm) at 30◦C for 5 days. One millilitre of the culture broth was mixed with 2 ml of Salkowski’s reagent (150 ml of concentrated H2 SO4 , 250 ml of distilled water, 7.5 ml of 0.5 M FeCl3 ·6H2 O) and allowed to stand at room temperature for 20 min. The developed pink color which indicates the production of IAA by the strain was measured at 530 nm with a spectrophotometer. The experiment was performed in triplicate.

2.5 Organic Acids Productivity The strain K1RP-49 was inoculated in the minimal salts medium (MSM; KH2 PO4 , 1.5 g l−1 ; Na2 HPO4 ·12H2 O, 9.0 g l−1 ; (NH4 )2 SO4 , 3.0 g l−1 ; FeSO4 ·7H2 O, 0.01 g l−1 ; MgSO4 ·7H2 O, 0.15 g l−1 ; CaCl2 ·2H2 O, 0.01 g l−1 ) amended with 30 g l−1 glucose, and incubated on a rotary shaker (160 rpm) at 30◦ C. During incubation, OD at 600 nm, pH, and the concentration of organic acids of culture broth were measured every 4 h. For the analysis of organic acid concentration, ionchromatograph (Dionex, DX-500 with ED40 Electro-chemical Detector, IonPac AS11 (4 × 250 mm) column, ASRS-Ultra II Anion self regenerating suppressor) was used with KOH as eluent.

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2.6 Siderophore(s) Synthesis Siderophore(s) production by the strain K1RP-49 was detected by the method of Schwyn and Neilands using blue agar plates containing chrome azurol S [25]. Orange halo around the colony on blue agar was the indicator for siderophore(s) excretion. The plate inoculated with the K1PR-49 was incubated at 30◦ C, and the surface area of orange halo around the colony was measured.

2.7 Root Elongation The promoting activity of plant root elongation by the K1RP-49 was determined using the modified root elongation assay of Belimov et al. [3]. The colony of K1RP-49 grown on LB-agar plate was suspended in sterilized water (OD 0.4–0.5 at 600 nm). Experimental conditions divided into four treatments; with/without inoculation of K1RP-49, and with/without tryptophane. The mixtures of bacterial suspension and tryptophane (0.5 mg ml−1 ) were supplemented with 0, 15 and 30 mg l−1 of Cd or Cu. Six millilitres of the solution was added to glass Petri dishes with filter paper. The seeds of Zea mays were surface-sterilized with a mixture of ethanol and 30% H2 O2 (1:1) for 10 min, washed with sterilized water and placed on wetted filter paper with 10 seeds per dish. Primary and radicular root length of seedlings was measured after incubation of closed Petri dishes for 8 days at room temperature in dark condition. The assay was repeated twice for each treatment.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Identification of a Plant-Growth Promoting Rhizobacterium, K1RP-49 Based on BLAST analysis, a plant-growth promoting rhizobacterium, K1RP49, was closely similar with Serratia plymuthica (accession AJ233433, 99% (1135/1139) similarity). S. plymuthica has been isolated from the rhizosphere of wheat, oat, cucumber, maize, oil-seed rape and potato, and frequently been associated with plants [1, 11, 16]. S. plymuthica had antifungal effects including antibiosis, siderophores, fungal cell-wall degrading enzymes (chitinases), and β-1,3 gluconases [16]. A strain of S. plymuthica isolated from the roots of a plant belonging to the Brassicaceae family had a heavy metal resistance and the accumulation ability of heavy metal [6]. S. plymuthica has been reported as an endophytic bacterium providing beneficial effects to plant [22].

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3.2 Heavy Metal Resistance Serratia sp. K1RP-49 could grow in the medium with Pb, although it couldn’t grow in the medium supplemented with Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni or Zn. The growth of the K1RP49 in the medium with Pb (0–1.5 mM) is shown in Fig. 1. Serratia sp. K1RP-49 could hardly grow at over 1.0 mM of Pb. In the medium with 0.5 mM of Pb, the specific growth rate of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 was approximately the half of that in the medium without Pb, and the average growth rate reflecting lag time was only 1/2 of that without Pb. Although heavy metals in the soils are almost adsorbed at the soil particles, bioavailable heavy metals are leached and formed soluble complexes by organic acids producing soil microbes and root exudates. Many soil microbes have tolerance against heavy metals or can uptake heavy metals into their cells. They can also influence the solubility and the bioavailability of the metal to the plant, thus the efficiency of the accumulation process can be modified [6]. (a)

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3.3 IAA Producing Ability IAA production by the growth of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 in the modified DF medium containing L-tryptophane is shown in Fig. 2. According to the growth of Serratia sp. K1RP-49, the amount of IAA produced was increased. Phytohormone such as auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, and so on, can regulate the physiological functions of plant. Auxin is the general term for plant-growth hormones, and IAA is one of typical auxin [26]. IAA is a common metabolite of L-tryptophane by several microorganisms including PGPR [9]. The effects of IAA are different with the concentration: Primary root growth is promoted under low concentration of IAA. High level of IAA can induce radicular root growth, but inhibits primary root growth by the synthesis of ethylene [23]. Therefore, the PGPR can regulate the growth of plant’s root by producing of IAA. These promoted roots system of plant by beneficial PGPR can enhance the phytoextraction of heavy metal.

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3.4 Organic Acids Productivity To enhance metal-bioavailability in soils, synthetic chelates like EDTA have been used directly to the soil, but low biodegradation rate of these strong chelates enhances mobility of the metal in soil excessively. Metal leaching is associated with the risk of groundwater contamination [7, 19, 20, 27, 30]. The use of easily biodegradable chelates such as organic acids has been proposed to enhance bioavailability of heavy metals and accumulation into plants while avoiding leaching risks [21]. The production of organic acids by Serratia sp. K1RP-49 is shown in Fig. 3. The pH of the culture broth was decreased according to the growth of the K1RP-49. The amount of organic acids produced by the K1RP-49 were arranged in higher order as succinic acid (203 mg l−1 ) > oxalic acid (174 mg l−1 ) > maleic acid (137 mg l−1 ) > formic acid (117 mg l−1 ) > acetic acid (79 mg l−1 ) > citric acid (15 mg l−1 ) > malic acid (2 mg l−1 ). Many soil microbes can discharge organic (a)

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acids to the soil [15]. Therefore, heavy metals adsorbed at soil particles can be converted to bioavailable forms by the bacterial organic acids without artificial chelates, and the accumulation of heavy metal into the plant can be increased.

3.5 Siderophore(s) Synthesis Ability The expanded surface areas of the orange halo around the colony of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 on blue agar are shown in Fig. 4. The siderophore(s) synthesized by the K1RP-49 taken up the iron from a blue CAS-agar medium, and the color of medium was changed to orange color. The amount of siderophore(s) was increased steadily. Due to the physio-chemical properties of iron which exists in the trivalent state as oxyhydroxide in an aerobic and biological pH, iron is virtually insoluble [25]. Heavy metal-contaminated soil is often associated with iron deficiency in a range of different plant species [18, 28]. Iron deficiency inhibits the synthesis of a chloroplast and chlorophyll, and induces production of ethylene which acts as stress matter to plants, eventually leads to the decrease of rhizoremediation efficiency [12]. Many microorganisms use a ferric-specific ligand, termed ‘siderophore(s)’ of a high affinity low-molecular-weight to take up essential element iron [25]. These microbial iron-siderophore complexes which bound iron can be taken up by plants as an iron source [2, 29]. 10

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3.6 Promotion of Root Growth The effect of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 on root elongation of Zea mays in the existence of heavy metal (Cd or Cu) are shown Figs. 5, 6 and 7. The root length with heavy metal was shorter than that without heavy metal. It means that root

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elongation was inhibited by metal toxicity. Compared with the control, the growth of primary root with heavy metal was not significantly affected by the bacterium or tryptophane compared with the control. However, radicular root length was increased by the addition of bacterium or tryptophane except the results in 30 mg l−1 Cu. The primary and radicular root length of 30 mg l−1 Cu inoculated with the K1RP-49 was inhibited by fungal contamination. The effect of the K1RP49 was similar to that of tryptophane in the filter paper with heavy metal. As a result, the inoculation of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 can promote the growth of radicular root. It is suggested that the application of Serratia sp. K1RP-49 to rhizoremediation will be helpful to enhance the metal remediation efficiency by increasing root surface area.

References 1. Alström B, Gerhardson B (1988) Differential reactions of wheat and pea genotypes to root inoculation with growth affecting rhizobacteria. Plant Soil 109:263–269 2. Bar-Ness E Chen Y, Hadar H, Marschner H, Romeheld V (1991) Siderophores of Pseudomonas putida as an iron source for dicot and monocot plants. Plant Soil 130:231–241

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3. Belimov AA, Hontzeas N, Safronova VI, Demchinskaya SV, Piluzza G, Bullitta S, Glick BR (2005) Cadmium-tolerant plant growth-promoting bacteria associated with the roots of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern.). Soil Biol Biochem 37:241–250 4. Burd GI, Dixon DG, Glick BR (1998) A plant growth-promoting bacterium that decreases nickel toxicity in seedlings. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:3663–3668 5. Burd GI, Dixon DG, Glick BR (2000) Plant growth promoting bacteria that decreases heavy metal toxicity in plants. Can J Microbiol 46:237–245 6. Carlot M, Giacomini A, Casella S (2002) Aspects of plant-microbe interactions in heavy metal polluted soil. Acta Biotechnol 22:13–20 7. Chen Y, Xiangdong L, Shen Z (2004) Leaching and uptake of heavy metals by ten different species of plants during an EDTA-assisted phytoextraction process. Chemosphere 57:187–196 8. Dworkin M, Foster JW (1958) Experiments with some microorganism which utilize ethane and hydrogen. J Bacteriol 75:592–603 9. Frankenberger WT Jr, Brunner W (1983) Methods of detection of auxin-indole acetic acid in soil by high performance liquid chromatography. Soil Sci Soc Am J 47:237–241 10. Gaudin V, Vrian T, Jouanin L (1994) Bacterial genes modifying hormonal balances in plants. Plant Physiol Biochem 32:11–29 11. Gimmont F, Gimmont PAD (1992) The genus Serratia. In: Balowes A, Trüper HG, Dworkin M, Harder W, Schleifer KH, (eds) The prokaryotes – a handbook on the biology of bacteria: Ecophysiology, isolation, identification, application, 2nd edn, Vol. 3. Springer Verlag, New York, pp 2823–2848 12. Glick BR (2003) Phytoremediation: synergistic use of plants and bacteria to clean up the environment. Biotechnol Adv 21:383–393 13. Grichko VP, Filby B, Glick BR (2000) Increased ability of transgenic plants expressing the bacterial enzyme ACC deaminase to accumulate Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. J Biotechnol 81:45–53 14. Gupta A, Meyer JM, Goel R (2002) Development of heavy metal resistant mutants of phosphate solubilizing Pseudomonas sp. NBRI4014 and their characterization. Current Microbiol 45:323–327 15. Halvorson HO, Keynan A, Kornberg HL (1990) Utilization of calcium phosphates for microbial growth at alkaline pH. Soil Biol Biochem 22:887–890 16. Kalbe C, Marten P, Berg G (1996) Members of the genus Serratia as beneficial rhizobacteria of oilseed rape. Microbiol Res 151:4433–4400 17. Kumino T, Seaki K, Nagaoka K, Oyaizu H, Matsumoto S (2001) Characterization of copperresistant bacterial community in rhizosphere of highly copper-contaminated soil. Eur J Soil Biol 37:95–102 18. Ma JF, Nomoto K (1993) Inhibition of mugineic acid-ferric complex in barley by copper, zinc and cobalt. Plant Physiol 89:331–334 19. Madrid F, Liphadzi MS, Kirkham MB (2003) Heavy metal displacement in chelate-irrigated soil during phytoremediation. J Hydrol 271:107–119 20. Meers E, Hopgood M, Lesage E, Tack FMG, Verloo MG (2004) Enhanced phytoextraction: in search for EDTA alternatives. Int J Phytoremed 6:95–109 21. Nascimento CWA, Amarasiriwardena D, Xing B (2006) Comparison of natural organic acids and synthetic chelates at enhancing phytoextraction of metals from a multi-metal contaminated soil. Environ Pollut 140:114–123 22. Nicole B, Serge G, Dominique LQ, Leila D (2000) Bacterial-mediated induced resistance in cucumber: beneficial effect of the endophytic bacterium Serratia plymuthica on the protection against infection by Pythium ultimum. Biochem Cell Biol 90:45–56 23. Pilet P-E, Saugy M (1987) Effect on root growth of endogenous and applied IAA and ABA. Plant Physiol 83:33–38 24. Rajkumar M, Nagendran R, Lee KJ, Lee WH, Kim SZ (2005) Influence of plant growth promoting bacteria and Cr6+ on the growth of Indian mustard. Chemosphere 62:741–748

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25. Schwyn B, Neilands JB (1987) Universal chemical assay for the detection and determination of siderphores. Anal Biochem 160:47–56 26. Sergeeva E, Liaimer A, Bergman B (2002) Evidence for production of the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid by cyanobacteria. Planta 215:229–238 27. Sun B, Zhao FJ, Lonbi E, Mcgrath SP (2001) Leaching of heavy metals from contaminated soils using EDTA. Environ Pollut 113:111–120 28. Wallace A, Wallace GA, Cha JW (1992) Some modifications in trace elements toxicities and deficiencies in plants resulting from interactions with other elements and chelating agents. The special case of iron. J Plant Nutr 15:1589–1598 29. Wang Y, Brown HN, Crowley DE, Szaniszlo PJ (1993) Evidence for direct utilization of a siderophore, ferroxamine B. in axenically grown cucumber. Plant Cell Environ 16:579–585 30. Wenzel WW, Unterbrunner R, Sommer P, Sacco P (2003) Chelate-assisted phytoextraction using canola (Bassica napus L.) in outdoors pot and lysimeter experiments. Plant Soil 249:83–96

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden: Rural Heritage and Resistance Against Wolf Propagation Annelie Sjölander-Lindqvist

Abstract The politics and the underlying reasons for the recuperation of a Scandinavian wolf population are increasingly contested. According to the official policy, wolves shall be guaranteed place in the Swedish fauna. The conflict regarding whether Sweden should host a wolf population polarises between on the one hand, views and understandings as regards biodiversity and sustainable development, and on the other hand, perspectives expressing that local traditions and livelihoods are at stake as a result of wolf occurrence in the landscape. The diverging environmental imaginaries at play in the debate can be seen as constitutive of spatial indifferences. States’ and nature conservation organisations’ desires to implement measures understood to provide conditions for the survival of the wolf are counterbalanced by local actions groups and community residents who struggle to maintain the conditions for the conservation of summer pasturing agriculture, continued and unchanged opportunities to perform hunting with sporting dogs and other recreational activities such as mushrooming and the picking of berries. Considered not only by themselves as of high natural and cultural value, the European Union like wisely appoint that small-scale ways of farming are important to maintain for the upkeep of the landscape and the promotion of conditions guarding the survival of the values associated with these ‘agri-environmental’ habitats. Keywords Agricultural policy · Environmental policy · Wolf population

1 Introduction No other predatory animal has attracted as much organized opposition as the wolf. The reaction is due in part to the greediness of the wolves, and also to the fact that nobody ever eats the meat of an animal that has been touched by a wolf [25].

The above quotation illustrates an opinion of wolves that was prevalent in Sweden until 1965 when the preservation act came into force, but this view is not uncommon A. Sjölander-Lindqvist (B) Centre for Public Sector Research (CEFOS), Göteborg University, Göteborg Box 720, SE-405 30, Sweden e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_2, 

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even today. At that time, the wolf was seen as a threat to humans and their activities in forest and farm landscapes. While the numbers of the wolf population were considerably reduced to as low as 10–35 individuals, mainly as a result of hunting and organised battues, they amount today to some hundred individuals and are still considered to jeopardise the lives and values of people living in the vicinity of wolves. These views illustrate the controversies we find among people regarding nature and natural assets. The above statement is not only a portrayal of views of and feelings about the wolf as a dangerous and uncertain creature, it also tells of struggles over the access to, use of, and ownership of environmental resources. Disputes over ‘Nature’ are politically charged—issues of power exercise and dominance range from the supranational level of negotiations over directives and agreements concerning sustainability and biodiversity, to the local level where global discourses are to be implemented. Politically decided regulations and practices may, however, from a local point of view be perceived as illegitimate, and hence neither receive support nor be complied with. The concerned public’s experience and perceptions of the implementation process as being fair and just has been found to influence acceptance by the public [10]. The politics and the underlying reasons for the recuperation of a Scandinavian wolf population have been, and continue to be, increasingly contested. According to the Swedish official nature conservation policy, wolves shall be guaranteed place in the Swedish fauna. The conflict regarding whether Sweden should host a wolf population polarises between on the one hand, views and understandings as regards biodiversity and sustainable development, and on the other hand, perspectives expressing that local traditions and livelihoods are at stake as a result of wolf occurrence in the landscape. Wolf sceptics maintain that the occurrence of wolves in the surrounding local environment will lead to the demise of forests and farm communities. The effects of the presence of wolves—wolf attacks on livestock and hunting dogs, potential attacks on people when growing wolf populations no longer have enough game to prey on, declining game stocks—will, according to the informants, cause increased marginalization of rural people and the depopulation of margin areas (cf. [32]). Although numbers steadily increasing, environmentalists and authorities still consider the Scandinavian wolf population1 to be in jeopardy of extinction due to not only a poor pedigree. According to the biological predator research community, the unlawful killings of wolves are another threat of considerable weight [24]. The view that the Swedish Government should take actions to make it possible for the wolf population to survive is supported by nature conservation organizations,2 the

1 The wolf population is generally referred to as ‘Scandinavian’ since some of the wolf territories is to be found to pass the national border between Sweden and Norway. 2 Such as Svenska Rovdjursföreningen (the Swedish Carnivore Association), Svenska Naturskyddsföreningen (the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation), and WWF (the World Wide Foundation).

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public at large [6, 7] and individuals.3 The ‘pro’ wolves groups withholding that wolves have the ‘right’ to exist is an argument—grounded in the environmentalist discourse recommending actions to be take to restore an ecosystem understood as being under threat—that others4 confront by emphasizing that the landscape and the local traditions of the rural Sweden are jeopardized as a result of the occurrence of wolves in Swedish countryside, and due to the present wolf policy (cf. [32, 36]). Thus, while some argues for protective measures to halt high inbreeding5 and illegal hunting,6 yet others oppose the practices in question [30]. In this paper, focus will be drawn to how the adoption and the implementation of a coherent policy for large carnivores in Sweden—the Coherent Predator Policy— besides its aim to enhance measures for an environmentally friendly society, may result in a transformation of the Swedish rural landscape—spatially as well as symbolically. Squeezed between policies promoting the safe-guarding of the predatory populations of wolves, the preventing of cruelty to animals and demanded-for activities by the agricultural program of the European Union, farmers residing in areas with residential wolf populations have come to take part in processes that may bring about a reinforcing of rural identity. The presence of wolves in the countryside of the middle parts of Sweden—where the majority of the Swedish wolf population is to be found—has caused considerable disquiet among some of the concerned stakeholders. Farmers’ and hunters worries that the survival of the rural landscape and rural heritage are at stake due to wolves residing in the local environment are encoded with symbolic meanings of the landscape and the local traditions carried out in farmed and forested areas. Disputes between different stakeholders regarding what should guide the achieving of biodiversity has besides a policy quandary given rise to discourses on morality and ethics what regards the keeping of livestock and domestic animals. A questioning is taking place pertaining to space and place—as reproducing dimensions of cultural identity.

1.1 Theoretical Departure Veined by the assumption that conflicts between people regarding the biological environment involve different dimensions, such as the aspect of place attachment and the meanings of property, the article is inspired by a ‘first world political 3 Including

informants and people who have been expressing their opinions at debate meetings, in radio and TV programs. 4 Groups and organizations such as the ‘the Swedish Forum for Predatory Animal Issues’ (authors translation for Svenskt Samarbetsforum i Rovdjursfrågor) and ‘the Swedish Hunting & Outdoor Recreation Club’ (authors translation for Svenska Jakt & Fritidsgruppen), as well as individuals. 5 It has been found that the Scandinavian wolf population was founded be three individuals. By drawing up a pedigree for 24 breeding pairs it was found that the inbreeding coefficient F varied between 0.00 and 0.41 in the period between 1983 and 2002 [13]. 6 See for example the web page of the Swedish Carnivore Association (www. rovdjursforeningen.se).

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ecology’ [18, 19]. That people in industrialized countries have relations with ‘nature’ is the main outline of this approach; irrespective of taking place in the ‘first’ or in the ‘developing’ world, environmental conflicts are socio-culturally informed [18, 23]. The article thus employs a landscape and place oriented anthropological approach in the sense that perceptions of the environment might serve as a frame for the rise of local desires and struggles to maintain social and cultural values and practices which can turn out to be in conflict with other wishes and agreements taken at other societal levels (e.g. [11, 16, 17, 20, 29]). Informed by cultural value frames that have developed during times and years of ‘dwelling’, to apply the vocabulary of anthropologist Tim Ingold [12], local residents can be said to find themselves in a ‘configurative complex of things’ ([5], p. 25). Besides relating to the natural and social worlds in ways that reproduce collective memories [26] and the meanings the traditions of the rural landscape bring to its practitioners, people’s understandings and experiences of the contemporary world is also informed by other actor’s endeavours imposing other sets of values (cf. [15, 27, 28]).

2 Promoting Environmental Diversity—The Encapsulation of Different Values and View Points Understood as being under the threat of destruction, the ecological system has become an integral part of national policy. Politically motivated, regimes for the management of natural resources have been established. Policies for collective control and the public administration of, for example, the management of the Scandinavian wolf population, have developed during the latter decades. Measures for the conservation of natural resources follows internationally negotiated treaties that have been ratified by the Swedish Parliament (e.g. the Bern Convention). These treaties, aiming for a sustainable development and caretaking, have served to inspire and direct environmental protective measures in the promotion of a biologically diversified society. In 2001, the Swedish Parliament laid down a ‘Coherent Predator Policy’, which stipulates that the Scandinavian wolf shall be ensured long-term survival through the implementation of protective measures. The recovery of the wolf have, however, been increasingly contested. Although the decision can be labelled as democratically agreed upon, the decision has turned out to be highly debated. While the view that Sweden should take actions to preserve and maintain a wolf population is widely supported by authorities, nature organizations and a large public, others disagree, emphasizing that local traditions, values and meanings are at stake as a result of recovery aims and wolf management. These disputes tell of struggles over the access to, and use of environmental resources. As an issue of power exercise, the controversy regarding whether measures should be taken or not and if the survival of the wolf is to be considered as a matter for Sweden to deal with, can be said to highlight dimensions of space and place. The controversy is thus to be regarded as not only a matter of how to understand a biological habitat, commonly referred to as ‘Nature’. Most importantly, the voices raised for or against activities taken to ensure a long-term survival of

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the Scandinavian wolf, can as well be encapsulated as a reflection regarding which values that should guide rural reconstruction. The implementation of policies for the protection of natural resources brings many interests into collision. The wolf issue is thus to be considered as a meeting-point between authorities, ‘green’ organizations such as the Swedish Carnivore Association (‘Svenska Rovdjursföreningen’), interest organizations as for example the Swedish Association for Wildlife Hunting and Management (‘Svenska Jägareförbundet’), and organizations assembling wolf sceptics—the ‘Swedish Forum for Predatory Animal Issues’ (author’s translation for ‘Svenskt Samarbetsforum i Rovdjursfrågor’), the ‘Swedish Hunting & Outdoor Recreation Club’ (author’s translation for ‘Svenska Jakt & Fritidsgruppen’). ‘The Association for Safety in Rural Communities in Sweden’ (author’s translation for ‘Sveriges Glesbygds Trygghet’) is another local/regional association, generally referred to by the acronym SGT,7 that similarly to the previous mentioned, demand that Swedish predator policy and management to a much greater extent must consider the living conditions of people residing in rural Sweden. Decision-making concerning wolf occurrence should be made locally instead of nationally and regionally, since, as they argue, such decisions must have their point of departure in local realities and knowledge. The organization ‘Peoples’ Campaign for a New Predator Policy (author’s translation for ‘Folkaktionen Ny Rovdjurspolitik’), organizes today many wolf sceptics and some of the above mentioned wolf sceptic associations have become transformed into this national organization that was founded in 2005. At the core of their demands stands that dialogue between local stakeholders and authorities must be increased since, as they say, without dialogue and real participation in decisionmaking, predator policy can never become sustainable and reach acceptance. Thus, network building and mobilization of opinion are taking place. While wolf sceptical organizations make complaints and protests concerning Swedish wolf politics and management, wolf protectionists join nature conservation organizations to support the protection of threatened species. We thus see a division between protectionists and sceptics. From reasons of solidarity with other countries efforts to protect endangered species, Sweden should also take actions for the furthering of biological diversity. That Sweden is obliged to actions since they have signed international treaties is another reason mentioned by the protectionists. But above all, as they argue, the wolf has the right to reside in the countryside since it as all other creatures has the right to exist.

3 Wolves in Scandinavia According to an integrated predator policy, laid down by the Parliament (the Swedish Riksdag) in 2001, the Scandinavian wolf (together with four other large carnivores—brown bear, lynx, wolverine and golden eagle) shall, through the 7 In

popular parlance among certain groups referred to as ‘Shoot, Dig and Shut Up’.

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implementation of protective measures, be ensured long-term survival ([21], p. 57). The politics of and the underlying reasons for the recovery of the Scandinavian wolf population have, however, been increasingly contested. While the view that Sweden should take actions to preserve and maintain a wolf population is widely supported by authorities, nature organizations and a large public, others disagree, emphasizing that local traditions, values and meanings are jeopardized as a result of recovery aims and practices of wolf management. Thus, although the political community has decided democratically that Sweden shall strive to follow international decisions and legislation in species conservation, others argue otherwise, saying that wolves do not really belong in the Swedish landscape. Whether or not we should save the wolves from extermination, is thus a highly debated matter. In order to secure the wolf population in Scandinavia, policies for collective control and public administration have been developed and adopted. The Swedish official nature conservation policy follows treaties that have been internationally negotiated and ratified by the Swedish Parliament. Serving as a background for the research carried out did the understanding that contestations over the biological environment have been an issue both in earlier times and today. While the Scandinavian wolf population of today amounts 35 territories with wolf packs,8 scent-marking pairs9 and single stationary individuals10 [35] representing 109–117 individuals,11 the population was estimated at 1,500 individuals some 180 years ago. Whereas we today see protective measures governing the wolf population, laws and opinions of the wolf as being detrimental to humans and human activities, led, in the past, to wolf persecution. Provincial laws from the 15th century, for example, stated parish members’ obligation to take an active part in wolf battues. The women of the parish, its vicar and the clerk of the parish were the only ones exempted from this duty. The hunt for wolves was successful. Until the preservation act in 1965, the larger part of the wolf population was exterminated during the 19th and 20th centuries. Using a variety of methods—traps, nets, weapons, and battues—people throughout the country managed well in their wolf hunts. Additionally, bounties were imposed in 1647 to encourage the hunt for wolves, and these remained in force until the wolf preservation act came into force more than 200 years later. Some tens of years before the wolf protection act in 1965, the wolf population was estimated at less than 40 individuals. Approximately 20 years after the establishment of the protection act, traces and observations point to a growing wolf population in Scandinavia. In the 1980s, it was estimated that there were about ten individuals and during the following years, we see a growing increase in the number of wolves, packs, scent-marking pairs and other residential individuals.

8 Estimated amount: 76–79 individuals. A wolf pack consists of a breeding

pair and their offspring. amount: 26–28 individuals. 10 Estimated amount: 7–10. 11 Besides wolf packs, scent-marking pairs and other residential individuals there are also migratory wolves. 9 Estimated

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4 Study Area and Methods Ethnographic methods were chosen as the main strategy for empirical investigation. Data was collected primarily from the conducting of in-depth interviews. Informal observations have also been carried out at various meetings. Readings of newspaper and journal articles and the visiting of different web sites have given additional insight into the ‘wolf issue’—its structures, actors and the mains of the debate. The informants were asked to discuss the situation surrounding having wolves in the forests. Through conversations, local residents expressed their opinions, values and collectively shared dimensions of everyday experiences of wolves and local practices in farming and forest communities, thus providing glimpses of the social worlds of the people interviewed. The investigation of the concerns of residents living in the wolf territories employed an ethnographic approach. Such methods have found to suit research situations when it is of crucial importance for the outcome of the research carried out to establish trustworthy relationships with the informants [3]. The interview results on which this paper rests were carried out in three separate areas; the county of Dalarna and the two wolf territories Dals-Ed/Halden and Hasselfors—although all to be found in the middle parts of Sweden neither study area are located next to one another. The fifty-two interviews that were carried out the summer and autumn of 2005 consisted of people holding ‘pro’ as well as ‘anti’ wolf attitudes and through which opinions and values related to the presence of predators in the landscape were collected. Gathered by convenience sampling, particularly the groups of hunters and farmers were interviewed. Besides interviewing residents in wolf territories, members of the research team have been carrying out observations at meetings, generally announced as ‘information meetings’, and the annually held ‘Wolf Symposium’ where interested parties have the opportunity to take part of talks regarding different aspects of wildlife management nationally as well as internationally. The interviews lasted from two to four hours and consisted of a set of general questions as well as follow-ups on issues raised by the respondent. A written list of questions and topics served as a guide throughout the conversation. Detailed notes were taken and later transcribed. A tape recorder was not used during the interview since the wolf is a rather controversial issue and in some cases the parties involved have been under threat of violence. It was therefore considered important to guarantee individual anonymity as far as possible.

5 National Environmental Conservation Policy The status of the Scandinavian wolf is based upon the classification works of plants and animals carried out by the Swedish Species Information Centre (ArtDatabanken), a body shared by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the Swedish University of Agricultural Science (SLU). According to this classification, building on a system of six categories reflecting the risk of extinction

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in the Swedish flora and fauna, the Scandinavian wolf is on the Red List and is classified as Critically Endangered [9]. As such, the wolf is understood to be exceptionally endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the very near future. This classification system, built on a global classification system that was outlined by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) in 1994, is one of the measures taken to protect biodiversity. In Sweden, policies for collective control and public administration have been developed to deal with the political goal of specie conservation and today’s controversy regarding the wolf. Through the Coherent Predator Policy, laid down in 2001, the Parliament has agreed that measures to minimize conflicts regarding predatory animals must be taken to ensure their long-term survival ([21], p. 57; see also [24]). A Council for Predator Issues was founded in 2002 to assist the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) in implementing the Coherent Predator Policy. As an advisory consultative body, the Council deals with issues concerning general and overall policy, surveys and developments of the populations of the five carnivores covered by the Predator Policy. Besides striving for the reaching of 20 reproductions of the Swedish wolf population, representing approximately 200 individuals, the Parliament decided in 2001 that regional predatory animal management, as other environment protection, must involve local participation and strong support by those affected by the conservation efforts ([21], p. 57; [33], p. 173). The need to encourage local participation ([21], p. 57) resulted in the establishment of Regional Predator Groups (RPG) in all counties having residential large predators. Today, we find 17 of these groups across the country, comprising representatives from hunting organizations, voluntary nature conservation groups, farmers’ associations, the police and prosecutors, municipalities and county administrative boards. Besides striving for local empowerment on issues of predator management, the RGPs are by the authorities understood to be a means for an increased information exchange between different regional and local groups, and as such, facilitating the dissemination of information to the large public. Cooperation between the central authorities and the concerned NGOs and groups is by the decision-makers considered vital for the accumulation of knowledge— by the authorities assumed necessary to enhance more ‘nuanced’ perspectives and opinions of what has turned out to be a rather controversial question for the Swedish countryside. The solution on the wolf controversy, the authorities (regional as well as national ones) say, is to raise the level of ‘acceptance’. Their work focuses therefore on the process of attaining a local consensus regarding what they refer to as a politically based initiative. Local compliance with a highly debated political decision, regarding wolves’ living conditions and their future in the Swedish fauna, is thus sought for at the same time as the regional authorities strive for the realization of a national goal through the implementation of intermediate aims, such as regional minimum levels for wolf recovery in each county [31]. By incorporating concerned stakeholders and interest organizations into the RPGs, the central authorities assume that consent on the predator policy might be achieved as a dissemination of information will take place when the information given to the group members is passed on to their mother organizations ([34], p. 146). Understood as nourished by debates

Predators in ‘Agri-environmental’ Sweden

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and inconsistent opinions on the causes and effects of wolves’ occurrence in the countryside, the central authorities appraises an increase of a scientifically based knowledge as central for abating worries regarding the effects of large carnivore presence [31].

6 Rural Lives at Stake According to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union, the farming sector has a multiple role to play. By their use of rural land, the farmers produce a variety of products for consumption but they do also contribute to the diversity—and the survival—of the countryside. Through their work, the farmers have a role to play in the maintenance of rural area. Wolf sceptic informants, however, maintain that the occurrence of wolves in the surrounding local environment will be detrimental to the survival of forest and farm communities. According to the informants, the wolf’s presence has entailed changed routines and fear and anxiety about the future of traditional work and ways of life locally. Among local residents, the wolf is considered to be an animal with the potential of bringing harm to livestock and humans. The effects of the presence of wolves—wolf attacks on livestock and hunting dogs, potential attacks on people when growing wolf populations no longer have enough game to prey on, declining game stocks—will, according to the informants, cause increased marginalization of rural people and the depopulation of margin areas (cf. [32]). Among local residents, the wolf is considered to be an animal with the potential of bringing harm to livestock and humans. Therefore people feel that they, their families and ways of living are jeopardised as a result of wolves living in the area. Since the wolf is not in jeopardy of being exterminated internationally, informants feel further that there is no reason why the Swedish rural population should be exposed to the risks the presence of wolves brings to people living in the countryside. Fear and anxiety is not only a matter restricted to the outdoors. Peoples’ homes and households are by several of the informants experienced as threatened by wolves’ occurrence in the environs. One of the female informants mentioned that she did not dare to go down to the basement since she was afraid that wolves might enter the house meanwhile. Social anthropological research has shown that members of households draw safety and comfort from these entities when they experience that the surrounding world is exposed to threat and change [2]. Local reports that the wolves passes close to dwelling-houses and that women and children cannot feel secure, even close to their homes, show that the meanings people attach to ‘home’ and ‘property’—as fundamental social institutions—are disarranged. Implementation of goals of society may thus bring about that peoples’ self-images and ideas about society and life are put under pressure. People may feel violated when ‘agents of change’—represented here by the wolf—trespasses what people regards as basic principles upon which human activity is structured (cf. [8]). Network building and mobilization of opinion have taken place, making complaints and protests concerning Swedish wolf politics and management. The ways

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in which people sceptic to wolf presence in the Swedish landscape become involved varies. A most obvious action that has taken place to counteract the implementation of the predator policy is the ‘Dala Revolt’ (Dalaupproret). This rebellion by hunters in the county of Dalarna who during a period of approximately 1 year (2004–2005) refused to trace animals injured by traffic (otherwise a normal task for them) until their demands—unrestricted access to outdoor recreation for people living in the countryside, a continued preservation of the country’s moose stock, and a predator policy that more explicitly takes into consideration local knowledge and rural living conditions—had been met. The boycott was, however, brought to an end in spring 2005 without the movement being able to achieve their demand of a changed legislation concerning the rights of livestock and dog owners to defend their animals against attacks from predatory animals and grant permits for the controlled culling of wolves. Generally, the presence of wolves in the landscape is understood to affect not only rural livelihoods and people’s customary ways of living—in terms of restricted opportunities for hunting, fishing, berry and fungus picking, horseback-riding and orienteering—but the biological diversity is also felt to be endangered. According to the wolf sceptic informants, wolf presence has led and will lead to a depopulation of the countryside since landowners, livestock breeders and mountain pasture farmers will give up their livelihoods when the threats posed by wolves appear to be too heavy a burden. The moving of livestock to summer residences is a historically rooted tradition. Restricted possibilities to graze in the village have, since agricultural land in the county of Dalarna in the 19th century were not partitioned as in other parts of Sweden, made the way for the use of unfenced summer forest pastures. Farmers who employ agricultural seasonal foraging consider themselves as part of a local heritage. By taking their cattle to summer grazing pastures they carry on the traditions of a historical past. Besides the keeping of old customs, the informants are of the opinion that they continually contributes to the up keeping of an open landscape and that seasonal foraging have developed in correspondence with the ecological environment of the constraints and possibilities of the Swedish rural landscape. However, the presence of wolves in the landscape threatens summer pasturing agriculture since the farmers have very limited possibilities to defend their cattle from wolf attacks. They say that their way of living and the old customs of cattle grazing in summer pastures are at stake. Instead of continually contributing to the up keeping of an open landscape and a rich fauna through unfenced cattle grazing they must leave their cattle nearby the chalets on the summer pasture. Since the grazinggrounds next to the chalets are very limited they will be forced to bring fodder from the farm in the village to feed their cattle. If forced this way, the environmental benefits of summer pasturing agriculture will be lost—and the farmers will not be able to fulfil the conditions the European Union asks for when granting economic support. Besides the environmental benefits such as a rich flora and fauna, the municipality and the region do also benefit from the maintaining of the cultural heritage of agricultural seasonal foraging since it attracts many tourists during the summer months (June-August).

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Similarly to results from Norway [32], feelings of injustice prevail among farmers regarding their experiences that their activities are improperly acknowledged. As they say, their ways of small scale farming has contributed to an open landscape, a diversified flora and fauna and a cultural heritage, which they see as being under threat due to the wolf residing in the forest. The farmers believe that the traditional ways of sending livestock out to grass—fenced or unfenced—will decrease since they fear attacks by wolves. When no longer the possibility exists to deploy forest pastures, small scale farming and agricultural seasonal foraging will decline, adding to the dying out of rural Sweden. Similarly, it is argued, decreased possibilities to go hunting without exposing hunting dogs to wolves’ search of prey will leave the Swedish forests empty of hunters. Informants’ feelings of uncertainty regarding continued farming and hunting reflect that the landscape is a lived reality, holding significant meanings to people locally. As suggested by Cantrill and Senecah [4], ‘. . . our conception of the natural environment is framed by our experiences bound to local settings’ ([4], p. 186]. The landscape, then, is experienced through activities. Through practices of performance, representation and action, people socialise the landscape [1], as for example through hunting—an activity that in Sweden assemble nearly 300,000 people— meanings are created and established. When hunters gather and hunt, they establish and uphold social relationships and networks since the hunt for elks, in particularly, is carried out in hunting parties. The landscape and the locality as a dimension for social life [1] and where feelings of fellowship, solidarity, and relationship building are established, create a sense of belonging [1, 5, 14, 22].

7 Discussion The presence of wolves in the countryside of the middle parts of Sweden—where the majority of the Swedish wolf population is to be found—has caused considerable disquiet among some of the concerned stakeholders. Due to wolves’ residing in the local environments, farmers (including farmers who employ a transhumance system of agriculture) and hunters worries that the survival of the rural landscape and rural heritage are at stake. The presence of wolves in the landscape is understood to affect not only rural livelihoods and people’s customary ways of living—in terms of restricted opportunities for hunting, fishing, berry and fungus picking, horsebackriding and orienteering—but the biological diversity is also felt to be endangered. According to the movement, wolf presence has led and will lead to a depopulation of the countryside since landowners, livestock breeders and summer pasture farmers will give up their livelihoods when the threats posed by wolves appear to be too heavy a burden. According to the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union, the farming sector has a multiple role to play. By their use of rural land, the farmers produce a variety of products for consumption but they do also contribute to the diversity—and the survival—of the countryside. Through their work, the farmers and their farming activities are thus assigned as essential in the

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maintenance of rural area. The implementation of policies for the safeguarding of the Scandinavian wolf is giving rise to a policy quandary when farmers are expected to use production methods which are addressed as compatible with environment protection. Dependency upon the European Union’s economic grants (CAP Reform 1992)—received if environment protective production methods are employed—and authorities’ expectancy that they must adjust to the risks carnivore presence bring to the rural communities have come to cause disquiet and frustration among the informants when they are not given the possibility to safeguard their livestock from wolf attacks. Disputes between different stakeholders regarding what should guide the achieving of biodiversity has besides a policy quandary given rise to discourses on morality and ethics what regards the keeping of livestock and domestic animals but we can also see that a questioning is taking place pertaining to space and place—as reproducing dimensions of cultural identity.

References 1. Appadurai A (1995) The production of locality. In: Fardon R (ed) Counterworks. Routledge, London and New York, pp 204–225 2. Birdwell-Pheasent D, Lawrence-Zúñiga D (1999) House life: Space, place and family in Europe. Berg, Oxford 3. Boholm A (1983) Swedish Kinship: An exploration into cultural precesses of belonging and continuity. Gothenburg Studies in Social Authropology 3, Acta Universitatis, Gothoburgensis 4. Cantrill JG, Senecah LS (2001) Using the ‘sense of self-in-place’ construct in the context of environmental policy-making and landscape planning. Environ Sci Policy 4:185–203 5. Casey ES (1996) How to get from space to place in a fairly short stretch of time: Phenomenological prolegomena. In Feld S, Basso K (eds) Senses of place. School of American Research Press, Santa Fe, NM, pp 13–52 6. Ericsson G, Heberlein TA (2002) Attityder till varg och vargjakt i Sverige. SLU, Uppsala 7. Ericsson G, Sandström C (2005) Delrapport om svenskars inställning till rovdsjurspolitik och -förvaltning. SLU Umeå/FjällMistra & Umeå universitet/FjällMistra, FjällMistrarapport, Rapport nr: 10, Umeå, Sweden 8. Fitchen JM (1989) When toxic chemicals pollute residential environments: The cultural meanings of home and homeownership. Hum Organ 48:313–324 9. Gärdenfors U (2005) Rödlistade arter i Sverige 2005—The 2005 Red List of Swedish Species. ArtDatabanken. SLU, Uppsala 10. Grimes M (2005) Democracy’s infrastructure: The role of procedural fairness in fostering consent. Department of Political Science, Göteborg University, Göteborg 11. Hornborg A (1994) Environmentalism, ethnicity and sacred places: Reflections on modernity, discourse and power. Can Rev Sociol Anthropol 31:245–267 12. Ingold T (1993) The temporality of the landscape. World Archaeol 25:152–174 13. Liberg O, Andrén H, Pedersen H-C, Sand H, Sejberg D, Wabakken P, Åkesson M, Bensch S (2005) Severe inbreeding depression in a wild wolf (Canis lupus) population. Biol Lett 22:17–20 14. Lovell N (1998) Locality and belonging. Routledge, London 15. Löfgren O (1997) Mellanrum: Vita fläckar och svarta hål i storstadens utkant. In: Saltzman K, Svensson B (eds) Moderna landskap. Natur och Kultur, Stockholm, pp 45–69

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16. Mairal Buil G (1996) Social disarticulation and water policy in Aragon. In Second International Conference on Resettlement Issues: Oxford 9–14 September 1996. Refugee Studies Programme, University of Oxford and World Bank. Oxford, UK 17. Mairal Buil G (2004) The invention of a minority: A case from the Aragonese. In: Boholm Å, Löfstedt R (eds) Facility siting: Risk, power and identity in land use planning. Earthscan, London 18. McCarthy J (2002) First world political ecology: lessons from the wise use movement. Environ Plann A 34:1281–1302 19. McCarthy J (2005) Guest editorial. Environ Plann A 37:953–958 20. Nesbitt JT, Daniel W (2001) Conflicting environmental imaginaries and the politics of nature in central appalachia. Geoforum 32:333–349 21. Prop.2000/01:57. Sammanhållen rovdjurspolitik [Coherent Predator Policy]. Miljödepartementet 22. Riley RB (1992) Attachment to the ordinary landscape. In: Altman I, Low SM (eds) Human behavior and environment: Advances in theory and research. Place attachment. Plenum Press: New York, pp 13–35 23. Robbins P (2002) Obstacles to a first world political ecology? looking near without looking up. Environ Plann A 34:1509–1513 24. Sand H, Wabakken P, Liberg O (2004) Vargens biologi: karaktärer och konsekvenser för små populationer. In: Jansson G, Seiler C, Andrén H (eds) Skogsvilt III. Grimsö forskningsstation, Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet, Riddarhyttan, pp. 58–65 25. Saxon JL (1935) Jakt och jägare i gamla tiders Närke [Hunting and hunters in old time Närke]. Saxon & Lindströms Förlag, Stockholm 26. Schama S (1995) Landscape and memory. Alfred A. Knopf Inc, New York 27. Scott JC (1998) Seeing like a state. Yale University Press, New Haven 28. Sjölander-Lindqvist A (2004a) Local environment at stake: The Hallandsås railway tunnel in a social and cultural context. Human Ecology Division, Lund 29. Sjölander-Lindqvist A (2004b) Vizualising place and belonging: Landscape redefined in a Swedish farming community. In: Boholm Å, Löfstedt R (eds) Facility siting: Risk, power and identity in land-use planning. Earthscan, London 30. Sjölander-Lindqvist A (2006) Den är ju inte i fårhagen på studiebesök—om lokala perspektiv och uppfattningar om varg och rovdjursförvaltning. CEFOS, Göteborgs universitet, Rapport 2006:1, Göteborg 31. Sjölander-Lindqvist A, Serena C (2006) Negotiating ’Dead-end’ Decisions: Organizing REGIONAL Groups in Predatory Animal Issues in Sweden. in New Perspectives on Risk Communication Conference. Göteborg 32. Skogen K, Olve K (2003) A wolf at the gate: the anti-carnivore alliance and the symbolic construction of community. Sociol Ruralis 43:309–325 33. Skr.2001/02:173. En samlad naturvårdspolitik. Miljödepartementet 34. SOU 1999:146. Rovdjursutredningen—Slutbetänkande om en sammanhållen rovdjurspolitik. Miljö- och samhällsbyggnadsdepartementet 35. Wabakken P, Åke A (2006) Ulv i Skandinavia pr. 5 april 2006. Foreløpige konklusjoner for vinteren 2005/2006. Høgskolen i Hedmark, Oppdragsrapport nr. 5 36. Wilson MA (1997) The wolf in yellow stone: science, symbol, or politics? Deconstructing the conflict between environmentalism and wise use. Soc Nat Res 10:453–469

Seas, Ecological Balance and Sustainable Environment. Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica – Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi Suzana Aliu, S. Jusufi, Majlinda Daci, and Shefket Dehari

Abstract Water is a must need for the life and none of the living creatures could exist without it. But, in meantime water could became a cause of some diseases and the death. With the social society development, improvement of the well-being and increase of the number of the residents in our planet, also the individual and economical need for the water is increased. The permanent human being is used only to take things from the nature not to contribute to the “nature”. However human egoism in rapport with nature and the vital environment, which is exploited without control and without any care can destroy the entire ecosystems. All of this is returned to the humans and seen in their life and health. The aim of this paper was analysis and determination of heavy metals like Cu, Zn, Cd, and Pb in water samples of different prophiles from Ohrid Lake. Studied water samples were taken in different locations and different depths (0, 20, 40, 75, 100 and 150 m). The presence of toxic heavy metals in food chain was studied in fish species – Belbica (Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi). Determination of analysed heavy metals was done using Atomic Absorption spectroscopy using a Perkin Elmer 370 A and 370 flame – air acetylene and AAS Peyunicam 926 model. Keywords Water Belbica · Conservarion · Heavy Meta

1 Entry Metals occur naturally in the environment and are present in rocks, soil, plants, and animals. Metals occur in different forms: as ions dissolved in water, as vapors, or as salts or minerals in rock, sand and soil. They can also be bound in organic or inorganic molecules, or attached to particles in the air. Both natural anthropogenic processes and sources emit metals into air and water. The effects of metals in the environment depend to a large extent on whether they occur in forms that can be taken up by plants or animals. Uptake of metals in S. Aliu (B) Study of Polytechnic Center, State University of Tetovo, Tetovo, Macedonia e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_3, 

29

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an animal involves metal ions crossing a cell membrane. Often a ligand, or a carriers, executes this transport. Sometimes there are additional specific carriers within the cell. If an organism’s uptake of metal is greater than its ability to get rid of it, the metal will accumulate. Heavy metals tend to accumulate in storage compartments. For example, cadmium accumulates preferentially in the kidneys, and lean in the skeleton. The accumulation can continue throughout the organism’s life and is the major cause of chronic toxicity. In contrast to organic pollutants, metals accumulate in protein tissues and bone rather than fat.

2 Ohrid Lake Is situated in the Southeastern part of Europe, with Albania and FYR of Macedonia as the only two lakeshore states. It is peculiar for it’s rich biodiversity, that derives of it’s very old age. Ohrid Lake is the biggest and the deepest from all the lakes of the group known as “Desaret”. It is called a Museum of living fossils and it offers a living environment for too many organisms typical for mild waters, which, in the Balkans Peninsula and Central Europe are found only in the fossil form. Another typicalpeculiarity of this Lake is its the only flow – the river Drini i Zi, with an approximate flow of 22.4 m s, for most of the time. The beautiful parts of the lake can be viewed on the pictures below.

The dirty parts of the lake can be viewed on the pictures below.

Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica

31

3 Living Species Ohrid Lake is well known for its 17 kinds of fish. They are all autochthonous species. Ten of them are commercially important. Another peculiar feature of this lake is its ability to self regeneration. Its water comes from different sources as well as from its water accumulating basin. Because of these peculiarities, beginning from 1980, Ohrid Lake and the city itself are under the protection of UNESCO.

4 Experimental Engagement 4.1 Material Gathering and Working Methods In this output, the presence of heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni, Zn) in the water on its vertical profile was analyzed, beginning from levels (0, 20, 40, 75, 100 and 150 m depth), as well as their impact in the nutrition chain. Three exemplars of fish known as Belbica (Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi), B1, B2 and B3 were examined. From each of them organs like gills, liver, muscular tissues and bones were dissected. After the dissection, the determination of the concentration of the heavy metals, such as: Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb in each of the organs was done. To achieve this, SAA – Spectroscopy of Atomic Absorption – the flame technique was used. The measurements were done by Spectrophotometer of the atomic absorption of the type PERKIN – ELMER 370 A and 370. Flame – Air– Acetylene and SAA PEYUNICAM 926 (4).

Belbica (Gjuca) – Alburnus alburnus alborella de Filippi 1844

5 Experimental Results Achieved results are presented in charts/graphics as follows: Charts 1–5 to represent the achieved results of the concentration of the heavy metals on the studied samples through experimental work.

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Graphic charts from A to E represent the same results – the results from the previous Charts 1–5, added is only a better visual representation of them.

6 Discussion of the Results After having thrown an analytic view on the results given above through the charts, both numeric and graphic ones, one can notice very clearly that on the vertical profile of the lake waters, the concentration of the metals were traced, as follows: Concentration of Mn goes from 0.10 mg/l in 20 m to 1.91 mg/l in 150 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Iron – Fe was represented in concentrations 1.0 mg/l in 20 m up to 1.91 mg/ in 150 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Zinc was registered on minimal values from 0.41 mg/l in 20 m, up to 0.45 mg/l in 100 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Copper was registered from 0.07 mg/l in 20 m to 0.07 mg/l in 100 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Nickel gave these results: 0.38 mg/l in 20 m up to 0–85 mg/l in 150 m deepness (Table 1, Chart 1). Table 1 Determination of heavy metals in the water on the vertical profile of the lake by SAA – mg/l Sample

0m

20 m

40 m

75 m

100 m

150 m

Fe Mn Zn Cu Cd Ni Pb

0.8 0.15 0.33 0.05 – 0.26 –

1.0 0.1 0.41 0.06 – 0.38 –

0.9 0.14 0.37 0.06 – 0.3 –

1.2 0.21 0.29 0.07 – 0.27 –

1.0 0.24 0.45 0.07 – 0.18 –

1.91 0.25 0.4 0.06 – 0.85 –

2 0m 20m 40m 75m 100m 150m

1.5 1 0.5 0 Fe

Mn

Zn

Cu

Cd

Ni

Pb

Chart 1 Concentration of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd, Ni and Pb in water on the vertical profile of the lake, determined with SAA (mg/l)

Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica

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From the analyses done on the studied water samples, about the concentration of the above mentioned metals, one can easily understand that, with some exceptions, their concentration on the lake waters is not of a high level. That’s why, we can say that the waters on the vertical profile of the Ohrid Lake belong to the waters of the first or second class (Tables 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). In order to have a realistic view about what was stated above, during the determination of the presence of the heavy metals in the organs of fish, our results have shown the values given below:

Table 2 Parameters of analysed fish Sample

B1

B2

B3

Length cm Weight g Gills g Liver g Muscular tissues g Bones g

14 22.205 0.183 0.255 0.725 0.05

12.5 16.67 0.242 0.205 0.506 0.02

13.5 21.37 0.241 0.203 0.672 0.02

Table 3 Determination of heavy metals on gills of fish with SAA – μg/l Sample

B1

B2

B3

Zn Cu Cd Pb

115.3 25.9 9.3 74.16

30.64 126.6 0.92 1.27

24.6 139.6 0.77 13.9

Table 4 Determination of heavy metals on liver of fish with SAA – μg/l Sample

B1

B2

B3

Zn Cu Cd Pb

127.4 285.6 1.4 −

162.2 210.3 2.38 −

142.2 164.5 6.32 48.8

Table 5 Determination of heavy metals on the fish muscular tissue with SAA – μg/l Sample

B1

B2

B3

Zn Cu Cd Pb

3.8 21.5 0.45 2.9

2.12 22.1 1.08 38.4

1.46 27.1 1.91 0.52

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S. Aliu et al. Table 6 Determination of heavy metals on fish bones with SAA – μg/l Sample

B1

B2

B3

Zn Cu Cd Pb

7.72 486 1.36 3.8

26.8 403 1.3 2.12

30.5 18.9 1.4 1.46

Chart 2 Concentration of Zn in the organs of fish, determined with SAA (μg/g)

180 160 140 120

gills

100

liver muscular tissues

80 60

bones

40 20 0 B1

B2

B3

Minimal amount of Zinc was accumulated in the muscles 1.46 μg/kg B3 (Table 5, Chart 2), up to 162.2 μg/kg in the liver B2 (Table 4, Chart 2). Copper did give these results: 21.5 μg/kg – B1 in muscles (Table 5, Chart 3) up to 486 μg/kg B1 in the bones (Table 6, Chart 3). The amount of the concentrated Lead goes from 0.52 μg/kg in muscles – B3 (Table 5, Chart 4), up to 74.16 μg/kg in gills – B1 (Table 3, Chart 4). Results of the Cadmium have shown that the gill of B3 possesses a concentration of 0.77 μg/kg (Table 3, Chart 5), up to 9.3 μg/kg in the gills of B1 (Table 3, Chart 5).

180 160 140 120 100

gills liver

80

muscular tissues bones

60

Chart 3 Concentration of Cu in the organs of fish, determined SAA (μg/g)

40 20 0 B1

B2

B3

Heavy Metals in the Water of Lake Ohrid and in Fish Species Belbica Chart 4 Concentration of Pb in the organs of fish, determined SAA (μg/g)

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80 70 60 50

gills

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liver

30

muscular tissues bones

20 10 0 B1

Chart 5 Concentration of cadmium in the organs of fish, determined SAA (μg/g)

B2

B3

80 70 60 50

gills

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liver

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muscular tissues

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bones

10 0 B1

B2

B3

7 Conclusions Presence of the heavy metals in the leaving creatures is done by their penetration through the cell membrane. This process is frequently done through some conductors specific for the cells. Metals get accumulated in the organism in cases when the conductivity of a given metal is bigger than the capacity of the organism to get rid of it. It is typical for the heavy metals to get themselves accumulated in the accumulative organs. This way, cadmium initially is accumulated in the kidney, copper in liver and Lead in skeleton. This process goes on during the whole lifetime of the organism and occasionally it brings it to the level of chronic poisoning. From the above results, one can notice that the fish belbica does accumulate a higher amount of heavy metals and this amount get bigger together with the weight of the fish. From what was stated above, one can conclude that the accumulation of heavy metals by the leaving creatures that do live within water ecosystems, is an ongoing process that is not preferred because it represents a sort of threat for their mere existence as well as for the nutrition chain to come.

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References 1. Hart B, Hines T (1995) Trace elements in rivers. In: Salbu B, Steinnes E (eds), Trace elements in natural waters. CRC, Press, Boca Raton, Ann Arbor, London, Tokyo, pp 203–221 2. Beckett R (1990) Surface and colloid chemistry in natural waters and water treatment. Plenum Press, Melbourne 3. Hong J, Calmano W, Foerstner U (1995) Interstitial waters. In: Salbu B, Steinnes E (eds), Trace elements in natural waters. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Ann Arbor, London, Tokyo, pp 117–150 4. Spirkovski Z (2002) Teški metali i pesticidi vo ribite od Ohridskoto Ezero. Hidrobiološki zavod Ohrid 5. Balvay R (1991) What is the best time reference to express biological results. The calendar year or the ecological year. Verh Int Verein Limnol 24:928–930 6. Risteski K, Davitkovski B (1997) Ekološko pravo, Shkup. pp. 18–22 7. Goldman CR (1983) Horne, limnology. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York St. Luis-San Francisko-Auckland, Bogota- Hamburg-Toronto, pp 464 8. Arsoski M (1974) Nekoi pogledi vrz genezata na Ohridskoto Ezero. MANU. Simpozium za problematikata na regulacijata na Ohridskoto Ezero, pp 76–85 9. Naumovski T (1985) Oligomiksijata na Ohridskoto Ezero. Hidrobiološki zavod. Jubilejno izdanie, 1:217–226 10. Hadište J (1992) Dosegašnite sovetuvanja za problemite na zaštitatata na Ohridskoto Ezero so negovata okolina i novi predlozi za nivno rešavanje. DEM. Zbornik na trudovi “Ohridskoto Ezero i negovata zaštita”, pp 19–26 11. Naumovski T (2000) Fosforno optovaruvanje na Ohridskoto Ezero. Dokt. Diser. Univ. “Sv. Kiril i Metodij” PMF – Institut za biologija; Shkup, pp 1–37 12. Hecky R (1993) The eutrophication of lake Victoria. Verh Internat Verein Limnol 25:39–48 13. Ntakimazi G (1992) Conservation of the resources of the African great lakes. Mitt Internat Verein Limnol 23:5–9 14. Twenddle D (1992) Conservation and threats to the resources of Lakes Malawi. Mitt Internat Verein Limnol 23:17–24 15. Naumovski T (1999) Promeni na alkalnosta na nekoi regioni od Ohridskoto Ezero kako rezultat na nutrientnoto iskoristuvanje. Zbornik na trudovi. I Kongres na ekolozite na Makedonija so megjunarodno u´cestvo, pp 268–275 16. Ikonomi, Gj. (2002) Ndikimi i aktivitetit minerar në Liqenin e Ohrit. Kumtesë. Inst. Hidrobiologjik, Ohër 17. El-Hasani S, Al-Dhaeri S, El-Maazawi M, Kamal M (1999) Polarographic and voltammetric determination of some toxic heavy metal jones in the treated Waster water at Abu – Dhabi, UAE. Water Sci Technol 40(7):67–74. IWA Publishing 18. Meany M (1995) Determination of Pb and Cd in seawater by F – AAS using preconcentration trace elements in seawater htm. Dublin City University

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes for the Follow-Up of the Components Sand-Vegetation in the Area of Mecheria, Algerie Haddouche Idriss, Mederbal Khaladi, and Saidi Slim

Abstract The Algerian steppe has become for a few years the theatre of an ecological and climatic imbalance. The intense degradation for this fragile medium (stranding wind erosion, overgrazing, clearing, salinisation . . . .) inducing the turning into a desertification require a better comprehension in order to see how to fight against this plague and to adapt an adequate installation to him. Thus, this work lies within the scope of the follow-up of the phenomenon of the turning into a desertification on a space with the heart of the high Oranian southern steppe plains, in fact the area of Mecheria. Techniques of numerical cartography, since the satellite image processing until the geographic information systems (SIG) for the realization of the charts sets of themes, being able to highlight this calamity. The use of the approaches based on the exploitation of the satellite data multi dates (1998 and 2004) of the sensor Thematic Mapper (TM) of Landsat 5 permitted us to obtain a gathering of an interpretative photo maps and vegetation index which, in their turn, helped us to see the changes arrived in the medium, copiously regressive that progressive. Keywords Desertification · Remote sensing · Steppe · Mecheria · Algeria Résumé La steppe algérienne est devenue depuis quelques années le théâtre d’un déséquilibre écologique et climatique. La dégradation intense de ce milieu fragile (ensablement, érosion éolienne, surpâturage, défrichement, salinisation . . .) induisant la désertification, nécessite une meilleure compréhension en vue de voir comment lutter contre ce fléau et lui adapter un aménagement adéquat. Ainsi, ce travail s’inscrit dans le cadre du suivi du phénomène de la désertification sur un espace au cœur des hautes plaines steppiques sud oranaises, en l’occurrence la région de Mecheria. Les techniques de cartographie numérique, depuis les traitements des images satellitaires jusqu’aux systèmes d’information

H. Idriss (B) Département de Foresterie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Tlemcen BP 119, Tlemcen 13000, Algeria e-mail: [email protected]

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géographique (SIG) pour la réalisation des cartes thématiques, pouvant mettre en relief cette calamité. L’utilisation des approches basées sur l’exploitation des données satellitaires multi dates (1998 and 2004) du capteur Thermaux Mapper (TM) de Lands 5 nous a permis l’obtention d’un ensemble de cartes photointerprétations et des indices de végétation qui, à leur tour, nous ont aidé à apercevoir les changements parvenus dans le milieu, copieusement régressifs que progressifs. Mots clés Désertification · Télédétection · Steppe · Mecheria · Algérie

1 Introduction The degradation of the dry and semi-dry ecosystems in Algeria has become a fact which shows down the progress of rural development [1]. In these milieus, the lack of vegetation is apparent and the eolian erosion predominates. The ecosystem has a long hot season and a weak rainfall. In these areas, the phenomenon is called desertification. The emergency of the struggle against this phenomenon is imposed by the process itself, when man’s intervention doesn’t come on time; it creates situations forbidding the possibility of arranging these areas [2]. In the case of the steppes located north of the Sahara, the degradation process of the soils, has been studied: the covering rate of the vegetation decreases, and hence gives birth to dunes. The sensitiveness of the desertification appears as a set of indicators synoptic adapted to the evaluation scale. Hence, an indicator may be defined as a tool which enables to characterize the milieu, the constraints and the answers. The pictures sent by the observation satellites of the earth, are an important source of information. They allow us to collect the information about the resources of earth [3]. Taking this advantage for granted, it is useful to conduct a map survey with the help of a tool “remote sensing” as an applying help over a dry area, located in the heart of the high plains south of Oran, called Mecheria.

2 The Milieu Study 2.1 The Geographical Setting As far as the administrative point of view is concerned, our area of study is located in the commune of Mecheria, wilaya of Naama. It’s geographically bordered in the North and the West by the commune of El-Biodh, in the East by the wilaya of El-Bayadh and in the South by the commune of Naama.

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Fig. 1 Localization of the zone of study

The main physical sets of the area of study are as follows: • A dune in the North; • The city of Mecheria lies in the centre of the area at the bottom of Djebel Antar which is 30 km long and 1,712 m of high point. • The “sebkha” of Naama, in the South. It could be collected on a topographic map at 1/100.000eme with following coordinates (Fig. 1): • Longitude: 0◦ 3 00 –0◦25 00 West (Greenwich meridian); • Latitude: 32◦ 40 22 –32◦51 52 North.

2.2 The Natural Milieu The climate of the area of Mecheria is a Mediterranean climate dry with cold winters [2] and [4]. It is characterized by two (02) contrasting seasons. The first is cold and wet, and goes till the end of October until early May with an average temperature of 10.05◦C and a rainfall of 147 mm, the other is dry and hot and runs from mid May to mid October with an average temperature of 21.77◦C and a rainfall of 86.49 mm. The area of Mecheria is composed of three (03) types of formation (Fig. 2): • Djebel Antar corresponds to an anticlinal composed essentially of formations of Jurassic age; • The plains; • The recent depots.

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Fig. 2 The geological setting of the area of Mecheria

Fig. 3 The slope map of the area of Mecheria

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The map allows us to distinguish 4 categories showing the geomorphologic diversity of the milieu: Category 1: 0–3% Category 2: 3–12% Category 3: 12–25% Category 4: 25–88%. This information varies between 0% (the lowest points) until 88% (the highest point) that of Djebel Antar (Fig. 3). The types of soils in the area of Mecheria are lithological, like greys types, calcareous, marine and clay. We can distinguish: • • • •

The sand soils; The colluviums; The alluviums; The calcareous glacis.

3 Used Data For this application, we have used satellite pictures data of two different dates (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 4 Picture TM 4.3.1 (1998)

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Fig. 5 Picture TM 4.3.1 (2004)

• Picture LANDSAT 5 Thematic Mapper (scene 198/37) of October 24 1998; • Picture LANDSAT 5 Thematic Mapper (scene 198/37) of March 27, 2004. We got interested in the spectral field of the TM captor by the combination of three bands (4, 3 and 1) for the two pictures. The picture extracts are 1000 × 1000 pixels, whose contours are more or less equidistant from the city of Mecheria. The resolution of the pixel of TM picture is 30 × 30 m.

4 Methodology The work conducted on the area of study (set of treatments and photo interpretation through computer) based on the use of satellite multi temporal pictures and different software of the treatment of pictures. The approaches used are synthesized and represented in the form of an organisation diagram (Fig. 6). The mapping way is based on two types of criteria:

Space Analysis and the Detection of the Changes in Mecheria, Algerie

LANDSAT TM image (1998)

Auxiliary data

Pretreatments: -Geometric correction -Radiometric correction

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LANDSAT TM image (2004)

Extraction of windows of region study

Image extract TM 4.3.1 (2004)

Image extract TM 4.3.1 (1998) Specific treatments Classified image (1998) NDVI 1998

Ground reality

COMPARISON Index change

Sand map (1998)

Classified image (2004) NDVI 2004

Sand map (2004)

Comparison and detection of changements Fig. 6 Organisation diagram methodology

• the criteria related to the satellite picture: geographical location; colours; geometric forms; • the criteria of environment: topography, vegetation, climatic data, . . .etc. These criteria allow the recognition of the homogeneous units of the level of vegetation cover, there delimitation and there representation [4] and [5]. Consequently, the diachronic approach contributes to the evolution of the milieu between two (02) dates (1998 and 2004). Thus, the mixing of the two NDVI will help us get a final image presenting different changes which happened in the steppic area.

5 Results and Discussion The interpretation allows providing a thematic cartography. The superposition of three bands of the TM, hence the supervised classification (Figs. 7 and 8) and the indices of vegetation (Figs. 9 and 10) have shown that there has been a very

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Fig. 7 Classified image by maximum likelihood (1998)

Fig. 8 Classified image by maximum likelihood (2004)

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Fig. 9 Vegetation index “NDVI” (1998)

Fig. 10 Vegetation index “NDVI” (2004)

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Fig. 11 Change index

Fig. 12 Sand map (1998)

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Fig. 13 Sand map (2004)

important regression during the last 6 years between 1998 and 2004 (Fig. 11). This is due to the degradation of the vegetal cover caused by an over exploitation. The sand remains a very important factor in the area. The sand map obtained by the unsupervised classification for the two dates, showed us a reverse effect (Figs. 12 and 13), due essentially to the date of the two pictures, one in autumn and the other in spring. We have compared the physiognomic types of the units in 1998 and those of 2004 where there is a change for the elements on the surface of the ground (Fig. 14). The rate of recovering of Alpha (Stipa Tenacissima) group has a decrease from 11.18 to 2.37%. It’s a species which regenerates because of the problems of overexploitation. Unlike the Alfa, the “psammophites” species have known a high increase of their recovering rate from 1.42 to 40.66%. The appearance of species of Peganum harmala, Salsola vermiculata and Noea microphila is the sign of the degradation of the vegetal cover. This is due to the impact of the human actions on our milieu principally with an increase of the urbanisation rate 0.38–2.52%. However, other mutations less significative are due to the shade effect, considering the difference between the angles of elevation and also the dates when the images were taken.

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Fig. 14 Comparison between the physiognomic types (1998–2004)

6 Conclusion The use of these approaches based on the exploitation of the satellite data (1998– 2004) of the captor Thematic Mapper (TM) of the Landsat 5 allowed us to obtain a set of maps photo interpretative and signs of vegetation which helped us to see the changes which happened in the milieu. Hence the movies of the degradation of the milieu in the area of Mecheria. The area of Mecheria identified as degraded on the whole, is the result of human actions. If urgent measures are not taken, this degradation, stressed by the phenomenon of dryness, may engender one or many processes of desert advance, endangering the natural milieu and the sustainability of the resources (soil, fauna and flora). Thanks to remote sensing, it’s possible to bring a help to the prospector provided the elements of surface may be discriminated and to reduce the duration of the prospection of the field in varied milieu and difficult of access.

References 1. Haddouche I, Mederbal K, Bouazza M, Benhanifia K (2004) Utilisation de la télédétection pour l’étude de la déforestation. Cas de la région de Djelfa. Colloque Méditerranéen sur la Gestion Durable des Espaces Montagnards. Dept. Sc. de la Terre et Agronomie, Univ. Tlemcen, 10–11 Oct. 2004. 10p 2. Halem M (1997) La steppe Algérienne : causes de la désertification et propositions pour un développement durable. Thèse de magistère. UNIV Sidi Bel Abes. 180p 3. Scanvic JY (1983) Utilisation de la télédétection dans les sciences de la terre. Manuels et méthodes dans les sc. de la terre. Manuels et méthodes. BRGM. France. 158p 4. Haddouche I, Benhamouda F, Djili K (2001) Cartographie pédopaysagique de synthèse par télédétection «images Landsat TM.». Cas de la région de Ghassoul (El Bayadh). Actes du

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3ème COLLOQUE « Géophysique des sols et des Formations Superficielles » 25–26 Septembre 2001 Orlérans, France. INRA, Paris. ISBN: 2-7380-0991-3, pp 61–65 5. Benhanifia K, Haddouche I, Smahi Z, Bensaid K, Hamimed A (2003) Characterization of the deforestation effect in a semi-arid region by the use of satellite images. Proc. SPIE vol. 5232, RS 2003, pp 324–332, Remote sensing for agriculture, Ecosystems, and Hydrology V; eds. Feb. 2004 ISBN-0-8194-5142-8

Biodiversity and Actual Status of Narta and Dukati Lagoons in Albania Liljana Elmazi and Evelina Bazini

Abstract In this paper we have emphasise that sustainable tourism depends on community involvement and participation, communities should benefit from sustainable tourism, tourism is closely linked to the preservation of a healthy environment, which in turn is an essential element of tourism development and helps to raise public awareness on some biodiversity issues. An assessment of the interlinkages biological diversity and tourism was endorsed. This included consideration of the economic importance of tourism and its interrelationship with the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, as well as the potential impacts of tourism on biological diversity, including economic, social and environmental impacts. The management process comprises ten steps for management of sustainable tourism and biodiversity: (1) Baseline information and review; (2) Vision and goals; (3) Objectives; (4) Review of legislation and control measures; (5) Impact assessment; (6) Impact management; (7) Decision making; (8) Implementation; (9) Monitoring; (10) Adaptive management. Also we analyse the biological diversity in Albania, especially in Narta and Dukati lagoons. Keywords Biodiversity · Lagoon · Sustainable tourism

1 Biological Diversity and Tourism Within the Convention on Biological Diversity The fact that tourism is expanding in all regions, including in remote and sensitive areas such as islands and new mountain areas, and Antarctica, and that the main areas where tourism is based include: small island developing states and coastal

L. Elmazi (B) Faculty of Economics, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania e-mail: [email protected]

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regions; mountains; species-rich and protected areas; and urban areas, emphasise the growing pressure on biological diversity [3]. Tourism has been discussed in the context of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) as a cross-cutting issue for a number of years. The CBD was signed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro [1]. With 182 parties ratified so far, it is the most successful environmental convention. The Convention has three basic objectives: • Conservation of Biological Diversity • Sustainable use of its components • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits At the fifth Conference of the Parties (COP5) in May 2000 in Nairobi, Decision V/25 on Biological diversity and tourism was adopted, which recognized that the scale and expansion of tourism has major implications for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and for attainment of the Convention’s objectives. Decision V/25 noted the increasing importance of tourism for social and economic development at local, national and regional levels, and that, in relation to the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity: • sustainable tourism depends on community involvement and participation, • communities should benefit from sustainable tourism, • tourism is closely linked to the preservation of a healthy environment, which in turn is an essential element of tourism development and helps to raise public awareness on some biodiversity issues. An assessment of the inter-linkages biological diversity and tourism was endorsed. This included consideration of the economic importance of tourism and its interrelationship with the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, as well as the potential impacts of tourism on biological diversity, including economic, social and environmental impacts [2]. Furthermore, Decision V/25 accepted the invitation to participate in the international work program on sustainable tourism development under the Commission on Sustainable Development process with regard to biological diversity, in particular, with a view to contributing to international guidelines for activities related to sustainable tourism development in vulnerable terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems and habitats of major importance for biological diversity and protected areas, including fragile riparian and mountain ecosystems, bearing in mind the need for such guidelines to apply to activities both within and outside protected areas, and taking into account existing guidelines, and requests the Executive Secretary to prepare a proposal for the contribution guidelines, for example by convening an international workshop.

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2 Draft International Guidelines for Activities Related to Sustainable Tourism Development in Vulnerable Areas The International Guidelines for activities related to sustainable tourism development drafted at the Santo Domingo Workshop are intended to assist Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, public authorities and stakeholders at all levels, to apply the provisions of the Convention to the sustainable development and management of tourism activities. They will provide technical guidance to policy makers, decision makers and managers with responsibilities covering tourism and/or biodiversity, whether in national or local government, the private sector, indigenous and local communities, non governmental organizations or other organizations, on ways of working together with key stakeholders involved in tourism and biodiversity in order to contribute, interalia, to functioning ecosystems; sustainable tourism in functioning ecosystems; fair and equitable sharing of benefits; information and capacity-building; restoration of past damage.

2.1 Scope The guidelines cover all forms and activities of tourism, which should all come under the framework of sustainable development, in all geographic regions. These include, but are not limited to, conventional mass tourism, ecotourism, nature-and culture-based tourism, cruise tourism, leisure and sports tourism.

2.2 Management Process Steps The management process needs to be undertaken through a multi-stakeholder process. Interdepartmental and inter-organizational structure and processes should be established to ensure coordination to guide policy development and implementation and to improve awareness and exchange of knowledge among stakeholders at all levels. A consultative process, based on multi-stakeholder participation, should be established to ensure ongoing and effective dialogue and information sharing and the stakeholder engagement and participation in the whole process. The establishment of partnership should be encouraged. The management process comprises ten steps for management of sustainable tourism and biodiversity: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Baseline information and review; Vision and goals; Objectives; Review of legislation and control measures; Impact assessment;

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6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

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Impact management; Decision making; Implementation; Monitoring; Adaptive management.

2.3 Notification Process and Information Requirements Proposals for tourism development and activities at particular locations in relation to biodiversity, are to be submitted through the notification process. Proposers of tourism projects, including government agencies, should provide full and timely advance notice to relevant authorities and all stakeholders who may be affected, including indigenous and local communities, of proposed developments through a formal process of prior informed approval. Information provided should be made public, and public comment invited on all proposals for tourism development and activities. Government response to notification of proposals for tourism development may range from approvals, with or without conditions, to refusal of the proposal. Further information from the proposer and further research by other agencies may be requested by Governments.

2.4 Public Education and Awareness Raising Public education and awareness raising campaigns need to be addressed to both the professional sectors and the general public to inform them about the impacts of tourism on biological diversity, and good practices in this area. Public awareness campaign will need to be tailored for various audiences, particularly stakeholders including consumers of tourism, developers and tourism operators. The private sector could play an active role encouraging conservation among clients. Education and awareness-raising is required at all levels of government. Awareness should also be increased within and outside governments that vulnerable ecosystems and habitats are often located within lands and waters occupied or used by indigenous and local communities. It is also important to raise awareness within the academic sector responsible for training and research on issues regarding the harmonious interaction between biological diversity and sustainable tourism.

2.5 Capacity Building Capacity-building activities should aim to develop and strengthen the capacities of governments and all stakeholders to facilitate the effective implementation of

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these guidelines, and may be necessary at local, national, regional and international levels. Capacity-building activities can include strengthening human resources and institutional capacities; the transfer of know-how; the development of appropriate facilities; training in relation to biological diversity and sustainable tourism issues, and impact assessment and impact management techniques. Local communities should also be equipped with the necessary decision-making abilities, skills and knowledge in advance of future tourist in-flows, as well as with relevant capacity and training regarding tourism services and environmental protection. Capacity-building activities should provide assistance to stakeholders in undertaking all the steps of the management processes and in strengthening mechanisms for impact assessment. Capacity-building should also include the establishment of multi-stakeholder processes and the training of tourism professionals. Information exchange and collaboration regarding sustainable tourism implementation through networking and partnerships between all stakeholders affected by, or involved in tourism, including the private sector, should be encouraged.

3 Case Study: Narta and Dukati Lagoons 3.1 Historical Introduction The fisheries activities in Narta and Dukati lagoons are some of the oldest and most traditional activities in our country. Due to sensible alterations of the productions in different years, there were made important studies such as: “Study of the Narta lagoon in its hydrological, hydro chemical, hydro biological and fishing aspects (1987–1988)”. The same studies were carried out for Dukati lagoon in 1990. The coastal area of Narta and Dukati lagoons was monitored for the heavy metal presence, the physical and chemical parameters, the bacterial abundance and the dynamics of bivalve mussel populations (the mussels that have socio-economic importance). In 1994–1996 in cooperation with the Montpellier University (Hydrobiology lab) were made some expeditions in Narta lagoon about phytoplankton, the suspension matter and some physical chemical parameters. From the statistical data, the production has had great alterations in years and in species components. The species with the greatest alterations are: for the fish group, eel (Anguilla anguilla), gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), sand smelt (Aterina sp.) and crab (Carcinus aestuarii), and for the mussel group we have in Dukat, grooved carpet shell (Ruditapes decussatus), golden carpet shell (Venerupis aurea) and in Narta donax (Donax sp.)

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3.2 Mussel and Ichtyc Species Status It’s important to say that we don’t have species going toward extinction. However we must not forget the dystrophic crises and hydrological conditions and in the recent years also the irresponsible fishing and human intervention, which have caused serious problems for these ecosystems, which are crucial in the renovation of the fishery stock of the coastal area. These ecosystems have a typical Mediterranean hydrological structure and are similar with other Albanian lagoons. There some changes, especially for the Narta lagoon: The growth rate compared with other Albanian lagoons is lower of 20–40% The species compositions is worse than elsewhere High yield is obtained by high intensity fishing efforts and efficient fishery tools. The total of species are included in important species, threatened species and species that have socio-economic value. In this lagoon we don’t have species that are in extinction danger, and actually it is a clean area and we don’t have any critical conditions. However these ecosystems are threatened by: Uncontrolled fishing The income of polluted waters, which are potentially eutrophic The development of tourism and the urbanization, which threatens the biotopes of the species. 3.2.1 Rare Species These lagoons are typical Mediterranean and their ichtyofauna and malacofauna in general is the one that is present in Adriatic and Ionian coast. Studies show that the only rare species is the gastropod (Hydrobia ventosa) of Fam. Hydrobidae in the Narta lagoon. This gastropod inhabits the western side of the lagoon Priority for the existence of this species like for all the other species remains the improvement of the lagoon connection with the near coast. 3.2.2 Endemic Species The Narta and Dukati lagoon don’t have endemic species because their ecosystem has active connections with the near coast. However the experience of other Mediterranean countries suggest us that in function of the abiotic conditions the most representative species form local populations. The new FAO Codes (Art. 9–10) aim that the lagoon has to be populated only by its local population, made possible by an extensive aquaculture center.

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We must emphasize that the lagoon ichtyofauna is subject of coast-lagoon migrations, happening all year due to factors such as: abiotic, nutrient, habitat and reproduction conditions. 3.2.3 Important Species Narta Lagoon The main species of Narta lagoon, not only in the socio-economic meaning, but also as an indicator of the ecosystem state, are: Eel (A. anguilla), katadrom fish is the main species for the most of fishermen. Its production in different years changes with a maximum rate of 1:6 due to lagoon state, distrophic crises and in recent years related with decline eel stock in Mediterranean. When the eel migrates massively toward sea, its size shows the state of ecosystems, because although it’s eurihaline and euriterm species, temperature and especially high salinity are very restraining factors for its growth, often accompanied with massive losses during distrophic crises. Mullets Fam. Mugilidae, flathead grey mullet (Mugil cephalus), thinlip mullet (Liza ramada), leaping mullet (Liza saliens) have economic importance, especially (M. cephalus) who is also an indicator of the coast exploitment rate, sea communication and the fishery tools used, things that create conditions for a normal and sustainable of the lagoon and of the coastal area. The lagoon is rich with detrits, that shows the growth dynamic and a very high production over the past years but that nowadays is deteriorated. Sea breams, especially the gilthead sea bream (S. aurata) is a species that indicates the abundance of the mollusks in the lagoon, because they are its normal feed. It is also an indicator of the hydro chemical conditions, because often in winter due to lack of wintering places and low temperatures, the new generations are very reduced. Sea bass, European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), stotted sea bass (D. punctatus) are very greedy species, which hunt the lagoon ichtyofauna such as mullets, sand smelt etc. They are euriterm and eurihalin species and their production is in function of the coastal stock state and reproduction conditions, because it’s from the coast that their feed comes. Sand smelts, Mediterranean sand smelt (Atherina hepsetus), big-scale sand smelt (A. boyeri) can reach the 30% of lagoon production, they grow in weed areas, and migrates toward sea only in winter when temperature is lower than 5–6 C. The production alterations for this species is linked with hydro meteorological conditions and water level in the lagoon [Dedei Z, Bego F, Marika K, Kapedani R (2005) Unpublished]. Mussels Donax clams (Donax trunculus, D. semistriatus) are spanned in the coastal area of the Narta lagoon communications channels. They are not only of economic importance, but also of an environmental one, because their population dynamic shows the coast state alluvium and the area clearance.

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Dukati Lagoon The most important species are the one that we met in Narta lagoon, but we must note some other mussels of great importance. Grooved carpet shell (Ruditapes decussatus) and golden carpet shell (V. aurea) are concentrated in the lagoon-sea communication area. The density for surface unit is linked with the intensity of the communication lagoon-sea and from the respecting of biological exploitment parameters.

3.3 Species Habitats in Narta Lagoon Mullets, sand smelts and eels are widespread during the spring season and located in central and western side during other seasons. Their biggest concentration is near the lagoon-sea communication channels. Sea bass, sea bream and other fish of the Sparidae family are located in the areas with at least 50 cm. Depth and in the western side of the lagoon. In Dukati lagoon the ichtyc species have a uniform dispersion, meanwhile R. decussates and V. aurea are in great quantity near the channel. Ichtyofauna and malacofauna have had great alteration in their population dynamic, the maximum and constant production was reached in 1990 with great deterioration during 1994–1998 and now it has some improvements.

3.4 Main Endangered Species M. cephalus has had a drastically decline in the last years, for these reasons: the intensification of the fishing being one of the preferred species (especially his salted eggs), the diminution of the juveniles in the coastal area and the lagoon-sea channel malfunction. The endangered sea bream species are: stripped sea bream (Lithognathus mormyrus), common two bonded sea bream (Diplodus vulgaris), white sea bream (D. sargus), annular sea bream (D. annularis) and saddled sea bream (Oblada melanura). Their situation is deteriorated especially in 1997–1999 from bad communication lagoon-sea and the bad wintering conditions. The species that live in the aquatic plants populated area like: million (Lebistes reticulates), (A. fasciatus), (A. ibrus), (A. dispar) are threatened because nearly 900 ha of their habitat during summer and autumn is converted in soil, aggravating their population situation. These species are important because they feed with Anopheles, controlling their breeding. In the lagoon outfall we noted a sensible diminution of greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili) intensified fishing with trawling nets often under 20 m depth, which is prohibited [Dedei Z, Bego F, Marika K, Kapedani R (2005) Unpublished].

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In the Dukati lagoon the most endangered species is gilthead sea bream (S. aurata) because of the reduction of mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis), and of the small quantity of fingerlings that enters in lagoon. R. decussates and V. aurea due to the great export demand were overfished, which has led to drastical diminution of the production. In Narta lagoon M. cephalus is, in function of the age widespread in the lagoon. The sea bream populates the central and western part of the lagoon, meanwhile L. reticulates and Aphanius sp. Populates the shallow areas and the economy channels with great concentration in the northern part. In Dukati lagoon S. aurata is located in the northyern and central part, meanwhile Ruditapes sp. and Venerupies sp. inhabit the lagoon side of the communication channel. The communities status in Narta lagoon: M. cephalus has become a rare species from a common one, it was before. The sparidae has become rare and concentrated only in the western part, Lebistes sp. and Aphanis sp. has passed from abundant to less that common. In Dukati lagoon S. aurata has a low abundance index, especially in the last 5 years, meanwhile R. decussates and V. aurea are in the normal abundance level [4].

3.5 Species Use and Exploitation In Narta & Dukati lagoon the main activities has been fishing, grapes and olives cultivation. Fishing has always been primal, not only for fish and mussel catch but also for the lagoon maintenance. The main activity of fishing are linked with the sea communication channels where the main part of the fish is caught, were the migration gates. A great number of fishermen are occupied all year in fishing with tools like eel nets etc. The mussel catch, which is a big activity, is made by hand or by dragging nets. In the fishing activity of the lagoon are other activities such as communication channel maintainment, the opening of channels inside lagoon for fish wintering, fresh water fish in order to attract fish to the lagoon. In the last decade these ecosystems were overfished from illegal fishermen, which are the double of the legal one. This has led to the diminution of the production and alterations and to selective high quality fishing, due to external demand. The same phenomena has happen with the mussel exploitation. The mullets are destinated for the national market, except for (M. cephalus), which altogether with its eggs is exported. Until 1990 the main part of eels captured were conserved and exported as smoke-cured eels. Sea bass, sea bream and sand smelt were exported and marketed internally. Today, with the great market value fish have, the trend is to catch 3–4 times more than lagoon capacity. It’s imperative the strengthening of fish administration and ecosystems protection as it occurs in all Mediterranean countries. Coastal lagoons are intermediate areas between land and sea, so they require a very special attention, even more than other coastal areas. In the surround

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area of Narta lagoon are caught mainly from 50,000–80,000 kg of mussel/year exported. Studies made by I.K.P. Durres show that are caught also the under 22 mm individuals, problem that need attention and further monitorization. In Dukati lagoon the average production in 1990 has been of 7,000 kg of fish and 1,500–2,000 of very high quality mussels Fish and mussel value in the lagoons is growing up and these ensure big incomes. In Narta lagoon are employed 100 fishermen and 20 mussel collectors and this makes it the main activity of the area. With the improvement that must be made in the fishing and administrable aspects and the improvement of the extensive aquaculture, this lagoon can stabilize production and be well administrated in order to grow socio economic value. In the Dukati lagoon are employed 12 people with fishery and mussel activity. The fishery administration must be seen in a wider point of view and analyzing its physical, biological, economical, social and cultural components [4].

4 Recommendations and Outlook While the guidelines were developed focusing on vulnerable terrestrial, marine and coastal ecosystems and habitats of major importance for biological diversity and protected areas, they are appropriate for tourism and biological diversity in all areas. The participants of the Santo Domingo Workshop strongly recommended that the guidelines should be demonstrated through the implementation of pilot projects, including new or existing projects. Parties should be actively encouraged to submit to the Secretariat reports and cases- studies on the findings of such projects which could be based on different levels of protection and tourism development impact in different types of ecosystems. There is no doubt that such regional alliances and cross-sector partnerships imply certain risks like national egoism, industry opposition and NGO difficulties to link with government and industry in a common scheme While a SADC-based agency would do the actual auditing and accreditation on a regional and cost-effective basis it could link to the global process being investigated by the Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council, a process described in other papers presented at this event.

References 1. Antolovi´c J (1998) Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) habitat in Vis Archipelago, the Adriatic Sea. Monachus science. The Monachus Guard 1(2):8–9 December 1998 2. Antolovi´c J (2005) Mediterranean news. The Monachus Guard 8(2):20–21 December 2005 3. Casale P, Freggi D, Basso R, Argano R (2005) Oceanic habitats for loggerhead turtles in the Mediterranean sea. Marine Turtle Newl 107:10–11 4. Haxhiu I, Uruci S (1998) Some data on marine turtles in Albania. UNEP (OCA)/MED WG.145/4 Annex IV, 1–5

Approximation of Sea Surface to Optimize Tide Gauge Network A.N. Vlasov, D.B. Volkov-Bogorodsky, V.A. Kurochkina, M.G. Mnushkin, and C.J. Blasi

Abstract Nearly all kind of activities on coastal areas need water data. These data are mostly provided by water authorities who are also responsible for the tide gauge. These gauges are located on various positions and for different purposes. Despite today’s possibility of remote control systems, tide gauges have to controlled and maintained by technicians, which means that this has a time and costly effect. Therefore investigations have been undertaken to find methods and tools which can the network optimize without the loss of information. There are various methods which can be used to find the best network. Most methods are using the required accuracy of the network purpose, the installation and the maintenance cost to find the optimized network under the given constrains. The methods are quiet well used on networks on inland waters. For coastal waters and especially with tidal influence the established methods are sparse. The allocation of tide gauges on coastal area depends mainly on the behaviour of the water surface. The physical processes which are in involved can be described and used by numerical models. But numerical models are not always present at every authority. Therefore a new method was required which only uses water level data. The new method is based on the Meshless Method were weight functions play a major role. The area of investigation is divided in sub domains were the tide gauges are the associated nodes. The paper describes the new method show an example. Keywords Coast · Meshfree Method · Tide

1 Introduction Nearly all kind of activities on coastal areas need water data. These data are mostly provided by water authorities who are also responsible for the tide gauge. These gauges are located on various positions and for different purposes. Despite today’s C.J. Blasi (B) Federal Institute of Hydrology, Koblenz, Germany e-mail: [email protected]

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possibility of remote control systems, tide gauges have to controlled and maintained by technicians, which mean that this has a time and costly effect. Therefore investigations have been undertaken to find methods and tools which can the network optimize without the loss of information. There are various methods which can be used to find the best network. Most methods are using the required accuracy of the network purpose, the installation and the maintenance cost to find the optimized network under the given constrains. The methods are quiet well used on networks on inland waters. For coastal waters and especially with tidal influence the established methods are sparse. The allocation of tide gauges on coastal area depends mainly on the behaviour of the water surface. The physical processes which are in involved can be described and used by numerical models. But numerical models are not always present at every authority. Therefore a new method was required which only uses water level data. The new method is based on the Meshless Method. The area of investigation is divided in sub domains were the tide gauges are the associated nodes.

2 Applied Methodology As the allocation of the tide gauges depend mainly on the physical processes of the particular region a method have to developed which is able to reconstruct sea surface in the given area by using the water readings of stations within the region. To optimizing the location of the tide gauges presents as a problem of limited number of gauges in a huge area. In the area of investigation gauges appear in linear position (along the coast line). In addition to these, each tide gauge has an immense huge amount of data. The above mentioned special conditions determine the mathematical methods to solve the problem. The probability theory and mathematical statistics methods were used for statistical data processing. Data concerning each tide gauge were considered as realization of a random variable. Correlation and regression analyses were performed to optimally position of gauges. Approximation theory methods were applied for data approximation for the whole region of investigation and illustratively representing water surface level as well as differential geometry methods (curvature determination) to optimize positioning of tide gauges in the observed area. A new methodology was suggested which uses radial basis functions. The approximation method being developed for the region can be classified as the “Meshless Method” [1], based on the idea of local approximations in sub domain blocks, which means areas of influence. For each tide gauge with its abundance of minute-by-minute measurement data an analysis and one-dimensional approximation were performed in order to considerably reduce the volume of stored information without loss of accuracy. The accuracy of the applied methodology is in the same range as the accuracy of tide gauge itself.

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To solve the problem of optimally positioning tide gauges, an approach based on differential geometry methods was offered which allowed determining the most critical locations in the water area through analyzing the curvature of the constructed surface of the value being approximated [5]. If the surface is defined by equation ϕ = ϕ (x, y), the first and second quadratic form coefficients will be respectively determined as follows: E = 1 + ϕx2 , F = ϕx ϕy , G = 1 + ϕy2 , ϕxy ϕyy ϕxx L=  , M=  , N=  . 1 + ϕx2 + ϕy2 1 + ϕx2 + ϕy2 1 + ϕx2 + ϕy2

(1)

Principal curvatures κ 1 and κ 2 are determined as roots of quadratic equation: κ 2 (EG − F 2 ) − κ(LG − 2MF + NE) + (LN − M 2 ) = 0

(2)

As principal curvatures κ 1 and κ 2 of the surface are determined from a quadratic equation, in accordance with the Vi˙eta theorem for mean H and Gaussian (total) K curvature we get their formulae through the first and second quadratic form coefficients as follows: H=

1 LN − M 2 1 LG − 2MF + NE , K = κ κ = . (κ1 + κ2 ) = 1 2 2 2 EG − F 2 EG − F 2

(3)

Substituting expressions (2) for the first and second quadratic form coefficients into (3), we obtain the expressions for the mean i Gaussian curvature:     2 ϕ − 2ϕ ϕ ϕ + 1 + ϕ 2 ϕ 2 1 + ϕ xx x y xy yy ϕxx ϕyy − ϕxy y x 1 H=  , K =  2 . 3 2 2 + ϕ2 1 + ϕ 2 2 x y 1 + ϕx + ϕy

(4)

To solve the above problems the Sea Mirror program was developed and implemented which allows accumulating, ordering, storing and processing raw data within the database. For each tide gauge, the Sea Mirror database collects water surface level extremes Uk and instants tk at which they are attained. Approximation is applied over the intervals between extremes, which significantly reduces the data volume to store. The  approximating function in the interval tk , tk+1 etween two subsequent extremes has the form: U(t) = φ0 (t) + Uδ (t),

Uk+1 − Uk Uk+1 + Uk + cos φ0 (t) = 2 2



π tk+1 − t 2 tk+1 − tk

 , (5)

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Fig. 1 Local data approximation

Uδ (t) =

Mk

Aj φj (t),

φj (t) = sin

i=1



tk+1 − t , πj tk+1 − tk

Mk ≤ 8.

(6)

There are measurement errors in the neighborhood of the extremes which contribute to the estimation error of its attainment instant (Fig. 1). Therefore, additional approximation to obtain more accurate instants textr and extremes Uextr is used in these neighborhoods. As a result, high accuracy is achieved comparable to the accuracy of gauge itself. To reconstruct water surface in the given area, the approximation based on the least squares technique was performed using measurement data for the whole region. The approximation used the system of basis functions that are bound to specific tide gauges and represented analytically as those with a set of free parameters. The distinguishing feature of the system is that it simulates the data at the measuring points identically. Functions used are modified Gaussian functions [4] which belong to the class of radial basis functions [3, 2, 6]:



(x − xk ) cos θk + (y − yk ) sin θk Ak  

(y − yk ) cos θk − (x − xk ) sin θk 2 − Bk

2

ϕk (x, y) = exp −

(7)

where (xk , yk ) are local coordinates of a tide gauge in the approximation region; Ak , Bk and θ k are parameters of some ellipse with center (xk , yk ). This ellipse defined by semi-axes Ak , Bk and rotated by angle θ k is the influence domain of the function in approximation. In the interior of the influence domain, function ϕ k (x, y) varies no more than e times the value at the tide gauge itself (e is the base of natural logarithms). In the exterior of the influence domain, function decreases exponentially and asymptotically approaches zero at infinity. The function represents a specific bell-shaped surface with level curves in the form of ellipses.

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Fig. 2 Region of investigation and locations of tide gauges

The proposed approach was developed and tested in the North Sea area near the Port of Wilhelmshaven, Jade Bay, Germany. Figure 2 shows the region of investigation and the location of the tide gauges. The areas of influence of each tide gauge, which called sub-domain blocks are shown as circles in this case. The data relevant to this region were entered into the database of the Sea Mirror program and statistical processing and analysis were performed over a long time span. Statistical series comprised the data starting from 1935 up to the present. The water level time-dependent deviation was calculated using the Sea Mirror program by the algorithm employing measurement data approximation with Meshless Methods. Figure 3 shows the fluctuation dynamics of the sea level in August, 2001, on the change of tide (time span was taken equal to 20 minutes). These plots clearly demonstrate just the opposite behavior of flow and ebb tidal waves at the mouth of the bay: where the flow wave level rises, the ebb wave level decreases.

Fig. 3 Fluctuation dynamics of the sea level in August, 2001

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3 Conclusions The analysis of data approximation with harmonic and trigonometric polynomials and Gaussian exponential basis functions in the total observation region demonstrated that the best results are obtained using Gaussian basis functions. The approximating functions simulate the water level values up to the accuracy of tide gauges at the measuring points and smoothly connect these values accordingly to the form of the influence domains between the points. There is an opportunity to control the approximating surface by varying α k and β k values, thus making it more or less smooth in the domain of drastic data changes by means of enlarging or reducing the influence domain of these functions. It is also possible to take into account the features of the flow wave advance nearby the coastline by choosing the influence domains geometry. Trigonometric polynomials prove most effective in one-dimensional case for time smoothing and approximation of data at an individual measuring point.

References 1. Belytschko T, Krongauz Y, Organ D, Fleming M, Krysl P (1996) Meshless methods: an overview and recent developments. Comput Method Appl Mech Eng 139:3–47 2. Broomhead DS, Lowe D (1988) Multivariable functional interpolation and adaptive networks. Compl Syst 2:321–355 3. Buhmann MD (1990) Multivariate cardinal interpolation with radial-basis functions. Constr Approx 6:225–255 4. Haykin S (1994) Neural networks: a comprehensive foundation. Macmillan, New York 5. Pogorelov AV (1974) Differential geometry. Nauka, Moscow 6. Wendland H (1995) Piecewise polynomial, positive definite and compactly supported radial basis functions of minimal degree. Adv Comput Math 4:389–396

Improvement of Germination of Three Endemic Species of the Sierra Nevada (S. Spain) M. Díaz-Miguel, F. Serrano, and J.L. Rosúa

Abstract Three shrub species—Genista versicolor, Reseda complicata and Thymus serpylloides subsp. serpylloides—endemic of the Sierra Nevada (Spain) and used in the process of replanting the ski slopes of this zone have been studied with the aim of improving their germinative capacity. This work presents the results from a laboratory experiment conducted at three different temperatures (15, 20 and 25◦ C), studying the effect on germination percentage and rate after the application of certain plant-growth regulators: Inabarplant IV, Ethrel, benzyladenine, and gibberellic acid 3. From the results, it can be concluded that the three species studied present different optimal germination temperatures: 15◦ C for G. versicolor, 25◦C for R. complicata and 20◦ C for T. serpylloides. With respect to the phytoregulators treatments, both in G. versicolor as well as T. serpylloides, the action of the benzyladenine was notable at 10 ppm and 25◦ C, which prompted an increase of 114 and 49% over their respective controls. In the case of R. complicata seeds, the treatments were generally more effective. Thus, Ethrel at 10 and 100 ppm improved the germination indices by 60 and 76%, respectively, benzyladenine at 10 ppm registered a 60% improvement, and GA3 at 100 ppm a 60% improvement, in all cases at 25◦ C, the optimal temperature for seed germination in this species. Keywords Endemic species · Germination · Mediterranean high mountain · Plant growth regulators · Sierra Nevada National Park

1 Introduction The Sierra Nevada massif in the SE of the Iberian Peninsula, forming part of the Betic Sierras, measures some 90 km in length and covers roughly 200,000 ha. In contrast with the other Betic mountains, which are predominantly calcareous, the M. Díaz-Miguel (B) Departamento de Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Granada, Edificio Politécnico, Campus Fuentenueva s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain e-mail: [email protected]

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central core of the massif, with the highest peaks, is siliceous and furthermore presents the highest elevations in Europe, after the Alps, reaching 3,482 m asl (Mulhacen). In addition, the Betic range is the most southerly of the continent, at 37◦ north. All of these characteristics have contributed to make the Sierra Nevada one of the richest reserves of plant diversity in Europe. Its great floristic importance, harbouring more than 2,100 vascular plants and, among these, more than 80 endemic species [8], has been one of the main reasons for granting this area the highest degree of legal and environmental protection, being declared a National Park in 1999. Within the geographical limits of the park, stands the Sierra Nevada Ski Station, between 2,000 and 3,325 m asl. As in other Alpine systems in which skiing is practised seasonally, this zone is subjected to perturbations related to the presence of the ski slopes. It has been amply demonstrated that the conditioning the slopes in summer with heavy equipment disturbs the uppermost layers of the soil, damaging the vegetation [6, 14, 22, 24, 27, 29, 32]. In winter, the preparation of the slopes and the skiing itself compacts the snow, which loses its isolating capacity, exposing the underlying vegetation to temperatures as low as –10◦C [24]. By contrast, in the areas with loose snow, temperatures rarely fall below 0◦ C [23, 25] All this disturbance has consequences for the composition, diversity, and productivity of plant species in these habitats, exerting a negative impact on the functionality and stability of the ecosystem [19, 28, 32]. Restoration of the plant cover on the Sierra Nevada began in a partial way in 1986 [11]. With the World Ski Cup, held on the mountain in 1995, the slopes were submitted to ambitious conditioning work that inflicted heavy impact on this zone, which harbours many of the endemic species of the Sierra Nevada. Therefore, in 1992, more extensive corrective measures were implemented in an effort to counteract the deterioration. Among the actions taken, the affected zones were replanted, using a series of species that form part of the natural dynamics of the plant communities of this habitat [26] in accord with the authors that point out the need to use autochthonous species in recovery processes of Alpine vegetation [20, 30]. In the Sierra Nevada, the recovery involved asexual reproduction as well as direct sowing, which was more economical and advantageous in relation to gene variability [12, 15], although in the latter case the results desired were not achieved. As the first step in any type of replanting of altered zones, knowledge of the different factors governing germination success is essential in these types of wild species, which often present some type of dormancy [5, 7]. Temperature is one of the most important environmental factors related to the regulation of the germination. In addition, phytohormones are presumed to be determinant in this process [17]. Despite that studies on autochthonous plants of the Iberian Peninsula are becoming more frequent [10, 13, 18, 21] little information is available on the endemic species of the Sierra Nevada [2, 3]. Therefore, we undertook the present laboratory study on the behaviour of three endemic species used in restoration work in the zones affected by the ski station, examining the above-mentioned factors in order to contribute to better knowledge of the germinative process of these species for their potential use in the currently degraded areas as well as others that might be affected in the future by any type of habitat alteration.

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2 Material and Methods From three endemic species of the Sierra Nevada, Genista versicolor (Leguminosae), Reseda complicata (Resedaceae), and Thymus serpylloides subsp. serpylloides (Labiatae), seeds were collected in the natural habitat of the plants, between 1,900–2,650, 2,400–3,050, 2,200–2,800 m, respectively. Once separated from their fruits, the seeds were cleaned and sorted for uniformity in size and colour, eliminating those having any type of seed-coat damage. The seeds were stored in a chamber at 4◦ C for at least 2 months before beginning the experiments. For the germination study, the seeds were surface sterilized with sodium hypochlorite at 1% for 5 min and then washed with abundant distilled, sterilized water. Samples of 50 seeds from each of the species were placed in Petri dishes 10 cm in diameter, over filter paper moistened with 10 ml of sterile distilled water (control) or with the same quantity of the solutions of the different treatments tested: Inabarplant IV (0.2% indolbutyric acid, 2% naphthalenacetic acid, and 15% fungicide captan), Ethrel (2-cloroethylphosphonic acid), benzyladenine, and type-3 gibberellic acid. All solutions were applied at concentrations of 1, 10, and 100 ppm and adjusted to pH 6.2. In total for each species, four replicates were used for each treatment and concentration. All the manipulations were performed in a laminarflow chamber with green light. The germination assays were made in darkness in a thermostatically controlled chamber at 15, 20 and 25◦C. Each day, in all cases over the 20 days, samples were taken from the dishes to calculate the germination percentage, considering a seed to have germinated when radicle protrusion was visible. In addition, the T50 was calculated as an estimate of the germination rate, expressed as the time needed to reach half of the maximum germination level in each case. Lost moisture was replenished every 6–7 days with sterile distilled water. The data were submitted to an analysis of variance and the means were compared using Duncan’s test.

3 Results and Discussion From the data presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3 as well as a comparison of the data of the respective controls (seeds incubated in water), it can be concluded that the germination of the three species studied differed in their behaviour with respect to temperature. Thus, G. versicolor germinated better the lower the temperature, although these differences were not statistically significant (37.5, 32.5 and 17.5% at 15, 20 and 25◦ C, respectively). In any case, at 15◦ C the germination rate expressed by the T50 value was higher than for the other temperatures (6.6 vs. 10.5 and 9). In the case of the R. complicata seeds (Table 2), the opposite was true, and 25◦C (the highest temperature of those assayed) presented the best results (50% germination), doubling the values registered at the other two temperatures (20% at 15◦ C and 25% at 20◦ C), in this case with statistical significance. It is noteworthy that the germination rate at this temperature had a T50 value of 2.3, as opposed to 11.8 and 11.0 at 15 and 20◦ C,

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M. Díaz-Miguel et al. Table 1 Degree of germination and T50 in Genista versicolor seeds 15◦ C

20◦ C

25◦ C

Treatment

% germination

T50

% germination

T50

% germination

T50

Control IP 1 IP 10 IP 100 E1 E 10 E 100 BA 1 BA 10 BA 100 GA 1 GA 10 GA 100

37 ± 12 a,b,A 30 ± 4 a,b,A 20 ± 4 b,A,B 20 ± 4 b,A 33 ± 9 a,b,A 43 ± 3 a,b,A 53 ± 5 a,A 48 ± 12 a,A 50 ± 4 a,A 33 ± 5 a,b,A 30 ± 4 a,b,A 30 ± 11 a,b,A 30 ± 0 a,b,A

6.6 6.0 12.0 12.0 8.7 6.2 5.2 11.2 8.3 12.8 9.3 13.0 9.3

32 ± 5 a,b,c,d,A 17 ± 6 d,A 32 ± 6 a,b,c,d,A 30 ± 7 a,b,c,d,A 20 ± 7 c,d,A,B 18 ± 6 d,B 40 ± 0 a,A,B 35 ± 3 a,b,c,A 38 ± 5 a,b,A 28 ± 6 a,b,c,d,A 22 ± 3 b,c,d,A 22 ± 5 b,c,d,A 22 ± 3 b,c,d,A

10.5 14.1 5.4 7.4 10.2 7.2 7.2 10.0 5.8 7.6 5.5 12.6 11.0

17 ± 3 b,c,A 22 ± 13 a,b,A 7 ± 5 b,c,B 17 ± 8 b,c,A 3 ± 3 c,B 10 ± 4 b,c,B 28 ± 6 a,b,B 28 ± 5 a,b,A 38 ± 6 a,A 10 ± 4 b,c,B 27 ± 6 a,b,A 10 ± 5 b,c,B 10 ± 4 b,c,B

9.0 7.0 15.0 8.6 5.0 5.0 6.9 8.4 10.2 5.4 6.7 10.0 13.1

Concentrations of treatments are expressed in ppm. Values of T50 are expressed in days. Each value of germination is the mean of four replicates and is accompanied by its standard error. Results followed by the same letters in lower case in each column and by upper case in each row show no significant differences (p = 0.05) IP: Inabarplant IV, E: Ethrel, BA: Benzyladenine, GA: Gibberellic acid type 3

Table 2 Degree of germination and T50 in Reseda complicata seeds 15◦ C

20◦ C

25◦ C

Treatment

% Germination

T50

% Germination

T50

% Germination

T50

Control IP 1 IP 10 IP 100 E1 E 10 E 100 BA 1 BA 10 BA 100 GA 1 GA 10 GA 100

20 ± 4 c,d,e,B 8 ± 2 d,e,C 8 ± 2 d,e,B 3 ± 2 e,C 60 ± 0 a,A 38 ± 10 b,c,B 58 ± 6 a,B 23 ± 8 c,d,B 43 ± 3 a,b,C 23 ± 6 c,d,B 33 ± 10 b,c,A 20 ± 7 c,d,e,B 13 ± 3 d,e,B

11.8 6.7 14.8 4.5 10.4 7.7 5.9 11.6 10.5 11.6 13.2 10.0 9.4

25 ± 5 c,d,e,B 20 ± 4 c,d,e,B 8 ± 5 e,B 22 ± 3 c,d,e,B 48 ± 14 b,A 68 ± 6 a,A 68 ± 3 a,B 65 ± 2 a,A 70 ± 0 a,B 33 ± 3 b,c,A,B 30 ± 4 c,d,A 28 ± 5 c,d,B 13 ± 6 d,e,B

11.0 10.0 10.8 9.4 9.3 11.4 8.8 9.2 9.5 10.2 10.3 9.7 9.5

50 ± 8 b,c,A 40 ± 0 c,A 50 ± 8 b,c,A 63 ± 3 a,b,c,A 60 ± 4 a,b,c,A 80 ± 4 a,A 88 ± 6 a,A 60 ± 0 a,b,c,A 83 ± 5 a,A 48 ± 8 b,c,A 50 ± 4 b,c,A 63 ± 3 a,b,c,A 80 ± 4 a,A

2.3 2.7 2.3 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.5 3.4 2.9 3.7 2.4 2.7 3.4

Concentrations of treatments are expressed in ppm. Values of T50 are expressed in days. Each Value of germination is the mean of four replicates and is accompanied by its standard error. Results followed by the same letters in lower case in each column and by upper case in each row show no significant differences (p = 0.005) IP: Inabarplant IV, E: Ethrel, BA: Benzyladenine, GA: Gibberellic acid type 3

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Table 3 Degree of germination and T50 in Thymus serpylloides seeds 15◦ C

20◦ C

25◦ C

Treatment

% Germination

T50

% Germination

T50

% Germination

T50

Control IP 1 IP 10 IP 100 E1 E 10 E 100 BA 1 BA 10 BA 100 GA 1 GA 10 GA 100

60 ± 4 a,b,c,B 70 ± 5 a,b,A 50 ± 4 b,c,A 48 ± 8 b,c,A 59 ± 5 a,b,c,A 58 ± 3 a,b,c,A 60 ± 7 a,b,c,A 40 ± 4 c,A 63 ± 3 a,b,c,A 40 ± 4 c,A 70 ± 4 a,b,A 78 ± 9 a,b,A 78 ± 9 a,b,A

2.8 2.8 3.2 3.3 3.5 5.0 4.7 4.0 4.1 4.0 3.1 2.8 2.3

72 ± 5 a,b,A 88 ± 5 a,A 47 ± 11 c,d,A 41 ± 3 c,d,A 35 ± 3 d,B 28 ± 3 d,A 44 ± 11 c,d,A 38 ± 10 d,A 50 ± 10 c,d,A 28 ± 3 d,A,B 72 ± 3 a,b,A 38 ± 5 d,B 60 ± 3 b,c,A

2.0 2.5 3.8 1.8 2.3 3.2 3.2 2.8 2.0 5.4 3.6 2.6 2.8

50 ± 4 b,c,B 38 ± 5 b,c,d,e,B 28 ± 3 c,d,e,A 60 ± 8 a,b,A 15 ± 3 e,C 47 ± 16 b,c,A 54 ± 6 a,b,A 28 ± 3 c,d,e,A 75 ± 9 a,A 22 ± 6 d,e,B 40 ± 3 b,c,d,B 47 ± 8 b,c,B 60 ± 3 a,b,A

3.3 4.7 3.7 4.5 5.6 3.8 3.3 1.8 4.1 4.6 3.5 1.6 3.2

Concentrations of treatments are expressed in ppm. Values of T50 are expressed in days. Each value of germination is the mean of four replicates and is accompanied by its standard error. Results followed by the same letters in lower case in each column and by upper case in each row show no significant differences (p = 0.05) IP: Inabarplant IV, E: Ethrel, BA: Benzyladenine, GA: Giberrellic acid type 3

respectively. In the case of T. serpylloides (Table 3), the germination percentage in no case fell below 50% (25◦ C), reaching a maximum of 72% at 20◦ C, this value being statistically significant in comparison with the other two (60% at 15◦C and 50% at 25◦C). In the zones to be restored, within the area of the ski slopes of the Sierra Nevada Ski Station, previous field assays used the phytoregulator inabarplant IV as a rooting stimulant [26], and thus, given that the auxins in some cases promote germination [4, 17], whether directly or indirectly, by inducing ethylene production [1], in the present work this compound was used to determine whether it encouraged germination. In none of the cases studied, was any beneficial effect detected, and at times it in fact inhibited germination, as in the case of R. complicata at 15◦ C. In G. versicolor, only the application of de 10 ppm at 20◦ C matched the germination rate reached by control, though the germination rate was higher given that a T50 of 5.4 was registered, as opposed to 10.5 control. These results reflect that its effect is post-germinative, favouring the formation of roots but not directly promoting germination. On the other hand, in G. versicolor and R. complicata, the imbibition of the seeds in ethrel, a compound which at pH > 4.0 hydrolyses and produces ethylene, acts positively on germination, implying that, at least in these two species, inabarplant IV does not promote ethylene synthesis. In any event, in G. versicolor, ethrel did not provoke significantly higher germination percentages than control, although germination values did surpass control by 40%, as in the treatment E100 at 15◦C. More notable were the results for R. complicata, where E 1 ppm at 15◦C surpassed control values by 200%, E 10 and E 100 at

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20◦ C by 170%, and E100 at 25◦ C by 75%, all these differences being statistically significant. On the other hand, the ethrel treatments in general notably increased the germination rate in these two species, as reflected in the T50 data (Tables 2 and 3). This was not the case with T. serpylloides, in which ethrel did not encourage germination and at 20◦ C even caused inhibition at the three concentrations tested. The imbibition of the seeds in benzyladenine gave quite similar to those described for ethrel. In fact, this phytoregulator boosted germination of G. versicolor and R. complicata seeds, which reached total germination values that practically equalled those reached in the case of soaking with ethrel, although the germination rate was not so high. Similarly, for T. serpylloides, in all cases except at 25◦ C (where 10 ppm benzyladenine surpassed control by almost 50%) this compound behaved the same as ethrel, inhibiting germination (Table 3). The fact that cytokines can stimulate ethylene production [9] could explain the similar results for BA and ethrel application. Many reports credit gibberellins with promoting seed germination [16] and in fact the exogenous application of this type of phytohormone not only augments germination but can often break dormancy [7]. Nevertheless, this same type of gibberellic acid is not always involved in these processes. In the case of G. versicolor, it is clear that GA3 is incapable of breaking primary dormancy of seeds at any of the temperatures assayed (Table 1) and the same occurred in R. complicata at 15 and 20◦ C. Nevertheless, at 25◦ C, the behaviour of this phytohormone proved more favourable and in fact with 100 ppm reached a germination rate of 80%, this being statistically significant as opposed to control seeds at the three temperatures studied, despite the increase of more than 28% with 10 and 100 ppm (Table 3). From the results of the present work, it can be concluded that, at least under the experimental conditions tested, the germination of seeds from the three species studied improved with some of the treatments applied, a step preparatory to future studies under field conditions.

References 1. Abeles FB, Morgan PW, Salveit ME Jr (1992) Ethylene in plant biology, 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, CA 2. Angosto T, Matilla AJ (1993) Variations in seeds of three endemic leguminous species at different altitudes. Plant Physiol 87:329–334 3. Ayerbe L, Ceresuela JL (1982) Germinación de especies endémicas españolas. An. INIA. Ser. Forest 6:17–41 4. Bandursky RS, Cohen JD, Slovin JP, Reinecke DM (1995) Auxin biosynthesis and metabolism. In: Davies PJ (ed) Plant hormones: physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 39–65 5. Baskin CC, Baskin JH (1998) Seeds: ecology, biogeography and evolution of dormancy and germination. Academic Press, San Diego, CA 6. Bayfield NG (1996) Long-term changes in colonization of bulldozed ski pistes at Cairn Gorm, Scotland. J Appl Ecol 33:1359–1365 7. Bewley JD, Black M (1994) Seeds: physiology and development and germination, 2nd edn. Plenum Press, New York

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8. Blanca G (2002) Flora amenazada y endémica de Sierra Nevada. Junta de Andalucía Ed., Granada 9. Brault M, Maldiney R (1999) Mechanisms of cytokinin action. Plant Physiol Biochem 37:403–412 10. Castro J, Romero AT (1999) Dormancy and germination in Cistus clusii (Cistaceae): effect of biotic and abiotic factors. Rev. Ecol. (Terre Vie) 54:19–28 11. Chacón J, Ortega F, Pulido A, Rosúa JL (1989) Estudio de impacto ambiental del anteproyecto de reparación y acondicionamiento de la pista del río para el Campeonato del Mundo de Esquí Alpino con instalación de nieve artificial y nuevos remontes. University of Granada, Spain 12. Cuisance P (1988) La multiplicación de las plantas y el vivero. Mundi-Prensa, Madrid 13. Escudero A, Carnes LF, Pérez- García F (1997) Seed germination of gypsophytes in semi-arid central Spain. J Arid Environ 36:487–497 14. Haeberli W (1992) Construction, environmental problems and natural hazards in periglacial mountain belts. Permafrost Periglac Process 3:111–124 15. Hartman HT, Kester DE (1989) Propagación de plantas, principios y prácticas. C.E.S.A., México 16. Karssen CM, Zaórski S, Kepczyñski J, Groot SPC (1989) Key role for endogenous gibberellins in the control of seed germination. Ann Bot 63:71–80 17. Kucera B, Cohn MA, Leubner-Metzgor G (2005) _ Plant hormone interactions during seed dormancy release and germination. Seed Sci Res 15(4):281–307 18. Merlo E, Alemán MM (1996) Efecto de la temperatura sobre la germinación de especies de Astragalus L. y Genista L. (Leguminosae). Monogr. Fl. Veg. Béticas 9:135–146 19. Mulder CPH, Uliassi DD, Doak DF (2001) Physical stress and diversity-productivity relationships: the role of positive interactions. PNAS 98:6704–6708 20. Papst WA, Morgan JW (1992) Using indigenous species for alpine rehabilitation. Indigenotes 5:5 21. Peña J, Aparicio-Tejo P, Sánchez-Díaz M (1988) Dormancy mechanism and the effect of scarification in the germination of Halimium halimifolium seeds. J Plant Physiol 132:54–58 22. Pröbstl U (1990) Skisport und vegetation. Stöppel, Weildheim, Germany 23. Rixen C (2002) Artificial snow and snow additives on ski pistes: interactions between snow cover, soil and vegetation. PhD Thesis. University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland 24. Rixen C, Casteller A, Schweingruber FH, Stoeckli V (2004) Age analysis helps to estimate plant performance on ski pistes. Bot Helvetica 114:127–138 25. Rixen C, Stoeckli V, Ammann W (2003) Does artificial snow production affect soil and vegetation of ski pistes? Perspect Plant Ecol Evolut Syst 5:219–230 26. Rosúa JL, Martín JC (1996) Propagación de especies propias de la alta montaña mediterránea y su utilización en la restauración de la cubierta vegetal. In: Chacón J, Rosúa JL (eds) 1st Conferencia Internacional Sierra Nevada: Conservación y Desarrollo Sostenible, vol V, Granada, pp 77–87 27. Ruth-Balaganskaya E, Myllynem-Malinem K (2000) Soil nutrient status and revegetation practices of downhill sking areas in Finnish Lapland: a case study of Mt Ylläs. Landscape Urban Plann 50:259–268 28. Tilman D (1996) Biodiversity: population versus ecosystem stability. Ecology 77:350–363 29. Titus JH, Tsuyuzaki S (1999) Ski slope vegetation of Mount Hood, Oregon, USA. Arct Antarct Alp Res 31:283–292 30. Tsuyuzaki S (1995) Ski slope vegetation in Central Honshu. Japan Environ Manag 19: 773–777 31. Watson A (1985) Soil erosion and vegetation damage near ski lifts at Cairn Gorm, Scotland. Biol Conserv 33:363–381 32. Wipf S, Rixen C, Fischer M, Schmid B, Stoeckli V (2005) Effects of ski piste preparation on alpine vegetation. J Appl Ecol 42(2):306–316

Early Growth of Quercus castaneifolia (C.A. Meyer) Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation Masoud Tabari, Javad Mirzaei, and Hadi Daroodi

Abstract The influence of shading, irrigation and weeding on survival, growth and morphology of 1-year Quercus castaneifolia seedlings was studied in north of Iran. The seedlings were grown under eight treatments including full-light versus artificial shading, irrigation versus non-irrigation and weed presence versus weed removing at three replicates. At the end of the first growing season seedling survival in all treatments was 100%. Weed removing had positive effect on height, diameter growth, slenderness coefficient and leaf area of Q. castaneifolia. Irrigation enhanced diameter growth and leaf area, and shading increased leaf area. Irrigation had no significant effect on plant growth where the weed was removed. In weed plots seedlings growth and leaf area were greater in shading than in full-light. The results indicated that for 1-year Q. castaneifolia seedlings, weeding, in contrast to irrigation, is an essential factor. Where the weed competition is a difficulty, plantation with higher stem length should be applied. Keywords Growth · Irrigation · Quercus castaneifolia · Seedling · Shading · Weed competition

1 Introduction Caspian forests are the most valuable forests in north of Iran covering the northern slopes and foothills of Alborz mountain range in southern part of the Caspian Sea. Quercus castaneifolia (C. A. Mey) is one of the most prevalent species growing in these forests [12]. Reduction of standing volume as well as defect of natural regeneration in Quercus stands has made concerned Iranian silviculturists. To this reason, its natural regeneration problem has led forest managers to use the artificial M. Tabari (B) Department of Forestry, Faculty of Natural Resources and Marine Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Noor, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_8, 

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regeneration, where regeneration establishment is difficult [27]. Some factors negatively affect growth and establishment of artificial regeneration. In literature has been referred that weeds directly compete with seedlings for soil moisture and nutrients, and have a negative effect on its survival and growth [4]. Likewise, strong radiation can limit plant survival and growth by photo damage [22] and by reducing soil water content through evaporation and transpiration [28]. Numerous studies have addressed the issues of how the performance of planted or naturally established woody seedlings are affected by shade [33, 28, 1, 10, 23, 30, 21], herb competition [24, 2, 25, 9, 11, 13, 25] and irrigation [6, 15]. The interaction of irrigation, shading and weeds on this performance is complicated. For instance, shading may have a positive direct effect on seedling establishment and humid content [19], but a negative indirect effect mediated by an enhancement of weed growth. In addition, weeds directly compete with seedlings for resources (especially water and nutrient), a negative effect, but they also diminish radiation and may increase low winter temperatures at the ground level, indirect positive effects that may facilitate seedling establishment and increase seedlings growth [25]. Furthermore, soil moisture may have a negative effect due to enhancement of weed growth, but a positive effect on seedling growth and establishment. Generally, it was believed that in Caspian forests intensive sun light, low water availability and weed competition are the major factors negatively affecting growth and establishment of man-made Q. castaneifolia seedlings, particularly in dry season (summer). So, in this experiment, the interaction of shading, irrigation and weeding on early growth and establishment of Q. castaneifolia seedlings was studied in the first growing season.

2 Materials and Methods A field experiment was carried out at Tarbiat Modares University, north of Iran (51◦46 E, 36◦47 N, 15 m a.s.l.) (Fig. 1). The experiment was conducted in a flat, deep soil and homogenous area that was formerly a mixed oak stand. Mean annual

Turkey Afghanistan Iran Noor Iraq Pakistan

Fig. 1 Position of the study area in north of Iran

Growth of Q. castaneifolia Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation Temperature ( o C)

77

Precipitation (mm)

80

160 Temperature (° c)

70

140

Rain (mm)

60

120

Dec.

0

Nov.

0

Oct.

20 Sep.

10 Aug.

40

Jul.

20

Jun.

60

May

30

Apr.

80

Mar.

40

Feb.

100

Jan.

50

Fig. 2 Embrotermic curve of the study area, based on meteorological data

rainfall is 803.4 mm and a distinct rainy season occurs between August and May. Mean annual temperature is 17◦C and the dry season comes about between May and August (Fig. 2). In April 2005, 384 naturally regenerated oak seedlings with height = 10.9 (±0.1) cm, diameter = 2.7 (±0.2) mm and age∼30 days were collected together with acorns connected to root, under a mature tree near the experimental area to minimize the variation in genetic composition. The eight treatments were included of the factorial combination of artificial shading (shaded (SH) versus full-light (L) plots), weed removing (weeding (W) versus weed (G) plots) and irrigation (irrigation (I) versus rainfed (R). There were three replicated plots per treatment (24 plots 1 m × 1 m, in total). Some sixteen 1-year old seedlings were transplanted with a regular distribution in each plot, being separated from each other by 20 cm. The experiment was set up as factorial with completely randomized design. In the field, several wooden frames (120 wide × 120 cm long × 100 cm tall) were built to support neutral density shade fabric. Fabric densities were draped over the frames to provide two levels of light availability, 100% of full sunlight (no fabric) and 50% of full sunlight. Irrigation was carried out using a sprinkler at 4-day intervals (1.5 l for each seedling) over the growing season. Weeds were removed manually six times through out the growing season. The main weed species in the field experiment have been listed in Table 1. Diameter (D) and height (H) of seedlings were recorded at the beginning and end of first growing season. Seedling diameter was measured 5 cm above the ground. Survival was calculated at the end of period following recording the seedlings number. Leaf area was registered by measuring leaves of two seedlings randomly

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M. Tabari et al. Table 1 The list of weed species grown in the field experiment

Species

Family

Age

Growth form

Frequency (%)

Myosoroides alopecorus Calystegia sepium Carex rogusa Digitaris sanguinea Equisetum ramosissimum Geranium pyrenaicum Oxalis corniculata Paspalum distichum Potentila raptanse Setaria verticilata Solanum nigrum Halepense sorghum Vicia sp.

Poaceae Convolvulaceae Cyperaceae Poaceae Equisetaceae Geraminaceae Oxalidaceae Poaceae Rocaceae Poaceae Solanaceae Poaceae Papilionaceae

Annual Perennial Perennial Annual Perennial Annual Perennial Perennial Perennial Annual Annual Perennial Annual

Ph Th Cr Th Cr He He He He Th He Cr Th

5 1 5 15 4 3 5 5 5 25 1 10 2

Ph = Phanerophyte, Ch = Chamaephyte, Th = Therophyte, He = Hemicriptopyte

selected in each plot and measured with a Leaf Area Meter at the end of the growing season. Height growth and diameter growth, leaf area and slenderness coefficient (H/D ratio) were tested with Kolmogorov-Smironov for normality of data. The resulting data were subjected to ANOVA. Means were compared for significant differences using Duncan’s multiple range tests.

3 Results Seedling survival was not affected by any treatment. It was 100% in all treatments, showing no died seedling was found in any treatment at the end of the first growing season. Only weeding (p = 0.000, df = 1) and interactions of shading and weeding (p = 0.000, df = 1) affected seedlings height growth (Table 2). The best response Table 2 Three-way-ANOVA for seedlings height growth Source

df

f

p

Artificial shading Weeding Irrigation Shading × irrigation Shading × weeding Irrigation × weeding Shading × irrigation × weeding Error Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 374 382

0.348 189.74 1.53 0.115 14.68 1.43 1.19

0.556 0.000∗∗ 0.216 0.735 0.000∗∗ 0.232 0.274

∗∗

Significant at the 1% level of probability

Growth of Q. castaneifolia Seedlings as Affected by Weeding, Shading and Irrigation 30

a

ab bc

25

c

20 15

d

d

10

de

L+I+G

SH+R+G

SH+I+G

SH+R+W

SH+I+W

L+I+W

0

L+R+G

e

5 L+R+W

Hight growth (cm)

Fig. 3 Height growth of Q. castneifolia seedlings at different treatments (L = full-light, I = irrigation, G = grass, W = weeding, SH = shading, R = rainfed, Values are Mean ± SE). Columns with the same letter have no significant difference (p = 0.01)

79

Treatment of height growth was found in weeding-full-light areas, with and no watering (LRW and LIW) (Fig. 3). In weed plots height growth was lower in shading than full-light. Where the grass was present the greatest height growth was in irrigated- and rainfedshaded plots; the lowest in rainfed-full-light plots (LRG) and the intermediate in irrigated-full-light (LIG) plots. Seedling diameter growth was affected by weeding (p = 0.000, df = 1), irrigation (p = 0.000, df = 1) and interaction of shading and weeding (p = 0.008, df = 1) (Table 3). It was greatest in LRW, LIW and SHIW treatments (Fig. 4). This showed where the weeding was done; the seedlings had greater diameter growth particularly in irrigated plots. Where the grass was kept, diameter growth was lowest, particularly in non-irrigated plots. Seedlings obtained intermediate diameter growth in SHRW and SHIG treatments. Weeding and its interaction with shading, as well as interaction of all treatments had significant effect on seedling slenderness (Table 4). In rainfed-full-light plot, where the weeds were removed (LRW), seedlings attained the highest slenderness (Fig. 5). The smallest slenderness coefficient was found in rainfed-shaded treatment Table 3 Three-way-ANOVA for seedling diameter growth Source

df

f

p

Artificial shading Weeding Irrigation Shading × irrigation Shading × weeding Irrigation × weeding Shading × irrigation × weeding Error Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 374 382

2.41 779.21 20.72 2.76 7.18 0.00 0.84

0.121 0.000∗∗ 0.000∗∗ 0.097 0.008∗∗ 0.967 0.357

∗∗

Significant at the 1% level of probability

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M. Tabari et al. a

4.5

a

4 3.5

a b

3 2.5 cd

2

d

1.5

d

d

SH+R+G

L+R+G

L+I+G

SH+I+G

SH+R+W

L+R+W

0.5 0

SH+I+W

1

L+I+W

diameter growth (mm)

Fig. 4 Seedling diameter growth at different treatments (L = full-light, I = irrigation, G = grass, W = weeding, SH = shading, R = rainfed, Values are Mean ± SE). Columns with the same letter have no significant difference (p =0.01)

Treatment

Table 4 Three-way-ANOVA for slenderness coefficient Source

df

f

p

Artificial shading Weeding Irrigation Shading × irrigation Shading × weeding Irrigation × weeding Shading × irrigation × weeding Error Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 376 384

0.183 32.06 0.00 0.532 7.18 8.91 6.84

0.669 0.000∗∗ 0.974 0.466 0.003∗∗ 0.146 0.009∗∗

Significant at the 1% level of probability

70

a

60

ab

abc

bc

bc

c

c

50

d

40 30 20

Treament

L+R+G

L+I+G

SH+I+G

SH+R+G

SH+R+W

SH+I+W

0

L+I+W

10 L+R+W

Fig. 5 Sslenderness coefficient at different treatments (L = full-light, I = irrigation, G = grass, W = weeding, SH = shading, R = rainfed, Values are Mean ± SE)

Slenderness coefficient %

∗∗

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where the weeds were kept (LRG). In weed plots the highest slenderness could be detected in rainfed-shaded treatment (SHRW). Artificial shading, weed removing, their interaction and irrigation increased seedling leaf area (Table 5). Where the herbaceous species were eliminated, leaf area did not significantly differ in shaded and full-light plots or irrigated and rainfed plots but it was greater in weeding than weed plots. In weed plots greater leaves were found in irrigated- and rainfed-shaded plots and the smaller in rainfed-full-light plots (Fig. 6). Table 5 Three-way-ANOVA for seedlings leaf area Source

df

f

p

Artificial shading Weeding Irrigation Shading × irrigation Shading × weeding Irrigation × weeding Shading × irrigation × weeding Error Total

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 376 384

5.79 147.02 4.42 0.41 5.1 0.01 0.00

0.017∗∗ 0.000∗∗ 0.036∗ 0.520 0.025∗ 0.901 0.943

∗

Significant at the 5% level of probability; level of probability

Significant at the 1%

35 30

a

a

a

a

25 b

20

b bc

15

c

10

L+R+G

L+I+G

Sh+R+G

Sh+R+w

Sh+I+W

L+I+W

0

Sh+I+G

5 L+R+W

Leaf area (cm2)

Fig. 6 Seedlings leaf area at different treatments (L = full-light, I = irrigation, G = grass, W = weeding, SH = shading, R = rainfed, Values are Mean ± SE). Columns with the same letter have no significant difference (p = 0.01)

∗∗

Treatment

4 Discussion The study revealed that all treatments influenced height growth, diameter growth, leaf area and slenderness of seedlings but had no effect on seedling survival. Seedling survival in all treatments was very high (100%). Weeding and its interaction with shading had positive effect on height growth and diameter growth, whereas both characteristics were greater in weeding plots than in weed plots.

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The same results were obtained by Kolb and Steiner [14] and Lorimer et al. [18]. Generally, weeds compete with oak seedlings for moisture and soil nutrient, and influence negatively plant growth [17, 5, 16]. So, weeding is essential for young oaks [25]. The results of current research showed that shading did not significantly affect diameter growth and height growth. This confirms the results reported by Gardiner [8] on Q. pagoda, Welander and Ottosson [32] on Q. robur and Fagus sylvatica and Fuchs et al. [7] on Q. garryana. In the current research the newly regenerated seedlings along with their acorns were transplanted in plots. Acorn reserve could be probably the main reason for growth homogeneity in shaded plot as well as in full-light plots [9, 8]. This reveals that in the first growing season nutrient reserve of oak acorn is caused growth and establishment become independent of lighting (or shading). In this study it was found that diameter growth was prominently depended on irrigation. This result is supported by Fotelli et al. [6] and Kolb et al. [15] on oak seedling and Madsen [20] on beech seedling. It was revealed that weeding and its interaction with shading had positive effect on slenderness of seedlings. In fact where the weeds were present, seedlings attained a higher slenderness in shaded than full-light plots. In the similar studies, Phares [26] and Thadani and Ashton [31] showed that higher slenderness occurred at low light intensity. Leaf area was affected by weeding, irrigation and shading. As a matter of fact, oak seedlings obtained larger leaves in shaded than in full-light plots. Similar finding was reported by Ziegenhagen and Kausch [33] on Q. robur and Cardillo and Bernal [3] on Q. suber. Generally based on results of this study, weeding-full-light, with and without irrigation (LRW and LIW) and weeding-shaded with irrigation (SHIW) treatments increased growth and development of seedlings. With respect to similarity in some growth characteristics of seedlings grown in irrigated and non-irrigated plots, irrigation is not a demand for Q. castaneifolia seedling during the first growing season. However, for better seedling establishment weeding is necessary. Where the weed was present; seedlings in shaded plots compared to full-light plots had higher growth and development. So in clear-cut areas, where the weed is dense, seedling plantation with taller shoot length is advised. Shelter is not essential for seedling growth in its first growth season, so, Q. castaneifolia seedlings can be grown in full-light, but weed control is a critical point.

References 1. Bardon RE, Countryman DW, Hall RB (1999) Tree shelters reduced growth and survival of under planted red oak seedlings in southern Iowa. Northern J Appl For 16:103–107 2. Caldwell JM, Sucoff EI, Dixon RK (1995) Grass interference limits resource availability and reduces growth of juvenile red pine in the field. New Forests 10:1–15 3. Cardillo E, Bernal CJ (2005) Morphological response and growth of cork oak (Quercus suber L.) seedlings at different shade levels. For Ecol Manage 222: 296–301 4. Davis MA, Wrage KJ, Reich PB, Tjoelker MG, Schaeffer T, Muermann C (1999) Survival, growth, and photosynthesis of tree seedlings competing with herbaceous vegetation along a water–light–nitrogen gradient. Plant Ecol 145:341–350

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5. Duplissis J, Yin X, Banghman MJ (2000) Effects of site preparation, seedling quality and tree shelters on planted northern red oak. University of Minnesota, Staff Paper Service, No: 141, 29 p 6. Fotelli MN, Radoglou KM, Constantinidou HIA (2000) Water stress of seedlings four Mediterranean oak species. Tree Physiol 20:1065–1075 7. Fuchs MA, Krannitz PG, Harestad AS (2000) Factors affecting emergence and first-year survival of seedlings of Garry oak (Quercus garrayana) in British Colombia, Canada. For Ecol Manage 137:209–219 8. Gardiner H (1998) Growth and biomass distribution of cherry bark oak (Quercus pagoda Raf.) seedling as influenced by light availability. For Ecol Manage 108:127–134 9. Gemmel P, Nilsson U, Welander T (1996) Development of oak and beech seedlings planted under varying shelterwood densities and with different site preparation methods in southern Sweden. New Forests 12:141–161 10. Guo K, Werger MJA (1999) Different responses to shade of evergreen and deciduous oak seedlings and the effect of acorn size. Acta Oecol 20(6):576–586 11. Holl KD (1998) Effects of above- and below-ground competition of shrubs and grass on Calophyllum brasiliense (Camb.) seedling growth in abandoned tropical pasture. For Ecol Manage 10:187–195 12. Jafari M (1977) Four article on forest. Technical Publication of Research Institute of Forest and Rangelands, No: 176–1977, 121 p 13. Jose S, Merritt S, Ramsey CL (2002) Growth, nutrition, photosynthesis and transpiration responses of longleaf seedling to light, water and nitrogen. For Ecol Manage 180:335–344 14. Kolb TE, Steiner KC (1990) Growth and biomass partitioning of northern red oak and yellow poplar seedlings: effect of shading and grass root competition. For Sci 36:34–44 15. Kolb TE, Steiner KC, McCormick LH, Bowersox TW (2003) Growth response of northern red oak and yellow poplar seedling to light, soil moister and nutrients in relation to ecological strategy. For Ecol Manage 1–2:675–678 16. Lhotka JM, Zaczek J (2001) The use of soil scarification to enhance oak regeneration in a mixed oak bottomland forest of southern Illinois. Proceedings of the 11th Biennial Southern Silvicultural Research, Knoxville, TN, USA, pp 392–395 17. Lof M, Gemmel P, Nilsson U, Welander NT (1998) The influence of site preparation on growth of Quercus robur L. seedling in a southern Sweden clear cut and shelterwood. For Ecol Manage 109:241–249 18. Lorimer CG, Chapman JW, Lambert WD (1994) Tall understorey vegetation as a factor in the poor development of oak seedlings beneath mature stands. J Ecol 82:227–237 19. Madsen P (1994) Growth and survival of Fagus sylvatica seedlings in relation to light intensity and soil water content. Scand J For Res 9:316–322 20. Madsen P (1995) Effects of soil water content, fertilization, light, weed competition and seedbed type on natural regeneration of beech (Fagus sylvatica). For Ecol Manage 72:251–264 21. McLaren KP, McDonald MA (2003) The effects of moisture and shade on seed germination and seedling survival in a tropical dry forest in Jamaica. For Ecol Manage 183:61–75 22. Méthy M, Damesin C, Rambal S (1996) Drought and photosystem II activity in two Mediterranean oaks. Ann For Sci 53:255–262 23. Morris HM, Castillo PN, Mize C (2000) Sowing date, shade, and irrigation affect big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King). For Ecol Manage 132:173–181 24. Morris LA, Moss SA, Garbett WS (1993) Competitive interference between selected herbaceous and woody plants and Pinus taeda L. during two growing seasons following planting. For Sci 39:166–187 25. Owens MK, Wallace RB, Archer SR (1995) Landscape and micro site influences on shrub recruitment in disturbed semiarid Quercus-Juniperus woodland. Oikos 74:493–502 26. Phares RE (1970) Growth of red oak (Quercus robur L.) seedlings in relation to light and nutrients. Ecology 52:669–672

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27. Rasaneh Y, Moshtagh Kahnamooi MH, Salehi, P. (2001) Northern Iran forests qualitative and quantitative investigation. The Proceeding of Northern Iran Forests Management and Sustainable Development 1:56–82 28. Rey Benayas JM (1998) Growth and mortality in Quercus ilex L. seedlings after irrigation and artificial shading in Mediterranean set-aside agricultural lands. Ann For Sci 55:801–807 29. Rey Benayas JM, Navarro J, Espigares T, Nicolau JM, Zavala MA (2005) Effect of artificial shading and weed mowing in reforestation of Mediterranean abandoned cropland with contrasting Quercus species. For Ecol Manage 212:302–314 30. Sack L, Grubb PJ (2002) The combined impacts of deep shade and drought on the growth and biomass allocation of shade-tolerant woody seedlings. Oecologia 131:175–185 31. Thadani R, Ashton PMS (1995) Regeneration of banj-oak (Q. leucotrichophoraA. Camus) in the Central Himalaya. For Ecol Manage 78:217–224 32. Welander NT, Ottosson B (1998) The influence of shading on growth and morphology in seedlings of Quercus robur L. and Fagus sylvatica L. For Ecol Manage 107:117–126 33. Ziegenhagen B, Kausch W (1995) Productivity of young shaded oak (Quercus robur L.) as corresponding to shoot morphology and leaf anatomy. For Ecol Manage 72:97–108

The Role of Plant Diversity in Sustainable Exploitation in Highland Rangelands (Alborz Mountain – Iran) R. Safaian, H. Arzani, H. Azarnivand, and N. Safaian

Abstract The rangeland managers, by understanding the importance and role of diversity in sustainable exploitation of rangelands, paid much attention to evaluation of plant relative frequency. This has been worked out in this research. As there is the probability that social and economic factors dominate the ecologic importance of this procedure (biodiversity conservation) and plant diversity is endangered by the kind of use, which in this research, was carried out in part of Alborz rangelands of Iran, the plants of the region were investigated as follows based on regional conditions: Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Low Risk (LR), (IUCN: International Union Conservation of Nature, classification system was used). In this research the following botanical structure of 375 plant species were recognized: Poaceae: 12%, Papilionaceae: 26%, Rosaceae: 12%, Lamiaceae: 24%, Asteraceae: 17% and other species: 9%. Based on comparison of Critical areas with Reference areas, the highest plant species decrease, in the first place is from family Poaceae for excessive animal grazing and then from Papilionaceae as forage and industrial plants and Finally from Lamiaceae as medicinal, industrial and fragrant plants. It seems that endangered condition and change in plant structure can be controlled by rangeland management, but change in rangeland use for development along with ecosystem degradation are the main threat and danger for plant diversity destruction in the region. Keywords Diversity · Conservation · Exploitation · Sustainable · Highland rangelands · Alborz mountain · Iran

1 Introduction Plant diversity indicates sustainability and kind of exploitation from an ecosystem. In degraded rangelands, use of plant diversity (food, medicinal and recreational uses) is a management tool procedure. If we accept that by correct use of natural R. Safaian (B) College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

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habitat, the biodiversity is also sustained, then the next question is that the exploitation should be at what level, so that beside sustainable use, the plant diversity is also sustained. It is because the complete conservation may not give maximum plant diversity [10]. Koojimam and smith in 2001 investigated the effect of grazing on organic matter and soil nutrition dynamics in Netherland rangelands and showed that grazing decreases tall grasses and increases species diversity. Chapin et al. [1] stated that interference of human being in world environment, has destroyed world organisms. They recommended human interference for world environment conversation and biodiversity. Gough and Galus [3] investigated tundra richness of species in north Alaska. It was concluded in this research that species diversity in northern area is a function of non-alive environmental gradients (topography, soil moisture, pH and soil natural fertility). Yuguang et al. [13] investigated the relationship between species diversity and grass land conditions. This results showed that species diversity has increased from poor to good condition and decreased from good to excellent conditions. Due to importance of conservation of species diversity, to be informed of hazards or reasons for plant species reduction, the ecosystem researchers at world level [2] in species duration commission IUCN (November 30, [4] in Gland, Switzerland), determined the plant species situation and approved and wrote in red book of species classification. As the species extinction is a world loss [1], this study was carried out in mountainous Alborz rangelands (Iran) to be informed of the hazards, decrease and or increase of plant species.

2 Materials and Methods The mountainous rangelands under study is located in central Alborz, 90 Km north of Tehran. The area is 13, 250,000 ha. The longitude is 50, 36, 50 to 50, 53, 20 and latitude is 36, 19, 19. The elevation is 1,700–4,100 m MSL, the mean annual ◦ temperature is 4.48 C, the mean annual precipitation is 698 mm. The climate is semi-arid cold and cold humid based on Emberger method of classification [12].

3 Research Method Sampling in ecological unit (homogeneous plant types) was carried out by randomsystematic method and using bar-point, by setting 56 transects 50 m apart and at different rangeland condition. In this method, the relative frequency of plants in study unit was evaluated. The species diversity was calculated from Shanon-Wiener formula (1948) [10]:

The Role of Plant Diversity in Sustainable Exploitation in Highland Rangelands

H=−

s ni i=1

N

ln

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ni N

where, H is Shanon-Wiener indicator ni is the amount of importance of each species N is the total showing the importance of species. Plant recognition and their places in IUCN classification were carried out with the help of references [4, 5, 7, 8, 9].

4 Results In Table 1 the plant diversity is observed in different rangelands condition. In Table 2, the evaluated plants are observed in IUCN classification. Table 1 Diversity in different rangeland conditions (poor, good, excellent) Sample

Rangeland Rangeland Rangeland condition Diversity Sample condition Diversity Sample condition Diversity

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Poor Poor Poor Good Good Good Excellent Good Poor Poor Good Excellent Good Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Poor

2.9 1.95 1.1 5.44 4.1 3.96 3 3.81 2 2.12 3.9 3.67 4 4.56 3 3.76 3.5 3.68 1

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

Good Good Good Excellent Poor Poor Excellent Poor Good Poor Good Excellent Good Excellent Good Excellent Excellent Good Poor

4.06 4.99 3.8 3 1.83 1 3.62 2 3.83 2.99 3.83 3.2 3.9 3 4.12 3.01 3.67 4.07 2.83

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

Good Excellent Poor Good Poor Good Good Excellent Excellent Poor Poor Excellent Poor Poor Good Poor Excellent Excellent

4.8 3.73 1.4 3.85 2.2 3.9 4.8 3.74 3 2.17 2.9 3.3 2.6 2.35 4.9 2.02 3.5 3.57

Table 2 The evaluated plants in IUCN classification Page of red book Status Life form

Scientific name

Family

Habitat Number

294 306 312 325 339

Ajuga chamaecistus Mentha longifolia Nepeta denudata Salvia hypoleuca Thymus daenensis

Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae

IT IT IT IT-EU IT

LR LR LR LR LR

Ch H Ch H Ch

1 2 3 4 5

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R. Safaian et al. Table 2 (continued)

Page of red book Status Life form 340 341 25 45

LR VU DD DD

Ch H H H

673 682 682 685 696 96 105 115

EN DD LR LR LR LR LR LR

H H H H H H H H

125 128 129 169 22

LR LR DD LR IT

H H H H Ch

178 202 559 559 214 374 343 347 216 18 606

LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR

H H Ch Ch H H H H H Th Ch

Scientific name

Family

Habitat Number

Thymus kotschyanus Ziziphora clinopodioides Caccinia strigosa Trachelanthus cerinthoides Ferula persica Malabaila dasyantha Malabaila porphyrodiscus Pimpinella tragioides Zosima radians Achillea talagonica Centaurea aucheri Cephalorrhynchus brassicifolius Cousinia calocephala Cousinia commutata Cousinia crispa Echinops polygamus Helichrysum oligocephalum Jurinea heterophylla Tragopogon caricifolius Acantholimon scorpius Acantholimon sorchense Aethionema stenopterum Alcea longipedicellata Allium derderianum Allium shelkovnikovii Alyssum bracteatum Amaranthus blitoides Amygdalus eburnea

Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Boraginaceae Boraginaceae

IT IT IT IT

Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Umbelliferae Asteraeae Asteraeae Asteraeae

IT IT IT IT IT IT IT IT-EU

Asteraeae Asteraeae Asteraeae Asteraeae Asteraeae

IT IT IT IT LR

Asteraeae Asteraeae Plumbaginaceae Plumbaginaceae Brassicaceae Malvaceae Alliaceae Alliaceae Brassicaceae Amaranthaceae Rosaceae

IT IT-EU IT-SS IT IT-EU IT IT-EU IT IT IT IT-SS

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 173 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

Note: IT – Irano–touranian region floristic; M – Mediteranean region floristic; SS – SaharoSindian region floristic; E – Euro-Siberian region floristic; LR – Lower risk; DD – Data deficient; EN – Endangered; VU – Vulnerable; Th – Therophyts; H – Hemicryptophyts; Ch – Chamophyts; G – Geophyts; Ph – Phanerophyts; En – Endemic.

5 Discussion and Conclusion Based on the results of this study, the variations in plant species is effected by exploitation and activities of living organisms (human being and animals) in the nature. The results showed that plant diversity increases in poor to good conditions, but decreases from good to excellent conditions. The result confirms the results obtained by Yuguang et al. [13]. This phenomenon can be useful and efficient as management procedure (use of medicinal plants, aromatic plants, etc) for planners.

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Botanic formation and floristic composition show decrease in the family Poaceae and increase in plants of the family Labiatae. The result is similar to the results of [6]. Use of special plants, those plants that people like: Ferula, Prangus, Thymus and Astragalus, made them susceptible to damages. Due to world importance of these species [1], their conservation is necessary by managers. Prangus, as one of the best rangeland species, is under extinction, and is not mentioned in Iranian Red Book. Due to difference in climatic-ecologic condition in the world, it seems that the classification made by species duration commission (IUCN) for each region floristic is necessary.

References 1. Chapin FS, Zavaleta ES, Eviner VT, Naylor RL, Vitousek PM, Reynolds HL, Hooper DU, Lavorel S, Sala OE, Hobbie SE, Mack MC, Diaz S (2000) Functional and societal consequences of changing biotic diversity. Nature 405:234–242 (ISP 3-018/CRN-012) 2. Fitter R, Fitter M (1987) The road to extinction. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 3. Gough L, Galus R (2000) Vascular plant species richness in Alaskan arctic tundra: the importance of soil pH. Ecology 88:54–66 4. IUCN – International Union of Nature Conservation (1993) Draft IUCN red list categories. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 5. Jalili A, Jamzad Z (1999) Red data book of Iran (A preliminary survey of endemic, rare & endangered plant species in Iran), Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands (RIFR), Iran, 748 pp 6. Koojimam AM, Smith A (2001) Grazing as a measure to reduce nutrient availability in acid dune grasslands and pine forests in the Netherlands. Journal Ecological Engineering 17:63–77 7. Mace GM, Stuart SN (1994) Draft IUCN red list categories, Version 2.2. Species 22:13–24 8. Mace GM, Lande R (1991) Assessing extinction threats: toward a reevaluation of IUCN threatened species categories. Conserv Biol 5(2):148–157 9. Mace GM, Collar N, Cooke J, Gaston K, Ginsberg J, Williams NL, Maunder M, MilnerGulland EJ (1992) The development of new criteria for listing species on the IUCN red list. Species 19:16–22 10. Odum EP (1983) Basic ecology. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia, PA, 613 pp 11. Rechinger KH (ed.), (1963–1998): Flora iranica, Nos 1–173, Academische Druk-u Verlagasantalt, Graz 12. Safaian R (2005) The multiple use of rangeland in Taleghan, Ms Thesis, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Tehran, 200 pp 13. Yuguang B, Abougundia Z, Redmann RE (2001) Relationship between plant species diversity and grassland condition. J Range Manage 54:177–183

Role of Indigenous People in Conservation of Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants: An Indian Case Study Pooja Joshi and Nilanjana Rao

Abstract Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have become a part of traditional system of medicines and have gained importance, more so in today’s world. According to the estimate of World Health Organization (WHO), about 80% of the population of developing world are making use of traditional medicines. The medicinal plants have been used for widespread purposes since ancient times in countries particularly India, China, Greece, Persia etc. In India, according to a report of AICEP, Anthropological Survey of India, 1994, it is estimated that over 7,500 species of medicinal plants are used for therapeutic uses. The major floral species which are widely used as medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) include Ephedra gerardiana Wall., Rauvolfia serpentina, Swertia chirata, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, Rhododendron anthopogon D. Dun., Peganum harmala L. etc. The widespread use of these medicinal plants for both internal consumption and export purposes have led to their large-scale exploitation, resulting in loss of biological diversity (both at genetic and species level). Most of the medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina, Gentiana kurro, Alpinia galanga, Saussurea lappa have become endangered and threatened. Overexploitation along with lack of initiatives from government bodies, absence of proper management systems and loss of traditional knowledge are some of the factors responsible for rapid biodiversity loss. Indigenous people and biodiversity complement each other and the former has played an important role in conservation of biodiversity since time immemorial. The rural communities over the period of time have gathered a pool of indigenous knowledge/know-how for cultivation of the medicinal plants and their propagation. In the meantime, the importance of local knowledge systems in conservation and preservation of the germplasm of medicinal plants have also attained global significance. In India, various programmes on medicinal plants and their conservation based on traditional knowledge are being carried out by the local people, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), Community

P. Joshi (B) The Energy Resource Institute, New Delhi, India e-mail: [email protected]

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Based Organizations (CBOs) at various grass root levels such as the districts and villages. Though an unorganized sector, the local people are playing their role in the propagation as well as conservation of the medicinal plants through the application of the concepts of herbal gardens and local “mandis” (markets). There is a need to strengthen these linkages and build upon the indigenous knowledge base of the local people through proper documentation and building of a strong database. This paper deliberates upon the importance (therapeutic, ecological and economic) of medicinal plants and threats to their biodiversity. The communication also describes the details of some of the local efforts, which are being carried out at local levels in India for conservation of medicinal plants through the use of indigenous knowledge of traditional medicines. The paper also highlights the need to integrate indigenous knowledge into national policies and strengthen the participation of the indigenous communities in order to harness maximum potential of medicinal plant biodiversity along with sustainable management of these resources. Keywords Aromatic plants · Biodiversity · Medical plants

1 Introduction India occupies only 2.4% of the world’s land area and yet contributes 8% to the world’s biodiversity [8]. India’s biogeographic location at the tri-junction of Afro-Tropical, Indo-Malayan and Paleo- Arctic realms (http://www.envfor.nic.in) is responsible for its unique and rich biodiversity. Ten distinct biogeographical zones have been identified in Indian peninsula, each characterized by distinct topography, climate and biodiversity. Among the 25 hotspots identified all over the world [11], two, namely, the Western Ghats and Indo-Burma region (covering Eastern Himalayas) extend into India. India has 47,000 species of flowering and nonflowering plants (representing almost 12% of the world’s recorded flora) of which 2,532 species are endemic to Himalayan region and the remaining 1,782 to peninsular India (http://www.envfor.nic.in). This floral diversity is an important natural resource, which makes a rich contribution to the gross domestic product of the country. Besides contributing directly to the economy of the country, the floral diversity is a source of fuel, fodder, food and medicine for rural communities of the country. The floral diversity, especially the medicinal plants has been an integral part of Indian culture and heritage. In fact indigenous communities in India and their traditions, rituals, beliefs as well as the age-old systems of medicines such as the Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Amchi have evolved deriving sumptuously from the rich floral and faunal diversity of the region. The Ayurvedic system of medicine, first described in Agnivesh Tantra by Agnivesha, is believed to have originated in the Himalayas, about 5,000 years ago (1,000–600 BC). Charaka Samhita, one of the earliest treatises of Indian medicines, reported the use of about 2,000 herbs for medicinal use.

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The Siddha system of medicine originated and flourished in Southern India, owes its origin to Lord Shiva. Indigenous communities, as defined by the United Nations are those which having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems. These include the tribal people, the natives of the area concerned, marginalized sections such as the scheduled castes and also the farmers living on the fringes of forest areas. The association of medicinal plants and indigenous people has made the two traditionally, ecologically and economically inseparable. These communities have their day-to-day practices, rituals and traditions linked with the indigenous flora of the area, which essentially happens to be of medicinal value. For instance, Saussurea lappa locally called brahma kamal, is an important ethno-religious medicinal herb of Garhwal Himalayas where it is offered during prayers to Lord Shiva. Similarly, plants such as Ocimum (tulsi), Azadirachta (neem), Aegle marmelos (bel) are all considered sacred, ethno-religious plants used for prayers and rituals and most importantly recognized for their medicinal uses. The Naga tribes of Nagaland make use of the leaves of Psidium guajava, Houttuynia cordata and the stalk of Lasia spinosa for their anti helminthic properties for tapeworm infections. The anti-fatigue properties of Arogyapcha plant (Trichopus zeylanicus) were known to the Kani tribes of Western Ghats in the Thiruvanthapuram district of the state of Kerela. The legacy of traditional systems of medicines is still carried on by approximately two million traditional and village “dais” or mid wives, vaidyas, bonesetters, herbal practitioners and wandering monks. Besides, being the bearers of this unique traditional knowledge, the indigenous communities have strong conservation ethics. The religious beliefs of these communities have contributed to the conservation of biodiversity. The sacred groves or virgin patches of forests dedicated to local deities are befitting examples of conservation. The present day depletion of medicinal plants and traditional system of medicines is directly linked with the dwindling population of indigenous people and the erosion of their traditions and culture. The efforts, which are currently made for conservation of medicinal plants, need to be integrated with conservation of the traditional customs, practices, rituals, knowledge and wisdom of the indigenous people. The present communication is an attempt to highlight the importance of medicinal and aromatic plants vis-à-vis India’s traditional systems, its economy, their depleting status and efforts towards conservation of medicinal plants with active involvement of the indigenous communities.

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2 Significance of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) The significance of medicinal plants is highlighted by the fact that worldwide more than 50,000 plant species, covering about 13% of all flowering plants, are estimated to be medicinally important [14]. According to estimates of World Health Organization (WHO), 80% of the population in developing countries relies on traditional medicines [6, 2]. It is very important to realize that traditional systems of medicine are important for the poor and marginalized sections of the society, especially in the remote areas where modern medical facilities are not available [3]. This is validated by case study of India where per capita annual consumption of drugs is Rs.124 only (∼ = US $3), the lowest in the world. Additionally, interest in herbal medicines and natural products has increased substantially in developed as well as developing nations, mainly due to non-toxic nature of plant materials and no known side effects. This scenario is well reflected by the available trade figures. The international medicinal plant trade, estimated at US $60 billion, is presently growing at a rate of 7% per year [3]. This is besides the fact that a substantial part of the trade goes unrecorded, partly because much of it is illegal. Further, a large proportion of medicinal plant material is used domestically (India) and these figures are again not documented, hence the total trade of medicinal plants remains far greater than the suggested figures. The leading suppliers of the world market are China, Singapore, Brazil, India and Egypt. China and India constitute more than 40% of the global biodiversity. India is the second largest producer, second only to China. China earns US $5 billion per year from herbal trade, while India manages US $1.43 billion only, which is estimated to increase by US $2.2 billion by the year 2010 [2]. The international demand is largely from the United States and European Union (EU), with Germany as the leading trade center [3]. Besides contributing to the trade and economics at international level, the cultivation and collection of MAPs is an important means of livelihood generation among the rural and marginalized sections. Though the local and indigenous communities had always been dependant on forest resources for fuel, fodder, food and medicines, a substantial increase in collection of local medicinal and aromatic plants have been reported over the last 50 years, implicating that the collections are usually for commercial utilization. It has also been observed that it is the marginalized section of the society such as the scheduled tribes, scheduled castes, and women and the poor that depend on collection of MAPs for their livelihood. It is reported that the total income from sales of MAPs and Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) from forests in Madhya Pradesh, India was around US $2,000 per year [16]. The government in the state of Meghalaya benefits from the gathering and collection of MAPs where a single district provides around US $1,000,000 per year of revenue from the sale of about 3,000 tons of Bay Leaf products [7, 17]. Also, the cultivation of medicinal plants, hitherto not much in vogue, is slowly gaining acceptance among the farmers and commercial plantation of MAPs namely, Cholorophytum, Mentha, Geranium etc have proved to be economically beneficial. On the whole, it is evident that MAPs form an integral part of

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the rural society and have an important role to play in socio-economics of the local/indigenous communities.

3 Threat to Medicinal and Aromatic Plant (MAP) Biodiversity The established medicinal and emerging socio-economic importance of MAPs is having serious implications on these resources. A drastic decline in species diversity has been observed over the years. This is basically attributed to increasing anthropological pressures, habitat destruction, over exploitation, and lack of cultivation of the much-demanded medicinal and aromatic species. Of these, habitat destruction due to developmental projects is one major reason of genetic erosion of the biodiversity. It is estimated that India has lost 4,696 million hectares of forestland to non-forestry purposes in the period spanning 50 years after independence [10]. Such increasing human encroachments leads to fragmentation of large populations of species into small fragmented and scattered groups, which are rendered vulnerable to inbreeding depressions, high mortality rates and are more prone to extinction. Similarly, the rising demand by pharmaceutical industry leads to overexploitation of the medicinal plant species from the wild. Despite the immense importance of medicinal plants, the raw material is still not cultivated and about 95% of the medicinal plants are collected from the wild. According to a study, more than 1,300 tons of MAPs are collected and traded in a single district of Pithoragarh in Uttaranchal state, most of which is illegal [13]. A case study of Ayurveda industry showed that over 70% of the plant collections involves destructive harvesting mainly because of the use of plant parts like roots, bark, wood and whole plants. The estimates show that the various plant parts used by the Ayurvedic industry in India are as follows: bark 13.5%, roots 29.6%, rhizome 4%, stem 6%, whole plant 16.3%, wood 2.8% and the rest being contributed by flowers, fruits, leaves and seeds [2]. These medicinal plants include both herbs and trees and have major implications for conservation and management of supplies of raw material. Further, indiscriminate collection of medicinal plants from the natural stands leads to change in community organization, which in turn effects the regeneration potential of the rare and endemic species resulting in their endangered status [9]. Medicinally important species like Picrorhiza kurrooa, Rauvolfia serpentina, Saussurea lappa, Taxus wallichiana, already figure in the list of threatened and endangered species of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html. As per the recent International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) guidelines, Southern and Northern India has around 200 species of medicinal plants that are rare, endangered and threatened [15]. This could mean a tremendous loss to the world of modern allopathic medicine as well as traditional system of Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha, which the human race surely cannot afford.

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4 Loss of Indigenous Knowledge and Threats to MAPs As stated earlier, the traditional knowledge of the indigenous communities and the medicinal plants are inseparable. A decline in the traditions, rituals and age-old systems of the indigenous communities directly reflects on the conservation status of the medicinal plants. Though, India has one of the richest traditions of using medicinal plants in health care, most of the traditional and indigenous knowledge associated with the rich natural resource of the country remains undocumented and is passed down either by word of mouth from generation to generation or is described in ancient classical literature, and therefore remains inaccessible to common man. Even our traditional health systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani, which are very well documented, are codified in languages such as the Persian, Sanskrit and Tamil, which are not well understood internationally. The undocumented Indian Traditional Knowledge (ITK) is facing challenges from the developed countries in the form of “biopiracy” and “gene robbing” [5]. The need for protecting Indian traditional knowledge (ITK) has been vehemently brought forth by many well-known cases of misappropriation of traditional knowledge that includes the patents granted for medicinal properties of brinjal (Solanum melongena), bitter gourd (Momordica charantia), neem (Azadirachta indica) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) to name a few. Therefore, documentation of existing knowledge on various traditional systems of medicine, which is available in the public domain has become imperative in order to safeguard it from patenting of non-original inventions. Further, the effects of urbanization are fast catching up with these native people as it has with their plants. The effects of urbanization are not only evident on the declining species diversity but also have resulted in developmental and socio-cultural adaptations among the indigenous people. Due to technological advancement and change in lifestyles, the traditional knowledge in these local communities is disappearing, with younger generations opting for new livelihood options. Also, the impacts of urbanization on the socio-cultural lifestyle has led to erosion of religious and cultural values, which in turn has repercussions on the status of medicinal plants. This is exemplified by the scared groves or community forests, rich in medicinal flora, which were once dedicated to the local gods/goddesses by indigenous communities. Ecologically speaking scared groves form a compact community structure at its climax and harbor many rare and endemic species. The dilution of religious values and socio-cultural aspects has led many communities to lose their unified identity, instrumental to their conservation practice, and to destroy resources in their sacred groves in return for short-term commercial gain. The losses incurred due to such changes in socio-cultural patterns are further augmented by developmental projects such as highways, dams and railway tracks, which have either totally destroyed the sacred grooves or else have irreversibly disturbed their community structure, which has left many of the rare and endemic species vulnerable to threats of extinction.

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5 Conservation of Traditional Knowledge and MAPs – Requirements and Current Efforts 5.1 Documentation of the MAPs and Traditional Knowledge The first and foremost task is to document the vast traditional knowledge, which the indigenous communities possess. Unless and until this vast knowledge is preserved, we will not only lose the traditional system of medicines but also the genetic diversity of the medicinal and aromatic plants. The medicinal plants are known by their local names and it is often seen that different plants have the same name in different parts of the country, which creates unnecessary confusion. Therefore, taxonomic databases of ethno medicinal plants with the help of traditional practioners and experienced taxonomists should be prepared immediately. The role of research institutes and universities come into the foray for proper and scientific identification of plants and plant products. With this perspective, National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR) and the Department of Indian Systems of Medicine and Homoeopathy (ISM&H) have come up with a novel concept of traditional knowledge digital library (TKDL), in which all information for a target species is available in world languages such as English, French, German, Japanese and Spanish (www.niscair.res.in). This attempt at digitalization of ITK gives legitimacy to the existing traditional knowledge and enables protection of such information from getting patented illegally. A well documented database will help in “bioprospecting” a term used to assign economic value to plant species. Bioprospecting will further strengthen the value of traditional system of Indian medicine in the international market. Thus, documentation and conservation of these resources will simultaneously lead to an understanding and awareness towards the medicinal plants and hence care for them.

5.2 Protection of Intellectual Rights of Indigenous People and Benefit Sharing The indigenous knowledge, which is the dominion of the local communities, should be protected and cases of bio-piracy should be prevented as discussed earlier. Further, the indigenous people should also get a profit sharing from the marketing of their medicinal plant use. One prominent example is the development of “Jeevani” medicine based on the traditional knowledge of the Kani tribals of Kerala. The tribals used fruits of a tree that they called aarogyapyappacha which kept them energetic and agile during their arduous treks across the forests. The detailed investigation of the plant revealed that it contained certain glycolipids and non-steroidal compounds that had anti-stress, anti-hepatotoxic and immuno-modulatory/immunorestorative properties. Eventually the drug “Jeevani” was formulated from this plant, which was later, identified as Trichopus zeylanicus, with three other plants’

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ingredients. The license to manufacture “Jeevani” was given to a private company for a fee of one million rupees (∼ = US $22,000) for a period of 7 years. The Kani tribals received 50% of the license fee as well as 50% of the royalty obtained from sale of the drug. Such instances not only enhance the livelihood means of the communities, but also instill a sense of pride and utility for indigenous traditional knowledge. The communities become more conscious of their inherent traditional resources and hence more aware towards their conservation.

5.3 Cultivation of MAPs and Enhancement of Livelihood Opportunities Cultivation of medicinal plants is one of the viable options for not only meeting the market demands and in improving the socio-economic position of the local people, but also helps in conservation of the endangered species in their natural habitat. The case in point of Nardostachys jatamansi, an endangered plant of the Northwestern Himalayas illustrates this. The plant have been included the schedule of CITES to ensure its conservation. In India there is a need of 300 metric tons of the plant [1, 18]. This increased demand can certainly not be met through wild collections only and hence cultivation is the only viable solution. This scenario holds true not only for N. jatamansi in particular, but also for other rare and endangered medicinal plants such as Picrorhiza kurroa, Swertia chirayita, etc. Keeping this in view many cultivation/domestication studies have been conducted for different medicinal plants [4, 12]. In a study in Ghese village of Chamoli district, Uttaranchal (India), cultivation of a highly prioritised medicinal plant, Picrorhiza kurrooa (commonly called kutki) was conducted on an experimental basis [12]. According to the calculations, the net benefit to the farmer that comes from conventional crops such as potato and rajma (Phaseolus vulgaris) is a mere US $280 and US $118 per acre, respectively. On the contrary, kutki cultivation would yield a net profit of US $1961. Such studies augur well for conservation of medicinal plants as well as the local people who will definitely benefit from cultivation of elite germplasm of economically valuable medicinal and aromatic plants.

5.4 Policy Initiatives at the National Level In the present scenario of increasing demand of medicinal and aromatic plant species with a simultaneous decline of the resources, conservation and sustainable management are the need of the day. The Ministry of Forest and Environment (MoEF), the nodal environmental regulatory agency of Government of India, has devised many policies and programs to enhance the conservation of the medicinal and aromatic plants throughout the country. A number of institutions affiliated with the ministry are involved towards implementing these programs. Almost 4.2% area of

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the country has been earmarked for the extensive in situ conservation of habitats and ecosystems and under this program various national parks, Biosphere Reserve Programs have been initiated. Similarly, concept of botanic and herbal gardens have been instituted under the ex situ conservation programs. More recently, under the aegis of Ministry of Health and Family welfare, the government has set up the National Medicinal Plant Board (http://www.nmpb.nic.in), with the objective to establish a board that would be responsible for co-ordination of all matters relating to medicinal plants, including drawing up policies and strategies for conservation, proper harvesting, cost-effective cultivation, research and development, processing, marketing of raw material in order to protect, sustain and develop this sector.

5.5 Involvement of Local Communities, Non-Government Organizations/Community Based Organizations Cultivation of the medicinal plants can serve as one of the potential employment avenues for local communities, youth and women. Community based approaches have been successful in the conservation and livelihood generation programmes. Many non-government organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs) are doing commendable work in this arena. In India, the Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) is the pioneer and has been recognized by the Government of India as the “centre of excellence” in the field of medicinal plants. Many programmes and projects of such NGOs are running successfully in this country. Amongst many others, one such initiative is the Medicinal Plant Conservation Area (MPCA) programme, created by the FRLHT and implemented by another NGO, Medicinal Plant Conservation Centre (MPCC). The programme is a multi-approach effort to conserve the medicinal plants within their natural ecosystem and production of traditional medicines aimed at providing primary health aid through participation of local people. This also provides a supplementary source of income. However, for any such community based effort to be successful, the direct beneficiaries i.e. indigenous people, marginalized and poor farmers, women and youth should be involved right from the project conceptualization and planning stage.

5.6 Role of International Organizations Realizing the importance of the MAPs and the efforts of local NGOs/CBOs and the local communities in conservation of biodiversity, many international organizations like World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), International Development Research Centre (IDRC) are sponsoring many conservation programmes. One of the core areas of the UNDP’s Global Environment Facility (GEF) under its Small Grant Fund (SGF) is the conservation of biodiversity including medicinal plants. The Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Program in Asia is

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another initiative aimed at long-term sustainable and equitable use of MAPs of the IDRC and Ford Foundation. The involvement of international bodies in the existing national and local programmes further strengthens the efforts, which are currently being made towards the conservation of medicinal plant biodiversity and enhances India’s position in the global scenario of traditional medicines.

6 Conclusion India occupies an advantageous position related to the rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants and have an old lineage of traditional knowledge in indigenous medicines. In spite of this fact, the current scenario is that the age-old indigenous knowledge of the local and tribal communities is at a threat, thereby endangering the diversity of many of the species of medicinal plants. Over-exploitation of the plants from the wild due to excessive commercialization of herbal medicines and effects of urban trends on the socio-economic lifestyle of the rural and indigenous people are the major reasons cited for the alarming situation of the medicinal plants and the traditional system of medicines associated with them. Though efforts are being carried by the government, research organizations, local NGOs and even the local communities at their individual levels, however an integration of all the parties is required for not only enhancing the income levels of the indigenous communities and safeguarding the traditional knowledge, but also for conservation of medicinal plants and the promotion of the traditional system of medicines.

References 1. Ahuja PS (2003) Medicinal plants in India. In report and directory. Institute of Economic and Market Research, New Delhi 2. Anonymous (2000) Report of the taskforce on medicinal plants in India. Planning Commission, Government of India, Yojana Bhawan, New Delhi, India. http://planning commission.nic.in/aboutus/taskforce/tsk_medi.pdf 3. Belt J, Lengkeek A, Van Der Zant J (2003) Cultivating a healthy enterprise – developing a sustainable medicinal plant chain in Uttranchal – India Bulletin 350. KIT Publishers, Amsterdam 4. Chauhan RS, Nautiyal MC (2005) Commercial viability of cultivation of an endangered medicinal herb Nardostachys jatamansi at three different agroclimatic zone. Curr Sci 89:1481–1488 5. Dubey NK, Kumar R, Tripathi P (2004) Global promotion of herbal medicine: India’s opportunity. Curr Sci 86:37–41 6. Holley, J., Cherla, K. (1998) The medicinal plants sector in India. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Programme in Asia (MAPPA) ADRC/SARO, New Delhi 7. Karki M, Tiwari B, Badoni A, Bhattarai N (2003) Creating livelihood enhancing medicinal and aromatic plants based biodiversity rich production systems: Preliminary lessons from South Asia. Oral Paper Presented at the 3rd world congress on medicinal and aromatic plants for human welfare (WOCMAP III), Chiang Mai, Thailand

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8. Khoshoo TN (1996) India needs a national conservation board, Current Science, 71: 506–513 9. Laloo RC, Kharlukhi L, Jeeva S, Mishra BP (2006) Status of medicinal plants in the disturbed and the undisturbed sacred forests of Meghalaya, northeast India: population structure and regeneration efficacy of some important species. Curr Sci 90:225–232 10. MoEF (1999) National policy and macrolevel action strategy on biodiversity. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi 11. Myers N, Muttermeier RA, Muttermeier CA, da Fonseca GAB, Kent J (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858 12. Nautiyal MC, Nuatiyal BP (2004) Collaboration between farmers, research institutions and industry: experiences of Picrorhiza kurroa cultivation at Ghese village in Chamoli district, Uttaranchal, India. In: Alam G, Belt J (eds) Searching synergy: stakeholders views on developing a sustainable medicinal plant chain in Uttranchal, India. KIT Publishers, Amsterdam. KIT Bulletin No. 359, pp 63–72 13. Regmi S, Bista S (2002) Best practices in collection and cultivation of medicinal plants for sustainable livelihoods in Himalayan communities. Paper presented at the regional workshop at wise practices and experimental learning in the conservation and management of Himalayan medicinal plant, 15–20 Dec, Kathmandu, CECI-Nepal 14. Schippmannn U, Leaman DJ, Cunningham CB (2002) Impact of cultivation and gathering of medicinal plants in biodiversity: global trends and issues. FAO, Biodiversity and the Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Interdepartmental Working Group on Biological Diversity for Food and Agriculture, Rome 15. Shankar D (1998) Medicinal plants: a global heritage. Proceedings of the international conference on medicinal plants for survival, 16–19 February. IDRC, New Delhi 16. Singh MK (2003) Non-wood forest products based joint forest management in good forests. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun, India 17. Tiwari BK (2003) Biodiversity enriching and livelihood enhancing forest management practice of war Khasis of Meghalaya, India. Proceedings of wise practices in sustainable management of Himalayan medicinal plants, PPI and IDRC 18. Uniyal MR Uniyal RC (2002) Utilization of medicinal plants by pharmaceutical industries in India. Paper presented in workshop on ‘Vanaspati van’ WII, Dehdradun

Stand Structure and Spatial Patterns of Trees in Mixed Hyrcanian Beech Forest, Iran H. Habashi, S.M. Hosseini, R. Rahmani, and J. Mohammadi

Abstract The mixed beech forests (Fagus orientalis) are the most important industrial forests with the highest degree of naturalness in Hyrcanian forest, Iran. These forests commonly dominate by shade tolerance species with irregular uneven age stand structure. The aim of this study was to analyze the stand structure and spatial pattern in order to identify specific structural patterns. We investigated the stand structure and spatial pattern of trees in mixed Beech forest in the Shastkolate Educational Forest to examine the coexistence strategies of different species. Data was collected from an 16 ha permanent plot on an 400 × 400 m quadrate area that divided to 64 micro-quadrate (50 × 50 m). We mapped all stems >7.5 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh) on permanent plot. The stand contained nine woody plant species and 4,901 living stems with a combined basal area of 32.8 m2 ha−1 . The density of living trees >7.5 cm dbh averaged 291.7 ha−1 . The six main species were divided into two groups based on density and stand structure. Group A (F. orientalis, Carpinus betulus and Parrotia persica) had higher density than group B, as well as reverse J or L-shaped dbh distribution of live stems. Species in group B (Alnus subcordata, Acer velutinum and Diospurus lotus) had bell-shaped dbh distributions. Species in group A have clump spatial distribution pattern in all layers but clump intensity is more than in under storey layer and size of patch clump is small in this group. This phenomenon for group A may explaining by having numerous coppice, sucker and patch regeneration in the under storey layer. Middle storey and under storey stems of the six major tree species were patchily distributed throughout the plot but for Alder and Maple species common pattern in canopy layer was complete spatial randomness. The distribution of Beech and Hornbeam trees were negatively associated with other species. These results suggest species differences in favorable canopy condition. Differences in life history strategies and site preferences may explain the coexistence of these species.

H. Habashi (B) Natural Resources Faculty, Tarbiat Modarres University, P.O. Box 46414-356 Noor, Mazandaran, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_11, 

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Keywords Stand structure · Spatial distribution pattern · Spatial association · Beech forest · Iran

1 Introduction Beech forests commonly dominate the intermediate elevation regions of the northern temperate zone of Iran. These forests are the most important forest communities in natural forest landscape in Iran and usually consist of several canopy tree species. In this site, including Fagus orientalis, Carpinus betulus, Acer velutinum and Alnus subcordate are the most dominant, while Prunus spinosa and Diospyrus lotus often co-occur. Because Beech forests are widespread and represent the potential natural vegetation of many areas of Hyrcanian landscape, it’s of interest to identified stand structure and spatial pattern of major trees in these forests. The spatial and temporal pattern and the consequences of that pattern for the dynamics of populations and ecosystems are two fundamental and related themes in ecology [23]. Patterns can exist at various scales in time and space [2, 44, 34]. In nature, these patterns can appear as patches, gradients, or other kinds of spatial structures at spatial scales ranging from ecosystems to the area occupied by an individual organism [45, 43, 37, 18, 23, 13, 27]. Accordingly, many studies have attempted to quantify the patterns of heterogeneity within plant communities. These studies described and tested the effects of environmental heterogeneity on individual plants and plant-plant interactions at scales of centimeters to dozens of meters [7, 37, 18, 16, 11]. The results have demonstrated that significant spatial variations exist in soil attributes at finer spatial scales, and that plants appear to respond to these variations. It is possible that the pattern and dynamics of the fine-scale variations in soil resources may hold the key to understand mechanisms of plant-plant interactions. Furthermore, some studies have revealed that plants can modify the spatial variability of soil attributes through litter production and its composition, absorption of moisture, oxygen and nutrients, and the release from roots of organic molecules [36], suggesting the significance of plants in creation and maintenance of soil resource heterogeneity. The relationship of plant species and communities to site factors has also been the subject of extensive study [19]. Plants that repeatedly occur to gather in areas with similar combination of soil water, nutrients, light, and other factors are perceived to have similar recruitments or tolerance and are therefore grouped together [4]. The structure of different forest vegetation has also been analyzed in the context of scale dependency [1, 6, 26]. This was because various ecological phenomena often depend on the scales analyzed. Thus, we must pay attention to scales observed and analyzed in evaluating the characteristics of vegetation. Traditional research on plant spatial pattern has emphasized testing for departures from complete spatial randomness (CSR). Tests of the CSR hypothesis have also been applied in studies of competition effects on dynamics of even aged homogeneous forests [47, 12, 20, 21], mixed species temperate forests [8, 41], semi-arid shrub dominated stands [46], and savanna vegetation [40]. In general,

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the competition is assumed to cause a systematic change in the spatial pattern from random or aggregated to a regular pattern as a result of density-dependent mortality. Model of forest dynamics that incorporate spatial interactions among trees and other forest vegetation have been used as an alternative approach to testing hypotheses about the influence of forest structure on spatial pattern. This mechanistic approach has been applied to describe the spatial structure of tropical and temperate forests [24] and as a component of models simulating forest dynamics (e.g., Busing [5]). The objective of this paper is to identify stochastic point processes that can simulate the non-random spatial patterns of trees in mixed Beech forests, Iran. The point processes were selected to provide realistic reproduction of the observed patterns under a simple set of biologically plausible assumptions. This study assessed: (1) the characteristics of stand structure, including the stand structure of the six major species and canopy and (2) the characteristics of spatial distribution patterns of the major species. On the basis of the results of this large-scale study, we discuss the coexistence of Fagus and other species in the Shastkolate Forest permanent plot.

2 Methods 2.1 Study Area The study area is located at the Shastkolate educational forest in the North-East of the Hyrcanian forest, Iran (36◦ 45 N and 41◦54 E) (Fig. 1). Permanent plot located in parcel 32, district 1 with 79.9 ha. Near the study stand (at Gorgan city), mean annual precipitation is about 6,506,144 mm and the mean monthly temperature is highest in May (27.9◦C) and lowest in November (8.71◦C). The study stand is situated at an elevation between 820 and 960 m up to see level. There were no signs of human or major natural disturbance. Canopy height was typically about 30 m and Canopy cover is about 55–100%.

2.2 Field Methods In February 2005, a 16 ha (400 m × 400 m) permanent plot was established. The forest on the 16 ha plot was well developed and contained many species within the study stand. All woody stems >7.5 cm dbh were measured to the nearest 0.1 cm and the location of all stems was mapped. The trees were tagged, identified to species level, and classified according to state (living or dead) and position in the canopy by measuring height of all trees. In our analysis of spatial distribution patterns and spatial associations among the tree species, we considered layer I to be the canopy layer (height is greater than 40 m) and layers II (height between 20 and 40 m) and III the understorey (height is less than 20 m). The plot was divided into 64 contiguous 50 m × 50 m quadrates, and all trees coordinate were recorded. The condition of the forest floor within a quadrate was recorded by visual estimation as percentage coverage [39].

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Fig. 1 Location of study site

2.3 Data Analysis We described the stand structure of the major tree species using stem density, maximum dbh, basal area, dbh distribution. We determined the spatial distribution of each species using the number of stems in each layer. The spatial distribution of stems of major species >7.5 cm dbh in different layers was analyzed using First-order Nearest Neighbour Tests; Clark-Evans Statistic. Probably the simplest measure of spatial pattern is the first-order nearest neighbour distance; that is, the distance from an event to its closest counterpart. The measure was described in an ecological context by Clark and Evans [9] who provide estimates of the expected nearest neighbour distance under CSR (Complete Spatial Randomness) as well as significance tests for detecting departure from CSR in spatial point processes. The Clark Evans statistic (RCE ) is the ratio of the observed (rA ) nearest neighbour distance to that expected (rE ) under CSR. Under CSR, RCE ∼1.0. When RCE < 1.0 the point process is aggregated (RCE = 0 for maximum possible aggregation) and when RCE > 1.0 it is maximally spaced (the maximum value of RCE is 1.0746/λ). In any given distribution the mean observed distance to the nearest neighbour is RCE times as great as would be expected under CSR (at the same density). Thus, an RCE

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value of 0.5 would indicate that nearest neighbours are on average half as far apart as expected under CSR. Spatial associations among major tree species and stems in different layers were analyzed using Morisita’s index of interspecific correlation, Rδ [30, 31]. First, we considered the following function: 

q  nxi nyi − Nx Ny 2 q Rδ  =

i=1

q(δx × δy )Nx Ny

(1)

where q 

δx =

nxi (nxi − 1)

i=1

(2)

Nx (Nx − 1)

and q 

δy =

nyi (nyi − 1)

i=1

(3)

Ny (Ny − 1)

Where nxi is the number of stems of species X occurring in the ith quadrate, nyi the number of stems of species Y in the ith quadrate, Nx and Ny are the total number of stems of species X and Y, respectively, and q the number of quadrates. If Rδ  ≥ 0, then Rδ = Rδ 

(4)

And if Rδ  < 0, then ⎛

q 

⎞

nxi nyi ⎟ ⎜q ⎜ i=1 ⎟ Rδ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ Nx Ny ⎠

(5)

Rδ expresses the degree of spatial associations, taking a positive value when the distributions of the two species or layers are positively associated and a negative value when they are negatively associated. If the two species or layers are distributed independently of one other, Rδ = 0. The scale of spatial associations is determined by computing Rδ values for quadrates. The size of quadrates is same at Iδ . Because both Iδ and Rδ tend to vary erratically where the number of samples (stems) is small, layers II and III were pooled to increase the sample size for the analysis of spatial

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distributions and spatial associations. There are various examples for the use of the Rδ index in the analysis of spatial associations of tree stems [25, 17].

3 Results 3.1 Floristic and Physical Characteristics In the 16 ha permanent plot, we found nine tree and shrub species with a dbh >7.5 cm: F. Orientalis, C. betulus, A. velutinum, A. cappadocicum, Alnus subcordata, Ulmus glabra, P. spinosa, D. lotus and P. persica. We counted 4,901 living stems (292 stems ha−1 ) and 314 dead stems (18.7 stems ha−1 ), with a total basal area of 55.2 m2 ha−1 (living) and 24.3 m3 ha−1 (dead). Here we considered only the living stems of the six main species that each made up >95% of the total stem density: F. orientalis Lipsky, C. betulus, P. persica, A. subcordata, A. velutinum and D. lotus (Table 1). Most of the ground surface was covered by Ruscus hyrcanus, although bare rock and exposed mineral soil occurred locally. Table 1 Stand parameters of living stems >7.5 cm dbh for major tree species in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest Iran

Species F. oreintalis C. betulus P. persica A. subcordata A. velutinum D. Lotus

Stem density (ha−1 ) 107.5 71.5 76.4 2.5 8.5 23.7

DBH (cm) Mean 6S.D.

Maximum

Height (m)

33.84630.01 29.19623.9 22.45616.4 62.99621.6 38.6628.6 12.464.3

150 112 98 119 154 40

21.29 21.03 15.03 32.25 24.29 13.39

Basal area (m2 ha−1 )

Crown diameter (m)

17.3 8.0 4.6 0.87 1.53 0.32

6.16 6.02 6.64 5.9 5.66 6.36

3.2 Size and Stand Structure Stand parameters varied among the major tree species (Table 1). A. Subcordata had the largest mean dbh and basal area, whereas F. Orientalis had the highest stem density. The dbh distributions of living stems of D. lotus, A. velutinum and A. subcordata were bell-shaped. The mode of A. subcordata was 60–70 cm and that of A. velutinum was 20–30 cm and fot D. lotus was 10–15 cm (Fig. 2). Live stems of F. orientalis, C. betulus and P. persica exhibited reverse J or L-shaped distributions. Canopy layers varied among species (Table 2). The four species had stems in all layers but D. lotus hadn’t stems in layer I and 68.3% this species stems is related on layer III. A. subcordata had far fewer stems in layer III than in layers I and II. P. persica had more stems in the lowest layer, and A. velutinum had more stems in the layer II.

Fig. 2 The Stand structure and dbh class distributions of the major tree species in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest Iran

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Table 2 Density (ha−1 ) by canopy height of living stems >7.5 cm dbh for major tree species in each layer in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate forest, Iran Layera I

II

III

Species

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

Number

Percent

F.oreintalis C. betulus P. persica A. subcordata A. velutinum D. Lotus

17.7 5.9 0.48 1.1 0.95 0.0

16.5 8.2 0.6 45.2 11.2 0.0

47.2 43.4 31.7 1.3 6.0 7.5

43.9 60.7 41.5 52.4 70.6 31.7

42.5 22.2 44.2 0.05 1.5 16.2

39.6 31.1 57.9 2.4 18.2 68.3

a Layer

I: Canopy with height is greater than 35 m, Layer II: middle storey canopy with height between 15 and 35 m, Layer III: Under storey canopy with height less than 15 m

3.3 Spatial Distribution Pattern Dispersion maps of individual stems of Beech and Hornbeam species in each layer illustrate their spatial distributions (Figs. 3 and 4). Stems of four species in the plot were clumped in canopy, middle and understorey layers, but A. subcordata and A. velutinum were complete spatial randomness pattern and RCE > 1 illustrate maximum space between stems. In the canopy layer, A. velutinum stems were aggregated in a large sized clump (4,518 m2 ), P. persica was clustered in large sized clump (8,885 m2 ); and A. subcordata, C. betulus and F. orientalis were aggregated in small clump (552 and 400 and 144 m2 ). Because we found few A. subcordata stems in the understorey, we did not analyze the data for this species. Understorey stems of F. orientalis were aggregated in small patch (41 m2 ) and P. persica were (32 m2 ) patches, whereas stems of A. velutinum and A. subcordata were aggregated in intermediate (1,038 and 862 m2 ) clumps. Stems of all species were found in the understorey, distributed independently of canopy conditions. The following tables illustrate spatial distribution analysis in three layers with use of Clark and Evan’s indices (Table 3) [9].

3.4 Spatial Association In permanent plot, F. orientalis and C. betulus stems were negatively associated with A. subcordata and A. velutinum stems, although the relation was stronger with A. subcordata. The sole exception to this result was that C. betulus was distributed independently of other species specification A. velutinum and P. persica in big quadrate size. A. subcordata were positively associated with D. lotus in quadrates 145,000 m2 but were negatively associated with other species in the smallest quadrates. Stems of A. velutinum were distributed independently of the D. lotus

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Fig. 3 Distribution of individual stems of Beech tree in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest, Iran. Large circles: stem with dbh greater or equal than 80 cm; medium circle: stems with dbh greater or equal than 40 cm and less than 80 cm; small circles: stems with dbh greater than 40 cm. Scale in meters

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500.00550.00600.00650.00700.00750.00800.00850.00900.00950.00

650.00

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

900.00

950.00

1000.00

1050.00

1100.00

1150.00

1200.00

500.00550.00600.00650.00700.00750.00800.00850.00900.00950.00

C.betulus-Intermediate

650.00

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

900.00

950.00

1000.00

1050.00

1100.00

1150.00

500.00 550.00 600.00 650.00 700.00 750.00 800.00 850.00 900.00 950.00

C.betulus- Understory

Fig. 4 Distribution of individual stems of Hornbeam tree in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest Iran. Large circles: stem with dbh greater or equal than 80 cm; medium circle: stems with dbh greater or equal than 40 cm and less than 80 cm; small circles: stems with dbh greater than 40 cm. Scale in meters

700.00

750.00

800.00

850.00

900.00

950.00

1000.00

1050.00

1100.00

1150.00

C.betulus-Canopy

112 H. Habashi et al.

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Table 3 Spatial distribution analysis parameters of living stems >7.5 cm dbh for major tree species in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate forest – Iran Species

Parameter

Canopy layer

Middle layer

Understorey layer

F. oreintalis

Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R Point analyzed Average NN distance Clark and Evan’s R

294 12.02 0.38 98 20.03 0.39 7 94.26 0.45 19 23.5 2.31 15 67.22 0.91 0 0 0

789 6.72 0.34 729 6.91 0.36 528 8.66 0.35 20 29.36 0.25 99 17.01 0.33 124 13.33 0.27

718 6.39 0.30 372 7.85 0.27 740 5.68 0.28 0 0 0 26 32.22 0.32 271 8.17 0.25

C. betulus

P. persica

A. subcordata

A. velutinum

D. lotus

and P. persica in quadrates 12,500 m2 but were negatively associated the smallest quadrates. D. lotus was strong negatively associated with P. persica in all quadrates (Fig. 5).

1

F.orientalis with all other species

0.5

Rδ

0

2500

37500

75000

1125000

130000

–0.5

137500

145000 160000

Fagus&Carpinus Fagus &Alnus Fagus&Acer Fagus&Diospyrus Fagus&Parrotia

–1 Quadratee size (m2)

Fig. 5 Rδ quadrate size relations of living stems >7.5 cm dbh for tree species in the 16 ha permanent plot of the Shastkolate Forest, Iran. Rδ is the Morisita’s index of interspecific correlation [31]. Rδ quadrate size relations stems in F. orientalis with other species

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4 Discussion 4.1 Stand Characteristics In many mixed Beech forests, Fagus. spp are found at a much greater density than other species [38, 35, 22]. In the study stand, the density of F. orientalis was much higher than that of C. betulus, A. subcordata and A. velutinum although A. subcordata and A. velutinum occupied the largest basal area. Total dead wood volume is similar to other reported from Hyrcanian mixed beech forest [15, 14].

4.2 Stand Structure Beech forests (F. orientalis) represent the most important forest communities in natural forested landscapes in Hyrcanian forest, Iran [29]. In Beech forest of central Europe mean density of living trees >7 cm dbh amounted to 263 ha−1 and about one-third of the trees (95 ha−1 ) occurred in the upper canopy layer [33]. In our study, mean density of living trees >7.5 cm dbh amounted to 107.4 ha−1 and 16.5% of the trees (17.7 ha−1 ) occurred in the upper canopy layer. On the basis of our results, we divided the species into two groups. The species in group A were F. orientalis, C. betulus and P. persica and in group B were D. lotus, A. subcordata and A. velutinum. The species in group A were the most common, characterized by continuously reverse L-shaped dbh distributions (live stems). Stand structure of beech forest most dominant with L-shaped dbh distributions [29, 33]. The species in group B had bell-shaped dbh distributions (live stems). Group A species dominated the canopy layer and very most stems in the middle layer understorey layer too. Despite their low density in the understorey, however, their longevity may allow for continued coexistence of these two species groups in the canopy layer. In RuscoFagetum association, Diospyrus is usually more abundant in understorey [3] and in mixed beech forest studied Diospyrus trees occurred in understorey canopy layer (68.3%). Group A’s dominance of the understorey may be due to shade tolerance, a characteristic of Fagus species.

4.3 Spatial Distribution Pattern and Spatial Association Individuals of many tree species in various forest communities tend to be patchily distributed [10, 42, 32, 26]. We found a similar situation in our study site; stems of four species in each layer had clumped distributions and the size of the clumps differed among species and canopy layers. A. subcordata and A. velutinum had complete spatial randomness pattern in out site that reflected pioneer species. In our study, spatial associations varied among intra- and inter-specific cohorts in stand structure. Some of species such as A. subcordata were negatively associated with other species in small quadrate size but were positively associated with other

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species in their big quadrate size. F. orientalis stems were negatively associated with all other species. D. lotus stems was occupied in layer II and III and had strong negatively associated with P.perica that occupied same layer. Acknowledgements We thank numerous institutions and persons for their contribution of the study: Educational Shastkolate forest, Gorgan University. Shaban Shataii, Habib Zare, Gholamreza Daneshvar, Alireza Aliarab, Mohamad Hadi Moayeri and Mr Mirzaii.

References 1. Akashi N (1996) The spatial pattern and canopy-understory association of trees in a cool temperate, mixed forest in western Japan. Ecol Res 11:311–319 2. Allen TFH, Starr TB (1982) Hierarchy: perspectives for ecological diversity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL 3. Asadollahi F (2001) Study of Hyrcanian plant association in north Iranian forest. 1st national conference of north forest management and sustainable development, Ramsar, Iran 4. Barnes BV (1998) Forest ecology. Wiley, New York. 773 pp 5. Busing R (1991) A spatial model of forest dynamics. Vegetatio 92:167–179 6. Busing RT, White PS (1993) Effects of area on old-growth forest attributes: importance for the equilibrium landscape concept. Landscape Ecol 8:119–126 7. Caldwell MM, Pearcy RW (1994) Causes of soil nutrient heterogeneity at different scales. In Caldwell MM, Pearcy RW (eds) Exploitation of environmental heterogeneity by plants. Academic Press, Boston, MA, pp 255–282 8. Collins SL, Klahr SC (1991) Tree dispersion in oak-dominated forests along an environmental gradient. Oecologia 86(4):471–477 9. Clark PJ, Evans FC (1954) Distance to nearest neighbor as a measure of spatial relationships in populations. Ecology 35:445–453 10. Denslow JS (1980) Gap partitioning among tropical rainforest trees. Biotropica 12:47–55 11. Ehrenfeld JG, Han X, Parsons WFJ, Zhu W (1997) On the nature of environmental gradients: temporal and spatial variability of soils and vegetation in the New Jersey Pinelands. J Ecol 85:785–798 12. Franklin J, Michaelsen J, Strahler AH (1985) Spatial analysis of density dependent pattern in coniferous forest stands. Vegetation 64:29–36 13. Gross KL, Pregitzer KS, Burton AJ (1995) Spatial variation in nitrogen availability in three successional plant communities. J Ecol 83:357–367 14. Habashi H, Hosseini SM, Mohajer M (2004) The importance of necromass in virgin oriental beech forests (Mazandaran, Iran). 7th IUFRO international beech symposium, Tehran, Iran 15. Habashi H, Mahmoudi J (2005) The ecological importance of dead trees in virgin oriental beech forests (Mazandaran, Iran). 10th European ecological congress, Turkey 16. Halvorson JJ, Bolton H Jr, Smith JL, Rossi RE (1994) Geostatistical analysis of resource islands under Artemisia tridentata in the shrub-steppe. Great Basin Nat 54:313–328 17. Hoshino D, Nishimura N, Yamamoto S. (2001) Age, size structure and spatial patterns of major tree species in an old growth Chamaecyparis obusa forest, central Japan. For Ecol Manage 152:31–43 18. Jackson RB, Caldwell MM (1993) Geostatistical patterns of soil heterogeneity around individual plants. J Ecol 81:683–692 19. Kashian DM, Barnes BV, Walker WS (2003) Ecological species groups of landform level ecosystems dominated by jack pine in northern lower Michigan, USA. Plant Ecol 166:75–91 20. Kenkel NC (1988) Pattern of self-thinning in jack pine: testing the random mortality hypothesis. Ecology 69(4):1017–1024 21. Kenel NC, Hoskins JA, Hoskins WD (1989) Local competition in naturally established jack pine stand. Can J Bot 67:2630–2635

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22. Leibundgut H (1993) Europäische Urwälder. Haupt Bern, Stuttgart 23. Levin SA (1992) The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: the Robert H. MacArthur award lecture. Ecology 73:1943–1967 24. Maguire D, Batista JLF, McKenzie D (1993) Horizontal structure of uneven-aged mixed species forests modeled as an inhomogeneous poisson process. In: Reynolds K (ed) Proceedings IUFRO S4.11 Conference on stochastic spatial models in forestry, University of Greenwich, Thessaloniki, Greece, pp 163–170 25. Manabe T, Yamamoto S (1997) Spatial distribution of Eurya japonica in an old-growth evergreen broad-leaved forest, SW Japan. J Veg Sci 8:761–772 26. Manabe T, Nishimura N, Miura M, Yamamoto S (2000) Population structure and spatial patterns for trees in a temperate old-growth evergreen broad-leaved forest in Japan. Plant Ecol 151:181–197 27. Miller RE, Ver Hoef JM, Fowler NL (1995) Spatial heterogeneity in eight central Texas grasslands. J Ecol 83:919–928 28. Mitchell A, Arnott J (1995) Effects of shade on the morphology and physiology of amabilis fir and western hemlock seedlings. New Forests 10(1):79–98 29. Mohajer MM (2005) Silviculture. Tehran University Press, Tehran, p 387 30. Morisita M (1959a) Measuring of the dispersion of individuals and analysis of the distributional patterns. Mem Fac Sci Kyushu Univ Ser E 2:215–235 31. Morisita M (1959b) Measuring of interspecific association and similarity between communities. Mem Fac Sci Kyushu Univ Ser E 3:65–80 32. Nakashizuka T (1999) Structure, dynamics and disturbance regime of temperate broad-leaved forests in Japan. J Veg Sci 10:805–814 33. Oheimb G, Westphal C, Tempel H, Härdtle W (2005) Structural pattern of a near-natural beech forest (Fagus sylvatica) (Serrahn, North-east Germany). For Ecol Manage 212:253–263 34. Pickett STA, Cadenasso ML (1995) Landscape ecology: spatial heterogeneity in ecological systems. Science 269:331–334 35. Rademacher C, Neuert C, Grundmann V, Wissel C, Grimm V (2004) Reconstructing spatiotemporal dynamics of Central European natural beech forests: the rule-based forest model before. For Ecol Manage 194:349–368 36. Robinson, D., Van Vuuren MMI (1998) Responses of wild plants to nutrient patches in relation to growth rate and life-form. In: Lambers H, Poorter H (eds) Inherent variation in plant growth. Physiological mechanisms and ecological consequences. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands, pp 237–257 37. Robertson GP, Crum JR, Ellis BG (1993) The spatial variability of soil resources following long-term disturbance. Oecologia 96:451–456 38. Saniga M, Schütz J-P (2001) Dynamics of changes in dead wood share in selected beech virgin forests in Slovakia within their development cycle. J For Sci 47:557–565 39. Sinclair DF (1985) On tests of spatial randomness using mean nearest neighbour distance. Ecology 66:1084–1085 40. Skarpe C (1991) Spatial patterns and dynamics of woody vegetation in an arid savanna. J Veg Sci 2:565–572 41. Szwagrzyk J, Czerwczak M (1993) Spatial pattern of trees in natural forests of East-Central Europe. J Veg Sci 4:469–476 42. Taylor AH, Qin Z (1988) Regeneration patterns in old-growth Abies–Betula forests in the Wolong natural reserve, Sichuam, China. J Ecol 76:1204–1218 43. Trangmar BB, Yost RS, Wade MK, Uehara G, Sudjadi M (1987) Spatial variation of soil properties and rice yield on recently cleared land. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 51:668–674 44. Urban DL, O’Neill RV, Shugart HH (1987) Landscape ecology. BioScience 37:119–127 45. Webster R, Oliver MA (1992) Sample adequately to estimate variograms of soil properties. J Soil Sci 43:177–192 46. Welden C, Slauson W, Ward R (1990) Spatial pattern and interference in PinÄon-Juniper woodlands of northwest Colorado. Great Basin Nat 50(4):313–319 47. West PW (1984) Inter-tree competition and small-scale pattern in monoculture of Eucalyptus obilqua L’Herit. Austr J Ecol 9:405–411

Nutrient-Food Chain Modeling for Lake Prespa Spiro Grazhdani and Spase Shumka

Abstract This research presents an approach to modeling nutrient/food-chain interactions in a stratified lake, which gives a general picture of the eutrophication level for lake Prespa and shows general trends of the trophic state of this aquatic ecosystem. Man – made eutrophication, in absence of control measures, provides much faster than the natural phenomenon and is the major reason for pollution of lake Prespa. The model presented provides informations on temporal resolution of eutrophication effects that is extremely useful to water quality managers. This study also provides a means to identify nutrient and light limitation, which is a critical step in controlling eutrophication. The specific nature of the lake has been taken account and embodied in the model. The adequacy of the simulation is assessed by experimental measurements in the lake. The results taken are encouraging. Keywords Nutrient/food-chain · Eutrophication · Algae · Phytoplankton · Zooplankton · Non-living organic carbon

1 Introduction Water quality modeling has evolved a great deal since its innovation in the early years of the twentieth century. In the 1970s the principal water quality problem addressed was eutrophication. As a consequence, modelers broadened their own scope to include more mechanistic representations of biological processes. Capitalizing on oceanographic research environmental engineers developed elaborate nutrient/food-chain models [2–6, 8, 9]. The major modeling advance in this period has been to recognize the prominent role of solid matter in the transport and fate of toxicants. In particular, the association of toxicants with settling and

S. Grazhdani (B) Agricultural University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_12, 

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resuspending particles represents a major mechanism controlling their transport and fate in natural waters. Further, small organic particles such as phytoplankton and detritus, can be ingested and passed along to higher organisms. Such food-chain interactions have led the modelers to view nature’s organic carbon cycle as more than an end in itself. Rather, the food chain is viewed as a conveyer and concentrator of contaminants [6]. This research focuses on a seasonal nutrient/food- chain model for a stratified lake. A limiting nutrient is integrated into algal – zooplankton scheme to complete the picture of nutrient/food chain interactions. Following a simple kinetic scheme the resulting equations are written. The equations form a completely closed system where nutrients are turned into biomass by net production and recycled by respiration/excretion and death. We are focused in this research on a specific group of microorganisms, algae. We refined the plant growth framework by developing a more complete model of an important group of algae, the free-floating microorganism called phytoplankton. Chlorophyll a is considered to be directly proportional to the concentration of phytoplanktonic algal biomass. Below are given the factors that contribute to algal growth. The growth rate of algae is not a simple constant, but varies in response to environmental factors, such as temperature, nutrients and light. At low levels and in some instances at high levels, these factors can limit growth. A variety of formulations have been developed to represent the effect of temperature on plant growth [10]. A more commonly used form is theta model. There are several ways in which the nutrient limitation term can be refined. The most important relates to how nutrients are handled. For such cases, separate limitation terms would be developed for each nutrient. At the other extreme is the case where the nutrient in shortest supply controls growth. This type of approach, which is similar in spirit to Liebig’s law of the minimum [6], is the most commonly accepted formulation. The effect of light on phytoplankton growth is complicated by the fact that several factors have to be integrated to come up with the total effect. These factors are diurnal surface light variation, light attenuation with depth and dependence of the growth rate on light. In the previous paragraphs are outlined some external physical and chemical factors, such as temperature, light and nutrients, that limit phytoplankton growth in natural waters. There are a number of processes contribute to the loss of phytoplankton. Some of these are transport related such as settling and diffusion/dispersion. Others are kinetic such as respiration, excretion and death by predation. In water quality modeling, two losses are emphasized: non-predatory and predatory losses. The non-predatory losses consist primarily of respiration and excretion. Respiration reefers to the opposite process to photosynthesis where the plant utilizes oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Excretion is a process focused on the release of nutrients. However, algae can also release organic carbon as extracellular byproducts. It should be noted that although they are often treated as a single

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process, the division between respiration and excretion should not be considered a trivial distinction. This is particularly true as nutrient/food-chain models evolve toward more accurate representation of the organic carbon cycle. In such cases, processes that tend to generate carbon dioxide and liberate available nutrients (respiration) should be separated from processes that liberate organic forms of carbon and nutrients (excretion). Predatory losses include the factors that limit algal populations by causing their death due to grazing by zooplankton that employ the algae as a food source. To provide background for this phytoplankton – zooplankton interactions, general mathematical models have been developed to simulate predator-prey interactions. Summaries of the data for all aforementioned parameters can be found in Chapra [6] and Bowie et al. [1]. This research has been designed to illustrate how predator-prey kinetics works, and to show how they can be integrated into a more comprehensive nutrient/foodchain computation. It relates to the ecological state of Lake Prespa.

2 Materials and Methods The present framework handles physical segmentation (two vertical layers), loadings and transport in the same way as the two-component model described in [6]. Mass balance for a substance in the epilimnion and the hypolimnion (Fig. 1), can be written as: V1

dc1 = W(t) − Qc1 + vt At (c2 − c1 ) + S1 dt dc2 = vt At (c1 − c2 ) + S2 V2 dt

(1) (2)

where V = volume, c = concentration, t = time, W(t) = loading, Q = outflow, vt = thermocline transfer coefficient, At = thermocline area, and S = sources and sinks.

Fig. 1 Physical segmentation scheme and transport representation

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As depicted in Fig. 2, the model consists of eight state variables. These can be divided into three major groups (Table 1). Mass balance equations are written for each of the state variables for each of the layers. The source and sink terms for each state variables are described below.

Fig. 2 Kinetic segmentation

Table 1 Model state variables State Variable

Symbol

Units

Food-chain 1. Algae 2. Herbivorous zooplankton 3. Carnivorous zooplankton

a zh zc

mgCha m−3 gC m−3 gC m−3

Non-living organic carbon 1. Particulate 2. Dissolved

cp cd

gC m−3 gC m−3

Nutrients 1. Ammonium nitrogen 2. Nitrate nitrogen 3. Soluble reactive phosphorus

na ni ps

mgN m−3 mgN m−3 mgP m−3

2.1 Food Chain The food chain consists of a single plant group along with two zooplankton groups.

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2.1.1 Algae The algae growth is a function of temperature, nutrients and solar radiation. For the hypolimnion, algae are also gained by settling from the surface layer. Sinks include respiration/excretion, grazing and settling losses. The differential equation that governs the growth and production of algae (chlorophyll a) is formulated as following: V

da = kg (T, nt , ps, I)Va − kra (T)Va − Cgh (T, a, zh )Va + νa At au − νa At a dt

(3)

where kg (T, nt , ps , I) = the algal growth rate [d−1 ], kra (T) = losses due to respiration and excretion [d−1 ], Cgh (T, a, zh ) = grazing losses [d−1 ], νa = phytoplankton settling velocity [m d−1 ], and the subscript “u” designates an upper layer. The growth and the grazing rates are dependent on environmental factors as in [8]: kg (T, nt , ps , I) = kg,

20

1.066

T−20 2.718

ke H

 −α  e 1 − e−α0 min



p nt , ksn + nt ksp + p (4)

and Cgh (T, a, zh ) =

a Cgh θ T−20 zh kSa + a

(5)

where nt = total inorganic nitrogen = na + ni , and other parameters are defined in [6]. In addition, the respiration rate is corrected for temperature with the theta model: kra (T) = kra, 20θ T−20

(6)

All other temperature-dependencies are corrected in this fashion. 2.1.2 Herbivorous Zooplankton Part of the consumed algae is converted into herbivorous zooplankton. The herbivores are depleted by carnivore grazing and respiration/excretion losses: V

dzh = aca εh Cgh (T, a, zh ) Va − Cgc (T, zc ) Vzh − krh (T) Vzh dt

(7)

where aca = the stoichiometric coefficient for the conversion of algal chlorophyll a to zooplankton carbon [mgChla/gC]. 2.1.3 Carnivorous Zooplankton Part of the consumed herbivorous zooplankton is converted into carnivorous zooplankton. The carnivores are depleted by respiration/excretion losses and the



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first-order death due to grazing by organisms higher on the food chain (primarily fish): V

dzc = εc Cgc (T, zc )Vzh − krc (T) Vzc − kdc (T) Vzc dt

(8)

2.2 Non-living Organic Carbon The non-living organic carbon is divided into particulate and organic fractions in order to distinguish between settleable and non-settleable forms.

2.2.1 Particulate Inefficient grazing (egestion) along with carnivore death results in gains to the particulate non-living organic carbon (POC) pool. For the hypolimnion, POC is also gained by settling from the surface layer. Sinks include a first-order dissolution reaction and settling losses: V

dcp = rca (1 − εh ) Cgh (T, a, zh ) Va + (1 − εc ) Cgc (T, zc ) Vzh dt + kdc (T) Vzc − kp (T)Vcp + νp At cpu − νp At cp

(9)

2.2.2 Dissolved DOC is gained via the first-order dissolution reaction and lost by hydrolysis: V

dcd = kp (T) Vcp − kh (T) Vcd dt

(10)

2.3 Nutrients The nutrients are divided into inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus. The former is split into ammonium and nitrate nitrogen. 2.3.1 Ammonium Nitrogen Ammonium ion is gained due to hydrolysis of dissolved organic carbon and from food-chain respiration. It is lost via uptake and nitrification: V

dna = rnc kh (T) Vcd + rna kra (T) Va + rnc krh (T) Vzh + rnc krc (T) Vzc dt − Fa rna kg (T, nt , ps , I) Va − kn (T) Vna

(11)

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where Fa = the fraction of the inorganic nitrogen that is taken from the ammonium pool by plant uptake: Fa =

na ka + n a

(12)

where k = a half-saturation constant for ammonium preference.

2.3.2 Nitrate Nitrogen Nitrate is gained due to nitrification and it is lost via plant uptake: V

dni = kn (T) Vna − (1 − Fa ) rna kg (T, nt , ps , I) Va dt

(13)

2.3.3 Soluble Reactive Phosphorus (SRP) SRP is gained due to hydrolysis of dissolved organic carbon and from food-chain respiration. It is lost via plant uptake: V

dpS = rpc kh (T) Vcd + rpa kra (T) Va + rpc krh (T) Vzh + rpc krc (T) Vzc dt − rpa kg (T, nt , ps , I) Va

(14)

By employing the kinetic interaction from Eqs. 3 through 14, Eqs. 1 and 2 can be written for each of the eight state variables. The resulting sixteen ordinary differential equations can be integrated simultaneously using a numerical method such as the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method [7].

3 Results and Discussions Physical parameters for Lake Prespa during the 2001 are summarized in Table 2. Note that the hypolimnetic temperatures are simulated with a heat balance model. Loads and initial conditions are summarized in Table 3, and model parameters are listed in Table 4. The model equations were solved numerically for year 2001. The results are summarized in Fig. 3. Figure 3a shows results for the food chain in the epilimnion. Note that zooplankton is expressed in chlorophyll units to allow comparison among the variables. The results indicate that predator – prey interactions are taking place with peak of the algae, herbivores, and carnivores occurring at approximately days 160, 180, and 240, respectively.

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Symbol

Surface area Thermocline area Epilimnion volume Hypolimmnion volume Thermocline thickness Epilimnion thickness Hypolimnion thickness Outflow Thermocline difussion: Summer stratified Winter mixed Start of summer stratification Time to establish stratification Onset of end of stratification End of stratification

As At Ve Vh Ht He Hh Q νt

Value

Units m2 m2 m3 m3 m m m rn3 yr−1 cm2 s−1

0.13 13 100 58 315 20

d d d d

Table 3 Boundary (loading) and initial conditions for Lake Prespa Variable

Units

Loadinga

Initial conditionsb

Algae Herbivorous zooplankton Carnivorous zooplankton Particulate organic carbon Dissolved organic carbon Ammonium Nitrate Solube reactive phosphorus

μgchla L−1 mgC L−1 mgC L−1 mgC L−1 mgC L−1 μgN L−1 μgN L−1 μgP L−1

1 0 0 0.8 0.8 15 220 14.3

1 0.005 0.005 0.12 0.12 15 250 12

a Multiply b Same

by outflow to convert to mass loading rate for epilimnion and hypolimnion

Table 4 Model parameter values used for Lake Prespa Parameter

Symbol

Value

Units

Algae Growth rate Temperature factor Respiration rate Temperature factor Settling velocity Optimal light P half-saturation

kg,20 θa kra θ ra νa Is ksp

2 1.066 0.025 1.08 0.2 350 2

d−1 d−1 m d−1 Ly d−1 μgP d−1

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Table 4 (continued) Parameter

Symbol

Value

Units

N half-saturation Background light extinction

ksn ke

15 0.2

μgN d−1 m−1

Herbivorous zooplankton Grazing rate Temperature factor Grazing efficiency Respiration rate Temperature factor Algae half-saturation

Cgh θ gh εh krh θ rh ksa

5 1.08 0.7 0.1 1.08 10

L mgC−1 d−1

Carnivorous zooplankton Grazing rate Temperature factor Grazing efficiency Respiration rate Temperature factor Death rate Temperature factor Herbivore – half-saturation

Cgh θ gh εc krc θ rc kdc θ dc ksh

5 1.08 0.7 0.04 1.08 0.04 1.08 0.4

L mgC−1 d−1

Non – living carbon Particulate settling Dissolution rate Temperature factor Hydrolysis rate Temperature factor

νp kp θp kh θh

0.2 0.1 1.08 0.075 1.08

m d−1 d−1

Nutrients Nitrification rate Temperature factor Ammonia preference half − saturation

kn θn ksam

0.1 1.08 50

d−1 μgcha L−1

d−1 d−1 mgC L−1

d−1

d−1 μgN L−1

Results for epilimnetic inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus are illustrated in Fig. 3b. According to the calculation, the lake is overwhelmingly phosphorus limited during the summer stratified period. The fact that there is excess nitrogen and phosphorus in the water indicates that lake’s production is light limited during the remained of the year. The organic carbon cycle for the epilimnion is shown in Fig. 3c. This plot indicates a clear difference between the productive summer months and the rest of the year. High organic carbon generation during the stratified period has several implications. First, it eventual decomposition can have an impact on oxygen content of bottom waters. This would be particularly important for water bodies with smaller hypolimnion (and, hence smaller oxygen reserves) than for lake Prespa. Second, the transport and fate of toxic substances can be strongly associated with organic matter.

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Fig. 3 Simulation results for the epilimnion of Lake Prespa as computed with a nutrient/foodchain model. (a) Food chain with all components expressed as chlorophyll, (b) inorganic nutrients, and (c) organic carbon

4 Conclusions The model provides predictions of features like peak chlorophyll levels and, hence, produces information that is extremely useful to water-quality managers. This is because the public is often most concerned with extreme events in water body, rather than in seasonal or long-term average conditions. Because of its daily time step, the nutrient/food chain model is capable of generating both types of information. Identifying the limiting nutrient or whether the system has significant light limitation is a critical step in controlling eutrophication. By mechanistically including

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several nutrients and light, the nutrient/food-chain model provides a means to make such identifications. By providing predictions of organic carbon levels, nutrient/food-chain framework provides a means to assess both oxygen and toxic substances in lakes.

References 1. Bowie GL, Mills WB, Porcella DB, Campbell CL, Pagenkopf JR, Rupp GL, Jonson KM, Chan PWH, Gherini SA, Chamberlin CE (1985) Rates, constants, and kinetic formulations in surface water quality modeling. US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD, Athens, GA, ERL, EPA/600/3-85/040 2. Canale RP, Owens EM, Auer MT, Effler SW (1995) The validation of a water quality model for the Seneca river, New York. J Water Resour Plan Manage 121(3):241–250 3. Canale RP, de Palma LM, Vogel AH (1976) A plankton- based food web model for lake Michigan. In: Canale RP (ed) Modeling biochemical processes in aquatic ecosystems. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI, p 33 4. Cerco CF, Cole T (1993) Three dimensional eutrophication model of chesapeake bay. J Environ Eng ASCE 119(6):1006–1025 5. Chan CW, Orlob GT (1975) Ecological simulation for aquatic environment. In Patton BC (ed) Analysis and simulation in ecology, vol III. Academic, New York, p 474 6. Chapra SG (1996) Surface water quality modeling. McGraw-Hill, New York 7. Chapra SG, Canale RP (1888) Numerical methods for engineers, 2nd ed. McGraw – Hill, New York 8. Di Toro DM, Fitzpatrick JJ (1993) Chesapeake bay sediment flux model. US Army Crops of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Tech. Report EL-93-2 9. Mitreski K, Koneski Z, Davcev D, Naumoski T, Mitic V, Sumka S, Guseka D (1998) An ecological model of lake Ohrid. Proceedings of the IASTED international conference: Applied Modeling and Simulation, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 12–14 Aug 1998, pp 32–35 10. Thorton KW, Lessen AS (1978) A temperature algorithm for modifying rates. Trans Am Fish Soc 107(2):284–287

Tolerance of Different Wild Oats Biotypes to Different Oat Killers and Their Impact on Wheat Imtiaz Khan, Gul Hassan, Muhammad Ishfaq Khan, and Meher Gul

Abstract The ecological starting point for crop health requires knowledge of what is in the soil (microbes, insects, weed seeds, etc.), methods to prevent herbicides resistance build up in the crop, and knowledge to maximize the plants ability to defend itself. The focus of most current crop production practices is weed control with little effort applied by herbicides. Cropping practices that degrade soil and limit genetic diversity contribute to increasing weed populations. A field experiment was initiated at Malkandher Research Farm, NWFP (North West Frontier Province) Agricultural University, Peshawar during Rabi 2005–2006 to figure out the tolerance of different wild oats (noxious weed) biotypes to herbicides. The experiment was laid out in randomized complete block design under a split-plot arrangement, with three replications. The experiment comprised of four wild oats biotypes assigned to the main plots, while 3 herbicides along with a weedy check (Sencor, Isoproturon, Affinity and Weedy check treatment) were kept in sub-plots. The Ghaznavi-98 variety of wheat in a sub-plot size of 5 × 1m2 was planted on November 13, 2005. The data were recorded on tillers plant−1 , wheat spikes m−2 , number of grains spike−1 , 1,000 grain weight (g), biological yield (t ha−1 ), grain yield (t ha−1 ) and the protein content (%) in grain. The statistical analyses of data exhibited non-significant differences for tolerance of biotypes to herbicides in all the morphological and agronomic traits, while herbicides and their interaction with biotypes were significant for all the traits examined except wheat plant height. As a consequence of phytotoxic effect on weeds, the herbicides increased grain yield and yield components. The herbicide Affinity out yielded rest of the herbicides. In general, the highest grain yield was harvested in Affinity treated plots across all the wild oats biotypes. The interaction of biotypes with the herbicides exhibited a differential competitive ability or tolerance to different herbicides. It is thus recommended that judicious thinking is desired to control different biotypes infesting farmers’ fields because wild oat (Avena fatua L.) is one of the most troublesome weeds in the weed community. The I. Khan (B) Department of Weed Science, Faculty of Crop Protection, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar 25130, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected]

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Pakistani prairies are a semiarid region prone to soil erosion, and appears to be an appropriate site to adopt conservation tillage practices. Due to the environmental concerns and the development of herbicide resistance, it would be desirable to integrate all aspects of crop management systems, rather than solely rely on herbicides, to manage wild oat problems. Keywords Wild oat · Biotypes · Herbicides

1 Introduction Production losses due to weed in wheat may occur from initial stages to the last stage of maturity, harvest, Threshing, winnowing and storing of wheat grains. Weeds of wheat such as, wild oats and Phalaris minor mimic wheat morphologically, hence weeds could be segregated from the crop, consequently could not be removed manually during the early growth stages. Weed plants are more resistant, hardy and making faster growth than wheat. Because, until the wheat plants establish, weeds bind over the plants and wheat fails to capture the space and weed deprive it from nutrients, solar radiation, space and moisture. Some weed species, nourish insects pests and diseases and provide shelter to them. Wild oat causes yield reductions directly by competing with the crop for moisture, light, and nutrients. Such losses occur early in the growing season. Most of the yield loss occurs before the crop is 45 to 50 days old. In addition to yield losses, wild oat may cause dockage at the elevator, increased tillage, reduced yields from delayed seeding, and increased expenditures for herbicides. Compared to herbicides used to control broadleaf weeds in small grains, effective wild oat control herbicides are expensive. Wild oat infests 28 million acres of land in the United States only. Wild oat is extremely competitive and difficult to control because i.e. it has delayed germination. It shatters its seed before most crops are harvested. Its growth habit is similar to that of wheat, barley, and domesticated oats (Paterson, 1976). Wild oat plants rarely produce more than 200 seed, but viable seed are produced rapidly, generally within 7 to 10 days after heading. The twisted, bent awn that rises from the back of each seed is straightened and rewound repeatedly by moist conditions and often serves as a mechanism for covering freshly shattered seed [7].

2 Experimental An experiment was conducted at Malkandher Research Farm, N.W.F.P Agricultural University, Peshawar during the Rabi season 2004–2005. The experiment was laid out in Randomized complete block (RCB) design with a split plot arrangement having four replications. In each replication, there were four main plots (wild oats biotypes). Each main plot consisted of four sub-plots. The number of rows in each

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sub-plot were five 5 m long spaced at 25 cm. Four wild oats biotypes collected from across the NWFP were assigned to main plots and herbicides were kept in the subplots. The sub plot size was kept at 5 × 1 m2 . The seed of Ghaznavi-98 wheat variety was seeded at the rate of 120 kg ha−1 on 13th November, 2005 at Malkandher farm with the rabi drill. The wild oats biotypes were sown right after wheat sowing. All the recommended cultural practices were carried out uniformly in all the treatments during the experiment. The detail of the experimental materials are as under: Wild oats biotypes (main plots) i. ii. iii. iv.

Peshawar D.I. Khan (White) Mardan Malakand

Herbicides (Rate kg ha−1 (sub-plots)) v. vi. vii. viii.

Isoproturon 1.25 kg i.e. ha−1 Sencor 1.25 kg i.e. ha−1 Affinity 1.75 kg ha−1 Weedy check.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Wheat Tillers Plant−1 Data regarding wheat tiller plant−1 are presented in Fig. 1. Analysis of the data showed that wild oat biotypes had no effect while herbicide and their interaction had significant effect on wheat tiller plant−1 . Among the herbicides means maximum (8.77) wheat tiller plant−1 was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (5.37) wheat tiller plant−1 was recorded in Weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (9.07) wheat tiller plant−1 was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) × Affinity. While minimum wheat tiller plant−1 (5.00) was recorded in Mardan X Weedy check (Fig. 1). The logic behind significant interaction could be the various control techniques that affected wild oat biotypes and their growth was checked thereby diverting nutrients. Solar radiation and moisture channel towards the development of wheat (clum), fully utilizing space and converting assimilates into various food components for vigorous growth of wheat. Similar results are also reported by Akhtar et al. [1], who reported that application of herbicides increased fertile tiller density.

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3.2 Number of Grains Spike−1 Number of grains spike−1 is another important component of yield. Change in number of grains spike−1 drastically influence the final yield. The analysis of the data showed that biotypes of wild oat, herbicides and their interaction were evaluated as significant. The data in Fig. 2 exhibits that among the wild oats biotypes, maximum (43.20) number of grains spike−1 was recorded in Malakand biotype while minimum (40.00) number of grains spike−1 was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) wild oat treated plots. Among the herbicides means maximum (56.15) number of grains spike−1 was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (27.18) number of grains spike−1 was recorded in weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (61.33) number of grains spike−1 was

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recorded in Malakand × Affinity. The minimum number of grains spike−1 (25.13) was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) × Weedy check. The results are corroborated with results of Khan et al. [3, 4, 5], who concluded that herbicidal applications produce more grains spike−1 than untreated control.

3.3 1000 Grains Weight (g) Thousand grain weights is an important yield parameter. It is evident from the data (Fig. 3) that the 1,000-grain weight (g) was non-significantly affected by wild oats biotype, while herbicides and their interaction had a significant effect. The mean data manifest that among the wild oats biotypes, maximum (28.17 g) 1,000-grain weight was recorded in D.I. Khan white biotype while minimum (25.25 g) 1,000grain weight was recorded in Mardan wild oat treated plots. Among the herbicides means maximum (32.24 g) 1,000-grain weight was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (21.15 g) grain size was recorded in Weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (33.17 g) 1,000-grain weight was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) × Affinity. The minimum 1,000grain weight (21.15 g) was recorded in Malakand × Weedy check. Sohail [9] reported similar results, who concluded that herbicides significantly increased the 1,000 grains weight in wheat.

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Fig. 3 1,000 grains weight (g) as affected by different wild oats biotypes and herbicides

3.4 Biological Yield (t ha−1 ) The total dry matter produced by a plant as the result of photosynthesis and nutrients uptake, minus that lost by respiration is called biological yield [8]. Statistical analysis of the data revealed that wild oat biotypes had non-significant while herbicides and their interaction with wild oat biotypes had significant effect

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on biological yield (t ha−1 ). The data show that among the wild oats biotypes, maximum (8.033) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Malakand biotype while minimum (7.567) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar wild oat treated plots. Among the herbicides means maximum (9.867) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (4.167) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (10.27) biological yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar × Affinity. While minimum wheat biological yield (3.467 t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar X Weedy check

3.5 Grain Yield (t ha−1 ) The grain yield is the most important attribute for obtaining higher production from wheat crop. The components that determine grain yield include the number of plants, number of heads per plant, number of seeds per head, and weight per seed. A decrease in any of these factors can decrease wheat yield. Statistical analysis of the data showed that wild oats biotypes had a non-significant, while herbicides and their interaction with wild oats biotypes had significant differences on grain yield. The data in (Figs. 4 and 5) show that among the wild oats biotypes, maximum (1.961) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Malakand biotype while minimum (1.604) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar wild oat treated plots. Among the herbicides means maximum (2.600) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Affinity treated plots, while minimum (1.043) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in Weedy check treatment. For interaction of wild oats biotypes with the herbicides, the maximum (2.867) grain yield (t ha−1 ) was recorded in D.I. Khan (W) × Affinity. While minimum wheat grains yield (0.908 t ha−1 ) was recorded in Peshawar X Weedy check. The significant increase in grain yield might be attributed to the effective weed control in affinity treatments and consequently wheat crop efficiently utilized all the

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available resources. These results are in line with Awan et al. [2] and Tunio et al. [10] who reported more grain yield in plots applied with herbicides.

3.6 Wheat Grain Protein Content (%)

Wheat grain Protein content (%)

Proteins are some of the most important basic nutrients and are essential for growth and development. The data regarding the grain protein content in Fig. 6 show that there were significant differences in the herbicides, wild oat biotypes and their interaction. Evidently, protein content increased by herbicides tested for different wild oat biotypes as compared to weedy check. Among the wild oat biotypes, maximum grain protein content (12.02%) was recorded by Mardan biotypes. The minimum grain protein content (11.05%) was recorded in the Malakand biotype. 16 14 cd

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Among the herbicides, maximum (12.73%) grain protein content was recorded in Affinity treated plot while minimum (10.65%) grain protein content was observed in weedy check. Taking into consideration the interaction of herbicides and wild oat biotypes maximum (13.10%) grain protein content was observed in Mardan × Affinity interaction. Minimum (10.17%) was recorded in Malakand × Weedy check.

4 Conclusion Herbicide affinity show best results control both grassy and broadleaf weeds. It increased grain yield and protein content (%). So it is thus recommended that judicious thinking is desired to control different biotypes infesting farmers’ fields. Acknowledgement Acknowledgement goes to HEC (Higher Education Commission) of Pakistan for their kind and financial cooperation through out my research.

References 1. Akhtar M, Hamyn Q, Gill MB, Nazair MS (1991) Comparative study of various crop management practices on weed growth and wheat yield. Sarhad J Agric 7(2):91–94 2. Awan IU, Iqbal M, Ahamad HK (1990) Screening of different herbicides for the control of weeds in wheat corp. Gomal Univ J Res 10(2):77–83 3. Khan I, Muhammad Z, Hassan G, Marwat KB (2001) Efficacy of different herbicides for controlling weeds in wheat crop-I. Response of agronomic and morphological traits in wheat variety Ghanznavi-98. Sci Khyber 14(1):51–57 4. Khan I, Hassan G, Marwat KB (2002). Efficacy of different herbicides for controlling weeds in wheat crop-II. Weed dynamics and herbicides. Pak J Weed Sci Res 8(1–2):41–47 5. Khan N, Hassan G, Marwat KB, Khan MA (2003) Efficacy of different herbicides for controlling weeds in wheat crop at different time of application-II. Asian J Plant Sci 2(3):310–313 6. Peterson JG (1976) The distribution of avena spp naturalized in western Australia. J Appl Ecol 13:257–264 7. Radford BJ, WilsonBJ, Cartledge O, Watkins FB (1980) Effect of wheat seeding rate on wild oat competition. Aust J Exp Agric Anim 120:77–81 8. Shah P, Nazir S, Bashir E, Bantel R, eds. (1994) Crop production. National Book Foundation, Islamabad, pp 238–245, pp 499 9. Sohail N (1993) Efficacy of weedicides to control weeds in wheat. M.Sc. thesis, Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture. Faisalabad, Pakistan 10. Tunio SD, Kaka SN, Jarwar AD (2004) Effect of integrated weed management practices on wheat yield. Pak J Agric Eng Vet Sci 20(1):5–10

Effects of L-Proline and Cold Treatment on Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Anther Culture Dudu Özkum and R. Tipirdamaz

Abstract Comparison of cold-shock treatments (at 4◦ C for 48 and 96 h) of pepper buds with a control (not subjected to cold treatments) has no effect on the production of embryo from cultured pepper anthers. The effects of cold shock treatments were not changed when the L-proline was added to the induction medium (40, 125 and 500 mg L−1 ). Cold treated anthers showed a lower response or non response than control anthers. Regeneration frequency did not appear to be affected by the presence of L-proline in the induction medium. The highest numbers of embryos (12.5 embryos/100 anthers) were obtained from the control anthers that were cultured on induction medium, MS medium, containing 4 mg L−1 naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 1 mg L−1 benzyladenine (BA) and activated charcoal without L-proline. Keywords Anther culture · Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) · Cold shock treatment · L-Proline

1 Introduction Anther culture has been used for producing haploid plants in a variety of higher plants but the low frquencies of haploid plants restrict the use of this technique in plant breeding [2, 8]. Altough many species have been successfully anther-cultured, others have not, even among those that do respond there is considerable variation in embryo yields within the species [8]). However, the yield has remained extremely low in many cases. It is possible that low embryo yields from particular plants may be a consequence of the environmental conditions improved during the anther culture period rather than absolute non-responsiveness [3]. The method can only

D. Özkum (B) Near East University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nicosia, North Cyprus, Mersin 10, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

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become useful for applied agricultural projects when the haploids are produced in large numbers. Some treatments can be applied before or during culture in order to increase the success in anther culture. It has been shown that the addition of activated charcoal [1, 25, 24, 16], inclusion of different concentration of L-proline in the culture medium [5, 4, 9, 19, 7] and cold pretreatment of whole buds or anthers [12] or different concentrations of NAA and BA combination [20, 21, 18] could increase embryo production. Beneficial effects of temperature shock treatments on anther culture productivity were known. Although the mode action is unknown, temperature shocks are believed to improve androgenesis by diverting normal gametophytic development into a sporophytic pathway leading to the formation of haploid embryos [14]. To date, very little work has been done relative to the effects of L-proline on androgenesis [23, 19, 7]. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of cold shock treatments in combination with L-proline on pepper anther culture.

2 Materials and Methods Plants of Capsicum annuum L. cultivar Malatya were grown under field conditions. After a cold pretreatment (at +4◦ C for 48 and 96 h) of buds, with anthers containing uninucleate or 1st polen mitosis microspores [16], were selected and surface streilized (20% v/v sodyum hypochloride for 15 min). The control buds were not subjected to cold conditions. The anthers were then cultured on induction medium. The induction medium consist of MS basal salts [13] with the addition of 30 g L−1 sucrose, 8 g L−1 agar and 4 mg L−1 NAA and 1 mg L−1 BA or 1 mg L−1 NAA and 4 mg L−1 BA with or without 0.25 % activated charcoal and with different concentrations (0, 40, 125 and 500 mg L−1 ) of L-proline, adjusted to pH 5.8. The cultures were incubated at 29ºC in continous light conditions (40 μmol m−2 .sn−1 ). Three months after culture initiation, embryos were counted and transferred to regeneration medium (hormone-free growth medium, MS basal salts, 20 g L−1 sucrose, 7 g L−1 agar, pH 5.8, at 29ºC in continous light conditions (50 μmol m−2 .sn−1 ). Experiments were performed on 20 replication per each treatment (each replication consisted of one petri dishes, with 10 anthers). Data were collected after 3 months’ culture. Data were analyzed by Multiple-way anaysis of variance using ANOVA and the differences in the means were evaluated statistically at p = 0.05 by LSD test. Statistical analyses were done angular transformed percentage data [22].

3 Results and Discussion Production of embryoids was differently affected from cold pretreatment of buds, different concentrations of NAA/BA combination, activated charcoal and L-proline in pepper anther culture (Table 1). According to the results of the statistical analyses,

0 0 0 0 40 40 40 40 125 125 125 125 500 500 500 500

4+1 4+1 1+4 1+4 4+1 4+1 1+4 1+4 4+1 4+1 1+4 1+4 4+1 4+1 1+4 1+4

+ − + − + − + − + − + − + − + −

Activated charcoal

84.5 100 88 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Percentage of callus in anthers

0h Percentage of callus in anthers 97 100 97 99.5 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

12.5∗ 0 6.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

48 h Numbers of embryo/100 anthers

α = 0.05 significance level difference observed (p < 0.05) based on LSD

(mg. L−1 )

∗ For

L-Proline

NAA+BA (mg L−1 )

Cold Pretreatment

2.5∗ 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Numbers of embryo/100 anthers 98 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Percentage of callus in anthers

96 h

2 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Numbers of embryo/100 anthers

Table 1 Effects of cold shock treatments combined with L-proline containing (0, 40, 125 and 500 mg L−1 ) induction medium on the production of embryo from anther culture of pepper (200 anthers were cultured for each combination)

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the effects of all the factors as well as interactions between the factors, except few, on androgenetic capacity of pepper were found statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05). There are significantly differences among the treatments. Activated charcoal and additions of different concentrations of NAA/BA combination to MS medium were significantly increased embryo formation compared to the other treatments. Besides there are significant differences between used hormone combinations and concentrations. Control anthers of C. annuum L. cultured in MS medium containing 4 mg L−1 NAA and 1 mg L−1 BA and activated charcoal were most responsive, producing 12.5 embryos/100 anthers. Anthers cultured in MS medium containing 1 mg L−1 NAA and 4 mg L−1 BA and activated charcoal were producing 6.5 embryos/100 anthers. Likewise it has been suggested that the additions of NAA/BA combination and also concentrations to MS medium can increase androgenetic embryo formation [20, 21]. On the other hand the promotive effect of activated charcoal in anther culture medium has been described earlier. Generally, the effect has been attributed to the adsorption of inhibitory substances (phenolics, abscisic acid) from the medium [10, 6, 24, 15]. The cold pretreatment of flower buds before excising the anthers for culture has been described as a means of increasing the androgenetic response [11, 12]. However Vagera and Havranek [25] in pepper and Tipirdamaz and Ellialtio˘glu [24] in eggplant anther culture reported that no significant effect of cold pretreatment of flower buds. Likewise in our study 1–2% embryos were obtained from the cold treated anthers. On the other hand a considerably higher number of embyros (12.5%) were produced in the control cultures which were cultivated (Fig. 1). Pretreating flower buds with cold at 4ºC for 48 or 96 h and addition of different concentrations of L-proline resulted in a lower number of responding anthers mainly by causing callus induction from anthers (Fig. 2). And this showed that the pretreatments of flowers buds and addition of L-proline to the culture medium had no significant effect on embryo production. The results

Fig. 1 An embryo obtained from the control anther culture of Malatya pepper cultivar on MS medium, containing 4 mg L−1 NAA and 1 mg L−1 BA and activated charcoal

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Fig. 2 Callus initiation from the cold treated anthers

of some studies showed that considerable improvement in embryo production were achieved by the inclusion of the L-proline. But it is probably just one factor in a complex series of interactions between genotypes and tissue culture environment. In our study the inclusion of L-proline was not effect embryo formation. In the absence of L-proline better responds of embryo production is obtained. However, Redha et al. [19], working with wheat anther culture, reported that although L-proline significantly reduced embryogenesis but improved embryoid quality. The sensitivity of anthers and pollen to cold stress [26] has been proposed to be related to their endogenous L-proline content. The present results are contrary to this assumption and demonstrate that L-proline, as a component of the induction medium, combined with a cold treatment of incubated anthers, results in not improve embryo production. It has been demonstrated that L-proline is involved in the synthesis of hydroxylproline rich proteins which are known as components of pollen cell wall [27]. L-proline also has been proposed to cause a drop in the water potential inside pollen resulting in dormancy-like conditions [26]. This could results in a reduced sensitivity to unfavourable temperatures. Further, L-proline was found to protect enzymes from inactivation by extreme temperature conditions [17]. It is conceivable that cold stress of inoculated anthers not only provides positive effects with regard to sporophytic development, but may also cause damage within the anther. If this is the case, L-proline, when present in the induction medium, could possibly reduce this damage without interfering with the beneficial effects on embryo production. However work with other species suggests that L-proline may promote anther culture embryogenesis; the promotive effect of L-proline on anther culture appears to be cultivar-dependent [19, 7]. In conclusion these results, together with what is known about L-proline action and cold treatment effect in plant tissue, suggest that the combination of L-proline application with cold shock treatments had no effect on embryo formation frequency in pepper anther culture when compared to the use of different concentrations of NAA/BA combination and activated charcoal.

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References 1. Anagnostakis SL (1974) Haploid plants from anthers of tobacco-enhancement with charcoal. Planta 115:281–283 2. Bajaj YPS (1983) In vitro production of haploids. In: Evans DA, Sharp VR, Ammairato PV, Yamada Y (eds) Handbook of plant cell culture, vol I, Chap 6. MacMillan Publ. Co., New York, pp 228–287 3. Biddington NL, Robinson HT (1990) Variations to high temperature treatments in anther culture of Brussels sprouts. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 22:48–54 4. Büter B, Schmid JE, Stamp P (1991) Effects of L-proline and post-plating temperature treatment on Maize (Zea mays L.) anther culture. Plant Cell Rep 10:325–328 5. Chu CC, Hill RD (1988) An improved anther culture method for obtaining higher frequency of pollen embryoids in Triticum aestivum L. Plant Sci 55:175–181 6. Chunling L (1992) Successful development of new sweet (hot) pepper cultivars by anther culture. Asia-Pasific Conference on Agricultural Biotechnology (APAB), Beijing, China, 20–24 August 7. Deepinder, G., Raman, G., Gosal, S. (2006) Role of cysteine in enhancing androgenesis and regeneration of Indica rice (Oryza sativa L.). Plant Growth Regul 49(1):43–47 8. Dunwell JM (1986) Pollen, ovule and embryo culture as tools in plant breeding. In: Wither LA, Alderson PG (eds) Plant tissue culture and its applications. Butterworths, London, pp 377–404. 9. Huang C, Yan H, Yan Q, Zhu M, Yuan M, Xu A (1993) Establishment and characterization of embryogenic cell susension cultures from immature and mature embryos of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 32:19–25 10. Johansson L (1983) Effects of activated charcoal in anther cultures. Plant Physiol 59:397–403 11. Maheswari SC, Rashid A, Tayag AK (1982) Haploids from pollen grains-retrospect and prospect. Amer J Bot 69:865–879 12. Morrison RA, Köning RE, Evans DA (1986) Anther culture of an inter specific hybrid of Capsicum. J Plant Physiol 126(1):1–9 13. Murashige T, Skoog F (1962) A revised medium for rapid growth and bio-assays with tabacco tissue cultures. Plant Physiol 15:473–497 14. Nitsch C, Andersen S, Godard M, Neuffer MG, Sheridan WF (1987) Production of Haploid Plants of Zea mays and Pennisetum Through Androgenesis. In: Earle E. D., Demarly Y. (eds) Variability in Plants Regenerated from Tissue Culture. Praeger, NY 69–91 15. Özkum D, Tipirdamaz R, Ellialtio˘glu S¸ (2001) Relationship between endogenous abscisic acid content of anthers and in vitro androgenesis in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). 4th international symposium on in vitro culture and horticultural breeding. ActaHort 560, ISHS, Tampere, Finland, 2–7 July, pp 327–329 16. Özkum Çiner D, Tipirdamaz R (2002) The effects of cold treatment and charcoal on the in vitro androgenesis in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Turk J Bot 26:131–139 17. Paleg LG, Douglas TJ, van Doal A, Keech DB 1981, Proline, Betaine and Other Organic Solutes Protect Enzymes Against Heat Inactivation, Aust, J., Plant Physiol., 8:107–114 18. Qin X, Rotino GL (1993) Anther culture of several seweet and hot pepper genotypes. Capsicum and Eggplant Newsletter 12:59–62 19. Redha A, Attia T, Büter B, Stamp P, Schmid JE (1998) Single and combined effects of colchicine, L-proline and post-inoculation low temperature on anther culture of wheat, Triticum aestivum L. Plant Breed 117(4):335–340 20. Rotino G, Falavigna A, Restaino F (1987a) Production of anther-derived plantlets of eggplant. Capsicum Newsl 6:89–90 21. Rotino G, Falavigna A, Fiume F, Nervo G., Restaino, F. (1987b) Possibility of eggplants (Solanum melongena L.) improvement through in vitro technique. Genetica Agrar XLI(3):314–315

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22. Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ (1995) Biometry. The principles and practice of statistics in biological research, 3rd edn. W.H. Freeman and Co., New York, USA, p 887 23. Sozinov A, Lugjanjuk S, Lgnatova S (1981) Anther Cultivation and Induction of Haploid Plants in Triticale, Z. Pflanzenzücht, 86:272–285 24. Tipirdamaz R, Ellialtio˘glu S¸ (1998) The effects of cold treatments and activated charcoal on ABA contents of anthers and in vitro androgenesis in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). In: Tsekos I, Moustakas M (eds) Progress in botanical research, Proceedings of the 1st Balkan botanical congress. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands 25. Vagera J, Havranek P (1985) In vitro induction of androgenesis in Capsicum annuum L. and its genetic aspests. Biol Plant 27(1):10–21 26. Zhang HQ, Croes AF (1983) Protection of Pollen Germination from Adverse Temperature; A Possible Role for Proline, Plant Cell Environ., 6:471–476 27. Zhang HQ, Croes AF, Linkens HF (1982) Proline Synthesis in Germination of Pollen of Petunia; Role of Proline, Planta, 154:199–203

Examination of Some Parameters for Ecological Growth of Maize in Pelic Vertisol I. Stoimenova, E. Djonova, A. Taleva, and N. Kaloyanova

Abstract The increases in doses of nitrogen fertilization decreased the depressing effect of the used herbicides and stimulated their biological degradation. The bacteria, microscopic fungi and cellulose decomposing microorganisms took part in the biological herbicide degradation process during the first days of application of herbicides, whereas the actinomicetes and microbes, utilizing nitrogen, took part at the later phases of the process. The observed soil chemical changes and the ratio between the main groups of soil microorganisms had a temporary effect and did not influence negatively the maize development. Keywords Fertilization · Nitrogen · Maize

1 Dynamics of the Soil Microflora, Depending on the Level of Nitrogen Fertilization and Application of Herbicides The herbicide substances show different effectiveness in specific soil and climatic conditions, which is reflected both in the number and the content of the weeds, as well as in the dynamics and the diversity of the soil microflora [1–4]. Therefore their examination during the growth of maize in the particular agro-ecological conditions is required in order to determine the herbicide effect and the danger of contamination of the soil with residual quantities. The purpose of the experiment is to study the effect of the Lacorn combi herbicide (applied independantly and in combination with Atrazine) and its interaction with other forms of nitrogen fertilization on the dynamics and the diversity of the soil microflora. The variations in the species and quantitative structure of the microbial population (at depth from 0 to 20 cm), depending on the studied factors, are studied in the dynamics on selective nutrition media by the decimal dilution test. I. Stoimenova (B) N. Poushkarov Institute of Soil Science, Sofia, Bulgaria e-mail: [email protected]

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3.70 4.15 4.20 4.10 4.65 3.70

N20 + herbicide N40 + herbicide N80 + herbicide N20 N40 N80

4.85 6.30 5.60 5.65 5.95 7.80

6.20 6.60 7.00 7.00 7.90 6.90

90

35

Days after treatment

60

Amonifying bacteria 1 × 106

Variants

1.35 1.40 1.08 0.99 0.81 0.95

35 2.42 3.55 2.65 3.20 1.90 2.90

60 1.70 3.10 2.90 1.65 2.05 2.40

90

Actinomycetes 1 × 106

13.00 28.60 20.00 23.35 41.70 38.35

35 28.45 36.35 31.65 21.75 35.30 18.30

60

39.95 36.70 37.00 35.25 56.65 49.95

90

Microscopic tungi 1 × 104

11.34 76.30 106.80 56.80 72.95 68.35

35

29.35 83.40 97.33 72.20 69.40 71.33

60

Cellulose decomposing microorganisms 1 × 104

Table 1 Dynamics of some main groups soil microorganisms after application of Lacorn combi (5,500 ml/ha)

61.65 96.45 104.80 81.50 94.95 80.00

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7.43 8.51 4.92 8.05 6.45 6.86

N20 + herbicide N40 + herbicide N80 + herbicide N20 N40 N80

5.20 8.60 5.60 5.90 8.93 7.13

4.13 8.00 3.23 4.20 7.60 8.33

90

35

Days after treatment

60

Amonifying bacteria 1 × 104

Variants

3.43 6.55 5.64 4.32 4.03 4.05

35 3.56 5.66 4.83 5.63 10.20 6.56

60 5.56 7.46 5.13 9.96 5.60 8.30

90

Actinomycetes 1 × 104

59.50 36.50 13.00 68.00 33.00 91.50

35 36.00 63.00 10.00 33.00 60.00 53.00

60

30.00 16.00 20.00 26.00 23.00 50.00

90

Microscopic tungi 1 × 103

20.00 81.50 93.00 69.50 99.50 75.00

35

56.00 66.00 71.00 53.00 83.00 93.00

60

23.00 100.00 143.00 70.00 53.00 126.00

90

Cellulose decomposing microorganisms 1 × 103

Table 2 Dynamics of some main groups soil microorganisms after application of Lacorn combi (5,500 ml/ha) + atrazine (1,600 g/ha)

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In maize growth it is found that the soil microorganisms actively participate in the biological decomposition of the herbicide combination Lacorn combi (5,500 ml/ha), and the relative part taken by the different physiological groups depends on the nitrogen fertilization and the climatic conditions (Table 1). On the 35th day after the introduction of the herbicide substance the amonifying bacteria, the microscopic fungi and the cellulose decomposing microorganisms decrease their number up to 30% in the variant with N20 in comparison to higher doses of nitrogen fertilization. In the same period a some stimulation of the development of the actinomicetes from the applied herbicide established, where no effect of the tested doses of nitrogen fertilization is examined. On the 60th day the negative effect of the herbicide substance continues on the amonifying bacteria, the microscopic fungi and the cellulose decomposing microorganisms, again most strongly shown at N20 . With the actinomicetes no significant changes in the population are observed. Until the 90th day the numbers and the structure of the population is almost completely restored. The data on Table 1 show that the applied nitrogen in increasing doses decreases the suppressing effect of Lacorn combi and stimulates the biological detoxification of the herbicide substance. The examined herbicide contributes to the increase of the numbers of microorganisms in the soil, related to the nutrition and the development of the maize. In a field experiment with maize the effect of the herbicide substances Lacorne combi (5,500 ml/ha)+Atrazine (1,600 g/ha) on the same groups of microorganisms in the soil layer 0–20 cm. The experiment has been carried out in dynamic and includes the same periods of soil sampling after herbicide application. The data presented in Table 2 show that the herbicide substances applied in combination with nitrogen norm N40 leads to increase of the population of the amonifying microorganisms, actinomicetes, and the microscopic fungi through the whole experimental period. With the cellulose decomposing microorganisms such stimulation is observed at N80 , distinctly displayed on the 90th day after the treatment. This is probably related to the products, received as a result of the decomposition of the herbicide substance in the soil and the deir different influence on the examined groups of soil microorganisms. In the process of biological degradation of the herbicide substance Lacorn combi+Atrazine the amonifying bacteria, the actinomicetes and the microscopic fungi participate in the first days after the treatment, whereas the cellulose decomposing microorganisms participate at the later stages of detoxification of the herbicides.

2 Conclusions 1. The application of higher doses of nitrogen fertilization decreases the depressing effect of the tested herbicide – for Lacorn combi up to N80 and for the combination Lacorn combi+Atrazine up to N40.

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2. The determined changes in the microbial population during the two experiments have temporary effect and do not have negative effect on the structure of the microbial population.

References 1. Assae NA, Turco RF (1995) Accelerated biodegradation of atrazine by microbial consortium is possible in culture and soil. Biodegradation 5:29–35 2. Dovies DH et al (1995) Risk evaluation of reduced dose approaches to weed control in cereals. 9th Symposium, Challenges for weed science in a changing Europe, Budapest, vol 2, pp 459–467 3. Parry KP (1989) Herbicide use and invention. In: Dodge AP (ed) Herbicides and plant metabolism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–20 4. Rocha F (1995) Reducing inputs of herbicides on dryland areas. 9th Symposium, Challenges for weed science in a changing Europe, Budapest, vol 2, pp 478–482

Effect of Bacterial and Fungal Abundance in Soil on the Emission of Carbon Dioxide from Soil in Semi-arid Climate in India Rashmi Kant, Chirashree Ghosh, Lokendra Singh, and Neelam Tripathi

Abstract Carbon dioxide concentration in atmosphere is actively increasing since industrial revolution (1800) from 285 ppmv to 378 ppmv in 2005. Carbon dioxide efflux from soil due to floral and faunal respiration in soil, called soil respiration, is the second largest source of increasing concentration of CO2 in atmosphere. Soil respiration produces almost 11 times more carbon dioxide in atmosphere than that produced due to fossil fuel burning [18]. Microorganisms are the most abundant biotic group in soil and huge amount of CO2 is evolved from soil due to bacterial and fungal respiration. The present study investigated soil respiration and distribution of bacteria and fungi in the soil. The study was conducted in semi arid (subtropical) climate around New Delhi in India. Two different sites (Aravali Biodiversity Park and Yamuna Biodiversity Park) with ecologically different soil and vegetation conditions were studied. Three different locations were selected at each site and at each location CO2 efflux and microbial population were measured at three depths, topsoil (0–5 cm depth), midsoil (15–20 cm depth) and Deep soil (40–45 cm depth). Higher soil activity was found at Yamuna Biodiversity Park (YBP) having profuse ground vegetation, sandy soil with high organic matter and moisture content than Aravali Biodiversity Park (ABP) having scares vegetation, rocky area and dry soil with low organic matter content. Higher soil respiration is recorded in the surface and mid soil at YBP than ABP. However the soil respiration rate was slightly more in deep soil at ABP. In most of the cases soil respiration was found increasing from surface soil to deeper soil till 50 cm depth. Rate of soil respiration is highly correlated (R 2 = 0.7) to fungal population. Our study suggests that soil respiration process is a function of bacterial and fungal abundance in the soil. However, fungal population is more responsible for CO2 evolution in atmosphere from soil than bacterial population. Better understanding of soil respiration process can help in reducing CO2 emission and carbon sequestration process.

R. Kant (B) Yamuna Biodiversity Park, School of Environmental Studies, University of Delhi, New Delhi 110007, India e-mail: [email protected]

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Keywords Soil respiration · Bacterial and fungal abundance · CO2 efflux and semi-arid

1 Introduction Carbon dioxide is one of the Green House Gasses (GHGs) whose increasing concentration leads to global warming. The concentration of Carbon dioxide in atmosphere has increased significantly form 280 ppmv (0.55 g m−3 ) in 1750 to 370 ppmv (0.73 g m−3 ) in 2005 [7, 31] and is increasing at 0.5% (about 3.4 pg) per year [15] (Table 1). The principal sources of increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration are the change in land use pattern and fossil fuel burning. Soil C is distributed among five active global C pools: (i) oceanic pool having 38,000 Pg C (1 Pg = 1015 g), (ii) fossil fuel pool 5,000 Pg C, (iii) soil C pool 2,300 Pg, (iv) atmospheric pool 720 Pg C, and (v) biotic pool 550 Pg C. The soil C pool which is 3.2 times the total atmospheric C pool and 4.1 times the total biotic C pool is very active and play a major role in global C cycle processes. Majority of the C pool in the soil is found on the upper 1 m depth of soil horizon and about 60% is in the organic form. The agricultural and forestry activities are major sources for disturbing the existing carbon pool in the soil. The annual losses from soil C pool are estimated to be 1–2 Pg [3]. It is estimated that about 1,100–1,600 Pg C is sequestered in soil worldwide [14] and around 40–80 Pg of carbon can be sequestered in cropland soils over next 50–100 years [11]. The restoration of degraded soils and ecosystems can led to sequestration of 60–80% C lost due to past mismanagement. People are worried about rate of fossil fuel burning (including vehicular and industrial emission) and its long-term consequences. It may be difficult to reduce the rate of fossil fuel burning substantially enough, to minimize the CO2 emissions in the atmosphere. However, it is worth thinking other sources of carbon emission and the possible steps to minimise their contribution in the emission process. Soil respiration is the second largest carbon flux in terrestrial ecosystems and plays a critical role in Table 1 Atmospheric concentration of CO2 over 6,000 years ([7], BBC News 31 March 2005)

Year

CO2 concentration (ppmv)

4000 BC–AD 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 1959 1990 1994 1998 2000 2005

260–280 280 285 291 300 312 316 340 358 367 370 378

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global carbon cycling [35]. Soil respiration contributes almost 11 times more carbon dioxide emission in atmosphere than the total CO2 evolved from fossil fuel burning [18]. Carbon dioxide evolved from soil due to respiration activities of various soil floral and faunal populations is called soil respiration. It includes heterotrophic and autotropic respiration. Both abiotic and biotic factors control the rate of CO2 emission. Soil is not inactive, what it looks like, but it harbours a huge number of different living organisms which makes it dynamic. Microorganisms are the most abundant group of organisms in the soil. The contribution of different heterotrophic organisms in soil respiration is important to understand the soil respiration and carbon sequestration process. However, their contribution is unknown [10]. In this study we concentrated on heterotrophic bacteria (the most abundant microbes in soil) and fungi, which are responsible for majority of CO2 efflux in the atmosphere from the soil. Out of the total organic carbon metabolised by the microbes, only one in three parts is utilised and the remainder is lost in the atmosphere in the form of CO2 . Soil factors like moisture, temperature, porosity, pH, and electrical conductivity decide the quality of soil and govern activity in the soil. These factors ultimately regulate the floral and faunal population in the soil. Microbial growth and metabolism can be limited by temperature, moisture and available carbon in the soil [33]. The pore spaces in between the mineral particles are filled with water or air in different combinations. The relative quantity of air and water in the pore spaces determines the property and activity of living organisms in the soil. The availability of water has various physiological and physical effects on ecosystem metabolism [16] and hence it is an important factor influencing soil respiration processes [24]. However, the air in the pore spaces provides the substrate (Oxygen) for respiration. Temperature is an important factor that regulates the soil respiration process. Optimum temperature is always required by organisms for their activities. According to Luo and Zhou [17], global warming can instigate the positive feedback on soil respiration. Vegetation structure and species composition strongly influence the C allocation pattern [34] and microbial population. Recent changes in land use pattern by intensive agriculture and forestry substantially contribute to increased concentration of carbon dioxide in atmosphere [11]. Study of soil respiration has a long history. Soil respiration has been used as index for measuring soil fertility earlier [27]. The dynamic nature of soil respiration process and its importance in global warming attract scientists to work in this area. The objective of the study was to study soil respiration processes at two ecologically different sites. We estimated the fungal and the bacterial population at these two sites. The study further correlated the soil respiration rate with the bacterial and fungal abundance. This study gives us idea about ecological health of the sites. The information on soil respiration is crucial to understand the terrestrial carbon budgets and to determine whether terrestrial ecosystems are sink or sources of carbon dioxide [23]. Soil respiration, once well understood, can be utilised as a measure for determining the health and quality of an ecosystem [9].

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2 Methodology 2.1 Experimental Sites and Soil Sampling The study was conducted in semi arid (subtropical) climate around New Delhi in India. Two separate sites Aravali Biodiversity Park and Yamuna Biodiversity Park were selected for this study. Aravali Biodiversity Park (ABP) is situated on the Aravali Hill next to the Great Indian Thar Desert. The area is dry and soil has very limited moisture. The soil in the area is rocky type and loam in texture having slightly acidic pH. The area is dominated by scrub forest with Prosopis juliflora as predominant species and lacking ground vegetations. This made the area dry and limited organic matter in the soil. Another site Yamuna biodiversity Park (YBP) is situated on the flood plain of river Yamuna. The soil is sandy and moist being near to river. Area is dominated by ground vegetation especially Desmostachya bipinnate other grass species. The soil has high organic matter content with alkaline pH. Three different locations were selected for soil respiration measurement and microbial estimation at both the sites.

2.2 Soil Respiration Measurement Soil respiration efflux was measured at three different depths, topsoil (0–5 cm depth), midsoil (15–20 cm depth) and Deep soil (40–45 cm depth) at all the six experimental locations. We used the modified alkali absorption method [6] for quantifying soil respiration. The method is economical and easy [26]. It has been reported that the method underestimates the amount of CO2 efflux [25]. However, Yim et al. [37] found little difference in the amount of CO2 efflux measured using dynamic infrared gas analysis (IRGA) compared with alkali absorption method. Respiration chambers were installed at all the locations of ABP and YBP experimental sites for estimating soil respiration. Glass jar containing NaOH (1M) was placed inside the respiration chamber for trapping the evolved CO2 from soil. The chambers were closed and made airtight. Aluminium foil was also wrapped around the chambers to minimise the carbon dioxide escape. The alkali was exposed for different durations 12, 24, 48 and 72 h while CO2 measurement at each location. The samples were precipitated with BaCl2 and further titrated with HCl (IM) using Thymolphthaleine indicator to quantify the trapped Carbon dioxide. The amount of CO2 -C evolved was calculated using the formula CO2 − C (mg) = (B − X) ME B is amount of HCl needed to titrate NaOH from blank, X is the amount of HCl required to titrate the carbon dioxide absorbed NaOH solution. M is molarity of HCl i.e. 1.0, E is the equivalent wt. of carbon i.e. 6 for C and 22 for CO2 . Soil respiration was measured during different duration like 12, 14, 24, 48 and 72 h at a stretch. Finally the respiration rate mg of C-CO2 per h is calculated for each duration.

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2.3 Soil Sampling Soil samples for microbial analysis were collected at all the three depths topsoil with 5 cm depth, midsoil with 20 cm depth and deepsoil with 40 cm depth from all the three locations of ABP and YBP sites. Metallic soil core cutter with diameter 10 cm and length 60 cm was used for collecting these soil samples. Soil samples were collected in the evening of the day on which the respiration was measured. The soil samples collected were kept in airtight zip bag and stored in a dark cool place for microbial analysis.

2.4 Microbial Enumeration Bacterial and fungal population was estimated by colony counting, Most Probable Number (MPN) procedure [21, 36]. MPN method is used to estimate the population density of viable microorganisms in soil, water and food products. Soils are heterogeneous and it is not possible to estimate the exact cell count in the soil. One mg of soil was taken from each sample and appropriate ten serial dilutions were prepared. ◦ The plates were incubated at 37 C for 3–5 days before counting the Bacterial and fungal colonies.

3 Results 3.1 Soil Respiration (SR) Rate at Aravali Biodiversity Park Soil respiration measurement was done at three different locations at Aravali Biodiversity Park (ABP) site is shown in Fig. 1. Soil reparation was observed for different durations at a stretch at each location. Finally, the respiration rate was calculated per hour by dividing the total respiration by total duration. Highest respiration rate recorded was 7.8 mg of CO2 per h at 40 cm deep soil while the lowest respiration recorded was 0.8 mg C per h in the top surface

Soil Respirtation at ABP site

Fig. 1 Soil respiration rate (milligram of CO2 emission per hour per 300 sq. cm) at three locations of Aravali Biodiversity Park site

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 TopSoil

MidSoil

DeepSoil

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soil. The average soil respiration rate at top, medium and deep soil is 0.97, 3.7 and 7.2 mg C per h respectively. The trend in soil respiration variation along the depth is similar at all the locations at Aravali Biodiversity Park site. Higher respiration rate is observed in the deep soil at 40 cm and least on the surface soil.

3.2 Soil Respiration (SR) Rate at Yamuna Biodiversity Park The respiration rate was found maximum in mid soil in most of locations at YBP site. However the difference in respiration rate at mid soil and deep soil was not significant except at one location. The highest respiration rate observed was 6.5 mg C per h at depth 20 cm while the lowest on surface soil. The mean respiration rate at top, mid and deep soil was 3.07, 5.4 and 4.53 mg C per h respectively. The soil respiration rate at YBP site is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 Soil respiration rate (milligram of CO2 emission per hour per 300 sq. cm) at three locations of Yamuna Biodiversity Park site

Soil Respiration at YBP site

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 TopSoil

MidSoil

DeepSoil

3.3 Bacterial Abundance at ABP and YBP Sites Microbial population is an important parameter for understanding the soil activity. Bacterial population pays an important role in soil decomposition processes. The bacterial abundance, estimated by Most Probable Number (MPN) count, was measured at both the experimental sites and is shown in Fig. 3. Bacteria are more abundant at the YBP than the ABP site. But bacterial count is more in the deep soil at Aravali Biodiversity Park site. Variation in bacterial population at ABP site has no fixed trend. However, there is a decreasing trend bacterial population from surface to deep soil in YBP.

3.4 Fungal Abundance at ABP and YBP Sites MPN method is used for estimating the soil fungal population. The fungal abundance is shown in Fig. 4. The fungal population is more confined to deep soil in most of the locations at the both sites. Increasing fungal population trend from surface soil

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Variation in Bacterial Population

250 200 150 100 50 0 DeepSoil

MidSoil

TopSoil

Fig. 3 Bacterial count (× 105 per mg of soil) at ABP and YBP sites. (Black bar indicates ABP and White bars YBP)

Variation in Fungal Population 135

146

Deep Soil

160

130

Mid Soil

0

50

134

128

Top Soil

100

150

200

250

300

350

Fungal count in (100,000)

Fig. 4 Fungal count (× 105 per mg of soil) at ABP and YBP sites. (Black bar indicates ABP and White bars YBP)

to deep inside is observed at ABP site. However at YBP site fungal abundance is more in the deep soil than the surface soil. The maximum fungal population (160 × 105 per mg of soil) was observed in the middle soil depth at Yamuna Biodiversity Park site.

3.5 Relation Between Soil Respiration Rate and Microbial Population Relationship between soil respiration and microbial population at Yamuna Biodiversity Park and Aravali Biodiversity Park sites is studied. Soil respiration

R. Kant et al.

8

SR correlated with bacterial population at YBP

SR correlated with bacterail population at ABP

6 4

y = 0.0574 x – 6.4068 R2 = 0.542

2 0 120

140

160 180 200 220 Bacterial Count (100,000)

6

SR rate mg C/hr

SR rate mg C/hr

158

5 4 y = -0.0212 x + 8.6035 R2 = 0.2938

3

2 150

240

170 190 210 230 Bacterial Count (100,000)

250

Fig. 5 Soil respiration correlated with fungal population at ABP site

8

SR rate mg C/hr

SR rate mg C/hr

SR correlated w ith fungal population at ABP 6 4

y = 0.2973 x – 36.074 R2 = 0.8819

2 0 125

130 135 140 145 Fungal Count (100,000)

150

6

SR correlated with fungal population at YBP

5 y = 0.0644 x – 4.8694 R2 = 0.6483

4 3 2 130

140

150

160

170

Fungal Count (100,000)

Fig. 6 Soil respiration correlated with fungal population at YBP site

increases with increase in bacterial population from topsoil to deepsoil at ABP. However, a negative correlation exists between soil respiration and bacterial count at YBP (Fig. 5). Soil respiration rate is directly associated with fungal abundance at both the sites. Strong positive correlation exists between soil respiration and fungal population at both sites (Fig. 6). It also shows that rate soil respiration is more influenced by fungal abundance than bacterial population.

4 Discussion Soil activity below the ground is very much dependent on vegetation cover. Vegetation density and type is responsible for variation in organic matter content of soil. Soil with high vegetation cover contributes to high organic carbon in the soil [20]. Post and Kwon [22] found significant higher soil carbon stock in high vegetation area. Yamuna Biodiversity Park (YBP) site is dominated by ground vegetation than the Aravali Biodiversity Park (ABP). Soil respiration rate at YBP is 3 times more on the surface soil and 1.5 times more in deepsoil than ABP. The result is supported by Campos [5] findings that soil respiration was 2.5 times higher in grassland than the forest in humid subtropical climate in Mexico. Salimon et al. [28] have also found higher soil surface CO2 -C flux in grassland (2,400 g CO2 m−2 ) than mature forest (1,700 g CO2 m−2 ) in Amazonia. The large CO2 efflux in soil is probably due to high rate of gross primary productivity. Wagai et al. [32]

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indicated greater fine root biomass and respiration rate in prairie ecosystem than forest. A similar trend was reported by Raich and Schlesinger, in 1992, a higher soil respiration in grassland than agroecosystem. The vegetation at YBP conserves more moisture in soil which led to high soil respiration. Campos [5] found that soil water content in grassland (51%) was more than cloud forest (40%), which also influences higher respiration in grassland than the forest. Howard and Howard [12] found that soil CO2 emission decreases with draught condition and increases after rain. Bacteria and fungi are actively involved in biogeochemical processes that occur in soil. The microbial biomass is affected by biotic and abiotic factor like N mineralization, soil type, moisture, soil depth and vegetation [13]. Plants influence organic matter content and microbial abundance in soil [1, 4]. Abundant ground vegetation at YBP causes high organic matter content in soil and conserves moisture in soil. This probably harbours more microbial population at YBP than ABP. A significantly high microbial population in YBP than ABP. High C content in soil supports greater level of microbial activity [8]. Soil moisture content is an important factor in controlling microbial population [30]. Higher combined population of bacteria and fungi is observed in topsoil, midsoil and deepsoil at YBP than ABP. High soil moisture might have supported the microbial population at YBP. Orchard and Cook [19] found that low soil moisture could reduce the CO2 efflux by limiting microbial contact with available substrate in the soil. The high fungal population in observed at YBP site. Bardgett et al. [2] also found that fungi play a significant role in grassland soil. The microbial activity in soil directly influences the ecosystem fertility and stability [29]. Soil respiration integrates physical and biological parameters of soil. Activity in soil is higher in area with dense vegetation. Grassland is found ecologically more active than scrub forest. Vegetation influences the soil moisture content and soil microbial population. Soil respiration process is a function of Fungal and Bacterial abundance in soil. However, fungal population is more responsible for higher soil respiration rate. Deeper soil is more active than the surface soil in dry forest. Our study suggests surface vegetation determines the physical and chemical properties of soil, which influence the microbial activity that controls the soil respiration rate and obviously, the global warming and climate change processes. Acknowledgement We wish to thank Mr. VG Gogate, Dr. Anupam Joshi and Dr. Sah Hussain for their help and cooperation during my work at Arawali Biodiversity Park and Yamuna Biodiversity Park. We are also grateful to Ms. Pallavi Saxena and Mamta Singh for their help in sample analysis. The financial support came from department fund CEMDE, University of Delhi, New Delhi.

References 1. Allen MF, Morris SJ, Edwards F, Allen EB (1995) Microbe-plant interactions in Mediterranean-type habitats: shifts in fungal symbiotic and saprophytic functioning in response to global change. In: Moreno JM, Oechel WC (eds),Global Change in mediterranean-type ecosystems Springer, New York, pp. 287–305

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2. Bardgett RD, Lovell RD, Hobbs PJ, Jarvis SC (1999) Seasonal changes in soil microbial communities along a fertility gradient of temperate grasslands. Soil Biol Biochem 31:1021– 1030 3. Bouwman AF, Sombroek WG (1990) Inputs to climatic change by soil and agriculture related activities: present status and future trends. In Scharpenseel HW, Schomaker M, Ayoub A (eds) Soils and a warmer earth – effects of expected climate change on soil processes, with emphasis on the tropics and sub-tropics Developments in Soil Science 20, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 15–30 4. Brodie E, Edwards S, Clipson N (2002) Bacterial community dynamics across a floristic gradient in a temperate upland grassland ecosystem. Microbial Ecol 44:260–270 5. Campos CA (2006) Response of soil surface CO2 –C flux to land use changes in a tropical cloud forest (Mexico). Forest Ecol Manag 234:305–312 6. Coleman DC (1973) Soil carbon balance in a successional grassland. Oikos 24:195–199 7. Edmonds JA (1999) Beyond Kyoto: toward a technology greenhouse strategy. Consequences 5:17–28 8. García C, Hernández T, Roldán A, Martín A (2002) Effect of plant cover decline on chemical and microbiological parameters under Mediterranean climate. Soil Biol Biochem 34:635–642 9. Grace J, Rayment M (2000) Respiration in the balance. Nature 404:819–820 10. Houghton JT, Meira Filho LG, Callander BA, Harris N, Kattenberg A, Maskell K (eds) (1996) The science of climate change. IPCC, contribution of working group I to the second assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 11. Houghton RA, Hackler JL, Lawrence KT (1999) The US carbon budget: contributions from land-use change. Science 285:574–578 12. Howard DM, Howard PJ (1993) Relationships between CO2 evolution, moisture content and temperature for a range of soil types. Soil Biol Biochem 25:1537–1546 13. Inubushi K, Acquaye S (2004) Role of microbial mass in biogeochemical process in Paddy soil environments. Soil Sci Plant Nutr 50(6):793–805 14. Izaurralde RC, Rosenberg NJ, Lal R (2000) Mitigation of climate change by soil carbon sequestration: issues of science, monitoring, and degraded lands. Adv Agron 70,1–75 Advanced Agronomy, Washington, USA 15. Lal R (2001) Soil and the green house effects. In soil carbon sequestration and the green house effect, Rattan Lal. SSSA Special Publication, Madison, WI, p 57 16. Landsberg JJ, Gower ST (1997) Application of physiological ecology to forest management. Academic Press, San Diego, CA p 354 17. Luo Y, Zhou X (2006) Soil respiration and the environments. Academic Press/Elsevier, San Diego, CA 18. Marland G, Boden TA, Andres RJ (2000) Global, regional, and national CO2 emissions. Trends: a compendium of data on global change. Oak Ridge, Tenn 19. Orchard VA, Cook FJ (1983) Relationship between soil respiration and soil moisture. Soil Biol Biochem 15:447–453 20. Pascual JA, García C, Hernández T, Moreno JL, Ros M (2000) Soil microbial activity as a biomarker of degradation and remediation processes. Soil Biol Biochem 32:1877–1883 21. Porter WM (1979) The ‘Most probable number’ method for enumerating infective propagules of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in soil. Aust J Soil Res 17:515–519 22. Post WM, Kwon KC (2000) Soil carbon sequestration and land use change: processes and potential. Global Change Biol 6:317–327 23. Powlson D (2005) Will soil amplify climate change? Nature 433:204–205 24. Raich JW, Schlesinger WH (1992) The global carbon dioxide flux in soil respiration and its relationship to vegetation and climate. Tellus 44:81–89 25. Rayment MB (2000) Closed chamber systems underestimate soil CO2 efflux. Eur J Soil Sci 51:107–110

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26. Rochette P, Ellert B, Gregorich EG, Desjardins RL, Pattey Lessard ER, Johnson BG (1997) Description of a dynamic closed chamber for measuring soil respiration and its comparison with other techniques. Can J Soil Sci 77:195–203 27. Russell EJ, Appleyard A (1915) The atmosphere of the soil, its composition and causes of variation. J Agric Sci 7:1–48 28. Salimon CI, Dadvidson EA, Victoria RL, Melo AWF (2004) CO2 flux from soil in pastures and forests in Southwestern Amazonia. Global Change Biol 10:833–843 29. Smith JL, Papendick RI, Bezdicek DF, Lynch JM (1993) Soil organic matter dynamics and crop residue management. In: Blaine Metting F Jr (ed) Soil microbial ecology – Applications in agricultural and environmental management. Marcel Dekker, New York, Basel, Hong Kong, pp 65–94 30. Sotta ED, Meir P, Malhi Y, Nobre AD, Hodnett M, Grace J (2004) Soil CO2 efflux in a tropical forest in the central Amazon. Global Change Biol 10:601–617 31. Sukhman D (2005) Carbon dioxide continues its rise. BBC News, 31 March 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4395817.stm 32. Wagai R, Brye KR, Gower ST, Norman JM, Bundy LG (1998) Land use and environmental factors influencing soil surface CO2 flux and microbial biomass in natural and managed ecosystems in southern Wisconsin. Soil Biol Biochem 30:1501–1509 33. Waldrop MP, Firestone MK (2006) Seasonal dynamics of microbial community composition and function in oak canopy and grassland soils. Microb Ecol 52:470–479 34. Wang C, Gower ST, Wang Y, Zhao H, Yan P, Bond-Lamberty B (2001) Influence of fire on carbon distribution and net primary production of boreal Larix gmelinii forests in northeastern China. Global Change Biol 7:719–730 35. Wang CK, Yang JY, Zhang QZ (2006) Soil respiration in six temperate forests in China. Global Change Biol 12:2103–2114 36. Woomer PL (1994) Most probable number counts. In: Weaver RW (ed) Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Microbiological and biochemical properties SSSA Book Series 5. SSSA, Madison, WI, pp 59–79 37. Yim MH, Joo SJ, Nakane K (2002) Comparison of field methods for measuring soil respiration: a static alkali absorption method and two dynamic closed chamber methods. Forest Ecol Manag 170:189–197

Part II

Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors

The Evaluation of Sustainability of Organic Farms in Tuscany Chiara Certomà and Paola Migliorini

Abstract Sustainability evaluation with an updated version of MESMIS Framework has been conducted in 5 organic farms in Tuscany, characterised by different management approach. The real differences is, indeed, determined by motivations that explain how the landscape, the work structure and the cultural heritage are organized, giving the present assessment of the Tuscan rural world. Keywords Sustainable agriculture · Social sustainability · Organic farms · MESMIS

1 Introduction The implementation and evaluation of agricultural sustainable methods are one of the most challenging goal in political and scientific research. The use of sustainability indicators is becoming a frequent tool to evaluate agricultural systems [6, 12]. Several lists of indicators exist [26]. Evaluation strategies and methodologies were worked out in order to quantitative describe and qualitative evaluate ecosystem management [9, 7]. A significant research experience with an holistic approach was carried out in 17 countries by a European network for prototype agroecosystem [34–38, 33]. The network developed a management methodology with a list of indicators on the following criteria: abiotic environment, income/profit, nature/landscape, employment, health/well-being. The methodology was applied in Tuscany where a specific long term experiment to evaluate the organic vs conventional sector was established in 1992 at the experiment farm of Montepaldi. Other indicators to evaluate biodiversity and soil fertility were developed [23] and other methodologies to evaluate sustainability were implemented. A network in France [4] proposed different agroecological indicators. C. Certomà (B) Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna, Piazza Martiri della Libertà 33, 56127 Pisa, Italy e-mail: [email protected]

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In Switzerland some researches [5] adopted five criteria: abiotic environment; biotic environment; cultural value; social aspects; economic aspects. In small rice agroecosystem a quantitative approach to evaluate productive and environmental performance has been applied [8]. An environmental account methodology has been developed in order to combine economic with ecological aspects [29, 16, 17]. Other approaches are based on rapid evaluation with on-farm indicators for farmers [28] or on-farm questioners [30] and the environmental impact of agriculture at form level (der Werf et al. 2002). Organic agriculture nowadays, is no more a nice (Willer and Yoursy, 2009). Italy is the third country of the world for presence of organic land and in Tuscany 10% of total agricultural surface is growing organic with 3,000 organic farms (ARSIA, 2006). As an alternative propose to conventional agricultural production, IFOAM organic norms (IFOAM, 2005) include principle1 and social justice in the standards for organic production and processing. Although, some researches (Michelsen, 2001; Guthman, 2004) show that the organic regulations (Reg. CE 2092/91, NOP-USDA, etc.) do not include all the principle of organic movements.

2 Rethinking MESMIS Framework in Tuscan Context Since 1996, when Miguel Altieri and his researching team elaborated the MEMSIS Framework (Marco para la evaluacion de sistemas de manejo de recursos naturales incorporando indicadores de sustentabilidad), this methodology was used in several studies in Mexico and Latin America and it is part of academic programs in United States and Spain. Considering that traditional evaluation systems are not always able to reflect the typical complexity of socio-economic and agro-ecosystems (such as cost-benefit analysis), MESMIS gives a redefinition of problems from a qualitative point of view and provides a multi-criteria model to handle the management of ecological systems [27]. It is a cyclic process. The final assessment is positive when it helps to improve social and environmental profile of managing systems of natural resources and when the whole evaluation has been developed through a dialogic process with experts. The most part of MESMIS framework focuses its attention on small rural villages in the Andes area in which modern conventional agriculture encounters traditional, organic or alternative farm management. The difference between Italian, and above all the Tuscan context, and indigenous systems is deeply rooted in social, geographical and political history but it is a profitable to apply the same methodology on the western farmers activities in order to highlight values and development possibilities of a “non-conventional agriculture” and the social net in rural areas.

1 At the general assembly of Adelaide, the 4 principle of health, ecology, fairness and care were included as preamble of the IFOAM Basic Standards (IBS).

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In rural Tuscany towns, villages and farms are strictly interconnected in the way that it’s impossible to consider isolated agricultural systems without social, economic and political factors. That is why in the research here presented, MESMIS Framework is used as a methodological reference: it represents a good model to evaluate both agroecological and socio-economic sustainability [21, 19, 13, 31, 24, 14]. In comparison with the present Community Agricultural Policy (CAP) and EU policy support to Rural Development (Reg. CE 1698/05) oriented towards environmental care, the application of MESMIS methodology, for the first time in Italy, was an innovative experience, despite the fact that modifying some passage of the original framework was needed. The phases of the updated method, used in the present work, are the following (Table 1): Table 1 Phases of updated method Step A

• •

Step B

• •

Step C

• •

Step D

• • •

Step E

• • •

Definitions of a key concept on which the research focuses its attention (here “sustainability”); Definitions of attributes, consequent criteria and subsequent general indicators (parameters and indices) referred to the key concept; Individuation of study cases. Setting out of a specific questionnaire for interviews based on the general indicators; Collection of data (multimedia documents, interviews, direct experiments. . . . ). Description of studies through the processing of the collected data according to general indicators. Elaboration of critical points suggested or noticed during the data collection in topic areas; Choice of strategic indicators for every topic area; Normalization of results for strategic indicators and representation by Amoeba diagrams. Problem analysis and individuation of good practices; Discussion with farmers; Elaboration of a report.

3 Materials and Methods In the research applied on Tuscan context, the chosen key-word (Step A) is “sustainability”. It is considered sustainable a system, in a defined time and space, that: – maintains or increases the basis of existent resources – maintains or increases the biological and socio-cultural diversity – satisfies the necessities of biotic component – hangs in or fit in changed conditions – generates risk and consumption distributive structures

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– shows cooperative mechanism in order to improve the efficiency of productive processes – allows the internal “emergence” of auto-organised phenomena. The following table resume the attributes and related criteria for farms sustainability evaluation settled out from the previous definition. For each criterion, specific indicators (qualitative descriptions,2 parameters or indices) were found and related. As an example, the following table concerns the choosing of socials indicators and sub-indicators for the analysis of concrete case studies. Every indicator is referred to different criteria (indicated by numbers as in Tables 2 and 3).

Table 2 List of “attribute” and corresponding “criteria” used in the research to evaluate farms sustainability

Attribute

Criteria

Complexity

1. Availability (natural and social elements) 2. Diversity 3. Connectivity (richness of relations) 4. Efficiency 5. Productivity 6. Fairness 7. Durability and stability 8. Flexibility 9. Accessibility 10. Multifunctional capability 11. Self organization

Functionality

Interactivity

Creativity

Table 3 List of social indicators and sub-indicators with reference to sustainability criteria Social features of a farm Reference criteria

Indicator

1,2,6,7,1,6

Composition, organization

1,8,10,11 3,9,8,10,11

Movements Territorial relations, activities, projects

Sub-indicators (d=qualitative description, p=parameter, i=index) Social composition (d), managing (d), residents (p), hectare per resident (i), gender (p), age (p), instruction (p) Origin (p), turnover (p), employment situation (i) Training courses (p), agro-ecological projects (p), associations (p), cooperation with private or public organizations (p), syndicates (p), willingness at experimental projects (p)

2 To calculate same indicators, it was used a Likert scale in order to give an evaluation of personal judgment and non-numerical data, based on a five step scale.

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After having identified the cases studies, the collecting data step (Step B) starts from the ideological, historical and organizational situation of farms, including biophysical, agro-ecological, economical and social characteristics, always referring to the general grid related to the attributes of sustainability (Table 2). The relevance of social matters in the research leads to the integration of MESMIS method with the Participatory Action Research approach [Cuadernos del program de manejo partecipativo de recursos naturales, 1993 2]. It suggests to involve farmers, peasants and institutional delegates in the most part of the research. Considering that peasants’ and farmers’ time has to be respected and not wasted, it is very important to spend time working with them, sharing food and spare time [10]. The aim is collecting the largest part of information informally, before using a questionnaire specifically arranged for a formal interview. During the interviews, it is suggested a Rapid Rural Appraisal3 setting-up: a not rigid grid in which active listen, that allows an “appropriate inaccuracy” for fuzziness typical of complex systems, is preferred to a dual-purpose structure. That is particularly true for qualitative data that, sometimes, give more precise results with respect to the quantitative ones and stress the real perception and intentions of people involved in the interview. The structure of ad hoc-created interview model is the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Determination of farm: administrative, juridical and agronomical classification Orientation: history, ideal choices, philosophical issues of the farm Biophysical features: weather, soil, geological characteristics, water Agro-ecological features: landscape description, wood area, crop rotation and cattle-breeding 5. Economical features: production characteristics, material and financial assets, employment, financial management, marketing management, energy 6. Social features: participants, relationship, organization, connection with territory and research institutions, socio-political and cultural activities 7. Opinions Five organic farms, according to the Reg. CE 2092/91, are chosen in different areas of the region and represent different approaches to eco-agricultural and social managing [20]. In Tuscany controlled foodstuffs, environmental politics and social welfare have a good standard, so it would be important to make breakthrough and pick up samples cases in which a basic involvement in sustainability matters is assumed by the farmers. That is the reason why organic farms managed by farmers with a high socio-environmental awareness are preferred. The sampled analysed farms are located in five different areas, socially and legally organized in different ways and show excellent results in sustainability path (Table 4).

3 See:

http://www.fao.org/documents/advanced_s_result.asp

2005 10 8,3 Olive and fruit trees, vegetables C28.000,00 37% 2 females, 2 males A 4, S 3

1992 79,5 34

Mixed crop

C94.000,00

33%

8 females, 15 males

A 4, S 2

A 4, S 14

1 female, 1 male

3%

C120.000,00

Olive and grapevine

1992 14,5 11,6

Paterna Valdarno (Arezzo), flat, 300 m asl Cooperative Organic

C

A 6, S 1

1 female, 1 male

0%

C18.000,00

Olive and grapevine

1993 3,3 2,1

Podere di Peciano Val di Chiana (Arezzo), flat, 330 m asl Familiar Permaculture

D

A1

7 females, 7 males

0%

C361.000,00

Olive and grapevine

2002 49 24,5

Tenuta di Valgiano Lucca hills, 250 m asl Society Biodynamic

E

b On

a Agricultural

management are define as follows: organic = Reg. CE 2092/91; synergic = [11]; permaculture = Mollison, 1989; biodynmaic = Steiner, 1968 the total outcomes c A = agro-ecological activity; S = socio-cultural activity

Gross production value (2003/04) Percentage of public financingb Farm habitants (2003/04) Numbers of projects runsc

Podere del Grillo San Miniato (Pisa), hills, 47–100 m asl Familiar Organic

La Comune di Bagnaia Siena hills, 350 m asl Communitarian Organic-synergic

Farms name Province Landform Legal organisation Agriculture managementa Organic certified since total farm area (ha) Utilised agricultural area (ha) Crops

B

A

Study cases

Table 4 General description of the case studies farms in Tuscany

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Another very relevant, but not really simple identifiable, feature of the farms, is the motivational approach to farming and the choice of living in the countryside. In the present research, it was given an overview on the different motivations. Specifically, it was considered – the case of a communitarian farm (A) in which participants decided to share all the properties and the work in order to build up an alternative live style that it is at odds with respect to the individualistic style of western societies; – the case of a young couple (B) who decided to rebuilt the grandparents’ farm by taking into account the possibility, according to modern economic and technical instruments, to restore the ancient water managing system and the landscape; – the case of a cooperative farm (C) from which began all of the most significant cultural developments in rural area; – the case of a farm managed by a farmer (D) who is involved in increasing the permaculture approach in Italy; – the case of a classical wine producer farm (E) biodynamical oriented. After having set out a good description platform (Step C), the analysis of the critical points starts (Step D). Taking inspiration from the critical point, focused as weakness or strength points by farmers, five distinguished areas of analysis are settled: agro-ecological structure, work and production, composition and competences, availability, social network. For each one of these, only few indicators, called “strategic” and considered deeply relevant for sustainability in the observed region, are evaluated by using data collected in the previous phase of the research (Table 5). Table 5 List of strategic indicators with reference to the area of interests, algorithm and unit measure Area

Strategic indicators

Algorithm

Unit

Agro-ecological assessment

Wood area Herbaceous strips area Hedges Wood borders

Wood area/total area Herbaceous area/total area Hedges/boundaries Wood borders of the farm/total borders Cultures/lot Computation of kinds of crops in the farm

% % % %

Variety of cultures Crops Work and production

Level of employment Age classes

Agricultural employers/total area Computation of person for farm represented in each class Farm employers farm employers /farms habitants Products (different Computation of different product by kinds) each farm Olive grove productivity Quantity of olives/ha Vineyard productivity Quantity of grapes/ha

% n. n./ha n. % n. kg/ha kg/ha

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C. Certomà and P. Migliorini Table 5 (continued)

Area

Strategic indicators

Algorithm

Unit

Composition and competences

Gender ratio City, village, countryside origin Geographical origin

Female/male Quantity of people for farm represented in each class Quantity of people for farm represented in each class Quantity of people for farm represented in each class Incoming people/out coming people production self consumed/ total production Amount of public financing/gross production value Gross profit/production costs External income/total income

n/n n.

Previous employment

Availability

Turnover4 Self consumption Dependency

Social Network

n. n. n. kg/kg %

Gross margin External income influence Availability of capital Perception of availability of capital Availability of credit Perception of availability of credit Availability of assistance Perception of availability of assistance

% %

Association forms

n.

Likert Scale Likert Scale Likert Scale

Number of association in which the farm in involved Citizens involvement Average of citizen involved in each happening Participation Average of farm habitants involved in each happening Cooperation with public Computation of collaboration with institutions public institutions Projects Computation of active projects in the farm Involvement in Perception of involvement in territorial policies territorial policies definition

n. n. n. n. Likert Scale

Table 6 Example of normalization for the strategic indicator “Association forms” included in the Social Network Area Not normalised value of strategic indicator “Association forms” (included in Social Network Area): it represent the effective number of different kind of association in which the farm take part. Farm a: 10 Farm b: 6 Farm c: 5 Farm d: 2 Farm e: 3

4 Turnover

Sustainability value [1,5] Value “10” (farm a) = 5 maximum sustainability value6

is calculated on the last ten years. The others indicators, on the last years.

5 3 2,5 1 1,5

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Table 7 Amoeba diagram of strategic sustainability indicator concerning the social network area Social Network

association forms 5 4 territorial policies

3

involvement of citizens

farm a

2

farm b

1

farm c

0

farm d farm e

projects

collaboration with public institutions

participation

The results of each strategic indicator is calculated for each farm. The following step is to normalise the obtained results on a five step scale not weighted. The value “5” represent the highest sustainability result in our reference system (Table 6).5 The result of all the normalized value for each strategic indicator are represented in an amoeba diagram. Five amoeba diagrams were elaborated in reference to each five different areas, as shown in Table 7, concerning Social network area. The attribution of maximum sustainability value was decided on a related literature basis considering some features as more positive for social and agro-ecological aspect: • environmental and social diversification useful to empower the reliance of the system; • long term planning and flexibility; • social and economic network organization to have an increasing contractual power and help in new enterprises, information and technical support; • multi-functional capability; • decrease of external energy dependence; • easier acquisition of land and financial resources for familiar agriculture; 5 This form of evaluation was choosen in a wide range of possibilities because we found it more suitable to use. The goal of the research was, in fact, to show a friendly methodology that presents understandable results for farmers, citizen, public authority. Moreover, according to MESMIS philosophy, we consider sustainability as a relative characteristic of a complex system, so we establish the cluster of farms as our reference system. 6 0 is not considered as the minimum sustainability value but as the real value 0.

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C. Certomà and P. Migliorini Table 8 General amoeba diagram of sustainability General sustainability evaluation

agro-ecological assesment 5 4 3 social network

2

farm a work and production

1

farm b farm c

0

farm d farm e availability

composition and competences

• revitalization of territorial society and offer of public utility services; • introduction of farming method complementary to biological standard (such as biodynamic, synergic, permaculture)

At the end a general Amoeba diagram of sustainability related to the farm considered in the research, was drawn in five different areas, calculating how many “5” each farm obtained in the different Areas and normalizing them. It can be used as a guideline for the farmers who take part into the research to have an idea of the path they have gone towards sustainability in order to plan how to proceed in their management (Table 8). A discussion at the end of the research with the stakeholders was considered as a good starting point for a participatory development plan and suggests interesting conclusion to the researchers and the farmers.

4 Conclusions The perception of farmers, who has a good or an increasing feeling about environmental and social matters, is generally correct according to the result of the research, but not always. It is due probably to the fact that farmers, even if nonconventional agriculture oriented, go on evaluating their farms according to the dominant paradigm of conventional agriculture: that produces a persistent feeling of inadequacy to the general standard [3].

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In the observed farms rural development shows good examples in which, unfortunately, the economic factor is often constraining for a non-market oriented agriculture supported by value and practices that enforces the social structure and the environmental maintenance. Generally a strong relation is evident between social and environmental awareness. Such kind of agriculture goes forth the modernity values, re-interpreters work, land, society and development with new suggestions. In the reviewed MESMIS method, the approach towards involved subjects is essentially dialogic in order to valorise the human aspects of the analysed experiences to create bonds among different but complementary ideas, to get suggestions from a selected group of peculiar cases useful for the whole typology of farms. In the study here presented the social aspect has a particular relevance: it wants to give room to the singular commitment in the general mosaic work. The real differences is, indeed, determined by motivations that explain how the landscape, the work structure and the cultural heritage organize themselves giving the present assessment of the Tuscan rural work. In general, except the agricultural benefits arising from specific managing models or positive economic results, it’s possible to find some peculiar features, for the considered case studies, especially useful for sustainability: the willingness to create social network, to interact with local administrations and to collaborate in organizing social or agricultural projects that involve citizens, the participatory decision processes and the inclusion association with others farmers on particular foci in order to develop cooperative commitments and self aid groups. History, expectations and symbolical value of farmers derived by motivation have had a crucial role in the pattern designed by the research. Moreover the motivational factor probably could explain the reason why, after the modern age in which agricultural activity held the negative sign of “past”, a lot of people, coming from very different productive sectors, decided to engage themselves in agriculture, conceiving it as a “post-modern” choice of live.

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10. Freire P (1970) Pedagogy of the oppressed. Continuum, New York 11. Fukuoka M (1980) La rivoluzione del filo di paglia. Libreiria editrice fiorentina, p 205 12. Girardin P, Bockstaller C, van der Werf HMG (1999) Indicators: Tools to evaluate the environmental impacts of farming systems. J Sustain Agric 4:5–21 13. Gomes de Almeida S, Bianconi Fernandes G (2003) Monitoreo económico de la transición agroecológica: estudio de caso de una propiedad familiar del sur de Brasil. LEISA Revista de Agroecología, ocho estudios de caso, pp 58–63 14. Gonzalez-Esquivel L, Brunett-Pérez C et al (2003) Sustainability and dairy cattle production in highlands of central Mexico. Presented at the IX World Conference on Animal Production, Porto Alegre, Brasil 15. Gulthman J (2004) Agrarian dreams: the paradox of organic farming in California. University of California press 16. Halberg N (1999) Indicators of resources use and environmental impact for use in decision aid for Danish livestock farmers. Agric Ecosyst Environ 76:17–30 17. Halberg N, Verschur G, Goodlass G (2005) Farm level environmental indicators. Are they useful? An overview of green accounting systems for European farms. Agric Ecosyst Environ 105:195–212 18. IFOAM (2005) Basic Standards for organic production and processing. International Federation of Organic Movements, Bonn 19. Lopez-Ridaura S, Masera O, Astier M (2000) Evaluating the sustainability of integrated peasantry systems: The MESMIS framework. Ilea, Dicembre, pp 28–30 20. Lotter D (2003) Organic agriculture. J Sustain Agric 21:59–124 21. Masera O, Astier M, Lopez Ridaura S (2000) Sustentabilidad y manejo de recursos naturals. Mundi Prensa, Michoacan, Mexico 22. Michelson J (2001) Organic farming in a regulatory prospective. The Danish case. Sociologia ruralis 41 (1) 23. Migliorini P (2006) Valutazione della sostenbiltià in sistemi agricoli e colturali bioloici della Toscana. Tesi di dottorato di ricerca. Università degli Studi di Firenze 24. Moya García X, Caamal A, Ku Ku B, Chan Xool C, Armendariz I, Flores J, Moguel J, Noh Poot M, Rosales M, Dominguez JX (2003) La agricultura campesina de losmayas en Yucatán. LEISA Revista de Agroecología, ocho estudios, pp 7–16 25. Mollison B (1989) Permaculture: A Designers’ Manual Tagari Publications, Australia 26. Morse S, Namara Mc N, Acholo M, Okwoli B (2001) Sustainability indictors: The problem of integration sustainable development. Sustain Dev 9:1–15 27. Nicholls CI, Altieri MA, Dezanet A, Lana M, Feistrauer D, Ouriques M (2004) A rapid, framer-friendly agroecological method to estimate soil quality and crop health in vineyars systems. Biodynamics n. 250 p. 33–39 28. Pacini C, Wossink A, Giesen G, Vazzana C, Omodei Zorini L (2003) Evaluation of sustainability of organic, integrated and conventional farming systems: A farm ad field-scale analysis. Agric Ecosyst Environ 95:273–288 29. Piorr HP (2003) Environmental policy, agri-environmental indicators and landscape indicators. Agric Ecosyst Environ 93:17–33 30. Rigby D, Caceres D (2001) Organic farming and the sustainability of agriculturale systems. Agric Syst 68:21–40 31. Santillánt A, Nahed Toral J, López Méndez T (2003) Sostenibilidad y agricultura campesina: la producción agrosilvopastoril en Los Altos de Chiapas, México. LEISA Revista de Agroecología, ocho estudios de caso, pp. 18–23 32. Steiner R (1968) The Roots of Education, Five Lectures Given in 1924, London, Rudolf Steiner Press 33. Vazzana C, Raso E, Pier S (1997) Una nuova metodologia europea per la progettazione e la gestione di agroecosistemi integrati ed ecologici: Applicazione in un area agricola toscana. Rivista di Agronomia 31(2):423–440 34. Vereijken P (1994) Progress Report n 1 Designing prototype. Research Network on integrated and Ecological Arable Farming System for EU AB/DLO Wageningen, 87p

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35. Vereijken P (1995) Progress Report n 2 Designing and testing prototype. Research Network on integrated and Ecolgical Arable Farming System for EU AB/DLO Wageningen, 90p 36. Vereijken P (1996) Progress Report n 3 Testing and improving prototype. Research Network on integrated and Ecolgical Arable Farming System for EU AB/DLO Wageningen, 87p 37. Vereijken P (1998) Progress Report n 4 Improving and disseminate prototype. Research Network on integrated and Ecological Arable Farming System for EU AB/DLO Wageningen 55p 38. Vereijken P (1999) Manual for prototype integrated and ecological arable farming system in interaction with pilot farms, AB/DLO Wageninen, 87p 39. der Werf, van HMG, Petit J (2002) Evaluation of the environmental impact of agriculture at the farm level: A comparison and analysis of 12 indicator-based methods. Agric Ecosyst Environ 93:131–145 40. Willer H. e L. Kilcher (2009) The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2009, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), Bonn, Germany and Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick-ITC, Ginevra

Evaluation of the Sustainability on Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors in Architecture from a Tourism Point of View: Ayvalik Historical City Center Olcay Çetiner and Ay¸segül Çetiner Gökyilmaz

Abstract Tourism should be evaluated as a sustainable progress tool to obtain the continuity in the areas which acquires cultural heritage and natural values. It is observed that, the two important visual features in tourism are the environmental characteristics and the architectural characteristics of the accommodation buildings that belong to cultural heritage. Environmental protection conception and returning back to nature also affected the architecture. Today, people that have a certain intellectual and cultural level, prefer and look for environmentally interrelated facilities that are peculiar to that district, that are completely in nature, that are providing an interactivity with the local people, and have cultural heritage, rather than facilities that have a common architectural style, that have a good comfort of a luxury hotel and that are indented and self-sufficient. These kinds of facilities are mostly developed by Small Sized Tourism Firms (STF) and Micro Entrepreneurs/Very Small Sized firms. The STF’s are obtained from a lot of different source. Most of them are developed by special investors using small capitals. Some others, especially micro entrepreneurs/very small sized firms are mostly owned and ran by a family. In this study, evaluation of the sustainability on cultural heritage and environmental factors in architecture from a tourism point of view and the characteristic features and design approaches of the STF’s that are already located in or might be located in Ayvalik historical city center are analysed. Keywords Cultural heritage · Environmental factors · Sustainability · Tourism in architecture · Small sized tourism firms, and micro entrepreneurs/very small sized firms · Ayvalik historical city center

O. Çetiner (B) Department of Architecture, Yildiz Technical University, Barboros str., 34349 Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

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1 Introduction Understanding the space requires understanding the physical and social relations behind the space in an unlimited vivacity caused by various civilizations changing places, expanding and being affected by the geographies they live in throughout the history and today. In other words, social and cultural continuity and changes requires reidentification and explanation of the space. There are places that are left to decay and buildings to be protected in many cities. As a result of the movements in tourism that have become a need, people begin to see and experience the city textures that are the products of different cultures and consequently, reviving old city areas becomes a must. Being a pattern of climate, building materials, tradition and ethnic groups, historical city center areas are the areas that must be protected because of their cultural values. There are civil architecture examples that are not decayed and still protect their old characters in several cities. Recovering and functionalizing city textures in compliance with today’s conditions are very important historical and cultural factors not only in terms of social, economical and cultural quality but also in terms of communicating information to following generations [3].

2 The Evaluation of the Sustainability of Cultural Heritage and Environmental Factors in Architecture in Terms of Tourism In terms of cultural heritage and environmental factors, sustainable tourism should attract individual tourists or small tourist groups instead of mass tourism for maximum profit, diversify tourism activities, extend tourism to a longer period and apply tourism to different places. Today’s travelers are people that develop their holiday concepts, personal hobbies and interests, prefer regions where they can experience these, integrate with the environment, endeavor to know people and cultures and show respect to the environment. The expectations of these new types of travelers with their new conceptions are to spend their holidays in clean and environment-friendly facilities that integrate with nature. Quebec Declaration includes principles regarding active contribution to the protection of natural and cultural heritage, participation of the local community, preference of independent travelers and small tourist groups, services provided by small-scaled organizations/companies among the principles of sustainable tourism. As Turkey is a developing country of which the historical heritage mostly continues its presence lively with its natural and cultural values, it is certain that there is a significant potential in several regions of our country in terms of sustainable tourism [7]. Sustainable tourism should be developed without giving any harm to the environment; society; historical, natural and cultural assets so as to contribute to the regional economy and social life. Integration with nature and hospitality of the regional people are considered as the two factors that give the maximum satisfaction to travelers in accommodations.

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For this reason, it was observed that the studies and plannings made without the participation of the local community are unsuccessful in the long term although they seem to be successful in the short term. It is seen that tourists expect local cultural properties of the place they spend their holidays, a healthy environment and a certain level of prosperity especially in the regions of which the economy is planned according to tourism. These expectations show that the local community and touristical developments should complete each other. The cultural components in the social life are cultural elements in natural and historical protected areas, folkloric properties, regional life style, eating-drinkingdressing habits, traditional architecture, handicrafts, customs & traditions, linguistic properties, songs, lullabies, folk dances, folk architecture, etc. These components are used to describe the local identity of the city [1]. It is thought that natural values can be reproduced or can replace each other like cultural values. As the number of regions with cultural and natural values have started to decrease and the concept of locality has begun to stand out, especially the groups that conduct studies with the purpose of protection have started to develop approaches that aim to emphasize the meaning and feeling of places instead of the process of consuming areas/places. Thus, tourism is considered as an “instrument” rather than a “purpose” in order to ensure economic continuity especially in areas that have historical, cultural and natural values [4]. Utilizing old building stocks cause less structuring by using the idle space potential. These buildings cover the expectations of environmentalist travelers by creating visual and cultural variety and providing comfortable accommodation. Thus, historical city textures are protected, infrastructures are functionalized, the interaction between tourism and environment starts to protect and develop both parties by reducing the impact of structuring on the environment [5]. This includes smallscaled and/or micro-scaled tourism enterprises that are acts sensitively about the environment, cultural and social structure. It is a fact that design criteria that include all the plans and designs, which aim to ensure sustainability while using or creating environment, will shape tourism architecture. Because success, future and sustainability in tourism will be achieved with the help of structuring and design that reflect the importance given to environmental values.

3 Certain Features and Design Approaches of Ste’s that Are/May Be Located in Ayvalik Historical City Center 3.1 Tourism Potential and Properties of Historical City Center in Ayvalik Turkey is a country that has the traces of many civilizations. Therefore, it will always attract the attention of the entire world with its universally important historical and cultural values that are richer and more intense than any country in the world not only in terms of geographical position but also long history [8].

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Photograph 1 General view from the studied area [2]

From the tourism potential point of view that have been examined in the study have a very rich source in terms of antique cities and historical buildings. They hosted many civilizations until today. The developing civilizations that lived in these regions left several artworks that succeeded to reach today. Touristic properties natural properties, coastal facilities, natural port, climate and physical data positively affect the tourism potential of these regions. This historical and natural heritage that integrates with the green texture managed to reach today. Access possibilities and rich archeological values are also important factors. Ayvalik: It is a very old residential area surrounded by rich forests. Very old artworks can be observed in Ayvalik. Late Byzantine buildings are also seen in the region. Saatli Church, Alibey Mosque, Yeni Mosque and Biberli Mosque are among the significant historical buildings in the city. Being constructed by Abdülhamit II in the 19th century, Hamidiye Mosque is the only building in Ayvalik that was designed as a mosque. There are totally 22 big and small islands in Ayvalik. The main islands are Alibey, Timarhane and Tav¸sanli. Sarimsakli, Altinkum and Duma are the most significant beaches. Çamlik, Ba˘gyüzü Village, Kazak and Alibey Island are green areas that are still being used with their unique views. Being 4 km away from the city, Seytan ¸ Sofrasi is located on a hill where you can see the islands. Natural beauties in Alibey Island and Sarimsak, thermal springs that are good for skin problems and the unspoiled nature along the coast increase the population in Ayvalik by two or three times during summer. There are many springs among the pine and acorn trees in the forests that have touristical values and that surround Ayvalik. This forest region is used for camping and hunting activities. Vacation, cultural-historical, hunting and health tourism are available in Ayvalik. The area that begins with the antique city of Troy in the north and ends in Foça in the south affect the tourism in Ayvalik (Photograph 1).

3.2 Accommodation Design Approaches in Small Tourism Enterprises Most of the S.T.E.’s in tourism sector was formed by private investors that use small capitals. Others are generally micro enterprises that are owned and managed by families.

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Enterprises give importance firstly to accommodation quality. However, the existing facilities in the region should be used by attracting the attention to interesting regional objects and events. They should make applications that improve the promotion of the regions. These applications should include properties that are not known/will attract by the incoming guests [6]. Historical centers are tourism areas where visitors stop off; that are strong in terms of economical and social factors, settling geography and culture and that were once residential areas. The facilities that provide accommodation in historical places are facilities that are easy to manage and that provide catering services or facilities where guests can prepare their own meals in addition to lodging services. In some of these regions, home pensioning has become widespread with the house owners renting some rooms of their houses to the guests. There are two important points regarding the contribution of good design to efficiency in Small Tourism Enterprises; (a) The first impression of the guests can be positive with the help of a well-designed Small Tourism Enterprise. This makes the guests spend longer time in the facility and visit it several times, (b) Well-designed and well-organized service areas can reduce the cost of employees and increase the efficiency by affecting the motivation of employees, as these areas are aesthetical [6]. The texture and technology that is used with the purpose of increasing customer satisfaction are important in terms of customers’ preference. For this, the belowmentioned conditions should be met; • The infrastructure of the communication system should be flexible for improvement (TV, cable distribution system, fast Internet system), • Bathrooms should have sufficient facilities, • There should be more alternatives for artistical objects, antiques and ornamentations, • Designs should be created in order to reflect the regional environment by using artistical objects, • Healthy environments should be created, as there will be guests that give importance to personal health, • Natural materials that are in compliance with the environment should be used, • Modern concepts and objects that reflect history should be combined.

3.3 Design Recommendations for the Usage of Accommodation Spaces It is seen that the most important visual properties that attract the interest of travelers are environmental properties and the architectural characteristics of the accommodation facilities. Among these, environmental properties are the ones that belong to the historical city centers. These buildings that are in historical centers should have facades with properties that will attract attention. In order to establish a traditional place that reflects

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Table 1 Examples from accomadation buildings that can be renovated for reusage and exterior facade recommendations that are in compliance with their architectural components of the small turism enterprises [2] Examples from accommodation buildings that will be reopened for usage

Exterior facade recommendations

the regional life style, the first thing to do should be examining the regional architectural style and combining these properties with the interior and exterior design (Table 1). Architecture and interior design for Small Tourism Enterprises should be in compliance with the natural environment and connected to the main properties of the environment. The most important reason of why a guest prefers a specific place for holiday is the natural view and surroundings. This preference depends on transferring interior design components into this atmosphere. To achieve this, design concept should be identified and room and common space design should be examined. Identifying design concept is affected by the answers of the below-stated questions; who are the people that will stop off? What kind of an experience would they like to have? Is there any interior design style that people would like to experience? How is the image of our existing market and is this image a desired image or should a new image be created? Where is settling area? How is the settling area associated with the interior design style? Space can be regarded as a special place in historical centers for residents. Moreover, the materials to be used in interior and exterior designs should be determined. Accommodation facilities can be designed with one or two floors that compose of entrance, reception, kitchen, dining room and bedrooms.

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Table 2 Interior spaces that lead the design for accomodation places that are examined in this study [2] Interior spaces that lead the design Example from rooms

Common usage examples

Objects that enable the connection

For room design; room measurement, room layout, room groups that include the number and type of rooms, recommended furniture and lighting, objectives of the sector, etc. should be taken into account [6]. Rooms of the accommodation facilities that are examined in the study have been observed in two different categories (Table 2). Only basic furniture has been selected for the room furnishing. Special attention paid for the optimum use of regional furniture according to the requirements. The purpose was to make the room look bigger and create well-used interior spaces. Spaces gave been decorated with traditional objects and motifs. Common space design; another point is to create common spaces that will ensure differentiating. Reception, meeting room, dining room and recreational areas can become nice spaces if they are organized with a good programming and design. Regardless of the type of accommodation, all these common spaces should be places around the lobby in terms of design and planning. The guests should be enabled to find different functions with minimum difficulties. A good relation of the common spaces and the rooms should be obtained. Designers should take functional properties into consideration while creating the atmosphere, layout, lighting and furniture.

4 Conclusion The functional usage areas in historical buildings are nearly in the same number with the ones in new buildings. Historical buildings can also be used in every field and every subject. However, usage has a different usage in tourism field. Because historical and cultural values are the biggest resources of the tourism potential of a

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country. Countries, which have rich historical and cultural values and give importance to tourism, always utilize these values in order to develop tourism industry. Therefore, there is a very close relationship between the factor of history and culture and tourism sector. For this reason, tourism is the most appropriate and most useful way in the usage of historical buildings [8]. When renewing historical city areas, recommendations that meet today’s needs and increase the image quality of that area should be prioritized and contemporary concepts should be adapted. Environmental properties should be well analyzed for the innovations to be made. Architectural character should definitely be protected and the innovations to be made should emphasize the character. It should be remembered that a careful and authentic innovation would provide urban and architectural richness. The new functions to be brought during renovation should be made by considering the cultural value, spatial requirement and aesthetical preference and livable space should be created. Only a study like this would add richness and dynamism to the space. Facilities that are constructed unconsciously cause changes in the natural appearance, unorganized settlement areas become problems in the most preferred regions and natural resources may be affected negatively. Therefore, tourism can be sustainable by protecting the natural environment, historical heritage and cultural texture.

References 1. Beyhan SG ¸ (2006) Kültürel, Do˘gal Ve Tarihi Mirasın Sürdürülebilir Turizm Açısından De˘gerlendirilmesi Ve Isparta Örne˘gi. Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya. (in Turkish) 2. Çetiner O, Gökyılmaz ÇA (2006) Photos of Ayvalık (Balıkesir – Ayvalık ˙Ilçesi Turizmde Tanıtma ve Pazarlamada Yeni Yakla¸sım – Konaklama Mekânlarında Tasarım Etkileri-, II. Balıkesir Ulusal Turizm Kongresi Balıkesir Üni. Turizm ˙I¸sl. ve Otelcilik Y.O., Balıkesir. (in Turkish) 3. Çetiner O, Gökyılmaz ÇA (2006) Antalya Turizmi Konaklama Mekanlarının Kullanımında Tasarım Etkilerine Öneri, Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya 4. Hovardao˘glu SÇ, Hovardao˘glu O (2006) Turizm Ve Do˘gal – Kültürel De˘gerler Ba˘glamında Yerin Anlamı Üzerine: Erciyes Da˘gı Ve Seyh¸ ¸ saban Yerle¸smesi, Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya. (in Turkish) 5. Kısa OP (2006) Farklı Turist, Farklı Turizm, Farklı Mimari: Çevreci Turist, Ekolojik Turizm, Ekolojik Turizm Mimarisi, Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya. (in Turkish) 6. Negrusa A, Ionescu CE (2005) Design implications in creating a competitive advantege for hospitality small business. Studia Universitatias Babes-Bolyai Negotia, No.1/2005, ISSN 1224-8738. Cluj-Napoca, Romanya, pp 102–112 7. Tosun Ç, ve Sahin ¸ SZ (2006) Geli¸sen ve De˘gi¸sen E˘gilim: Ekoturizm, II. Balıkesir Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Turizm ˙I¸sletmecili˘gi ve Otelcilik Yüksekokulu, Balıkesir. (in Turkish) 8. Türk A, Kıstır R, Sataf M (2006) Tarhi ve Kültürel De˘gerlerin Turizm Amaçlı Kullanımları Ba˘glamında Isparta Aya Baniye ve Aya Yorgi Kiliselerinin De˘gerlendirilmesi, Turizm ve Mimarlık Sempozyumu-Turizmde Sosyal, Kültürel, Fiziksel Geli¸smeler: Sorunlar ve Öneriler, Antalya. (in Turkish)

Preserving the Mediterranean Landscape: The Role of Local Traditional Food Giovanni Quaranta and Caterina Salvia

Abstract It is largely recognised that the Mediterranean and its landscape symbolises a cultural heritage for the world as a whole. It represents the place where different countries with different languages and cultures converge. Today all this culture and history seems clearly threatened by extensive desertification phenomena. This paper focuses on the role played by the gastronomic landscape and local traditional food into the process of Mediterranean cultural landscape making and conservation. By conceptualising local traditional food as a part of the entire cultural heritage of a place, the intend here has been to discuss how traditional knowledge, particularly traditional food and food processing, can both environmentally and culturally preserve the identity of a place. The rediscovering of typical agri-food products can guarantee the protection of landscape quality both from an aesthetic and an environmental point of view. It implies the reorganisation of productive systems through the adoption of traditional techniques. In fact, differently from the conventional products, the traditional ones belong to the historical memory of a territory and they have particular characteristics linked to geographical factors, quality of raw materials and processing techniques. This implies that there is a strict relationship between agri-food products and local community heritage and identity. The paper investigates the capacity of typical agri-food products to safeguard and sustain landscapes in a environmental fragile context. The approach leaded to a development of an empirical model validated through a case study located in Southern Italy (Costiera Amalfitana – Campania region), an outstanding example of Mediterranean landscape, with exceptional cultural and natural scenic values resulting from its peculiar topography and historical evolution and with a vital gastronomic heritage. Keywords Mediterranean · Local traditional food · Environment · Cultural heritage · Conservation

G. Quaranta (B) UNIBAS, Potenza, Italy e-mail: [email protected]

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1 Introduction The Mediterranean contains a variety of landscapes, all of which have been shaped by the social, economic, cultural and religious activities of people over thousands of years. Scholars agree in describing this territory as the cradle of civilisation, where different and important cultures have followed one another. But the Mediterranean derives also from the combination of its climate, its plants, its sea and its soil. Indeed, then, it is the result of the historical interaction between human and nature. Citing Braudel [5, p. 26] “in both the physical and human sphere, the Mediterranean is a crossroads, the Mediterranean is a heteroclite and coherent image into which everything emerges and settles back into an original unit”. The term Mediterranean, however, evokes also the image of the desert. While the existing deserts are considered as a part of the Mediterranean landscape, it is necessary to underline that desertification or land degradation represents one of its main threats. Desertification, that properly means the creation or enlargement of a desert by natural processes and human activities leading to changes such as the loss of soil exposing, affect, in a differ manner and intensity, almost all the Countries of the Basin [10]. For millennia, the equilibrate use of both natural resources and traditional techniques has guaranteed the survival of people and their territories and the maintenance of a singular landscape. When this synergy broke, the entire ecosystem collapsed generating phenomena of degradation and land abandonment, often irreversible, such as desertification [20]. Thus, coping with desertification and, consequently, preserving the Mediterranean landscape implies the restoration of this equilibrium and, as a consequence, the elaboration of a new paradigm involving environment respect and economic, social and cultural sustainability. Namely, this underpins the “re-connection of people, land and nature” [19]. Moving from this idea, the recuperation and the valorisation of traditional techniques and knowledge, such as those linked with the traditional agri-food products, appears as a new challenge for regenerating territories at risk of desertification. They could start, in fact, virtuous processes of environment conservation and, in so doing, promote a sustainable safeguarding of all the landscape components, including its cultural heritage. As Austad (2000 in Antrop [1, p. 189]) points out “local knowledge and traditions should be combined with concepts of landscape ecology to develop ‘new’ cultural landscapes and agro-systems”. Nonetheless, encouraging these mechanisms is not easy. Their implementation, in fact, needs to take into account all the existing differences in economic, spatial, socio and cultural settings so that it might be possible asses their practical effects. Bearing this in mind, the explicit aim of this paper is then to analyse how traditional agri-food sustains the process of landscape preservation through the exploration of a case study. It is organised in four sections. The first section critically examines three key concepts: landscape, heritage and tradition. The second part focuses on the role played by typical agri-food products in the process of landscape protection. The third section examines the case of Costiera Amalfitana, in Italy. Finally, the last section, draws some conclusions.

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2 Landscape, Heritage and Tradition There is a general consensus that landscape is an evolving concept, generally characterised as ambivalent, fuzzy and multifaceted. Often, scholars [10] prefer its century-old sense of “a tract of land with its distinguishing characteristics and features [. . .], (Oxford English Dictionary)”. While, according to Tuan (1979 in Arriaza et al. [2, p. 115]) “landscape [. . .] is not to be defined by itemising its parts. The parts are subsidiary clues to an integrated image”. Following the definition used in the European Landscape Convention [7], however, “landscape means an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”. This definition clearly underlines what Antrop [1, p. 187] summarises stating “landscapes evolve continuously in a more or less chaotic way and reflect social and economics needs of a particular society at a given moment”. It, thus, needs to be contextualised, as it results from the overlapping of different complementary aspects: aesthetical, geographical, historical, etc., forming a whole, whose natural and cultural components are taken together, not separately [7]. The expression cultural landscape, therefore, has been coined to emphasise “the combined works of nature and man [8, p. 18]” and embraces the diversity of manifestations resulting from the interaction between humankind and its natural environment. Once shaped into a landscape, this interaction becomes an historical and cultural piece of document constituting the cultural heritage of both people and places. In other words, landscapes are part of the cultural heritage in which the cultural identity is rooted. Comes to the light, then, that heritage must be considered both as a sort of intellectual capital [1] and as an “identity marker” of groups [4]. In accordance with the Cambridge Dictionary definition, in fact, heritage is the set of “features belonging to the culture of a particular society, such as traditions, languages or buildings, which still exist from the past and which have a historical importance”. More specifically, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines heritage as a legacy from the past, what people live with today and pass on the future generations. Furthermore, this set of shared practices and understandings, inherited and adapted through generations, represents what Ray [21] identifies as local knowledge. The term local here, derives from the concept of locality, which is usually characterised by a twofold meaning: one physical and another social. In physical terms, it refers to a place where people live, work and resolve their activities [23]. In social terms, as Lowe and Murdoch (1993 cited in Selman [23, p. 4]) argue, “locality represents groups of individuals who are associated through common responsibilities, occupations, cultures or interests”. It comes to the fore, then, that the heritage preservation assures the continuity between past and present. Using the Bessière [4, p. 26] words “heritage provides historical depth and permanent pattern in a perpetually changing world”. The notion of heritage becomes clearly the same of tradition. Etymologically, tradition comes from the Latin, particularly, from the verb tradere, that literally means “to transmit or to deliver” [4]. In other words, it suggests the idea of handing something down

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or over, in order to transmit theoretical and practical know how, behaviour, attitudes and to ensure the continuity among generations [11]. Yet, summarising and following Antrop [1], landscapes posses heritage values and traditional knowledge, such as those linked with typical agri-food products, that should be preserved. The protection of cultural landscapes can contribute to the implementation of sustainable development strategies, maintaining and enhancing the quality of life for the local population and, in doing so, preventing land abandonment. Furthermore, it can sustain and improve natural values of the landscape contributing to preserve ecological functioning and diversity as well as to continue and reintroduce traditional practices, recognised as sustainable.

3 Traditional Agri-Food Products as a Tool of Landscape Safeguarding According to different authors (Giardiello [9], Torquati and Frascarelli 2000 in Miele and Murdoch [13]), typical agri-food products are different from other products existing on the market as they belong to the historical memory of a territory. “Tipicality” here indicates the historical memory, geographic localisation and the quality of raw materials and techniques of preparations. This implies that there is a strict relationship between agri-food products and local community heritage and identity. Given this, typical agri-food products seem to encompass the Sage’s [22] definition of good food. He correctly states that a good food should embrace three basic attributes: specific properties and both ecological and social embeddedness [12, 18]. It is, in the author words, “a heuristic hybrid term for it embodies both nature and culture [. . .] [22, p. 50] ”. Essentially, the mixture of human skills and knowledge with the character of the surrounding ecosystem becomes the main quality of typical foods that needs to be culturally appreciate [13]. Moran (1993 in Ray [21]), referring to French wines, states “each wine is a product of the physical characteristics of the locality and accumulated local know-how, the combination of which, it is claimed, ‘cannot be replicated elsewhere’. To put it in another way, the specific characteristics of the typical food originate from the interaction with the landscape of production or terroir [25], generating what authors [16, 6, 22] identify as gastronomic landscape. The rediscovering of typical agri-food products and the preservation of the gastronomic landscape can guarantee the protection of the landscape as a whole both from an aesthetic and an environmental point of view. It implies, in fact, the reorganisation of traditional productive systems through the adoption of traditional techniques. Furthermore, it is widely recognised that moving towards valorisation of local or endogenous resources, such as typical agri-food products, territories, particularly those marginalised and at risk of land degradation and abandonment, can create new sources of wealth [24]. Some researchers state that “in an era of increasingly competitive agri-food production (competition based on cost and price), there is an emerging hope that the promotion of regionally distinctive products may offer

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an alternative development trajectory for regions less able to compete in a globalised, commodity driven, market place” (Gilg and Battershill, 1998; Jenkins and Parrot, 2001 in Parrott et al. [17, p. 243]). As Parrott et al. [17, p. 257] argue, “the existence of well-known regional products may act as a ‘flagship’ for a region, creating positive associations which may, in turn, create other synergies in terms of tourism and regional development”. They can help to “maintain agricultural profitability in zones that are considered difficult or marginal (. . .) [and] create rural employment, both directly and indirectly, in associated industries such as tourism (Bessière [4] in Barham [3, p. 134])”. The promotion of traditional products works as a catalyst for many actors operating in rural areas: from tourist agents to agricultural operators, local authorities, trade associations and development agencies. In short, the valorisation of endogenous resources and thus of a territory presupposes the creation of what Murdoch [15] named horizontal networks.

4 A Case Study: The Costiera Amalfitana, in Italy The following case study is a valid example through which all the previous conceptualisations can be clarified providing guidelines for a simply model to be replicated elsewhere into the Mediterranean context. The selected case study is the Amalfi Coast, Costiera Amalfitana in Italian. It is a portion of coastline sited in the southern side of the Sorrentine Peninsula of Italy, covering 11,231 ha. It extends from Positano, in the west, to Vietri sul Mare, in the east (Photograph 1). Its natural boundary is the southern slope of the peninsula formed by the Lattari hills that, stretching from the Picentini hills to the Tyrrhenian Sea, separate the Gulf of Naples from the Gulf of Salerno. Indeed the Amalfi coast can be defined as an area of exceptional value resulting from the continuous work of both nature and man. In this area, nature is both well-preserved and harmoniously combined with the human activities. The landscape is shaped by rocks, wood and macchia mediterranea (maquis), but also by citrus groves and vineyards grown using the characteristic terraces (Photograph 2) that cover the steep slopes rising from the coast to the top of the mountains. In addition, the mountain areas are exploited for dairy farming, which represents an activity historically rooted here, based on sheep, goats and cattle breeding.

Photograph 1 Map of the Amalfi coast

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Photograph 2 Terraces of the Amalfi coast

In some parts of the Costiera, the natural landscape survives, preserving intact the traditional Mediterranean flora, which can withstand the windswept aridity of the area and a rich wildlife. The woods are populated by trees, such as oak and chestnut. The higher mountain areas are also characterised by mule tracks (mulattiere) which represent a notable feature of this landscape. Historically, these served as means for both communication among villages and for catching and channelling rainwater. Numerous are also the torrents, which produce impressive waterfalls. For all these reasons, this territory is listed by UNESCO as a World Cultural Heritage site. Particularly it has been selected on the basis of three of the ten selection criteria. Mainly, however, because it represents “an outstanding example of a Mediterranean landscape, with exceptional cultural and natural scenic values resulting from its dramatic topography and historical evolution (www.whc.unesco.org)”. As already mentioned, one of the main agricultural activities in this area is the cultivation of citrus, particularly lemons, from which originates the worldwide famous liqueur called Limoncello. Thanking for this process, in fact, as well as for both the peculiarity of the microclimatic conditions and the traditional variety, the local agricultural sector has overcome the high competitiveness of the global markets (mainly deriving from the South of America). As stated, then, this kind of cultivation actively contributes to the process of landscape making and preservation. The lemon trees, in fact, are cultivated in terraces still built with the traditional technique that protects soil, catches and channels waters. The safeguarding of this specific know how avoids also the abandonment of other traditional activities, such as the wood production. For instance, the chestnut wood used for the maintenance of the terraces is produced in the mountain part of the area. The system of terraces, then, has been perpetuated and nowadays constitutes the only landscape associated with this territory. Flagship of this area is, however, the Limoncello. The production of this spirit allows and starts a set of processes which make this area extremely competitive. As a traditional product, it requires “typicality” of both raw materials and technique of

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production. Furthermore, due to its strong linkage with the terroir and, particularly, with the landscape this product acquires also an esthetical value. By getting a bottle of Limoncello, consumers gain also “a piece of the landscape” and this becomes undoubtedly a valid strategy of territorial marketing. In short, this summarise what is known as the business of place or the power of provenance. In addition, using the Limoncello as an ingredient, the local gastronomy becomes a sort of cuisine de terroir, resulting, mainly into the tourists perspective, very fashionable. Yearly, this territory attracts millions of foreign visitors, who are hosted in the numerous hotels and restaurants, which are the core of the local economy.

5 Some Conclusions The presence in the Mediterranean context of numerous fragile territories threatened by degradation problems, such as the considered area, imposes the identification of strategies for halting these phenomena. Particularly, the analysis of the selected case study has had the specific objective to illustrate how a typical and traditional product contribute to maintaining and preserving a landscape, generating a virtuous circle of sustainable development in a area at high risk of degradation. After critically analysing the concepts of landscape, heritage and tradition, the role played by typical and traditional products in the process of landscape safeguarding has been clearly defined. The rediscovery and conservation of traditional knowledge permits a reconnection between human and nature. In other words, combining nature, identity, regional livelihood and a sense of well-being, traditional agri-food products encourage processes of both social and ecological reembeddedness. Moreover, the valorisation of these product has a multiplier effect on the whole local economy. Far from considering the Amalfi Coast as a model to simply imitate everywhere, the main idea in this paper has been to validate some general principles drawn from a successful case study that has shown an interesting working-effectiveness.

References 1. Antrop M (2006) Sustainable landscapes: contradiction, fiction or utopia? Landscape Urban Plan 75:187–197 2. Arriaza M, Cañas-Ortega JF, Cañas-Madueño JA, Ruiz-Aviles P (2004) Assessing the visual quality of rural landscapes. Landscape Urban Plan 69:115–125 3. Barham E (2003) Translating terroir: the global challenge of French AOC labelling. J Rural Stud 19:127–138 4. Bessière J (1998) Local development and heritage: traditional food and cuisine as tourist attractions in rural areas. Sociol Ruralis 38(1):21–34 5. Braudel F (2002) Il Mediterraneo. Lo spazio e la storia. Gli uomini e la tradizione, I volti della Storia. Newton & Compton Editori, Roma 6. Brunori G, Rossi A (2000) Synergy and coherence through collective action: some insights from wine routes in Tuscany. Sociol Ruralis 40(4):409–403

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7. Council of Europe (2000) European landscape convention. Firenze, 20 Oct 8. Fowler PJ (2003) World heritage cultural landscapes 1992–2002. World Heritage Paper 6, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris 9. Giardiello A (1995) La valorizzazione dei prodotti agro-alimentari tipici. In: Giardiello A (ed) Prodotti tipici agro-alimentari tipici della Campania. Università degli studi di Napoli Federico II, Naples 10. Grove AT, Rackham O (2003) The nature of Mediterranean Europe. An ecological history. Yale University Press, New Haven, second printing 11. Hervieu–Léger D (1996) Tourisme, tradition et ethnologie. Source 27:55–86 12. Hinrichs CC (2000) Embeddedness and local food systems: notes on two types of direct agricultural market. J Rural Stud 16:295–303 13. Miele M, Murdoch J (2002) The practical aesthetics of traditional cuisines: slow food in Tuscany. Sociol Ruralis 42(4):312–328 14. Morgan K, Marsden T, Murdoch J (2006) Worlds of food. Place, power and provenance in the food chain. Oxford University Press, Oxford 15. Murdoch J (2000) Networks – a new paradigm of rural development? J Rural Stud 16:407–419 16. O’Neill P, Whatmore S (2000) The business of place: networks of property, partnership and procedure. Geoforum 31:121–136 17. Parrott N, Wilson N, Murdoch J (2002) Spatializing quality: regional protection and the alternative geography of food. Eur Urban Reg Stud 9(3):241–261 18. Penker M (2006) Mapping and measuring the ecological embeddedness of food supply chains. Geoforum 37:368–379 19. Pretty J (2002) Agri-culture. Reconnecting people, land and nature. Earthscan Publications Limited, London 20. Quaranta G, Salvia C (2003) Risorse agro-alimentari e degrado del territorio nel bacino del Mediterraneo. Il Diritto dell’agricoltura, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane 21. Ray C (1998) Culture, intellectual property and territorial rural development. Sociol Ruralis 38(1):3–20 22. Sage C (2003) Social embeddedness and relations of regard: alternative ‘good food’ networks in south-west Ireland. J Rural Stud 19:47–60 23. Selman P (1996) Local sustainability. Managing and planning ecologically sound places. St Martin’s Press, New York 24. van der Ploeeg JD, Renting H (2004) Behind the ‘redux’: a rejoinder to David Goodman. Sociol Ruralis 44(2):233–242 25. Wilson JE (1998) Terroir: the role of geology, climate and culture in the making of French wines. University of California Press, Berkeley

Climate Change Critical to Cultural Heritage P. Brimblecombe, C.M. Grossi, and I. Harris

Abstract Although modellers have established the type of climate expected in Europe over the coming century, they have not been concerned with the combination of meteorological variables most important to building damage. We have identified the climatic parameters most likely to be critical for architectural surfaces and structures. They have been loosely grouped as: (1) Temperature derived parameters – range, freeze thaw, thermal shock (2) Water derived parameters – precipitation, humidity cycles, time of wetness (3) Wind derived parameters – wind, wind driven rain, sand and salt. We also looked at pollution derived parameters such as SO2 , NO2 , elemental carbon and pH, but neglect these in this analysis which focuses on a European situation with much reduced air pollution forecast for the future. As expected a future Europe will experience less frost damage to porous stone, although higher temperatures can enhance fungal growth on wood. Drier summers seem likely to increase structural problems from desiccated soils and salt weathering of porous stone. Our work hint at likely heritage management strategies for the future. Keywords Building · Climate Change · Damage · Heritage

1 Introduction Our built heritage is exposed to the atmosphere over long periods of time. This means that it is exposed to changes that occur on long timescales and accumulated damage from this exposure. The very choice of the term weathering to describe damage to buildings reflects the view that climate is a key factor in damage, despite the fact that the earliest uses of the word in the 1500s tend to reflect the positive benefits of exposure to weather or a sense of drying. However, architects and geologists, saw the more negative aspects of weathering in its ability to wear and disintegrate, P. Brimblecombe (B) School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_20, 

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such that 300 years ago architects were convinced that buildings were destroyed by “time, smoke and weather” [3]. The blackening effect of air pollutants had long been known and the poet Horace was able to write in his Odes and Carmen Saeculare of the temples of Ancient Rome: “Your fathers’ guilt you still must pay, Till, Roman, you restore each shrine, Each temple, mouldering in decay, And smoke-grimed statue, scarce divine”

John Evelyn in 17th century London wrote in detail in his book Fumifugium (1661) of the damage that air pollution causes to our monumental heritage. The adoption of coal as a fuel led to increased concentrations of sulfur dioxide in urban atmospheres and from the 17th century there were complaints of the way this damaged stone buildings. Sir Christopher Wren claimed that the sulfate encrustations on London buildings were inches thick in places. Coal became widely adopted as the main fuel across Europe in the centuries that followed [2] such that these sulfate layers became ever more widespread. The 20th century saw a profound shift in the nature of urban air pollution. The adoption of the private automobile increased the concentration of volatile organic compounds in urban air and as coal was replaced by gas and electricity in cities its declined. Governments adopted increasingly well structured environmental regulations, perhaps beginning with the UK Clean Air Act (1956) through to the European Union’s Air Quality Monitoring and Management Directive (1996). Although this legislation derived from health concerns, there are doubtless benefits for building materials from the reduced pollution loads. The reduction in sulfur dioxide concentrations in urban air that paralleled the declining use of coal has reduced the damage from acid gases and the production of gypsum layers [3]. The urban fabric still shows dark damage layers, but these are increasingly the result of soot from diesel engines (see [1, 5]). These layers show the potential for a level of organic chemistry and biological activity that was not known in sulfur dioxide dominated atmospheres. Despite the potential for novel chemistry in dark crusts on buildings in the 21st century, the role of pollution in building damage is likely to be much reduced. There is evidence that erosion rates in the last decades of the 20th century in major cities such as London were much reduced [10]. Reduction in the damage from gaseous air pollutants and a decrease in some components within acid rain have meant that climate factors, which have hitherto been largely ignored, may become more important determinants of building damage. This is not to say that the potential impacts of frost, rain or wind have not been appreciated, but the changing balance of these factors as a result of climate change have largely been ignored. Buildings have to survive centuries such that they will confront increasing changes in climate. Historic buildings were designed to confront a climate very different from those in the future. Some of these problems have been of interest to a project Engineering Historic Futures coordinated by the University College London’s (UCL) Centre for Sustainable Heritage [4]. In the UCL project, the difficulties faced in managing historic buildings, archeological

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sites and parks and gardens. The report noted many different concerns although the increased frequency of heavy rain or flooding was a general worry. The European project NOAH’s ARK (http://noahsark.isac.cnr.it/) aims to assess the overall risk posed to monumental heritage by climate change. The project title alludes to the biblical story regarding the protection of what we value in times of great climatic stress. It is a broad project that intends to go beyond academic researchers to include practitioners and additionally the insurance industry, which has to confront the costs of climate in a very direct way. The project has excited considerable interest in the media because it seems to include threats that the public find real. This has ranged from worries about the effect of increased rainfall on the traditional English pub with its thatching and wattle and daub walls, through to concerns about climate impact on icons such as the Eiffel Tower in Paris or the Torre del Oro in Seville. As welcome as such media attention has been, the project has broad interests that go beyond concerns over individual monuments. This is because the project is concerned with the pressures on European monumental heritage as a whole. Table 1 The meteorological parameters thought critical in the NOAHs ARK project. Subdivided into groupings – in temperature, water, wind and pollution derived parameters Parameter

Definition and meteorological parameter

Temperature

(1) Range: max (T1 . . . Tn ) − min (T1 . . . Tn ); T = daily mean (2) Thermal shock: (Tmax − Tmin ) > X ◦ C; Counts for X = 7, 10, 15, 20 (3) Mean: mean (T1 . . . Tn ); T = daily mean (1) Number of freeze-thaw cycles: Cycle (1 cross) T (i) > 1∧ T (m) < −3∧ T (n) > 1 i,n,m are intervals of time (2) Frost damage: Crack length ∼ −0.14T 2 − 2.54T − 8, where ◦ C < T > −15◦ C and Fr Frost Index : T − 4 Ig = 0 360.30 T (−5) /30 (1) Mean: mean (S1 . . . Sn ), S = daily sun hours (1) Rainy days: Consecutive number of rainy days, (>0.1 mm): days of rain/time period (2) Extreme events: Z (mm/t) >200 mm/day (3) Sum of precipitation (1) Range RHmax − RHmin (2) Mean RH (1) Number of cycles crossing RH = 75% (2) Daily RH shocks (RH (n) − RH (n + 1) > 25% (1) Wind speed: mean (W1 . . . Wn ); W = daily mean (2) Win direction: Distribution of daily directions for 8 compass points (3) Extreme events: days v >7.5, 10, 15, 20 m/s (1) v.p; where v = wind speed; p = amount of precipitation (daily)

Freeze-thaw cycles

Sun hours Precipitation

Relative humidity Humidity cycles Wind

Wind driven rain Sea salt Gas (SO2 , NOx ), particulate pH precipitation

(1) Salt deposition inland wind speed (see wind) (1) Stone recession by dissolution of carbonate (2) Blackening of materials (3) Corrosion of metals (4) Influence on bio-colonization (1) Stone recession by dissolution of carbonate: Modified Lipfert function: Carbonate Stone = f(solubility of Calcite in equilibrium with [CO2 ], rain, [H+ ]

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Individual monuments are of course, exemplars of the processes that may be underway in the future, but these sites are not the focus of our study. The output from NOAH’s ARK will be a damage atlas for Europe, often couched in terms of risk to particular materials: stone, brick, clay rich materials, metals and wood. The changes examined in the project can in principle be subdivided into the following main categories (see Table 1): Temperature Derived Parameters: Range, freeze thaw, thermal shock. Water Derived Parameters: Precipitation, humidity cycles, time of wetness. Wind Derived Parameters: Wind, wind driven rain, wind driven sand, salt Pollution Derived Parameters: SO2 , NO2 , particulates and pH – largely neglected in this paper.

2 Modelling the Future Past climate change can be examined by looking at the long term records collected by meteorologists over the last three to four hundred years. We have drawn on a range of older data sets, although for convenience have used the daily records from central England [8] and Prague most closely. Estimates of future climate of the 21st century is increasing available from modelled output. This allows us to consider the changes in a wide range of meteorological parameters often on a daily basis. In the current study we have relied mostly on output from the Hadley model (HadCM3, a coupled ocean-atmosphere global circulation model from the UK Hadley Centre, see for example [7]). We have paid particular attention to the modelled grid cell that covers central England – stretching from the Welsh borders to the eastern coast of England and includes London. This was chosen to represent a maritime climate. Additionally we have looked in detail at a grid square in the Czech Republic, that includes Prague, and represents a more continental climate. The HadCM3 grid, typical of global models is coarse (2.5 × 3.75 degrees), so the grid squares examined here cover a large area. It is possible to examine the regional output from the HadRM3 model, but this covers a shorter time period (2070–2099) although at a finer spatial scale. The regional model output includes topography, increasing the validity of individual cell predictions. Most of the discussion here relates to the output from the global model. Our analysis of future trends has relied mostly on the A2 scenario (IPCC SRES Emissions Scenarios – Version 1.1 – July, 2000). This scenario describes a very heterogeneous world in which the underlying theme is that of strengthening regional cultural identities, with an emphasis on family values and local traditions, with high population growth. It gives pronounced changes in future climate, so should result in strong signals in terms of future pressures on architectural heritage, that allows us to consider problems likely to be most critical. The daily output from HadCM3 has been used here to calculate the specific values required to assess the potential for material damage in Europe.

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3 Temperature Derived Parameters Temperature is the most obvious parameter that will change in a world with greater greenhouse warming. Nevertheless temperature changes are often likely to be only a few degrees, so it is necessary to consider ways in which these relatively small changes are likely to affect building materials. One of the rather slow changes in temperature that has the potential to affect large buildings is the annual seasonal change. Such structures can change in response to this annual cycle as a kind of breathing of the building. We have examined the annual temperature range as shown in Fig. 1 for central England both from the period of historical instrumental measurements through to the modelled data that ends in 2099 AD. What we see from this figure is that although both summer and winter extremes in the monthly temperature increase in the future, the annual temperature range buildings experience remains fairly constant. Although our analysis is not complete for the rest of Europe, similar pictures of a relatively small change in the annual range over the next century becomes apparent. One should note the Hadley Model predictions for the minimum monthly temperature are rather lower than found in the overlapping historical record. This is probably the result of the warming effect of the North Sea not being well represented in the Hadley Model. Frost is an important source of damage to wet porous building stone. Freezing leads to substantial volume changes that induce mechanical stresses in the outer layers of the stone. There are a number of ways of estimating the potential for frost damage, but here we adopt a very simple one and suggest that the damage would be 30

Temperature/C

25 20 15 10 5 0 –5 1600

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Fig. 1 Long term monthly maximum and minimum temperature and annual temperature range in central England. The historical temperature range is marked by open squares and the range predicted from the Hadley model is in closed diamonds. The historical maximum and minimum values are shown as a smoothed line (11 year running mean). The Hadley model annual predicted values are shown by the jagged line

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Fig. 2 Number of freeze-thaw cycles each year as predicted for Hadley grid squares representing the Czech Republic and central England. The values displayed are decadal averages

related to the number of freeze-thaw cycles. These have been determined by examining the daily data from the Hadley Model output for points where the temperature ◦ crosses 0 C between 1 day and the next (see Fig. 2). More sophisticated approaches ◦ are possible. As seen in Table 1, we are interested in transitions between 1 and –3 C, but are also examining the particular temperatures reached and note in particular that ◦ crack propagation is especially important at about –10 C [11]. Figure 2 shows that the number of freeze-thaw cycles is likely to decrease in much of Europe in the future. It is also clear, the milder climate of England is subject to less freeze-thaw events throughout the period. In the far north, although there is a lower density of monuments, archeological sites are likely to experience an increase in the number of freeze thaw cycles. This is a potential problem as it can perturb middens. At Narssarssuaq in Greenland early calculations from the Hadley Model suggest a fourfold increase in the number of days above freezing. There is a very significant change in the number of freeze-thaw cycles during a period when the average temperature changes only slightly (just a few degrees). This emphasizes the way in which small changes in a meteorological parameter can be amplified and have large effects on materials. In a similar way crops can be very sensitive to temperature, such as the length of the growing season, and also the amount of freezing, so there are also biological mechanisms for amplification. Thus subtle changes of a few degrees increase in temperature or small percentages in precipitation might be able to affect buildings. Freezing and thawing is important because it represents a process where a phase change occurs at an exact temperature. Later we will see that phase changes induced by humidity can also be very sensitive to small shifts in climate. Overall Fig. 2 suggests that increasing winter temperatures may make frost damage less frequent in future mild climates such as that of Britain [3]. The temperature change on a greenhouse Earth might also be accompanied by an increase in solar irradiation. This may accelerate deterioration of organic materials such as paint coatings or materials used for consolidation of stone. Although

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the concentrations of “traditional” air pollutants have declined, changing climate could enhance their effects: e.g. changes in wetting and drying cycles on building surfaces alter the deposition rate of acidic gases, longer sunlight hours increase photochemical degradation of polymers (e.g. as restoration elements). The influence of temperature on the deterioration process for some materials, such as metals, is complicated. At low temperatures the deterioration rate increases with increasing temperature due to prolonged time of wetness. For some metals a maximum rate is followed by a decrease of the corrosion observed above about ◦ 9–11 C. However, this decrease is partly attributed to the faster evaporation of moisture layers after rain or dew periods. Additionally surface temperatures above ambient resulting from solar radiation reduce the time of wetness. It should however be mentioned that this phenomenon is not observed in marine locations where due to the presence of a surface moisture layer of hygroscopic chlorides. Here no maximum in the deterioration rate has been observed.

4 Water Derived Parameters As we have seen in the section above temperature can also influence some aspects of the water balance and humidity relations of outdoor materials. The hydro-meteorological parameters relevant to changing impacts on cultural heritage include: extreme precipitation events (a difficult parameter to predict, yet critically important in terms of predicting storm damage), saturation of soils and water loading on roofs and other architectural elements. For most materials an increasing relative humidity causes an increase in the deterioration due to a prolonged time of wetness, higher deposition rates of pollutants and more favorable conditions for microbiological activities. The Hadley model suggests rainfall in general is often likely to decrease slightly in Europe over the next century, particularly in the summer months. However, this potential for drier summers may be a little of an illusion in terms of cultural heritage. If we look at the predicted maximum daily rainfall we find the future looks as if it may have individual days that are much rainier. Figure 3 shows that number of days each year with large amounts of rain (>10 mm) is to increase. The frequency of very rainy days is predicted to increase over the next century. Predicted maximum daily rainfall amounts also increase, although these are not illustrated here as extreme events are more difficult to represent in the Hadley model. These heavy falls of rain in the future are likely to overload roofs and guttering and have the potential to cause local surface flooding. These represent an important threat to the built heritage in the future. It may be a particular problem for vernacular architecture constructed on unfired materials such as wattle and daub, adobe or cob. Precipitation can also affect the damage caused by wet deposition by dissolution of surface layers of materials. Erosion and delivery of acidity are important aspects of the role played by precipitation. Changes in the chemical composition and especially pH, can affect the deterioration rate of building material also.

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Events/year

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Fig. 3 The number of heavy rain events (>10 mm) each year in the Czech Republic as predicted by HadCM3

We have already stressed that summers may have less precipitation. This also extends to relative humidity which is likely to be lower and changes the range of relative humidity cycles. Stone is especially vulnerable to relative humidity cycles. This arises because of damage caused by hygroscopic salts as they oscillate between high and low humidity. Lower humidity in the future means that the daily variations in humidity are more likely to cross critical values such as the 75.5% humidity where sodium chloride changes from a solution to a crystalline state. Figure 4 shows the number of times each year that humidity is likely to cross the critical 75.5% value that causes a phase change in sodium chloride in porous stone.

100 90 80 Cycles/year

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1950

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Fig. 4 The number times each year the relative humidity crosses the 75.5% value as predicted by HadCM3 for the Czech Republic

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This suggests a significant increase in these phase changes in the Czech Republic over the next century. The picture for central England is almost identical and these observations illustrate a potentially important and dramatic change in the rate of salt damage from sodium chloride. As with freezing we see once again that significant changes in damage to materials can be induced where there are phase changes. These occur at discrete values of temperature or relative humidity. Thus even slight changes in climate can allow these temperature or relative humidity values to be crossed more or less frequently. We saw earlier that the frequency of freezing is likely to decrease substantially in most places in Europe, even though the winter temperature change is only a few degrees. Similarly just small decreases in relative humidity can cause a large change in the number of time salts will crystallize or redissolve. However, drier summers might be favorable in reducing the time that building surfaces are wet, which could reduce the potential for pollution damage. Time of wetness has long been recognised as an important parameter in the action of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide. Humidity is also important in the degradation of organic materials, especially where biodeterioration is involved, with the Scheffer index- as a possible indicator of biological attack on organic materials [12]. The Scheffer index, which is the sum of the monthly temperature minus twice the number of wet days minus three, divided by an adjustment factor of 16.7 (i.e. (T−2)(Dw−3)/16.7). Figure 5 shows the change in the Scheffer Index for fungal attack for the Czech Republic and central England over the coming century. Increasing temperatures and lower rainfall rates in future summers imply increased evaporation and a reduction in soil moisture content. Drier conditions also suggest that the desiccation of unfired building materials could become an important concern. This may also have structural implications for building

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Fig. 5 The Scheffer index for fungal attack as predicted for Hadley grid squares representing the Czech Republic (closed squares) and central England (open diamonds)

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foundations and archaeological sites. Lower water tables are being noted by archaeologists [9]. When soils dry materials such as wood, which were waterlogged dry out and degrade very rapidly.

5 Wind Derived Parameters In gales stresses can cause elements of buildings to fail. Towers blow down and windows fall inwards. High winds blow rain almost horizontally and this wind driven rain can drive water deep into the fabric of buildings. In the same way close to the coast salt can be driven inland or in some areas abrasive sand can saltate and erode materials. These processes are complicated by the need to consider local winds, which are poorly predicted by existing large-scale models. Changes in winds also alter the eddies and flows around historical buildings and can increase the deposition rates of both gaseous and particulates pollutants. This when combined with rain can redistribute deposited diesel soot on facades and disfigure the building. Our initial analyses on a broad European scale have indicated only small changes in wind driven rain over the next century. However, it is likely that the relevant changes are being hidden by the coarse scale under consideration in HADCM3. One of the teams in the NOAHs ARK project is examining the effect of winds on towers, which may reveal the importance of changes in this parameter at a fine scale.

6 Conclusions The NOAHs ARK project assumed a decline for much of Europe in the concentrations of SO2 , NO2 , O3 , HNO3 and both primary and secondary particulates over the next century. A part of the project will test the validity of this assumption and see if the predicted pollutant concentrations will have effects under new climate regimes. In the early part of the project it became clear that temperature changes appeared not to have especially critical impacts on cultural heritage as even when temperature effects were amplified through freeze-thaw cycles these would be much reduced in the future. The early studies within the project have emphasized the importance of amplification mechanisms that allow quite small changes in temperature or relative humidity to significantly change the rate of damage to material. In particular we identified processes that are induced by phase change as important amplification mechanisms for heritage. The work draws also attention to the need for us to construct more sophisticated climate parameters. As an example we have been exploring the future frequency of what we have termed wet-frosts. A wet-frost occurs when porous stone is saturated by significant rainfall only to have a freezing event on the following day. Our early

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analysis suggests there are some regions of Europe, perhaps around the Black Sea where this may increase across the next century. Hydrometeorological parameters seemed likely to be more critical and we noted both increased heavy rainfall as critical for increased surface flooding and loading on roofs. Furthermore dry summers looked likely to increase the impact of humidity cycles (via salt crystallization) and potentially drying out unfired building materials and soils. So far our work has gathered modelled output that suggests changes in meteorological parameters that are of importance to cultural heritage. However, these changes need to be translated into rates of future material damage and then to risk if the work is to be useful to managers and policy makers. Furthermore the output needs to be displayed as user-friendly maps of future damage in Europe rather than analysis of individual grid squares from the Hadley Model that have been adopted here. Acknowledgements This work forms part of a eu Framework 6 project -ct-2003-501837NOAH’S ARK: Global Climate Change Impact on Built Heritage and Cultural Landscapes. We are also very grateful to the other teams of the Noah’s ark consortium for their contribution to developing this research.

References 1. Bonazza A, Brimblecombe P, Grossi CM, Cristina Sabbioni C (2007) Carbon in black layers at the tower of London. Environmental Science and Technology 4(12):4199–4204 2. Brimblecombe P (1999) History of urban air pollution. In: Fenger J, Hertel O, Palmgren F (eds) Urban air pollution – European aspects. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 7–20 3. Brimblecombe P (2000) Air pollution and architecture, past, present and future. J Archit Conserv 6:30–46 4. Cassar M (2005) Climate change and the historic environment. Centre for Sustainable Heritage UCL, London 5. Grossi CM, Brimblecombe P, Bonazza A, Sabbioni C, Zamagni J (2006) Carbon fluxes and transformation in black layers of historical buildings. In: Heritage weathering and conservation. Taylor and Francis, London, pp 441–446 6. García Fernández E (ed) (2001) Arquitectura solariega Asturiana. Gráficas Summa, Sedes, Llanera, Asturias 7. Johns TC, Gregory JM, Ingram WJ, Johnson CE, Jones A, Lowe JA, Mitchell JFB, Roberts DL, Sexton DMH, Stevenson DS, Tett SFB, Woodage MJ (2003) Anthropogenic climate change for 1860 to 2100 simulated with the HadCM3 model under updated emissions scenarios. Clim Dynam 20:583–612 8. Parker DE, Legg TP, Folland CK (1992) A new daily central England temperature series, 1772–1991. Int J Climatol 12:317–342 9. Sauer E (2005) Alchester – in search of Vespasian. Current Archeol 196:168–176 10. Trudgill ST, Viles H, Inkpen R, Moses C, Gosling W, Yates T, Collier P, Smith DI, Cooke RU (2001) Twenty-year weathering remeasurements at St Paul’s Cathedral, London. Earth Surf Proc Land 26:1129–1142 11. Walder J, Hallet B (1985) A theoretical model of the fracture of rock during freezing. Geol Soc Am Bull 96:336–346 12. Wilcox WW, Dietz M (1997) Fungi causing above-ground wood decay in structures in California. Wood Fiber Sci 29:291–298

Cultural Landscapes and Conservation Issues: Side Case Elmas Erdogan

Abstract Side which is one of the oldest settlements in the Mediterranean Region is a sub settlement located within the boundaries of the province of Antalya with the Taurus Mountains to the north, the Mediterranean to the south and the Manavgat River to the east which was known as Pamphylia in antiquity. The settlement was established on a peninsula about 1 km long in southeast direction having 350–400m wide. Due to its special location, Side was the only harbour city of Pamphylia region and became an important harbour and commercial centre in antiquity. Side which is 70 km from Antalya and 7 km from Manavgat town can be reached both by land, sea and air. In the ancient language of Side, “Side” meant pomegranate which was also the amblem of the city in ancient times. This fruit was depicted on the city coinage from about 500 BC till to Roman imperial times [8]. The historical background of the settlement dates back to the second half of the 7th century BC and according to Strabo, Side was founded by the inhabitants of Kyme – Aliaga, ˙Izmir. Side reached the climax of its glory in the 2nd century and the first half of the 3rd century AD. So, the most magnificent buildings in the settlement were erected during this phase of the Roman Era and Side became a metropolis. In the middle of the 4th century, an inner city wall was constructed across the narrowest part of the promontory which caused the abandonment of the north eastern part of the peninsula. During the 5th and 6th centuries, the settlement extended beyond its original limits. In the 7th century, Arab pirates began to damage the city and the settlement was destroyed in the 9th and 10th centuries resulted with the emigration of the inhabitants. So, by the 12th century, it was completely abandoned and ruined also as the result of several earthquakes. The Seljuks, dynasties and Ottomans were not inhabited Side so that no remains of these periods are to be found in the settlement. The buildings survived were covered by sand and weeds in time. In 1895, Turkish immigrants

E. Erdogan (B) Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Agriculture, Ankara University, Di¸skapi Ankara 06110, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

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from Crete established a small village spreading over the peninsula called Selimiye and integrated to the whole area. In recent years, along the coast, as a hot tourism spot, Side was noticable with its tourism potential and unhealthy construction activities giving harm to the existing rich urban pattern. Side is an impressive coastal settlement both reflecting the macroform of an antique settlement and Turkish vernacular architectural qualities forming a unique cultural landscape area with its flora and typical Mediterranean dune and maquis vegetation combined with the antique landscape of the peninsula. However, the quality of the townscape and the coastal landscape of the area is eroding rapidly day by day under the constraints of dense tourism activities and defective land uses. In this article, Side will be presented with its historical, archeological and natural qualities. The development of the settlement through history and changes in landscape will be given. Then, its problems and potentials defined by site analysis studies will be emphasized and conservation issues of cultural landscapes will be discussed both in general and in Side case. Keywords Conservation · Culture · Landscape

1 Introduction 1.1 Geographical Situation Side is an ancient settlement of Pamphylia region of Anatolia. Because of the fertelity of the land, the region was used as a settlement till prehistoric times (Fig. 1). Although the role of the Hittites lived in central Anatolian region was unknown, it was evident that the language that they spoke was also used in Pamphylia region. The coastal regions of Pamphylia were used as settlements by Aka civilizations during the 14th and 13th century BC. Then, the region was conquered by the Greeks in 12th century BC and the region was named as Pamphylia meaning the land of all civilizations [3]. The other cities of Pamphylia are Attelia (Antalya), Perge, Syllion, Aspendos, Side and Lybre (Seleukeia). Today, the town of Side consists the antique Side settlement and Selimiye village together. The name of “Side” derives from the name of promegranate is of Anatolian origin and was not associated with Greek or Phoenician. The symbol of blessing which can be seen on a number of artefacts and depicted on the city coinage from about 500 BC to Roman imperial times [2]. The colony was set up during the period of large scale emigration from the cities of western Asia Minor. It’s geographical siting on a peninsula is further indication that the colonists came from the western seaboard of Anatolia, where almost all cities were located on offshore islands or on narrow necks of land [1]. From 1947 to 1966, systematic excavations were carried out by professor Arif Mufit Mansel. After his death, the excavations were directed by professor Jale Inan. Important structures worth seing today are the tamples of Apollo and Athena, Side theater, city gates, acqueducts, the harbor of Side, the monumental fountains, Side bath and the traditional houses of Side built in the peninsula [7] (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2 General views from Side

1.2 History According to Strabo, Side was founded by the inhabitants of Kyme, an Aeolian city located north of Smyrna. Soon after their arrival, the colonists from Kyme began to speak a barbaic dialect which was probably the original Anatolian tongue of Pamphylia. Greek became the official language in Side after its conquest by Alexander the Great, as is proved by inscriptions on stone dating back to 3rd century BC. The settlement dates back to the second half of the 7th century BC. Although Side was under Ptolemaic and the rivalry existing between the Hellenistic rulers Attolos II, the king of Pergamon (159–138 BC) founded Attelia (Antalya) to gain control of the southern coasts of Anatolia. Nevertheless, Side didn’t come under the sway of Pergamon at no time. On the contrary, in the 2nd and 1st century BC. Side enjoyed its firsy period of prosperity, continued good relations with Rome [1]. According to Akurgal [1], the wall marking the greatest extend of the city to the east must have been erected during this period. Side reached the height of its glory in the 2nd century and the first half of the 3rd century AD. The most magnificent of the city buildings were erected during this phase of the Roman era. In the middle of the 4th century, an inner city wall was constructed across the narrowest part of the promontory between the theater and the agora buildings thus reducing the city to half its former size so, the north-eastern part of the peninsula was abondened.

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The revival of the city has occured during the 5th and 6th centuries. After, it had become the centre of a diocese and during this period, the settlement extended beyond its original limits. In the 6th century BC, like the whole of Pamphylia, Side fell first under the domination of the Lydians and upon their collapse, of the Persians in 334 BC, the city surrended to Alexander the Great without any resistance and became the centre of one of his principal coin mints. After the death of Alexander, Side became the subject of struggles between the Hellenistic kingdoms. After 218 BC, the Seleucids dominated in the city and in 118 BC, Side was given to the kingdom of Pergamon and at that period, it developed commerce with eastern Mediterranean countries and became wealthy; the city was rebuilt and became the centre of science and culture. However, this was not of long duration. In the 1st century BC, pirates overran the area and gave harm so, in 78 BC, Side was included to the Roman empire. After the year 25 BC, the Pamphylia region became a seperate province of the empire. In the 2nd–3rd centuries AD. Side became a metropolis and began to live golden age with its great progress. Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, the tribes living in the northern region began to mander down the coastal regions. A newly constructed wall divided the city into two parts and the population moved to south. During the 5th–6th century AD, the city became the diocesan centre of eastern Pamphylia, and the walls built during the Hellenistic period were extended. In the 7th century, Arab pirates began damaging the most significant buildings and the people of Side gradually began to emigrate particularly to Antalya [3]. By the 12th century, Side was completely abandoned and ruined as the result of several earthquakes. The Seljuks having beaten the crussaders, took over the entire region in the 13th century; but, Ottomans held the region in 1391. However, neither the Seljukids nor the Ottomans ever inhabited in Side, therefore, no remains of these civilizations found in Side. The buildings ruined during the earthquakes were covered by sand and weeds. In 1895, Turkish immigrants from Crete founded a village on tip of the peninsula and settled there which is the core of the today’s village that spread over the entire peninsula and named as Selimiye. The ancient ruins and the village houses are forming the actual cultural landscape of the settlement. But, the settlement is and its natural qualities are deterioriating continiously under the pressure of tourism.

2 Cultural Values of Side 2.1 The City Plan Side has a memorial avenue (collonaded street) beginning at the city gate and passing through the whole city, reaching the seashore (Fig. 3). Almost a regular plan type was used. The main street starts from the main gate situated on the northeast side of the peninsula and passed near the theater. Then, after the second passage here continues diagonally towards the end of the peninsula in north-south direction. Both streets were collonaded and porticos took place on both sides of the road with rows

Fig. 3 Reconstruction drawing of Side antique settlement

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of shops behind. The part of the collonaded street between the main gate and the theater which remained today was used as the main road today and some columns and traces of the shops are existing. However, the remaining part of the collonaded street was destroyed during the Byzentine period and a great part of it is also under the sand dunes. Although the traces and ruins of some buildings are existing in the south section of the city, traditional houses were built through history combined with the antique site. Two collonaded streets built in 2nd century AD in corinthian order led into the city from the main gate. The one running to the south is now overgrown; the other one leading to the agora is still in use today connecting the parking lot to the city center and there is a building with a sacred fountain on this street dating back to 5th or 6th century AD. On the south side of this collonaded street there are the ruins of two peristyle plan type houses consisting courtyards surrounded with rooms. According to Akurgal [1], these houses were built in the 2nd and 1st century BC and they continued to be used in the Roman period also. They were restored and reinhabited in the 5th and 6th centuries. There are also the ruins and traces of the shops on the south side of the collonaded street. The city has a developed sewerage system whose remains can be seen today even in the narrowest roads. The water was supplied from the Manavgat River via holes carved into rocks, tunnels and acqueducts crossing over valleys which was 29 km in length.

2.2 Walls and Gates Side was surrounded by walls both from the land and seaward sides so that they were known as land or seaward walls. The walls have been largely destroyed especially on seaward side. These walls were built during the Hellenistic period but, reconstructed with reused material during the late Roman period. The inland walls dividing the peninsula are under sand. The gates were built on the inland walls. One of them is the great gate which is the main entrance gate of the city was damaged. The second largest gate was the east gate situated on the east side of the city. In the 4th century AD, when the city became impoverished and reduced in size, a wall was constructed of reused material across the narrowest part of the peninsula cutting the city in half [3]. City walls of Side were built of regular brick blocks in the 2nd century BC during the first period of prosperity of the city. The best preserved parts of the wall can be seen in the “main gate” section where it is reinforced by towers at irregular intervals and decorated by a cornice-moulding on the outer face. The section of the wall on the three seaward sides of the peninsula has undergone considerable modification and some parts were completely renovated during Roman and Byzentine periods. The part running across the neck of the peninsula was constructed in the 4th century AD [1]. Main city gate consists four small doors; two at each end of the semi-circular wall around the courtyard. City fountain/the nympheum opposite to

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the main gate is similar to that at Aspendos which gives clue about its construction date of the fountain.

2.3 The Acqueduct, Cistern and Fountains Water was supplied to Side from the Manavgat River by means of acqueducts built in 2nd century AD. The water was brought by tunnels dug through rocks and earth flowed along the two main collonaded streets in channels and distributed to baths and fountains. Besides, many wells were formed in houses and on street corners. Acqueduct, supplying water to the city from Manavgat River was probably built in the last years of the 2nd century AD. The sections of the acqueduct between the source and the city are still standing and are in good condition. A great part of the acqueduct was restored in the first quarter of the 3rd century AD. In the western front of the agora, there is a monumental gate and three fountains constructed in Roman period with decorative facades are forming an impressive passage with its water basins between four bases each supported an aedicula containing a statue. Besides, between this fountain and the eastern inner wall of the monumental gate lie the remains of semicircular building covered by a half dome and a cistern to the northwest of the mentioned fountain is dating back to Byzentine period. In this part between the theater building and the city walls, there is a monumental arched entrance gate giving access to the inner city in Roman times.

2.4 The Harbour As Side was a commercial center, the harbour dating back to Hellenistic era was an important part of the city constructed on the south eastern end of the peninsula. Actually, the harbour is largely buried on sand. In order to protect the harbour from the southwest waves a breakwater was constructed which its entrance is about 10 m wide and the city wall built in 2nd century AD was standing on the harbour in ancient times filled up with sand very frequently and had to be cleaned so, rather than cleaning this harbour they built a new one on the northeastern section of the old one.Three openings were left both for the passages of the skips and to drive out the sand. This section which is partly reinforced by the harbour is using by the inhabitants and fisherman today.

2.5 The Tamples The tample of Apollo and the Tample of Athena constructed in corinthian order were situated at the end of the collonaded street near the seashore are in ruins. Only the stylobates of the tamples and the ruins of the columns are existing. Tample of Apollo was partially restored to give an idea about the architectural character of a tample structure of thr period and contributing the quality of the cultural landscape

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of the settlement. On the other hand, a basilica was built on the foundations of these tamples during the Byzentine period but, ruined. 2.5.1 The Tample of Athena As mentioned in ancient documents, Athena was the main deity of Side. According to mythology, Athena was born from the head of Zeus and known as the protectress of young girls so that, the largest tample was built to her in Side (Fig. 4). The tample of Athena was erected on the eastern side of the harbour next to the end part of the collonaded street. The tample was built in corinthian order with a rectangular plan scheme surrounded with three steps mounting to the stylobate. Both in front and at the rear, there used to have 6 + 11 columns [3]. 2.5.2 The Tample of Apollo Near the tample of Athena, another tample was erected to Apollo; the god of light, knowledge and arts. The tample that built in 2nd century AD used to have 6 + 11 columns in the peripteros style but, damaged in time [3]. Today the tample of Apollo was restored and partially reconstructed. 2.5.3 The Tample of Men The semi-circular plan schemed tample dedicated to the moon god was built on the southern end of the square. There is a ceremonial stairway in front of the main sacred room (cella). Six columns between the cella and the platform carrying the upper structure with a pediment in front were mainly demolished in time. According to Atvur [3], the tample of Men was also built in the 2nd century AD. 2.5.4 The Tample of Dionysus The tample of Dionysus; a small scaled tample was built between the collonaded street and the theater building on the north side of the theater to the wine god

Fig. 4 Tample of Apollo, Side

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Fig. 5 Theater, Side

Dionysus. The tample was reached by a step stairway from the north direction. Four columns were built in front of the cella. Today, only the base/stylobate is existing (Fig. 5). The base of the Dionysus Tample is lying between the theater and the collonaded street continuing through the peninsula ending by the seashore. Along this collonaded street, on the east side of it the ruins of a basilica and in the inner settlement between the collonaded street and the seashore; the ruins of harbor baths are seen. 2.5.5 The Round Tample/Tholos Tample The round tample is situated on the agora facing the bath building with a single cella/cult room surrounded by 12 columned elevated portico. It was reached by means of steps. Only the stylobate of the tample is existing. According to Atvur [3], it was built in 2nd century AD and was dedicated to the goddess of good fortune.

2.6 The Theater Today, the theater is one of the two most impressive building of the ruins in Side peninsula on which the other one is the Tample of Apollo. Theater building is a Roman type theater dating back to the 2nd century AD built on a barrel vaulted substructure with superimposed arches on the facades. Side theater was built on the narrowest part of the peninsula in the middle of the settlement. Side theater is a unique example in Anatolia and even in the Mediterranean as far as construction technique is concerned. The second tier of

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Fig. 6 Bath building, Side

the structure stands entirely on vaults wheras the other theaters of the period were usually built on a natural slope (Fig. 6). The cavea consisting the seating area, the semi-circular orchestra and partially the scene portion of the theater building are existing. The cavea was two-tired and combined with a diazoma. The inner gallery containing the staircase leading to the upper tier is entirely in ruins wheras the outer gallery have 14 shops or stores and 5 entrances. In front of the orchestra, the scene building that used to be three storey was destroyed. Only first storey was existing and a passage way was constructed here to join the theater building to the agora. As the theater has a good acquistic quality, actually the theater is using for concerts, festival organisations, cultural and social activities.

2.7 The Agoras There were two big agora buildings in Side one in the northeastern side of the collonaded street adjacent to the theater and another built between the theater building and the palace buildings known as the state agora which is smaller in scale. Both agora buildings have square plan schemes with inner courtyards surrounded by stoa spaces or porticos on which shops were placed at the back parts. The agora situated

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on the east side of the theater was built in 2nd century AD [6]. This building which was the market place of the city has a central courtyard surrounded with collonades and shops behind them is now represented only by their foundations.

2.8 The Baths There were three bath buildings in Side namely the harbour baths, the great bath and the agora baths (using as museum today). The harbour baths were the oldest baths in Side built in 2nd century AD, built on the northeast end of the harbour. A great part of the building is still existing. Calidarium (hot bath), tepidarium (warm bath) and frigdarium (cold bath) sections of the bath building can be easily determined from the existing remains. The great bath is the largest one in Side built in the 3rd century AD. Also a great part of the bath building is existing. Apodyterium (dressing rooms), tapidarium (warm bath), frigdarium (cold bath), caldarium (hot bath), hot water basins and the palaestra (sports practicing area) are existing. Just on the opposite side of the agora; on the other side of the collonaded street are the ruins of the baths dating back to 5th century AD. According to Akurgal [1], it is now restored and serving as a museum exhibiting sculptures of Side antique site. The agora baths were built in the 5th century AD on the collonaded street facing the agora. This building is the most recent bath of Side which is used as a museum today (Fig. 7). The agora bath has five large sections formed of frigdarium with a round pool, laconium (dry air bath), caldarium (hot bath with two pools), tepidarium (warm bath) and the palaestra. Caldarium is the largest room of the bath and underneath the marble floor, there is the hypocastum used for the purpose of heating the bath. On the other hand, under the swimming pool built into massive walls are hot air pipes to keep water hot [3].

2.9 The Basilicas Three great basilicas were built in Side in the Byzentine period namely the South Basilica at the southern tip of the peninsula that was mainly destroyed, the Theater Basilica; located on the west side of the collonaded street near the theater, and the Archbishop’s Basilica that was built at the corner where the second collonaded street starting from the main gate and extending to the left meets the street commencing at the eastern gate.

2.10 The Monumental Fountain/Nympheum The monumental fountain/nympheum was situated opposite to the main gate outside the city walls. It was built in the mid 2nd century AD. The nympheum which had three tiers in original remained as two tiers. The water was conveyed by lead

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pipes from the acqueduct near the city wall to the fountain and than poured into the basin (Fig. 8). There is also another fountain next to the museum building near the formerly built agora baths. This fountain is also known as “triple basin fountain” decorated with marble statues. There was a fountain to the west of this one with a circular basin and a nische completed with a half dome. Facing these two fountains is a third one near the triumphal arch which was the city gate. A semi-circular nische with two pediments on each side of it is consists the Vespasianus Monument which was brought from another place and used in the construction of this fountain built in a later period.

2.11 The Houses The remains of the houses in Side were found 20–30 m north of the greater agora building. According to the excavations, the houses have collonaded inner/central stone paved courtyards and rooms around. The houses were mostly two storey houses with peristyle plan schemes. All the houses have sewerage systems, service spaces and rooms for various activities. And there are the ruins of Side baths and Byzentine houses on the east side of the collonaded street near the seashore. Side has been an important settlement especially during the Roman and Byzentine periods.

2.12 The Necropolis The necropolis area of the city is situated outside the inland walls occupying a large site between the eastern and western shores and consists graves belonging both Roman and Byzentine civilizations. Side’s prosperity was reflected in the necropolis due to the clues obtained from the remains of the monumental tombs and types of graves.

3 Cultural Landscapes and Conservation Issues/Conclusion Cultural landscape is a geographic area including both cultural and natural resources and wildlife therein associated with a historic event, activity or exhibiting other cultural or aesthetic values. Cultural landscapes can be classified into four main groups namely historic sites, historic designed landscapes, historical vernacular landscapes and ethnographic landscapes. The landscape quality of Side can be considered significant because character defining features such as the ruins of the antique settlement and plantation conveys its significance possess historic integrity. Location, setting, design quality, building material, construction technique determines the character of the Side cultural landscape with its historic integrity. Preservation planning for Side involves

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a broad array of dynamic variables. So, a comprehensive treatment and management plan with a preservation maintenance strategy should be prepared acknowledging cultural landscapes ever changing nature, management and maintenance. There is a balance between change and continuity in all cultural resources. Change is inherent in all cultural landscapes as a result of natural proceses and human activities [4]. The dynamic quality of cultural landscapes is balanced by the continuity of distinctive characteristics retained over time. Side is a cultural landscape consisting an archeological site; an urban pattern/settlement reflecting cultural traditions and the physical evidences of this civilizations. Side consisting an antique urban area, component landscapes and features contributing to its significance and historic character should be considered prior to treatment. The cultural landscape context of Side includes the overall pattern of an antique city, the ruins of buildings such as the tamples, theater, bath buildings, fountains, circulation networks, etc., views and vistas into and out of the landscape and natural features. Besides, Side has a historical vernacular landscape quality with its traditional houses built with stone and timber in the Selimiye Village combined with the antique settlement. Side not only has historical value, but can also reveal significant information about a cultural landscape. Cultural landscapes are composed of natural, historical and cultural features organized in space. They include small scale features as well as patterns of urban tissues, fields, forests which define the spatial character of the landscape. The individual features in the landscape should never be viewed in isolation, but in relationship to the landscape as a whole. The arrangement of the interrelationship of these character defining features as they existed during the period of significance that is most critical to consider prior to treatment. The modern concept of cultural heritage is related to the whole built environment and should be seen in ecological context of the world. The conservation of cultural heritage is a socio-cultural problem. Conservation involves making interventions at various scales determined by the physical conditions. Each case must be considered as a whole and individually taking all factors into account [5]. Since physical cultural heritage is one of the Turkey’s most important non-renewable resources, a special effort is needed to redress the imbalance between the needs of mankind and its protection. Cultural landscapes consists of different type of properties which relate to a variety of settings; they include not only important monuments and structures, historic areas and gardens, but also the man-made environment as a whole. Cultural heritage resources may be associated with different values depending on the context, thus their treatment differ from case to case. Combined works of nature and man and including archeological sites which are outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological points of view. The whole of archeological sites should thus not be considered only in relation to an architectural framework; it should also include the human value related to its social and economic context. These areas require particular study and consideration. Fragile features should be treated sensitively in rehabilitation. Every archeological site and its surroundings should be considered

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in their totality as a coherent whole with its specific nature, spatial organization and the surroundings. Authenticity is another curical aspect of the cultural landscapes/archeological sites in the assessment of heritage resources. Authenticity is ascribed to heritage that is metrially original or genuine and as it has aged in time. Authenticity in design, material, workmanship and in setting should be preserved/kept. Cultural values have identity value, relative artistic or technical value, rarity, economic, functional, educational, social and political values that should be considered as indicatives. Landscape features should always be assessed as they relate to the property as a whole. Thus, spatial organization and land patterns of Side are always taken into considerarion at first stage. In this respect, Side peninsula consisting an archeological settlement, vernacular houses and the Mediterranean plant species combined with the built environment should be conserved as it is. On the other hand, • the rhythym and the morphological pattern of the surrounding fabric, the relief of the area/site should be kept • artificial combinations should be avoided • mass balance of the cultural landscape must be conserved • silhouette reflecting the traditional lical character should be protected • traditional building material, the high quality in construction and design should be taken into consideration • factors related to townscape should be conserved as the parts of the landscape to transfer these environmental and cultural resources to future generations as the traces of past and present.

References 1. Akurgal E (1985) Ancient ruins of Turkey. From prehistoric times until the end of the roman empire. Turk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara 2. Anonymous (2000) 2nd Side International Culture and Art Festival Book. Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Municipality of Side, Antalya 3. Atvur O, Atvur U (2000) Side. A guide to the ancient city and the museum. Secil Ofset, Istanbul 4. Bırnbaum CA, Madıgan KJ (1996) The secretary of the ınterior’s standarts for the treatment of historic properties with guidelines for the treatment of cultural landscapes. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Heritage Preservation Services, Washington, DC 5. Fleıden BM, Jokıletho J (1993) Management guidelines for world cultural heritage sites. ICCROM, Rome, Italy 6. Mansel AM, Bosch E, Inan J (1951) Side Agorasi ve Civarındaki Binalar. TTK Basımevi, Ankara 7. Mansel AM (1978) Side. TTK Basımevi, Ankara 8. Yildizturan M (2003) Side. (Attelia-Perge-Silyon-Aspendos-Lyrbe, Manavgat, Köprülü Kanyon). T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanligi, Kültür Varliklari ve Muzeler Genel Mudurlugu, Side Muzesi Yayinlari 1, Donmez Ofset Basimevi, Ankara

Survival of the Vernacular Environments in North Cyprus Through Sustainable Tourism Implementation Özlem Ogaç Türker

Abstract Today while the discussions are more concentrated on the reduction of environmental resources, the sustainability concept is gaining importance especially in today’s architectural developments. The acceleration in the building activities on North Cyprus creates the discussion of continuity in both natural resources and the cultural heritage of the island. Due to the lack of a conservation master plan, the traditional/vernacular environments of North Cyprus are under the threat of these rapid unplanned developments. Sustainable approaches include the adaptive re-use of existing building stock especially if this building stock is worth preserving since it is the reflection of a multi-cultural accumulation of different sovereignties1 through many centuries; and since it is the result of design principles that are evolved and developed through centuries, according to the environmental factors in addition to the cultural ones. The unique vernacular environment of the Island bears the potential to be learned from the tried, developed and evolved architectural solutions. For centuries, the Cypriots have benefited from both conscious and unconscious design criteria in shaping their living environments. Evaluating those decisions in the light of today’s discourse, sustainable identity of these environments can be emphasized in terms of locality, energy and resource efficiency of the building materials. In the light of right design decisions on location, orientation and formation; appropriateness to the natural and cultural environment has been achieved. The vernacular environments, as well as the previously untouched coastline of North Cyprus can be destroyed by the unplanned new constructions, causing demolishment in the vernacular environments as well as the flora and fauna of the island. As demand increases in the area, an interest in modernization, densification or reconstruction of existing traditional environments may come to a reversible level. In this study, it is aimed to

Ö.O. Türker (B) Department of Interior Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazima˘gusa, Northern Cyprus e-mail: [email protected] 1 Throughout the history, Cyprus had been inhabited by the people from different cultural backgrounds ranging from Persians, Egyptians, Romans, Frankish, Venetians, British and the Ottomans [10].

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discuss the survival of these unique rural vernacular environments of North Cyprus through sustainable tourism implementations. Keywords North Cyprus · Sustainable tourism · Vernacular architecture

1 Introduction The island of Cyprus of which northern part is isolated geographically, socioeconomically as well as politically from the international arena, exhibits different dimensions and aspects of globalization. When the current living style, tastes and preferences of local people and the prevailing power of media upon them are considered, the recent building activities in Northern Cyprus could be explained in regards to erosion of “tradition”, mobility of “tradition” and adaptability of “tradition” [24]. Furthermore, the negotiation process on the Annan plan2 and the goal of EU membership of Cyprus have accelerated the construction sector and hence, foreign investors attacked to Northern Cyprus due to the cheap land and property prices compared to other European countries. This process, parallel to the general change in the residential environments, dictated by globalisation, deeply affected the tourism sector as well. Being the third largest island in the Mediterranean, Cyprus has the inherent Mediterranean attributes of climate and location. Hence the southern part of the island is a highly developed tourist destination. The high-density building and ribbon development in areas such as Larnaca and Paphos, have contributed to an over-supply of tourism facilities creating insensitive concrete masses. Other famous tourism centres of Southern Cyprus, such as Agia Napa and Protaras show the examples where tourism has negative effects on the locality. Originally being small traditional settlements, they have been converted to completely unfamiliar environments in the concept of entertainment. One can hardly notice local values as a reflection of the Cypriot culture [22] (Fig. 1). On the other hand, unlike other Mediterranean countries with such tourism resources, North Cyprus remained relatively undeveloped for tourism. The North

Fig. 1 Agia Napa & Protaras tourism developments [23]

2 Annan plan was the proposal which was generated by and named after the UN General Secretary, Kofi Annan, and consequently approved by the UN Security Council for the reunification of two societies in Cyprus Island.

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Cyprus constitutes 38% or 3,355 km2 of Cyprus, and it possesses many of the island’s best natural and cultural resources. In addition, it contains 55% of the island’s coastline; the spectacular Kyrenian Mountains with their associated rich natural history [25]; and the generous Turkish Cypriot hospitality. The valuable tourism assets such as the landscape aesthetics and ecological, wilderness and cultural indicators, contribute to the “unspoilt” product label given to the North Cyprus by tour companies in the UK and Germany. Up to recent years the indefinite political situation and the lack of economical welfare of the Northern Side was an advantage for the vernacular environments for preserving their originalities when compared with the Southern side. As stated by Sadler ([20], p. 147), this can be an advantage when applying alternative natural resource-based tourism objectives, provided that political and economic influences can favour sustainable planning. However the spread of mass-tourism accelerated building activities in North Cyprus as well, generating even holiday villages, recreation areas, a number of fivestar thematic hotels especially in Bafra region. As Feilden [9], mentions, five-star package travel clientele are the least sensitive to the local community as they wish to impose their own cultural standards. Five-star hotels depend on international finance so give little benefit and interest to the local community or the local environment. Hence the ongoing tourism developments in Bafra region in the north of Cyprus are standing at a very challenging position for the decision makers in terms of balancing the destructive and constructive impacts of tourism on rural vernacular environments of North Cyprus [23] (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Bafra tourism developments [21]

2 The Positive and Negative Effects of Tourism on the Vernacular Environments The positive effects of tourism are the development of cultures; and communication among different cultures; preservation and enhancement of cultural resources; providing labour possibilities by increasing employment; developing environmental

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quality by re-creative facilities and strong social relations [19, 13] (Kükrer, S., ¸ 1991, Tarihi Kentte Koruma ve Turizm Etkile¸simi ve Kaya Köy Örne˘gi, unpublished). Tourism is dynamic but if developed too quickly it can be destructive to the host community. Because of inadequate planning, wrong policies, and wrong administration, it destroys the resources and values which were what attracted visitors in the first instance. These negative impacts can include: • deterioration of the natural, cultural and architectural environment if they are not properly managed; • changes in the natural topography; flora and fauna; • environmental pollution types as air pollution, water pollution, rubbish, visual and noise pollution in natural environment; • depletion of social and cultural resources by the effect of acculturation in longterm cultural contact; • the hostility of residents; and social discrepancies; • inappropriate tourism development and overloaded tourist capacity that harm the unity; cause vandalism; and decrease in the picturesque values of old settlements and buildings; • increase in prices for housing and other commodities; and investment of public funds which often requires borrowing and servicing costs for police, fire, and sewage treatment; and traffic congestion (Kükrer, S., ¸ 1991, Tarihi Kentte Koruma ve Turizm Etkile¸simi ve Kaya Köy Örne˘gi, unpublished) [9, 13]. Consequently, the vernacular environments, as well as the previously untouched coastline of North Cyprus can be destroyed by the unplanned new constructions, causing demolishment in the vernacular environments as well as the flora and fauna of the island. As demand increases in the area, an interest in modernization, densification or reconstruction of existing vernacular environments may come to a reversible level unless a sustainable approach is implemented urgently.

3 The Reasons to Sustain the Vernacular Architecture of Cyprus Rural vernacular forms remained consistent with a response to agrarian way of life and natural environment of the island for ages; hence, the building form of the rural house is reflecting the geographical, topographical, climatic parameters and availability of building materials. The traditional house is a synthesis of different building traditions, which were engaged with adobe and masonry building techniques. The concept of development from the private interior (domestic core of the family) to semi-private defined yards to public exterior (public urban area) had been the fundamental formula controlling the spatial organisation of the vernacular settlements (Türker, Ö.O., 2002, A model for the conservation and continuity of a vernacular settlement: Kaplica village, North Cyprus, unpublished).

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In most of the houses, semi-open/semi-closed transitional space remained as the fundamental spatial component leading the space organisation both in rural vernacular settlements. These semi-open/semi-closed spaces served for transitions between indoor and outdoor, private and public, micro-climate and climate. In the absence of a semi-open/semi-closed transitional space, the defined courtyard took over this role. Besides spatial qualities in answering the functional needs, environmental consciousness is also noticeable in the vernacular houses of Cyprus. Cross ventilations of indoor spaces considering preferable summer breeze, shutters in the opening formations, upper ventilation holes for exhausting hot air, and forming physical barriers for preventing undesirable winds, especially during the winter periods, are the parameters which dominated the space formation. The traditional materials such as stone and earth in the construction of the load bearing walls provided appropriate micro climate for the human comfort inside the closed space, where the traditional thick walls, as well as the layered roofs acted as a natural heat barrier in the rural houses [16, 4] (Türker, Ö.O., 2002, A model for the conservation and continuity of a vernacular settlement: Kaplica village, North Cyprus, unpublished). On the other hand, modularity and modular organization gains much more significance in the development of rural house form as a fundamental design strategy. The linear modular combination of spaces expresses the development features of the rural house form [17, 5]. The modularity of the house ensures the flexibility as an answer to possible functional changes due to the family growth. The direct reflection of this modularity to the façade let the development of the most known image of the Cypriot house as the arcaded prism (Fig. 3). The deterioration of existing pattern, as well as the inappropriate developments, is expected to increase in the vernacular environments of North Cyprus, parallel to the growing tourism demands unless a strategic planning is envisioned (Türker, 2002, A model for the conservation and continuity of a vernacular settlement: Kaplica village, North Cyprus (unpublished)). In this respect, the revitalization of the vernacular environments with the adaptive re-use of their existing traditional dwelling stock can be an answer for the sustainability of cultural values instead of demolishing them under the threat of new insensitive concrete masses [2, 1]. Many scholars, like Echeverria [8], point out that tourism is virtually the only

Fig. 3 Modularity on plans and elevations of rural vernacular houses [6]

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resource that can be tapped to finance architectural conservation as a precaution to the deterioration of the historic environments. Instead of passive conservation, revitalisation by means of sustainable tourism implementations can be recommended for unique vernacular environments to be carried into future. By a conservation program including the revitalization and adaptive re-use of old building stock for sustainable tourism uses, the deterioration of the vernacular environments will be prevented; the destruction of local fabric will be exterminated and contemporary life conditions will be provided in addition to serving alternative tourism purposes.

4 Sustainable Tourism Developments in the World Communities, regions, and countries do benefit substantially from the proper planning of tourism and will do so more in the future. In an increasingly competitive tourism the world that is also concerned about maintaining the resources for tourism, the places with the best planned tourism development are likely to be the most successful tourist destination from the standpoint of both achieving high tourist satisfaction levels and bringing substantial benefits with minimal disruptions, to the local economy, environment, and society ([12], p. 17). Tourism can be sustainable as long as certain irreplaceable natural and cultural elements are protected by policies and legislations. At the roots of the concept of sustainable development is the notion of carrying capacity. This can be depicted as “the maximum number of people who can use a site without an unacceptable alteration in the physical environment and without an unacceptable decline in the quality of experience” ([14], p. 88). Sustainable tourism planning is complex and difficult because practically all natural resources in a given area are part of the product. Essentially, tourism planning is dynamic and the related processes and impacts are susceptible to change. Conversely, sustainable development implies a degree of stability and permanence. As stated by many authors as Echeverria [8], Feilden [9], Eber [7], some principal points about sustainable tourism development are: preservation of the natural resources; reduction of over consumption and waste; the need for need diversity; and the need for tourism development to be integrated with other economic and development activities. Eber [7], also mentions that tourism development should support local economic activities and take environmental and social costs and values into account, and contribution of local people to tourism experience itself. In this respect, when sustainable tourism is mentioned it includes conservation of natural and architectural environment, as well as the cultural identity and unity while providing economical benefits [8]. Many scholars especially Cuneo [3], Jamieson [13] and Feilden [9], emphasize the importance of the history and culture in the tourism developments. Tourism, like other activities cannot be restricted to simply visiting historical places and physical motion but has to include intellectual, cultural and spiritual experiences.

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Historical environment is accepted as a challenge tourist product. The essence of heritage tourism lies in recognizing an area’s unique qualities and making the best cultural and economic use of them. Establishing the broken continuities and bringing new life and new ways of existence into the cities or settlements; the general secretary of The Aga Khan Award for Architecture, mentions about a small selection of award winning projects. Each and every one of these projects has different approaches as well as different societal factors and all of them bring about a new solution which is pertinent to that society that is replicable under certain conditions [18]. Sidi Bou Saod, Tunis, Tunisia 1980: This is a model, more or less, to bring the affluent population or society to pay respect to their cultural heritage, so that the others would emulate or follow. Asilah, Morocco 1989: This is a primary example of an external factor, which was injected in the settlement for the purpose of renewal. Asilah is a traditional Moroccan town in a citadel. The Minister of Tourism, along with others, invented an occasion called an Asilah festival. It is the whole month of August every year that brings thousands of people here. Every year the local dwellers restore and pay more attention to their environment for thousands of guests next year. Conservation of Old Sana’a, Yemen 1995: In this case, UNESCO identified this place as a cultural heritage site and this of course had an international appeal. Many countries picked up different aspects, so it is a project that has local Yemeni input there, but it is the international community holding hands. Whatever could not be done together locally, Germans, Norwegians, French, Swiss and Italians made their contributions and added to the urban tissue. This motivated people to restore and establish the broken continuities with the past. One of the most significant cases in Turkey among the numerous applications is Cumalıkızık, Bursa 1998: The 700-year-old Ottoman village of Cumalıkızık is a unique village with the characteristic architectural structure and traditional life style, which has been able to preserve its structure physically against all the changes experienced. The Local Agenda 213 has been involved in implementing a project that aims to conserve and revitalize this unique heritage. The current planning efforts are directed towards achieving a sustainable tourism development that would preserve this authentic Ottoman village and the life style of its residents [17] (Fig. 4). The common success of the mentioned examples from the world comes from the contribution of local people. The main concern and understanding has to be among the local people. It rarely comes from the local or central governmental administrational level. Evaluating the local examples, Lefkara Village in the South Cyprus is a unique vernacular settlement of the island (Fig. 5) that is preserving its unity with some legislation limiting the building materials and heights of new constructions in the 3 Local Agenda 21, known as LA21 is a program that provides a framework for implementing sustainable development at the local level. LA21 aims to build upon existing local government strategies and resources (such as Corporate plans, vegetation management plans, and transport strategies) to better integrate environmental, economic and social goals [11].

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Fig. 4 Cumalıkızık, Bursa, Turkey [15]

Fig. 5 Lefkara village

village, hence creating harmony among the buildings as well as providing the continuity of the urban pattern (Fig. 5). The preserved settlement Karmi, in the North Cyprus which reflects the environmental consciousness between tourism and sense of place relations, preserves its unique architectural environment as a scenery however the life within is not Cypriot life any more. The houses are rented to foreigners by long term leasing and these new users are encouraged to restore and use them as houses and/or pensions. Although, all of the users are not natives, they express a respectful attitude in adapting to existing context and to preserve the authentic character. Instead of

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Fig. 6 Karmi

spending a few days for entertainment, the opportunities of having property in Karmi provide the foreigners to spend their most of times to experience the local context themselves. However the interaction between the foreigners and the locals is missing in this model (Fig. 6). It is a common view that the tourists prefer to experience the natural environment; the social and cultural life; the historical heritage of the region they are visiting. Hence it is obligatory to answer such needs of tourists for developing tourism activities. The Arched Houses, Dipkarpaz (Rizo Karpasso) North Cyprus, 2002: The only example of house renovation for tourism accommodations was applied to a group of houses limited by a single street in a traditional village. The project of Arched Houses avoided the deterioration process of almost ruined houses. The Arched Houses is an example for answering the needs of the sustainable tourism activities in North Cyprus. However it is still at a very small scale since the project is not distributed to the whole Dipkarpaz Village (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7 The arched houses

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Examining the basic process of strategic environmental assessment, and the potential organisation and implementation of the strategic environmental assessment process on the island, Sadler [20] mentions that an integrated strategic environmental assessment and strong tourism planning are urgently required to safeguard the future for tourism and the environment in the North Cyprus and he adds that the lack of a sustainable approach to alternative tourism is likely to lead to more environmental damage than mass tourism. Concentrated tourism activity in a resort may have less associated impacts than dispersed alternative tourists seeking new sites and experiences. Therefore, long-term competitiveness requires a sustainable approach to tourism. This requires planners to look beyond economic indicators and carrying capacity indicators and to adopt a more holistic approach [20].

5 Recommendations for Sustainable Tourism Implementations in Cypriot Vernacular Environments Development of travelling facilities and activities, the media and mass communication tools, and changing cultural structure by globalization generally end up with unhappy users that are not satisfied with their own houses any more. This leads to deterioration and decay in traditional environments due to abandonment and ignorance. The deterioration of existing pattern and inappropriate developments are expected to increase in the traditional environments of North Cyprus, parallel to the growing tourism demands unless a strategic planning is envisioned. What is more, generally in tourism applications the local culture is acculturated by the coming cultures hence a long-term cultural change can be observed in such cases. As mentioned before an important effect of tourism is the depletion of cultural resources if they are not properly managed. Instead of being abandoned and left to deteriorate, the traditional architectural heritage, that is the reflection of multi-cultural accumulations of the island and at the same time being in peace with the natural environment, can be sustained to the future through sustainable tourism implementations. What is more the existing building stock that is a well developed outcome of the tried and evolved design principles through centuries is a cultural and an economical welfare for tourism implementations. In the frame of sustainable tourism approach, the continuity of cultural heritage of unspoilt rural vernacular environments of North Cyprus is discussed in order to prevent the potential threats on the local architectural environments by the increasing demands of construction activities. Some recommendations for the sustainable planning of the vernacular environments are • Protecting natural resources including air, sun, climate, water, light and earth, in addition to the protection of the built environment including historical sites, settlements, archaeological and architectural remains; and protection of cultural resources including architectural pattern, cultural unity, values and activities;

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• Proposing a conservation program including the revitalisation, re-assessment and adaptive re-use of the abandoned and deteriorated traditional dwelling stock for tourism purposes; (While transforming the traditional houses into pensions it is important to preserve and encourage the continuity of the interactions among interior and exterior spaces; provide originality in interior spaces and preserve the identity of semi-closed and open spaces in the traditional houses as well as sustaining the close relations with the natural environment.) • Creation of financial, application, timing, and organisation models for the rehabilitation of sustainable physical environment; • Creating a pollution free environment both physical and visual; (These improved standards are very important in safeguarding the health of the local population who will also be serving in the new tourist facilities. The design of new buildings, sites and transport systems such as car park areas, public transportation, busstop, traffic sign systems, should minimize the potential harmful visual effects of tourism. Pollution controls should be built into all forms of infrastructure. Leaving some narrow streets for only pedestrians in order to prevent parked cars in front of the old buildings that will harm the picturesque value of these houses.) • Providing the necessary infrastructure for the considered life-style; (Improvements to street lighting and street furniture are needed, along with upgrading of the water supply, sanitation and solid waste collection.) The success of sustainable tourism implementations depends on taking parallel steps in different aspects of social, cultural, economical, physical, educational, administrational and managerial issues. It is also important that the revitalised values in the vernacular settlements should not be based on a culture that no longer exists, but a living and changing life-style should be reflected to the tourists. Revitalising the past is more like a theatrical scene that seems artificial but it is much more preferable for the tourist and the host communities to live together in the vernacular environments accompanied with contemporary services.

References 1. Aksugür N, Türker ÖO (2005) A model for the modernization of a vernacular settlement as a milieu for two different cultural backgrounds re-learning to live together. In Salman, Y and Do˘gu¸san N (eds) Proceedings of 5th International mAAN Conference, Re-thinking and Re-constructing Modern Asian Architecture, 27th–30th June 2005, Istanbul 2. Aksugür N, Türker ÖO (2004) Kültür Turizmi için bir Öneri, in Proceedings of the national symposium titled Alanya-Ma˘gusa Sempozyum Bildirileri: Do˘gal ve Kültürel De˘gerlerin Korunması Geli¸stirilmesi ve Turizmin Çe¸sitlenmdirilmesinde KKTC ve Alanya-Antalya ˙I¸sbirli˘gi, 15th–16th October 2004, K.T.M.M.O.B., pp 199–206 3. Cuneo P (1991) Cultural heritage and cultural tourism. In: Yenen Z (ed) The proceedings of international symposium on architecture of tourism in the Mediterranean, vol 2. Yıldız University Press, Istanbul, pp 233–238 4. Dinçyürek Ö (2001) The Mesaorian Rural Houses of Cyprus. A Typology, Open House International, 26:29–37

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5. Dinçyürek Ö and Türker ÖO (2007) Learning from traditional built environment of Cyprus: Re-interpretation of the contextual values. Building and Environment, 42(9):3384–3392 6. Dinçyürek Ö and Türker ÖO (2007) Sustainable tourism as an alternative to mass tourism developments of Bafra, North Cyprus. Open House International 32(4):107–118 7. Eber S (1994) Motivations for pilgrimage in the modern world. In: Twite R, Baskin G (eds) The conversion of dreams, the development of tourism in the middle east. IPCRI publications, Jerusalem, pp 29–39 8. Echeverria E (1993) Ilha de Mozambique – Preservation through tourism. In Proceedings of International Scientific Symposium, 10th General Assembly on Cultural Tourism, ICOMOS, Sri Lanka 9. Feilden BM (1993) Conservation and tourism. In Proceedings of International Scientific Symposium, 10th General Assembly on Cultural Tourism, ICOMOS, Sri Lanka 10. Hill SG (1972) A history of cyprus, vol I–IV. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 11. http://www.deh.gov.au/esd/la21 12. Inskeep E (1991) Tourism planning: An integrated and sustainable development approach. Van Nostrand Reinhold, John Wiley & Sons New York 13. Jameison W (1993) Planning for small town cultural tourism. In Proceedings of International Scientific Symposium, 10th General Assembly on Cultural Tourism, ICOMOS, Sri Lanka 14. Mathieson A, Wall G (1982) Tourism: Economics, physical and social impacts. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 15. Municipality of Bursa, Bursa Yerel Gündem 21, Cumalıkızık Koruma – Ya¸satma Projesi, Municipality of Bursa, Turkey 16. Oliver P (ed) (1997) Encyclopedia of vernacular architecture of the world. Vol 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK 17. Oren U, Woodcock DG, Var T (2001) Sustainable tourism development: A case of Cumalıkızık, Turkey. Tourism Anal 6(3/4):253–257 18. Özkan S (1999) The Aga Khan Award for Architecture, in Joannidu, SP (ed.) International conference on the Revitalisation of Historic cities, UNDP 20-22 May 1999, Nicosia, Cyprus, p 16–20 19. Russel AS, The role of tourism in urban conservation – The case of Singapore, Cities, August 1988, Butterworth 20. Sadler J (2004) Sustainable tourism planning in Northern Cyprus. In: Bramwell B (ed) Coastal mass tourism: Diversification and sustainable development in Southern Europe. Channel View Publications, Cromwell Press ltd. Great Britain 21. TRNC (2006) The poster of Bafra tourism area. Published by Tourism Planning Department of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus 22. Türker ÖO, Dinçyürek Ö (2004) Learning from traditional environments: Cyprus on the threshold of becoming a unified country and a member of European Union, XXXII. IAHS World Conference on Housing-Sustainability of the Housing Projects, Trento, September 21–25 (CD-ROM) 23. Türker ÖO, Dinçyürek Ö (2006) Continuity concerns for traditional settlements under the increasing demands of tourism developments: The case of Bafra Village, Cyprus, Proceedings of 34th IAHS World Congress, Naples, Italy, September 20th–23rd 2006 (CD-ROM) 24. Türker ÖO, Pulhan H (2006) Hyper-cypriot architecture: The transformation of local and global values. In: Nam S (ed) 2005–2006 Series of the traditional dwellings and settlements working paper series (WPS), vol 196. Global Transformations and Local Traditions, IASTE, University of California, Berkeley, pp 1532–1550 25. Viney DE (1994) An illustrated flora of North Cyprus, vol 1. Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein, Germany

Environmental Basis of Sustainable Tourism Along Sensitive Coastal Areas – Principles and Applications D. Orhon, H. Gökçeku¸s, and Seval Sözen

Abstract Coastal zones are subject to both socio-economical concerns with respect to their tourist attraction, and also to environmental concerns since they are under the threat of water quality deterioration and water scarcity. This study overviews the environmental principles of sustainable tourism along sensitive coastal areas and its application to a small island is discussed through a detailed wastewater management study conducted in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). The study comes out with a proposed discharge limitation for the protection of sensitive areas involving nutrient restrictions and adapted wastewater characteristics from the values obtained in Turkey from previous research. Water consumption figures and pollution profiles from certain facilities are determined and specific pollution loads for tourism areas are assessed considering the occupancy rates. In the designation of suitable wastewater treatment technology emphasis is put on nutrient removal and also to advanced treatment technologies which will further enable wastewater recycle and reuse. Further concern is the monitoring of compliance along with legislation, administration and public awareness. Keywords Coastal areas · Islands · Sustainable tourism · Water scarcity · Wastewater management plan · Environmental management strategy

1 Introduction Coastal tourist resorts are increasingly threatened by economic and demographic pressure, and the marine ecosystems are in decline around the globe. From a wastewater management viewpoint, the developments should be evaluated within the context of maintaining the critical balance between tourist attractions and

S. Sözen (B) Civil Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

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preserving water quality. In coastal tourist areas, quality of the receiving water is, on one hand, the prime concern for the value of the resort, and on the other hand, it is quite susceptible to pollution and especially to nutrients which are likely to create eutrophication problems. Tourism should contribute to sustainable development and be integrated with the natural, cultural and human environment. It should ensure an acceptable evolution as regards its influence on natural resources, biodiversity and the capacity for assimilation of any impacts and residues produced. Water scarcity is also the most crucial environmental problem in tourist resorts. It is exacerbated by the deteriorating quality of water resources due to population fluctuation and other activities. In view of water scarcity, coastal areas, especially islands suffering from water shortage, have to take measures to increase water use efficiency and stimulate greater conservation. This can only be achieved through a realistic environmental management strategy. Within this context, major issues necessary for the environmental basis of sustainable tourism have to be carefully considered and developed for the sustainability of tourism activities. This paper provides a critical overview of the basic environmental principles for sustainable tourism along sensitive coastal areas and discusses the application procedure in a small island by using the outcomes of an extensive study carried out on wastewater management in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. In this manner, expected water quality, wastewater characteristics and pollution profile, and appropriate treatment technologies are outlined and effective recommendations are offered for future activities.

2 Concept of Sustainable Tourism The concept of “sustainability”, launched in the 1970s in the industrial sector, has only been applied to tourism industry during the last decade, following the presentation in the World Conference in Lanzarote in 1995. This planning document highlighted not only the positive contribution of tourism in terms of socio-economic objectives, but also the detrimental effect it can have in terms of environmental deterioration. This initiated the understanding that, in the long run, tourism is to be considered both ecologically sustainable and economically beneficial, showing respect for local communities as well as for the environment. This concept was again undertaken at the International Conference on Sustainable Tourism in Rimini in 2001, and was reconfirmed in Johannesburg in 2002. These efforts lead to a change in the outlook, resulting in application of “good practices” capable of involving local policies, transport, urban planning, cultural activities, use of water, consumption, waste production and disposal. Sustainable tourism policy necessarily requires the support and promotion of environmentallycompatible tourism management systems, feasibility studies for the transformation of the sector, as well as the implementation of demonstration projects and development of international cooperation programmes.

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3 Characteristics of the Study Area The island of Cyprus, third largest island in the Mediterranean, is located in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) is in the northern part of the island with a population of approximately 2,00,000 (1996). She has a surface area of 3,298 m2 , which almost covers 35% of the total island area [1]. TRNC is characterized by a heavy dependence on tourism on her coastal areas. Projections indicate that the population will be approximately doubled by 2015. Cyprus is announced among the countries, which will be added to scarcity category by 2025 if no measures will be taken [2]. Annual average rainfall of 440–450 mm at the beginning of the century fell down to 402 mm between 1941 and 1972 and further to 382.4 mm between 1975 and 1993 resulting in reduced capacity of water resources [3]. The water scarcity has given way to restriction of water quantity for irrigation, which resulted in limitation of irrigated regions [4]. Current status outlines that only 19% of the population (approximately 40,000) is connected to a sewer system and only 15% of the wastewater is discharged after being treated [1]. Therefore the need arises to protect the water resources within an integrated water and wastewater management concept. The integrated management of resources is directed towards supporting water resources planning, policy making and management through development of a strategy.

4 Management Approach For a sustainable tourism management system, first, an assessment of expected water quality or effluent limitation is necessary in terms of European Directives (Directive 91/271/EEC on Urban Waste Water Treatment; Directive 2000/60/EC on Water Framework Directive; Marine Strategy Directive COM/2005/505) achievable with feasible and economically applicable treatment technologies. Current application of discharge standards is limited with conventional parameters in TRNC. Protection of sensitive areas necessitates that the limitations include not only the conventional parameters, but also restrictions for nutrients. Table 1 outlines the proposed discharge limitations for sensitive zones [5]. This regulation proposes that Table 1 Proposed discharge limitations for sensitive zones [5] Parameter

Population > 10,000

Population < 10,000

BOD5 COD TSS Ammonia nitrogen Total nitrogen Total phosphorus pH

25 mg/l 125 mg/l 35 mg/l – 75% removal 80% removal 6–9

25 mg/l 150 mg/l 60 mg/l 2 mg/l (full nitrif.) 40% removal 80% removal 6–9

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all treatment plants have to remove the nutrients regardless of their population equivalent. The second important issue is the determination of wastewater characteristics. A detailed experimental survey on wastewater characteristics is not available for TRNC. For that reason the domestic wastewater characteristics have been adapted by using the results obtained from characterization studies carried out in Turkey (Table 2). The flowrate has been accepted as 90 l/capita.day for the year 2000, whereas it is extended to 120 l/capita.day for 2015 and 150 l/capita.day for 2030 [1]. The values in Table 2 indicate that the wastewater has a weaker nature compared to wastewaters generated in Istanbul [6, 7]. In addition to domestic wastewaters, discharges from different tourist activities will also contribute to pollution load. Applicable wastewater characteristics and pollution profiles are determined for different tourist facilities (Table 3). The table indicates that the wastewater quantity and quality are extensively affected by the facilities. The occupancy rate has also a vital effect on the wastewater generation in resort areas. In off seasons this rate fluctuates between 30 and 40%, whereas it increases up to 75–80% in high seasons. From engineering point of view, the characteristics outlined in Table 4 are assessed as the most applicable specific pollution loads for tourism areas after an intensive evaluation of all existing data [1]. The results of the study outlines that a domestic wastewater flow of 2,000 m3 /day will be generated additionally from tourism facilities. The amount of wastewater is estimated to be 3,200 m3 /day in 2015, in accordance with the expected increase in occupancy rate in resort areas.

Table 2 Characteristics of domestic wastewater for TRNC

Table 3 Water consumption-wastewater generation for different activities [1]

Parameter

Value (g/ca.day)

BOD5 COD TSS Total Kjehldahl nitrogen Total phosphorus

40 90 45 6.7 1.3

Activities Hotel Pension Daily stay Restaurant Entertainment center Settlement

Water consumption (l/bed.day)

Wastewater generation ratio (%)

BOD5 (g/ca.day)

1, 000 400 100 50 100

65 75 75 80 80

110 70 50 60 60

200

80

65

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Parameter

Value (g/ca.day)

BOD5 COD TSS Total Kjehldahl nitrogen Total phosphorus

100 200 120 8 2

Another important issue is the designation of appropriate wastewater treatment technology. In this manner, new treatment plants should be designed and constructed and the existing plants should be retrofitted for nutrient removal. Sequencing Batch Reactor, Step Feeding, Alternating Aerobic Anoxic Process, Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor are major technologies, requiring a minimum of maintenance, affordable in terms of installation and operation expenses and reliable in terms of process performance [8–11]. The use of advanced treatment technologies will also contribute to a large extent to the wastewater recycle and reuse for the compensation of water scarcity. Desalination systems have currently proven to be one of the best alternatives as a fresh water resource. The investment and operation costs of desalination systems are reduced with the new technological advances obtained in the last years, so that these systems can be considered as alternative solutions for water supply from sea water or brackish water. Following the assessment of the appropriate treatment technologies, compliance monitoring is to be established for a problem-oriented, cost-efficient, and sustainable management in the island. This approach could only be achieved with relevant legislative and administrative framework. Legislation should be amended to incorporate effluent standards compatible for the protection of sensitive zones. A monitoring program should be designed and enforced for the effective control of plants performance and coastal water quality. Institutional requirements for monitoring should be fulfilled in view of laboratory, trade man power and administrative aspects. Considering the significant issues, i.e. solid wastes, energy, transportation, interference with other beneficial uses, other than wastewater management within a comprehensive framework will ensure total quality management, that absolutely needs to be accompanied by raising public awareness.

5 Proposed Management Strategy The appropriate interaction between environmental protection and tourism planning and development has become a key concern for many institutions at the local, national and international levels. The trans-boundary characteristics and possible negative supra-regional effects of tourism industry require a unified approach and integrated planning and strategy, which has to be implemented or sustainability.

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In this respect, total quality management should be based on a platform for developing and promoting optimum efficiency of resource utilization, facility development and environmental management systems to achieve agreed benchmarks by ensuring a coherent sustainable tourism policy. In this framework the actions should be focus on; • continuous monitoring and management of negative impacts of tourist activities • assessing of priority issues for sustainable tourism policy • implementing a management strategy applicable Europe-wide in compliance with tourism standards • evaluating and improving, where necessary the relevant legislative and administrative framework, for sustainable tourism • developing guidance on technical issues • raising public awareness using media tools and information technologies • implementing training and education programs Sustainable development in tourist areas can only be ensured using the integrated concepts for the multi-purpose utilization of resources at economic, social and environmental levels for the mitigation of adverse effects influenced by human activities.

6 Conclusion Tourism is more sensitive to environmental degradation than other economic activities, as the environment is its primary resource. Clearly, tourism has a paramount economic role for coastal areas and, if planned and managed correctly, can significantly contribute to sustainable socio-economic development and environmental conservation. Fluctuations in water demand and wastewater generation in time, low population in off-seasons, water utilities with limited funding are actually the main characteristics differentiating the island from the urban examples. Without having an integrated water and wastewater management strategy, the required water quality and the essential tourism standards can not be achieved. In this respect, applicable discharge limitations, wastewater characterization and appropriate treatment technologies should not be avoided.

References 1. Orhon D, Tasli R, Turkoglu H, Gokcekus H, Gorgun E, Ovez S, Goksel C, Ozbasaran M, Bebek E (1999) Environmental master plan for Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Report Ministry of Health and Environment for TRNC 2. Valls Xercavins J (1999) Carrying capacity in East Sub-Saharan Africa: A multilevel integrated assessment and a sustainable development approach. Ph-D Thesis, Universitat Politechnica de Catalunya

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3. Biyikoglu G (1995) Rainfall analysis in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Proceedings of the Second Water Congress, Organized by the Cyprus Turkish Engineer and Architecture Chamber Association, North Cyprus, February 23–24, in Turkish 4. Biçak H, Özdemirag A (1997) Estimation of forecasting of water demand and supply in North Cyprus: The impact of various projects under various scenarios. Presented at the Seminar Series, Organized by the Department of Economics, Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazima˘gusa, North Cyprus 5. Orhon D, Tünay O, Germirli F, Artan N, Sözen S, Ta¸slı R, Çokgör Ubay E, Görgün E (1996) Appropriate wastewater treatment technologies and wastewater management. Report Turkish Foundation for Technology Development 6. WMT (1986) Istanbul sewerage project, stage 2 – feasibility study and preliminary engineering. Report, vol 1. Watson Motor & Temel, Istanbul, Turkey 7. Camp-Tekser (1975) Istanbul Sewerage project master plan revision, vol I. Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration, Turkey 8. Artan N, Orhon D, Sözen S (1995) Conceptual basis of wastewater nitrogen removal in sensitive coastal areas. Water Sci Technol 32(11):77–84 9. Görgün E, Artan N, Orhon D, Tasli R (1995) The nitrogen removal potential of predenitrification systems in sensitive coastal areas. Water Sci Technol 32(7):135–142 10. Odegaard H, Rusten B, Westrum T (1994) A new moving bed biofilm reactor – applications and results. Water Sci Technol 29(10–11):157–165 11. Orhon D, Sözen S, Görgün E, Ubay Çokgör E, Artan N (1999) Technological aspects of wastewater management in coastal tourist areas. Water Sci Technol 39(8):177–184

Part III

Economics, Development, Sustainability and Risks

Medical Waste Survey in a University Hospital: Do Intern Doctors and Emergency Nurses Know and Pay Attention to Segregation of Wastes? ˙ F. Nur Aksakal, Evin Aras, Mustafa N. Ilhan, and Sefer Aycan

Abstract Medical wastes are of public health concern in both developed and developing countries being costly in disposal and carry risks of infection or physical injury and of exposure to potentially harmful pharmaceuticals. This study aimed to determine the knowledge and attitudes of intern doctors and emergency nurses in a university hospital and conducted in Gazi University Hospital in April 2006. One hundred and thirty one intern doctors and 27 emergency nurses are targeted to be reached for March–April 2006 period. A questionnaire form was filled out for each participant. Nurses have undergone training programs on medical wastes and waste segregation (50.0%) significantly more than the intern doctors (19.3%). The knowledge of the medical wastes that must be disposed in “red coloured plastic sacks” were known by almost all (98.6% of intern doctors, 100.0% of emergency nurses) participants (p > 0.05). Wastes which must be disposed in “blue coloured plastic sacks” and “black coloured plastic sacks” were known better by nurses (85.0 and 85.0%) than intern doctors (60.5 and 58.2%) (p < 0.05). Intern doctors and emergency nurses are found as a group of high risk and the appropriate training programs in terms of timing and content will be effective. Keywords Emergency Nurse · Medical Waste · Segregation

1 Introduction Medical wastes are of public health concern in both developed and developing countries being costly in disposal and carry risks of infection or physical injury and of exposure to potentially harmful pharmaceuticals although they constitute a relatively small percentage of all wastes [1, 2]. World Health Organization (WHO) supports clssification of the medical wastes in hospitals as special wastes, and United States Environmental Protection Agency F.N. Aksakal (B) Department of Public Health, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_24, 

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(EPA) defines these wastes as hazardous [3]. For this reason; segregation, temporary storage, recycling, transportation and ultimate demolition require attention [4]. In Turkey, these applications are regulated by a legislation: Ordinance for Control of Medical Wastes dated 20 May 1993 and published in Official Gazette number 21586 [5]. This legislation was renewed and the new one is put inforce on 22 July 2005 [4]. In both of the ordinances, wastes in health facilities have been grouped into three as: domestic waste, recyclable waste and medical waste. Medical waste is defined as the infectious, pathological and sharp wastes generated trough the observational, diagnostic, research, therapeutic and rehabilitative services of medical establishments. Due to the older ordinance, domestic waste must be disposed in black and recyclable waste in blue plastic sacks whereas in the new ordinance the domestic waste, recyclable waste and medical wastes must be disposed in black, blue and red coloured plastic-sacks respectively for which the properties they must carry are described. Infected and pathological wastes must be collected in red plastics sacks and sharps must be collected in rigid bin made of either carton or plastic as before [4]. Health care facilities in which the medical wastes are generated are responsible for establishing a system to minimize the generation of these wastes and their demolition due to the ordinance. So, physicians, nurses, midwives, dentists, laboratory tecnicians and other staff involved in the observational, diagnostic, research, preventive, therapeutic or rehabilitative health care services are expected to segregate the wastes where they are generated [4]. Several studies have investigated the quantity and quality of hospital wastes, their transport and destruction [3, 6–10], but researches conducted among health-care personel are limited in number [11, 12]. University hospitals are large size health care facilities and classified as health facilities producing large quantity of medical wastes [4]. These facilities also serve for education and training purposes for medical faculties and schools for nurses and midwives. As in other medical faculties in Turkey, medical students rotate in different departments of hospitals for different time periods. Most of these departments are the wards and outpatient clinics in which a high quantity of medical wastes are generated. Although they are involved in many applications and interventions as injection, wound-care, blood collection etc. They do not have a detailed training about the medical wastes, their segregation and their risks in our university. The only source of information is the 5th year Public Health stage and health care workers with whom they work in wards or outpatient cinics. For the academical year of 2006–2007 a clinical skill laboratory has been scheduled for 1st year medical students which is conducted through an audiovisual training for 20 min. For intern doctors, when the shortness of the period they spent in each ward/outpatient clinic and diversity of the medical interventions they carry out are considered, they should be accepted as an important target group who may have a failure in waste segregation. In the emergency wards of hospitals, there is a intensive application of patients accompanied by an intense diagnostic interventions, and a need for quick and

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247

effective patient stabilization [13]. When the workload and work description is considered, emergency nurses may be concerned as another risk group who may fail to segregate wastes. For these reasons, this study aimed to determine the knowledge and attitudes of intern doctors and emergency nurses in a university hospital.

2 Materials and Methods This study is conducted among intern doctors and emergency nurses in Gazi University Hospital in April 2006. One hundred and thirty one intern doctors and 27 emergency nurses are targeted to be reached for March–April 2006 period. Seven nurses and 12 intern doctors could not be reached due to the maternity and annual leaves and rotational training in a maternity hospital respectively. As result, 119 (90.6%) intern doctors and 20 (574.1) nurses were included in the study. A questionnaire form including questions about some sociodemographical properties, knowledge and attitudes about medical wastes and their segregation was filled out by face-to-face interviewing technique for each participant. Plastic or laminated carton bins for sharps were defined as “safe disposal bins” while knowledge about medical wastes is evaluated. Answers as “safe disposal bins” for sharps, “red coloured plastic sacks” for other medical wastes, “blue coloured plastic sacks” for recyclable waste and “black coloured plastic sacks” for domestic wastes were regarded as correct. Data analysis was performed by SPSS 10.0 statistical package program. Descriptive statistics (median (min–max), percent distributions) are computed and Fischer’s exact chi-square test is performed. Probability values less than 0.05 is regarded as “statistically significant”.

3 Results A total of 139 (85.6% intern doctors, 14.4% nurses) participants were evaluated. Fifty six point one percent of them were female. Thirty seven percent of the intern doctors were practicing in clinical wards, 23.5% in outpatient clinics, 18.5% in emergency unit, 15.2% in public health department, 5.0% in intensive care units and 0.8% in operating theatres. Age, time spent in current position, daily and weekly working hours of the intern doctors and emergency nurses are shown in Table 1. Nurses have undergone training programs on medical wastes and waste segregation (50.0%) significantly more than the intern doctors (19.3%) (p < 0.05). The knowledge of the medical wastes that must be disposed in “red coloured plastic sacks” were known by almost all (98.6% of intern doctors, 100.0% of emergency nurses) participants (p > 0.05). Wastes which must be disposed in “blue coloured plastic sacks” and “black coloured plastic sacks” were known better by nurses (85.0 and 85.0%) than intern doctors (60.5 and 58.2%) (p < 0.05).

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Table 1 Age, time spent in current position, and daily and weekly working hours of the intern doctors and emergency nurses, Gazi University, Ankara, 2006

Age (year) Time spent in internship/profession (month) Time spent in current unit (month) Daily working hours Weekly working hours

Intern doctors

Emercency nurses

Median

(Min–max)

Median

(Min–max)

24 10 2 9 60

(23–33) (4–10) (1–2) (5–16) (25–99)

28 72 12.5 8 40

(23–33) (7–132) (2–132) (8–12) (40–48)

The knowledge of the participants about classification of different kinds of wastes and in which coloured sacks they must be disposed are shown in Table 2. There is no statistically significant difference between the level of knowledge of intern doctors and emercency nurses for the kinds of wastes to be disposed in red and blue coloured plastic sacks. Intravenous catheters are classified better by nurses than intern doctors (p < 0.05). Wastes which must be placed in black plastic sacks are better classified by nurses (p > 0.05). Reasons for failure to segregate the wastes declared by the participants are shown in Table 3. The most prevalent reason declared was “Not all colours of sacks are present in every room” by 49.6% of the participants. The second most prevalent reason was “Not enough time during intervention” (47.5%) and the third prevalent was “Usage of the sacks is not practicle”. The leading reason for failure was “Not all colours of sacks are present in every room” among intern doctors (54.4%), while it was “Not enough time during intervention” (85.0%) among emergency nurses. Presence of bins with coloured plastic sacks in the units in which the participants currently work are shown in Table 4. Fifty three point six percent of the participants declared that bins for medical waste disposal were not present in outpatient clinics. Hundred percent of the intern doctors declaring this reason were in internal medicine & cardiology, 50.0% of them in psychiatry and 50.0% of them in pediatrics. The utilization of bins for medical wastes and attituted towards notifying others for their use, are shown in Table 5. Twenty one percent of the intern doctors declared that they never used medical waste disposal bins. Fifty five percent of the emergency nurses declared that they use the medical waste disposal bins regulary, while only 16% of the intern doctors are regular users.

4 Discussion Healthcare establishments comprising observational, diagnostic, research, therapeutic and rehabilitative services are among the largest generators of solid waste on a per capita basis. A portion of their wastes are considered as potentially dangerous

a Percent

of right answers for each question.

Wastes that must be disposed in safe disposal bin Injectors IV catheters Sharps Wastes that must be disposed in red-coloured plastic sacks Urine bags and appendices Flacons Laboratory wastes Nasogastric catheter Surgical wound care wastes Patient care unit wastes Tracheostomia canule Foley catheter Blood and blood products Dialysis wastes Wastes that must be disposed in black-coloured plastic sacks Kitchen wastes Food and their packages Wastes that must be disposed in blue-coloured plastic sacks Office wastes 70.6 27.7 49.6

92.4 73.1 90.8 95.0 91.6 85.7 84.9 88.2 83.2 85.7

58.0 42.9

44.5

110 87 108 113 109 102 101 105 99 102

69 51

53

%a

84 33 59

No

Intern doctors (n = 119)

5

17 15

20 12 19 20 20 18 19 20 18 20

17 12 14

No.

25.0

85.0 75.0

100.0 60.0 95.0 100.0 100.0 90.0 95.0 100.0 90.0 100.0

85.0 60.0 70.0

%a

Emergency nurses (n = 20)

Knowledge about classification of different kinds of wastes

0.141

0.025 0.014

0.357 0.286 1.000 0.593 0.357 1.000 0.309 0.221 0.740 0.132

0.278 0.008 0.145

p

58

86 66

130 99 127 133 129 120 120 125 117 122

101 45 73

No.

41.7

61.9 47.5

93.5 71.2 91.4 95.7 92.8 86.3 86.3 89.9 84.2 87.8

72.7 32.4 52.5

%a

Total (n = 139)

Table 2 The knowledge about the classification of different kinds of wastes by intern doctors and emergency nurses, Gazi University Hospital, Ankara, 2006

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Table 3 Reasons for failure to segregate the wastes declared by the participants, Gazi University Hospital, Ankara 2006 Intern doctors (n = 119) Reasons for failure

No.

%a

Not all colours of plastic sacks are present in every room Not enough time during intervention Usage of the sacks is not practicle Usage of the sacks is not necessary Lack of training Not all colours of sacks are present in outpatient clinic Carelessness-tiredness

65

54.4

49 47 15 4 1 −

a Percent

Emergency nurses (n = 20)

Total (n = 139)

%a

No.

%a

4

20.0

69

49.6

40.0 39.4 12.5 3.4 0.8

17 6 2 − −

85.0 30.0 10.0 − −

66 53 17 4 1

47.5 38.0 12.2 2.9 0.7

−

1

5.0

1

0.7

No.

of declaration of each reason by the participants.

Table 4 Presence of waste bins with coloured plastic sacks in the units in which the participants currently work, Gazi University Hospital, Ankara 2006 Declaration about presence of bins for medical waste disposal (%)

Unita Out patient clinics (n = 28) Clinical wards (n = 44) Intensive care units (n = 6) Operating theatres (n = 1) Emergency (n = 42)

Absent

Sometimes Usually present present

Always present

No idea

53.6 – – – 2.4

14.3 15.9 – – 19.0

17.9 27.3 33.3 100.0 54.8

– 4.5 – – –

14.3 52.3 66.7 – 23.8

a Since 18 intern doctors in public health department are not involved in medical waste generation process during their rotational period, they are not involved in analysis.

because it may possess pathogenic agents and can cause undesirable effects on human health and environment [3]. The segregation process of the wastes is shown to be important to prevent the injuries and decrease the infection risk [14]. In the present study, knowledge and attitude of intern doctors and emergency nurses about medical wastes were evaluated in a university hospital. Half of the nurses have got a formal training about medical wastes while only one out of five intern doctors were trained. The content and frequency of the in-service training for nurses was not evaluated deeply but it is learned that the issue of waste segregation was being covered for a one hour course. For intern doctors there is no formal tarining but the topic is covered during fifth year public health stage as a one hour course. Emergency nurses knew the recent revisions in the ordinance significantly better than the intern doctors. This difference is attributed to the in-service trainings for the nurses. Likewise, in another study conducted by Dinç et al in hospitals in the center of Manisa province, it is reported that the trained nurses were more successful than the untrained ones [12].

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Table 5 The utilization of bins for medical wastes and attituted towards notifying others for their use, Gazi University Hospital, Ankara 2006 Intern doctors (n = 119)

Nurses (n = 20)

Total (n = 139)

No.

%

No.

%

No.

%

Frequency of usage of medical waste disposal bins Never Sometimes Frequently Always

25 18 57 19

21.0 15.1 47.9 16.0

– 1 8 11

– 5.0 40.0 55.0

25 19 65 30

18.0 13.7 46.8 21.6

Notification of others for usage of medical waste disposal bins Never Sometimes Frequently Always

40 43 25 11

33.6 36.1 21.0 9.2

1 6 6 7

5.0 30.0 30.0 35.0

41 49 31 18

29.5 35.3 22.3 12.9

% column percent.

In the present study, the utilization of the appropriate bins and sacks for medical waste disposal was found higher among nurses. As the level of knowledge for segregation, this is also attributed to the in-service training of the nurses. Nurses are also the group of personel who are somehow more stable in the current position and the ones leading the other staff about the segregation process [12]. The absence of the bins for medical wastes in outpatient clinics is one of the most common reasons declared by the intern doctors. This is an issue that must be addressed by the personel responsible for waste management process. The idea behind may be that there is not e need for their usage, but still,provision of them in every outpatient clinic may be encouraging and increase attention. The low level of knowledge of the intern doctors and attitudes towards not paying so much attention to segregation of wastes demonstrated that, this group should be considered as a risk group. In-service training programmes for this group before they are involved in medical waste generation process is essential. These training should be up to date. And also it will be very helpful if they are informed about the location of safe disposal bins, bins with different colours of plastic sacks during their first day in that specific ward or outpatient clinic. In conclusion, intern doctors and emergency nurses are found as a group of high risk and the appropriate training programs in terms of timing and content will be effective.

References 1. Medical Waste Committee, Air and Waste Management Association (1994) Medical waste disposal: Report of the medical waste committee (Wt-3), Technical Council. Air Waste 44:1176–1179

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2. Jang YC, Lee C, Yoon OS, Kim H (2006) Medical waste management in Korea. J Environ Manage 80:107–115 3. Bdour A, Altrabsheh B, Hadadin N, Al-Shareif M (2007) Assessment of medical wastes management practice: A case study of the northern part of Jordan. Waste Manag 27(6):746–759 4. Ordinance for Control of Medical Wastes (2005) Official Gazette number: 2158622, 22 July 2006 5. Ordinance for Control of Medical Wastes (1993) Official Gazette number: 21586, 20 May, 1993 6. Oweis R, Al-Widyan M, Al-Limoon O (2005) Medical waste management in Jordan: A study at the King Hussein Medical Center. Waste Manag 25:622–625 7. Bassey BE, Benka-Coker MO, Aluyi HS (2006) Characterization and management of solid medical wastes in the federal capital territory, Abuja Nigeria. Afr Health Sci 6(1):58–63 8. Askarian M, Vakili M, Kabir G (2004) Results of a hospital waste survey in private hospitals in Fars province, Iran. Waste Manag 24:347–352 9. Blenkharn JI (2006) Standards of clinical waste management in UK hospitals. J Hosp Infect 62:300–303 10. Blenkharn JI (2006) Medical wastes management in the south of Brazil. Waste Manag 26:315–317 11. Massrouje HT (2001) Medical waste and health workers in Gaza governorates. East Mediterr Health J 7(6):1017–1024 12. DinçG, Dallı D (1999) Practices about medical wastes in hospitals in Manisa city center and knowledge, attitude and behaviour of nurses working in these hospitals. Turkish J Infect 13(3):375–380 (in Turkish) 13. Ke¸saplı M, Çete Y, Kartal M (2004) Hand-washing behaviour and effective factors in emergency setting. Turkiye Klinikleri J Med Sci 24:235–242 14. Tulis J, Thomann W (1992) Medical waste management: Federal perspective and North Carolina Program. NC Med J 7:153

An Investigation of Appropriate Economic Instruments for Preventing the Negative Impacts of Construction Projects on the Environmental Utility Javad Jassbi, Fatemeh Razavian, and Hanieh Nikoomaram

Abstract Most large construction projects are accompanied with a plethora of impacts which either increase or reduce different utilities. A fall in the environmental utility, which is usually among the consequences of construction projects in the long run, arises from three different sources: mismanagement of projects, the nature of the development and lack of efficient methods for accurately measuring and estimating environmental externalities of projects. To compensate for such losses and to balance the total utility of the society, economic instruments can be used for the environmental management of projects. Developing countries’ governments are searching for sustainable development instruments. Such instruments, which are usually economic in nature, bring about a combination of economic and environmental policies. Economic instruments can be divided into the two distinct categories entitled Property Rights Approach (Coase Theory) and Government Policies, each having diversified approaches and instruments in their subcategories. The present study investigates the advantages and limitations of the above-mentioned instruments, thus allowing their appropriate applications. Based on such findings, the projects’ clients – usually the governments – would be able to select suitable economic instruments for preventing, mitigating and compensating for the fall in the environmental utility according to the type and nature of a given project. Keywords Construction projects · Environmental utility · Environmental externalities · Economic instruments · Sustainable development

F. Razavian (B) Department of Environmental Management, Graduate College of the Environment and Energy, Science and Research Campus, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_25, 

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1 Introduction In general, the major goal pursued by implementing mega projects (usually construction projects) in most countries, particularly developing countries, is to achieve the economic development. On the other side, such a development comes with positive and negative social, cultural, political and environmental impacts and aspects. The environmental impacts arising from large projects in turn lead to a reduction in the environmental utility and ultimately to a fall in the total utility of the society in the long run. This runs counter to the objectives of sustainable development which stresses on the exploitation of natural resources on the condition of their protection for future generations. The different phases of projects (definition, design and engineering, implementation and operation) usually involve the demand side and the supply side. In mega projects, it is the government that mostly plays the role of the demand side (client) and the reasons behind this are the economic non-viability of private sector investments in such projects and that the environment – as a national asset – cannot be transferred to the private sector for its belonging to all of the individuals in the society. Clearly, each of the contracting sides pursues specific goals and has different approaches. The approach of the demand side (government) is to create or enhance the total utility in the society and when it comes to the implementation of a project, it tries, by employing economic policies and instruments, to act in such a way that the resulting positive impacts would ultimately surpass negative ones, or, put in other words, that the utility in the society would rise after the completion of the project. The level of the utility is the measure of satisfaction or happiness of every individual in a society over the existing economic, social, political, cultural and environmental state of affairs whereby, should any negative change emerge, the individual shall be prepared to pay parts of his/her income to restore the situation to its original state. As Eq. (1) shows the level of the utility for individuals in a society is a function of various utilities such as economic, social, political, cultural, environmental and . . . utility [2].   U = Ueconomic + Usocial + Upolitical + Ucultural + Uenvironmental + . . .

(1)

The numerous impacts and aspects arising from the implementation of a project serve as effective factors in a rise or fall in each of such utilities. As mentioned before, implementation of large construction projects is usually accompanied with a fall in the environmental utility. Such a decrease in the utility is ignored by both the demand and the supply sides at the feasibility studies and implementation phases of a project, mainly due to the following reasons: • the long-running nature of environmental consequences; • the inevitability of development owing to its role in increasing other utilities (such as economic, social, . . .); and

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• lack of appropriate and efficient procedures/instruments for appraisal and precise estimation of environmental expenses of projects. The purpose of this paper is to assist project managers and governments to prevent, minimize and compensate for any falls in the environmental utility by properly deploying economic policies and instruments based on the nature of projects, i.e. the positive impacts and aspects arising from a project, giving rise to an enhancement of the total utility, should be greater than the negative impacts which reduce the utility and in the worst-case scenario, the positive and negative impacts should neutralize each other [9]. Economic instruments for the environmental management of projects can encourage behavioral changes in exploiters and polluters of environmental resources or can provide a proper ground to compensate for environmental damages. The use of such instruments has become common in recent years. However, economic instruments have not been widely used in developing countries as yet. One of the factors that has prevented this from happening is the problem with transferring the experiences of developed countries in using such experiences to developing and economies-intransition countries. Furthermore, in many cases, developed countries have used such instruments to generate income instead of changing behaviors and thus, cannot serve as an appropriate model for other countries [3]. Search for instruments to be used for the environmental management in developing countries is itself a kind of search for instruments of sustainable development. Economic instruments such as charges, taxes, tradable permits and etc. have contributed to this search and are considered as the most important factors in the integration of environmental and economic policies [3]. The aim of using economic instruments for the environmental management is to assist project managers and governments to control pollution, preserve the environmental utility and achieve predefined objectives. However, based on the experiences of developing countries, some of the instruments are lacking in the required effectiveness to achieve such objectives. So they need some changes and modifications based on the internal conditions of each country and its other legal instruments [8]. Therefore, economic instruments constitute a major part of environmental policymaking instruments which stand alongside laws, regulations and other procedures. In brief, if such instruments are designed in such a way that would meet the specific requirements of developing countries, they can become powerful instruments for preventing any falls in the environmental utility and ultimately in the total utility in the long run. This paper proceeds as follows: Section 2 briefly states and delineates the problem in question. Section 3 investigates and explores different kinds of economic instruments along with the advantages and limitations of each as a tool for controlling pollution and compensating for intentional and unintentional damages arising from exploitation of environmental resources and implementation of projects. While classifying mega projects, Sect. 4 outlines the criteria for selecting appropriate instruments. Section 5 not only describes the achievement of the

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study, but also provides a suitable classification for appropriate applications of economic policies and instruments in the two phases of construction and operation based on the nature of projects. Finally, Sect. 6 incorporates the discussion and conclusion.

2 Problem Statement Environmental aspects and impacts of mega projects lead to a decline in the environmental utility and ultimately in the society’s total utility in the long term, which is mostly inevitable. In addition, preserving the environmental utility and preventing its reduction at the construction and operation phases of projects are difficult and cost-intensive tasks. For this reason, environmental externalities of projects are usually ignored, leading to irremediable environmental damages [5]. Despite the fact that there are numerous economic instruments for the environmental management of projects at different stages, a poor knowledge and understanding of such instruments and their improper applications not only do not help solve the above-mentioned problem, but also make the issue more complicated in some cases. As described in Sect. 1, ignorance of the fall in the environmental utility by both the supply and demand sides at different phases of projects arises mainly due to three reasons as follows: • the long-running nature of environmental impacts; • the inevitability of development owing to its role in increasing other utilities (such as economic, social, . . .); and • lack of appropriate and efficient procedures/instruments for appraisal and precise estimation of environmental expenses of projects. A fall in the environmental utility is caused for three reasons: (1) mismanagement of projects at different phases, leading to environmental damages, destruction and pollution; (2) the nature of projects, because with the implementation of each project, even if it is properly managed, a manmade resource replaces a natural resource, thus leading to changes in land use; (3) lack of efficient methods for accurately measuring and estimating environmental externalities of projects. Although a proper knowledge and an appropriate application of the policies and instruments, which makes up the objective of this study, can help resolve the mismanagement problem, there is a need for justifications to be made by the parties involved in the project and the affected society. These justifications should be made due to the intangibility and complexity of the problem relating to the nature of projects.

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3 Economic Instruments for Environmental Management of Projects: Types, Advantages and Limitations Two major approaches have been proposed for solving the problem of environmental pollution and destruction (Fig. 1). The first approach is known as the Market or Property Rights solution put forth by Ronald Coase. He believed that the open market system should be allowed to settle the problem through bargaining among stakeholders. The second approach is based on the government intervention. The pollution and resources destruction control policies adopted by the government are categorized into two major approaches known as the Command-and-Control Approach (CAC) and Market-based Instruments (MBI) [1]. The Command-and-Control Approach comprises the implementation of environmental standards (e.g. for air or water pollution) through legislation of laws, without seeking help from market-based motives. In contrast, the second approach incorporates market reform through centralized decision-making on the value of environmental services and guaranteeing that such values will be included in the prices of goods and services presented through the project implementation [7].

Economic Instruments for the environmental management of projects Property Rights (Coase Theory)

Market-based Instruments Charges Taxes

Government Policies Command & Control Approach Ambient Standards Emission Standards

Incentive Policies (such as subsidies) Tradable or Marketable Permits Deposit-Refund Schemes

Fig. 1 Economic instruments for the environmental management of projects

3.1 Property Rights Approach (Coase Theory) The Coase Theory (1960) stresses the significance of property rights and bargaining among the supply side (polluters) and the losing side (the society). Supposing the existence of an appropriate system based on property rights (whereby ownership of resources has been guaranteed through legal tools), Coase maintained that the

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polluter and the losing side should be left alone in an unconventional situation and free of any supervision and control, whereby the process of bargaining and reaching agreement would take shape automatically [7]. Some of the most important advantages and limitations of this approach are as follows: Advantages: – It adapts to changes and various conditions automatically. – It involves implementing costs due to non-intervention of the government. – This approach usually incorporates local and indigenous issues, owing to public participation. Limitations: – Great number of stakeholders (polluters and losing sides) makes negotiations and bargaining difficult. – In mega projects, it is usually difficult to recognize and determine the ownership of resources. – This approach provides more benefits for the stakeholder who holds the property right. – Although environmental resources belong to all generations, it is impossible to take consideration of all future generations in the bargaining process.

3.2 Government Policies Government policies are a set of policies employed by the government to achieve the intended goals (i.e. reducing and controlling environmental pollution and damages) [4]. As shown in Fig. 1, pollution control instruments used by the government are divided into the Command-and-Control Approach and Marketbased Instruments. Each of these will be elaborated on along the following lines. 3.2.1 Command-and-Control Approach (CAC) As the name suggests, this approach includes a kind of “command” based on which polluters and exploiters of resources should not exceed a specific limit (permitted level of pollution), i.e. a “control” that imposes and monitors such a permitted level. Such control is also referred to as formulation of standards or enactment of quantitative laws and regulations [1, 4]. Standards comprise the two categories of ambient and emission standards. Ambient standards determine the permitted level of exploitation of environmental resources (e.g. the permitted number of trees to be cut). Emission standards determine the authorized amounts of pollution (e.g. the level of CO2 emission

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from venting). Some of the most important advantages and limitations of the Command-and-Control Approach are as follows: Advantages: – Standards conform to the Precautionary Principle.1 – Standards are more practical and more socially acceptable in comparison with the Coase Theory. – In case of full conformity to the standards, the level of pollutants and resource destruction will be at the carrying capacity level of the environment. Limitations: – To set an optimum standard and suitable charges, the government should have knowledge about supply and demand curves (for further information, see Dehghanian [1]). – Under standard conditions and full enforcement of laws, project managers would have no economic incentives to reduce pollution or destruction beyond the standard level. – As external factors change, there is always a need for modification and improvement of standards. – Given the first limitations, it would be better to set the optimum standard and suitable charges locally, which is a time-taking, cost-intensive and sometimes impossible task. 3.2.2 Market-Based Instruments (MBI) Market-based Instruments function by means of economic incentives to encourage and persuade positive environmental behaviors [7]. As shown in Fig. 1, Marketbased Instruments consist of charges, taxes, incentive policies (such as subsidies), tradable or marketable permits and deposit-refund schemes, which are elaborated separately along the following lines. Charges This instrument is directly applied in the pricing of environmental utilization and is in fact a cost levied in proportion to the amount of environmental pollution or

1 The Precautionary Principle is based on the general idea that when there is an uncertainty regarding a potentially irreversible damage to the environment, it is better to deal with this issue proactively. In such cases, either the standard of pollutants is considered as zero or the emission of pollution should be controlled by means of the best technology.

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destruction. Such costs are actually charges that have to be paid in lieu of pollutants emission into air, discharge in water and dispose of in soil, destruction of biodiversity and vegetation, noise pollution, and other kinds of environmental pollution and destruction. The amounts of charges depend on the quantity and quality of the pollutant and the costs arising from the damages made to the environment [7]. Some of the most important advantages and limitations of charges are as follows: Advantages: – Charges serve as the simplest control instrument for the environmental management. – Contrary to standards which are uniformly applied to all sources of pollution, charges, as determined case by case, provide suitable incentives for further reduction of pollution or destruction, which itself results in the reduction of charges; however, their preventive aspect is weak. – They provide financial resources required for indemnifying environmental damages. Limitations: – As an offence needs to be proven for charges to be demanded and as environmental pollution is caused by various sources, it is difficult to prove the offence and identify the offender. – Project managers might destroy the environment and dispose of pollutants secretly in order to evade payment of charges. – Demanding charges on the disposal of hazardous wastes in the environment is not practical (it should preferably be prohibited). Taxes Tax is an instrument by which the level of pollution can be controlled through creation of economic incentives and adjustment of relative prices. Taxes can be levied on specific levels of projects’ inputs or specific levels of pollutants emission [4]. Some of the most important advantages and limitations of taxes are as follows: Advantages: – Environmental tax is demanded in proportion to the difference between the pollution level and the standard level, and since it is up to the polluter to decide whether to pay tax or reduce pollution, this instrument is more flexible from the project managers’ viewpoint.

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– As pollution taxes are levied within a governmental framework, they constitute further enforceability than the standards determined for pollution. – Levying taxes on existing pollutants might result in reduction of the pollution level of secondary and other associated pollutants. Limitations: – Rise in Injustice: Imposition of taxes causes project managers to either cut down their workforce or increase prices of services as means of reducing expenses. – As with charges, taxes are faced with such limitations as secret demolition and pollution of the environment and inefficiency in the disposal of hazardous wastes in the environment.

Incentive Policies (Such as Subsidies) An alternative to taxation is for the government to pay subsidy to the polluter on every unit of pollution reduction. In addition, subsidies can be awarded for purchase of pollution reduction equipment and technologies. Theoretically, both taxation and subsidization should lead to a similar optimum level of reduction in pollution [1]. Some of the most important advantages and limitations of subsidies are as follows: Advantages: – Subsidies serve as facilities for project managers to reduce environmental pollution and/or destruction. Limitations: – In case of there being no limitation on development, subsidies can lead to unrestrained construction, which in turn increases total pollution and destruction in the long term. – Reduction of pollution and destruction by payment of subsidies can be socially “unfair”, because it practically leads to the distribution of the government’s budget among project officials (owners of pollutant sources). Tradable or Marketable Permits This system functions on pollution credits or pollution allowances. Under pollution credits, the corporation receives credits on reducing pollution to a level lower than the standard, and such credits are tradable. Under pollution allowances, the

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corporation is allowed to emit a specific quantity of pollutants and corporations can trade their pollution allowances [1]. Some of the most important advantages and limitations of such permits are as follows: Advantages: – As such permits are tradable; they create motivation for corporations to reduce pollution. As a result such corporations can sale their own permits to others and earn an income. – They generate revenues for the government. – This instrument is capable of controlling the total quantity of pollution in a given area without there being any need for controlling each and every source of pollution separately. Limitations: – This system has high monitoring, administrative and implementing expenses, particularly in cases where there is a large number of pollution sources (e.g. industrial estates). – As such permits are issued in limited numbers by the government; they constitute risks of formation of a black market or a monopoly. – Initial grant of permits requires expertise and special attention. – Determining emission permits for the whole country simultaneously requires large amounts of time and money. If it is not done simultaneously, projects might rush towards areas for which the total emission levels have not been determined. Deposit-Refund Schemes Such schemes include the payment of deposits for products that are potentially pollutant. If the waste formed by the consumption of such products is returned to authorized collecting stations, the deposit will be refunded. Additionally, a deposit can be paid by corporations in lieu of using raw materials, thereby encouraging corporations to make more efficient use of raw materials during the manufacturing process [1, 7]. Some of the most important advantages and limitations of such schemes are as follows: Advantages: – As this is an optional and voluntary scheme, it involves lower monitoring and control expenses than other instruments. – It encourages recycling and efficient use of raw materials. – As it provides the possibility of safe and proper waste disposal or waste recycling, it leads to a reduction in adverse environmental impacts (particularly regarding the hazardous waste management).

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Limitations: – It requires a system to be organized for receiving and refunding deposits and also requires recycling facilities to be erected.

4 Criteria for Selecting Appropriate Instruments in Construction Projects As described in Sect. 3, there is a broad range of economic instruments for the environmental management of projects. Selecting and realizing such instruments are usually carried out by raising and answering the seven following questions, all of which are directly related to the specific conditions of every country [6]: 1. Environmental effectiveness: Does/do the intended instrument(s) meet the specified environmental goals within the given period? If so, to what extent can this be relied upon? 2. Economical aspect: Does/do the instrument(s) concerned satisfy the specified environmental goals at the lowest cost (for both the supply side and the demand side)? 3. Flexibility and predictability: Does/do the intended instrument(s) can predict technological changes, lack of resources and the market situation and be flexible enough so as to adapt to new conditions? 4. Dynamic output: Does/do the intended instrument(s) provide any incentive for development of new and effective technologies economically-wise and cleaner technologies environmentally-wise? 5. Justice: Are the costs and interests of the intended instrument(s) distributed fairly? 6. Convenience of supervision and law enforcement: Is/Are the intended instrument(s) congruent with the legal framework of the country? Is there any need for new legislations? Does the executive arm of the government have the required capacity to issue urgent regulations and manage the instruments? 7. Acceptability: Is/Are the intended instrument(s) comprehensible by the public, acceptable by parties involved in projects and enforceable politically? For a proper employment of economic policies and instruments based on the nature of construction projects, which serves as the objective of this paper, it is highly important to classify this group of projects into a suitable category. This classification can be conducted as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Residential/Recreational Industrial/Commercial Service Infrastructural

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5 Results Given the discussions on the kinds of existing economic policies and instruments for the environmental management of projects as well as the advantages and limitations of each (Sect. 3), the types of mega projects and the criteria for selecting appropriate instruments (Sect. 4), for the purpose of preventing and mitigating any decline in the environmental utility arising from the implementation of projects, the following classification (Table 1) can be presented. This classification specifies the proper applications of instruments based on the nature of projects at the two major phases of construction and operation. Table 1 Proper applications of economic instruments based on the nature of projects Types of instruments Types of projects

DepositCoase CAC Tradable refund theory approach Charges Taxes Subsidies permits schemes

Residential/ recreational

Construction Operation

X

X X

X X

X X

Industrial/ commercial

Construction Operation

X

X X

X X

X X

Service

Construction Operation

X

X X

X X

X X

Infrastructural Construction Operation

X

X X

X X

X X

X

X X

6 Discussion and Conclusion Economic instruments for the environmental management of projects can be divided into the two distinct categories entitled Property Rights Approach (Coase Theory) and Government Policies, each having diversified approaches and instruments in their subcategories. The use of economic instruments for the environmental management of construction projects calls for an investigation of the advantages and limitations of such instruments. The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the advantages and limitations of the instruments concerned so as to make the most of them. After a precise study of the features of economic instruments, the advantages and limitations of each were delineated. According to the criteria for selecting appropriate instruments, classification of mega projects and the advantages and limitations, a proper classification was presented for allocation of economic policies and instruments based on the nature of projects at the two phases of construction and operation. The findings show that projects’ clients – usually the governments – particularly in developing countries, can select the most appropriate instruments from among

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economic instruments for preventing, minimizing and compensating for declines in the environmental utility at the two phases of construction and operation in view of the advantages and limitations concerned and the type and nature of projects, hence taking steps toward the sustainable development.

References 1. Dehghaniyan S, Farajzadeh Z (2002) Economy for economist and non-economist. Ferdosi University Publication, Mashhad 2. Layard RRG, Nickell SJ, Jackman R (1991) Unemployment: macroeconomic performance and the labour market, Oxford University Press, New York 3. Panayotou T (2002) Instrument of change: Motivating and financing sustainable development. Iran’s DOE Publication, Tehran 4. Perman R, Ma Y, McGilvray J and Common M (2003). Natural Resource and Environmental Economics. 3rd ed. Longman, Harlow 5. Soderholm P, Sundqvist T (2005) Pricing environmental externalities in the power sector: Ethical limits and implications for social choice. Ecol Econ 46:333–350 6. Storfner S (2004) Can market forces solve environmental problem? Neoclassical vs. Austrian analytics. University of Central England, Birmingham, UK 7. Turner RK, Pearce D and Bateman I (1993) Environmental economics: An elementary introduction. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore 8. Visvanathan C, Tiong TK (1999) Use of economic tools for Malaysian environmental management. J Strategic Environ Manag 1(4):333–350 9. Weiss J (2000) Some reflections on project economics and environmental issues: A development economist’s perspective. J Econ Stud 27(1/2):126–134

“Breaking Eco-limits” in Coal Mining in the Ústí Region in the Czech Republic: Possibilities, Decision-Making and Consequences Iva Ritschelová, Miroslav Farský, and Egor Sidorov

Abstract The possibility of cancellation of the territorial ecological limits for brown coal mining in North Bohemian Region (Podkrushnohori coal field) was a subject of wide speculation during the whole year 2005. The territorial ecological restrictions for individual mines and dumps determine the limits which should not be exceeded during strip mining and waste dumping activities. These limits are determined to protect the regional communities against the coalface front expansion and to respect the sanitary zones between the outskirts of the villages and the prospective utmost edges of the mine. These limits were established after the “Velvet Revolution” in the Czech Republic of 1991. Their aim was to prevent the further devastation of the landscape and exhaustion of the nonrenewable natural recourses in the region. The speculations about the cancellation of the limits arouse on the basis of refinement of the State Energy Policy of the Czech Republic. The discussion about the national fuel and energy balance, about the possibilities and hazards of the nuclear energy and renewable power sources use and about the power intensity of the Czech economy intensified at the same time. The authors of the paper discuss the possible environmental impacts of the cancellation of eco-limits, its influence on the economic situation in the Czech Republic and in the region itself, as well as social consequences of the respective decision. Keywords Coal Mining · Decision Making · Environment

1 Introduction During last year (2005), considerations of possible removal (“breaking”) of territorial ecological limits of brown coal mining in the Podkrušnohoˇrí coal basin area (Ore Mountains Foothills) attracted the attention of the public, particularly I. Ritschelová (B) University of Jan Evangelista Purkynˇe, 400 96 Ústí nad Labem, The Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_26, 

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in the Ústí Region. These considerations originated in the context of the preparation of a more detailed State Energy Policy. They were accompanied by an intensified discussion about the fuel-energy balance from the point of view of national-economy policy, possibilities and risks of nuclear power engineering under our conditions, and about the energy demands of the Czech economy. The State Energy Concept [1] (of 2004) in its chosen and most probable so-called “green scenario” supposes the following coal mining:

Total coal quantity mined (in Mt)

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

49.46

44.94

44.58

42.01

40.48

35.88

32.59

The basic precondition for this scenario is the growth of the installed capacity of the nuclear power engineering industry, which is not totally free of generally known environmental risks and problems. In this case, the adjective “green” is not used in the environmental meaning but symbolises a free way for the development of the power engineering sector. The chosen green scenario was evaluated [2] from the point of view of environmental impact according to Act no. 244/1922 Coll. The concept of power engineering should start from and be compatible with the raw material policy, whose updated and publicly accessible version it represents [3]. It says that the proposed development of brown coal-based power engineering is debatable because it has no sufficient raw material basis. We can quote: “The brown coal deposits being mined can provide approx. 1.25 billion tons of recoverable deposits that, with decreasing yearly extracted volumes, will ensure this raw material max. till the year 2035. In addition to that, in the areas located above the eco-limits declared by Czech Republic Government Decree no. 391, 444 and 490/1991, there is blocked another 0.97 billion tons of brown coal deposits that, in case they are used, could correspondingly prolong the life of this energy source. Nevertheless, this possible correction is conditioned by the corresponding general consensus in the region, which has to include mine-owners, concerned municipalities, public administration bodies, consent from the Ministry of the Environment, and change to the above-mentioned Government Decrees.” If such consensus is not reached, “. . .the deposits located outside the territorial eco-limits will be completely lost for mining or there will originate such mining conditions that deteriorate the economy of coal extraction and will not enable profitable mining in the future.” The following Table 1 presents basic data on the coal deposits on the Ústí Region territory in the sphere of mining activities and interests of the coal mining companies of Mostecká uhelná a.s. and Severoˇceské doly a.s. The table shows the situation as of 31st December 2003 as is registered in [4].

Source: [5]

Celkem

SD MUS

MUS SD MUS SD

938

x x

324 240 x x

Max. 27.5–32

x x

6.5–7.0 6.5–7.5 x x

10–12 4.5–5.5

2050–2053

x x

2050–2053 2035–2040 x x

2029–2034 2015–2018

356

x x

x 92 x x

x 264

12.5–13.5

x x

x 6.5–7.5 x x

x 6

x x

x 2047–2054 x x

x 2060

451

164 x

x x 163 124

x x

14

5 x

x x 5 4

x x

307 67

SD MUS

Libouš (13.6) ˇ armádyI+II Cs. et., (5.4) Vršany (11,1) Bílina (9.6) Bylany Podlesice -Velká Ves Zahoˇrany ˇ Armády Cs. III+IV et. (39.7 t/y)

Expected Recoverable mined coal per coal reserves Mt year Mt/y

Expected Recoverable mined coal per coal reserves Mt year Mt/y

Expected Recoverable- mined coal per year coal reserves Mt Mt/y

Opencast mine Joint stock (mined Mt in. 2003) company

Extended life till the year

Outside ecolimits

Outside ecolimits

Within the framework of ecolimits

Expected life till the year

Prognosed reserve areas

Active mining areas

Table 1 Coal reserves on the territory of the Ústí region

x x x x

x x

486

33 years x x 486

x x 33 years 31 years

x x

x 8

x x x x

x x

Expected Expected Recoverable mined coal per coal life till the year reserves Mt year Mt/y

Outside ecolimits

Post-prognosis areas

x 60 years

x x x x

x x

Expected life till the year

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2 What are Territorial Limits? The territorial ecological limits for individual mines and dumps determine borders that the open pit mining and its waste dumps should not exceed. The limits are set in a way protecting municipalities in the region against the progress of the working boundary, and they also respect protective hygiene zones between a village boundary and a future boundary of the open pit mine. These limits were set by three government decrees of the “Pithart Government” issued in autumn 1991 that gradually related to the municipality of Chabaˇrovice (no. 331/91), to the whole Podkrušnohoˇrí area (no. 444/91), and to the Sokolov area (no. 490/91). Events and facts that preceded the proclamation of these limits were discussed by I. Dejmal in the bulletin Zpravodaj MŽP 2005, no. 11, page 24–26 as well as in the document “Územní ekologické limity tˇežby in SHP” (Territorial Ecological Mining Limits in North Bohemian Brown Coal Basin prepared by the same author with co-workers, and disclosed in the Naturalists´ website (http://www.ochranciprirody.cz) including cartographic documentation. The above-mentioned decrees impose on corresponding bodies (ministries, district authorities, Czech Mining Office) the obligation to respect these limits and at the same time to modify already delimited mining areas of brown coal opencast mines by so-called writing off of deposits.1 This enables one either to totally remove the deposits from the records or to transfer them to the category of socalled non-balance deposits. In both cases their mining is excluded. Nevertheless, such writing off was applied only in the case of the Chabaˇrovice opencast mine. In practice, the write-off was not used in the Sokolov and Podkrušnohoˇrí area. The limits also restrict the advancement of mines in the Pudkrušnohoˇrí basin, and support pillar barriers protecting some larger towns, industrial premises and traffic corridors as determined by the CSSR Government as early as in 1963. Another pillar protects Jezeˇrí Palace and the adjacent arboretum. Map 1 shows the conditions of individual localities in the North Bohemian Brown Coal Basin and indicates areas to which the breaking of protective pillar barriers relates.

1 According to Act no. 44/1988 Coll. on the Protection and Use of Mineral Resources (The Mining Act), all kinds of coal belong to so-called dedicated minerals, whose volume of deposits and its changes must be recorded by the mining enterprises, and for individual minerals, there are set conditions for the recoverability of deposits that are a set of indicators of quantity and quality of minerals, geological indicators, as well as mining & technical and environmental indicators. Only “recorded deposits” marked as “balance deposits” can be extracted in an industrial way. The reported volume of balance deposits is falling not only because of the mining that has been carried out but also due to the change to the definition of their criteria.

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Map 1 neproduktivní a neefektivní oblasti, ochranné pilíˇre = non-productive and ineffective areas, protecting pillar barriers; oblasti definitivnˇe vyuhlené = definitely mined-out areas; rezervní lokalita = reserve locality; provozované a projektované lomy = operated and planned mines; oblasti výluˇcnˇe hlubiné tˇežby = exclusively deep mining areas

3 Current Positions and Attitudes After a certain lapse of time, the environmentally-orientated public considers the declaration of the limits as a certain compromise between the interests of mining enterprises and the interests and needs of municipalities in the sphere of environmental protection, and as a necessary starting point for the evaluation of the purposefulness of municipal investments. (E.g. the mine-owners can remove Faráˇrka Hill, which could otherwise form a natural protection barrier of the municipality of Droužkovice in the Chomutov district against noise and dust from the Libouš opencast mine, which is getting near to the municipality). In 2005, repeatedly expressed disagreement with the removal of the limits, shown particularly by the inhabitants of the most endangered municipalities – Horní Jiˇretín ˇ and Cernice – attracted considerable attention from the mass media. Nevertheless, it can be seen that part of the current population of the abovementioned municipalities would be willing to leave their place of residence if given sufficient financial compensation (Právo, 4. 4. 2006).

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As far as theoretical economists are concerned – J. Schwarz resolutely spoke out against ecological limits. He requires their removal and says that „it will create conditions for environmental enterprising, new jobs, growth of demand for additional goods and services offered by entrepreneurs from the region (demand for flats, transport and catering services, etc.), growth of income and therefore spending of the local population “(Hospodáˇrské noviny, 23. 6. 2005). The press interprets the attitude of the Ministry of Environment as not supporting „the breaking” of limits. Within the long-term perspective, the Ministry enforces larger use of gas for electric power. So far, this has not been changed – this policy is still followed, even after the “gas crisis” that occurred between Russia and Ukraine at the turn of 2005/2006. In fact, this view is also shared by Senator B. Moldan, who is against the limit removal, too. In his opinion, the threat that Russia could close the valves in gas pipelines can be eliminated by importing gas from various territories that, in addition to Norway, could also comprise the Middle East. (Hospodáˇrské noviny, 9. 1. 2006). According to the joint declaration of the prime minister and the minister of industry and trade of the Czech Republic of 4th January 2006,2 for the meantime, the government will not discuss any repeal of Government Decree no. 444/1991, and will respect the attitude of the representatives of the Ústí Region that will be based on public discussion on the region’s development plan “The government will respect this attitude. In case the Regional Referendum Act passes through the Parliament, this question will be decided directly by referendum.” In November 2005, the Regional Authority submitted for public discussion the “Development plan of the large territorial unit of Ústí Region (ÚP VÚC ÚK) – concept of solution”.3 This documentation considers two alternatives to the development of coal mining in the region: ˇ I. The ecological limits will also be respected in the future: Opencast mine CSA (Severoˇceské doly, a.s.) will terminate coal mining in 2017, and the opencast mine (Mostecká uhelná a.s.) will end mining in 2035. ˇ II. Ecological limits will be “broken”. The coal mining in opencast mine CSA (Mostecká uhelná a.s.) will stop at the line Litvínov-Janovice – Chemopetrol ˇ premises in 2060, and the towns of Horní Jiˇretín and Cernice will have to give way to the mining. The municipalities of Droužkovice fully and Spoˇrice and Bˇrezno partially should give way to the mining activities of Severoˇceské doly a.s. The public discussion about the draft of the development plan was administratively terminated by the Region on 9th February 2006. The date on which the Region representatives will formulate their opinion was not known when this article was prepared (May 2006). 2 See:

www.vláda.cz plan of the large territorial unit of Ústí Region (ÚP VÚC ÚK) – concept of solution. Prepared: April 2005; last update: 10th November 2005. http://www.kr-ustecky.cz/soubory/ 450018/vuc%5Fkolektiv.pdf 3 Development

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4 Impacts of “The Breaking” of Limits on the Environment Regarding the fact that one expects neither an increase in mined coal volume nor a decrease in the quality of mined material, the volume of emissions connected with mining should not exceed the current level (so-called gob-fires and spontaneous ignition). Subsequently, emissions from coal-burning power plants and thermal stations should not increase, on the assumption that general overhauls of current equipment units being at the end of their service life do not reduce efficiency of operation. Nevertheless, the “breaking” of the limits “will result in continued landscape devastation due to both transfer of mine stripping and coal substance mining as well as by origination of mine pits and external spoil banks”. As an illustration of the volume of mass to be handled, we present data taken from published company documentation. 2003 Company MU SD

2004 Coef.

Coal mined (Mt) Mine strippings (mil. m3 ) Coal mined (Mt) Mine strippings (mil. m3 )

16.5 29.6 23.4 91.1

1.8 3.9

Coef. 15.8 33.4 21.1 77.0

2.1 3.6

Coef. = m3 of mine strippings per 1 t of coal mined

5 Comments on Land Reclamation Works The opencast brown coal mining on the territory of Ústí Region from its beginning (as early as in 19th century) up to now has afflicted an area of 250 km2. From the 1960s about 116 villages and towns, including the historic centre of the town of Most, have been liquidated, and 90 thousand inhabitants have been moved out in connection with it. According to section 35 of Act no. 44/1988 Coll. on the Protection and Use of Mineral Resources (The Mining Act), the mine-owner is obliged to carry out complete treatment of areas and territorial structure affected by mining, i.e. land reclamation. Reclamation works are particularly focused on the area of spoil banks and other areas connected with coal mining, i.e. residual pits, mining (stripping and haulage levels) sides of former opencast pits, subsidence due to former underground mining areas indirectly affected by mining (former railway lines, areas of former buildings connected with mining activities), etc. Renewal of the function of disturbed landscape is, inter alia, supported by Government Decree no. 50/2002 and 272/2002 on the drawing of financial means intended for the removal of environmental damage that originated before the privatisation of brown coal mining companies in Ústí Region and Karlovy Vary Region

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defining the co-financing by the state. (According to the former Decree mentioned, it complies with the intention to gradually earmark CZK 15 billion from obtained privatisation yield, with the first drawing amounting to CZK 3 billion). The following Table 2 shows the registered area of land reclamation works in so-called coal basin districts of Ústí Region (Ústí n. L., Teplice, Most and Chomutov): (a) Works completed by 31st December 2003. (b) Works to be completed within the period 2004–2020 when respecting ecological limits. It is clear that even when the limits are adhered to, landscape devastation and subsequent land reclamation works will finally affect (at the level of the year 2020) at least 18% of the area of Most district, approx. 7% of the area of the districts of Teplice and Ústí nad Labem, and 3% of the area of Chomutov district. The data presented in Table 2 further show that the percentage of hydro reclamations is growing, while in the already completed land reclamations (ad a) this share amounts to 2.7%, and in the land reclamations that are to be completed by 2020 (ad b) it amounts to 8.3%. The percentage of hydro reclamations is also in good agreement with the water areas share (10.2%) of the total year-on-year increment of environmentally valuable water and forest areas in the nationwide balance for 2000– 2005 period as is documented by data in Table 3. (Another type of environmentally valuable land area, i.e. agricultural land, shows decrements in this period). One can say with certain simplification that this trend positively correlates with the original biotype of the landscape of the Ore Mountains Foothills. In prehistoric times, a large lake existed below the Ore Mountains but its area gradually shrank (first due to sedimentation and later as a result of human activity) and the area gradually divided into several smaller lakes. The largest was Komoˇranské Lake located to the northwest of the town of Most. This is described both in the monographs ˇ of exile P. Stránský (Ceský stát, 1634) and by B. Balbín, S. J. (Miscellanea historica Regni Bohemiae, 1679–1687). Another lake (called Bˇrvanské jezero) is known from other sources. All the lakes had to get out of the way for industrialisation and mining. The only reminder of the lakes is the German name of the municipality of Ervˇenice, “Seestadt” (i.e. town by the lake).

6 Economic Consequences of “The Breaking” of Coal Mining Limits One of the frequently used arguments in favour of “the breaking” is a supposed increase in the number of jobs and decrease in the unemployment rate in the region. Nevertheless, this is a debatable argument. In fact, coal mining will not increase, it will “only” be relocated, which means that a dramatic growth of new jobs cannot be expected, and it would be correct to speak rather about maintenance of employment.

572 1, 268 797 3, 834

469 467 935 x

a Existing ecological limits are adhered to Source: [5]

1, 197

404

Ústí nad Labem Teplice Most Chomutov Total

Agricultural

District area in km2

Territory of former districts

1, 085 2, 270 105 4, 073

613

Forest

90 121 21 252

20

Hydro

142 1, 094 58 1, 337

43

Other

1, 889 4, 753 981 9, 496

1, 873

Total

4.03 10.18 1.05 x

4.63

% of district area

340 568 801 1, 769

60

780 28 1, 468 411 800 0 3, 722 696

674 257

436 1, 311 256 2, 150

1, 584 3, 758 1, 857 8, 337

3.38 8.05 1.99 x

147 1, 138 2.82

Agricultural Forest Hydro Other Total

% of district area

Land reclamation completed as of 31st December 2003 (ha) Land reclamation to be completed in 2004–2020 (ha)a

Table 2 Land reclamation after brown coal mining Ustí region

7.41 18.23 3.04 x

7.45

Total % of district area

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Table 3 Recap of available and usable potential of renewable resources in the Czech Republic Technical potential Renewable resources Solar energy

Wind energy

Geothermal energy and energy of the environmentc Energy of water streams

Biomass

Total

Technology Solar liquid collectors Photovoltaics Wind-power plants >60 kW Hydrothermal >130◦ Ca Hydrothermal <130◦ C Heat pumps Large hydroelectric plants >10 MW Fuel Firewood and waste wood, otherb Cultivated biomass Biofuels and biomass

Available potential Current use

Electricity Heat Heat PJ GWh PJ

Electricity Electricity GWh Heat PJ GWh

25

–

17

–

0.4

–

–

23,000 16,000

– –

5,500 4,000

– –

0.03 4

–

35

–

3.5

0.2

–

< 0.1

–

< 0.1

–

< 0.1 –

– 13,100

< 0.1 –

– 1,165

–

1,850

– 78

–

– 45

1,115 –

– 22

705 420

275

–

136

–

–

.

33

–

16

1,200

2.5

214

12,984

25.1

–

2,979

a So-called hot dry rock heat; b other solid biofuels; c hot water taken from bore wells for water supply and spa purposes technical potential (theoretical potential) is technically available generation of energy regardless of other limitations; available potential (attainable potential) – technical potential limited only by known administrative, legislative, environmental and other limits that can be defined and determined Source: [7] according to association for the use of renewable energy resources and own calculations

Possible newly created jobs will have prevalently a manual work character, and due to the existing system of social insurance, they are difficult to fill from local labour resources. In many cases, the only labour available is from abroad. If long-term coal mining in the Czech Republic is in compliance with the State energy concept, further reduction in employment can be expected after 2020. This trend could be compensated by possible higher work intensiveness of coal mining due to more difficult mining conditions, which would probably be reflected in the price of coal, which may influence the demand for coal. A question that could be answered only after special research asks whether one could create more jobs in connection with land reclamation. An unofficial assessment of contributions from land reclamation financed by the National Property Fund

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that have been obtained so far nevertheless indicates that the promised increase in the local employment rate is usually not achieved.4 We assess any further use of reclaimed areas for economic activities in industrial zones, for building, transport, etc. in the future in a sober way. One identifies information that supports the statement saying that in the region, there exist sufficiently large and unused areas for the development of these activities within the framework of municipal industrial zones as well as in the Triangl zone (former military airport in the town of Louny area), where the Ústí Region is investing. The data on the volume of land reclamation in progress and on that planned for completion by 2020, as given in Table 3, respect the ecological limits. Their possible breaking would result in a marked increase in the volume of land reclamation works. A well known situation in Czech agriculture, particularly in the context of the EU agricultural policy, does not motivate agriculture to acquire new areas for growing traditional crops of this region. A certain possibility is agro-energy, particularly the growing of suitable crops for biomass production that could be added to solid fossil fuels burnt in power plants and thermal stations to decrease fossil fuel consumption. Vegetable oil produced from rapeseed can be used for methyl ester production, which can be added to diesel oil, which subsequently reduces petroleum imports. We also cannot a priori exclude the growing of such crops that could be processed by fermentation to provide ethanol for use as an additive to gasoline, which would again reduce petroleum import. The importance of biomass as one renewable energy source (RSE) is documented by the data in Table 3 that recaps the available and usable potential of renewable resources in the Czech Republic. The Ústí Region is a territory with good prospects for the practical application of agro-energy or phyto-energy. According to the EU criteria, this region is rated as LFA (Less Favourable Areas) for agriculture in spite of the relatively high share of agricultural lands, particularly meadows and pastures that are not used for agricultural production and are left fallow. At the Faculty of the Environment of J. E. Purkynˇe University in Ústí nad Labem, there was, within the framework of a research intention called “Research into Anthropogenic Loads in the North Bohemian Region,” solved a partial project, DÚ 1.3 “Possibilities of the Development of Agro-energy in North Bohemia”.Within this research, whose course, results, and publication output has been summarised in [6], there were recommended, inter alia, suitable plants and areas for their growing.

7 Conclusions The decision about the breaking of limits of coal mining should be preceded by a complex evaluation of the economic impacts of such decision, as well as the economic consequences of land reclamations that have been carried out so far. These aspects have been assessed nearly exclusively from the point of view of landscape 4 For

this, see for example:: Profit, 2004, no. 22–23, pp. 24–25, no. 26, pp. 20–21

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ecology (see e.g. [8, 9]). When choosing the optimum investment alternative, it is necessary to apply the method of Cost Benefit Analysis, which comprises not only financial cost and revenues for the investor but also associated induced cost and benefits in the sphere of public goods and services.

References ˇ 1. Státní energetická koncepce Ceské republiky (approved by Government Decree of the Czech Republic, no.211 of 10th March 2004) http://www.mpo.cz/xqw/webdav/-UTF8-/dms_mpo/ getFileinternet/10768/12925/SEK.doc 2. Posouzení vliv˚u SEK na životní prostˇredí (2004) Prepared by: Tebodin Czech Republic, s.r.o. http://www.mpo.cz/scripts/modules/dmsdoc/document.php?lid=1&dlid=1&id=10766 3. Surovinová politika v oblasti nerostných surovin. Editor: Ing. Lenka Benešová (2004) http:// www.mpo.cz/xqw/webdav/-UTF8-/dms_mpo/getFileinternet/10769/791/surpol.doc 4. Roˇcenka životního prostˇredí Ústeckého kraje 2003, Ústí n. L., KÚ 2005 5. Koncepce smˇer˚u rozvoje zemˇedˇelství a venkovských oblastí Ústeckého kraje (2005) Prepared by: ARR Euroregionu Labe, o.p.s., November 2005. http://rozvojkraje.kr-ustecky.cz/soubory/ 450018/koncepce%5Fsmeru%5Frozvoje%5Fzemedelstvi.pdf ˇ 6. Vráblíková J, Vráblík P (2006) Možnosti rozvoje agroenergetiky v severních Cechách. In Studia Oecologica. Ústí n. L. UJEP, being printed ˇ v kontextu státní energetické koncepce a 7. Beranovský J, Truxa J (2005) Plánování OZE v CR EU. Edited. http://www.energetika.cz/index.php?id=71&cl=12 8. Prach K (2006) Pˇríroda pracuje zadarmo. Vesmír 5:272–277 9. Šípek V (2006) Rekultivace – teˇcka za tˇežbou uhlí. Vesmír 5:304–305

Relationship Between Tourist Education and Development Perception About Environmental Impact of Tourism Development R. Shakeri and A. Barati

Abstract In this research the quantity of tourism information and acquaintance was studied for tourism development effects on different environmental parameters in Namak Abrood, a recreational area of Iran. Findings showed that the tourists had a variety of views about the tourism activities’ effects on environmental factors. Generally, they evaluated these effects with the low and medium quantities. Study of responders’ education degrees also showed that the different individuals, aside from their education degrees, had almost similar views. From the views of tourists, the relation between quantity of chargeability and the actions of different groups (tourists, managers and institutions of tourism development and local people) was considered insignificant in decreasing of environmental quality. According to their views, all involved groups in tourism development had the same share in the decrease of environmental quality. Results from this study showed a decrease in psychological expectation level of individuals using a limited area for recreation, and also showed an increase of tourism psychological carrying capacity. On this basis (63.4 ± 8.06) present of responders, suggested 5–20 family (20–80 person) for recreational use of land with an area of one hectare, that was very higher than the current standard psychological carrying capacity of Iran (7 persons, about 2 family per hectare). Keywords Tourism · Recreation · Environmental information · Psychological carrying capacity · Education

1 Introduction The quantity of acquaintance and information of persons who any way, involved in tourism development process (tourists, local people and managers of tourism development) is one of the important factors in tourism development discussions. R. Shakeri (B) Natural Resources Faculty, Chamran University, Ahvaz, Iran e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_27, 

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Hillery et al. [2] studied the relation between environmental factors that affect the area and tourists’ conclusions from this at ten regions in central Australia. His results suggested that in spite of non significant environmental effects in these regions, tourism conclusion of tourism environmental effects was different. Even though the environment is considered as an raw material in tourism development [7], it is evident that the rate of tourism activities correlated to the environmental quality. Tourists tend to their use recreational area which have the highest environmental quality. If the environment quality does not provide the tourists expectation, some of them may change their travel paradigm [3]. Kaywood [5] stated that many of involved groups in tourism development such as tour managers or local people, and also tourists, agree that the tourism experience decreases and damages, with a resultant decrease of environmental quality, crowds, population etc. Tourism development is dependent on high environmental quality and is the best choice for long term benefits of tourism industry, growth and sustainable development control of this industry and also for evidence of these effects. For correct tourism management it is necessary to acquaintance from the ideas and views of tourists, local people and the persons who, anyway affected by tourism development, and also it is necessary to present intended information, programs, and limits to these people and to get their view and their suggestions. On this basis, an analytical assessment of tourists views, and their understanding level and interpretation of tourism environmental effects was done about tourists who has used Namak Abroud cable car facilities for a definite time period.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Studies Area Namak Abroud is a small tourism town that is located 12 km far from the west of Chalous, in north of Iran. This area is restricted from he north by Caspian Sea, from the south by Medoben mountain, a part of Alborz mountain range, and from the west by the farmlands. This small town is designed and constructed on a land with an area of 650 ha, with two main purposes: residency development (220 ha) and tourism development. Amusement park, cable car, artificial lake, athletic field, coastal recreational center, shopping center and services facilities are some recreational and tourism facilities that designed for tourism development in this area. Cable car is one of the important attraction of this area that is located on the south west of Namak Abroud and provide people for reaching to the beautiful peak of the Medoben mountain. At the top of the mountain a restricted land with an area of 2,975 m2 is allocated tourism use. The medium height of this area from the sea level is about 980 m. Prominent forest community in this area is the Fagetum. The most traditional use of this area also are picnic and forest sight seeing.

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According to the weather condition in different seasons and also according to the number and distribution of holidays the average of tourists differ through the year as at the holidays is between 2,500 and 3,500 (person per day) and at the other days differ from 700 to 1,000.

2.2 Methods This research was accomplished with survey method: A well recognized collection of data that provide with questionnaire method is the important feature of this method. Statistic community: Statistics community of this research is the people who had used the Namak Abroud cable car facilities as tourists during the sampling time.

2.3 Sampling Methods Studies individuals in this research were selected with random sampling method and for reaching to the best results, according to the increase of returning time, tried to diminish interfere variables, such as holidays.

2.4 Sample Volume According to the primary available and approximate estimation of the whole statistical community, and with the use of Cokran formula, 144 questionnaires were selected. n=

1+

t2 p.q 2 d2 t p.q 1 N d2

−1



As the sample volume following formula was used for calculating of up and down threshold of the parameters.  %E =

pi .(1 − pi ).t2 .100 n

2.5 Definitions Tourist: In this research tourist is the person who comes from out to the studied area and use cable car facilities. Several suitable criteria (Table 1) were used for testing and measuring of tourist’s receptions and conclusions; and for each criterion, several indicators presented description statistics were used for analysis of data.

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Table 1 The criteria assumed for assessment of tourists conclusion about environmental effects of tourism development Criteria Tourism conclusion from environmental effects of tourism development

Indicators

Impact on economic condition of the area Impact on cultural condition of the area Impact on social condition of the area Impact on natural parameters

Air pollution Soil and water pollution Destruction of forest and plant vegetation Change of natural landscape Wildlife destruction

Effect rate of different person function on the destruction and decreasing of environmental quality

Function of local people Function of tourists Function of tourism development managers

Psychological carrying capacity

Suitable family number for recreation on a region with an area of one hectare

3 Results 3.1 Psychological Carrying Capacity from the View of Tourists Psychological carrying capacity as one of the different kinds of tourism carrying capacity means the number of individuals that can use a tourism area, without any disturbance and tension to each other. Psychological carrying capacity is completely depends on the level of tourists expectation and their ways of thinking. The question of (how many families (with 4 persons) can recreation on a land, with and area of one hectare) was suggested for awareness of tourist’s conclusion and the level of their expectation. The results of testing and majoring of these criteria is showed in Table 2.

Table 2 Psychological carrying capacity from the view of tourists

Suggested family number by tourists

Frequency

Percent

5–20 20–50 50–150 150–200 Sum

52 46 28 16 142

36.6 32.4 19.7 11.3 100

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According to these results, tourists have suggested 5–20 family for recreation on a land with and area of 1 ha. The results also show that from the view of (36.6 ± 8.088) percent of tourists, 5–20 family is suitable for this purpose.

3.2 The Effects of Tourism Activities on Economical, Social, and Cultural Condition of Destination Society On the base of findings evaluation of the most of tourists was positive about the effects of tourism development on economical and cultural conditions of the area (Table 3).

Table 3 Tourists estimations from the tourism development effects on economical, social and cultural conditions

Economic condition Cultural condition Social condition

Effective impact

Without impact

Negative impact

Number

Frequency

Percent

Frequency

Frequency

142

123

86.6

11

7.7

8

5.6

142

86

60.6

31

21.8

25

17.6

141

94

66.7

25

17.7

22

15.6

Percent

Percent

3.3 Effect of the Development of the Tourism Activities on Important Environmental Factor Studied Area Generally it seems that tourists are concern about the consequences, that decrease the possibility of use of recreational areas and they also concern about the remind thing from other tourists. Probably from the view of an ecologist these effects have low importance, because these effects are easily returnable and have little damage on functions of natural ecosystem. Thus for management and programming of tourism development it is necessary to consider test and compare of the conclusions and understanding of ecologists, tourists and managers of tourism development [6]. Some indicators were determined for testing and measuring of tourists ideas about this subject and for each indicator one spectrum with five sections was determined. On this basis the result of answers of each indicator is come in Table 4. Survey of tourists, about the amount of relationship between decrease of environmental quality and the effects of act’s of the groups that any way associated in tourism development process was considered as the other criteria in this research.

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Table 4 Tourists estimation from the effects of tourism development on environmental conditions of the studied area Tourist estimations from the effects of tourism development on each indicator and evaluation grade

Air pollution Soil & water pollution Forest & vegetation destruction Decrease of natural landscape Disturbance for wildlife Sum of rows Mean of effects percent

Very high (5)

High (4)

Medium Low (3) (2)

Very low (1)

Without impact (0)

Sum of columns Average

12.7 (17) 24.6 (33) 27.4 (37)

10.4 (14) 9.7 (14) 5.2 (7)

4.5 (6) 17.2 (23) 19.3 (26)

14.9 (20) 14.2 (19) 24.4 (33)

8.2 (11) 9.7 (13) 8.1 (11)

49.3 (66) 24.6 (33) 15.6 (21)

100 (134) 100 (134) 100 (135)

1.57 1

22.1 (29)

10.7 (14)

12.2 (16)

11.5 (15)

11.5 (15)

32.1 (42)

100 (131)

2.24 2

15.7 (21) 99.5 19.9

6 (8) 42 8.4

13.4 (18) 66.6 13.3

10.4 (8) 71 14.2

10.4 (14) 47.9 9.58

48.5 (65) 170.1 34.02

100 (134) 500 100

1.65 1

Table 5 Tourism conclusions about the effects of different group functions in decrease of environmental quality

Tourism conclusion about the function effect Local people Tourists Tourism development managers Sum

Frequency 50 45 49 144

2.51 3 2.73 3

10.7 2.14

Percent 34.7 31.3 34 100

Acquaintance from the way of thinking and conclusions of tourists is benefit for management and programming of tourism development. The results are in Table 5. The education degree of individuals can be considered as effective criteria in recognition and acquaintance of individual from environmental subjects. On this basis degree of education of persons who was studied, and their views about the environmental effects of tourism development is shown in Table 6. According to the chi-square test, the relation between degree of education and views  2 about the environmentaleffects of tourism development was not significant x = 5.545, df = 5, p = 0.353 .

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Table 6 Comparative table of tourism education degrees and the quality of conclusion above the environmental effects of tourism Kind of conclusion about the effect Degree of education Academic Below the academy Sum

Without impact

Very little

little

medium

much

Too much

sum

6 3

26 28

12 9

13 9

6 9

8 2

71 60

9

54

21

22

15

10

131

4 Discussion and Conclusion According to the results of this research, one of noticeable subjects is the decrease of psychological expectation level of people in use of a limited space or recreational purposes. 36.6 ± 8.08 percent of tourists who was studied in this research suggested 5–20 family (about 20–80 person) for the use of a land with an area of one hectare and from the view of 63.4 ± 8.08 percent. Suitable number of family for this purpose was very higher than standard psychological carrying capacity. Suitable number of family for this purpose was very higher than standard psychological capacity. Standard psychological carrying capacity for Iran is 7 persons (about 2 families per hectare). It seems that high requirement of people for recreation, and the deficiency of available facilities and services in this field cause the people to accept more people beside themselves in tourism areas and so the expectation level of people has noticeably decreased. The high percent of tourism is studied area and medium or good consent of many of them (%50.7 ± 8.39) approve our claim. Hadavi et al. [1] reached to the similar results in this subject. The rate of psychological carrying capacity that they reached from the view of local people in marginal recreational areas of Chalous road was about 110 user unit per hectare. According to the result, tourist conclusions about the effects of tourism development, activities, on environmental factors can be showed in different spectrum. It seems that, about the factors that have visible and evident effects, understanding of these effects and also the relation between tourism development and its effects on environmental quality is easier for tourist. On this basis and according to the tourist answers, the most impact of tourism development was in order on forest and vegetation destruction, soil and, soil and water pollution, and the change of natural landscapes.

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According to the results different effects of tourism development activities on quality of environmental factors generally was evaluate as low and medium, while study of different environmental parameters especially result from the study of soil and vegetation study [9] is represent the vast change of the factors, by tourism activity. Subjective change of some parameters such as plant vegetation, erosion, landscape change and etc. at the first, looks understandable for every person. Thus some false view of tourism about the degree of tourism activities effects on quality of environmental factors can be considered as an approval on lake of suitable environmental education and diversity of their information and acquaintance about the tourism effect on natural environments. According to the results from the view of 64.7 ± 7.9 percent of tourists, the most rate of effects on environment results from function of local people and tourism development managers, and only % 35.3 ± 7.96 considered more responsibly for function of tourists compare with two other groups. According to the result of chi-square test, relation between the effects of different group function in decrease  2  of environmental quality was non significant x = 0.292, df = 25, p = 0.864 . At a similar study about tourist’s ideas of responsibility rate of different group, including tourists, tourism development managers and local people in making destructive environmental effects in Mykonos, showed that from the view of tourists, managers and local people had the more share and according to the local studies in this area, native people had the most share in making the ecological effects to the others [4]. According to the different studies, because the different goals, expectation level and the way of thinking, important degree of different ecological effects and also recognition of this effects is completely differ between and in of different groups and many of tourists have little information about the ecological effects and some even is not able to recognize ecological effects [6]. Education system has an important role in directing to environmental interests and increase of people information and acquaintance about environmental subjects. Stockholm conference has imposed on the role of education system in giving awareness to people and acquaintance them with environmental subjects. Official education is one of the easiest ways to the main group of people. International conference of environmental education in Tefllis, in 1979 considered as the maximum point of education efforts for environment. The best achievement of this conference is the education manifest to of environment. the conference is regret for the lake of environmental education of specialist groups that caused them not to understand polymorphic characteristics of environmental problems and consider the education of person as the most important need of environment education in the world. Thus notice to the environment education in educational program of businessman who their activities and decisions are effective on environment is a critical subject [8]. The result of comparison between education degree of responders (tourists) and their view about the environmental effects of tourism development shows that

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different people and most of them estimated the effects of tourism development on environmental condition at low or very low rates. This issue in addition to the approval of previous findings of this research in environmental information deficiency of tourists, also emphasis to the necessity of more consideration to increase of people environmental acquaintance at different education levels of official education process.

References 1. Hadavi S et al (1994) Studying of psychology and ecological carrying capacity of chalous road. MSc Thesis, Natural Recourse Faculty of Tehran University, Iran 2. Hillery M et al (2001) Tourist perception of environmental impact. Ann Tourism Res 28(4):853–867 3. Inskeep E (1987) Environmental planning of tourism. Ann Tourism Res 14:118–135 4. Kavallinis I, Pizam A (1994) The environmental impacts of tourism whose responsibility is it anyway? The case study of Mykonos. J Travel Res 33(2):26–32 5. Kaywood M (1986) Can the tourist are a life cycle be made operational? Tourism Manag 7(3):154–167 6. Martin SR, Mecool SF (1989) Wilderness campsite impacts: Do managers and visitors see them the same? Environ Manag 13(5):623–629 7. Mlinari IB (1985) Tourism and the environment: A case for Mediterranean cooperation. Int J Environ Studies 25:239–245 8. Scientific Technical and Professional Part of UNESCO (1991) International teaching of environment. Translated by F. Borumand, 1991. National UNESCO Commission, Iran 9. Shakeri R (2004) Study and preparation of environmental impact assessment guidelines for developing tourism plans. MSc Thesis, Natural Recourse Faculty of Tarbiat Modarres University, Iran

Assessment of Dangerous Substances Release from Construction Products to Environment Nicoleta Schiopu, Emmanuel Jayr, Jacques Méhu, and Pierre Moszkowicz

Abstract In 2005 the European Commission mandate CEN to prepare test methods with which construction products can be tested with respect to the potential release of dangerous substances to water, soil and to indoor air. A horizontal approach is considered the best route for such test development. Horizontal approach means that it is product independent and consists of the development of a test method applicable for different products used in a certain scenario. This action will satisfy the needs resulting from Essential Requirement n◦ 3, on Hygiene, Health and Environment, as specified in the Construction Products Directive. In this context, the aim of the work presented here is to study the release mechanisms and the parameters which could influence the leaching of pollutants from construction products towards soil and water, in order to provide information for the development of a horizontal test. The research has been carried out on monolith products, based on three types of matrices: concrete, wood and metal (zinc). For the concrete products, one of the choice criteria was the presence of trace metals (e.g. chromium VI); the wood products are pertinent candidates for our study because of the preservation treatment, which by definition is toxic for some form of life (biocidal substances are used for the treatment); as for the zinc based products, research on contributions of the different sources of urban run-off pollution, showed a very high concentration of zinc (up to 6 mg/L in a catchment in Paris) in roof run-off. Also, this source represents a very high percentage among other urban run-off pollution sources (92% from roof vs. 8% from yard and street run-off). Keywords Dangerous substances · Construction products · Environmental assessment · Leaching behaviour

N. Schiopu (B) Sustainable Development Department, CSTB – Scientific and Technical Centre for the Building Industry, 24, rue Joseph Fourier, 38400 Saint Martin d’Hères, France; Laboratory of Environmental Assessment of Industrial Systems and Process (LAEPSI), INSA de Lyon – National Institute of Applied Sciences of Lyon, 9, Rue de la Physique, 69100 Villeurbanne, France e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_28, 

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1 Introduction In 2005 the European Commission mandate CEN to prepare test methods with which construction products can be tested with respect to the potential release of dangerous substances to water, soil and to indoor air [8]. A horizontal approach is considered the best route for such test development. Horizontal approach means that it is product independent and consists of the development of a test method applicable for different products used in a certain scenario. This action will satisfy the needs resulting from Essential Requirement n◦ 3, on Hygiene, Health and Environment, as specified in the Construction Products Directive [7]. The most common tools for the environmental assessment of leaching behaviour are the leaching tests. Widely developed for waste (end-of-use phase of a product) [6, 1, 10], the existing leaching tests for the lifespan phase, are product specific and not scenario specific tests [4, 5]. Previous research on mineral materials showed that in addition to the intrinsic properties of the material (total content, porosity, etc.), parameters of the scenario conditions such as the leachant hydrodynamics (continuous or sequential renewal, liquid to solid ratio), leaching reactor type (closed, open) may also contribute to the release behaviour of the products’ constituents [12, 15]. The present research has been carried out on monolith products which were chosen by taking into account their (1) structural and physico – chemical characteristics: an inorganic (non – metallic) porous product, an organic porous product and a metallic non – porous product; (2) leaching mechanism: different dominant mechanism (diffusion, dissolution etc.); (3) representativeness on the market; (4) dangerous substances content: products which a priori could lead to some pollution problems. The three studied products are: the concrete paving slabs, the wood duckboards and the zinc gutters. Regarding the fourth choice criterion of the products to be studied (dangerous substances content), the concrete products were chosen because of the presence of trace metals (e.g. chromium, zinc, copper etc.). The wood products are pertinent candidates for our study because of the preservation treatment, which by definition is toxic for some form of life. Nowadays, the most widely available wood treatments are copper-based. Without the chromium and arsenic, as in the case of CCA preservatives, copper based compounds are seen as environmentally preferable to previous generation of preservatives. However, without chromium, which helps the copper bond tightly to wood, these types of preservatives are more subject to leaching [2]. We chose to study a wood product treated with a last generation preservative, based on copper-boron-propiconazole [13]. As for the metallic product, i.e. the zinc gutter, research on contributions of the different sources of urban run-off pollution, showed a very high concentration of zinc (up to 6 mg/L in a catchment in Paris) in roof run-off. Also, this source represents a very high percentage among other urban run-off pollution sources (92% from roof vs. 8% from yard and street run-off) [9]. The work presented here is a part of a larger research program and the methodology adopted for the overall research is presented elsewhere [14]. The aim of this part is to study the release mechanisms and the parameters which could influence the leaching of pollutants from construction products towards water. In order to achieve

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this objective, the experimental program was organised in two parts: (1) characterization of some intrinsic proprieties of the tested products, such as the porosity (for the porous matrices) and the composition of the pore water and (2) determination of the leachant hydrodynamics influence on the release (dynamic tests).

2 Materials and Methods The concrete paving slabs were manufactured by using a CEM I – based concrete, supplied by a concrete mixing plant (ready-mix concrete). The concrete was cast in rectangular moulds of 16 × 13 × 4 cm3 and cured in bulk form at room temperature in a humid environment for 28 days. The wood duckboards are a pine wood type (Pinus Sylvestris) industrially preservative treated for outdoor use in risk class IV (wood placed horizontally outside, wood in contact with fresh water etc.) [3], with some active substances based on boron-copper-propiconazole. The zinc gutters is made of a zinc alloy with 0.13% Cu and 0.05% Ti.

2.1 Physico-chemical Characterisation of Products A first characterisation of products (total content, acid/base neutralisation capacity (ANC/BNC), pH influence on release . . .) was carried out and reported in previous works [13, 14]. Here, are presented the Water Porosity Test (WPT) and Pore Water Test (PWT) carried out on the two porous products chosen for the research: the concrete slabs and the wood duckboards.

2.1.1 Water Porosity Test (WPT) The water porosity test was carried out in order to assess the “open water porosity” (i.e. volume of pores accessible to water: ε, %) of the porous products. The test is based on the determination of the water quantity absorbed by a sample of the product. In a close reactor, at room temperature and low pressure (∼10−3MPa), after a 4 h degassing phase, the sample was slowly immerged in demineralised water and maintained like that for 20 h. At the end of the test, the water saturated sample is weighted firstly immerged in water (hydrostatic balance method, mwater ) and than in the air (mair ). The mass of the dry (at 105◦C) sample was also measured (mdry). The “open water porosity” is given by the equation:  ε = 100 · mair − mdry / (mair − mwater ).

2.1.2 Pore Water Test (PWT) The Pore Water Test objective is to estimate the initial composition of pore water. The test was carried out on crushed samples (≤1 mm), at natural own pH of the

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products (in demineralised water) and decreasing liquid to solid (L/S) ratio (which means the ratio between the volume of the leachant and the mass of the sample): 15, 10, 5, 1, 0.5 L/kg (in the case of wood sample a test at lower ratio than 5 L/kg wasn’t possible because of a too small quantity of “collectable” eluate). The leaching vessels were agitated by an end-over-end tumbler. The equilibrium conditions were reached before 48 h (in order to check the stationary state, some tests were conducted up to 10 days). At the end of the test, the pH, the conductivity and the potential redox of eluates were measured. After filtration (0.45 μm) the eluates composition was analysed by ICP-AES (Jobin Yvon ULTIMA 2): B (DL = 0.002 mg/L), Ca (DL = 0.001 mg/L), Cu (DL = 0.001 mg/L), K (DL = 0.072 mg/L), Na (DL = 0.009 mg/L), Zn (DL = 0.001 mg/L), by ion chromatography (Dionex IC 25): Cl− (DL = 0.5 mg/L), SO4 2− (DL = 0.5 mg/L), and by using a COT-meter 5000 A Shimadzu for the dissolved organic carbon: DOC (DL = 0.5 mg/L). The concentration errors were estimated to be up to 5%.

2.2 Dynamic Leaching Tests In order to study the leachant hydrodynamics influence on the release, two dynamic tests were carried out on the three products. 2.2.1 Continuous Monolithic Leaching Test (CMLT) The Continuous Monolithic Leaching Test is a dynamic test with continuous flow of the leachant, based on a protocol developed by Polden / Insavalor [11]. The monolithic sample(s) is (are) placed in a reactor (Fig. 1) and completely submerged in

Fig. 1 Experimental set-up for the CMLT (Continuous Monolithic Leaching Test)

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demineralised water (the leachant) all along the test period (64 days), at a L/A ratio of 5 cm3 /cm2 (the L/A ratio means the ratio between the volume of leachant and the geometric surface of the sample) and a renewal rate of 0.52 cm3 /cm2 /h (cumulative renewal rate about 800 cm3 /cm2 ). In the reactor, the local homogenization of the leachant is assured by an efficient stirring. This stirring was performed by a loop recirculation of the leachant with a peristaltic pump at a flow rate of 18 L/h. The eluate is collected in separate fractions after a fixed period of time: 2, 4, 8 h, 1, 2, 4, 9, 16, 36 and 64 days. Two types of eluate sampling were carried out: (1) a punctual sampling (beginning with the second day of leaching, a minimum quantity of eluate (∼25 mL, needed for analysis) collected at the end of the fixed periods of time) and (2) an average sampling (all eluate collected during the fixed period). The collected eluates were filtered through 0.45 μm pore size membranes. The eluate parameters (pH, conductivity, redox potential) and the concentration in the targets elements were monitored, following the same protocol as for the PWT.

2.2.2 MultiBatch Test (MBT) The MultiBatch Test is a dynamic test with sequential total renewal of leachant (Fig. 2). The protocol is based on the Dutch standard NEN 7345 [10]. As for the CMLT, the monolithic sample(s) is (are) placed in a reactor and completely submerged in demineralised water at a L/A ratio of 5 cm3 /cm2 but without any stirring. A total renewal of leachant is carried out at the same fixed period of time as for the CMLT sampling (2, 4, 8 h, 1, 2 etc. days). The cumulative renewal rate over the all period of test (64 days) was about 50 cm3 /cm2 . All the eluate is collected and analysed, at the end of each fixed period. The parameters of two dynamic tests (leachant nature, L/A ratio, sampling period. . .) are chosen as similar as possible, in order to make pertinent comparison of their results. The main protocol differences between CMLT and MBT consist in the reactor type (open – i.e. matter exchange with the exterior – or closed) and in the eluate hydrodynamics (sequential or continuous renewal).

Leaching reactor Monolithic sample

Fig. 2 Experimental set-up for the MBT (MultiBatch Test)

Sample supports

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3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Physico-chemical Characterisation of Products The main physico-chemical parameters of the products are listed in Table 1. The initial pore water composition was estimated by using the regression equation of the concentration vs. L/S ratio trendline (logarithmic scale). The concentration for the L/S ratio corresponding to the saturated open porosity was estimated by a backward forecast (Figs. 3 and 4). This L/S ratio (porosity L/S ratio) is estimated from the WPT (Table 1). The density and porosity values obtained for the two porous products are in agreement with literature data [16, 17]. The Figs. 3 and 4 show that a decrease in L/S ratio induces a slightly pH decrease (a 0.18 slope), in the case of the wood duckboards and a pH increase (a – 0.23 slope) in the case of the concrete slabs. The pH values of the concrete product are in agreement with the observed concentration of Na, K and Ca, which are higher in the pore solution. The low acidity of the wood product (pH in the pores water estimated at around 5) appears to be independent of the alkaline metals.

Table 1 Main physico-chemical parameters of the products Product Parameters Density (ρ), kg/m3 Humidity, % Open porosity (ε), % Porosity L/S ratio (ε/ρ), L/kg

Wood duckboards

Concrete slabs

410 ± 30 9.3 ± 0.1 71.7 ± 0.9 1.75

2420 ± 30 4.9 ± 0.2 14.7 ± 0.7 0.06

Zinc gutters 7143

Total content, mg/kg dry mat. [14] B Ca Cu K Na Zn

93 958 1244 754 863 20

24 230000 90 1613 562 94

Initial pore water estimated composition, mg/L B Ca Cu K Na Zn Cl− SO4 2− DOC

50 180 100 140 100 2.5 25 60 3140

– 19 – 8400 2710 2.5 52 450 23

1343

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Wood duckboards

DOC

4

R2 = 1,00 y = –1,06x + 2,51

Ca

3 Log (Conc., mg/L)

y = – 0,88x + 3,85

R2 = 1,00 y = –1,04x + 2,40

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2

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0

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–1

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Cl-

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0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

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1,2

Zn

Log (L/S, L/kg)

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pH

R2 = 0,95

Fig. 3 Estimation (backward forecast) of the initial pore water composition of wood duckboards

Concrete slabs

K

4

Na

Log (Conc., mg/L)

3

y = – 0,83x + 2,91 R2 = 1,00

y = – 0,96x + 2,26 R2 = 0,97

2

2 Ca y = –0,71x2 + 0,16x + 2,53

1

2 SO4-- y = 0,72x – 0,54x + 0,92

R = 0,96

R2 = 0,89

0

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y = – 0,67x – 0,42 R2 = 0,92

Cl-

y = – 0,57x + 1,02 R2 = 0,96

DOC

y = – 0,45x + 0,82 R2 = 0,95

pH

y = – 0,23x + 12,42 R2 = 0,98

–1 –2 –1,2

–0,8

–0,4

0,0

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Log (L/S, L/kg)

Fig. 4 Estimation (backward forecast) of the initial pore water composition of concrete slabs

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In the case of both building products, the linear relationship in logarithmic scale between the Na & K concentration and the L/S ratios, with a ∼ (−1) slope, supports the hypothesis of the progressive dilution of their initial available quantity. This behaviour is a characteristic of the highly soluble constituents. In fact, in the case of the wood product, all the investigated constituents have a similar behaviour. This could be explained by the week buffering capacity of the wood matrix [13, 14]. For the concrete product, because of the matrix effect, the calcium concentration evolution vs. the L/S ratio is more complex and dependent of the pH, via the portlandite solubility dependence. The calcium concentration depends equally of the Na & K concentration, by a competition relationship between them. The Zn release is pH dependent and, as amphoteric metal in the pH range of concrete, it is more soluble at higher pH. The SO4 2− concentration is strongly Ca and pH dependent.

3.2 Dynamic Leaching Tests The results are expressed in two ways: I. the release behaviour observed in the CMLT is compared to the release observed in the MBT (Figs. 5 and 6). For both tests, (in dotted lines for the MBT and continuous lines for the CMLT), the results are expressed as a function of time (in hours): (1) in terms of pH and concentration (quantity of constituent released per litre of eluate, mg/L), in decimal scale, (2) in terms of surface-related cumulative release (quantity of constituent released cumulatively per surface unit of the product sample, mg/m2 ), in logarithmic scale, and (3) in terms of flux (quantity of constituent released per surface unit of the product sample and per time unit, mg/m2/day), in logarithmic scale. 14 12

pH

10 8 6 4 2 0 0

400

800

1200

1600

Time (hours)

Fig. 5 Eluates pH evolution

Concrete slabs MBT

Concrete slabs CMLT

Wood duckboards MBT

Wood duckboards CMLT

Zinc gutter MBT

Zinc gutter CMLT

Assessment of Dangerous Substances Release Concrete slabs MBT Concrete slabs CMLT Wood duckboards MBT Wood duckboards CMLT Zinc gutters MBT Zinc gutters CMLT

Zn MBT vs. CMLT

DOC MBT vs. CMLT

1 0,1 0,01 0,001

Concrete slabs MBT Concrete slabs CMLT Wood duckboards MBT Wood duckboards CMLT

100 Concentration (mg /L)

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10

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0,1

0,0001 400

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Concrete slabs MBT Concrete slabs CMLT Wood duckboards MBT Wood duckboards CMLT Zinc gutters MBT Zinc gutters CMLT

Zn MBT vs. CMLT

Cumulated release (mg/m2)

1000000 100000 10000 1000 100 10 1 0,1 0,01

1

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400

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Concrete slabs MBT Concrete slabs CMLT Wood duckboards MBT Wood duckboards CMLT

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100000 10000 1000 100 10

10000

Concrete slabs MBT Concrete slabs CMLT Wood duckboards MBT Wood duckboards CMLT Zinc gutters MBT Zinc gutters CMLT

Zn MBT vs. CMLT

0

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0

1

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100 1000 Time (hours)

10000

Concrete slabs MBT Concrete slabs CMLT Wood duckboards MBT Wood duckboards CMLT

DOC MBT vs. CMLT

1000 Flux (mg/m2/h)

Flux (mg/m2/h)

1000 100 10 1 0,1 0,01 0,001

100 10 1 0

0,0001

1

10

100

1000

10000

Time (hours)

1

10

100 1000 Time (hours)

10000

Fig. 6 Release behaviour in the two dynamic tests

II. the release behaviour observed in the two dynamic tests (CMLT and MBT) was compared with the results obtained form the PWT and from the Acid Neutralisation Capacity (ANC) test [6, 14], by plotting the eluate concentration in the target constituents against the pH (Fig. 7). The ANC test allows the determination of pH influence on constituents’ release and the acid/base neutralisation capacity (ANC/BNC) of the product. Figure 5 shows that the eluates pH remains quasi constant during the tests for the three products (∼11 for the concrete product, ∼6.5 for the metallic product and ∼ 6

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1000

CMLT ANC

MBT PWT

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MBT PWT

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pH

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MBT

ANC

PWT

DOC Wood duckboards

100000

100000 10000 1000 100 10 1 0,1 0,01 0,001 0,0001

CMLT ANC

MBT PWT

10000 1000 mg/L

mg/L

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MBT PWT

10000

Zn Zinc gutters

CMLT

MBT

ANC f

A

100

0,1

10 mg/L

mg/L

1000

1

0,01

1 0,1 0,01

0,001

0,001

0,0001 2

4

6

8 pH

10

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14

0,0001 0

2

4

6

8

12

10

14

pH

Fig. 7 Constituents release in CMLT and MBT compared with ANC and PWT

for the wood product), except for the concrete in the CMLT, when a decrease of 2 pH units is observed (from 11.2 the first day to 9.2 beginning with the 36th day of leaching and till the end of the test). The punctual sampling in the case of the CMLT allowed the determination of the eluate composition into the reactor at a given time. For wood and metallic product, the eluate pH evolution into the reactor is the same as for the collected eluate. Instead, for the concrete product, for the two last samplings (at 36, respectively 64 days) a higher pH is measured into the reactor (up to 0.8 unit of pH as shown in the Fig. 3 with the symbols). This could be explained by the exposure of the collected eluate to the air. Three types of release behaviour are observed: (1) elements for which the release is still under progress for the test duration (high slope of cumulated vs.

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Table 2 Type of release behaviour Release behaviour Test CMLT

MBT

Wood duckboards Concrete slabs Zinc gutters Wood duckboards Concrete slabs Zinc gutters

Depletion not reached during experiment

Depletion reached during experiment

Ca, K, Na, Zn, SO4 2−

B, Cu, DOC

Ca, K, Na, SO4 2− , DOC Zn

Zn B, Ca, Cu, K, Na, Zn, SO4 2− , DOC Ca, Cu, K, Na, Zn, SO4 2− , DOC Zn

< Detection Limit

B, Cu Cu

B Cu

time trendline); (2) elements for which a plateau is reached more or less rapidly (depletion reached during the experiment duration) and (3) elements for which the concentration were lower than the detection limit of the used for analysis. Table 2 summarizes the results in terms of release behaviour obtained from the cumulated release plotted against the time (examples given in the Fig. 6). In general, for the same element and product, in the CMLT, the cumulated release at the end of the test is higher compared with the MBT. As expected, for the zinc gutters, the cumulated release at the end of the test is very high in the case of the CMLT (∼83 g/m2 ) and the release is still under significant progress. Instead, a plateau is reached in the MBT and the cumulated release is two orders of magnitudes lower than in the CMLT. In the case of MultiBatch Test, for the target elements the depletion was reached during the experiment duration, in spite of the lower cumulated L/A ratio, compared with the CMLT (50 vs. 800 cm3 /cm2 ). This could be explained by the gradient effect which lessens during the MBT (the leachant is not continuous renewed). Some examples of the release behaviour observed in the two dynamic tests (CMLT and MBT) compared with the ANC test results and with the PWT results are shown in Fig. 7. In the case of highly soluble constituents (Na, K, Cl− ) but also pH dependent elements (Cu in wood product), the eluate concentrations are around one order of magnitude lower than in the ANC test and almost three orders of magnitude lower than the pore water concentration, thus the release is not limited by their solubility. Regarding the differences between the two dynamic tests, for the concrete slabs, no significant difference was noticed; in the case of wood duckboards, the CMLT gives higher amount of released constituent. In the case of the concrete product, the B and Cu concentrations in the eluates obtained from the dynamic tests are closed or lower than the detection limit, except for the Cu in MBT. In fact, for the elements release study from the construction products, this is one of the mean issues to deal with: the low (from analytical point of view) but yet significant (from environmental point of view) release concentration of the targets elements. Some constituents, such as

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Ca, Zn and SO4 2− in the case of concrete slabs and Zn in the case of wood duckboards, are controlled by the saturation of eluates (the eluates concentration from the dynamic tests are closed or even higher than the eluates concentrations from the ANC test). Moreover, for the concrete product, the calcium eluate concentration is higher than pore water concentration, which means that calcium release is due to the surface wash-off and matrix dissolution and not to the diffusion from the pore water. A similar mechanism is observed for the Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) release from wooden product in alkaline medium: the matrix dissolution is the main responsible for the release and not the diffusion phenomenon. In neutral medium, the DOC release is not solubility controlled (MBT & CMLT concentrations are more than one order of magnitude lower than in the ANC test) but the renewal type influence is high in controlling the release process: the concentrations in the case of continuous renewal (CMLT) are up to one order of magnitude higher than in the case of sequential renewal (MBT). In order to apply the horizontal concept (same tests for all the products), the same experimental protocol was performed for all the three products. Nevertheless, in the case of the metallic product, the results of the ANC test could not be considered as an acid neutralisation capacity, as for the porous products, because the matrix is the target element in itself: the dissolution of the matrix is the release mechanism. The main leaching mechanisms that can be identified for the three studied products are: (1) diffusion (from the pore solution to the leachant), (2) dissolution of constituents/solubility controlled release, (3) initial surface wash-off and (4) dissolution of the matrix.

4 Conclusions We can conclude that: – one of the mean issues to deal with in the case of the elements release study from the construction products is the low (from analytical point of view) but yet significant (from environmental point of view) release concentration of the targets elements. – the type of target constituents has a higher influence on release than the matrix of the product. Nevertheless, the matrix influence (type of the matrix (porous or not), acid neutralisation capacity etc.) must not be neglected in the tests choice and results interpretation. – it’s neither realistic nor useful to recreate in laboratory some exhaustively simulating tests of the real situations, in order to study the leaching phenomena. Nevertheless, because of the mass transfer parameters influence on the leaching behaviour, the exploitation of the laboratory tests results for the real scenarios requires a minimum of similitude between the tests and the reality, such as : the leachant type, the renewal type and rate (e.g. a very low renewal rate for a close to equilibrium situation; a high renewal rate for a scenario in which the leaching is independent of the already released elements), the value of the liquid (volume of leachant) to solid (mass or surface of the product) ratio, etc.

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References 1. AFNOR (2000) Standard XP X31-211 Déchets – Essai de lixiviation d’un déchet solide initialement massif ou généré par un procédé de solidification, Paris 2. California Department of Pesticide Regulation (2005) ACQ 2100. Registration Number: 010465-00037. Available on http://www.cdpr.ca.gov 3. CEN (1992) Standard EN 335 – Durability of wood and wood-based products. Hazard classes of wood and wood-based products against biological attack, Brussels 4. CEN (1994) Standard XP ENV 1250-2 – Wood preservatives – Methods for measuring losses of active ingredients and other preservative ingredients from treated timber – Part 2 : Laboratory method for obtaining samples for analysis to measure losses by leaching into water or synthetic sea water, Brussels 5. CEN (2002) Standard EN 1744 – 3. Tests for chemical properties of aggregates. Preparation of eluates by leaching of aggregates, Brussels 6. CEN (2004) Standard prCEN/TS 14429 – Characterisation of waste. Leaching behaviour test. Influence of pH on leaching with initial acid/base addition, Brussels 7. European Communities (1989) The Construction Products Directive n◦ . 89/106/EEC, on the approximation of laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the member states relating to construction products, Brussels 8. European Commission (1989) Mandate M/366. Horizontal complement to the mandates to CEN/CENELEC, concerning the execution of standardization work for the development of horizontal standardized assessment methods for harmonized approaches relating to dangerous substances under the Construction Products Directive (CPD). Emission to indoor air, soil, surface water and ground water, Brussels 9. Gromaire-Mertz MC, Garnaud S, Gonzalez A, Chebbo G (1999) Characterisation of urban runoff pollution in Paris. Water Sci Techn 39(2):1–8 10. NNI (1995) Dutch Standard NEN 7345. Leaching characteristics of building and solid waste materials. Leaching tests. Determination of the leaching behaviour of inorganic components from building materials, monolithic waste and stabilized waste materials, Delft 11. Polden/Insavalor (2005) Dynamic Monolithic Leaching Test. Research program n◦ 0372C0008/2005, financed by the French Agency for Environment and Energy Management (ADEME) 12. Réthy Z (2001) Etude du comportement à la lixiviation d’un matériau à base de liant hydraulique contenant des polluants solubles. Rôle des conditions de contact solide/liquide. PhD Thesis, National Institute of Applied Sciences, Lyon, France 13. Schiopu N, Barna L, Jayr E, Méhu J (2005) Caractérisation des émissions de substances des produits de construction à base de bois, en contact avec l’eau. ORGAGEC 05: Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on “Health and environmental risks of the organic materials for construction”. Nantes – France, 4–5 Oct 2005, pp 201–218 14. Schiopu N, Jayr E, Méhu J, Barna L, Moszkowicz P, (2006) Horizontal environmental assessment of building products in relation to the construction products directive (CPD). WASCON 2006: proceedings of the 6th international conference on “Science and Engineering of Recycling for Environmental Protection”. Belgrade – Serbia & Montenegro, May 30- June 2, 2006, pp 217–228, accepted for publication in Waste Manag J 15. Tiruta-Barna L, Barna R, Moszkowicz P (2001) Modelling of solid/liquid/gas mass transfer for environmental evaluation of cement-based solidified waste. Environ Sci Technol 35,2001:149–156 16. Usta I (2003) Comparative study of wood density by specific amount of void volume (porosity). Turk J Agric Forestry 27:1–6 17. Yang CC, Chob SW, Wang LC (2006) The relationship between pore structure and chloride diffusivity from ponding test in cement-based materials. Mater Chem Phys 100:203–210

Challenges of the Implementation of the WEEE Directive in the Danish Context Chiara Gobbi

Abstract Ecological and economic intentions often compete in today’s business world. So far, companies rarely accept the responsibility for external effects, i.e. the gap between ecological and economic costs. Although the European and National legislations are forcing the internalization of these costs (the recovery costs should be afforded by the original equipment manufacturers), the social responsibility of the enterprises and the environmental performances are also important issues, as well as to which extend governmental institutions and local municipalities should be involved in planning and performing the reverse process. The study considers the effects of the European Directives on electrical/electronic equipment waste and restriction of use of certain hazardous substances (WEEE – Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment and RoHS – Directive 2002/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment), both influencing the electrical and electronic products market. It analyzes the impact of the recovery legislations on companies’ behaviour and end-oflife/end-of-use products disposal and it wants to stress the existing severe gap between the efforts made by producers in order to design and manufacture recyclable products and the existing recycling technologies. The analysis is based on considerations derived from interviews conducted in manufacturing companies operating in the medical devices, IT and mobile communications sectors, collective schemes agencies, governmental institutions, plastics producers and municipalities within Denmark. Keywords Reverse logistics · Product recovery · WEEE · RoHS Directives

C. Gobbi (B) Department of Industrial Management and Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, DTU Building 423, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark e-mail: [email protected]

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1 Introduction The reverse logistics drivers as well as recovery options are briefly described in order to set the framework in which the WEEE directive comes into place. The salient points of the Directive are then presented focusing on the concept of extended producers’ responsibility. The rest of the paper outlines how the WEEE Directive is shaping the flow undertaken by dismissed products in both the businessto-business (B2B) and business-to-consumers (B2C) markets: new actors, flow and processes configurations. Finally, some evaluations of the available recycling technologies in relation to product recovery are given.

1.1 Reverse Logistics Drivers Historically firms have concentrated on getting products and services to the market. Product returns and warranty program have existed for some time and in this sense, companies have been dealing with reverse logistics (RL) for a while. In evaluating the RL tasks, the focus has traditionally been in minimising costs ensuring a reasonable costumer service support, missing the possible significant returns on investment when considering different recovery options. Over time, the recognition of increasing value of products and technology created in the field at the end of the direct supply chain and the impact of the green laws, particularly in Europe, has moved companies’ focus to different types of recovery programs, not merely centred on customer service. Andel states: “. . .by ignoring the efficient return and refurbishment or disposal of product, many companies miss out a significant return on investment” [1]. Different reasons that can be grouped on economic, marketing and legislatives motives drive the developing of recovery programs and companies engagement in reverse logistics. Companies have become involved with reverse logistics, either because [4]: – of the economical and marketing benefits by improving company image on consumers mind; – “feel” moved to, as part of corporate citizenship and social responsibility; – due to regulations. Reverse logistics programs can bring direct gains to companies by reusing raw materials and components, reducing disposal costs, improving customers/suppliers relationship, reducing pollutions taxes, reducing energy consumption, improving marketing position, promoting the “green image”, etc. . . The growing environmental concern among both consumers and businesses is also a major reason to move towards reverse logistics programs in order to prove to the market that the firm operates according to a set of values and principles that consider social common interest. Finally, companies might have to enter RL programs in order to comply with state legislations. While few

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regulations specifically address reverse specific issues, a number of countries, states and municipalities have developed legislations relating to environmental issues, which can affect directly and indirectly RL. For example, the Directive on Packaging and Packaging Waste in Europe, based on the German “Green Dot” Law, has been the catalyst for the take-back legislation in more than 20 European countries, and several in Asia. The “White and Brown Goods Act” in the Netherlands obliged manufactures and importers of electronic appliances to take back their products after use and recover a certain minimum percentages [5]. During 1997, US States enacted about 80 recycling laws, bringing the total number of state recycling laws to approximately 500: 25 countries have “producer responsibility” laws for packaging and 13 countries require recovery of transport packaging [9]. The RoHS and WEEE directives have recently brought into force and they represent a full path to harmonisation and consensus among the European Member States along with the packaging regulation. As legal instrument, the material restrictions, the take-back and recycling obligations enacted through the RoHS and WEEE directives, respectively, strongly influences the end-of-life (EoL) and end-of-use (EoU) recovery policies (Nokia Environmental Report [7]).

1.2 Recovery Options The potential of the recovery process is variable and the process can include many different activities such as collection, transportation, inspection, handling, and redistribution. Different options span the product life: direct reuse (typically in the case of commercial returns without any major reprocessing), resale or transfer of ownership (sales on secondary markets), repair, refurbishing, remanufacturing, cannibalisation, recycling, until final disposition in the forms of incineration or landfill [6]. The selection of one of these options, but in most cases a combination of those, is one of the operations management problems. Furthermore, any option denotes different levels of product structure preservation until cannibalization and recycling where the product structure is completely lost and reusable parts or materials are recovered. Steven M. in his paper “Networks in Reverse Logistics” presents a hierarchy of product disposed treatment activities based on the priority given by the German Commercial and Industrial Waste Avoidance and Management Act. The highest priority is given to waste avoidance, therefore, reuse has the highest priority followed by remanufacturing, recycling, disposal with energy recovery and landfill [8]. Consequently, reuse is the option that should be preferred whenever possible since it implies the highest level of waste avoidance and the highest level of resources and energy savings. On the contrary, when the legislation triggers the reverse flow, the product has normally reached a stage equivalent to waste: the legislation generally affects only EoL and EoU products, which do not have any more market value (Fig. 1).

306 Fig. 1 Hierarchy of waste treatment activities [8]

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Reuse Remanufaturing Recycling Disposal with energy recovery Disposal in landfill

2 The European Directives 2.1 The RoHS Directive The RoHS Directive influences indirectly the recovery of electrical and electronic equipments, which is instead regulated by the WEEE. It sets restriction on the use of certain substances in plastic materials and therefore poses requirements in evaluating the possibility to recycle plastics. The Directive, which applies to electric and electronic equipment introduced in the market from 1 July 2006, bans the use of lead, cadmium, mercury, hexavalent chromium, and the brominated flame-retardants PBDE and PBB. In order to reach the target, major electrical and electronic producers started well ahead of legal deadlines to adopt the necessary measures. For instance, Nokia Corporation started early in advance to proactively working with its suppliers to comply with the materials restrictions. Bayer Group has also banned from all its products the use of the substances specified in the RoHS Directive long ago. However, historical waste will still carry the banned substances for a long while. This issue has to be properly considered when designing the process for recycling in order to avoid the dispersion of environmentally dangerous substances and ensure safe working conditions [11].

2.2 The WEEE Directive The WEEE Directive has been approved by the European Parliament on the 27 January 2003 and it came into force in Denmark the 1st of April 2006. By the 13th of August 2005, all producers affected by the WEEE Directive should have started to mark their products with the WEEE symbol. The Directive establishes the concept of producer responsibility and encourages the design and production of electrical and electronic equipment, which facilitate repair, possible upgrading, reuse, disassembly and recycling. By establishing the concept of extended producers’ responsibility, the Directive makes the producer accountable for financing the collection, treatment, and recovery of the dismissed

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products: the producer becomes the ultimate responsible for proper disposition, the owner of the recovery process in terms of costs, legal responsibility, and environmentally sound EoL management. Furthermore, the Directive sets recovery targets which vary from 50 to 80%, depending on 10 product categories. These targets should be met by the 31st December 2006 and reported by the producers to the local authorities by the end of year 2006. In Denmark a 3 months period has been given to the producers in order to archive these data starting from the 1st of January 2007. It has left the possibility to producers and importers to form and operate individual and collective take-back systems: industries/sector specific or generic collective schemes have been formed. By signing into a collective scheme, the company delegates the establishment and management of the recovery process previous payment of a fee calculated on the total sales in each member state [12]. For the national implementation, the Directive allows different configurations and operating systems to better adjust to the local needs and existing situation. This large degree of freedom has the downside that it creates diverging structural alternatives that are hardly comparable. For instance, the Danish legislation has decided that the collection of the WEEE waste is made by 5 fractions instead of the 10 product categories suggested by the Directive anyhow, the reporting system is due to give feedback to the European Commission on the base of the 10 categories [10].

3 The Impact of the European Directives on the Reverse Flow 3.1 Actors The number and type of actors involved are various and beside the traditional ones of the reverse flow, governmental agencies (local environmental protection agencies, EPAs), trade associations and collective schemes are involved with different levels of responsibility. The flow starts from the final user, which might be a commercial company or the end consumer. The WEEE information campaigns should specifically target those actors that initiate the reverse flow and they are crucial to get the process up running. After collection, the recovered products are transported to the waste management plants. Some kind of sorting and grouping might precede the arrival to the final treatment facilities. All these activities are performed by the collective schemes that coordinate all the intermediate stages before treatment handle the administrative tasks; manage the relations with national stakeholders (local WEEE system, EPA, Ministry of Environment), the members and all the contractors. Contractors are recyclers, third party logistics suppliers, other suppliers that might perform intermediate phases as maintenance of the collections sites, transportation, storage, consolidation, sorting, etc. . . The national organisms should supervise the process, adopt some sort of enforcement systems, and report to the national authorities and the European Union. In most of the member states, the enforcement program will act on the retail chain in order

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to assure that all products have the WEEE mark and the producer is registered in the local WEEE system.

3.2 Flow Direction and Characteristics If the legislative driver is the triggering factor, we claim that RL has some peculiar aspects and processes configuration, which tends to separate the forward and backwards flows in two different streams that rarely overlap. It is also relevant to underline that the term “reverse” appears quite inappropriate: the reverse flow tends to be a completely different flow from the forward one to the extreme that it can rarely be named “reverse”, else be considered a total different downstream flow [8] and generally outsourced (Fig. 2). The legislation norms those reverse logistics flows that deal with EoL and EoU products that do not represent a direct economical opportunity and require reprocessing in order to extract valuable parts, components or materials. Therefore, the flow requires processes and infrastructures that do not correspond to the ones deployed in the forward flow and that are normally part of the waste treatment process. Instead, when the returned product preserves market value, it is more likely that companies and dealers get the products back by using the original chain and infrastructures of the forward flow, optimising the transportation services (for instance the dismissed product is taken back when replaced by a new one). The more the product is in first phases of its using life cycle, the more probable is that the reverse chain overlaps the forward chain and companies take an active role on the reverse flow. Commercial returns is a clear case in which companies are directly involved since the returned product can be considered as new and after inspection and repackaging, it can be easily sold again in the original market place [2]. In addition, refurbishing

Dealer

Producer (manufacturer, importer, distributor)

Sold to raw materials market

Final disposal

End user (consumer or business)

Retailer

Recyling and reprocessing

Special processing and disposal

Sorting

Hazardous material

Collection and trasportation

End - of - life, End - of - use – WEEE delivered at the municipality collection stations

Fig. 2 Independent reverse flow of the WEEE stream in the B2C situation (adaptation from [3])

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Supplier

Producer (manufacturer, importer, distributor)

Dealer

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Retailer

Fig. 3 Relation between the using life cycle of a product and the reverse chain

and remanufacturing, if efficiently performed, can represent valuable opportunities for companies. In those cases, it is also more likely that the original forward chain is utilised for the reverse flow, at least to perform the initial steps (collection and inspection) and even if outsourced, there is a direct interest by the OEM to control the phases of the reverse chain (Fig. 3).

3.3 Actual Configuration Out of the 845 electrical and electronic Danish companies, both operating in B2B and B2C markets, 121 (14%) have decided to implement an “in-house” recovery program, but only one of them operates in the B2C market (Table 1). The other companies decided to participate into a collective scheme: – industry specific as in the case of LWF (The European Lighting Companies Federation - ELC, which groups 28 companies and importers of light sources, 8 of those are represented by major players) Table 1 Danish data on companies WEEE compliance

WEEE LWF NERA Elretur SUM

B2C

B2B

1

120

Unspecified

SUM

28 7 689

121 28 7 689 845

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– generic as in the case of Elretur which counts 689 members and NERA (The Nordic Electronic Recycling Association) which has been founded by some major companies as Sony, HP and Ingra Micro and groups also other minor vendors. Major players have formed specific schemes in order to afford common costs or because they might have a direct interest on the reverse chain outcome, for instance, they directly purchase the raw materials coming out from the recycling process: some members of the ELC scheme buy in directly from the recyclers the glass recovered from their recycled products. Both in the consumers and in business markets, the reverse chain operates independently of the forward chain. Since the one–to–many customers’ structure of the forward flow shifts to the collection many–to–one, it is in general economically inconvenient to implement its own recovery chain or use the forward chain in order to collect the disposed products. The market dispersion, the uncertainty related to quantity, quality, timing and variety of the recovered products make the reverse flow in most of the cases not profitable. Furthermore, some specific reasons derive from industry sectors requirements: – in the case of medical devices, “in-house” recovery programs would be unjustified because of the impossibility to reuse any of the components or materials due to additional legislations that impose products purity and sterility; – in the case of IT and mobile products, RoHS compliance. technology and materials obsolescence make impossible any economical gain. Therefore, given the lack of economic benefits and legal restrictions to disposal, companies tend for the larger part to take part to collective schemes and thereby delegate the recovery activities, sharing costs infrastructures, management and implementation. The collection of the EoL and EoU products happens nearby inhabited areas, at companies’ premises, and in some cases also adjacently to recyclers’ facilities. The collective schemes in collaboration with the local municipalities supply: – suitable containers for the waste collection placed in public receiving stations; – transportation of the filled containers to the recyclers’ premises; – correct treatment, recycling and landfill disposal. In order to assure the execution of all activities, collective schemes sign contracts with logistics service providers for the placing and transportation of the containers and with the recyclers in order to guarantee the necessary recycling capacity. In the B2B case, the situation differs (commercial collection sites): – the container is owned or rented out to the commercial customer while the recycling remains free of charge. It is not clear who gets to pay the collection and transportation costs, if the collective scheme or the commercial user;

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– participants to the collective scheme might have containers standing at their own premises; – the containers can also be placed at recyclers’ sites; – in case of assets protection, the commercial user assumes the producer responsibility during the buying process and therefore is responsible to discharge properly the product. The WEEE Directive imposes to recover EoL and EoU products. EoL is not synonym of EoU: a product that is disposed because considered EoU might still maintain intact its original functionality. Therefore, EoU products might not flow through the recovery process because better market options are available. This is the case of reuse or continues use or second hand markets that represent a grey area in terms of the WEEE dispositions. Reused products cannot be considered waste but will eventually become waste later on. In other terms, they represent a form of prolongation of the life cycle. In the mobile phones industry, there is a well-organised second hand market and, as long as the products move inside the European Community, the second hand market will only slightly compromise the balance of each country. However, most of the secondary used products do not end up in Europe. The Senior Environmental Manager and CMO Sales & Marketing Europe of Nokia Corporation states: “Second used products recovered by retailers reach Romania and Russia as closest markets, then Africa and the Far East. There is a huge, enormous fast growing demand of cheap phones in those countries”. In the automotive industry (especially for the high segment products), the second used market is so extended that problems arise in reaching proper, efficient recycling volumes. This phenomenon simply complies with normal market rules: whenever the products discharged still retain a market value, they can cover the needs of consumers in the emerging economies. The problem is that generally no infrastructures, environmental legislations, tracking systems are present in those countries; therefore, the WEEE philosophy is completely vanished.

3.4 Recovery Technology Both WEEE and RoHS Directives concern the environment protection and show the belief of the European Community that resources are limited and pollution creates problems to the human health and the environment itself. Anyhow, few considerations have been made on the recycling technology that should support the recovery process. Companies for decades have been developing, applying and improving sophisticated concepts, tools, and processes in order to deliver products and services to the market and major players have made evaluations of the possible environmental impact of their product along their total life cycle (life cycle assessment – LCA). If the production technology is stable and mature in some industries and in some others, it is subjected to continuous improvement and innovation, this is not true

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for the recycling technology, which in most of the cases is not developed enough, immature and using quite primitive means of materials separation. Only two industries have specific recycling technologies: the automotive that for a number of years has been dealing with the End of Life Vehicles Directive and the lighting products industry that counts already two different ways to separate and recycle materials. The others are left with recycling options that are not very efficient. Helena Castren from Nokia Corporation states: “We have done all the possible improvements already in the past 5 years in order to make our products recyclable. Now dismissed products should start to be collected so that recyclers start getting a stable products’ flow and consider improving their own processes because we can design and produce the most recyclable product but if the proper recycling technology has not been developed yet, all our efforts are in vain”. The recycling technology is a very poor technology, which did not get proper inputs to develop until now since the recycling demand has been relatively present if not completely absent in some countries and no recycling targets had been previously introduced. There is also a dispute in defining what is recycling: the incineration process produces energy and in that sense, it might be argued that it represents a form of recovery but not recycling; the WEEE Directive excludes energy recovery in the recycling computation and it indicates incineration as the latest possible option to be considered. Only recently we assist to specific investments on ODS (Optical Data Storage devices) recycling technologies and other specific techniques as air pressure, magnetic fields separation or material identification by a laser beam. In addition, some substances are simply not recyclable with the known technologies: for example plastic materials which varies according to industry specific composition requirements and properties, variety, colours, painted layers, etc. . . are simply be pulled together and grinded. This process is not very efficient in providing plastics that are reusable for specific industry purposes since the required properties are completely compromised. Small goods like mobile phones are not feasible for disassembly (which would be the most proper recycling option) due to their size and the size of their components which make timeless consuming trying to pull apart all the elements. Lars Buus Jensen, Design for Environment Specialist, Nokia Denmark, says: “We make sure we construct the phones in order to minimise landfill disposal, facilitate metals recover and make sure that no harmful substances end up in the environment. We calculated for each mobile phone model the amount of metals that will result in the recycling process and we strive to reach a level where at least 75% of our phones are recyclable. In addition, we design and produce the new models with fewer plastics and more metals in order to improve the recycling rate. We have covered all the recycling requirements that we could gather from the recycling industry early in advance WEEE Directive came into force”. Nevertheless, at this point of time, mobile phones, once the battery is removed, they are smashed. This gap between the efforts of the producers to design and manufacture recyclable products and the existing recycling technologies can be fulfilled only by making designers aware of the up-to-date available recycling technologies and by finding means to induce the recycling actors to invest in new recycling technologies and establish new recycling facilities. In addition, many different considerations

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should be made according to the product type. If the size is the primary characteristics that effects the recycling process, it seams not very valuable to produced sophisticated analysis that considers materials compositions and type, number of components, design for disassembly, hazardous substances, etc. . .: if the size is the driving parameter, the most reasonable analysis seams to be the one that strives at minimising materials variety.

4 Conclusions Environmental legislations are shaping a reverse flow that has some distinctive characteristics, configuration and issues that are not typical of other reverse flows and we should not neglect the fact that the WEEE and RoHS Directives norm the electronic and electrical recovery markets, other legislations would be needed for other products recovery programs. The WEEE and RoHS implementation process is currently undergoing and many problems are arising in terms of: – how to foresee the amount of incoming historical waste; – how to ensure that companies get an equal share on the required efforts; – how to ensure that products facing the decline of their life cycle if not of their existence (sawing machines is a typical example) do not load excessively the few manufactures left in the market; – how to control internet sales; – and beside all, how to harmonise the implementation within 25 different countries (different for traditions also in waste handling) in order to assure at least a minimum common efficiency and comparable standards. Finally, if the final user is not properly informed and motivated on the dispositions policies, all the resources used in the development and implementation of the WEEE and RoHS Directives will be lost. Acknowledgments I would like to thank the many people that contributed to the interviews, and in particular Helena Castren, Senior Environmental Manager, CMO Sales & Marketing Europe and Lars Buus Jensen, Design for Environment Specialist, from Nokia Corporation for their keen and thoughtful help. A special thank to Ulf Gilberg of Danish the WEEE-system for the enormous amount of hours he has taken to discuss the issue and in helping establishing the contacts with the major players in the WEEE arena.

References 1. Andel T (1997) Reverse logistics: A second chance to profit. Transportation Distrib 38(7): 61–66 2. Blackburn JD, Guide VDR Jr, Souza GC, Van Wassenhove LN (2004) Reverse supply chains for commercial returns. Calif Manag Rev 46(2):6–22 3. Blumberg DF (2004) Introduction to management of reverse logistics and closed loop supply chain processes, 1st edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL

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4. De Brito MP, Dekker R (2004) A framework for reverse logistics. In: Dekker R et al (eds) Reverse logistics. 1st edn. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 3–27 5. Dutch Ministry of Housing Spatial Planning and the Environment VROM (2000) Dutch ministry of housing spatial planning and the environment VROM. VROM, The Netherlands 6. Fernandez I (2004) Reverse logistics implementation in manufacturing companies. University of Vaasa, Finland 7. Nokia Corporation (2004) Nokia environmental report. Espoo, Finland 8. Steven M (2004) Networks in revese logistics. In: Dyckhoff H, Lackes R, Reese J (eds) Supply chain management and reverse logistics. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 163–177 9. Stock JS (1998) Development and implementation of reverse logistics programs. Council of Logistics Management, University of South Florida, Oak Brook, IL 270p 10. The Commission (2005) Commission decision of 3 May 2005 laying down rules for monitoring compliance of member states and establishing data formats for the purposes of directive 2002/96/EC of the European parliament and of the council on waste electrical and electronic equipment. Off J Eur Community L 119/13 11. The European Parliament and the Council (2003a) Directive 2002/95/EC of the European parliament and of the council of the 27 January 2003 on the restriction of use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Off J Eur Community L 37/19 12. The European Parliament and the Council (2003b) Directive 2002/96/EC of the European parliament and of the council of the 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Off J Eur Community L345:106

A Sustainable and Economically Recycling Real Estate Development Project: A Case Study for Istanbul Park H. Demir, F. Balik Sanli, M. Gur, and C. Goksel

Abstract Nowadays, together with the globalization fact, an effort is given to rebuild the environment. These models have been developed without taking natural and ecological corruption in to consideration. They just take into account the economical growth, leading to economical and cultural demolition. In order to balance economical development and ecology, a sustainable development must be reassured. If real estate development projects are investigated, one usually observes that the balance between urbanization and sustainability is not protected. Since the importance of land and land management has not been understood well, those implemented projects without required pre-evaluations have caused problems in terms of urbanization and urban economy. In this study, Formula One (F1) Istanbul Park Circuit real estate development project is evaluated considering relation of urbanization and sustainability. Evaluation of the project was made in terms of economy, changes in land use types, effects on real estate prices and contributions to the benefits of society. The changes of land use types were monitored using the time series of high-resolution satellite data, namely QUICKBIRD and IKONOS. Change detection methods were used for the analysis of ∼ 50 km2 area. Results show that 2,826 ha of the area, mainly having agricultural field land use types, appears to be open to urbanization. 1,268 ha area of green land including endemic vegetations is, under pressure of uncontrolled urbanization. Keywords Land use change · Sustainable Real Estate Development · Monitoring Urbanization · F1 Istanbul Park Circuit

H. Demir (B) Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34349-Besiktas Istanbul, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

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1 Inroduction In conventional economical theories, the three main factors that create wealth are accepted as labor, capital and land. Land is the main production factor that causes the other production factors to continue their existence and impacts [3]. Land is environmentally and socially sensitive and a limited resource however economically it is a factor that creates wealth and attract investments. As of 1980s, with the policies of globalization/international unification the struggles for constituting a new world regime have been initiated. These efforts mainly enable free transfer of property, capital and services. The models primarily targeted economic growth without taking into account environmental quality and corruption in natural resources thus natural resources faced the threat of being demolished. Especially multi-national companies tend to develop business with countries that have not strict environmental laws in order to reduce additional financial burden. The system tried to find solutions with its own international institutions in order to prevent the environmental, economical, and cultural losses caused by the globalization. The report “our common future” written in 1987 by the World Environment and Development Commission on be half of United Nations General Assembly suggests that one needs to establish balance between ecological growth and economical development and the development, has to be sustainable. In that report, it was stated that current needs and expectations must be satisfied without making any concessions on the opportunities that will meet the expectations and needs of future generations. However if many real estate development projects that are implemented through globalization policies are examined, one will notice that the balance between the globalization and sustainability is not preserved. Real estate development project or the idea of the project is to create cost effective investments by unifying real estates, the capital and owners [16]. A real estate project is the unification of the factors of the area, project idea and capital that could be used in sustainable beneficiary. From the point of view of individual economy it should have the capacity of competition and creating and ensuring job opportunities. From the point of view of general economy it should create real estate objects that are compatible with the social situation and the environment [4]. From the point of view of project, development, a real estate should satisfy public needs, and as far as individual economy is concerned it should be in continuous beneficiary use. The success of real estate development projects is directly proportional to its productivity for the region and the nation. However in developing real estates, The projects that are competable with the environment and social conditions of the region, that take into account of the needs of the people, and following technological advances have greater chance in succeeding. The most useful way to preserve sustainable development is to detect changes. Determining land use types has great importance for both city planning and protecting the environment. If the change is monitored and maintained then the

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development is preserved. Land use types could be monitored using terrestrial methods that are impractical by the use of time and economy or with high resolution satellite imagery which is more cost and time effective. Using remote sensing techniques one also obtains the direction of the change and how rapid the variation occurring. Following technological advances, today one could obtain satellite images in a very high resolution, and very big areas could be viewed altogether and obtained with their past archives. With the time series obtained from past archives it is possible to monitor area changes and calculate the amount of the change. Making maps of residential areas in a quicker way, updating these maps and relating them with transformations are important tools for understanding social and economical ties. The socio-economic development of any country is based on land resources and water resources. Uncoordinated development can lead to undesirable environmental, social and economic conditions. Due to the increase in population these resources are in extensive use often leading to a decrease in resources. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can be used affectively to monitor the changes in these resources that have vital importance. Following the developments in satellite technologies, RS experiments have been in use for more than three decades and they reached almost all sectors of Earth Science applications. RS techniques have become inevitable tool for resource inventory and environmental monitoring over regional and global scales. Since the derivative information can be obtained from RS data, remote sensing provides solution to facilitate sustainable development of natural resources and conservation of the environment. Recently this technology is used for doing both qualitative and quantitative estimates related to urban expansions. Therefore the use of remote sensing is very useful for monitoring land use/cover change, and the environmental sources can be maintained at a local level. Change detection is one of the most accepted methods of monitoring vast acreages in a very short time. It is the process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing them in different times [15]. There are several algorithms applied widely for change detection, such as multidate composite image change detection [6, 5], image algebra change detection [8] using univariate image differencing, image regression, image rationing [9], vegetation index differencing [12] and manual on screen digitization of change [14], post classification comparison and change detection [10] Goksel and Turkoglu [7] and Musaoglu et al. [11] present case studies regarding to the northeastern part of Istanbul for identifying environmental impacts on land use changes. In addition Qi et al. [13] gives a good example on the use of RS and GIS for defining the impact of rapid land use changes on a river basin. The aim of the study is to determine land-use changes in the vicinity of F1 Istanbul Park using remote sensing data and GIS. Economic benefits of the project have been evaluated taking into consideration the opinion of Turkish Citizens up to date. In this study, it will be discussed if a balance was established between the environment and the economical developments. Also sustainable characteristics of F1 Istanbul Park Circuit Project have been studied.

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2 Study Area 2.1 Location and Physical Structure Study area is in the administrative zone of Akfirat town where the first settlement activities were started in 1978. Akfirat had the first planned neighborhood title in Turkey with an individual development plan completed in 1982. It became a village from neighborhood in 1987 and a town municipality dependent to Tuzla County in 1998. Its population is 12.370 according to last census in 2000 [17]. Akfirat town is a settlement that is located in the Asian side of Istanbul, the southeastern part of Omerli Water Basin Region across 5.900 ha area (Fig. 1). There are very important transportation facilities in the northern side; 5 km far from the junction of TEM Motorway, linking Istanbul to Ankara, and it is close to the newly constructed Sabiha Gokcen Istanbul Airport just 9 km apart. The structure of the ground is partly rough and covered with forests and scrub lands spanning 1,800 ha area mostly in the northern side of study field. The settlement and development (construction) area is 3,550 ha. F1 Istanbul Park Circuit was built in 221.5 ha area in the northern side of Akfirat town [17, 18]. The site surrounding F1 Istanbul Park Circuit is determined as a tourism center for cultural and touristic purposes in the environment formation plan of Istanbul, dated 2006 (Fig. 2). 3,000 ha area is reserved is military zone that will be planted with trees according to the same plan. There is also 240 ha land where ownership and usage conflicts exist (abbreviated as the 2B areas according to the Forestry Law). These places are registered as forest land and belong to the State, however current characteristic of these lands are not forest and they have been used for other purposes Also the legal judgment progress is still continuing. If the progress will be concluded in favor of persons who are using these problematic lands, they will obtain new title deeds and these places will open for construction. If not, these places will be covered with forest again.

Fig. 1 Omerli Water Basin

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Forest Military zone 2B Areas Preservation Zones Construction forbidden zones Tourism center

Fig. 2 Environment Formation Plan of Istanbul dated 2006

2.2 Natural and Ecological Structure The study area, F1 Istanbul Park vicinity, is located South of Omerli Water Basin, which provides 40% of the drinking water requirement of Istanbul. Ömerli Basin is not only an important fresh water resource, but also a natural habitat for rare plants and animal species and has a vital green zone for Istanbul citizens for outdoor activities. A wide range of habitat and species diversity exists in Omerli Basin. The basin contains forest, heath, and meadow, turbary and wetland habitats, having rare and endemic plant species. The largest undestroyed heaths of Turkey and Eastern Europe are located in the boundaries of Omerli Dam Water Basin and in the northern of the project area. More than 37 rare flowering plants and ferns species of Turkey grow in Omerli Basin. Approximately 10 of them are endemic for Turkey [19]. The endangered wild life environments in this area are heaths, blackpine forests and the mixture of oak-hornbeam forests which are indicated in the Bern Treaty. The initial studies of the Wildlife Conservation Organization identified 5 endangered plant species at global and national scales- 2 of which are endemic for Istanbul- in the vicinity of F1 Istanbul Park circuit that should be conserved in their natural environment in the context of the Bern Treaty (Table 1).

2.3 Economical Structure At first, evaluation of economical structure of the study area has to be divided into two parts as before and after F1 Istanbul Park Circuit. Some interesting results are obtained if the economical structure is investigated. There is no proper production sector in Akfirat main settlement unit as to locals work in close county centers and organized industry regions. Service sector is in a basic level. In Tepeoren neighborhood, which is the second settlement unit in the study

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H. Demir et al. Table 1 Endemic and rare plants in the vicinity of the Istanbul Park Circuit D [19]

Name

Species

Growth area

Risk Situation

Clovera

(Trifolium pachycalx)

Specific for Istanbul

............

(Circium polycephalum)

Specific for Istanbul

Delicate bitter crocusa

(Colchicum micranthum) Specific for Istanbul

...............

Crinitaria linosyris

North-west of Turkey

Thin-leaved fern

(Isoetes histrix & uriei)

In the wetlands

Endangered in the global scale Endangered in the global scale Endangered in the global scale Endangered in the national scale Endangered in the national scale

a Turkey

is obligated to conserve those plants in their natural environment as required by the Bern

Treaty

area dependent to Akfirat municipality, agriculture and livestock are main sectors and also there are some small scaled industry and workshops. High land profit (unearned income) and increasing temporary man power capacity caused by expensive luxury real estate investments, which are activated by F1 Istanbul Park, are new economical indicators after F1 in the study area. Improvement in service and tourism sectors should be maintained in close future.

3 Formula one Istanbul Park Circuit Istanbul park Circuit is one of the biggest investments approximately costed 160 million dollar with its additional investment [20]. Constructions of Istanbul Park started in 2003 and the first F1 race was run in 2005. The site of F1 Istanbul Park is declared as tourism center in the main development plan and environmental formation which are changed in 2006. The total area allocated for the race circuit is 221,5 ha and total building area that covers 3% of total project area is 66.900 m2 [18].

3.1 The Economic Benefits of Istanbul Park It is certain that F1 Istanbul Park circuit is very profitable for Turkey from the point of view of the economy. The income gained from people just coming to attend F1 races is about 120 million dollars. 2.2 million people attend F1 races and it is the most attractive sport event following Olympic Games. In this context, Istanbul Park Circuit has an important contribution to the advertisement of Turkey and development of tourism sector. The Circuit is also important for both motor sports and automotive sector [20]. The planned future investments in the concept

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of F1 Istanbul Park such as golf courses, hotels, residences, service depots, universities and etc, bring out development not only for Akfirat region but also for all country. The direct economic effect of F1 Istanbul Park at local levels has been observed on extra land price increases and construction sector. Over the 1 year period (2004–2005), a development plan was prepared, 1,023 villa type house construction licenses were given. The number of villas completed until the mid of 2006 is 2000, and estimated numbers for the next 10 and 20 year are 10,000 and 50.000 respectively. The average land prices was in a range of 5 to 10 US $ per square meter in 2002, and it has been increased to a range of 80–140 US $ recently [21].

3.2 Evaluating Istanbul Park Circuit from the Point of View of Sustainability The study area was declared as a forest area and the area to be afforested in 1/50.000 scaled master plan for Istanbul Metropolitan Area dated 1980. In September 2003, city development plans with a scale of 1/5,000 and 1/1,000 were reproduced not considering the requirements of the master plan. That area has been planned as the racing and sport area of Formula cars and the other motor vehicles in plans of the year 2003. In May 2004, a new master plan was produced according to the city development plans, and areas that were forest or afforestation were transferred to a tourism center in the new master plan. With these plan changes, the hierarchy relationship between scales was ignored. According to the principle decisions of ex-master plans, the expansion of Istanbul metropolitan area should be maintained towards east-west direction. However the new plans for the F1 region disagree with these principle decisions by demolishing the forest belt to the north of the city. The investment program is not only for the circuit for the races but also for forming a new urban zone. Other investments are also expected through the project or as a result of the motor races. These investments will be a centre for attraction creating smaller centers in the eastern part of the city, thus initiating linear development processes. City development/urbanization in Turkey is normally based on the developments through the construction of new highways. In addition to the uncontrolled urbanization along the highways of E-5 and TEM, F1 Istanbul Park Project will also create uncontrolled developments. This can cause the problem of unearned income from real estate properties and the loss of quality in historical, ecological, and cultural assets. Omerli Basin and the nearby ecology, which seems to be conserved by the treaty and the development plans, are actually under great threat through Istanbul Park applications due mainly to not obeying the existing laws. Although the authorities note that the project is environmentally conscious and necessary measures are taken, the environmental impact caused by the project is not limited with the borders of the project area, i.e. across 221.5 ha.

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4 Methodology This study is based on defining land use changes using multispectral and multitemporal high resolution satellite information covering the F1 Istanbul Park and its closer vicinity. The analysis carried out on the basis of defining urbanized areas and defining enlarged roads with the effect of F1 Istanbul Park area over a period of 3 years between 2002 and 2005. Visual classification of raster data applied through the images of each year. After classification of land use types, the results were overlaid in to a GIS environment together with city development plans to make further analyses.

4.1 Data and Data Processing In this study a variety of data including satellite images, city development plans, master plans, orthophoto maps, 1/5000 and 1/1000 standard topographic maps have been used. Satellite data of the study area were produced from Quickbird and Ikonos Images (Table 2). Quickbird and Ikonos images are provided as pansharpened data in order to utilize multispectral information and the high resolution feature of the panchromatic image. Spatial resolutions of multispectral and panchromatic data of Ikonos are 4 m and 1m respectively whereas they are 2.5 and 0.60 m for Quickbird. Visual and digital interpretation of satellite images was implemented mainly from Quickbird images for 2004 and Ikonos images for 2005. The complexity of physical environment cannot be acquired accurately by the airborne sensors due to the spatial, spectral and temporal radiometric constraints. Therefore it is inevitable to process remotely sensed data before making analyses on them. Beside applying the radiometric correction, the image data sets were rectified and geometrically corrected. Image rectification is designed to remove distortion from satellite images whereas geometric correction attempts to adjust for the effect of the Earth’s rotation on its axis during image acquisition and to register the image to a known co-ordinate system [2, 1]. The image data sets were rectified by using image to image registration method and they were geometrically corrected for the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system. A first order polynomial transform was calculated to model geometric distortions in the satellite data. Geometric correction has been made using around 30 ground control points (GCPs) with total root means square (RMS) of less then 1 pixel (0.60 cm).

Table 2 The characteristics of satellite images Image

Data

Resolution

Number of bands

Quickbird Ikonos

June 2002/November 2004 June 2004/June 2005

0.60 m×0.60 m 1 m×1 m

4 4

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4.2 Visual Classification of Raster Data The most detailed data analyses were carried out for Istanbul park area and its vicinity for defining temporal changes by screen digitizing classification. To identify the differences between the years, digitally enhanced images were used. The classification process was carried out manually based on geo-referenced color composite images of Ikonos and Quickbird. Each changed land object was assigned to a class and the classification of entire area was determined by the vector GIS tool of PCI. Since one of the objective of this study is to monitor direction of urbanization and observe the contribution of F1 Istanbul Park to this expansion, mainly build up areas (Fig. 3) and newly constructed roads (Fig. 4) were classified. In Fig. 3a it is depicted that study area surrounded with blue solid line was a green area. In Fig. 3b the developments regarding the circuit are clearly seen. In Fig. 3c and Fig. 4, the circuit is almost located, and beside the expansion of roads newly built roads connecting the park to the city can easily be monitored. Based on the urban growth, to evaluate the rapid population growth and its expected effects, the densely built up areas were classified. It is observed the roads were constructed mainly between 2004 and 5005, some of which is not in the development plans for the year 2004 (Fig. 4).

2002

2004

2005

2002 2004 2005

Fig. 3 Urban expansions between 2002 and 2005

2002

2002

2005

Expanded roads

Fig. 4 Expanded and newly constructed roads according to years

New roads

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4.3 Overlay Analyses Overlay analyses were carried out using 1/1000 and 1/5000 scaled maps, city development plans and the master plan. The total land use change was calculated for the two settlements, namely Akfirat and Tepeoren, surrounding the F1 Istanbul Park (Fig. 5). According to city development plans, the areas of 2,362,8091 m2 and 837,8391 m2 for Akfirat and Tepeoren respectively will be open for building constructions (Fig. 6). The results show that there is still 28,260,521 m2 of the rural area that will be transformed to urban areas. Some figures regarding to this evaluation are given in Table 3. The table indicates that approximately 2,826 ha of the agricultural area have already been lost. Here one also may conclude that city plans will prevent unplanned and illegal urbanization which also gives harm to the environment. There is an unoccupied pasture area monitored from the satellite images covering about 1,268 ha of the research region, between the F1 circuit and Akfirat settlement (Fig. 5). This place is also in danger of a pressure for open construction, and for this

F1 Ist Park New road

Green area

Tepeören Akfırat Urban growth 2002 Urban growth 2004 Urban growth 2005 New roads-inetrcity

Fig. 5 Total land use change by the year 2005

City Development Plans Tepeoren Akfirat

Fig. 6 Overlaid city development Plans of Tepeoren and Akfirat towns

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Table 3 Total area of land use changes according to years

2002 2004 2005 City development plan Area to be urbanized

Urbanization (m2 )

New Road (m2 )

Akfirat

Tepeoren

Akfirat+Tepeoren

575,581 831,374 – 23,628,091 22,221,136

842,878 595,230 67,623 8,378,392 6,872,661

216,073 617,203 833,276

(m2 ) 1,418,459 1,642,677 684,826 32,006,483 28,260,521

area the communication of the biodiversity between the forest and the northern part has been intersected by the new wide surrounding roads. In the study region, a road enlargement construction which is harmful for the environment with its 60 m width is detected (Fig. 7).

2002 QB road width ≈ 3 m

2004QB_ road width ≈ 10 m

2005 ikonos ≈ 60 m

Fig. 7 Construction for the road enlargement

5 Conclusion A rapid and uncontrolled urbanization process which does not lake in to account wildlife, nature, and geologic and geographic structures has been carried out in Istanbul since 1970s. As a result of the construction of the new inner roads (intercity highways) and important punctuated public investments, unplanned settlements and industrial facilities had been built-up around these roads and areas without any control mechanism. In the ex-master plans, the west-east line was declared as the urbanization direction. Nowadays this urbanization line has been changed and redirected to the northern side of Istanbul where forests and water collecting basins are located. It is well known that these places are very important for wildlife, endangered plant species, habitats and vital fresh water. F1 Istanbul Park Circuit provides highly economical benefits in both local and national level. It is an environment friendly project but it creates a new attraction center for its vicinity. Only 4 years ago, Akfirat and Tepeoren towns were the settlements with rural characteristics and spanning 575,581 and 842,878 m2

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area respectively. However at present, according to our remote sensing analyses in comparison with 2004 city development plans, 2,826 ha of the area is still prone to new development for building construction. The city development plans of the study area also indicate, approximately 1,400 ha of the area was reserved for housing and density of the settlement, kept in the range of 30–58 people per ha. The west part of the new settlement area was very close to the basin boundary of 3rd order water collection. It is estimated that the total population of Akfirat and Tepeören will reach 60,000 in the following 10 years. There are still some potential dangers existing for this area such as; – The pressure of land spectaculars on pasture and forest lands – Uncertain economic structure especially for the ex-farmer who sold their lands for real estate projects – Losing flora and fauna due to over land use and construction works – Possible pollution of the water basin due to insufficient infrastructure – Uncontrollable and illegal house construction It’s very important to monitor this area using remote sensing and GIS techniques to control the developments as well as land use and environmental changes. To provide the sustainability, in addition to taking the advantage of technology, some social, economical and legal measures should be taken such as: – Creating new jobs and income opportunities for local people who lost their lands – Monitoring environmental changes and taking measures to improve the strategic planning concept – Establishing land markets to avoid land and real estate speculation and controlling the pressure on lands

References 1. Avery TE, Berlin GL (1992) Fundamentals of remote sensing and airphoto interpretation, Chapter 6, pp 109–115, 134–154, 5th Ed. Macmillian Publishing Company, NY 2. Campbell JB (1996) Introduction to remote sensing, 2nd edn. Taylor and Francis, London 3. Dale PF, Mc Laughlin JD (1999) Land administration, Oxford University Publications, ISBN 0-19-823390-6, New York, USA 4. Diederichs, CJ (1996). Grundkonzeption der Projektentwicklung. In: Schulte 1996: Handbuch Immobilien Projektentwicklung, Köln, 15–80 5. Eastment JR, Fulk M (1993) Long Sequence time series evaluation using standardised principal components. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 59:1669–1694 6. Fung T, LeDrew E (1987) Application of principal components analyses for change detection. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 53:1649–1658 7. Goksel Ç, Turkoglu H (2000) Integrating GIS and Remote Sensing for Evaluation and Monitoring of Omerli Region, Istanbul. XIXth ISPRS Congress. 16–23 July, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 8. Green K, Kempka D, Lackey L, (1994) Using remote sensing to detect and monitor the landcover and landuse change. Photo. Eng Remote Sens 60:331–337

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9. Howarth JP, Wickware GM, (1981) Procedure for change detection using Landsat digital data. Int J Remote Sens 2:227–291 10. Light D (1993) The national arial photography program as a geographic information system resource. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 59:61–65 11. Musaoglu N, Tanik A, Kocabas V (2005) Identification of land-cover changes through image processing and associated impacts on water reservoir conditions. Environ Manag, 35(2): 220–230 12. Nelson RF, (1983) Detecting forest canopy change due to insect activity using landsat MSS. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 49:1243–1314 13. Qi S, Luo F (2006) Land-use change and its environmental impact in the Heiche River Asin, arid northwestern China. Environ Geol, 50:535–540 14. Rutchey K, Velcheck L (1994) Developments of everglades vegetation map using a Spot image and the GPS. Photogramm Eng Remote Sens 60:767–775 15. Singh A (1989) Digital change detection techniques using remotely-sensed data. Int J Remote Sens 6:989–1003 16. Wiedeme JP (1994) Real estate investment. Regents/Prentice Hall, New Jersey 17. URL-1 Akfirat Municipilaty Legal web site www.akfirat.bel.tr 18. URL-2 F1 ˙Istanbul Park Legal web site http://www.formulal-istanbul.com 19. URL-3 Wildlife Conservation Organization www.dhkd.org 20. URL-4 Turkish Architectural http://www.arkitera.com 21. URL-5 Real Estate Services of Turkish Press; www.milliyetemlak.com.tr

Analysis of Land Use Changes in Nigeria: With Application of Integrated Bio-economic Spatial Model Igbekele A. Ajibefun

Abstract This paper presents results of analysis of land use changes in Nigeria, using the integrated bio-economic spatial model. Land use change is currently gaining global attention of researchers and policy makers, given the social, economic and environmental implications of land use and landscape changes. Understanding current land use situation and changes and projecting likely effects of current land use is important for sustainable development. Data for this study include social, economic, soil, crop production, vegetative and other relevant data. The data came from both primary and secondary sources. Data were also sourced from expert knowledge. Spatial maps of soil characteristics, land use patterns, vegetative cover, population density and rainfall patterns were produced. The maps show wide variations in spatial characteristics of the variables considered across the state. The results of gross margin analysis indicate that some particular crop combinations show better economic prospect than others. While the results from the study so far have been revealing, the analysis is still inconclusive, given that this is a progress report. The next phase of the study is to analyse the ecologic implications of current land use (or farming systems) in the study area and examine the trade-off between economic and ecologic factors.

1 Introduction and Problem Statement Agriculture is an important sector of Nigerian economy. It is not only the primary source of food, but also the principal means of livelihood for the majority of the population, with more than 70% of the people deriving their livelihoods from agriculture I.A. Ajibefun (B) Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] A Paper prepared for Presentation at the “International Conference on Environment: Survival and Sustainability”, Nicosia-Northern Cyprus, 2007

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_31, 

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and agricultural-related activities. Agriculture currently contributes about 45% to the Gross Domestic Product. With increasing population, which grows at about 3.0% per annum and rate of growth of food production of about 2.5% per annum, farmers must produce even more food than before. Given the challenges of meeting the increasing demand for food, as a result of rising population and rising income, farmers are being pushed to new and marginal lands. There are only two main ways to increasing natural food production in the country- increasing the land area planted to crops (extensive cultivation), or increasing yield per hectare of land under cultivation (intensive cultivation). Intensive and extensive agricultural production have negative implications on the environment, which include land degradation, large scale destruction of forests, and with them, wild life habitat and biodiversity. The challenge therefore, is to meet the rising demand for food while at the same time preserving the environment for current and future generations. Sustainable development aims at preserving private and public goods to secure current and future survival of mankind with high probability. It is assumed that the natural environment, as a future means of production, has to be preserved as healthy as possible. This requires knowledge of the processes involved in land use and land use changes and the effects of such changes on social, economic and ecological factors. A good understanding of such processes will involve integration of ecological objectives into economic activities. Given these scenarios, Nigerian government has recognised the need for policy on agricultural land use and planning. However, the policy will have to be based on sound empirical findings from integrated land use studies. While much research studies have been conducted on sustainable land use options in the developed countries in Europe, USA and parts of Asia, available literature indicates that much has not been done on research relating to land use and land use changes in Africa in general and in Nigeria in particular. It is also important to state that while most land use studies are either based solely on economic models or solely on ecologic models, only few attempts have been made to integrate ecologic and economic variables in models to study land use and landscape changes. Land, water and forest resources are part of basic inputs and dominant factors for national development to be used and managed within the nation. Nigeria with a total land area of 92.4 million hectares (or 923.773 km2 ) is now facing a serious challenge of how to use the land resources in a sustainable way so as to preserve it for future generations. The FAO estimates of Nigeria’s arable land and forests and woodlands indicate that the forest and woodlands are declining rapidly. The rapidly declining forest and woodland has serious implications on the conservation of environmental resources for future use and sustainable development.

2 Research Questions and Study Objectives One policy goal of Nigerian agriculture is the attainment of food security through increased food production. Achieving food security would imply drastic increase in the current level of agricultural production by extensive farming or intensive

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farming, with the associated environmental implications. It is also important to note that farm and farming situations in Nigeria in general and in Ondo state in particular are fast changing, due to rapid population growth as well as changes in social and economic realities. The questions that readily come to mind are: What have been the patterns of land use in Ondo state, given the population pressure on available land and given the changes in social, economic and farming situations? What are the consequences of current land use patterns and intensity as well as land use changes on sustainable farming? What are the income effects of different land use options for agricultural production? What are the economic consequences that are expected of land use change for the farmers? What is the best alternative for land use in order to attain sustainable food production, while ensuring protection of the environment? What are the economic and environmental quality trade-offs associated with agricultural land uses of various magnitudes? The above questions form the basis for the objectives of this study. Given these questions, the study has the following specific objectives. (i) To generate the spatial map of the soil, land use patterns, rainfall and vegetation a distribution patterns of Ondo state. (ii) To develop methods to link geo-referenced databases to integrated ecologiceconomic models. (iii) To quantify the trade-offs among economic, agronomic and environmental objectives, so as to determine the best alternative land use options. While it is acknowledged that several studies have been carried out on land use and landscape changes, especially in the developed countries [10, 6, 7, 3, 4, 5, 14, 1, 11, 8, 12, 13], there is increasing need to develop new models and techniques of analysis to take care of complex interactions between agricultural production, environmental and economic factors. Whereas land use studies received much attention in the literature, the issue of how to formalise quantification of land use systems and integration of ecologic-economic variables into the models has only been addressed to a limited extent. Understanding the dynamics of land use change is a scientific challenge of considerable importance to humanity. The demands for improved knowledge of environmental processes and the impacts of policy on their dynamics must increase, as population pressures on food supplies and natural resources mount and publicly held perception of preserving environmental diversity and amenity strengthens. Some of the most profound changes in the landscape have arisen from direct decisions by man concerning land use: from changes in cropping patterns, afforestation and deforestation to modification of water courses [9]. These in turn have affected both the quality of environmental resources and the sustainability of a lasting and diversified food chain. Given the above considerations, this study is therefore important in developing integrated bio-economic models to simulate complex economic and ecologic impacts of land use and landscape changes as well as effects of policy changes on land use in Nigeria.

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3 Research Methodology 3.1 Area of Study This study is being conducted in Ondo State, which is one of the 36 states of Nigeria and is located in the Southwestern part of Nigeria. The State lies within latitudes ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 5 45 and 8 15 North and longitudes 4 45 and 6 East. The Southern coastline of the state rests on the Atlantic Ocean with considerable territorial waters offshore rich in aquatic and mineral resources of significant importance. The relative position of Ondo State in Nigeria is shown in Fig. 1 in the appendix. Spatial Model

Economic Model Ecologic Model

Simulation

Ecologic output

Economic output

Fig. 1 Integrated ecologic-economic

3.2 Data Requirement and Collection For this study, geo-reference data, as well as primary and secondary data are involved. Data include digitized thematic maps, consisting of soil map, land use map, rainfall map, vegetation, yield data, soil nutrient balance data, hydrological data, climatic data, including rainfall and temperature, as well as other relevant social and economic data.

3.3 The Integrated Model The purpose of the integrated bio-economic modelling approach is to couple ecologic, spatial and economic parameters that influence landscape and land use changes in a single integrated model. The integrated model is in the form of module.

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The different modules include (i) the economic model, which uses socio-economic data, production data and price data (ii) the ecologic model, which involves modeling the physical environment of agricultural production activities (iii) the spatial model, which consists of spatial data and makes use of digital elevation model (Fig. 1). The output from the ecologic, economic and spatial models can then be coupled and simulated in a GIS environment. Figure 1 presents a diagrammatic representation of the integrated model. Economic module: The economic module consists of models that maximizes the objective function of production [2], which is generally assumed to be income maximization. In this sense, it is assumed that farmers tend to maximize gross margins from different farm enterprises. The gross margins, together with production inputs and constraints are then fed to the linear programming models for optimization processes. The linear programming (LP) model makes use of economic data from the database, with capability for different land use scenarios. The economic model describes the economic behaviour of farmers. Ecologic model: The ecologic component of the integrated model consists of soil erosion model, which include soil loss equation and the degree of crop coverage function. The soil erosion model is based on the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). The parameters for deriving USLE include rainfall erosivity factor (R-factor), soil erodibility factor (K-factor), slope and slope length factor (LS-factor), vegetative cover factor (C-factor) and conservation practice factor (P-factor). Spatial model: This consists of the spatial soil map, land use patterns map, vegetative cover map, rainfall distribution map, relief map and population density map.

3.4 Model Specification and Implementation The integrated bio-economic models will combine economic optimization model (Linear programming model) with ecologic and spatial models. Within the integrated model, different land use scenarios and policy scenarios will be implemented in the optimization model to produce different gross margins, given the scenario assumption.

4 Results and Discussion The results cover, the spatial maps of the soil, rainfall and land use patterns. Results from economic models showing gross margins from different farming systems and land use options are also provided.

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4.1 Spatial Soil and Rainfall Maps of Ondo State Soil types, their fertility, and present and potential productivity as well as rainfall distribution patterns exert considerable influence on agricultural production in the state as in the rest of Nigeria. Regional variations in soil types which account for variations in the types of agricultural practices in any environment are also evident in Ondo State. The major soil types found in Ondo State are (i) alluvial, (ii) ferralsols, and (iii) ferruginous tropical soils. The alluvial soil types, which characterize the coastal LGAs of Ilaje and Ese-Odo, are not very important agriculturally. This is due to the sandy and acidic nature of such soils. The soils there are generally associated with areas of sedimentary rocks. They are intensively leached and contain limited reserves of weatherable minerals. Although a number of crops are grown on such soils, they are considered to be of low fertility and of low agricultural value. Areas with ferruginous soils are particularly suitable for cocoa production as evident in the long history of significant cocoa production in Ondo State, chiefly in Ondowest, Ondo-east, Idanre, Ile-Oluji/Okeigbo and Akure-south LGAs. The soils have an exceptional clayey texture, but combine good drainage and aeration with good properties of moisture and nutrient retention. In terms of productivity and potentialities of Ondo State soil, the coastal alluvial soils of Ilaje and Ese-Odo LGA are low. The remaining soils of the State are of medium to high productivity with medium to good potentialities for both food and non-food agricultural production. The main characteristics of soils in Ondo State are shown in Fig. 2. The climatic condition in Ondo State follows the pattern of southwestern Nigeria where the climate is influenced mainly by the rain-bearing southwest monsoon winds from the ocean and the dry northwest winds from the Sahara Desert. High temperatures and high humidity also characterise the climate, which facilitate the

N W S

Fig. 2 Soil distribution patterns in Ondo state

Soil E

Clayey Loamy No Data Sandy

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Ife dore Ile – Oujji – Akure Nouth Oke – IgboAkure South Ondo – East Owo Ondo – west Idanre

Akoko NW Akoko NE Akoko SE Akoko SW

Ose

Odigbo

Okitipupa

Irele

N W

E S

Ilaje Ese – Odo

Rainfall Pattern 1270–1524 mm. 1524–2032 mm. 2032–2540 mm. 2540–3048 mm.

Fig. 3 Present rainfall pattern for the state

growth of tropical crops and high forest. There are two distinct seasons, the rainy and dry seasons. The rainy season lasts for about 7 months April to October, and the dry season lasts generally from October to March. The rainfall amount and pattern of rainfall remain the most important climatic factor in agricultural production possibilities in Ondo State. The rainfall pattern is showing in the spatial map in Fig. 3.

4.2 Spatial Map of Vegetation and Land Use Patterns Most part of the state is under forest vegetation, given high amount of rainfall and ◦ atmospheric temperature ranging between 28 and 31 c and a mean annual relative humidity of about 80%. Figure 4 shows the spatial map of the vegetation distribution of the State. This consists of coastal forest and mangrove; swamp forest; the most lowland forest; and the forest savannah mosaic. The total agricultural area of Ondo State is about 1.3 million hectares of which over 859.230 is under smallholder rain fed production, 27,633 is under tree crop plantations and 350,733 is under high forest cover. The satellite photography of land use pattern is shown in Fig. 5. The Guinea Savannah zone is covered mainly by grassland and suitable for livestock production particularly the husbandry of large and small ruminants.

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Akoko NW Akoko SE Akoko SW Akoko SE

Ifedore Ile – Ouji – Oke – Igbo

Ondo – East Ondo–west

Akure Nouth Akure South

Owo

Ose

Idanre

Odigbo Okitipupa Iele

N W

E S

Ese – Odot

Vegetation Derived Savanna Freshwater Swamp Forest Lowland Rainforest – Dry Lowland Rainforest – Moist Mangrove Forestand Coastal Vegetation

Ilaje

Fig. 4 Pattern of vegetation cover

Fig. 5 Land use patterns

4.3 Gross Margin Analysis The notion of economic sustainability focuses on the profitability of specific technical choices. They include margins analysis and income generation as a function of a specific activity. Faced with market uncertainties, price volatility and climatic

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hazards, most tree-crop farmers in the study area have developed diversification strategies, in which different crops are grown to mitigate the problem of risks involved in agriculture. This involves growing different crops simultaneously with cocoa. It is therefore important to analyse economic viability of these different diversification options or farming systems. An analysis of the gross margin from different farming systems will provide a better knowledge of economic consequences of various farming systems and practices in terms of gross margin. The current practices of farmers in the study area involve inter-planting of cocoa with different crops. Such inter-planted crops include plantain/banana, kola, palm oil, vegetables and oranges. Table 1 below provides information about farming system adopted by farmers in the study area, showing different crops that are grown together. Farmers in the study area go into diversification for economic reasons. Crop diversification shows the attitude of farmers to engage in production of different agricultural products simultaneously. Farmers go into crop diversification mainly to offset or reduce the level of risk involved in agricultural production. Figure 6 presents gross margin from different crop combination. The figure indicates that the highest gross margin is from crop combination comprising cocoa, oil-palm, cocoyam and vegetables while the least gross margin came from combination ococoa, plantain, cassava and banana. A simulation analysis of the variation in gross margin for the next 10 years on the basis of different crop combinations was carried. The results show different patterns of gross margin for the different crop combinations over the 10-year period. The results of the simulation (Fig. 7) show that farming systems with more crop diversification have higher projected stream of income over the 10 year period. The results have shown that apart from cocoa production, arable crops are important in the production programme of the farmers, with most of the farmers growing two or more arable crops, in addition to cocoa. Smallholders developed diversification strategies while maintaining traditional practices. The persistence of traditional practices demonstrates the attachment people have to traditions and social standards, and consequently to cohesion and social structure, at least at the community level. Indeed, the whole process of social organization is concerned with the maintenance of these practices. Diversification strategies are developed to obtain a more even distribution of income throughout the year, to

Table 1 Farming systems in the study area

S/N

General farming systems among cocoa farmers

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Cocoa with plantain, oranges and economic trees Cocoa with plantain, banana and Maize Cocoa with yam, cocoyam and plantain Cocoa with cocoyam and plantain Cocoa with oil palm, cocoyam and vegetables Cocoa with plantain Cocoa with plantain, cassava and banana

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120,000

100,000

GM/ha

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0 CA+OR+TR

CA+PL+BA+MZ CA+YA+CO+PL

CA+CO+PL

CA+OP+CO+VE

CA+PL

CA+PL+CV+BA

Farming Systems

Fig. 6 Gross margin from different crop combinations Note: CA = cocoa; CO = cocoyam; OR = oranges; oil palm; TR = economic tree; PL = plantain; BA = banana; MZ = maize; YA = yam; Ve = vegetables

profit from potential opportunities by being less dependant on a single commodity, and to increase knowledge, and technical know-how in order to be in a better position to innovate. While the results have indicated different economic implications for different crop combinations, it is important to state that such crop combinations are also bound to have varying ecological implications. Hence, there is need to carry out trade-off analysis between economic and ecologic implications. This is the next phase of this research.

4.4 Summary and Conclusion The aim of this research is to carry out bio-economic analysis of land use change, given different farming systems in Ondo State, Nigeria. The results of spatial maps have indicated varying soil characteristics, land use patterns, population distribution, rainfall patterns and vegetative covers across the state. The study also shows different gross margin implications for different crop combinations. While the results

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400,000

350,000

Farm Income

300,000

250,000 Cocoa+Plantain sole Cocoa+Kola Cocoa+Plantain+Kola

200,000

Cocoa+Plantain +10% Cocoa+Kola+10% Cocoa+Plantain+Kola+10%

150,000

100,000

50,000

0 2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

Year

Fig. 7 Simulation of gross margin for different crop combinations

so far have been revealing, it is inconclusive as further analysis will be conducted on trade-off between economic and ecologic factors and their implications on sustainability of the environment. Acknowledgement Thanks are due to the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation of Germany for providing funding for this research under the “Return Fellowship Programme”.

References 1. Ajibefun IA, Wenkel K-O, Wieland R, Mirschel W (2004) Modelling of landscape and land use changes: with application of spatial analysis modelling tool to quillow region of north east Germany. Int J Food, Agric Environ Finland 2(2):364–368 2. Anderson JR, Dillon JL, Hardaker JB (1977) Agricultural decision analysis. Iowa State University Press, Ames 3. Armstrong AC, Legros JP, Voltz M (1996) A detailed model for crop growth and water condition. Int Agrophys (10):171–184 4. Bouman BAM, Nieuwenhuyse A, Hengsdijk H, (1998) PASTOR: A technical coefficient generator for pasture and livestock systems in the humid tropics. Version 2.0. A users guide. Quantitative approaches in systems analysis, No. 18. AB-DLO-PE, Wageningen, The Netherlands

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5. Hengsdijk H, Nieuwenhuyse A, Bouman BAM (1998) LUCTOR: Land use crop technical coefficient generator. A model to quantify cropping systems in the Northern Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica, Version 2.0. QUASA series no. 17, ABDLO/PEW, Wageningen, The Netherlands 6. Krugman P (1995) Development, Geography and Economic theory. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 7. Loveland PJ, Rounse vell MDA, Mayr TR, Legros JP, Voltz M, de la Rosa D, Armstrong AC (1993) Agroclimatic Change and European Soil Suitability- a spatially distributed model. In: Troen I (ed) Climate change and impacts. European Union publication 15921 EN, pp 215–228 Copenhagen, Denmark 8. Mirschel W, Wieland R, Voss M, Ajibefun I, Deumlich D (2006) Spatial analysis and modelling tool (SAMT) 2: Applications. Ecological informatics, vol. 1. Elsevier Science, United Kingdom, pp 77–85 9. Rounsevell MDA, Evans SP, Mayr TR, Andsley E (2001) Integrating biophysical and socioeconomic model for land use studies soil survey and land research centre. Cranfield University Silsoe 10. Van Keulen H, Veeneklaas FR (1993) Options for Agricultural development: A case study of Mali’s fifth region. In: Penning de vries FWT, Teng P, Metselaar K (eds), System approaches for agricultural development. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Systems Approaches for Agricultural Development, Bangkok, Thailand. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands, pp 369–382 11. Wieland R, Voss M, Holtman X, Mirschel W, Ajibefun I (2006) Spatial analysis and modelling tool (SAMT) 1: Structure and possibilities. Ecological informatics, vol 1. Elsevier Science, United Kingdom, pp 67–76 12. Wieland R, Mirschel W, Wenkel K-O, Ajibefun I (2004) Spatial simulation with SAMT. In: Wittmann J, Wieland R (eds) Simulation in environment and geosciences. Shaker Verlag, Aachen, Germany, pp 161–181 13. Wischmeier W, Smith DD (1978) Predicting rainfall erosion losses: A guide to conservation planing. Agricultural handbook No 537. Washington, DC, USDA 14. Zander P (2003) Agricultural land use and conservation options: A modelling approach, Thesis Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen, 222pp

Green Marketing Willingness of Bulgarian Market: Comparison with Italy Teodoro Gallucci, Giovanni Lagioia, Julia Uzunova, and Vesselina Dimitrova

Abstract The concept of green marketing is wide covering different aspects of business strategy and policy making. Green marketing puts together issues of sustainable development, such as recycling concerns, material re-use or eco-efficiency with the promotion of products by the conventional marketing policy. The purpose of this paper is to establish how the adoption of green marketing could be an effective tool for improving the market share in Bulgaria following the example of the Italian case. The adoption of eco-label brand or the fulfilling of other environmental certifications could enable to the small medium enterprises (SMEs) to become more competitive in the EU market. We try to explain how a changing view about the environmental aspect could represent an opportunity to snap it up in shorter-medium time. Keywords Green marketing · Eco-label · Benchmarking dimensions

1 Introduction The promotion of the green marketing started in Europe in the early 1980s when were discovered different commodities of chemical production capable of damaging environment and human’s health. As a result, new “green” approach was introduced with the aim to promote ecologically aspect of products [1]. For this reason, nowadays, labels report some indications in order to inform consumers about several characteristics of the products. A better knowledge about environmental aspects of products, such as recycling and biodegradability of packaging, energy or water consumption or other ethical and social indications, cause changes of habits and behaviour. This information has made consumers more conscious V. Dimitrova (B) Department of International Economic Relations, University of Economics Varna, 77, Kniaz Boris I blv., Varna 9002, Bulgaria e-mail: [email protected]

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of the environmental limits on the light of sustainable, “green” purchasing. As consequence “Green marketing” is evaluated as very intensive research topic and has becoming important for the business due to the environmental aspect enclosed in the label. This qualitative policy is not a question of fashion but a real necessity that could improve a market share, especially on export markets. In fact in all Europe, associations of consumers are forcing the enterprises to develop an appropriate marketing strategy concerning the presentation of more green labels, such as the Eco-label. The enterprises understood that fulfilling green marketing strategies could be convenient to be more competitive. The appellation “green enterprise” encourages more consumers to give trust on these environmentalfriendly products. Despite the huge economic investments, necessary for adopting the policy of green marketing, the efforts of the firms could turn into a net turnover for the nearest future. A study carried out by IEFE Bocconi University of Milan (Italy) is concerning the capacity to increase the turnover of eco-labelling enterprises.1 This increase is estimated more than 50% [2]. Other studies have shown how eco-label could affect the demands on suppliers and on retails sector [3]. European companies develop their production methods and image-building thanks to the eco-labelling. Bulgaria as a new member of EU since January 2007 needs to involve its industrial policy to eco-labelling and to benefit from green certification. The example of leading EU country as Italy for the environmentallyprotected and sustainable products is very important, because encourages an innovative ecological responsability in EU market. The purpose of this paper is to establish how the green marketing could be an effective tool for improving the market share in Bulgaria following the example of the Italian case. The analytic framework includes the comparison of the eco-label policy and the relative legislation in the both markets. We choose a benchmarking approach in order to make better assessment of Bulgarian green policy. The whole paper is organized into four sections. Section 1 presents the nature of the green marketing. Section 2 is a brief overview for the modern tendencies in European eco-label practice and the challenges for the East part of the continent. Section 3 discusses the eco-label instruments and the relative legislation in Italy and Bulgaria in the framework of EU. Section 4 summarizes our findings for the green marketing willingness of Bulgarian market.

2 Theoretical Background “Greenness” has become a code-word for a range of environmental concerns, and it is usually considered positively. The development of green power determinants is important because provides a stream for additional ecological and renewable sources. Green power is an international activity and determines structures, strategies and concepts in different levels- marketing, management and logistics. The 1 The

eco-label logo is a flower.

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most general concept of green marketing, which refers to the promotion or advertising of products with environmental characteristics has searching the necessary modifications in traditional marketing practices. Green marketing is defined as an opportunity to take advantage of customers’ willingness to purchase, and sometimes pay a premium for, products that provide private benefits as well as public environmental and other, less tangible, benefits [4]. One typical definition describes “green marketing” as the practice of “. . . adopting resource conserving and environmentally-friendly strategies in all stages of the value chain. . .” [5]. According to B. Paulos [6] the green marketing learns to eight principal lessons each competitive enterprise: (1) what is “green”; (2) how to interpreting green willingness; (3) how to understand green pricing; (4) who will buy green power products and services; (5) how important is green marketing performance; (6) why to initiate eco-label and certification; (7) if it is necessary to accept private eco-label programs; (8) what is the importance of release green marketing regulations [6]. Green marketing aims necessary standards as green certification or eco-label. Eco-labelling is a voluntary certification used as an insurance against several logos, trade marks and labels. The purpose of the eco-label is to facilitate the transfer of ecologically relative information toward the customers for the products and services; to help business and supply chain management of the firms to change and to adapt new internal and external challenges concerning productivity, revenues and protections [7]. Green concept is strongly used in European countries and connected with purchasing, pricing and consumption processes. The first attempts for green practices are in UK, Switzerland, Germany, Finland, Netherlands, Sweden and Denmark. Especially large –sized companies are remarked with green marketing status. These enterprises win more competitiveness and make better emerging of green activity. In the United States of America, an estimated 75% of consumers claim that their purchasing decisions are influenced by a company’s environmental reputation, and 80% would be willing to pay more for environmentally friendly goods [8]. On the other hand according to a study of O’Rourke in 2005 only 10–12% of consumers buy regularly products considered “green”. This significant difference is due to a lacking of information about the products at low environmental impact [9]. On a worldwide level, a recent 22-country survey of environmental attitudes found that citizens avoid products that are harmful to the environment [10].

3 Challenges for the Eco-label Policy in East-European Countries The EU Eco-label is administered by the European Eco-labelling Board (EUEB). The Eco-label receives the support of the European Commission, all Member States of the European Union and the European Economic Area (EEA). The Eco-labelling Board includes representatives such as industry, environment protection groups and consumer organisations.

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The Eco-label is the European brand of certification for products and services. It was created in 1992 with the adoption of the European Regulations  880/92, and successively updated with the new Regulations  1980 of the 17 July 2000. It is a voluntary tool of environmental policy and represents a selective one, based on environmental and quality performances related to the life cycle of products, raw materials used for manufacturing and recycling processes. The better comprehension of production cycle needs a detailed Material Flow Analysis (MFA) to gather data about material circulation into the economic system. This approach associated to input output analysis, more and more cutting edge, is also capable of illustrating inter-linkages between economic system and the environment. For obtaining the European eco-label each enterprise shall interact with the competent authority of its own country. The criteria have standardised and harmonised rules in order to make lighten the procedure. This criteria are submitted to the European Committee Awards (CUEME) that it is composed by different competent organisms of each members state (such as delegate of the ONG environmentalist, associations of consumers and industry, and also delegates of SMEs) and are periodically reviewed, in order to favour the improvement of the quality of products and services. At regional level other eco-labels are well-known as Nordic Environmental label (Sweden, Norway, Finland and Ireland), Blaue Engel (Germany) etc.2 As above stressed for the eco-label is necessary to follow a procedure of accreditation and to invest money. Normally the preliminary documentation for obtaining the eco-label has a cost between 300 and 1,300 euros. Expenditures for the copyright to use the eco-label represent 0.15% of the annual volume of sales. But there are some shrinking for the enterprises: 25% for small medium enterprises (SMEs); 15% for enterprises with the certification EMAS or ISO 14001; 20% for “first movers” that are the first three enterprises that require the certification for each groups of product; 30% in the case that the enterprise had another certification that satisfy the norm ISO 14024. Reduction can’t exceed in total the 50%. In Fig. 1 are shown the percentage of the companies in EU by country that decided to proceed with the eco-label accreditation. At December 2005 Italy is the 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 AT

BE

CZ

DE

DK

EL

ES

FI

FR

HU

IT

NL

Fig. 1 Companies with eco-label by country (2005). Source: [12] 2 The

eco-label in USA and Canada is “Green Seal”.

NO

PL

PT

SE

UK

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leader country with 84 eco-labelled companies. It is followed by Denmark with 53, France with 45, Spain with 19, Sweden with 15 and Germany with 11. As emerges from the Fig. 1 almost all Western area of Europe decided to invest in ecolabel certification. In comparison, the East part of EU countries (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland) is still missed the opportunity to develop the green certification as a guarantee for efficient sales and higher product price. In the East part the companies meet some constraints for adopting the ecolabel above all for two reasons: First, the costs for obtaining the label. Some small companies, above all in East part of EU find expensive to start the procedure for accreditation (initial cost for application, internal preparatory efforts and costs, costs of testing, costs for marketing and etc.). Second, difficulty to involve their suppliers in the concept of “green purchasing”, because there is a low awareness of the benefits for the environment and for the health [11]. Thus, a campaign of information at domestic level becomes significant to boost the eco-label meaning, characteristics and advantages. On the contrary in the West part the companies having less problems from economic point of view, have benefited by becoming the “first movers” in this sector. They have invested in their image in front of their consumers and this have repaid with a better customer satisfaction, giving more credibility to the products in a context that has becoming more competitive and globally integrated. Guided by the logo the customer is sure that a certified business or product meets a certain standard. For this reason, a better knowledge of the meaning and the characteristics of eco-label logo are essential. In summary, the development of environmental alternatives of production processes really has been convenient both to motivate the customers and addressing their choice to eco-labelled products. In Fig. 2 are reported the eco-label by product group. In EU it is possible to require eco-label brand for 27 groups of products, identified by a study of feasibility, but as above stressed, periodically the members EU Commission can take into consideration different product to review. At December 2005, 284 licenses have been awarded of which 64 in the textile sector, 46 in paints/varnishes, 40 in tourism accommodation, 25 sanitary cleanings, while 20 in the fertilizers and 15 tissue paper sectors.

fri

pa

re

di

sh

w as he g s in e ts re /v to ar rs ni s fe he r t tis iliz s di s er sh c u w op e p s as yi ap hi ng er n la g d pa p un dr ete er r y de gen te t r te lig gen xt ht t ile bu s pr lbs o fo duc ot t b sa ed we ha nita ma ar nd ry tre di cle ss sh a de ner te s rg to ur flo tele en is or v t m in is ac g c ion co ov m er o s ca lu dat m br ion pi ific ng a se nts rv ic es

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Fig. 2 Companies in EU with ecolabel by prouduct group (2005). Source: [12]

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4 Benchmarking and Eco-labelling 4.1 Italian Example As above stressed, enterprises shall interact with the competent body of its own country. The authors have chosen Italian example because it is leader in the accreditation label and could represent a pattern to imitate for incentive the adoption of this approach. In Italy the competent authority for awarding the eco-label is APAT (National Agency Protection of Environment and technical services) that interacts with European Committee Awards for all the criteria development and revision. Figure 3, illustrates the diagram flow of the procedure. The documentation required consists in different steps: application format for awarding the certificate, receipt payment of preliminary application fees (between 300 and 1,300 euros); technical format; copy of accreditation of the laboratory; copy of further environmental certification e.g. EMAS and so on; declaration of conformity. In Italy industrial districts provide an interesting example of local production systems able to face global competition. They are characterized by the development of strategies to change consumption patterns and recycling, require data on the firm material and energy use in physical terms [13]. Firms in developed countries like Italy consider that the ability to enhance raw material and product design from the beginning, to mitigate the environmental impact, and to rationalize and comply with environmental regulations to improve corporate image will pressure more European firms to adopt an EMS system. On the whole, the incorporation of green purchasing into an environmental management system can encourage all businesses and administrative agencies to think over the whole range of production systems from material supplies to waste treatments. It can also lead to homogeneity in management processes and an improvement in administrative efficiency, in addition to cuts in costs, which consequently help expand a firm’s environmental and financial performance [14].

The applicant

Committee eco-label

Fig. 3 Diagram flow of procedure accreditation eco-label in Italy

The committee awars the Ecolabel (30 days)

Apat examines the dossier (60 days)

European Commission

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4.2 Bulgarian Example Until 2005, EU includes 27 product groups with their green criteria. Since May 2005, in Bulgaria have been approved only 17 of these 27 product groups as enough green, with environmentally-aware references. They are: shoes, textile products, hard floor covering, printed paper, matrax, indoor paints and varnishes, vacuum cleaner, TV set, ice and meat safe boxes and hotel nights’ accomodation. This implies that these products could receive their eco-label not later than 2 months after the correct notification of the presented preliminary documentation. The whole procedure is under the National Regulation 3/15 May 2003 about the eco-label of the Bulgarian products, elaborated by the Ministry of Ecology and Waters. The issue of the preliminary documentation costs between 75 and 100 EUR and for enterprises with managerial system for ecological certification (ISO 14 000, ISO 9001) the price is only 25 EUR. The validation of the eco-label is 3 years. During this period, the certificated product is included in the Ecological Register of the Ministry of Ecology and Water as safe and guaranteed [15]. In Bulgaria, there is a crucial and potentially positive link between economic development and the environment. The SWOT analysis of Bulgarian eco-market shows the dominations of more negative features in comparison with the benefits from the impact of “new environmentalism” in EU countries [16] (see Table 1). The existing ecological problems in Bulgarian enterprises couldn’t be resolved with a simple participation in the large EU market. European institutions indicate the right direction for green marketing activities, but the way to promote this policy is in the hands of the Bulgarian institutions. Environmental organizations in Bulgaria (like the Union of the Customers, Bulgarian Association for recycling etc.) need to play key roles for the informational dissemination of green priorities between the business and the customers. They need to be able to communicate systematically in vertical, horizontal or crossed way with the customers about the importance of eco-labeling. The effective feedback is a principal criteria for the ecological control in the country. For comparison, eco-labelling has dramatically affected EU market, because the green certification means quality and production in an environmentally sound way [18]. Until now, only some tourism agencies and enterprises in textile and equipment sectors in Bulgaria could establish ecological prevention and control for their products.3 According to EU Eco-label data 2005, the eco-label is well-known in Bulgaria, launched especially by original Italian, Greek and Spanish products and services, but also from Czech Republic and New Zealand. The proposed ecocategories are: hard floor covering, paints and varnished textile (wool) products for bed and tables, dishwashers. These are the same categories which Bulgarian manufacturers, retailers and service providers aim to be competitive and to satisfy domestic and international market requirements. The principal problem of Bulgarian

3 In Bulgaria the eco-label is not necessary for drugs, foods, beverage and toxic chemical substances.

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T. Gallucci et al. Table 1 SWOT analysis of Bulgarian eco-market

Strengths

Opportunities

Low level of soil, air and water pollution of the Better EU project involvement and use of EU territory; financial tools (ISPA, SAPARD, PHARE); Possession of the one of the richest Supporting more green initiatives of EU for bio-diversity in Europe and large clean restructuring energy sector and tourism territories; industry. Implementation of green activities JIT. Strong regulatory response and adopted legislative response in the respect to the environment; Well-developed systems for eco-monitoring from EU institutions; High percentage of nuclear power generation in the power generation structure. Treats

Weakness

Enourmous expenditires for synchronizing Bulgarian ecological legislation with European legislation; Impact of global climate changes. Bulgaria is a droughty zone with a continious process of delioration of forests; Out-dated technologies used in the eco-industry and energy sector; Obscurely reglamentation for the monitoring of liquidated coal mines;

Shortage of funding opportunities-high external debt, relatively poor population; Lack of sufficient quatity of water resources and inefficient use of existing resources; High level of noise urban pollution;

Low quality of liquid fuels and considerable pollution from transport sources in large cities; Lack of ratifies intergovernamental agreements Lack of administrative capacity for the implementation of the new legal between the neibouring countries in the field documentation. This way, the respective of transboundary pollution in Danube and funds and environmental management Black sea littoral. experience of EU countries need to be used. Source: [17]

products is the lack of environmental competitiveness. The products need to adduce positive proof of green production, according to EU criteria and quality documentation (equipment inspection against ecological pollution, energy use, eco-toxicity, hydrological management etc.).4 The enterprises need to dispose installations, laboratories, equipment and human resources to control the content of waste and beneficial substances in the supplying materials. The durability and safety of the products require a huge investment, which is an obstacle for the business activity of the majority of enterprises in Bulgaria- SMEs. To a certain extent, the environmental plans of Bulgarian SMEs are based only to ISO regulations (ISO 9001, ISO

4 The period for investigation and verification of the eco-labeling documentation in Bulgaria by the Ministry is around 1 month.

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14 001, OHSAS 18001 etc) which is a positive sign. Higher percent of certificated SMEs could be pointed as a good possibility for training a staff and creating tangible effects for inflow investments by technological transfer and value-added. The quality systems explain a better competitiveness of the product or services and a better satisfaction of the customers [19]. With regard to these problems, Bulgarian SMEs couldn’t point out the life-cycle approach as the principal approach for the eco-labeling in EU. Longer is the life-cycle of equipment production higher would be the level of energy used for the recycling process. Finally more are the ecological losses for the enterprises and the state. However, the problem of recycling (it is also named “reverse logistics”) is under resolution in Europe. Until 2003 according the Report of European Commission high level of packaging recycled have only Belgium, UK, France, Netherlands and Luxembourg (see Fig. 4) Life-cycle assessment or Material Flow analysis as a scientifically-based indicator is not still adopted in Bulgarian eco-label policy. Most of the Bulgarian industrial products suffer from out-dated technologies which propose low quality and worse pollution. In Table 2 we present a comparison between benchmarking dimensions, developed in the European green practice and the example of Bulgaria. The current green marketing philosophy in Bulgaria concerns some of the primary characteristics of the evolution of environmental management, corresponding to the USA and West Europe ecological practices for the period 1970’s- mid 1980’s. The focus of life-cycle environmental effects of processes and products (corresponding to the mid 1990s in developed countries) will be implemented in the future. The principal factors for this performance could be the flexibility of environmental choice of Bulgarian enterprises toward sustainable business practices through continual system auditing; reducing of costs and improving the efficiency of green marketing efforts by extensive international deal that could remove existing trade barriers for present eco-labeling products in EU.

Fig. 4 Levels of recycling the packaging waste, in percent (2001–2003). Source: [20]

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T. Gallucci et al. Table 2 Benchmarking dimensions of green marketing

Traditional dimensions5

Modern dimensions

Resources conservation and pollution control;

Involvement in green power programs (global green integration); Green sales and managing eco-efficiency; Customer partnership; Including third-party marketers with long-term contracts (at least 3–5 years); Product design criteria and eco-branding6 ; Systematic product and process management to maximize profitability and ensure environmental quality.

Waste management; New environmental legislation; Process improvement to reduce material use and improve efficiency.

5 The Future of the Green Marketing in Bulgaria Consumers’ organisations in all Europe are pushing the enterprises to develop an appropriate marketing strategy concerning green labels, such as the Eco-label. The use of this brand, in fact, gives better market visibility thanks to products recognised, advertised and sold in all Europe. This could represent strategic choice of differentiation of the products or services offered in order to win customers sensible to environmental aspect. This become crucial because allows to identify and to find solution for reduction of wastes as, for instance, energetic supplying from renewable source. This kind of policy is adopted in Italy, but in Bulgaria although the eco-label is a voluntary procedure for each enterprise, Bulgarian firms don’t follow the criteria for eco-labelled their products. Eco-label is also still not enough necessary in comparison with the Italian clients for the Bulgarian customers to change their perceptions, traditions, values toward European green taste. They have yet the appropriate marketing culture and strategic customer behaviour. As a consequence, Bulgarian business requires more and more eco-labelling procedure with the necessity to break immediately into EU market. Bulgaria still has a lot of environmental problems in comparison with Italy that differ from sector to sector. Bulgarian government needs to develop more sophisticated and better applied policy to reduce the negative-side effects of the intensive production methods specific of the Bulgarian industry. There are some efforts for trying to convince the small and medium enterprise in Bulgaria to adopt eco-label procedure. Some enterprises think this marketing

5 The above-cited indicators are included in Bulgarian Regulation 3/ 2003 as priority aspects to assess the eco-label of Bulgarian goods and services. 6 Although use of multiple brands and logos could create difficulties in preparing marketing materials, eco-branding is identified as a preferred approach in order to avoid confusion among customers [21].

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strategy as a problem and not as an opportunity. For this reason become significant to undertake an important campaign of information about the potentiality of environmental friendly technology and green action for the market share. An innovative approach of marketing and benchmarking dimensions could be effective in addressing the purchasing of Bulgarian consumers in eco-labelled products. The best parameters to take into consideration for influencing the consumer’s choices are the quality, the function and the very fashion design. An adequate green policy at domestic level would make more visible the green brand in way to convince both the people about a responsible purchase and enterprises to understand the economic advantages. It is important to look beyond and don’t miss the opportunity of environmental performance in way to compete in the future with their products in EU affecting by green thought. Strongly precise and subordinated to the monitoring of European Commission of Environment, Italy benefits from faster and adequate implementation of EU ecological rules. The benefits would be to develop more green benchmarks in Bulgaria as innovative initiatives. These are environmental audits, environmental friendly technology and green action plans in order to attract potential clients. For the future, not only the Environmental Management Systems of ISO 14001 (International Organization for the Standardization), but also the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme Directive (EMAS) of the EU should provide the legal basis for eco-label in Bulgaria. In these systems firms receive certification on the basis of establishing an environmental quality control tailored to that firm, and the setting up of environmental monitoring and accounting procedures. Obtaining certification is seen as evidence of the firm’s commitment to the environment, and is frequently used as a public relations, marketing, and government relations advantage [22]. This represents a fundamental commitment of Bulgarian enterprises to engage in environmental assessment and audit that represent a significant modification of traditional practices, in which efficiency, quality and cost evaluations prevailed. Eco-labeling could give an impetus developement of sustainable production for SMEs in Bulgaria. If eco-labels are to become manageable and effective instrument as in the business activity of Italy, the further result for Bulgaria is to decrease the expenditures and to increase the productivity and supply chain optimization.

6 Contributions Each author is contributed in the present paper as follow: G. Lagioia § Introduction; T. Gallucci § 2., § 3.1; J. Uzunova- §.4.; V. Dimitrova- § 1., § 3.2

References 1. Fischer H (1995) Chimica pulita Per un uso intelligente delle materie prime. Laterza, Milano 2. IEFE Bocconi (2003) Diffusione, utilizzo ed efficacia competitiva dell’Ecolabel Europeo in Italia. Quaderni Università Bocconi, Milano

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3. Cadman J, Dooley P (2004) The Direct and indirect benefits of the European eco-label – final report, London 4. Wiser RH (1998) Green power marketing: Increasing customer demand for renewable energy. Utilities Policy 7:107–119 5. Johri LM, Sahasakmontri K (1998) Green marketing of cosmetics and toiletries in Thailand. J Consumer Marketing 15(3):265 6. Paulos B (1998) Green power in perspective: Lessons from green marketing of consumer goods, Electricity J Jan/Feb:46–55 7. Mouritsen J, Ernst J, Jorgensen AM (2000) ‘Green’ certification as a managerial technology. Scand J Manag 16:167–187 8. Lamming R, Hampson J (1998) The environment as a supply chain issue. Br J Manag 7:45–62 9. O’Rourke D (2005) Market movements. J Ind Ecol 9(1–2):115–128 10. Elkington J (1999) Toward the sustainable corporation: Win-Win business strategies for sustainable development. Calif Manag Rev 36(2):90–100 11. Interim report ever study (2005) available at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ecolabel/pdf/ news/ever_interimreport.pdf, last accessed October 2006 12. EU Commission, Eco-label statistics (2005) available at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ e-colabel/marketing/statistics_en.htm, last accessed October 2006 13. Albino V, Kühtz S (2004) Enterprise input-output model for local sustainable development-the case of a tiles manufacturer in Italy. Resour Conserv Recy 41:165–176 14. Chen C-C (2005) Incorporating green purchasing into the frame of ISO 14 000. J Cleaner Prod 13:927–933 15. Ministry of Ecology and Water of Bulgaria (2003) Regulation for national schema for ecolabel Ministry of Ecology and Water of Bulgaria, Bulgaria 16. Steer A (1996) Ten principales of the new environmentalism. Finance Dev Dec:4–7 17. National Strategy for environmental and Action Plan 2000–2006 under the Sub- project 1 of PHARE Twinning Project BG98/IB-EN-01/01 (2001) Bulgarian Ministry of Ecology and Water, Sofia 18. de Snoo G-R, Van de Ven GWJ (1999) Environmental themes on ecolabels. Landsc Urban Plann 46:179–184 19. Dimitrova V (2006) Perspectives for logistics management in the subsidiaries of transnational corporations (TNCs) in Bulgaria, Chapter 10, Supply chain management and information systems handbook: Supply chain management and Logistics in South East Europe. SEERC 156–175 20. European Commission- Sector Environment (2003) Regular report of EU-15, directive 97/138/ES i 2005/270/EC 21. Bird LA, Brown ES (2006) Utility-marketer partnerships: An effective strategy for marketing green power. Technical report NREL/TR 620-39730, Apr:1–40 22. Brewer AM, Button KJ, Hensher DA (2001) Green logistics (The Paradoxes of), Handbook of logistics and supply chain management. Pergamon/Elsevier, London, pp 1–11

The Distribution of Carcinogenic Heavy Metals in Cyprus Soil M. Ertan Akun, Rezan Fahrio˘glu Yamacı, Christophoros Charalambous, Savvas Lechtvich, and Mustafa B.A. Djamgoz

Abstract The number of cancer cases has been deliberately increasing both in Turkish and Greek Cypriot communities in Cyprus. The presence of various carcinogens in the environment is suspected to be the major cause of this increase. The main aim of this study was to identify the heavy metal contamination in Cyprus soil, mainly lead, cadmium and arsenic that are involved in cancer development. The collaborative investigations were accomplished by Cancer Research Fund (CRF) in North Cyprus (NC) and Frederick Institute of Technology in South Cyprus (SC). To achieve an analytical distribution, 260 composite soil samples (140 from NC and 120 from SC) were investigated for the presence of heavy metal contamination. The soil samples were obtained from Güzelyurt Bostancı, Yuvacık, Lefko¸sa, Karpaz, Alevkayası, Kırnı and Mesarya in NC and from Dhali, Sotira, Omodos, Acheilia, Polis and Evrychu in SC. The results showed that the amount of lead in the mentioned areas was within the range of 5.7–224.9 ppm in NC and 4.7–121.7 ppm in SC. The cadmium content ranged between 0.2–1.89 ppm in NC and 0.2–0.59 ppm in SC. Arsenic was measured to be between 0.2–18.5 ppm in NC and 2.8–22.5 in SC. Since the limit of lead contamination in soil is determined to be 400 ppm by EPA, all the analyzed areas in Cyprus can be said to be safe and fit for agriculture. However, compared to SC higher concentrations were found in NC that may be due to the use of leaded petrol. Arsenic is another carcinogen that is implicated in cancers of skin, bladder, liver, lung, and prostate and diseases of heart and brain. Because of its various disease causing effects, the widely adopted limit of arsenic contamination is determined to be 10 ppm. The results of soil investigation indicate presence of high arsenic concentrations in majority of the samples showing contamination in the entire island. Cadmium is well known to have a triggering effect on the development of breast cancer. Since the contaminating concentration for cadmium was determined to be 1 ppm (EPA), the analyses imply a threat for NC only. The current study presents the results of heavy metal analyses in Cyprus soil and M.E. Akun (B) Chairman, Department of Industrial Engineering, Cyprus International University, Haspolat, North Cyprus e-mail: [email protected]

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illustrates the areas with lead, cadmium and arsenic contaminations in the island. These data will enlighten the farmers for choosing the right place for agriculture. In addition to this, it will alert the related official authorities to take precautions for the removal of the contaminants and prohibit the use of agents that cause the respective contamination. In the long run, these will help increasing the health conditions of the both communities living in the island. Keywords Cancer · Lead · Cadmium · Arsenic · Soil · Cyprus

1 Introduction Heavy metal contamination of the environment has been a big deal since the time of civilization. Uncontrolled release of metals, specially in developing countries like Cyprus, causes pollution in soil, water and air. Since these metals are absorbed by plants and cannot be removed easily, they eventually enter the human body through food chain. Lead has been used since the beginning of civilization being widely spread to the environment. Areas of lead application are refining, brass/bronze foundries, rubber production and plastic industry, soldering, steel welding/cutting, battery manufacturing, pottery/ceramics industry, paints, insecticides, gasoline and lead cable, pipe manufacturing [1]. Exposure to lead is mainly through ingestion or inhalation. The combustion of leaded gasoline generated approximately 90% of all lead emissions in early 1980s. Therefore EPA banned the use of leaded gasoline in USA in 1996. Whereas in Cyprus and other developing countries, the continuous use of leaded gasoline poses a major public health. Lead used in paints causes soil contamination allowing its entry to human body through hand-to-mouth activity and inhalation [1]. It is a highly neurotoxic heavy metal [9] and when absorbed lead is retained in blood, soft tissue (liver, kidney, lung, brain, spleen, muscle and heart) and mineralizing tissues (bone and teeth). The negative effects of lead on children are higher than that of adults; specially very harmful for children, causing decrease in intelligence, impaired behavioral development and hearing defects [17]. It is harmful to developing nervous system of fetus and young children where high doses cause neurologic problems e.g. seizure, coma and death. Arsenic is estimated to comprise 1.5–5 × 10−4 percent of the earth’s crust. It is a component of sedimentary and igneous rocks, some coals, and peat as well as most sediments [19, 20, 15]. Arsenic is biologically toxic and is a threat to human health causing different types of cancers like bladder and lung [16, 3, 2]. It is extensively used as wood preservatives, in alloys, glass manufacturers, semiconductor material, feed additives, herbicides, insecticides, hematosis additives and veterinary chemicals [12]. Arsenic enters the environment through smelting of lead, copper and nickel ores and combustion of fossil fuels and excessive or improper use of pesticides containing arsenic [10]. Exposure to arsenic can be due to arsenic contamination in soil that would enter the human body through soil ingestion and the food chain [13].

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Cadmium, lead and arsenic are the major worldwide metal contamination. Cadmium is a naturally occurring metal, found in soil, rocks, and water. It is the second toxic element, in the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)’s priority pollutant list [5] and accepted as Category I carcinogen by International Agency for Research in Cancer [8]. Studies have shown the correlation of cadmium exposure and cancers of breast, lung, prostate and testis [6, 3, 2, 18, 14, 8, 7, 11]. Cadmium is used to galvanize pipes causing pollution of water by corrosion of pipes or improper waste disposal. Also erosion of natural deposits, discharge from metal refineries, runoff from waste batteries and paints are the major sources of cadmium pollution. Since it is also used in fungicide and insecticides soil and plants are also contaminated. Human beings are exposed to cadmium by eating food grown in contaminated soil or fish from tainted water, but more extreme exposure comes from smoking or interaction with smelting, welding or shipbuilding. Smoking doubles the average daily intake of cadmium [4]. Organic agriculture that is highly important in the production of crops and vegetables free from contaminating toxic elements requires the identification of non-contaminated soil. This study aims to determine the regions safe for organic agriculture and regions that require removal of contaminants. In the future, these data will enable the decrease in the uptake of toxic metals by plants thus their concentration in the food chain of human beings. Therefore this can be related to a decrease in the uptake of carcinogens by the Cypriot community.

2 Methodology The methodology adopted was to collect samples at pre-defined locations of agricultural activities, especially related to vegetables and crops under investigation. The samples of soil were collected by using hand augers, so as to retrieve soil at a depth of 20–40 cm. This is in fact the depth at which the root hairs of the plants under investigation lies, which are capable of extracting contaminating elements from the soil within which they occur. Since the downward motion of water during rainy seasons can lead to the leaching of the elements in the soil which travel deeper, the sample collection was carried out twice; one during the dry season and the other during the rainy season. The concentration of heavy metals in soil was analyzed in Frederick Institute of Technology and confirmed in Imperial College using specific techniques.

3 Results of Field Studies Within the scope of an international project, Lead (Pb), Arsenic (As) and Cadmium (Cd), as the major sources of soil contamination were searched in Cyprus soils. Being absorbed by plants and entering human body via the food chain, the aim of the study was to designate their distribution in soils and recommend remedies as

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well as to determine safe areas for organic agriculture. In addition to this, the aim was to indicate the presence of carcinogenic metals in specific areas that can be related to increased cancer incidence in further studies. The tolerable limits of the mentioned heavy metals in the soils (approved by EPA) are given below in Table 1. The average concentrations of Pb, As and Cd in Northern Regions of Cyprus were found as given in Table 2, following the collection of soil samples at different areas. The same type of study was accomplished at the Southern Regions of Cyprus as well and similar results were obtained, as presented in Table 3 below. Table 1 Tolerable limits of Pb, As and Cd (EPA)

Table 2 Average concentrations of Pb, As and Cd in Northern Regions of Cyprus

Table 3 Average concentrations of Pb, As and Cd in Southern Regions of Cyprus

Heavy metal

Max limit (ppm)

Lead Arsenic Cadmium

400 10 1

Area

Pb (ppm)

As (ppm)

Cd (ppm)

Alevga Nicosia Kyr. – Krini M. Kyra M. Zodhia Messaoria Karpasia

32.58 44.29 40.51 32.42 8.02 12.6 17.19

11.25 11.87 14.63 8.98 9.47 11.09 13.56

0.34 0.69 0.47 0.34 0.2 0.33 0.3

Area

Pb

As

Cd

Dhali Sotira Omodos Achelia Evrycheu Polis

10.25 14.02 6.81 20.58 52.39 13.59

7.17 11.68 6.37 10.06 18.30 12.43

0.39 0.26 0.20 0.35 0.26 0.23

4 Discussion After collecting the soil specimens and analyzing them in accredited laboratories, the results were investigated in accordance with the EPA (Environmental Pollution Agency) standards. First, the general situation and distribution of lead in the entire island was evaluated. The distribution is given below in Fig. 1. According to Fig. 1, it is observed that maximum lead concentrations are around Everychu and Nicosia,

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Average Pb distribution in Cyprus Average Pb content, mg/kg

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 –10 Alevga

Nicosia

Kyrenia- Morphou Morphou Messaoria Karpasso Krini Kyra Zodhia

Dhali

Omodos

Sotira

Achelia

Everychu Polis

Area

Fig. 1 The distribution of Lead in Cyprus soil. The analyses of samples indicate highest levels of Pb in Everychu followed by Nicosia. Other areas are free from threat

and that the other areas seem to be free of threat. However higher Pb concentrations were determined in the North when compared South Cyprus. This may indicate the results of extensive leaded petrol use in the North Cyprus. Secondly, the general situation and distribution of arsenic in the entire island was evaluated. The distribution is given below in Fig. 2. According to Fig. 2, it is observed that arsenic is indeed a threat all over the island. This also implies the need for further investigations in more detail and necessitates the elaboration of a plan to neutralize the threat. Finally, the general situation and distribution of cadmium in the entire island was evaluated. The distribution is given below in Fig. 3. According to Fig. 3, the maximum amount of concentration is observed to be at Nicosia and is regarded that it might become a threat. The other areas seem to be free of threat. Average As distribution in Cyprus Average As content mn /kg

25

20

15

10

5

0 Alevga

Nicosia

Kyrenia- Morphou Morphou Messaoria Karpasso Krini Kyra Zodhia

Dhali

Omodos

Sotira

Achelia

Everychu

Polis

Area

Fig. 2 The distribution of Arsenic in Cyprus soil. Except for Morphu, Dhali and Omodos all the investigated areas are under a big thread of As contamination

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Average Cd content, mg /kg

0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 Alevga

Nicosia

Kyrenia- Morphou Morphou Messaoria Karpasso Krini Kyra Zodhia

Dhali

Omodos

Sotira

Achelia

Everychu

Polis

Area

Fig. 3 The distribution of Cadmium in Cyprus soil. The results show that Nicosia is under the risk of Cd contamination and the rest of island is free of this risk

5 Conclusion and Recommendations Following the field studies and the laboratory analysis, the degree of threat imposed by the concentrations of the heavy metals in question are evaluated in detail, with the EPA standards. According to this, the following recommendations are forwarded: • Lead seems to be a potential danger in only a few areas. To eliminate this danger, unleaded petrol usage must be rendered obligatory all over the island. In addition, ceramic industry, paints and insecticides should be monitored. • Cadmium threat requires preventive measures, especially in waste disposal methods, use of fungicides and insecticides, as well as in relation to pipes where Cd is used for galvanization. • Arsenic is a major threat all over the island. Although it is naturally present in nature in sedimentary and igneous rocks, it is also introduced into soils via herbicides and insecticides. Therefore use of As containing pesticides should be under strict control. • Contamination is a serious issue: for farmers, policy makers and PUBLIC, who need to be informed about environmental dangers they face. • Organic farming can help mitigate the input of heavy metals into the soil and must therefore be encouraged. • The intake of heavy metals to the human body through soil is well known to cause cancer. One of the reasons of increased cancer incidence in Cyprus may depend on the presence of these metals. Therefore a prevention strategy should be established and applied immediately. • Further investigations will be performed to prove the relation between heavy metal contamination in Cyprus soil and cancer.

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References 1. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1999) Toxicological profile for lead. US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta 2. Bates MN, Rey OA, Biggs ML (2004) Case–control study of bladder cancer and exposure to arsenic in Argentina. Am J Epidemiol 159:381–389 3. Chen Y, Ahsan H (2004) Cancer burden from arsenic in drinking water in Bangladesh. Am J Public Health 94:741–744 4. Cox LA Jr (2006) Quantifying potential health impacts of cadmium in cigarettes on smoker risk of lung cancer: A portfolio-of-mechanisms approach. Risk Anal 26(6):1581–1599 5. Davis, ML Cornwell, DA (1998). Introduction to Environmental Engineering: McGrawHill Series in Water Resources and Environmental Engineering. WCB/McGraw-Hill; Third Edition New York 6. Ferreccio C, Gonzalez PC, Milosavjlevic SV, Marshall GG, Sancha AM, Smith AH (2000) Lung cancer and arsenic concentrations in drinking water in Chile. Epidemiology 1:673–679 7. Gover, RA Liu, J Waalke, MP (2004) Cadmium and cancer of prostate and testis. Biometals.17(5):555–558 8. Goyer RA, Liu J, Waalkes MP (2004) Cadmium and cancer of prostate and testis. Biometals 17:555–558 9. Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ (2006) Developmental neurotoxicity of industrial chemicals. Lancet 16;368(9553):2167–2178 10. Hinck JE, Schmitt CJ, Echols KR, May TW, Orazio CE, Tillitt DE (2006) Environmental contaminants in fish and their associated risk to piscivorous wildlife in the Yukon River Basin, Alaska. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol Nov;51(4):661–672 11. Johnson MD, Kenney N, Stoica A, Hilakivi-Clarke L, Singh B, Chepko G, Clarke R, Sholler PF, Lirio AA, Foss C, Reiter R, Trock B, Paik S, Martin MB (2003) Cadmium mimics the in vivo effects of estrogen in the uterus and mammary gland. Nat Med 8:1081–1084 12. Kumaresan M, Riyazuddin P (2001) Overview of speciation chemistry of arsenic. Curr Sci 80(7):837–846 13. Mandal BK, Suzuki KT (2002) Arsenic round the world: A review. Talanta 58:201–235 14. Michaud DS, Wright ME, Cantor KP, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, Albanes D (2004) Arsenic concentrations in prediagnostic toenails and the risk of bladder cancer in a cohort of male smokers, Am J Epidemiol 160:835–859 15. National Research Council (1977) Medical and biologic effects of environmental pollutants: Arsenic. National Academy of Sciences, Washington 16. Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (2004) Public health goal for arsenic in drinking water. California Environmental Protection Agency, California 17. Rajkumar WS, Manohar J, Doon R, Siung-Chang A, Chang-Yen I, Monteil M (2006) Blood lead levels in primary school children in Trinidad and Tobago. Sci Total Environ 361(1–3): 81–87 18. Steinmaus C, Yuan Y, Bates MN, Smith AH (2003) Case–control study of bladder cancer and drinking water arsenic in the western USA. Am J Epidemiol 158:1193–1201 19. Tamaki S, Frankenberger WT Jr (1992) Environmental biochemistry of arsenic. Rev Environ Contamin Toxicol 124:79–110 20. Waugh JLT (1982) Arsenic. In: Parker SP, Weil J, Richman B (eds), McGraw-Hill encyclopedia of science and technology, 5th edn, vol. 1. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 715–718

Biotechnology: A Powerful Tool for Human Survival and Sustainability Anwar Nasim

Abstract The concept of sustainable development for a meaningful human survival is now well documented. Among a large number of different components that can help achieve this highly desirable goal is the pivotal role that “Science and Technology” will play in our future. Among different disciplines of science which in recent times have achieved revolutionary breakthrough “Biotechnology” clearly is one. The multiple applications of “Biotechnology” include “Environment” as one area that constitutes an aspect that merits special attention. The newly acquired techniques involving use of microorganisms, manipulation of genetic material and bioremediation are closely related to the sustainable development. The examples of developing countries with special focus on Pakistan will be given to list the future challenges and possible solutions for achieving the well defined goals of human survival and sustainability. An attempt will be made to discuss the importance of both physical and biological environment as these relate to future human survival. Keywords Biotechnology · Environment · Bioremediation · Sustainability · Survival For survival of human beings, easy and sustainable availability of basic human needs like food security, clean environment, proper health care, education facilities and economic prosperity are all crucial. Unless a society has these basic needs human survival will remain under continuing threat. We can come to this conclusion by comparing life expectancy in societies from the developed and underdeveloped world. The life expectancy of Norway a country that tops HDI rank list is 79 years compared to Niger that is at the bottom of HDI rank is 44 years. This is the result of non-availability of basic human needs mentioned above. For bridging the gap between these two extremes we have to strive for sustainable development through recognizing the role of science and technology for the development of societies [4, 5]. A. Nasim (B) COMSTECH Secretariat, 33-Constitution Avenue, G-5/2, Islamabad, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected]

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Role of science and technology for the socio-economic development is crucial. One can ascertain the role of science and technology for development by using the example of countries rich in natural resources but poor in science and technology which are in the list of developing countries. On the other hand one can find some developed countries with poor natural resources but they are strong in science and technology. Following table shows Human Development Index (HDI) rank.

HDI rank 9 11 14 16 18 20

Industrialized countries Belgium Japan Denmark France Italy Germany

HDI rank 40 41 44 58 75 77 99

Oil exporting countries Qatar UAE Kuwait Libya Venezuela Saudi Arabia Iran

Economic prosperity, development and more so sustainable development are complex issues which are the final end result of a whole set of interacting factors [10, 12, 13]. The concept of sustainable development was launched by the World Commission on environment and Development in the report “Our Common future” in 1987. The report says “Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable – to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. This concept of sustainable development was reinforced by the UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The concept of sustainable development is based on the conviction that it should be possible to increase the basic standard of living of the world’s growing population, without unnecessarily depleting our finite natural resources and further degrading the environment in which we live [1, 3]. The world of science has grown and changed beyond all expectations. This knowledge growth has brought new term “knowledge-based economy” which refers to the use of knowledge to produce economic benefits. Today, a revolution is taking place in the biological sciences. It is fueled by the groundbreaking work in modern molecular genetics, the enormous advances in bioinformatics and computing, and the enormous sums being invested in biotechnology research. It is truly an exhilarating time for the biological sciences; similar to what physics experienced in the glorious 40 years between 1905 and 1945, when all the concepts were changed, from cosmology to quantum physics, from relativity to the structure of atoms. We are decoding the very blueprints of life; we are learning to manage the deployment

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and expression of genes. So we live in a time unmatched for the opportunities that science provides. We can dream of new scientific breakthroughs and new products that can help humanity as never before: New higher yielding plants that are more environment friendly, new remedies for killer diseases, edible vaccines, single cell proteins to feed cattle and clean wastes, hyper-accumulating plants to take toxins out of the soil, expanding forests and habitats where more species thrive, and so much more. We can dream of a future of sustainable development where humans thrive in harmony with each other and with the environment. These opportunities are a necessary focus of interest among all of us who believe that the full potential of science has yet to be realized in our continuing efforts to fight poverty, end hunger, and protect the environment [2]. For thousands of years, people have used biotechnology to produce foods such as cheese and bread with bacteria and yeast. The genetic manipulation of both animals and plants started in prehistoric time. Archaeological findings and suggestions from ancient writings support the view that there were rudimentary agricultural crops at least some 7,000–9,000 years ago, in the hills between Iran and north-western Iraq, from where they spread to the valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates. In fact, all the plants now grown had started from ancient wild relatives. Similarly, all the domesticated animals came from the genetic modification of their wild ancestors. A very large amount of plant science data reveals natural crossings between species and even spontaneous mutations. It is also known that new species arise from these natural hybridizations and mutations. One of the more recent example of revolutionary breakthroughs in science is the new biotechnology that includes recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering. Since the discovery of DNA in 1953 the other most important advance in genetics has been the discovery of the restriction enzymes in 1972, which allowed DNA to be cut at specific sites and then put back together. Next came the discovery of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which allowed fragments of DNA to multiply. The identification for specific DNA genes for desirable traits, and the transfer of those genes into another organism constitute genetic engineering. The gene transfer involves the use of a vector carrier, which can be a plasmid or a virus. The full potential of genetic engineering is still unknown and the results so far achieved are only the beginning. Such breeding methods largely accounted for the phenomenal gains in productivity during the 20th century. Karl Ereky coined the term biotechnology in 1919. One of the several proposed definitions of Biotechnology is the application of science and engineering to the direct or indirect use of living organisms, or parts or products of living organisms, in their natural or modified forms. It can offer enormous benefits to mankind, from an improved environment to better crop yields and from better health to more effective healthcare. The development and dependence on Biotechnology has largely increased in countries all over the world in the last few years. The human genome project, production of antibiotics and improvement of crops by agricultural biotechnology are some of the major breakthroughs provided by this technology.

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Emerging biotechnologies, based on new scientific discoveries, offer novel approaches for striking a balance between developmental needs and environmental conservation [6, 7, 9]. A wider diffusion of the technology is thus seen as the key to directing its positive impacts onto the world’s society as a whole. Biotechnology is continuously and rapidly developing in an increasing number of sectors that improve the effectiveness for the way in which products and services are provided. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick revealed three dimensional double helical structure of DNA which ushered biotechnology into a new era. New techniques for manipulation of DNA were developed that enable human beings to make desired changes in the DNA. This new invention changed the phenomenon altogether. High yield of crops became possible, transgenic crops were designed. This technology not only brought revolution in agriculture but also brought remarkable changes in Industry, Environment and Health as well.

The latest biotechnology revolution began in the 1970s with the arrival of Applied Genetics and Recombinant DNA technology. This genetic engineering had a profound impact on almost all areas of traditional biotechnology and further led to breakthroughs. During these last three decades a large number of powerful techniques to manipulate DNA the magic molecule that governs the development of living organisms have been developed (Fig. 1). The major strength of biotechnology is its multidisciplinary nature and the extremely broad range of scientific approaches and economic applications that it encompasses. This is graphically represented below Fig. 2: The same is true for the very large number of products that biotechnology can provide shown below Fig. 3: The above figures showing multidisciplinary approach of biotechnology and its products clearly indicate that how biotechnology can be beneficial for human survival. Proper applications of biotechnology in agriculture help us to grow as much food as we need with improved nutritional value. Biotechnology plays crucial role

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to achieve clean environment, decrease water [8] and air pollution, diagnose disease, produce vaccines and medicine and develop biodegradable plastics. Following graph shows biotech market capitalization.

Biotechnology has become a pivotal tool for sustainable development in such diverse areas as Agriculture, Environment, Industry and Human Health. Biotechnology, the application of an explosion of biological knowledge, gives humankind the ability to alter the structure of life itself. Whether biotechnology

AT

Restriction Enzymes (cutting) Gene Amplification (PCR)

Ligation (joining) cDNA Libraries

TA CT

Cloning

GC

Hybridisation using probes

Sequencing Gene Synthesis

AT TA

Mutations

CT

GC

Fig. 1 DNA manipulations

Site Directed Mutagenesis

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Molecular Biology

Cell Biology

Biochemistry

Genetics

China Egypt Conventional Biotechnology Modern Genetic Engineering

Fermentation Technology

Chemical Engineering

Microbiology

Pharmacogenetics

Fig. 2 Multidisciplinary nature of biotechnology

Transgenic Animals

Diagnostics

Vaccines

Insulin, Interferon Parmaceuticals

Biotechnology Products

Transgenic Crops

Growth Hormones

Fig. 3 Biotechnology products

proves to be a miracle or a menace depends on how it is used and controlled. Biotechnology has made it possible to achieve the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Produce new and safer vaccines Treat genetic diseases Provide new and better medicines Increase crop-yields and decrease production-costs Improve food nutritional value Increase livestock productivity Develop biodegradable plastics Decrease water and air pollution

Commercial biotechnology consists of an expanding range of interrelated techniques, procedures and processes for practical applications in the health care, agriculture, industrial and environment sectors. Commercialization of biotechnology ranges from research to products and services. These are powerful technologies, supported by complementary bioprocess-engineering, to help translate new discoveries of life-sciences into practical products and services. As such, biotechnology should also be seen as an integration of the new techniques emerging from modern

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biotechnology with the well-established approaches of traditional biotechnology, such as plant breeding, food fermentation and compositing. Biotechnology-derived applications must be economically feasible and socially responsible in addition to being environmentally friendly – they must present a cost advantage, monetary or otherwise, before they may be accepted by industry. Even though biotechnology-derived applications may reduce manufacturing costs and improve profitability, there are many companies that rely instead upon traditional production methods, be it because they are unaware of biotechnology’s industrial applications, or because they remain cautious of biotechnology use in industry. Biotechnology-derived applications are generally more environmentally friendly than existing industrial methods. They can also reduce production costs, promote production efficiency, and improve product quality. In industry, biotechnology derived applications accomplish thee goals through the following methods: • Replacing non-renewable resources with renewable ones; • Replacing harsh chemicals with biological organisms; and • Developing more efficient and effective technologies. The rate at which information is being generated has indeed no parallel in earlier human history. The ease with which one can access available information is just as impressive. It has been estimated that, whereas the total knowledge-pool will double in 6–7 years, for life sciences such doubling time is estimated to be nearly 3 years. This new scenario provides an extremely rich and almost unmanageable store of data, but also poses the serious challenge for an effective and meaningful approach towards a focused discussion. Thus for scientists, academicians and policy makers there is a dire need to realise that computers and other highly sophisticated devices have dramatically changed our ability to acquire, store and retrieve information. So how do we cope with this knowledge explosion? Internet, ISP’s enable us to download enormous amount of data in no time – that fact alone poses a serious challenge of how to manage, coordinate, analyse, draw conclusions, develop guidelines and then formulate effective strategies to cope with future challenges [1]. To formulate an effective strategy to get benefit from latest technologies like biotechnology one can easily get examples from other countries that already have formulated effective strategies. What is needed to be done is to reformulate it according to the country specific needs. Here I would like to give an example of Canadian biotech development strategy. Although wide-spread interest in biotechnology issues is a recent phenomenon, the Government of Canada first identified biotechnology as an important economic sector and a key enabling technology to support economic growth and international competitiveness in the 1970s. The Government of Canada adopted the first National Biotechnology Strategy in 1983. It refocused its policies in 1993, with a revised Federal Regulatory Framework for Biotechnology. Now the Government’s approach has been redefined once more to address a much broader range of emerging issues in a new Canadian

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Biotechnology Strategy (CBS). Following policy documents have been prepared for the Government of Canada. 1. The 1998 Canadian Biotechnology Strategy: An ongoing Renewal Process 2. Canadian biotechnology Strategy overall performance report 1999–2002 3. Canadian Biotechnology Advisory Committee: many perspectives, one source. Annual Report 2005. 4. BioPromise? Biotechnology, Sustainable Development and Canada’s Future economy. Technical Report to CBAC, 2006. 5. Toward a Canadian Action Agenda for biotechnology: A report from the Canadian Biotechnology Advisory Committee, 2006. Above listed documents are available online on the following website: www. cbac-cccb.ca Like many countries that began investing in biotechnology research in the 1980s, Canada can now build on its strengths. But worldwide investment in biotechnology is growing rapidly and the pace of development is accelerating. The faster pace of change has also brought many ethical, social and environmental issues to the forefront. Canadians want to realise the potential benefits from biotechnology, especially in the areas of personal health, quality of life, and the promotion of a sustainable environment. The Government of Canada wants to ensure that this new strategy reflects Canadian values and Canadian standards. In addition to the promise of advances in the areas of health care and the environment, biotechnology offers economic opportunities. The Canadian biotechnology industry today generates almost $2 billion a year in revenues, including $750 million in exports. With over 500 firms, most of which are small companies, Canada has generated more biotechnology companies per capita than any other country. Every region of Canada shares in the growth of the biotechnology industry, which employs 25,000 people, typically in high-quality jobs. About 60% of Canadian firms are in the area of healthcare with most of the remaining activity in agriculture. Canada ranks third in the world after the United States and the United Kingdom in a $20 billion industry that is expected to grow to $50 billion by 2005. The Government of Canada has consistently made biotechnology a priority, in the Science and Technology Strategy, the Jobs and Growth Strategy, and, most recently, in the 1997 Speech from the Throne [17]. India, China, Cuba and Brazil have also made progress in the field of biotechnology [11]. This rich pool of available information provides a unique opportunity for the developing countries to benefit from the data, analysis, reports and strategies that have been developed in other nations. There is no denying the fact that all such policies and strategies have to be “country specific”. So the approach is to carefully define the specific national priorities and then see which of the proposed strategies can be applied to the specific needs of any given country [14, 15, 16]. For purpose of comparison one can use the example of Pakistan from the developing world. We in Pakistan have tried to come up with national action plan in biotechnology. In view of my close personal involvement in the development of biotechnology in Pakistan I would attempt to outline this scenario.

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The importance of vast potential of biotechnology was formally recognized in 1981 when first course on recombinant DNA technology was organized by Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad, one of three agriculture centres of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. The first course was organized by Dr. Sheikh Riazuddin and was conducted by Late Dr. I.A. Bukhari of Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA and Dr. Anwar Nasim Adviser Science COMSTECH (then at NRC, Ottawa, Canada). The workshop among other recommendations specifically asked Govt. of Pakistan to develop an exclusive national centre of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering [18]. Thus ministry of education approved Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology (CEMB) to be built in the campus of Punjab University. Taking start with specialized restriction enzymes, CEMB expanded gradually into Agriculture Biotechnology which at present is the main interest area of this elite centre. Consultation, planning and paper work on National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE) was started in 1983. The institute was established under the provisions of the 1984 Science policy was approved in 1986. The project aims to develop/adopt/apply innovative and modern research in agriculture, industry, health and environment. It is a federal research institute which is being run under the auspicious of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. The centre was formally inaugurated by the President of Pakistan in 1994 [19]. National Commission on biotechnology (NCB) was established in 2001 with the purpose of promotion of biotechnology research in Pakistan and preparation of biotechnology action plan. The commission comprises of 15 eminent scientists in the field of biotechnology. NCB is an advisory body to the ministry of science and technology to monitor new developments in the field of biotechnology at National and International levels, and to recommend appropriate measures for sustainable economic growth of the country. For further information on NCB activities one can visit following NCB website http://www.ncb.gov.pk In conclusion it is important to emphasize that for an optimal utilization of biotechnology as a tool for human survival and sustainability the developing countries need to carefully and critically examine the strategies used by the developed nations. With this background in view one needs to develop country specific action plans for any given nation. To illustrate this approach the examples of Canada and Pakistan have been discussed in the present manuscript. There is certainly no denying the fact that among the new and emerging technologies of the modern times biotechnology is a leading technology. It is here to stay and should be given the highest priority by policy makers trying to plan the future economic development.

References 1. Nasim A (2001) Biotechnology for sustainable development. Sci Vis Q 7(1–2), JulyDecember 2001. Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South (COMSATS), Islamabad, Pakistan

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2. Serageldin I (1999) The challenge of poverty in the 21st century: the role of science, agricultural biotechnology and the poor. In: Persley GJ, Lantin MM (eds) An international conference on biotechnology, convened by consultative group on international agricultural research and US national academy of sciences, pp 25–31 3. Our Common Future (1987) The world commission on environment and development. Palais Wislon, 52 rue des Paquis 1201, Geneva, Switzerland 4. An Assault on Poverty: Basic Human Needs, Science, and Technology (1997) Jointly published by: International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada & United Nations conference on trade and development, Palais des Nations, Geneva, Switzerland 5. Meadows DH, Meadows DL, Randers J, Behrens WW III (1972) The limits to growth: a report for the club of Rome’s project on the predicament of mankind. Universe Books, New York 6. Khan HA (2005) Scientific and technological research for development. Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO). Rabat, Morocco 7. Khan HA (2004) Education, science and technology in developing countries: some thoughts and recollections. Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South (COMSATS). Islamabad, Pakistan 8. Ahmad I (2002) Water and new technologies. Global Change Impact Studies Centre, Islamabad, Pakistan 9. Khan HA, Qurashi MM, Hussain T, Hayee I (2005) Renewable-energy technologies and sustainable development. Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South (COMSATS). Islamabad, Pakistan 10. Gordon Conway (1997) The doubly green revolution: food for all in the 21st century. Penguin Books, New York 11. Tzotzos GT, Skryabin KG (2000) Biotechnology in the developing world and countries in economic transition. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK 12. Agricultural biotechnology, poverty reduction and food security. A working paper (2001) Asian Development Bank 13. Atlas of the Sustainability of Food Security (2004) M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Centre for Research on Sustainable Agricultural and Rural Development 14. Majali AS, Ergin M, Zou’bi MR (2001) Biotechnology and genetic engineering for development in the Islamic world. Islamic Academy of Sciences, Amman, Jordan 15. Strategies for the development and application of biotechnology for economic growth. Expert Group Meeting Proceedings. Pakistan Council for Science and Technology. Islamabad, Pakistan 16. Malik KA, (2004) Strategy for development of biotechnology in the Islamic countries. COMSTECH, Islamabad, Pakistan 17. www.biostrategy.gc.ca 18. Masood A (The Muslim 7th March 1981). Sponsoring of Genetic Engg. Institute offered. Islamabad, Pakistan 19. Anees MA (1985). Cloning Better Futures. Inquiry, 2(5): 48–51

Ecotourism – Environment Relationship in Contemporary Eastern Europe Countries. Its Facts, Myths and Challenges. The Case of Albania and Macedonia Liljana Elmazi and Jovan Stojanoski

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to critically evaluate the perceptions and intended applications of ecotourism in Eastern Europe. This is placed within the context of past tourism patterns under state socialism, current issues of the transition and restructuring and likely future trends in the region for the tourism generally and environmentally sensitive tourism development in particular. The political and economic changes which have characterized Eastern Europe in generally and Albania and Macedonia in particularly, since 1989 have exerted a number of influences on patterns of international tourism to, within and from the region. Sustainable forms of tourism are a relatively new concept for these countries, although past practices did see the restriction of tourists’ mobility, albeit not necessarily for environmental reasons. These countries are vulnerable to tourism fashion changes, which are themselves sensitive to the instability and myriad problems besetting the region. In spite of this, the region’s cultural and environmental diversity provides the potential for substantial market segmentation. Targeting niche markets- ideally high spending groups with minimal adverse impacts and season- extending activities – should emphasise the significance of “green” forms of tourism. The region’s substantial heritage potential and natural protected areas can be used to considerable educational as well as economic advantage to the region. Keywords Ecotourism · Environment · Sustainability

1 Introduction Environmentally sensitive tourism must involve the local population in decisionmaking as well as participation in accommodation provision, conservation and education. In these countries domestic recreational demands are likely to increase considerably in the longer term with rising consumerism, and environmental impact

L. Elmazi (B) Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Tirana, Tirana, Albania e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_35, 

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of this grossly underenumerated activity may be substantial. Local cross- border movement between neighbouring countries for petty trading purposes has grown to considerable proportions in recent years, swelling international arrivals figures and complicating analyses of the scale of international tourism in the region [2].

2 Ecotourism as a Tool for Sustainable Development Although the first mention of the word ecotourism is set around the late 70s and the early 80s, its main components are rooted in history. Some components of ecotourism (as seen below) can be found in many previous forms and philosophies of tourism [4]. Components of Ecotourism • • • • • • •

Contributes to conservation of biodiversity Sustains the well being of local people Includes an interpretation/learning experience Involves responsible action on the part of tourists Is delivered to small groups by small-scale businesses Requires lowest possible consumption of non-renewable resources Stresses local ownership and business opportunities, particularly for rural people

Ecotourism, is to be taken within the broader framework of sustainable development of tourism overall, with four main motivations: • Sustainable use of biodiversity and natural resources • Impact minimization, especially in terms of climate change and energy consumption • Empowerment and fully informed participation of local stakeholders, particularly local communities and indigenous peoples • Awareness raising and environmental education of travelers and hosts Ecotourism may be said to have three aspects: • a concept. Based on a set of so-called aspirational principles, it sets out an ideal to be targeted at. As such, it’s very useful as a goal to be targeted. • a market segment. Linked to nature and adventure tourism, it’s a relatively small niche market, mostly for small-and medium-sized companies and for small groups of discriminating tourists. As such, it can be studied and analyzed, although little statistical investigation has been made. In spite of the high goals set up its aspirational aspect, colourist cannot help being part of a global economic and political system which has very often led to income and capacity gaps and divides, and many actual colourist products do not fulfill the principles set up above.

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• a practical laboratory for pioneering ideas and practices potentially applicable in mainstream tourism. In the 80’s, some ecolodges in Costa Rica and in Africa started setting aside private reserves for their guests’ enjoyment. Today, the 200room Punta Cana Beach and Golf resort in the Dominican Republic has a 150 hectare rainforest reserve, managed by an Ecological Foundation. Based on ecotourism experiences, cruise tourists are being sold ecotours in Saint Lucia, theme parks in the US attempt to replicate nature experiences, and zoos make visitors feel they are part of the animal’s environment. • Canopy walkways, used first for scientific purpose, are now widely used as ecotourism attractions, and receive hundreds of thousands of visitors yearly all over the world. Over the years, as the concept has been applied under very different circumstances, some regional differences can be perceived. Several stereotypical “schools of thought”, based on different cultural and historical circumstances, could be proposed in a global overview: • From North America, backed by a philosophy of admiration for nature as ultimate perfection (Thoreau and others), comes the idea of visitation to parks totally undisturbed by human settlements. In some cases, the notion of nature as a standalone balance that should be protected from any human interference has led to systems that propose to relocate residents. As a haven against the kind of uncontrolled development reigning in most other places, parks are seen as carefully managed areas where limited exposure to nature can be offered to the educated public under more or less strict management rules-in fact, management systems found in the US and Canada are well tested, and have been used as references for many other national systems. Also, in the US, given the unparalleled advance of the paradigm of the State more as a regulator than an agent, many effective models of public/private partnerships to manage protected areas-concessions, land leases, opportunities for entrepreneurs-can be found. The concept of nature interpretation (Tilden), where the most essential environmental messages are communicated emotionally as well as through information, by a variety of means including, as far as possible, an interactive participation of the visitor, has been developed mostly in the US, and some of the most advance technology as well leading experts are there. • In Europe, the natural landscape has been managed with human interference for ages, and ecotourism relates closely to rural tourism. Natural settings always have had local culture and inhabitants as components of the landscape. As the models of agricultural production change over time, and the subsidies set up to help European agriculture remain competitive prove to be very expensive, the need for supplementary income sources has paved the way for opening remote homes and farms to urban visitation, with positive results especially in economically depressed areas. Also, the experience of associating the image and the actual experience of a place to the products originating from it (the notion of the French “terroir”, or the ecolabels for water, handicraft, wine and food from certain natural areas) has helped to add value and shorten distribution channels. This has been very successful by promoting local Small and Medium Enterprises, the core of any sustainable tourism policy. Successes with Bed & Breakfast reservation

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systems, or with the Gites de France mechanism, can be immediately related to ecotourism. With most of its areas inhabited by diverse social groups, Europe also had great experience in participative land use planning (regional parks), and multi-stakeholder management systems. In a recent research by UNEP, most of the municipal destinations using Local Agenda 21 systems for tourism were to be found here. The notion of “fair” and “pro-poor” tourism also is stronger with European outbound tourism actors than elsewhere, and indeed the first critiques about the negative social and environmental impacts of tourism have originated here in the 70s. The continent also benefits from having the largest proportion of potential outbound travelers close to rural/natural areas, therefore increasing so-called ecotourism FITs (frequent independent travelers) and allowing value-added distribution chains. Ecotourism is therefore an extremely useful and important concept in the European context. • In Southeast Asia, Africa and Latin America, apart from the obvious attractiveness of destinations, the many problems associated with unequal development and control of capital development become very significant. In regions where pronounced poverty coexists with quick and strong development, issue such as indigenous land rights, informed participation of local communities in ecotourism ventures, and the serious risks of “green-washing” ecotourism come up strongly. • Many grass roots NGOs particularly in Southeast Asia associate ecotourism to alienation of the rights to the use of land and natural resources in benefit of major economic and political groups. This also happens as indigenous and local communities in some destinations are poorly empowered, and often don’t participate in policy decision-making. Centrally planned, low-participation ecotourism projects can become examples of unsustainable development and may stir serious social and environmental problems. In many places, indigenous communities have only recently been accepted as an integral part of any ecosystem, and conflicts are still common. On the other hand, ecotourism in developing countries has also been relatively successful in ensuring political and financial support to the conservation of certain “charismatic” and accessible ecosystems and fauna, by offering steward communities and protected area managers an alternative (or sometimes exclusive) economic mechanism. In some cases, ecotourism projects have improved the community’s sense of self-respect and the value of traditional cultural practices-in Cape Coast, Ghana, a traditional dance has been revitalized by a community due to the interest and financial support of visitors.

3 Facts, Myths and Challenges of Ecotourism 3.1 Facts • To developing countries, one of the most important drivers for ecotourism is the generation of less-destructive and consumptive livelihood and employment for local residents, and financial means for the management of protected areas.

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Resource-poor governmental park management agencies find in ecotourism a much-needed source of income, either through direct management or via concessions to third parties, to the extent that in some cases they become tour operators or auction off parks to NGOs. Overall, though, under the right circumstances, ecotourism has proven to be one of the most effective means to finance conservation (the Kenyan “it stays because it pays”, the Rwandan Mountain gorillas, land concessions to operators in Zimbabwe and Botswana, Costa Rica’s park system, the Philippines’ Olango Bay project). In most rich biodiversity areas, actual revenue flows for ecotourism are better than non-timber forest products and bio pharmacy, and comparable only to agro forestry. Also, in some cases, ecotourism can provide much needed business and income opportunities for steward communities, and the negative effects of its implementation very often compare favorably to other alternatives. The creation and maintenance of hundreds of public, community-managed and private parks in developing countries can ultimately be linked to visitation revenues. • Some countries (among them Costa Rica, Australia, Brazil, the Philippines, Dominica and Canada) are using their biological and cultural diversity as an important tourism asset, and ecotourism policy is a growth field. A recent report from the Organization of American States found that most of its member governments have only very basic ecotourism policies if at all, developed with relatively little consultation and with low levels of implementation. Similarly, many multilateral and bilateral development agencies have incorporated ecotourism as a tool, mostly within conservation and development investment pipelines, but a coherent system of exchanging lessons learned is still largely lacking. Weak or inconsistent policies can lead to inadequate application of the principles of ecotourism. • In many cases, the concept of ecotourism can be misused by developers (public, nongovernmental or private) to advance particular agendas without full consideration of its principles, in what is called “green-washing”. • Examples can include unregulated development of relatively undisturbed areas, subsidized loans or infrastructure development, appropriation of ancestral land domains, or just applying traditional tourism development models under the name of ecotourism (such as an 200-room ecolodge in the Brazilian Amazon with no sewage treatment, no involvement of traditional communities, and no effort at lowering any social or environmental impacts).

3.2 Myths • Ecotourism is not particularly profitable, and this might nor change soon. In a recent research, the International Ecotourism Society has found that only a third of the 350 ecolodges surveyed are making any return on investments-a proportion very similar to most SMEs globally. It certainly does not compete with other tourism markets, such as the Meetings, Incentives, Congresses and Exhibitions, the theme parks and the cruise ship segments, also not hampered by high the expectations of ecotourism.

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• For these and other reasons, major global corporations are NOT yet interested in significant investments in ecotourism. The more professional ecotourism developers, involving some medium-sized chains and ethically committed investment groups, are still finding ways to cope with investment guarantees, widely differing management standards and the absence of consistent statistics and sufficient professional capacity in the area. • There is no immediate risk of a global stampede of ecotourists worldwide. Ninety percent of UNESCO’s 250 natural World Heritage sites are used well below their carrying capacity. The overwhelming majority of tourists are ambiguous about their commitment to conservation (like the idea, but are not willing to pay more for it) and their attitude towards any risk or discomfort on their vacation (like the perception of “roughing it” and risk in nature, but shy away from any real lack of comfort or uncertainties-the most frequent complaint of ecotourists in lodges in the Peruvian steaming hot Amazon is the absence of hot water!). Projections of a yearly increase of 20% on a market supposed to mean 3–5% of the overall tourism trade have not yet materialized (a good thing as it would mean 25% of global tourism in 2,011 or 165 million international ecotourists), and probably won’t. Of course, there is some risk in certain fragile destinations-tourism tends to focus on the tried and tested models, such as the Hollywood movie industry [1].

3.3 Challenges Most of the issues listed below, as well as the management systems that should be set up to advance them, could be addressed by a sound request from various stakeholders: the creation of an International Commission on Ecotourism, with representatives from various interest groups, broadly based on the model of the World Commission on Large Dams. For UNEP, the Year and the various events being organized could be the process to bring such a commission into existence. • Financing the transference of the technology gained by North America and Europe in ecotourism (mobility, incubating SMEs, private/public partnerships such as concessions, protected area visitor management, multistakeholder planning, marketing) to developing destinations. • Mainstreaming community-based ecotourism through efficient marketing and reservation systems, and increasing customer acceptance of products with basic quality standards. Beneficial effects are still too small to make a difference! • Coordinate various donor investments in ecotourism, and produce guidelines for projects to avoid common problems (business feasibility, marketing research, entrepreneurial capacity, and private sector matching funds). Although a number of donors have incorporated ecotourism components in their project portfolios, little inter-institutional exchange is promoted.

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• Creating and implementing common quality and operational standards, leading to certification and accreditation (avoid green-washing!). • Disseminating best practices in community land-use rights, and planning/development control mechanisms for steward (including indigenous) communities. Some good examples can be found in Africa (land concessions in Namibia and Botswana), Europe (with Pan Parks and the Europarc Foundation) • Improve local revenue retention through capacity building and value-added supply chain management. • Convince pioneers to become professional. Specifically for Europe, the International Year of Ecotourism could be used to propose an action plan to include [5]: • Generation of European standards for ecotourism products, leading to certification and even accreditation-in order to ultimate increase potential market shares. • An increased independence of initially subsidized projects, such as rural tourism lodging and reservation systems-ironically, this might be more difficult in developed countries, where the State is well structure and can offer some welfare support, and motivation for entrepreneurship may be lower. • Increased dissemination of successful components of existent projects, to support the transfer of technology, especially to Central and Eastern Europe.

4 Past Tourism Patterns in Eastern Europe 4.1 Tourism Resources The region’s tourism resources may conveniently be divided into five categories: 1. Sand, surf and sun- from Poland’s short- season Baltic coast to Albania’s still largely unspoilt Ionian littoral. Marine pollution problems, arising both from the pressure of tourism itself and from other sources, are increasingly posing environmental challenges. 2. Heritage – the long and complicated history of the region is selectively represented in museums, exhibitions, statues, architecture, domestic artifacts, artisan crafts, music, song, dance and costume. 3. Spas- mineral springs and curative treatments have served a wealthy, often foreign clientele, since classical times. 4. Winter sports – these now attract large numbers of Western tourists and major land use conflicts have arisen.

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5 Problems of Ecotourism Development in Contemporary Eastern Europe 5.1 Adoption of “Ecotourism” The often poor environmental image of the region, coupled with the existing and potential environmental impacts of tourism activities, have seen a post- communist reappraisal of tourism and conservation strategies in the region. Recognition is now being extended to the need for “sustainable”, “green” and “eco” tourism, as, for example, stated in the Romanian , Macedonian and Albanian national tourism programmes and in the objectives of a number of environmental NGOs attempting to influence policy both in the region’s governments and in the major Western funding agencies. Indeed, at a general level, as “ecotourism” implicitly requires management, control and proscription, there will be inevitable reaction within the region, particularly from the newly privatized sectors against any policies echoing aspects of the old communist regimes’ practices [3].

5.2 Local Participation The encouragement of active participation by the local population in the conservation and education dimensions of the tourism development process is an essential element of ecotourism. In Eastern Europe, however, attempts to involve local communities have been inhibited both by the lack of experience of bottomup development from which citizens can draw, and the often dismissive or ate best patronizing attitude taken by some officials towards local populations, particularly in rural and more remote areas. Local citizen participation is often seen as a threat to power structure of both local and central bureaucracies and to the very valuable perks which accompany the membership of such structures.

5.3 Support Requirements Inventories of natural and human resources, entailing data collection and collation, processing, analyzing and representation are still required in much of the region. Particularly, in the Balkans, shortages of often basic equipment and access to literature are commonplace and constrain implementation. Linking mechanisms to ensure essential cooperation and rationalization of effort, resources, skills and experience are often lacking [7]. Appropriate legal and administrative frameworks may still need to be established in some countries to clarify land and property rights, control transport and accommodation and establish insurance guarantees and tax regimes. These should also include codes of tourist conduct in protected areas updated to meet new conditions.

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5.4 Information/Education Requirements Clear statements of the nature and aims of ecotourism need to be incorporated into literature and publicity material to educate and encourage active participation by interested parties (local populations, tourism organizations, local and national state bodies and individuals), as well as for potential tourists themselves. Education and information programmes on environmental protection amongst the local population must be effective, especially through the medium of schools, and put into practice, recruiting locals as wardens and deploying them on financially beneficial training courses to strengthen tourist control mechanisms [6]. The interest, support and participation of the local community is vital, especially where ecotourism strategies are perceived as threatening its economic interests. Bottom – up information flows may not be easy to stimulate in the short term given the nature of past decision- making practices in the region. Similarly, it will be difficult to successfully undertake social surveys, given the understandable suspicion and hostility with which previous official prying into domestic affairs was viewed.

5.5 Strategy Formulation There appear to be six types of action study required for an ecotourism strategy plan: 1. A strategy for assessing tourism demand and targeting specialist market/niche groups; 2. An interim plan for matching different tourism activities/types of tourists, their likely environmental impacts and economic benefits; 3. The establishment of a working formula for assessing tourism carrying capacities; 4. An interim plan for a system of prescribed routeways and transport forms appropriate for different ecological conditions within and adjacent to the designated area 5. An interim plan for prescribed infrastructure and services, accommodation and activity areas, their access and seasonality; and 6. A longer term plan for the nature and location of information/education centres, coordinated with the local educational programs for “gateways” into, and at, “honeypots” on the periphery of protected areas. These would also act as “tax” collection points, permit issue centres and questionnaire survey points. Production of a final composite plan/strategy should insure its complementary and integration with local, regional and national environmental, tourism planning strategies in Albania and Macedonia.

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6 Conclusions Sustainable forms of tourism are a relatively new concept for Eastern Europe in generally, and for Albania and Macedonia especially, although past practices did see the restriction of “tourists” mobility, albeit not necessarily for environmental reasons. Albania and Macedonia as Eastern Europe countries are vulnerable to tourism fashion changes, which are themselves sensitive to the instability and myriad problems besetting the region. In spite of this, the region’s cultural and environmental diversity provides the potential for substantial market segmentation. Targeting niche markets – ideally high spending with minimal adverse impacts and season- extending activities – should emphasise the significance of “green” forms of tourism [7]. The region’s substantial heritage potential and natural protected areas in Albania and Macedonia can be used to considerable educational as well as economic advantage to the region. However, there are very real dangers of ecotourism being cynically taken up as a development objective simply because of: • The fashionability of the concept; • The propaganda value for Albanian and Macedonia governments and agencies of being seen to be “greening” development and particularly tourism development; and • Its role as a means of gaining access to development aid funds from the other West Europe countries. Also, it appears that too many projects are being developed based on Western European experience, despite the cultural and environmental circumstances and nature of consequent pressures being very particular to the region itself. Indeed, there may be better lessons to be learned from the experience of the developing world than from the developed. In short, there is more than a slight danger of eco- ethnocentrism being superimposed on the application of ecotourism in Eastern Europe countries, such that Albania and Macedonia [8]. For tourism development to be successful and acceptable, sensitivity of implementation and sustainability and local participation must be more than just cliches in our national or corporate plans. Most importantly, local populations must be involved and shown that conservation and tourism can complement each other to the economic advantage of the local community. Unless this is successfully achieved, longer term tourism development in Eastern Europe countries, also in Albania and Macedonia is likely to pose far more problems than it solves.

References 1. Albrecht C (1987) Environmental policies and politics in contemporary Slovakia. Stud Comp Communism 2(3–4):291–302 2. Allcock J (1999) Tourism and economic development in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. Belhaven Press, London, New York, pp 236–258

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3. Boo E (1998) Ecotourism: potentials and pitfalls, vol 2. World Wildlife Fund, Washington 4. Boo E (1992) The ecotourism boom, planning for development and management. World Wildlife Fund, Washington 5. Hall DR (1991) The ecotourism and economic development in eastern Europe. Belhaven Press, London, New York 6. Ostrowski S (1996) Ethnic tourism – focus on Poland. Tourism Manag 12:125–131 7. Pearce F (1998) The wild east, BBC Wildlife, April, 40–47 8. Spaho E (1998) Tourism: promising contracts. Albanian Econ Tribune 6(10):17–21

Earthquake is Manmade Catastrophe Rather than a Natural Disaster: Turkey Özgür Yilmazer, Özlem Yilmazer, Ali Özvan, Yasemin Leventeli, and Ilays Yilmazer

Abstract Soil grounds are several billion times more susceptible to earthquake disaster than rocky grounds. The probability of any soil to be liquefied is several billion times greater than that of even an extremely weak rock in case of fully saturated. Any rock, ranging from extremely weak to strong rock, is not susceptible to liquefaction even at submerged state. Shear strength of a saturated soil under dynamic condition approaches zero whereas the reduction in strength of the saturated rock is practically negligible. In another saying, the ratio of shear strengths [τ = c+σn  tan φ] of saturated rock over soil goes to infinite. Similarly, the ratio of modulus of elasticily [E, kPa] of saturated rock over soil tends to go infinite too. Turkey is a country over which many micro plates are moving relative to each other. The North Anatolian (NAF), East Anatolian (EAF), and Ecemi¸s fault (EF) are the three major strike-slip faults that cause destructive earthquakes only in soil grounds. The fourth distinct one is the gravity fault (graben) system prevailing in the Aegean region, which is less destructive due to lower energy storage capacity. All of the active fault systems comprise fertile farm fields and extend their limits with time. Such soil grounds form lowlands rich in groundwater and mineral. However, such soil lands are exposed to earthquake catastrophe. Furthermore, the lowlands are not good human health. Most of the viruses and bacteria can grow up. That is the main reason why such lands have to be preserved for farming and should be closed to settlement. The strike slip faults are, in general, coincident with the former suture zones bearing numerous polished sub-vertical discontinuities. These planes have great potential to act as a strike slip fault plane. San Andreas Fault in USA, Kobe Fault in Japan, and Dead Sea Fault extending from Jordan to Turkey are the typical examples. The recurrences of earthquakes create fertile low lands with shallow groundwater table. Such medium favors liquefaction, plastic deformation, rupture, sand ridges and cones, and magnification of the amplitude. An earthquake becomes more destructive in the cases of shallower groundwater table (z < 20 m) and thicker

Ö. Yilmazer (B) Yilmazer Education, 8. Cd., 89. Sk., 9/8, 06460 A.Ovecler, Ankara-Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

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soil mantle (t > 20 m). Hence, one may conclude that rocky grounds are favorable for construction whereas soil grounds should be reserved for agricultural activities. Keywords Geotechnics · Rock-soil grounds · Earthquake · Catastrophe · Land-use

1 Introduction Saturated thick (t > 20 m) soil grounds are billion times more susceptible earthquake than saturated rocks. All earthquakes prove that only the structures in the fertile soil grounds suffer from earthquakes. The last major earthquakes that occurred on 17th of August and 12th of September 1999, 6.6.2000, 27.5.2001, 10.07.2001, and 3.02.2002 in Turkey have once more indicated that the deformation boundary coincides with the boundary of the fertile plains [11, 12]. This is due to the lower values of frequency, shear strength, and elastic modulus [1] in soil grounds. Furthermore, the thick (t > 20 m) soil mantle, and shallow (d < 20 m) groundwater table amplify the risk of earthquake. The buildings on rocky formations, although they are adjacent to the epicenter, preserved their original identities whereas noticeable destruction happened in Porsuk and Bolu plains which are more than 120 km far from the epicenter of Marmora Earthquakes hit in 1999. It is explicit that the fertile low lands are hazardous grounds in regards to earthquakes, floods, and healthy living environment. In spite of this fact, most of the international engineering projects, including motorway and industrial plants, are located in fertile lands accompanied with fault zones in Turkey since 1943 [13–16].

2 Earthquake Destruction Occurs Only in Soil Ground The Kobe earthquake (January 17, 1995) with a middle magnitude (M = 6.9) has caused 6,500 dead and lost of 150 billion dollars of infrastructures owned by government. This is purely due to that the city Kobe was settled and invaded large soil grounds of deltaic deposits (Fig. 1). On the other hand, the Tokachi-oki Earthquake (September 26, 2003) with a magnitude 8.0 did caused any live lost. The reason was that the nearest settlement area in/on fertile lowlands of soil is about 200 km far from the epicenter. However, the city Kobe was 65 km far from the epicenter of 1995 earthquake. Recent tectonic activities in Turkey have been controlled by northward movement of Arabian plate that pushes on Eastern Anatolia (Fig. 2). Consequently, the following geological and geotectonic features and related activities have occurred Eastern Anatolian Fault (EAF): It is a northward extension of Dead Sea fault. Ecemis fault (EF): It is a left-strike slip fault. It bears about 5% of the fertile lands of Turkey.

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Fig. 1 The 1995 Kobe catastrophe was due to being settled in fertile deltaic soils

Fig. 2 Tectonic outline of the Anatolia

North Anatolian Fault (NAF): It has formed in the suture zone of the NeoTethys Ocean closure. About 20% of the fertile lands of Turkey formed along the NAF. Western Anatolian graben fault system (WAF): It has formed due to barrier effect of Rhodes-Greek (Aegean) plate against the western movement of Anatolian plate. Thus, north-south extensional tectonic regime has been created over Western Anatolian Region. However fertile farm lands, high geothermal gradients, geothermal energy resources, and hot springs are pertinent to these fault zones. All are natural

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Ö. Yilmazer et al. Table 1 Recent destructive earthquakes in Turkey

Date

Depth, km

Magnitude

Num. of deaths

Witnessed Heavy Damage over Lowlands of: about . . . %

5.7.1983; 12. 30.10.1983; 4. 18.9.1984; 13. 5.5.1986; 3. 13..3.1992; 17. 1.10.1995; 15. 27.6.1998; 13. 17.8.1999; 00.

10 33 10 4 27 33 33 17

6.1 6.9 5.4 5.9 6.9 6.1 6.2 7.8

5 1,400 3 15 498 101 145 15,637

5.8 7.5 6.1 5.8 6.1

7 834 2 6 42

Biga, Erdek, and Istanbul: 98 Pasinler and Erzurum: 98 Erzurn, Pasinler and Kars: 98 Gölpasi – Dogansehir: 99 Erzincan: 98 Dinar – Evciler: 100 Ceyhan – Adana: 100 Kocaeli, Sakarya, Bolu, Eskisehir, Istanbul, Bursa, Zonguldak, Tekirdag: 99 Sakarya and Kocaeli: 100 Düzce, Sakarya, and Bolu: 100 Orta-Anakra-Cankiri: 100 Aksehir, Konya, and Afyon: 100 Cay, Eber. Sultandagi, Bolvadin, and Afyon: 100

13.9.1999; 11. 12.11.1999; 16. 6.6.2000; 2. 15.12.2000; 16. 03.02.2002; 09.

13 10 10 10 5

resources. The earthquake inventory in hand indicates that any considerable disaster happened 10 engineering structures on rocky grounds. On The other hand, most of the structures built in the fertile lowland where no rocky formation is reached at their foundation, were severely damaged or completely collapsed (Table 1).

Table 2 Superiority of rocks to the saturated thick soil mantle Approximate Values Rock

Soil

Superiority of rocky grounds Remarks

Elastic modulus (E), kN/m2 Cohesion (c), kN/m2 Tangent of friction angle (tan φ),

106

102

104

104

101

103

100

10–2

102

Seismic value (v), m/s Probability of liquefaction, Oscillation (10 Story building), Faulting (strike slip fault),

103

102

10

Parameters and features

X/10∞ X

∞

Y/1010 Y

1010

Z/1010 Z

1010

As the figures on the left indicate, rocky grounds are billion times superior to soil grounds. Soil grounds are proper for farming. Hence, constitutional laws of almost all countries conserve soil grounds for agricultural activities. However all structures have to be constructed according to the international building codes. The risk increases with the soil mantle thickness (t > 20 m) and decreasing depth to the water table (d <20 m). This is a very simple and every body can observe after any earthquake in her/his region.

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All earthquake scientists who study actual earthquake events agree that liquefaction only occurs in saturated soil, its effects are most commonly observed in low-lying areas near bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, bays, and oceans [2, 7, 9, 10]. There are numerous online references supporting this reality. Four of them are cited under the section references. The phenomena behind the susceptibility of soil grounds to earthquake are summarized in Table 2.

3 Discussions and Results Almost, all of the lowlands bear shallow (d < 20 m) water table and thick (t > 20) layers of soil. Shallow water table condition and the comparatively very poor engineering properties of soil escalate earthquake disaster. Most of the fertile lands associated with the fault zones are actually found in conjunction with more mineralized and aerated farm soils. This situation enhances farmers to raise crops in these fertile lowlands throughout a year. They, therefore, are high quality agricultural fields which should be restricted for construction and utilized for farming. This is actually an important consideration in land-use planning study. The constitutional law almost all countries bears articles stating that soil grounds have to be preserved for farming. The articles 43–46 of the Turkish Constitutional Law state that the soil can not be used for any purpose other than farming and if such lands occupied before they have to be nationalized and back to be used for farming. Rocky land good for settlement is 57 times larger than the need. There is no reason to use soil grounds for settlement. Then, earthquake disaster will naturally finish. It is easy to find numerous international engineering projects which disregard this fact. Dams with wide reservoirs, highways, organized industrial districts, city settlement are a few of these projects erected within the heart of lowlands of soils. It is strictly recommended to take the fact that the fertile lowlands are hazardous grounds in regards with earthquake and flooding. They are not healthy environment to live either. In spite of them, they are favorable for agriculture and recreational activities into consideration. Kramer [8] suggested the following criteria to reveal the phenomenon liquefaction. (1) Historical criteria: Soils that have liquefied in the past can liquefy again in future earthquakes. (2) Geological criteria: Saturated soil deposits that have been created by sedimentation in rivers and lakes, deposition of debris or eroded material, or deposits formed by wind action can be very liquefaction susceptible [3–6]. (3) Compositional criteria: Liquefaction susceptibility depends on the soil type. Soils composed of particles that are all about the same size are more susceptible to liquefaction than soils with a wide range of particle sizes.

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(4) State criteria: At a given effective stress level, looser soils are more susceptible to liquefaction than dense soils. For a given density, soils at high effective stresses are generally more susceptible to liquefaction than soils at low effective stresses. There is no obligation to invade saturated soil grounds. Earthquake engineers who neglect this reality do not help people to protect themselves from earthquake disaster (see Fig. 1).

4 Conclusions and Recommendations Earthquakes created by strike-slip faults and reverse faults are more destructive than that of gravity faults. Strike slip and gravity faults could easily be detected by surface inspection and seismically induced stress measurements. They can easily be monitored to predict an earthquake in strike slip and gravity fault zones by overeating method and the other in-situ stress versus time measurement methods. Strike-slip faults create wider fertile lands in weaker rocks. which are proper for farming. Particularly tall buildings on rocky formation, even adjacent to a fault zone could not suffer from earthquakes because of the; • • • • • •

higher elastic properties, allowance to higher seismic velocity (higher frequency and shorter wave length), lower porosity, higher shear strength, higher capacity to attenuate earthquake energy, deeper water table condition, and grains are cemented hence, inhibiting liquefaction, subsidence, rupture, and similar ground instabilities.

References 1. Bell GF (1980) Engineering geology and geotechnics. Butterworth & Co Ltd., London p 497 2. Berrill JB, Davis RO (1985) Energy dissipation and seismic liquefaction of sands: revised model. Soils and foundations, Jap Soc Soil Mech Found Engrg 25(2): 106–118 3. Georgia Institute of Technology, Liquefaction research, http://geosystems.gatech.edu/ Research/gpr.html 4. United States Geological Survey Earthquake Information, http://quake.wr.usgs.gov 5. Canadian Liquefaction Experiment, CANLEX, http://www.civil.ualberta.ca/geot/document/ canlex.htm 6. Earthquake Engineering Research Center, http://www.eerc.berkeley.edu 7. Kerwin ST, Stone JJ (1997) Liquefaction failure and remediation: King Harbor Redondo Beach, Calif J Geotec Geoenvironmental Eng ASCE 123(8): 760–769 8. Kramer SL (1996) Geotechnical earthquake engineering. Prentice Hall, Englewood cliffs, NJ 9. Todorovska MI, Trifunac MD (1997) Distribution of pseudo spectral velocity during the Northridge, California, earthquake of 17 January, 1994. Soil Dynam Earthquake Eng 16(3): 173–192

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10. Trifunac MD (1998) Seismic microzonation mapping via uniform risk spectra. Proceedings of the 9th world conference on Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo-Kyoto, Japan, vol. VII, pp 75–80 11. Yilmazer ˙I (2002) A permanent solution to earthquake disaster (in Turkish). Kaynak Publishing Co., Istanbul, P 104 12. Yilmazer ˙I (2002) A permanent solution to flood disaster (in Turkish). Kaynak Publishing Co., Istanbul, P 72 13. Yilmazer ˙I, Yilmazer Ö, Gökçeku¸s H (1999a) Practical engineering approaches to mitigate earthquake disasters. The International Conference on Earthquake Hazard and Risk in the Mediterranean Region, organized by Near East University, Nicosia, North Cyprus 14. Yilmazer ˙I, Yilmazer Ö, Gökçeku¸s H (1999b) Tensional tectonic regimes and engineering works: interactions and mitigation measures. The International Conference on Earthquake Hazard and Risk in the Mediterranean Region, organized by Near East University, Nicosia, North Cyprus 15. Yilmazer ˙I, Yilmazer Ö, Özkök D (2000) Geotechnical design of the Ercan Airport motorway and the Nicosia – Magusa motorway. Unpublished report, p 130, State Highway archives, Ankara-Turkey 16. Yilmazer ˙I, Yilmazer O, Özvan A, Biçek C (2004) Why the earthquake disasters occur only in fertile soil grounds? Turkey. Proceedings of the 5th international symposium on eastern mediterranean geology, vol 2, pp 667–669, Thessaloniki, Greece, 14–20 April 2004

Mitigation of Seismic Risk on Earthen Buildings Marcial Blondet

Abstract Earthen buildings are highly vulnerable to the destructive action of earthquakes, as is tragically revealed by the considerable damage and loss of life that takes place during earthquakes occurring in areas where construction with earth is prevalent. Although many historical earthen monuments have survived strong earthquakes, contemporary vernacular dwellings built with earth have shown extremely poor response in recent earthquakes. Many persons, most of them very poor, have lost their lives due to the collapse of their weak and fragile houses. It is urgent, therefore, to find simple technical solutions to improve the seismic performance of earthen buildings. This paper first describes the seismic response of traditional, unreinforced earthen buildings. It then presents some of the reinforcement techniques developed over more than 35 years of research carried out by the Catholic University of Peru. Finally, it briefly outlines the challenges involved in the dissemination of economical and safe construction techniques, in order to mitigate the risk of earthen buildings in seismic areas. Keywords Adobe · Construction · Earthen · Earthquake · Reinforcement

1 Earthen Buildings in Seismic Areas Men have used soil to build their homes and monuments since the beginning of civilization. In many developing countries soil is still a widely used construction material because it is readily available at little or no cost. Most underprivileged people in these countries, therefore, have no alternative but to build with soil, because the cost of manufactured or industrial materials such as wood, fired clay bricks, cement, or reinforcing steel is completely beyond their economic possibilities. Many construction techniques using earth as the main material are employed throughout the world; the most common are adobe and rammed earth. Because M. Blondet (B) Catholic University of Peru, Lima, Peru e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Earthen construction and high seismic risk areas in the world

building with earth is relatively simple, it is usually performed by the residents themselves, without technical assistance or quality control. Reasonably well built earthen houses are, in fact, very comfortable because the walls have excellent thermal and acoustic characteristics. Many countries with a long tradition in the use of soil as a building material are located in areas of high seismic hazard, as can be seen in Fig. 1 [5]. This is unfortunate, because the seismic performance of vernacular, unreinforced earthen buildings is extremely poor. Every significant earthquake that has occurred in regions where earthen construction is common has produced tragic loss of life and considerable material damage. The high seismic vulnerability of earthen buildings is due to a perverse combination of the mechanical properties of their walls: earthen walls are dense and heavy, have extremely low tensile strength and they fail in a brittle fashion, without warning. During seismic motions, heavy walls develop large inertia forces, which they are unable to resist because of their low strength, and thus they suddenly fracture and many times collapse, preventing evacuation and causing death and material loss (Fig. 2). In Peru, several historical earthen constructions have been able to withstand severe earthquakes because of their massiveness and regular configuration. For example, the Chan-Chan archeological site (1200 CE), located on the coast of Peru,

Fig. 2 Adobe houses in seismic areas: (a) Huaraz, Peru 1970 (Photo courtesy of NISEE); (b) El Salvador 2001 (Photo courtesy of D. Dowling)

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Fig. 3 Ancient earthen citadels of Chan-Chan and Arg-e Bam (Photo: Cultural Heritage News)

is considered to be one of the world’s largest mud citadels, and has survived many severe earthquakes during the past 600 years. Decorated boundary earthen walls, some of them up to 9 m tall and 3 m wide at the base, can be found in the citadel. Many long and slender walls without buttresses are still standing (Fig. 3, left). On the other hand, the 2003 Bam earthquake in Iran has destroyed not only several thousands of poorly made adobe houses, but also important ancient historical monuments such as the earthen citadel of Arg-e Bam (500 BCE, Fig. 3, right). This seriously undermines the argument of massiveness as a guarantee for earthquake endurance. The architectural design of the Bam citadel and surroundings includes upper thin walls standing over thick base walls, irregular plan configurations, and high wall densification. It seems that slender walls have collapsed, impacting adjacent walls and constructions, causing total destruction of the site, in spite of its massiveness. Most vernacular earthen houses are built without professional intervention, and thus with poor construction quality. Furthermore, they tend to imitate the architectural features of clay masonry houses. Therefore, most present-day earthen houses are built without any structural reinforcement, with several stories, thin walls, large window and door openings and irregular plan and elevation configurations (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 “Modern” adobe houses in Cusco, Peru

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These buildings are extremely vulnerable to earthquakes. When an earthquake occurs, the out-of-plane seismic forces produce large vertical cracks at the corners, and the in-plane shear forces produce diagonal cracks in the walls. The walls are thus broken in large independent pieces, which fall down, causing in turn the collapse of the roof.

2 Reinforcement Techniques for Earthen Buildings During the last three decades, researchers at the Catholic University of Peru (PUCP) have attempted to find solutions for improving the seismic performance of earthen buildings [9]. Several related publications can be found in http://www.pucp.edu.pe/ secc/civil/publicaciones.php. Some of the reinforcement systems studied are based on natural materials such as wood and cane. Figure 5, left, shows an internal cane mesh that has demonstrated excellent seismic response in full-scale shaking table tests [1]. The internal reinforcement, which should be tied together by a crown wooden beam, must be provided on all walls. The main limitation of cane reinforcement is the fact that it is not available in all regions. Moreover, even in areas where cane is produced, it is practically impossible to obtain the required quantity for a massive construction or reconstruction program. An external reinforcement consisting of strips of wire mesh covered with cement mortar, shown in Fig. 5, right, has also demonstrated good response under earthquake simulation tests, and in the field during a moderate earthquake [10, 11]. However, wire mesh and cement are prohibitively expensive for the inhabitants of earthen houses in developing countries. External reinforcement with welded mesh could cost up to US $200 for a typical one floor, two room adobe house. This amount exceeds the economic capacity of most Peruvian adobe users. These reinforcement systems, therefore, although technically efficient for earthquake endurance, are still far from being real alternatives to improve the seismic behavior of adobe houses. It seemed imperative to continue research to develop

Fig. 5 Reinforcement of adobe buildings. (a) Internal cane mesh; (b) external wire mesh covered with cement mortar

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Table 1 Properties of adobe models Model number 1 2 3 4 5

Model ID

Reinforcement amount

M000 M100-T12 M075-T11 M050-T11 M080-E

None Full (100%) Partial (75%) Partial (50%) Partial (80%)

Mesh type

Mesh strength (kN/m)

Mesh cost (US$/m2 )

Model reinf. cost (US$/m2 )

– Tensar BX1200 Tensar BX1100 Tensar BX1100 Soft plastic fence

– 9.0 6.6 6.6 1.4

0.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 0.50

0.00 19.00 9.00 6.00 4.00

reinforcement systems that use industrially produced materials, which would be acceptable to earthen house dwellers because of their low cost and simplicity of application. A recent study has been performed at PUCP to evaluate the possibility of using polymer mesh to reinforce earthen buildings [3]. Five similar full-scale adobe housing models were tested on the unidirectional PUCP shaking table. The earthen models were reinforced with different amounts and types of polymer mesh, as summarized in Table 1 below. Each model was subjected to a sequence of shaking tests of increasing intensity. The first model was tested without reinforcement, and represented a typical adobe house (Fig. 6, left). This model also served as baseline for evaluation of the degree of improvement on the seismic response obtained with each reinforcement system. As expected, its high seismic vulnerability was evident: both transverse walls (without windows) collapsed suddenly during moderate shaking. Model 2 was fully reinforced by completely wrapping all walls, both inside and outside, with a geogrid. One side of the model was left without mud plaster, in order to observe the mesh response after each shaking test (Fig. 6, right). This model proved to be overreinforced, as it slid over its concrete base during a strong shaking test. Although the walls suffered little damage, it was interesting to note that the walls with mud plaster showed significant less damage than those left unplastered.

Fig. 6 Models 1 (M000, unreinforced) and 2 (M100-T12, fully reinforced with geogrid)

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This means that mud plaster has a beneficial effect by providing extra resisting material and by confining the plastic mesh. The following three models were reinforced with different amounts of a slightly lighter and cheaper geogrid. The amount and location of the reinforcement was selected according to the stability-based criterion used in the Getty Seismic Adobe Project (GSAP) [8]. Which attempts to predict the crack patterns of the earthen walls and then provides the minimum amount of reinforcement required to control these cracks and therefore to avoid significant damage. All the models showed very good dynamic response during the earthquake simulation tests: although the adobe walls suffered some damage, collapse was avoided. As expected, however, the amount and spread of damage on the adobe walls increased as the quantity of polymer mesh reinforcement decreased. Since geogrid polymer mesh is quite expensive in Peru, it was decided to study the use of a cheaper plastic mesh, usually employed as a soft safety fence in construction sites. The fifth adobe model, shown in Fig. 7 below, was reinforced with bands of plastic mesh located in the regions where most damage was expected on the adobe walls. The photo at the left shows the plastic mesh bands, which were tied to the walls with plastic string placed across the walls during construction. The photo at the right shows the state of the housing model after a strong shaking test. The adobe walls were broken into several large pieces, which were held together by the plastic mesh. The mesh was deformed and broken in several places, indicating that the amount provided was barely adequate. It is clear, however, that although the building suffered significant damage, collapse was averted. This research project has demonstrated that moderate amounts of strategically placed polymer mesh reinforcement can be used to prevent the collapse of adobe buildings, even during severe earthquakes. However, the optimal amount and placement of polymer mesh needs to be investigated, and simple reinforcement design procedures and construction recommendations need to be developed, in order to provide the professional community with tools to design and build economical and safe earthen houses in seismic areas.

Fig. 7 Reinforcement arrangement and finished model M080-E

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3 Main Challenges (and Possible Solutions) The reinforcement systems studied at PUCP have proved to be adequate for the seismic protection of earthen houses. This might suggest that the problem of constructing earthquake resistant earthen buildings has been solved. Indeed, the application of these technical solutions would provide a sufficient degree of safety to these buildings to prevent their collapse and therefore to avoid personal injuries and loss of life. The availability of technical solutions, unfortunately, is not sufficient to solve the real problem of the unacceptable seismic risk for the millions of earthen house dwellers. This problem has important social dimensions that need to be addressed, because in many cases significant cultural transformations are required to change the way people build their dwellings. Many people who have traditionally used soil as a construction material are reticent to change the way they build. In many cases it is because the communities have an adverse reaction to interference in their traditional way of life from persons extraneous to the community. Another very important reason for the rejection of new construction techniques is certainly economical, because these techniques necessarily imply a higher cost, either in money to buy extra reinforcing materials, or in time because training is required or the new building process is more elaborate. Another problem is the short seismic memory of the population. Awareness of seismic hazard is only high after an earthquake, and fades away in a matter of a few years. If earthquakes are not perceived as an immediate danger, there does not seem to be a need to spend for seismic prevention scarce resources which are required for daily subsistence. Furthermore, in many places there is a social stigma attached to earthen houses. In Peru, for instance, masonry brick houses are regarded as a status symbol of progress, especially in urban areas. Thus, urban dwellers consider adobe houses only as temporary solutions, not worthy of any special additional construction effort. Mitigation of seismic risk will therefore be possible only when the users themselves adopt improved earthen construction systems as part of their own culture. A possible set of actions to achieve this transformation is suggested below. Several of them can be performed simultaneously. • Development of simple and cheap reinforcement methods. Although technical solutions to improve the seismic safety of earthen buildings are available, they are still expensive and require relatively high technical skills. It is necessary to optimize the existing solutions and find new ones, using cheaper materials. • Development and implementation of national seismic design codes. Design codes are official documents which contains technical specifications for the structural design and construction of buildings. The seismic design philosophy of earthen buildings should recognize that the material is heavy, weak and brittle. It must be accepted, therefore, that significant cracking may occur even during moderate earthquakes. However, brittle collapse during moderate and severe earthquakes should always be avoided by placing the necessary reinforcement, in order to

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•

•

•

•

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prevent the loss of life. Several countries, such as Peru, have already developed design codes for earthen buildings [7]. There are also a number of published documents which could serve as guidelines for the development of codes in countries where these do not exist [4, 6]. It is important to take into account, however, that the code provisions are addressed to professionals who rarely live in vernacular earthen houses and that most of the people that build and live in earthen houses do not know or use the design codes. Therefore, most codes for design of earthen buildings do not fulfill their aim, because they do not reach the users whom it should benefit. Development and dissemination of educational materials for the safe construction with earth. The knowledge required for guaranteeing safe and economical earthen construction must be disseminated to the stakeholders at all levels: engineers, architects, masons, construction workers, government officials, dwellers. It is clear that each group requires the information in a different technical level and format. Therefore, efforts should be made to publish analysis and design books and technical papers, design codes, technical specifications, construction manuals, construction booklets, and educational materials for children. An important dissemination tool for professionals and builders is the internet. There is a wealth of material already published there, such as the EERI/IAEE World Housing Encyclopedia (www.world-housing.net), which contains a tutorial on adobe building in Spanish and English available for download [2]. Development and implementation of seismic risk awareness campaigns. It is indispensable to find ways to reach the communities who build with earth in regions with high seismic hazard in order to persuade them that the danger is real: earthquakes will happen again and again, to remind them that their earthen houses are vulnerable and will collapse or suffer devastating damage, and to convince them that with simple technical improvements it will be possible to build earthquake-resistant houses and thus to protect their own lives. This communication effort is complex and multidimensional. It cannot (and should not) be performed by the academic community alone. It must involve the contribution of the government, at central, regional, and local levels; of NGOs involved with urban and rural development; of the professional communities of engineers, architects, social scientists, and communicators; the educational system starting in elementary school; and the media in all its forms. Development and implementation of community training programs. Educational campaigns should be designed and implemented through popular organizations and local governments to train the community builders and the inhabitants on the basic concepts of earthquake-resistant construction with earth. This effort should be guided by social scientists and communicators. The professional community has the responsibility of disseminating the technical knowledge required to mitigate the risk of earthen houses in seismic areas, which today has reached unacceptable levels. Development and implementation of massive programs for construction of new earthen houses and retrofit of existing houses. Ideally, all existing vulnerable

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earthen houses should be retrofitted and every new earthen house should incorporate adequate seismic reinforcement. This can be achieved only through massive construction and retrofit programs, which could be sponsored by the central government and partially financed by private investors.

4 Conclusions Vernacular earthen houses located in seismic areas are at risk because of their inherent structural vulnerability. However, and due mainly to economic reasons, earth is the only available building material for many communities in developing countries. It is urgent therefore to take action in order to mitigate this unacceptable risk. Experimental research has shown that it is possible to improve the structural performance of earthen buildings during earthquakes, by preventing their collapse. Seismic design codes are effective tools, but they reach only the professionals and not the actual users. Builders in developing countries must be reached and trained to build safe and economic earthen dwellings. The challenges to be undertaken would involve obtaining acceptable technical solutions, educational campaigns to reach awareness of the seismic risk, cultural transformations to adopt safe construction techniques with earth, and massive construction programs. These steps will contribute to solve in a safe and economical way the housing deficit in the most impoverished third world countries. Acknowledgements This article summarizes results obtained through several projects developed by the earthen construction research team at PUCP’s Department of Engineering. The contribution of Julio Vargas, Daniel Torrealva, Francisco Ginocchio, and Gladys Villa-Garcia towards the successful completion of these projects has been invaluable. Mary Hardy and Claudia Cancino, from the Getty Conservation Institute, actively participated in some of the projects described in the paper. Most of the work described here was financed, and thus made possible through grants of PUCP’s Research Office. All the experimental work was performed at the PUCP Structural Lab, and the support of its technical staff is gratefully acknowledged. Last but not least, many students worked hard for many hours to make these projects a reality. These students are Nicola Tarque, Jose Velasquez, Ivonne Madueño, Rafael Aguilar, Maria Angela Astorga, Carlos Iwaki, and Kathya Morales.

References 1. Blondet M, Ginocchio F, Marsh C, Ottazzi G, Villa Garcia G, Yep J (1988) Shaking table test of improved adobe masonry houses. 9th world conference on earthquake engineering, Tokyo-Kyoto, Japan 2. Blondet M, Villa-Garcia G, Brzev S (2003) Earthquake-resistant construction of adobe buildings: a tutorial. Published as a contribution to the EERI/IAEE World Housing Encyclopedia. http://www.world-housing.net 3. Blondet M, Torrealva D, Vargas J, Velasquez J, Tarque N (2006) Seismic reinforcement of adobe houses using external polymer mesh. First European conference on earthquake engineering and seismology, Geneva, Switzerland

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4. CYTED (Programa Iberoamericano de Ciencia y tecnología para el Desarrollo) (1995) Recommendations for the development of technical regulations for adobe, rammed earth, blocks and soil-cement buildings. In: Spanish. Red Temática XIV.A: HABITERRA. La Paz, Bolivia 5. De Sensi B (2003) Terracruda: the dissemination of earthen architecture. In Italian. http:// www.terracruda.com/architetturadiffusione.htm 6. IAEE (International Association of Earthquake Engineering) (1986) Guidelines for earthquake-resistant non-engineered construction, Tokyo, Japan 7. MTC (Ministerio de Transportes y Comunicaciones) (2000) Nacional construction code: adobe. Building technical regulation E-080. In Spanish. MTC/SENCICO. Lima, Perú 8. Tolles L, Kimbro E, Webster F, Ginell F (2000) Seismic stabilization of historic adobe structures: final report of the Getty Seismic Adobe Project, GSAP. The Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles 9. Vargas J, Blondet M, Ginocchio F, Villa-Garcia G (2005) 35 Years of research on SismoAdobe. In Spanish. Internacional seminar on architecture, construction and conservation of earthen buildings in seismic areas, SismoAdobe2005. PUCP. Lima. Peru 10. Zegarra L, Quiun D, San Bartolome A, Giesecke A (1997) Reinforcement of existing adobe dwellings 2nd part: seismic test of modules. In Spanish. XI national congress on civil engineering, Trujillo, Peru 11. Zegarra L, Quiun D, San Bartolome A, Giesecke A (2001) Behavior of reinforced adobe houses in Moquegua, Tacna and Arica during the June 23, 2001 earthquake. In Spanish. XIII national congress on civil engineering, Puno, Peru

Land Use Conversion and Agricultural Intensification in Tropical Hill Slopes: A Geographical Approach David Lopez Cornelio

Abstract Three major types of land use in Huanuco (central province in Peru) are discussed on the basis of cartographical and socioeconomical data, document reviews, and field surveys. This traditional agricultural region has critical importance for being the gateway for timber transportation from the eastern mountainous tropical forests where also extensive coca plantations forced human emigration, land abandonment, and deforestation. An optimal land use map was built by overlaying four maps of biophysical characteristics and delineated cultivated areas from a Landsat TM image using ILWIS gis software. In Peru, ancient agricultural systems still coexist with the intensification of commerce. Property types, rates of land use changes, as well as the use of and the number of farms, are discussed. The type of land use varies periodically among each district within the province. State policies not fully structured indicate a poor understanding of the real needs of the Andean society. From now on they must combine elements of tradition, central planning, and markets. Keywords Andes · Land use change · Land reform · Property rights · Traditional systems

1 Introduction The Andes is a mosaic of local habitats with broad tolerant crops overlapping, high elevations, mostly arid, and high eco climatic heterogeneity per area unit [5]. PreColumbian intensive cultivation supported dense and complex states, but since the conquest it became wasteful of land and labor [19], in contrast with the shift from quantity to quality in food production of European countries [9]. Other countries intend to make compatible communal/traditional land tenure systems with structural adjustment and economic reform [30]. D.L. Cornelio (B) Correo central de Huanuco, Huanuco, Peru e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_38, 

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The effects of population growth are uncertain [32], with the cost of land relative to labor increasing as people change their practices to offset declines in productivity due to intensification. Land degradation and intensification occur simultaneously and incomes may increase during degradation [1]. In Peru, the costs of soil erosion in Peru (in 73% of its area) are between 5 and 10% of the agricultural sector production [37], affecting the people through reduced food supplies, lower income and increased landlessness. Inadequate institutions can be a main factor for land degradation [33] but also adjustments through them positively affect the environment [24]. The study describes main land use of a representative province in the central Andes of Peru. Even though the patterns of land use reflect the current economic model [34] and are bound to the local development processes, the paper focuses on the actual physical condition of land use in the ten districts of the province. The hypothesis is that the prevalent conditions of land use in the province are able to support economic growth with reduced land degradation within the framework of globalization, which currently tend to widen inequality in developing countries [36]. Although a successful combination of local and global know-how is a precondition for development, neo liberal policies in the Andes must be carefully monitored; the irony is that their leading proponents are from countries that heavily subsidize their own agricultural sectors.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Location The province of Huanuco is located in the central Andes (Fig. 1) at 08◦ 44 55 – 10◦ 20 21 south latitude, and 74◦ 39 00 –77◦30 00 west longitude, it has 10 districts with a total area of 409,171 ha. The landscape comprehends three main watersheds with semiarid mountains, except the humid tropical conditions of Huallaga valley. In this last, 7,217 ha [18] are planted with coca (Erythroxylum coca) with revenues around 4,000$/ha/year [35], double that is realizable from the cultivation of legal crops [14]. Because of immigration, shantytowns around Huanuco city proliferated. Policies failed to treat land as natural capital that progressively increases its value [34], but property rights policies alone cannot reduce environmental impacts [20]. The population is not equally distributed. Huanuco district has 74,676 habitants, even though covers 4.27% of the provincial area, the same case in Amarilis (3.38% of the total area) with 60,762 habitants, while Chinchao district (44.5% of the total area) has only 22,011 habitants (Table 1). However, the rates of areas suitable for agriculture are relatively high in Huanuco, Amarilis, Chinchao and Santa Maria del Valle (SMValle) (Fig. 8).

Land Use Conversion and Agricultural Intensification in Tropical Hill Slopes

Fig. 1 Location of Huanuco province with delimitation of districts

Table 1 Contents of questionnaire for field interviews (adapted from [21]) The crops ∗ Crops raised and purpose. ∗ Agricultural cycle organization ∗ Main constraints for yields improvement The livestock ∗ Type of livestock and purpose ∗ Grazing organization Natural vegetation and trees ∗ Availability of natural/planted forests. Uses. ∗ Rights on forest resources. Potential problems. ∗ Potential multiple use of trees on farms ∗ Constraints to establish forest plantations.

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2.2 Methods Official statistical data, based on the agricultural unit (AU) from the last two provincial agricultural censuses (1986 and 1996), were analyzed. An agricultural unit is an extension that may comprehend many patches at different altitudes with a unique owner and in the same district. Field visits were carried out from OctoberDecember 2000 in 4 districts on farming methods and land management according to a questionnaire (Table 1). The results are discussed in the following subtitles. The methodology considers that the results could be put into a wider context using census and household data in which an important milestone is the land reform of the early 1970s [3]. A map of land use suitability for a central Andean province was built by overlaying 4 land type maps of 1985 (forests, ecological zones, climatic and soils) at a scale of 1/250,000. In the overlaying operation, made by pairs of raster maps, pixels on the same positions in both maps are compared and the occurring combinations of identifiers or values of pixels are stored. These combinations give an output cross map and a cross table. The cross table includes the combinations of input values or IDs, the number of pixels and the area for each combination [15]. The selected descriptor of each polygon in the resultant map (Fig. 6) is the most concurrent among the four descriptors of each land type map for that polygon (Table 2). The result is a map of optimal land use (ideal map) suitable to the biophysical characteristics of each site, on which the extent of cultivated areas (from a Landsat TM image) was overlaid to get the extension of cropped areas per district. The correlation between the actual (regional census) and ideal distribution of land areas per type was measured by the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (the population of both variables in the bivariate analysis are not normally distributed). To determine the rate of land use conversion around the city of Huanuco, polygons demarking urban sprawl drawn on aerial photographs with 33 years of time difference were compared. Table 2 Weights assignment table per types of each map. Ranks 0 and 3 indicate the lowest and highest priorities for land use respectively, chosen according to the description. Final classes after overlaying are denoted as a (agriculture), f (forestry), g (grazing) and c (conservation) RANKING MAP

TYPES

DESCRIPTION

0 1 2 3

Climatic

A(r)A’H4 A (r)B’2H3 B (i)B’1H3 B (o,i) B’3H3

Hot weather, yearlong rainy, very humid. Warm weather, yearlong rainy, humid. Weather semicalid, scarce rains on winter, humid. Semicold weather, scarce rains on winter and autumn, humid. Cold weather, rainy, scarce rains on winter and autumn, humid. Semidry weather, cold, scarce rains on winter, humid.

a c c g

B (0,I)C’H3 C (I)C’H3

g a g a

f g a f

c f f c

a g f c

Land Use Conversion and Agricultural Intensification in Tropical Hill Slopes

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Table 2 (continued) RANKING MAP

TYPES

DESCRIPTION

0 1 2 3

Forests

Bh mo

Mountainous environment, shallow soils, exhuberant vegetation. In Andean highlands above 3,800 masl, cold, variety of grasses, extensive grazing. Mainly located at the lower levels of mountaineous forests. Deforested areas occupied by secondary vegetation on different stages of development. Shrublands(perennial and decidual), average temperature: 9-18 Andean graaslands of hard leaves. Above 3800 masl.

a g f c

Cp Df

Msh Pj Soils

A2s (r) A3c-P1c

F3c-P2e-A2sc

P1c-X

P2e-X X-F2e

X-F3e

X

Ecological bh-PT zones bp-PT

bs-PT

a g f c a c g f

a g c f a f c g

In andean valleys, suitable for annual crops. Conformed by two groups of soil use capacity: (1) with agricultural vocation and weather deficiencies and (mainly tubers on slopes lower than 15%) (2) with pastures vocation, also with weather limitants (on slopes over 20%). With vocation for reforestation on areas with low soil quality (40% of the asociation total extension), with vocation for pastures on soils with medium quality (30%) and protected areas on soils with severe restrictions. Located on high Andean plains, suitable for pastures on low slopes and deep soils, superficial soils on slopes over 75% are denominated of protection. Steepy phisiography, mainly of protection. Pastures can be produced with suitable practices. Distributed on mountaineous tropical forests, because of the topography (slopes over 75%) only 30% of its total extension can be used in forestry. Distributed on mountaineous tropical forests, because of the topography forestry use can be done on slopes less than 50% with careful harvesting systems. Because of topographical and soil limitations cannot be used for forestry, pastures or agricultural activities. Have value for minning, ecotourism and hydrologic cycle maintenance.

c f g a c f g a

Humid forest premountaineous tropical. Total Precipitation/year: 1000–2000 mm Annual biotemperature(average): 16–24C Pluvial forest premountaineous tropical. Total Precipitation/year: 4000-8000 mm Annual biotemperature(average): 16–24C Dry forest premountaineous tropical. Total Precipitation/year: 500-1000 mm Annual biotemperature(average): 16–24C

c f a g

a c g f

a g f c

a f g c a g f c

a g f c

a g f c

a g f c

c g f a

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D.L. Cornelio Table 2 (continued) RANKING

MAP

TYPES

DESCRIPTION

0 1 2 3

bs-MBT

Dry forest low mountaineous tropical. Total Precipitation/year: 500-1000 mm Annual biotemperature(average): 12-16C Very humid forest mountaineous tropical. Total Precipitation/year: 1000-2000 mm Annual biotemperature(average): 6-12C Pluvial forest mountaineous tropical. Total Precipitation/year: 4000-8000 mm Annual biotemperature (average): 6-12C Pluvial param tropical subalpine

c g f a

bmh-MT

bp-MT

pp-Sat

a g f c

a g f c

3 Results 3.1 Land Reform The central government has tried to formalize property rights 22 times since colonial times [6]. The land legislation laws of 1849, 1853 and 1909, established various means of access to land in the Amazonian region: land could be bought, received as a temporary or permanent concession, appropriated at no cost, or granted under colonization contract [31]. The agrarian reform initiated in 1969–1980, the most striking in Latin America [19], changed the land structure in social terms, but not the land concentration and agricultural output. The argument was that redistributing land was better than costly investments in modern technology, which may also displace labor, and could increase land productivity more easily. At that time, 0.3% of the agricultural units (AU) owned 66% of the agricultural land, while 50% of the smaller AU owned only 2.2% of the land [3]. The enforcement of a development model by the central government intended to gain popular support, destroy oligarchic domination, control conflict and rural discontent, improve income distribution, stop massive migration to the cities, and create a stable sector for an expanding internal market. The designed system of price controls and monopoly forced the country to spend 25% of its annual budget on food imports [14] and land rents fell from 20 to 2–3% of total household incomes [36]. The reform was applied by regions and not by agricultural units to gain time and broader coberture [22], moreover, it largely excluded the mass of small holders (the most vulnerable to temporal unemployment) introducing new factors of social differentiation. The probe is that after a decade of land redistribution, peasants which grouped into the National Confederation of Agriculture (CAN) and the Peasants Confederation of Peru (CCP) forcefully occupied land that was assigned to the created cooperatives and agricultural societies [22].

Land Use Conversion and Agricultural Intensification in Tropical Hill Slopes

407

x 1000 ha

The cooperatives seldom succeeded, few of them were able to repay their accumulated debts, and the majority was converted into communities during the 1980s. Their number reached an all-time high of 5,680 in 1994 [14]. The conversions were authorized by changes in the basic land reform legislation, and were put into effect after majority votes of the cooperative members in each case. Preferences of the people involved were contrary to the original intention. The main changes in the agrarian structure were: (1) Land owned by rich landlords passed to the workers, (2) the quantity and the quality of land received was variable and unequal, (3) the reform modified the worker status, from salaried to cooperative-salaried, (4) the land received in marginal areas consolidated the traditional production systems, and (5) the land reform affected only 36.7% of AU in the Andes (in contrast with 64.5% of AU affected in the coastal region). After 1980, privatization returned the structure of the AU distribution to near that of the 1960s trend. Figure 2 shows the evolution of the agricultural unit dimension (changes in percentage from 1961 to 1985) [11]. The total area of AU of 5–10 ha increased 4.1%, AU of 1–2 ha and AU of 10–20 ha increased only 1.3 and 1.4% respectively. The total area of farms within 2–5 ha and larger than 100 ha decreased 3 and 2.8% respectively. Globally, from the 30.6 million ha of agricultural and grazing farms in the country, 10 million were affected by the reform, 11 million (mostly grazing farms) came under common property and 10 million are small and medium private holdings. The total agricultural land affected by the reform (43.9% irrigated and 23.5% rain fed) contrast with the grazing areas transferred (23.4%) [22]. The next period of rural development (1980–1985) followed a worldwide trend and included the dismantling of associative enterprises. Traditional communal rights of peasant communities were made more “flexible”, land could be sold or mortgaged. This benefited the richer peasants within the peasant communities and alienated those who did not have the resources to purchase land. The divergent period inaugurated with presidents Alan Garcia (1985–1990) and Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000) witnessed the intensification of the privatization process. Garcia’s plan included a new land-distribution program, particularly for peasant communities, and economic policies (price controls, state subsidies, credits, and privileged exchange rates to favor the purchase of goods) designed to strengthen small-scale 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

<1ha

1..2

2..5 1961

5..10 1979

Fig. 2 Evolution of the agrarian structure in Peru [11]

10..20 1985

20..100 >100ha

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D.L. Cornelio

producers. Initially associative enterprises were promoted, but turned to privatization. Fujimori’s neo liberal program, confronted with hyperinflation and terrorism, could not thoroughly plan rural development [14]. Two important steps were the enactment of the Agricultural Law of Promotion and Investments in 1998 (DL 26505) ended the restrictions on private ownerships imposed by the agrarian reform. A subsequent special project of land entitlement and cadastre (DS 006-98-AG) regulates the land tenure, legally and physically amending the properties affected by the agrarian reform. Currently, 73% of the peasant communities and 47% of the private small holders have been registered and entitled [29].

3.2 Agricultural and Grazing Systems Rental contracts such as sharecropping allow for mitigating the capital and risk market failures [7]. Sharecropping mechanisms and reciprocal exchanges of labor, oxen, and dung between households alleviate inequalities in land distribution. On fields not used for maize cultivation, the peasant rotates barley, wheat, and beans, followed by a period of fallow, alfalfa, and potatoes, at which point the cycle begins again. Because of modernization, the rate of land under fallow in the Andes decreased from 41% in 1964 to 33% in 1971 [3]. The effects of fallow decrements are not fully perceptible, and areas that seem under fallow may actually loss its fertility since the 18% of usable land has been degraded at different degrees [37]. Although agricultural production is much more labor intensive and specialized than herding, this last is an important non-technified economic activity that relies on natural grasses and post harvest residues. Livestock serves multiple objectives (quasi money, animal traction, provision of derivate products, purchase of human labor, provision of fertilizer). Natural grasslands predominate in all districts, ranging from 22.09% (Chinchao) to 76.79% (SMValle) (Fig. 3). Communal pastures shrunk because of privatization and families strive to have high and low altitude grasslands to seasonally move the animals. Grazing is a main economic activity in Amarilis, Chaulan, SMValle and Margos districts, although is complemented with agriculture since do not constitute a constant flow of incomes. Soil erosion in abandoned/fallow fields is due to the unregulated grazing [13]. Cattle management rather than the elimination of pastoralism is essential. Table 3 shows the livestock totals per type and they range from 2,133 (Yarumayo) to 7,833 (Margos). The activity is especially important in Amarilis, Margos, Chaulan and SMValle districts.

3.3 Forest Condition Forestry development is still insufficient, contrastingly with the intensive use of forests in the Himalayas [18]. Deforestation is consequence of the skewed

Land Use Conversion and Agricultural Intensification in Tropical Hill Slopes

409

40

Thousands of ha

35 30 25 20 15 10 5

Grassland

Forests

Irrigated

lle Ya ru m ay o

SM Va

ha ul an C

i

C ay ra n

Q ui sq u

M ar go s

Am ar ilis C hi nc ha o C hu ru ba m ba

H ua nu co

0

Non Irrigated

Fig. 3 Land use type (ha) per district [16]

distribution of arable lands, chronic landlessness and the macroeconomic stresses of the 1980s [20]. According to Fig. 3, forested areas range from 0.315% (Margos) and 0.54% (Cayran) to 50.08% (Chinchao, mostly tropical secondary forests) and 25.89% (Yarumayo, mostly eucalyptus plantations). The National Program for Soil and Water Conservation (Pronamachcs) directs the reforestation projects in the highlands, and the Reforestation Committee in the Amazonian basin. Pronamachcs administrates eleven tree-breeding centers in the province with an annual production of 147,500–394,000 seedlings [28]. Although 8,267 ha have been reforested until 1991, the 24.2% of the province had been deforested [17], especially in Chinchao district, where for every 4 ha that are deforested, 1 is under actual cultivation and 3 are abandoned [33]. In the highlands, woods are used for firewood (90%), construction (5%) and carpentry (5%) [8]. To satisfy energy requirements, a family needs two poles of eucalyptus (50 cm dbh) per year. Income from wood is complementary, confined to early stages of agricultural frontier expansion, and tends to be reinvested in agriculture and cattle ranching. Shrub and grasslands can be converted to more productive categories of forestland. Steep regions supporting woodlands are an invested capital that farmers can use at the most convenient time or give to the inherited. Trees also protect and nurture agricultural lands. They would neutralize the inevitable environmental consequences of overgrazing and continuous cropping. Reforestation costs per ha range between $100 and $800 [25], unavailable for most of local farmers. Eco-tourism, as well, would add value to unutilized highlands where most of the archeological sites are located. However, lack of funds is not always the problem but that loan conditions are inappropriate for investments in the sector [26]. The government commonly funds reforestation [20].

1858–3500 1900–3800 2060–3800 3260–4800 2800–4185 1865–4400 2000–4000 1835–3800 2450–4170 2600–3910

Area ha (%) 17458 (4.27) 13815 (3.38) 9942 (2.43) 28921 (7.07) 28101 (6.07) 49565 (12.11) 182307 (44.5) 56267 (13.75) 16294 (3.98) 6411 (1.57)

Latitude 9.55 40" 9.57 45" 9.59 45" 10.01 05" 10.03 07" 9.51 45" 9.46 15" 9.46 20" 9.54 06" 9.55 45"

(t) dispersed households (s) communities (c) (s) cows (c) goats (g)

** sheep

* towns

Huanuco Amarilis Cayran Margos Chaulan SMValle Chinchao Churubamba Quisqui Yarumayo

Alt.(masl) 74676 60762 3940 16570 5404 17965 22011 16570 5607 2582

Tot. hab

Table 3 Characteristics of districts

32s 05c 17t 03c 01t 18s 02c 22t 06s 02c 10t 07s 01c 04t 30s 12c 03t 32s 02c 04t 30s 07c 11t 06c 04t 05s 02c

Settlement type*

5000s 1000c 800 g 10000s 3000c 1500 g 8000s 300c 500 g 20000s 2000c 1500 g 15000s 1000c 1500 g 15000s 1000c 2500 g 1000s 4000c 1800 g 8000s 2500c 1000 g 5000s 1500c 1000 g 5000s 600c 800 g

Livestock**

410 D.L. Cornelio

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411

3.4 Measures of Stratification and Inequality While poverty and inequality in rural areas still depend on access to land, the contribution of land concentration to the explanation of total income inequality has declined over time. Income inequalities within communities are higher than resource inequalities [11]. Average family incomes in a modern region can be four to five times higher than those in a traditional region [3] and educational achievement is the most important source of income differences [36]. Modern holdings (private ownership, artificial irrigation, mechanization, and use of chemicals) are commonly located in the lowlands; they influence and coexist with the highland traditional ones (common property, native crops, rotation, and long fallows). Their integration through flows of energy, materials and investment is asymmetric. Highland communities give more importance to landholding conflicts, whereas middle and lowland communities give more importance to difficulties in acquiring chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides). A source of inequality in farm size is demographic differentiation. As households begin, grow, and mature over the course of their life cycles, changes in land holding reflect fluctuations in the demand for land associated with each stage [4]. A young household forms and expands, acquiring land to meet its growing needs. Later, as children mature and leave the household, pressures decline and land holdings may contract. Increasing population, combined with bilateral inheritance, results in successive subdivision of land at the death of the owner. Extreme fragmentation creates difficulties for technological innovation since many of their packages are inadequate in small properties. Technological change facilitates the evolution of land use systems and at the same time, this evolution facilitates the diffusion of technical change. Since AU with less than 2 ha cannot sustain a family with 5–6 members, peasants approach the use of resources through cooperation. Interviews with 44 family heads and 11 groups of farmers showed that a common concern is the decrease of land productivity and availability. Farmers recognize that a plot that produced around 20 bags of potatoes actually only yields four. However, that perception is not as acute as chronic cash shortages [23]. The cost of soil recovery ranges from US$ 777–962 /ha/year [31].

3.5 Land Use Systems Land, water, grazing territories, and labor were neither bought nor sold in preColumbian times [23]. Changes in field systems reflected adaptations to changing environments and socio economic demographic conditions, based either on innovation or diffusion [5]. Peasants still manage multiple farms at the same time to maximize human labor and get advantage from the ecological variability. In a dual decision making system, the household is the producing unit, while at a higher level the community administers a vast territory. The difficulties of supplying and scheduling labor limit the total size that a family can farm.

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The land can be divided into three concentric circles around each town. The nearest one is under intensive use, privatized, and generally irrigated. The parcels located in the outer circle are of common use, mainly for grass, and are located above 4,000 m asl, or are areas without drainage. In “modern” communities, communal rotation has disappeared, and the privatization of land has expanded. This process is faster in communities situated at low and intermediate altitudes [5]. The system of cropping and the property rights are different in each circle. Within the agricultural belt, abandoned fields and non-cultivatable land are referred to as tierra eriaza; which are not irrigated and are communally controlled and open to residents of the village for grazing and the collection of herbs and firewood. The most common form of access to land is inheritance [12], followed by purchase, sharecropping, and to a lesser extent, renting and acquisition of land as collateral for a loan (anticresis). Agricultural plots are the basis of a land market in which prices are regulated by supply and demand, and there are no restrictions on sales to outsiders (forasteros).

3.6 Factors Interrelation and Statistics of Land Use per District The correlation between the total AU and entitled AU with district area are positive (R = 0.64 and 0.61 respectively), irrigated area and population (R = 0.51), total and entitled AU (R = 0.78), and altitude and AU under common property (R = 0.91). Variables with non significant correlation are the total of AU with the number of AU under common property (R = 0.04), the area of grasslands with the number of AU under common property (R = –0.04), population and total of AU (R = –0.08), irrigated and forested areas (R = –0.02) and irrigated and grassland areas (R = –0.07) (Table 4). Santos-Granero and Barclay [31] add that the length of occupation is correlated with greater land fragmentation and that the relation between the proportion of perennial crops and the proportion of fallow land is negative. While in Amarilis, Cayran and Yarumayo the rates of irrigated fields are 97, 86 and 65%; in Chaulan, Quisquis, Chinchao and Margos they are 39, 38, is 29 and 10% respectively (Fig. 3), meaning that in the last four districts more than half of fields depend on rains. Accessibility is a main factor to access irrigation infrastructure; Amarilis and Cayran are next to the city of Huanuco. The 32,723.3 ha of irrigated plots in Amarilis constitute 58% of the total irrigated area in the province. The distribution of irrigated areas in the province is heterogeneous. Irrigation influences the crop structure, the type of tillage, and the level of fragmentation of the agricultural unit [10]. The irrigation canals are built by communal labor, anyone wishing to have land allotted in the new area must participate in their construction. Margos has two communities and 8,538 AU under common use (Table 3, Fig. 5) while in Churubamba there are seven peasant communities and only 1,119 AU under common use. Production zones with higher productivity (lowlands) accelerate the degree of privatization [23]. Effectively, in Churubamba half of the total AU has only one patch while in Margos only 17% (Fig. 4). Communities do not necessarily control common land, individual herders can share common grasslands. There

A. Area (%) B. Population C. Altitude (masl) D. Agric. Land (ha) E. Irrigated area (ha) F. Grassland (ha) G. Forest land (ha) H. Total AU I. Entitled Properties J. Common Properties

1.00 −0.04 −0.13 −0.35 −0.22 −0.17 −0.24 0.64 0.61 0.00

A

C −0.13 −0.51 1.00 −0.17 −0.21 0.25 −0.14 −0.16 −0.56 0.91

B

−0.04 1.00 −0.51 0.33 0.51 −0.39 −0.30 −0.08 0.25 −0.27

−0.35 0.33 −0.17 1.00 0.92 0.07 0.31 −0.39 −0.23 −0.12

D −0.22 0.51 −0.21 0.92 1.00 −0.07 −0.02 −0.20 −0.07 −0.13

E −0.17 −0.39 0.25 0.07 −0.07 1.00 0.27 −0.29 −0.32 −0.04

F −0.24 −0.30 −0.14 0.31 −0.02 0.27 1.00 −0.30 −0.23 −0.18

G

Table 4 Correlation matrix between main parameters (total of districts)

0.64 −0.08 −0.16 −0.39 −0.20 −0.29 −0.30 1.00 0.78 0.04

H

0.61 0.25 −0.56 −0.23 −0.07 −0.32 −0.23 0.78 1.00 −0.33

I

0.00 −0.27 0.91 −0.12 −0.13 −0.04 −0.18 0.04 −0.33 1.00

J

Land Use Conversion and Agricultural Intensification in Tropical Hill Slopes 413

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Number of patches

4000 3000

2..5

>6

1

2000 1000

H ua nu co Am ar ilis C hi nc ha C hu o ru ba m ba M ar go s Q ui sq iu C ay ra n C ha ul an SM Va lle Ya ru m ay o

0

Fig. 4 Number of patches per agricultural unit [16] entitled registered common

10000

without entitling total

Number of AU

8000 6000 4000 2000

o ay

lle

m ru

an ul

Va Ya

SM

n ha C

ay

ra

iu C

sq ui Q

M

ar

go

s

ba

o C

hu r

hi

ub

nc

am

ha

ilis ar C

Am

H

ua

nu

co

0

Fig. 5 Land tenure condition per district (status of agricultural units per district) [16]

are more patches per AU in highland than lowland areas (parallel use of diverse production zones). In Churubamba 122 AU comprise between 11 and 15 patches of land. In Chaulan it is 35, and in Yarumayo it is 65. In Margos, 5 patches compose 223 AU and 318 AU by 6–10 dispersed patches, the higher values for those ranked. The proportion of AU with only one patch ranks from 14% (Chaulan) and 16% (Margos) to 54% (Huanuco) and 67% (Chinchao). In half of the total districts, more than half of AU posses only one patch (Huanuco, Amarilis, Chinchao, Churubamba, and Yarumayo) (Fig. 4). The number of entitlements in each district depends on its accessibility and distance to the capital. In Margos and Yarumayo it is less than 1%, while in the Huanuco district it is 39%. The proportion of AU under common property in each

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district is 100% in Margos, 98% in Chaulan, and 100% in Yarumayo (Fig. 5); in contrast, there is 23% in Huanuco and 17% in Churubamba (their territory extends from lowlands to highlands). An owner is recognized as one who is holding a land title even though it is still not registered in the official records; an owner without a title is simply denominated “land holder”.

3.7 Change in Land Use The comparison of aerial photographs from 1962 to 1995 in an area of 7.30 km2 enclosing the 4/5 of Huanuco city, indicates that croplands converted to urban areas at a rate of 2.6% per year. As there are no easy routes to change the status of land tenure, farmers in state cooperatives and other agricultural societies illegally subdivide the common land into private plots, and few have valid titles over them [6]. In 10 observations, a higher correlation exists between the forest areas of the real and ideal condition maps (R = 0.6364) than in the case of agriculture (R = 0.463) or grassland areas (R = 0.2242), explained by the overlapping in time and space of grazing and agricultural areas. In the real situation, there is no conservation or protection class as such; it is intermingled within the forest and grassland classes. Moreover, the regional census did not consider that land category. Data for the ideal condition was obtained according to the methodology; since they are types of physiographical characteristics at small scale, it is assumed that will not change substantially over time.

Fig. 6 Map of suitable land use with demarcation of cultivated areas

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D.L. Cornelio

conservation

forests

agriculture

grassland

Yarumayo SMValle Quisquis Margos Huanuco Churubamba Chinchao Chaulan Cayran Amarilis 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90% 100%

Fig. 7 Rates of crop areas established on areas with other suitability (current situation)

The extent of farms established in areas with other suitability was delineated on the ideal map (Fig. 6) The total of pixels (smallest units on the map) for each case were converted to percentage of ground area considering that 1 pixel equals 0.704 km2 . In the current situation (Fig. 7) agriculture occupies over 50% of the total area in most of the districts, while in an optimal situation (Fig. 8) it is restricted to some areas and land dedicated to other uses are better distributed. The results are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The cropped areas in Amarilis, Churubamba, Huanuco,

conservation

forests

agriculture

grassland

Yarumayo SMValle Quisqui Margos Huanuco Churubamba Chinchao Chaulan Cayran Amarilis 0%

10%

20% 30%

40% 50%

60% 70%

Fig. 8 Area rates per category of land use in an ideal condition

80% 90% 100%

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and SMValle are properly located (78.6, 80.5, 64.7, and 77.1%, respectively, of the total area cultivated in each district). However, in the same districts, the proportion of cropped areas suitable for forestry are 21.4, 19.5, 35.3, and 18.3%, respectively. In Quisqui this use reaches 72.3%. In Chinchao, primarily, and in Quisqui, Margos, and Chaulan, the proportion of cultivated plots to areas suitable for only conservation are 34.3, 10.7, 7.57, and 3.6%. The rates of cropped plots on areas suitable for grazing are high in Yarumayo (76.2%), Chaulan (63.6%), Cayran (59.74%), and Margos (45.2%). It is notable the overuse of land for agriculture in Amarilis (31,291.7 ha) and Margos (8,118.8 ha), for grasslands in Chinchao (8,320.8 ha), Quisquis (5,538.5 ha) and SMValle (29,971.5 ha) and the sub use of areas suitable for forests in Chinchao (14,762.52 ha), Quisquis (5,670.7 ha) and SMValle (9,822.5 ha). Figure 9 is a proposed scheme to achieve a sustainable use of land in the central Andes of Peru. Common natural grasslands and agricultural holdings in marginal lands comprehend the majority of area under use; their progressive conversion to widespread recommended measures (encircled) with permanent and higher output values can be achieved through the actions described in the right box, failure in any of them will not assure success. Local institutions (diverse systems of cooperative work, sharecropping, regulated use of productive resources and control of diverse production zones at different altitudes) and incentive alternatives should be negotiated with the local communities. Technical assistance and training might enhance the managerial skills of the locals, adapt new methods of land use and reconsider good practices of traditional knowledge.

Fig. 9 Proposed scheme to increase land value

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4 Discussion and Conclusions Areas under agricultural, grazing, and forest use changed broadly from 1972 to 1996 in all districts, and are far from matching the most suitable land use. A farmer changes cultivation practices both from year to year and from field to field for reasons that may be spatial, environmental, economic, informational, demographic or idiosyncratic. Land use is heterogeneous among the districts. Pressure on land varies from district to district and is the main force that conduces to institutional change. Policy shifts from collectivism to market oriented solutions and back to heterodoxy created uncertainties and deepened rural divisions. Although the paradox of an ideology of egalitarian resource distribution alongside differentiation continues to provoke tensions in Andean communities [13]. Land reforms as were traditionally conceived are no longer needed since do not solve social infrastructural problems. Even though management systems are similar, there are differences regarding intensity, areas, and type of land use. The average patch area/owner is 5 ha, with exceptions in Chinchao (less than 0.5 ha) and Churubamba (10 ha). This can hinder technological innovation since studies in other realms confirm that larger farms are more open to it [27]; and that households with more land have higher levels of income from non agricultural employment [7]. Inequality has to be confronted by reducing economic instability and through programs that improve the access by the poor to productive assets. The number of patch/owner is inversely proportional to the patch size in all cases, meaning that while large holders are prone to technological change, smallholders diversify their production in multiple cycles to divert risk. Accessibility is a main factor for the diffusion of infrastructure and property formalization. Development policies for each district will differ. In Chinchao rehabilitation measures have to focus on forest resources while in SMValle on grasslands management. In Huanuco and Churubamba the main actors are small holders while in Chaulan and Yarumayo most of the productive resources are under common use. The local social institutions have the potentiality to enable a sustainable use of land if they are duly recognized by state policies and receive an external stimulus from agencies of development. The success of this effort will depend on action within the sector (institutions, policy, technology) as well as outside the sector (economical and political stability, education, transportation, communication). Traditional land tenure in the Andes is not well described by artificial categories such as private or communal, both are complementary and intermingled. The point is not who has the right over land, but who has the right to use determined area for a specific purpose. Although the existence of production zones as a production system is not exclusive [23], the inclusion of people and institutions with different objectives and interests but with the ability to cooperate in the coordination, creation and exploitation of them which is exceptional in the Andes; and forms the basis on which of land use policy must rely. Agriculture in steep areas suitable for other uses has been traditionally inherited but the customary institutions that regulated land use are diminishing because of modernization. The environmental consequences can be unexpected since peasant communities control more than 30% of the fragile lands [3]. The evidence that privatizing cooperative property does not automatically led

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to sustainable investment must be pondered; it is of interest only if individual management is highly profited [30]. Agricultural output would rise, but the impact on employment will depend on the technologies used on the new consolidation holdings. A policy risk is that smallholders who sell their lands may move to the forested areas. Moreover, given the high ecological diversity in the Andes, it is unlikely that a land market is going to develop for second or third quality land. Andean genetic diversity is a case where common access leads to an increase in biological diversity rather than a reduction [23]. People self organize in response to change [34], creating new instruments and institutional forms capable of responding to restructuring pressures [27]. They spontaneously organize into extralegal independent groups until the government is able to create a unique system of legal property. Entitling farmers and deregulating agricultural prices can slow emigration. If the farmer has a legal right to his land, he will also invest more in its conservation. Together with a well-designed land information system it would create the needed social capital for sustainable land use. The emergence, implementation and effectiveness of local policies depend upon the complex of economic, social and political conditions found within and beyond the locality. The changes are slow and continuous, a “green revolution” has not occurred. The growing tendency towards external linkages offers new potentialities, but also new risks for the local people. Markets tend to reinforce the extractive activities, conduces resources outside the rural realm and is indifferent to processes of environmental degradation [27]. Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge the valuable insights of Mr. Ebenezer Annan Afful and give special thanks to Mr. Scott Menking for proofreading the final manuscript. Any mistakes that remain are the author’s responsibility. The Japanese Ministry of Education provided funding for this study.

References 1. Birch-Thomsen T, Frederiksen P, Sano H (2001) A livelihood perspective on natural resource management and environmental change in semiarid Tanzania. Econ Geogr 77:41–66 2. Bussink C, Hijmans R (2000) Land use change in the Cajamarca basin, Peru, 1975–1996. CIP Program report 1999–2000, Lima, pp 421–428 3. Cotlear D (1989) Desarrollo campesino en los Andes. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima, 325 pp 4. Chayanov A (1996) The theory of peasant economy. Manchester University Press, Manchester, 316 pp 5. Denevan W (2000) Cultivated landscapes of native Amazonia and the Andes, Oxford geographical and environmental studies. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 396 pp 6. De Soto H (2000) El misterio del capital – porque el capitalismo triunfa en occidente y fracasa en el resto del mundo, edit. El Comercio, Lima, 287 pp 7. Echevarria R (2001) Development of rural economies. Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, DC, 224 pp 8. Espinel L (1996) Propuesta para la introduccion de especies forestales a sistemas de produccion agropecuaria en Obas – Huanuco, forest engineer thesis. UNALM, Lima, 81 pp 9. Evans N, Morris C, Winter M (2002) Conceptualizing agriculture: a critique of postproductivism as the new orthodoxy. Prog Hum Geogr 26(3):313–332

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10. Gonzales de Olarte E, Hiopkins R, Kervyn B, Alvarado J, Barrantes R (1987) La lenta modernizacion de la economia campesina. IEP, Lima, 233 pp 11. Gonzales de Olarte E (1994) En las fronteras del mercado – economia politica del campesinado del Peru. IEP, Lima, 370 pp 12. Guillet D (1995) Covering ground–communal water management and the state in the Peruvian Highlands. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 250 pp 13. Harden C (1996) Interrelationships between land abandonment and land degradation: a case from the Ecuadorian Andes. Mt Res Dev 16(3):274–280 14. Hunefeldt C (1997) The rural landscape and changing political awareness: enterprises, agrarian producers, and peasant communities, 1969–1994, In the Peruvian labyrinth – polity, society, economy. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA, pp 107–133 15. ILWIS (2003) Online GIS tutorial. Downloaded from www.itc.nl/ilwis 16. INEI III (1996) Censo nacional agropecuario Ministerio de Agricultura, Lima, 4 volumes 17. INRENA (1994) Compendio estadistico de la actividad forestal y fauna 1980–1991. Ministerio de Agricultura, Lima, 120 pp 18. Ives J, Messerly B (1999) The Himalayan dilemma. The UNU press, London, 324 pp 19. Kay C (1998) Latin America’s agrarian reform: lights and shadows, Land Reform Journal, Institute of social studies, (2)8–32 The Hague, The Netherlands 20. Keipi K (1999) Forest resource policy in Latin America. Inter America Development Bank, Washington, DC, 280 pp 21. Mantang C, Shaofang H (1995) National training workshop on identification of tools for degraded land management in rural areas with emphasis in wood energy problems, training materials, Research Institute of Tropical Forestry, Guangzhou 11–16 December, P. R. China, 84 pp 22. Matos J, Mejia J (1984) Reforma agraria: Logros y contradicciones 1969–1979. IEP, Lima, 138 pp 23. Mayer E (2002) The articulated peasant: household economies in the Andes. Westview Press, Oxford, 390 pp 24. Mazzucato V, Niemeijer D (2002) Population growth and the environment in Africa: local informal institutions, the missing link. Economic Geography 78(2): 171–193 25. McGaughey S, Gregersen H (1983) Forest based development in Latin America. InterAmerican Development Bank, Washington, DC, 215 pp 26. McGaughey S, Gregersen H (1988) Investment policies and financing mechanisms for sustainable forestry development. Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, DC, 126 pp 27. Neil C, Tykkylainen M (1998) Local economic development: a geographical comparison of rural community restructuring. United Nations University Press, Tokyo, 365 pp 28. OIA (2000) Sintesis agrario No. 6, 7, 8. Oficina de informacion agraria del ministerio de agricultura, Huanuco, Peru 29. PETT (2002) Proyecto especial de titulacion de tierras y catastro rural, Ministerio de Agricultura. Downloaded from www.minag.gob.pe 30. Ridell J (2000) Emerging trends in land tenure reform: progress towards a unified theory. FAO Sustainable Development Department, Rome 31. Santos-Granero F, Barclay F (1998) Selva central, history, economy and land use in Peruvian Amazonia. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, 351 pp 32. Scherr S (1999) Poverty-environment interactions in agriculture: key factors and policy implications. Paper prepared for the UNDP and the EC expert workshop on poverty and the environment. Brussels, Belgium 33. Schweik C, Adhikari K, Nidhi K (1997) Land-cover change and forest institutions: a comparison of two sub-basins in the southern Siwalik Hills of Nepal. Mt Res Dev 17(2):99–116 34. Silberstein J, Maser C (2000) Land use planning for sustainable development. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 203 pp

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35. Tammen M (1991) The drug war vs. land reform in Peru, in Policy Analysis No 56, Cato Institute. Downloaded from www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-156.html 36. Van Ginkel H, Barrett B, Velasquez J (2002) Human development and the environment – challenges for the United Nations in the new millennium. The United Nation University Press, Tokyo, 313 pp 37. Young A (1998) Land resources, now and the future. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 319 pp

Part IV

Energy and Development: New and Renewable Energy

Role of Renewable Energy in Development of Self Sufficient Housing in Developing Countries Debashis Sanyal

Abstract Energy is a burning problem of present era. The conventional centralized energy distribution network accounts for high transmission losses (ranging from 9 to 20% at times). The energy consumption in residential structures accounts considerably high than other buildings, also it is a recurring ever cost increasing phenomena. It is very difficult to remain in the city and save energy beyond a certain limit without compromising the present day materialistic lifestyle by the city dweller households. Also the factor of polluting the environment by using conventional fossil fuels for energy generation accounts for a disastrous future. The concept of ‘self sufficient housing’ is to develop a self-contained commune with a building unit designed to cater the needs of approximately 15–20 families. The provisions will be made in these housing to enable the inhabitants to produce their own energy, grow their own agricultural produces for food, recycle all the resources/waste. These units will be essentially located in rural/countryside areas. The building will be planned in such a way that it will use non-conventional/renewal energy sources totally and will not use any form of external energy source. The building will be planned in such a way that it will use non-conventional & renewal energy sources totally and will not use any form of external energy source like electrical grid network or fossil fuels, etc. The main objective of this research is to develop suitable architectural designs for selfsufficient housing units incorporating the necessary infrastructures, like equipment of energy generation. Keywords Architectural design · Self-sufficient housing

1 The Scene With its present growth rate (about 150 persons/min) the world population will be crossing 8.5 billion by the end of the year 2025. As per the projections made, 57% D. Sanyal (B) Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology Raipur, P.O. Ravishankar University, Raipur Chhattisgarh 492010, India e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_39, 

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of this population will be urban, out of which 95% contribution will be due to the developing countries. As a result, the population of many cities in developing countries will cross the figure of 20 million by the year 2015. Based on projections made by UNCHS, 17 of the 21-mega cities will be in the developing countries. Existing mega cities (2006) Beijing, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Dacca, Delhi, Jakarta, Karachi, Kolkata, Lagos, Los Angeles, Manila, Mexico City, Mumbai, New York, Osaka, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Shanghai, Tianjin, Tokyo Projected list of mega cities of future (2015) Chennai, Hyderabad, Istanbul, Kinhasa, Lahore, Lima, Moscow, Paris, Teheran

Based on above projections, it is quite easy to predict the future housing needs. Already there is a global shortage of housing for 2 billion people. This shortage will be becoming more and more acute if no immediate actions/measures are taken. This definitely advocates the need of development of mass housing projects. This shortage will further increase by the year 2025, when the world population will be around 8.5 billion. But what about the tremendous impact on the field of energy usage of these future developmental projects of mass housing? A study of present processes of development with associated energy usage will help architects in designing mass housing with less energy consumption, leading ultimately to conservation of natural resources and less polluted urban environment.

2 The Pressure It is necessary here, to identify various major pressures, which are generally put on the urban areas by building more mass housing units:

2.1 Land As of today the land in the urban metro cities has become very dear & costly; also it is difficult to find new land suitable for mass housing. The alternative of housing in high-rise apartments is leading these urban areas towards chaotic development. They also pose greater pressure on parking and transportation system network.

2.2 Energy This is a burning problem of present era. The present unplanned and uncontrolled growth of housing cares little about energy conservation aspects. Sometimes even providing minimum energy to all households is not becoming possible by the local authorities. Studies reveal that around 18% of total energy consumption of mankind is in housing sector. It is necessary to consider energy conservation techniques

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before, during and after construction; as energy can be saved considerably in each stage. Over 80% of the embodied energy in mass housing is the energy required to manufacture the materials. Most of this energy usage is for manufacturing only a small number of the (high-energy) materials used in construction of housing units, principally steel products, cement, concrete products, bricks and ceramic materials. This embodied energy amounts to several times the annual energy consumption of that same housing in use. Energy is used wastefully in heat recovery processes, insulation techniques, simple orientation concerns. Architectural lighting & space heating/cooling are also two of the largest and most visible consumers of energy. A properly designed energy efficient housing will have a lower initial cost than one planned disregarding energy consequences. This cost advantage derives mainly from smaller building volume & lower energy demands. The conventional centralized energy distribution network accounts for high transmission losses (ranging from 9 to 20% at times). The energy consumption in residential structures accounts considerably high than other buildings, also it is a recurring ever cost increasing phenomena. It is very difficult to remain in the city and save energy beyond a certain limit without compromising the present day materialistic lifestyle by the city dweller households.

2.3 Utilities The present day big cities are growing in a faster speed; the utilities & the city of basic amenities to urban population is becoming increasingly difficult day-by-day. It is a very complex situation and a major multifaceted problem to cope up with such a huge demand. Lack of finance/civic sense resources are further adding to this precarious condition.

2.4 Environment The present day pollution & lack of basic amenities are proving detrimental to future growth of residential nature in metro city areas. The polluted air and water, the toxic wastes, the dangerous fuel emissions from vehicles, are further aggravating this situation. The decreasing green areas are bringing changes in the microclimate in of these cities, making it more and more uncomfortable for living.

2.5 Transportation The public transport systems of almost all these urban conglomerations are running at a loss and it has become increasingly difficult to maintain their effectiveness cleanliness and punctuality, because of overcrowding and pressure of daily commuting population.

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3 Energy Efficiency to Sufficiency It had already been established in 1970 that there is no inexhaustible supply of cheap conventional energy sources, available in world & therefore serious efforts should be aimed at identifying energy conservation methods and a lot of research is being done to effectively use the available non-conventional & renewable energy sources. The future of housing design should rely on not only energy efficiency but towards energy sufficiency. For effectively using these concepts, simultaneous use of various non-conventional energy sources is necessary, which will cover the lean period of generation of energy by one source and will provide designed uninterrupted quantity of energy all the time. UNCHS recommends, ‘Housing should be designed with the application of bio-climatic design principle & employment of energy conservation measures will reduce 60% energy consumption in heating/cooling of buildings.’

4 The New Concept The concept of ‘self sufficient housing’ is to minimize the pressures on cities in terms of space, energy, traffic, population, etc. This housing will be in a self-contained commune with a building unit designed to cater the needs of approximately 15–20 families [1]. They will produce their own energy for domestic use; grow their own agricultural produces for food, thereby limiting their visits to urban areas for such tasks and products, which are not feasible in this commune. They will be sited in economical rural spaces/natural surroundings [2]. A self sufficient home is a structure that is designed, built, renovated, operated, or reused in an ecological and resource-efficient manner. These homes are designed to meet certain objectives such as protecting health; using energy, water, and other resources more efficiently; and reducing the overall impact on the environment.

5 The Advantage 5.1 Location and Siting These units will be located in rural/country areas & they will be well connected with the possible work centers. The rural natural fresh & unpolluted environment and low cost of land will be the first positive aspect of siting such dwelling units. Protect and retain existing landscaping and natural features. Select plants that have low water and pesticide needs, and generate minimum plant trimmings. Use compost and mulches. This will save water and time [4]. Recycled content paving materials, furnishings, and mulches help close the recycling loop.

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5.2 Energy Sufficiency The building will be planned in such a way that it will use non-conventional & renewal energy sources totally and will not use any form of external energy source like electrical grid network or fossil fuels, etc. • Develop strategies to provide natural lighting. Studies have shown that it has a positive impact well being. • Task lighting reduces general overhead light levels. • Use a properly sized and energy-efficient heat/cooling system in conjunction with thermally efficient walls, roofs and floors. • Maximize light colors for roofing and wall finish materials; install high R-value wall and ceiling insulation; and use minimal glass on undesired sun exposures. • Consider alternative and renewable energy sources. • Passive design strategies can dramatically affect a homes energy performance. These measures include home shape and orientation, passive solar design, and the use of natural lighting.

5.3 Materials Efficiency Select sustainable construction materials and products by evaluating several characteristics such as reused and recycled content, zero or low off gassing of harmful air emissions, zero or low toxicity, sustainably harvested materials, high recyclables, durability, longevity, and local production. Such products promote resource conservation and efficiency. Reuse and recycle construction and demolition materials.

5.4 Recycling The concept of recycling of waste/water/garbage will be applied in such a way that it fulfils the need of dwellers without tapping any external services or utility networks. The garbage will be recycled to produce energy through non-conventional methods & end product will become manure for crops. One example of recycling can be using wastewater from washing in fishponds and from there it can be used in fields/vegetable farms [3]. Some other measures which will definitely improve water efficiency can be: • Design for dual plumbing to use recycled water for toilet flushing or a gray water system that recovers rainwater or other nonpotable water for site irrigation. • Minimize wastewater by using ultra low-flush toilets, low-flow showerheads, and other water conserving fixtures.

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• Use recirculating systems for centralized hot water distribution. • Install point-of-use tank less hot water heating systems. • Use micro-irrigation (which excludes sprinklers and high-pressure sprayers) to supply water in non-turf areas. • Use state-of-the-art irrigation controllers and self-closing nozzles on hoses.

5.5 Space Economy This building will be providing minimum adequate living space for 15–20 families in an economical rural/countryside site. This number of dwellers will depend upon local conditions, extent of the problem and energy sufficiency parameters along with other factors.

5.6 Environment Friendly The main aim of these self sufficient housing units is to develop such a housing system in which there will be no generation of pollution by any means. Besides being sited in a rural environment these houses will be using recycling of water and all the waste materials. Thus a nature friendly & ecologically balanced surrounding will be created by these dwellers through these housing systems.

5.7 Employment Generating The commune development activities and maintenance of various energy generation equipments will also generate employment for the dwellers & only a handful (one person per family) may have to go to city areas for sophisticated jobs etc. As this concept provides partial food growing facility/zero energy bill along with Other economical advantages; there will be less necessity of a job, and dwellers can engage themselves in a occupation/vocation of their own choice for better income, while living in the commune.

5.8 Minimizing Transportation The dwellers require minimum transportation. As only periodical shopping of merchandise & some other works may require traveling to other areas which are not possible within this commune. Though through scientific application of knowledge of farming will reduce this need to travel. This in turn will decrease the overall stress on existing transportation systems.

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6 The Process 1. Selection of a target group representing largest portion of such migratory population. This selection must be made at local level considering the nearness of urban areas. 2. Determination of a feasible size of commune by considering local problems of Siting. Though preliminary studies suggest about 250 families can be a manageable size for Indian conditions, having a maximum of 5 persons per family. 3. Proposing living space. For 15–20 families in one building, by undertaking anthropometrical studies and deciding space standards, taking along with the study of economical feasibility of the target group. The minimum proposed enclosed spaces required for a family should be: • Habitable space: bedroom/living room; utilities: kitchen/toilet/bathroom/ store, etc. In addition to these some common spaces are necessary for community living, which may be: • Services/electric room/garbage collection room, Kitchen garden/open garden/terrace garden, farming, fishpond, poultry etc. These spaces can be created in common spaces left between the units. 4. Estimating space requirements. For energy production by renewable or nonconventional energy sources: Biogas/biomass plant, wind energy, solar energy. Where feasible tidal energy can be also used. 5. Earmarking spaces. Necessary to produce agricultural products for food, i.e. Terrace gardens/Semi built up spaces; these spaces can be integrated with the building design, whereas some open plot can be attached to the commune for collective/family-wise farming. 6. Deciding Building fabric and enclosure spaces (including structural considerations). Here due attention must be paid to achieve a structurally safe & maintenance free construction. 7. Earmarking Spaces for recycling plants. For water/garbage/sewerage for energy and manure production. These spaces should be designed with optimum space utilization concept, though importance of these cannot be ignored due to their necessity in keeping the pollution level low. Care must be taken to adapt foolproof recycling systems. 8. Providing community spaces & common spaces for recreation and other utilities. Park/school/primary health center/recreation center, roads/pathways, etc. 9. Calculating the energy demands of the unit and proposing energy sufficiency by tapping non-conventional energy sources. Some of such energy sources under consideration are: Solar (photo-voltaic), Biomass, Wind, Tidal, etc. It may be necessary to install a combination of these energy sources to get desired result all the year round.

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10. Estimating the necessity of other resources, like water, etc., & proposing their procurement from locally available natural sources. Rainwater must be compulsorily collected & underground water level must be allowed to charge through natural means. 11. Deciding the size of one building unit with cross checking each of the above mentioned spaces as per their feasibility and sustainability with respect to number of dwellers and self-sufficiency parameters. 12. Arriving at a suitable size as per local conditions/resources availability/willing population. 13. Determining the social acceptability of these relatively new housing systems, through preliminary survey of various shelter less people, or people suffering from overcrowding in conventional housing.

7 Architectural Design of Housing The housing design should incorporate energy saving techniques by reducing the energy demands & some major recommendations are: 1. Proper site selection & orientation. 2. Use of shady trees to control radiation reaching unwanted places of building envelope. 3. Maximum window placement on the side of least sun exposure. 4. Minimize exposed surface area for reducing heat transmission.

8 The Materials Over 80% of the embodied energy in housing is the energy required to manufacture the building materials. It has been established that most of this energy is used in only a small number of materials, principally, iron/steel products, cement/concrete products, bricks/ceramic materials. The embodied energy in a housing unit amounts to several times the annual energy consumption of that same housing in use [6] (Table 1).

Table 1 Ratio of embodied energy to annual energy for houses in different locations Location

Embodied energy (GJ)

Annual: energy (GJ)

Ratio

UK, 1975 USA, 1981 Switzerland, 1987 (SQ.M.) Pakistan, 1986

140 (average) 190 4.6 20–100

71 (average) 119 0.8 2

2 1.6 2.99 3–14

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So, architects of self-sufficient housing have the opportunity to make a major contribution to the reduction of total energy use in built environment through some of the strategies enlisted here: 1. Maximum use of low energy materials. 2. Selection of lower-energy structural systems, such as load bearing masonry in place of RCC/steel frames. 3. Selection of waste/recycled materials, or manufactured materials, which incorporate these. 4. Use local materials, involving less transportation. 5. Use more functional windows (designed as passive solar collectors). Optionally smart windows can be also used, which use anti reflection layers, low emission coatings and switch able films.

9 The Construction During construction process, materials are combined in composite building components such as walls, floors and roofs. Based on the energy intensity of the materials and the quantities used, it is possible to calculate the energy insensitivity of various types of building materials and construction methods (Table 2). Table 2 Energy requirements for typical housing components Components

Energy (MJ/Sq.m)

Floors:

Suspended timber Concrete slab on ground

733 1014

Walls:

Timber frame, weatherboard cladding Timber frame, brick-veneer cladding Concrete block

198 1284 755

Roofs:

Galvanized Steel Concrete tile

508 176

Similarly, the energy intensity of various house designs can be calculated and compared. It is notable that structures can vary up to 60% in capital energy requirement, as a result of architect’s choice of materials [5].

10 The Intelligence In developing self-sufficient housing the concept of intelligent/smart buildings adds quite a lot. The continuous monitoring of energy requirement levels, the automatic provisions of reducing wasteful energy demands will add to this novel concept. Intelligent buildings effectively use energy conservation methods and maintain the optimum energy usage level all the time. The energy production cost is higher in developing countries; the reduction of unnecessary wastage of household energy

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will be very advantageous. Reduction in energy consumption derives from strategies, in the form of intelligence, for manipulating the HVAC and electrical systems. These strategies are complex, because energy optimization schemes have an impact on many different functional aspects simultaneously; consequently, they can be effectively followed by intelligent system only. It has been already experienced that using intelligent software that reacts to the electrical demand approaching a new monthly peak value can reduce electrical power costs, and then recommends shedding, of certain building electrical loads in accordance with a priority schedule. Computer monitors the relative heat of the outdoor air and the return air in the building, and then controls the optimum use of either to reduce the energy consumed by the air-supply systems.

11 Advantages of Self Sufficient Housing A Self Sufficient home may cost more up front, but saves through lower operating costs over the life of the home. These homes require fewer trips to the doctor’s office. This approach applies a life cycle cost analysis for determining the appropriate up-front cost. This analytical method calculates costs over the useful life of the home. These cost-savings can only be fully realized when they are incorporated at the project’s conceptual design phase with the assistance of an integrated team of professionals. The integrated systems approach ensures that the home is designed as one system rather than a collection of stand-alone systems. Some benefits, such as improving health and comfort, reducing pollution and landfill waste are not easily quantified. Consequently, they are not adequately considered in a cost analysis. For this reason, consider setting aside a small portion of the building budget to cover differential costs associated with less tangible benefits or to cover the cost of researching and analyzing Self Sufficient housing options. This development may lead to a school of thought in the inhabitants and they will thrive to become self-sufficient.

References 1. Sanyal D (1995) Self sufficient housing: searching of parameters. Architects India, Bombay 7(6):26–27 2. Sanyal D (1997) Development of self sufficient housing using intelligent buildings in Indian context. New methods and technologies in planning and construction of ıntelligent buildings II. Proceedings of IB/IC ıntelligent buildings congress. Tel Aviv, pp 88–97 3. Sanyal D (1999) Self-sufficient housing for urban India: a study of architectural considerations. Proceedings of national seminar on advances in energy efficient construction systems, Gorakhpur, pp 25–35 4. Sanyal D (2000) Exploration of architectural design aspects for intelligent self sufficient housing: a study. Proceedings of world conference on green design, world congress on environmental design for the new millennium Seoul, pp 375–385, 5. UNCHS (Habitat) (1991) Energy efficiency in housing construction and domestic use in developing countries. Nairobi (HS/218/91/E), p 8 6. UNCHS (Habitat) (1991) Energy for buildings. Nairobi (HS/250/91/E), p 88

Energy and Environmental Significance of an Alternative Fuels Utilization Produced with to Liquid Technology Nenad Kukulj and Tomislav Kurevija

Abstract Higher costs of crude oil on world market, as well as awareness about negative environmental impact related to conventional diesel fuel utilization, are creating favourable economic conditions for production expansion and greater application of alternative fuels. Natural gas could be converted through FischerTropsch synthesis technology process, dating from the beginning of the last century, to alternative form of fuel named Gas to Liquid (GTL) which can be utilized in all recent diesel engines. GTL has lower emissions in comparison to fossil diesel and it is characterized with higher cetane number which is measurement of the fuel ignition quality. Furthermore, additional advantage is that the existing infrastructure for fuel transportation and distribution could be used without any significant changes, either for pure GTL or blend with diesel. In compliance with present and future EU directives, concerning greenhouse gases reduction and decrement of imported crude oil dependence, Gas to Liquid technology imposes as one of the alternative fuels for utilization in transportation sector. Keywords Gas · Liquid · Alternative fuels

1 Introduction Today world production of crude oil is just below 80 million barrels per day and such large emissions of GHG and harmful gasses into the atmosphere, caused by oil utilization, have led to increased introduction of alternative fuels because of rigorous air quality regulations regarding climate change fears. Many oil companies believe that the world’s oil producing regions have reached sustainable production limit and the natural gas must be exploited to produce transportation fuels. Increased demand from China and India will soon influence the world’s ability to supply crude N. Kukulj (B) Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_40, 

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oil-based products which will increase crude oil prices. In 2003, the transport sector consumed 1,500 Mtoe [2] worldwide and over the next 30 years, the most fastest increase in energy demand is expected to come from this sector (+2.1%/yr versus 1.7%/yr for total demand). Today, transport relies almost entirely on petroleum products, which causes rise in dependence upon oil import and increase in emissions of harmful and greenhouse gases. Alternative motor fuels such as natural gas for vehicles (NGV), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and biofuels, represent about 40 Mtoe which is less than 3% of the total fuel consumption. In the early 20th century Germany started to develop process known as FischerTropsch (F-T) which produced transport fuels from coal, resulting in numerous large scale plants built during the 1938–1943 era. Afterwards, the conversion process has improved in South Africa which has plentiful coal and low domestic oil and natural gas resources. The key drivers for implementation of alternative fuels are environmental regulations concerning fossil diesel and the fact that supply cannot meet present demand especially in EU countries with negligible oil resources. Beside present alternative fuels, Gas to Liquid synthetic fuels derived from wide variety of carbon-based feedstock, such as natural gas, coal, biomass and oil sands can reduce petroleum dependency, ensuring security of energy supply and improving air quality. In last 5 years oil price has become quiet politically influenced that caused the highest world market price per barrel ever. Due to political world instability it is predicted that oil price will never reach a 20th century level again. Therefore, most of major oil companies have started further R&D of Fischer-Tropsch fuel conversion technology and construction of GTL production facilities.

2 Conversion Process of Carbon-Based Feedstock into Synthetic Hydrocarbon Liquid Fischer-Tropsch is the process of chemical converting natural gas into liquids (GTL), coal to liquids (CTL), biomass to liquids (BTL) or bitumen from oil sands to liquids (OTL). All four processes, usually known as Gas-to-Liquids, consist of three technological separate sections. In the first step carbon feedstock is reacting with oxygen and steam inside of gasifier/reformer generating mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (H2 + CO) called syngas. This syngas generation can be used in many processes like fertilizer, methanol and specialty chemical production. In addition, generated waste heat could produce steam-derived electricity in IGCC power plants as side-product of the GTL process that could increase the overall energy efficiency, thereby helping to offset the large cost of the equipment. After that, syngas undergoes high pressure with presence of a catalyst inside F-T synthesis reactor and forms long chain carbon-hydrogen molecules, named F-T wax or paraffin. In the third step these long chain molecules are splitted into shorter-length hydrocarbon molecules (diesel, naphtha, kerosene, LPG) in a hydrocracking stage that is almost

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Fig. 1 Gas to liquid technological process with Fischer-Tropsch synthesis reactor

identical to crude oil refining. The F-T process offers the potential to produce variety range of products such as middle distillates fuels, as well as lubricants and waxes. The complete Fischer-Tropsch input and output process is illustrated in Fig. 1. F-T synthetic fuels are made from natural gas, coal, bitumen or biomass through a chemical process. Due to that, they have none of the impurities as crude oil derived products such as sulphur, heavy metals and carcinogenic compounds as benzene. During Gas to Liquid technological process CO2 becomes significantly problematic as by-product. However, CO2 gas is in a concentrated stream and therefore it is easily sequestered as long as there is a disposal or utilization possibility near the GTL production site. Biomass synthetic fuel (BTL) is considered as CO2 neutral transport fuel when it is evaluated on a full life cycle basis that could contribute to greenhouse gasses (GHG) emissions reducement. The efficient combination of all this three steps and integration process is a major challenge for F-T technology developers. Advances and improvements in the first two steps will cause lower production costs due to enhanced carbon conversion, thermal and process efficiencies. The plant economy strongly depends upon the chosen feedstock as carbon source. The choice whether GTL plant will use natural gas, coal or biomass in conversion process also depends on feedstock availability for specific region. Many projects with natural gas based GTL plant are planned in Middle East region because of numerous gas and oil fields as well as stranded gas resources.

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In North America has large conventional fuel consumption, dependence upon imported oil and natural gas, substantial domestic coal resources and due to that few large-scale production projects are considered, regarding coal and biomass feedstock. The infrastructure of GTL plant should be properly sized because of different feedstock properties as carbon content and specific calorific value, concerning feedstock quantity transportation needed for designed fuel plant output. If coal is considered as feedstock for production for GTL fuel (CTL) it should be taking into account widespread calorific value for different sorts of coal (coal, coke, charcoal and carbon) which varies approximately from 10 to 30 MJ/kg. For example, assuming conversion process gross plant energy efficiency of 45% [3], the amount of coal feedstock needed could be calculated as follows: f =

Efuel (Hd )feedstock · η

where is: f – feedstock needed for production of 1 bbl CTL, kg Efuel – calorific value of 1 bbl CTL (5331 MJ) (Hd )feedstock – lower calorific value of coal (10–30), MJ/kg η – gross plant energy efficiency (45%) For production of 1 bbl CTL and 20 MJ/kg coal calorific value it is needed: fcoal =

5331 ECTL = ≈ 590 kg (Hd )coal η 20 × 0.45

Analogue to that, if biomass as feedstock is considered (≈15 MJ/kg), for production of 1 bbl BTL it is needed: fbiomass =

5331 EBTL = ≈ 790 kg (Hd )biomass η 15 × 0.45

Natural gas is the most available and economically favourable of all of these three investigated feedstock. Although, there were some investigations made concerning underground coal gasification which significantly reduces capital and operative costs, natural gas is still primarily used in worldwide existing production facilities. In GTL refinery, for production of 1 bbl GTL and average natural gas calorific value of 33 MJ/m3 , it is needed: fnatural gas =

EGTL (Hd )natural gas η

=

5331 ≈ 360 m3 33 × 0.45

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3 World Gas to Liquid Production Activities and Future Prospects Total world gas reserves are estimated to be 176 billions m3 , equivalent to 1.10 BOE (148.7 million m3 oe) which is almost equal to the proven world oil reserves of 1.15 billion barrels (155.4 m3 oe) [9]. Most of the natural gas world reserves are located in Former Soviet Union (32.1%) while in the Middle East natural gas reserves accounted for 40.8% and crude oil reserves of 63.3%. Initial development and future activities regarding construction of the GTL facilities are related to locations of hydrocarbons reserves in the world. Exception is South Africa’s coal based GTL plant which was built due to oil embargo. Today there are totally five synthetic fuel production plants, of which two are pilot-plants, located in Japan (GTL) and Germany (BTL). Commercial sized plants that are in operational stage have been developed on coal based feedstock (South Africa) and natural gas (Qatar, Malaysia). All production and proposed synthetic fuel projects are shown in Fig. 2 in view of proven natural gas reserves and project characteristics are presented in Table 1. The main companies started to develop GTL plant projects near the large natural gas and oil fields, mainly in Russia, Qatar, Iran and the FSU. There are two main reasons; GTL processes are using natural gas as the feedstock and in this locations they could be commercialized at large production scales projects (>100.000 barrels/d), especially where natural gas is abundant or gas flared associated with oil production. Gas flaring is estimated at 108 billion cubic meters per year what is equivalent of approximately 700 million barrels of oil (BOE) per year [7]. In some countries, particularly Nigeria, flaring will bring economic penalties such that the natural gas resource will have negative values, what improves the economics of

Fig. 2 World wide synthetic fuel projects in view of proven natural gas reserves [6]

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N. Kukulj and T. Kurevija Table 1 Worldwide GTL production facilities and future prospects [1, 8]

Facilities

Investor

Production capacity (103 bbl/d)

Production start-up

Existing Sasol II & III Mossel Bay, South Africa Bintulu, Malaysia Ras Laffan, Oryx I, Qatar

Sasol PetroSA Shell Sasol, QP

150.0 22.5 12.5 34.0

1974/1979 1992 1993 2006

Under construction Escavros, Nigeria

Chevron, NNPC

34.0

2008

Planned Ras Laffan, OryxII, Qatar Ras Laffan, Qatar Qatar Qatar Qatar Australia Arzew, Alger

Sasol, QP Shell, QP ExxonMobil, QP Sasol, QP ConocoPhillips, QP Sasol Chevron Shell, Statoil,PetroSA

32.0 70.0 + 70.0 166.0 130.0 80.0 + 80.0 45.0 36.0

2009 + 2010 + 2010 + 2010 + 2010 + 2012 + 2010 +

Project proposal USA, China, Russia, Iran, Venezuela, Argentina, Bolivia, Angola, Trinidad & Tobago

most GTL projects. The second reason is associated with production of CO2 as GTL technological process by-product. Sequestration of carbon dioxide could be utilized in view of enhanced oil recovery projects which offer further GTL production cost effectiveness and increased oil yield.

4 Energy and Environmental Advantages of Gtl Fuel over Conventional Fossil Diesel The trend of world growth in diesel consumption will continue in the future, what is caused by increment in number of diesel engine vehicles from 750 million in 2005 to predicted 1.10 billion in 2020. Such growth represents a major problem of ecologically sustainable development (Fig. 3). Today, various transport fuels are taking into consideration as one of the alternatives to the conventional fossil fuels. GTL seems to be available in significant quantities in the near future what could lead to the further reduction of emissions into the atmosphere, necessary to meet future air-quality regulations. The influence of GTL fuel and GTL blends on emissions and engine performance has been researched by numerous oil companies. GTL is extremely clean fuel with low sulphur and aromatics content and has cetane number larger than 70, what is advantageous during cold start and low temperature engine operation, as seen on Table 2. Higher cetane number yields in

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441

Fig. 3 Diesel fuel consumption growth by world regions and future predictions [7]

Table 2 Comparative of GTL fuel properties with conventional diesel and biodiesel [6, 4] Low sulphur EU Biodiesel 2005 Diesel (RME)

Blend 60% DF 20% GTL 20% RME

Blend 95%GTL 5%RME

Fuel properties

GTL

Lower calorific value, MJ/kg (MJ/L) Density, kg/dm3 Cetane number Kinematic viscosity, cSt (mm2 /s) Total sulphur, ppm GHG emission due to production process, kg eq.CO2 /MJ GHG emission due to combustion process, kg eq.CO2 /MJ Total life cycle GHG emission, kg eq. CO2 /MJ)

43.8 (33.53) 42.7 (35.44) 37.8 (33.3) 41.94 (34.68)

43.5 (33.52)

0.765 ≈ 70 ≈ 2.0

0.83 45–50 2.5–4.0

0.88 50–60 ≈ 7.0

0.827 53 3.75

0.771 69 2.25

< 1.0 0.0336

8.0 0.0191

0 0.0240

5 0.0230

0.95 0.0331

0.0667

0.0639

0

0.0517

0.0634

0.1003

0.0830

0.0240

0.0747

0.0965

reduced ignition delay and reduced fuel evaporation before ignition. Furthermore, GTL demonstrated a slightly longer combustion duration and more uniform heat release rate than the fossil diesel. Density is 8% lower than conventional diesel, but with 1.8% larger heating value and the properties of the blends change roughly proportionally to the blending ratio. Only disadvantage in physical-chemical properties of GTL fuel is that the total GHG emission during combustion, when observing complete life cycle of the fuel, is higher as much as 15% than those for conventional technologies.

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Fig. 4 Comparison of GTL emissions with various types [5, 7]

Compared to regular diesel fuels over various conditions tested taking into account both heavy-duty and light-duty vehicles, FT fuel reduce particulate emissions substantially around 20% and HC 10%. NOx emission reduction using the FT fuel is approximately 20% while carbon monoxide CO emission is reduced for 10%. Average savings in harmful exhaust emission for various blends of GTL and biodiesel is shown on Fig. 4.

5 Gas to Liquid Production Economy Major OPEC exporters willing to sustain and support crude prices certainly in the $40/bbl–$60/bbl range. The tendency in the GTL industry is to improve plant economics and reduce operating costs. As plant size increases, natural gas feedstock required to support the operation increase with total costs of the complex (from small scale of $2 million to large facilities of $5 billion investment), eliminating all but the largest oil companies and State-run oil companies from developing new projects. Today, majority of technological R&D advances are directed to the largescale GTL projects. The economics of modern F-T plants is determined with six individual factors; the cost of capital investments, construction costs; feedstock costs (coal, natural gas or biomass); the gross conversion/thermal plant efficiency; operating costs and the value of the finished products. Plant capital expenses various from $30.000/bbl/d to $60.000/bbl/d, depending upon location and type of plant, feedstock and output fuel transportation infrastructure and energy efficiency of the plant [2]. The future intention is to reach $15.000/bbl/d threshold with implementation of next generation reactor where GTL projects could compete with new crude-oil

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Fig. 5 Total investment cost depending upon operational capacity of GTL refinery

refineries. Figure 5 presents production capacity unit costs trend line and future cost index with share of investments in overall GTL production refinery. Typically F-T fuel plants require big investments in utility and offsite support systems which can account for 40–50% of the total cost of a plant. These costs are usually included in each of three basic F-T steps; synthetic gas generation, F-T wax conversion and product workup. Typical cost allocation is 50–55% of the total cost for syngas generation, 25–30% to the F-T conversion and 15–25% to product upgrading. Technologies for a large scale F-T plant have a common infrastructure requirement which includes need for large amount of energy for air separation processes, the pre-heater for the syngas generation step, waste heat recovery from syngas and its effective utilization, medium/low grade heat generation by the FT process, hydrogen provision for the hydrocracker and optimum product recovery. GTL projects are around 60% thermal efficient, with around 45% of gross plant efficiency, resulting in around 40% heat rejection [3]. Research in this sector will provide greater utilization of this latent heat on economical basis. The element of market risk is particularly significant due to the massive scale at which the refineries are planned. With expected cash flows of over $1 billion per year from the sale of products, unexpected down time can doom a project. On a smaller scale, installation costs of GTL/CTL/BTL F-T plants rise rapidly, soon exceeding $80,000 per daily barrel of capacity. Most major F-T technology companies are seeking large gas fields to support large-scale projects. As seen on Table 3 GTL fuel has greater costs than CTL fuel production technology. Nevertheless, natural gas is often flared during oil production because of lack in transportation and utilization infrastructure grid which results in CO2 emissions penalties. Oil produced from such reservoirs, especially Nigeria and Middle East, could have poor economical balance. Possibility of the GTL projects development near such fields would have economical advantage and environmental significance over similar projects. CTL projects are of special

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Table 3 Synthetic fuel production costs from the different carbon source types for power plant’s gross energy efficiency of 45% Production costs

Biomass (MJ/kg)

Crude oil (MJ/kg)

Coal (MJ/kg)

Natural gas (MJ/m3 )

Lower calorific value Feedstock price, $/GJ (2006) Fuel price, $/GJ Fuel logistics, $/GJ Production syngas from fuel, $/GJ Production diesel from syngas, $/GJ Diesel total costs, $/GJ Diesel total costs, $/GJ

15 4.0 8.0 3.0 3.8 1.8 16.60 0.56

42 9.4 (60$/bbl) – – – – 11.85 0.42

20 3.0(60$/ton) 6.66 1.0 3.8 1.8 13.26 0.44

33 3.46 7.70 1.0 3.5 1.8 14.00 0.47

interest for countries that poses significant coal deposits. World coal reserves, which can ensure production for more than 200 years at the present rate of utilization, are mainly concentrated in countries like China and India. High world oil prices and traditionally low-cost coal mined in these regions, assure economical competitiveness of future CTL projects. As seen on Table 3 BTL synthetic fuel has the greatest production costs and future prospects are related only as fuel extender (adding coal to biomass feedstock) [9]. Table values have been derived according to calorific value for each feedstock, taking into account assumed power plant’s gross energy efficiency of 45% and uptodate feedstock world market prices (September 2006).

6 Conclusion In the time of high oil prices and their instability on world market there is a trend of increased research and development in the field of alternative fuels. Aside that, drivers that contributed to greater implementation of alternative sources of energy, are high level of harmful and greenhouse gasses emissions into the atmosphere, especially in highly populated regions, strong global demand for liquid fuel supply, geopolitical uncertainty of oil supply and principles of sustainable development. Due to life standard increment, especially in developing countries, there is accretion in demand for transportation fuel what will soon lead to problems in supply chain. Gas to liquid technology could supplement share of conventional fossil fuels, resulting in that way with lower dependency upon oil, as well as some ecological and energetic advantages. Transportation and distribution of synthetic fuels could be carried out without significant investments, using existing infrastructure. Future GTL projects are planned near large oil and gas fields, as well as substantial coal deposits, making in that way projects more economically feasible. Regarding existence of CO2 as by-product of the F-T production process, sequestration could be accomplished by injection of carbon dioxide into the oil reservoirs as part of tertiary methods of recovery. In this way GTL fuel could lower overall greenhouse

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gasses emissions, as well as make economic benefits to oil production. Moreover, locations of special interest for GTL projects could be oil fields without natural gas transportation grid, where gas is flared making in that way production of oil economically burdened because of enormous CO2 emissions. Further research of synthetic fuel production technologies will lower investment costs, making it in that way more economically competitive with conventional fuels. On EU example, continued world GTL technology development would not be dependent upon world oil market price because of directives and regulations concerning ecology, implementation of alternative sources of energy and diversification of fuel supply.

References 1. California Energy Commission (2004) GTL Working Group Analysis. Sacramento, CA, USA, October 2004, p 21 2. Cornitius T (2006) The impact of synfuels (GTL,CTL,BTL,OTL) on world petroleum supply. Zeus Development Co, 14th Annual EIA Energy Outlook and Modeling Conference, March 2006, p 16 3. Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory (2004) Gilberton coal-to-clean fuels and power co-product project. Pittsburgh PA DOE, p 2 4. Fiato R, Sibal P (2005) ExxonMobil’s advanced gas-to-liquids technology – AGC21. Presentation at the 2005 middle east oil & gas show and conference, March 2005, Kingdom of Bahrain. p 16 5. Munack A, Schröder O, Ruschel Y, Herbst L, Kaufmann A (2006) Comparison of shell middle distillate, premium diesel fuel and fossil diesel fuel with rapeseed oil methyl ester. Institute of Technology and Biosystems Engineering. April 2006, p 43 6. Schaberg P, Botha J, Schnell M, Maly R, Pelz N, Herrmann H (2004) Effect of GTL diesel fuels on emissions and engine performance. Proceedings of the 2004 DEER conference: 2004 diesel engine emission reduction, Coronado, USA, August 2004, p 5 7. Shell International Gas Limited Technical Report (2003) Shell Middle Distillate Synthesis (SMDS) Update of a life cycle approach to assess the environmental inputs and outputs, and associated environmental impacts, of production and use of distillates from a complex refinery and SMDS route. PricewaterhouseCoopers Co., New York, May 2003, p 171 8. Sichinga J, Jordaan N, Govender M, Van de Venter E (2005) Sasol coal-to-liquids developments. Presentation to the gasification technologies council conference,10–12 October 2005, San Francisco, USA, p 43 9. Van Ree R, Van der Drift B, Zwart R, Boerrigter H (2005) Market competitive Fischer-Tropsch diesel production. 1st International biorefinery workshop, 20–21 July 2005, Washington, p 22

Sustainability Concept for Energy, Water and Environment Systems Naim Hamdia Afgan

Abstract This review is aimed to introduce historical background for the sustainability concept development for energy, water and environment systems. In the assessment of global energy and water resources attention is focussed in on the resource consumption and its relevancy to the future demand. In the review of sustainability concept development special emphasize is devoted to the definition of sustainability and its relevancy to the historical background of the sustainability idea. In order to introduce the sustainability measurement the attention is devoted to the definition of respective criteria. There have been a number of attempts to define the criterions for the assessment of the sustainability of the market products. Having those criterions as bases, it was introduced a specific application in the energy system design. Demonstration of the multi-criteria sustainability measurement of the energy system options based on the selected number indicators, namely: efficiency, economic, environmental and social indicators. Keywords Sustainability · Energy · Water and environment system · Resources · Limits

1 Introduction Our civilisation through the history has been under constrains which has encompasses economic, social and ecological perspective in its development. Since the beginning of industrial revolution it was recognised the need for the harmonised development of different commodities leading to the better life. In this respect, economic and social developments have been based on the natural capital available at the respective level of technology development. N.H. Afgan (B) Instituto Superior Tecnico, Lisbon, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Naim Hamdia Afgan is a Member of Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo

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It should be notice that through the history of human society the changes in the pattern of the social structures have been linked to the cyclic development of the human structure. These changes are result of the critical state, which have been achieved at the specific period of time reflecting the need for the addition of a new complexity in human society. In this respect the industrial revolution has introduced commodities to our society, which by itself contributes to the increase of the complexity. Nearing to the end of the industrial revolution, it has become evident that the complexity indicators as population, economics, material resources, social structure and religious devotion have reached the state, which requires our special attention. Sustainable development encompasses economic, social, and ecological perspectives of conservation and change. In correspondence with the WCED, it is generally defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This definition is based on ethical imperative of equity within and between generations. Moreover, apart from meeting; basic needs of all; sustainable development implies sustaining the natural life-support systems on Earth, and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life. Hence, sustainable development is more precisely defined as ‘a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change’ are all harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspiration. Complexity is the property which describes the state of complex system [1, 2]. It is multi-criteria indicator which comprises all individual characteristics of the system. Complex system is entity which characterizes the structure with a large number of elements interacting among themselves. There is different structure of elements. Elements in biology are structured to perform specific function. Typical example is DNK molecule, comprising large number of elements interacting among themselves. In the information theory the structure of elements is described as the internet network with large number of nodes for information exchange. In energy system we can describe complex system as the system which produces, transport and utilize different energy sources. The complexity of these systems is the internal property of the system expressed as the wholeness property. This imply that the complexity describe the essential characteristic of the system. If the complexity is described in thermodynamic words, it represents the internal parameter of the system expressed by agglomerated indicators describing specific property of the system. If we take into a consideration only material system, we can take the entropy of the system as the macroscopic property of the system. These can be applied to chemically bounded molecules. Prigogine [3, 4] has determined the characteristic property of these systems as the entropy generation. This means that every interaction between elements accompanying with mass, momentum and energy exchange ultimately is connected and contribute to the entropy generation in the system. It should be taken into a consideration that the entropy generation is defined per unit mass of the system and represent specific property of the system. So the entropy generation represents the complexity property of the system.

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If we take into a consideration non-material system where complex properties include entities which are not defined per unit mass of the system, we have to introduce notion which represents wholeness of the system. Good example for this type of complex system Internet system. Large numbers of nodes are connected in large net serving to transfer information among nodes. If we assume that transfer of information contribute to the increase of informativity of the system, we can see that the increase of informatively is equivalent to the increase of the complexity of the system. In this respect the informativity is equivalent to complexity. It is of the paramount importance to develop a notion based on the modern scientific knowledge which will help us to understand a basic concept of sustainability. In this respect sustainable science as defined in [5] is challenging attempt to focus attention of scientific community in large, to dwell into a basic knowledge in different fields and emulate them by the respective complexity in order to reveal a new understanding of the future of our planet (Fig. 1). Globalisation

Fig. 1 Schematic presentation of interaction. Sustainability – globalisation – democratisation – decentralisation Decentralisation

Sustainability

Democratisation

1.1 Globalisation In the complexity definition of the sustainability concept there are three clusters of indicators, which are in use to describe the state of global system. There are: resource, environment and social cluster of indicators. There are three processes that are immanent to the development of our planet, namely, globalisation, democratisation and decentralisation [6]. Even, there are in many cases, where these processes are in conflict, the effects of these processes across the full range of scale is of fundamental importance for the understanding issues as the behaviour of complex systems. Recently, it has become evident that economic forces are driving forces that are transferring capital, material, resources and manpower through the global space without obstacles posed by the local, state and regional boundaries. The process of economic reform is named globalisation. The contemporary revival of interest in the field of international political economy has coincided with the appropriately unprecedented restructuring of the world economy to be labelled as globalisation. The forces of changes associated with globalisation have been felt through statesocieties to such an extent that it has become the focus for a large amount of

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research undertaken across the social sciences. The comprehension of globalisation will require substantial contribution in order to become firmly recognised as a field of interest for social science.

1.2 Democratisation Democracy is the principles of equity of right, opportunity and treatment [7]. The process leading to the establishment of social organisation based on the democracy principles is democratisation. So, the democratisation process can be defined within the different boundaries including local, regional and global environment. The intensity of democratisation process is depending on the number of attributes reflecting ethnic, religious, cultural and educational environment. For every social structured system the respective indicators reflecting different aspect of the democratisation process can define the intensity of democratisation process. Individual parameters defining specific characteristics of democratisation can be used to measure intensity of the democratisation process. Among those are: Equity of right, job opportunity and treatment. Each of the parameters can be defined as the specific value of internal parameter of the system under consideration. As the internal parameters of the respective parameter the indicators of democratisation process can be defined as: specific number citizens participation in voting system, specific number of job opportunity in the system and many other. Since the democratisation process is also defined by the respective indicators cluster, it is of interest to make the assessment with reference to effect of the social parameters defined by the democratisation on the observed system. Again, we have to form respective aggregation function which will describe the state of the system. In this respect the sustainability assessment can be used as the decision making paradigm for the system assessment.

1.3 Decentralisation It has been proved that the large energy and water systems are economically better justified then small systems. In the past, a driving force in decision making process under economic constrain has been to build the large systems. With a new wave of miniaturisation, it has become evident that in the complex system assessment the priority may be given to the smaller system [8]. In this respect recently developed governing system is seeing more support for the local government. The same can be applied to the development of energy, water and environment systems. Smaller cogeneration units have become attractive solution in many areas, leading to the better economic, environmental and social values in the use of available resources. The modern micro gas turbine with respective cogeneration unit has proved to be justified by the complex assessment method. The goal of the network system is therefore to investigate options and pathways for an accelerated transition towards sustainable energy technologies and systems. In this respect, the appropriate selection of

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the criteria and respective indicators with corresponding decision making procedure will lead to the priority of decentralised systems. The aggregation function for the decentralisation assessment should include all parameters which are of the importance the assessment of the system. Adoption of this procedure which will lead to the formation of clusters of indicators represented by the respective sustainability indicator will unable us to defined appropriate sustainability index which represent the quality of the system.

2 Limits Energy, water and environment are essential commodities, which are needed for the human life on our planet. In the development of our civilisation these three commodities have served as the fundamental resources for the economic, social and cultural development. In early days of human history it was believed that there are abundant resources of these commodities. With industrial revolution use of the resources has become the essential driving force for the economic and social development. With the increase of population and respective increase of the standard of living, the natural resources have become scarcity in some specific regions. With the further increase on the demand it has become evident that the scarcity of the natural resources may lead to the global dimension and effect human life on our planet. The Club of Rome was among the first to draw the world scale attention to the potential limits in availability of the natural capital on our planet. Energy crises in 1972 and 1978 have focussed attention of our community in large to investigate the limits in energy resources [9]. This was a moment when our society through the different institutions has launched programs aimed to investigate global scarcity of natural resources on our planet. It has become obvious that modern society has to adapt a new philosophy in its development, which has to be based on the limited natural resources.

2.1 Energy Boltzman [10] one of the Father of modern physical chemistry, wrote, in 1886, that the struggle for life is not a struggle for basic elements or energy, but a struggle for the availability of negative entropy in energy transfer from the hot Sun to the cold Earth. In fact, life on the Earth requires a continuous flux of negative entropy as the result of the solar energy captured by photosynthesis [11]. The Sun is an enormous machine that produces energy by nuclear fusion and offers planet Earth the possibility of receiving large quantities of negative entropy. Every year the Sun sends 5.6 × 1024 J of energy to the Earth and produces 2 × 1011 tons of organic material by photosynthesis. This is equivalent to 3 × 1021 J/yr. Through the billions of years since the creation of the planet Earth this process has led to the accumulation of an enormous energy in form of different hydrocarbons. Most of the fossil fuels belong

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N.H. Afgan Table 1 Assessed energy resources

Oil Gas Coal

Total 109 toe

CPE (%)

North America (%)

Latin America (%)

West Europe (%)

Africa (%)

AsiaPacific (%)

Middle East (%)

95 85 530

11.5 41.5 46.6

4.9 8.3 26.6

13.5 3.7 0.6

3.2 3.5 9.8

7.9 6.1 7.5

2.7 6.2 8.9

56.3 26.7 0.00

to the type of material where molecular binding is due to Van der Waals potential between every two molecules of the same material. Mankind’s energy resources rely heavily on the chemical energy stored in the fossil fuel. Table 1 shows assessed energy resources [12, 13]. Energy and matter constitute the earth’s natural capital that is essential for human activities such as industry, amenities and services in our natural capital as the inhabitants of the planet earth may be classified as: • Solar capital (provides 99% of the energy used on the Earth) • Earth capital (life support resources and processes including human resources) These, and other, natural resources and processes comprise what has become known as ‘natural capital’ and ‘it is this natural capital that many suggest is being rapidly degraded at this time’. Many also suggest that contemporary economic theory does not appreciate the significance of natural capital in techno-economic production. All natural resources are, in theory, renewable but over widely different time scales. If the time period for renewal is small, they are said to be renewable. If the renewal takes place over a somewhat longer period of time that falls within the time frame of our lives, they are said to be potentially renewable. Since renewal of certain natural resources is only possible due to geological processes, which take place on such a long time scale that for all our practical purposes, we should regard them as non-renewable. Our use of natural material resources is associated with no loss of matter as such. Basically all earth matter remains with the earth but in a form in which it cannot be used easily. The quality or useful part of a given amount of energy is degraded invariably due to use and we say that entropy is increased. The abundant energy resources at the early days of the industrial development of the modern society have imposed the development strategy of our civilization to be based on the anticipated thinking that energy resources are unlimited and there are no other limitations, which might affect human welfare development. It has been recognized that the pattern of the energy resource use has been strongly dependent on the technology development. In this respect it is instructive to observe the change in the consumption of different resources through the history of energy consumption. Worldwide use of primary energy sources since 1850 is shown in Fig. 2 [14, 15].

Sustainability Concept for Energy, Water and Environment Systems

Evolution of market share (log F/1-F)

10

453

2

10

1

Natural gas

Coal

Nuclear energy

Wood

10

0

Solar or fusion

–1 10 Oil –2 10 1850

1900

1950

2000

2050

2100

Year

Fig. 2 Market penetration of primary energy sources

F is the fraction of the market taken by each primary-energy source at a given time. It could be noticed that two factors are affecting the energy pattern in the history. The first is related to the technology development and, the second, to availability of the respective energy resources. Obviously, this pattern of energy source use is developed under constraint immanent to the total level of energy resources consumption and reflects the existing social structure both in numbers and diversity [16–18]. The world energy consumption is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 World energy consumption

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Looking at the present energy sources consumption pattern, it can be noticed that oil is a major contender, supplying about 40% of energy. Next, coal supply is around 30%, natural gas 20% and nuclear energy 6.5%. This means that current fossil fuel supply is 90% of the present energy use. In the last several decades our civilization has witnessed changes, which are questioning our long-term prospect. Fossil fuel, non-recyclable is an exhaustible natural resource that will be no more available 1 day. In this respect it is of common interest to learn how long fossil fuel resources will be available, as they are the main source of energy for our civilization. This question has attracted the attention of a number of distinguished authorities, trying to forecast the energy future of our planet. The Report of the Club of Rome “Limits to Growth”, published in 1972 was among the first ones, which pointed to the finite nature of fossil fuel. After the first and second energy crisis the community at large has become aware of the possible the physical exhaustion of fossil fuels. The amount of fuel available is dependent on the cost involved. For oil it was estimated that proved amount of reserves has, over past 20 years, levelled off at 2.2 trillion of barrels produced under $ 20 per barrel. Over the last 150 years we have already used up one-third of that amount, or about 700 billion of barrels, which leaves only a remaining of 1.5 trillion of barrels. If compared with the present consumption, it means that oil is available only for the next 40 years. Figure 4 shows the ratio of the discovered resources to the yearly consumption for the fossil fuels. From this figure it can be noticed that coal is available for the next 250 years and gas for the next 50 years. Also, it is evident that as much as the fuel consumption is increasing, new technologies aimed to the discovery of new resources are becoming available, leading to a slow increase of the time period for the exhausting of the available energy sources.

230

Coal

220 Natural Gas

Years

60 50 40

Oil

30 20

Fig. 4 Residual life forecast of energy resources

0 1945

1955

1965

1975 Year

1985

1990

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Nevertheless, whatever is the accuracy of our prediction methods and models, it is obvious that any inaccuracy in our calculation may affect only the time scale but not the essential understanding that the energy resources depletion process has begun and requires the human action before adverse effects may irreversibly enforce [20].

2.2 Environment It can be noticed that each one of the energy resources has become significantly scarcer during the decade of the 1970s. The situation reversed itself during the 1980s. The change, that took place, has implications for the future economic growth to the extent resources scarcity and economic growth are interrelated, even if it was not proved that short term energy resources scarcity fluctuation has substantial implication on the long term economic growth. It has become obvious the need for an active involvement in allocating scarce, non-renewable energy resources and its potential effect on the economic growth. Primary energy resources use is a major source of emissions [21–24]. Since fossil fuels have demonstrated their economic superiority, more than 88% of primary energy in the world in recent years has been generated from fossil fuels. However, the exhaust gases from combusted fuels have accumulated to an extent where a serious damage is being done to the world global environment. The accumulated amount of CO2 in atmosphere is estimated at about 2.75 × 1012 ton. The global warming trend from 1900 to 1997 is shown in Fig. 5 [25]. The future trend of the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere can be seen from the Fig. 6. It is rather obvious that the further increase of the CO2 will lead to disastrous effects to the environment. Also, the emission of SO2 , NOx and suspended

Temperature deviation From 1950 - 1990 mean

0.6 0.4 0.2 0 –0.2 –0.4 –0.6 –0.8 1850

1870

1890

Fig. 5 Global warming trend 1900–1990

1910

1930

1950

1970

1990

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N.H. Afgan

20.000 18.000

Developing Countries

16.000

CHINA

14.000

INDIA USA

12.000

JAPAN

10.000

NIS

8.000

Eastern Europe

6.000

EU

4.000 2.000 0 1990

2005

2030

2050

Fig. 6 Forecast for CO2 emission

particulate matters will substantially contribute to exasperate the effect on the environment. In a world scale, coal will continue to be a major source of fuel for the electric power generation. Many developing countries, such as China and India, will continue to use inexpensive, abundant, indigenous coal to meet growing domestic needs. This trend greatly increases the use of coal worldwide as economy in the other developing countries, continues to expand. In this respect the major long-term environmental concern about coal use has changed from acid rain to greenhouse gas emissions – primarily carbon dioxide from combustion. It is expected that coal will continue to dominate China’s energy picture in the future. The share of coal, in primary energy consumption is forecast to be no less than 70% during the period 1995–2010. In 1993 China has produced a total of 1.114 billion tons of coal, in 2000 it is planned 1.5 trillion and in 2010 it will be 2.0. Since China is the third largest energy producer in world, after USA and Russia its contribution to the global accumulation of the CO2 will be substantial if the respective mitigation strategies will not be adopted. The example of China is instructive in the assessment of the future development of developing countries and their need for accelerated economic development.

2.3 Water In this part sustainability of desalination systems, essential component of humanmade or built capital is discussed with respect to its important contribution to life support systems. Figure 7 shows the distribution of the global stock of water [26, 27].

Sustainability Concept for Energy, Water and Environment Systems Fig. 7 Global stock of water

457

EARTH'S TOTAL STOCK OF WATER Fresh water (2.5%)

Polar ice caps (70%)

On and under the earth's surface (30%)

Less than 1% of the world's fresh water (about 0.007% of the total water stock of the earth) is accessible for direct human use. (Lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and accessible shallow underground sources) Fresh water lakes 0.009%

Saline lakes and inland seas 0.008%

Soil water 0.005 %

Atmosphere 0.001%

Stream channels 0.0001%

Ninety-seven point-five percent of the total global stock of water is saline and only 2.5% is fresh water. Approximately 70% of this global freshwater stock is locked up in polar icecaps and a major part of the remaining 30% lies in remote underground aquifers. In effect, only a miniscule fraction of the freshwater available (less than 1% of total freshwater, or 0.007% of the total global water stock) in rivers, lakes and reservoirs is readily accessible for direct human use. Furthermore, the spatial and temporal distribution of the freshwater stocks and flows is hugely uneven. Hydrologists estimate the average annual flow of all the World’s rivers to be about 41,000 km3 /yr. less than a third of this potential resource can be harnessed for human needs. This is further reduced by pollution such as discharges from industrial processes, drainage from mines and leaching of the residues of fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that 1,000 m3 per person per year is the benchmark level below which chronic water scarcity is considered to impede development and harm human health. Several countries are technically in a situation of water scarcity, i.e. with less than 1,000 m3 of renewable water per year per head of population. Water shortage is predicted to increase significantly, mainly as a result of increase in population. The Dublin Statement of January 1992 on Water and Sustainable Development and the subsequent Rio Earth Summit Agenda 21, Chap. 18, Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources, are closest to the present context since desalination augments fresh water resources. Chapter 30 of Agenda 21 is also important in the context of desalination since it draws the attention of leaders of business and industry including transnational corporations, and their representative organizations in general, to their critical role in helping the world achieve the goals for sustainable development. Desalination systems are of paramount importance in the process of augmenting fresh water resources and happen to be the main life support systems in many arid

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regions of the world. The world has seen a 22-fold increase in desalination capacity since 1972 and the figure continues to rise. In 1997 the total desalination capacity, was 22,730,000 m3 of fresh water per day. That represents a doubling in global capacity over 10 years and a 22-fold increase over 25 years. Yet, desalinated seawater is only about one thousandth of the fresh water used worldwide. Desalinated water costs several times more than the water supplied by conventional means. The countries in the Arabian Gulf Region heavily subsidize the costs to render it affordable. In some of these countries, water is subsidized so heavily that users make little effort to curb their use. Water consumption would be greatly reduced if the price were closer to the true cost of production.

3 Sustainability Definitions Lately, in a number of years “sustainability” has become a popular buzzword in the discussion of the resources use and environment policy. Before any further discussion of the subject, it is necessary to define and properly assess the term we are going to use. So, what is sustainability? Among the terms most often adapted are the following. (a) for the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) [28] “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs” (b) for the Agenda 21, Chap. 35 [29] “Development requires taking long-term perspectives, integrating local and regional effects of global change into the development process, and using the best scientific and traditional knowledge available” (c) for the Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences [30] “It means the balancing of economic, social, environmental and technological consideration, as well as the incorporation of a set of ethic values” (d) for the Earth Chapter [31] “The protection of the environment is essential for human well-being and the enjoyment of fundamental rights, and as such requires the exercise of corresponding fundamental duties” (e) Thomas Jefferson, Sept. 6 1889 [32] “Then I say the earth belongs to each generation during its course, fully and in its right no generation can contract debts greater than may be paid during the course of its existence” All five definitions stand for the emphasis of specific aspect of sustainability. Definition (a) and (e) implies that each generation must bequeath enough natural capital to permit future generations to satisfy their needs. Even if there is some ambiguity in this definition, it is meant that we should leave our descendants the ability to survive and meet their own needs. Also, there is no specification in what form resources are to be left and how much is needed for the future generation, because it is difficulty to anticipate the future scenarios.

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Definitions (b) and (c) are more politic ply for the actions to be taken at global, regional and local levels in order to stimulate United Nation, Government and Local Authorities to plan development programs in accordance with the scientific and technological knowledge. In particular it should be noticed in definition (c) the ethic aspect of the future development actions to be taken to meet sustainable development. Definition (d) is based on the religious believes playing the responsibility and duties toward the nature and Earth. In this respect it is of interest to enlighten that the Old Testimony in which the story of creation is told is a fundamental basis for Hebrew and Christian doctrine of the environment. In the world of Islam, nature is the basis for human consciousness. According to the Koran, while humankind is God’s vice-regent on Earth, God is the Creator and Owner of nature. But human beings are his trusted administrators, they ought to follow God instructions, that is, acquiesce to authority of Prophet and to the Koran regarding nature and natural resources.

4 Sustainability Concept Definition Sustainable development encompasses economic, social, and ecological perspectives of conservation and change. In correspondence with the WCED, it is generally defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This definition is based on ethical imperative of equity within and between generations. Moreover, apart from meeting; basic needs of all; sustainable development implies sustaining the natural life-support systems on Earth, and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life. Hence, sustainable development is more precisely defined as ‘a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change’ are all harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspiration [33, 34]. This definition involves an important transformation and extension of the ecologically based concept of physical sustainability to the social and economic context of development. Thus, terms of sustainability cannot exclusively be defined from an environmental point of view or basis of attitudes. Rather, the challenge is to define operational and consistent terms of sustainability from an integrated social, ecological, and economic system perspective. The main issue deals with the positive aspect of sustainable development; that is, the feasibility problem of “what can be sustained” and “what kind of system we can get”. It requires one to understand how the different systems interact and evolve, and how they could be managed. Formally, this can be represented in a dynamic model by a set of differential equations and additional constraints. The entire set of feasible combinations of social, economic and ecological states describes the inter-temporal transformation space of the economy in the broadest sense [35–37].

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5 Sustainability Measurement Measuring sustainability is a major issue as well as a driving force of the discussion on sustainability development. The tool development that reliable measure sustainability is a prerequisite for identifying non-sustainable processes informing design-makers of the quality of products and monitoring impacts to the social environment. The multiplicity of indicators and measuring tools being developed in this fast growing field shows the importance of the conceptual and methodological work in this area. The development and selection of indicators require parameters related to the reliability, appropriateness, practicality and limitations of measurement [38–42]. In order to cope the complexity of sustainability related issues for different systems the indicators have to reflect the wholeness of the system as well as the interaction of its subsystems. Consequently, indicators have to measure intensity of the interactions among elements of the systems and system and its environment. In this view, there is a need for the indicator sets related to the interaction processes that allow an assessment of the complex relationship of every system and its environment.

5.1 Characteristics of Effective Indicators Indicators can be useful as proxies or substitutes for measuring conditions that are so complex that there is no direct measurement. For instance, it is hard to measure the “quality of life in my town” because there are many different things that make up quality of life and people may have different opinions on which conditions count most. A very simple substitute indicator is “Number of people moving into the town compared to the number moving out.” Sustainability can be presented in the form of triangle pyramid, where every corner on bases represents one of efficiencies to be included in the assessment of any system. Fourth corner representing Sustainability Index. Figure 8 shows the three efficiency indicators of sustainability as three corners of a triangle and Sustainability

General Index of Sustainability

Eco-efficiency

Fig. 8 General index of sustainability

Socio-efficiency

Economic-efficiency

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Index. The Sustainability Index is obtained when a balance is found between the issues of all three efficiencies reflecting imposed constrains. In order to obtain Sustainability Index for the option under consideration the weighting coefficient for the efficiencies has to be determined. The decision-making theory is used to calculate weighting coefficients. In particular non-numerical constrains are generated to represent constrains between the criteria. The interactions between the three aspects of sustainability emphasise that sustainable development is not a static concept, which can be easily translated and quantified. It is a dynamic concept that is the result of a process of social learning involving many actors. For instance, in order to know what system is more sustained it is necessary to formulate and share visions about the value of non-economic elements like biodiversity or cultural heritage. And because visions and the underlying eco and social values change over time, it is imperative to take all three aspect of the sustainability including the process of social learning and the environment global change to be a continuous process. For the assessment of system the attention will be focused on following three efficiency definitions:

5.2 Economic Efficiency The traditional method for the assessment of systems is based on the econometric justification of the use of capital needed for unit production. This method has been essential basis for the decision-making procedure in selection of systems. It has proved to be a driving force for the development of economic welfare in the industrial society. One of the basic assumptions in this procedure was assumption of the abundant resource. With the development notion that the scarcity of resources is imposing limits to the use of resources it has been realised that beside the resources limits there are also other limits which play important role in the decision making process. Indicators for the economic efficiency assessment are: investment cost including material cost, fuel cost, thermal efficiency and operation and maintenance cost. These indicators are result of the optimisation procedure adopted for the with respective optimisation function and respective design parameter of the system.

5.3 Ecological Efficiency Following recognition of the effect of combustion products on the environment, it has been introduced a new indicators in the decision making procedure for the selection of the system. In this respect Kyoto Protocol has imposed local, regional and global limits of CO2 , which are to be followed in the design, operation and selection of new energy systems. This has lead to the development and introduction

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of indicator, which are of importance for the ecological aspects of the respective energy system. Indicators for the ecological efficiency assessment are concentration of the product species, which are, suppose to have adverse effect to the local, regional and global environment. The monitoring and assessment of those indicators, which are contribution to the general quality of the environment, can evaluate ecologic efficiency.

5.4 Social Efficiency Social aspect of any human endeavour is of paramount importance for the successful selection of possible options. Lately it has become evident that social aspect of any engineering system has become important part of the total quality of the system. In this respect criteria, which are designed to present assessment of social aspect of the system, are of the same importance as the economic and environment criteria. For the formulation of social criteria it is necessary to create a system of indicators of sustainable development, which provide reference for the respective type of the system and may be used in the numerical evaluation of the system. In order to meet this requirement, it is necessary to develop specific techniques for calculation of indicators, which are aimed to reflect social merits of the energy system. Indicators for the social efficiency assessment are: job opportunity, diversification of qualification, community benefits and local safety consequence. Job opportunity indicator is designed to take into a consideration number of job created by the respective system.

6 Sustainability Index Definition The decision making procedure comprise several steps in order to obtain mathematical tool for the assessment of the rating among the options under consideration [43–47]. The next step in the preparation of data for the multi-criteria sustainability assessment is aritimetization of the date. This step consists in the formation of particular membership functions q1 (x1 ), ..., qm(xm ). For every Indicator xi we have: (1) to fix two values MIN(i), MAX(i); (2) to indicate is the function qi (xi ) decreasing or increasing with argument xi increasing; (3) to choice the exponent’s value λ in the formula

qi (xi ) =

⎧ ⎪ ⎪ ⎨

⎪ ⎪ ⎩

0, if xi ≤ MIN(i), λ xi − MIN(i) , if MIN(i) < xi ≤ MAX(i), MAX(i) − MIN(i) 1, if xi > MAX(i)

for the increasing function qi (xi ).

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The functions q1 (x1 ) , . . . , qm (xm ) formation process being finished with a  (j) (j) matrix qi , i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , k, where an element qi is a value of ith particular criterion for jth option. In this analysis it assumed that the linear functions q1 (x1 ) , . . . , qm (xm ) are used. For q1 , q2 and q4 membership function the decreasing function are adapted. General indices method comprise formation of an aggregative function with the weighted arithmetic mean as the synthesizing function defined as Q (q; w) =

m

wi qi

i=1

where wi – weight-coefficients elements of vector w qi – indicators of specific criteria In order to define weight-coefficient vector the randomization of uncertainty is introduced. Randomization produces stochastic with realizations from corresponding sets of functions and a random weight-vector. It is assumed that the measurement of the weight coefficients is accurate to within a steps h = 1/n, with n a positive integer. In this case the infinite set of all possible vectors may be approximated by the finite set W(m, n) of all possible weight vectors with discrete components. For nonnumeric, inexact and incomplete information I = OI U II used for the reduction of the set W(m, n) of all possible vectors w to obtain the discrete components set W(I; n, m) is defined a number of constrain reflecting nonnumeric information about mutual relation among the criteria under consideration.

6.1 Multi-criteria Assessment of Energy Systems As the non-numerical information we will impose condition which will define mutual relation of the individual criteria This will give us possibility to introduce a qualitative measure between the criteria. As the example for the multi-criteria assessment of energy system we will take number of energy system options with respective values for the five indicators including economic, environment and social indices [46]. As constrain in this assessment several grope are formed giving priority to the specific indicator (Table 2). The group of cases are designed to give priority to the single indicator with other indicators having the same values. Each Case will represent a different set of the priority of criteria as they are used in the definition General Index of Sustainability. Among the Cases which are designed with the preference of single options are:

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N.H. Afgan Table 2 Energy system indicators

Coal Solar thermal Geothermal Biomass Nuclear PV solar Wind Ocean Hidro Gas

Efficiency (%)

Instalation (USD/kW)

Elect.cost (c/kWh)

CO2 (kgCO2 /kWh)

Area(km2 /kW)

43 15 8 1 33 10 28 3 80 38

1,000 3,500 2,500 2,500 2,300 4,500 1,100 10,000 2,000 650

5,4 17 8 14 4 75 7 25 8 4

0.82 0.1 0.06 1.18 0.025 0.1 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.38

0.04 0.08 0.03 5.2 0.01 0.12 0.79 0.28 0.13 0.04

6.1.1 Case 1 Efficiency > Investment = Elect. Cost > CO2 = Area This case reflects the priority given to the energy system efficiency criteria. As it is shown, the efficiency of systems with the different basic principles is not very realistic indicator to be used for the comparison of the system. This suggests that in the evaluation of efficiency criteria it would be better to use the relative value of the efficiency for each system. For example, for the heat conversion system the Carnot efficiency should be used as the absolute efficiency. Figure 9 presents Sustainable Index and Weighting Coefficient for the Case 1.

Weighting Coefficients

Fig. 9 CASE 1 sustainability index and weighting coefficients

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6.1.2 Case 2 Investment > Efficiency = Elect. Cost > CO2 = Area The change in priority from the efficiency criteria to the investment cost criteria has lead to the drastic change in the priority list. Gas, Wind and Coal energy systems form a single group with the General Index of Sustainability being marginally different among themselves. It is of interest to notice that the effect of single criteria can be so strong to bring into the picture different priority list. From the values for probability of dominance in this case it is visible that this case do not have high certainty. Figure 10 presents Sustainable Index and Weighting Coefficient for the Case 2.

Weighting Coefficients

Fig. 10 CASE 2 sustainability index and weighting coefficients

6.1.3 Case 3 Elect. Cost > Efficiency = Investment = CO2 = Area With priority given to the Electricity cost criteria we will obtain two groups of options. Namely, Gas, Wind, Coal, Hidro and Nuclear group. Geothermal, Solar Thermal, Biomass, PV solar and Ocean power plants make second group. Figure 11 presents Sustainable Index and Weighting Coefficient for the Case 3. 6.1.4 Case 4 CO2 > Efficiency = Investment = Elect. Cost = Area Environment criteria measured by CO2 is effecting only Coal and Biomass options. All other options are presented in the single group with marginal

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Weighting Coefficients

Fig. 11 CASE 3 sustainability index and weighting coefficients

differences. Figure 12 presents Sustainable Index and Weighting Coefficient for the Case 4 Even this analysis is based on limited number of cases taken into a consideration, it can be noticed that the priority on rating list is result of the respective relation among the criteria under consideration. It can be noticed that the option which is the first on the rating list is closely related to the respective indicator priority and its Weighting Coefficients

Fig. 12 CASE 4 sustainability index and weighting coefficients

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value. In the group of cases, it can be noticed that if the priority is given to the single criteria with the other criteria having respective value of indicators for individual option, it may effect the rating list of the options. If the efficiency criteria has been given priority there is changes in the rating list. In comparison to the single criteria rating and priority is obtained for Hidro, Coa, and Gas options. The same can be noticed with if priority is given to the other indicators. For the case if Investment Indicator has priority the Gas, Wind and Coal power plants are the first on the rating list of the options under consideration. For the case with Electricity cost indicator priority the first places on the priority list is obtained by Gas and Nuclear options. Also, if CO2 Production Indicator and Area Indicator, the gas and Nuclear power plants are rated on the first place in the rating list of options. Special Case is designed with criteria conduction defined introducing relation among individual Indicators Beside the changes on the first place on the rating list, it can be noticed that there are changes in the rating among options. Options with renewable energy power plants have gained higher place on the rating list in comparison with the case with equal weighting factor for all indicators.

7 Conclusions Sustainability assessment of power plants is immanent goal for the development of the future energy strategy. It imply the need to verify multi criteria analysis of potential options. In this respect it is of interest to introduce a new methodology for the evaluation power plant options taken into a consideration. The lecture was aimed to reveal potential possibility of the sustainability notion in meeting the present need of modern society. Starting from the present definition of the sustainability and showing their close relation to the historically old definition, it was proved that our human society has beard in mind the need for preservation of the commodity given to for the future generation to come. Sustainability is introduced as complex system property. With its multi dimension scope it require a new method for the evaluation of complex system. Energy system is typical example of complex system with multi-criteria assessment. In this respect the need for the respective methodology is visualised and introduced in this lecture. Demonstration of the method is presented for the specific number of energy system taking into a consideration number of criteria with respective indicators.

References 1. Kates RW et al (2001) Sustainability science. Science 292:641–642 2. Ravetz J (1996) Gallimard, scientific knowledge and its social problems. Transaction, New Jersey 3. Nicolis G, Prigogine I (1977) Self-organisation in non-equilibrium systems: from dissipative structure to order through fluctuation. John Wiley & Sons, New York

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4. Progogine I, Stengers I (1979) La novelle alliance, metamorphse la science. Gallimard, Paris 5. van Kruoonenberg HH (1994) Energy for sustainable development: post Rio challenges and Dutch response. Resour Conserv Recycl 12 (1–2):vii–ix 6. Foreign Policy (2004) Managing Globalisation, Foreign Policy Magazine, March, 2004 7. Fukuda S et al (2002) A democratisation 21th century. Courier ACP-EU, No. 194, Sep–Oct, 2002 8. Decentralisation, http://www.fact/index.com 9. Medows D, Meadows H, Randers DL, Behrens J (1972) The limits of growth. Universe Book, New York 10. Botzman L (1896) Vorlesung uber Gas Theorie, vol 1. Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig 11. Ohta T (1994) Energy technology. Elsevier Science, Oxford 12. Marchetti C (1979) Check on the earth – capacity for man. Energy 4:1107–1117 13. Master CD (1987) World resources of crude oil, natural gas, Bitumen’s and shale oil. Topic 25. World Petroleum Congress Publ., Houston 14. Marchetti C (1991) The “historical instant” of fossil fuel, symptom of sick world. Int J Hydrogen Energy 16:563–575 15. Marchetti C (1980) Society as learning system. Techno Forecast Soc Changes 18:267–282 16. Arnold MStJ, Kersall GJ, Nelson DM (1997) Clean efficient electric generation for the next century: British coal toping cycle.. In: Carvalho MG, Fineland WA, Lockwood FC Papaloupolos Ch (ed.) Combustion technology for clean environment 17. Mazzuracchio P, Raggi A, Barbiri G (1996) New method for assessment the global quality of energy system. Appl Energy 53:315–324 18. Noel D (1995) A recommendation of effect of energy scarcity on economic growth. Energy 2:1–12 19. Farinelli U (1994) Alternative energy sources for the third world: perspective, barriers, opportunity, pontifical academy of science. Plenary Session 25–29 October 20. Keatiny M (1993) Agenda for change. Center for Our Common Future, Geneva 21. Mackey RM, Probert SD (1995) National policy for achieving thrift, environmental protection, improved quality of life and sustainability. Appl Energy 51:243–367 22. Price T, Probert SD (1995) An energy and environmental strategy for the Rhymney value, south walls. Appl Energy 51:139–195 23. Mackey RM, Probert SD (1995) NAFTA countries energy and environmental interdependence. Appl Energy 52:1–33 24. Mackey RM, Probert SD (1995) Energy and environmental policies of the developed and developing countries within the evolving Oceania and south-east Asian trading block. Appl Energy 51:369–406 25. Hought RA, Woodwell GM (1989) Global climatic change. Sci Ame 260:36–44 26. Al Gobaisi D (2000) Sustainability of desalination systems. EURO Course on Sustainability Assessment of Desalination Plants, Vilamore 27. Al Gobaisi D (1998) Sustainable use of our planetary natural capital for life support on the earth. IEEE systems, man and cybernetics conference, Tunisia, 1998 28. Report of the United Nation Conference on Environment and Development (1992), Vol. 1, Chapter 7. June, 1992 29. UN (1992) Agenda 21, Chapter 35, Science for Sustainable Development, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro 30. Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences (2005) CAETS Statement: oceans and the world’s future. Cairns Austrila 31. The Earth Chapter: a contribution toward its realization, Franciscan Centre of Environment Studies, Roma, 1995 32. Jenkinson CS The quality of Thomas Jefferson’s soul. White House Library USA 33. Annan KA (2000) We, the peoples of United Nations in the 21st Century. United Nations, New York 34. Kates RW et al (2001) Sustainability science. Science 292:641–642, 27 April

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35. National Research Council, Board on Sustainable Development (1999) Our common journey: transition toward sustainability. National Academic Press, Washington, DC 36. Watson R et al (1998) Protecting our planet, securing our future. United Nations Environmental Programme, Nairobi 37. Hammond GF (July 2000) Energy, environment and sustainable development: A UK perspective. Trans ICHemE B 78:304–323 38. Binswangen M (2001) Technological progress and sustainability development: what about the rebound. Ecol Econ 36:119–132 39. Pemberton M, Ulph D (2001) Measuring income and measuring sustainability. Scand J Econ 10(1):25–40 40. Indicators of Sustainable Engineering, Physical Sciences Research Council, Dec 1996 41. D’Angelo E. Perrella G. Bianco R. Energy efficiency indicators of Italy. ENEA Centro Ricerche Casaccia, Roma, RT/ERG/96/3 42. Cafier G, Conte G (1995) Rome as a sustainable city. Agency for a Sustainable Mediterranean Development 43. Afgan NH, Carvalho MG (2000) Sustainability assessment method for energy systems. Kluwer Academic Publisher, New York 44. Afgan NH, Al Gobaisi D, Carvalho MG, Cumo M (1998) Energy sustainable development. Renewable Sustain Energy Rev, 2:235–286 45. Afgan NH, Carvalho MG, Hovanov AN (2000) Energy system assessment with sustainability indicators. Energy Policy 28:603–612 46. Afgan N, Carvalho MG (2002) Multi-criteria assessment of new and renewable energy power plants. Int J Energy 27:739– 755 47. Afgan HN, Carvalho GM (2006) Quality, sustainability, indicators of energy systems. Begell House Publisher, New York

Energy and Sustainable Development: Environmental Impacts of Energy Use in Africa Muawya Ahmed Hussein

Abstract More than half of the world’s population relies on dung, wood, crop waste or coal to meet their most basic energy needs [15]. In 1992, 24 million tones of charcoal were consumed worldwide. Developing countries account for nearly all of this consumption, and Africa alone consumes about half of the world’s production. Charcoal production has increased by about a third from 1981 to 1992, and is expected to increase with the rapidly growing population in the developing world. Despite the cooking advantages of charcoal and charcoal’s ranking on the cooking ladder, this preliminary review suggests that charcoal may be far more damaging to the environment than the less preferable biomass fuels, biomass residues and fuelwood [3]. This study indicates that charcoal is problematic from energy, environmental and social perspective and is likely to be used as long as the feedstock supply and the demand from impoverished people in the developing world exist. The potential environmental problems associated with charcoal use are exposure of users to high carbon monoxide concentration levels during cooking and emission of relatively large quantities of nitrogen oxides. As a consequence of the fastgrowing energy requirements and the increasing use of low-grade domestic fuels, air pollution has increased considerably in recent years in Africa [14]. Keywords Africa · Coal energy · Consumption · Energy · Production

1 Introduction The African continent depends on wood and charcoal for cooking and heating homes. In 2000, nearly 470 million tons of wood were consumed in homes in sub-Saharan Africa in the form of firewood and charcoal, more wood per capita than any other region in the world. More than 1.6 million people, primarily women and children, die prematurely each year worldwide (400,000 in sub-Saharan Africa) M.A. Hussein (B) University of Dhofar, Salalah, Oman e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_42, 

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from respiratory diseases caused by the pollution from such fires [11, 12]. The study finds that smoke from wood fires used for cooking will cause an estimated 10 million premature deaths among women and children by 2030 in Africa and release about 7 billion tons of carbon in the form of greenhouse gases to the environment by 2050, about 6% of the total expected greenhouse gases from the continent. Precise statistics are very difficult to obtain for traditional energy production and use, as they take place largely outside the formal commercial economy. One of the challenges many African countries face is to develop more reliable energy data to serve as a basis for policy formulation and investment, a challenge being taken up by the recently formed African Energy Commission. The problem is made particularly acute where dependence on traditional fuels is high and commercial energy use correspondingly low. Other problems associated with traditional fuels are their health impacts (particularly for women) [1], environmental degradation and the time unavailable for more productive activities because of the long hours involved in collection. Africa’s relatively low use of commercial energy is not a consequence, however, of poor endowment with energy resources. While Africa’s energy resources may not be dominant on a world-scale, they are physically more than adequate to meet near and even medium-term needs.

1.1 Energy and Environment in Africa Most social and economic activities require the use of energy in various forms and quantities. Energy is as important to households for basic uses, such as cooking, heating and lighting as it is to large industries for production of heavy goods or to fuel automobiles. The world consumed, in 2002, a staggering amount of 7,095 million tons of Oil Equivalent (MTOE) in the form of oil, natural gas, coal, electricity and combustible renewables and waste. For its development, the world thirst for energy is growing at a faster rate than ever. According to recent BP statistics, energy consumption grew by 4.3% between 2003 and 2004. In countries, mostly in the developing world, where the availability of energy is limited or where energy is economically unaffordable to most households or the society in general, development is seriously impaired, and growth limited. Energy is thus an essential ingredient for socioeconomic development. Rightfully then, issues of energy supply, access and security, as well as issues related to the impact of the consumption and production patterns of energy on the world sustainability, have been at the core of the world attention for decades.

2 Statistical Overview of Energy Resources in Africa Africa is relatively well endowed with energy resources. In 2004, its proved oil, gas and coal reserves were 9.4, 7.9 and 5.54% respectively of the world total, compared to 8.5, 4 and 2.19% respectively for South and Central America, taken

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Table 1 Primary energy supply by fuel in Africa in 2002 Fuel share of total primary energy supply (Total 539.846 MTOE)-2002 Kind of fuel energy

Share (%)

Combustibles renewable and waste Coal Crude oil Gas Hydro Nuclear Geothermal solar

47 16.46 24.28 10.40 1.30 0.56 0

together. The hydropower potential of the continent amounts to 13% of the world. In Africa, energy is produced mainly from biomass (47%), oil (24.28%), coal (16.5%), gas (10.4%), and other renewable sources, such as large and small hydro damps, solar, and geothermal sources (1.3%) (Table 1). However, Africa is a vast continent with 53 countries and energy resources are unevenly regionally located. Most of the hydropower potential lies in central and western Africa, oil and gas resources are located in the western and northern parts of the continent, coal reserves are concentrated almost exclusively in Southern Africa, and geothermal is only being developed in eastern Africa. It is apparent from Figs. 1 and 2 that 68% of all proved natural gas reserves of the continent is located in two countries (Nigeria and Algeria), while more than 74% of proved oil reserves is found in Nigeria and Libya. These three countries hold the large majority oil and natural gas reserves of the continent. Because of its geographical location across the equator, Africa has abundant solar irradiation ranging from 5 to 7 kWh/m2 , all year round, and it enjoys a relatively strong wind power potential in Northern, Southern and Eastern Africa. Finally, the continent has an estimated geothermal energy potential of 9,000 MW

Fig. 1 Proved Natural Gas Reserves in Africa, in 2004

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Fig. 2 Proved Oil Reserves in Africa, 2005

in the Rift Valley area in East Africa. Based on these potential and reserves, it could have been possible to achieve a well-balanced energy generation mix on the continent. However, due to numerous barriers this is not currently the case [5].

3 Statistical Overview of the Energy Consumption and Production Africa exports more of its energy than it consumes. In the last decade, oil, natural gas, and electricity production have increased by 48.1, 24.3 and 32.8% respectively, while coal production increased much less. In absolute terms, oil remains the largest source of modern energy in Africa, with production reaching 441 MTOE in 2004, which represents 11.4% of the world total. In Southern Africa, efforts for improving the energy resource mix through more import of electricity within the Southern African Power Pool, led to a slower increase in coal production. Despite its relatively important energy resources, Africa generates only 3.1% of the world electricity, less than any other region of the world. This share has not changed for the last 10 years and most analysts forecast that it will remain the case for the next 15 years, though production of fuels used for electricity will continue to grow steadily. Electricity is generated mainly from coal (46%), gas (23%), hydro (18%), oil (11%) and nuclear (2%) (Table 2). Other renewable sources such as solar, Table 2 Electricity generation in Africa by fuel, 2002

Kind of source

Percentage

Coal Gas Hydro Oil Nuclear

46 23 18 11 2

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geothermal, wind, etc. play an insignificant role despite some noteworthy initiatives such as the 140 MW wind farms in Egypt. On the continent there are strong disparities among countries: South Africa alone generates close to half of the total African electricity. Many African countries, mostly in SSA with the exception of South Africa, rely heavily on hydropower (70–80%) for their electricity generation. With 13.1% of the world’s total population, Africa consumes only 5.5% of the world energy. The per capita energy consumption of 0.5 TOE, far lower than the world average of 1.2 TOE per capita, makes the continent lag behind all the others in energy use. Energy consumption in Africa is largely dominated by combustible renewable resources (biomass, animal wastes, municipal and industrial wastes). Energy from biomass accounts for more than 30% of the energy consumed in Africa and more than 80% in some countries such as Burundi (91%), Rwanda and Central Africa Republic (90%), Mozambique (89%), Burkina Faso (87%), Benin (86%), Madagascar and Niger (85%). Biomass constitutes the main energy resource for the large majority of African households for cooking, drying and space heating. Several million people are involved in the production, distribution and sale of fuelwood and charcoal. From 1994 to 2004, primary energy consumption increased by 24% . All African countries consume some oil mainly for transportation, electricity generation and industries regardless of whether they have refinery capacities or not. Gas consumption, however, is limited mostly to the few countries that produce it, such as Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Nigeria, Cote d’Ivoire, or those that are located in close proximity with them. This is explained by the lack of transboundary pipeline infrastructure for the transportation of natural gas. South Africa, with its large reserve of coal, is the only country with a significant use of coal. In 2002, the continent electricity consumption was only 514 kWh per capita, lowest of all other world regions. The very limited availability of electricity combined with affordability issues to electricity services in most countries in Africa, have made access to electricity by most Africans very elusive. While electricity access data varies widely depending on the reporting sources, IEA data reports rates ranging from 70% to over 94% in Northern Africa, and an average of 23% in subSaharan Africa, in 2002. These numbers do not reflect the large disparities between countries (for instance less than 4% in Uganda compared to 66% in South Africa or 100% in Mauritius), and between urban and rural areas, where in the latter, rates can be as low as 1%.

4 Environmental Impact of Energy Use Environmental problems associated with oil-related activities are numerous. For example, in shipping ports, where the transshipment of oil takes place, the chronic release of oil into the water through ship leakage, ship maintenance or mishandling is a continuing dilemma. This problem is often ignored, despite the fact that its cumulative effects may have significant effects on the surrounding ecosystem [9]. Natural habitats, such as seabeds, wetlands and mudlands, which are increasingly

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recognized as fundamental elements of a country’s natural environment and economic resource base, are often located near or in maritime port locations. As world oil demand increases, oil-producing countries in sub-Saharan Africa are increasing their production and export capacities, leading to an increasing volume of oil being shipped through pipelines and via tankers. As shipping lanes become more congested, the chances of spills and accidents increase, putting the environment at greater risk. A recent example of growing global awareness towards the environmental impacts associated with oil exploration and development was the controversy surrounding the World Bank’s approval of the Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project in June 2000. The project, led by ExxonMobil Corp., is one of the largest construction ventures in sub-Saharan Africa ever ($3.7 billion), and is expected to bring Chad $80–$100 million a year (about half of Chad’s budget) and Cameroon $20 million a year. Plans for the Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project include development of Chad’s Doba oil fields, construction of a 673-mile pipeline from the Doba oil fields to Cameroon’s Atlantic coast at Kribi, installation of an offshore floating storage and offloading vessel, and a submarine pipeline from the Atlantic coast to the vessel [10]. Construction on the pipeline began in 2000 and the first barrels of oil were pumped through in July 2003. Despite its recent success, the project has been the target of vehement protests from environmental and human rights groups, which argue that the project would harm wildlife (black rhinos, chimpanzees, gorillas and elephants) in the rainforests which the pipeline would pass through, dislocate inhabitants along the pipeline route, and further increase civil strife through profiteering by local officials.

5 Energy Use and Carbon Emissions Energy consumption in sub-Saharan Africa varies dramatically with noncommercial fuels, such as wood and animal waste, dominating fuel consumption. The use of wood for fuel is predominant in both rural and urban locations – accounting for approximately 70% of total energy use and 90% of household energy use in subSaharan Africa. Africa is the world’s largest consumer of biomass energy (firewood, agricultural residues, animal wastes, and charcoal), calculated as a percentage of overall energy consumption. In 2001, total commercial energy consumption in subSaharan Africa measured 2.90 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu). Nigeria consistently leads sub-Saharan Africa in commercial energy consumption. In 2001, Nigeria consumed 0.92 quadrillion Btu (quads), 32% of all energy consumed in the region. Of the remaining countries, Zimbabwe registered the next highest level with 0.24 quads of energy consumed. Ghana followed close behind with consumption of 0.17 quads. These numbers are generally higher than in most of sub-Saharan Africa, which averaged a low 0.06 quads in 2001. Although domestic demand for energy consumption in sub-Saharan Africa is growing rapidly, consumption levels remain well below world averages.

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Per capita energy-related carbon emissions in sub-Saharan Africa countries vary greatly, in part because certain countries tend to consume more carbon intensive fuels than others. For example, in 2001 Botswana emitted 0.79 metric tons of energy-related carbon per person, more than five times the sub-Saharan per capita rate. Botswana has relatively abundant sources of cheap coal and therefore burns more coal for energy use than most other sub-Saharan nations. The carbon content of coal is much higher than other fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas, and is therefore responsible for the higher rates of carbon emissions among coal-burning countries [6]. Although the average level of per capita energy-related carbon emissions in sub-Saharan Africa (0.09 metric tons) is expected to increase as a result of economic and urban expansion in coming years, per capita energy-related carbon emission levels are expected to continue to remain well below the world average of 4 metric tons per person.The flaring of natural gas in Nigeria, Angola, Cameroon, and Gabon has proven to be a significant source of carbon emissions in sub-Saharan Africa. In the process of oil production, natural gas is released. Because gas infrastructure in sub-Saharan Africa is extremely limited, this “associated” gas is often burned off, or “flared,” rather than captured for use. Not only does this waste a potentially valuable energy source (the World Bank estimates that every day Africa flares gas equivalent to 12 times the energy that the continent uses), but it releases carbon dioxide directly into the atmosphere. Nigeria is working on developing a gasto-liquids industry and expanding their liquefied natural gas trade to reduce flaring. The government has set a deadline of 2008 for the termination of all gas flaring, with heavy fines for companies that do not comply.

6 Deforestation and Desertification Central Africa is home to one of the world’s largest rain forests, and serves as one of the world’s most important carbon sinks. Carbon sinks capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, thus reducing global carbon dioxide levels. Deforestation is one of the most pressing environmental problems faced by almost all sub-Saharan African nations, with one of the primary causes of deforestation being wood utilization for fuel. Many sub-Saharan countries have had over three quarters of their forest cover depleted, and it is estimated that if current trends continue, many areas, especially that of the Sudano-Sahelian belt, will experience a severe shortage of fuelwood by 2025. Deforestation also has negative implications for the local environment (increased erosion and loss of biodiversity) [4]. The highest rates of deforestation occur in areas with large growing populations such as the East African Highlands and the Sahel. The harvesting of wood for use as fuel also has contributed to the problem of desertification. Desertification is the term used to describe the loss of soil fertility and structure to the extent that its ability to support plant life is severely compromised. In sub-Saharan Africa, where desertification has its greatest impact, forest areas are often cleared in order to harvest fuelwood and for agricultural use.

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Traditional farming practices, which tend to be inefficient and land-intensive, significantly degrade scarce arable land – the single most important natural resource in sub-Saharan Africa. Desertification can lead to downstream flooding, reduced water quality and sedimentation in rivers and lakes. It also can lead to dust storms, air pollution and health problems such as respiratory illnesses and allergies. All 47 countries which comprise sub-Saharan Africa have signed and ratified the Convention to Combat Desertification, which entered into force in 1997.

7 Hydropower and Other Renewable Energy Hydropower currently is experiencing a renaissance in many sub-Saharan countries especially given rising oil prices. Hydroelectric power is the only significant grid-connected renewable energy source in sub-Saharan Africa, and in several of the region’s countries, hydroelectricity’s share of total installed electric capacity is quite high [8]. In Ivory Coast, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Zambia, the vast majority of on-grid electricity generation comes from hydropower. Many new projects are planned or are under construction in main hydro areas such as the Congo River, the Nile River, and the Zambezi River. Many argue that because large portions of rural populations often are not hooked up to the energy grid (95% of the population in Uganda, for example), large and expensive projects do not solve these countries’ energy problems. Many believe that alternative energy sources such as wind, geothermal, and solar power are the key to solving the massive energy deficits in sub-Saharan Africa. Several countries in the region have made considerable advances in the use of photovoltaic (PV), or solar power. Zimbabwe plans to utilize solar power to electrify over 500 districts and rural service points. Each site would receive solar systems with generation capacity of either 100 kW or 500 kW These solar systems can also be used for small scale projects such as milling grain, pumping water, and operating cookstoves. Zambia also is developing a program of electrification by solar energy in order to accelerate its rural electrification program. In Kenya, a series of similar programs has resulted in the installation of more than 20,000 small-scale PV systems since 1986. These PV systems now play a prominent role in decentralized, sustainable electrification.

8 Conclusion In Africa, environmental concerns are strongly tied to human and economic development issues. The continent will likely continue to face pressure to fully address energy-related environmental issues, including access to clean drinking water, safe food and improved air quality, while trying to promote growth. Successful implementation of national environmental policy and enforcement of the corresponding laws is critical in reversing energy production and consumption trends that have a deleterious effect on human health and the environment. Much of the challenge lies

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in adopting viable pollution control schemes that will not preclude development of energy infrastructure throughout the continent [13]. The achievement of this goal lies much in Africa’s ability to reduce dependency on outmoded coal technologies for electricity generation, despite the fact that many alternative technologies are yet to be proven economically viable.

References 1. Armstrong J, Menon R (1998) Mining and quarrying. In: Stellman JM (ed) Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety, 4th edn. International Labour Organization, Geneva 2. Carpenter L et al (1990) Health related selection and death rates in the United Kingdom atomic energy authority workforce. Br J Ind Med 47(4):248–258 3. Dvorak AJ, Lewis BG (1978) Impacts of coal-fired power plantson fish, wildlife, and their habitats. Argonne National Laboratory, Division of Environmental Impact Studies, Ann Arbor, MI 4. Environment Canada (1999) A primer on environmental citizenship. http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/ aeb/ssd/acid/acidfaq.html 5. Faaij A et al (1998) Externalities of biomass based electricity production compared with power generation from coal in the Netherlands. Biomass Bioenergy 14(2):125–147 6. Gagnon L (1998) Greenhouse gas emissions from hydro reservoirs: the level of scientific uncertainty in 1998. Hydro-Quebec, Montreal 7. Jenkins SA et al The impacts of dam building on the California coastal zone. California Waterfront Age, September 8. Rudd J et al (1993) Are hydroelectric reservoirs significant sources of greenhouse gases? Ambio 22(4):246–248 9. Saez RM et al (1998) Assessment of the externalities of biomass energy, and a comparison of its full costs with coal. Biomass Bioenergy 14(5/6):469–478 10. Smith KR et al (2000a) Greenhouse gases from small-scale combustion devices in developing countries Phase IIa: Household stoves in India. Technical report no EPA-600/R-30-052 11. UNEP and WHO (United Nations Environment Programme and World Health Organization) (1992) Urban air pollution in megacities of the world. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford 12. UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe) (1996) The state of transboundary air pollution. Air Pollution Studies 12. Geneva 13. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (1998) Protecting our planet, securing our future. United Nations Environment Programme, U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and World Bank 14. UNEP and WHO (United Nations Environment Programme and World Health Organization) (1992) Urban air pollution in megacities of the world. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford 15. WHO (World Health Organisation) (2005). Fact sheet No 292

Economizing the Energy Consumption in Circular Surface Aerator Achanta Ramakrishna Rao and Bimlesh Kumar

Abstract Oxygen transfer and power requirement with rotor speed has always been a central topic for design and scale-up of surface aerators. Present study develops design curves correlating the oxygen transfer coefficient, power per unit volume and rotor speed. Based on the design curves, energy conservation by using right sized circular tank surface aerators has been discussed and demonstrated that it is economical to use a big sized circular tank surface aerator rather than using multiple numbers of smaller sized circular tank to aerate the same volume of water. Keywords Energy consumption · Surface aerators

1 Introduction Oxygen transfer, the process by which oxygen is transferred from the gaseous to liquid phase, is a vital part of the wastewater treatment process [7]. Because of low solubility of oxygen and consequent low rate of oxygen transfer, sufficient oxygen to meet the requirements of aerobic waste does not enter through normal surface air-water interfaces. To transfer the large quantities of oxygen that are needed, additional interfaces are created by employing aeration process. The creation of additional interfaces enhance the rate of oxygen transfer so that the dissolved oxygen (DO) level gets raised to allow aerobic bacteria to reduce biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the effluent. To provide the required amount of oxygen, an aeration system is always needed. The two basic and widely used methods of aerating wastewater are: (1) to introduce air or pure oxygen into the wastewater body with diffusers generally called as bubble or diffused aerators and (2) to agitate the wastewater mechanically so as to promote the mass transfer of air from the atmosphere into the wastewater body, which is generally achieved by surface aerators. Aeration is usually the single largest cost in a wastewater treatment system comprising as much as 50–90% of the total energy requirements of a wastewater treatment B. Kumar (B) Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_43, 

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plant [13]. Due to the energy crisis and the continuing trend in higher energy costs, development of appropriate technologies towards increasing aeration efficiency in wastewater treatment plants has become very important for municipalities. To design surface aerators in geometrically similar systems, one may require three basic parameters- oxygen transfer rates, rotor speed and input power. Present study aims in developing the design curves correlating all the three basic parameters of geometrically similar circular surface aerators. Based on the design curves developed in the study, the issue of economizing power by using right sized circular surface aerators is evaluated.

2 Surface Aerators A typical surface aerator is shown in Fig. 1. The various geometric dimensions of the aerator are: A, the cross-sectional area; H, the water depth; h, the distance between the horizontal bottom of the tank and the top of the blades and D, the diameter of the rotor. The rotor is fitted with six flat blades in symmetrical and evenly manner such that b and l are their linear dimensions. Rotor shaft is connected to a DC motor to rotate the rotor at desired speed. The rotor is rotated to create turbulence in the water body so that aeration takes place through the interface of atmospheric air and water surface. The rate of oxygen transfer depends on a number of factors like intensity of turbulence which in turn, depends on the speed of rotation, size, shape and number of blades, diameter and immersion depth of the rotor, and size and shape of aeration tank, as well as on the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water [8]. The aeration process generally depends on three types of variables namely geometric, physical and dynamic variables. Functions relating the oxygen transfer rates and these three types of the variables may be given by the following equations [8, 9]: k=f

√  A/D, H/D, h/D, l/D, b/D, X

(1)

DC Motor Flange

N

Shaft b H

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of a surface aerator

Rotor blades

l h

D

d

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 1/3 Where k = KL a20 v/g2 is the non-dimensional oxygen transfer parameter and KL a20 is the oxygen transfer coefficient at 20◦ C and the dynamic variables X = F 4/3 R1/3 is the parameter in which F = N 2 D/g is the Froude number, and R = ND2 /ν is the Reynolds number. It may be noted that from basic hydrodynamics principles X can be derived as parameter governing the theoretical power per unit volume. The intensity of turbulence and wave action on the water are the major sources normally associated with surface aeration. Turbulence and viscous effects are generally described by the Reynolds number (R), whereas the surface wave action is described by the Froude number (F). The first five non-dimensional parameters represent the “geometric similarity” of the system and the last parameter represents the “dynamic similarity”. When the geometric similarity conditions are maintained, the functional relationship represented by Eq. (1) is reduced to a function of dynamic similarity [8] for any shape of aeration tank. k = f (X)

(2)

Several investigators Horvath [2], Udaya et al. [11], Rao [8] and Rao et al. [9] stated that if power demand (P) per unit volume (V) remains constant then there would be a similarity in oxygen transfer between geometrically similar systems. Therefore one may expect a correlation between the effective (actual or measured) power per unit volume (P/V) and X. Furthermore the oxygen transfer coefficient (k) is a function of P/V because k = f (X) and P/V and X are directly related. In this functional relationship P/V can be expressed as non dimensional form   PV = P/ Vγ (gυ)1/3 . Hence the relationship between k and P/V can be expressed as, k = f (PV )

(3)

3 Experimentation Experimental data obtained from our earlier studies [9] under geometrically similar conditions on circular surface aerators and in additions to this r data; some more experiments were conducted in circular surface aerators to provide a sufficient number of data for the development of the design curves. The cross-sectional area of circular tank tested√are A = 1 m2 , 0.5184 m2 and 0.1681 m2 . Conditions of geometric similarity i.e., A/D = 2.88, H/D = 1.0, l/D = 0.3, b/D = 0.24 and h/H = 0.94: as suggested by Udaya et al. [11] were maintained in all the surface aerators.

3.1 Determination of KL a20 ◦

According to two-film theory [6], the oxygen transfer coefficient at T C, KL aT may be expressed as follows.

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KL aT = [ln (Cs − C0 ) − ln (Cs − Ct )] /t

(4)

Where, ln represents natural logarithm and the concentrations Cs, C0 and Ct are dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations in parts per million (ppm), Cs = the saturation DO concentration at time tending to very large values, C0 is at t = 0 and Ct is at time t = t. The value of KL aT can be obtained as slope of the linear plot between ln(Cs –Ct ) and time t. The value of KL aT can be corrected for a temperature other than the standard temperature of 20◦ C as KL a20, using the Vant- Hoff Arrhenins equation [12]: KL aT = KL a20 θ (T−20)

(5)

Where θ is the temperature coefficient 1.024 for pure water. The known values of DO measurements in terms of Ct at regular intervals of time t (including the known value of C0 at t = 0) a line is fitted, by linear regression analysis of Eq. (4), between the logarithm of (Cs –Ct ) and t, by assuming different but appropriate values of Cs such that the regression that gives the minimum “standard error of estimate” is taken and thus the values of KL aT and Cs were obtained simultaneously. The values KL a20 are computed using Eq. (5) with θ = 1.024 as per the standards for pure water [12]. Thus the values of KL a20 were determined for different rotational rotor speeds N in all of the geometrically similar tanks.

3.2 Determination of Power Availability to the Shaft The power available at the shaft was calculated as follows [1]. From the measurement of no load current (I1 ) and voltage (V1 ) the iron loss was calculated by IL = I1 V1 − I12 Ra

(6)

Where, Ra = armature resistance of the DC motor and I1 2 Ra is no load copper loss. From the measured loaded condition current (I2 ), and voltage (V2 ) the copper loss was calculated by CL = I22 Ra

(7)

Total loss occurring in DC motor, TL = IL + CL

(8)

Pi = I 2 V2

(9)

Incoming power to DC Motor

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The power available at the shaft,   P = Pi − TL = I2 V2 − I1 V1 − Ra I22 − I12

(10)

4 Results and Discussion The experimental data expressed in terms of X = N 3 D2 /g4/3 ν 1/3 and k =  1/3 KL a20 ν/g2 are plotted in Fig. 2. It is quite interesting to note that the each set of data points pertaining to the given size of the tank fall very uniquely on a simulation equation given by Rao et al. [9]. The equation developed earlier by Rao et al. [9] for circular tanks is presented below:     k = 10.45 exp −4.5/X + 2.45 − 0.7 exp −5 (X − 0.35)2 10−6X 0.5 (11) As reported in literature [5, 4, 3], the rates of oxygen transfer can be correlated with effective power consumption per unit volume. Figure 3 shows the behavior of oxygen transfer coefficient with input power per unit volume of circular tanks. It is quite interesting to observe that data of an individual size of an aerator falls on a unique curve, suggesting that the oxygen transfer rates can be simulated with the effective power per unit volume. The following equation is developed [10] after doing statistical analysis of the data as shown in Fig. 3.

10

1 )

105k

04

o

et

al

0 (2

Ra

0.1 Circular tank, A = 0.168m2 Circular tank, A = 0.5184 m2 Circular tank, A = 1 m2 0.01 0.01

0.1

1

10

100

X

Fig. 2 Simulation of oxygen transfer coefficient with theoretical power per unit volume

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Fig. 3 Simulation of oxygen transfer coefficient with actual power per unit volume

105kc

1

0.1

Circular Tank, A = 0.168 m2 Circular Tank, A = 0.5184 m2 Circular Tank, A = 1 m2 0.01 0.1

0.01

1

PV

105 k = 7.38 PV exp (−0.189/PV ) + 0.33 (PV )0.5

(12)

Energy requirements of surface aerators are of paramount importance while choosing and designing particular types of aerator to meet the demand. The energy can be computed as the product of power and time required to achieve a desired level of DO concentration. As KL a20 has the units of inverse of time, one may express characteristically the energy by a parameter P/KL a20 . As k is a non-dimensional form of KL a20 and PV is the non dimensional form of P/V, the energy (parameter)

10

b.

Circular Tank

ε x 105

A = 0.1684 m2 A = 0.5184 m2 A = 1 m2

1

0.1 0.01

0.1

1 X

Fig. 4 Energy characteristics of circular surface aerators

10

100

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per unit volume (ε) may be defined as, ε = PV /k, and it is plotted with X for circular surface aerators in Fig. 4.

5 Application of the Results In order to demonstrate the application of results, a volume of 1 m3 is considered for reaeration. Analysis has been done by dividing this volume into different volumes say 1 , 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1 m3 i.e. the number of aerators to aerate 1 m3 of water are : n = 1, 2, 4 and 10 respectively. Rotor diameter and other geometrical configurations have been derived by the geometrical similar condition given by Udaya et al. [11]. Energy of the each size surface aeration tanks with rotor speed is plotted in Fig. 5a and their comparison in Fig. 5b by using Eqs. (12) and (13). As shown in Fig. 5a, b, it can be stated that smaller tanks are taking more energy to aerate the same volume of water. It can be noticed from Fig. 5b that, for example, while using ten smaller tanks the energy consumed can be as high as about 16 times when compared to a single size big tank. Hence it can be concluded that while aerating the same volume of water smaller size tanks are not economical in saving energy consumption whereas a single largest tank is the best choice to minimize the energy requirements. Such analyses have been done in square surface aerators with the help of earlier published simulation equation [8] and comparisons are made for each size between square and circular surface aerators to ascertain their energy efficiency. Such comparison is shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen from Fig. 6 that except in very narrow range and that to in the smallest configuration, circular tank surface aerators are more energy efficient than the square tank surface aerators.

10

20

Volume of water to be aerated=1m3

na = Number of Circular Surface Aerators of equal volume

(a)

5

ε x 10

1

D = 311 mm,na = 4

(b)

15

D = 229 mm,na = 10

na = 10

εMultiple-εSingle ----------------εSingle 10

D = 392 mm,na = 2 D = 494 mm,na = 1

5

na = 4 na = 2

0.1 10

100

1000

Speed (RPM)

na = 1

0 1

10

100

Speed (RPM)

Fig. 5 Energy economics of using smaller aerators

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0.2

Comparison of Square and Circular Tank of same volume

0.0

– 0.2

εCircular - εSquare ------------------ – 0.4 εSquare – 0.6 D = 494 mm D = 392 mm D = 311 mm D = 229 mm

– 0.8

– 1.0 1

10

100

1000

Speed (RPM)

Fig. 6 Comparison of square and circular surface aerators

6 Conclusion Design curves for designing geometrical similar circular tank surface aerators are presented in this paper. Based on the analysis conducted in this study, the following conclusion can be made. • Simulation equation developed earlier for circular tank correlating the oxygen transfer coefficient (k) with theoretical power per unit volume (X) was confirmed and more generalized through experiments. (Fig. 2 and Eq. (11)) • It has been established that k can be simulated also with the effective power per unit volume (PV ) for the circular tank. Simulation equation governing k and PV is developed for the circular surface aerators. (Fig. 3 and Eq. (12)) • By using the design curves presented in this paper, one can easily design the circular surface aerators under the geometrical similarity conditions. • Based on the analyses, it can be concluded that single and big size surface aerators are more energy efficient than a number of small size aerator to aerate the same volume of water. • It has been also shown that circular tank surface aerators are more energy efficient than square shaped surface aerators.

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References 1. Cook AL, Carr CC (1947) Elements of Electrical engineering, 5th edn. Wiley, New York 2. Horvath I (1984) Modeling in the technology of wastewater treatment. Pergamon, Tarrytown, NY 3. Hsieh C-C (1991) Estimating volatilization rates and gas/liquidmass transfer coefficients in aeration systems, PhD thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, USA 4. Hwang HJ (1983) Comprehensive Studies of Oxygen Transfer under Nonideal Conditions, Ph.D. thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, USA 5. Kozinski AA, King CJ (1966). The influence of diffusivity on liquid phase mass transfer to the free surface in a stirred vessel. AIChE J 12:109–116 6. Lewis WK, Whitman WG (1924) Principles of gas absorption. Ind Eng Chem Res 16(12):1215–1220 7. Metcalf & Eddy Inc. (2004) Waste water engineering: Treatment disposal and reuse. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi 8. Rao ARK (1999) Prediction of reaeration rates in circular, stirred tanks. J Environ Eng, ASCE 125(3):215–233 9. Rao ARK, Laxmi BVB, Narasiah KS (2004) Simulation of Oxygen transfer rates in circular aeration tanks. Water Qual Res J Can 39(3):237–244 10. Rao ARK, Kumar B, Patel AK (2007) Relative performance of different shaped surface aeration tanks- Water Qual Res J, Canada 42(1):26–40 11. Udaya SL, Shrma KVNS, Rao ARK (1991) Effect of geometrical parameters for overall Oxygen transfer coefficient. Proceedings of the Symposium on Environmental Hydraulics, University of Honkong, pp 1577–1581 12. WEF and ASCE Manual of practice for water pollution control (1988) Aeration a waste water treatment process. Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, Va., and ASCE, New York 13. Wesner GM, Ewing LJ, Lineck TS Jr, Hinrichs DJ (1977), Energy conservation in municipal wastewater treatment. EPA-430/9-77-01 1, NTIS No. PB81-165391, US EPA Report, Washington, DC

Sewage Biogas Conversion into Electricity by Using Small Systems Suani Teixeira Coelho, Sílvia Maria Stortini González Velázquez, Osvaldo Stella Martins, and Fernando Castro de Abreu

Abstract This article intends to present some considerations about electricity generation with 30 kW (ISO) microturbines, using biogas generated by a sewage treatment process at SABESP (Basic Sanitation Company of São Paulo State), located in Barueri, Brazil. This project, pioneer in Latin America, is being accomplished together with BUN – Biomass Users Network of Brazil (proponent), in association with CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass (executer), with patronage of FINEP/CT-ENERG (financial backer), by means of CONVENTION No: 23.01.0653.00, regarding to ENERG-BIOG Project – “Installation and Tests of an Electric Energy Generation Demonstration Unit from Biogas Sewage Treatment”. The study is being held at Barueri Sewage Treatment Plant. This plant operates with anaerobic digestion process, which has as mainly products biogas (composed mainly by methane) and sludge. Currently, part of the methane produced is burnt in a boiler being used to increase the digesters temperature and so, the process efficiency. The methane remnant is burnt in flare to reduce the impacts caused by gases emissions. An alternative to burn it in flare is the biogas conversion into electricity through engines or microturbines. This paper describes the proposed system to convert biogas in electricity and heat using microturbine. Thus, this article presents some technical, financial and environmental project results, related to the exploitation of sewer biogas for power generation, as well as more details about purification, compression and electricity generation systems (biogas microturbine), used in the facility. It is possible to conclude that the purification system projected takes care of the fuel specifications, demanded by the microturbine, but the costs analysis on using microturbines are not positive when compared with a conventional generator

S.T. Coelho (B) CENBIO – Brazilian Reference Center on Biomass, IEE – Institute of Electrotechnics and Energy, USP – University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 1289 CEP 05508-010, São Paulo, Brazil e-mail: [email protected]

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of equal power. Until the present moment, the data obtained will serve to baseline for the accomplishment of future environmental impact comparative studies, between engines (Otto – Cycle) and microturbines. Keywords Biogas · Biodigestor · Renewable source · Turbine and generating group

1 Introduction The ENERG-BIOG Project aims to analyze the use of sewer biogas to electricity production in Brazil. The study in being done in a sewer treatment plant located in Barueri, State of São Paulo. This plant operates with anaerobic digestion process, which has as mainly products biogas (composed mainly by methane) and sludge. The main advantage in using anaerobic digestion process is that the sludge treatment process is followed by energy production as biogas. Currently, part of the methane produced is burnt in a boiler being used to increase digestors temperature and so, the process efficiency. The methane reminiscent is burnt in flare to reduce the impacts caused by gases emissions. An alternative to burn it in flare is the biogas conversion into electricity through engines or microturbines. This paper describes the proposed system to convert biogas in electricity and heat using microturbine.

2 Biogas Production in Sewage Treatment Systems Biogas is a gas combustible mixture produced during the organic matter anaerobic digestion, sludge, in the sewage treatment. The amount of each gas in the mixture depends on many factors as the type of digestor and the kind of organic matter. In any way this mixture is basically made of methane (CH4 ) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ), and its heating value is straightly linked to the methane content. The pilot project located at SABESP, in Barueri/SP, the largest sewage treatment station (STS) of Latin America, is in test phase, aiming to analyze the potential for biogas use as fuel for the electric energy generation. The first survey indicated an average production of 24,000 m3 (secondary treatment) per day of biogas (reaching 28,000 m3 /dia in some periods), with a LHV (lower heat value) of 5,300 kcal/Nm3

Table 1 Biomass measure composition in % of SABESP STS at Barueri (CENBIO [1]) Gas mixture measure composition Methane (CH4 ) Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) Oxygen (O2 ) + nitrogen (N2 ) Humidity (H2 O)

66.5% 30.5% 0.5% 2.5%

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Table 2 Others characteristics (CENBIO [1] e SABESP [3]) Others characteristics Sulfuric acid (H2 S) LHV Relative density Pressure Produced volume

134 ppm or 0.01% 5,300 kcal/m3 or 22,195 kJ/m3 0.86 a 15◦ C 101.325 kPa 250 mm c.a. (gas tank measure) 24,000 m3 /dia (approximately)

Fig. 1 Barueri sewage treatment station (SABESP [3])

(22.2 MJ/Nm3 ), whose composition (%) are presented in Table 1 and other biogas characteristics are presented in Table 2 (Fig. 1).

3 Some Technologies for Biogas Conversion There are different kinds of technology to convert the chemical energy in the biogas into electricity. Energy conversion mean a process where one type of energy is converted to other one. In biogas conversion the chemical energy in the molecules is converted to mechanical energy in a controlled combustion system, then, this mechanical energy activates a generator producing electrical power. The gas turbines and the internal combustion engines are the most common technologies used to this kind of energy conversion. Even so, in general, engines are more efficient turbines may be more efficient when operating in a cogeneration cycle producing heat and electricity (COSTA et al. [2]). Aiming to evaluate technologies efficiency, a 30 kW (electric) Capstone microturbine (ISO) with a biogas cleaning system was installed for tests in December 2002. The results will be compared with the engines performance, in technical, economic and environmental terms. The test’s objective is to evaluate the possibility of using microturbines in small scale sewage treatment plants for energy generation.

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4 Biogas Cleaning The presence of non-burnable substances in the biogas, like water and carbon dioxide, reduces the conversion efficiency. Incomplete combustion can occur, causing power reduction and corrosion, due to H2 S presence. Most anaerobic digesters produce a biogas with 0.3–2% H2 S and significant amounts of nitrogen and hydrogen. The biogas generated in SABESP’s sewage treatment station in Barueri contains impurities that can compromise the operation of the installation, damaging the cleaning system, the compression system and the electric energy generation system (microturbine). The most common impurities in biogas are: • Humidity: it can compromise the operation of microturbine’s internal parts (injector, combustion chamber, turbine rotor), besides reducing the biogas heating value; • H2 S: it can damage drier’s internal parts, as well as the compressor and the microturbine, because H2 S is corrodible; • Air presence into the pipeline: reduces the biogas heating value; • CO2 : inert gas that also reduces the biogas heating value; however, the microturbine was projected to operate with CO2 levels between 30 and 50%. So, the withdrawal of this element did not become necessary. For the humidity withdrawal present on the biogas, coalescent filters were used on the line and two refrigerated driers, one before and another after the compressor. To deal with the H2 S gas removal, a carbon filter was used, operating by absorption principle. For the H2 S in water solution were used refrigeration drier and coalescent filters. The purification system used in this project, also the first one in Latin America, was designed to guarantee that the biogas characteristics would accomplish to the microturbine specifications, what happened indeed. The gas analysis results (Table 3) shows that the gas cleaning system used fulfills the turbine requirements. The microturbine consumes an average of 20 m3 /h or 480 m3 /dia. Figure 2 shows the microturbine installed in Barueri. Table 3 Comparison of biogas analyses results with the capstone specifications (CENBIO [1]) Variant

Unit

Capstone

Barueri

Notes

O2 N2 CO2 CH4 H2 S H2 O (D.P.) L.H.V.

% Vol. % Vol. % Vol. % Vol. ppm-vol % Vol. kJ/m3

0–10 0–50 0–50 30–100 0–70.000 0–5 13.800–27.605

0.00–6.30 0.22–23,8 25.0–30,8 44.1–69.9 0.08–230 0.1–2.8 14.715–23.852

Approved Approved Approved Approved Approved Approved Approved

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Fig. 2 Project facility photo (CENBIO [1])

5 Conclusions The energetic use of biogas causes different environmental and economical impacts depending on witch system is used. The electricity generation using biogas in landfills fulfills the electricity requirements of the plant and a surplus of energy can be delivered to the grid. In the agricultural sector the biogas produced, mainly in anaerobic digestors feed by manure residues, can provide energy surplus to, depending one the number of animals and the technology used to treat their residues. In sewage treatment plants the biogas use to electricity production allows a reduction of 20% in electricity consumption. This relation between the electricity production and consumption don’t change due the size of the facilities. Even so, the microtubine electricity cost is higher then the electricity produced in conventional generators the emissions, mainly NOx, are significantly lower (Table 4). Table 4 Comparison between installations costs relations for both technologies (Capstone microturbine and trigas generation group) (CENBIO [1])

Relation between initial investment and installed power Relation between initial investment and liquid installed power Relation between operation and maintenance costs by the electric energy production Relation between total costs by the electric energy production

Capstone microturbine

Trigas Generation Group

R1 = 2,195.28 US$/kW R1 ’ = 3,377.36 US$/kW R3 = 0.0989 US$/kWh R5 = 0.2045 US$/kWh

R2 = 358.69 US$/kW R2 ’ = 430.43 US$/kW R4 = 0.0148 US$/kWh R6 = 0.1224 US$/kWh

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O2 (% vol.) CO2 (% vol.) CO (ppm) SO2 (ppm) NO (ppm) NOx (ppm) THC (ppm)

Minimum

Maximum

Average

18.0 2.1 10.0 0.001 0.014 0.162 42.0

18.5 2.1 145.0 2.900 0.037 0.640 51.0

18.2 2.1 80.8 1.800 0.029 0.412 46.0

The exhaustion gases analysis (Table 5) showed NOx emissions of less then 1 ppm (parts per million). Then the large advantage of using this technology is directly tied with the environmental benefits, when these emissions are compared with the internal combustion engines ones, approximately 3,000 ppm NOx. It is necessary to consider in this scenario the potential of emissions reductions and the carbon credits in a Kyoto Protocol CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) project where each kWh produced using biogas, in Brazilian conditions, avoids emissions of 0.5 tC. Acknowledgments Alves JWS (2000) Diagnóstico Técnico Institucional da Recuperação e Uso Energético do Biogás Gerado pela Digestão Anaeróbica de Resíduos. Dissertação de Mestrado, PIPGE/USP, São Paulo Campos JR et al (1999) Tratamento de Esgotos Sanitários por Processo Anaeróbio e Disposição Controlada no Solo. PROSAB, Abes, Rio de Janeiro, p 435 Capstone (2001) Authorized service provider training manual. Capstone Turbine Corporation, Los Angeles Cenbio (2000) Medidas Mitigadoras para a Redução de Emissões de Gases de Efeito Estufa na Geração Termelétrica. Brasília, 222p Cenbio (2001) Nota Técnica VII – Geração de Energia a Partir do Biogás Gerado por Resíduos Urbanos e Rurais. São Paulo EPA (2001) Case Studies in Residual Use and Energy Conservation at Wastewater Treatment Plants. Washington IBGE (2000) Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Brasil IPT (2001) Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas. São Paulo Miller W (1994) Energy Audit: Buffalo Creek Wastewater Treatment Facility. City of Sanford Parks B (2000) Gas Turbines for Power Generation: A.U.S. DOE Perspectives. EUA Sayed SKI (1987) Anaerobic Treatment of Slaughterhouse Wastewater Maing the UASB Process. University de Wageningen, Wageningen, Holanda van Haandel AC, Lettinger G (1994) Tratamento Anaeróbio de Esgotos: Um Manual para Regiões de Clima Quente. Epgraf, Campina Grande, 240p van Wylen G (1995) Fundamentos da Termodinâmica Clássica. Tradução da 4ª edição americana von Sperling M (1996) Princípios Básicos do Tratamento de Esgotos. DESA-UFMG, Belo Horizonte, 210p

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References 1. CENBIO (2002–2004) Relatórios de Atividades – Projeto ENERG-BIOG, São Paulo 2. COSTA et al (2001) Produção de Energia Elétrica a partir de Resíduos Sólidos Urbanos. Trabalho de Graduação Interdisciplinar/FAAP, São Paulo 3. SABESP (2001) Companhia e Saneamento Básico do Estado de São Paulo

Algae Biofuels as a Possible Alternative to Environmentally Doubtful Conventional Methods of Biodiesel Production Tomislav Kurevija and Nenad Kukulj

Abstract In last 10 years there was significant rise in transportation fuel consumption in Europe from 180 Mt in 1985. to 270 Mt in 2004., with gasoline representing 40% and diesel 60%. To decrease dependence upon imported fossil fuels, EU aim is to introduce biodiesel in share of 5.75% in transportation sector until 2010. and finally 8% until 2020. Because of limited production potential from some EU countries, today and in near future, large quotas of import would be required. Biodiesel is often called clean, ecological and renewable alternative fuel, but with present land-intensive methods of production it could easily be named as one of the most dangerous sources of energy for Earth’s ecosystem. Main threat from large scale biofuels utilization comes from deforestation of land that is needed for cultivation of crops. Every year large areas of rainforests in South East Asia and South America are irretrievably lost due to increasing demand. Combustion of wood and oxidation of peat during drying emits enormous quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere which is contrary to biodiesel appellation as “CO2 balanced fuel”. Unlike conventional crops that are used for production of biodiesel (rapeseed, soybean, palm etc.), possible production from algae would significantly lower unit of land needed for biofuel production. Contemporary researches give some estimation of about 25 times greater yield than palm plantation and 100 times over rapeseed, which is common biodiesel production crop in EU. Regarding lately high world oil prices, greater investment in researches upon algae, as a new source of biofuel, are bringing technological solutions for economically production start-up. Keywords Biofuel · Conventional · Microalgea

T. Kurevija (B) Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: [email protected]

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1 Introduction The European Union is heavily dependent upon energy imports and particularly to oil imports, which leads to large emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) and contributes to global warming and climate changes. In an effort to slow down this increase, most industrialized countries have joined in to Kyoto protocol policy to hold carbon dioxide emissions in the year 2000 to 1990 levels. Transport is a main oil consuming and GHG generating sector in the EU, and therefore the reduction of energy consumption and emissions from the road transport will be an important step on the way of reaching these EU policy objectives. Although the importance of the biofuels use in transport has already been stressed in the EU White Paper on renewable sources of energy (1997) and the Green Paper on a European strategy for the security of energy supply (2000), this has not led to the development of specific biofuel national policies in many EU Member States. Some countries support the use of biodiesel by exempting them from excise duties or environmental taxes and in June 2001 two EU Directive proposals passed, concerning the promotion of biofuels. The first draft Directive obligates the EU Member States to sell a certain amount of biofuels on their national markets in the period 2005–2010. In order to support this, the second draft Directive provides the opportunity to the Member States to adjust their national excise duty systems for automotive fuels in favour of biofuels. EU directive proposal also obligates the Member States to establish a minimum percentage of 2% of biodiesel share in the total transport fuel consumption till 31 December 2005. This amount must be increased every year by 0.75–5.75% by the 2010 and 8% by the end of 2020 [3]. Biodiesel is cleaner than gasoline and diesel and it is virtually sulphur free. Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions and particles during combustion process are also significantly reduced but with slight increase in nitrogen oxides emissions. Another advantage is that biodiesel blends may potentially be utilized in a standard, unmodified diesel engine. While positive impacts such as reduction in CO2 emissions at the combustion stage are evident, the indirect impacts such as deforestation, the danger of reducing biodiversity, competition for land with food production sector, contamination of land and water with nitrates, phosphates and pesticides are more complex and have global impact on environment as well. Opposite to terrestrial plants which are favourable for production of biodiesel, microalgae have the advantages of greater efficient photosynthesis, fast proliferation rates, wide tolerance to extreme environments, potential for intensive cultures and lesser land area requirement. These advantages promise the reduction of carbon dioxide if microalgae production ponds would be build near fossil fired power plants. Exhaust gases from heavy industries commonly contain carbon dioxide levels significantly higher than that found in the atmosphere, 10–20% for coal plants and around 4% for natural gas [4] what could be use for growing of microalgae cultures and sequestration of CO2 at the same time. Once the lipids are extracted from the harvest algae, potential use for the microalgae residue include fodder for livestock, food and chemicals, colorants, perfumes, and vitamins, which leads to greater economically feasibility of the project.

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2 Status of World Biodiesel Production At present, the biofuel producing countries in the European Union only have a small share in global production of biofuels, namely a little less than 6%. Most of the global biofuel production consists of ethanol and the main producers are the USA and Brazil, whereas the share of Europe is rather small. However, Europe is the most important producer of biodiesel on the global market. From 1993, the European production level has increased by almost 40 times, from 80.000 tons in 1993 to 780.000 tons in 2001, and finally to 3.184.000 tons in 2005 [3] (Fig. 1). Germany is the leading European producer, followed by France, Italy and Czech Republic. Throughout the European Union, biodiesel is applied in automotive engines in various blends with regular diesel. In Germany, Austria and Sweden, it is used in pure form in adapted captive fleet vehicles. Currently, only biodiesel (mainly Rapeseed Methyl Ester, RME) and ethanol (and its derivative ETBE) produced from food crops are applied on a commercial basis on the European market. Around 12% of total biodiesel volume, EU is importing from East Asia (Malaysia and Indonesia) in form of crude palm oil. Biodiesel production currently uses around 1.4 million hectares of arable land in the EU and today there are approximately 40 plants in the EU producing up to 3.184.000 tonnes of biodiesel annually. These plants are mainly located in Germany, Italy, Austria, France and Sweden. In the USA, the most common crop for producing biodiesel is soy while in East Asia (Malaysia and Indonesia) biodiesel is mainly produced from crude palm oil. As the demand for biodiesel in EU rises, there is a problem of meeting consumption by domestic production of rapeseed oil. It is estimated that until 2010, 20% of total biodiesel on EU market will come from SE Asia in form of crude palm oil [3]. This share could go even bigger taking into account that palm oil is more economically favourable than rapeseed (Table 1).

Fig. 1 World production of biodiesel from 1991 till 2003 [3]

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T. Kurevija and N. Kukulj Table 1 EU biodiesel production and import in 2005 [3]

Country

Production of biodiesel in 2005(×1000 tonnes)

Production capacity in 2005(×1000 tonnes)

Share of biodiesel in diesel consumption in 2005 (%)

Germany France Italy Czech Republic Poland Austria Slovakia Spain Denmark UK Slovenia Estonia Lithuania Latvia Other EU states

1669 492 396 133 100 85 78 73 71 51 8 7 7 5 9

2681 775 857 203 150 134 89 224 81 445 17 20 10 8 375

2.00 2.00 2.00 3.03 – 2.50 2.00 2.00 0.00 0.30

TOTAL

3184

6069

1.50

–

–

Imports of palm oil from East Asia for biodiesesel purposes

≈ 500

0.00 2.00 2.00 –

3 Research and Development of Microalgae Based Biodiesel Currently most research into efficient algal-oil production for biodiesel purposes is being done in the private sector in the view of small scale pilot-projects. Mass-production of oil is mainly focused on microalgae, organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 2 mm in diameter, including the diatoms and cyanobacteria. This preference towards microalgae is due to its less complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil content for some species (as many as 70% in favourable conditions). Commercial microalgal culture in a food sector today is a well established industry and much of the early work on microalgae oil production focused on closed culture systems (photobioreactors). A photobioreactor is basically a bioreactor which incorporates some type of light source and because these systems are closed, everything that the algae need to grow (carbon dioxide, nutrient-rich water and light) must be introduced into the system. Large commercial systems that are used today are almost always open-air systems design types, due to economical reason. Closed culture systems are very expensive and many of them are difficult to scale up. Furthermore, most closed systems are operated indoors with artificial lighting and this result in high energy costs (Table 2). However, the number of species that has been successfully cultivated for a given purpose (for the production of biodiesel and as food source) in an outdoor system is relatively small. In open systems there is no control over water temperature

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Table 2 Comparison of microalgae bio-oil yield and common cultures for biodiesel production [1] Plant Yield of bio-oil

m3 /km2 /year bbl/acres/year GJ/km2 /year

Microalgae

Soybean

Rapeseed

Jatropha

Palm

>15,000 >380 >500,000

35–45 0.90–1.15 1165–1500

100–130 2.55–3.30 3330–4330

160 4.10 5330

580 14.80 19,315

and lighting conditions and due to the fact that these systems are atmospherically open, they are much more vulnerable to be invaded by other algal species and bacteria. The growing season is largely dependent on location and apart from tropical areas it is limited to the warmer months with productivity achieved lesser than it is theoretically possible. The pond depth is often compromised between the need of providing adequate light to the algal cells (the shallower it is, the more light is available to the cells) and the need of maintaining an adequate water depth for mixing, regarding large changes in ionic composition due to evaporation. Algae only need about 1/10th of the light amount they receive from direct sunlight [5]. In order to have ponds that are deeper than 4 in., various methods of water agitation in ponds need to be used, exposing the algae below to light and keeping algae on the surface from being over-exposed. Paddle wheels can be used to circulate the water in a pond and compressed air can be introduced into the bottom of a pond to agitate the water, bringing algae from the lower levels upwards. Aside from agitation, light algae supply could be done by introducing the light into the system by using glow plates, submerging them into the water, providing in that way light directly to the algae at the right concentration. Algae can be harvested using microscreens, by centrifugation, or by flocculation methods. Microalgae have much faster growth-rates than terrestrial crops. The yield of oil from algae as seen from Table 2 is estimated to be between 5000 and 15.000 m3 /km2 /year which is around 8–25 times greater than the next best crop, palm oil [6]. In order to obtain high algal production rates, many of pilot projects harvested the biomass daily. If unharvested, production rates will reach a peak and then decline with increasing biomass concentration because of reduced available light (mutual shading) and depletion of nutrients. Therefore, harvesting is an essential part of maintaining high microalgal productivity rates. Algal-oil is transformed into biodiesel as easily as oil derived from land-based crops and the difficulties in the efficient biodiesel production from algae lie not in the extraction of the oil, but in finding an algal strain with a high lipid content and fast growth rate that is not too difficult to harvest, and a cost-effective cultivation system that is best suited to that strain. The knowledge of the biochemistry and physiology of lipid synthesis, combined with basic studies on microalgal molecular biology and genetic engineering to develop algae strains with optimal properties of growth and lipid production, may lead to great improvement and enhance the commercial viability of this alga as an optimum hydrocarbon source.

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4 Possibility of Co2 Sequestration in the Algae Culture Plants Much of the carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere is from the burning of fossil fuels for the production of energy (coal power plants are especially major source of carbon dioxide emissions) or in the heavy industry. Regarding global warming effect, new methods for the thorough and efficient sequestration of CO2 are being sought out and selection of the most appropriate technology to limit the amount of carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere is the major focus of research. Carbon dioxide could be captured and sequestrated into the aquifers or depleted oil and gas wells. This is an expensive option (potentially more than doubling the cost of electrical generation via fossil fuels) with no opportunity for profit to displace the cost, except if the CO2 is used as part of tertiary methods of oil recovery. Biofixation of carbon dioxide using microalgae has emerged as a potential option. Commercial interests into large scale algal-cultivation systems could be obtained by placing algae plants near coal power plants, sewage treatment facilities or any industry that emit large quantities of carbon-dioxide into the atmosphere. This approach not only provides the raw materials for the system, such as CO2 and nutrients making in that way greater yield of biodiesel, but it changes those wastes into resources (Fig. 2). Much work has been done on the effect of different flue gas constituents on microalgal growth rates and carbon dioxide fixation. Typical coal power plant flue gases have carbon dioxide levels ranging from 10 to 15% (4% for natural gas fired ones). At the typical carbon dioxide percentages in the atmosphere of 0.036%, microalgae show no signs of significant growth inhibition. Furthermore, various studies have shown that microalgae respond better to increased carbon dioxide concentrations, outgrowing (on a biomass basis) microalgae exposed only to ambient air (Table 3). Sulfur oxides, particularly SO2 , can have a significant effect on the growth rates and health of the microalgae, especially effect that SO2 has on the pH of the microalgal growth. When the SO2 concentration reaches 400 ppm, the pH of the pond water can become as lower as 4, which significantly affects the productivity of the microalgae [5]. However, if the pH is maintained at 8 using NaOH, the productivity does not decrease [4]. Nitrogen oxides also comprise a significant portion of power plant flue gas. As with the sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides can affect the pH of the algal medium, but to a lesser degree. Microalgae have been shown to tolerate and grow in a medium containing as many as 240 ppm of NOx, with pH adjustment. The effect of soot dust and ash containing heavy metals has limited attention. When soot dust concentration is greater than 200.000 mg/m3, algal productivity is influenced [4]. It is rare for the soot dust concentration to reach such a value. Higher concentrations of heavy metals in gas flue can affect algal productivity, but only in rare situations will the concentrations exceed those that will result in a significant impact. Another concern with the flue gas is the elevated temperatures. In a commercial application, flue gas from the desulfurization scrubbers would be sent to the CO2 sequestration ponds for treatment. Temperatures exiting the scrubbers are usually around 60◦ C.

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Fig. 2 Simplified schematic of the algae biodiesel production with introduction of CO2 from fossil fuel fired power plant

Table 3 Example of typical flue gas composition from coal fired power plant [4] Component

N2

CO2

O2

SO2

NOx

Soot dust

Concentration 82% 12% 5.5% 400 ppm 120 ppm 50 mg/m3

Therefore, microalgae would need to exhibit tolerances at temperatures of this magnitude. Although most organisms cannot survive at these higher temperatures, some cyanophycean algae have been shown to grow at 80◦ C. Some investigations showed carbon fixation rate of 14.6 g C/m2 (basal area) per day at a growth rate of 30.2 g dry wt/m2 /day [7]. as well as range of 0.65–4.0 g CO2 /L/day at growth rates of 0.4–2.5 g dry wt/L/day [6]. Results were corroborated using direct measurements of the inlet and outlet gas streams and indirectly estimated from the carbon content of the cell and the cell growth rate. The capture of carbon dioxide by large pond-type systems when operating under optimum conditions has been shown to be as high as 99% [4]. Pond sizes should not exceed 20 ha each (a larger pond would be difficult to operate). It is estimated that for a 500-MW power plant open pond surface area of 14.000 ha is needed [4]. These results show the potential for using microalgae for carbon dioxide fixation, especially because of large investment costs in alone standing algae plants. By introduction of CO2

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source and construction of algae plants near fossil power plants projects are becoming more economically feasible concerning sequestration of carbon-dioxide and, in that way, contributing to global warming effect decrease. There are some estimation of $80.000 per hectare for the construction costs of algae ponds and $12.000 per hectare for operating costs (including power consumption, labour, chemicals, and fixed capital costs) [4]. With further research and development, as well as high oil prices, this method of biodiesel production could be very interesting in future.

5 Environmental Issues Concerning Conventional Biodiesel Production As world population is continuously increasing and consequently energy demand as well, especially in the transport sector, there is lesser arable land needed for growing food crops and energy interesting crops for production of biodiesel. To satisfy biodiesel demand, especially from EU which has limited arable area for reaching 8% of biodiesel share in 2020, production is moved from EU to the other continents, especially SE Asia. Because EU is currently short of biodiesel, as some Member States have underinvested in refinery production in recent decades experts estimates that palm oil bio-diesel in a few years could account as much as 20% of Europe’s biodiesel consumption and cause the destruction of some of the most valuable forests of the world because of the land clearance (Fig. 3). Reason of increased share of palm-oil in total EU biodiesel consumption lies in greater yield per area of palm plantation over rapeseed and lower cost production which influences final purchase price. Until today, rapeseed is still dominant source for biodiesel in EU with share of some 80% but competition with food sector has driven its price to somewhat 600 C per ton in 2005. At the same time, price of crude palm-oil was around 33% cheaper, making it about 400 C per ton [2]. The main world producers of crude palm oil are Indonesia and Malaysia. Between 1989 and 2000, the area of oil palm harvested in Indonesia more than tripled. In 2003, 75% of Indonesia’s 5.2 million hectares of oil-palm plantations were located in Sumatra, with a further 18% in Kalimantan [2]. It is expected that this total will more than triple to approximately 20 million hectares in Indonesia and 10 million hectares in Malaysia by 2020. Between 1985 and 2000 the development of oil-palm plantations was responsible for an estimated 87% of deforestation in Malaysia, and an estimated 66% of Indonesia’s plantations have involved forest conversion [10]. By the beginning of 2004, there were 6.5 million hectares of oil-palm plantations across Sumatra and Borneo [2]. Of this total area, almost 4 million hectares had previously been forested. Currently, every year about 2 million hectares of Indonesian virgin forest, a total area half the size of Belgium, are turned over to palm oil production (Fig. 4). The palm-oil business is often advertised by governments and companies as making an important economic contribution to development. However, this analysis is

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Fig. 3 Necessary total arable area for EU goal of 8% biodiesel share in comparison to 100% biodiesel share in total diesel consumption, according to rapeseed yield

often one-sided, and fails to take into account the substantial social and environmental costs. These include the ecological price of removing rainforest such, as well as pollution and damage to water and air that are rarely taken into account. However, the area released for conversion does not necessarily reflect the real area planted, and the palm-oil industry is habitually associated with deforestation beyond establishing

Fig. 4 Example of Indonesia’s rainforest destruction due to palm-oil production expansion [2]

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oil-palm estates on previously forested land. The amount of forest removed under the plantation development, regardless of whether palms have ever been planted, may be as much as 10 million hectares [10]. Around 40% of Indonesia’s legal timber supply results from land clearance for conversion to plantations. In the past, if the remaining timber stands are not commercially valuable, burning has been a widely-used method of land clearance. The forest fires of 1997/1998 were responsible for the devastation of over 5 million hectares of forest and often the major fires are in oil-palm plantations [8]. Peat-swamp forests, including those in Tripa, Singkil, and Kluet in Sumatra, and Sebangau, Mawas, and Tanjung Puting in Borneo, play a major role in carbon sequestration and biodiversity. This forest type is being promoted as a carbon sink and used in international carbon offset agreements, while palm oil is concurrently publicised as a carbon emission-reducing fuel. Peat-swamp forests, however, are increasingly becoming prime targets for oil-palm expansion, despite regulations against the development of deep peats and lower productivity relative to other soils. It is crucial that the expansion of oil-palm plantations does not lead to the clearance of forests and, in particular, peat forests. It is difficult to cultivate oil palms on peat land greater than 1 m thick [9], and the costs of establishing a plantation on this soil type tend to be 40%higher than on dry land but nevertheless, numerous companies continue to apply for licences to allow the conversion of deep peat land (Table 4). If the palm-oil plantation is planned on peat swamp tropical forest, which is promoted as large carbon sink, forest fires necessary for land clearance would emit approximately 8000 tons of GHG per km2, drained peat-swamp land will additionally release about 1000 tons/km2/year of GHG emissions, mostly CO2 , for period of 5 years needed for complete drainage. It is estimated that in the whole of SE Asia about 7 million hectares of peat lands are drained now, mainly for palm-oil cultivation purposes. In that case the drained peat lands used for agriculture in SE Asia will contribute to about 0.35–0.7 gigaton CO2 /year, or about 5–10% of the total yearly worldwide CO2 emissions [9]. As oppose to this problems with land clearance and competition of conventional biodiesel crops with food sector, algae cultures could be grown even in desert regions and some brackish waters locations, as well as at the sea near the cost. All of these projects would be placed aside the existing industry because of necessary Table 4 Plantation area and estimated forest area cleared based on industry estimates (million hectares) [9]

Country

Oil palm plantation area (2002)

Share of oil palm plantations involving forest conversion (%)

Forest area cleared for oil palm (end of 2002)

Total oil palm area target/ allocation (2003)

Additional area to be established (after 2004)

Additional forest to be cleared (after 2004)

Malaysia Indonesia Total

3.67 3.10 6.77

33 66 48

1.21 2.05 3.26

3.74 9.13 12.87

0.07 6.03 6.10

0.02 3.98 4.00

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CO2 input from power plants. Aside that, algae cultures have significantly greater yield than terrestrial crops making in that way lesser arable land needed for the same amount of biodiesel produced.

6 Conclusion In the global trend of increased primary energy consumption and large carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere, it is necessary to raise production of energy from renewable resources, as well as promote cleaner alternative fuels than oil refined products. Due to EU Directive of 5.75% biodiesel share aim until 2010, in total diesel market, EU Member States are facing difficulties to fulfil these obligation because of insufficient arable area needed for crop cultivation, especially for states which are populous or have unfavourable climatic conditions. It is certain that goal of 5.75% until 2010. And finally 8% till 2020 would not be possible just relaying on domestic rapeseed production which will result in increased import of bio-oil, especially palm crude oil from SE Asia. Some estimations give share of at least 20% until 2010 or even more, regarding lower market price of palm oil than rapeseed. Production of palm oil is related with deforestation and peat drying which emit large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which is contrary to biodiesel appellation as CO2 balanced fuel. Unlike biodiesel produced from terrestrial crops, microalgae have greater yield per area for the same amount of energy produced. Moreover, they can be even cultivated in arid and warm regions where there is no huge impact on environment or competition with food sector for arable area. Likewise, to produce algae biodiesel, on economically favourable conditions, it is needed that outside CO2 source is introduced into the system. Algae production plants should be placed near large fossil fired power plants or any other industry that emits carbon dioxide. In this way, not only that alternative clean transport fuel is produced, but CO2 is permanently sequestrated by means of biofixation.

References 1. Borowitzka M (1999) Commercial production of microalgae: ponds, tanks, tubes and fermenters. J Biotechnol 70:313–321 2. Buckland H (2005) The oil for ape scandal: How palm oil is threatening orang-utan survival. Research report for friends of the earth society, London, Sep, p 50, http://www.foe.co.uk/ resource/reports/oil_for_ape_full.pdf 3. Commission of the European Communities (2006) An EU Strategy for Biofuels, Communication from the Commision, COM(2006)34 final, SEC(2006)142, Brussels, http://ec.europa. eu/energy/res/biomass_action_plan/doc/2006_02_08_comm_eu_strategy_en.pdf 4. Kadam K (2001) Microalgae production from power plant flue gas: environmental implications on a life cycle basis. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-510-29417, p 63 5. Qin J (2005) Bio-hydrocarbons from Algae-impacts of temperature, light and salinity on algae growth. A report for the rural industries research and development corporation, RIRDC Publication No 05/025, RIRDC Project No SQC-1A, p 26

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6. Sheehan J, Dunahay T, Benemann J, Roessler P (1998) A look back at the US department of energy’s aquatic species program: Biodiesel from algae, US department of energy’s office of fuels development, Prepared by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, USA, p 328 7. Stepan D, Shockey R, Moe T, Dorn R, (2002) Carbon dioxide sequestering using microalgal systems. US Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, p 32 8. UNEP (1999) Levine JS, Bobbe T, Ray N, Singh A, Witt RG. Wildland fires and the environment: A global synthesis. UNEP/DEIAEW/TR.99-1. Division of Environmental Information, Assessment and Early Warning (DEIA&EW) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), p 52 9. Van den Eelaart, A. (2006) Ombrogenous peat swamps and recommended uses in tropical areas, A Web site by Adriaan van den Eelaart in support of ISDP (Integrated Swamp Development Project) IBRD Loan 3755-IND, http://www.eelaart.com/, p 8 10. Wakker E (2004) Greasy palms: The social and ecological impacts of large-scale oil palm plantation development in Southeast Asia. Research for friends of the earth society, London, Mar, p 49, www.foe.co.uk/resource/reports/greasy_palms_impacts.pdf

Investigation of Combustion Kinetics of Five Waste Wood Samples with Thermogravimetric Analysis Sema Yurdakul Yorulmaz and Aysel Atimtay

Abstract In the present study, combustion mechanisms, thermal kinetics, and phases of combustion were investigated for untreated pine and treated MDF, plywood and particleboard samples. Waste wood samples were combusted in air at ◦ 10, 20 and 30 C/min heating rates in TGA. As a result of TG analysis, thermal decomposition of treated samples was observed at lower temperatures as compared to the untreated pine sample because of the catalyzing effects of the chemicals in the samples. Therefore, there were less flammable products, lower weight losses in the main oxidation region, decrease in the max. weight loss temperatures and formation of more char for treated samples as compared to untreated pine sample. In other words, chemicals used during production of these samples lead to decrease in the combustibility of the treated samples. Thermal kinetic constants for the samples were calculated by using Coats Redfern and Broido Methods. In order to find out the mechanisms responsible for the oxidation of the waste wood samples, six solid state mechanisms of Coats Redfern Method were tested. Keywords Wood and waste · Pine · MDF · Plywood · Particleboard · TGA · Activation energy Öz Bu çalı¸smada, kimyasal i¸slem görmemi¸s çam örne˘gi ve i¸slem görmü¸s, yani bazı kimyasallar ve katkı maddeleri içeren MDF, kontraplak ve sunta gibi maddelerin yanma mekanizmaları, ısıl kinetikleri ve yanma a¸samaları incelenmi¸stir. ◦ Atık odun örnekleri hava ortamında 10, 20 and 30 C/dak ısıtma hızlarında TGA cihazında yakılmı¸stır. TG analizleri sonunda, i¸slem görmü¸s örneklerde ısıl bozulmanın, i¸slem görmemi¸slere göre daha dü¸sük sıcaklıklarda olu¸stu˘gu gözlenmi¸stir. Bunun, içeri˘gindeki kimyasallara ba˘glı oldu˘gu dü¸sünülmü¸stür. Dolayısıyla, i¸slem görmü¸s örneklerde çam gibi i¸slem görmemi¸s örne˘ge göre daha az yanabilir ürünler, ana oksidasyon bölgesinde daha az a˘gırlık kayıpları ve daha fazla kok (char) olu¸sumu meydana gelmi¸stir. Ba¸ska bir deyi¸sle, bu örneklerin üretimi esnasında S.Y. Yorulmaz (B) Environmental Engineering Department, METU, 06531 Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_46, 

511

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kullanılan kimyasallar, i¸slem görmü¸s örneklerin yanabilirli˘ginde azalmaya neden olmaktadır. ˙Incelenen örneklerin yanma kinetik sabitleri Coats Redfern ve Broido Yöntemleri kullanılarak hesaplanmı¸stır. Atık odun örneklerinin de˘gi¸sik bölgelerdeki oksitlenme mekanizmalarını incelemek üzere Coats Redfern metodundaki 6 de˘gi¸sik mekanizma denenmi¸stir. Anahtar kelimeler Aktivasyon enerjisi

Odun ve atık · Çam · MDF · Sunta · Kontrplak · TGA ·

1 Introduction During the production of wood based products or after the service life of these products, great amounts of waste wood are generated as by products. Depending on the production processes or usage purpose, these wastes can have different kinds of contaminants. Therefore, disposal of waste wood has great importance for elimination of these types of wastes with appropriate methods and technologies. Analysis and modeling of combustion in stoves, furnaces, boilers and industrial processes require adequate knowledge of wood properties [16]. Consequently, knowledge of the thermal kinetics and properties of the wood is essential for the designs and operations of the thermal processes. In the present study, combustion mechanisms, activation energy and preexponential constants, and phases of combustion were investigated for natural pine, MDF, particleboard and plywood samples in air environment at 10, 20 and ◦ 30 C/min. heating rates by means of Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA).

2 Material and Methods About 5 mg sample (air dried, milled and sieved to 300–850 μm) was used for the experiments. Experiments were performed in TGA at 20 ml/min air flow rate ◦ and in a temperature range of 30–900 C. Three heating rates, namely 10, 20 and ◦ 30 C/min were used to understand the effect of heating rate on thermal kinetics, and emissions of the waste wood samples. For each experiment, weight loss of the samples was determined as a function of temperature. The output of the instrument gives the TG (Thermo gravimetric) curves as well as the derivative curves (DTG) of the sample. Elemental and proximate analyses results of the pine and MDF sample are given in Tables 1 and 2. In this study for the calculation of the thermal kinetics; activation energy and preexponential constant, Coats Redfern Method which is given in Eq. (2.1) was used.

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Table 1 Elemental composition of all samples (on dry, ash free basis) Sample

C (% by wt)

H (% by wt)

N (% by wt)

O (% by wt)

S (% by wt)

Pine MDF Particleboard Plywood

53.28 49.57 46.26 47.12

6.35 6.33 5.83 5.92

0.16 4.44 2.36 1.19

40.21 39.66 45.51 45.72

– – 0.04 0.05

Table 2 Proximate analysis and calorific values of all samples (on dry basis) Sample

Volatile matter (% by wt)

Ash (% by wt)

Fixed carbon (% by wt)

Calorific value (MJ/kg)

Pine MDF Particleboard Plywood

88.02 86.68 83.82 85.79

0.62 2.29 1.22 0.80

11.29 11.06 14.38 13.40

19.72 19.31 17.51 18.64

ln

E g(α) AR − = ln 2 T βE RT

(2.1)

α = (m0 − mt )/(m0 − m∞ )

(2.2)

where; m0 – initial weight of the reactant, mt – weight at time t, m∞ – weight at equilibrium. A is the pre-exponential factor, E is the activation energy, T is the absolute temperature, and R is the gas constant. According to the Eq. (2.1), a plot of ln[g(α)/T2 ] against reciprocal of temperature should give in a straight line with a slope equal to –E/R. Where g(α) is the integral function of conversion [1]. Table 3 shows different expressions of g(α) for the six different solid state mechanisms which were used in this study for the estimation of reaction mechanisms from dynamic TG curves by using Coats Redfern method. If the correct g(α) is used, the plot of ln[g(α)/T2] against 1/T should give a straight line with high correlation Table 3 Coats and Redfern Mechanisms used for the calculation of thermal kinetics in this study [7] Mechanism

g(α)

Symbol

Diffusion mechanism One-way transport Two-way transport Three-way transport Ginstling-Brounshtein equation

α2 α + (1 + α) ln (1 − α)  2 (1 − α)1/3 1 − 2 α/3 − (1 − α)2/3

D1 D2 D3 D4

1 − (1 − α)1/3

R3

− ln (1 − α)

F1

Limiting surface reactions both phases Three dimensions Chemical reaction First order

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coefficient of linear regression analysis, from which the values of E and A can be derived, therefore; the slope of the linear function will give the activation energy, E, and the intercept of the line will give the pre-exponential constant, A [2]. In this study Broido method was also used for the calculation of thermal constants. For Broido method Eq. (2.3) was used..    2 Ln ln (1/y) = −E/RT + ln RATmax /Eβ

(2.3)

In this equation y is the mass fraction of initial sample that has not been decomposed, Tmax is the temperature of maximum reaction velocity, β is the rate of heating (Kmin−1 ), A is the pre-exponential constant, E is the activation energy and R is the gas constant equal to 8.314 Jmol−1 K−1 . From the above derivation, it can be concluded that the Broido method is in fact based on the assumption that the order of reaction is unity [15]. By using the Broido method, the activation energy of the reaction can be determined from the slope of the plot ln(ln1/y) versus 1/T [14].

3 Thermal Kinetic Results of the Samples According to TGA analysis results four regions were determined on thermographs. These regions were determined according to the approximate start and end points of the Derivative Thermogravimetry (DTG) curve which shows thermal breakdown of the organic matters and volatiles in the samples [3]. The first region on the DTG curve was due to the moisture in the sample. The second region, where elimination of the moisture finished and main oxidation did not start precisely, was due to very volatile matters. The third region where the main weight loss occurred was due to oxidation and removal of the volatile matters of the sample. The last region was due to oxidation of the char remaining after the volatiles were removed from the sample. Thermal kinetics of the first region which was due to moisture was not calculated. Duplicate experiments were done in order to observe reproducibility. Weight losses of the samples as compared to the regions are given in Table 4. As can be seen from Table 4, the largest weight loss was detected in the third region for pine samples (average 63%) among the investigated waste wood samples. For the treated Table 4 Weight loss of all samples for different regions Weight loss of samples, % by weight Region

P-10 P-20 P-30 M-10 M-20 M-30 PL-10 PL-20 PL-30 PB-10 PB-20 PB-30

1 2 3 4

4.7 4.3 65 26

5.9 4.7 63.4 26

5.4 5.6 63 26 ◦

4.5 7.7 52.2 35.6

4.6 9.1 52.8 33.5

5.16 7.95 53.7 33.19

6.1 5 55.4 33.5

7.8 2.13 61 29

4 2 61 33

7 8 54 31

8.5 5.5 51.6 33.4

4.41 3.58 59.83 32.18

P-10 = Pine sample at 10 C/min heating rate, M = MDF, PL = Plywood, PB = Particleboard

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Temperature (°C)

samples, smaller weight losses were observed in this region. However, for the fourth regions, the largest weight losses were seen for the treated waste wood samples. Owing to chemical treatment, probably lower percentages of volatile matters were released during the main oxidation region and this increased the amount of char in the treated wood samples. This indicated the catalytic effect of adsorbed chemicals in the treated samples on the oxidation behavior of the samples [5, 8, 4]. When the heating rate was increased, weight loss of the samples also increased. As heating rate was increased, higher temperatures were detected for the same weight loss for all samples, namely the highest temperatures were detected at ◦ ◦ 30 C/min heating rates, and the lowest temperatures were observed at 10 /min for the same weight loss. As can be seen from the Fig. 1, for the 60% weight loss, higher temperatures were observed for P-30 sample as compared to other samples, but after the 60% weight loss, the higher temperatures were observed for treated samples because of some chemicals used. Parallel weight losses were observed for other waste wood samples, especially PB and PL samples. The temperature of the peaks in the DTG curves depends on the heating regime [2]. Peak temperature (PT) and Burnout temperature (BT) are the main characteristic temperatures for the DTG curves. The peak temperature represents the place where the rate of weight loss is at maximum. This parameter is used mainly in the assessment of combustibility. Lower temperature shows the easily ignition. The burnout temperature shows the temperature where sample oxidation is completed [3]. The characteristic peak and burnout temperatures of all waste wood samples for the present study are given in Table 5. As can be seen from the table, generally speaking, when the heating rate was increased, peak and burnout temperatures also increased. Hence, when heating rate increased, ignitions of the samples were

P-10

600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100

P-20 P-30 M-20 M-30 PB-10 PB-20 PB-30 PL-10 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Weight loss (%)

100

PL-20 PL-30 M-10

Fig. 1 Temperature vs. weight losses of all samples at different heating rates

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S.Y. Yorulmaz and A. Atimtay Table 5 Peak and burnout temperatures of the samples Peak temperatures (o C) Sample

In third region

In fourth region

Burnout temperatures (o C)

P-10 P-20 P-30 M-10 M-20 M-30 PL-10 PL-20 PL-30 PB-10 PB-20 PB-30

358 366 371 341 346 352 326 324 374 321 332 362

510 523 520 509 514 537 464 448 554 466 483 550

553 555 575 567 570 583 500 500 620 510 520 610

difficult. Among all samples, pine samples had also the highest peak temperatures; therefore, pine samples could not be ignited easily among the other samples. For the thermal decomposition of the waste wood samples, the third region, where the highest and rapid weight loss occurred, played important role for the combustibility of the samples. For treated samples; MDF, particleboard and plywood, the third stage of thermal decomposition was observed at lower temperatures as compared to pine sample which is an untreated sample, because chemicals in the treated samples might catalyzed the decomposition of the cellulose which makes the whole oxidative decomposition of the wood occur at lower temperatures [5]. As a result of this, less flammable products were emitted and more char was observed from these treated samples [6]. However, in the present study char yields of the treated samples were found a little lower than the char yield in the literature as 11.1–17.7% [13]. This may be due to the different samples used in the literature. Low char yields of the treated flame retardancy is poor. When thermal kinetic results of all samples were examined by using Coats Redfern Method, for all heating rates, it can be seen that in the second regions, D1 mechanism in the third regions, D4 mechanism and in the fourth regions, D1 and D2 mechanisms were found as an effective solid state mechanisms for the oxidation process for untreated pine samples. For the treated samples such as MDF, plywood, particleboard samples, in second and fourth regions of these samples diffusion mechanisms; in the third region of the samples F1 mechanism was assumed as the main mechanism which is responsible for the oxidation of these samples. Therefore, for the thermal oxidation of the waste wood composites, in the main oxidation region F1 mechanism seems to be responsible mechanism; however for untreated samples D4 mechanism was found as an effective mechanism. As a conclusion, treatment of the wood with different additives and glues altered the thermal oxidation process and changed the effective mechanism.

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With Broido Method, good correlation coefficients were obtained for pine samples, except the third region. In the second region, higher correlation coefficients were found as compared to Coats Redfern Method. On the other hand, when activation energies and pre-exponential constants found with Broido Method were compared with that of Coats Redfern Method, dissimilar results were obtained especially in the third regions of the pine sample. However, in our study for treated samples, higher correlation coefficients were found in the main oxidation region as compared to untreated samples with Broido Method. It can be seen that such agreements are not surprising, because for the treated samples first order reaction was found as a responsible mechanism. Therefore, since Broido method was based on the first order reaction, good correlation coefficients were obtained. However, for the untreated samples lower correlation coefficients were found with Broido method as compared to treated samples in the main oxidation region, because for untreated samples D4 mechanism was found as a responsible mechanism and it is different than the first order models. In conclusion, it can be said that for the calculation of the kinetic constants in the main oxidation region for the treated samples Broido method is satisfactory. For the untreated samples the Coats Redfern Method can be preferred for the calculation of kinetic constants due to good correlation coefficients obtained and also due to the agreement of the results with literature. Comparison of the activation energies found in the present study and other studies in the literature are given in Table 6. For pine samples (i.e., untreated), the activation energy values and pre-exponential constant values of the samples were compared with treated samples (MDF, plywood, particleboard) higher activation energies were found for the main oxidation region. The presence of the inorganic materials influences the thermal degradation of the lignocellulosic materials and may act as a flame retardant by lowering the activation energy of the thermal reaction [4]. This also indicate that the chemicals in the waste wood samples change the mechanism of thermal decomposition in such a way as to reduce the decomposition temperatures of wood, which can lead to less flammable volatile products and more char [6]. When activation energies of the treated waste wood samples (MDF, particleboard and plywood samples) were compared with each other (Table 6), closer values were found because of the similar production techniques and chemicals. Consequently, it must be stated that the chemical composition of each type of wood together with the chemicals added to the wood for each application, have a very important function in the kinetic behavior of the thermal decomposition of the wood [9]. For all samples, activation energy and pre-exponential constant values were also affected by the heating rate because the temperature of the peaks in the DTG curves depends on the heating regime. Consequently, the kinetic parameters characterizing the different processes were anticipated to be different [2]. Especially in the third region of the samples, this effect was observed clearly, because activation energy and pre-exponential constant values were got higher with increasing heating rate. The highest activation energies and pre-exponential constant values were found in the third regions of all samples due to high volatile released in this region [2].

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Table 6 Comparison of the activation energies found in the present study with that of literature for the main oxidation, second and fourth region Ea (kJ/mole) in air atmosphere

Literature

Sample

Ea (kJ/mole) in nitrogen Third atmosphere region

Present study

Pine

–

123–136a (62–74)b

Second and fourth regions Second region Fourth region

MDF

–

45–50 (54–59)

Second region Fourth region

Particleboard

–

54–59 (63–69)

Second region Fourth region

Plywood

–

52–72 (62–82)

Second region Fourth region

Gao [5] ◦ (@ 10 C/min)c

Antal et al. [17] Reina et al. [9] ◦ (@ 5 C/min) Deka et al. [10] ◦ (@ 20◦ C/min) (@ 30 C/min) Zakrewski [12] (@ 5 o C/min) Schniewind [11]

Untreated wood

–

126

MF treated wood

–

95

MFP treated wood UDFP treated wood Wood Furniture Forest Pellet Untreated wood Treated wood Untreated wood Treated wood Pine wood

–

74

–

80

109–138 129.36 136.18 127.61 112 132–138 119 130–134 85.6–168.3

– – – – – – – – –

63–139

96–147

◦

Wood (T<300 C)

First region Third region First region Third region First region Third region First region Third region

23–28a (16–19)b 15–18a (35–40) 23–26 (16–17) 10–11 (35–38) 21–25 (15–17) 8–10 (27–35) 24–61 (17–36) 11–24 (31–45) 68 18 29 17 50 15 57 13

a Result

of the Coats Redfern Method for the highest correlation in the given regions show the results of the Broido method in the given regions c Results of the main oxidation region of the samples b Parenthesis

For all samples, the lowest activation energies for the Coats Redfern method were found in the last region due to lower content of the volatile matters in the samples (Table 6). This situation was also observed by Gao [5], however for the second region values of the activation energies were found lower than the results of the Gao,

Investigation of Combustion Kinetics of Five Waste Wood Samples with TGA

519

this was probably caused different reasons, mainly due to selection of the regions, difference between the heating rate, flow rate, operational conditions, sample size and amount and the other conditions. In addition to the operational conditions, sample type mainly affects the thermal constants, in the present study composite waste wood samples which were formed wood particles were used directly; however, Gao used the wood samples for the chemical treatment; therefore, for only one chemical type was studied, but in the present study different chemical and additives could be used for the production of the waste wood samples.

4 Conclusion • The TG curves for waste wood samples investigated in this study show four regions of thermal degradation in air. The first region on the DTG curve was due to the moisture in the sample. The second region was due to very volatile matters. The third region where the main weight loss occurred was due to the oxidation and removal of the volatile matters of the sample. The last region was due to the oxidation of the char remaining after the volatiles were removed from the sample. • Addition of the chemicals to the wood improved the fire retardancy of wood by lowering its weight loss rate, lowering peak temperatures for decomposition and by decreasing the formation of volatile combustibles through promotion of higher char yield as compared to the untreated sample. • When thermal kinetic results of pine samples were examined by using Coats Redfern Method, diffusion mechanisms were found to be an effective mechanism for all regions. For the main oxidation region, D4 mechanism (GinstlingBrounshtein equation) was found as the main diffusion mechanism for pine sample. • For the treated samples such as MDF, plywood and particleboard, diffusion mechanisms in the second and the fourth regions of these samples were found to be effective mechanisms. However, for the main oxidation region of these samples F1 mechanism (First order reaction) was assumed as main mechanism. Accordingly, treatment of the wood with different additives and glues seemed to alter the thermal oxidation process and change the effective mechanisms. • When activation energies are compared by using the Broido Method and the Coats Redfern Method, dissimilar results were obtained especially in the third region of the pine samples, but for the MDF, particleboard and plywood samples more similar results were found. • For treated samples (MDF, plywood and particleboard), lower activation energies were found for the main oxidation region because of the chemicals which may act as catalysts by lowering the activation energy of the thermal reaction. Consequently, chemicals added to wood for different purposes, have a very important role in the kinetic behavior of the thermal decomposition of the wood.

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References 1. Minying L, Lijun G et al (2003) Thermal degradation process and kinetics of poly (dodecamethyleneisophthalamide). CJI 5(6):43 2. Vlaev LT, Markovska IG, Lyubchev LA (2003) Thermochemica Acta 406:1–7 3. Sonibare OO, Ehinola OA, Egashira R, KeanGiap L (2005) An investigation into the thermal decomposition of Nigerian Coal. J Appl Sci 5:104–107 4. Nassar MM (2004) Kinetic and thermodynamic parameters during thermal decomposition of dye adsorbent bagasse. Energy Sour 26:1357–1362 5. Gao M (2004) Thermal degradation of wood in air and nitrogen treated with basic nitrogen compounds and phosphoric acid. Combustion Sci Technol 176:2057–2070 6. Gao M, Pan DX (2003) Study on the thermal degradation of wood treated with amino resin and amino resin modified with phosphoric acid. J Fire Sci 21:189–201 7. Sun JT, Huang YD et al (2006) Thermal degradation kinetics of poly(methylphenylsiloxane) containing methacryloyl groups. Polym Degrad Stab 91:339–346 8. Getto H, Ishihara S (1998) The functional gradient of fire resistance laminated board. Fire Mater 22:89–94 9. Reina J, Velo E, Puigjaner L (1998) Thermogravimetric study of the pyrolysis of waste wood. Thermochimica Acta 320:161–167 10. Deka M, Saikia CN, Baruah KK (2002) Studies on thermal degradation and termite resistant properties of chemically modified wood. Bioresorce Technol 84:151–157 11. Schniewind AP (1989) Concise encyclopedia of wood and wood based materials, 1st edn. Pergamon Press, Elmsford, pp 271–273 12. Zakrzewski R (2003) Pyrolysis kinetics of wood comparison of iso and polythermal thermogravimetric methods. Electr J Polish Agric Univ 6:2 13. Lee HL, Chen GC, Rowell RM (2004) Thermal properties of wood reacted with a phosphate pentoxide amine system. J Appl Polym Sci 91:2465–2481 14. Jianzhong X, Xiaolong Z, Hongqiang Q (2004) Study on the thermal stability of flame retardant wools. CJI 6(10):74 15. Liu NA, Fan WC (1998) The kinetic methods for which no assumption about the order of reaction is needed. Fire Mater 22:219–220 16. Ragland KW, Aerts DJ, Baker AJ (1991) Properties of Wood for Combustion Analysis. Bioresource Technology 37:161–168 17. Antal MJ, Gronli M (2003) The art, science and technology of charcoal production. Ind. Engin. Chem. Res. 42: 1619–1640

On Integration of Mirror Collector and Stirling Engine for Solar Power System B.F. Yousif, Ammar Al-Shalabi, and Dirk G. Rilling

Abstract In the current work, several types of solar collectors, i.e. parabolic, cylindrical, and mirrors, were designed and fabricated. The aim of this study is to integrate the optimum collector with Stirling engine in Malacca city, Malaysia. Stirling engine was designed using CATIA software. The solar collectors were tested for several sunny days and the temperature in the focus point was measured. Comparing the experiment results shows that mirror solar collector introduces ◦ highest temperature among others, which was about 190 C. According to that temperature, the Stirling engine has been designed in bore piston dimension of 50 mm. Alpha Stirling engine type was selected for this purpose, which may run in this range of temperature. Keywords Solar power · Collector · Stirling engine · Solar energy

1 Introduction Nowadays, need of energy and increasing environmental awareness, alternatives to fossil fuels are being of high concern to many engineers. One of the alternative resources is solar energy, which are free, clean and free of environmental pollution [10, 11]. Solar energy is simply the energy which is produced directly from the sun light. There are many reported methods to implement the solar energy for useful life applications, such as solar water heater system [7], solar dryer system [7], and solar power generator [7, 15, 9, 2, 12]. In the last decades, there have been many research attempts to run the external combustion engines, such as Stirling engine, using solar energy [3], it has been reported by Abdullah et al. [2] that the maximum temperature gain is about B.F. Yousif (B) Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Malacca Campus, Multimedia University, 75450 MMU, Malacca, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_47, 

521

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◦

70 C. Using hot water as a heat resource [2]. Meanwhile, in using mirror collectors, high temperature may be obtained [7, 12]. Currently, Stirling engine is one of the most efficient devices for converting solar heat into mechanical work and an ideal candidate for harvesting the power from the sun [15]. Integrating Stirling engine with high temperature solar collector is carried out in Malacca city in Malaysia where there is only one season which is always hot. In the present work, several types of solar collectors (mirror collector, parabolic, and cylindrical trough) are designed, fabricated and tested. Mirror collector is selected as the best to be integrated with the proposed Stirling engine.

2 Solar Collector Design Generally, there are two main parts of concentrating collector, concentrator and receiver. Concentrator can be cylindrical or parabolic, continuous or segmented. Receiver can be convex, flat, cylindrical or concave, and can be covered with glazing or uncovered. Some important parameters are to be considered in the design of concentrating collector such as concentrating ratio, rim angle, reflective surface, receiver material, collector orientation and mode of tracking. Concentrating ratio is the ratio of aperture area (opening area of solar collector) to receiver area; it can vary over several orders of magnitude. An increased concentrating ratio corresponds to increased temperature at which energy can be delivered but this increases the requirement for precision in concentrator quality and positioning of the concentrator [6]. Rim angle is defined as the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray. Materials used in the collector affect its performance. For concentrator, material with better reflectance is preferred since it needs to reflect as much solar radiation as possible. And, it must have long life and low cost because the reflecting surface may deteriorate when exposed to weather. The common materials used are, for instance, polished aluminum surface and iron glass mirror. The essential task of a receiver is to absorb maximum amount of reflected solar energy and transfer it to heat with minimum losses to the surrounding. The commonly used materials are copper and brass. Concentrating collector can be orientated east-west tracking north-south or orientated north-south tracking east-west [11].

2.1 Parabolic Trough Collector The scale model of this collector (Fig. 1) uses a piece of shining aluminum shield as a concentrator (reflective surface) while a solid brass rod as the receiver. These two materials are selected due to their low cost and availability. Aluminum shield is easy to fabricate and form into parabolic shape to develop the parabolic trough. Both materials have been cleaned before put into use. The trough is made base on a parabola function,

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Fig. 1 Scale model of parabolic trough collector in 3-D view in catia. 1. Polystyrene, 2. Aluminum shield, 3. Brass rod

y=

x2 4f

where y and x are the coordinates of trough and f is its focal point location from the vertex of the parabolic trough. This function is used to calculate the size of the trough when the focal point location is selected [4]. A focal point of 5.08 cm from vertex is selected. The receiver (brass rod) is placed at this position, creating a focal line. At this position, it is near to the trough’s surface, thus reducing the heat convection loss between them since the gap is small. To reduce heat conduction loss from the receiver, a brass rod of less surface area is selected. By reducing overall heat loss, a higher temperature can be obtained at the receiver. The frame and support of the parabolic trough are made of polystyrene due to its low cost, light weight, and moreover it is easy to fabricate. In order to obtain maximum possible temperature and to save cost, the parabolic trough is manually adjustable to track the sun motion for sharp focal on the receiver. The designed collector is a single axis tracking type. Thus, the scale model of this collector is orientated north-south tracking east-west. The dimension of aluminum shield and solid brass rod are shown in Table 1 and the parameter of parabolic trough collector is shown in Table 2. Table 1 Dimension of aluminum shield and solid brass rod Part

Diameter (cm)

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Aluminum shield Solid brass rod

– 0.8

38.1 81.3

60.96 –

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Table 2 Parameter of parabolic trough collector

Parameter

Unit

Rim angle Aperture area Concentration ratio

127◦ 1548.38 cm2 16:1

2.2 Iron Glass Mirror Collector The glass collector (Fig. 2) uses 81 pieces of iron glass mirror as a concentrator. The concentrator is a point focusing type. A copper plate is used as receiver. The dimension of iron glass mirror and copper plate is shown in Table 3 and the parameter of parabolic trough collector is shown in Table 4. The mirrors are used to stimulate the paraboloid shape to focus the reflected ray to receiver as one focal point according to the law of reflection. Figure 3 explains that the angle of incidence at which a ray intersects a reflective plane is equal to the

Fig. 2 Iron glass mirror collector. 1. Concentrator frame in paraboloid shape to attach 81 pieces iron glass mirrors, 2. Support plate

Table 3 Dimension of iron glass mirror and copper plate Part

Length (cm)

Width (cm)

Quantity (pcs)

Iron glass mirror Copper plate

14 14

10 10

20 1

On Integration of Mirror Collector and Stirling Engine for Solar Power System Table 4 Parameter of parabolic trough collector

525

Parameter

Unit

Rim angle Aperture area Concentration ratio

37◦ 2800 cm2 20:1

n

Fig. 3 Law of reflection

Reflected ray

Incident ray

i

r

Reflective surface

Angle i = Angle r

Fig. 4 Reflection of incident ray from iron glass mirror to focal point

f i r Iron glass mirror

y

x

angle of reflection at which the ray is reflected [5]. Figure 4 shows the reflection of incident ray from iron glass mirror to focal point. To simulate the paraboloid shape, each mirror is arranged by having five mirrors in a row and each row is stacked above one another, giving a total of four rows. A manually adjustable support behind each mirror allows the mirrors to focus the sun ray on the receiver according to sun motion. A parabola function is used to calculate the exact position of each mirror to be attached to a frame by setting fixed value for coordinate x and focus point f [4].

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3 Stirling Engine Commonly, solar powered Stirling engines are classified according to the operating temperature difference, regardless of kinematics or “free piston”, non physical linkage; High Differential Temperature Stirling Engine (HDTS) and Low Differential Temperature Stirling Engine (LDTS) [1]. These engines are used to power application like water pump, electricity generator or even refrigeration cooler [8]. In this paper, an alpha-type engine is suggested. A simple thermodynamic model is set up to obtain the necessary basic design parameters for the Stirling engine. Although Stirling engine operates in a close cycle with consistent gas composition, it is still very difficult to simulate the actual process as the working fluid travels across different chambers and has varying heat transfer rate; therefore a standard ideal gas cycle is considered as an approximate substitute to the real cycle [17]. Figure 5 is used to develop the energy equation and subsequently the thermodynamic model. The separated expansion cylinder is the sole power provider for the focus of analysis, thus simplifying the task. The energy equation can be simplified as the gross heat input. The QH and QL describe the heat flux entering and leaving the thermal engine. Energy equation: Qin = QH − QL The working gas of the engine is atmospheric air (treated as ideal gas), and assumed to be working under normal atmospheric pressure of one bar. The heat transfer and the working gas flow friction losses in the engine are insignificant, and should be ignored; but those losses will be taken into account in the later stages. The classical Schmidt analysis has been the simplest and most widely used method in Stirling engine design. Although subjected to limitations [1], the analysis is still able to provide a lot of useful information. Due to the fact that the working concept is based on an ideal isothermal model; the thermal efficiency should be reduced to the simple Carnot Efficiency [14]. Consequently, it is possible and much more convenient to start the engine design with a classical Carnot Cycle [19] without much error.

Ideal thermal efficiency: (η)Stirling = 1 −

Q Fig. 5 Stirling engine schematic model

Expansion Chamber

TLow THigh



Piston

Working Gas

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However in actual situation, the maximum achievable efficiency may only reach about 50% of the theoretical ideal Carnot value [16]. In short, the engine suggested for this paper must produce at least as twice as much power in the analysis of the desired load required. By substituting a coefficient, the losses will be more or less compensated. Then, multiplying the equation with heat input which will yield the estimated actual work produce: WStirling



 1 TLow = Qin 1 − 2 THigh

From the equation, the temperature difference is directly proportional to the engine performance. Therefore, the solar collector is designed to achieve the highest temperature difference possible. In the design, the engine needs to cater power requirement to run the desired application and compensate all loses in the system. Therefore, the gross indicated power can be generalized as shown. (W)Indicated = (W)Brake + (W)Losses,System After the initial design, all the parameters will be optimized to maximize thermal efficiency and avoid lose to produce the highest output possible.

4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Solar Collector The temperature achieved by the solar collector is measured at its receiver when exposed to solar radiation. A parabolic trough with the entire parallel ray from sunlight reflected to a focal line which is formed along the brass rod (receiver). A parabolic trough is not symmetrical to rotation about its focal point. Thus, if the incident beam of parallel rays (solar radiation) is even slightly off normal to the trough aperture, beam dispersion occurs, resulting in spreading of the image at the focal line [18]. Since the trough is manually adjusted, there is always some beam dispersion, which reduces the possible maximum temperature. The temperature achieved by the collector is shown in Fig. 6. It is obvious that there is fluctuation in the temperature. The fluctuation is caused by the blocking of sun by moving cloud and wind blow. The sun’s intensity is reduced when blocked, causing the decrease in temperature. The temperature also drops when there is light wind blow due to greater degree of convective heat loss of the receiver to the surrounding. For this collector, the sun ray is reflected to a focal point (copper plate). In order to obtain maximal temperature, each mirror is manually adjusted every 15 minutes to track the sun motion. From Fig. 7, it is noticed that the temperature obtained is not

528 160 140 Temperature oC

Fig. 6 Temperature measurement of parabolic trough collector, 2005

B.F. Yousif et al.

136.5

120

117.7

100

97.3

80

76.9

105.5

118.6

101.6 89.9 78.2

84.6 63.7

100.6

60 40

temperature max temperature average temperature min

20 0 31/8

4/9

2/9

5/9

Fig. 7 Temperature measurement of iron glass mirror collector, 2005

Temperature °C

Date

200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

184.8

162.9

189.9 160.1

141.45

145.3

120

123.85

144.7

130.3

104.6

102.4

temperature max temperature average temperature min 31/8

2/9

4/9

5/9

Date

constant due to cloudy weather and wind blow. Overall temperature also decreases at late evening because the collector has already reached the maximum adjustable angle. Basically, the common features between the two collectors are using parabola as its concentrator and they are categorized as concentrating collector which track the sun motion. However, there are few differences between them. Firstly, the reflective material used for the parabolic trough collector is continuous shining aluminum shield and the other one made used of segmented iron glass mirror which form the parabolic shape. And, the reflectance of the shining aluminum shield surface is in the range of 0.8–0.9. The reflectance of the iron glass mirror is above 0.9 which gives better temperature reading as compare with parabolic trough collector [13].

4.2 Stirling Engine Design Initial design of the engine is started with bore dimension of 50 and 100 mm stroke according to the estimated maximum temperature from the solar collectors. Figures 8 and 9 show the first design drafting for the engine.

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Fig. 8 Two dimensional drawing of stirling engine design in catia

Fig. 9 Three dimensional model of stirling engine in catia. 1. Expansion Cylinder with integrated heater, 2. Compression Cylinder, 3. Piston, 4. Connecting Rod, 5. Fly Wheel, 6. Support Stand

Alpha-type engine was opted for several reasons. Firstly, the simplicity of construction; components are easily fabricated from items available in market and it can be modified easily. The drive mechanism is simple. Integrated heater with expansion cylinder eliminates the need to heat regenerator and minimizes dead volume in the system. Besides that, it is far away from the compression cylinder.

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The engine parameters will be optimized in a series of iteration process to acquired the best performance in between the trade offs.

5 Conclusion Generally, the iron glass mirror collector shows the highest temperature as compared to parabolic trough collector. The highest temperature obtained by iron glass mirror and parabolic trough collector is 189.9 and 136.5◦C respectively. This is because the reflectance of mirror is higher than aluminum shield and the iron glass mirror collector has greater concentration ratio. As explained earlier, higher concentration ratio corrresponds to higher maximum temperature. The configuration of the scale model for both collectors is still in testing stage. There are more corrections need to be done to improve the performance. The engine design is still in the initial stage, all the details are merely for demonstration purpose only. More work will be following to complete the design.

References 1. Abdullah S, Sopian K, Ali Y (2000) Design of an environment friendly solar water pumping system using the stirling engine. Proc. Reg. Conf. Energy Envionment, Malayisa, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Malaysia 2. Abdullah S, Yousif BF, Sopian K (2005), Design consideration of low temperature differential double-acting Stirling engine for solar application. Renewable Energy 30(12);Oct 2005: 1923–1941 3. Bancha K, Somchai W (2005) Optimum absorber temperature of a once-reflecting full conical concentrator of a low temperature differential Stirling engine. Renewable Energy 30(11);Sept 2005:1671–1687 4. Dendane A.(2007) Find the focus of parabolic dish antennas;5. Future Scientists and Engineering of America, FSEA Project Plan (1999). Retrieved November 15, 2009 from http://www.analyzemath.com/parabola/parabola_focus.html. 5. Future Scientists and Engineering of America, FSEA Project Plan (1999) 6. Kreith F, Kreider JF (1978) Principle of solar engineering. McGraw Hill, New York 7. Mills D (2004) Advances in solar thermal electricity technology. Solar Energy 76(1–3); Jan-Mar 2004:19–31 8. Organ AJ (1997) The regenerator and the stirling engine. MEP, London 9. Pongsakorn K, Maung M, Sombat T, Jongjit H, Joseph K, Belkacem Z (2005) Development of a new solar thermal engine system for circulating water for aeration. Solar Energy 78(4); Apr 2005:518–527 10. Senft JR (1993) General analysis of the mechanical efficiency of reciprocating heat engines. J Franklin Inst 330(5); Sept 1993:967–984 11. Kalogirou SA (2004) Solar thermal collectors and application, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Higher Technical Institute, Cyprus 12. Theocharis T, Vasilis G, Katerina M (2003) Technical and economical evaluation of solar thermal power generation. Renewable Energy 28(6);May 2003:873–886 13. Tripanagnostopoulos Y, Yianoulis P, Papaefthimiou S, Zafeiratos S (2000) CPC solar collectors with flat bifacial absorbers. Solar Energy, 69: 171–203 14. Urieli I, Berchowitz D (1984) Stirling cycle engine analysis. Adam Hilger Ltd., Bristol

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15. Valdès C (2004) Competitive solar heat engines. Renewable Energy 29(11);Sept 2004: 1825–1842 16. Walker G (1980) Stirling engine. Claredon Press, Oxford 17. Willard WP (1997) Engine cycles, engineering fundamentals of the internal combustion engine (International edn). Pearson Prentice Hall, London 18. Stine WB, Geyer M (2001) Power from the sun. http://www.powerfromthesun.net 19. Yunus AC, Boles MA (2002) Thermodynamics, an engineering approach, 4th edn. McGraw Hill, New York

Part V

Environment and Health

Antioxidant Activities of Molokhia (Corchorus olitorius L.) Extracts Nilgün Öztürk and Filiz Savaro˘glu

Abstract Corchorus olitorius L. (Molokhia) (Tiliaceae), collected from the Do˘ganci, Güzelyurt, Northern Cyprus, infusion and extracts with different polarities have been studied for their polyphenolic contents and antioxidant activities. Total phenolic content was determined spectrometrically according to the Folin-Ciocalteu method and calculated as gallic acid equivalents (GAE). Antioxidant activitiy was studied in an aqueous emulsion system of β-carotene and linoleic acid by measuring the absorbance of the samples. The free radical-scavenging properties were also evaluated against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl radical (DPPH• ). Results were compared those of an synthetic antioxidant, BHT. Antioxidant effects were correlated with the total amount of phenolic compounds contained in the extracts. In all these cases higher antioxidant activity was seen in the samples with higher phenolic content. Keywords Corchorus olitorius L · Molokhia · Antioxidant activity · Antiradical activity

1 Introduction Fruits and vegetables have a regular place in traditional vegetarian cuisine. Green leafy vegetables are more common in daily diet than other vegetables. These vegetables are rich in potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus, vitamins C, E, K and carotenoids. The protective action of vegetables has been attributed to the presence of antioxidants, especially antioxidant vitamins including ascorbic acid, α-tocopherol and β-carotene [1].

N. Öztürk (B) Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Anadolu Tepebasi, 26470 Eskisehir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_48, 

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However numerous studies have conclusively shown that the majority of the antioxidant activity may be from compounds such as flavonoids, isoflavone, flavones, anthocyanin, catechin and isocatechin rather than from Vitamin C, E and β-carotene. They retard oxidative degradation of lipids and there by improve the quality and nutritional value of food [2]. In addition; epidemiological studies have shown that consumption of food rich in phenolic content can reduce the risk of heart disease by slowing the progression of atherosclerosis by acting as anti-oxidants towards low-density lipo- protein (LDL) [3]. Considering the chemical diversity of the antioxidant compounds present in foods and the interaction occurring among those different molecules, the evaluation of the total antioxidant capacity of foods seems to be a more useful marker than the evaluation of single compound. However, no single method to test the total antioxidant capacity of foods fully consider, at the same time, the activity of all the antioxidant compounds [4–5]. The genus Corchorus comprises certain herbs and shrubs. It contains about 100 species which are distributed in the tropics and subtropics, chiefly South-East Asia and South America. Corchorus olitorius Linn., commonly known as jute, belongs to the botanical family Tiliaceae. It is also known as Moroheiya in Japan, Molehiya in Cyprus and Philippines. Jute is an annual herb with slender stems and an important green leafy vegetable in many tropical areas including Egypt, Sudan, India, Bangladesh, tropical Asia such as the Philippines and Malaysia, tropical Africa, Japan, South America, the Caribbean and Cyprus. In West African countries particularly Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone, where staple diets consist of starchy food-stuffs like rice, cassava, maize and yams, leafy vegetables are used to complement such staple foods [6]. C. olitorius, which is cultivated to provide bark for the production of fibres (Jute) and mucilaginous leaves for using in food as a vegetable [7–8], is extensively consumed as a “health vegetable” in Japan, because it contains abundant carotenoids, vitamin A, B1 , B2 , C and E, minerals including calcium and iron and other micronutrients and high levels of all essential amino acids except methionine [9]. It has high protein and is, along with other leafy species, the main source of dietary protein in many tropical countries [6]. The seeds are used as purgative and antibacterial [10], and they are contain cardenolide glycosides [11–12]. The leaves are used as demulscent, diuretic, febrifuge (infusion) and in chronic cystitis and dysuria. The aqueous solution of the leaves was found to decrease hyperglycaemea in mice, guinea-pigs and rabbits. it promoted the degradation of glucose [8]. In addition, the antioxidative activity of C. olitorius leaves was assayed by using a linoleic acid system, was reported six phenolic antioxidative compounds (5-caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid), 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, quercetin 3-galactoside, quercetin 3-glucoside, quercetin 3-(6-malonylglucoside), and quercetin 3-(6-malonylgalactoside)) [13]. In this study, we examined the antioxidant activity of molokhia (C. olitorius), employing various in vitro assay systems, such as the β-carotene linoleate model system, DPPH radical scavenging, in order to understand the usefulness of this plant as a foodstuff. as well as in medicine. The results were related to the total phenolic content determined by the Folin–Ciocalteu method, and were compared with those exhibited by a reference substance, butylated hydroxytoluol (BHT).

Antioxidant Activities of Molokhia (Corchorus olitorius L.) Extracts

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2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Plant Materials Corchorus olitorius L. (Molokhia) (Tiliaceae), collected from the Do˘ganci, Güzelyurt, in Northern Cyprus. The voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of the Faculty of Science and Arts, Eski¸sehir Osmangazi University, Eski¸sehir-Turkey (ESOGU).

2.2 Chemicals BHT and Folin Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent, β-caroten, linoleic acid and Tween 80 were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO), 2,2-diphenyl-1picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH. ) and all solvents were from Aldrich Chemical Co. (Milwaukee, WI). All solvents used were of analytical grade.

2.3 Preparation of the Extracts Dried and powdered C. olitorius leaves were extracted with petroleum ether to remove fats and chlorophyl. Fat-free air dried material was extracted with aqueous methanol (70%) at 40◦ C water bath 30 s (4×). MeOH was removed under reduced pressure by a rotary evaporator and the remaining aqueous solution was lyophilizied (MF). This extraction process was repeated and aqueous methanol extraction was partitioned with ethylacetate, in order to obtain compounds in different polarity. After concentration under reduced pressure a dark green ethyl acetate fraction was obtained (EF). The remaining water fraction was freeze dried (WF). In addition, 2% infusion (in water) was prepared from C. olitorius leavesand after the water fraction was freeze dried (Cinf). All fractions (MF, EF and WF) and infusion (Cinf) obtained were weighed to determine the yields of soluble constituents, total phenolic content and their antioxidant activity.

2.4 Total Phenolics Determination Antioxidant compounds generally contains phenolic group(s). Because of this, amounts of phenolic compounds in each of the fractions were compared to obtain more information about the fraction(s) which posses(s) antioxidant potential. The total phenolics were determined by the Folin-Ciocaltaeu colorimetric method [14] as follows: Samples (0.5 ml) were introduced into test tubes; 2.5 ml of Folin Ciocalteu (10% in water) reagent solution and 7.5 ml of Na2 CO3 (20% in water) solution were added. The tubes were mixed and allowed to stand at room temperature in the dark

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for 2 h. Absorption at 750 nm was measured. A standard curve was prepared with gallic acid of known concentrations. Total phenolic content was expressed as gallic acid equivalents (GAE) in mg/g dry material. The results are expressed as average of three measurements.

2.5 Antioxidant Activity Evaluation 2.5.1 Free Radical Scavenging Activity on DPPH The DPPH method is representative of the methods employing model radicals in the evaluation of radical scavengers; such methods have gained high popularity over the last decade because of their rapidity and sensitivity. Free radical scavenging effects of the fractions on DPPH were estimated according to the method of Sanchez-Moreno [15] with some modification. An aliquot of methanol (0.3 ml), solution containing different sample concentrations (3 μg/ml)) was added to 3 ml of 0.05 mM 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH. ) in methanol prepared daily. The mixture was shaken vigorously and left standing at room temperature for 30 min; absorbance of the resulting solution was then measured spectrophotometrically at 517 nm. Decreasing of the DPPH solution absorbance indicates an increase of the DPPH radical-scavenging activity. The radical scavenging activity of the tested samples, expressed as percentage inhibition against DPPH, was calculated as follows: Inhibition (% ) = [(Acontrol - Asample)/Acontrol] × 100. Free radical scavenging activity determination was repeated four times for each sample and the means are reported. The DPPH solution without sample solution was used as control.

2.6 β-Caroten Bleaching System (BCB) The antioxidative activity of extracts was evaluated using the β-carotene-linoleic acid model system as described by Maure [16]. Briefly, 10 mg β-carotene was dissolved in 3 ml of chloroform. The solution was added to 40 mg linoleic acid and 400 mg Tween 80. After removing the chloroform using a rotary evaporator at 40◦ C, oxygenated distilled water (100 ml) was added to the β-carotene-linoleic acid emulsion with vigorously shaking. 3 ml of this solution were mixed with 200 μl extract prepared at 0.2 mg/ml concentration. After incubation at 50◦ C for 180 min, absorbance of each sample at 470 nm was monitored at time intervals of 15 min during 180 min. Antioxidant activities of extracts were compared with those of BHT at the same concentration and blank consisting of 0.2 ml of methanol. The antioxidant activity (AA) was calculated from the following equation:

Antioxidant Activities of Molokhia (Corchorus olitorius L.) Extracts

AA =

539

A s − Ac × 100 A0 − Ac

where, As and Ac are absorbances of sample and control, respectively at 180 min; A0 is absorbance at 470 nm of sample at the start of test.

3 Results 3.1 Total Phenolics Content Table 1 shows an overview of jute leaves, as well as the extraction yields expressed as percentage of dry matter and total phenols, for the extracts and infusion. The extraction yields range from 2.91% plant material for CEE to 28.03% plant material for CME. Table 1 Total phenolics contents and yields of extracts obtained from jute leaves Extracts

Extraction yield (%)a

Total phenolic contentb,c

C. olitorius-methanol (CME) C. olitorius-ethylacetate (CEE) C. olitorius-water (CWE) C. olitorius-infusion (Cinf)

28.03 2.91 21.91 21.27

42.50 ± 1.39 137.42 ± 1.09 20.46 ± 1.71 25.05 ± 1.07

w/w on dry weight basis, b mg GAE∗ /g extract, c results are represented as means ± standard deviation (n = 3) a %,

Phenolic substances have been shown to be responsible for the antioxidant activity of plant materials. Therefore, the amount of total phenols in the extracts was investigated by the Folin- Ciocalteu method. The content of total phenols is expressed as gallic acid equivalents (mg gallic acid/g extract). The highest total phenolic contents were detected for ethyl-acetate extracts, the lowest total phenolic contents were detected for water extracts. Total phenols in all fractions varied from 20.46 mg/g extract of GAE in C. olitorius-water extract (CWF) to 137.42 mg/g extract of GAE in C. olitorius-ethylacetate extract(CEF).

3.2 Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity The presence of different anti-oxidant components in plant tissues especially fruits and vegetables make it relatively difficult to measure each anti- oxidant component separately. Therefore several methods have been developed in recent years to calculate the total anti-oxidant activity of biological samples.

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3.3 Antiradical Activity The DPPH. free radical method determines the antiradical power of antioxidants [15]. DPPH radical-scavenging activities of each of fractions (1.6 μg/ml) were measured. Figure 1 shows the effect of the fractions obtained from C. olitorius on the reduction of DPPH. As shown in Fig. 1, there were big differences in antiradical activities between the investigated C. olitorius fractions. Ethyl-acetate fractions were found to effectively scavenge free radicals generated by DPPH. The lowest activity was shown water fractions. Among the investigated fractions; the CEF (34.97%, value of inhibition %) showed the highest DPPH radical-scavenging activity and amount of total phenolic compounds. However, the antioxidant activities of extracts and fractions were lower than that of synthetic antioxidant, BHT (60.04%, value of inhibition %). 70,00

Fig. 1 The antiradical activities of C. olitorius extracts and infusions Inhibition (%)

60,00 50,00 40,00 30,00 20,00 10,00 0,00 CME

CEA

CWE samples

Cinf

BHT

3.4 β-Caroten Bleaching System (BCB) The method is based on the loss of the yellow colour of β-carotene due to its reaction with radicals which are formed by linoleic acid oxidation in an emulsion. β-Carotene bleaching, measured by the decrease in the initial absorbance at 470 nm, is slowed down in the presence of antioxidants. The method is widely used in the AOA evaluation of different types of samples [17]. The decrease in absorbance of β-carotene in the presence of different extracts with the oxidation of β-carotene and linoleic acid is shown in Fig. 2. For easier comparison the antioxidant activities of the extracts, the data calculated at 180 min are additionally presented in the form of values collected in Fig. 2. The antioxidant activity of extracts ranged from 12.5 to 27.25%. As results from Table 2, ethylacetate fraction exhibited significantly neutralizing activity (27.25%) of free radicals. However, activity of fractions was not comparable with the activity of BHT. In this work, the highest antioxidant activity found was from the synthetic antioxidant (i.e. BHT).

Antioxidant Activities of Molokhia (Corchorus olitorius L.) Extracts

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absorbance (at 470 nm)

0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0

0'

15' 30' 45' 60' 75' 90' 105' 120' 135' 150' 165' 180 time (sec)

BHT

C-inf

C-EA

C-ME

C-W

control

Fig. 2 Anti-oxidant activity measured by bleaching of linoleic acid–β-carotene emulsion

Table 2 Percentage of inhibition estimated by means of antiradical activity (on DPPH) and β-carotene bleaching methods of C. olitorius leaves extracts Extracts

Total phenolic content

Inhibition (%)a

Antioxidant ındexb

C. olitorius-methanol (CME) C. olitorius-ethylacetate (CEE) C. olitorius-water (CWE) C.olitorius-infusion (Cinf) BHT

42.50 ± 1.39 137.42 ± 1.09 20.46 ± 1.71 25.05 ± 1.07

25.68 ± 0.78 34.97 ± 0.85 26.78 ± 0.73 9.08 ± 0.97 60.04 ± 1.02

18.00 ± 0.83 27.25 ± 0.94 12.5 ± 0.85 18.25 ± 0.09 82.64 ± 1.02

a Inhibition

(%) value estimated by DPPH, b antioxidant Index estimated by BCB method

4 Conclusion The study clearly indicates that it is important to measure the antioxidant activity using various radicals and oxidation systems and to take both phenolic content and antioxidant activity into account while evaluating the antioxidant potential of plant extracts. As previously described [18] the use of different methods is necessary in antioxidant activity assessment. The presented study shows that no single testing method is sufficient to estimate the antioxidant activity of a studied sample. The BCB method can be helpful especially for investigations of lipophilic antioxidants. On the other hand, if polar compounds (ascorbic acid, rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid etc.) are tested only by the BCB method they would be considered as weak antioxidants [16]. The DPPH method is faster than BCB method and it can be helpful in investigation of novel antioxidants for a rapid estimation and preliminary information of radical scavenging abilities. The method is sensitive and requires small sample amounts. DPPH allow testing of both lipophilic and hydrophilic substances [15].

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In this study, we present results on the antioxidant activity of extracts obtained from C. olitorius leaves. At only specific data on the antioxidative properties of C. olitorius leaves, the acidic n-BuOH fraction of MeOH extract, was relatively high antioxidative activity was also found in the neutral aqueous fraction of the MeOH extract of C. olitorius leaves [13]. The antioxidant activity of this fraction was measured using the radical generator-initiated peroxidation of linoleic acid. Similarly, in our study, the ethyl acetate extract, the highest total phenolic contents, found to have the highest antioxidant activity in the assays (Figs. 1, 2, Table 2). The weakest antiradical activity was shown at Cinf and the weakest antioxidant activity was also shown at CWE. Green leafy vegetables are rich sources of antioxidant micronutrients and should be included in diets as promising means to exert protective effects. Creating awareness about these aspects could provide health benefits to the consumer. This would enable an increase the quality of life, especially among the elderly population, which is more vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies and to oxidative stress related health disorders. Acknowledgment Authors acknowledge to the Research Foundation of University of Anadolu (Project No: 30353) and of Plant, Drug and Scientific Research Centre of Anadolu Univercity (AUBIBAM) for their kindly support of this study.

References 1. Hasler CM (1998) Functional foods: Their role in disease prevention and health promotion. Food Tech 52:63–70 2. Kahkonen MP, Hopia AI, Vuorela HJ (1999) Antioxidant activity of plant extracts containing phenolic compounds. J Agric Food Chem 47:3954–3962 3. Frankel EN, Waterhouse AL, Teissedre PL (1995) Principal phenolic phytochemicals in selected California wines and their antioxidant activity in inhibiting oxidation of human low-density lipoprotins. J Agric Food Chem 43:890–894 4. Antolovich M, Prenzler PD, Patsalides E, McDonald S, Robards K (2002) Methods for testing antioxidant activity. Analyst 127:183–198 5. Shahidi F, Wanasundara PKJ (1992) Phenolic antioxidants. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 32:67–103 6. Tulio JAZ, Ose K, Chachin K, Ueda Y (2002) Effects of storage temperatures on the postharvest quality of jute leaves (Corchorus olitorius L.). Postharvest Biol Technol 26:329–338 7. Meikle, RD (1977) Flora of Cyprus, vol. 1, Published by The Bentham,– Moxon Trust Royal Gardens, Kew 8. Abou Zeid AHS (2002) Stress metabolites from Corchorus olitorius L. leaves in response to certain stress agents. Food Chem 76:187–195 9. Matsufuji H, Sakai S, Chino M, Goda Y, Toyoda M, Takeda M (2001) Relationship between cardiac glycoside contents and color of Corchorus olitorius seeds. J Health Sci 47:89–93 10. Pal DK, Mandal M, Senthilkumar GP, Padhiari A (2006) Antibacterial activity of Cuscuta reflexa stem and Corchorus olitorius seed. Fitoterapia 77(7–8):589–591 11. Nakamura T, Goda Y, Sakai S, Kondo K, Akiyama H, Toyoda M (1998) Cardenolide glycosides from seeds of Corchorus olitorius. Phytochem 49:2097–2101 12. Gupta M, Mazumder UK, Pal DK, Bhattacharya S (2003) Onset of puberty and ovarian steroidogenesis following adminstration of methanolic extract of Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. stem and Corchorus olitorius Linn. seed in mice. J Ethnopharmacol 89:55–59 13. Azuma K, Nakayama M, Koshioka M, Ippoushi K, Yamaguchi Y, Kohata K, Yamauchi Y, Ito H, Higashio H (1999) Phenolic antioxidants from the leaves of Corchorus olitorius L. J Agric Food Chem 47:3963–3966

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14. Hoff J-F, Singleton T-J (1977) A method for determination of tannin in foods by means of immobilized enzymes. J Food Sci 42:1956 15. Sanchez-Moreno C, Larrauri JA, Saura-Calixto F (1998) A procedure to measure the antiradical efficiency of phenols. J Food Sci 76:270–76 16. Maure A, Cruz JM, Franco D, Dominquez JM, Sineiro J, Dominquez H, Jose Ninez M, Parajo C (2001) Natural antioxidants from residual sources. Food Chem 72(2):145–171 17. Roginsky V, Lissi EA (2005) Review of methods to determine chain-breaking antioxidant activity in food. Food Chem 92(2):235–254 18. Koleva II, Van Beek TA, Linssen JPH, De Groot A, Evstatieva LN (2002) Screening of plant extracts for antioxidant activity: a comparative study on three testing methods. Phytochem Anal 13:8–17

Solid Medical Waste Management in Healthcare Centers in Palestine Issam A. Al-Khatib, Mohamed Abu-Dayah, Hussein Hajjeh, and Tayseer Al-Shanbleh

Abstract This chapter discusses the current situation of solid waste management in healthcare centers in Palestine. The monthly estimated quantity of solid waste produced by the healthcare centers in Palestine was 472.9 tons. There is very little separation of solid waste in primary healthcare centers (38.1%) as compared to secondary healthcare centers (71%). Only 17.3% of the healthcare centers in Palestine perform treatment of their solid waste. The place of final disposal of healthcare waste is an unsanitary dumping site owned by the local authority, and is used by 87.2% of the healthcare centers. Collection, storage and disposal of healthcare waste constitutes an environmental problem that poses an important health risk and calls for immediate attention and intervention. Healthcare centers have inadequate refuse collection services, lack of storage and disposal facilities. Special efforts should be made to improve the healthcare management in an effective and integrated manner. Keywords Palestine · Healthcare solid waste · Management · Health effects

1 Introduction The term waste refers to discarded or unwanted materials. Healthcare facilities are one of the major producers of solid wastes in nature. Healthcare solid waste includes both non-hazardous and hazardous waste constituents. According to WHO [15], almost 80% of healthcare wastes are benign and comparable to domestic waste while the remaining approximately 20% are considered hazardous, as it may be infectious, toxic and/or radioactive [14]. The non-hazardous waste includes wool,

I.A. Al-Khatib (B) Institute of Community and Public Health and Faculty of Engineering, Birzeit University, Ramallah, Palestine e-mail: [email protected]

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kitchen wastes, etc. that do not constitute any special handling problem, risk to health or to the environment. The hazardous waste includes pathological, infectious, sharps and chemical wastes [7]. Improper management of wastes generated in healthcare facilities causes direct health impacts on the community, the personnel working in healthcare facilities, and on the environment. Lack of adherence to standards for the disposal of waste not only reduces the quality of health and welfare of the entire society but also increases the workload of health services, which both obstruct health management policies and affect the national economy [3]. The characteristics of waste from healthcare centers are similar in all countries except for amounts generated due to standard procedures executed in the healthcare field. The quantities of waste generated from healthcare services among other factors depend on the status of the healthcare center, level of instrumentation, and sometimes location of the healthcare facility. Legislation on the safe disposal of healthcare wastes may vary from one country to another [5]. Healthcare centers often generate significant quantities of wastes containing materials of biological origin. These biological wastes may be subject to special management requirements because they contain: (a) biohazardous (infectious) agents; (b) blood or other body fluids; (c) toxins; (d) pathological wastes, solid human or animal tissues; and (e) needles, scalpels, syringes, and other sharp objects that form physical hazards and may be contaminated with biohazardous agents [8]. Poor management of healthcare waste can cause serious diseases to healthcare personnel, waste workers, patients, and to the general public. The greatest risk posed by infectious waste is accidental needle stick injuries and the reuse of syringes. WHO estimated that in 2000, worldwide, injections undertaken with contaminated syringes caused about 23 million infections of hepatitis B, Hepatitis A, and AIDS infections, in addition to other diseases. During the handling of wastes, injuries occur when needles or other sharps have not been collected properly in rigid containers. Conditions such as inappropriate design of waste collection, overflow of existing sharp containers, unprotected pits, improper dumping, and easy public access to healthcare wastes are risk factors increasing the public risk exposure to needle stick injuries. Children are particularly at risk to exposure to healthcare wastes [15]. In addition to health risk derived from direct contact, healthcare waste can adversely impact human health by contaminating water bodies and polluting the air during waste management [13]. Segregation of wastes is in some way a minimization of wastes by the separation of wastes. For healthcare wastes, the main aim of treatment is to disinfect infectious waste, to destroy disposable healthcare devices which should not be used [6]. The aim of this research was to assess health care waste (HCW) management practices in the Palestinian territory including segregation, collection, storage, transport, treatment and final disposal, in addition to identifying quantities of solid wastes generated by healthcare centers.

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2 Methodology The target population of this survey are all healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory. The sample size included all governmental and non-governmental healthcare centers, totaling 663 (adding up 116 centers of hospitals, 420 centers of healthcare and dental practices, 127 centers of other human health activities. The sample of the survey is a single-stage stratified cluster random sample. The data was collected from two sources, and each one of these followed a particular method: (1) the data obtained from administrative record sources (governmental and non-governmental healthcare centers), where they apportion the questionnaires to the respondents who fill them by themselves; (2) the data obtained from the private healthcare sector that was collected by well trained field workers. The tool of data collection was a questionnaire. The questionnaire included questions about (1) the amounts of HCW collected, (2) HCW collection service availability, (3) frequency of HCW collection, (4) HCW collection equipment and vehicles, (5) HCW treatment, (5) HCW final disposal methods, and others. All questionnaires were edited both in the field and in the office. Data were entered into the computer, using Microsoft Access, and analyzed using other statistical analytical system SPSS version 12.0.

3 Results The results of the environmental survey of healthcare centers conducted by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics [11] were utilized, analyzed and conclusions and recommendations were derived.

3.1 Quantity The monthly estimated quantities produced by the healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory were about 472.9 tons including 374.9 tons in the West Bank and 98.0 tons in Gaza Strip. Out of the total, the estimated quantities produced by the secondary healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory were about 198.2 tons, as shown in Fig. 1.

3.2 Separation Only 34.1% of the healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory perform separation of healthcare waste components, as shown in Table 1. Out of the centers that separate healthcare waste, 70.1% of them partially separate the waste, while 29.9% of them completely separate the waste into its components.

I.A. Al-Khatib et al.

Fig. 1 Estimated quantities of produced solid waste from healthcare centers estimated by tons/month

Quantity by Ton/month

548 250 200 150 100 50 0 Palestinian Territory

West bank

Gaza strip

secondary health care centers primary health care centers

Table 1 Percentage distribution of healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory by existence of solid waste separation and type of separation and region Region and type of healthcare center

Existence of separation

Palestinian territory Secondary Primary Other West bank Gaza strip

34.1 71.3 34.5 19.0 37.8 25.1

Types of separation Partial

Completely

Total

70.1 62.2 73.3 25.9 66.3 84.4

29.9 37.8 26.7 74.1 33.7 15.6

100 100 100 100 100 100

3.3 Transportation The transportation in the healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory that perform separation of solid waste into its different components is done manually in 90.2, 94.3, and 97.0% of the healthcare centers for general waste, infectious waste, and sharp waste respectively, as shown in Table 2. Special carriages used for the transportation of the different components of separated solid wastes are found in low percentages. The periodicity of collecting general, infectious and sharp healthcare wastes of more than 6 times per week was 15.4, 31.2, and 7.8% respectively in the healthcare centers of the Palestinian Territory as shown in Table 3.

3.4 Treatment The percentage of the healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory that do perform treatment of healthcare waste is about 17.3%, of which 32.9% in secondary healthcare centers, 16.7% in primary healthcare centers and 17.7% in the other human health activities as shown in Table 4.

Manual

90.2 83.4 89.9 100.0 88.5 97.6

Region and type of healthcare center

Palestinian territory Secondary Primary Others West bank Gaza strip

1.9 8.3 1.6 0.0 2.1 1.2

Special carriage

General waste

7.9 8.3 8.5 0.0 9.4 1.2

Both methods 100 100 100 100 100 100

Total

Types of waste and transportation method

94.3 84.2 95.7 100.0 94.4 93.9

Manual 2.1 2.0 2.2 0.0 2.5 1.0

Special carriage

Infectious waste

3.6 13.8 2.1 0.0 3.1 5.1

Both methods 100 100 100 100 100 100

Total

97.0 6.6 1.1 0.0 96.9 97.2

Manual

1.6 3.3 1.5 0.0 1.7 1.1

Special carriage

Sharp waste

1.4 90.1 97.4 100 1.4 1.7

Both methods

Table 2 Percentage distribution of healthcare centers in palestinian territories by the solid healthcare waste transportation method

100 100 100 100 100 100

Total

Solid Medical Waste Management in Healthcare Centers in Palestine 549

36.9 4.5 38.7 41.7 45.8 0.7

100 100 100 100 100 100

15.4 78.5 11.5 11.5 16.1 12.4

Palestinian territory Secondary Primary Others West bank Gaza strip

47.7 17.0 49.8 46.8 38.1 86.9

More than 6 times 4–6 times 1–3 times total

Region and type of healthcare center

General waste

31.2 62.4 26.2 28.3 25.6 46.5

29.3 13.3 32.5 15.2 23.6 44.7

39.5 24.3 41.3 56.5 50.8 8.8

100 100 100 100 100 100

More than 6 times 4–6 times 1–3 times total

Infectious waste

Types of waste and weekly periodicity of collection

7.8 37.9 5.3 28.9 7.8 8.2

22.9 14.9 23.7 16.0 20.1 33.7

69.3 47.2 71.0 55.1 72.1 58.1

100 100 100 100 100 100

More than 6times 4–6 times 1–3 times total

Sharp waste

Table 3 Percentage of healthcare centers by weekly periodicity of general waste, infectious waste, and sharp waste collection, by region and types of healthcare centers that separate the healthcare waste

550 I.A. Al-Khatib et al.

17.3 32.9 16.7 17.7 20.7 9.0

Palestinian territory Secondary Primary Others West bank Gaza strip

4.1 0.0 0.5 37.8 4.5 1.3

Disposed Existence in the sink of treatment With water

Region and type of healthcare center 5.2 18.7 4.8 0.0 3.9 12.5

5.1 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 33.8

Incineration Insulation

Types of treatment

0.4 0.0 0.2 2.8 0.3 1.8

0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 0.0

Mechanical Radiation treatment disinfections 11.3 22.8 7.9 34.3 6.5 38.4

Thermal disinfections

17.2 21.6 18.8 0.0 19.3 4.9

Chemical disinfections

Table 4 Percentage of healthcare centers that treat waste by region, type of treatment and type of healthcare center

56.5 36.9 61.5 25.0 65.2 7.3

Open burning

100 100 100 100 100 100

total

Solid Medical Waste Management in Healthcare Centers in Palestine 551

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For those healthcare centers that perform treatment, the most common treatment methods are open burning, chemical disinfections, and thermal disinfections with percentages of 56.5, 17.2 and 11.3% respectively.

3.5 Disposal The generated waste from healthcare centers is compiled in a certain place, and then transferred to a place of final disposal: 69.4% of the healthcare centers compile waste in a local authority open container, 12.7% of the healthcare centers compile waste in local authority provided closed containers, and 3.4% of the healthcare centers compile waste in an open container of the center, while 5.2% of the healthcare centers compile waste in a closed container of the center, and 9.3% of the healthcare centers do not use a container as shown in Table 5. The place of final disposal was a dumping site owned by the local authority for 87.2% of the healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory as shown in Table 6. Table 5 Percentage distribution of healthcare centers in thePalestinian Territory by the solid waste collection mean inside the healthcare center and region Collection mean Region and type of healthcare center Palestinian territory Secondary Primary Others West bank Gaza strip

Without container

Healthcare Healthcare center closed center open container container

Local authority closed container

Local authority open container

Total

9.3

5.2

3.4

12.7

69.4

100

1.4 9.6 9.2 9.1 9.7

17.4 4.4 8.1 5.9 3.3

2.6 3.4 3.8 3.3 3.8

36.9 12.9 2.7 16.3 3.8

41.7 69.7 76.2 65.4 79.4

100 100 100 100 100

Table 6 Percentage distribution of healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory by the waste final disposal place and region Waste final disposal place Region and type of healthcare center

Disposed randomly

Private dumping site

Local authority dumping site

Others

Total

Palestinian territory Secondary Primary Others West bank Gaza strip

0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0

10.1 18.4 7.9 28.1 10.5 9.0

87.2 80.7 90.0 63.4 85.9 90.4

2.6 0.9 2.9 8.5 3.5 0.6

100 100 100 100 100 100

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4 Discussion As demonstrated in Fig. 1, the monthly estimated quantity of solid waste produced by primary healthcare centers in West Bank (147.3 tons) is significantly higher than in Gaza strip (60.4 tons). This difference can be attributed to the higher number of primary healthcare centers (PHCC) in West Bank (606 PHCC) than in the Gaza strip (125 PHCC) at year 2004 [9]. The low percentage (34.1%) of solid healthcare waste separation in Palestinian Territory as shown in Table 1 may be related to the high prevalence of hepatitis B in Palestine, estimated at (3.4%), due to higher risk of exposure to contaminated solid healthcare waste [10, 4]. Moreover, there is significantly less separation of solid healthcare waste in primary healthcare centers (38.1%), which are mainly concentrated in the rural areas, than in secondary healthcare centers (71%), which are mainly available in urban areas. This difference can also explain the higher prevalence of Hepatitis B and other infectious diseases among the rural population compared to the urban population. The currently prevailing separation practice is not sufficient to assure enough safety and avoid community and environmental hazards. The appropriate separation of healthcare solid wastes is necessary for the safeguard of waste handlers inside and outside the healthcare centers against the risk of injuries by sharp instruments and contamination from pathological wastes in addition to the environmental concerns. The low proportion of healthcare waste separation can contribute to higher environmental irradiation pollution. This exposes the health workers and the community to more risk of irradiation pollution with higher rates of cancers. Cancer is becoming an increasingly important factor in the global burden of disease for the future. The estimated number of new cancer cases in the year 2000 was 10 million, and some 60% of those occur in the less developed part of the world. Most of these cases are related to different types of environmental pollution [2]. In Palestine, malignant neoplasms constituted 9.3% of the death causes among the population in the year 2000. Among neoplasms, Limphomas, which are closely related to high environmental irradiation pollution, constitute the second leading cause of cancer morbidity in the general male population, with the highest percentage (35.2%) among the active age group of 25–29 years [2]. Healthcare wastes should be collected every day due to their hazardous nature. More than 7 times weekly waste collection practiced in only 11.5% of the primary healthcare centers in Palestine. This can be attributed to the lack of specialized waste collection teams in the primary healthcare centers compared to secondary services. Usually, health workers in the primary healthcare centers carry out this work themselves, while in most secondary healthcare centers there are specialized waste collection teams. It is known that less frequent solid healthcare waste collection can lead to more exposure of the health staff and the patients to hazardous risks such as injuries, infections and chemical harm. The predominant method of waste transportation by healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory is manual, as 90.2, 94.3, and 97.0% of the healthcare centers that separate healthcare waste collect general waste, infectious waste and sharp waste, respectively (Table 3) This may indicate a significant lack of transport

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facilities probably due to financial reasons, concerns of the waste collection teams, and lack of compliance. The absence of specialized collection and transportation teams leads to inappropriate healthcare waste handling due to the lack of knowledge of the hazardous effects of these wastes on human health and on the whole environment. The percentage of the healthcare centers in the Palestinian Territory that do perform treatment of healthcare waste is only about 17.3%. This low percentage of healthcare waste treatment can expose the Palestinian people to hazards, as about 10–25% of healthcare waste is regarded as hazardous if it: it may contains infectious agents, sharps, toxic or hazardous chemicals or if it is radioactive. Infectious health-care waste, particularly sharps, has been responsible for most of the accidents reported in the literature [4]. Open burning is the most popular treatment method as it is used by 56.5% of the healthcare centers that treat their waste. This method of treatment is not a proper method because it causes pollution of the surrounding environment with toxic agents such as dioxin and furans [12, 1]. More than 82% of healthcare centers compile waste in an open container or do not even have a container, as shown in Table 5. This means that the healthcare waste is exposed to contact with insects, flies, rodents and other intermediate vectors that may transmit different types of dangerous diseases. The most common method used for healthcare waste final disposal was open dumping (97.3%). Dumping without treatment, uncontrolled incineration and open burning can cause environmental pollution and public health problems, as solid healthcare wastes are considered hazardous and require special treatment, sanitary landfills or hazardous waste landfills for safe final disposal. The existing practices pose potential risks of contamination with tetanus, AIDS, typhoid, hepatitis, and other diseases to scavengers, dump site operators, as well as the general public.

5 Conclusions and Recommendations The existing system of healthcare waste management in the Palestinian Territory is not operated properly and exposes the environment to pollution and the public to many health risks. There is a lack of necessary supplies and facilities, a lack of knowledge among health workers and a lack of coordination among different related ministries and authorities. In order to enhance healthcare management more adequately and effectively, the following general recommendations are proposed: • The Environmental Health Department at the Ministry of Health (MoH) should be activated in coordination with the other related departments, the Ministry of Local Government and the Environment Quality Authority, to work closely with the healthcare centers through supervising, monitoring, and forcing them to implement an appropriate system for healthcare waste management.

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• Creation of legislations and national standards to organize and control healthcare waste management. • Adequate supplies and facilities needed for healthcare waste management (such as receptacles, special areas for final disposal of healthcare wastes, and proper and effective protective gear) should be available inside and outside the healthcare centers wherever necessary. • Health education and awareness should be provided for health workers as well as for the community, about the hazards of healthcare waste and how to minimize them.

References 1. Al-Khatib IA, Alshanableh TAM (2000) Healthcare waste management in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), a case study: Dr. Burhan Nalbantoglu governmental hospital. Proceedings of the Third International Congress for Cyprus Studies, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagosta, TRNC, 13–17 Nov 2000 2. Al-Najar K, Awad R (2002) Cancer 1995–2000. Ministry of health, Ramallah, Palestine 3. Askarian M, Vakilli M, Kabir G (2004) Hospital waste management status in university hospitals of the Fars province, Iran. Int J Environ Health Res 14(4):295–305 4. Carvalho SML, Silva MGC (2002) Preliminary risk analysis applied to the handling of healthcare waste. Braz J Chem Eng 19(4):377–381 5. Hagen DL, Al-Humaidi F, Blake MA (2001) Infectious waste surveys in a Saudi Arabian hospital: an important quality improvement tool. Am J Infect Control 29(3):198–202 6. Massrouji HT (2001) Healthcare waste and health workers in Gaza governates. East Mediterr Health J 7(6):1017–1024 7. Mato RRAM, Kasenga GR (1997) A study on problems of management of healthcare solid wastes in Dar es Salaam and their remedial measures. Resour Conserv Recy 21:1–16 8. Mato RR, Kaseva ME (1999) Critical review of industrial and healthcare waste practices in Dar es Salaam city. Resour Conserv Recy 25:271–287 9. Ministry of Health (MoH) (2005a) Health status in Palestine, annual report. Gaza, Palestine 10. Ministry of Health (MoH) (2005b) Sero-survey for measles, rubella and hepatitis B. Ramallah, Palestine 11. Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) (2005) Environmental survey for healthcare centers, 2005: Main findings. Ramallah, Palestine 12. Prüss EG, Rushbrook P (1999) Safe management of wastes from healthcare activities. World Health Organization, Geneva 13. Rau HE, Alaimo RJ, Ashbrook PC (2000) Minimization and management of wastes from biohealthcare research. J Environ Health Perspect 108(56):953–977 14. Subratty AH, Hassed NME (2005) A survey on home generated healthcare waste in Mauritius. Int J Environ Health Res 15(1):45–52 15. World Health Organization (WHO) (2005) Management of solid healthcare waste at primary healthcare centers: A decision making guide. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland

Sustainable Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in Hospital Buildings Çi˘gdem Belgin Dikmen and Arzuhan Burcu Gültekin

Abstract In the past decade, a growing interest of scientific researches has indicated that the air within the buildings can be more seriously polluted than the outdoor air. Indoor pollution has increased due to variety of factors including the construction of more tightly sealed buildings, the use of synthetic finishes and furnishings, and the use of chemically formulated personel care products. The presence of the sources that release gases or particles into the air are the main causes of indoor pollution in buildings, and in this context in hospital buildings. The indoor pollution bounds the indoor air quality (IAQ). To identify sustainable IAQ of the hospitals, the determinants of IAQ such as “indoor pollutants”, “indoor pollutant sources”, “indoor pollutant removal mechanisms”, and “the health effects of indoor pollutants” are discussed within the context of indoor pollution in the current paper. Furthermore, a comprehensive approach to hospital building design dealing with the sustainability criteria from cradle to grave process is presented. Keywords Sustainable design · Hospital buildings · Indoor air quality · Indoor air pollution · Pollutants · Health effects

1 Introduction In the past decade, most of the building designers are involved in “sustainable building design” in response to user requirements. Some designers initiate “sustainable designs” based on their own recognition of the need for reducing human impacts on the local and global environment. Designing buildings with low environmental impacts are both a necessary and a challenging part of building designers work nowadays. The challenging opportunity facing designers today is to implement the

Ç.B. Dikmen (B) Engineering and Architecture Faculty, Bozok University, Yozgat, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

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measures in the context of a “sustainable building design” [1]. The goal of sustainable building design is to find architectural solutions [2, 3] which prevent the building related environmental impacts listed in the following [4]: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Global warming Stratospheric ozone depletion Acidification Nutrification Human toxicity Eco-toxicity Depletion of sources Photochemical oxide formation Habitat deterioration Water pollution Soil pollution Air pollution (Indoor/outdoor)

One of the architectural solutions in order to remove building related environmental impacts listed above is to prevent indoor air pollution in all types of buildings by sustainable design criteria. Indoor air pollution is one of the risks to our health as we go about our day-to-day lives. In the last several years, scientific researches have indicated that the air within the buildings can be more seriously polluted than the outdoor air in even the largest and most industrialized cities. The researchers indicate that people spend approximately 90% of their time indoors [5, 6]. Thus, for many people, the risks to health may be greater due to exposure to air pollution indoors than outdoors. Over the past several decades, exposure to indoor air pollution has increased due to variety of factors, including the construction of more tightly sealed buildings, the use of synthetic finishes and furnishings, and the use of chemically formulated personnel care products [7]. In order to decrease these factors, it is important to determine the design consideration of indoor air quality (IAQ) within the context of sustainability.

2 Sustainable Indoor Air Quality Good indoor air quality (IAQ) enhances occupant health, comfort and workplace productivity [8]. According to sustainable design criteria, the designers should undertake overall design consideration of IAQ from cradle to grave [9–11] process with the function of spaces, finishes and furnishings, building equipment (machines and appliances), occupants, and occupant activities, and maintenance in buildings. This process consists of three phases: before usage, usage, and after usage. One of the major causes of IAQ problems is pre-occupancy of buildings “before usage phase [12]”. Buildings are occupied before construction is complete, related to installation of finishes and furnishings, or testing and adjusting of heating,

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ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems [13] of the building. The IAQ problems which may occur during the curing of new products and the verification of a properly functioning ventilation system should be avoided. The building designers must document the operating procedures by preparing operational schedules about the use of the building for the operators of the building in the “usage phase [14]”. These schedules must be adequate not only to control thermal conditions but also to remove pollutants accumulated during the usage of the building. The buildings require maintenance periodically in order to remove pollutants. Neglected or deferred maintenance is often the source of IAQ problems. Maintenance consists of inspection, repair and cleaning processes. The building design should provide access to all components of HVAC systems for these processes. Cleaning of surfaces, especially periodic control of accumulated dust from concealed surfaces above a suspended ceiling is essential. In order to remove the accumulated emissions, the maintenance involves the application of chemicals such as cleansers, waxes, disinfectants, air fresheners, adhesives, drain cleaners, vacuuming, paints and coatings, solvents, pesticides, or lubricants. Vertical fabric covered surfaces such as walls or panels should be vacuumed since small, concentrating dust of particles deposit as easily on vertical as on horizontal surfaces. Construction dust, fumes, and vapors must be contained and not allowed to contaminant building surfaces or the air in occupied spaces during construction “after usage phase [15]”. Temporary ventilation and isolation barriers should be employed. When the use of a space or building is significantly changed, it is essential to determine whether the building can support the new activities and occupancy loads. This can be done by reviewing operational schedules, record drawings, and other related documents. If such documents are not available, an engineering assessment should be conducted. It is also essential to take care to avoid contamination of occupied spaces or of surfaces that will remain in use or be reused during demolition when buildings or portions of buildings will be demounted and replaced [1]. As the IAQ is mentioned from cradle to grave process, this point of view should be acceptable in any type of buildings. In this context the aim of the paper is to provide to better understand indoor air pollution, and to reduce human’s exposure to air pollutants in hospital buildings where people go for medical treatment, visit and work. Hospital buildings are complex environments that require specialized pollutant removal mechanisms for the comfort of occupants (patients, visitors, administrative staff, and health staff) to control hazardous emissions [16]. People generally go to hospitals for medical treatment in the cases of minor/serious illnesses. However, a life-threatening infection could be acquired in hospital buildings that would contradict the purpose of their visits and cause great concern to everyone. In addition, given the appropriate set of circumstances, any patient could acquire an infection, as could hospital visitors or administrative and health staff [17]. In this case, some prevention ways of indoor air pollution should be found. In order to prevent indoor air pollution, and improve IAQ in hospital buildings the determinants of indoor air quality such as indoor pollutants, pollutant sources, pollutant removal mechanisms and health effects of indoor pollution should be identified first.

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3 Determinants of Indoor Air Quality in Hospital Buildings The indicators of indoor air pollution are the indoor pollutants. For removal of these pollutants, the sources of them must be determined first. The presence of indoor air pollution sources that release gases or particles into the air are the primary causes of IAQ problems in hospital buildings. While pollutant levels from individual sources may not pose a significant health risk by themselves, most hospitals have more than one source that contributes to indoor air pollution. The relative importance of any single source depends on how much pollutant it emits and how hazardous those emissions are [18]. In this case it is important to identify the determinants of IAQ which might be listed as indoor pollutants, indoor pollutant sources, indoor pollutant removal mechanisms, and health effects of indoor pollutants.

3.1 Indoor Pollutants The provision of thermally comfortable indoor environment for the occupants is only one aspect in achieving better indoor air quality. However, indoor pollutants are other factors that have impact on the quality of indoor air [8]. They are the indicators of indoor air pollution, and one of the determining factors of IAQ. These pollutants are combustion pollutants, biological pollutants, microbial pollutants (fungi, bacteria, viruses), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), formaldehyde, soil gases (radon, sewer gas, methane), pesticides, particles, fibers, asbestos, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, radon, pesticides, and molds [19–21].

3.2 Indoor Pollutant Sources The most effective strategy for achieving good IAQ is the source control. The major indoor pollutant sources include function of spaces, finishes and furnishings, building equipment (machines and appliances), occupants and occupant activities, and maintenance. In this context, the indoor pollutant sources commonly found in hospital buildings are identified, and some measures for controlling these sources are offered in Table 1.

3.3 Indoor Pollutant Removal Mechanisms There are some mechanisms in order to prevent indoor pollutants and new indoor air quality problems. These are the removal mechanisms of pollutants such as heating, ventilating and air conditioning. Indoor thermal conditions may be controlled and removed by the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.

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Table 1 Indoor pollutant sources and measures for indoor pollutant control Indoor pollutant sources

Measures for pollutant control [22]

Function of spaces in hospital buildings • Print/photocopy shop • Dry cleaning • Science laboratory • Medical office • Cafeteria • Underground/attached garage

• Using exhaust ventilation and pressure control • Using exhaust hoods where appropriate • Checking hood airflows • Maintaining garage under negative pressure relative to the building • Checking air flow patterns frequently • Monitoring

Finishes and furnishings in hospital buildings • Plywood/compressed wood • Construction adhesives • Asbestos products • Insulation • Wall/floor coverings (vinyl/plastic) • Carpets/carpet adhesives • Wet building products • Transformers • Upholstered furniture • Renovation/remodeling

• Using low emitting products • Airing out in an open/ventilated area before installing • Increasing ventilation rates during installing and after installing • Keeping materials dry prior to enclosing

Building equipment (machines and appliances) in hospital buildings • Polluted filters • Polluted duct lining • Dirty drain pans • Humidifiers • Lubricants • Refrigerants • Mechanical room • Maintenance activities • Combustion appliances (boilers/furnaces, generators, stoves)

• Cleaning drain pans; proper slope and drainage • Using potable water for steam humidification • Keeping duct lining dry; moving lining outside of duct • Fixing leaks/cleaning spills • Maintaining spotless mechanical room • Checking/maintaining flues from boiler to outside • Keeping combustion appliances properly tuned • Disallowing unvented combustion appliances • Performing polluting activities during unoccupied hours

Occupants and occupant activities in hospital buildings • Tobacco products • Office equipment (printers, copiers) • Cooking/microwave • Art supplies • Marking pens • Paper products • Personal care products (e.g. perfume)

• Using exhaust ventilation with pressure control for major local sources • Lowering emitting art supplies/marking pens • Avoiding paper clutter • Training occupants and staff

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Indoor pollutant sources

Measures for pollutant control [22]

Maintenance in hospital buildings • Cleansers • Waxes • Disinfectants • Air fresheners • Adhesives • Janitor’s/storage closets • Wet mops • Drain cleaners • Vacuuming • Paints and coatings • Solvents • Pesticides • Lubricants

• Using low emitting products • Avoiding aerosols and sprays • Diluting to proper strength (manufacturer’s instructions) • Using during unoccupied hours (not overusing) • Using proper procedures when diluting and mixing • Storing properly with containers closed and lid tight • Using exhaust ventilation for storage spaces (eliminating return air) • Cleaning mops • Storing mops dry • Avoiding air fresheners (cleaning and exhausting instead) • Using high efficiency vacuum bags/filters

How well the thermal environment is controlled depends on the design and operating parameters of the HVAC system, and on the heat gains and losses in the space being controlled. These gains and losses are principally determined by indoor sources of heat, the heat gains from sunlight, the heat exchange through the thermal envelope, the outdoor conditions and the outdoor air ventilation rates [23]. Mechanical ventilation systems in hospital buildings are designed and operated not only to heat and cool the air, but also to draw in and circulate outdoor air. However these systems can contribute to indoor air problems in several ways if they are poorly designed, operated, or maintained. Ventilation systems can be a source of indoor pollution themselves by spreading biological contaminants that have multiplied in cooling towers, humidifiers, dehumidifiers, air conditioners, or the inside surfaces of ventilation duct work [18] which necessitates appropriate maintenance.

3.4 Health Effects of Indoor Pollutants As mentioned in Sect. 3.1, the common indoor pollutants in hospitals are environmental tobacco smoke, combustion pollutants, biological pollutants, microbial pollutants (fungi, bacteria, viruses), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), environmental tobacco smoke, combustion pollutants, biological pollutants, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), formaldehyde, soil gases (radon, sewer gas, methane), pesticides, particles and fibers, asbestos, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, radon, pesticides, and molds [19–22]. These pollutants are abundant in most indoor air, although the concentrations are generally far lower than known thresholds for health effects [1]. Nevertheless, the huge number of pollutant sources may cause serious health effects. These effects can range from irritation and discomfort to disability or life threatening diseases which may be listed as in Table 2.

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Table 2 Health effects of indoor pollutants (http://www.montana.edu/wwwcxair/health_effects. htm) [18, 24–26] Eye Findings Ear Findings Nasal Manifestations

Respiratory Manifestations

Oropharyngeal Manifestations Lung Cancer General Symptoms

Skin Manifestations Mental Manifestations Sick Building Syndrome – SBS [24, 25] Building Related Illness – BRI [25] Multiple Chemical Sensitivity [25, 26]

Irritant or allergic conjunctivitis (burning, sensation of dryness, redness) Ear infection, fluid in the middle ear Rhinorrhea, nasal obstruction Irritant rhinitis Allergic rhinitis, chronic sinusitis Chest tightness, cough +/− fever, shortness of breath with exertion Nonspecific abnormalities Asthma Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Infectious pneumonia – Legionella pneumonia – Aspergillus pneumonia (inimmunosuppressed persons) – Tuberculosis – Others (most common inimmunosuppressed persons) Dryness, irritation of the throat Headaches, lethargy, fatigue, dizziness, weakness, poor concentration Non-specific complaints Systemic effects of hypersensitivity pneumonitis Variant of organic dust toxic syndrome (humidifier fever) Carbon monoxide poisoning Nausea, tingling sensation, muscle twitching Dryness, irritation, rash Coma

4 Conclusion One of the architectural solutions in order to remove building related environmental impacts in hospital buildings, where people go for medical treatment, visit and work, is to prevent indoor air pollution, and improve IAQ by sustainable design criteria. Hospitals are complex buildings that require specialized pollutant removal mechanisms to control hazardous emissions for the comfort of patients, visitors, administrative staff, and health staff. Besides, hospital building design and IAQ issues must be considered from cradle to grave process. The measures for controlling indoor pollutants should be cared in all phases of this process. In this context the aim of the paper is to provide to better understand indoor air pollution, and to reduce human’s exposure to air pollutants in hospital buildings where people go for medical treatment, visit and work. In further scientific researches, these issues should again be addressed by solutions in order to reduce the risks to occupant’s health.

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References 1. Levin H (2006) Ten basic concepts for architects and other building designers: Best sustainable indoor air quality practices in commercial buildings. Santa Cruz, USA http:// www.buildinggreen.com/elists/halpaper.cfm 2. Çelebi G, Aydın AB (2001) Architectural responsibilities within the context of sustainability. Livenarch 2001, Livable Environments and Architecture International Congress Proceedings, Karadeniz Technical University, Department of Architecture, Trabzon, Turkey, 4–7 July, 2001, pp 140–146 3. Andrew SJ (1992) Sourcebook of sustainable design. Wiley, New York 4. International Organization of Standardization (ISO) (2003) Environmental management – life cycle impact assessment – examples of application of ISO 14042, ISO/TR 14047: 2003(E). Geneva 5. National Safety Council (2004) http://www.nsc.org/ehc/indoor/iaqfaqs.htm 6. Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments – Metropolitan Washington Air Quality Committee (MWAQC) http://www.mwcog.org/environment/air/indoor/ 7. US Environmental Protection of Agency (2006) http://www.epa.gov/iaq/ 8. Cheong KW, Chong KY (2006) Development and application of an indoor air quality audit to an air-conditioned building in Singapore. Build Environ 36(2):181–188 9. Jonsson A (2000) Is it feasible to address indoor climate issues in LCA?. Environ Impact Assess Rev 20(2):241–259 10. Erlandsson M, Borg M (2003) Generic LCA – methodology applicable for buildings, constructions and operation services-today practice and development needs. Build Environ 38(7):919–938 11. Zhang Z, Wu X, Yang X, Zhu Y (2006) BEPAS - a life cycle building environmental performance assessment model. Build Environ 41(5):669–675 12. Pastuszka JS, Marchwinska-Wyrwal E, Wlazlo A (2005) bacterial aerosol in silesian hospitals: Preliminary results. Polish J Environ Stud 14(6):883–890 13. Leyten JL, Kurvers SR (2006) Robustness of buildings and HVAC systems as a hypothetical construct explaining differences in building related health and comfort symptoms and complaint rates. Energy Build 38(6):701–707 14. Paulsen J (2001) Life cycle assessment for building products – the significance of the usage phase. Ph.D Thesis, Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan, Stockholm, Sweden 15. Bouza E, Pelaez T, Perez-Molina J, et al (2002) Demolition of a hospital building by controlled explosion: the impact on filamentous fungal load in internal and external air. J Hosp Infect 52(4):234–242 16. Holcatova I, Benesova V, Hartlova D (2003) Comparison of the environment in operating theatres in two hospitals. Indoor Built Environ 12(1–2):121–124 17. Mills F. Indoor air quality standards in hospitals. Construction and Building Services Group, Institute of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) http://www.touchbriefings.com/pdf/ 13/hosp031_p_MILLS.PDF 18. EPA document # 402-K-93-007: A guide to indoor air quality’, United States Environmental Protection Agency and the United States Consumer Product Safety Commission Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (6604 J), 1995 19. Department of Health Service (1996) Reducing occupant exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from office building construction materials: Non-binding guidelines, USA 20. Nazaroff WW, Weschler CJ (2004) Cleaning products and air fresheners: exposure to primary and secondary air pollutants. Atmosp Environ 38(18):2841–2865 21. Shilton V, Giess P, Mitchell D, et al (2002) The relationships between indoor and outdoor respirable particulate matter: Meteorology, chemistry and personal exposure. Indoor Built Environ 11(5):266–274 22. Nordstrom K, Norback D, Wieslander G (1999) Subjective indoor air quality in geriatric hospitals. Indoor Built Environ 8(1):49–57

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23. US Environmental Protection of Agency (2006) http://www.epa.gov/iaq/largebldgs/i-beam_ html/ch1-fund.htm 24. Heimlich JE. Sick building syndrome. Ohio State University; http://ohioline.osu.edu/cdfact/0194.html 25. Kipen HM, Fiedler N (2002) Environmental factors in medically unexplained symptoms and related syndromes: the evidence and the challenge. Environ Health Perspect 110:597–599 26. Eberlein-Konig B, Przybilla B, Kuhnl P, et al (2002) Multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) and others: allergological, environmental and psychological investigations in individuals with indoor air related complaints. Int J Hyg Environ Health 205(3):213–220

The Regional Level of Microelements in the Food Materials Aida Sahmurova, Gunay (Yildiz) Tore, Atakan Ongen, and Suna Ozden Celik

Abstract The basic resources of microelements that are essential for human life are food materials. However, in larger or lower amounts, they may become more important and critical. They may be accumulated in biological systems and become a significant health hazard. Biochemical and physical adaptation of microorganisms are related to geophysical properties and the environmental factors in the habitat around. Therefore many research activities have been done about microelements and their effect on ecosystem. In the Republic of Azerbaijan specialized research activities have been carried out since 1950s. This study was carried out in the Kuba – Khachmas and Sheki – Zaqatala regions where endemic goiter is a critical health disease. In order to compare the effect of microelements, their level in a blank region, Apsheron peninsula, was also investigated. 160 samples of consumed food materials in the regions were collected from farms, factory and household meal and nursery schools. Iodine, fluorine, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc and Molybdenum levels were determined for each samples. Although a large range between minimum and maximum levels for almost each microelement were observed, the results showed that the soil character in the studied areas had microelement levels below required amount for vital activities. Keywords Microelement · Endemic goiter · Food materials · Environmental factors

1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction of Research Area Apsheron is a peninsula where Baku, the capital city of the Republic of the Azerbaijan was founded. One of the biggest industrial zones, Sumkayıt, is also located in the peninsula. The surface area of the peninsula is around 4,365 m2 that A. Sahmurova (B) Engineering Faculty, Department of Environmental Engineering, Istanbul University, 34320 Avcilar, Istanbul e-mail: [email protected]

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Fig. 1 Sampling sites

is equal to 4.5% of total surface area of the republic. The region is reach in natural sources such as patrol and natural gas reserves. Clay is the dominant soil form in peninsula and agricultural activities are wide-spread and it has economical value for people. Sheki – Zaqatala region is located in northwest of the Republic and southwest of Kafkas mountains. The surface area is 8,227 m2 . Natural environment has a characteristic property depending on regional climatic conditions. Agriculture is an important activity for local people. Walnut, hazelnut and fruit cultivation is widespread and has economical value. Stockbreeding is also an important activity in the lands of Sheki – Zaqatala. Kuba – Khachmas region is located in the northwest side of the Azerbaijan. The surface area is about 8,500 m2 . Climate has an unstable characteristic in the region. Region is rich in surface water resources that agriculture is also wide-spread. Soil has different structures. It changes depending on the distance to the coastal zone. Sand and clay are the dominant soil form in the region. Figure 1 illustrated the study area.

1.2 Microelements and Their Adequate Daily Amount in Food Materials Consumed by Adults and Children Food materials are one of the most important resources for beneficial microelements that are essential for human and animal. Biochemical and physical adaptation

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of organisms are dependent to the geophysical properties of the surrounding environment. Therefore, numerous studies have been conducted on this subject [4, 2, 3]. Vegetal food materials are the main resources for microelements that are inevitable for human. Biological characteristics of plants, type and amount microelement are important factors of transportation of microelements from soil to plant [10, 11]. In this case, food type consumed, age of animal and class of food materials are important as well as taxonomy of microelements for each specific organism [9]. The level of daily microelement (iodine, phosphorus, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, molybdenum) requirement of an adult is much higher when compared to the microelement level that animal and vegetal based food materials contain. Russian scientist took along away by their researches about microelements and their accumulation in the region. In a previous study, scientist determined the copper and zinc level in the food materials that were consumed by children and adults in Baku. The main object of this study was to determine daily levels of microelements in food materials consumed by children and adults, in different regions with different characteristics in the Azerbaijan Republic. In the literature, regional studies on microelements and their contents in the different varieties of food materials are limited. Therefore Kuba – Khachmas and Sheki – Zaqatala regions, where goiter is an endemic disease, were the main areas where this study was carried out. In order to compare the results a controlling region was also taken into consideration. Apsheron was selected as blank area where goiter is not an endemic disease. The data related to the health diseases were taken from regional health institutions. Some specific primary schools, universities and day nurseries were selected as sampling sites. In the samples taken from selected sites microelements such as, iodine, phosphorus, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, molybdenum, were analyzed. 24 composite samples were derived from 160 samples and analyses were carried. Microelement levels were determined for each sample. Tables 1, 2 and 3 show the analyzed values for the samples.

2 Materials and Methods In the study, microelement contents of both regions with endemic goiter disease and region without endemic disease were determined and the results were compared in order to reveal a clear and understandable data background for present situation in the Apsheron peninsula. For this purpose sampling sites such as agricultural lands, factories, bakeries, educational institutes and residences, were selected. Samples for determination of contents in daily food materials were collected from primary schools, universities and day nurseries in Sheki, Kuba and Baku provinces. Iodine, fluorine, manganese, cobalt, zinc, copper and molybdenum were analyzed in 24 composite samples.

50.7 33.8 35.9 63.4 63.4 44.0 64.9 219.9 215.7 261.0 182.9 169.1 29.4 8.4 4.9 7.7 4.2 73.3 109.0 28.3 42.3 4.4 52.8 22.7 52.8

1. Wheat flour (quality 1) 2. Wheat Flour (quality 2) 3. Macaroni types 4. Pounded wheat 5. Dark pounded wheat 6. Bread 7. Dark bread 8. Pakistan rice 9. Rice (Lenkaran) 10. Kidney bean (Lenkaran) 11. Haricot bean 12. Pea 13. Potatoes 14. Tomatoes 15. Aubergine 16. Bulgarian pepper 17. Green pepper 18. Green onion 19. Green leaf plants 20. Cabbage 21. Carrots 22. Cow milk 23. Milk powder 24. Veal 25. Lamb

15.0 82.5 104.2 15.0 157.5 86.0 292.0 621.0 22.5 1, 275 195 320 21.4 − − 0.9 − 182.5 18.0 − − 3.8 45.6 53.4 42.8

μg/kg or μg/l (for liquids)

Fluorine

Food type

Iodine

720.0 1, 200.0 860.0 940.0 1, 300.0 920.0 2, 010.0 1, 700.0 1, 888.0 1, 940.0 2, 200.0 2, 960.0 278.6 − 913.0 746.0 1, 976.0 1, 108.0 2, 120.0 − 1, 302.0 17.0 35.5 13.0 27.0

Manganese

13.0 16.0 16.0 17.0 16.0 9.0 9.65 8.0 7.0 14.0 9.0 41.5 7.6 2.4 17.0 16.5 18.0 12.1 19.0 − 6.8 0.45 2.25 6.0 16.0

Cobalt

160.0 360.0 240.0 200.0 280.0 800.0 580 400.0 480.0 480.0 720.0 720.0 131.6 7.0 5.2 41.0 23.0 80.0 27.0 − 171.0 1.3 9.1 80.0 40.0

Copper

Table 1 Microelement content in food materials in Apsheron (average)

480.0 360.0 324.0 192.0 240.0 4, 320.0 1, 760 1, 000.0 6, 600.0 1, 800.0 6, 480.0 4, 800.0 527.0 82.0 703.0 498.0 558.0 1, 613.3 1, 730.0 − 2, 440.0 160.0 − 160.0 160.0

Zinc

5.3 5.3 5.3 4.0 4.0 28.0 32 24.0 48.0 640.0 536.0 80.0 5.7 0.8 10.3 16.5 32.0 15.1 33.0 − 4.2 0.9 3.6 13.0 27.0

Molybdenum

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Table 2 Microelement content in food materials in Kuba- Khachmas (Average) Iodine

Fluorine Manganese Cobalt

Food type

μg/kg or μg/l

1. Wheat 2. Bread 3. Tomatoes 4. Onion 5. Cabbage 6. Potatoes 7. Red beet 8. Apple 9. Pear 10. Plum 11. Lamb 12. White cheese 13. Milk 14. Egg

67.4 33.8 7.3 22.2 28.3 71.8 63.1 25.2 16.9 17.2 14.8 8.8 6.65 64.0

157.2 − − 121.3 70.7 67.3 149.1 37.2 48.3 − − 131.0 4.25 139.2

3, 400.0 2, 250.0 313.7 1, 318.0 1, 418.0 1, 137.0 1, 710.0 1, 313.2 980.0 867.0 1, 390.0 28.0 44.0 64.0

3.38 3.75 0.9 1.4 1.7 3.25 2.15 1.45 1.0 2.1 2.6 1.3 0.4

Copper Zinc

24.0 35.0 195.0 29.8 13.0 90.5 124.0 37.6 151.5 33.0 8.0 4.0 3.0 120.0

4, 200.0 1, 980.0 923.7 546.2 1, 215.0 756.2 1, 330.0 1, 069.5 1, 313.2 153.0 1, 408.0 624.0 384.0 760.0

Molybdenum

22.0 17.5 3.1 5.9 5.5 6.7 6.6 12.1 8.8 2.0 2.1 1.9 1.0 6.3

Table 3 Microelement content in food materials in Sheki – Zaqatala (average) Iodine

Fluorine Manganese Cobalt

Copper Zinc

Molybdenum

Iodine

μg/kg or μg/l

1. Bread 2. Kidney bean 3. Rice 4. Cabbage 5. Potatoes 6. Carrots 7. Onion 8. Green leaf plants 9. Milk 10. White cheese 11. Veal 12. Lamb 13. Egg 14. Yolk 15. The white of an egg 16. Walnut 17. Hazelnut

25.5 44.4 80.3 30.4 8.88 5.17 5.45 71.5

53.0 247.5 172.5 15.8 13.5 17.5 33.0 381.9

224.5 − − 104.0 100.0 147.0 80.0 268.9

4.0 8.0 6.0 2.56 2.0 9.2 2.0 7.8

19.7 40.0 200.0 5.8 4.0 7.4 4.0 37.1

410.6 2, 600.0 720.0 166.4 160.0 370.0 240.0 2, 156.0

3.3 40.0 8.0 5.48 4.2 5.0 2.4 72.6

6.24 11.4 12.3 0.88 39.3 28.4 10.8

3.7 136.5 − 72.0 143.3 100.0 51.7

40.0 84.0 − − − − −

1.0 2.0 1.8 1.6 2.80 1.8 0.36

4.3 425.0 4.0 16.0 95.0 46.0 18.0

200.0 1, 240.0 260.0 528.0 763.0 443.0 146.0

0.8 5.2 1.6 0.8 7.4 5.4 5.4

68.9 69.0

45.0 195.0

416.0 720.0

48.0 88.0

1, 280.0 1, 920.0

9.0 9.0

8.0 12.8

Samples were prepared for colorimetric analyses. Elemental analyses were carried out according to the Standard Methods in the Laboratories of National Medical Research Institute.

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2.1 Results of Experimental Studies Results were obtained from experimental analyses and were evaluated by sub-titles.

2.1.1 Iodine Gaitan [5] reported that in the regions with endemic goiter iodine content of soil was determined below the essential level. Therefore, food materials also contain insufficient amounts of iodine. Kuba – Khachmas, Sheki – Zaqatala and Apsheron region had different soil structures with respect to iodine content. The results confirmed that in the blank region iodine determined much higher than other two sampling sites did. Iodine values were found very high as 215–220 μg/kg in rice samples in Apsheron. In addition, in the region iodine contents of kidney bean and bean were determined as 183–261 μg/kg, for pea it was 169 μg/kg, for green leaf vegetables the value was 109 μg/kg. Sheki – Zaqatala showed lower iodine composure. Iodine content of rice was determined as 80 μg/kg, for bean 44 μg/kg and it was 72 μg/kg for green leaf vegetables in the region. The lowest iodine level was analyzed in onion samples as 5.5 μg/kg. Content of iodine in carrot samples was found as 5.17 μg/kg in Sheki – Zaqatala as it was 42.3 μg/kg in Apsheron. In the same period of time samples taken in Kuba – Khachmas were also analyzed. Iodine values were found as 22 μg/kg in onion as it was 73 μg/kg in Apsheron. Animal food materials also showed different iodine content variations when compared to each other. Iodine in veal samples were determined as 22.73 μg/kg in Apsheron, 12.3 μg/kg in Sheki – Zaqatala. In lamb samples the level was 53 μg/kg in Apsheron, 15 μg/kg in Sheki – Zaqatala and 0.88 μg/kg in Kuba – Khachmas. 1967’de V.A. Fluorineinski ile 1968’de Barannik reported that meat samples taken from the areas where goiter was not endemic had iodine amount >80 μg/kg. M. Kirhesneper also made a research about iodine in cow milk ˙In the Republic of Azerbaijan. It was found between 4.4–6.65 μg/kg as it had to be about 100 μg/kg as mentioned in literature. When it comes to wheat samples, in Kuba – Khachmas iodine level in wheat samples were found in a large range as 21–192 μg/kg. In Khachmas the values were between 21–46.5 μg/kg, in Kusar 107.8–192.4 μg/kg and in Kuba it was 23.2–91 μg/kg. Depending on both previous regional studies and this study it was observed that iodine in food materials was below the desired levels in the regions with endemic goiter.

2.1.2 Fluorine In the Republic fluorine level varied in a large range. For instance, in Khachmas fluorine in wheat samples varied in the range of 127–170 μg/kg with average value

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of 157.2 μg/kg. Fluorine amount in bread was found as 53 and 86 μg/kg in Sheki – Zaqatala and Apsheron, respectively. Leguminosae was known to be a good fluorine accumulator. Iodine level was determined between 127.5–320 μg/kg in Apsheron and was found as 247.5 μg/kg in Sheki – Zaqatala. The highest value was determined in Pakistan price with 621 μg/kg. Native price samples contained fluorine in the range of 22.5–172.5 in Lenkaran, Apsheron, Sheki – Zaqatala regions. Experiments revealed that fluorine content of potatoes in 3 regions was almost similar. The range was determined as 21.4–67.3 μg/kg. Apple, pear and grape samples had a low amount of fluorine. Previous studies reported that fluorine content in cow milk was dependent to fluorine amount in the cow feeding materials and water they consumed. In this study, fluorine amount in cow milk was found as 3.7, 3.0 and 4.25 μg/kg in Sheki, Apsheron and Kuba, respectively. In milk powder and milk produced in factory fluorine was determined 10–12 times higher than the amounts in milk produced by domestic way. Fluorine in egg samples was around 139.2–143.3 μg/kg as yolk contained 100 μg/kg fluorine. Fluorine content of cow meat and lamb samples varied in the range of 42.8–72 μg/kg. Experimental results among 3 sites showed no significant differences. 2.1.3 Manganese Manganese amount was determined in the vegetal food materials in the range of 720–2,960 μg/kg. In the Apsheron peninsula, green leaf vegetables, green onion, pepper and carrot samples contained 2,120, 1,108, 1,976 and 1,302 μg/kg fluorine, respectively. In Sheki – Zaqatala, the manganese values in green leaf vegetables and carrots were around 268.3 and147 μg/kg. In the same region hazelnut and walnut samples contained relatively higher amounts, 416 and 720 μg/kg. In Kuba – Khachmas region manganese in apple, grape and pear samples was determined in a range between 867–1,313 μg/kg. The manganese amount in animal based food materials was found relatively low during elemental analyses. Manganese in milk was 17 μg/kg in Apsheron, 44 μg/kg in Kuba – Khachmas and 40 μg/kg in Sheki – Zaqatala. When it comes to milk samples, manganese level was around 13–28 μg/kg. Evaluation of experimental data showed that except some vegetables there was not significant manganese variation among the samples. 2.1.4 Cobalt In the literature high cobalt values was reported in leguminosae, chickpea and cereals. In Kuba – Khachmas, chickpea and leguminosae cobalt content was found as 41.5 and 13–17 μg/kg, respectively. Cobalt content in aubergine samples was 17 μg/kg and in pepper 16–18 μg/kg, in green leaf vegetables 8–19 μg/kg and in walnut samples 8–12 μg/kg.

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In the cabbage, potatoes, tomatoes and onion samples taken from area with endemic goiter cobalt was determined relatively low when compared to blank site cobalt levels. In Kuba – Khachmas cobalt in tomatoes was found around 0.9 μg/kg as it was 2.4 μg/kg in Apsheron. Cobalt in cabbage, potatoes and onion samples was 1.7–2.56 μg/kg, 2–3.5 μg/kg and 1.4–2 μg/kg in Kuba – Khachmas and in Sheki – Zaqatala, respectively. For animal food materials cobalt levels were determined relatively low. For cow milk cobalt was found as 1.1–1.3 μg/kg in Apsheron and around 0.45 μg/kg for both Kuba and Sheki. 2.25 μg/kg cobalt was determined in milk powder samples. In Kuba – Khachmas and Sheki-Zaqatala, meat and meat products cobalt content was around 1.6–2.1 μg/kg as it was 6–8 μg/kg in Apsheron. When compared to related literature in some sort of food materials, cobalt values were less than required levels. 2.1.5 Copper Generally, average amount for copper in vegetal food materials is around 1 mg/kg. as mentioned in literature. Copper in hazelnut and walnut samples in Sheki – Zaqatala region was determined as 1,280–1,920 μg/kg. Copper content in cereals and cereals products was around160–180 μg/kg. Leguminosae and rice copper values were relatively high as 480–720 μg/kg. In Sheki – Zaqatala cooper content in kidney bean and rice was found as 40 μg/kg and 100 μg/kg, respectively. Copper values was analyzed 13–4.3 μg/kg in milk samples. The lowest values were analyzed in Apsheron. In milk powder this value was determined as 9.1 μg/kg. In the same region meat products had 40–80 μg/kg copper. In the same period, in Kuba – Khachmas and Sheki – Zaqatala, values for meat and meat products varied in the range of 4–16 μg/kg. Egg samples contained 120 and 95 μg/kg in Kuba – Khachmas and Sheki – Zaqatala regions, respectively. Reported copper values in national research activities in The Republic and the results in present study almost similar. 2.1.6 Zinc In the literature, especially leguminosae family was known to be high zinc accumulator with around 6,500 μg/kg detected amount. In Lenkaran zinc content in Pakistan rice was 1,000 μg/kg and in pepper and aubergine samples it was found as 1,730–2,156 μg/kg and in carrots it was in the range of 370–2,440 μg/kg. When compared to other microelements, animal food materials accumulated zinc much higher. According to the data obtained in this study, zinc content in chicken egg and cow meat samples were found around 765 μg/kg and 160 μg/kg, respectively. In Sheki – Zaqatala zinc content in cow milk was around 260 μg/kg. Zinc content in lamb was relatively high both for Sheki – Zaqatala and Kuba – Khachmas regions with average value of 528–1,408 μg/kg. In the same region 160–384 μg/kg zinc content

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was determined in cow milk samples and it was 624–1,240 μg/kg in cheese samples. During analyses significant critical values was not determined in the samples. 2.1.7 Molybdenum In the previous studies average amount of molybdenum in food materials was determined in the range of 0.0004–3.5 μg/kg. These studies also reported that the highest molybdenum values were determined in leguminosae, especially in Apsheron with 536–640 μg/kg molybdenum. Molybdenum content in chickpea in the same region was 80 μg/kg. 4.2–6.7 μg/kg molybdenum was analyzed in potatoes samples in Sheki – Zaqatala as it was 2.4 μg/kg in onion samples. Meanwhile, 15.1 in Apsheron and 519 μg/kg in Kuba – Khachmas for same food materials, respectively. Cabbage and carrots samples did not exceed the value of 5.5 μg/kg in the region. In milk samples molybdenum content was around 0.8–1 μg as it was much higher, 3.6 μg/kg, in milk powder samples. Lamb samples contained 0.8 μg/kg, 2.1 μg/kg and 27 μg/kg molybdenum in Sheki – Zaqatala, Kuba – Khachmas and Apsheron, respectively. High amount of molybdenum level was determined in chicken eggs. The range was between 6.3–7.4 μg/kg. The white of an egg an yolk samples contained almost similar amount, 5.4 μg/kg. 9, 8.8 and 12.2 μg/kg molybdenum was reported in walnut, pear and apple samples, respectively. Significant differences among endemic and blank sites were not determined during experimental analyses.

3 Results and Discussions Microelement content in animal and vegetal food materials were analyzed and relation among soil structure, food material and endemic goiter were evaluated depending on the experimental data in the Republic of Azerbaijan. Results showed that plant food material type, its accumulation potential and its existence in soil structure are dependent to each other. Especially, it was observed that leguminosae and cereals are the richest products in element accumulation. Meanwhile, animal food products have less potential to accumulate microelements. Experiments and analyses claimed that there was a great relation between goiter and iodine deficiency. Not only iodine deficiency but also existence of other microelements in soil had a significant affect on accumulation properties. Data obtained from this study and experimental analyses were given in Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7. Statistical approach was also used in order to make a reliable evaluation of the results. Cooking and keeping methods that resulted in microelement loss in food materials were not considered in this statistical approach. Values in the tables above revealed the iodine amount that was included in the food materials consumed by children in studied regions. Average values were determined as 275.2, 172 μg and in the range of 137–171 μg in Baku, Kuba and Sheki, respectively.

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Table 4 Determination of microelement content in food materials consumed by children (Baku, Suvelan Small town, Boarding school) Iodine

Fluorine

Manganese

Cobalt

Copper

Zinc

Molybdenum

No p/p

μg/portion

1 2 3 4 5 Average (M ) δ m+

260.1 269.3 179.8 412.0 254.9

2, 741.2 5, 569.2 3, 925.0 4, 970.7 4, 244.4

1, 410.0 2, 120.0 2, 000.0 2, 100.0 1, 640.0

70.0 127.0 53.0 210.0 52.0

88.0 106.0 100.0 158.0 104.0

31, 610.0 38, 200.0 5, 400.0 12, 620.0 2, 510.0

140.0 127.0 60.0 63.0 84.0

275.2 84.4 37.7

4, 290.1 1, 074.7 480.6

1, 854.0 314.5 140.6

102.4 67.5 30.2

111.2 27.1 12.1

18, 068.0 15, 976.0 7, 144.7

94.8 36.8 16.5

Table 5 Determination of microelement content in food materials consumed by children (Kuba, Boarding school) Iodine

Fluorine

Manganese

Cobalt

Copper

Zinc

Molybdenum

No p/p

μg/portion

1 2 3 4 5 6 Average (M) δ m+

177.6 160.7 152.2 179.8 186.0 175.0

2, 447.0 2, 021.2 2, 021.2 2, 447.0 2, 021.2 2, 447.0

4, 960.0 3, 490.0 3, 740.0 5, 200.0 3, 680.0 3, 710.0

64.0 40.0 57.0 52.0 40.0 5,102

40.0 38.0 108.0 42.0 120.0 64.0

7, 200.0 2, 740.0 2, 070.0 2, 690.0 2, 560.0 1, 820.0

40.0 38.0 21.0 25.0 44.0 19.0

172.0 12.84 5.2

2, 234.0 233.2 95.2

4, 130.0 744.9 304.1

50.7 9.46 3.9

68.7 36.5 14.9

3, 180.0 2, 003.0 817.7

31.2 10.8 4.4

In the literature iodine level for an adult was reported to be 200–220 μg. Depending on this reality, food material in Baku requires adequate level of iodine for children in the region. However, in Sheki and Kuba iodine deficiency was observed in the samples taken from day nurseries. This case resulted in lower uptake of iodine for children in these regions. The iodine in food materials supplied only 62–78% of total requirement of daily uptake. The fact that there was a great relation between fluorine uptake and fluorine content water and food materials was considered during this study. High fluorine detection in Baku was directly related to this case. 4,290 μg fluorine was determined in Baku, 2,334 μg in Kuba and 930–1,230 μg in Sheki as daily uptake for children from food materials they consumed. For instance, fluorine content of water supply resources in Suvelen was between 2.9–3.2 mg/l. The value was 0.4–0.6 mg/l in Kuba. This difference resulted in lower

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Table 6 Determination of microelement content in food materials consumed by children (Sheki, Boarding school) Iodine

Fluorine

Manganese

Cobalt

Copper

Zinc

Molybdenum

No p/p

μg/portion

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Average (M) δ m+

186.2 189.2 198.2 144.2 151.1 124.4 198.0 188.0 165.2 169.3

1, 214.5 1, 086.3 1, 240.0 985.5 1, 190.0 1, 260.0 1, 188.0 1, 188.0 1, 503.6 1, 498.0

1, 704.0 2, 130.0 3, 919.0 3, 919.0 3, 260.0 2, 100.0 2, 475.0 2, 475.0 3, 178.0 2, 360.0

34.1 16.0 16.0 16.0 25.0 21.0 25.0 19.8 9.1 36.0

298.0 170.4 426.0 384.0 462.0 495.0 227.0 272.0 210.0 200.0

5, 110.0 8, 180.0 8, 520.0 5, 340.0 5, 390.0 6, 720.0 7, 130.0 5, 690.0 4, 630.0 5, 450.0

34.0 29.0 42.0 26.0 16.8 33.6 29.7 39.6 27.0 27.0

171.4 25.1 7.9

1, 229.4 205.9 65.1

2, 752.1 773.1 244.5

21.8 8.43 2.7

314.4 118.5 37.5

6, 216.0 1, 346.0 425.7

30.4 7.1 2.3

Table 7 Determination of microelement content in food materials consumed by children (Sheki, day nursery) Iodine

Fluorine

Manganese

Cobalt

Copper

Zinc

Molybdenum

No p/p

μg/portion

1 2 3 Average (M) δ m+

167.2 124.7 121.2

967.5 976.5 846.0

750.0 671.0 800.0

9.4 26.0 26.0

38.0 52.0 210.0

1, 320.0 2, 490.0 730.0

15.0 20.0 20.0

137.7 25.6 14.8

930.0 72.9 42.1

740.0 65.6 37.9

20.4 9.5 5.5

100.0 95.5 55.2

1, 513.0 895.9 517.2

18.4 2.6 1.5

uptake level in Kuba. Fluorine content in Baku resources was around 0.08–0.2 mg/l. Related to this result daily uptake in the region was also relatively low. In Ukraine daily uptake of fluorine by food materials was reported to be 0.54–1.6 ml [6, 7]. In Moscow this level was reported to be 0.8–1.1 mg (M.I. Krılova) and 1.18 mg in Irkutsk by T.N. Rujnikova. Some other local studies reported that change in fluorine level in drinking water resulted in change in fluorine uptake level in Irkutsk. Fluorine level was 0.76, 2, 3.4, 6.2 and 7.6 mg when water analyze results were 0.114, 1, 2, 4 and 5 mg/l. It was reported that physiological fluorine need for children in the age of 7–16 was 0.5–1.8 mg/day in the literature. For this reason, in Kuba and Sheki fluorine uptake by food materials and water resources was not adequate.

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A.O. Voyner reported that manganese daily requirement for children were at least 3 times higher than an adult needed. 7–8 mg/day manganese was reported to be the sufficient level for children. When experimental data was evaluated it was observed that in Baku (1,854 μg), in Kuba 4,130 μg) and in Sheki (740–2,752 μg) determined values were below the literature data of 7–8 mg. Manganese content of food materials for children in day nurseries also showed a large variation between 2.3 and 9.8 mg. Generally, intensive consumption of vegetal food materials was assumed to be the one of the reasons for low manganese uptake in the republic. It was also reported that daily uptake for a person by usual nourishment habits was 5–8 mg [1, 8]. In this study 102.4, 50.7 and 20 μg cobalt was determined in the samples collected in Baku, Kuba and Sheki, respectively. In Apsheron optimum uptake levels were observed. Copper values were also relatively low in the Republic of Azerbaijan. In Baku, daily copper deficiency in food materials for children in winter season was reported to be 32–53%, and in summer 19–44%. Copper deficiency was also observed in Kuba and Sheki. Previous studies reported that an adult needed 10–16 mg zinc per day. Zinc requirement for a growing children was 0.3–0.6 mg/kg. With respect to this information, in Baku daily zinc uptake of 18,068 μg for children by food materials was accepted to be adequate. In Sheki and Kuba zinc amount in food materials and uptake level were not adequate for a children. 6,216 and 2,752 μg zinc was determined in food materials, respectively. In the literature there are a lot of reports related to molybdenum and its adequate uptake amount. Reported values were 75 μg in minimum and 100 μg in maximum. In Baku observed values were around 95 μg/day. Daily uptake level for children in research areas was relatively low. 31.1, 18–31 μg molybdenum levels were analyzed in the samples collected from day nurseries in Kuba and Sheki, respectively. Statistical analyses for data obtained during this study was made and given in Table 8. Iodine deficiency was observed in the republic of Azerbaijan. Not only iodine but olsa other microelement uptakes by food materials and drinking water were also reported to be below the required values in the literature and previous studies. Especially, iodine deficiency and regions with endemic goiter showed a strong relation. Additional iodine reinforcement was needed in the endemic regions. Interaction among the microelements in the soil structure was another important point to be considered. Not only for the Republic of Azerbaijan but also for each country monitoring the relation among soil structure, food materials and microelement uptake by food materials, such as animal and vegetal products, will be inevitable in order to evaluate the adverse affects of rapid industrialization and uncontrolled agricultural activities. Undesired affects of uncontrolled human activities may result irreversible health diseases.

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Table 8 Statistical evaluation of the results of microelement analyses in Baku, Kuba ve Sheki (Boarding school samples) Parameters Provinces

M

m+

t

p

Microelements

1

2

3

4

5

Iodine

Baku Kuba Sheki Baku Kuba Sheki Baku Kuba Sheki Baku Kuba Sheki Baku Kuba Sheki Baku Kuba Sheki Baku Kuba Sheki

275.2 171.9 171.4 4,290.1 2,234.1 1,229.1 1,854.1 4,130.0 2,752.1 102.4 50.7 21.8 111.2 68.7 314.4 18,068.0 68.7 6,216.0 94.8 31.2 30.5

37.7 5.3 7.9 480.6 95.1 65.1 140.6 304.1 244.5 30.2 3.86 2.7 12.1 14.9 37.5 7, 144.7 14.9 425.7 16.5 4.4 2.3

Control 2.71 2.69 Control 4.2 6.31 Control 6.8 6.3 Control 1.7 2.7 Control 2.2 5.2 Control 2.1 1.7 Control 3.7 3.9

Fluorine

Manganese

Cobalt

Copper

Zinc

Molybdenum

0.05 0.02 0.01 0.0001 0.0001 0.01 0.2 0.02 0.1 0.001 0.1 0.2 0.01 0.002

M: Average value of repeated analyses; +m: Values higher than M; –m: Values lower than M; T: Mathematical average; P: Probability (t and p real mathematical values of study results); Control: Blank (Comparison-area with endemic goiter and area where goiter is not endemic disease)

References 1. Belz R (1960) The amounts of iron, copper, manganese and cobalt in average diets of various age groups in the Netherlands. Voeding 21:236–251 2. Coni E, Bocca A, lanni D, Caroli S (1995) Preliminary evaluation of the factors influencing the trace element content of milk and dairy products. Food Chem 52:123–130 3. Coni E, Bocca A, Coppolelli P, Caroli S, Cavallucci C, Trabalza Marinucci M (1996) Minor and trace element content in sheep and goat milk and dairy products. Food Chem 57:253–260 4. Coni E, Caroli S, Lanni D, Bocca A (1994) A methodological approach to the assessment of trace elements in milk and dairy products. Food Chem 50:203–210 5. Gaitan E, Dunn JT (1992) Epidemiology of iodine deficiency. Trends Endocrinol Metabol 3(5):170–175 6. Gabovich RD (1957) Fluorine and its hygienic importance. Kazan, USSR (in Russian) 7. Gabovich RD, Ovrutskiy CD (1969) Fluorine in stomatology and hygiene, Bethesda, Maryland, US Department of Health and Welfare, 1028 pp. (DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 78–785, 1977.) 8. Harp MJ, Scoular FI (1952) Cobalt metabolism of young college women on self-selected diets. J. Nutr. 47:67–72

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9. Moreno-Rojas R, Amaro-Lopez MA, Garcia-Gimeno RH, Zurera-Cosano G (1995) Effect of Manchego-type cheese-making process on contents of mineral elements. Food Chem 53: 435–439 10. World Health Organisation (1993) Global prevalence of iodine deficiency disorders. UNICEF International Council for the Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders, WHO, Geneva 11. World Health Organisation (1996) Trace elements in human nutrition and health. World Health Organisation, Geneva

Microbiological Pollution Levels of Some Vegetable Specimens Taken From Public Markets of Three Central Towns of Konya-Turkey K. Gur, H.N. Uçan, and S. ¸ Dursun

Abstract Konya Province has the largest agricultural lands among the other provinces in Turkey and thus it has been named “food store of Anatolia” as far as agricultural production is concerned. However, the climate around Konya Province is semi-arid and thus irrigation of the agricultural lands is not usually adequate. In other words, many towns around Konya have to draw waters, for irrigation, from lower quality sources including municipal wastewaters. With the application to land of large volumes of minimally pretreated wastewater, it is evident that considerable potential for adverse health effects exists. Microbiological pollution could occur from food crop contamination, pathogen-laden aerosols [2], ground water pollution or surface water pollution. A case study was carried out with the principal objective to investigate entrobacteria as an indicator of microbiological pollution in vegetables collected from public markets of three central towns in the province of Konya. The work was conducted upon 20 specimens representing 10 different varieties of vegetable samples taken from the main public markets of Konya city. The results were summarized as follows: (1) The distribution of total coliform bacteria on the vegetable specimens ranged from 12 to 50%. (2) The highest incidence of coliform bacterial pollution was found with parsley (approx. 100%) and it was followed by watercress, lettuce, radishes, green onions, carrots, cabbage, cucumber skin, tomatoes and green pepper (33–39%) specimens, respectively. (3) Among the markets from which the vegetable samples were collected, the highest incidence of the microbiological pollution in terms of the coliform distributions was detected with the Ilgın market and it was followed by the Beysehir and Do˘ganhisar markets respectively. (4) The incidences of the pathogenic bacterial pollution found with the vegetable specimens were generally very low when compared to coliform bacterial distribution detected from the specimens, and the genera of the pathogenic bacteria isolated from the vegetables were as follows: Proteus sp., Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp. (5) The findings indicated that the presence of fecal pollution of the vegetables which were supposed to be eaten fresh in the region. (6) The “scalding” K. Gur (B) Environmental Engineering Department, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

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was found to be the most effective method to disinfect the vegetables studied among the four treatments tested then it was followed by the treatments of “washing with a bactericide” and “washing with a detergent” respectively [1–9]. Keywords Microbiological pollution · Vegetables · Disinfection · Pathogens · Fecal coliform

1 Introduction Contaminants of domestic wastewater may be categorized into: (a) disease causing microorganisms, (b) essential plant nutrient elements, (c) dissolved minerals, (d) toxic chemicals and (e) biodegradable organic matter. Since advent of community wastewater treatment systems, the attention of land disposal of wastewater has invariably been focused on pathogenic organisms. On the other hand, once deposited on the ground, the feces, with their high bacterial content, are carried along by rain water and in combination with normal sewage discharges make up the water which is used for agricultural irrigation. In addition, the soil, with its high content of pollutants from both human and animal fecal materials, is also a contamination source for fruits and vegetables at various stages of production from the very beginning of cultivation, there are obviously many such contacts and again at harvest as well as when the produce is packed and distributed to the public. This does not take into account the damage by bad handling which causes knocks and bruises. Meanwhile, it might be needed to summarize a few points of bacterial terminology. The term “enteric bacteria” includes all those bacteria whose natural habitat is the intestinal tract of humans and animals, including members of several families, particularly Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonadaceae. They are all aerobic, gram-negative, nonspore-forming rods. The family Enterobacteriaceae includes the following tribes and genera respectively. (a) Esherichieae: Esherichia, (b) Klebsielleae: Klebsiella, Enterobacter, (c) Proteaeceae: Proteus, (d) Yersinieae: Yersinia and (e) Erwinieae: Erwinia. On the other hand, the terms “total coliform” and “fecal coliform” are operationally-defined entities used for indicator purposes. Their taxonomic composition is variable, but all are members of the Enterobacteriacea. A recent study of fecally-contaminated drinking water found the following composition: (a) Total Coliform Species: 46% Citrobacter freundii, 18% Klebsiella pneumoniae, 14% Escherichia coli, 12% Enterobacter agglomerans, 4% E. cloacae, 3% E. hafniae and 1% Serratialiqufeciens, and (b) Fecal Coliform Species: 73% E. coli, 18% Serretia liqufaciens, and 9% C. freundii. Most bacteria of concern in wastewater get there from human faces although such as Leptospira enter through urine. The most prominent bacteria of human origin in raw municipal wastewater are Proteus Enterobacteria (105 mL−1 ), Fecal Streptococcus (103–104 mL−1 ) and Clostridium (102–103 mL−1 ). Less prominent bacteria include Salmonella and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The total bacterial

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content of raw wastewater, as recovered on standard media at 20◦C is about 106 –107 mL−1 organisms. The presence and levels in wastewater of any of the pathogens given depend, of course, on the levels of infection in the contributing population [11]. The survival of bacteria on plants, particularly crops, is especially important since they may be eaten raw by animals or humans, may contaminate hands of workers touching them, or may contaminate equipment contacting them. Such ingestion or contact would probably not result in an infective dose of a bacterial pathogen, but if contaminated crops are brought into the kitchen in an unprocessed state, they could result in the regrowth of pathogenic bacteria, e.g., Salmonella, in a food material affording suitable moisture, nutrients, and temperature. Pathogens do not penetrate into vegetables or fruits unless their skin is broken, and many of the same factors affect bacterial survival or plants as those in soil, particularly sunlight and desiccation. Microbiological pollution may arise quite easily by ingestion of food contaminated with fecal material following the deposition of feces on the ground. The food, fruit and garden produce prepared for sale by personal handling most easily encounters countless numbers of biological or biotic agents. These come directly from the soil and water used for cultivation or irrigation. As wastewater is more and more frequently used, special cause must be exercised because it contains various biotic agents such as viruses, fungi, bacteria and protozoa. Pathogens in domestic wastewaters are subject to adverse environmental conditions once they are introduced into the soil. As stated in the literature, microbiological quality of reclaimed wastewater is very important for any reuse in order to assure health protection preventing environmental degradation and avoiding public nuisance. Epidemiological investigations on reuse of raw or minimally-treated wastewater for food crop irrigation provided evidence of infectious diseases transmission. A case study was undertaken to investigate entrobacteria as an indicator of microbiological pollution in vegetables sold at three public markets in Konya Province.

2 Material and Method 2.1 Description of the Area and the Market Places The area under examination, i.e. Konya Province, is located on a large plateau that is known “The Great Konya Basin” in the central part of Anatolia. The Province is situated at 36◦ 51 −39◦ 29 Northern latitude and 31◦ 36 −34◦ 52 Eastern longitude and the surface area of the Basin is nearly 5.4 million hectares that makes up nearly 7% of land surface of Turkey. The vegetable specimens, as experimental material were acquired of the three main markets in Konya Province: Beysehir, Do˘ganhisar and Ilgın towns which are subprovinces of Konya Province, in 2002 (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1 Description of the Konya province and its subprovinces from which the vegetable specimens have been collected

2.2 Collection and Preparation of the Experimental Specimens The following vegetable varieties were studied: green (fresh) onion, tomatoes, cabbage, parsley, watercress, radishes, carrots, cucumber skin, lettuce, green (fresh) pepper. A total 20 specimens were taken of each product in each market. All specimens of the vegetables were raw and fresh when they were brought to the laboratory for the work. Four different disinfection treatments were used for the vegetable specimens studied. Some kind of hydroclonazone tablets were used to disinfect the specimens. The tablets were composed of chloramines. The specimens were also immersed in two different solutions containing 0.32 colloidal silver and chlorine salts respectively. The specimens were also washed with detergent and scalded with hot water in the laboratory. Five replications were used for each treatment applied in the study.

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After obtaining the vegetable specimens from the markets, 20 g of each were weighed out. For each of these aliquots, one of the following treatments was chosen at random: (a) washed with detergent and ordinary water, (b) treated with a commercial bactericide, (c) scalded at 70◦ C for 60 s, (d) washed with running tap water, or (e) the unwashed vegetable was taken with no treatment. After the foregoing treatment mentioned above, each specimens was liquefied in a blender with 200 mL of sterile water. They were then filtered through five layers of sterile gauze and the filtrate was collected in glass containers. Subsamples of 10 mL were added to 90 mL sterile physiological saline (0.85%) water. After vigorous shaking the following microbiological analyses were performed by the membrane filtration technique. The diluted filtrates were immediately streaked on selected culture media such as EMB, Mac Conkey, and/or agar containing lactose. These were incubated 37◦C for 24 h. Typical coliform and the suspected enterobacteria colonies were identified by their colonial morphology and smears which were stained with Gram’s stain. Colonies suspected of being pathogenic were streaked on brilliant green agar, S/S agar and/or deoxicholated citrate agar. These were all incubated under the same conditions; and differential media such as the Kligler’s iron agar, Sim’s agar, and/or surraco medium were used to identify the genus. Besides, total bacterial counts were executed on Plate Count Agar (OXOID) by pour plate techniques with an incubation of 15 days at 18◦ C [3, 5, 8, 10]. All platings were done in triplicate.

3 Results and Discussion All the microbiological data, obtained during this study, were summarized in Tables 1, 2 and 3. The values in the Tables 1 and 2 represent the distribution patterns of the total coliforms and pathogenic microorganisms i.e. Proteus sp., Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp. respectively. The results obtained from the tables can be summarized as follows: – The distribution of the total coliform bacteria on the vegetable specimens ranged from 24 to 100% (Table 1). – The highest incidence of coliform contamination (approximately 50%) was found with parsely specimens among all the vegetable specimens studied and it was followed by watercress (48–49%), lettuce (48–50%), radishes (46–48%), green onions (46–48%), carrots (39–49%), cabbage (37–43%), cucumber skin (36–41%), tomatoes (36–39%) and green pepper specimens (33–39%) respectively. So that the lowest figures related to green pepper specimens (Table 2).

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Vegetable varieties

Green (fresh) pepper Lettuce Cucumber (skin) Carrots Radishes Watercress Parsley Cabbage Tomatoes Green onions

IL

BS¸

DH

Treated by scalding IL

BS¸

DH

IL

Washed with a bacteriocide

BS¸

DH

IL

Washed with a detergent

------------------------------------%-----------------------------------33 38 39 32 34 37 14 18 26 20 27 32 25 28 31 48 49 50 47 49 49 34 35 36 35 38 39 41 45 47 36 38 41 35 37 40 13 19 35 33 29 31 35 37 39 39 45 49 38 42 45 19 23 23 32 37 34 36 39 41 46 47 48 45 46 42 32 34 40 38 39 40 46 47 50 48 49 50 47 49 50 33 35 36 43 44 48 49 50 48 50 50 50 47 49 50 33 35 36 44 46 47 47 49 48 37 42 43 32 42 44 12 16 23 23 29 34 26 34 37 36 37 39 35 37 38 17 19 28 35 36 38 38 39 40 46 46 48 45 46 47 34 39 38 40 43 45 40 45 46

DH

BS¸

IL

BS¸

DH

Washed with water

No treatment

BS: Beysehir market place; DH: Do˘ganhisar market place; IL: Ilgın market place

Number of specimens

The treatments used

Table 1 Percent of vegetables collected from Beysehir, Do˘ganhisar and Ilgın markets in Konya province that gave positive responses for coliform bacteria (%) (n = 5)

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20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

Vegetable varieties

Green (fresh) pepper Lettuce Cucumber (skin) Carrots Radishes Watercress Parsely Cabbage Tomatoes Green onions

IL

BS¸

DH

Treated by scalding IL

BS¸

DH

IL

Washed with a bacteriocide

BS¸

DH

IL

Washed with a detergent

------------------------------------%-----------------------------------2 0 0 1p 0 2s 2sh 0 1p 3 0 1s 2p 0 1s 6p 4s 3sh 7p 5s 9p 3p 5s 6sh 6p 5s 7sh 2 5s 6sh 0 1s 2p 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1p 0 3p 4p 0 0 1p 0 2p 2p 0 2p 4p 0 3p 2p 0 2p 2p 0 2p 1p 9p 2s 1p 0 2p 2p 0 2p 3p 0 0 0 5s 3p 9p 10p 13p 1 4p 5p 5p 8s 4sh 5p 5s 4sh 8p 9p 4s 2p 9p 11p 8p 0 4p 5p 4p 6s 5sh 5p 2s 2sh p sh p p p p p sh p p 0 2 3 0 1 3 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2sh 0 1p 2sh 0 3p 3p 0 0 0 2p 2p 2p 0 4p 0 2p 4sh 0 4p 4p 0 0 4p 0 0 4p 0 0 0 1p

DH

BS¸

IL

BS¸

DH

Washed with water

No treatment

p: Proteus spp., s: Salmonella spp., sh: Shigella spp; BS: Bey¸sehir market place, DH; Do˘ganhisar market place, IL; Ilgın market place

Number of specimens

The treatments used

Table 2 Percent of vegetables collected from Beysehir, Do˘ganhisar and Ilgın markets in Konya Province that gave positive responses for pathogenic microorganisms (%) (n = 5)

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Green onion

3 10.5 16 10.5 18 11.6

Microorganisms

Shigella spp Salmonella spp Proteus spp Escherichia coli Coliform Mean

2.5 4 14 4 15 7.9

Tomatoes

Vegetable varieties

4 3 11 6 14 7.6

Cabbage 3 16 17.5 9.5 20 10.4

Parsely 5 14 16 10 20 12.9

Watercress 2 3.5 11 5 13 6.9

Radish 3 6 9 3 12 6.6

Carrots 2.5 5 13 3 15 7.7

Cucumber (skin)

6 15 19 10 19.5 13.7

Lettuce

2 5 8.5 2 10 5.5

Green pepper

3.3 8.2 13.45 6.3 15.55

Mean

Table 3 Survival periods (days) of microorganisms on the vegetable specimens collected from Beysehir, Do˘ganhisar and Ilgın markets in Konya province (n = 5)

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• When the market places were compared to each other, in terms of the distribution of the microbiological pollution, the highest incidence of coliform contamination (39–50%) with the Ilgın Market and it was followed by the Do˘ganhisar (37–50%) and Beysehir (36–50%) market places, respectively (Table 1). These findings were coincided with the observations stated above that the hygiene precautions taken were found to be very deficient in the Ilgın Market and the sanitary conditions in the Do˘ganhisar Market were in sufficient. Whereas, the Main Market Place of Konya city has been supposed to have higher levels of hygiene then the other two markets. • As far as the pathogenic bacterial pollution was concerned, only three pathogenic genera were isolated from the vegetable specimens studied, and they were Proteus sp., Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp. The highest incidence of pathogenic pollution was found to be related to the genus of Proteus and it was followed by the genera of Salmonella and Shigella spp. respectively. On the other hand, the microbiological pollution of the pathogenic microorganisms given above showed nearly similar distribution patterns among both the vegetable specimens and the market places studied to those in the case of coliform contamination as shown in the Tables 1 and 2. • The results stated above could indicate high percentages of coliforms but low percentages of pathogenic microorganisms and thus fecal pollution of vegetables which are eaten fresh. • It was found that the bacterial coliforms most frequently encountered were E. coli and Enterobacter aerogene. Whereas, with respect to potential pathogens, microorganisms of the genera of Proteus, Salmonella and Shigella were detected. • When the treatment methods tested, were compared to each other, it was found that the “scalding” was the most effective method to disinfect the vegetable samples studied among the four treatment methods tested and then it was followed by the treatment methods of “washing with a bacteriocide” and “washing with a detergent” respectively. On the other hand, the treatment method of “washing with water” was found to have not any significant effect upon the disinfection of the vegetable samples studied comparing to the treatment method of “No Treatment”, in the experiment. • The longest survival period on the vegetable samples examined, was observed with the bacteria of coliform (mean: 15 days) and then it was followed by Proteus spp (13 days), Salmonella spp (8 days), E. coli (8 days) and Shigella spp (3 days) respectively. On the other hand, it was found that the microorganisms had a general tendency to have the longest survival time with the samples of lettuce plant (mean: 13 days) and then it was followed by the watercress (13 days), green onion (11 days), parsley (10 days), tomatoes (8 days), cucumber skin and cabbage (7 days), radish (7 days), carrots (7 days) and green pepper (5 days) vegetable samples, respectively (Table 3). These findings were supported by the results of Larkin et al. [12] and Rudolfs et al. [13] who have carried out several field experiments with vegetables irrigated with municipal wastewaters and thus, suggested that the leafy vegetables had a general

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tendency to have larger spaces to host higher number of microorganisms on their surfaces. • The results obtained from this study were generally supported by various works given in the literature.

References 1. Aydin ME, Gür K (2002) Using reclaimed municipal wastewater for irrigation. EPMR-2002 International Conference, Environmental Problems of the Mediterranean Region, 12–15 April 2002, NEU Nicosia-Northern Cyprus (in English with Turkish summary) organized by Near East University of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus 2. Carnow B, Northrop R, Wadden R, Rosenberg S, Holden J, Neal A, Scheaff L, Scheff P, Meyer S (1979) Health effects of aerosols emitted from an activated sludge plant. EPA 600/1-79019. Health Effects Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, 45268, 214 pp 3. Clesseri LS, Eaton AD (1992) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (Vol. II, for microbiological examinations). American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association and American Water Environment Federation, 1015 Fifteenth Street New York, Washington 4. Gür K, Özcan S (2002) A case study upon the distributions of some pathogenic microorganisms on the used banknotes, playing cards and telephone receivers in Konya. I. National symposium on the environmental problems in Turkey (16–18 October, 2002), Organized by Atatürk University, Erzurum (in Turkish with English summary) 5. Gür K, Özcan S (2002) Microbiological pollution of beach waters around Icel Province located at the North-Eastern Coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Turkiye. 2nd international conference on marine wastewater discharges MWWD 2002-Istanbul, 16–20 September 6. Gür K (2000) Introduction to environmental microbiology. Selcuk University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Environmental Engineering, Campus- Konya, Turkiye (in Turkish with English summary) 7. Gür K (1987) Environmental problems caused by the using the municipal wastewaters to irrigate agricultural lands: II. Microbiological pollution. J Agricult Harvest, Istanbul, Turkey, pp 30–32 (in Turkish with English summary) 8. Gür K (1986) A case study on the effects of bacterial leaching upon the minimizing the heavy metal contents of the sewage-sludge used in agriculture. The Symposium on the Environmental Pollution, Izmir, Turkey, 2–5 June 1986 (in Turkish with English summary) 9. Gür K (1984) Microbiological pollution in the agricultural lands irrigated with the municipal wastewaters. The symposium on the environmental problems, Erzurum, Turkiye, 12–15 November 1984 (in Turkish with English summary) 10. Kowal NE, Pahren HR, Akin EW (1981) Microbiological health effects associated with the use of municipal wastewater for irrigation. In: Municipal wastewater in agriculture. Academic Press, New York, ISBN 0-12-214880-0, pp 271–343 11. Lamka KG, Lechevallier MW, Seidler RJ (1980) Bacterial contamination of drinking water supplies in a modern rural neighborhood. App Environ Microbiol 39(4):734–738 12. Larkin EP, Tierney JT, Lowett J, Dunsel DV, Francis DW (1978) Land application of sewage wastes: potential for contamination of foodstuffs and agricultural soils by viruses and bacterial pathogens. In: Sagile BP, Sober CA (eds) Risk assessment and health effects of land application of municipal wastewaters and sludges. University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonia, TX 78285, pp 102–115 13. Rudolfs W, Falle LL, Rogotzkie RA (1951) Contamination of vegetables in polluted soils I., bacterial contamination. Sewage Ind Wastes 23:253–268

Assessment of Metal Pollution Based on Multivariate Statistical Modelling of Soils from Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Rivers M. Bakaç and M.N. Kumru

Abstract In this study, two economically important rivers of Turkey, Gediz and Buyuk Menderes are studied to determine their environmental pollution levels. Soil samples are analysed using graphic-furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy for the trace metals Cu, Co, Cr, Mn, Zn, Pb and Ni. The results show that the pollution levels are significant especially for Pb, Cr, Ni in the Gediz River and Cr, Zn, Co in the Buyuk Menderes river. Factor analysis technique, which is some of the statistical analyses, was used in order to explain relation between the elements. Keywords Trace metals · River pollution · Environment · Factor analysis · Turkey

1 Introduction Element concentrations in soils are mainly related to the chemical composition of parent materials and to changes due to weathering which differ for various climatic environments [16]. Chemical composition of soil, particularly its metal content, is environmentally important, because depending on their concentrations, levels of toxic elements can reduce soil fertility, can increase input to food chain, which leads to accumulate toxic metals in foodstuffs, and ultimately can endanger human health. For this, heavy metals-especially toxically- have special importance in environmental samples [12]. Trace elements are introduced into soil from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Major, minor and trace elements in parent rocks eventually is included in the formed soil fractions. Most contaminants discharged into river waters rapidly become associated with stream particulate matter and incorporated in sediments. Unfortunately, industrial and household waste discharges-directly or

M. Bakaç (B) Buca Faculty of Education, Department of Physics, Dokuz Eylul University, Buca – Izmir, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]

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indirectly, through leakages in the sewage systems- into water sources cause excessive pollution of surface and underground water. Consequently, water quality and irrigation value are lost. A number of studies on the metal distribution in river soils, sediments and suspended particles, and on speciation of metals have been performed [3, 4, 9, 6]. Multivariate statistical analyses studies are especially useful for assessing and depicting multiple chemical and physical variables. Factor analysis has been widely successful for the interpretation of geochemical and lithogeochemical affinities for elements and materials for sediments, soils and waters [15, 2, 8, 13]. In this work, two economically important rivers of Turkey, Gediz and Buyuk Menderes, are studied by the method of factor analysis to establish their environmental pollution levels for some major trace elements.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Site Study and Geology Setting The Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Rivers are known to be under contamination menace by wastes derived from industrial sources (industrial operations represent approximately 1/5 of the total industry activity in Turkey), sewage (there are four big cities discharges) and agricultural activities which correspond in these regions to 35% of the total in Turkey [10, 3]. The Gediz River originates in the vicinity of Gediz near Kütahya and flows into the Aegean Sea near the Menemen plain. It has about 401 km long and stands between 38◦04 −39◦13 north latitudes and 27◦ 48 −28◦ 04 east longitudes. The bedrock structure is a composite mainly of metamorphic and volcanic rocks of Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Neogene ages. A geological map of Gediz River and the sampling points are given in Fig. 1. The Büyük Menderes River is located in the Menderes Massif which covers a large area starting from the Aegean Sea in the south of ˙Izmir, West Anatolia, Turkey, to Mu˘gla in the south, to Afyon, in the east and Kütahya via Demirci in the northeast. The river originates in the vicinity of Dinar near Afyon and reaches to the Aegean Sea near Söke plain. It is about 500 km long and the bedrock structure of the river is composed mainly of metamorphic rocks [5]. A geological map of Buyuk Menderes River and the sampling points are given in Fig. 2.

2.2 Area Work During expeditions between 1995 and 1997, a total of 73 soil samples are collected from various part of the Buyuk Menderes and Gediz Rivers. Every sample consists of approximately 2 kg of surface layer soil (0−5 cm) without plants and stones. Polyethylene scoops and cans are used exclusively for sampling and storage.

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Fig. 1 A map of the study area showing sampling sites for Gediz River

Fig. 2 A map of the study area showing sampling sites for Buyuk Menderes River

Samples were dried and thoroughly homogenised and sieved separately to obtain the fine fraction for analysis. The samples are put in ice bags during the transportation to the laboratory and stored in a deepfreeze unit until the drying procedure.

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2.3 Laboratory Work All devices are cleaned by rinsing with pure water and kept in 0.1 M HNO3 for several days before sampling. Taking a 50 g of each of samples, they are dried in an oven at 55◦ C for 2 days. In order to normalise the variations in grain size distributions, the dried soil samples are sieved through a 270 mesh screen for the analysis. Cu, Co, Mn, Cr, Zn, Pb and Ni were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry method, including background correction for Pb, Ni and Co, PERKIN ELMER, Model AA 100/200 using an air/C2 H2 and N2 O/C2 H2 flames, respectively. Samples were digested using hot acid mixture. The procedure is as follows: A 0.50 g sample of prepared soil sample material was digested in a teflon beaker with 8 ml of %50 HF, 2 ml conc. H2 O2 and 1 ml conc. HNO3 . This was taken to dryness and a mixture of 5 ml conc. HNO3 -2 ml HClO4 was added and evaporated until fumes of HClO4 were produced. The resulting material was then taken up in 20 ml of 1 M HCl. The resulting solution was filtered and diluted with deionised water to a final volume of 100 ml and then the concentrations of the element were determined. Laboratory blanks were routinely prepared and analysed (one blank for every 5 samples) to monitor the possibility of sample contamination during digestion and subsequent analysis. Accuracy of AAS measurements were checked by regular analysis of standard reference material NIST, RM-8704, SRM 2704 (Buffolo River Sediment). Results are presented in Table 1. Table 1 Results of reference materials analysis (in ppm)

RM-8704 Element

Certified

Measured

Co Cr Cu Mn Ni Pb Zn

13.57 ± 0.43 121.9 ± 3.8 98.6a 544 ± 21 42.9 ± 3.7 150 ± 17 408 ± 15

13.12 123.0 101 557 40.4 156 404

a SRM

2704

2.4 Statistical Analysis Factor analysis, a widely used multivariate statistical method, was employed to interpret data. This technique reveals the correlation structure of the environmental and geochemical variables allowing the identification of affinity groups of elements and samples. The purpose of the factor analysis (FA) is the description of the observed variables in complex environmental compartments by finding summarising factors, which are often causally explainable. The extracted factors

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reflect the main part of information of the data set. For a detailed description of the mathematical principles see for instance [11]. The statistical analyses of the data were performed using the SPSS Program for Windows (Version 11.0).

3 Results and Discussion Summary statistics of elemental concentrations (range and mean) and the limit values in the Turkish soils [7] for the element analysed in this work are presented in Table 2. A comparison of the mean element concentrations of soils in the Upper Continental Core (UCC) from Taylor and McLeannan [14] is also presented in Table 2. Compared with the mean chemical composition of the lithosphere the obtained results revealed that the experimental maxima of nickel are ten times and four times and those of chromium nine times and two times as high as those of the Upper Continental Crust and allowed concentrations in Turkish soils, respectively. The present study, performed on 7 data sets at 33 and 40 sampling points on the basin in Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Rivers, respectively, was undertaken in an effort to evaluate factor analysis more completely with respect to agricultural, municipalities and industrial features. The initial step in the analysis was to find the matrix showing the correlations among the elements. This matrix of simple correlation coefficient was first computed from the normalised variables. In the second step, statistically significant principal components were extracted from the correlation matrix. The method of principal component analysis provides a unique solution, so that the original data can be reconstructed from the results. In the third step, the varimax rotated factor loading matrix was preferred. It is given in Table 3. All factors loading in the matrix were considered to be significant and the elements were accordingly grouped under the respective factors for floodplain soils. There are two factors in the analysis and they account for about 78% and 84% of the total variance of the data for Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Rivers, respectively. Factor 1, which is described as 42% and 46% of the variances, is the most important one loading for the elements Co, Cr, Ni and Zn. Factor 2, which is described as 46% and 38% of the variances, is the one loading for the elements Cu, Mn and Pb. Table 2 Summary statistics for soil data (values in ppm) River Gediz

Co

Cr

Cu

Mn

Ni

Pb

Zn

Min Max Mean Buyuk Menderes Min Max Mean Worldwide Conc. (UCC) Turkish soil guidelines

8 40 16 – 7 35 13 10 31

22 217 110 – 30 205 160 35 100

23 120 41 – 19 136 51 25 100

230 630 390 – 220 680 410 600 800

44 826 234 – 50 924 236 20 50

2 46 9 – 4 50 42 20 100

45 530 112 – 54 548 146 71 300

596

M. Bakaç and M.N. Kumru Table 3 Varimax factor matrix, eigenvalues, variances

Factors

Co

Cr

Ni

Zn

Cu

Mn

Pb

Eigenvalue

%Var. expl.

Cum. %var

Gediz River Factor 1 Factor 2 Communality

– 0.92 – 0.84

– 0.90 – 0.60

– 0.84 – 0.77

– 0.82 – 0.67

– – 0.78 0.56

– – 0.69 0.67

– – 0.66 0.74

– 3.26 2.18 –

– 42 36 –

– 78

Buyuk M. River Factor 1 Factor 2 Communality

– 0.86 – 0.82

– 0.84 – 0.76

– 0.76 – 0.72

– 0.70 – 0.74

– – 0.74 0.66

– – 0.68 0.70

– – 0.62 0.78

– 3.44 2.68 –

– 46 38 –

– 84

–

–

The first factor loaded by Cr, Co, Ni and Zn for both of rivers is effective in the middle part of the basin along the river. These sectors are places where the industry becomes dense. Then, this factor, which is highly loaded by heavy metals, indicates the influence of the wastewater discharged by big chemical plants in the Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Basins. Chromium, which is one of the elements in this group, is used in most industry branches like tanning, leather industry and processing surface of metals. Big and small plants, which are located here, discharge their wastewater into the river directly without refining it. Thus, they pollute the river water and the basin soil. The reason why these elements have high values in the middle part of the Gediz Basin is related to the big leather plants in Salihli and Usak cities [1]. The plants in the above cities above discharge their wastewater into the Gediz River. Then, this water reaches the soil of the basin due to overflowing and by means of using in the agricultural fields. Additionally, it is expected that Nif Stream, which flows into the Gediz River by passing a lot of chemical and leather industries in Turgutlu, would be effective in finding the high values in Manisa for Gediz River. For Buyuk Menderes River, the elements Cr and Ni in this group show that streams, which join the river, have a role in the pollution of Büyük Menderes River soils. There are, that is, industrial branches discharging these elements in the central Aydın and its surroundings. Chromium, especially, points out that wastewaters from the leather trade on the Aydın and Denizli basin, which is located up to river run into the river. Particularly, small and large leather plants are situated in the centre of Denizli in the middle of the river. This is a factor in connection with the industrial activities (tanning, leather and chemical plants). This points out that the pollution arising from industry is collected in river sediment and basin soil. So, this factor is directly named as an industrial one. In a work carried out by Akcay et al. [3] between 1996 and 1998, the water and sediments samples were collected from a number of points from the Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Rivers and the concentrations of Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Ni and Pb were measured. And then, it was announced that heavy metal pollution of the environment of the Gediz River was gradually increasing due to urbanisation, industrial and agricultural activities. This result shows that the variations in the element concentrations in the Gediz Basin have both industrial and anthropogenic origin.

Assessment of Metal Pollution

597

The second factor highly loaded by Cu, Mn and Pb has showed its highest values in the middle parts of the basin. The reason for these elements grouping on the same factor points out that their sources are different from each other. That is to say, the source of this factor can be widespread since the Middle Gediz catchments basin is very important as fruit farming and industrial (tanning and electroplating) activities. The manganese in this factor has been definitely deposited on alluvial soils through water chemistry because of high potassium in soil. Furthermore, it is well known that manganese salt is used as an ingredient of the fertilizer. In addition to these, one reason for the higher concentration of copper in soils between river-km 61 and 81 can also be agricultural activities as the copper is used as pesticides on the peach trees. In short, agricultural activities in Manisa and Salihli for Gediz and in Aydin, Soke and Nazilli for Buyuk Menderes can constitute the reason for this factor. In addition, in order to be able to explain a cause of a number of effects on the second factor arising at the same time, it would also be important to consider the actual concentrations of the elements in soil along the entire basin to be able to distinguish additions due to human activities. Some papers were published on the trace metal levels in the waters of the Gediz River region. One of these researches is to be carried out by ˙Izmir Foundation of Environment Authority [7]. In that study which was carried out in the year of 1997, the water samples were collected from a number of points from the river and the concentrations of Cr, Mn, Fe, Cd and Pb were measured. And then, it was announced that heavy metal pollution of the environment of the Gediz River was gradually increasing due to urbanization, industrial and agricultural activities. This result shows that the variations in the element concentrations in the Gediz Basin have both industrial and anthropogenic origin.

4 Conclusion In natural media, trace metals undergo numerous changes during their transport due to dissolution, precipitation and sorption phenomena. Trace element concentrations of river basins depend on not only industrial, agricultural and household waste inputs but also on the geochemical composition of the area. High concentrations of Cr, Mn, Cu and Zn are thought to have resulted from anthropogenic influences, practically from industry and pesticides used in agriculture, and are found to present a pollution risk. The Cu content of Buyuk Menderes River is higher than Gediz River’ ones, especially in Soke-Aydin region and this is a potential pollution risk for this region. Cr analyses indicate the pollution presence in Gediz and Buyuk Menderes Rivers. Especially, high values at some points confirm that the pollution originated from industrial activities is crucial. Mn pollution might be originated from a kind of pesticide, which contains Mn and is used widely in this region. Co values suggest a weak pollution risk in both rivers.

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References 1. Altınbas U, Hakerlerler H, Anac D, Tuncay H, Okur B (1994) Heavy metal contamination in Gediz Valley irregatable land and its causes. Research Report. Ege University Research Fund, Turkey, 65 pp (in Turkish with English abstract) 2. Ahmed SM, Hussain M, Abderrahman W (2005) Using multivariate factor analysis to assess surface/logged water quality and source of contamination at a large irrigation project at Al-Fadhli, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. Bull Eng Geol Environ 64:319–327 3. Akcay H, Oguz A, Karapire C (2003) Study of heavy metal pollution and speciation in Buyuk Menderes and Gediz river sediments. Water Res 37:813–822 4. Chen MH, Wu HT (1995) Copper, cadmium, and lead in sediments from the Kauhsiung River and its harbour area. Mar Pollut Bull 12:879–884 5. Dora OÖ, Candan O, Dürr St, Oberhänsli R (1995) New evidence on the geotectonic evolution of the Menderes Massif. International Earth Sciences Colloquium on the Aegean Region, ˙Izmir/Güllük-Turkey, 53–69 6. Ivorra N, Hettelaar J, Tubbing GMJ, Kraak MHS, Sabater S, Admiraal W (1999) Translocation of microbenthic algal assemblages used for in situ analysis of metal pollution in rivers. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 37:19–28 7. ˙Izmir Foundation of Environment Authors (1997) Gediz Havzası Çalı¸smaları. Izmir Society of Environment, Izmir, 25 pp (in Turkish) 8. Korfali SI, Davies BE (2004) Speciation of metals in sediment and water in a river underlain by limestone: role of carbonate species for purification capacity of rivers. Adv Environ Res 8:599–612 9. Leivuori M, Joksas K, Seisuma Z, Kulikova I, Petersell V, Larsen B, Pedersen B, Floderus S (2000) Distribution of heavy metals in sediments of the Gulf of Riga, Baltic Sea. Boreal Environ Res 5:165–185 10. Mineral Resource and Exploration Institute Authority (1974) Gediz Basin’s Soils, Mineral Resource and Exploration Institute, Ankara-Turkey, 101 pp (in Turkish) 11. Nie NH, Hull CH, Jenkins JG, Steinbrenner K, Bent DH (1975) Statistical package for the social sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York 12. Novotry K, Turzikova A, Komarek J (2000) Speciation of copper, lead and cadmium in aquatic systems by circulating dialysis combined with flame AAS. Fresenius J Anal Chem 366: 209–212 13. Pardo R, Barrado R, Castrillejo Y, Velasco MA, Vega M (1993) Study of the contents end speciation of heavy metals in river sediments by factor analysis. Anal Lett 26:1719–1739 14. Taylor SR, McLeannan SM (1895) In the continental crust: its composition, evolution. Blackwell, Oxford, 600 pp 15. Thanachit S, Suddhiprakarn A, Kheoruenromne I, Gilkes RJ (2006) The geochemistry of soils on a catena on sedimentary rock at Nam Phong, north-east Thailand. Aust J Soil Res 44:143–154 16. Topp SE, Salbu B, Roaldset E, Jorgensen P (1984) Vertical distribution of trace elements in lateritic soil (Suriname). Cheml Geol 47:159–174

A Commonly Used Pesticide Endosulfan in Diet Could Cause Hepatomegaly and Kidney Tumor When Combined with Nitrosamines Recai Ogur and Omer Faruk Tekbas

Abstract Pesticides and nitrites which could be available in foods are generally investigated individually, although they could be found in foods together and exhibit combined health effects. In this study we aimed to determine the combined effects of endosulfan which is a commonly used pesticide and N-nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU) which is a prototype for mammary tumor development in Sprague Dawley rats and could be formed in brine foods or also in body from nitrites which is commonly used in meat. Ninety female Sprague Dawley rats had been used. Animals were divided three groups which consisted 30 animals. The first group took a single dose endosulfan intraperitoneal (ip) on 19th day and a single dose NMU ip on 21 day, the second group took endosulfan by their drinking waters for the first 60 days of their life and a single dose NMU ip on 21 day, and the third group took only a single dose NMU ip on 21 day. Animals were controlled for their general health status, mammary mass develeopment, daily water consumption and weekly weight gain. At the end of the study rats were examinated carefully under anesthesia, and tissue samples were prepared from their mammary glands and intraabdominal organs. Tissue samples taken from mammary glands, liver and kidneys were histopathalogically examined. It was determined a statistically significant hepatomegally in the second group when we compared to other groups (p < 0.05). No animals developed mammary tumors. On the macroscopic examination and manual palpation of intraabdominal region, it was showed that solid tumors in kidneys as a ratio of 76.7% of the animals in the second group (bilateral in 1,3% of them, the others are unilaterally and 70% of the unilateral tumors are in the left kidneys while the rest of them are right localized). Also it was found that in the first group, 13.4% of the animals developed unilateral kidney tumors.

R. Ogur (B) Department of Environmental Health, Gulhane Military Medical Faculty, Ankara, Turkey; GATA Halk Sagligi AD, 06018, Etlik, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_54, 

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The third group which had been applied only NMU developed no kidney or liver pathalogy macroscopically. As a result it was considered that a diversity which is named as “genetic shift” could be developed in our animal research center and because of this shift we could not developed NMU induced mammary tumors in our Sprague Dawley rats. But it has been showed that long term endosulfan expose has resulted in kidney tumor development for the first time. Because of the genetic shifting mentioned above, it should be tested whether this experimental animal cancer model is limited for our research center or not by obtaining sprague dawley animals from different centers. Interactions of living style, environmental factors and genetic properties in the development of cancer and its necessary to control all of three factors in order to reduce cancer frequency in public showed that the importance of interdiciplinary collaboration and public education. Consumers and appliers should be educated about using pestices, and healthy and safety food production and concumption should be considered as one of the primary subjects in public health studies. Keywords Endosulfan · N-methyl-N-nitorsourea · NMU · Kidney cancer · Pesticides

1 Introduction Pesticides are toxic substances commonly used in order to eliminate harmfull effects of animals or plants in agriculture or daily public life. Pesticides are generally toxic to more than one species, and could be detrimental to humans as well as to wildlife [1–4]. Although they are used widely, there are efforts to limit their use. Pesticide residues on the crops could be considered as external toxic chemicals contaminants. Endosulfan is one of the commonly used pesticides in the agriculture, and also it was found in water sources, fish products, meat products, milk, air and falling as well as vegetables and fruits because of contamination [5–10]. Beside pesticides, there are a lot of chemicals which we add to foods through food processing and manufacturing. They have to be healthy for human and there are some regulations about these food additives. Nitrates and nitrites are the food additives which have special interest [11]. Because they are known as toxic for human, but they are superior to the other preservatives for meat and meat products [12]. There are some studies about the production of cancerogenic nitoroso compounds in meat products which have contain nitrate/nitrite [12–14]. Pesticides and nitrites which could be available in foods are generally investigated individually, although they could be found in foods together and exhibit combined health effects. In this study we aimed to determine the combined effects of endosulfan which is a commonly used pesticide and N-nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU) which is a prototype for mammary tumor development in Sprague Dawley rats and could be formed in brine foods or also in body from nitrites which is commonly used in meat [15, 16].

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2 Material and Method Ninety female Sprague Dawley rats had been used. All studies on rats conformed to the principles of the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources) [17]. The laboratory animals used in the Study were provided by the Gulhane Medical Academy. Sprague Dawley rats were divided three groups which consisted 30 animals. The first group took a single dose (2 mg/kg) endosulfan (Dr. Ehrenstorfer GmbH, Germany, Catalog No: 13120000) intraperitoneal (ip) on 19th day and a single dose (75 mg/kg) N-Nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU) (Sigma No: N1517, Sigma, Germany) ip on 21 day, the second group took endosulfan by their drinking waters for the first 60 days of their life (3 mg/kg/day) and a single dose (75 mg/kg) NMU ip on 21 day, and the third group took only a single dose NMU ip on 21 day. Animals were controlled for their general health status, mammary mass develeopment, daily water consumption and weekly weight gain for 90 days. At the end of the study rats were examinated carefully under anesthesia (ip ketamine (50 mg/kg) and dehydrobenzoperidol (2 mg/kg)), and tissue samples were prepared from their mammary glands and intraabdominal organs. Tissue samples taken from mammary glands, liver and kidneys were histopathalogically examined. Sections taken from the samples fixed in formalin were stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin for examination. All the obtained data were transferred to the computer and analyzed statistically with the SPSS for Windows 11.0 software. The data have been presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD). By using frequency distribution graphs, and skewness and kurtosis statistics which describe the shape and symmetry of the distribution, it was decided that our data were parametric. So, parametric tests (ANOVA and chi-square tests) were used to compare the groups.

3 Results During the study no animal was died for any reason and the study was ended with 90 female Sprague Dawley rats. Anesthesia was applied before obtaining tissue specimens and the abdomen was examined with detail. Among the animals in second group exposed to NMU plus endosulfan in top water during 60 days, 76.7% of female SD rats were encountered renal tumor (1.3% bilaterally, others single side, among the single side ones %70 on left, 30% on right) when examined via palpation and macroscopically. When examined macroscopically and via palpation, the first group those took single dose endosulfan together with single dose NMU, single side renal tumor was encountered 13.4% of the animals. Although second group animals had severe hepotamegalia, animals in first group have also been observed to have relatively bigger liver. Group 3, exposed NMU only, had normal liver and kidney when examined macroscopically and via palpation. Daily water consuption of rats were followed and changes in daily water consupmtion depending on the endosulfan in top water or chemicals exposured to

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animals were examined closely. Although, water consumption according to groups varied between 42.7 ± 4.8 and 46.3 ± 5.6 ml/day there was no statistical significance for water consumption among groups (p > 0.05). Gaining weight ratio among groups was statistically insignificant (p > 0.05) although the group taken endosulfan with top water was less (Figs. 1 and 2). All rats’ livers were weighted after removal and liver/body weight ratios were obtained. Diffuse hepatomegalia was encountered the groups first and second those exposed to endosulfan. Animals in groups those took endosulfan during 60 days had higher liver/body weight ratios than others and statistically significant differance was observed (p < 0.05) (Table 1). In group 1 and group 2 liver specimens, observation of sinusoidal widening were supported the hepatomegalia when examined histologically. Among animals those took endosulfan with top water and single dose NMU, sinusoidal widening of 2nd group animals were larger than those group 1st animals and hepatomegalia of this group was more severe (Table 1) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 1 Kidney with tumor from intra abdominal view

Fig. 2 Kidney with tumor after excision from abdominal wall

Endosulfan in Diet Could Cause Hepatomegaly and Kidney Tumor

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Table 1 Female SD rats liver/body weight ratios according to groups

Liver/body weight ratio

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

0.0165 ± 0.0017

0.0191 ± 0.0023∗

0.0125 ± 0.0031

∗ statistically singificant differance had been encountered in 2nd group as compared with others (p < 0.05)

Fig. 3 A microscopic liver specimen view belonged to animals those took endosulfan during 60 days and single dose NMU at day 21st (2nd group). Portal vein at center and sinusoids widening were more pronounced than those first group liver exposed to single dose i.p.endosulfan at day 19th plus single dose NMU at day 21st (H&E 100x)

Infiltrative tumor had been established after histopathologic examination of the specimens of animals those had renal tumor. The tumors had been observed to have relatively higher mitotic frequency and infiltrated the normal glomerulus and renal tubuli. No pathology had been observed in animals those took single dose NMU when examined both macroscopically and microscopically (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Infiltrative tumors (right side of picture with arrows) together with normal renal tubuli. Renal tumors infiltrating normal glomerulus (short arrow) and normal renal tubuli (long arrows) could be seen (H&E, 50x)

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No tumor or growing breast had been encountered when breasts of female Sprague Dawley rats had been examined weekly and end of the study. However, breast tissue specimens were taken and examined microscopically. Breast tissues taken from animals had been accepted normal after specimens examined histopathologically, no fibrocystic changes or atypic characteristic related to carcinogenic improvement had been encountered. No calcification had been encountered in any specimens. Because of the possibility of histologic differences between human and Sprague Dawley rats breast tissues, related references were used for making true histopathologic examinations during evaluation [16, 18, 19].

4 Discussion Although developing of NMU induced mammary tumors would be expected in Sprague Dawley rats, we could not detect any mammary tumors [16, 17, 20, 21]. It was considered that a diversity named as “genetic shift” could be developed in our animal research center and because of this shift we could not developed NMU induced mammary tumors in our Sprague Dawley rats [22, 23]. But it has been showed that long term endosulfan expose has resulted in kidney tumor development for the first time. Because of the genetic shifting mentioned above, it should be tested whether this experimental animal cancer model is limited for our research center or not by obtaining sprague dawley animals from different centers. Because there are no scientific documentation about kidney tumor development in rats resulting from endosulfan, new studies should be planned to explain mechanism of kidney tumor development. And also it should be well documented whether there is an interaction between endosulfan and NMU. Interactions of living style, environmental factors and genetic properties in the development of cancer and its necessary to control all of three factors in order to reduce cancer frequency in public showed that the importance of interdiciplinary collaboration and public education [11, 24]. Consumers and appliers should be educated about using pestices, and healthy and safety food production and concumption should be considered as one of the primary subjects in public health studies.

References 1. Abelsohn A, Gibson BL, Sanborn MD, Weir E (2002) Identifying and managing adverse environmental health effects: 5. Persistent organic pollutants. Can Med Assoc J 166(12):1549– 1554 2. Adeoya-Osiguwa SA, Markoulaki S, Pocock V, Milligan SR, Fraser LR (2003) 17betaestradiol and environmental estrogens significantly affect mammalian sperm function. Hum Reprod 18(1):100–107 3. Ahlbom J, Fredriksson A, Eriksson P (1995) Exposure to an organophosphate (DFP) during a defined period in neonatal life induces permanent changes in brain muscarinic receptors and behavior in adult mice. Brain Res 677:13–19

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4. Carpy SA, Kobel W, Doe J (2000) Health risk of low-dose pesticides mixtures: A review of the 1985–1998 literature on combination toxicology and health risk assessment. J Toxicol Environ Health Part B, Crit Rev 3(1):1–25 5. Aguilera-Del AR, Valverde-Garcia A, Fernandez-Alba AR, Camacho-Ferre F (1997) Behaviour of endosulfan residues in peppers, cucumbers and cherry tomatoes grown in greenhouse: Evaluation of decline curves. Pest Sci 51:194–200 6. Amaraneni SR (2002) Persistence of pesticides in water, sediment and fish from fish farms in Kolleru Lake, India. J Sci Food Agric 82(8):918–923 7. Archibeque-Engle SL, Tessari JD, Winn DT, Kefe TJ, Nett TM, Zheng T (1997) Comparison of organochlorine pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl residues in human breast adipose tissue and serum. J Toxicol Environ Health 52:285–293 8. Arrebola FJ, Egea-Gonzalez FJ, Moreno M, Fernandez-Gutierrez A, Hernandez-Torres ME, Martinez-Vidal JL (2001) Evaluation of endosulfan residues in vegetables grown in greenhouses. Pest Manage Sci 57(7):645–652 9. Cerrillo I, Granada A, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Olmos B, Jimenez M, Cano A, Olea N, OleaSerrano MF (2005) Endosulfan and its metabolites in fertile women, placenta, cord blood, and human milk. Environ Res 98(2):233–239 10. Safi JM, Abou-Foul NS, el-Nahhal YZ, el-Sebae AH (2002) Monitoring of pesticide residues on cucumber, tomatoes and strawberries in Gaza Governorates, Palestine. Nahrung 46(1): 34–39 11. Barnard RJ (2004) Prevention of cancer through lifestyle changes. Evidence Based Complement Altern Med 1(3):233–239 12. Aklın E (2005) Et Ürünlerinde Nitrat, Nitrit ve Nitrozaminler. ˙Izmir Veteriner Hekimler Odası. http://izmir-vho.org/izmir-vho/kutuphane.asp?talep=konu&id=129&g=3 (Eri¸simtarihi: 20.04.2005) 13. Calle EE, Frumkin H, Henley SJ, Savitz DA, Thun MJ (2002) Organochlorines and breast cancer risk. CA Cancer J Clin 52(5):301–309 14. Johnson FM (2002) How many food additives are rodent carcinogens? Environ Mol Mutagen 39(1):69–80 15. Macejova D, Brtko J (2001) Chemically induced carcinogenesis: a comparison of 1-methyl1-nitrosourea, 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene,diethylnitroso-amine and azoxymethan models (minireview). Endocr Regul 35(1):53–59 16. McCormick DL, Adamowski CB, Fiks A, Moon RC (1981) Lifetime dose-response relationships for mammary tumor induction by a single administration of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea. Cancer Res 41(5):1690–1694 17. Festing MFW, Altman DG (2002) Guidelines for the design and statistical analysis of experiments using laboratory animals. ILAR J 43(4):244–258 18. Masso-Welch PA, Darcy KM, Stangle-Castor NC, Ip MM (2000) A developmental atlas of rat mammary gland histology. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 5(2):165–185 19. Russo J, Russo IH (2000) Atlas and histologic classification of tumors of the rat mammary gland. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 5(2):187–200 20. Chou YC, Guzman RC, Swanson SM, Yang J, Lui HM, Wu V, Nandi S (1999) Induction of mammary carcinomas by N-methyl-N-nitrosourea in ovariectomized rats treated with epidermal growth factor. Carcinogenesis 20(4):677–684 21. Hu L, Lin L, Crist KA, Kelloff GJ, Steele VE, Lubet RA, You M, Wang Y (1997) Detection of differentially expressed genes in methylnitrosourea-induced rat mammary adenocarcinomas. J Cell Biochem Suppl 28–29:117–124 22. Bailey DW (1977) Genetic drift: the problem and its possible solution by frozen-embryo storage. Ciba Found Symp 291–303 23. Bailey DW (1982) How pure are inbred strains of mice? Immunol Today 3:210–214 24. Ames BN, Gold LS (1998) The causes and prevention of cancer: the role of environment. Biotherapy 11(2–3):205–220

Effect of Different Time and Temperature of Various Cooking Methods on Sulfonamide Residues in Chicken Balls M.R. Ismail-Fitry, S. Jinap, B. Jamilah, and A.A. Saleha

Abstract Sulfonamide residues are proven to be reduced in raw chicken meat after heat treatment but in processed chicken balls it is yet to be done. The objective of the study was to determine the optimum heat treatment condition for the reduction of sulfonamide residues in production of acceptable quality chicken balls. Three heat treatment processes; boiling, deep-frying and microwaving were consecutively applied on chicken balls pre-fortified at raw stage with four types of sulfonamides (SAs) namely sulfadiazine (SDZ), sulfamethazine (SMZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and sulfaquinoxaline (SQX). Boiling process was carried out at 3, 6 and 9 min with ◦ ◦ temperature of 80, 90 and 100 C. Boiling of chicken balls at 100 C for 6 min was found to be the most acceptable in appearance and were brought to deep frying ◦ process with temperature of 170, 180, and 190 C and time of 3, 6, and 9 min. ◦ For deep-fried chicken balls, temperature of 180 C for 6 min was found to be the most acceptable in appearance and was used for microwaving process at power of 100, 250, and 440 W for 20, 40, and 60 s. For boiling, both factors (time and temperature) had significant reduction for all SAs (p < 0.05). The same went for deep-frying process; time and temperature had caused significant reduction for all SAs (p < 0.05). For microwave process, both factors (time and power) also showed significant reduction for all SAs (p < 0.05). SDZ was reduced up to 62% after application of the three cooking methods continuously. For SMZ the reduction was 52%. Meanwhile, 62% and 55% of reduction were observed for SMX and SQX respectively. The sequence of reduction on SAs residues for all cooking methods was deep-frying > boiling > microwave. The results would be guidance for industries and consumers to reduce risk of sulfonamide residues by heat treatments.

1 Introduction The practice of sulfonamide in animal husbandry is purposely to prevent diseases caused by both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, as well as some protozoa M.R. Ismail-Fitry (B) Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Putra Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] H. Gökçeku¸s et al. (eds.), Survival and Sustainability, Environmental Earth Sciences, C Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-95991-5_55, 

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(Sulfonamides Veterinary-Systemic, 2000). At the same time, sulfonamide also can act as growth promoter for the animal [3]. Due to the harmful effect to human, residues of sulfonamide have been restricted to 100 μg/kg of food producing animal [1]. Even though the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) has been enforced, some farmers still violating the law by providing over dosage of sulfonamide or/and slaughtering before withdrawal period to increase their profits. It has been an issue of food safety when consumers were exposed to the residues without knowing it. Monitoring has been done frequently to control the over limit of sulfonamide residues in chicken meat but possibilities of undetected still exist because of too many samples and limited ability of detections. Furthermore, long time effect of sulfonamide residues due to accumulation in human body is still concerning the consumers. Cooking is proven to reduce sulfonamide residues in animal meat [5]. To what extend of the effect is depending on the type of cooking, temperature and time used. Most foods need to be applied heat treatment before human can eat them. This is related to the safety and quality of the food, where heat will reduce or inhibit microbial in food thus make sure the food will not cause harm to human. Foods also need heat treatment in form of cooking to maintain the quality especially for the sensory. Several studies have been done to study the effect of heat treatment to antibiotics in meat. Sulfonamide residues have been examined by several researchers related to effect of heat treatment. Sulfadimethoxine was used by Xu et al. [8] as antibiotic in muscle of channel catfish to determine the effect of cooking on the residues and cooking caused an average 46.1% reduction of sulfadimethoxine from raw fillet of fish. Meanwhile, Lan et al. [4] used sulfamethazine in their research on tilapia meat with microwave treatment reduced up to 90% and roast treatment reduced up to 85% of sulfamethazine in the fish. Furusawa and Hanabusa [2] did the experiment with chicken thigh muscle using sulfadiazine, sulfamethoxazole, sulfamonomethoxine and sulfaquinoxaline. The results were 45–61% reduction of boiling, 38–40% reduction of roasting except for sulfadiazine, and 35–41% reduction of microwaving to all the four sulfonamides. Among all the studies, none was on process product. So the objective of the study was to determine the effect of heat treatment on sulfonamide residues in production of acceptable quality chicken balls. Furthermore, the chicken balls were cooked with three different cooking methods consecutively to determine the reduction of the sulfonamide residues that might occur along the processing chain.

2 Experimental 2.1 Equipment For processing of chicken balls, bowl cutter/mixer (ADE SL-18), deep fryer (Philips Cucina) and microwave oven (National) were used. For sample preparation homogenizer Ultra Turrax basic (IKA LABORTECHNIK), Centrifuge Mettler PM34 Delta

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Range, Sonicator ULTRASONIK 104X (NEYTECH USA), Rotary evaporator and aspirator pump (EYELA), Nitrogen – PIERCE, Reacti – Therm, Heating/Stirring Module, Vortex (Stuart Autovortex mixer), and Microcentrifuge (EBA 12 – Hettich with rotor) were used. The following equipment were used for HPLC analysis: Photo diode array detector – Waters Associate 996, HPLC autosampler – Waters 717 PLUS, Pump – Waters model 510, Waters pump programmable 590, Symmetry C18 5 μm 3.9X150 mm, Waters.

2.2 Chemicals Acetonitrile, acetone, methanol, and N-hexane were from Fischer. Dichloromethane was from Merck. Sulfadiazine (SDZ), Sulfamethazine (SMZ), Sulfmethoxazole (SMX), and Sulfaquinoxaline (SQX) were from Sigma.

2.3 Standard Solutions Stock standard solution was prepared by dissolving 0.1 g of standard with 10 ml 90% acetonitrile (N-hexane saturated) separately. Intermediate standard solution was prepared by diluting an aliquot from the stock solution with 50% methanol. Working solution was prepared daily by diluting from intermediate standard prior the analysis.

2.4 Chicken Ball Production Chickens were bought from Nutriplus – Free Antibiotic Chicken type. Only the breast parts of the chicken were used for processing. The meat was ground and fortified with sulfonamide standards. Then the ground meat was left for one hour ◦ at chilling temperature (0–4 C). After that, corn starch, Sodium Triphosphate, black pepper, sugar, salt and garlic were added as ingredients. Bowl mixer 1 kg was used to grind and mix all the ingredients. Ice cubes were added while processing to control the temperature. The mixed dough was made into portion of 10 g separately. All the portions then were formed into ‘balls’ and flashed dip into 1,000 ml beaker containing distilled water and ice. The chicken balls then were taken out and put ◦ into plastic container and stored under –20 C before cooking process.

2.5 Cooking Processes Three type of cooking methods were applied consecutively on a batch of chicken balls pre-fortified with sulfonamides. Each cooking method was carried out at various time and temperature.

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Boiling processes were done at the temperature of 80, 90 and 100 C for 3, 6 and 9 min. From the boiling process, a batch of boiled chicken balls was brought to deep-frying processes. The frying processes were carried out at the temperature of ◦ 170, 180 and 190 C for 3, 6 and 9 min. After that a batch of fried chicken balls were brought to microwaving processes. The processes were carried out at the power of 100, 250 and 440 W for 20, 40 and 60 s.

2.6 Sample Extraction and Clean-Up Method of extraction used was by Furusawa and Hanabusa [2] with several modifications. 10 g sample was weighed in glass centrifuge tube and 30 ml 90% acetonitrile (N-hexane saturated) was added. The sample was homogenized for 1 min with Ultra Turrax Homogenizer. The solution was centrifuged for 10 min at 35,000 rpm. The supernatant was transferred into pear-shaped flask. 20 ml acetone was added to the sediment and sonicated for 10 min. Centrifuged and the super◦ natant is added into the pear-shaped flask. The solution was evaporated at 70 C until only water left. 5 ml methylene chloride was added and vortexed. The methylene chloride solution was transferred to test tube (repeated 3 times). The methylene ◦ chloride was dried under nitrogen at 50 C. The residue was reconstituted with 1 ml 50% methanol in acetate buffer and vortexed. 2 ml N-hexane is added for clean up. The cleaned portion was injected into HPLC system.

3 Results and Discussion Figure 1 shows the chromatogram of the SAs residues in chicken ball. The first peak to elute is SDZ at 8th minute. It is followed by SMZ at 12th minute. SMX and SQX are eluted at 16th and 19th minute respectively. All the peaks have been well separated. The effect of boiling on sulfonamide residues (SAs) in chicken balls is shown in bar chart (Fig. 2). Both factors, which are temperature and time have significant effect in the reduction of all the SAs with p < 0.05. Even though it has been ◦ reported by Rose et al. [6] that sulfamethazine was stable at temperature of 100 C, the reduction occurred was probably due to protein denaturation of the sample [5]. In Table 1 all the SAs except SDZ were reduced less than 10%. SDZ was reduced up to 22% considering that the SDZ has higher polarity compared to other SAs. This will probably increase the solubility of the SDZ compound in water. Figure 3 shows the bar chart of the deep-frying effect on SAs residues in pre◦ boiled chicken balls (100 C, 6 min). Temperature of deep-frying and time used have shown significant reduction (p < 0.05) on the SAs residues. The replacement of water in chicken balls with frying oil during deep-frying might be the main factor of the reduction on SAs residues. From the Table 1, it shows that after deep-frying, only 44–66% of SAs residues left compared to the raw chicken balls.

Effect of Different Time and Temperature on Sulfonamide Residues in Chicken Balls

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Fig. 1 Chromatogram of SAs residues in chicken ball

Concentration (ppm)

BOILING 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0

SDZ SMZ SMX SQX

B0

B1

B2

B3

B4

B5

B6

B7

B8

B9

Treatment

B0

Control

B1

80°C 3min

B2

80°C 6min

B3

80°C 9min

B4

90°C 3min

B5

90°C 6min

B6

90°C 9min

B7

100°C 3min

B8

100°C 6min

B9

100°C 9min

Fig. 2 Effect of boiling in SAs residues

Table 1 Effect of different cooking methods consecutively on SAs residues in chicken balls Cooking process

Temperature/ power, time

SDZ left (%)

SMZ left (%)

SMX left (%)

SQX left (%)

Raw Boiling Deep-frying Microwaving

Control ◦ 100 C, 6 min ◦ 180 C, 6 min 440 W, 60 s

100a 77.58b 44.25 38.29

100a 90.92b 65.89 48.17

100a 94.49b 58.35 38.09

100a 91.53b 66.49 45.23

Values with different letters (a–b) within the same column reduce significantly (p < 0.05)

Concentration (ppm)

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DEEP-FRYING

0.35 0.3 0.25

SDZ SMZ SMX SQX

0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 F0

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

F6

F7

F8

F9

Treatment

F0

Control

F1

170°C 3min

F2

170°C 6min

F3

170°C 9min

F4

180°C 3min

F5

180°C 6min

F6

180°C 9min

F7

190°C 3min

F8

190°C 6min

F9

190°C 9min

Fig. 3 Effect of deep-frying in SAs residues

Concentration (ppm)

MICROWAVING

M0

Control

M1

100W 20s

M2

100W 40s

M3

100W 60s

0.25 0.2 SDZ SMZ SMX SQX

0.15 0.1

M4

250W 20s

M5

250W 40s

0.05

M6

250W 60s

0

M7

440W 20s

M8

440W 40s

M9

440W 60s

M0

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

Treatment

M7

M8

M9

Fig. 4 Effect of microwaving in SAs residues

The bar chart from Fig. 4 shows the effect of microwaving on the SAs residues ◦ in pre-fried chicken balls (180 C, 6 min). Significant reductions with p < 0.05 were observed for both power (W) and time (s) on SAs residues after microwaving processes. Table 1 shows that by microwaving pre-fried chicken balls, the residues left are from 38 to 45%. In microwave treatment, the reduction of SAs residues might be due to migration of juice out of the chicken balls. Table 1 shows that SDZ was reduced up to 62% after application of the three cooking methods consecutively. For SMZ the reduction was 52%. Meanwhile, 62 and 55% of reduction were observed for SMX and SQX respectively. The percentage of reduction for all SAs residues were different compared to previous studies because the sample itself and the cooking treatments were done consecutively.

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4 Conclusions As time and temperature increased, sulfonamide residues decreased; as such, texture and taste of the chicken balls might be affected. Both parameters were considered in selection of best time and temperature. Sulfonamide reduction during boiling and deep frying was due its migration from chicken balls to cooking medium (water and oil); during microwave process, it was due to juice exude out from chicken balls. The loss of sulfonamide residues was due to denaturation of protein-sulfonamide compounds. The sequence of reduction on SAs residues for all cooking methods was deep-frying > boiling > microwave.

References 1. Food Act 1983 (Act 281) & Regulations (2000) International law book services, p 198 2. Furusawa N, Hanabusa R (2002) Cooking effects on sulfonamide residues in chicken thigh muscle. Food Res Int 35:37–42 3. Kishida K, Furusawa N (2001) Matrix solid-phase dispersion extraction and high-performance liquid chromatographic determination of residual sulfonamides in chicken. J Chromatogr A 937:49–55 4. Lan CC, Hwang BS, Tu MF (2001) Effect of microwave and roast treatment on the degradation of sulfamethazine residue in tilapia meat. J Food Drug Anal 9(2):102–106 5. Papapanagiotou EP, Fletouris DJ, Psomas EI (2005) Effect of various heat treatments and cold storage on sulphamethazine residues stability in incurred piglet muscle and cow milk samples. Anal Chim Acta 529:305–309 6. Rose MD, Farrington WHH, Shearer G (1995) The effect of cooking on veterinary drug residues in food: III. Sulphamethazine (sulphdimidine) Food Addit. Contam. 12:739–750 7. Sulfonamides Veterinary–System