Spanish Vocabulary
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David Brodsky
SPANISH Vocabulary An Etymological Approach
University of Texas Press
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Austin
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Copyright © by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America First edition, Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to: Permissions, University of Texas Press, P.O. Box , Austin, TX - www.utexas.edu/utpress/about/bpermission.html The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/NISO Z.- (R) (Permanence of Paper). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brodsky, David. Spanish vocabulary : an etymological approach / by David Brodsky. — st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN ---- (cl. : alk. paper) — ISBN ---- (pbk. : alk. paper) . Spanish language—Vocabulary. . Spanish language—Textbooks for foreign speakers—English. . Spanish language—Etymology. I. Title. PC.B .'—dc
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Contents
Preface vii Abbreviations and Symbols
ix
Simplified Gender Rule xii Introduction PA R T I . B A C K G R O U N D
.. Spanish as a Romance Language .. “Learned” versus “Popular” Words .. Latin: A Few Useful Tools PA R T I I . C L A S S I C A L V O C A B U L A R Y
.. “Learned” Latin Words .. “Learned” Greek Words PA R T I I I . P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
.. Addition of “Helping” e : esnob snob .. Initial f S h: higo fig
.. Vowel Changes: e S ie, o S ue, etc. .. Basic Consonant Changes: p/b, t/d, c/g .. Other Distinctive Consonants (or Lack Thereof)
PA R T I V. S E L E C T E D T O P I C S
.. Goths and Other Germans .. Arabs and Muslims
.. Numbers and Quantities
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vi
CO N T E N T S
.. Time
.. Ser and Estar .. Food and Animals .. Religion
.. The Family
.. Body, Spirit, and Mind .. Romance (Languages) and Politics
ANNEXES. ADDITIONAL WORDS
A. Principal Exceptions to the “Simplified Gender Rule” B. Not-So-Easy Words C. Verbs Ending in -cer and Related Words D. , Relatively Easy Words
Selected References
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Preface
This book is intended for students at all levels who seek to enhance their Spanish vocabulary, as well as for those who wish simply to explore the wideranging connections between Spanish and English vocabulary. The approach differs markedly from that of “traditional” Spanish vocabulary books that present lists of words with English definitions, grouped by subject areas. While such lists can be useful for reviewing and maintaining vocabulary, they often are of far less value to students seeking to acquire new vocabulary, or at least to those not blessed with photographic memories. Spanish Vocabulary: An Etymological Approach offers elements rarely found in a work addressed to a nonspecialist audience, including: . etymological connections between Spanish and English vocabulary . historical and linguistic information on the origin and evolution of Spanish . comparative references to developments in other Romance languages (and English)
A multifaceted approach is employed, ranging from presenting words in a historical context to developing an understanding of the “shape” or “feel” of Spanish. While extensive use of lists is also made, there is a crucial difference: in the large majority of cases, Spanish words are associated explicitly with related English words, an association that can greatly facilitate learning and retaining these words. As an example, the correspondence amable (Spanish)—amiable (English) can be used as the basis for learning a number of other Spanish words:
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Spanish
Definition
[Other Cognate]
amable —amabilidad —amistad —amistoso —amor —amoroso —amar —amante —enamorar
amiable, kind —amiability, kindness —friendship, amity —friendly, amicable —love —amorous, loving —(to) love —loving, lover —(to) enamor
[paramour]
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viii
P R E FA C E
—enamorado, enamorada
—in love, enamored, lover, inamorato, inamorata
The presentation is divided into four parts, plus four annexes. The book can be studied sequentially or “à la carte” (Spanish a la carta). It is in fact recommended that one move back and forth between the sections to provide a greater element of variety. Part I provides general background material on the origins of Spanish and begins the process of presenting Spanish vocabulary. Part II presents “classical” Spanish vocabulary, that is, words whose form (in both Spanish and English) is nearly unchanged from Latin and Greek. Part III deals with “popular” Spanish vocabulary, or words that during the evolution from Latin to Spanish underwent significant change in form (and often in meaning as well). A number of “patterns” are set out that can help one to recognize and remember new vocabulary. Part IV treats in a more discursive manner various themes, including Germanic and Arabic words, numbers, time, food and animals, the family, the body, and politics. The annexes present additional words in list form: Annex A: Principal Exceptions to the “Simplified Gender Rule” Annex B: Not-So-Easy Words (whose relations, if any, to English words are not immediately obvious) Annex C: Verbs Ending in -cer and Related Words Annex D: , Relatively Easy Words (with English correspondences)
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Abbreviations and Symbols
acc. adj. adv. AHCD Amer. Arab. arch. astron. biol. bot. cap. Cat. cf. chem. CL conj. def. dim. DRAE eccl. elec. Eng. esp. fam. f. fig. Fr. freq. gen. genit. geog. geol. geom. Germ.
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accusative adjective adverb American Heritage College Dictionary American Spanish (not necessarily all countries); or indigenous language Arabic architecture astronomy biology/zoology botany capitalized Catalan compare (from Latin confer) chemistry Classical Latin conjunction definition diminutive Diccionario de la lengua española of the Real Academia Española ecclesiastical electricity English especially familiar, colloquial feminine figuratively; figurative French frequently generally genitive (possessive case) geography geology geometry Germanic
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x
A B B R E V I AT I O N S A N D S Y M B O L S
gram. Gk. incl. inf. It. Lat. lit. m. m./f. math. med. mil. Mod.Fr. Mod.Sp. n. neg. n.f. n.m. n.m./f. nom. obs. OED OldEng. OldFr. OldSp. onom. orig. part. pert. pl. Port. p.p. prep. pres. RAE sing. s.o. Sp.
grammar Greek including infinitive Italian Latin literally masculine masculine/feminine mathematics medicine military Modern French Modern Spanish noun negative feminine noun masculine noun noun both masculine and feminine nominative obsolete or archaic Oxford English Dictionary Old English Old French Old Spanish onomatopoeia originally participle pertaining plural Portuguese past participle preposition present Real Academia Española (see also DRAE) singular someone Spanish
Used generally in cases where the defi nition corresponding to the past participle is not presented among the accompanying list of defi nitions.
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A B B R E V I AT I O N S A N D S Y M B O L S
UK vb. VL w/out
United Kingdom verb Vulgar Latin without
†
is similar in meaning to (always refers to two Spanish words) is derived from (e.g., soprano It., sport < disport) is equal to is not equal to indicates that an English word used as a cognate is “obsolete” or “archaic”
xi
In general, this applies to words that either: (a) are listed as “obsolete” or “archaic” in Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged or (b) are not found there but appear in the Oxford English Dictionary. The term rare is used to mark other cognates that, while perhaps not technically obsolete or archaic, are not normally found in “smaller” dictionaries (e.g., American Heritage College Dictionary).
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Simplified Gender Rule
Both to streamline the presentation and to serve as a learning tool, the text will employ the following “Simplified Gender Rule” that “predicts” the correct gender for more than percent of all Spanish nouns. . Nouns having one of the following endings are assumed to be feminine: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
-a -ión -d -umbre -ie -ez -triz -sis / -tis (Greek words)
. Nouns ending in -ista are assumed to be both masculine and feminine. . All other nouns are assumed to be masculine. ONLY NOUNS WHOSE GENDER IS “UNPREDICTABLE” WILL BE EXPLICITLY MARKED. Thus: rosa tema (m.) libro mano (f.) nación avión (m.) corazón razón (f.) periodista evangelista (m.)
rose theme book hand nation airplane heart reason journalist Evangelist (author of one of the four NT gospels)
Annex A examines in more detail the accuracy of this “rule” and lists some of the principal exceptions.
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SIMPLIFIED GENDER RULE
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In general, Spanish is quite flexible in forming feminine nouns from masculine ones by: (a) changing the final -o to -a (b) adding -a to a noun or adjective ending in -or, -án, -ín, -ón (c) adding -a to a national or regional identifier ending in a consonant For (b) and (c), the final-syllable written accent, if any, disappears in the feminine.
(a) (b)
(c)
Masculine
Feminine
English
gato chico director holgazán bailarín ladrón español francés
gata chica directora holgazana bailarina ladrona española francesa
cat boy, girl director lazy, loafer dancing, dancer thieving, thief Spanish, Spaniard French, Frenchman /Frenchwoman
To simplify the presentation, masculine forms only will generally be shown for nouns and adjectives that follow these patterns, except in cases where there is a change in written accent, or where English has a distinct female form. Examples: ladrón (-ona) ciervo, cierva
thieving, thief or larcenist deer, stag, doe
For “people” nouns not having one of the above endings, the masculine and feminine forms are generally identical. This will frequently be highlighted by using the abbreviation m./f. Thus: atleta (m./f.) cómplice (m./f.) estudiante (m./f.)
athlete accomplis student
Finally, there are a very small number of “object” nouns that can be either masculine or feminine, with no change in meaning. These will also be marked with m./f. For example: maratón (m./f.) tizne (m./f.)
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marathon soot
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Spanish Vocabulary
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Introduction
An English speaker learning Spanish starts with one huge, though generally underutilized, advantage: he or she is already speaking a Romance language, and with a little bit of help, can easily recognize and learn to use a very large number of Spanish words. The “romance” of English may come as a surprise to those who have been taught that English is a Germanic language. Nonetheless, in terms of its vocabulary, English is overwhelmingly Latinate; in the Shorter Oxford Dictionary, for example, there are more than twice as many LatinRomance words as Germanic ones. Of course, one does not learn words in a foreign language simply by noting their similarities with English words; rather, the basic familiarity that exists (or that with a little practice can be seen to exist) can help one to remember new words and to recognize them the next time they are encountered and, after a while, to be able to begin using them naturally (in both speaking and writing). Consider the following seven words: Spanish
English
hecho dicho pecho estrecho derecho techo leche
fact saying, proverb chest narrow right, straight roof milk
If you haven’t studied much Spanish already, chances are that the Spanish words are not instantly recognizable. What you would normally do is look them up in the dictionary and, probably, not remember their definitions (certainly not all of them) the next time you see them. This is the list (or “telephone book”) approach to learning vocabulary.
In terms of frequency of usage, Germanic words dominate; in terms of simple word numbers, Latin and Romance ones do. The issue of English as a “Germanic” versus “Romance” language will be revisited in Section ..
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INTRODUCTION
There is an alternative approach: Spanish
Latin
Similar English Word
hecho dicho pecho estrecho derecho techo leche
factum dictum pectus strictus directus tectum lactem
fact dictum, edict pectoral strict direct, rectum (pro)tect lactose
where the middle column represents the common Latin origin of the corresponding Spanish and English words. Several points can immediately be noted: (a) in each case, Spanish has changed Latin CT to ch; (b) in several cases, the vowel has changed; (c) the final Latin UM or US has become Spanish o, while the final EM in LACTEM has become e; (d) an initial e has been added to estrecho; (e) the F in FACTUM has been converted into a silent h in Spanish.
Each of these characteristics is in fact a very frequent occurrence in Spanish, as we will see in Part III. We note also that the English equivalents of the Latin roots do not always have the identical meaning of the corresponding Spanish word, but in all cases they are at least suggestive and, more importantly, easy to remember. We may not know too much about lactose, but most of us know that it is in milk and that some people have problems digesting it (hence lactose-free milk in the supermarkets). Similarly, “narrow” and “strict” are not perfect synonyms, but they do have overlapping meanings, since a “strict interpretation” is a “narrow” one. And how about derecho, and what is its possible connection with rectum? Latin directus meant “in a straight line”, hence “direct”, and is the origin of Spanish derecho meaning “right”, both in terms of direction (“directly ahead”, “the right-hand one”) and “law”. rectus, “straight”, leads to rectum intestinum, the “straight intestine”, shortened in English and Spanish to rectum and recto, respectively. Finally, techo is easily remembered because it (pro)tects us from the elements.
The same lac(t)- appears in galactic and galaxy (from Greek), the inspiration for the Milky Way (a translation of Latin via lactea).
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INTRODUCTION
Apart from being an effective learning tool, this alternative to the “telephone book” approach can help convert vocabulary learning from an essentially painful process with no immediate reward to an enjoyable one with both immediate and longer-term benefits: (a) It provides valuable insights into the history of both the Spanish language and the Spanish-speaking peoples. (b) It provides an opportunity to deepen one’s understanding of English (e.g., how many people are aware that the English word check comes— via Persian, Arabic, Spanish, and French—from the Shah of Iran?). (c) It enables one to enlarge one’s English vocabulary. For example, all of the following words (some rather obscure) found in the American Heritage College Dictionary are closely related—and, in a number of cases, identical in form—to reasonably common Spanish words: acequia acicula alcalde bodega burnoose cespitose cicatrix comestible consuetudinary cuirass estival finca fovea
frijol grisaille horologe lanose paries, parietal manus matutinal muliebrity non obstante playa seta stupefacient supervene
(d) It will make learning a second Romance language (French, Italian, Portuguese, Catalan ) far easier; conversely, any preexisting knowledge of one of these languages can immediately be applied to the learning of Spanish.
Returning to our example above, let us consider in more detail STRICTUS
S
estrecho
Or Romanian, Rhaeto-Romance (one of Switzerland’s four national languages), Occitan (also known as Provençal), Galician (northwest Spain), or Sardinian.
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INTRODUCTION
to illustrate how, with a little effort, learning one word can be the key to learning a large number of others. strictus is the past participle of the Latin verb stringere (“to bind tightly”, “to tighten”), which gave rise (via Old French) to English strain, restrain, constrain, as well as to the more “classical” forms strict, restrict, constrict, restriction, etc. A similar process occurred in Spanish, giving these correspondences: Spanish
English
restringir restricción restrictivo
(to) restrict, (to) restrain restriction restrictive
constreñir constricción constreñimiento constrictivo constrictor
(to) constrain, (to) constrict constriction constraint, constriction constrictive constrictor (e.g., boa)
astringir astringente
(to) astringe astringent
estricto estrictamente estrechez estrechar
strict strictly straitness (narrowness), (dire) straits (to) straiten (make narrow)
This last word is used most commonly in the expression estrechar la mano (“to shake hands”). Estrecho is also used as a noun in the sense of the “narrow” part of a river, i.e., English strait, with which it shares a common origin: el estrecho de Gibraltar
the Strait of Gibraltar
It is often the case that one can trace a Spanish word through French to find one or more relatives in English. Thus, strait arrived in English via Old French estreit, which meant “narrow”, while Old French for “strait” was destreit. In later French this became détroit, which of course explains the origin of the name of the “Motor City”. In the fifteenth century, Latin districtus (dis strictus) gave rise to French district, initially the exercise of justice (“restraint”) in a certain area, then the territory itself, which was marked off for a special administrative purpose. It subsequently entered Spanish (sixteenth century) and English (seventeenth century) with this latter definition. Thus,
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INTRODUCTION
distrito
district
districtia, a “popular” Latin word derived from districtus, had earlier given rise via Old French destrece to English distress: “the sore pressure or strain of adversity” (OED). A newspaper headline like DETROIT DISTRICT IN DISTRESS!!!
can therefore be seen, etymologically at least, as being (multiply) redundant. Old French estrece (from popular Latin strictia) was the source of English stress (fourteenth century), and six centuries later this was reexported to Spanish: estrés
stress
Finally, the Spanish verb that corresponds directly to Latin stringere is estreñir, cognate with English strain. It applies to a particular type of “strain” or “constriction”, that which takes place in the intestines: estreñir estreñimiento estreñido
(to) constipate constipation constipated
This, of course, raises the question of what constipado means in Spanish. Like English constipated, it comes from the Latin verb stipare (“to crowd together”, “to compress”). However, in Spanish the compression generally refers to an altogether different part of the body: constipar constipado
(to) catch cold suffering from a cold, a cold
so that a Spanish speaker suffering from a cold is likely to receive an altogether different remedy from an English-speaking pharmacist than from a Spanishspeaking one. Thus, without a great deal of effort, we have extended our initial equivalence estrecho “strict” to a score of additional Spanish words, and have at the same time cast new light on several English words. We can see from the above examples that words that share a common Latin origin often evolve along different paths, in both form and meaning. This is in fact one of the principal ways that languages “evolve” and eventually break up English constipation was not always restricted to the intestinal variety: until the eighteenth century, constipate could also mean “to make fi rm and compact by pressing together”, “to condense or thicken liquids”, “to close the pores”. Many Spanish speakers, particularly in the Americas, use resfrío or resfriado for “cold”.
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INTRODUCTION
into different languages. Taking English as an example, we know that nearly every word has a minimum of two definitions, and in many cases substantially more. Suppose that when we meet, I use only odd-numbered definitions and you use only even-numbered ones. Will we understand each other? Probably not, or if so, only with great difficulty. Suppose now that I alter the form of my words in reasonably systematic ways, say replacing ct with ch, cul by j, t by d whenever it occurs between vowels, etc., and you make a series of similar but different changes. We will now have created languages as far apart as Spanish and Italian—in fact, all of the changes mentioned above occurred during the evolution of Latin to Spanish.
False Friends Nearly every student of a foreign language has been warned about the perils of “false friends” (falsos amigos, faux amis, falsi amici, falsche Freunde, etc.), which seem to bear a relation to a word in English but actually do not. Lesson of the story: never assume that you can figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word from its form alone. In Spanish, for example, the following appear in nearly every such list of “false friends”: Spanish
Meaning
False English Friend
actual arena largo
“present, current” “sand” “long”
actual arena large
Much as the “exception proves the rule”, false friends often turn out to be great aids in learning new vocabulary. In the majority of cases, they have an important story to tell, which is generally that one language has chosen to focus on, let us say, the even-numbered definitions, and the other, on the odd-numbered ones. First, consider Spanish arena. Everyone knows that an arena is a sports stadium, so where in the world did the Spanish come up with arena for “sand”? The explanation is very simple: the original Latin meaning of arena was not “stadium” but “sand”. Sand was frequently used to cover the ground in coliseums and other sporting venues, the better to absorb the blood of gladiators. arena (“the sand”) then became a shorthand term for the stadium in which gladiators performed. sabulum, which originally meant “sand of a somewhat
Spanish arena can also mean “arena”, either as a classical site for gladiator combat or in the more “modern” sense of a site for bullfighting.
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INTRODUCTION
coarser variety”, then came to replace arena in the generic sense of “sand”. sabulum evolved into French (sable) and Italian (sabbia) for “sand”, while Spanish maintained the older term arena in its original sense, limiting sábulo to the meaning “coarse sand”. This is by no means a rare occurrence: due to the early colonization of the Iberian Peninsula (before France and much of northern Italy) and its relative isolation, Spanish and Portuguese have in many cases maintained meanings of Latin words and expressions that were subsequently dropped in regions closer to Rome. How is it that Spanish actual has a meaning in terms of time (“now”), while in English it means “existing and not merely potential or possible”? If one actually looks in the dictionary, one will see that there is another definition of English actual: Being, existing, or acting at the present moment; current (AHCD).
Similarly, in Spanish there is also a second definition: Real, por oposición a “potencial” (Moliner). “Real, as opposed to ‘potential.’ ”
So both Spanish and English actual do share common meanings, but English has chosen to emphasize one, Spanish another. From this (not-so-) false friend, one can immediately establish a number of very real correspondences derived from the Latin verb agere (“to drive”, “to do”) and its past participle actus, all of which (actually) do correspond in meaning: Spanish
English
Spanish
English
acto actor actriz acción —acciones actividad activista activo —activos
act actor actress action —shares/stocks activity activist active —assets
activar actuario agenda agente agencia reacción reaccionar reaccionario reactor
(to) activate actuary agenda agent agency reaction (to) react reactionary reactor
The original sense of Latin arena survives in the English adjective arenaceous (“resembling, derived from, or containing sand”).
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INTRODUCTION
Finally, Spanish largo means “long” rather than “large”. For those who know French, the potential for confusion is even greater, since French large means “wide”. In fact, all of these definitions are geometric applications of the common theme expressed by Latin largus—“abundant, copious, bountiful, profuse”—and preserved in English largesse. Spanish has focused on length, French on width, and English on overall size. Spanish largo and related words also maintain some of the elements of the original definition, as is the case in English. una larga cosecha largueza largamente alargar
an abundant (large) harvest generosity, largesse (or largess) at length, largely, generously (to) lengthen, (to) increase (make larger)
Etymological Correspondences with English Words Throughout the book, the large majority of Spanish words—or word families— are associated with corresponding English words, which can be used as an aid in learning, and remembering, the Spanish. Frequently, the corresponding English word is part of the definition of the Spanish, e.g., abrupto creíble
steep, craggy, abrupt credible
Where the English cognate does not form part of the definition, it is shown in brackets: agua pecado
water sin
[aquatic] [peccadillo]
In the vast majority of cases, the English cognate can be found in the mediumsized American Heritage College Dictionary. In some sections, the English correspondences are systematically highlighted in italics; in other sections, particularly where the large majority of words correspond to English words (e.g., Sections . and . and Annex D), italics are used only when the correspondence is not obvious (especially when the word in question is not the first element of the definition) or to highlight the etymological relationship.
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“Liberality in bestowing gifts . . . Money or gifts bestowed . . . Generosity.”
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INTRODUCTION
Latin Roots In a number of cases, the Latin root of the Spanish word is given, e.g., capra terra
cabra tierra terraza
goat earth, land, soil terrace
[Capricorn]
The reason for this is not to teach Latin, but rather that the Latin root can help illustrate the connection between the Spanish word and a related English one; in many cases the root itself is easily recognizable. Each Latin noun (or adjective) had up to six different singular forms, depending on the manner in which it was used in the sentence (subject, direct object, etc.). We have generally shown the nominative (subject) form—the one found in dictionaries—but have not hesitated to use another form when it is more suitable for our purposes. In a number of cases, the form shown comes from Medieval Latin or Vulgar Latin (rather than Classical Latin), when it is from one of these two sources that the corresponding Spanish word derives.
Definitions The brief definitions presented in the text are meant to be suggestive only and are in no manner a substitute for more complete definitions to be found in a suitable dictionary. The definitions are at least theoretically “standard”, in the sense that the large majority should be familiar to most native speakers of Spanish. But one should bear in mind that regional differences in Spanish vocabulary are substantially greater than those that exist in the English-speaking world, and a word (or definition) used in one country (or region) is often unknown in another. Even more troublesome, a word that is perfectly “normal” and acceptable in some countries may not be appropriate for public use in others.
The adjectives actually had eighteen potentially different singular forms—six each for the masculine, feminine, and neuter. Specifically, for the so-called third declension, the accusative form is frequently shown for words having two different “stems” (e.g., frons—frontem, “front”). For the large group of nouns whose nominatives end in -o with accusatives ending in -onem (e.g., natio—nationem), a “mixed” form is shown: natio(n). Two examples of this are coger (“to take”, “to catch”) and concha (“shell”), which in Spain and a number of other countries are perfectly normal words, but in others represent the height of sexual vulgarity.
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INTRODUCTION
A very large number of words can be used as both adjectives and nouns, e.g., plano
level (adj.), flat (adj.), smooth (adj.), plane (adj.), plane (n.), map or plan (n.) square (adj.), square (n.)
cuadrado
To simplify the presentation, the parts of speech will generally not be explicitly noted. Adjective definitions (if any) will precede noun ones, and the reader can be guided by the corresponding use of the words in English. Thus: plano (adj. & n.) cuadrado (adj. & n.) precedente
level, flat, smooth, plane, map or plan square preceding, precedent
Spanish adjectives are very frequently used as “person” nouns . In some cases, both adjective and noun meanings will be provided, but often only the adjective sense will be shown. Thus, ciego
blind
rather than ciego (adj. & n.) blind, blind man, blind woman
In a number of cases, a specific definition applies only when the word is used as a plural, e.g., las economías (“savings”). This is indicated as follows: economía
economy, economics, savings (pl.)
In other cases, a noun is used only in the plural, e.g., las finanzas (“the finances”): finanzas (pl.)
finances, finance
Sometimes there are two (or more) common spellings of a word, but one is “preferred” by the RAE. This is generally shown in the following manner chovinismo / chauvinismo
chauvinism
where the first spelling is the preferred one. When different spellings seem to be equally acceptable, they are separated by a comma: vídeo, video
video, VCR
On occasions, synonyms are explicitly indicated by the symbol : confort
comfort ( comodidad)
Confort and comodidad are thus synonyms. The symbol is used to indicate the provenance of a word, particularly when its form (or meaning) appears “un-Spanish”. Thus for bate, bate ( Eng.)
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baseball bat
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INTRODUCTION
Many verbs can be used pronominally (or reflexively), often with a somewhat different meaning than when used “normally”: “normal” pronominal
Levanto la mano. Me levanto a las seis.
I raise my hand. I get up at six (from the bed).
The definitions presented do not explicitly distinguish between pronominal and regular uses. Thus: levantar (to) raise, (to) lift, (to) get up (from bed, etc.)
The pronominal form of the infinitive is given when, in common use, the verb is used only in a pronominal sense, e.g., arrepentir(se)
(to) repent
Expressions For a relatively small number of words, one or more common expressions are also provided, e.g., estrechar estrechar la mano
(to) narrow, (to) tighten (to) shake hands
Dictionaries and Alphabets In deciding on a suitable dictionary, it is useful to keep in mind the very important differences between pre- and post- Spanish dictionaries. Post- dictionaries use virtually the same alphabetical ordering as English dictionaries—the only difference being the inclusion of an additional letter, ñ. For pre dictionaries, the situation is altogether different. The reasons for this are related to the following not-so-trivial question: How many letters are there in the Spanish alphabet?
There is in fact considerable confusion both about the total number of letters (generally cited as either twenty-eight or twenty-nine) and which specific ones
In general, the smaller a dictionary is, the more likely that all of the defi nitions for a given verb will involve pronominal uses, and hence the more likely it is that the verb will be shown in its pronominal form. For example, most dictionaries show abstener (“to abstain”) and atener (“to keep to”) in their pronominal forms (abstenerse and atenerse), whereas the more complete dictionaries of the RAE and Moliner show them in their “normal” forms.
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INTRODUCTION
are to be included. In particular, many dictionaries and grammar books defi ne rr as a separate letter and exclude w and/or k, on the grounds that they are used only in words of foreign origin. Others state that ch and ll, previously treated as separate letters, no longer qualify for such special treatment. The actual situation, at least according to the Real Academia Española (RAE), is as follows: there are twenty-nine letters in the Spanish alphabet (el alfabeto or el abecedario), made up of the twenty-six “English” letters (including both k and w), plus: ch, ll, and ñ. The combination rr is not considered to be a separate letter. Prior to , Spanish words were alphabetized treating ch, ll, and ñ as the fully independent letters that they were. In all dictionaries published before that date (and unfortunately in many later ones, particularly “new” editions of older dictionaries), not only are words beginning with ch, ll, and ñ grouped separately, but within entries for other letters this same process takes place. In , under pressure from the various American academies of Spanish, the Tenth Congress of the Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española adopted the Solomonic compromise that while continuing to exercise all other rights as free and independent letters, for the purposes of alphabetization only, ch and ll would be treated as a normal combination of letters. The letter ñ continues to be treated separately for alphabetization, thus representing a further victory in its campaign for survival. The situation can be illustrated by means of the following example: Pre- Word Order
Post- Word Order
cantina cañón cuyo chico chicha luz lluvia nunca ñato
cantina cañón chicha chico cuyo lluvia luz nunca ñato
The principal reason for considering ch and ll to be single letters is that their pronunciation is always that of a single sound (rather than two separate ones). The RAE performs an oversight role for Spanish similar to that exercised by the Académie française for French. In the interests of “standardization” of printing, the European Union had tried to convince Spain in the early s to eliminate ñ (replacing it with gn or another such combination), thus inciting a near revolt among the Spaniards.
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INTRODUCTION
The same also holds for the letter combination rr, which is presumably why many sources classify it as a separate letter. Shifting from an “English” alphabetization to a pre- “Spanish” one, particularly when using a bilingual dictionary, can be quite a challenge and one that most prefer to avoid whenever possible.
Word Origins and Trivial Pursuits Many times a word presents difficulties because it seems to embody concepts that are completely unrelated. For example, if one looks up the Spanish word moral in the dictionary, one is likely to find the following definitions: moral
adj. moral; f. ethics, morals; morale; m. black mulberry tree
How is a black mulberry tree moral? Perhaps a moral person is one who eats black mulberries? In this case, as in many others, the explanation lies in the fact that two (or more) separate words have become homonyms, each having its own English correspondent. The presentation in the text seeks to shed light on such potential conundrums. Thus: mora () —moral () —morado —mora () —moral () (adj. & n.f.) —moraleja —moralidad
mulberry (fruit), blackberry —black mulberry (tree) —violet or mulberry (color) —delay (esp. in payment, mora (poetry) —moral (adj.), ethics, morals, morale —moral (of a story) —morality
(unrelated) (unrelated)
Throughout the text, information on word origins is frequently provided in order to facilitate the association of a Spanish word with a particular English one. Much of this material is provided in the footnotes, particularly in those sections where a “list” approach is followed. Apart from their pedagogical value, some (if not all) readers may find them of interest in their own right. In particular, the diligent student will discover the answers to the following questions, among others: . . . .
What is the difference between a slave and a Slav? [.] Why is colonel pronounced with an r? [.] How did Joan of Arc refer to the English? [.] What is the difference between scarlet, crimson, carmine, and vermilion? [.] . How is an apricot precocious? [.]
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INTRODUCTION
. What did algebraists do before they began to solve equations? [.] . What is the meaning of the expression below the pyramid on the back of the U.S. one-dollar bill? [.] . Today is Monday the tenth. My cousin is arriving in ocho días. She is left-handed. On what day of the week will my cousin arrive? [.] . How many days are there in a Spanish fortnight? [.] . How do you say “royal peacock” in Spanish? [.] . What do you call a “turkey” in Turkey? [.] . In what respect can it be said that despondency is an inherent element of a Spanish marriage? [.] . What is the role of a ship’s husband? [.] . What is a Spanish flea killer called? [.] . What was the official title of Charles II’s royal diver? [.] . Should pencils and vanilla ice cream be X-rated? [.] . What is the inherent relationship between baldness and chauvinism? [.] . What is the meaning of the expression above the mysterious eye on the back of the U.S. one-dollar bill? [Annex B] . What is the connection between starboard and the stars? [Annex B] . Why do doctors call a kidney stone a calculus? [Annex D] . What is the relation between an American hoosegow and a Spanish judge? [Annex D] . What was the modus operandi of a Roman plagiarist? [Annex D]
The section of the text in which the answer can be found is shown in brackets.
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PA R T I
B AC KG R O U N D
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S E C T I O N .
Spanish as a Romance Language
If Cicero (or Caesar) were to come back to life and try to speak Spanish (or any other Romance language), he would very quickly come to the conclusion that the barbarians had taken over and “pidginized” his language. In terms of grammar, the structure of the language would have changed almost beyond recognition. Only about half of the vocabulary—what we easily recognize to be “classical” Latin and Greek words in English—would be familiar, and the pronunciation would often seem very strange, his own name in particular (which he pronounced as if it were spelled kikero). The other half would strike him as either “gutter” Latin spoken by the uneducated or words of totally unfamiliar origin. John and Jane Doe, native English speakers of the twenty-first century, should find it far easier to learn Spanish. The differences between Spanish and English grammar are relatively minor—certainly in comparison with the vast difference between the grammar of either one and Latin. And, with a bit of effort, they will recognize that around percent of Spanish words are related to English ones, and that this common origin can be used as the basis for enriching their Spanish vocabulary. The principal origins of Spanish vocabulary can be broken down as follows: Source
Example
Definition
. Latin A. Classical B. Vulgar . Classical Greek
dedicación oveja dinastía
dedication sheep dynasty
[ovine]
In particular, the language would have moved from what linguists call a synthetic language to a predominantly analytic one. In a synthetic language, relations between nouns and adjectives are expressed by case endings of individual words, while in an analytic language such relations are expressed using prepositions. Defi nite and indefi nite articles (“the”, “a”) would likewise be novelties for Cicero and Caesar, as they did not exist in Classical Latin. Old English was likewise a (largely) synthetic language with neither defi nite nor indefi nite articles. Like all educated Romans, Cicero and Caesar were fluent in Greek; Caesar’s fi nal words “Et tu, Brute?” (from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar) were in fact reported to have been uttered in Greek rather than Latin. German Kaiser (“emperor”) continues the original Latin pronunciation of caesar, from which it was derived. Or, for that matter, between Modern and Old English.
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BACKGROUND
. Germanic . Arabic . Other Romance languages A. Latin origin B. Germanic origin . Native American
ropa algodón
clothes cotton
[robe]
jefe balcón patata
chief balcony potato
( French) ( Italian)
Vulgar Latin refers to the spoken Latin of the “plebs”, or common people, as compared to the more rarefied Classical version spoken (and written) by Cicero and those of his ilk. It was this more popular spoken Latin that, following the decline of the (western) Roman Empire, evolved into what is generally called “Proto-Romance” and subsequently into the various individual Romance languages. It is important to keep in mind that in this context vulgar means simply “of the people” (Latin vulgus, also the basis for divulge); initially the word had no “vulgar” connotation. The Vulgate (from Latin editio vulgata) is still the name of the official Latin version of the Bible used by the Roman Catholic Church, based primarily on the translation by St. Jerome in the late fourth to early fift h century AD. vulgo vulgar vulgaridad vulgarismo vulgarizar Vulgata divulgar
common people, ordinary people, the masses vulgar (associated with the “masses”: common, ordinary, unrefined) commonplace (n.), platitude, vulgarity vulgarism (word or manner of expression used chiefly by uneducated people) (to) vulgarize (popularize, disseminate widely, debase) Vulgate (to) divulge, (to) popularize
Romanization of Spain Roman colonization of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal) began in the latter third century BC, at about the same time as that of north-
In its early history in English, vulgar was applied in a non-negative fashion to a wide array of activities with the meaning of “in common or general use” or “familiar”, e.g., vulgar (common or customary) language and vulgar (common) fractions. Its fi rst negative use in terms of “having a common and offensively mean character” is not recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary until the mid-seventeenth century, and the first negative reference to “vulgar language” (meaning “rude”), only in .
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S PA N I S H A S A R O M A N C E L A N G UA G E
ern Italy and nearly a full century before that of Gaul (France). This may seem somewhat surprising, given its greater distance from Rome, but the strategic importance of Hispania (as it came to be called) during the Second Punic War (– BC) against Hannibal and the Carthaginians led to the sending of the first Roman troops in BC. Prior to the arrival of the Romans, the Iberian Peninsula had been occupied by Iberians in the east and south, Celts—also called Celtiberians to distinguish them from their Gallic cousins in what is now France, and to reflect their presumed mixing with the Iberians—in the north, Lusitanians in the west, Carthaginian colonies in the south, and by several small Greek settlements along the northeast Mediterranean coast. The exact origin of the Basques, and their connection, if any, to these other groups, remains a mystery. The major part of Hispania remained under Roman control for more than six centuries, until the collapse of Roman power in the West and the invasion of Spain by Germanic tribes in the early fift h century AD. Spain’s relatively early colonization and geographic remoteness had important implications for the development of Romance languages in the Iberian Peninsula. The Latin that arrived in the Iberian Peninsula was in many cases an “older” Latin than that used in areas added subsequently to the Roman Empire. This effect was magnified by the relative isolation of the Iberian Peninsula, which meant that innovations from Rome often took much longer to arrive or in many cases never did. Thus, in a number of cases, “early” Latin words (in some cases pre-Classical) form the base of Spanish and Portuguese vocabulary, while later ones are used in other Romance languages. In many of these cases, the word subsequently used by French and Italian represents a more “colorful” or “expressive” (Cicero would have said “vulgar” or “rustic”) term. Early Latin (I)
Later Latin (II)
Spanish
Portuguese French
Italian
. . . . . . . . .
manducare tabula bellus testa spatula sabulum bullire parabolare [caseus] formaticus
comer mesa hermoso cabeza hombro arena hervir hablar queso
comer mesa formoso cabeça ombro areia ferver falar queijo
mangiare tavola bello testa spalla sabbia bollire parlare formaggio
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comedere mensa formosus caput humerus arena fervere fabulari caseus
manger table beau tête épaule sable bouillir parler fromage
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BACKGROUND
English translations Latin I . . . . . . . . .
(to) eat table beautiful, handsome head shoulder, humerus (bone) sand (to) boil (to) speak in fables cheese
Latin II (Original Meaning) (to) chew plank pretty shard or earthen pot small sword, branch coarse sand, gravel (to) bubble (to) speak in parables formed (cheese)
As noted in the introduction, arena in the sense of “stadium” derived from the fact that the central part of a stadium was covered with sand to soak up contestants’ blood (human and animal). Stadium (estadio in Spanish) comes from stadium, the Latin version of the Greek word for racecourse (initially a unit of measure of approximately feet).
comedere was in fact a very early “popular” replacement for the basic verb edere (cognate with English eat), fi rst recorded more than one hundred years before the beginning of Classical Latin. fabulari was an early popular verb for “to speak”—the initial meaning of fabula was simply “conversation”. In early Christian times, a new popular form arose: parabolare. At no time does it appear that the Classical verb loqui (as in loquacious) was popular among the plebs.
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SEC TION .
“Learned” versus “Popular” Words
Words of Latin origin in Spanish have arrived via four essentially different means. They can originate from a) Classical Latin words that were “borrowed” directly into Spanish (often at a relatively late stage), and that have therefore experienced only relatively minor changes—usually to their endings—to make them look (and sound) more “Spanish”: e.g., audiencia from AUDIENTIA, and estricto from STRICTUS. b) Classical Latin words also used by the plebs—and hence forming part of the “vulgar” Latin vocabulary—that have undergone a long process of evolution in pronunciation and spelling (and often meaning as well) over the centuries: e.g., estrecho, also from STRICTUS. c) non-Classical Latin words used only by the plebs that have undergone the same process of evolution as in b): e.g., olvidar (“to forget”) from Vulgar Latin OBLITARE, compared to Classical Latin OBLIVISCI. d) later borrowings by Spanish from other Romance languages— Portuguese, Catalan, Occitan (southern France), French, Italian, and English—of words that may have had either a Classical or a non-Classical origin and that underwent the corresponding “popular” evolution in that language: e.g., reloj (“clock”, “watch”) from (old) Catalan relotge, from Classical Latin HOROLOGIUM.
Words that have followed the first route are frequently called learned words (“lear•ned” in the sense of “erudite”, Spanish culto), while those following the other routes are called popular words. Some also use a third, intermediate category of “semi-learned” words that have undergone substantial linguistic evolution but have nevertheless avoided the full “popular” treatment. For example, auto from Latin actus, as in auto de fe (“judicial act or sentence of the Inquisition”, i.e., an act of faith, an auto-da-fé ), would have become echo if it had undergone the “full” popular treatment. The distinction between “popular” and “learned” could perhaps better be expressed as “evolved” versus “marginally changed”, without any reference to cultural status: the connection with learn-
The English form comes from an older Portuguese version, where da means “of the”; the modern Portuguese is auto-de-fé.
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BACKGROUND
edness is often not obvious, nor is it easy to explain why a “learned” word in one language not infrequently turns out to be a “popular” one in another. In many cases, Latin words have entered Spanish twice, through both the “popular” and the “learned” routes. Examples of such doublets, with the English definition italicized if it is a cognate, are:
Latin
Spanish “Learned” “Popular” () ()
()
()
animal articulus auscultare blasphemia cathedra collocare computare fabricare
animal artículo auscultar blasfemia cátedra colocar computar fabricar
animal article auscultate blasphemy professorship (to) place (to) compute (to) fabricate
vermin knuckle (to) listen pity hip (to) hang (to) count (to) forge
hospitalis
hospital
hospital
hostel, hotel
integer laicus legalis lucrum multitudo parabola
íntegro laico legal lucro multitud parábola
entire laic legal profit, lucre multitude parabola
entire, integer lay loyal accomplishment crowd, swarm parole
pensare recitare saecularis secundus sextus/sexta species speculum strictus testificari
pensar recitar secular segundo sexto especie espéculo estricto testificar
(to) think (to) recite secular second sixth species speculum strict (to) testify
(to) weigh (to) pray secular according to siesta spice mirror narrow (to) attest
alimaña artejo escuchar lástima cadera colgar contar forjar, fraguar hostal, hotel entero lego leal logro muchedumbre palabra (de honor) pesar rezar seglar según siesta especia espejo estrecho atestiguar
English Definition
That is, a university chair. Spanish cátedra also maintains various ecclesiastical senses, as does English cathedra.
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“LEARNED” VERSUS “POPULAR” WORDS
titulus traditio(n) verificare votum (pl. vota)
título tradición verificar voto
tilde (f.) traición averiguar boda
title tradition (to) verify vow, vote
tilde treason (to) ascertain wedding
For students of Spanish, “learned” words are the easier ones, as in most cases they immediately call to mind a similar English word having the same Latin origin. The majority of the “popular” words are not so instantly recognizable, and it is for this reason that they will be the central focus of Part III. From the above table, one can see that such doublets also occur in English, e.g., compute—count and fabricate—forge. Given the hybrid nature of English, this actually occurs with extraordinary frequency, and triplets (hospital— hostel—hotel) are not uncommon. Additional English examples are provided below, with corresponding Spanish cognates having at least roughly similar definitions—if they exist—shown on the right. Note that quietus has given rise to four English words. Latin
English
English
Spanish
Spanish
blasphemia calumnia camara/camera capitalis captare caput carricare cursus factio(n) factum flos fragilis major manu operari nausea ordinarius par pausare
blasphemy calumny chamber capital chase chief charge course faction fact flower fragile major maneuver nausea ordinary pair pause
blame challenge camera chattel catch chef carry coarse fashion feat flour frail mayor manure noise ornery peer, par pose
blasfemia calumnia cámara capital cazar jefe cargar curso facción hecho flor (f.) frágil mayor maniobrar náusea ordinario par, pareja pausar
— — cámara caudal — chef acarrear — — — — frágil — — — — par posar
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Spanish corresponds to English , Spanish to English .
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BACKGROUND
privatus proprietas quietus rabies radius
private propriety quiet rabies radius
privy property quite, quit, coy rage radio, ray
privado propiedad quedo, quieto rabia radio
regalis rotundus securus senior thesaurus uncia unio(n)
regal rotund secure senior thesaurus ounce union
royal round sure sir, sire treasure inch onion
real rotundo seguro — tesoro onza unión
privado propiedad — rabia radio (f.), rayo real redondo seguro señor tesoro — —
The Origin of Spices and the “Soviet Onion” certainly have a somewhat different allure in comparison with their more well-known etymological siblings.
El privado del rey was a confidant of the king; cf. English privy councilor. In the sense of privy (“toilet”), privada exists but is not common. Quedo and quieto can both be translated as “quiet”, although they generally have different nuances: quedo in the sense of “in a hushed voice”, quieto in the sense of “still”, “calm”. Spanish real also means “real”, a meaning derived independently from Latin realis, source of English real. Latin uncia meant “twelft h part”.
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SEC TION .
Latin: A Few Useful Tools
There are three easily learned phonetic features of Latin that can be of considerable assistance in augmenting one’s Spanish (and English) vocabulary.
() DT and TT S S (or SS) At some point in the path from Indo-European to Latin, a “parasite” s intruded into the combinations dt and tt and eventually took over the whole sound. This was particularly important for the large number of Latin verbs whose root ended in d or t, as the past participle was often formed by adding -tus directly to the root. Thus, DEFEND -TUS S DEFENDSTUS S DEFENSUS
Latin constructed numerous nouns and adjectives using the past participle as a base, which explains why in both English and Spanish there are so many “s” adjectives and nouns associated with verbs whose root ends in d or t. For the verb defend, for example: English
Spanish
(to) defend defense defenseless defensive (defensor)
defender defensa indefenso defensivo defensor
English defensor is now largely obsolete, having been replaced by defender. Other common verbs showing this pattern include:
A similar transformation occurred in the Germanic languages: cf. wit versus wise. Note that in two cases the original Latin d has disappeared in Spanish (concluir and excluir, compared to conclude and exclude). We will see in Section . that this is not an infrequent occurrence.
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BACKGROUND
Verb
English Noun or Adjective
Verb
Spanish Noun or Adjective
applaud — ascend collide collude comprehend — concede conclude confound consent convert decide dissent divide evade exclude expand explode extend intercede invade invader offend persuade pretend respond ridiculous submit suspend utilize
applause plausible ascension collision collusion comprehension incomprehension concession conclusion confusion consensus conversion decision dissension division evasion exclusion, exclusive expansion explosion extension, extensive intercession invasion — offense persuasion pretension responsible risible, derisory submission suspension use
aplaudir — ascender — coludir comprender — conceder concluir confundir consentir convertir decidir disentir dividir evadir excluir expandir explotar extender interceder invadir — ofender persuadir pretender responder ridículo someter suspender utilizar
aplauso plausible ascensión colisión colusión comprensión incomprensión concesión conclusión confusión consenso conversión decisión disensión división evasión exclusión, exclusivo expansión explosión extensión, extensivo intercesión invasión invasor ofensa persuasión pretensión responsable risible, irrisorio sumisión suspensión usar (vb.), uso (n.)
Apart from being “plausible” (i.e., “appearing worthy of belief ”), Spanish plausible can mean “praiseworthy”, “laudable”. Explotar (“to explode”) was a “back formation” from the noun explosión, with a -t rather than a -d due to its confusion with the unrelated verb explotar (“to exploit”). Although English pretend and Spanish pretender share essentially common meanings, pretend has come to specialize almost entirely in the sense of “to feign”, “to claim or allege insincerely or falsely”, while pretender generally means “to try to”, “to aspire to”. Accordingly, the two words figure on many lists of falsos amigos.
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L AT I N : A F E W U S E F U L T O O L S
() S S R between Vowels This change is known as rhotacism (after the Greek letter for r). Evidence of Latin rhotacism is visible in cases where a word with intervocalic s had a related form with either s consonant or word-final s, which was therefore not subject to this change. English adhesive August cohesion genus honest ingestion inquest just modest onus opus plus pus rustic Venus
Spanish adhere augury coherent general honor [ingest] inquire jury moderate onerous opera plural purulent rural venereal
adhesivo agosto cohesión [género] honesto ingestión encuesta justo modesto — opus plus pus rústico Venus
adherir augurio, agüero coherente general honor ingerir inquirir jurado moderado, moderar (vb.) oneroso ópera plural purulento rural venéreo
() Weakening of (Short) Vowels in Interior Syllables At some stage in its early history, Latin passed through a period with a strong stress accent on the initial syllable (similar to that of the Germanic languages,
It also has a partial parallel in the Germanic languages, the difference being that in Germanic, the change of s to r was dependent on its location relative to that of the stressed syllable, whereas in Latin it was essentially universal. The relatively few traces of Germanic rhotacism remaining in Modern English include the couplets: was—were, lost—forlorn, raise—rear. Most apparent exceptions to this rule (a) entered Latin after the mid-fourth century BC, when the phonetic change had been completed (e.g., rose, asinine, genesis); (b) arose from dt/tt S s (above); or (c) initially had a “hard” ss not subject to the rule, which was subsequently shortened to s (e.g., caussa S causa S English cause, Spanish causa). As noted in Annex D, the more common meaning of honesto is “upright”, “decent”.
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BACKGROUND
including English). As a result, most short vowels in interior syllables were weakened. Specifically: (a) in open syllables in the interior of a word, short vowels generally became I, less frequently U; (b) in interior closed syllables, A generally became E (but U before L consonant).
These changes left their most visible traces in compound words, where an initial syllable was transformed into an interior one and hence became subject to vowel weakening. amicus S in-imicus tenax S per-tinax annualis S bi-ennalis alterare S ad-ulterare
amigo S enemigo tenaz S pertinaz anual S bienal alterar S adulterar
friend S enemy tenacious S pertinacious annual S biennial alter S adulter
In the first example, direct English cognates are amicable S inimical. In the following table, words are grouped according to common roots; for example, cadence and accident are both derived from the verb cadere (“to fall”), root cad-. Spanish and English cognates—generally with very similar meanings—occupy corresponding positions. English Root apcad-
cancap-
Spanish
Initial Syllable
Weakened
Initial Syllable
Weakened
apt cadence cadaver — candle capture chase capital
inept accident occident recidivist incendiary reception recuperate principle
apto cadencia cadáver — candela captura cazar capital
inepto accidente occidente reincidente incendiario recepción recuperación principio
In Latin there were five vowels—a, e, i, o, u—each of which had a “short” and a “long” variant. A syllable is called open if it ends with a vowel, closed if it ends with a consonant. Thus a in bacon is in an open syllable (ba•con), whereas in bat and banker (bank•er) it is in a closed syllable. When r followed immediately, the result was generally e. The diphthong au became uu (Slong u), and ae became ii (S long i).
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L AT I N : A F E W U S E F U L T O O L S
tac-
— — chaste cause — damn damage face faction — facile facility gradual lesion paternal — savor sedentary Holy See — tacit
principal precipitate incest accuse excuse condemn indemnify superficial confection off ice diff icult diff iculty progress collision perpetrator Jupiter insipid residence assiduous insidious reticent, reticence
— — casto causa — dañar (vb.) daño (n.) faz (f.) facción — fácil facilidad gradual lesión paternal — sabor sedentario Santa Sede — tácito
tang-
tangent
contingent
tangente
cascaudamfac-
gralaespatsapsed-
principal precipitar incesto acusar excusar condenar indemnizar superficial confección oficina, oficio difícil dificultad progreso colisión perpetrador Júpiter insípido residencia asiduo insidioso reticente, reticencia contingente
In Latin, the combination eng became ing, regardless of its position in the word; hence con tang- fi rst became conteng-, then conting-. Th is second change (eng S ing) occurred also in English around the time of Chaucer—hinge and string used to be henge and streng—and is the reason why England is pronounced as if it were spelled “Ingland” (cf. Spanish Inglaterra).
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PA R T I I
C L A S S I C A L VO C A B U L A RY
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S E C T I O N .
“Learned” Latin Words
We have seen in Section . that Spanish words of Latin origin can be divided into two general categories—“learned” or “popular”—according to the degree of restructuring they have undergone. For the native English speaker, the “learned” words should provide little difficulty, since they are, in the vast majority of cases, similar in both form and meaning to English counterparts. “Learned” Latin nouns most frequently represent abstract concepts (e.g., nation, division, liberty, virtue). This should come as no surprise: concrete objects (e.g., finger, knife, bird) are by their very nature far more susceptible to popular “deformations”. In this section we will focus on nouns having the following endings: () -ción () -sión () -tad / -dad () -tud
All of these are feminine nouns. For the first two groups, we will also introduce related words that have the same base: nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Numerous other “learned” Latin words will be found in Parts III and IV of the text, as well as in the annexes.
. Words Ending in -ción These correspond to English words ending in -tion. In the large majority of cases, there is an associated verb ending in either -ar or -ir, and very often other associated nouns, adjectives, and verbs having similar (sometimes identical) English counterparts. Thus, to centralización correspond: centralización —centralizar —central (adj. & n.f.) —centro —centrar —centrífugo —centrípeto
T4311.indb 33
centralization —(to) centralize —central, headquarters, electric power station —center, middle —(to) center —centrifugal —centripetal
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while for abolición: abolición —abolicionista —abolir
abolition, abolishment —abolitionist —(to) abolish
English -mption corresponds to Spanish -nción: asunción consunción exención presunción redención
assumption consumption (illness) exemption presumption redemption
[Asunción, Paraguay]
There are more than two thousand -ción nouns. A sample follows: abdicación —abdicar abnegación abreviación —abreviar —abreviatura absolución —absolver abstención —abstener(se) —abstinencia —abstinente abstracción
—abstracto —abstraer aclamación —aclamar acumulación —acumular
T4311.indb 34
abdication —(to) abdicate abnegation, self-denial, altruism abbreviation, shortening, abridgement —(to) abridge, (to) abbreviate, (to) shorten —abbreviation (of a word) absolution, pardon, acquittal —(to) absolve, (to) acquit abstention —(to) abstain —abstinence —abstinent abstraction (incl. “preoccupation or absentmindedness”) —abstract —(to) abstract, (to) become absorbed or lost in thought acclamation, acclaim —(to) acclaim accumulation —(to) accumulate
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—acumulador adaptación —adaptar —adaptable adicción —adicto (adj. & n.) —adicto al trabajo adjudicación —adjudicar administración —administrar —administrativo —administrador admiración —signo de admiración —admirar —admirador —mirador —mirar —mirada —mirón adopción —adoptar —adoptivo adoración —adorable —adorar adulación —adular alienación —alienar alteración
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—accumulator (esp. UK def. “storage battery”) adaptation —(to) adapt, (to) accommodate —adaptable addiction —addicted, addict, follower or supporter —workaholic adjudication, awarding or settling by decree —(to) adjudicate, (to) award administration, manager’s office —(to) administer —administrative —administrator admiration (including “wonder”) —exclamation point (¡ . . . !) —(to) admire —admirer —mirador, lookout, watchtower —(to) look upon, (to) view —glance, look —spectator, onlooker (gen. pejorative, i.e., “nosy”) adoption —(to) adopt —adoptive adoration —adorable —(to) adore adulation —(to) adulate, (to) flatter alienation (emotional, or of property) —(to) alienate, to dispossess ( enajenar) alteration, change
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—alterar ambición —ambicioso amplificación —amplificar —amplificador (adj. & n.) amputación —amputar anotación —anotar aplicación —aplicar —aplicado asimilación —asimilar asociación —asociar —asociado (adj. & n.) asunción —asumir —asunto —asuntos exteriores calificación —cualificación —calidad —cualidad —calificar cualificar
—(to) alter, (to) disturb, (to) upset ambition —ambitious amplification —(to) amplify —amplifying, amplifier amputation —(to) amputate annotation, note —(to) annotate, (to) note, (to) score ( marcar) application (in most senses except “request”, “form”) —(to) apply (in most senses except “to request”) —applied, hardworking assimilation —(to) assimilate, (to) be similar to association —(to) associate, (to) join —associated, associate, member ( socio) assumption, Assumption (cap.) —(to) assume —matter, subject, affair, business —foreign affairs qualification, grade (mark), rating —professional qualifications (for a specific job) —quality, condition, rank —quality, property, characteristic —(to) qualify (characterize, rate, etc.)
Cualidad and calidad are, broadly speaking, equivalent. The former applies more to quality in the sense of property or intrinsic nature, the latter more to quality in the sense of good or bad. Thus one says: No me gusta la calidad de esta tela; tiene la cualidad de ser muy esponjosa (“I don’t like the quality of this fabric; it has the quality of being like a sponge”).
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—calificado cualificado —calificativo —cualitativo celebración —celebrar —célebre —celebridad certificación —certificar —certificado circulación —círculo —circular —circulatorio —circuito —[tortuoso, indirecto] clasificación —clase (f.) —clásico (adj. & n.) —clasificar colaboración —colaborar —colaborador (adj. & n.)
—colaboracionista colección —coleccionar —coleccionista —colecta —colectividad
—qualified (experienced, authoritative) —qualifying, expression —qualitative celebration —(to) celebrate —celebrated, famous —celebrity, fame certification, certificate —(to) certify —certified or registered (mail), certificate circulation, traffic —circle —circular (adj.), circular (n.f.), (to) circulate —circulatory (blood), traffic (adj.) —circuit, excursion (returning to initial point) —circuitous classification —class, category —classical, classic —(to) classify, (to) arrange collaboration —(to) collaborate —collaborating, collaborator (positive sense) —collaborationist, collaborator (with enemy) collection —(to) collect (stamps, coins, etc.) —collector —collection (of money, food, etc.) —collectivity, community
For example: No pudo encontrar calificativos para expresar su enfado (“He was unable to fi nd the words to express his annoyance”).
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—colectivo —recolección colonización —colonizar —colonial —colono —colonia —colonialismo —colonialista combinación —combinar compensación —compensar complicación —complicar —complicado concentración —concentrar —concéntrico concepción —concepto —concebir condensación —condensar —condensador —denso —densidad confederación —confederar configuración —configurar confirmación
—collective, association, bus (Amer.) —collection (information, money, etc.), harvest colonization —(to) colonize —colonial —colonist, settler, tenant farmer —(eau de) cologne, colony —colonialism —colonialist combination, mix, lady’s slip, cocktail, compound (chem.) —(to) combine, (to) mix compensation —(to) compensate, (to) offset complication —(to) complicate —complicated concentration —(to) concentrate —concentric conception (idea, fertilization) —concept, opinion —(to) conceive (idea, offspring) condensation —(to) condense —condenser —dense —density confederation, confederacy —(to) confederate configuration —(to) configure, (to) shape, (to) form confirmation
The perfume cologne owes its name to the French form of the German city Köln, which in turn comes from the name of the original Latin settlement on the Rhine, Colonia Agrippina (“Colony of Agrippina”, Agrippina being the mother of the Roman emperor Nero).
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—confirmar confiscación —confiscar —fiscal (adj. & n.) —fisco congregación —congregar conjugación —conjugar —conyugal —cónyuge (m./f.) connotación conservación —conservar —conservante —conserva —conservatorio —conservador —conservadurismo consideración —considerar —considerado (p.p.) —considerable consolidación —consolidar construcción —construir —constructivo —constructor contaminación —contaminar —contaminante (adj. & n.)
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—(to) confirm confiscation —(to) confiscate —fiscal, public prosecutor, district attorney —fisc (treasury of a kingdom or state) congregation —(to) congregate, (to) assemble conjugation —(to) conjugate —conjugal —spouse ( esposo, consorte) connotation conservation, preservation —(to) conserve, (to) maintain, (to) keep —preservative —preserved (canned) food, conserve —conservatory —conservative (adj. & n.), curator (museum) —conservatism consideration —(to) consider —considerate, held in high regard —considerable consolidation —(to) consolidate construction, building —(to) construct —constructive —construction (adj.), builder, constructor contamination, pollution —(to) contaminate, (to) pollute —contaminating, polluting, contaminant, pollutant
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contemplación —sin contemplaciones —contemplar contrarrevolución —contrarrevolucionario contravención —contravenir conversación —conversar cooperación —cooperar —cooperativo (adj.) —cooperativa (n.) coordinación —coordinar —coordinado —coordenadas corroboración —corroborar declaración —declarar declinación —declinar dedicación —dedicar definición —definir —definido (p.p.) —indefinido —definitivo deformación —deformar —deforme
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contemplation, complaisance or pampering (pl.) —harshly, discourteously —(to) contemplate, (to) pamper counterrevolution —counterrevolutionary (adj. & n.) contravention —(to) contravene conversation —(to) converse, (to) chat cooperation —(to) cooperate —cooperative —cooperative, co-op coordination —(to) coordinate —coordinated, coordinate (gram.) —coordinate (math., geog.) corroboration —(to) corroborate declaration, statement, testimony —(to) declare, (to) state, (to) testify declination (falling off; astronomical), declension —(to) decline (diminish; refuse politely; grammar) dedication, inscription —(to) dedicate definition —(to) define —definite —indefinite —definitive, conclusive deformation —(to) deform, (to) distort —deformed, misshapen
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degradación —degradar —degradante delegación —delegar —delegado (p.p.) desolación —desolar —desolador detección —detective ( Eng.) —detectar —detector determinación —determinar devoción —devoto (adj. & n.) dicción —diccionario difamación —difamar —difamatorio discriminación —discriminar disipación —disipar distribución —distribuir —distribuidor —distribuidora documentación —documentar —documento —documental (adj. & n.)
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degradation —(to) degrade, (to) moderate in intensity (e.g., light) —degrading delegation —(to) delegate —delegate desolation, ruin —(to) desolate, (to) devastate —devastating, distressing detection —detective —(to) detect —detector determination (act of deciding, firmness of purpose) —(to) determine, (to) decide devotion —devout, pious, devoted, devout person diction, enunciation, pronunciation —dictionary defamation —(to) defame —defamatory discrimination —(to) discriminate dissipation —(to) dissipate distribution, layout (house or building) —(to) distribute —distributing, distributor (person [m./f.], car [m.]) —distributor (commercial, e.g., movies) documentation —(to) document —document —documentary
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donación —donar —donativo —don ebullición —bullir edificación —edificar —edificante —edificio educación —educar —educativo elevación —elevar —elevador eliminación —eliminar —eliminatorio emigración —emigrar —emigrante (adj. & n.) erudición —erudito (adj. & n.) evacuación —evacuar evaporación —evaporar —vapor —al vapor —vaporizar evocación —evocar
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donation (act) —(to) donate, (to) bestow —donation (what is given), donative —gift, talent ebullition, boiling —(to) boil, (to) bubble building (act), edifice, edification —(to) build (building or company), (to) edify (moral) —edifying (serving as a good example) —building, edifice education, training, breeding (manners) —(to) educate, (to) train —educational, educative elevation —(to) raise, (to) elevate elevator ( ascensor), hoist, lift elimination —(to) eliminate —qualifying or preliminary (e.g., sports competition) emigration —(to) emigrate —emigrant erudition —erudite, learned person evacuation —(to) evacuate (incl. “to defecate”) evaporation —(to) evaporate (incl. “to vanish”) —vapor, steam, steamboat —steamed (vegetables, etc.) —(to) vaporize, (to) evaporate evocation —(to) evoke, (to) recall
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—evocador evolución —evolucionar —evolutivo exasperación —exasperar excepción —excepcional —excepto —exceptuar exclamación —exclamar exención —exento —eximir exhibición —exhibir —exhibicionista exhortación —exhortar exhumación —exhumar expectación —expectativa explicación —explicar —explícito —inexplicable exploración —explorar —explorador (adj. & n.) —exploratorio exportación —exportar —exportador (adj. & n.) exterminación
—evocative evolution —(to) evolve —evolutionary exasperation —(to) exasperate exception —exceptional —except, excepting —(to) except exclamation —(to) exclaim exemption —exempt, isolated (building, pillar) —(to) exempt exhibition —(to) exhibit —exhibitionist exhortation —(to) exhort exhumation, disinterment —(to) exhume, (to) disinter expectation (act of expecting, eager anticipation) —expectation, hope explication, explanation —(to) explicate, (to) explain —explicit —inexplicable, unexplainable exploration —(to) explore —exploring, explorer —exploratory exportation, export —(to) export —exporting, exporter extermination ( exterminio)
(old p.p.) († eximious)
A number of “irregular” Spanish past participles have been replaced by “regular” ones, with the “old” form remaining as a separate adjective. See Brodsky (, –).
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—exterminar —exterminio extradición —extraditar federación —federar —federal felicitación —felicitar fermentación —fermentar —fermento ficción —ficticio fluctuación —fluctuar formación —formar —forma fortificación —fortificar frustración —frustrar función —funcionar —funcional —funcionario generación —generar —generador (adj. & n.) germinación —germinar —germen —germen de trigo humillación
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—(to) exterminate —extermination extradition —(to) extradite federation —(to) federate —federal felicitation, congratulation, congratulations (pl.) —(to) congratulate, (to) felicitate fermentation —(to) ferment —ferment fiction —fictitious fluctuation —(to) fluctuate formation, education, training —(to) form, (to) educate, (to) train —form (shape, manner, method, etc.) fortification —(to) fortify frustration, disappointment —(to) frustrate, (to) disappoint function, performance (cinema, circus, etc.) —(to) function —functional —functionary, public official, civil servant generation —(to) generate —generating, (electric) generator germination —(to) germinate —germ —wheat germ humiliation
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—humillante —humilde —humildad —humillar identificación —identificar —identidad —idéntico —ídem ignición iluminación —iluminar imaginación —imagen (f.) —imaginar —imaginable —inimaginable —imaginario —imaginativo imperfección —imperfecto implicación —implicar —implícito importación —importar () —importar ()
—no (me) importa —importador (adj. & n.) —importe improvisación —improvisar —de improviso imputación —imputar
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—humiliating, humbling —humble, modest —humility —(to) humiliate, (to) humble identification —(to) identify —identity —identical —idem, the same, ditto ignition illumination —(to) illuminate, (to) enlighten imagination —image —(to) imagine —imaginable —unimaginable —imaginary —imaginative imperfection —imperfect implication —(to) imply, (to) involve, (to) implicate —implicit, implied importation, import —(to) import (merchandise) —important (be important), (to) be worth (an amount) —it doesn’t matter (to me) —importing, importer —cost, price, value improvisation (musical or otherwise) —(to) improvise —unexpectedly, suddenly imputation, accusation —(to) impute (charge with fault)
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incitación —incitar inclinación —inclinar incubación —incubar —incubadora indignación —indignar —indigno industrialización —industrializar —industrial —industria infección —infectar —infeccioso infestación —infestar inflación —inflar —inflacionario —deflación ( Eng.) —desinflar inhibición —inhibir iniciación —iniciar —inicial —iniciativa —inicio —iniciático inspección —inspeccionar —inspector instalación —instalar
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incitation, incitement —(to) incite inclination, bow, curtsy —(to) incline (incl. “to influence”) incubation —(to) incubate —incubator indignation —(to) make indignant, (to) anger —unworthy industrialization —(to) industrialize —industrial —industry infection —(to) infect —infectious infestation —(to) infest, (to) overrun inflation —(to) inflate —inflationary ( inflacionista) —deflation (economic) —(to) deflate inhibition —(to) inhibit, (to) abstain from initiation, start —(to) initiate, (to) begin —initial —initiative —beginning, start —initiating (pert. to initiation ceremony or ritual) inspection —(to) inspect —inspector installation —(to) install
[† indign]
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instigación —instigar —instigador instrucción —instruir —instructivo —instructor insurrección —insurrecto (adj. & n.) —insurgente (adj. & n.) integración —integrar —integral (adj. & n.f.) —íntegro interpretación —interpretar —intérprete (m./f.) interrogación —interrogar —interrogante —interrogatorio interrupción —interrumpir —interruptor intervención —intervenir —interventor intimidación —intimidar introducción —introducir —introductorio intuición —intuitivo
T4311.indb 47
instigation, incitement —(to) instigate, (to) incite —instigator instruction, education —(to) instruct, (to) educate —instructive —instructor insurrection —insurgent, rebel —insurgent integration —(to) integrate —integral —whole, entire, upright interpretation —(to) interpret —interpreter (languages, actor, musician) interrogation (one question), question mark ( interrogante) —(to) interrogate, (to) question —questioning, unresolved issue (m./f.), question mark (m.) —interrogation (series of questions) interruption —(to) interrupt —electric switch, light switch, circuit breaker intervention, surgical operation —(to) intervene (in), (to) operate on (medical) —auditor, controller, monitor (elections) intimidation —(to) intimidate introduction —(to) introduce —introductory intuition —intuitive
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—intuir inundación —inundar investigación —investigar —investigador (adj. & n.) —vestigio invitación —invitar —invitado (adj. & n.) invocación —invocar irritación —irritar —irritable —irritante lamentación —lamentar —lamentable —lamento liquidación —liquidar —liquidador —líquido (adj. & n.) —liquidez —licuar —licor loción medicación —médico —medicamento —medicina
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—(to) grasp intuitively, (to) intuit inundation, flood, flooding —(to) inundate, (to) flood investigation, inquiry, research —(to) investigate, (to) inquire into, (to) research —investigating, investigative, investigator —vestige, trace, sign invitation —(to) invite —invited (person), guest invocation —(to) invoke irritation —(to) irritate —irritable —irritant lamentation —(to) lament —lamentable —lament liquidation, clearance sale, settlement (debt, account) —(to) liquidate (debt, business, person) —liquidator —liquid, liquid cash or (commercial) balance —liquidity (generally financial), liquidness —(to) liquefy, (to) liquate (metals) —liquor, liqueur lotion medication, treatment —doctor, physician —medicament, medicine, drug —medicine (medication, branch of science)
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—medicinal meditación —meditar memorización —memorizar —memoria —memorias (pl.) —memorable —memorial —memorándum migración —migrar —migratorio mitigación —mitigar moción —[movimiento] modernización —modernizar —moderno —modernidad —modernismo modificación —modificar munición nación —nacional —internacional —nacionalismo —nacionalista —nacionalizar narración —narrar —narrador —narrativo (adj.)
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—medicinal meditation —(to) meditate, (to) ponder memorization —(to) memorize —memory, report —memoirs —memorable —memorial (incl. “petition”), memorandum book —memorandum, memo migration —(to) migrate —migratory mitigation, alleviation, soothing —(to) mitigate, (to) alleviate, (to) soothe motion (supporting a nomination, of censure, etc.) —motion (physical), movement modernization —(to) modernize —modern —modernity —modernism modification —(to) modify munition, ammunition (freq. pl.) nation —national —international —nationalism —nationalist —(to) nationalize, (to) naturalize (grant citizenship) narration, narrative —(to) narrate —narrator —narrative
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—narrativa (n.) noción nominación —nominar —nominal normalización —normalizar —normal —norma nutrición —nutrir —nutritivo observación —observar —observador (adj. & n.) —observatorio obstinación —obstinar(se) —obstinado (p.p.) obstrucción —obstruir opción —opcional —optar palpitación —palpitar —palpitante —palpar —palpable participación —participar
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—narrative (literary genre incl. novel and short story) notion, idea nomination, naming (to a position) —(to) nominate (gen. for a prize or honor) —nominal normalization —(to) normalize, (to) become normal —normal —norm, rule nutrition —(to) nourish, (to) nurture —nutritive, nutritious, nourishing observation —(to) observe —observant, observer —observatory obstinacy —(to) be obstinate or persist (in) —obstinate obstruction —(to) obstruct option —optional —(to) opt, (to) choose, (to) aspire to (a position) palpitation, throbbing —(to) palpitate, (to) throb —palpitating, throbbing, burning (e.g., question) —(to) touch, (to) feel, (to) palpate —palpable, evident participation —(to) participate, (to) partake (in or of), (to) notify
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—participante (adj. & n.) —partícipe —participio penetración —penetrar —penetrante —impenetrable percepción —percibir —perceptible —imperceptible perfección —perfecto —perfeccionar —perfeccionista perforación —perforar perpetuación —perpetuo —perpetuar —perpetuidad perturbación —perturbar —perturbado (adj. & n.) petición poción predilección —predilecto preparación —preparativo (adj. & n.)
—preparar preservación —preservar —preservativo prestidigitación
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—participating, participant —participant ( participante) —participle penetration —(to) penetrate —penetrating —impenetrable perception, receiving (of money, rent, etc.) —(to) perceive, (to) receive (salary, pension, etc.) —perceptible —imperceptible perfection —perfect —(to) perfect —perfectionist perforation, drilling, boring —(to) drill, (to) bore, (to) perforate perpetuation —perpetual —(to) perpetuate —perpetuity perturbation, disturbance —(to) perturb, (to) disturb —perturbed, disturbed ( loco) petition, (formal) request potion predilection, preference —favorite, preferred preparation (making ready) —preparatory, preparation (something prepared— gen. pl.) —(to) prepare, (to) make ready preservation —(to) preserve (protect) —preservative (adj.), condom prestidigitation (sleight of hand, magic)
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presunción —presumir —presumido (p.p.) —presunto (old p.p.) —presuntuoso privación —privar —privado (p.p.) proclamación —proclamar —proclama producción —producir —producto —productor (adj. & n.) —productivo —productividad —contraproducente prohibición —prohibir —prohibitivo prolongación —prolongar promulgación —promulgar propagación —propagar —propaganda proscripción —proscribir —proscrito provocación —provocar
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presumption —(to) presume or surmise, (to) be vain or conceited —conceited, vain —presumed, presumptive —presumptuous, pretentious privation, deprivation —(to) deprive —private, favorite of the king (m.) proclamation —(to) proclaim —proclamation, public notice (e.g., marriage banns) production —(to) produce —product (also mathematical), result —producing, producer —productive —productivity —counterproductive prohibition —(to) prohibit —prohibitive prolongation, extension —(to) extend, (to) prolong promulgation (official publication of law or decree) —(to) promulgate propagation —(to) propagate, (to) spread —advertising, propaganda proscription, exile —(to) proscribe, (to) banish, (to) exile —exile, outlaw, proscribed person provocation —(to) provoke, (to) incite
(old p.p.)
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—provocador (adj. & n.) —agente provocador —provocativo recepción —recepcionista —receptivo —receptor (adj. & n.) —recibir —recibo —recipiente recitación —recital —recitar reconstrucción —reconstruir rectificación —rectificar redención —redimir —redentor (adj. & n.) reducción —reducir refutación —refutar reiteración —reiterar —iteración —iterativo remuneración —remunerar reparación —reparar
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—provoking, provocative, provoker —(agent) provocateur —provocative reception (delivery, hotel lobby, ceremony with guests) —receptionist —receptive —receiving, receiver, recipient (transplant, message) —(to) receive —receipt —container, receptacle recitation, public reading (poetry) —recital —(to) recite reconstruction —(to) reconstruct rectification (correction, conversion of AC to DC) —(to) rectify (correct, convert AC to DC) redemption —(to) redeem (self, property), (to) ransom —redeeming, redeemer, Savior (cap.) reduction —(to) reduce refutation —(to) refute reiteration —(to) reiterate —iteracion —iterative remuneration —(to) remunerate repair, reparation —(to) repair, (to) notice
[recipient]
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
—reparo repetición —repetir —repetitivo reproducción —reproducir reputación —reputar revocación —revocar satisfacción —satisfacer —satisfecho —satisfactorio saturación —saturar sección —sector —intersección —segmento sedición segregación —segregar selección —seleccionar —selectivo —selectividad —selecto sensación —sensacional separación —separar
—repair, objection, qualm repetition —(to) repeat, (to) reiterate —repetitive reproduction, imitation or copy —(to) reproduce reputation —(to) esteem, (to) repute revocation, annulation —(to) revoke, (to) plaster or paint (exterior wall) satisfaction —(to) satisfy —satisfied —satisfactory saturation —(to) saturate, (to) fi ll up section, cross-section —sector, area —intersection —segment sedition segregation, secretion —(to) segregate, (to) separate, (to) secrete selection —(to) select —selective —selectivity —select, exclusive sensation —sensational separation —(to) separate, (to) move apart, (to) sever
(old p.p.)
The confusion in the spelling of separate (versus *seperate) goes back to Classical Latin days. The plebs preferred *seperate, and it was this form that gave rise to French sevrer and thence to English sever. Separate is a “learned” English word formed directly from the original (“correct”) Latin past participle. Similarly, separable and several are etymologically the same word.
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“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S
—separado —separable —inseparable simulación —simular sublimación —sublimar —sublime —subliminal tradición —tradicional transcripción —transcribir transformación —transformar —transformador transición —tránsito —transitorio —transitar —transitivo —intransitivo unificación —unificar —unión —unir —desunión usurpación —usurpar utilización —utilizar —utilitario (adj. & n.) —utilidad —útil (adj. & n.)
—separate, separated —separable —inseparable simulation —(to) simulate sublimation, exaltation —(to) sublimate, (to) exalt —sublime —subliminal tradition —traditional transcription —(to) transcribe transformation —(to) transform —transforming, (electrical) transformer (m.) transition —transit, traffic, stopover —transitory —(to) walk (along public streets), (to) transit —transitive —intransitive unification —(to) unify —union —(to) unite, (to) join —disunion, discord usurpation —(to) usurp utilization, use —(to) utilize, (to) use —practical, small (economy class) car —utility, usefulness, profit —useful, utile, tool
These words (and those in the succeeding group) can also be spelled with an initial tras-, although the trans- forms (preferred by the RAE) are by far the more common.
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
vacilación —vacilar vegetación —vegetal (adj. & n.) —vegetar —vegetariano (adj. & n.) veneración —venerar —venerable vibración —vibrar —vibrador (adj. & n.) vocación —vocacional votación —votar —voto
vacillation, hesitation, unsteadiness —(to) vacillate vegetation, (enlargement of) adenoids (pl.) —vegetal, vegetable (adj.), plant —(to) vegetate —vegetarian veneration —(to) venerate —venerable vibration —(to) vibrate, (to) quiver —vibrating, vibrator vocation —vocational voting, balloting —(to) vote —vote, vow
Two subgroups bear special mention—those corresponding to English -jection and to (other words ending in) -ction. (a) For English words ending in -jection, there are three possible endings in Spanish: -jección, -jeción, or -yección interjección
interjection
objeción sujeción
objection subjection
abyección deyección eyección inyección proyección
abjection, abjectness droppings (excrement), defecation ejection injection projection
[dejection ]
Related words—verbs, nouns, and adjectives—maintain the -j or -y and follow a very specific pattern with regard to the interior consonant combination: for
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One of the defi nitions of English dejection is “Evacuation of the intestinal tract; defecation”.
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“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S
those ending in -cción, it is -ct, while for those having “reduced” endings in -ción, it is simply -t: interjectivo (rare)
interjectional (pertaining to interjections)
objetar —objeto —objetivo —objetividad sujetar —sujeto —sujetador —subjetivo —subjetividad
(to) object —object —objective —objectivity (to) subject, (to) grasp, (to) hold —(securely) attached, subject (adj. & n.) —brassiere ( sostén) —subjective —subjectivity
abyecto eyectar —eyector
abject (to) eject —ejector (firearm; pump using jet of water, air, or steam) (to) inject —injector —injectable (to) project, (to) cast, (to) plan —project, plan —projector, spotlight —projectile
inyectar —inyector —inyectable proyectar —proyecto —proyector —proyectil
(old p.p.)
Also: trayecto —trayectoria
course, route, distance, journey —trajectory
(b) Other English words ending in -ction correspond to Spanish words ending in -cción: acción confección constricción corrección destrucción elección fricción inducción predicción
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action, share (stock market) confection, dressmaking, tailoring constriction correction, correctness destruction election, choice friction, rubbing induction, inducement prediction
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
protección succión transacción
protection suction transaction, compromise
. Words Ending in -sión These correspond to English words ending in -sion or -ssion. In the large majority of cases, there is an associated verb—generally ending in -ar or -ir—and often additional related “classical” forms having similar (sometimes identical) English counterparts. Thus, to English depression correspond: depresión —depresivo —deprimir —deprimente
depression (physical, mental, economic) —depressive —(to) depress —depressing
In a number of cases, as noted in Section ., the corresponding verb has a stem consonant of -d or -t rather than -s; for example, transgresión —transgredir —transgresor dimisión —dimitir
transgression —(to) transgress —transgressor demission, resignation (of an office) —(to) resign, (to) demit
There are approximately Spanish -sión nouns, including: adhesión —adhesivo —adherir —adherente (adj.) —adherencia admisión —admitir
adhesion —adhesive —(to) adhere (to a surface or a belief) —adherent (sticking or holding fast) —adhesiveness, adherence admission, acceptance —(to) admit, (to) accept (entry)
Spanish -primir corresponds to English -press (deprimir comes from Latin deprimere, whose past participle depressus gave rise, via French, to English depress).
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“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S
—admisible —inadmisible circuncisión —circuncidar cohesión —coherencia —coherente —incoherente comisión —comisionar —comisario —comisaría compasión —compasivo compresión —comprimir compulsión —compulsivo —compulsa —compulsar —compeler concesión —conceder concusión confesión —confesar —confeso —confesor —confesionario, confesonario contusión conversión
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—admissible —inadmissible circumcision —(to) circumcise cohesion —coherence, consistency —coherent (orderly, logical), consistent —incoherent (lacking cohesion), inconsistent commission (act of doing, fee, committee) —(to) commission, (to) delegate —commissioner (e.g., of police), commissary (deputy) —police station, commissioner’s office compassion —compassionate compression —(to) compress compulsion —compulsive —certified copy (legal) —(to) certify a copy of a document —(to) compel, (to) force concession, grant —(to) concede, (to) grant concussion confession —(to) confess —confessed, self-confessed, converted (Jew) —confessor (priest who hears confession) —confessional box
(old p.p.)
contusion, bruise conversion, transformation
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
—convertir —converso convulsión —convulsivo difusión —difundir —difuso digresión discusión —discutir —discutible dispersión —dispersar —disperso disuasión —disuadir —disuasivo diversión —divertir —divertido (p.p.) —ser divertido —estar divertido —diverso —diversidad —diversificación —diversificar efusión —efusivo emisión —emitir erosión —erosionar exclusión —excluir —exclusivo (adj.) —exclusiva (n.)
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—(to) convert, (to) transform —converted (to Christianity, esp. Jew or Muslim), convert convulsion —convulsive diff usion, transmission —(to) diff use, (to) spread, (to) broadcast —diff use, vague digression discussion, argument —(to) discuss, (to) argue —debatable, arguable dispersion, scattering —(to) disperse, (to) scatter, (to) rout (mil.) —dispersed, scattered dissuasion —(to) dissuade —dissuasive diversion, amusement —(to) divert, (to) amuse —diverting, amusing, fun —(to) be funny —(to) be amused —diverse, different, various —diversity —diversification —(to) diversify eff usion (outpouring of liquid or feeling) —eff usive emission, broadcast —(to) emit, (to) broadcast erosion —(to) erode exclusion —(to) exclude —exclusive —exclusive (news story, right)
(old p.p.)
(old p.p.)
(old p.p.)
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“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S
—exclusive (adv.) —hasta el capítulo doce exclusive excursión expansión —expandir —expansivo explosión —explosionar —explosivo —explotar () —explotar () —explotación expresión —expresar —expresivo —inexpresivo —expreso (adj. & n.) —exprimir expulsión —expulsar extensión —extender —extenso —extensible fisión —fisura fusión —fusionar impresión —impresionante —impresionar
—not including, exclusive of —up to but not including chapter excursion, trip, tour expansion, relaxation —(to) expand, (to) extend —expansive explosion —(to) explode —explosive (adj. & n.m.), (ex)plosive (n.f.) —(to) explode —(to) exploit —exploitation (of a mine, of a person) expression —(to) express —expressive —inexpressive —expressed, express, special, express (train) —(to) squeeze, (to) wring out, (to) express (juice) expulsion —(to) expel, (to) eject extension, expanse, spreading (e.g., fire) —(to) extend, (to) write out or draw up (check, deed, etc.) —extensive, vast —extensible, extendible fission —fissure fusion, melting, merger —(to) fuse, (to) merge impression, printing —impressive —(to) impress
(old p.p.)
(old p.p.)
Explotar () comes from French exploiter (source of English exploit) and has nothing to do with explosión.
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
—impresionismo —impresionista —imprimir —impreso (adj. & n.) —impresor —impresora —imprénta —prensa
—prensar impulsión —impulso —impulsar —impulsivo incisión —incisivo (adj. & n.) inclusión —incluir —incluso —incluso los franceses —inclusa —inclusivo (adj.) —inclusive (adv.) —hasta el de marzo inclusive incursión —incurrir infusión —infundir intrusión —intruso (adj. & n.) inversión —invertir —inverso
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—impressionism —impressionist —(to) print, (to) imprint —printed, booklet, printed matter —printer (person) —printer (machine) —printing, print shop —press (vise, hydraulic, printing); “the press” —(to) compress, (to) squeeze impulsion, impulse, drive —impulse, impetus, momentum —(to) impel, (to) drive, (to) prompt —impulsive incision —incisive, sharp, incisor (tooth) inclusion —(to) include —including, even —even the French —foundling home —inclusive —inclusive, including —up to and including the seventh of March incursion —(to) incur, (to) commit (fault, crime) infusion —(to) infuse intrusion —intrusive, intruder, unauthorized practitioner inversion, investment —(to) invert, (to) invest —inverse, inverted, opposite
(old p.p.)
[imprint]
(old p.p.)
(old p.p.)
(old p.p.)
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“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S
—inversionista inversor mansión omisión —omitir —omiso opresión —opresivo —opresor (adj. & n.) —oprimir pasión —pasional —apasionar —apasionado —apasionante pensión —pensionista —pienso persuasión —persuadir —persuasivo perversión —pervertir —perversidad —perverso precisión —preciso —imprecisión —impreciso —precisar presión —presionar profesión —profesional
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—investor mansion omission —(to) omit —careless, remiss oppression —oppressive —oppressing, oppressor —(to) oppress, (to) press (button), (to) pinch (clothes) passion —passionate (e.g., crime), passional —(to) impassion, (to) appeal deeply to —impassioned, passionate —captivating, gripping, exciting pension (payment, boardinghouse, room and board) —boarder, pensioner (recipient of pension) —feed (pensión for livestock) persuasion —(to) persuade —persuasive perversion —(to) pervert —perversity —perverse, wicked, perverted precision, necessity —precise, necessary —imprecision —imprecise —(to) express precisely, (to) require pressure —(to) press, (to) exert pressure on profession —professional
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
—profesar —profesor progresión —progresar —progreso —progresivo —progresista (adj. & n.) propulsión —propulsar provisión —provisional repercusión —repercutir represión —represivo —reprimir —reprimenda repulsión —repulsa —repulsivo —repeler —repelente subversión —subvertir —subversivo supresión —suprimir suspensión —suspender —suspenso (adj. & n.) —en suspenso —suspense ( Eng.) tensión
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—(to) profess (incl. “practice a profession”, “teach”) —professor, teacher progression —(to) progress —progress —progressive (that which progresses) —progressive (point of view, e.g., political party) propulsion —(to) propel, (to) push forward provision, supply —provisional repercussion, impact —(to) affect, (to) reverberate repression —repressive —(to) repress, (to) restrain —reprimand repulsion, repugnance —repulse (rejection, refusal) —repulsive, repellent —(to) repel, (to) repulse —repellent (adj. & n.), repulsive subversion —(to) subvert —subversive suppression —(to) suppress, (to) abolish, (to) leave out suspension —(to) suspend, (to) hang, (to) fail (an exam) —suspended, perplexed, failing mark —in suspense, pending —suspense tension (incl. electric), stress, blood pressure
(old p.p.)
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“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S
—tensar —tenso transfusión —transfundir transmisión —transmitir —transmisible —transmisor versión
—(to) tense, (to) tighten —tense, tight, taut transfusion —(to) transfuse transmission —(to) transmit —transmissible —transmitting, transmitter (radio, TV—m.) version (incl. “translation”)
English -tortion corresponds to Spanish -torsión, as in: contorsión —contorsionista —contorsionar(se) distorsión —distorsionar extorsión —extorsionar torsión
contortion —contortionist —(to) contort distortion —(to) distort extortion —(to) extort torsion, twisting
. Words Ending in -dad and -tad These generally correspond to English nouns ending in -ty. The overwhelming majority—more than one thousand—end in -dad, and fewer than twenty end in -tad. Apart from mitad, the -tad ending always follows a consonant, while the -dad ending can follow either a consonant or a vowel: consonant ⴙ -tad vowel ⴙ -dad consonant ⴙ -dad
libertad fraternidad crueldad
liberty fraternity cruelty
(a) Words Ending in -tad This is the list of all of the -tad words in common use: amistad deslealtad dificultad enemistad
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amity, friendship disloyalty difficulty enmity, hostility
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
facultad lealtad libertad majestad mitad potestad pubertad tempestad voluntad
faculty (capacity, division of a university) loyalty liberty majesty half, middle, moiety power, jurisdiction [rare potestas] puberty tempest, storm will, disposition [† volunty]
(b) Words Ending in -dad The following is a sampling of words ending in -dad: actividad adversidad agilidad amabilidad ancianidad
activity adversity agility amiability, kindness, niceness old age
animosidad anormalidad ansiedad antigüedad autenticidad banalidad bondad brevedad brutalidad calamidad capacidad caridad cavidad
animosity abnormality anxiety antiquity, seniority, antique (gen. pl.) authenticity banality goodness, kindness brevity brutality calamity capacity, ability charity cavity (non-dental)
celebridad complicidad constitucionalidad
celebrity, fame complicity constitutionality
[ancient, † ancienty]
Now rare in the primary meaning of “a half ”, “a part”, “a portion”, English moiety has found renewed life in anthropology as “Either of two kinship groups based on unilateral descent that together make up a tribe or society”.
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“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S
credibilidad crueldad debilidad dignidad discontinuidad disparidad divinidad electricidad entidad extremidad fraternidad generalidad generosidad hostilidad humanidad humedad imposibilidad inferioridad infinidad ingenuidad integridad legalidad maldad maternidad mediocridad monstruosidad moralidad nacionalidad necesidad oscuridad /obsparcialidad paridad paternidad personalidad pluralidad popularidad posibilidad posteridad prioridad
T4311.indb 67
credibility cruelty debility, weakness dignity, rank discontinuity disparity divinity electricity entity extremity, limb fraternity generality (incl. “the majority”) generosity hostility humanity, mankind, humaneness, humanities (pl.) humidity, moisture, dampness impossibility inferiority infinity ingenuousness, naiveté integrity legality wickedness, maliciousness maternity, motherhood mediocrity monstrosity morality nationality necessity darkness, obscurity partiality parity paternity, fatherhood personality plurality, diversity popularity possibility posterity priority
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
probabilidad profundidad publicidad puntualidad radiactividad realidad regularidad relatividad religiosidad responsabilidad senilidad serenidad sexualidad simplicidad sociedad solemnidad solidaridad superioridad tonalidad tranquilidad trinidad trivialidad unidad uniformidad universalidad universidad vaguedad vanidad verdad viabilidad visibilidad volatilidad
probability depth, profundity publicity, advertising punctuality radioactivity reality regularity relativity religiosity, religiousness responsibility senility serenity sexuality simplicity society solemnity solidarity superiority tonality tranquillity trinity triviality unity uniformity universality university vagueness, imprecision vanity, conceit truth, verity viability, feasibility visibility volatility
. Words Ending in -tud These frequently correspond to English words ending in -tude. The most commonly used words are probably: acritud actitud
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acridity, acrimony attitude, posture
[† acritude]
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“ L E A R N E D ” L AT I N W O R D S
amplitud aptitud beatitud decrepitud disimilitud exactitud gratitud inexactitud ingratitud inquietud juventud lasitud latitud laxitud lentitud longitud magnitud multitud plenitud pulcritud quietud rectitud senectud similitud solicitud vicisitud virtud
amplitude, breadth, spaciousness aptitude beatitude, blessedness decrepitude dissimilitude, dissimilarity exactitude, precision, accuracy gratitude inexactitude, inexactness, inaccuracy ingratitude, ungratefulness inquietude, worry, restlessness youth lassitude, weariness latitude laxity, laxness slowness length, longitude magnitude multitude plenitude, fullness neatness, tidiness, cleanliness quietude, stillness, tranquillity rectitude, honesty, straightness senectitude (old age) similitude, similarity ( semejanza) request, application (form), solicitude vicissitude virtue, quality, capacity
[juvenile]
[lento ]
[pulchritude]
A relatively small number of Spanish words that “should” end in -tud instead end in -dumbre, e.g., certidumbre, corresponding to English certitude (see Section ., no. ).
Lento means “slow” in both Spanish and English, though in English it is restricted to a musical sense (cf. also English lentamente and lentissimo).
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SEC TION .
“Learned” Greek Words
Classical Latin had a large repertoire of words taken from Greek. This base was added to substantially in the early Christian era and again during the Renaissance. Some Greek words passed to Spanish directly, most via Latin. Almost without exception, if an English word is recognizably “Greek”, it has an equally recognizable counterpart in Spanish with identical (or at least very similar) meaning. The passage from Greek to Spanish was anything but chaotic (caótico). The principal noncatastrophic orthographical metamorphoses, at least metaphorically (metafóricamente), of the Hellenic lexicon (léxico helénico) were: (a) Y became Spanish i (b) PH, CH, RH, TH became Spanish f, c, r, t (c) MPH became Spanish nf (d) S consonant became Spanish es consonant (see Section .)
Y S i
abyss(m)us
abismo abismal
crystallus
cristal cristalizar cristalización cristalino ciclo cíclico ciclismo ciclista
cyclus
abysm, abyss abysmal (unfathomable, enormous) crystal, glass, windowpane (to) crystallize crystallization crystalline, transparent cycle cyclical cycling cyclist
Latin y corresponds to Greek u, whose pronunciation over time changed from [u] to [y]— essentially a “rounded” i, as in French u or German ü—to [i]. It is with this last value that “classical” Greek words are generally pronounced in Spanish and the other Romance languages and in English, while German has preserved the [y] pronunciation. Some Spanish words have maintained the “original” u (e.g., tufo vs. tifus in Annex D); also English cumin and cube (Spanish comino and cubo).
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
cylindrus cynicus dynastia etymologia gyrare
hyaena hybrida hygieina hyperbola hyperbole hypothesis
hystera (“womb”) idyllium lyra
myopia
mysterium mythologia
odyssea olympicus
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ciclón reciclar reciclaje cilindro cilíndrico cínico (adj. & n.) cinismo dinastía etimología girar gira giro girasol hiena híbrido higiene (f.) higiénico hipérbola hipérbole (f.) hipótesis hipotético hipotecar hipoteca histeria histérico idilio idílico lira lírica lírico miopía miope misterio misterioso mitología mitológico mito odisea olímpico
cyclone (to) recycle, (to) retrain recycling, retraining cylinder cylindrical cynical, cynic cynicism dynasty etymology (to) gyrate, (to) turn, (to) spin excursion, tour (e.g., musicians) gyration, change in direction, money order girasol, sunflower hyena hybrid hygiene hygienic, sanitary hyperbola (geometric figure) hyperbole (exaggerated statement) hypothesis hypothetical (to) hypothecate, (to) mortgage mortgage hysteria ( histerismo) hysterical, hysteric (m./f.) idyll, romance, love affair idyllic lyre lyric poetry lyrical, lyric myopia, nearsightedness myopic, myope (nearsighted person—m./f.) mystery mysterious mythology mythological myth odyssey Olympic
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
paralysis pyramidem syllaba syllabus symbiosis symbolum
symmetria
sympathia
symptoma
olimpiada, -íada parálisis paralizar pirámide (f.) sílaba sílabo simbiosis símbolo simbólico simbolismo simbolizar simetría simétrico asimetría asimétrico simpatía simpático
syncope
síntoma (m.) sintomático síncope
syndicatus
sindicato
syndrome synonymus synthesis syntheticus systema typhon tyrannus
síndrome sinónimo (adj. & n.) síntesis sintético sistema (m.) tifón tirano tiranía tiránico
Olympiad, Olympics (pl.) paralysis (to) paralyze pyramid syllable syllabus symbiosis symbol symbolic symbolism (to) symbolize symmetry symmetric, symmetrical asymmetry asymmetric, asymmetrical sympathy, congeniality likable, congenial, sympathetic (music, physiology) symptom symptomatic syncope (med.), fainting spell, blackout syndicate (association), labor union syndrome synonymous, synonym synthesis synthetic system typhoon tyrant (also tyrannical) tyranny tyrannical
PH S f
apostrophe apostrophus asphaltus
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apóstrofe (m./f.) apóstrofo asfalto asfaltar
apostrophe (rhetorical) apostrophe (punctuation) asphalt (to) pave with asphalt
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
asphyxia atmosphaera atrophia blasphemare catastrophe diaphanus diaphragma elephantem ephemeros epitaphium euphemismos euphoria geographia hemisphaerium metamorphosis metaphora nympha paraphrasis peripheria phaenomenon phantasia phantasma pharmacia pharos
pharynx phasis philanthropia phil ateleia philologia philosophia
phobia
T4311.indb 73
asfixia atmósfera atmosférico atrofia blasfemar catástrofe (f.) catastrófico diáfano diafragma (m.) elefante efímero epitafio eufemismo euforia geografía hemisferio metamorfosis metáfora ninfa paráfrasis parafrasear periferia periférico fenómeno fenomenal fantasía fantástico fantasma (m.) farmacia faro farol farola faringe (f.) fase (f.) filantropía filatelia filología filosofía filosófico filósofo fobia
asphyxia, suffocation atmosphere atmospheric atrophy (to) blaspheme, (to) curse catastrophe catastrophic diaphanous, clear, transparent diaphragm elephant ephemeral epitaph euphemism euphoria geography hemisphere metamorphosis metaphor nymph paraphrase (to) paraphrase periphery peripheral phenomenon phenomenal fantasy fantastic phantasm, phantom (fantom), ghost pharmacy pharos (lighthouse), headlight lantern, streetlamp large streetlamp (e.g., highway) pharynx phase philanthropy philately (stamp collecting) philology philosophy philosophical philosopher phobia
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
phoenix phosphorus phrasis phrenesis phreneticus physica
physiognomia physiologia propheta
sema phoros sphaera sphinx (acc. sphingem) tele phone
trophaeum
xenofobia fénix fósforo fosforescente frase (f.) frenesí frenético física físico metafísica fisonomía fisiología profeta (m.) profecía profético profetizar semáforo esfera esfinge (f.)
xenophobia phoenix phosphorus, match (for igniting) phosphorescent phrase, sentence frenzy frenetic, frantic, frenzied physics physical, physique (m.), physicist (m./f.) metaphysics physiognomy, features, face physiology prophet prophecy prophetic (to) prophesy semaphore, traffic light (stoplight) sphere, dial or face (e.g., watch) sphinx
teléfono telefónico guía telefónica telefonista telefonear trofeo
telephone telephonic, telephone (adj.) telephone book telephone operator (to) telephone ( llamar por teléfono) trophy
CH S c (or qu ), RH S r, TH S t
aestheticus amphitheatrum anaesthesia anthologia antipathia
estético estética anfiteatro anestesia anestésico antología antipatía
aesthetic / esthetic aesthetics / esthetics amphitheater, dress circle anesthesia anesthetic anthology antipathy, dislike
The c changes to qu when followed by e or i (see Section ., no. ), as in quimera, quirúrgico, monarquía, oligarquía, psique. Cirugía and cirujano (like English surgery and surgeon) represent a more “popular” evolution.
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
antipático archaicus athleta
autochthon bibliotheca catholicus chaos character charisma chimaera chirurgia
chorus
christus chronicus
diarrhea dichotomia
arcaico atleta (m./f.) atlético atletismo autóctono (adj. & n.) biblioteca católico caos carácter carisma (m.) quimera quimérico cirugía cirujano quirúrgico quirófano coro coral () coral () Cristo crónico crónica cronista cronología cronológico anacronismo anacrónico diarrea dicotomía
unpleasant, disagreeable, antipathetic archaic athlete athletic track and field, athletics (UK) autochthonous (indigenous), autochthon library, bookcase Catholic, catholic (universal) chaos character (pl. caracteres ) charisma illusion, pipe dream, chimera chimeric(al) surgery surgeon surgical operating room, surgical amphitheater chorus, choir choral, chorale (f.) coral Christ chronic, long-standing chronicle, article (newspaper) chronicler, reporter chronology chronological anachronism anachronistic diarrhea dichotomy
[bible]
Carácter is one of only three words in Spanish in which the stressed syllable of the plural is not the same as in the singular: ca•rác•ter versus ca•rac•te•res. (The others are es•pé•ci•men [pl. es•pe•cí•me•nes] and ré•gi•men [pl. re•gí•me•nes].) Th is arose as a cross between quirúrgico and diáfano (“diaphanous”), referring to the fact that the transparent windows of the surgical amphitheater permitted others to observe the operation from outside. Th is word has a different origin from the musical forms, coming from Greek korallion (Latin corallium).
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diphthongus echo enthusiasmus
diptongo eco entusiasmo entusiasta entusiasmar
epocha ethnicus euthanasia labyrinthus marathon mathematica
mechanicus
pantheon
mecánico mecánica mecanismo mecanizar mecanización melancolía melancólico método metódico monarca (m.) monarquía monárquico oligarquía oligárquico oligarca (m.) ornitología ortografía ortopedia ortopédico panteón
parenthesis psyche
paréntesis (m.) psique (f.)
melancholia methodus monarcha
oligarchia
ornithologia orthographia ortho paideia
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entusiasmado (p.p.) época étnico etnia eutanasia laberinto maratón (m./f.) matemática matemático
diphthong echo enthusiasm enthusiastic, enthusiast or fan (m./f.) (to) provoke enthusiasm, (to) captivate enthused, enthusiastic epoch, era, time ethnic ethnic group euthanasia labyrinth, maze marathon mathematics (gen. pl.) mathematical, mathematician (m./f.) mechanical, mechanic (m./f.) mechanics (science) mechanism (to) mechanize mechanization melancholy (n.), melancholia melancholic, melancholy (adj.) method methodical monarch monarchy monarchist, royalist oligarchy oligarchic, oligarchical oligarch ornithology spelling, orthography orthopedics orthopedic pantheon, Pantheon, (family) tomb, mausoleum parenthesis psyche
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
rhapsodia rhetorica rheumaticus
rhinoceros (-ontem) rhododendron rhythmus
technologia
tele pathia theatrum theologia theoria therapia thronus
psiquiatra (m./f.) psiquiatría rapsodia retórica retórico reumático reuma, reúma (m./f.) rinoceronte
psychiatry rhapsody rhetoric rhetorical, rhetorician (m./f.) rheumatic rheumatism ( reumatismo)
rododendro ritmo rítmico rima rimar tecnología técnica técnico telepatía teatro teología teoría terapia trono entronizar
rhododendron rhythm rhythmic, rhythmical rhyme, short poem (pl.) (to) rhyme, (to) versify technology technique, technics technical, technician (m./f.) telepathy theater theology theory therapy throne (to) enthrone
psychiatrist
rhinoceros
MPH S nf
amphibios emphasis
symphonia
anfibio énfasis (m.) enfático enfatizar sinfonía
amphibious, amphibian (m.) emphasis emphatic (to) emphasize symphony
The ultimate origin of rima / rhyme is debated. Some see it as representing a “popular” deformation of rhythmus, others as having a Germanic source, with the English spelling subsequently being influenced by rhythm (rime remains an accepted variant of rhyme).
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Note that Greek -ia (and Latin -ia) has often become English -y: dynasty, pharmacy, etc. Similarly: aristocracia autopsia controversia democracia energía epilepsia genealogía modestia orgía parodia penuria
aristocracy autopsy controversy, debate democracy energy epilepsy genealogy modesty orgy parody penury
“Post-Classical” (non-Greek) examples include: artillería batería lotería
artillery battery (elec., mil., music: percussion), kitchen utensils lottery
In about half of such words, the stress accent falls on the -i (an•to•lo•gí•a, sin•fo•ní•a), which therefore has a written accent, while in the remainder the stress is on the preceding syllable and the -ia is pronounced as a diphthong (far•ma•cia, pe•ri•fe•ria). ps became s in psalmus
salmo
psalm
but has remained in words like pseudónimo, psoriasis, psiquiatría, psicoanálisis, psicología, and psicopático. These are also frequently found without the initial p. Among the more common Greek endings are the following: () -logía / -lógico / -logo () -grafía / -gráfico / -grafo () -sis / -tis () -ema / -oma () -tico / -tica
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
. -logía / -lógico / -logo The standard pattern is shown below corresponding to English biology and geology: the Spanish noun (feminine) ends in -logía, the adjective in -lógico (feminine: -lógica), and the “performer” in -logo (feminine: -loga). biología geología
biológico geológico
biólogo geólogo
biology geology
biologic(al) geologic(al)
biologist geologist
Note that in Spanish the word stress falls on a different syllable in each of the three words: for the adjective and the performer, the same syllable is stressed as in English, while for the “subject”, the stress is moved forward two syllables:
geología geológico geólogo
Spanish
English
ge•o•lo•gí•a ge•o•ló•gi•co ge•ó•lo•go
ge•ol•o•gy ge•o•log•i•cal ge•ol•o•gist
There are several words for which the performer is a -logista rather than a -logo / -loga: apologista ecologista etimologista genealogista mineralogista
apologist ecologist etymologist genealogist mineralogist
Note that Spanish apología makes use of the secondary English definition “formal justification or defense”, rather than the more common “acknowledgment expressing regret or asking pardon for a fault or offense”. Hence an apologista is “one who defends by argument”, rather than “one who offers or asks for forgiveness”.
Ecólogo (-loga) also exists, but is relatively rare. Spanish in fact conserves the “original” meaning: the fi rst use in English with the sense of “expressing regret” is attributed to Shakespeare (). Th is is the defi nition of English apologist as well, where the emphasis is on defending and justifying—an “apologist for slavery” defended the practice rather than asking for forgiveness.
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Other words following the biología—biológico—biólogo pattern include: analogía antropología arqueología astrología cardiología cosmología criminología dermatología embriología entomología espeleología fi lología fisiología geología ginecología ideología meteorología odontología paleontología patología psicología radiología sociología tautología tecnología teología terminología toxicología urología zoología
analogy anthropology archaeology astrology cardiology cosmology criminology dermatology embryology entomology speleology philology physiology geology gynecology ideology meteorology odontology, dentistry paleontology pathology psychology radiology sociology tautology technology theology terminology toxicology urology zoology
As in English, there are a few -logo words referring not to a performer but to an object: catálogo decálogo diálogo
catalog(ue), list Decalog(ue), Ten Commandments dialog(ue)
Análogo means “analogous” (adj.) rather than “one who makes analogies”, while analógico means “analog”.
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
epílogo monólogo prólogo
epilog(ue), recapitulation monolog(ue) prolog(ue), preface
Two groups of words follow a similar pattern, but end with -gogo rather than -logo: demagogia pedagogía
demagógico pedagógico
demagogo pedagogo
demagogy pedagogy
demagogic(al) demagogue pedagogic(al) pedagogue
Note that demagogia (de•ma•go•gia) has a different stress compared to pedagogía and the -logía words, while both demagogo (de•ma•go•go) and pedagogo (pe•da•go•go) are stressed differently from the -logo words.
. -grafía / -gráfico / -grafo This is analogous to -logía / -lógico / -logo: the Spanish noun (feminine) ends in -grafía, the adjective in -gráfico (feminine: -gráfica), and the performer in -grafo (feminine: -grafa). The standard pattern is shown below corresponding to English biography and geography: biografía geografía
biográfico geográfico
biógrafo geógrafo
biography geography
biographic(al) geographic(al)
biographer geographer
There are a few cases where -grafo refers to an instrument rather than a person, e.g., (electro)cardiógrafo cinematógrafo telégrafo
(electro)cardiograph movie projector, movie theater, cinematograph telegraph
The operator of a telégrafo is a telegrafista. Other examples following the “normal” pattern include: bibliografía caligrafía cartografía coreografía criptografía
bibliography calligraphy cartography choreography cryptography
Criptógrafo (“cryptographer”) doesn’t exist (according to the DRAE and Moliner), but is nonetheless occasionally found.
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dactilografía fotografía demografía lexicografía mecanografía oceanografía paleografía pornografía taquigrafía
typewriting photography, photograph demography lexicography typewriting ( dactilografía) oceanography paleography pornography stenography, shorthand
[dactylography]
A point of frequent confusion for native English speakers is that a fotógrafo is a “photographer”, not a “photograph”. A “photo” is una fotografía or, more commonly (especially in the spoken language), una foto.
. -sis / -tis Words with -sis and -tis endings are nouns, the vast majority of which are feminine. The only exceptions (i.e., masculines) among commonly used words are the following: análisis (m.) apocalipsis (m.) énfasis (m.) éxtasis (m.) oasis (m.) paréntesis (m.) psicoanálisis (m.)
analysis apocalypse emphasis ecstasy oasis parenthesis psychoanalysis
The plurals, for both feminines and masculines, are identical to the singulars. Other examples (all feminines) are:
-sis antítesis arteriosclerosis, -esclerosis cirrosis crisis diagnosis ( diagnóstico)
antithesis arteriosclerosis, hardening of the arteries cirrhosis crisis diagnosis (medical)
In addition, there are a few masculines among the relatively small number of non-Greek -sis / -tis words (see Annex A).
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
diálisis dosis electrólisis génesis hipnosis hipótesis osteoporosis prognosis ( pronóstico) prótesis sinopsis síntesis sobredosis tesis tuberculosis
dialysis dose, dosage electrolysis genesis, origin, Genesis (m., cap.) hypnosis hypothesis osteoporosis prognosis, prognostication prosthesis (med.), prothesis (gram.) synopsis, abstract, summary synthesis overdose thesis tuberculosis
Many of these nouns have corresponding adjectives ending in -tico (no. below), e.g., antitético, crítico, and hipnótico.
-tis (medical terms, all feminine) apendicitis artritis bronquitis conjuntivitis dermatitis gastritis hepatitis laringitis meningitis sinusitis
appendicitis arthritis bronchitis conjunctivitis dermatitis gastritis hepatitis laryngitis meningitis sinusitis
. -ema / -oma These are nouns, the large majority of which are masculine, in marked contrast to the general Spanish rule that nouns ending in -a are feminine. In the lists below, masculine nouns are shown first.
-ema anatema (m./f.) cinema (m.)
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anathema cinema, movie theater
(short form: el cine)
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dilema (m.) ecosistema (m.) edema (m.) emblema (m.) enema (m.) enfisema (m.) esquema (m.) fonema (m.) lema (m.) poema (m.) problema (m.) sistema (m.) tema (m.) teorema (m.)
dilemma ecosystem edema (inflammation due to fluid accumulation) emblem enema emphysema scheme, outline, sketch phoneme lemma, motto poem problem system theme theorem
crema diadema estratagema flema gema —yema
cream diadem (a crown worn as a sign of royalty) stratagem, deception, trick phlegm, calmness, imperturbability gem, precious stone, gemma (bud) —bud, yolk, gemma
-oma aroma (m.) axioma (m.) carcinoma (m.) coma () (m.) cromosoma (m.) diploma (m.) genoma (m.) glaucoma (m.) hematoma (m.)
aroma axiom carcinoma coma chromosome diploma genome glaucoma hematoma, bruise
There is some confusion concerning the gender of enema: until , the RAE differentiated between the “traditional” enema, which was feminine, and a second defi nition of “astringent and drying substance used on wounds”, which was masculine. Since , all enemas, of whatever type, have (at least according to the RAE) been masculine. Gem is of Latin rather than Greek origin, coming from Latin gemma (“bud”, hence—due to the similarity in form and color—“precious stone”). Yema is the corresponding “popular” Spanish word.
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
idioma (m.) melanoma (m.) síntoma (m.)
language melanoma symptom
[idiom]
broma —abrumar —abrumador coma () —comillas (pl.) goma paloma poma
joke, jest —(to) overwhelm or crush —overwhelming, crushing, oppressive comma —quotation marks gum, rubber, rubber band, eraser dove, pigeon pome, apple (botanical), perfume box
[bromide]
. -tico / -tica Words ending in -tico are of both Greek and Latin origin. They are almost always masculine adjectives with corresponding feminines ending in -tica. In many cases, they can also be used as nouns, e.g.,
also:
diplomático (adj.) el diplomático (n.m.) la diplomática (n.f.) diplomacia
diplomatic the diplomat (masculine) the diplomat (feminine) diplomacy, tact
Very rarely (e.g., gramático, pronóstico), words ending in -tico are nouns rather than adjectives. A more frequent occurrence is an abstract feminine noun ending in -tica, e.g., acústica. For all of these words there is a written accent on the preceding vowel, e.g., diplomático (pronounced di•plo•má•ti•co). A sampling of these words (adjectives, unless otherwise indicated) is given below: acróstico acuático acústico adriático
acústica (n.f.)
acrostic (adj. & n.m.) aquatic acoustic, acoustics (n.f.) Adriatic
English bromide and bromine come from Greek bromos (“stench”), while Spanish broma likely comes from a closely related Greek word meaning “rottenness”. Paloma and poma are of Latin, not Greek, origin.
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agnóstico alfabético analítico anecdótico antártico antibiótico antidemocrático antiestético antipático antipatriótico antisemítico antiséptico antitético apático apocalíptico apolítico aristocrático aritmético aromático ártico artístico ascético asiático asmático atlántico atlético auténtico autocrático automático báltico caótico característico carismático catedrático (n.m.) cáustico céltico ciático cibernético cosmético
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analítica (n.f.)
aritmética (n.f.)
ascética (n.f.)
característica (n.f.) catedrática (n.f.)
ciática (n.f.) cibernética (n.f.) cosmética (n.f.)
agnostic (adj. & n.m./f.) alphabetical analytic, analytical, analytics (n.f.) anecdotal, anecdotic antarctic [the continent is gen. Antártida] antibiotic (adj. & n.m.) undemocratic un(a)esthetic, ugly antipathetic, disagreeable unpatriotic anti-Semitic antiseptic (adj. & n.m.) antithetical, opposing apathetic apocalyptic apolitical aristocratic arithmetical, arithmetic (n.f.) aromatic arctic artistic ascetic, asceticism (n.f.) Asiatic (adj. & n.m./f.), Asian asthmatic (adj. & n.m./f.) Atlantic athletic authentic autocratic automatic Baltic chaotic characteristic (adj. & n.f.) charismatic professor (UK: chair) caustic (adj. & n.m.) Celtic, Celtic language (n.m.) sciatic, sciatica (n.f.) cybernetic, cybernetics (n.f.) cosmetic (adj. & n.m.), cosmetology (n.f.)
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
cósmico críptico crítico
crítica (n.f.)
cromático cuadrático democrático diagnóstico didáctico
didáctica (n.f.)
diurético dogmático doméstico dramático
dramática (n.f.)
drástico eclesiástico elástico emético energético
energética (n.f.)
—enérgico enfático enigmático epiléptico erótico errático escéptico escolástico
escolástica (n.f.)
estadístico
estadística (n.f.)
estático estético estilístico ético exótico
estática (n.f.) estética (n.f.) estilística (n.f.) ética (n.f.)
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erótica (n.f.)
cosmic cryptic critical, critic (n.m./f.), critique/ criticism (n.f.) chromatic quadratic democratic diagnostic (adj. & n.m.), diagnosis (n.m.) didactic, educational, didactics (n.f.) diuretic (adj. & n.m.) dogmatic domestic (adj. & n.m./f.) dramatic, dramatist or actor/ actress (n.m./f.), dramatic arts (n.f.) drastic, medicinal purge (n.m.) ecclesiastical, ecclesiastic (n.m.) elastic (adj. & n.m.) emetic (adj. & n.m.) pertaining to energy, science of energy (n.f.) —energetic (possessing or displaying energy) emphatic enigmatic epileptic (adj. & n.m./f.) erotic, erotica (n.f.) wandering, vagrant, erratic skeptical, skeptic (n.m./f.) scholastic (adj. & n.m./f.), Scholasticism (n.f.) statistical, statistician (n.m./f.), statistics (n.f.) static (adj.), statics (n.f.) esthetic (adj.), esthetics (n.f.) stylistic, stylistics (n.f.) ethical, ethics (n.f.) exotic
The Spanish noun for “static” is interferencia or parásitos (“parasites”).
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CL ASSICAL VOCABUL ARY
fanático farmacéutico flemático fonético genético gimnástico gótico (adj. & n.m.)
fonética (n.f.) genética (n.f.) gimnástica (n.f.)
gramático (n.m.)
gramática (n.f.)
hermético hipnótico hipotético informático
informática (n.f.)
lingüístico logístico magnético místico
mística (n.f.)
monolítico narcótico neolítico neumático neurótico numismático
numismática (n.f.)
onomástico
onomástica (n.f.)
óptico
óptica (n.f.)
paleolítico patético patriótico
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lingüística (n.f.) logística (n.f.)
fanatical, fanatic (adj. & n.m./f.) pharmaceutical, pharmacist (n.m./f.) phlegmatic, unemotional phonetic, phonetics (n.f.) genetic, genetics (n.f.) gymnastic, gymnastics (n.f.) Gothic (style, people, language, print) grammarian (n.m./f.), grammar (n.f.) hermetic, airtight hypnotic, sleeping pill (n.m.) hypothetical data processing (adj.), computer expert (n.m./f.), computer science (n.f.) linguistic, linguistics (n.f.) logistical, logistics (n.f.) magnetic mystical, mystic (n.m./f.), mysticism (n.f.) monolithic narcotic (adj. & n.m.) Neolithic (adj. & n.m.) pneumatic, tire (n.m.) neurotic (adj. & n.m./f.) numismatic, numismatist (n.m./f.), numismatics (n.f.) onomastic, onomastics (n.f.), saint’s day (n.f.) optic, optical, optician (n.m./f.), optics (n.f.), optical shop (n.f.) Paleolithic (adj. & n.m.) pathetic patriotic
For “gymnastics”, gimnasia is more common (gimnasio is “gymnasium”).
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“LEARNED” GREEK WORDS
peripatético plástico
plástica (n.f.)
poético político
poética (n.f.) política (n.f.)
práctico
práctica (n.f.)
pragmático
pragmática (n.f.)
problemático
problemática (n.f.)
pronóstico (n.m.) quiropráctico (n.m.)
quiropráctica (n.f.)
reumático rústico sarcástico semántico sintético sintomático sistemático socrático táctico teorético transatlántico traumático viático (n.m.)
semántica
táctica (n.f.)
peripatetic (Aristotelian), ridiculous or outlandish plastic (adj. & n.m.), plastic arts (n.f.) poetic, poetics (n.f.) politic, political, in-law, politician (n.m./f.), politics (n.f.), policy (n.f.) practical, practiced (i.e., skillful), harbor pilot (n.m.), practice (n.f.) pragmatic, interpreter of the laws (n.m./f.), pragmatics (n.f.) problematic, collective problems (n.f.) prognosis, prognostic, prediction chiropractor (n.m./f.), chiropractic (n.f.) rheumatic (adj. & n.m./f.) rustic (adj. & n.m./f.) sarcastic semantic, semantics (n.f.) synthetic symptomatic systematic Socratic tactical, tactician (n.m./f.), tactics (n.f.) speculative, theoretical transatlantic, (ocean) liner (n.m.) traumatic viaticum, travel allowance
English peripatetic normally means “walking about from place to place; traveling on foot”, a meaning not shared by Spanish peripatético. Both words maintain the formal (original) definition “of or relating to the philosophy of Aristotle, who conducted discussions while walking about in the Lyceum of ancient Athens”. See Section .. Pragmatics means “the study of language as it is used in a given context”. Spanish pragmática (n.f.) has a second defi nition as well, analogous to that of English pragmatic sanction: “an edict or a decree issued by a sovereign that becomes part of the fundamental law of the land”. Teórico is far more common, as the use of teorético in the sense of “theoretical” is widely viewed as an anglicismo. Latin viaticum is also the origin of both English voyage and Spanish viaje.
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PA R T I I I
P O P U L A R VO C A B U L A RY: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
Consider the following lists of words: Language
Language
Language
English
viejo escuela verde bueno puente público libertad harina seguro
vieux école vert bon pont public liberté farine sûr
vecchio scuola verde buono ponte pubblico libertà farina sicuro
old school green good bridge public liberty flour, farina sure, secure
Even if one has not already studied a Romance language, it is not too difficult to guess that Language is Spanish, Language is French, and Language is Italian. All languages have a certain “feel” to them, and the Romance languages are no exceptions. The aim of Part III is to further develop this inherent “feel” for the nature of Spanish so that it can effectively be used as a tool in the acquisition of new vocabulary.
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S E C T I O N .
Addition of “Helping” e: esnob ⴝ snob
The Vulgar Latin grammarians noted an inconsistency in the Latin phonetic system. In the interior of a word, the combination s consonant was always divided between different syllables and was never pronounced as a single “sound”. Thus,
justitia monstrum
jus•ti•ti•a mons•trum
Spanish
English
jus•ti•cia mons•truo
jus•tice mon• ster
As the example shows, this is not a feature of English, where in many words like monster the consonant combination st is pronounced jointly. If a syllable within a word could never begin with s consonant, why should it be any different at the beginning of a word? The Vulgar Latins decided that there was no good reason for such difference, and that what was required was the addition of a “helping” (prothetic) vowel to permit s and the following consonant to be placed in separate syllables:
spi•na S es•pi•na
Spanish
English
espina
thorn, spine
Italian subsequently gave up the initial e, Spanish has maintained it, while French has generally eliminated the s, which was the justification for the e in the first place. Latin
Spanish
French
Italian
English
scala scutum spiritus sponsa status
escala escudo espíritu esposa estado
échelle écu esprit épouse état
scala scudo spirito sposa stato
scale escutcheon, shield spirit spouse, wife state
Examples: esbelto escala
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svelte (slender, graceful) ladder, scale, proportion, port of call, stop (airplane)
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
—escalera —escalar —escalador —escalada —escalón —escalafón escalpelo escama —escamoso escándalo —escandaloso —escandalizar Escandinavia —escandinavo escandir escápula escarbar escarlata —escarlatina escarnecer —escarmentar —escarmiento escarpa —escarpado escatológico () —escatología () —escatología () —escatológico () escayola escena —escenario —escénico escéptico (adj. & n.) —escepticismo esclavo —esclavitud
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—staircase, stairs —(to) climb, (to) scale —(mountain) climber —climb, rapid increase, rise, escalade —step (of a stair), stepping stone —roster of employees (by rank) scalpel scale (of fish, snake), flake (of soap), squama —scaly, flaky, squamous scandal —scandalous —(to) scandalize Scandinavia —Scandinavian (to) scan (verse) scapula (shoulder blade) (to) scrape, (to) scratch, (to) dig into scarlet —scarlatina, scarlet fever (to) mock, (to) ridicule —(to) punish severely, (to) learn one’s lesson —lesson, punishment scarp, steep slope, escarpment —steep, sheer, craggy scatological —scatology —eschatology —eschatological plaster, plaster cast, scagliola scene, stage —stage, scene, setting —scenic (of or relating to the stage) skeptical, skeptic —skepticism slave —slavery
[echelon]
[scarify]
[scorn]
[fish scale] [scenario]
(see appendix)
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ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB SNOB
—esclavizar —eslabón —eslavo —Eslovaquia —eslovaco —Eslovenia —esloveno esclerosis —esclerosis múltiple esclusa escoba —escobilla Escocia —escocés (-esa) escolar (adj. & n.) —escuela escorbuto escoria —El Escorial escribir —escriba (m.) —escribano —escrito (p.p.) —por escrito —escritor —escritorio —escritura escrúpulo —escrupuloso —sin escrúpulos escrutar —escrutinio —escudriñar
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—(to) enslave —link (of a chain) —Slav —Slovakia —Slovak —Slovenia —Slovene, Slovenian sclerosis —multiple sclerosis (canal) lock, sluice, sluice gate broom —brush Scotland —Scottish scholastic, school (adj.), student, pupil —school scurvy scoria (slag, dross, lava fragments) —Escorial (monastery & palace near Madrid) (to) write —scribe —scrivener, notary —writing (report, etc.), writ (law) —in writing —writer, author —desk, office —handwriting, Scripture (cap., freq. pl.) scrupule —scrupulous —unscrupulous ( inescrupuloso) (to) scrutinize, (to) count votes —scrutiny, (official) vote count —(to) scrutinize
[scopula]
[scorbutic]
[scribble]
[script]
[scriptorium]
Formerly escrudiñar.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
escuadra —escuadrón escuálido escudo —escudo de armas —escudar —escudero esculcar escultura —escultor —esculpir escupir —escupidera esfera esgrimir —esgrima —escaramuza esmalte —esmalte de uñas —esmaltar esmoquin ( Eng.) esnob ( Eng.) espacio —espacioso —despacio esparcir —esparcimiento espátula especia —especie
triangle (for drawing), squad, squadron, fleet —squadron (military) skinny, emaciated, squalid shield, escutcheon, escudo —coat of arms —(to) shield —squire, shield-bearer (to) delve into, (to) spy sculpture —sculptor —(to) sculpt, (to) engrave (to) spit —spittoon, cuspidor, urinal (Amer.) sphere, dial or face (e.g., watch) (to) brandish, (to) fence —fencing, swordplay —skirmish, dispute enamel —nail polish —(to) enamel, (to) adorn
tuxedo, dinner jacket snob space —spacious, slow, deliberate —slowly ( lentamente) (to) scatter, (to) spread, (to) amuse —scattering, recreation, leisure activity spatula spice —species, kind, sort
[skulk]
[scrimmage] [Scaramouch] [smelt]
[smoking]
[of space] [sparse]
An army escuadrón is generally larger than an escuadra; the former is commanded by a capitán (captain), the latter by a cabo (corporal). Scrimmage was previously scrimish, itself a “deformation” of skirmish. Thus, both Spanish esgrimir and English scrimmage have “moved” the r from its “original” place (cf. Section ., no. ).
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especial —especialidad —especialista —especializar específico —especificación —especificar espécimen (pl. especímenes) espectáculo —espectacular —espectador espectro especular —especulación —especulativo —especulador esperma (m./f.) espeso —espesor —espesura espina —espina dorsal —espina bífida —espinal —espinazo —espino espiral (adj. & n.f.) espíritu —espiritual esplendor esponja —esponjoso espontáneo —espontaneidad esporádico
special —specialty —specialist —(to) specialize specific —specification —(to) specify specimen spectacle, show —spectacular —spectator specter, spectrum (to) speculate (meditate, think about, buy and sell) —speculation —speculative —speculator sperm, spermaceti thick, dense —thickness —denseness, thicket, dense wood thorn, fish bone, splinter, spine (bot.) —spine, backbone, spinal column —spina bifida —spinal —spine, backbone —hawthorn, thornbush spiral spirit —spiritual splendor sponge —spongy spontaneous —spontaneity sporadic
[inspissate]
Spermaceti is a white waxy substance found in the head of sperm whales (the whale name arising from either a deficient anatomical understanding or a somewhat off-color sense of humor).
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espuma —espumoso esqueleto esquema (m.) —esquemático esquí —esquí alpino / de fondo —esquiar esquimal (adj. & n.) esquina esquizofrenia —esquizofrénico estaca —estacada —dejar (s.o.) en la estacada estampa —estampar —estampida —estampido —estampilla estanco —estancar —estanque —tanque ( Eng.) estelar —estrella —estrella de mar
foam, froth, lather, spume —frothy, foamy, sparkling (wine), spumous skeleton, framework outline, sketch, scheme —schematic ski, skiing —alpine skiing / cross-country skiing —(to) ski Eskimo, Eskimo language (m.) corner schizophrenia —schizophrenic (adj. & n.) stake, post —picket fence, stockade ( Sp.) —(to) leave someone in the lurch print, engraving, likeness or image —(to) print, (to) stamp, (to) engrave —stampede —loud noise (as from an explosion) —rubber stamp, postage stamp (Amer.) watertight (adj.), tobacconist (n.) —(to) stanch, (to) monopolize (block the free sale of) —pond, basin, reservoir
[shin, chine]
[staunch]
[tank ]
stellar —star —starfish
English tank (“container”) comes, in the fi rst instance, from one of the languages of India, though it has also been influenced by the Romance word. It may well be the case that the Indian word comes from the Romance one via the Portuguese, who were India’s fi rst European colonizers. Estrella likely comes from a “mixing” of astro (originally from Greek) with Latin stella (“star”).
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ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB SNOB
—estrella fugaz —estrellar —constelación —destellar —destello estéril —esterilidad —esterilizar —esterilización (libra) esterlina estibador —estibar estigma (m.) —estigmatizar estilo —estilográfica estímulo —estimular —estimulante (adj. & n.) estipendio estipular —estipulación estirpe (f.) —extirpar estoico (adj. & n.) estola estoque —estocada estrangular estrategia —estratégico —estratega (m./f.) —estratagema estrato
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—shooting star —(to) fi ll with stars, (to) smash to pieces, (to) fail —constellation —(to) twinkle, (to) sparkle, (to) flash —flash (of light), twinkle sterile (barren, unproductive, bacteria-free) —sterility —(to) sterilize —sterilization (pound) sterling longshoreman, stevedore —(to) stow, (to) load or unload, (to) stuff stigma (incl. bot. and biol.), stigmata (pl.) —(to) stigmatize style (incl. bot.), stylus, fashion —fountain pen stimulus, stimulation —(to) stimulate, (to) encourage —stimulating, stimulant stipend (to) stipulate —stipulation, condition ancestry, lineage, stirps —(to) extirpate, (to) remove, (to) eradicate stoical, stoic stole rapier, sword —stab, thrust (to) strangle, (to) strangulate strategy —strategic —strategist —stratagem stratum, stratus (cloud), layer
(“with stars”) (unrelated)
[constipate]
[ex stirps]
[stoke, stock]
[street]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
—estratosfera —estrado estría —estriado estridente estrofa estructura —estructural —estructurar —infraestructura estudiante (m./f.) —estudiar —estudio —estudioso (adj. & n.) estupefaciente estupendo —estupor estúpido (adj. & n.) —estupidez
—stratosphere —dais (raised platform), halls of justice (pl.) groove, stretch mark (skin), stria —striated strident stanza, strophe structure —structural —(to) structure, (to) organize —infrastructure student —(to) study —study (act, place), studio (workshop, apartment) —studious, specialist stupefacient (drug), narcotic stupendous —stupor, astonishment stupid, foolish (or such a person) —stupidity
Appendix On Slavs and Slaves The name used by the east European Slavs to describe themselves was taken into Medieval Latin in two different forms: sclavus and slavus. It came to mean “slave” as well as “Slav”, the association arising from the the large number of Slavic slaves in both the eastern Roman Empire and the Germanic territories. Eventually, sclavus specialized in “slave”, and slavus in “Slav”, a distinction carried on in modern Spanish and in other Romance languages, as well as in German (but not in Dutch). It was also the case in English (sclave) until the sixteenth century, when the “unnatural” (for English) scl combination was reduced to sl (as happened also in slander, slice, and sluice), leaving slave and Slav to be distinguished only by their respective vowels.
Dutch German Spanish
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Slav
slave
Slaaf Slawe eslavo
slaaf Sklave esclavo
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ADDITION OF “HELPING” E: ESNOB SNOB
French Italian
slave slavo
esclave schiavo
In “mainstream” Italian, sclavus became schiavo (pronounced [skyavo]), while in the Venetian dialect a shortened variant, ciao (pronounced [chao]), came to be used as an informal greeting or farewell in the sense of “I am your humble servant”. Th is was then exported to Spanish, where chao is used only as a farewell (¡ Adiós ! ¡ Hasta luego ! ¡ Chao !). Hence the correspondence: chao
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ciao, adios
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SEC TION .
Initial f S h: higo ⴝ fig
The presence of (unpronounced) h arising from Latin f is one of the most distinctive features of Spanish, setting it apart not only from French and Italian but also from the other Iberian Romances (Portuguese/Galician, Catalan). Latin
Spanish
Portuguese French
Italian
English
falco(n) farina ficus
halcón harina higo
falcão farinha figo
falco farina fico
falcon farina, flour fig
faucon farine figue
Examples include: fabulari
hablar habla hablador (adj. & n.) fábula fabuloso
facere
hacer deshacer hacia hacienda rehacer hecho (p.p.) cohechar cohecho quehacer facsímil, facsímile faena ( Cat.) faenar
facies
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haz () (f.)
(to) speak, (to) talk speech, language, dialect talkative, gossipy, chatterbox fable fabulous (barely credible, extraordinary) (to) do, (to) make (to) undo, (to) take apart toward ranch, hacienda, public finance (to) redo, (to) remake fact (to) bribe bribe, bribery chore, task, occupation facsimile task, toil, dirty trick (to) fish (at sea), (to) slaughter (animals), (to) toil face, surface (e.g., of leaf, fabric)
[fabulate] [fable] [confabulator]
[factory] [defeat] [face to]
[refect] [confect] [confetti] (que hacer) (fac similar)
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INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG
faex (pl. faeces) faminem (acc.)
farina
fartus
hez (pl. heces) hambre (f.) hambriento famélico harina harina de otro costal harinoso harto hartar infarto
fascis
haz ()
fastidium
hastío
fastidioso fastidio hado hada cuento de hadas hada madrina hembra (n.) femenino fémina (n.) feminismo feminista heno
weariness, annoyance, boredom (to) annoy, (to) weary, (to) cause disgust (to) annoy, (to) tire, (to) bore annoying, tiresome annoyance, nuisance fate, destiny fairy, fay fairy tale fairy godmother female (animal) feminine, female (adj.) female (human) feminism feminist hay
fiebre del heno
hay fever
hastiar fastidiar
fatum
femina
fenum
feces (pl.), dreg(s) hunger, famine hungry, famished hungry, famished, scrawny flour, farina “horse of a different color” mealy, farinaceous fed up, full (to) satiate, (to) glut, (to) get fed up infarct, heart attack ( ataque cardíaco) bundle, sheaf, (light) beam
[farci] [farce]
[fascia, fascist] [fastidious]
[fennel, sainfoin]
Literally “flour from a different sack”. Latin fata became fée in French (and hada in Spanish), while faerie (Modern French féerie) was “fairyland”. The French words were imported into English as fay and fairy, with their original meanings intact; subsequently, fairy altered its sense to that of fay, its original meaning being assumed by the new term fairyland (which fi rst appeared as “Fairy Land” in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream). English faerie (an alternative spelling of fairy) maintains the original defi nition of “land or realm of the fairies”.
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ferire
herir herido (p.p.)
ferrum fervere
fibra ficus figicare
herida hierro hervir hervor agua hirviendo hirviente fervor ferviente efervescencia hebra higo higuera hincar hacer hincapié en ahínco finca
filia filictum filius filum
hija helecho hijo hilo hilar hilandero hilera retahíla
findere
hender hendidura
(to) wound, (to) injure, (to) hurt injured person (m./f.), casualty (m./f.) wound, injury iron, brand (mark on animal) (to) boil boiling (n.) boiling water boiling (adj.) fervor fervent effervescence, agitation thread, fiber, grain (of wood) fig fig tree (to) thrust, (to) drive in(to) (to) drive the foot (pie) in, (to) emphasize eagerness, determination, zeal rural property, country estate, finca daughter fern son thread (to) spin (wool, silk, spiderweb, etc.) spinner, spinster (in the original sense) row, line (monotonous) list or series of things (to) crack, (to) split crack, fissure
[interfere]
[ferrous]
[fervor] [fervent]
[fix, affix]
[filial] [bot. filix] [filament]
[fission]
Hirviente is in danger of extinction, having been largely replaced by the present participle hirviendo; thus, agua hirviendo is today far more common than agua hirviente.
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fixus, fictus foetor
folia forma formica
hito hedor heder fétido hoja hojear horma hormiga
boundary stone, milestone stench, fetor (to) stink fetid, foul leaf, sheet (to) leaf through form (mold), shoe tree ant
hormigueo
tickling or tingling sensation (pins and needles) anthill, ant nest anteater (to) have pins and needles, (to) swarm corn flour mush, nougat (pl.) concrete reinforced concrete cement mixer (machine or truck) beautiful, lovely, handsome beauty, handsomeness pit, grave, valley hole (e.g., golf), pit (to) flee (to) frighten or chase away fleeting, fugacious fugitive escapee, fugitive (from justice), military deserter smoke, fume, airs or conceit (pl.) (to) fume, (to) smoke, (to) steam (to) smoke (a cigarette) smoker
hormiguero oso hormiguero hormiguear hormigo hormigón hormigón armado hormigonera formosus fovea fugere
fumus
hermoso hermosura hoya hoyo huir ahuyentar fugaz fugitivo (adj. & n.) prófugo humo humear fumar fumador
[fixed]
[folio]
[formic acid]
[Formosa] [fovea] [fugitive] [fugue]
Hormigo apparently is due to the similarity between grains of flour bubbling in boiling corn flour mush and the bustling of ants in an ant nest. Hormigón then followed naturally due to the resemblance in form between mush and concrete.
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fundere
fundus fungus furca
furnus furtum
hundir hundimiento hondo profundo hongo horca ahorcar horquilla
fuscus
horno hurto hurtar a hurtadillas furtivo (adj. & n.) hosco
fustigare
hostigar
to sink, (to) knock or fall down sinking, collapse, subsidence deep deep, profound fungus, mushroom gallows, pitchfork (to) hang (a person) hairpin, fork (bicycle, slingshot) oven, kiln, furnace petty theft, pilfer (to) steal, (to) pilfer furtively, on the sly furtive, stealthy, poacher sullen, surly (person or weather) (to) whip, (to) harass
[fondue]
[fund]
[furtive]
[obfuscate] [fustigate]
Also: defensa offocare
dehesa ahogar desahogar sofocar
refusare
rehusar
pasture, meadow (to) drown, (to) suffocate (to) relieve, (to) alleviate, (to) vent one’s feelings (to) suffocate or smother (person, flames) (to) refuse
[defense, fence]
Historical Note In its road from local dialect to Modern Spanish, Castilian adopted various forms of speech and a portion of its vocabulary from the other forms of Romance spoken in Spain, including Mozarabic, the Romance spoken by Christians in the parts of Spain under Muslim control. At the same time, due to Castile’s steadily increasing political importance, a number of purely “Castilian” forms of speech, initially native to only a very small area and on occasion ridiculed by contemporaries as primitive or uncultured, were able to become the accepted norm in Modern Spanish. The noted Spanish scholar Ramón Menéndez Pidal (–), author of several of the classic works on
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INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG
the history of the Spanish language, expressed this conclusion somewhat less delicately. Referring specifically to the change of initial f to h, he wrote: La h no fué (sic ) en un principio más que un barbarismo dialectal propio de la gente menos culta en el Norte de Castilla y tierras limítrofes, uno de tantos casos . . . de particularidades castellanas, primero muy restringidas y que después, con el crecimiento de Castilla, llegan a difundirse por casi toda la Península. The h initially was simply a dialectical barbarism characteristic of the less educated inhabitants in northern Castile and adjoining areas, one of many instances . . . of Castilian peculiarities, at first very limited in scope, which subsequently, with the expansion of Castile, were extended to the quasi totality of the (Iberian) Peninsula.
The f S h change is only one of several peculiarly Castilian characteristics that have been attributed (by Menéndez Pidal and others) to the influence of the Basques, as the Basque language did not have the [f] sound. This explanation is by no means universally accepted, and numerous competing theories have been advanced. What does not seem disputed is that the development f S h occurred in two phases, both originating from the Castilian “heartland” and gradually expanding through the rest of Castilian-speaking Spain (the first also extended to the Gascon branch of the Occitan language in southwest France): (a) f S aspirated h (as in history, hotel) There is evidence that Latin F was pronounced [h] in zones contiguous with Basque territories as early as the ninth century. This aspirated pronunciation then expanded southward, paralleling the expansion of Castile. There was initially no change in spelling; those using aspirated h continued to write “f” (e.g., fablar pronounced [hablar]). (b) aspirated h S ø The same areas that had initially propagated the aspirated h in place of f subsequently lost the aspiration, and this new pronunciation (or lack Until , fue (the simple past third person singular for ser) was generally written fué, and it is not uncommon to encounter this form well after this date. Menéndez Pidal (), . Castilian Spanish originated in a very small area in north-central Spain (between Santander and Burgos) known as Cantabria, contiguous with Basque territories and one of the last parts of Spain to be “Romanized”. It is likely that the Latin spoken there diverged even more than the “typical” Vulgar Latin from the Classical norms. The name Castilla comes from the castillos (“castles”) that were a prominent feature along its frontier; castellano means both “Castilian” Spanish and “castellan” (i.e., “lord of the castle”).
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thereof) then spread in a similar manner throughout Castilian-speaking Spain. By the late sixteenth century, the unaspirated pronunciation of Modern Spanish had been firmly established.
Nonetheless, most words have retained their initial f. These include: . WORDS FROM LATIN fl- OR fr-, e.g.,
flaccus flatus florem (acc.) fluxus fraudem (acc.)
frenum
flaco flato flatulencia flor (f.) flujo fraude fraudulento defraudar freno frenar refrenar
skinny, lean, weak flatus, wind (intestinal gas) flatulence flower flux, flow fraud fraudulent (to) defraud, (to) disappoint brake (to) brake, (to) restrain (to) restrain, (to) curb, (to) rein
[flaccid] [inflation]
[frenum] [refrain]
. WORDS FROM LATIN fo-, WHERE THE o DIPHTHONGED TO BE COME SPANISH ue SEE SECTION ., e.g.,
focus fontem (acc.) foras fortis
fuego fuente (f.) fuera fuerte
fire fountain, source, fount out, outside, without strong
[focus] [forum] [fort, forte]
. “LEARNED” OR “SEMILEARNED” WORDS, E.G.,
fatalis fatalitas febris fides figura fingere
fatal fatalidad fiebre (f.) fe (f.) figura fingir
fatal, fateful fatality ( fate or misfortune, not death) fever faith figure (to) pretend, (to) feign
[Santa Fe]
One word beginning with fl- has undergone an altogether different transformation: Latin flamma (“flame”) has become llama, thus making it a homonym with the Andean animal as well as with the third person singular of the verb llamar (“to call”): Se llama José. The few exceptions are closely linked to verbs in which most of the forms “naturally” developed an undipthonged ho- (the diphthong occurring only in stressed syllables). Hence the noun huelga is associated with the verb holgar (from Latin follicare), which in turn has nine of its forty-seven “simple” conjugations with hue- (huelgo, huelgas, etc.).
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INITIAL F S H: HIGO = FIG
finis firmare
fin firmar
end, finish (to) sign
[affirm, farm]
Until the late fifteenth century, words with aspirated h (in process of disappearance) and those with “real” f were both written with f. By this time, there were many couplets with different meanings and pronunciations but identical written form, one pronounced with aspirated (or no) h, the other with f. Some of these came from the same Latin word, while others had arisen by phonetic accident. To distinguish between these in written as well as spoken Spanish, those with the h (or no) sound had their initial f- changed to h-. Examples of such couplets are: ()
()
()
()
hallar hecha hiel (f.) hijo hilo
fallar fecha fiel fijo fi lo
(to) find done, made bile son thread
(to) render judgment, (to) fail date faithful fixed sharp edge
As a result of these somewhat haphazard developments, the same Latin root has often wound up with both pronunciations in Modern Spanish: Spanish
English
Spanish
English
herradura herramienta herrería
férreo ferrocarril ferretería
ferrous railroad hardware store
herrumbre
horseshoe tool blacksmith’s shop rust
ferroviario
railroad (worker)
hijo hija hijastro hidalgo
son daughter stepchild nobleman
fi lial (adj. & n.f.) fi liación afi liación afi liado
filial, subsidiary filiation, affiliation affiliation affiliate, member
hondo hondamente
fondo fundamental
bottom (n.) fundamental
hondonada hondura
deep deeply, profoundly hollow, dale depth
fundar fundación
Honduras
Honduras
fundamento
(to) found, (to) base foundation, founding foundation (base)
ferrum
filius
fundus
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SEC TION .
Vowel Changes: e S ie, o S ue, etc.
Perhaps the single feature making Spanish the easiest—or least difficult—of any foreign language that an English speaker might seek to learn is the simplicity of its vowel system. Consider the European languages most commonly studied by English speakers (other than Russian, which uses a different alphabet). A reasonably consistent estimation of the “pure” vowels for each language, and the number that are “new” to English speakers, is shown below:
German French Portuguese Italian Spanish
No. of Vowels
“New”
Spanish thus has not only the fewest vowels, all of which are familiar to English speakers, but it is the only language that can offer a one-to-one correspondence between vowel sounds and letters (a, e, i, o, u). It would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this to the learner of a new language. This simplicity is partly masked, however, by the fact that pronunciation of English vowels in most cases differs significantly from that of the corresponding Spanish vowel. For example, Spanish republicano and English republican have four vowels in common (e, u, i, a), not one of which has the same pronunciation in the two languages. Spanish
Pronounced Like
republicano
ray•poo•blee•cah•no
This difference reflects the fact that since the days of “Old English” virtually all English vowels have changed their pronunciations (see appendix), while Spanish vowel pronunciation has changed remarkably little since Classical Latin times. Although Spanish vowel sounds have essentially remained constant, the vowels in many individual “popular” words have shifted, albeit to a relatively limited extent. Fortunately, these shifts were linked to a corresponding change
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VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
in spelling, so that the one-to-one correspondence between spoken and written forms has, with very few exceptions, been preserved. This is illustrated in the table below, where the vowel affected is highlighted in bold. OCCASIONAL MODIFICATIONS IN SPANISH VOWELS “POPULAR” WORDS
. . . . . . . .
iSe eSi e S ie aSe o S ue oSu uSo au S o
Latin Root
Spanish
English
minus servientem centum tractus porcus complere truncus taurus
menos sirviente ciento trecho puerco cumplir tronco toro
minus servant cent tract pork complete, accomplish trunk Taurus
These changes occur with varying frequency: nos. , , and are the most common; nos. and , the least. In corresponding English “learned” words, the original Latin vowel generally remains unchanged (as in all the examples above), while in “popular” words (normally via French), it has frequently been altered. In some cases, the alteration is identical to that which took place in Spanish, thus facilitating the comparison, e.g., intrata
entrada
entry
Diphthongs In two cases (nos. and ), the “new” vowel is in fact a diphthong: . ie pronounced like “ye” in yet . ue pronounced like “we” in wet (sometimes more like “wei” in weight) From the point of view of learning vocabulary, there are two important points to note: a). With very few exceptions, these two diphthongs occur only when the vowel in question is located in the stressed syllable. Related words where At the beginning of a word or syllable, the ie diphthong in much of the Spanish-speaking world is pronounced either like the s in pleasure or the j in judge, while after a consonant the [ye] sound is maintained.
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the stress falls on a different syllable will therefore generally not display the diphthong. Thus, from Latin TEMPUS come the following (where, in the middle column, the stressed syllable is highlighted in bold): tiempo temporario temporal
tiem•po tem•po•ra•rio tem•po•ral
time temporary temporal
b). This situation occurs with respect to a large class of verbs known as diphthong verbs. Thus, for the verbs pensar (“to think”) and mover (“to move”), one says: (yo) (nosotros) (yo) (nosotros)
pienso pensamos muevo movemos
pien•so pen•sa•mos mue•vo mo•ve•mos
I think we think I move we move
Diphthongs occur in precisely those conjugations where the stress accent falls on the “stem” syllable. Examples are presented below for each of the eight different types of vowel change noted above. In many cases, related words that do not have the vowel change are shown. “Diphthong” verbs are marked with an asterisk. . i S e
circa
cerca () cerca de de cerca acercar cercano cercanía
circus
cerco cercar
T4311.indb 112
near, close nearly, close to (place, time, quantity) close up, closely (to) approach, (to) bring near close, nearby proximity, vicinity (pl.), surroundings (pl.) circle, ring, halo (e.g., sun), siege (to) fence, (to) surround
[circa]
[search]
For further details, see Brodsky (, –, ). Where the diphthong forms are “optional”, the asterisk is in parentheses.
8/31/07 6:43:07 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
cerca ()
dicere
circo círculo decir (p.p. dicho ) bendecir contradecir contradicción contradictorio desdecir
maldecir
verum (truth)
dis-
fides in intrare
predecir predecible predicción verídico veredicto ( Eng.) desdesfigurar desmantelar fe (f.) en entrar entrada entre dentro (de) dentro de una semana adentro
(surrounding) fence or wall circus circle (to) say (to) bless (to) contradict contradiction contradictory (to) not be in keeping with, (to) unsay (retract) (to) curse, (to) speak ill of (to) predict predictable prediction true, truthful, veridical verdict dis(to) disfigure (to) dismantle faith in, into, on (to) enter entry, entrance, entrée between, among inside, within
[dictate] [benediction]
[malediction]
(“to say the truth”) (“true said”)
[fidelity] [intra]
[inter] ( de intro)
in a week’s time within, inside
The -decir verbs have past participles ending in -dicho, with the exception of bendecir and maldecir, which have regular past participles (bendecido, maldecido). In terms of meals, Spanish entrada—“a dish served before the main course”—preserves the sense of entry, while English entrée (which technically maintains this defi nition) is now normally used to refer to the main course itself.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
minor
menor al por menor pormenor pormenorizado
minus
minoría menos al menos a menos que minúsculo (adj.) minúscula (n.)
navigare
pilus pro mittere siccus
navegar navegación navegable navegante (m./f.) pelo prometer promesa seco secar secado (p.p.) secador, -ora secano sequía sequedad desecar
smaller, younger, minor (adj. & n.) retail ( al detalle) detail, details (pl.) detailed (specified in detail) minority minus, less, fewer, least, fewest at least ( por lo menos) unless minuscule, tiny, lowercase (letter) lowercase letter, minuscule (to) navigate, (to) sail navigation, voyage in a boat navigable navigator, seafarer hair (to) promise promise dry (to) dry drying (n.) dryer (hair, hand, clothes) unwatered or unirrigated land drought dryness (to) dry up, (to) desiccate
[pilosity]
[Dry Sack ] [desiccate]
English sack refers to various dry white wines imported to England from Spain and the Canaries in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and initially had the form seck (from French vin sec). It became confused with the ordinary sack (“bag”), which at that time had an alternative form, sek, and when sek fi nally settled on the form sack, so did the dry wine. Dry Sack, a trade name for various types of sherry, thus literally means “dry dry”. To dry one’s hair or hands, most frequently a secador is used, while a clothes dryer can be either a secador or secadora (see appendix to Annex A).
T4311.indb 114
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VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
resecar reseco seno temor temer temeroso
sinus timor
tímido timidez vecino (adj. & n.)
vicinus
vecindad avecinar(se) vincere
vencer
vindemia
invencible convencer vendimia
(to) dry out dried up, parched sinus, breast, womb fear (to) fear, (to) be afraid fearful (causing fear), timorous timid timidity neighboring, neighbor vicinity, neighborhood (to) approach (e.g., storm) (to) vanquish, (to) defeat invincible (to) convince grape harvest, vintage
[intimidation]
[Warwick]
[vine]
. e S i
In several of the following examples, the change e S ie (no. ) also occurs (the corresponding vowels are italicized). afición
affectio(n) c(a)ementum
december (a)equalis
cimiento cimentar * cemento cementerio diciembre igual igualmente igualar igualdad igualitario desigual
fondness, hobby, (sports) fans basis, foundations (e.g., of house—gen. pl.) (to) lay the foundations of cement cemetery December equal, the same equally (to) equalize, (to) equal equality egalitarian unequal, uneven (terrain, character, etc.)
[affection]
At a relatively early stage, Latin ae merged with (Vulgar) Latin (short) e. Cementerio has nothing to do with cemento, but its “superfluous” n may possibly be due to “popular” association of the two words.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
ferventem (acc.) levianus renio(n) sementem (acc.) sequentem (acc.)
tepidus
desigualdad hirviente hervir liviano riñón simiente (f.) siguiente seguir subsiguiente tibio
inequality boiling (to) boil light, slight, frivolous kidney seed ( semilla) following, next, sequent (to) follow, (to) continue subsequent tepid, lukewarm
[fervent] [levity] [renal] [semen] [segue]
. e S ie
apertus
abierto abertura
bene
bien bienestar benevolencia benévolo
tan + bien c(a)ecus
c(a)elum
calentem (acc.)
también ciego ceguera cielo celeste celestial caliente calentar * calefacción recalentar *
open [aperitif] aperture, opening (physical: e.g., window) well, fine, good (n.), goods (pl.) well-being, welfare benevolence benevolent, volunteer (Amer.) also, too blind [cecum— “blind gut”] blindness sky, heaven sky blue, celestial celestial, heavenly hot [nonchalant] (to) heat, (to) warm up [calenture] heating, heat (to) reheat, (to) [recalescence] overheat
In eleven (of the basic forty-seven) conjugations, the vowel in hervir shifts from e to i (e.g., present participle hirviendo), while in the nine conjugations in which it is stressed, it becomes the diphthong ie (present tense yo hiervo). Th is pattern is common to -ir verbs with stem vowel e that is followed directly by either r or nt; among the few exceptions is servir (see following note). In twenty (of the basic forty-seven) conjugations, the vowel in seguir shifts from e to i (e.g., present participle siguiendo and present tense yo sigo). Apart from venir, this pattern is common to -ir verbs with stem vowel e that is not followed directly by r or nt, plus servir. For further details on this and the previous footnote, see Brodsky (, –, –).
T4311.indb 116
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VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
recalentamiento centum
certus
ciento centavo centenar centena centímetro cierto acierto desacierto certeza acertar * acertijo concierto concertar *
in-commendare
desconcierto desconcertar * desconcertante encomendar *
crepare
encomienda recomendar * recomendación quebrar * quiebra quebrantar quebrantahuesos resquebrajar
reheating, overheating hundred hundredth part, cent a hundred (group) centimeter certain, sure good shot (“hit”), good choice, good guess mistake, error certainty, certitude (to) hit (the mark), (to) guess right riddle concert, concerto, accord (to) harmonize, (to) concert, (to) agree confusion, disorder (to) disconcert disconcerting (to) entrust, (to) commend commission, charge (to) recommend recommendation (to) break, (to) go bankrupt bankruptcy, breakdown (values) (to) break, (to) violate, (to) weaken osprey, ossifrage (bearded vulture) (to) crack (wall, pottery)
[centennial]
[crepitate] [crevice]
A quebrantahuesos is literally a “bone breaker”: quebrantar huesos. Likewise, an English ossifrage (Latin ossifraga) is a fracturer of bones (ossa). Osprey (a fish-eating hawk) is seen by some as representing a “popular” form of the same word (via French), while others believe it comes from Medieval Latin avis prede (“bird of prey”).
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
decem
desertus
decrépito increpar diez diezmar decimal desierto (adj. & n.) desértico desertar
dextra
desertor deserción diestra diestro
destreza adiestrar
emendare
adiestramiento enmendar * enmienda remendar * remiendo
equa (h)eremus
yegua yermo (adj. & n.)
errare
ermita ermitaño errar *
decrepit (to) upbraid, (to) scold ten (to) decimate, (to) tithe decimal deserted, desert deserted, desert-like (e.g., climate) (to) desert (from military, or from obligation) deserter desertion right hand right (adj.), righthanded, dexterous, matador dexterity, skill (to) train, (to) drill, (to) become skilled training (to) emend, (to) amend correction, emendation, amendment (to) mend, (to) patch, (to) darn patch, provisional repair mare barren, uninhabited, wasteland hermitage hermit ( eremita m.) (to) err, (to) wander
[equestrian]
Diezmar, which has a diphthong in an unstressed syllable, is the exception that proves the rule. The verb was initially dezmar, with diphthongs only in those conjugations where the stress fell on the stem syllable (e.g., yo diezmo), and no diphthongs in the other conjugations (including the infi nitive). In relatively recent times, the verb was “regularized”, so that all conjugations now show diphthongs, even in unstressed syllables. As for diezmar (see preceding footnote), the original verb adestrar has been regularized by extending diphthongs to unstressed syllables. Spanish does not allow a word to start with ie, so the diphthong ie is written ye.
T4311.indb 118
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VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
ferrum
ferus
festa
error ~ yerro errado (p.p.) errante errata erróneo aberrante hierro herrero herrar * aferrar fiero (adj.) fiera (n.) feroz ferocidad fiesta festín festividad festival festivo festejo
gelu
gr(a)ecus
festejar hielo helar * helado congelar congelador griego (adj. & n.) i griega
Grecia gringo
error, mistake erroneous, mistaken errant (wandering) misprint, erratum erroneous aberrant iron blacksmith (to) shoe a horse, (to) brand (to) grasp, (to) cling to wild, fierce wild animal ferocious ferocity, fierceness party, fete, holiday, holy day, festival, fiesta banquet, feast festivity festival festive, humorous celebration, festivities (pl.) (to) fete, (to) celebrate ice (to) freeze frozen, freezing cold, ice cream (m.) (to) freeze, (to) congeal freezer Greek “y” (“Greek” i— penultimate letter of alphabet) Greece gringo
[ferrous] [farrier]
[gelid, gel]
[Grecian]
While labeled in many English dictionaries as “Offensive Slang” (the same category as the “n”-word or dago), Spanish gringo is in fact generally used as a relatively harmless term to refer to foreigners (and not always to “norteamericanos”). It is a deformation of griego: the original sense was in reference to those speaking an unintelligible language, i.e., analogous to the English expression “it’s all Greek to me”. Th is latter expression corresponds in turn to Spanish hablar en griego/gringo or, more commonly, hablar en chino.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
gubernare
gobernar * gobierno gobernador gobernadora gobernante gubernamental
helm (Germanic) herba
yelmo hierba, yerba yerba mate herbáceo herbario
hibernum
herbicida (m.) herbívoro (adj. & n.) invierno
incendere
invernar (*) encender * encender la luz incendiario incendio
incensum
incendiar incienso incensar *
incensario
(to) govern, (to) steer (nautical) government, rudder, helm governor lady governor, governor’s wife governing, ruling, ruler (m./f.) governmental helmet grass, weed, herb yerba maté herbaceous herbal, herbarium (dried plant collection) herbicide herbivorous, herbivore winter (to) winter (to) light, (to) switch on, (to) inflame (to) turn on the light (turn off apagar) incendiary, arsonist (m./f.) fire (large-scale, destructive) (to) set on fire incense (to) incense (perfume with incense), (to) flatter censer (for burning incense)
[gubernatorial]
(OldSp. ivierno) [hibernate]
The nautical senses preserved in gobernar and gobierno are in fact the original meanings, going back to Greek kubernan (Latin gubernare), which meant “to steer or pilot a ship”.
T4311.indb 120
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VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
infernus leporem (acc.) manifestus
infierno infernal liebre (f.) manifiesto (adj. & n.) manifestar * manifestación
mel membrum
merenda
metus
manifestante miel (f.) melifluo miembro desmembrar * membrana merienda merendar * miedo miedoso amedrentar
nebula
negare
meticuloso niebla neblina nebuloso (adj.) nebulosa (n.) negar * negación negativo (adj.) negativa (n.f.) negativo (n.m.) denegar * denegación
T4311.indb 121
hell, inferno infernal, hellish hare, rabbit [leporine] (pacemaker) manifest (obvious), manifesto (to) manifest, (to) demonstrate manifestation, (public) demonstration demonstrator (m./f.) honey mellifluous member, limb, penis (to) dismember, (to) break up membrane light afternoon refreshment, tea (UK) (to) have a merienda fear fearful (easily frightened) (to) frighten, (to) intimidate meticulous fog, mist [nebula] light fog, mist cloudy, foggy, hazy, nebulous nebula (to) deny, (to) negate denial, refusal, negative (gram.), negation negative (adj.) negative (response), denial, refusal negative (photo) (to) deny (refuse) denial, refusal, denegation
8/31/07 6:43:11 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
renegar renegado (p.p.) reniego
november parentem (acc.)
pedem (acc.) pellis petra
noviembre pariente emparentar (*) emparentado (p.p.) pie (m.) bípedo piel (f.) película piedra piedra angular pedrada pedregoso pétreo petrificar apedrear empedrar * empedrado
empedernido pigmentum recentem (acc.) (before p.p.) secare (“to cut”)
pimiento reciente recién llegado recientemente segar * siega
sedentare
T4311.indb 122
sentar * asiento
(to) deny vigorously, (to) renounce renegade ( Sp.), apostate blasphemy, curse (lit., “I renege”) November relation, relative (to) be or become related to related (to) foot biped skin, pelt fi lm, movie, pellicle stone cornerstone throw of a stone (or blow from stone) stony, rocky stone (adj.), petrous, stony (hard) (to) petrify (lit. & fig.) (to) stone (to) pave with stone cobbled, stone pavement (m.) hardened (e.g., smoker), inveterate pepper plant, pimento recent recently arrived recently (to) reap, (to) mow, (to) cut down reaping, harvest (time) (to) seat, (to) sit seat
[renege]
[parent]
[pelisse] [Peter, Pierre]
[pigment]
[secant]
[sedentary]
8/31/07 6:43:11 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
asentar * seminare
sembrar * siembra semental semilla semillero semen seminal
semper
siempre
sentire
sempiterno sentir lo siento (mucho) sentido (p.p. & adj.) sentido (n.) sentido del humor sentimiento sentimental presentir
presentimiento septem september serpentem (acc.) —serpens (nom.) serra
siete septiembre serpiente (f.) —sierpe (f.) sierra serrar * serrano
(to) set, (to) place, (to) assert (to) sow, (to) seed sowing, sowing season breeding, breeding animal (stud) seed ( simiente) seedbed, plant nursery semen, seed (bot.) seminal (pert. to semen or seed ONLY) always sempiternal (eternal) (to) feel, (to) sense (hear), (to) regret I am (very) sorry sensitive (quick to take offense) sense, direction sense of humor sentiment, feeling, regret sentimental (to) have a feeling (that something will happen) premonition, presentiment seven September serpent, snake —serpent, snake saw, mountain range, sierra (to) saw mountain, highland
[inseminate]
[Sic Semper Tyrannis]
[septuple]
Sentir (as well as asentir, consentir, disentir, and presentir) is conjugated analogously to hervir (see footnote no. ).
T4311.indb 123
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
ser(r)are
cerrar * cerradura cerrojo cerrajero cierre encerrar * encierro
sexta (“sixth ”)
siesta sestear
tenda
tienda tendero trastienda
tendere
tender * tendido (p.p. & adj.) tendido (n.) tendencia atender * desatender * contender * contendiente contienda entender * entendimiento entente desentender(se) * extender *
T4311.indb 124
(to) shut, (to) close lock bolt, latch locksmith snap, clasp, closing (to) shut in, (to) enclose, (to) contain confinement, seclusion siesta (to) take a siesta, (to) rest in the shade (cattle) store, shop, tent shopkeeper, storekeeper back room (of a shop), cunning (n.) (to) stretch, (to) lay out, (to) tend (toward) full (gallop), extended, lying down electrical installation, bleachers (bullfight) tendency, trend (to) pay attention to, (to) attend to (to) neglect, (to) not pay attention to (to) contend, (to) compete contending, contender or contestant (m./f.) battle, fight, quarrel (to) understand understanding entente (accord among countries) (to) ignore, (to) take no part in (to) extend, (to) spread
[serried]
[intend]
8/31/07 6:43:12 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
pretender tenerum (acc.)
tierno ternura enternecer
terra
tierra tierra de nadie globo terráqueo terraplén terraza terrateniente terremoto terrenal terreno (adj. & n.) subterráneo (adj. & n.) terrestre territorio territorial aterrar * () aterrar () aterrizar aterrizaje desterrar * destierro enterrar * entierro desenterrar *
ventus
T4311.indb 125
viento
(to) try to, (to) aspire to, (to) pretend tender, affectionate tenderness (to) soften, (to) move (stir emotions) earth, land, soil no man’s land terrestial globe, the earth embankment, terrace, terreplein terrace landowner earthquake earthly, worldly, terrestrial terrestrial, terrene, terrain, ground subterranean, underground passage terrestrial territory territorial (to) cover with earth, (to) demolish, (to) land (to) frighten, (to) terrify (to) land (an aircraft) landing (to) exile, (to) banish exile, banishment (to) inter, (to) bury
(nr S rn)
[ aqueous]
[tenant]
(in terra)
burial, interment ( enterramiento) (to) disinter, (to) exhume, (to) unearth wind
Aterrar (), which has no diphthongs, has a different origin: Latin terrere (“to terrify”).
8/31/07 6:43:12 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
vetulus
vendaval
strong (SW) wind, gale
ventana ventanilla
window small window (car, plane, ticket office, etc.) (to) ventilate, (to) air fan, ventilator blizzard old old age (to) age, (to) grow old aging veteran very old, ancient
ventilar ventilador ventisca viejo vejez envejecer envejecimiento veterano (adj. & n.) vetusto
(viento -de -a-valle)
[veteran]
[† vetust]
. a S e
facta januarius lactem (VL acc.) laxius mansio(n) primarius satisfactus
fecha enero leche (f.) lejos mesón primero primario satisfecho
date January milk far, far off inn, tavern first (adj., adv.) primary satisfied
[fait accompli] [lactic acid] [lax] [mansion]
[satisfaction]
. o S ue
bonus
bueno bondad bondadoso bonito () bonito () bonanza
bombón
T4311.indb 126
good goodness, kindness kind, good pretty, nice, good (small) tuna, bonito fair weather at sea, prosperity, bonanza (ore) bonbon, small chocolate, “dish” (person)
[bonus] [bounty] [bounteous]
8/31/07 6:43:12 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
abonar
abonar(se) abono
bovem (acc.) chorda
hierbabuena buey bovino cuerda
cordón
collum
cuello collar degüello degollar *
computus
cuento cuenta tener en cuenta contar * contable (adj. & n.) contador descuento descontar *
concha
cuenca cuenco concha
T4311.indb 127
(to) fertilize, (to) credit, (to) pay (“make good”) (to) subscribe fertilizer, manure, subscription, season ticket mint (plant) ox, steer, bullock bovine cord, rope, string, chord (geom.), watch spring shoelace, cord (as belt), electric cord, cordon neck, collar (shirt, suit, etc.) necklace, collar throat-cutting, decollation (to) cut the throat, (to) decollate (behead) story, tale count, calculation, bill or check, account (to) take into account (to) count, (to) tell countable, accountant meter, counter (e.g., Geiger), accountant discount (to) discount, (to) deduct eye socket, river basin, valley earthen bowl, hollow or concavity shell, seashell, conch
(“good herb”)
[décolleté]
[compute]
[concha]
Abonar(se) is originally unrelated to the other words.
8/31/07 6:43:12 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
consolare
consolar * consuelo consolación
(in) contra
desconsolado encontrar * encuentro
corium
cuero excoriar / escoriar coraza
acorazar acorazado (p.p.) cornu costa
cuerno corneta cuesta cuesta arriba cuesta abajo costa costero costilla costal costado acostar () * acostar () guardacostas recostar *
T4311.indb 128
(to) console, (to) comfort consolation, alleviation, comfort consolation (e.g., premio de consolación) disconsolate (to) find, (to) encounter, (to) meet meeting, encounter, match (sports) leather, hide (to) excoriate (tear or rub away the skin) cuirass, breastplate, armor plating, shell (animal) (to) armor (ships, forts, etc.) ironclad (adj. & n.), battleship horn, antler cornet, bugle hill, slope uphill downhill coast, shore coastal rib costal (pertaining to ribs), large sack side, flank (to) put to bed (to) reach the coast coast guard cutter (to) lean (back), (to) recline
[corium, currier]
[unicorn] [coast]
[costa]
[accost] [accoast ]
Also, “cost”, “expense”, although this has a completely different origin (see Section .). Obsolete variant of accost.
8/31/07 6:43:13 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
cova (cava )
[dueño de casa]
duende
focus (“fireplace”)
fuego
cave small cave, shack cavern, cave owner, mistress, landlady maiden, maid (to) dominate, (to) master domination dominant, domineering dominion, control, mastery, domain dominoes (game), domino (costume) (to) predominate predominant predominance (to) seize, (to) take possession of owner, master, landlord young nobleman, male virgin goblin, elf, ghost, duende (magnetism, charm) fire
fuegos artificiales alto el fuego
fireworks ceasefire
foco
focus, center, light (head- or spot-) focus (camera), approach (to a matter) (to) focus (light, camera, thoughts)
domina
cueva covacha caverna dueña doncella dominar dominación dominante dominio dominó, dómino predominar predominante predominio adueñar(se)
dominus
dueño doncel
enfoque enfocar
[Donna] [damsel]
[halt the fire]
The earliest Latin form was cova, another example where Spanish has preserved an “older” form of the language.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
follis
fogata fogón fogoso hoguera
bonfire, campfire stove, hearth fiery, spirited, ardent bonfire
en la hoguera hogar
(burned) at the stake hearth, fireplace, home (to) fry lightly bellows
rehogar fuelle holgar * huelga decir que holgazán (-ana)
fontem (acc.)
foras
huelga huelga de hambre juerga jolgorio fuente (f.) fontana fontanería fontanero fuera afuera foráneo forastero
fortia
fuerza forzar * fortaleza fortalecer
(to) be idle, (to) rest “it goes without saying that . . .” idle, lazy (and such a person) strike hunger strike revelry, carousing fountain, source, fount, serving dish fountain plumbing plumber out, outside, without outside, outskirts (pl.) foreign stranger, outsider (also adj.) force, strength (to) force strength, fortitude, fortress (to) strengthen, (to) fortify
(Section .: f S h)
[foyer] [fool “windbag”]
[folly] (l S r)
[forum]
[forester]
Juerga is a variant from Andalusia, where the aspirated h (written j) continued to be pronounced even after it had disappeared from “standard” Castilian. Jolgorio is a more “expressive” form of the original holgorio; a similar “expressiveness” accounts for the initial j- (rather than h-) in the Spanish “ f ”-word ( Latin futuere).
T4311.indb 130
8/31/07 6:43:13 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
esforzar *
fortis forum
esfuerzo reforzar * refuerzo fuerte (adj. & n.) forte (
grossus
grueso (adj. & n.) gruesa grosero engrosar (*)
hortus
huerto huerta
hospitem (acc.)
jovis (in) loco
T4311.indb 131
horticultura hortaliza huésped (m.) hospedar jueves jovial luego desde luego
(to) give strength, (to) exert, (to) strain effort (to) reinforce, (to) strengthen reinforcement strong, fort, forte forte (musical) rights and privileges, code of laws conscience, heart of hearts forum, bar (legal profession) forensic, forensic doctor (m./f.) excess, outrage, violation reckless, lawless, enormous corpulent, thick, [gross] thickness, bulk gross (a group of twelve dozen) coarse, uncouth, rude (to) thicken, (to) [engross] swell, (to) increase orchard, vegetable garden large vegetable garden, irrigated region horticulture vegetable ( verdura) guest [host; see Section .] (to) put up, (to) lodge Thursday [Jove’s day] jovial then, afterward, therefore [locus] naturally, of course
8/31/07 6:43:14 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
mobilis
mola
mueble amueblar inmueble bienes inmuebles mobiliario moblaje inmobiliario inmobiliaria muela muela del juicio moler * molino molino de viento molienda remolino
moles “mass”
mollis
muelle () mole (f.) molécula molecular demoler * demolición demoledor muelle ()
monstrum
mullir mullido (p.p.) molusco muestra mostrar * demostrar *
mordere
morder *
piece of furniture (to) furnish property, building real estate household furniture real estate (adj.) real estate (agency) millstone, grindstone, molar (tooth) wisdom tooth (to) grind, (to) mill mill windmill grinding, milling whirlwind, whirlpool, cowlick wharf, pier, dock mass, bulk molecule molecular (to) demolish demolition devastating soft, comfortable, spring (mechanical) (to) fluff, (to) soften soft, fluff y, springy mollusk (or mollusc) sample, specimen, sign (to) show, (to) demonstrate (to) demonstrate, (to) prove (to) bite
[mobile] [immobile]
[mole ]
[mollify]
[monster]
As for diezmar and adiestrar (see earlier footnotes), the original verb amoblar has been regularized by extending diphthongs to unstressed syllables. Mole (AHCD): . A massive, usually stone wall constructed in the sea, used to enclose or protect an anchorage or harbor. . The anchorage or harbor enclosed by a mole.
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VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
mordaz mordisco remorder * remordimiento almuerzo almorzar * mortis (genit.)
muerte (f.) muerto mortal mortalidad morir moribundo mortificar amortiguar amortiguador amortizar
nostrum
novem
novus
amortización nuestro nosotros Nuestra Señora nueve noveno (hora) nona nuevo (adj.) nueva (n., gen. pl.) nuevamente
biting, caustic, mordant bite (to) bite repeatedly, (to) cause remorse remorse lunch, midmorning snack (to) consume one’s almuerzo death dead mortal, fatal mortality (to) die moribund, dying (to) mortify (to) cushion, (to) muffle shock absorber (auto) (to) amortize, (to) redeem amortization our we Notre Dame nine ninth nones (eccl., Roman) new news, tidings again ( otra vez, de nuevo)
(cf. “a bite to eat”)
[rigor mortis]
[nostrum ]
[November] [noon ]
Morir has ue diphthongs in the nine (of forty-seven) conjugations in which the stress is on the stem syllable; in eleven other conjugations the o becomes u. The pattern is thus analogous to verbs like hervir (see footnote no. ). From nostrum remedium (“our remedy”), i.e., prepared by the person recommending it. Latin nona originated as a shortened form of novena. Originally noon was the ninth hour of daylight, or p.m. When the time of church prayers shifted from the ninth to the sixth hour, noon became p.m.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
nova novedad novel (adj.) novela (n.) novelista renovar * renovación innovar
orphanus ossum (CL os)
innovación innovador (adj. & n.) huérfano orfanato hueso osificar deshuesar
ovum
pontem (acc.)
huevo hueva ovulación óvalo puente pontón pontífice pontificado
populus
pueblo poblar *
porcus
puerco porquería
nova (suddenly bright star) novelty, news novel novel, fiction novelist (to) renew, (to) renovate renewal, renovation (to) innovate innovation innovative, innovator orphan orphanage bone, pit or stone (fruit), os (to) ossify (to) bone (meat), (to) stone or pit (fruit) egg roe (e.g., caviar) ovulation oval bridge pontoon (bridge or boat) Pontiff, Pope pontificate (reign of Pope) small town, village, people (to) populate, (to) inhabit pig, hog ( cerdo) dirt, fi lth, “pig pen”
(no diphthongs !)
[ovum] [ova]
[pontifex]
[pork]
An initial h- was added to huérfano, hueso, and huevo, since Spanish does not “permit” a word to start with ue-. As for diezmar, adiestrar, and amueblar (see earlier footnotes), the original verb desosar has been regularized by extending diphthongs to unstressed syllables.
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8/31/07 6:43:15 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
porta
puerta portal portero pórtico portada
portus
porche puerto aeropuerto aportar () aportar () aportación
pos(i)tus
puesto (p.p. & adj.)
puesto (n.m.) puesta (n.f.) puesto que posición postal poste postizo apuesto (p.p.) apuesta apostar () * apostar () compuesto (p.p.)
door entrance hall, vestibule, portal porter (doorkeeper), goalkeeper portico title page, front page or cover, facade porch port, mountain pass airport (to) make port ( arribar) (to) contribute contribution (money, goods, ideas) set, laid, dressed or attired (w/ qualifying adj.) post, position, place, stall or stand (market) setting (e.g., la puesta del Sol), laying (eggs) since, inasmuch as position postal, postcard (f.) post, pole false, artificial (hair, teeth), postiche handsome, goodlooking bet, wager (to) bet, (to) wager (to) station or post composed, compound (adj. & n.)
[apposite]
Apart from other defi nitions they might have, words ending in -puesto are past participles of verbs ending in -poner (e.g., poner, componer, disponer, oponer), corresponding to English words ending in -pose (pose, compose, dispose, oppose). These verbs can be found in Section .. Something (artificial) positioned to make up for whatever is lacking.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
composición compositor decomposición deposición dispuesto (p.p.) disposición dispositivo expuesto (p.p.) exposición impuesto (p.p.) imposición impostor indispuesto (p.p) indisposición opuesto (p.p.) oposición
presupuesto (p.p.) propuesta proposición a propósito repuesto (p.p.) reposición supuesto (p.p.) por supuesto suposición post
pues (conj.) después
T4311.indb 136
composition composer decomposition deposition, bowel movement disposed, ready, apt disposition, arrangement, decree, will device, mechanism exposed, unprotected, dangerous or risky exposition, exhibition, exposure (photo, sun) tax imposition, deposit (in a bank) impostor, slanderer indisposed, mildly ill, on bad terms indisposition, minor ailment opposite, contrary opposition, competitive entrance exam (gen. pl.) budget proposal proposition, proposal by the way, a propos spare (held in reserve), spare part replacement, revival (theater), repeat (TV) supposed, so-called, supposition (m.) of course, naturally supposition, assumption since, then, well (interjection) after, afterward
[post]
8/31/07 6:43:15 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
probare
resolutus
rogare
probar * prueba resuelto (p.p.) resolver * resolución rogar *
ruego interrogar abrogar arrogar(se) derogar prorrogar prórroga subrogar rota
rueda rueda de prensa rodar * rodaje rodear
rodeo ruedo
soccus (“slipper”) solea solere
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rotación rotar zueco suela soler *
(to) prove, (to) try, (to) taste (sample) proof, test, ordeal resolute (to) resolve, (to) solve resolution, resolve (to) request, (to) plead (appeal earnestly) request, plea, entreaty (to) interrogate (to) abrogate (to) arrogate to oneself, (to) usurp (to) repeal or revoke (to) extend, (to) defer extension, overtime (sports) (to) subrogate, (to) surrogate wheel press conference (to) roll, (to) fi lm, (to) rotate ( rotar) shooting or fi lming (motion picture) (to) surround, (to) take the long way around roundabout way, rodeo bullring, border or fringe (round) rotation (to) rotate clog, sabot (wooden shoe) sole (of a shoe) (to) be used to, (to) be in the habit of
[derogate] [prorogue]
[rota]
[sock]
8/31/07 6:43:16 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
insólito
solidus
insolente insolencia sueldo soldado sólido solidez solidario solidaridad soldar * soldador soldadura
solum
suelo subsuelo solar () solar * () (unrelated)
somnium
sueño () soñar * soñador ensueño
somnus
sueño () insomnio sonámbulo somnoliento soñoliento
unusual, uncommon, unheard-of insolent insolence salary soldier solid (adj. & n.) solidity supportive, making common cause solidarity (to) solder, (to) weld welder or solderer, soldering iron soldering or welding, solder floor, ground, soil subsoil plot (of land), lot (to) floor, (to) pave solar ()
[sou, solidus]
[solum]
solar (pertaining to the sun)
dream (to) dream dreamer illusion, fantasy, dream sleep, sleepiness insomnia, sleeplessness somnambulist, sleepwalker somnolent (sleepy)
In Latin, an insolent person was initially one who acted in a manner contrary to custom; from this developed the “modern” notion of insolence. Latin “sleep” and “dream” were two closely related words that by phonetic “accident” have coalesced in Spanish. They have been maintained apart in French, Italian, and Portuguese.
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VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
somnolencia somnífero (adj. & n.) sortem (acc.)
suerte (f.) sortear sorteo sortilegio consorcio consorte resorte
tonare
tronar * trueno atónito
estruendo
torquere [tortus (p.p.)]
detonación detonar detonante detonador torcer * tuerto entuerto torcido (p.p.) torsión tormento tormenta atormentar tortura
T4311.indb 139
somnolence, drowsiness somniferous ( soporífero), sleeping pill luck, fate, lot, sort (to) draw lots for, (to) evade (a problem) raffle, drawing of lots sorcery, magic spell, sortilege consortium, association consort, spouse spring (elastic), resort (means to attain something) (to) thunder thunder thunderstruck, astonished, astounded, stunned thunderous noise, uproar detonation (to) detonate detonator (to) twist one-eyed (adj. & n.) injustice, wrong, afterpains (pl.) twisted, bent, crooked (tie, picture) twisting, torsion torment, torture storm, tempest (to) torment, (to) torture torture
(“sharing same fate”)
(o—r S ro)
[torque]
[tort]
8/31/07 6:43:16 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
tortuoso
trocare
trocar * trueque
volare
volar * vuelo volador volátil volante (adj. & n.) ovni
volvere
voleibol, vóleibol volver * vuelto (p.p.) vuelta ida y vuelta voltear voltereta desenvolver * desenvoltura devolver * envolver * envoltura revolver * revólver ( Eng.) revolución revolucionario
T4311.indb 140
tortuous (winding, twisted, circuitous, devious) (to) exchange, (to) barter, (to) truck exchange, barter, truck (to) fly, (to) disappear, (to) blow up flight flying volatile flying, steering wheel UFO
volleyball (to) turn, (to) return verso (back side), change (Amer.) turn, curve, tour, return, stroll roundtrip (to) turn over, (to) toss somersault, tumble (to) unwrap, (to) develop, (to) unfold ease, confidence, poise (to) return, (to) give back (to) envelop, (to) wrap, (to) cover wrapper, wrapping (to) stir (up), (to) turn (around), (to) revolve revolver revolution revolutionary (adj. & n.)
[vol-au-vent]
[volant] (objeto volador no identificado)
[volute]
[devolve] [involve]
8/31/07 6:43:16 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
revolucionar revuelta revuelto (p.p.)
huevo revuelto
(to) revolutionize, (to) stir up revolt, disturbance disordered, scrambled, unsettled, stormy scrambled egg
It is interesting to observe that the language of animals is subject to the same evolutionary forces: cloc (onom.)
clueca clocar * en cuclillas
broody hen (to) cluck ( cloquear) squatting, crouching (OldSp. cluquillas)
English is not immune to such changes: until at least the seventeenth century, English-speaking chickens clocked, while now (apart from some northern English dialects) they cluck. . o S u
cogitare cognatus dormientem (acc.)
jocari
cuidar cuñado durmiente la Bella Durmiente dormir duermevela jugar jugador juguete juego jocoso joya ( Fr.) joyería
(to) care for, (to) look after brother-in-law sleeping, dormant Sleeping Beauty (to) sleep light or restless sleep (to) play player, gambler toy game humorous, jocose, jocular jewel, jewelry (pl.) jewelry store, jewelry trade
[cogitate] [cognate]
[joke]
Spanish-clucking chickens have undergone a further “popular” phonetic change, described in Section . (cl S ll), so that a clueca is also known as a llueca. Following the disappearance of the intervening g (Section .), the u combined with i to form a diphthong: [kwi•dar]. Like morir (see footnote ), dormir has ue diphthongs in the nine (of forty-seven) conjugations in which the stress is on the stem syllable; in eleven other conjugations the o becomes u. For the verb jugar, the stressed syllables have diphthongs (yo juego), the unstressed syllables have u (nosotros jugamos).
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
jocularis
joyero juglar
jeweler (m./f.), jewel case minstrel, jester
october polire potentem (acc.)
octubre pulir pudiente
October (to) polish, (to) polish up rich, wealthy
[juggler, jocular]
[potent]
. u S o
The vast majority of Spanish nouns and adjectives ending in -o were derived from Latin words ending in -us or -um. Corresponding English nouns have frequently preserved the original ending, while for adjectives it has become -ous. abacus atrium census cumulus eucalyptus odium stimulus
ábaco atrio censo cúmulo eucalipto odio estímulo
abacus atrium, portico (church, palace) census cumulus (pile or heap, cloud) eucalyptus odium stimulus
erroneus famosus fortuitus frivolus heterogeneus praevius serius
erróneo famoso fortuito frívolo heterogéneo previo serio
erroneous famous fortuitous frivolous heterogeneous previous serious
Examples of more “popular” words include: cum
con
with
currere
correr correo
(to) run mail, post office (gen. pl.) current, ordinary, running (e.g., water) current (water, air, electricity) (to) be up-to-date, well-informed electric current
corriente (adj.) corriente (f.) estar al corriente corriente eléctrica
T4311.indb 142
(cum laude, con-) [course] [courier]
8/31/07 6:43:17 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
corredor (adj. & n.) corrida
sucursal (f.) transcurrir / tras-
running, runner, corridor, broker race, bullfight, corrida (to) travel (across), (to) scan (to) walk distance traveled, route, journey (to) have recourse, (to) resort, (to) appeal recurrent recourse, resort, appeal (legal), resources (pl.) (to) succor, (to) give help or relief to help, aid, relief, succor branch (office) (to) elapse, (to) pass
cortar corto corte corte de pelo El Corte Inglés
(to) cut short cutting, cut (n.) haircut “The English Cut”
cortina cortina de humo recortar
curtain smokescreen (to) trim, (to) cut (reduce) clipping (newspaper), cutting (reduction) court (royal, law)
recorrer recorrer a pie recorrido (p.p.) recurrir
recurrente recurso
socorrer socorro
curtare
recorte
(unrelated)
T4311.indb 143
corte (f.)
[recur]
[transcurrent] [curt]
(Sp. dept. store chain)
From Latin succurrere ( sub currere), literally “to run under”, i.e., to support.
8/31/07 6:43:18 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
furnus juvenis
horno hornillo joven (adj. & n.) juventud
mutilare plumbum
juvenil rejuvenecer motilar mutilar plomo plomero plomería plomizo aplomo desplomar
desplome pulvis
polvo polvoriento pólvora pulverizar
rumpere
romper corromper derrumbar derrumbe
furnace, oven, kiln small stove young, young person youth (period of life), young people juvenile, youthful (to) rejuvenate (to) give a haircut to (to) mutilate lead lead worker, plumber (Amer.) lead roofing, plumbing (Amer.) lead-colored aplomb, poise (to) get out of plumb, (to) collapse, (to) topple collapse (e.g., of a building) dust, powder dusty gunpowder, fireworks (to) pulverize, (to) spray (with an atomizer) (to) break, (to) smash, (to) tear (to) corrupt (to) knock down, (to) collapse collapse (building, wall, idea)
[junior ]
[plumb]
[erumpent]
The Latin comparative of juvenis was initially juven-ior (“younger”), subsequently shortened to junior.
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VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
ruptus (p.p.) ruptura
roto (p.p.) rotura
ruptura
submittere
erupción someter sumiso
subornare
sobornar soborno
sub poena
so pena de
super
sobre
truncus
tronco troncho
tronchar truncar
entroncar unda
onda ondear ondulación ondular
urtica
T4311.indb 145
(horno) microondas ortiga urticaria
broken, torn breakage, fracture (bone), crack (e.g., pipe) rupture, breakup (relationship) eruption (to) subject, (to) submit submissive, obedient, submiss† (to) suborn, (to) bribe bribe, bribery, subornation under pain (or penalty) of over, above, about, envelope (n.) trunk (tree, body, etc.) stem or stalk (cauliflower, lettuce, etc.) (to) break or fall off (branch, stem, etc.) (to) truncate, (to) leave incomplete (phrase, life) (to) connect or relate to (person, idea) wave, ripple (to) undulate, (to) ripple undulation (to) undulate, (to) wave (the hair) microwave (oven)
[rout, route]
[subpoena] [super]
(stinging) nettle urticaria, hives
8/31/07 6:43:18 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
urticante
urticant (causing itching or stinging)
. au S o
audire
auricula
aurum
ausare
autumnus causa
gaudium
laudare maurus
paucus
tan poco
T4311.indb 146
oír oído audible inaudito oreja auricular oro orfebre orfebrería osar osado (p.p.) osadía audaz audacia otoño cosa causa gozo gozar gozoso goce regocijar regocijo loar moro moreno Mauritania poco poco a poco poquito tampoco
(to) hear, (to) listen hearing, ear audible unheard-of, outrageous ear (external part) receiver (telephone), headphones (pl.) gold goldsmith, silversmith gold or silver work (to) dare daring (adj.), impudent, disrespectful daring (n.), audacity audacious, bold audacity, boldness autumn thing, matter cause, reason, case (legal), lawsuit joy (to) enjoy, (to) have the benefit of joyous, joyful enjoyment, pleasure (to) gladden, (to) rejoice delight, rejoicing (to) laud, (to) praise Moorish, Moor swarthy, dark-skinned, tanned, brunette Mauritania little, few little by little, gradually very little, very small amount neither, nor
[oyez] [audit] [inaudible] [auricle]
[oriole] [gold forger]
[paucity]
8/31/07 6:43:18 AM
VOWEL CHANGES: E S IE, O S UE, E TC .
toro torero
taurus
tauromaquia thesaurus
tesoro
bull torero (bullfighter), toreador art of bullfighting
[Taurus]
[rare tauromachy]
treasure, Treasury, thesaurus treasurer treasury (of an entity, not necessarily the state)
tesorero tesorería
Appendix English Vowels—A Historical Note Many native English-speaking students of “continental languages” (Romance, Germanic, Slavic) initially find themselves puzzled by the names given to some of “our” vowels by these other languages. Specifically: Spanish
English
the name of the letter e the name of the letter i
is pronounced is pronounced
a e
as in mate as in me
and the sounds represented by these vowels are similarly represented (or, one might think, misrepresented). Hence Latin/Spanish
is pronounced much like
de mi
English day me
The explanation for these divergences lies in the fact that over the past six hundred years English vowel pronunciation has undergone a dramatic transformation—known, not surprisingly, as “The Great Vowel Shift”—while “Continental” vowels continue to be pronounced as they have “always” been. This can be illustrated by contrasting the vowel sounds in the following pairs of cognate Spanish and English words: Spanish a e
natura legión
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English natural legendario
nature legion
natural legendary
Spanish toreador exists, but it is rare.
8/31/07 6:43:19 AM
i o u
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
mil probar profundo
milenio probable profundidad
mile prove profound
millennium probable profundity
For each pair of English words, the two vowels marked in bold used to have the same sound but now differ markedly, while in Spanish the corresponding vowels continue to be pronounced identically. In the “old” days, English vowel pronunciation was very similar to that of Classical Latin: each vowel had a short and a long variant, which were distinguished by their length of articulation rather than by any fundamental difference in their pronunciation. In the above list, the highlighted vowel in the first English word (i.e., nature) was long, while in the second (natural) it was short. Between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare, the pronunciation of all long vowels—and most short ones as well—shifted, so that in “Modern” English there is no direct correspondence between “long” and “short” vowel sounds: one can extend the pronunciation of a “short” vowel for as long as one likes, but it will never sound even remotely like the corresponding “long” vowel. As a result, the natural linkage between the vowel sounds in pairs like nature—natural has been irretrievably broken. Spanish vowel pronunciation remains very close to that of Middle English, so that a native Spanish speaker today would pronounce a text by Chaucer (at least the vowels) with considerably more accuracy than would a native English speaker.
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SEC TION .
Basic Consonant Changes: p/b, t/d, c/g
In this section we will focus on what are called stop consonants or occlusives, i.e, those in which the outgoing flow of air is temporarily blocked: p, b, t, d, c, g, where “c” and “g” refer to the “hard” pronunciations of these consonants (cat and go). The varying treatment of stop consonants during the transition from Latin is one of the principal features distinguishing the modern Romance languages. This can be illustrated by the comparisons in the following table, where (ø) denotes that the consonant in question has disappeared. Latin
Italian
Spanish
French
English
p t c
sapere moneta securus
sapere moneta sicuro
saber moneda seguro
savoir monnaie (ø) sûr (ø)
savant, sapient money, monetary sure, secure
b d g
probare crudelis ligare
provare crudele legare
probar cruel (ø) liar (ø)
prouver cruel (ø) lier (ø)
prove, probatory cruel, crudity liaison, ligament
The following are common features of the treatment of interior stop consonants in “popular” words: . Latin B changed to v in Italian and French; its pronunciation in Spanish also changed to v, although the written form b has been maintained. . In Spanish, the other five consonants have either changed (P, T, C) or (frequently) disappeared (D, G). . In Italian, apart from the change B S v, the stop consonants generally remained unchanged. . In French, both P and B became v; the other four consonants generally disappeared without a trace. . English “popular” forms show the French pattern, while “learned” ones preserve the original Latin consonants.
Before considering Spanish stop consonants in greater detail, we will first look at what happened to double consonants of whatever type. Spanish b is pronounced [b] at the beginning of a word or following m (cambiar); otherwise it is pronounced [v] (see Section ., no. ).
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
Double Consonants In Latin (as in Old English), there was a distinction in pronunciation between single and double consonants. This remains an important feature in Italian, where, for example, papa (“Pope”) and pappa (“pap”, i.e., “baby food”) are pronounced differently. In Spanish, the various outcomes of Latin double consonants are illustrated in the following examples; the corresponding English word in each case maintains a written double consonant. For cc, it is necessary to take into account the nature of the letter that follows: back vowel (a, o, u), consonant, or front vowel (e, i). abbreviare
abreviar
abbreviate
accusare acclamare accidentem (acc.) accentus
acusar aclamar accidente acento
accuse acclaim accident accent
dd
addictus
adicto
addict
ff
affirmare
afirmar
affirm
gg
aggravare
agravar
aggravate
ll
vallis illegalis
valle ilegal
valley illegal
mm
comma imminentem (acc.)
coma inminente
comma imminent
bb cc a/o/u consonant e/i
In Modern English, spoken “double” consonants exist only in a few compound words where the separate words have maintained their identity:
unnatural bookkeeper doggone rattail
un•natural book•keeper dog•gone rat•tail
(cf. the dog on the roof) (cf. rat ale)
or in expressions pronounced as single words: bus stop stop payment
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bus•stop stop•payment
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
nn
annus innocentem (acc.) innovare
año inocente innovar
year innocent innovate
pp
applicare
aplicar
apply
rr
irritare
irritar
irritate
ss
massa
masa
mass, dough
tt
littera
letra
letter
Seven double consonants plus cc followed by a/o/u or by a consonant have thus been totally eliminated from Spanish: Rule: In native Spanish words, b, d, f, g, p, s, and t are never “double”. This holds as well for c when followed by a “back” vowel (a/o/u) or consonant.
Of the remaining five consonants that could be doubled in Latin, rr became the trilled r (distinct from “simple” r), while for cc ( e/i), ll, mm, and nn there were divergent outcomes: (a) cc ( e/i) was maintained in three “groups” of words; in all others it was simplified to c. The three groups that maintained the double c are: accedere
acceder
accessus
acceso accesorio accesible accesibilidad
(to) accede, (to) have access to access (incl. “outburst or onset”, e.g., fever) accessory (secondary), accessory (m.) accessible accessibility
There are a very limited number of exceptions, all in “non-native” words: e.g., hobby, yiddish, sheriff, jogging, hippie, topless, watt, staccato. The double c also appears in several scientific and medical terms (e.g., cóccix and occipital) and in the alternative spellings fláccido and flaccidez for the “preferred” flácido and flacidez (“flaccid”, “flaccidity”).
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
accésit inaccesible inaccesibilidad
consolation prize inaccessible inaccessibility
accidentalis
accidental accidente accidentado
accidental accident uneven, hilly, eventful, accident victim (m./f.)
occidentalis
occidental
western, occidental, Westerner (m./f.) occident, west, the West
occidente
(“nearly got there”)
Examples of simplification of cc (followed by a front vowel e/i) to a single c include: accelare
acelerar aceleración acelerador desaceleración celeridad
accentus
acento acentuar
acceptare
aceptar aceptable inaceptable aceptación acepción
successus
suceso sucesor sucesión sucesivo suceder sucedáneo
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(to) accelerate acceleration accelerator deceleration celerity (swift ness, speed) accent (to) accent, (to) accentuate (to) accept acceptable inacceptable acceptance (favorable reception), acceptance acceptation (meaning [of a word]) event, occurrence successor succession successive (to) succeed (follow), (to) happen succedaneum (substitute)
(celer “swift”)
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
This different treatment represents a real difference in pronunciation, not only in spelling, since cc is pronounced as two separate and distinct sounds, “hard” c followed by “soft” c: acento versus acceso
a•cen•to
[a•cen•to] not like English [ak•sent]
ac•ce•so
[ak•ce•so] like English [ak•ses]
Recall also from Section . that there are a large number of Spanish words ending in -cción (e.g., acción) that correspond to English -ction words (both coming from Latin words ending in -ction). (b) In compound words, ll was reduced to a single consonant (as in ilegal, originally from in legalis), while in most other words it became a palatized l, written ll. This is theoretically pronounced much like the [ly] sound in million, but for most modern Spanish speakers it is pronounced indistinguishably from y: calló cayó
[cao] or [caYo] [caYo]
he silenced (or became silent) he fell
Thus: allegoria allusio(n) bulla collaborare collegium illicitus illusio(n)
alegoría alusión aludir bula colaborar colaboración colegio colega ilícito ilusión
ilusionar ilusionista desilusión
allegory allusion (to) allude (Papal) bull (to) collaborate collaboration college, school colleague illicit, unlawful illusion, hope, happiness (thinking of something) (to) have high hopes for illusionist, magician disillusion, disillusionment, disappointment
Which itself can have a range of pronunciations, ranging from “pure” y (as in yet) to a sound very much like English “soft” g.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
ilustrar ilustración
illustrare
(to) illustrate, (to) enlighten illustration, the Enlightenment (cap.) illustrious, distinguished pollen
ilustre polen
pollen but: bellus bullire
bello bullir bulla bullicio castillo sello valla
castellum sigillum valla
beautiful (to) boil hubbub, uproar, racket castle seal, stamp, postage stamp fence, hurdle (track), billboard (to) fence in fence, defensive enclosure
vallar vallado valladar intervalo circunvalación vello
villus
velloso velludo vellón
interval (orig. “between the ramparts”) beltway, circumvallation fuzz (body, fruit), body hair fuzzy, downy hairy (lots of fuzz or down) fleece
[ebullient]
[chateau] [wall]
[vallation]
[villi, velour] [villous] [velvet]
(c) In compound words where mm had arisen from in (either in the negative sense or meaning “in”) m-, Spanish went back to the original (pre-Classical) Latin form. Words in which the mm had arisen from cum- (“with”) m- were reconstituted as conm-, due to the influence of con ( CUM).
in-materialis cum-motio(n)
S S
Classical Latin
Spanish
English
immaterialis commotio(n)
inmaterial conmoción
immaterial commotion
Similarly, conmemorar —conmemoración —conmemorativo
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(to) commemorate —commemoration —commemorative
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
conmiseración conmutar —conmutación inmaculado inmaduro —inmadurez inmediato inmemorial inmenso —inmensidad inmersión —inmerso inmigrar —inmigrante (adj. & n.) —inmigración inminente inmoderado inmodesto inmolar —inmolación inmoral —inmoralidad inmortal —inmortalidad —inmortalizar inmune —inmunidad —inmunizar —inmunología inmutable
commiseration (to) commute (exchange; reduce a judicial penalty) —commutation immaculate immature, unripe —immaturity immediate immemorial immense —immensity immersion —immersed (to) immigrate —immigrant —immigration imminent immoderate immodest (to) immolate, (to) sacrifice —immolation, sacrifice immoral —immorality immortal —immortality —(to) immortalize immune —immunity —(to) immunize —immunology immutable
In virtually all other words, mm was reduced to simple m: commentare commodus dilemma gamma (ut) summarium
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comentar cómodo dilema (m.) gama gamma sumario (adj. & n.) somero
(to) comment (on) comfortable, commodious dilemma gamut, range, scale (musical) gamma (letter, ray, gram) summary shallow (e.g., waters), superficial
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
(d) In compound words, nn was usually maintained as nn, sometimes reduced to simple n, but never palatized to ñ. connivencia innato innumerable
conniventia innatus innumerabilis
connivance innate, inborn innumerable
but innocuus
inocuo innocuous (harmless, insipid)
In non-compound words, it was generally palatized to ñ: annus
año añejo
canna
caña caña de azúcar caña de pescar caño cañería cañaveral cañón () cañón () cabaña paño pana ( Fr.) peña peñasco peñón
capanna pannus pinna
stannum
estaño
year old, aged (wine, cheese, etc.) cane, reed sugar cane fishing rod pipe, short tube, spout pipe(s), plumbing cane field cannon, gun barrel canyon cabin cloth (fabric or piece) corduroy, velveteen large rock, rocky terrain large rock, crag rocky prominence (e.g., Gibraltar) tin
[per annum]
[Cape Canaveral]
[cabana] [pane, panel] [pinnacle]
[stannous]
(e) In both compound and “regular” words, rr generally became the Spanish trilled r, written rr. carrus cirrus corrumpere
carro cerro corromper
car, cart (big) hill, neck (of animal) (to) corrupt
[cirrus]
In these cases, the pronunciation frequently retains a certain degree of the original doubled pronunciation (analogous to English unnatural); thus innato is generally represented phonetically as [in•na•to] or [i n•na•to]. A single r has the trilled r pronunciation (a) at the beginning of a word (radio), and (b) in the interior following l (alrededor), n (sonrisa), or s (israelí).
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
corrupto corrupción irregular irregularidad
irregularis
corrupt, corrupted corruption irregular irregularity
(old p.p.)
The contrast between r and rr distinguishes a number of pairs of words, e.g., Con [r]
Con [rr]
With [r]
With [rr]
bario cero coro
barrio cerro corro
barium zero choir
encerar moro para pero quería
encerrar morro parra perro querría
(to) wax Moor for but s/s imperfect (verb querer)
barrio, neighborhood hill circle, ring of people; also “I run” (verb correr) (to) shut in snout vine dog s/s conditional (verb querer)
Simplification of Stop Consonants: p, b, t, d, c, g In the evolution from Latin to Spanish, stop consonants in “popular” words have undergone a systematic and far-reaching transformation that continues to this day, at least in certain regions. The transformation is depicted below; for c and g we restrict ourselves for the moment to the “hard” forms followed directly by a/o/u or a consonant. Latin pp p
S S
p b
tt t d
S S S
t d ø
cc c
S S
c g
g
S
ø
bb, dd, gg
S
b, d, g
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Spanish
First and third person singular, respectively.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
The transformation thus consisted of three stages, the first two of which occurred more or less contemporaneously: I. double consonants II. P, T, C III. D, G
S S S
single consonants b, d, g ø
The first stage has already been considered above, where we saw that it affected various consonants in addition to p, b, t, d, c, g. The third stage continues to the present day.
Linguistic Note: Voiced versus Unvoiced Consonants The series of consonant changes portrayed above was by no means random. To see this, it is necessary to introduce the notion of voiced and unvoiced consonants. During the articulation of a voiced consonant (or vowel) the vocal cords vibrate, whereas for a voiceless consonant there is no such vibration. One way to convince yourself of the reality of this difference is to cover your ears and utter the sounds: you should be able to hear a resonance for the voiced consonants that is lacking for the voiceless ones. The six occlusives are in fact divided into three pairs—p/b, t/d, c/g—whose elements are articulated identically, apart from the fact that while the first is voiceless, the second is voiced. The three stages in the evolution of Spanish voiceless stop consonants can thus be portrayed as elements of a uniform overall process: voiceless double
S
voiceless single
S
voiced single
S
ø
The second stage, that is, voicing of unvoiced consonants, also affects “casual” English speech, where atom and latter are often pronounced indistinguishably from Adam and ladder. We will now provide illustrations of these changes as they affected the consonant pairs p/b, t/d, and c/g.
The difference can most easily be detected for the fricative (or hissing) consonants s and z, e.g., ssssssss (no vibration) versus the bumble-bee sound zzzzzzzz (vibration). S is thus voiceless, and z is voiced.
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
Stage I: Double Consonants to Single Consonants a. pp S p
applaudere cappa oppositio(n)
supportare
aplaudir aplauso capa oposición oponer soportar soportable insoportable
(to) applaud applause cape, coat (layer) opposition, competitive examinations (pl.) (to) oppose (to) support, (to) tolerate supportable, tolerable, bearable insupportable, unbearable
[opponent]
b. tt S t
attractio(n)
glutto(n) gutta
atracción atractivo atraer glotón (-ona) glotonería gota gotear gotera agotar agotado (p.p.)
littera sagittarius
inagotable letra sagitario
attraction attractive, charm or attractiveness (m.) (to) attract gluttonous, glutton gluttony drop, gout (to) drip leak (roof or wall) (to) exhaust, (to) use up completely exhausted, worn out, sold out, out of print inexhaustible letter Sagittarius
[gutter]
c. cc S c
We saw earlier that when followed by a front vowel (e, i), cc was generally reduced (acento) but occasionally maintained (acceso). It is always reduced before a back vowel (a, o, u) or consonant. Some examples follow: accomodare
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acomodar
(to) accommodate, (to) adapt, (to) place
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
acomodado (p.p.) acomodación
accusare
ecclesiasticus occasio(n)
occultus
occupatio(n)
occurrere
praeoccupare
saccus
acomodador (-ora) acusar acusar recibo (de) acusado (p.p.) acusación acusativo eclesiástico ocasión ocasional ocasionar ocaso oculto ocultar ocultismo ocupación ocupar ocupante ocupado ocurrir ocurrencia ocurrente preocupar preocupado preocupación despreocupar(se) despreocupado (p.p.) despreocupación saco
well-off, well-to-do, reasonable (moderate) accommodation (gen. adaptation, not lodging) usher, usherette (theater) (to) accuse (to) acknowledge receipt (of) notable or marked, accused (m./f.), defendant (m./f.) accusation, prosecution (legal) accusative (gram.) ecclesiastical, ecclesiastic occasion, opportunity occasional, chance (adj.) (to) occasion, (to) cause sunset ( puesta del Sol), decline occult (hidden from view, concealed) (to) occult (hide, conceal) occultism occupation (to) occupy occupying, occupant (m./f.) busy (person, telephone), occupied (to) occur occurrence, (bright) idea witty (to) preoccupy, (to) be concerned preoccupied, worried, concerned preoccupation, worry, concern (to) stop worrying, (to) stop paying attention to unconcerned, carefree, careless lack of concern, carelessness sack, jacket, sweater, sac
Ocaso and ocasión are both derived from the Latin verb cadere (“to fall”, Spanish caer): ocasión is a falling of things together; ocaso is the falling of the sun.
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
Double voiced consonants were much rarer in Latin than double unvoiced ones: d. bb S b
abbatem (acc.) sabbatum
abad (m.) sábado
abbot Saturday
[Sabbath]
e. dd S d
additio(n) adducere
adición aducir
addition (to) adduce
f. gg S g
aggressio(n)
exaggerare suggestio(n)
agresión agredir agresivo agresividad agresor exagerar exageración sugestión sugerir sugerencia sugestivo
aggression (to) assault, (to) attack, (to) aggress aggressive aggresivity aggressor (to) exaggerate exaggeration suggestion (esp. “power of suggestion”) (to) suggest suggestion suggestive, appealing
Stage II: Voiceless to Voiced Consonants The change from a voiceless to a voiced pronunciation affected p, t, and c between vowels, or between a vowel and a following r or l. a. p S b
apertus
abierto (p.p.) abrir abertura apertura
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open (to) open aperture, opening (physical: e.g., window) opening (abstract: inaugural, political, chess)
[pert] [aperient]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
apotheca
bodega bodegón botica boticario botiquín
aprilis capillus capra caput (“head”)
boutique (f.) abril cabello cabra cabo cabeza caber
-cipere
recibir apercibir desapercibido percibir
cooperire
concebir concebible inconcebible cubrir cubierta cubierto (p.p.) descubrir descubierto (p.p.) descubrimiento descubridor encubrir
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(wine) cellar, ship’s hold, bodega cheap restaurant, still life (painting) pharmacy, drugstore pharmacist, apothecary medicine chest, first aid kit boutique April hair goat end, cape, corporal head (to) fit, (to) hold (be contained in) (to) receive (to) prepare, (to) warn, (to) perceive unprepared, unaware, unnoticed (to) perceive, (to) receive (salary, etc.) (to) conceive conceivable inconceivable (to) cover cover (book, bed, etc.) place setting, meal (fi xed price) (to) discover, (to) reveal, (to) uncover uncovered, deficit or overdraft (m.) discovery discoverer, scout (mil.) (to) conceal, (to) cover up (a misdeed)
[boutique]
( Fr.) [capillary] [Capricorn] (see Section .)
[aperçu]
[operculum]
Note that bodega incorporates all three changes: p S b, (th S) t S d, and c S g.
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
recubrir cupa (cuppa)
(unrelated) cuprum duplare
cuba copa cúpula cubo () cubo () cúbico cobre doblar
opera
lobo lupus lupanar obra
operari
obra de arte obra de teatro obra(s) pública(s) obrar
lupus
obrar en poder
pauper
obrero ópera operar operación operable pobre
piper
pebre (m./f.)
populatio(n)
población poblar
(to) cover (a surface, e.g., rust), (to) re-cover cask, barrel, vat cup (goblet, trophy), drink (alcoholic) cupola, dome bucket, hub (wheel) cube cubic copper (to) double, (to) fold, (to) dub (movies) wolf, lobo lupus (disease) brothel work, construction, opus work of art play ( obra teatral) public works (to) work, (to) act, (to) defecate (to) be in the hands of (letter, document, etc.) working, worker (m./f.) opera (to) operate operation operable poor, pauper (m./f.), the poor (pl.) pepper sauce (with garlic, parsley, and vinegar) population, town (to) populate, (to) inhabit
[coop, cooper]
[Cyprus]
[opera]
[operate]
Th is more “popular” defi nition of obrar has an interesting parallel in English, where manure is a deformation of maneuver, from manu operari (“to operate by hand”).
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
recuperare
recobrar recuperar cobrar
riparia
ribera
(to) recover, (to) get back, (to) recuperate (to) get paid, (to) charge (a price) shore, bank
ad ripa
ribereño ribazo arriba
riparian, riverine steep bank, slope above, up, upstairs
arribar
(to) put into port, (to) arrive ( llegar) (to) tear down or demolish, (to) topple (govt.) destruction, demolition (to) know wise, learned, sage, learned person wisdom, learning taste, savor, flavor savory, flavorful, tasty (to) relish, (to) enjoy, (to) savor sapience, wisdom Homo sapiens insipid (lit. “without taste”) unpleasant aftertaste, bad habit maybe, perhaps
de ripa
derribar
sapere
derribo saber sabio (adj. & n.) sabiduría sabor sabroso saborear sapiencia Homo sapiens insípido resabio quizá, quizás
super
sobre sobra sobrante sobrar soberano (adj. & n.)
T4311.indb 164
[river, Riviera]
(“toward shore”)
[sapient]
(quién sabe)
over, above, concerning, envelope (n.) surplus (n.), remainder, leftovers (pl.) surplus (adj. & n.) (to) be in excess, (to) be superfluous, (to) remain sovereign
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
soberanía soprano superfluo superar insuperable superávit
superbus
soberbio soberbia
vipera
víbora
sovereignty soprano (voice: m.; singer: m./f.) superfluous, unnecessary (to) surpass, (to) surmount insuperable, insurmountable surplus
( It.)
(Lat. superavit: “it has surpassed”)
arrogant, haughty, superb pride, haughtiness, arrogance viper
b. t S d
advocatus
abogado abogar
armatura catena
armadura cadena cadena perpetua encadenar
comitatus
desencadenar candado conde condesa condado
convitare
convidar
catenatus comitem (acc.)
lawyer, attorney (to) plead (in favor or defense of) armor, armature chain, TV or radio network life imprisonment (to) chain, (to) enchain, (to) link, (to) concatenate (to) unchain, (to) unleash padlock count, earl countess county, earldom (title, territory) (to) invite (to a fiesta; to encourage)
[advocate]
( cadenado)
Note that abogado incorporates both the changes t S d and c S g. The initial b (rather than v) is an example of the “confusion” between the two letters resulting from the coalescing of the [b] and [v] sounds (see Section ., no. ). convitare was formed by replacing the prefi x in- of Classical Latin invitare with con-, probably due to association with the (unrelated) words convivium (“banquet”) and convivialis (“convivial”). Invitar also exists and is synonymous with convidar.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
convite convidado (p.p.) fatum
hado fatídico enfado enfadar
later latinus
ladrillo ladino
latro(n)
latín latino ladrón (-ona)
maritus mater materia
maturus
metiri
minutus
ladrar ladrido marido madre (f.) madera madeira, Madeira maduro madurar madurez prematuro medir medida desmedido menudo a menudo minuto minuta
moneta
moneda
invitation, banquet, feast guest (particularly at a convite) fate, destiny fateful, ominous, fatidic annoyance, vexation (to) annoy, (to) develop a mutual dislike brick cunning, craft y, Ladino (Judeo-Spanish) Latin (language) Latin (adj.), lateen (sail) thieving, thief or larcenist, multiple plug (m.) (to) bark bark, barking husband mother wood Madeira (wine, islands) ripe, mature (to) ripen, (to) mature ripeness, maturity premature (to) measure measure, measurement excessive, immoderate small, minute (adj.) often, frequently minute (time), minute (sixtieth part of a degree) minute (memorandum), bill (lawyer) money, coin
[laterite]
[marital] [maternal] [matter] ( Port.)
[meter]
Th ieves rarely bark; ladrar comes from a different Latin word very similar in form to that which produced ladrón. Ladrar’s relatives in English (latrant, latrate, latrator, etc.) have long since died out.
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
monedero
mutare
monetario mudar muda mudanza
mutus
mutar mutación mutante mudo mudez tartamudo
tartamudear enmudecer natare
nativitas nutrix pater petere
nadar nadador natación Navidad nodriza padre pedir pedido (p.p.) despedir
putare putrere
despedida podar pudrir
change purse ( portamonedas) monetary (to) change, (to) molt, (to) move change of clothes (underwear), molting move (change of residence) (to) mutate mutation mutant mute, dumb, silent muteness, silence stuttering, stammering, stutterer or stammerer (m./f.) (to) stutter, (to) stammer (to) become silent, (to) silence (to) swim swimmer natation, swimming Christmas, Nativity wet nurse father (to) request request, order (goods, restaurant) (to) dismiss, (to) bid farewell, (to) throw, (to) emit farewell, parting (to) prune (plant, budget) (to) rot, (to) putrefy
[mutate]
(acc. navitat-em) [nutrition] [paternal] [petition]
[amputate ]
Tarta- represents a stuttering or stammering sound. Latin amputare was formed from ambi- (“on both sides”, “around”) and putare (“to prune”), so that an amputation was an extensive “trimming” or “pruning”.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
quadratus rota rotundus
podrido (p.p.)
putrid, rotten
putrefacción putrefacto cuadrado (adj. & n.) rueda redondo redondear
putrefaction, rotting putrefied, rotten, putrid square, quadrate
seda
wheel round (to) make round, (to) round (up or down) categorical, expressive (language), rotund round(s), patrol, group of serenaders (to) make the rounds, (to) prowl, (to) hover around silk
sedoso
silky
sedal salud saludable saludar saludo salutación
fishing line health salutary, healthy, healthful (to) greet, (to) salute greeting, salutation, salute greeting, salutation ( saludo) (to) sneeze sneeze tilde (), written accent () (to) put a tilde on, (to) label or brand as (negative) title titleholder, incumbent, headlines (pl.) (to) title, (to) entitle, (to) obtain an academic title all, every, whole all-powerful, almighty above all, especially overcoat, smock/overall ( overol)
rotundo (unrelated)
ronda rondar
saeta (“bristle”)
salutem (acc.) salutare
sternutare titulus
estornudar estornudo tilde (f.) tildar título titular () titular ()
totus
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todo todopoderoso sobre todo sobretodo
(irregular p.p.)
[rotate]
[seta] [setose, setaceous]
[sternutation] (dl S ld)
[tutti-frutti]
(“over all”)
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
veracitas veritas
vetare
total totalidad totalitario veracidad veraz verdad
total totality totalitarian veracity, truthfulness truthful, veracious truth, verity
verdadero vedar veda
true, real (to) prohibit, (to) forbid prohibition, closed season (hunting) (to) veto veto life life preserver vital vitality for life, lifelong vitamin glass vitreous, glassy, glass-like display (glass) case, vitrine, shop window wedding
vetar veto vida salvavidas vital vitalidad vitalicio vitamina vidrio vítreo
vita
vitreum
vitrina boda
vota
(acc. -tatem) (acc. veritat-em)
[vita, CV]
[vote, vows]
The ending -tor generally referred to an actor or agent. When preceded by a vowel, it has frequently become Spanish -dor: imperator gladiator
emperador gladiador
emperor gladiator
c. c(a, o, u) S g
When followed immediately by e or i, the c was maintained in spelling but became “soft” in pronunciation; in most of Spain it is pronounced as [th] (as in thin, not this), elsewhere as [s], e.g., cicero (“kikero”)
Cicerón
Cicero
[thitheron] or [siseron]
veto was the fi rst person singular of the verb vetare and thus meant “I forbid”; it was the ritual word used by Roman tribunes to oppose measures of the Senate or actions of the magistrates.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
After a vowel, and when followed by either a back vowel (a, o, u) or a “liquid” consonant (r or l), a “hard” c frequently became Spanish g: acrus (CL acer)
acutus alacris
amicus carricare
agrio acre agudo alegre alegría alegrar alegro amigo amigable cargar carga
cargo
cargamento descargar
descarga descargo
encargar clericus
T4311.indb 170
clérigo clerical
sour, acid, citrus fruits (pl.) acrid, tart, acrimonious sharp, acute cheerful, happy happiness, joy (to) make happy or glad, (to) enliven allegro (music) friend amicable, friendly (to) load, (to) charge, (to) carry (Amer.) loading, charge (military, electric, tax, etc.), burden, load, cargo ( Sp.) post (job), charge (duty or task, accusation, debit) cargo (to) unload, (to) discharge, (to) download ( bajar) unloading, discharge (electricity, firearm) discharge (of responsibility or obligation) (to) entrust, (to) take charge of clergyman, cleric clerical (pertaining to the clergy)
[eager] [ague] [alacrity]
[clerk]
Note that agudo incorporates both the changes c S g and t S d.
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
collocare
colgar
colgante colocar descolgar delicatus
delgado delgadez adelgazar delicado delicadeza
draco(n) e(c)clesia fricare
gallicus inimicus
lacrima
dragón draconiano iglesia eclesiástico fregar friega fregadero refriega galgo enemigo enemistad lágrima lagrimal lacrimoso lacrimógeno
lacuna lacus
gas lacrimógeno laguna lago
(to) hang (clothes, criminal) or hang up (phone) pendent (hanging), pendant (jewelry) (to) place, (to) set, (to) collocate (to) take down, (to) pick up (telephone) thin, delicate thinness, slenderness (to) lose weight, (to) slim delicate delicacy, tactfulness, considerateness dragon, dragoon draconian church ecclesiastic (to) scrub, (to) scour rubdown (kitchen) sink skirmish, encounter greyhound inimical, enemy (adj. & n.) enmity, hostility tear, teardrop lachrymal (relating to tears) lachrymose, tearful tear-producing, tearjerker (movie) tear gas, lachrymator lagoon, lacuna (gap) lake
[couch]
[ friction]
[ fray vb.] [Gallic]
Delicado is a “mixed form” word: it has undergone the change t S d but not c S g; by contrast, delgado has undergone both and has also lost a vowel.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
laicus
lego (adj. & n.) laico (adj. & n.)
mal lograr
logro lograr lucro lucrativo malograr
macrum (acc.)
magro
mendicus
mendigo mendigar mendicidad
lucrum
mendicante pacare
pagar pago pagaré apagar apagado (p.p.)
plicare
plegar plegable desplegar pliegue pliego pliego de cargos
laic, lay, inexperienced, ignorant, layperson laic, lay, layman/ woman accomplishment, gain (to) attain gain, profit, lucre lucrative (to) go wrong, (to) waste (a chance) lean (person or meat), pork loin (m.) beggar (to) beg beggary, mendicity (mendicancy) mendicant (adj. & n.), beggar (to) pay payment promissory note, IOU (lit. “I will pay”) (to) extinguish, (to) turn off, (to) quench turned off, dull (color, person) (to) fold, (to) pleat folding, collapsible (e.g., umbrella) (to) unfold, (to) deploy, (to) display fold, crease, pleat, plait, plica sheet of paper, official communciation specification of charges (vs. public official)
[meager]
[appease]
[ply]
pacare meant “to pacify or appease”; the notion of payment initially arose from the idea of pacifying one’s creditors. One “pacifies” an electric applicance by turning it off (apagar). A “doublet” of plegar is llegar (“to arrive”); see Section ., no. .
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
pliego de condiciones despliegue replegar(se) repliegue sacratus
sagrado consagrar sacro
secare (“to cut”)
segar siega segador segadora
secundum secundus
disección según segundo segundero
securus
secundario seguro (adj. & n.) seguridad seguridad social seguramente asegurar
spica stomachus umbilicus
T4311.indb 173
inseguro inseguridad espiga estómago ombligo
(contractual) specifications display(ing), deployment (mil.) (to) retreat or fall back (in orderly fashion) retreat, withdrawal, double fold sacred (to) consecrate, (to) devote sacred, sacrum (base of spine) (to) reap, (to) mow, (to) cut down reaping, harvest (time) reaper, harvester reaper or harvester (female, or machine) dissection according to second (adj.), second (unit of time) second hand (of a watch) secondary secure, sure, insurance, safety catch security, safety social security surely (to) secure, (to) assure, (to) insure, (to) ensure insecure, unsure insecurity spike or ear of grain stomach navel
[reply] [redeployment]
(see Section .)
[second]
Very rarely segundario.
8/31/07 6:43:27 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
urtica
umbilical ortiga
umbilical (stinging) nettle
[urticaria]
A similar change occurred in a number of cases with respect to word-interior qu, which was essentially a graphic means for representing the sound combination c w. The [w] sound was maintained when a back vowel (a, o, u) followed; otherwise it was lost, although a written u is maintained in the spelling to signify that the preceding g has a hard rather than a soft sound (see Section ., no. ). aliquem
alguien
somebody, someone
(cf. quien, “who”)
antiquus aqua equa (a)equalis ex-quintiare
antiguo agua yegua igual esguince
ancient, old water mare equal sprain, dodge (to avoid blow)
[antique] [aquatic] [equestrian]
sequentem (acc.)
siguiente
following, next, sequent
[to part into five]
In a few cases, an initial c (or qu-) has also become g: cabinet (Fr.)
gabinete cabina
caraffa (It.) cattus colaphus
cabina telefónica garrafa gato golpe golpe de Estado golpe de gracia golpear
crassus
graso grasa grasiento
study, office, cabinet (of ministers) cabin, cockpit, cab, cabana telephone booth carafe cat blow, bump, knock, coup coup d’état coup de grâce (to) beat, (to) strike, (to) knock greasy, oily, fatty grease, fat greasy (containing grease; soiled with grease)
[cope] [crass ]
Latin crassus meant “thick”, “dense”, “fat”. The original meaning of English crass was “coarse”, “dense”, “thick”, before acquiring its modern sense of “crude and unrefi ned”.
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
engrasar quiritare
al qutun (Arabic)
gritar grito algodón
(to) lubricate, (to) oil, (to) make greasy (to) shout, (to) cry (out) shout, cry cotton
(also t S d)
Stage III: The Disappearance of “Voiced” Consonants B, arising either from Latin b or p, has not participated in Stage III. a. d S Ø
audire cadere
oír oyente caer caído (p.p.) caída paracaídas paracaidista decaer decadente decadencia recaer acaecer acaecimiento
confidare
confiar confiado (p.p.) confianza en confianza confidente desconfiar
T4311.indb 175
(to) hear, (to) listen listener, hearer (to) fall the fallen (in battle, gen. pl.) fall, downfall parachute parachutist, paratrooper (to) decay, (to) decline decadent decadence, decline (to) relapse, (to) fall on (e.g., suspicion) (to) happen, (to) come to pass occurrence, event ( suceso) (to) have confidence (in), (to) confide trusting, unsuspecting, confident confidence, self-confidence, liberties (pl.) in confidence, confidentially confidant(e), secret informer, love seat (m.) (to) distrust, (to) have no confidence (in)
[audio] [audience] [cadence]
[chute]
[chance]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
credere
crudelis excludere fidare
creer creencia creyente credo
(to) believe belief believing, believer credo, creed
creíble increíble acreedor cruel excluir fiar
credible incredible deserving, creditor (m./f.) cruel (to) exclude (to) sell on credit, (to) act as guarantor, (to) entrust (to) defy, (to) dare, (to) challenge challenge, defiance, duel guaranty, down payment on bail (to) strengthen, (to) reinforce faithful (adj.), faithful (n., gen. pl.) needle on a balance scale unfaithful, faithless, infidel fidelity, faithfulness, fealty infidelity, unfaithfulness, faithlessness faith authentic, genuine
desafiar desafío fianza bajo fianza afianzar fidelis
fiel
infiel fidelidad infidelidad fides fe hacer
foedus includere judicem (acc.) laudare
T4311.indb 176
fe (f.) fehaciente fidedigno porfía perfidia pérfido feo fealdad incluir juez, jueza loar loa loable
trustworthy, reliable insistence, stubbornness perfidy, treachery perfidious, treacherous ugly ugliness (to) include judge (to) laud, (to) praise praise, laud laudable, praiseworthy ( laudable)
[credence] (Lat. “I believe”)
[fiancé] [affiance]
(“making faith”) ( digno) [perfidy]
[allow]
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
limpidus
medulla
providere
radere (from p.p.) radix
limpio limpiar limpieza límpido meollo médula / medula proveer provisto (p.p.) desprovisto raer abrasión raíz (f.) enraizar radical
ad radicare
arraigar arraigado (p.p.) radicar
rancidus
erradicar rancio
ridere
reír
(from p.p.)
risa risueño
rodere
T4311.indb 177
sonreír sonrisa sonriente roer roedor corroer
clean (to) clean, (to) cleanse cleanliness, cleaning limpid (clear, transparent) essence, heart of the matter marrow, medulla (to) provide, (to) fi ll (a job), (to) purvey provided, stocked, supplied lacking (in), without, devoid (to) scrape, (to) abrade abrasion root (to) take root, (to) put down roots radical (adj. & n.), root or stem (linguistics) (to) take root, (to) become established deeply rooted, established, well-entrenched (to) take root, (to) reside, (to) consist in (to) eradicate of old (smelly) food, age-old (to) laugh laugh, laughter smiling, riant (cheerful, mirthful) (to) smile smile smiling (to) gnaw, (to) eat away rodent (to) corrode
[erase, raze] [radish]
[rancid] [riant, deride] [risible]
[erode]
Not always in a negative sense (e.g., aged cheese or wine).
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
(from p.p.) sucidus
turbidus videre
corrosión corrosivo sucio suciedad ensuciar turbio ver vídeo, video vidente invidente
corrosion corrosive dirty, fi lthy dirt, fi lth (to) soil, (to) make dirty turbid, confused (situation), shady (business) (to) see video, VCR sighted (person), clairvoyant blind, blind person
[succulent]
[video] ( Eng.)
b. g S Ø
Latin interior g has frequently disappeared, although much more rarely before a back vowel (a, o, u) than a front one (e, i): Back Vowel legalis
ligare
litigare regalis
leal lealtad desleal deslealtad legal liar lío ligar desligar lidiar real
loyal loyalty disloyal disloyalty legal (to) embroil, (to) roll or wrap up mess, tangle, bundle, liaison (affair) (to) bind, (to) alloy, (to) ligate (to) untie, (to) separate, (to) disentangle (to) battle, (to) contend (with) royal
[legal] [legality]
[ligament] [ally] [litigate] [regal]
Front Vowel cogitare
cuidar cuidado (p.p.) ¡cuidado! cuidadoso descuidar
(to) care for, (to) look after care, carefulness ( cuido) look out! watch out! be careful! careful (to) be careless, (to) neglect
[cogitate]
Latin sucidus meant “sappy” or “juicy” (from sucus: “sap”, “juice” ) and was commonly used to refer to freshly shorn lamb’s wool that was still “sappy” with sweat. Lidiar has also undergone the change t S d.
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B A S I C CO N S O N A N T C H A N G E S : P/ B , T/ D , C / G
frigere
fugere
legere
legio(n)
lex (acc. legem) magis magister regina
rex (acc. regem)
sagitta
descuidado (p.p.) descuido freír frito (p.p.) patatas fritas (pl.) huir huida fuga leer legible ilegible León
careless, negligent, untidy carelessness, negligence (to) fry fried food (gen. pl.) French fries (to) flee flight, escape escape, flight, leak, fugue (musical) (to) read legible illegible, unreadable León (city and region)
[Fritos®]
[fugitive]
[Roman th legion]
legión ley (f.)
legion law
legítimo más mas maestro maestría reina reino reinar reinado (p.p.) rey
legitimate more but ( pero) teacher, master, maestro mastery, master’s degree queen realm, kingdom (to) reign reign king
[T-rex]
los reyes los reyes católicos
the king and queen The Catholic Kings (Ferdinand and Isabella) realeza arrow, dart
royalty [Sagittarius]
saeta
[legal]
[master]
[reign]
They were awarded the honorary title of “Catholic” by Pope Alexander VI (himself a Spaniard) in , “in recognition of their reconquest of Granada from the Moors (–), their New World discoveries (), and their strengthening of the church by such agencies as the Spanish Inquisition and such measures as compelling Jews to convert to Christianity or face exile ()” (Encyclopædia Britannica).
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
sigillum
sello sellar
seal, stamp, postage stamp (to) stamp, (to) seal (lips, deal, etc.)
[sigil]
Stage III continues to function today with regard to interior d that originated from Latin t. In words like cuidado (Latin cogitatus), the pronunciation often is more like *cuidao; the first d has weakened as well (to the th in this), so that it often seems more like *cuithao or even *cuiao. A number of words (including bodega, agudo, delgado, lidiar, corresponding to English apothecary, acute, delicate, litigate) have already been noted as having undergone these changes with respect to not one but two or more interior consonants. Further examples are noted below where two interior consonants have been affected, one of which has disappeared; for Latin frigidus both have vanished: digitus tepidus
dedo tibio tibieza
triticum
trigo trigal frío
frigidus
escalofrío frialdad frígido frigidez frigorífico enfriar resfriar(se) resfriado resfrío refrigerar refrigerador fiambre
T4311.indb 180
finger, toe tepid, lukewarm tepidness, lack of enthusiasm wheat wheat field cold (adj.), cool, cold or chill (m.) shiver coldness, coolness, frigidity frigid frigidity frigorific, refrigerating, refrigerator (m.) (to) cool, (to) chill, (to) catch cold (to) catch a cold ( constipar[se]) cold (minor illness) (to) cool, (to) refrigerate cooling, refrigerating, refrigerator ( nevera) cold cut (cooked meat)
[digit]
[triticale]
(ex calor frío)
( friambre)
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SEC TION .
Other Distinctive Consonants (or Lack Thereof)
Consider the following pairs of Spanish words:
. . . . . . . . .
Spanish
Spanish
English Cognate
Change
pleno tracto artículo anexo concilio reverso captar parábola baron
lleno trecho artejo anejo concejo revés catar palabra varón
plenum, plenty tract article, articulate annex council reverse capture parable, parabola baron
pl S ll ct S ch cul S j xSj li + vowel S j rs S s pt S t r dS l bSv
In each case, the first Spanish word is easily associated with its English cognate. The Spanish words in the second column are also cognates but are far less easily recognizable, as in each case they have undergone one or more consonantal changes as part of their “popular” evolution from Latin to Spanish. As we will see below, the definitions of all of these words are easily understandable, given knowledge of the cognate, although those in the first column tend to correspond more directly to the definition of the corresponding English word. Each of the consonant changes illustrated above has occurred in numerous cases, although some are much more common than others. In this section, we will present a selection of words that have undergone these, and several other, consonant changes.
. PL, FL, CL S ll A relatively small number of words in Spanish have undergone this change. Similar changes occurred in both Portuguese (S ch) and Italian (S pi, fi, chi) but on a much wider scale.
The Italian “deformation” is reflected in several English words imported from Italian, including fiasco, piano, and chiaroscuro.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
Latin
Spanish
Portuguese
Italian
English Cognate
plicare flamma clamare
llegar llama llamar
chegar chama chamar
piegare fiamma chiamare
ply, implicate flame claim, clamor
Some of the more common examples are: clamare
llamar ¿Cómo te llamas? Me llamo José. llamar por teléfono llamada llamativo
clausa clavis
flamma
plaga
llosa llave (f.) llave inglesa clave (f.) clave de sol llama llamear llamarada flama flamante inflamar inflamable inflamatorio llaga plaga
(to) call What is your name?
[claim]
My name is José. (to) telephone call attracting attention, showy, flashy enclosed field key, faucet, wrench monkey wrench key (decisive), clef, password treble clef flame (to) flame, (to) blaze sudden blaze, flare-up flame, intense heat brand-new, brilliant (to) inflame (set on fire, arouse) inflammable, flammable inflammatory sore, ulcer plague
[rare chamade Port.]
[close] [clavier]
[flaming]
In Spanish there is no word *flamable. English flammable and inflammable mean exactly the same thing, though the prefi x in- (“in”) is interpreted erroneously by many as having a negative sense.
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
plagar plantaginem (acc.) planus
llantén llano (adj. & n.) llana (n.) llanura plano (adj. & n.) plana (n.) primera plana allanar
plenus
plicare
plorare
pluvia
planctus (unrelated)
T4311.indb 183
lleno llenar pleno (adj. & n.) llegar llegada allegar allegado (p.p.) llorar llorón (-ona) lloroso deplorar deplorable implorar lluvia lluvioso llover llovizna lloviznar pluvial llanto llanta
(to) plague, (to) be overrun with plantain (weed) level, flat, plain (simple, flatland), llano trowel plain, flatland level, flat, smooth, plane, map or plan page (side), senior staff (plana mayor) front page (to) level, (to) raze, (to) break and enter full (to) fi ll full, plenum (assembly) (to) arrive arrival, finish (sports) (to) bring near, (to) gather close, close friend or relative (m./f.) (to) cry, (to) weep weeping, crybaby (m./f.) tearful, weeping, sad (to) deplore, (to) lament deplorable (to) implore rain rainy, pluvious (to) rain drizzle (to) drizzle pluvial, rain (adj.) weeping tire, wheel rim
[plenty]
[ply, plié] [apply]
[deplore]
[pluvial]
[plaint]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
Llama is the only example of a Latin fl- word with ll- in Spanish. In Old Spanish, one other word was affected but has since changed the initial ll- to l-: flaccidus
lacio flácido / fláccido flacidez / flaccidez
lank (hair), wilted, flaccid flaccid, flabby flaccidity, flabbiness
(OldSp. llacio)
Note that lacio also displays two of the changes noted in Section .: the double consonant cc has become simple c, and the d has vanished. In a few words, interior cl, fl, and pl underwent a similar transformation but with a different outcome: ch instead of ll. amplus
(ex S ens)
ancho (adj. & n.) anchura ensanchar ensanche
conclavare
implere inflare
amplio ampliar conchabar cónclave henchir hinchar hinchado hinchazón (f.) hincha hinchada inflar
wide, broad, width, breadth width, breadth (to) widen or enlarge, (to) let out (clothes) extension, widening, expansion (town) spacious, extensive, ample (to) enlarge, (to) amplify (to) unite, (to) mix (wool), (to) conspire conclave (to) fi ll, (to) stuff (to) inflate, (to) swell swollen, inflated, pompous swelling, conceit, pomposity fan or supporter (m./f.), grudge or dislike (f.) fans, supporters (to) inflate
[implement]
. CT S ch This outcome is distinct to Spanish; as shown in the table below, the other major Romance languages transformed ct into either (i)t or (t)t.
T4311.indb 184
Latin
Spanish
Portuguese
Italian
French
lactem despectus
leche despecho
leite despeito
latte dispetto
lait dépit
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
dictus octo luctare
dicho ocho luchar
dito oito lutar
detto otto lottare
dit huit lutter
Examples: bizcocho —sancocho derecho (adj.) —derecho (n.) —derecha (n.) —derecho (adv.) despecho —a despecho de dicho —antedicho —dicha —dichoso —desdicha —desdichado (adj. & n.) —entredicho ducha —duchar echar —echar de menos —desechar —desecho —desechable estrecho —estrechez —estrechar —estrechar la mano
biscuit, sponge cake —parboiled meat, stew (Amer.) right, right-hand, straight, upright —right, law, rights (copyright, royalties—pl.) —right hand, right-hand side, right (politics) —directly, straight spite —despite, in spite of ( a pesar de) said (p.p. decir), saying or proverb (m.) —aforesaid, aforementioned —good fortune, happiness —happy, fortunate, “blasted” (fam.) —misfortune, calamity —unfortunate, wretched, wretch —doubt or question (hanging over), interdict shower —(to) give a shower to, (to) take a shower (to) eject, (to) throw or toss, (to) cast —(to) miss, (to) note the absence of —(to) reject, (to) exclude, (to) cast aside —remainder, waste or debris (freq. pl.) —disposable (e.g., syringe, razor blade) narrow, tight, strait —narrowness, tightness, predicament, penury, “dire straits” —(to) narrow, (to) tighten (bonds, etc.) —(to) shake hands
[twice-cooked] [concoct] [direct]
[respect] [dictum, ditto]
[duct, douche]
[rare disject]
[strict]
[straiten]
Echar de menos comes from Portuguese achar (de) menos, and the “echar” thus has no connection with the normal Spanish echar. Achar is derived from the same latin root (adflare) that produced Spanish hallar, thus the meaning “to fi nd missing”, “to miss”.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
fecha —fechar —hecho (p.p.) —de hecho —bienhechor (adj. & n.) —cohecho —contrahecho —deshecho (p.p.) —hechizo —hechizar —hechicero —hechura —malhechor —provecho —¡buen provecho! —provechoso —aprovechar leche (f.) —lechero —lechoso —lechuga —lechuza —lecho lucha —luchar —luchador noche (f.)
date —(to) date (e.g., a letter) —fact —in fact, de facto —beneficent, benefactor ( benefactor)
[fact]
—bribery —deformed, hunchbacked —unmade (e.g., bed), devastated, exhausted —charm, enchantment —(to) bewitch, (to) charm —sorcerer, sorceress, witch —creation, shape or form, workmanship —malefactor (evildoer, criminal) —benefit, profit —bon appetit! —profitable, beneficial, advantageous —(to) make use of, (to) profit from milk —dairy (adj.), milk (adj.), milkman (or woman) —milky —lettuce —owl —bed ( cama), riverbed ( cauce) fight, strife, wrestling —(to) fight, (to) wrestle, (to) struggle —fighter, wrestler night
[confetti] [counterfeit]
[feat]
[fetish]
[feature]
[lactation]
[wagon-lit] [ineluctable] [reluctant] [nocturnal]
Note that deshecho is pronounced identically to desecho (“debris”; see above under echar). However, the Milky Way is “la Vía Láctea”. Latin for owl was noctua (literally ” ‘night’ bird”), which would have become Spanish *nochua or, as a pejorative variant, *nochuza. Lechuza apparently resulted from a cross between *nochuza and leche, due to the popular belief of the time that owls came at night to give milk to babies. Lecho (Latin lectus) is unrelated to leche, sharing instead a common Indo-European root with English lie, ledge, and low. Lecho corresponds to French lit (hence wagon-lit). Noche comes from Latin nox (acc. noctem), which shares a common Indo-European root with English night.
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
—anoche —medianoche (f.) —Nochebuena —Nochevieja —trasnochar
—suspicacia techo
—last night —midnight —Christmas Eve —New Year’s Eve —(to) stay up late, (to) have a sleepless night eight —eighty —eight hundred chest, breast —breast (of chicken, etc.) satisfied —dissatisfied, unsatisfied (to) suspect, (to) be suspicious (of) —suspicion —suspicious (arousing suspicion), suspect (adj. & n.) —suspicious (given to suspicion), distrustful —suspiciousness (distrustfulness) roof, ceiling
—techar —techumbre trecho —tracto trucha
—(to) roof —roof, roofing distance, stretch, tract (expanse of land) —tract (digestive, urinary, etc.) trout
ocho —ochenta —ochocientos pecho —pechuga satisfecho —insatisfecho sospechar —sospecha —sospechoso —suspicaz
[octet] [octogenarian] [pectoral] [satisfaction]
[tectum, thatch ]
(Lat. tructa)
One common Spanish word that has undergone the “Portuguese” treatment is affectare
afeitar afeite
(to) shave cosmetics, makeup (freq. pl.)
[affectation]
The combination lt also on occasion evolved to ch: auscultare
T4311.indb 187
escuchar escucha
(to) listen (to) listening (act), wiretap, military scout (m.)
[auscultate]
Techo—tectum comes from the same Indo-European root as Germanic thatch.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
cultellus multus
cuchillo mucho (adj.) muy (adv.)
knife much, a lot of, many (pl.) very
[cutlass]
The similarity in form between mucho and much is coincidental, as etymologically they are unrelated.
. CUL S j culus and cula were Latin diminutive endings, much like -let in English (piglet, hamlet, bracelet, etc.) and enjoyed rapid growth in Vulgar Latin. They have contributed to the Romance names of many animals, family relations, parts of the body, etc. In some cases, they have undergone a popular treatment resulting in Spanish j, while in other cases they have preserved a more “learned” Latin form. Examples of the latter include: Latin
Meaning
Diminutive
Spanish
English
avus calcem (acc.) corpus minus mus partem (acc.)
grandfather pebble body less mouse part
avunculus calculus corpusculum minusculus musculus particula
— cálculo corpúsculo minúsculo músculo partícula
avuncular, uncle calculus corpuscle minuscule muscle particle
Examples of “popular” treatment resulting in Spanish j include: acucula apicula articulus
auricula clavicula (“little key”) cubiculum
T4311.indb 188
aguja agujero abeja artejo artículo oreja clavija clavícula cobijo cobija cobijar
needle, steeple, spire hole bee joint or articulation (finger, arthropod) article ear peg, pin, electric plug clavicle (collarbone) shelter, protection blanket (Amer.) (to) shelter, (to) harbor (ideas)
[acicula, aiguille] [apian, apiary]
[auricle] [clavicle]
[cubicle]
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
cuniculus fenuculum genuculum
lenticula
conejo hinojo () hinojo () de hinojos genuflexión lenteja lente lentilla
musculus oculus
paricula
mejillón ojo ojear ojeada oculista pareja parejo (adj.) aparejo aparejar aparejado (p.p.) traer aparejado
pediculus (pedu-) speculum
vermiculus
emparejar piojo piojoso espejo espejismo espéculo bermejo
rabbit fennel knee ( rodilla; used gen. only as below) on one’s knees, kneeling genuflection lentil lens (gen. f.), glasses (pl., gen. m.) contact lens ( lente de contacto) mussel eye (to) eye, (to) regard glance oculist couple, pair (people, animals, etc.) equal, alike, flat (land) preparation, gear, harness, rigging, tackle (to) prepare, (to) rig apt, suitable (to) entail or involve ( llevar aparejado) (to) match, (to) pair (off ) louse
[Coney Island]
(lentil-shaped)
[muscle] [ocular] [Germ. ogle]
[nonpareil]
[pedicular]
lousy (full of lice) mirror mirage speculum bright red, vermilion (adj.), vermeil (adj.)
The much rarer Latin gul also had the same “popular” result: coagulare
T4311.indb 189
cuajar cuajo cuajada
(to) coagulate, (to) curdle rennet curd (coagulated milk)
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
tegula
teja tejar tejado (p.p.)
roof tile (to) tile (roof), tile or brick factory (n.) roof, esp. tiled roof
. X S j Dating back to Latin times, the letter x has been a “shorthand” symbol representing the combined sound [ks]. In the transition to Spanish, this underwent a major transformation, which occurred in two separate stages: . [ks] S [sh], still written x . [sh] S [h*], subsequently written j
The first transformation occurred during the early stages of the evolution from Latin to Spanish (well before AD ), while the second transformation took place only after Don Quijote (formerly Don Quixote) was published ()— and after sherry (Spanish Jerez, formerly Xerez) had become an English word (Shakespeare: ). annexus
anejo anexo
axis complexus
anexar / anejar anexionar eje complejo
coxinum
complejidad cojín coxal (adj.)
attached, annex, attachment (email) (to) annex, (to) join (to) annex (esp. territory) axis, axle, crux, Axis (cap.) complicated, complex (adj. & n.) complexity cushion coxal (pertaining to the hip or hip joint)
In Classical Greek, the letter represented by the symbol X (chi) had the sound [kh], but in the Greek of Italy, from which the Latin alphabet was derived, it had the sound [ks]. Most books and dictionaries denote this sound [x] instead of [h], [x] being the phonetic symbol for the sound represented by the ch in Scottish loch or German Achtung. It is undoubtedly true that many Spanish speakers have a slightly greater degree of aspiration of this sound than is characteristic of English (aspirated) h. The emphasis is on slightly: an English speaker attempting to transplant his or her version of Scottish or German ch to words like general will in most cases sound far less “Spanish” than if he or she simply pronounced it [heneral]. We will therefore use [h*] to represent this sound.
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
executio(n)
exemplum
exempli gratia exercitium exercitus fixus
fluxus
laxare
ejecución ejecutar ejecutivo ejemplo por ejemplo ejemplar ejemplificar p.ej. p.e. ejercicio ejército fijo fijar fijación fijador prefijo sufijo flujo influjo reflujo flojo flojear aflojar dejar dejar de fumar dejadez
laxius
luxus
T4311.indb 191
laxitud laxante lejos (adv.) lejano (adj.) lejanía alejar lujo lujoso de lujo lujuria lujurioso
execution (various senses) (to) execute executive (adj. & n.) example for example exemplary, exemplar, example (specimen) (to) exemplify e.g. (“for the sake of an example”) exercise, practice, drill army fixed, firm (to) fix, (to) set fixation, setting (e.g., date) fixative, hair spray or gel prefix, dialing (area) code suffix flow, flux influence ( influencia) ebb (tide), reflux loose, slack, weak (to) weaken, (to) slacken (to) loosen, (to) weaken, (to) let up (to) let, (to) leave (to) stop smoking laziness, carelessness, slovenliness laxity, laxness laxative far, far away distant, far-off distance, remoteness (to) move away (from) luxury luxurious deluxe lust, lechery lustful, lecherous, lewd
(old p.p.)
[influx]
(OldSp. lejar)
[lax]
[luxury] [luxurious]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
maxilla paradoxa parallaxis perplexus prolixus proximus Don Quixote ()
mejilla paradoja paradójico paralaje (f.) perplejo perplejidad prolijo prójimo Don Quijote quijote
reflexus
relaxare
saxones
texere
vexare
quijotesco reflejo (adj. & n.) reflejar relajar relajación relajante sajón (-ona) anglosajón (-ona) tejer tejido (p.p.) entretejer textil texto textura vejar vejación
cheek paradox paradoxical parallax perplexed perplexity prolix, excessively detailed, tedious fellow human (“neighbor”) Don Quixote
[maxillary]
[proximity]
a Don Quixote (impractical idealist) quixotic reflected, reflection, reflex (to) reflect, (to) mirror (to) relax, (to) become lax relaxation, (moral) laxity relaxing Saxon Anglo-Saxon (to) weave, (to) knit fabric, textile, tissue, weave (to) interweave, (to) interlace textile text, textbook texture (to) vex vexation
One case worth noting, in which the sound [ks] avoided a major transformation by shedding [k] at an early stage, is: taxare
T4311.indb 192
tasar tasa tasación taxi taxista
(to) appraise, (to) fi x (price, quantity) rate (%), fee, tax valuation taxi taxi driver
[taxation]
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
The combination ss on a number of occasions has also become Spanish j: ambaissada (Occitan) bassus
embajada
embassy
embajador bajo (adj.) bajo (adv.) bajo (prep.) bajo (n.)
ambassador low, short, base (vile) low (soft ly, quietly) under ( debajo de) bass (voice, instrument), bass guitar double bass (contrabass) bassoon (to) descend, (to) lower, (to) download down, below, downstairs underneath, below (to) lower (price, self-esteem, etc.) reduction, discount ups and downs, vicissitudes (to) back up, (to) give up (to) cease, (to) stop bird (to) complain
contrabajo bajón bajar abajo debajo rebajar
cessare passer quassare
russus
rebaja altibajos (pl.) cejar cesar pájaro quejar(se) queja aquejar rojo pelirrojo enrojecer
complaint (to) afflict, (to) distress red red-haired, redhead (m./f.) (to) redden (make or become red, blush)
[passerine] [quash, squash]
[russet]
In a few cases, a single s at the beginning of a word or syllable was (mis)pronounced as [sh] and hence has wound up as j: insertare
(unrelated)
T4311.indb 193
injertar injerto injerencia insertar inserción
(to) graft (plant or medical) graft interference, meddling (to) insert insertion
[insert] [ingest]
8/31/07 6:43:34 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
sapo(n) sucus syringa vesica
jabón jugo suculento jeringa vejiga vesícula vesícula biliar
soap juice succulent, juicy syringe bladder, vesica vesicle gall bladder
[saponification] [succulent]
Finally, in a small number of isolated cases, other consonant combinations involving s have also wound up as Spanish j: capsa
caja caja de ahorros caja fuerte cajero cajón cápsula encajar encaje
fascia
pulsare
(unrelated, Cat.) (unrelated, Fr.) vascella ( Cat.)
casete / cassette (m./f.) faja
fajita pujar () puja () empujar empujón empuje pujar () puja () pujante pujanza vajilla vascular
T4311.indb 194
box, case, cashier’s desk savings bank safe, strongbox cashier drawer, crate (gen. without top) capsule (to) fit in, or together lace, socket, fitting in (insertion) cassette girdle, sash, strip or band, fascia (arch.), fess (heraldry) fajita (Mex. food) (to) push (intransitive) push (stimulus) (to) push (transitive), (to) propel push, shove (brusque) push, impulse, thrust (to) offer a higher bid (higher) bid strong, vigorous vigor, strength tableware
[caisson]
[encase]
( Fr.)
[podium] [puissant] [puissance] [vase, vessel]
vascular (pertaining to the vessels)
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
Historical Note: México or Méjico? Texas or Tejas? ”Mexico” and “Texas” are special cases. Historically, these words entered Spanish at a stage when x was still pronounced [sh]. They have never been pronounced by native Spanish speakers as [meKSico] or [teKSas], this being a later innovation by gringos. After Spanish [sh] had evolved to [h*], México and Texas had their x changed to j, analogous to Quixote S Quijote, but not in the Americas, where the locals remained attached to the original spelling (but not the original pronunciation) of the two names. Throughout most of its history, the RAE has unsuccessfully tried to convince Mexico (and the world) that the correct spellings were Méjico and mejicano. In it still listed them as the preferred forms. Only with the publication of its dictionary has it conceded defeat and accepted México and mexicano—as well as Texas and texano—as the preferred forms, although tejanos remains the only accepted spelling in the sense of “blue jeans”.
. LI + vowel S j This change was the result of several separate transformations, the last of which was not concluded until the mid-seventeenth century. The Spanish outcome contrasts markedly with those of the other principal Romance languages, in which the transformation stopped at the stage of palatized l (i.e., the equivalent of Spanish ll): Latin
Spanish
Portuguese
Italian
French
filia melior palea
hija mejor paja
fi lha melhor palha
figlia migliore paglia
fi lle meilleur paille
Examples:
T4311.indb 195
alienus
ajeno enajenar
al(l)ium cilia
ajo ceja
another’s, alien or foreign (to) drive insane, (to) alienate (a person, or transfer a property right) garlic eyebrow
[allium] [cilia]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
concilium
consilium
despoliare
filius folia
concejo concejal (-ala) concilio conciliación conciliar reconciliación reconciliar consejo Consejo de Ministros consejero aconsejar desaconsejar despojar despojo hijo hoja folio foliar follaje ( Occitan) folleto folletín
city council, city council meeting city councilor, alderman council (esp. religious) conciliation (to) conciliate, (to) reconcile reconciliation (to) reconcile counsel, advice, council Council of Ministers counselor, advisor, councilor (to) counsel, (to) advise (to) advise against (to) despoil, (to) divest despoliation, spoils (pl.), offal (pl.), mortal remains (pl.) son leaf, sheet folio (to) number (pages) foliage
melior milium
mejor mijo / millo
pamphlet, brochure, leaflet feuilleton, melodrama (often published serially) better millet
molliare
mojar mojado (p.p.) remojar mujer (f.) mujeriego
(to) wet, (to) moisten wet, damp, soaked (to) soak woman, wife womanizer
mulier
[Fitz- ] [foil, folio] [foliate]
[amelioration] [mealie, milium] [emollient]
[muliebrity]
English counsel and council are distinct words, albeit frequently confused, with separate Latin origins: consilium (related to consult) and concilium (lit. “to call together”). Modern French fils (“son”) formerly was pronounced [fits] and was brought in this form to England by the Norman French and from there to Ireland (hence John Fitzgerald Kennedy). Fitz- is thus equivalent to Scottish and Irish Mac- and Mc-, as well as to the “native” English suffi x -son.
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
palea similiare
taliare
(unrelated) (unrelated) tripalium
paja payaso ( It.) semejar semejanza semejante semblante semblanza similar símil tajar tallar (It.) talar () ( Germ.) talar () trabajo trabajar trabajador
straw clown (to) resemble, (to) be similar to similarity, resemblance similar, like, such (a) face, countenance, aspect biographical sketch similar simile (to) cut or slice (e.g., meat) (to) cut, (to) carve (to) cut a tree (at the base), (to) devastate full length, reaching to the ankles work (to) work hard-working, worker (m./f.)
[paillasse]
[semblance]
[tailor]
[talus] [travail, travel]
. NS, RS, PS S s EXAMPLES OF ns S s
ansa
asa asidero asir
constare
costar constar
me consta (que) con + sutura
T4311.indb 197
costura alta costura coser
handle grip (handle), grab bar (shower) (to) grasp (rope, opportunity) (to) cost (to) consist (of), (to) be clear or evident, (to) be recorded in (document) I am sure . . . , I know for certain (that) . . . sewing, seam haute couture (to) sew
[ansate]
The literal meaning is “extending to the talón (heel)”, e.g., a cassock or a toga.
8/31/07 6:43:35 AM
P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
insula
a + isla
mansio(n)
mensa
mensis monstrare
isla islote insular insulina aislar aislamiento aislante (adj. & n.) mesón remanso mesa mesilla (de noche) sobremesa de sobremesa (adj.) mes mensual mostrar demostrar
pensare
demostración pesar () pesado (p.p.) pesar () (n.) a pesar de pese a a pesar de que pese a que a pesar de todo pesadilla
island, isle islet insular insulin (to) isolate, (to) insulate, (to) enisle isolation, insulation isolating, insulating, insulator inn, tavern still water, haven or oasis table night table time immediately following a meal after-dinner, tabletop, desktop month monthly (to) show, (to) demonstrate (to) demonstrate, (to) prove demonstration (to) weigh heavy, irksome, deep (sleep) sorrow, regret despite, in spite of
[mansion] [remnant] [Mesa Grande]
[compensate]
despite (in spite of) the fact that despite everything nightmare
English island originally had nothing to do with isle. The Middle English form was iland or yland (the fi rst syllable being of Germanic origin and equivalent to that in Eaton and Eton, meaning “water”). Th is was then changed to ile-land due to association with the French word île (like Spanish isla, from Latin insula), and at a still later stage an “etymological” s (never pronounced) was added.
T4311.indb 198
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
pesadez pésame pesa peso peseta
sensus
sponsa tensus trans
pensar pensamiento pensativo seso devanar(se) los sesos sesudo esposa esponsales (pl.) tieso tesón tras (prep.) trasero detrás (adv.) atrás (adv.) atraso atrasar retrasar retraso retrasado (p.p.) trasplantar
heaviness, nuisance condolence(s) weight (for scales, barbell), counterweight weight, peso, shot put peseta (former Spanish currency) (to) think thought, pansy pensive wit or good sense, brains (gen. pl.) (to) rack one’s brains sensible, sage wife, spouse engagement, betrothal stiff, rigid, firm tenacity, perseverance after, behind back (adj.), rear, “rear end” (m.) behind, back, in the rear behind, back, to the rear, ago delay, backwardness, arrears (pl.) (to) delay, (to) set back or lose time (clock) (to) delay, (to) set back or lose time (clock) delay, backwardness behind (schedule), backward or retarded (to) transplant
[spousals] [tension] [trans-]
From French, in the same fanciful sense as “forget-me-not” (a type of plant with small blue flowers). The distribution between tras- and trans- is somewhat haphazard, with the four examples in the text illustrating the possible patterns: tras- only; both (with tras- “preferred”); both (with trans- “preferred”); trans- only.
T4311.indb 199
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
traslación / transtransatlántico / trastransacción
translation (uniform movement) transatlantic, transatlantic ship transaction, compromise
EXAMPLES OF rs S s
aversus excar(p)sus
indorsare
reversus
sursum + dictus transversa
ursus
avieso aversión escaso escasamente escasez escasear endosar dorso dorsal revés reverso susodicho traviesa (n.) travieso (adj.) travesura travesía
través a través de atravesar transversal oso Osa Mayor
twisted, malicious aversion scarce, scanty scarcely scarcity, shortage, poverty (to) be scarce (to) endorse back (of hand, page, etc.) dorsal reverse (n.), other side, backhand reverse (n.), other (or back) side aforesaid ( antedicho) railroad tie mischievous, naughty mischief, prank small (connecting) road, part of road traversing a town, voyage (air, sea) slant, inclination (tilt) through (to) cross (over), (to) pierce transverse ( transverso) bear Ursa Major (constellation with Big Dipper)
[averse]
[dorsum]
[traverse]
[ursine]
FINALLY, IN A FEW CASES, ps BECAME s:
gypsum psalmus pseudonymos
T4311.indb 200
yeso salmo seudónimo
plaster, plaster cast, gypsum psalm pseudonymous, pseudonym, pen name
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
. PT S t aegyptanus aptare captare
gitano egipcio atar catar catalejo acatar percatar(se) recato recatado captar
capturar recaudar recaudador recaudación re + ex + captare promptus
recepta ruptus
rescatar rescate pronto prontitud receta recetar roto derrota derrotar derrotero
scriptus
ruta rutina rutinario escrito escritura
T4311.indb 201
gypsy Egyptian (adj. & n.) (to) tie (to) taste, (to) sample (small) telescope, spyglass (to) comply with, (to) obey (to) notice, (to) realize modesty, reserve (caution) modest, reserved (to) pick up (signal, sound), (to) capture (water, attention), (to) catch (meaning) (to) capture, (to) catch (to) collect (e.g., taxes) (tax) collector takings, collection, gate (paid attendance) (to) rescue, (to) ransom, (to) recover rescue, ransom adj.—quick, prompt; adv.— promptly, soon promptness, promptitude recipe, prescription (medical) (to) prescribe (medical) broken (p.p. of romper) defeat, rout, path, ship’s course or route (to) defeat, (to) rout route, way, ship’s course or track route routine (n.) routine (adj.) written (p.p. of escribir), writing (m.) handwriting, Scripture (cap., freq. pl.)
[apt, lariat] [capture, catch] (catar + lejos) [cater] [perception]
(pt S ud)
[receipt] [rupture]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
saeptum septem symptoma
seto siete septuagenario síntoma (m.)
hedge, fence seven septuagenarian (adj. & n.) symptom
[septum]
. Shifts of R and L The sounds [r] and [l] are phonetically very similar, and it is therefore not surprising that they are frequently interchanged or substituted one for the other. One prominent English example is mulberry: the first component of the word was a very early import from Latin morum (Spanish mora), and in Old English the word was morberie. A second example is pilgrim, which ultimately comes from Latin peregrinus—in this case the “switch” was carried out in French and then imported into English. The original form is preserved in English peregrine (as in peregrine falcon). Finally, Latin pruna has produced both the “learned” English prune and the more “popular” plum. In the first two examples cited above, the combination r—r was changed to l—r, probably due to a (perhaps subconscious) desire to distinguish more clearly the two syllables—a process linguists call dissimilation. This change has occurred in Spanish with considerably greater frequency than in English. a rr S rl
arbor
carcer
frater marmor
árbol arbolado arbóreo arbusto cárcel (f.) carcelario carcelero encarcelar fraile mármol
tree wooded, woodland (m.) arboreal, arboreous bush, shrub prison prison (adj.) prison (adj.), jailer, warden (to) incarcerate, (to) imprison friar, monk marble ( Fr. marbre)
[arboretum]
The s in arbusto reflects the fact that at an earlier stage, Latin arbor had been arbos—the s then changed to r due to rhotacism (see Section .), initially only in those forms of the word where it found itself between vowels (e.g., the accusative arbosem), and eventually by analogy in the nominative case as well.
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O T H E R D I S T I N C T I V E CO N S O N A N T S O R L A C K T H E R E O F
marmóreo miércoles murmullo
mercurii dies murmurium
murmurar quartier (Fr.) recruter (Fr.) stercoris
cuartel reclutar estiércol estercolero
marble (adj.), marmoreal (marble-like) Wednesday murmur, murmuring, rustling (leaves) (to) murmur, (to) mutter, (to) rustle quarter, quarters, barracks (to) recruit dung, manure manure pile, dunghill
[Mercury’s day]
[stercoraceous]
For purple, it is English that has altered the original: purpura
púrpura
purple, purpura (med.) [OldEng. purpure]
The reverse pattern has occurred in several cases: b rr S l—r
haribergon (Germ.) arbitrium
albergar albergue (libre) albedrío arbitrio arbitrario árbitro arbitraje
brandir (Fr.) coriandrum precaria
blandir cilantro, culantro plegaria precario
(to) house, (to) shelter, (to) harbor lodging, inn, shelter (free) will, desire, whim (free) will, discretion (choice), judgment arbitrary arbiter, arbitrator, judge, referee arbitration, refereeing, umpiring, arbitrage (to) brandish, (to) wave coriander, cilantro ( Sp.) prayer, supplication precarious
[imprecation]
Hari- was Germanic for “army” (appearing also in Harold, harry, herald, harbinger), and bergian meant “shelter” (one means being to bury). The literal meaning of precarious is “obtained through entreaty or prayer”.
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templar
temperare
temple
intemperie a la intemperie
(to) temper, (to) warm up, (to) tune (guitar, etc.) temper (metal, person), temperament, courage, tuning (music), tempera (art) bad weather in the open air, exposed, unsheltered
[intemperate]
Similar dissimilations occurred with respect to the l—l combination: c ll S r—l OR l—r
colonnello (It.) lilium localis
coronel lirio lugar en lugar de lugarteniente local localidad localizar (to) localize
colonel lily, iris place in lieu of deputy, substitute, lieutenant local, premises (m.) locality, seat (theater), ticket (entry) (to) locate,
(OldSp. logar)
Spanish lugarteniente applies to civilians, the military term being simply teniente. In the sixteenth century, Italian colonnello (head of a column of soldiers) was imported by French, and for some time thereafter two competing forms coexisted: the “correct” (and modern French) colonel and a second form with dissimilation, coronel. It was this second form that was exported to both English and Spanish. The r—l spelling continued in English until the mid-seventeenth century, when “purists” succeeded in restoring the etymologically “correct” colonel. They were unsuccessful, however, in their attempts to “reform” the pronunciation, which is why today we continue to pronounce colonel as [keR•nel]. In one case (imported from French or Catalan), l—l became n—l: libella
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nivel nivelar desnivel
level (to) level (even, equalize) drop, difference in level, unevenness
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In some cases, instead of a dissimilation, the combination r—r has been reduced to a single r: d rr S r
appropriare
apropiar(se)
(to) appropriate (take possession [of]) appropriate appropriation (taking as one’s own) opprobrium orchestra orchestral (to) orchestrate orchestration one’s own, proper (suitable, characteristic) improper, unsuitable property, proprietorship [propriety] proprietary, owner, proprietor
apropiado (p.p.) apropiación opprobrium orchestra
proprius
oprobio orquesta orquestal orquestar orquestación propio impropio propiedad propietario (adj. & n.) expropiar expropiación
(to) expropriate expropriation
In each of the above examples it is the second r that has disappeared. The first r disappeared in: cremare
quemar quemadura quemador quemazón (f.) a quemarropa
prostrare
retro-guardia
postrar postrado (p.p.) postración retaguardia
scrutiniare
escudriñar
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(to) burn burn, sunburn burner (cooking, CD, etc.) burning (sensation) point-blank, at point-blank range (to) prostrate, (to) humble prostrate prostration rear guard, rear (n.), rearward (n.) (to) scrutinize
[cremate]
From a + quemar + ropa, literally “[close enough] to cremate [their] robes”.
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
In several cases, r and l have reversed positions, a phenomenon known as metathesis: e rl S l—r OR lr S r—l
Algeria liquiritia miraculum parabola
periculum
Argelia regaliz milagro milagroso palabra palabrería parábola peligro peligroso peligrar poner en peligro
Algeria licorice miracle miraculous word palaver (idle chatter) parable, parabola danger, peril dangerous, perilous, parlous (to) be in danger (to) imperil
(Eng. Port.)
In several cases, r—l lost the r: f rl S l
tremulare
triplum
temblar temblor tembloroso estremecer tiple
(to) tremble, (to) shake tremble, tremor, quake, temblor ( Sp.) trembling, tremulous, shaking (to) shake, (to) tremble treble or soprano (voice), soprano (singer), musical instrument (similar to guitar)
In a number of cases, a single r has changed to l, or vice versa. g r S l OR l S r (The first change is by far the more common.)
ancora
bursa
ancla anclaje anclar bolsa
bolso bolsillo
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anchor anchorage (to) anchor, (to) cast anchor bag (shopping, trash), pouch, purse, burse, stock market, stock exchange, bursa purse, ladies’ handbag pocket
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embolsar
catharina christophorus cramp (Germ.)
reembolsar bursátil bursitis Catalina Cristóbal calambre
fret (Fr.)
flete fletar
papyrus practica
qirat ( Arab Greek) Säbel (German) scorta (It.) spora (Germ.)
papel papiro plática platicar quilate sable escolta escoltar espuela espolear espolón
(to) pocket, (to) be paid (money) (to) reimburse stock-market (adj.) bursitis Catherine, Katharine Christopher cramp, electric shock (sensation) freight, cargo, freight charge (to) charter (ship, etc.), (to) freight (load) paper, role (part) papyrus chat, conversation, brief sermon (to) chat, (to) converse carat
[† imburse]
( Gk.) ( Gk.)
[practice]
sabre / saber escort (to) escort spur (to) spur, (to) spur on spur (bone, bird), breakwater, jetty temperance, moderation darkness, Tenebrae (eccl.) tenebrous (dark and gloomy)
temperantia tenebras
templanza tinieblas (pl.) tenebroso
flasco ( Germ.)
frasco
flask, vial
fiasco
fiasco
( It.)
In this case it is French (and hence English) that has made the “mistake”, changing the l of German Säbel (itself of Hungarian origin) to r.
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h r: SHIFT IN POSITION
Finally, on a few occasions, r shifted place within the word. This is a phenomenon that has also occurred occasionally in English, two prominent examples being: Old English
Modern English
brid thridda
bird third
Spanish examples include: abbracchicare
abarcar
crepare crocodilus crusta
quebrar cocodrilo costra crustáceo incrustar entregar entrega integrar madrugar madrugada
integrare
maturicare
skirmyan (Germ.)
esgrimir
(to) embrace, (to) encompass, (to) take in (to) break, (to) go bankrupt crocodile crust, scab crustacean (lobsters, crabs, etc.) (to) encrust, (to) inlay (to) deliver, (to) hand over delivery (to) integrate (various senses) (to) get up early dawn, early morning ( a.m.— daybreak) (to) brandish, (to) fence
[decrepit]
[mature]
[skirmish]
A similar change occurred with respect to l in one very common word: oblitare
olvidar olvido olvidadizo
(to) forget forgetfulness, oversight, oblivion forgetful, absent-minded
In Latin, the word for “arm” could have two forms, brachium or bracchium. The fi rst gave rise to brazo and abrazar (“to embrace”), as well as to English brace; the second, to abracar (still found in some dictionaries), which later became abarcar. In English, it was also cocodrille until the “classicists” restored the “correct” form in the sixteenth century. A similar attempt was made in Spanish, but without success (although crocodilo can still be found as a variant in some dictionaries).
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Such interchanges of letters were not limited to r and l; they occasionally occurred when an interior vowel disappeared and thereby produced a combination of consonants difficult to pronounce, e.g., tenerum titulare
S S
ten_rum tid_lare
S S
tienro tidlar
S S
tierno tildar
(nr S rn) (dl S ld)
. b v One feature of Spanish that English speakers often find somewhat surprising is that there is absolutely no difference in pronunciation between the sounds represented by the letters b and v. They are both pronounced as follows: Initial [b] balcón blanco valor vino
Interior Following m/n [b] ambiguo sombrero invención convexo
Otherwise [v] labor doble grave larva
As a result of this “confusion” between b and v, many originally distinct words are now pronounced indistinguishably. Examples include: baca basto bello botar grabar haber
vaca vasto vello votar gravar a ver
roof rack coarse, rough beautiful (to) fling (to) engrave (to) have
cow vast down, fuzz (to) vote (to) tax “let’s see”
In this case (and for convexo as well), the [b] that follows the n causes the latter to change its pronunciation to [m]; the same principle accounts for English imbalance (not *inbalance) and combat (not *conbat). The mixing of b and v in the interior of words was common to all the Romance languages; thus, to English describe, which maintains the original b from Latin describere, correspond Italian descrivere and Portuguese descrever (and French nous décrivons). Spanish was unique in extending the b/v equality to the beginning of the word. Only as an auxiliary verb (e.g., he escrito I have written). In the sense of possession, “have” is translated by tener.
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Nobel sabia tubo
novel savia tuvo (verb. tener)
Nobel wise tube
novel (adj.) sap “he had”
Some Spanish words have initial v where in English (and other Romance languages) they begin with b, and conversely: claire-voie (Fr.) veronix vogue (Fr.) vota vultur baron (Germ.)
binda (Germ.)
Bizkaia (Basque)
claraboya barniz barnizar boga boda buitre
skylight varnish (to) varnish vogue, fashion wedding vulture
varón varonil barón, baronesa venda venda en los ojos vendaje vendar Golfo de Vizcaya
male, male person manly, virile baron, baroness bandage blindfold (figurative) bandage, dressing (to) bandage Bay of Biscay
[Bernice, Veronica]
[vows]
[baron]
Spanish has restored a written b (pronounced [v]) in a few words to make them more etymologically “correct”; the corresponding English words (via French) have a v. Examples include: caballus
gubernare taberna
caballo caballero caballería cabalgata gobernar
horse, knight (chess) cavalier, knight, gentleman cavalry cavalcade (to) govern, (to) steer (nautical)
taberna tabernero
tavern, bar tavern keeper, bartender
(OldSp. cavallo)
(OldSp. governar) (OldSp. taverna)
The boya comes ultimately from Latin via (“way”, “road”) and corresponds to the -voy in English envoy and convoy. Since via is cognate with Germanic way, a claraboya is etymologically a “clear way”.
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In grabar, taken from French graver (of Germanic origin), modern Spanish has also “restored” b: graver (Fr.)
grabar grabado (p.p.) grabación
(to) engrave, (to) record (disk, etc.) engraving recording (of program, etc.)
French javeline was likewise transformed, thus producing confusion between a javelin and a female wild boar (the male being a jabalí): javeline (Fr.)
jabalina
javelin, female wild boar
Spanish has not restored the Latin b in móvil, presumably due to the influence of the related verb mover: mobilis movere
móvil automóvil mover
mobile, mobile phone automobile (to) move
Finally, the b in English “Basque” corresponds to a Spanish v: vasco vascuence
Basque (adj., inhabitant, language—m.) Basque (language)
Pronunciation Note The typical Spanish pronunciation of v differs marginally from that of English: in Spanish, it is pronounced with the lips together (as with b in both languages), whereas in English (and the other Romance languages), it is articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth. For a linguist, the difference is between a bilabial fricative (Spanish) and a labiodental one (English). The standard phonetic symbol for the Spanish v pronunciation is , and this is what is generally shown in dictionaries that provide pronunciations for Spanish words. The use of the Greek symbol can be a bit confusing in this context, however, since this sound corresponds neither to the pronunciation of Classical Greek (beta), which was [b], nor to that of Modern Greek , which is [v].
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. NCT S nt The change from nct to nt is a universal change, occurring in “learned” as well as “popular” words. defunctus
difunto
distinctus
defunción distinto distintivo
extinctus
distinción distinguir extinto extintor extinguir
instinctus puncta
extinción instinto instintivo punta puntapié puntería apuntar
punctum
sanctus
subjunctivus succinctus tincta
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apunte punto puntuación puntuar puntual santo santidad santuario subjuntivo sucinto tinta tinta china
defunct, dead, deceased (adj. & n.) death, demise distinct, different distinctive, badge or distinguishing mark distinction, honor (to) distinguish, (to) honor extinct, extinguished fire extinguisher (to) extinguish, (to) become extinct extinction (fire, animal) instinct instinctive point (sharp or tapering end), tip kick aim, marksmanship (to) point, (to) aim, (to) make a note of note, rough sketch, notes (pl.) point (dot, idea, unit of scoring, etc.) punctuation (to) punctuate punctual saintly, holy, saint (m./f.) sanctity, holiness, saintliness, sainthood sanctuary subjunctive (adj. & n.) succinct, brief ink India ink
[defunctness] [old p.p.]
(old p.p.)
(punta + pie)
There are only a handful of exceptions, the most common being plancton (“plankton”).
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tinte tinto
dyeing, dye, tint, tinge red (wine), black coffee (Amer.) tincture dry cleaner’s (also for dyeing) (to) dye, (to) tint, (to) tinge
tintura tintorería teñir
(old p.p.)
(see b below)
. SC(I) S c The treatment of Latin sc(i) was far from uniform: centella —centellear ciencia —científico ciático —ciática necio —necedad
lightning, scintilla (spark, flash) —(to) scintillate, (to) sparkle science —scientific, scientist (m./f.) sciatic —sciatica (pain in the sciatic nerve) foolish, inane, stupid (or such a person) —foolishness, inanity, stupidity
(Lat. scintilla)
[nice, nescient] [nicety, nescience]
For an explanation of the rather startling difference in meaning between Spanish necio and English nice, see the appendix. suscitar —susceptible —resucitar —resucitación
(to) provoke, (to) stir up —susceptible —(to) resuscitate —resuscitation
[† suscitate]
Also: cisma (m.)
schism, split
The case of “consciousness” is particularly confusing: consciente inconsciente consciencia
conscious (“aware”—with ser; “awake”—with estar) unconscious (“unwitting”—with ser; “senseless”— with estar) consciousness
Th is convenient division does not always hold in the Americas, where estar consciente is not infrequently used in the sense of “to be aware”.
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inconsciencia subconsciente (adj. & n.) conciencia —a conciencia —objetor de conciencia concienzudo concienciar, concientizar
unconsciousness (lack of awareness, medical state), thoughtlessness subconscious conscience, consciousness —conscientiously ( concienzudamente) —conscientious objector conscientious, thorough (done conscientiously) (to) make aware, i.e., make someone conscious of something
Most other words have conserved sci, e.g., discípulo —disciplina fascículo fascinación —fascinar —fascinante fascismo —fascista lascivo —lascivia oscilación —oscilar piscina plebiscito
disciple, pupil —discipline (academic subject, rules, training) fascicle (one of the parts of a book published in installments) fascination —(to) fascinate (incl. obsolete Eng. sense “to bewitch”) —fascinating fascism —fascist (adj. & n.) lascivious —lasciviousness oscillation, fluctuation —(to) oscillate, (to) fluctuate swimming pool plebiscite
[piscina]
. -mbre The -mbre ending has two principal sources: (a). A number of Spanish feminine nouns that “should” end in -tud (Section .) instead have a more “popular” form ending in -dumbre. certidumbre costumbre —acostumbrar
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certitude custom, habit, consuetude —(to) accustom, (to) be accustomed to
[costume]
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—consuetudinario —derecho consuetudinario incertidumbre mansedumbre muchedumbre —multitud pesadumbre podredumbre servidumbre
—customary, habitual, consuetudinary —common law incertitude gentleness, tameness, mansuetude multitude (of people, objects, animals) —multitude grief, sorrow rottenness, putrefaction servitude, subjection, servants (household)
(“heavy” feeling) [† putritude]
(b). min S mbr In a number of words, the i between vowels disappeared at the Vulgar Latin stage, and the resulting consonant combination mn was subsequently replaced by mbr, which was easier to pronounce. Thus, for nomen (“name”): NOMINEM (VL ACC .) S noM
_ NEM S nombre
Words with similar origin include: aluminem faminem femina ferruminem hominem
leguminem luminem
alumbre (m.) aluminio hambre (f.) hembra herrumbre hombre hombría gentilhombre superhombre legumbre leguminoso lumbre lumen luminoso alumbrar alumbramiento
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alum aluminum hunger, famine female (animal) rust man moral qualities: fortitude, etc. gentleman superman legume, vegetable leguminous light, fire lumen (unit of light) luminous (to) illuminate, (to) give birth childbirth
(UK aluminium) [feminine] [ferrous] [homo, hominid]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
deslumbrar deslumbrante relumbrar vislumbrar
nominem
vislumbre nombre nombrar pronombre renombre sobrenombre
seminare
culminem
nomenclatura sembrar sembrador sembradora seminario diseminar cumbre encumbrar culminar culminante culminación
(to) dazzle, (to) blind (with light) dazzling (to) shine brightly (to) glimpse, (to) begin to see glimpse, glimmer name, noun (to) appoint, (to) name, (to) nominate pronoun renown surname (e.g., William the Conqueror) nomenclature (to) sow sower (person) sowing machine, female sower seminary, seminar (to) disseminate summit (peak, conference) (to) elevate, (to) exalt (to) culminate highest, culminating culmination
[culminate] [ encumber !]
Note the elimination of l as well in the final example. Latin humerus (“shoulder”, “upper arm”) underwent a similar transformation: humerus S hum_rus S hombro
shoulder
[humerus]
Spanish nombre is a source of potential confusion for English speakers, especially those who know some French. In French, Latin numerus (“number”)
English name is of Germanic origin and comes from the same Indo-European root as Latin nomen—nominem.
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underwent a transformation analogous to that of humerus in Spanish and became nombre, the source of English number. Hence: Spanish
French
English
nombre nombrar número numerar
nom nommer nombre, numéro (dé)nombrer
name (to) name number (to) number
. ñ Probably the most striking figure of Spanish orthography for a foreigner learning the language is the presence of an altogether new character: ñ. This represents a palatized nasal consonant, essentially a combination of the sounds [n] and [y]. The pronunciation is similar to that in English canyon (which comes from Spanish), but with the important difference that in Spanish the [ny] sound is restricted to a single syllable: English Spanish
canyon cañón
[can•yon] [ca•ñón]
The palatized [n] is common to all the major Romance languages (apart from Romanian), but the similar pronunciations are masked by a variety of different symbols: Spanish España señor
Portuguese Espanha senhor
French Espagne seigneur
Catalan Espanya senyor
Italian Spagna signore
English Spain, spaniel senior, sir, sire
The palatized [n] sound arose from at least four different combinations of sounds: a ne, ni + vowel
aranea balneum
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araña baño bañera bañar balneario
spider bath, bathtub, bathroom bathtub (to) bathe public baths (esp. medicinal), spa ( baños)
[arachnophobia] [balneal, bagnio]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
rebañar
campania castanea
rebaño campaña castaña castañeta castañuela castaño
compania
compañía
cuneus
compañero cuño
extraneus
cuña acuñar extraño extrañar me extraña que . . . te extraño mucho extrañeza
hispania
extranjero (en) el extranjero España español (-ola) hispánico hispanohablante
(to) gather up remnants (esp. of meal, using a piece of bread) flock, herd campaign chestnut (fruit) snapping of the fingers, castanet castanet (freq. pl.) chestnut (tree, wood, color) company (commercial, social, military unit) companion die (for stamping coins, medals, etc.) wedge, bedpan (to) coin, (to) mint strange, foreign (object), stranger (m./f.) (to) find strange or odd, (to) miss it surprises me that . . . (“seems strange to me”) I miss you a lot (“feel estranged”) strangeness, surprise (caused by something strange) foreign, foreigner (m./f.) abroad Spain Spanish (adj. & n.), Spanish language (m.) Hispanic, Spanish Spanish-speaking, Spanish speaker (m./f.)
[quoin]
[stranger]
Rebañar and rebaño are unrelated to baño, but for the former, one can easily derive a “folk etymology”, i.e., “bathing” a piece of bread to soak up the remnants of a meal.
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pinea senior
piña señor
señora señorita señorío monseñor
pineapple, pine cone Mister, sir, gentleman, lord, the Lord (cap.), seigneur, seignior, sire, señor, signor, monsieur, Messrs. (pl.) woman, lady, Mrs., Madam, señora, signora young woman, Miss, señorita dominion, domain, lordship, seigniory Monsignor (Msgr.), Monseigneur
b gn, ng
cognatus constringere
cuñado constreñir
designare
diseñar diseño diseñador designar designación
dis-dignare
insignia
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designio desdeñar desdeñoso desdeñable
desdén enseña enseñar enseñanza insignia insigne
brother-in-law (to) constrain, (to) constrict, (to) constringe (to) design design designer (to) designate designation (incl. “nomination or appointment”) design (idea, intention) (to) disdain disdainful contemptible, insignificant (gen. used with negative, hence “not insignificant”, “not to be disdained”) disdain ensign (flag, banner) (to) teach, (to) show teaching, education insignia, banner renowned, famous
[cognate]
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P O P U L A R V O C A B U L A R Y: T H E S H A P E O F S PA N I S H
lignum
praegnare pugnus signa
leño leña leñador leñera lignito preñar puño seña lenguaje de señas señal (f.) señalar señalización señuelo signatario signo signo de admiración signo de interrogación contraseña reseña reseñar resignación
resignar stringere tam magnus
estreñir tamaño
log firewood woodcutter, lumberjack woodshed lignite (brown coal) (to) impregnate fist, cuff (shirt), hilt sign (gesture), description (pl.), address (pl.) sign language ( lenguaje de signos) signal, sign, (distinctive) mark (to) signal, (to) mark signalization, (system of) traffic signals decoy, lure, enticement signatory ( firmante) sign, mark exclamation point (¡ . . . !)
[pugnacious]
question mark (¿ . . . ?) password, countersign brief description, review (published) (to) give a brief description, (to) review resignation (acceptance of one’s fate, less frequently from a job) (to) resign, (to) resign oneself (to) constipate very big, such a large, size (m.)
[stringent] [magnitude]
In English, the exclamation point was for a long time known as a note of admiration. Th is definition was still in use in the early twentieth century, as attested by the following entry from Webster’s Revised Unabridged Dictionary (): “Note of admiration, the mark (!), called also exclamation point.”
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tangere
tañer
tingere
teñir
(to) play a musical instrument (to) dye or tint
[tangible]
c mn
autumnus damnare
otoño dañar
somniare somnium somnus
dañino daño soñar sueño () sueño ()
autumn (to) damage, (to) harm, (to) spoil (fruit, harvest) harmful, damaging ( dañoso) damage (to) dream dream sleep, sleepiness
[somnolent]
In several cases, the mn combination arose through the disappearance of an intervening i: dom(i)nus
dom(i)na
dueño don
owner, master, landlord title of respect (with first name: don Juan) Mr. Nobody owner, mistress, landlady title of respect (with first name: doña Beatriz)
don nadie dueña doña
[Dom, Don]
[prima donna]
d nn
annus
año
year
(Additional examples of nn S ñ are given in Section ..)
. Orthographic Changes due to Nature of Following Vowel In Spanish, the letters c and g, as well as the combination gu, each represent two completely different sounds depending on the nature of the following vowel. This is illustrated below, where the English correspondences of the two sounds are given as well as examples of Spanish words with the contrasting pronunciations.
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Spanish c
() back—a/o/u [k], as in cat
() front—e/i [ ], as in thin or [s], as in sin
() cana
() cena
g
[g], as in go
[h*], as in hotel
gol
gel
gu
[gw], as in linguistic
[g], as in go
guarda
guerra
The large majority of the Spanish-speaking world pronounces “soft” c as [s] rather than [ ]. Note that there are a total of five consonant sounds involved: [k], [ ] or [s], [g], [gw], [h*]. To maintain a consistent pronunciation of these five sounds in related words where the following vowels may differ in nature (front or back), a series of regular orthographic modifications takes place. This is illustrated in the table below: REGULAR ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS
Sound
() e/i
()
()
[k]
() a/o/u or consonant, or at end of word c
qu
monarca
monarquía
[ ] / [s]
z
c
pez
peces (pl.)
[g]
g
gu
despegar
despegue
[gw]
gu
gü
lengua
bilingüe
[h*]
j
j or g
erijo (“I erect”)
erigir (inf.) tejer (inf.)
tejo (“I weave”)
The written form for the first four of these sounds is always determined uniquely by the nature of the following letter. For [h*] there is a well-defined rule for back vowels, but before front vowels there is ambiguity. Note that as a result of this rule, the letter combinations ze and zi theoretically should never occur. Hence the following contrasts between English and Spanish: bronce celo —celoso
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bronze zeal, ardor, heat (animals) —zealous, jealous
(Lat. zelosus)
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cero chimpancé
zero chimpanzee
Nevertheless, in a number of common “international” words like zebra and zinc, the ze/zi forms coexist with the ce/ci ones. The RAE generally prefers the forms with ce/ci: acimut, azimut bencina / benzina cebra / zebra cenit / zenit cinc / zinc eccema / eczema (m.) zeta / (ceta ) kamikaze / camicace
azimuth benzine zebra zenith zinc eczema zeta, the letter “z”, zed (UK) kamikaze
(also cénit / zénit)
Notwithstanding the RAE’s preference, apart from bencina and cebra, the ze/zi forms seem to be more common. Some words have resisted all efforts at normalization and offer only the ze/zi possibility: enzima jacuzzi nazi neozelandés (-esa) pizzería —pizza zen zepelín Zeus zigzag —zigzaguear
enzyme jacuzzi Nazi New Zealander pizzeria —pizza zen Zeppelin (dirigible) Zeus zigzag —(to) zigzag
(both from French)
Spanish has imported a number of -age words from French. While these could have been spelled with -age, the ending chosen was -aje (with no effect on the Ceta was eliminated in from the RAE’s Diccionario, though it is still found frequently in other dictionaries. If a c were used rather than z, it would become indistinguishable from the extremely common adverb encima (“over”, “above”). The RAE has recently proposed yacusi as a substitute for the decidedly un-Spanish-looking jacuzzi. Formerly neocelandés.
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pronunciation). Hence the correspondence between English -age words (all from French) and Spanish -aje ones. Examples include: fuselaje homenaje maquillaje mensaje —mensajero pasaje —pasajero pillaje potaje sabotaje
fuselage homage makeup, maquillage message —messenger passage, ticket (boat, airplane), passengers (as group) —passing (temporary), passenger (m./f.) pillage, looting pottage (vegetable stew), hodgepodge sabotage
Appendix Semantic Evolution: How “nice” is nice? Spanish necio and English nice both come from Latin nescius (“unknowing”, “ignorant”). Nice is the archetype of a word undergoing major semantic evolution, as shown by a partial listing of its various English meanings over the past seven hundred years: () foolish, stupid (i.e., necio) () wanton, lascivious () extravagant () elegant () rare () lazy () effeminate () delicate () luxurious () shy () dainty () fastidious () cultured () intricate () subtle () slender () trivial () pleasant and agreeable (i.e., “nice”).
Nicety has undergone a similar evolution in sense—from “foolish or irresponsible conduct” to “delicacy of character or feeling”. English nescience (“ignorance”) from Latin nescientia—literally “not science”— and nescient (“ignorant”) preserve the original Latin meanings.
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PA R T I V
S E L E C T E D TO PI C S
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S E C T I O N .
Goths and Other Germans
In the late fourth and early fift h centuries, the Western Roman Empire was devastated by numerous attacks by “barbarians”, for the most part Germanic tribes that had previously been allied to Rome and had served a key role in guarding the frontier. Rome was sacked by the Visigoths in , and in the Western Roman Empire came to an end when the Germanic warrior Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, the last of the (western) emperors. The Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) was controlled by a succession of Germanic tribes for three centuries, from the waning years of the Western Roman Empire to the arrival of the Arabs in . The first of the Germanic tribes to reach Spain were the Vandals in . vándalo vandalismo —acto vandálico
Vandal, vandal vandalism —act of vandalism
The Vandals’ twenty-year passage through Spain on their way to Africa left little mark, except (probably) the name of Andalucía, whose origin is generally seen as “Portus [V]andalus”. The Vandals were followed by the Visigoths, who remained in control of most of Spain until , establishing their capital at Toledo and their most important settlements in the central meseta (“tableland”). godo —gótico visigodo ostrogodo
Gothic (people), Goth —Gothic (artistic style, people, language, print) Visigothic, Visigoth Ostrogothic, Ostrogoth
[west Goth] [east Goth]
For the first century and a half of their presence in Spain, the Visigoths did not mix very much with the locals—who are estimated to have outnumbered them by about thirty to one—largely because of religious differences; though both they and the local Hispano-Roman inhabitants were Christians, the Visigoths adhered to the Arian “heresy” that denied the divinity of Christ. In retrospect, this separation had its positive aspects, particularly for the relatively large Jewish community: following the “abjuration” of the Arian faith by the Visigothic king Recared in , a theocracy was established that exhibited a degree of
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religious intolerance and persecution exceeding that of the later, and more famous, Spanish Inquisition. A series of anti-Jewish laws in the late seventh century, for example, forbade circumcision under penalty of castration (for circumcisee and circumciser alike). In a law was approved under which all Spanish Jews were to be reduced to slaves and distributed among the rich and pious, with Jewish children up to the age of seven separated from their parents so they would receive a proper Christian education. The Visigoths (“Western Goths”) had spent several centuries passing through various parts of Western Europe before crossing the Pyrenees into Spain in . They had already been largely “Latinized”, so instead of imposing their Germanic language on their Spanish subjects they saw it disappear. The linguistic heritage of the Visigoths was thus very limited, although they did introduce a number of proper names to Spain (and subsequently to Spanish), including: Alfonso, Álvaro, Elvira, Fernando, Gonzalo, Ildefonso, Ramiro, Rodrigo
In the development of the Spanish language, the Visigothic period is the least well known, reflecting the relative scarcity of written documents from the period. While there are a significant number of words of Germanic origin in Spanish, it is generally difficult to distinguish between those that are the result of the Visigothic presence in Spain and those that (a) had been previously “Latinized” from Germanic languages (including Visigothic) in other parts of the Empire, or (b) came to Spain at a later stage through France, during the reign of (the Germanic) Charlemagne and his successors.
Spanish words believed to be of Visigothic origin include: bregar brotar —brote espía —espiar
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(to) toil, (to) struggle (to) sprout, (to) gush, (to) break out —bud, shoot, outbreak (fire, disease, etc.) spy (m./f.) —(to) spy
[break]
Bonnassie et al., –. For a woman circumciser, the penalty was loss of her nose.
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GOTHS AND OTHER GERMANS
—espionaje esquilar gaita ganso tregua —sin tregua
—espionage (to) shear (wool or hair) bagpipes goose truce —without a break, nonstop
(r S l, Section .) [goat]
Before introducing “general” Germanic words, two features can be observed: ) Germanic h has in most cases been dropped from the spelling. This contrasts to the large majority of h- words from Latin (habitante, heroísmo, honesto, etc.) in which the h, which had initially been dropped, has been restored to the spelling (but not to the pronunciation). Thus: albergar alto () arenga arenque arnés arpa arpón Enrique izar obús (via Fr.) yelmo
(to) harbor or lodge halt, stop (both interjection and noun) harangue (gen. w/out neg. connotation), speech herring harness (incl. archaic “armor”), equipment (climbing, etc.) harp harpoon Henry (to) hoist, (to) raise (e.g., flag) howitzer, artillery shell helmet
(r-r S l-r)
[heist]
) Germanic words beginning with w- generally appear in Spanish with initial gu-. These frequently correspond to English words beginning with w-, gu-, or ga-. guarda —guardar
guard (m./f.), safekeeping or custody (f.) —(to) guard, (to) keep or store, (to) watch over
To be distinguished from alto () meaning “tall”, “high”, which comes from Latin altus. The ye in yelmo represents a normal “diphthong” of the vowel e in helmet (see Section .), with the diphthong ie written ye at the beginning of a word.
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—aguardar —guardaespaldas (m./f.) —guardacostas —guardarropa —guardería —guardia —la Guardia Civil —guardián (-ana) —resguardar —retaguardia —vanguardia guarnecer —guarecer —garaje ( Fr.) —garita ( Fr.) guerra —guerrero —guerrilla —guerrillero guiño —guiñar —guiñol guisa guía —guiar —guion, guión (m.)
—(to) wait, (to) await —bodyguard (literally “back-guard”) —coastguard vessel —cloakroom, wardrobe —nursery (school), daycare center —guard (group—f.; person —m./f.), safekeeping (f.) —Civil Guard (rural police) —guardian, watchman (or -woman) —(to) protect, (to) protect against (cold, rain, etc.) —rear guard, rear (n.), rearward (n.) —vanguard, avant-garde (to) garnish, (to) equip, (to) garrison —(to) shelter, (to) protect —garage —sentry box, gatekeeper’s box war —martial, war-like, warrior —guerrilla warfare, guerrilla force or band —guerrilla fighter wink —(to) wink —puppet show manner, mode guide (m./f.), guidance (f.), guide(book) (f.) —(to) guide —outline, fi lm script, hyphen
[garret]
[Grand Guignol] [guise, wise]
Spanish retaguardia was initially retroguardia and corresponds to English (via French) rear guard and rearward. English rear is a shortened form of rearward (“the rear guard of an armed force”, “at the rear”).
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Historical Note When French and Spanish sought to adopt Germanic words beginning with the sound [w], they faced a common problem: although this sound had existed in Classical Latin (written v ), it had disappeared from their respective languages many centuries before. But both languages still maintained the [gw] sound of Classical Latin, represented by the letter combination gu. So in the absence of a “true” [w], they used the next best thing, hence the gu- in words such as guerra, guardar, etc. “Central” French subsequently lost the [w] element in the pronunciation of [gw], while in Spanish the [w] element was preserved only when the following vowel was a or o. Norman French, on the other hand, did have the [w] sound, and it was the Normans who conquered England in and maintained their version of “Anglo-Norman” French for some time thereafter. A number of Germanic w words arrived in English via Norman French with the [w] sound and spelling intact, only to be joined at a later date by the same word displaying the trademark central French gu, which by that time was pronounced simply [g]. Thus in English one has the doublets: guard guardian guarantee guardroom rear guard guile guise
ward (
In gua- words, French subsequently dropped the u- from the spelling as well (thus English guard corresponds to French garde), and some English words reflect this change: gage and engage (vs. wage), garage (cf. rabbit warren), garderobe (vs. wardrobe), garment, garnish, garret, garrison, regard (vs. guard and reward), etc.
Thus Caesar’s famous victory announcement veni vidi vici (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) was pronounced [weni widi wiki]. Hence guardar is pronounced with initial [gw], guisa with initial [g]. In the rare situation in which gue or gui is pronounced in Spanish with [gw], this is indicated by adding a dieresis (two dots) to the u, e.g., lingüista (see Section ., no. ).
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Other common words of Germanic origin, Visigothic or otherwise, include: alemán —Alemania germánico —germano
German (adj. & n.), German language —Germany Germanic (less frequently: German) —Germanic, German
[allemande] [Alemanni]
In Classical times, the Romans referred to the barbarians to the north as germani and to their country or region as germania, and these are the names that subsequently entered English. The alamanni (or alemanni) were a loosely knit confederation of Germanic peoples, first mentioned by the Romans in AD , who in the fift h century expanded into Alsace and northern Switzerland before being conquered by the Frankish king Clovis and absorbed into his dominions. They bequeathed their name—which probably comes from all man—to French, Spanish, and Portuguese, while the Italians refer to the Germans as Tedesco (from theodiscus, the Medieval Latin form of Deutsch, which also gave rise to English Dutch). banca —bancario —bancarrota —banco —banco de arena —banco de datos —banquero —banqueta —banquete banda ()
—bandada —bandazo —bandera
banking, banking system, bank (gambling), bench —banking (adj.) —bankruptcy —bench, bank, school (of fish) —sandbank, sandbar, shoal —data bank —banker —stool ( taburete), footstool —banquet, feast
[ruptured bench]
[banquette] ( Fr.)
band (musicians, people, animals), side or border —flock (of birds; also fish, people) —lurch (ship, car, point of view) —flag, banner
In English, “Alemannic” refers to the dialects of German spoken in Switzerland, Alsace, and southwestern Germany. From Italian, where it is said that the benches of insolvent bankers/merchants were broken to show that they were no longer in business. The idea, if not the origin, is parallel to the English expression “to be broke”. In the sense of an object for sitting, a banco may (or may not) have a back support, whereas (according to the DRAE) a banca does not, at least in Spain.
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—banderola —bandeja —desbandada
—banderole, pennant, signal flag —tray ( bandage !) —scattering, disbanding, disbandment —in disorder, pell-mell ( en desbandada) scarf, sash, strip, ribbon (award), band (range) —sound track (cinema) edict, proclamation —smuggling, contraband —smuggler —bandit faction or side (of a dispute) —bandit —bandolier / bandoleer (cartridge belt worn across chest)
—a la desbandada banda () —banda sonora bando () —contrabando —contrabandista —bandido bando () —bandolero —bandolera
[ban, banns]
Banda () was initially a group of armed men (rallying around the bandera) before acquiring the more general meaning of a group of people. A Spanish desbandada generally involves more disorder than its English etymological equivalent. blanco brecha brindis (pl. brindis)
white, target breach, gap, head wound a toast (that one offers)
[blank]
This corresponds directly to German ich bring dir’s, “I bring it to you”. It can also be used more generally. —brindar
—(to) toast, (to) offer, (to) present
Brindó su amistad al recién llegado. “He offered his friendship to the new arrival.” esquivar
(to) dodge or avoid, (to) shy away from, (to) eschew
Th is comes from Portuguese, where a bandeja was an instrument for winnowing grain—i.e., separating it into two bands (the wheat and the chaff ). In appearance a bandeja was similar to a serving tray, and the defi nition was subsequently expanded to include this as well. This secondary defi nition was then exported to Spanish.
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—esquivo falda —minifalda
—aloof, unsociable skirt (clothing), lower part of a mountain —miniskirt
[shy] [faldstool]
Falda comes from the same Germanic root that produced English fold (fald in Middle English). feudal —feudo franco (adj.) —francamente —franco (n.) —Francia —francés (-esa) —francotirador —franquear
feudal —fief, fee or feud (in feudal law) frank, free (of obstacle, charge), Frankish, Franco—frankly —franc (currency), the Franks (pl.) —France —French, Frenchman/Frenchwoman —sniper —(to) free (remove obstacle), (to) get over or across, (to) pay postage
on—i.e., (to) frank a letter —franqueo —franquicia —franqueza fresco (adj. & n.) —fresca —frescor —frescura —refrescar —refresco
—postage —franchise (incl. exemption or immunity) —frankness fresh (incl. “impudent”), cool, coolness, fresco —cool air (morning, evening), fresh remark —freshness, coolness —freshness (incl. “impudence”), coolness —(to) refresh, (to) cool —refreshment, soft drink
[alfresco]
While fresco is associated with Italian (painting on fresh plaster), by origin it is Germanic. gabardina gajes del oficio (pl.) ganar —gana
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gabardine, raincoat occupational hazards (or pains) (to) win, (to) earn —desire, inclination
[wages of office] [gain]
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Esta mañana no tengo ninguna gana de levantarme de la cama. This morning I have no desire to get out of bed. He dejado un poco de la comida en el plato porque no tengo más ganas. I have left some food on my plate because I have no further inclination to eat (I’m full). —ganancia —ganador (adj. & n.) —ganado (p.p.) —ganado vacuno/bovino —ganado ovino —ganado porcino —ganadería
—gain, profit —winning, winner (m./f.) —livestock —cattle —sheep —pigs, swine —animal husbandry, livestock (of region, country)
For ganar, the original Germanic meant “to obtain food”, “to graze cattle”. This subsequently acquired the broader meaning of obtaining a material profit by work, by good fortune, or by gambling. The agricultural sense is no longer associated with English gain but is preserved in Spanish ganado and ganadería. gris guante —guantelete —aguantar —aguante
gray glove —gauntlet (protective glove worn with medieval armor) —(to) support, (to) tolerate, (to) bear —endurance, stamina
[grizzly, grisaille]
The English expression to throw down the gauntlet (or gantlet) thus literally means to throw one’s glove in front of one’s adversary in order to initiate a challenge. In a few cases an original gua has subsequently become ga: galardón —galardonar garantía
guerdon (reward, recompense) —(to) guerdon (reward, recompense) guarantee, warranty, guaranty
The obsolete English word gainage meant “profit or produce derived from the tillage of land”. The expression “to run the gauntlet (or gantlet)” has nothing to do with gloves, however. It comes from a traditional Swedish military punishment known as the gatlopp (from Swedish gata, “street” lopp, “race”), and its initial English form—already showing the “corrupting” influence of gauntlet—was gantelope.
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—garantizar gastar —gasto —desgastar —desgaste —malgastar
—(to) guarantee, (to) warrant (to) spend, (to) use up, (to) waste —expenditure, expense —(to) wear away, (to) wear down (or out) —wear, wear and tear —(to) waste (money, time, effort)
Spanish gastar and English waste both represent a mixture of related Latin and Germanic words: the basic source was Latin vastare (“to devastate”), but the initial v- was altered due to the influence of the corresponding Germanic word. The original Latin v remains in several “learned” Spanish (and English) words. vasto —devastar —devastación —devastador
vast —(to) devastate —devastation —devastating
hacha jabón —jabonera
ax, hatchet soap —soap dish
The Germanic word for soap—initially a substance used to dye the hair red before a battle—was taken into Medieval Latin as sapo(n), and this should have become sabón in Spanish (cf. French savon, Italian sapone, Portuguese sabão, Old English sape). However, the initial s came to be pronounced [sh], a phenomenon that occurred for several other words as well (see Section ., no. ), hence Old Spanish xabón. When Spanish [sh] changed to its “modern” pronunciation [h*], the spelling became jabón. marcar —marca —marcha ( Fr.) —poner en marcha —marchar —demarcación —comarca —marcador —marqués
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(to) mark, (to) dial (telephone), (to) score —mark, brand, record (sports) —march, departure —(to) start (put in operation) —(to) march, (to) walk, (to) function —demarcation —region, district —scoreboard, marker (medical, scientific) —marquis, marchese
The initial idea of “vast” was an empty or devastated place.
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—marquesa —marco
—marchioness, marchesa —frame (door, picture), framework, mark (currency)
The Germanic roots of marcar have left a significant mark on English and the Romance languages. In its remote origin, marka signified a “sign marking a boundary or frontier”, hence a neighboring territory. A related form of the word came to signify the act of placement of border markers, whence French marcher and English to march. Marches are a border region: thus the Welsh Marches is a historical name for the parts of England along the border of Wales, while the Spanish March (Marca Hispánica) was the name given to Catalonia when it was under the control of the Franks following its recapture from the Muslims. A marquis was originally the ruler of border or frontier districts, and his Germanic equivalent was a margrave. A mark was a coin bearing an official mark attesting to its value. mariscal quilla rango rico —riqueza —enriquecer robar —robo ropa —ropa interior —ropa sucia
marshal keel (ship, bird) rank rich, delicious —riches, wealth —(to) enrich, (to) become rich (to) rob —robbery clothes, clothing —underwear —(dirty) laundry
(lit. “mare servant”)
[Third Reich]
[robe]
English robe and Spanish ropa come from the respective verbs rob and robar and originally had the sense of “spoil” or “booty”—thus one acquired one’s robes through robbery. saga sala —salón sopa
saga living room, large room for public activities —living room, salon, restaurant/hotel dining room soup
[rare salle] [saloon]
Note that riqueza is singular, whereas its English cognate riches is plural. Th is is due to the fact that when French richesse arrived in English, it was mistakenly perceived as a plural because of its fi nal [s] sound.
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Appendix . North, South, East, West norte este sur oeste —noreste, nordeste —noroeste —sudeste, sureste —sudoeste, suroeste
north east south west —northeast —northwest —southeast —southwest
Note that while “south” is sur, in combinations in which the following word begins with a vowel, it is more commonly sud-: sudafricano / surafricano —Sudáfrica / Suráfrica —África del Sur sudamericano, suramericano —Sudamérica, América del Sur
South African —South Africa —southern Africa South American —South America
(also Suramérica )
but surcoreano
South Korean
Similarly, before a word beginning with a vowel, nor- sometimes becomes nort(e)norteamericano (only) norteafricano, norafricano (rare) norirlandés (only)
North American (frequently used for “U.S.”) North African Northern Irish
All of the major Romance languages at an early stage took their directional words from Germanic (probably English), largely supplanting the previous Latin forms. In Spanish, the Latin directional words remain but are rarely used in a purely directional sense: septentrión, oriente, austro, occidente. Oriente and occidente have acquired a more general meaning (“the East”, “the West”), while all four of the words have given rise to adjectival forms that are frequently used: septentrional oriental —orientación —oriente, Oriente —Medio Oriente —orientar
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northern, septentrional eastern, oriental, Oriental —orientation —east, Orient —Middle East —(to) orient (locate, align, make familiar)
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—oriundo austral occidental —occidente
—coming (from), native (of) southern, austral western, occidental, Westerner —west, Occident, Western countries
. Sharing Bread with Friends An expression used by Germanic soldiers serving in the legions guarding the frontiers of the Roman Empire to refer to their companions was ga-hlaiba, which literally meant “with bread”, i.e., those with whom one shared one’s bread (Spanish pan). This was translated directly into Latin as cum with
pani(s) bread
companio(n)
which over time came to replace contubernalis—with whom one shared one’s hut (taberna) or tent (tabernaculum)—which had come to imply a more intimate type of relationship. It has produced a number of common words in Spanish and English: compañero —compañerismo —compañía —acompañar —acompañante —acompañamiento
companion —companionship, comradeship —company (commercial, social, military unit) —(to) accompany (to be or go with; musically) —accompanist, escort —accompaniment, retinue
. On Bigots and Bigotes bigote —bigotudo [intolerante] [intolerancia]
mustache (sometimes los bigotes) —mustached, mustachioed intolerant, bigoted, bigot (m/f) intolerance, bigotry
The similarity between Spanish bigote and French/English bigot has been the subject of much historical investigation and speculation. While in neither case is the etymology
Hlaiba being cognate with Old English hlaf (Modern English loaf ) and ga with Latin cum (“with”). The process by which a word or expression is formed by translation of a corresponding word or expression from another language is known as “loan translation”, or calque (Spanish calco). Another example is Spanish rascacielos rascar (“scrape”) cielos (“skies”), formed from English “skyscraper”.
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beyond dispute, it is at least moderately likely that bigote and bigot share a common origin: . The term bigot was a derogatory nickname applied by the French to the Normans, and by extension to the English, from very early times until the seventeenth century. Its early usage is attested by the twelfth-century Anglo-Norman chronicler Wace. . Bigot was, and still is, a Norman surname. Guillaume (William) Bigot and Robert Bigot accompanied William the Conqueror to England in , and two of the twenty-five barons designated as “guarantors” for the English Magna Carta in were Roger Bigot and Hugh Bigod. . From about , bigot came to be used in French to refer to a “hypocritical or superstitious adherent of religion”, and this is the definition with which it entered English (first attested in ). Only later did English bigotry acquire its present definition of “intolerance” in a more general sense, a definition absent from Modern French bigoterie. . The first recorded use of bigote for a Spanish mustache was in the late fifteenth century. Some very reputable authorities believe that the custom may well have been introduced by Swiss soldiers fighting alongside the Spanish at the siege of Granada, and that the word bigote is simply the name given by the locals to the (mustachioed) foreign soldiers.
Why was the term bigot (or bigote) applied at various times, both as a group name and individually, to the Norman French, Anglo-Normans, English, and, apparently, German-speaking Swiss? Presumably because of their custom of frequently uttering the curse bi Got (“by God”). Although this explanation might seem somewhat fanciful, there is a historical parallel in the word godon (or goddon), used by the French (including Joan of Arc) in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to refer to the English and derived from the latter’s frequent use of goddamn. The “by God” origin for the word bigot would, on the surface, seem to provide a reasonable explanation for its (initial) application to people of excessive (or false) religious faith. However, why the French would have chosen this form rather than the corresponding French expression (bon dieu) is unclear.
Though today surname and family name are used interchangeably, throughout most of the Middle Ages a surname was a name given to a person during the course of his life that might or might not be passed on to his children—Charles the Bald, Wilfrid the Hairy, and Charles the Simple are the names by which three important historical figures were known to their contemporaries. A surname could even be changed during one’s lifetime. Thus, prior to conquering England, William had been known as William the Bastard, a surname that in those days had no pejorative sense (being applied only to those of “high birth” entitled to a portion of their natural father’s estate). In a case of déjà vu, in the nineteenth century the French coined the word bondieuserie to refer to piety that is excessive or in bad taste.
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S E C T I O N .
Arabs and Muslims
A contingent of Arabs crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in after having been invited by one faction of Visigoths to overthrow Roderick (Rodrigo), the newly installed king. By , virtually the whole of the Iberian Peninsula was under their control. This expansion did not stop at the Pyrenees, as the Arabs advanced as far as Poitiers in central France before being defeated in by Charles Martel (“Charles the Hammer”), the de facto ruler of the Frankish kingdom. The Reconquista (“Reconquest”) of Spain by the Christian states in the north, principally Castile, Aragon, and Catalonia, is the central unifying element in Spanish history, for better or for worse. By tradition, the Reconquista began with the battle of Covadonga in Asturias in about the year in which, according to later chronicles, , Muslims were miraculously killed when their weapons reversed course in mid flight and attacked their masters; the survivors (,) were then buried by a landslide while retreating across the mountains. In reality, the Reconquista did not get up much steam until the eleventh century, when: (a) The unity of Muslim Spain collapsed as the central authority of the caliphate of Córdoba was replaced by a patchwork of more than twenty independent kingdoms (known as taifas). This anarchy was finally overcome at the end of the eleventh century by a second Muslim invasion from North Africa, this time by a confederation of Berber tribes known as the Almoravids. (b) The crusading spirit took hold in Europe (the first Crusade was launched at the end of the century).
From this point on, until the final surrender of Granada in , there was a steady southward advance of the Christian kingdoms. The old Visigothic capital of Toledo was recaptured in , Saragossa (Zaragoza) in , and Córdoba in . The Muslim influence on Spain was enormous, which is not surprising if one considers that many areas of Spain remained under Muslim rule for longer
Gibraltar derives its name from Jabal Tariq (Mount Tarik), Tariq ibn Ziyad being the general who led the invasion.
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than they had been under Roman rule, and that only in will the city and region of Granada have been “Spanish” for as long as they were Muslim. Most of Spain was under Muslim control for periods of between three and eight centuries, and throughout much of this period “Spain” meant Muslim Spain. Until the Renaissance, the level of Muslim culture and science was far in advance of that of Christian Europe, and Muslim Spain was no exception. Perhaps even more exceptional was the degree of relative religious tolerance among ruling Muslims and native Christians and Jews that seems to have prevailed until the arrival of the extremist Almohads who displaced the (already rather extreme) Almoravids in the mid-twelft h century. The high point of Spanish Muslim culture is exemplified by the philosopher, doctor, and jurist Averroës (Ibn Rushd, –). When his commentaries on Aristotle were translated into Latin in the first part of the thirteenth century, they were held in such uniformly high esteem that he was referred to simply as “the Commentator”. Not surprisingly, the influence of Arabic was far greater on Spanish than on other Romance languages, with numerous words—and many place-names— taken directly from Arabic. Some of these in turn were “Arabized” forms of words previously adopted from other languages, chiefly Persian, Greek, and Latin. About half of the words of Arabic origin in Spanish begin with a-, and most of these with al-. This reflects the fact that Spanish frequently incorporated the Arabic definite article al as part of the word itself. Thus when one says la alcoba or el atún, one is really saying “the the alcove” or “the the tuna”. There is no fully satisfactory explanation as to why this occurred so often in Spanish and Portuguese but only infrequently in borrowings from Arabic by other Romance languages. Thus one has the following contrasts: Spanish
French
Italian
English
alcanfor algodón alminar alquitrán azafrán azúcar (m./f.)
camphre coton minaret goudron safran sucre
canfora cotone minareto catrame zafferano zucchero
camphor cotton minaret tar (road surface) saff ron sugar
arroz atún
riz thon
riso tonno
rice tuna
See, for example, Turner, Science in Medieval Islam. Before words beginning with what in Arabic are known as “solar” (English dental and liquid) consonants (d, t, n, s, z, sh, l, r), the l of the article disappeared; in a handful of cases (e.g., aldea) Spanish has restored it.
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The last two words went from Greek (via Latin) to French and Italian, while in Spanish they transited through Arabic. A number of common words of Arabic origin are presented below, with the presentation divided into three parts: (a) general words; (b) words specifically related to mathematics and science; and (c) the appendix, which covers several special topics (scarlet, orange, chess).
General Words of Arabic Origin aceite —aceituna
oil, olive oil —olive
In Latin, oliva was used for both “olive tree” and “olive”, while the related word oleum was “olive oil” (and oil in general). The normal phonetic evolution of oleum (source of English oil) would have been ojo, which was presumably ruled out, since ojo already meant “eye” (from oculus); hence the adoption of Arabic aceite and aceituna. The “learned” form olivo was retained for “olive tree”; óleo also exists, referring to oil-based paints and oils used in religious ceremonies. acequia ademán adobe adoquín ahorrar —ahorro albahaca albañil albaricoque
irrigation ditch or canal, acequia gesture, attitude (posture) adobe paving stone (to) save, (to) economize —saving, savings (pl.) basil mason apricot
The Greek word for “rice” came from India or Persia; it is very likely that the Arabic word, subsequently passed on to Spanish, has the same origin. For atún, the path was Greek S Arabic S Spanish. oleum and oliva had been oleivom and oleiva at an earlier stage; however, the sound combination w o (represented by vo) was unstable in Latin and the fi rst element disappeared. A similar explanation underlies the disappearance of v from deus (Spanish dios), earlier deivos, compared to the adjective divinus (Spanish divino and English divine). An analogous process occurred in English: e.g., two and who (Middle English hwo), where the w used to be pronounced. The name used for the still-functioning irrigation system introduced in the southwestern United States by the early Spanish missions.
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Historical Note: The Globe-trotting Apricot Apricot is an early product of globalization. Its ultimate origin is Latin persicum praecoquum (“precocious peach”, literally a precooked one), which then followed a circuitous course to arrive in English after passing through Greek, Arabic, Spanish, and French: persicum praecoquum
albóndiga albornoz alcachofa alcalde —alcaldía álcali —alcalino —alcalinidad alcantarilla —alcantarillado alcatraz
S S S S S
praikokion al-barquq albaricoque abricot apricot
meatball, fishball bathrobe artichoke alcalde (mayor) —mayoralty (term of office, city hall) alkali —alkaline —alkalinity sewer, culvert —sewage system pelican, gannet
Greek Arabic Spanish French English
[burnoose]
[albatross]
English albatross was derived from alcatraz sometime in the late seventeenth century by English seafarers with limited ornithological training. Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay was so named by a Spanish explorer in because it was inhabited by pelicans. alcázar
alcazar (fortress or palace)
The ultimate source for this was Latin castrum (“fort”), whose diminutive castellum provided Spanish castillo as well as English castle and chateau. alcoba alcohol
bedroom alcohol
[alcove]
persicum was itself a shortened form of malum persicum (“Persian apple”, i.e., peach). It is perhaps fortunate that the Spanish got there fi rst, as most would agree that Escape from Alcatraz has a better sound to it than Escape from Pelican—and is far superior to Escape from Albatross (!).
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—alcohólico —alcoholismo
—alcoholic (adj. & n.) —alcoholism
Some will be surprised to learn that until at least the mid-eighteenth century English alcohol meant: A fine powder produced by grinding or esp. by sublimation.
Alcohol entered Spanish in the thirteenth century with its original Arabic (alkuhl) meaning of “powder of antimony”, specifically “a fine powder used as a cosmetic by women to darken their eyelids, eyebrows, or eyelashes” (cf. English kohl). By the end of the fifteenth century, its meaning had been broadened to “a powder or substance obtained by trituration, sublimation, or distillation”, and it is with this definition that it is first attested in English (). In the eighteenth century, alcohol was used to refer to wine and spirits, and in the nineteenth century it acquired its modern meaning in terms of chemical compounds. Until the edition of its Diccionario, the RAE’s primary definition of alcohol remained unchanged from the original Arabic: Polvo finísimo usado como afeite por las mujeres para ennegrecerse los bordes de los párpados, las pestañas, las cejas o el pelo. aldea —aldeano alfalfa alfarero —alfarería alférez alfi ler alfombra alguacil —visir alicate aljibe almacén —(grandes) almacenes (pl.) —almacenar almanaque
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hamlet, village —village (adj.), villager (m./f.) alfalfa potter —pottery, potter’s shop second lieutenant, ensign (navy) pin, brooch floor carpet, rug bailiff, constable —vizier pliers (freq. pl.: alicates) cistern store, warehouse, magazine (storehouse) —department store, shopping center —(to) store, (to) warehouse almanac (calendar with daily forecasts)
[alfilaria] ( al-wazir) ( Turkish Arabic)
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almíbar almirante
syrup (used in confectionery) admiral
(Fr. amiral)
Arabic amir (“emir”) meant “commander” and typically was followed by what it was that the emir commanded, e.g., amir al-bahr (“commander of the sea”), where bahr was “sea” and al the definite article. For Spaniards, Arabic words with initial consonant m typically began with alm- (almacén, almanaque, etc.), so in Spanish the initial am- was altered to alm-; at the same time, ante was added to the end of the word (almir ante), in analogy with comandante. The term initially had no inherent connection with the sea, hence the title accorded to Christopher Columbus in : Almirante de la Mar Océana (“Admiral of the Ocean Sea”). The French left unchanged the initial am- but (mistakenly) assumed that the definite article al that normally followed “emir” was part of the name itself, hence amiral. In English the initial am- was then altered to adm-, presumably because admirals are normally admirable. almohada —consultar (algo) con la almohada alquilar —alquiler —inquilino
pillow —(to) sleep on something, (to) think it over (to) rent from or to ( arrendar) —rent (payment), rental —tenant, inquiline (biol.)
Despite its similarity, inquilino is etymologically unrelated to alquilar, coming instead from Latin. amapola arrecife arroba asesino —asesinar —asesinato —hachís
poppy reef arroba (weight or liquid measure), @ symbol murderer, assassin —(to) murder, (to) assassinate —murder, assassination —hashish
[Lat. papaver S Arabic] [Recife, Brazil]
The Assassins were an extreme Islamic sect who believed in terrorism as a political tool and very effectively implemented their beliefs. Operating from their main fortress of Alamut in northern Iran and a series of other forts in Iraq and Syria, from to they were a major force in the Middle East, their power extinguished only by the Mongol invasion in the mid-thirteenth century. Their Sunni opponents gave them the name hashshash (pl. hashshashin), or “hashish smokers (or eaters)”, in reference to their supposed method of preparing them-
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selves for their suicidal missions of terror. Although the historical accuracy of this description is disputed, there seems little doubt that they were called by this name, and that this is the origin of the term assassin that was brought back to Europe by returning Crusaders. The word is attested in Spanish in the mid-thirteenth century, though it seems to have fallen out of use shortly thereafter. It was revived in Italian in the sixteenth century and from there went to French, English, and back to Spanish. While the Spanish and English definitions are virtually identical, Spanish generally uses these words to refer to any premeditated killing, not only that of a public figure. Asesinó a su abuelo para recibir la herencia. He murdered his grandfather to get his inheritance. atalaya ataúd (m.) auge avería —averiar
watchtower, vantage point coffin peak, apogee, rapid growth (boom) damage, breakdown —(to) damage, (to) break down
[average]
The source for both Spanish avería and English average is believed by many to be Arabic awariya (“damaged goods”). The initial definition of English average related to maritime damages or charges, a sense still preserved in the English legal definition (AHCD): a. b. c. d.
The loss of a ship or cargo, caused by damage at sea. The incurrence of such damage or loss. The equitable distribution of such a loss [among concerned parties]. A charge incurred through such a loss.
From the “average” paid by shipowners for damages (or other charges), the definition was broadened to its current more general meaning. azafata
air hostess, hostess
Arabic as-safat was the basis for azafate, “wicker basket”. The lady of the queen’s wardrobe who brought the queen her daily perfumes and other accessories in an azafate then came to be called la azafata. azahar —azar
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orange blossom, lemon blossom —hazard, chance
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—al azar —azaroso
—at random —hazardous, unlucky
Arabic zahr (or zahar) was “flower” and produced Spanish azahar with the typical addition of the definite article. In Arabic, az-zahr was a game with dice, so-called because one face of the die had a flower on it. This gave rise to Spanish azar, initially “a game of chance played with dice”, then “an unfavorable roll of the dice”, “bad luck”, “risk”. Hazard passed into English from French in the fourteenth century. The modern English and Spanish definitions are very similar, though Spanish tends to emphasize the sense of chance or randomness, English more that of risk or danger. It should perhaps be noted that those Spanish speakers who do not distinguish in their pronunciation between s and z (which includes virtually all of Spanish-speaking America) pronounce azar indistinguishably from asar (“to roast”). azote —azotar azotea azucena azufre azul —azul celeste —azul marino —azul turquesa azulejo barrio fulano garra —agarrar —agarradera —desgarrar —desgarro Guadalcanal —Guadalajara —Guadalquivir —Guadalupe
whip, lashing, spanking —(to) whip, (to) spank, (to) lash (sea, rain) flat roof (serving as a terrace) white lily sulfur blue —sky blue, azure —navy blue —turquoise (color) glazed tile barrio, quarter or district, neighborhood what’s-his-name, so-and-so claw, talon, paw —(to) grasp, (to) seize —handle ( asa, mango) —(to) rip, (to) break (heart or spirit) —rip or tear (fabric, muscle, tendon) Guadalcanal —Guadalajara (Spain, Mexico) —Guadalquivir (river through Seville) —Guadalupe, Guadaloupe
[azure: r S l]
[Turkish]
[wadi canal] (“river of stones”) (“great river”) ( “Río Lobo”)
Arabic wadi (“valley”, “ravine”, “riverbed”) was used to form the names of a number of rivers (and hence cities on rivers). In most cases, wadi was combined
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Not necessarily blue! There is no connection between azulejo and azul.
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with a descriptive Arabic term, but in some (e.g., Guadalcanal) it was added to an existing name of Latin origin. The World War II battle of Guadalcanal, one of the Solomon Islands in the Pacific, owes its name to the fact that one of the leaders of the Spanish expedition that discovered it in came from Guadalcanal, Andalusia. halagar —halago hasta —hasta mañana —hasta luego, hasta pronto —Hasta un niño lo haría.
(to) flatter —flattery, compliment until, till, as far as; even —until tomorrow —see you soon —Even a child could do it.
Hasta is by far the most important grammatical (as opposed to lexical) word that does not come from Latin. hazaña
exploit, feat, achievement
[Hassan, Hussein]
Los romances cantan las hazañas del Cid. The romances recite the exploits of El Cid. hidalgo
hidalgo (member of the minor nobility in Spain)
This arose from imitation of Arabic expressions containing ibn (“son of”) that commonly expressed a metaphorical value (“son of wealth”, etc.). Thus, hijo de algo meant “son of something” (substantial, i.e., of wealth) and wound up being contracted to hidalgo, as in El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (by Cervantes). jabalí (m.), jabalina (f.) jaqueca jarabe
wild boar migraine syrup
Jarabe comes from Arabic sharab (“beverage”) and until the seventeenth century was pronounced with an initial [sh] (cf. English sherbet and shrub [“drink”], from the same Arabic root). jarra, jarro
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jar, pitcher, jug, pot
For a defi nition of grammatical and lexical words, see the fi rst part of Section ..
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This comes from Arabic jarra, the source (via French) of English jar. In the past, a jarra was larger than a jarro, but they now seem to be used almost interchangeably, the difference being that while a jarra can have either one or two handles, a jarro has only one (an English jar has either zero or two handles). jazmín jinete joroba —jorobado (p.p.) —El jorobado de Notre Dame —jorobar limón —limonada
jasmine horseman, rider hump (on a camel or a hunchback) —hunchbacked, hunchback —The Hunchback of Notre Dame —(to) annoy, (to) bother, (to) ruin lemon —lemonade
[jennet]
Possibly from Arab is loco: loco —locura —enloquecer —alocado mezquino —mezquindad mezquita mezquite minarete ( Fr.) noria ¡ojalá!
loco, crazy, madman (-woman) —madness, insanity, folly, lunacy —(to) drive insane, (to) drive crazy —foolish, wild, reckless miserly, small-minded, paltry —stinginess, smallmindedness, act of pettiness mosque mesquite (shrub) minaret ( alminar) noria, waterwheel, Ferris wheel if only (it were so)!, I hope that . . .
(unrelated to mezquita)
Ojalá comes from wa sha (A)llah (“and may it please Allah”) and is analogous to the Modern Arabic (and occasional English) expression inshallah (“if Allah wills it”). It is used as a frequent interjection and conjunction (always requiring the verb to be in the subjunctive): ¡Ojalá que venga pronto! ola —ola de calor (frío)
I hope he (or she) comes soon! wave —heat (cold) wave
While generally considered to be of Arabic origin, ola may well come from the same Germanic root that produced English hole and hollow.
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—oleada —una oleada (ola) de robos quilate rebato —arrebatar —arrebato rincón —arrinconar
—large wave, surge, swell —a wave of robberies carat alarm, tocsin —(to) snatch, (to) captivate, (to) overcook or parch —outburst, fit, fury, rapture corner, nook —(to) put in a corner, (to) corner (a person)
[r S l]
Registraron hasta el último rincón de la casa. They searched every nook and cranny of the house. sandía
watermelon
Sandía comes from Arabic sindiya, literally meaning “from the Sind” (a region in Pakistan). tabique —tabicar taquilla —taquillero tara tarea —atareado tarifa
thin wall, partition, (nasal) septum —(to) wall up, (to) block up (e.g., nose) ticket office, locker (pool, gymnasium) —box-office success (adj.), ticket clerk (m./f.) tare (weight), defect or fault task, job —busy ( muy ocupado) schedule of prices or fees, tariff
Spanish tarifa (from the Arabic meaning “notification”) is used only in the sense of a schedule of prices or rates (or the price itself), not in the sense of import duties. English tariff maintains both of these meanings but specializes in the second. Las tarifas de teléfono han subido.
Telephone rates have gone up.
The Spanish words corresponding to import duties and customs also come from Arabic: arancel aduana —diván
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tariff, duty customs (importation), duty —divan, couch
(Persian S Arabic S Sp.) (Persian S Turkish S Sp./Eng.)
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tarima taza zaga —a la zaga zaguán zanahoria
wooden platform, dais cup, toilet bowl rear (n.), back (n.), defensive backfield (sports) —behind, at the rear entrance hallway (to a house) carrot
[demitasse]
Words Related to Mathematics and Science álgebra —algebraico
algebra —algebraic
Arabic al-jabr meant “reduction” or “reunification” and was applied initially to the surgical procedure of setting bones. From the ninth century onward, it was also frequently applied to the solving of what we would today call algebraic equations, the science of “restoring what is missing and equating like with like”, to quote from the title of a work by probably the most famous of Arab mathematicians, Muhammad Ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi (c. –c. ). This work dealt not only with linear algebraic equations but also with quadratic equations, geometry, and the mathematics of inheritance. Algebra initially entered the Romance languages and English only with its medical connotation (“surgical treatment of bones”), as solving algebraic equations was to this point still restricted to the Arabic-speaking world. An algebrista (“algebraist”) was therefore a bonesetter: En esto fueron razonando los dos, hasta que llegaron a un pueblo donde fue ventura hallar un algebrista, con quien se curó el Sansón desgraciado. (Don Quijote, Segunda Parte, Capítulo XV) The two continued thus to discourse, until they came to a town where it was their good luck to find a bonesetter, who treated the unfortunate Samson.
His chief competion perhaps comes from Omar Khayyam (–), better known to most for his Rubáiyat. Among Omar’s accomplishments were: (a) a “systematic discussion of the solution of cubic equations by means of intersecting conic sections”, including the discovery of “how to extend Abu al-Wafā’s results on the extraction of cube and fourth roots to the extraction of nth roots of numbers for arbitrary whole numbers n”; and (b) the creation of a calendar more accurate than the current Gregorian one (Encyclopædia Britannica).
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In Modern Spanish, this definition, though rarely used, still exists. It was not until the mid-sixteenth century that “algebra” began to be used in the West in its modern (and “old”) sense as a branch of mathematics using numbers and symbols. Scholars came in large numbers to Muslim Spain—and to Toledo after its “reconquest”, where the tradition of Arabic (and Jewish) scholarship was maintained—to translate Arabic texts into Latin. When finally translated into Latin in the twelft h century, Al-Khwarizmi’s works were credited with introducing the Arabic (or Hindu-Arabic) number system to the West. Latin algorismus, source of English algorism (“the Arabic or decimal system of writing numbers”), was taken from his name. In the late seventeenth century, a modified form of the word developed, algorithm—influenced by the th from arithmetic—which more recently has come to mean “a procedure or set of rules for calculation or problem-solving, now esp. with a computer”. algoritmo algorítmico algoritmia guarismo
algorithm algorithmic science of calculations (esp. with computers) digit or digits forming a number
[algorism]
An important element of the Arabic number system was the concept of the zero as both a number and a placeholder (i.e., distinguishing from ). The notion of zero was hitherto completely unknown in the West—which explains why our modern calendar skips from BC to AD , thus creating unending controversy as to whether the third millennium began in or . Arabic sifr (“empty space”, “zero”) entered Medieval Latin in the early thirteenth century in two different forms: cifra (in France) and zephirum (in Italy). Over time, the second form—which gave rise to Italian zero—largely displaced the first, whose primary meaning then shifted to that of numerals in general, as in Arabic (, , , , . . .) and Roman (I, II, III, . . .). In Spanish this became cifra and in English, cipher. While cipher still maintains the definitions of “an Arabic numeral” and “the mathematical symbol for zero”, its primary meaning today is as a secret or disguised system of writing. cifra —cifrar —descifrar cero
numeral, cipher, code —(to) write in cipher, (to) reckon or cipher —(to) decipher, (to) figure out zero
(both It.)
“By and by he said he had ciphered out two or three ways, but there warn’t no need to decide on any of them yet” (Mark Twain, Huckleberry Finn).
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The concept of cipher—zero seems to have been applied at an early stage in the Romance languages and English to persons as well, in the sense of “a nonentity”, “a mere nothing”: Soy un cero a la izquierda.
I am a zero to the left [of the number]; i.e., I am a cipher.
Many have the idea that chemistry comes directly from Greek, like biology and physics (the latter via Latin), presumably because it is such a serious science. However, the word actually comes from alchemy, which is what the science of chemistry was called during the Middle Ages. The source of alchemy—alquimia was Arabic al kimiya, the “philosophical stone”. The origin of the Arabic word is disputed: some believe that it was taken from Greek khumeia (or khemeia)— which referred both to the “black” magic of transmuting metals and the (more respectable) art of alloying them—while others believe that it came directly from Coptic Egyptian or from a Semitic language. In any event, by abandoning its initial al-, alquimia gave rise in the thirteenth century to Medieval Latin chimia, source for Spanish química and English chemistry. Chemistry and alchemy existed in parallel, without any substantive difference, until the early seventeenth century when chemistry began to distinguish itself in the modern sense of making deductions from experiments. alquimia alquimista química químico (adj. & n.) quimioterapia
alchemy alchemist chemistry chemical, chemist chemotherapy
There was a second word in Arabic referring to the philosopical stone, iksir, which gave rise (al iksir) to Spanish and English elixir. elixir, elíxir acimut, azimut cenit / zenit nadir
elixir, mouthwash azimuth zenith nadir
(also cénit / zénit)
“One having no influence or value; a nonentity.” The Greek word itself may well come from Coptic, as the similar khemia was the Greek transcription of the Coptic name for “Egypt” (designating the “black” or fertile country, as compared to the desert sand).
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Arabic samt meant “point on the horizon”, hence “path”. The plural as-sumut gave acimut—azimuth, while the singular samt (ar-ras), “path (over the head)”, is the origin of cenit—zenith. Arabic nadir meant “opposite”, “vis-à-vis”, so that nadir as-samt was “opposite the zenith”, i.e., nadir.
Appendix . A Tale of Scarlet escarlata —escarlatina carmesí carmín bermejo —bermellón
scarlet —scarlet fever crimson carmine, lipstick vermeil —vermilion
Many people have trouble keeping straight the differences between the colors scarlet, crimson, carmine, vermilion, and vermeil. This is not very surprising, since all are linguistic variations of an identical process for making a reddish color with an orange tint. Scarlet, following a similar path to apricot, had as its ultimate origin the classical Latin (textum) sigillatum, “fabric adorned with small images”—sigillatum itself coming from signum (“sign” or “mark”): SIGILLATUM
S sigillatos (Greek) S siqillat (classical Arabic) S iskirlata (Spanish Arabic) S escarlata (Spanish)
Escarlata arrived in Spanish with the original meaning intact, that of “an ornate cloth of any color”, and English scarlet (from French) initially meant the same: “any rich or brightly colored cloth”. Beginning in the twelft h century, escarlatas made in southern Spain were tinted a reddish color, and the word escarlata then began to acquire its current meaning of “a brilliant red color tinged with orange”. What type of dye was used to produce the color scarlet? It came from the dried bodies of the insect known in Spanish as quermes and in English as kermes. The name for the insect came, like so much else, from Arabic (qirmiz). The Muslims in Spain changed the vowels so that the insect became qarmaz, and the associated color they called qarmazi. This latter word entered Spanish as carmesí, giving Spanish a second name for the color scarlet. Carmesí then had to compete against a “deviant” form— cremesín—which had arisen by metathesis (see Section ., no. ). This deviant form— which died out in Spanish—gave rise to Middle English cremesin and Modern English crimson. The Romans themselves had called scarlet coccum, their name for what they
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thought was the “berry” or “grain” that was the source of the dye. At some point during the late Roman Empire, they decided that it was not a berry but a little worm that produced the dye. Hence vermiculus (“little worm”) began to be used to denote the color scarlet and appears several places in the Vulgate Bible. This gave rise to vermeil (Spanish bermejo) and its derived form vermilion (bermellón), a third (and fourth) name for scarlet. These same little worms are the source of Italian (and English) vermicelli, a form of pasta: [fideo]
vermicelli or noodle (freq. pl.), skinny person
Finally, the Romans had a similar reddish color minium, which came not from an insect (or worm) but from a type of red lead with the same name. At some point in the Middle Ages, this word apparently blended with qirmiz (or qarmaz) to produce Medieval Latin carminium, presumably to indicate a color very similar to minium but produced using the dried-insect technique. This is the origin of Spanish carmín and English carmine. minium had a further role to play, being the ultimate source of English miniature and Spanish miniatura, which have nothing to do with size but with the medieval practice of illuminating manuscripts with a red ink made from minium. minio —miniatura
minium (red lead) —miniature
. Oranges, Orangemen, and William of Orange naranja naranjo anaranjado
orange (fruit), orange (color—m.) orange tree orange-colored, orange (adj.)
Orange has had a very colorful history. Its ultimate origin seems to be non-Indo-European, possibly from the Dravidian family of languages, entering Indo-European Sanskrit as naranga. This eventually arrived in Arabic (via Persian) as naranj, from where it was introduced into Spanish as naranja—naranjo and Italian as arancia—arancio, with the Italian words losing the initial n in a manner reminiscent of English adder (snake), apron, and umpire. un *narancio S un arancio
Conquering Roman armies often received part of their tribute in the form of scarlet dye. coccum came from Greek kokkos (“grain”, “seed”), which is also the origin of coccus (“bacteria in a spherical form”)—as in streptococcus—due to its grain-like shape. Which earlier had been naddre, napron, noumpere (“non” “peer”). In each case, the initial n was lost because it was mistakenly perceived as belonging to a preceding indefi nite article: a napron S an apron.
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ARABS AND MUSLIMS
French imported arancia as orenge, later orange. The initial o- is generally believed to have arisen from the similar-sounding name of the southern French city of Orange (Old French Orenge), which just happened to be a major transit center for oranges on their way to the north of France. The name of the city itself goes back to pre-Roman times and has nothing to do with the fruit. The story does not end here, however, because in those days the town of Orange was not French but rather part of the Principality of Orange (acquired by France only in ). In the reigning prince died without a direct heir, and possession of the principality then passed to the House of Nassau, which subsequently wound up constituting the royal families (to this day) of the Netherlands and Luxembourg. By the second half of the sixteenth century, orange had come to represent not only the fruit but the color orange. So when the now Dutch House of Orange-Nassau looked around for a symbol to represent them, the choice was not difficult: the color orange. Not wanting their monarchy to be identified with a fruit, the Dutch adopted orange only as a color (oranje), preferring “Chinese apple” (sinaasappel) for the fruit. William of Orange (king of England from to ) made himself a hero to the Protestants of Ireland by his victory at the Battle of the Boyne against the Catholic James II, which explains why to this day the Orangemen of Northern Ireland march around with orange banners and why the flag of the Irish Republic has an orange stripe.
. Chess Chess has had an important impact on English, extending far beyond the game itself. The origins of the game are somewhat murky, but what seems reasonably clear is that the Europeans got it from the Arabs, who took it from the Persians, who took it from the Sanskrit game known as chaturanga, meaning the four corps of the Indian army: elephants, chariots, cavalry, and foot soldiers. The Arabs introduced the game in the tenth century to Spain and to Sicily (also under their control), from where it spread to the rest of Europe. The original name of the game remains only in Spanish ajedrez and Portuguese xadrez (from Arabic ash-shatranj).
or
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Spanish
Meaning
ajedrez (m.) tablero de ajedrez ajedrecista ajedrezado alfi l —marfi l roque —enrocar torre (f.) peón caballo
chess chessboard chess player checkered, checked elephant —ivory chariot —(to) castle tower peon, unskilled laborer horse
Chess Piece
S
bishop
S
rook
S S S
castle (chess) pawn knight (chess)
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Peón, from the Medieval Latin for “foot soldier”—pedo(n)—can be used outside of chess in a sense similar to English peon, an unskilled laborer. A peón is in a sense a pioneer on the chessboard, and pioneer in fact comes from the Old French word for “foot soldier”. pionero
pioneer
Roque and alfil come from Arabic and are used only as chess terms. The fil, from Arabic al-fil, also appears in marfil (elephant “bone”). The (chess) elephant in English was initially called alfin, and it was not until the second half of the sixteenth century that bishop was first used; bishop then successfully fended off the encroachment of archer. At about the same time, castle began to be used along with the original rook, and, similarly, in Spanish torre appeared alongside roque. In Arabic, the end of the game was announced by the expression (ash) shah mat, literally “the king is dead”, where shah came from the Persian for “king” (cf. English shah of Iran). In the Romance languages, the expression came to be pronounced as: Sp. It. Fr. Eng.
xaque y mate
S
eschec et mat
S S
jaque mate scacco matto échec et mat checkmate
Old French eschec entered English as check, to directly threaten the king. The French used the plural esches (Modern French échecs) to refer to the name of the game, hence English chess. At a relatively early stage, English check acquired the broader meaning of “restraint” or “halt”, and following this there was literally no checking its development. By the late seventeenth century it had added the meaning of “to verify by consulting a source or authority”, and in the eighteenth century, that of a check on forgery, taking the physical form of a counterfoil or bank check (UK cheque). From there it went on to develop a variety of other forms: checklist, check mark, checkoff, check in, check out, checkpoint, checkrein, checkroom, checkup, etc. Some of these meanings and forms then fi ltered back to French, Spanish, and various other languages. chequear chequeo cheque chequera
(to) check, (to) give a checkup to checkup, check (exam) check (for payment) checkbook
Modern French uses fou, “court jester”. It seems that the Arabs misinterpreted the Persian expression, which (somewhat more sensibly) meant the king is “at a loss” or “helpless” (i.e., he has been placed in a situation with no escape).
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The French for “chessboard” is échiquier, and its distinctive pattern was the source for checkered (UK chequered) and checked. By coincidence, the twelft h-century AngloNorman Internal Revenue Service used counters positioned on tables with chequered tablecloths. This gave rise to the British exchequer, as in Chancellor of the Exchequer. The checkerboard pattern also gave rise to the game that Americans know as checkers and British as draughts. The Spanish have taken their name for this game from the French, juego de damas (or simply damas). The mate from checkmate has also left its traces in English stalemate, initially restricted to chess but later extended to the more general situation of a deadlock. The traditional Spanish expression for a chess stalemate is that the king is ahogado (“suffocated” or “drowned”) but more common now is tablas (literally “tables”), which, like stalemate, can also be used in the more general sense. An unresolved debate is whether the mate in jaque mate bears any relation to the Spanish verb matar (“to kill”), the root for matador. matar matadero matador matamoscas matarratas matasellos matasanos matanza rematar remate
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(to) kill slaughterhouse matador, bullfighter flyswatter, insecticide ( insecticida—m.) rat poison postmark unskilled doctor, quack slaughter, massacre (to) kill off, (to) finish off, (to) conclude end, conclusion, shot (e.g., soccer)
(kill healthy people)
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S E C T I O N .
Numbers and Quantities
Apart from zero, English numbers up to a million are of Germanic origin. Although they share a common Indo-European origin with Latin (hence Spanish) numbers, in only a relatively few cases (e.g., tres, seis) is this correspondence readily apparent. On the other hand, virtually all English words relating to numerical operations come directly from Latin, so that the correspondence with Spanish words is far more obvious. número numeral numérico numéricamente numeroso innumerable numerar numeración —numeración romana enumerar enumeración numerador denominador
number numeral numerical numerically numerous innumerable (to) number (e.g., pages), to numerate (count) numbering (e.g., pages), numeration —Roman number(s) (to) enumerate enumeration numerator denominator
The last word in the above list (in both Spanish and English) initially had nothing to do with numbers, coming instead from nomen (“name”) and signifying “that which gives a name to something”. Its first known application to arithmetic—“common denominator”—is recorded in French in .
Cardinal Numbers—Los números cardinales
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(Arabic) unus / una duo (duos) tres quattuor quinque
cero uno/una dos tres cuatro cinco
decem undecim duodecim tredecim quattuordecim quindecim
diez once doce trece catorce quince
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sex septem octo novem viginti viginti sex
seis siete ocho nueve veinte veintiséis
sedecim septemdecim duodeviginti undeviginti veintiuno / veintiuna veintiocho
dieciséis diecisiete dieciocho diecinueve
“Antiquated” forms for – “to be avoided” (RAE) are: diez y seis, diez y nueve, veinte y dos, veinte y siete, etc.
treinta cuarenta cincuenta sesenta setenta ochenta noventa ciento / cien ciento veinte
doscientos, -as
trescientos, -as cuatrocientos, -as quinientos, -as (not *cinco . . .) seiscientos, -as setecientos, -as (not *siete . . .) ochocientos, -as novecientos, -as (not *nueve . . .) mil dos mil nueve mil cien mil un millón
treinta y dos cuarenta y tres cincuenta y cuatro sesenta y uno/una setenta y seis ochenta y siete noventa y ocho ciento uno/una ciento treinta y uno/una doscientos cuarenta y dos trescientos veinticinco
(centum)
(mille)
cinco mil diez mil doscientos/as mil siete millones
The presentation in the text is that currently recommended by the RAE. Nonetheless, decimal points are frequently found between three-digit groups (e.g., ., ., ..).
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tres mil millones or tres millardos un billón un trillón un cuatrillón mil setecientos setenta y seis (not *diecisiete cientos . . .)
Notes: ) For numbers ending in “-one”, there is agreement with the gender of a following noun, the masculine taking the shortened form -un, the feminine -una: rosas libros rosas libros rosas rosas
veintiuna rosas treinta y un libros treinta y una rosas mil cincuenta y un libros mil cincuenta y una rosas treinta y un mil rosas
roses books roses , books , books , roses
) Written accents are required for , , , (since dos, tres, and seis end in -s) as well as when used as a masculine adjective: dieciséis, veintidós, veintitrés, veintiséis, veintiún libros
) For “hundreds”, there is also agreement with the gender of a following noun: naranjas manzanas
seiscientas naranjas trescientas cuarenta y una manzanas
oranges apples
) Mil comes from Latin mille, whose descendants in English include millennium and mile (, paces). Like English thousand, mil is invariable when used as a number (five thousand / cinco mil) or adjectivally, but when used as a noun to indicate “thousands”, it has the masculine plural form miles: mil dólares cinco mil dólares muchos miles de pesos
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one thousand dollars five thousand dollars many thousands of pesos
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N U M B E R S A N D Q UA N T I T I E S
) Millón, billón, etc., are technically not numbers but nouns, so that when there is more than one, they take the plural form millones, billones, and when they are used with a following noun, the preposition de is required. un millón de dólares dos millones de dólares
one million [of] dollars two million [of] dollars
But when they are used as part of a larger numeric expression, de is not used: nueve millones setecientos sesenta y cinco mil
,,
Note also that billón corresponds to (U.S.) English trillion ( ); similarly, trillón corresponds to quintillion ( ) and cuatrillón to septillion ( ). In an attempt to halt the growing use of billón in the American English sense ( )— leading to “dangerous confusions”—the RAE has recently “adopted” the term millardo from French (milliard) and recommended its use for . ) is ciento (from Latin centum). However, whenever the number is used adjectivally, it is shortened to cien, even when the object is not specified explicitly. This shortening also occurs in compound numbers in which ciento is used multiplicatively (i.e., as an adjective), but not when used additively (as a noun). cien (personas) doscientas personas
one hundred (people) two hundred people
ciento diecisiete cien mil cien millones
one hundred seventeen one hundred thousand one hundred million
counting: noventa y ocho, noventa y nueve, cien (e.g., pesos, páginas)
English -illion numbers have had a torturous history. They originated in fi fteenth-century French based on powers of a million, applied to the prefi xes bi- ( ), tri- ( ), quadri- ( ), etc.; thus a billion was a million million; a trillion, a million billion, etc. Th is is exactly how they are defi ned in Spanish today. In the eighteenth century, the French had second thoughts and redefi ned the system so that the multiplying factor was thousands rather than millions. Th is new nomenclature was adopted by some countries (including the United States) but not by others (including Spain and the United Kingdom). In , to further confuse matters, France officially reverted to the original (i.e., Spanish) defi nition, whereas, in recent decades, British English use has increasingly followed the American pattern.
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Ordinal Numbers—Los números ordinales Ordinal numbers indicate numerical order: first, second, third, . . . , fortieth, . . . , hundredth, . . . thousandth, etc. .o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o
primero segundo tercero, tercio cuarto quinto sexto séptimo (sétimo) octavo noveno, nono décimo
.o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o
undécimo duodécimo decimotercero decimocuarto decimoquinto decimosexto decimoséptimo decimoctavo decimonoveno vigésimo
.o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o .o
vigesimoprimero vigesimosegundo trigésimo cuadragésimo quincuagésimo sexagésimo septuagésimo octogésimo nonagésimo centésimo
Notes: a) Feminine ordinal numbers replace the -o with -a: .a
primera
.a
undécima
b) For – and –, the forms can be written as either one or two words. When written as one word, the decimo- or vigesimo- part remains “masculine”: decimocuarto—decimocuarta or décimo cuarto—décima cuarta vigesimosegundo—vigesimosegunda or vigésimo segundo—vigésima segunda
c) For –, it is very common to find “modern” forms: decimoprimero—decimoprimera or décimo primero—décima primera decimosegundo—decimosegunda or décimo segundo—décima segunda
d) Beyond thirty, compound forms are written as two words: trigésimo segundo—trigésima segunda .o .o .o
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centésimo primero ducentésimo cuadringentésimo
.o .o .o
centésimo quinto tricentésimo quingentésimo
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.o .o .o .o
sexcentésimo octingentésimo milésimo millonésimo último
.o .o .o one millionth last, final, ultimate
septingentésimo noningentésimo dosmilésimo
Notes: ) Ordinal numbers are adjectives and hence agree in gender with the noun that they modify. They can be placed before or after the noun, although for royalty and popes they are placed after. el segundo acto / el acto segundo Carlos Quinto (Carlos V) Juan Pablo Segundo (Juan Pablo II)
the second act Charles [the] Fift h John Paul [the] Second
) Primero and tercero are shortened to primer and tercer when used before masculine nouns, and the abbreviations are modified accordingly. .er .er
primer piso tercer piso
first floor third floor
) Beyond ten, cardinal numbers are generally used instead of ordinals: Enrique VIII (spoken: Enrique octavo) Alfonso X (Alfonso décimo or diez) Luis XIV (Luis catorce) el piso treinta y cinco el siglo XIX , el siglo diecinueve
Henry the Eighth Alfonso the Tenth (“the Wise”) Louis the Fourteenth (Louis XIV) the thirty-fift h floor the nineteenth century
) From cuadragésima día (fortieth day) was derived cuaresma (“Lent”). ) From Latin CENTENI (“one hundred each”) comes Spanish centeno (“rye”), from the belief that each grain planted would yield one hundred in return. ) Expressions relating to a half include: medio (adj. & n.) —medio litro —promedio —media (n.)
half, middle, center, means —half a liter —middle point, average —mean (average), sock, stocking, pantyhose (pl.)
Note that cuadragésima (and hence cuaresma) is feminine, reflecting the fact that in early Spanish, día (now masculine) could also be feminine.
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—mediano (adj.) —mediana (n.) —mediar —mediante (prep.) —intermedio (adj. & n.) —intermediario (la) mitad
—median, medium, mediocre —median (geom., statistical) —(to) mediate, (to) intercede —by means of —intermediate, intermission, break —intermediary half (n.), middle
) Up to ten, other simple fractional expressions (i.e., with numerator equal to one) can be expressed either by the ordinal alone (masculine), or by the ordinal in conjunction with the feminine noun parte. For “third” as a noun, tercio is used rather than tercero. un tercio de la torta un tercio de los alumnos una (la) tercera parte de la torta una (la) tercera parte de los alumnos un cuarto, una (la) cuarta parte un quinto, una (la) quinta parte un sexto, una (la) sexta parte un séptimo, una (la) séptima parte etc.
a third of the cake a third of the students a third of the cake a third of the students quarter, fourth part fift h, fift h part sixth, sixth part seventh, seventh part
) Fractions in which the denominator is no greater than ten are expressed using cardinal numbers for the numerator and ordinal ones for the denominator— as above, masculine when used as a noun, feminine when employed as an adjective (modifying parte, which can be omitted). dos quintos, dos quintas partes cuatro séptimos, cuatro séptimas partes
two-fift hs four-sevenths
) When the denominator exceeds ten, it takes the form of the cardinal number followed by the suffi x -avo, apart from hundred, thousand, and million, for which the unmodified ordinal number is used: tres onceavos, tres onceavas partes una veinteava parte de la torta seis veintitresavos, seis veintitresavas partes dos centésimas (partes)
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three-elevenths a twentieth (part) of the cake six twenty-thirds two-hundredths (e.g., of a second)
When the cardinal number ends in -a, only -vo is added: treintavo, cuarentavo, etc.
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tres milésimas (partes) diez millonésimas (partes) de un metro un centavo
three-thousandths ten-millionths of a meter centavo, cent
) Decimal fractions are expressed by feminine ordinals (feminine on account of the implicit feminine noun parte): , , ,
una décima dos centésimas tres milésimas
) Applied to the four cardinal directions, quarter came to mean an area in general (e.g., the French quarter ), and then an individual habitation. cuarto (n.) —cuarto de baño —cuarto oscuro cuartel —cuartel general —sin cuartel —acuartelar
room, bedroom —bathroom —darkroom quarters, barracks —headquarters —without quarter, merciless —(to) quarter, (to) billet
Collective Numbers ambos una docena una quincena una veintena, una treintena, etc. cuarentena un centenar una centena —tiene centenares de admiradores un millar
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both a dozen a group of fifteen, a period of fifteen days (two weeks) a group of twenty, thirty, etc.
[ambi-]
group of forty, quarantine a group of one hundred, lots (“hundreds”) —he/she has hundreds of admirers a thousand, lots (“thousands” —gen. pl.)
In this sense, Spanish now uses barrio.
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Operations añadir multiplicar sustraer / substraer, restar dividir adición —adicional —adicionar —aditivo —sumar —suma (n.) —sumo (adj.) —a lo sumo multiplicación —multiplicador —multiplicando —múltiple sustracción / subs-, resta —resto residuo
(to) add (to) multiply (to) subtract (to) divide addition, sum —additional —(to) add (to) —additive —(to) add, (to) sum up —sum, addition —supreme, extreme —at (the) most multiplication —multiplier —multiplicand —multiple subtraction —remainder (subtraction or division), residue division —divisor —quotient —intelligence quotient (IQ) —remainder (division or subtraction)
división —divisor —cociente / cuociente —cociente intelectual (CI) —resto residuo
(“s” from extract)
[summit]
Dating back to Indo-European times, a person di-vided from his or her spouse by death was a widow (Germanic) or viduus / vidua. In Spanish, the d and u were interchanged, hence viuda —viudo (adj. & n.) —viudez viudedad —enviudar
widow —widowed, widower —widowhood —(to) become a widow or widower
Other Numerical Terms coeficiente cuadrado (adj. & n.)
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coefficient square
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N U M B E R S A N D Q UA N T I T I E S
—cuadrar —cuadra —cuadrangular —cuadrante —cuadrático —cuadrilátero —cuadro —cuaderno entero —número entero —entereza —enterar(se) fracción —fraccionario —fraccionar por ciento —porcentaje (número) primo —prima —primacía proporción —proporcional —proporcionalidad —proporcionar —proporcionado (p.p.) —desproporción —desproporcionado —porción gramo —kilogramo tonelada —túnel ( Eng.) —tonel
—(to) square (multiple senses) —stable (horses), city block (Amer.) —quadrangular —quadrant ( ; instrument for measuring angles) —quadratic —quadrilateral, ring (boxing) —square (n.), painting, cadre —notebook entire, whole —whole number, integer —strength of character, integrity —(to) find out about, (to) become informed fraction —fractional —(to) fractionate percent —percentage prime (number) —bonus, (insurance) premium, female cousin —primacy, supremacy proportion (incl. “dimension”, “size”) —proportional —proportionality —(to) provide, (to) furnish —proportionate —disproportion —disproportionate, out of proportion —portion gram —kilogram metric ton (, kg), register ton (maritime: ft.) —tunnel —barrel, cask, tun
[quire, cahier]
[entirety] [integrate]
A ton was initially defined to be the space occupied by a tun (pronounced identically)—a cask of wine—and only later acquired the notion of weight. An En-
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glish short ton (used in the United States) is equal to , lbs., while an English long ton (, lbs.) is slightly heavier than a metric ton (, kg ,. lbs.). The diminutive of tun was tunnel, and an English tunnel (Spanish túnel) was initially a net for catching partridges or water fowl—so-called because it looked like a tun due to its having a pipe-like passage with a wide opening. It then passed through various meanings—including chimney flue, pipe, and funnel—before settling on its modern definition in the late eighteenth century. hectárea —área litro —mililitro metro () —centímetro —milímetro —métrico —metrónomo —largometraje —cortometraje —diámetro —diametralmente —parámetro —perímetro —metro () —metropolitano —metrópoli / metrópolis (f.) mínimo (adj. & n.) —mínima (n.) —minimizar —mermar máximo (adj. & n.) —máxima (n.) —máxime (adv.) positivo
hectare (, m m m) —area, are ( m ) liter —milliliter meter, measuring rod (or tape) —centimeter —millimeter —metric, metrical (poetry) —metronome —feature fi lm (longer than sixty minutes) —short fi lm —diameter —diametrically —parameter —perimeter —metro (subway) —metropolitan, metro (subway) —metropolis
minimal, minimum, least —minimum temperature during a certain period —(to) minimize —(to) diminish ( disminuir) maximal, maximum —maxim (saying, rule, principle), maximum temperature —all the more so, especially positive
( áreas)
( metropolitan) [mother city]
( minimare)
Note that the stress in mililitro and milímetro is on different syllables: mi•li•li•tro as opposed to mi•lí•me•tro.
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N U M B E R S A N D Q UA N T I T I E S
negativo par impar
negative even, pair, peer, par odd, peerless, nonpareil
doble —doblar
—triplicar
double —(to) double (incl. “fold in two”), (to) dub (movies) —fold, crease —duplicity (double-dealing) ( duplicidad) triple, treble (numerical), three-point shot —(to) triple, (to) treble, (to) triplicate
dimensión —dimensional volumen —voluminoso
dimension —dimensional volume (space, book, loudness) —voluminous
ángulo —angular rectángulo —rectangular —recta (n.) —recto (adj. & n.)
angle, corner —angular rectangle —rectangular —straight line —straight ( derecho), recto (righthand page), rectum —right angle —rectal triangle —triangular, (to) triangulate
—doblez (gen. m.) —doblez (gen. f.) triple
—ángulo recto —rectal triángulo —triangular (adj. & vb.) pentágono paralelogramo —paralelo rombo —rumbo —poner (hacer) rumbo a —rumba trapecio
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pentagon parallelogram —parallel rhombus (equilateral parallelogram) —direction, course, bearing, rhumb (line) —(to) sail for, (to) head for —rumba (dance, music) trapezoid (figure, bone), trapeze, trapezius (muscle)
( Amer. Sp.)
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Quantities The principal words involving quantities of things or people are presented below, divided into three basic groups. Some are used only as pronouns, other as adjectives or adverbs, while a number are able to perform in more than one capacity.
A Little, a Lot, or Just the Right Amount mucho bastante tanto
much, a lot of, many enough, sufficient so much, so many
poco demasiado tan
little, few too much, too many so, as (adverb)
Mucho (as well as the adverb muy) is derived from multus (as in multitude). An English cognate of poco (Latin paucus) is paucity. Bastante comes from the verb bastar (“to suffice”), source of the Spanish and Italian interjection basta! (“enough already !”), which also has a distinguished English heritage: Basta, content thee: for I have it full. If he will not consent—basta—I can but go away home.
(Shakespeare, Taming of the Shrew) (Scott, Ivanhoe)
Demasiado is derived from demás (de más), “others”, “the rest”. A related derivation is además a demás: además
besides, in addition
Tanto is related to English tantamount—which literally means “that amounts to as much”, i.e., “that comes to the same thing”. Tanto is also frequently used in the expressions por tanto (or por lo tanto), mientras tanto, and entre tanto (entretanto): por (lo) tanto mientras tanto, entre tanto, entretanto
therefore meanwhile, in the meantime
Each and Every One or Various cada todo otro
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each, every all other, another
cada uno, cada cual todos, todo el mundo varios
each one, everyone everybody several
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N U M B E R S A N D Q UA N T I T I E S
Cada corresponds to the cata- in English catalog, literally a collection of “each” thing, while todo corresponds to English total (see Section .). Otro comes from Latin alter, as in alter ego (“other I”, “second self”). Vario (“varied”) and varios (pl.) correspond to English various; however, the sense of “diverse” is more commonly expressed by diversos or diferentes: Tengo varios libros. Diversas personas han solicitado nuestra ayuda.
I have several books. Various persons have requested our assistance.
Somebody or Something, Nobody or Nothing algo alguien alguno, algún
something, somewhat somebody, someone some (pron., adj.), any
nada nadie ninguno, ningún
nothing, not at all nobody, no one none (pron., adj.)
The al in the positive forms comes from Latin al- (“other” ), and the go or gu comes from the interrogative/relative pronouns quis/qui (“who”) and quid/ quod (“what”, “which”). The sense was thus “someone or something else”, hence “somebody”, “something”, “some”. Ninguno is simply the “negative” of alguno, the initial n- being a “true” negative. The origin of nada and nadie is an altogether different story, however.
Historical Note: When “Yes” Means “No” The constant warnings of English teachers over the centuries about the perils of double negatives could be strengthened by reference to Spanish (or French),
Greek kata in fact had a range of meanings, most dealing with a downward motion; hence cataclysm, catacomb, cataract, etc. Found in English alibi, alias, alien, and alter. These Latin pronouns are found in a number of common English expressions, including quid pro quo, sine qua non, status quo, and quod erat demonstrandum (QED) Actually, not so many: until perhaps the eighteenth century, double negatives were an accepted manner of making emphatic statements. In the Canterbury Tales, for example, Chaucer says of the friar: “Ther nas no man nowher so vertuous”, i.e., “There no was no man nowhere so virtuous.” Even in Modern English, a number of double-negative constructions are considered acceptable, with meanings that frequently differ from the “simple” positive forms: not uncommon vs. common, not infrequently vs. frequently, not without vs. with, etc.
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where their frequent use has completely reversed the meanings of a number of very common words: Current Meaning
Original Meaning
nothing nobody never absolutely not
Spanish anything anybody ever absolutely
French anything person ever —
Nada originated from negative expressions of the form non habeo rem natam
I have not anything at all,
where rem natam, “born thing”, was a somewhat exaggerated way of saying “anything at all”. In Vulgar Latin, multiple negatives became very frequent and their profusion created a situation in which rem natam was misinterpreted as a negative element rather than a positive one. Thus when people were asked “What do you have?” the simple response was rem natam, “nothing”. French subsequently reduced this expression to its first element, Spanish to its second: rem natam
S S
rien nada
(Fr.) “nothing” (Sp.) “nothing”
A colorful way of saying anybody or anyone was homo natus, “a born person”. In negative expressions like non video hominem natum
I do not see anyone,
natum was taken for a negative, and hence anybody became nobody. natum (or more likely the nominative plural nati) became Old Spanish nadi and Modern Spanish nadie. By a similar process, French personne also came to mean “nobody”. Likewise, the positive expression iam magis (“already more”) has become never in both Spanish (jamás) and French (jamais), although it is sometimes translated by ever: Jamás he visto una cosa más bella.
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Never have I seen anything more beautiful.
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N U M B E R S A N D Q UA N T I T I E S
Es la cosa más bella que jamás he visto. nunca jamás
It is the most beautiful thing that I have ever seen. never ever, never-never (land)
En absoluto in Spanish has come to mean “absolutely not”: No quiero en absoluto ir al cine. —¿Quieres ir al cine conmigo? —En absoluto.
I have absolutely no desire to go to the cinema. —Would you like to go to the cinema with me? —Absolutely not.
In Modern Spanish, it is not unusual to find three, or even four, negatives in a single sentence: No confío en nadie para nada. ¡Aquí nunca nadie sabe nada de nada!
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I don’t trust (in) anybody for anything. No one here ever knows anything about anything! (no one never knows nothing about nothing)
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S E C T I O N .
Time
The Origins of “Time” In Latin there was a fundamental distinction between a point or fraction of time, represented by tempus (genitive temporis), and time in the continuous sense, represented by aevum—root of age (aevitas, shortened to aetas) and eternity (aeternitas). tempus also came to be applied to a “period” of weather, and then to weather in general. Initially a general period of time, tempestas later specialized in weather of the tempestuous type. No tengo el tiempo para hacerlo. en el tiempo de Carlo Magno —tiempo muerto —tiempo verbal, tiempo del verbo —matar el tiempo —ganar tiempo —perder (el) tiempo —gastar (el) tiempo —al mismo tiempo —con el tiempo —a su (debido) tiempo Siempre hace buen tiempo en agosto. tempus
tiempo temporal () temporal () temporario temporáneo temporada temporada alta temporada baja temprano
.
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I don’t have the time to do it. in the time of Charlemagne —time out (e.g., sports) —verb tense (e.g., past, future) —(to) kill time —(to) save time, (to) gain time —(to) waste time, (to) lose time —(to) waste time —at the same time, simultaneously —over time, with time —in due course, in good time It’s always good weather in August.
time, weather temporary, temporal, tempest, rainy spell temporal (relating to the temple), temporal bone temporary (temporal is more common) period of time, season high season low season early
The anatomical temple—temporal () is related neither to time nor to the religious temple.
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extemporáneo [improvisado] tempestad tempestuoso intempestivo
untimely, inopportune extemporaneous tempest, storm tempestuous, stormy untimely, ill-timed ( extemporáneo, inoportuno) contretemps contemporary, contemporaneous
[extemporaneous]
edad Edad Media medieval eternidad
age Middle Ages medieval eternity
(acc. aetat-em)
eterno longevidad coetáneo
eternal longevity coetaneous, contemporary
contratiempo contemporáneo
aetas
(acc. aeternitat-em)
Coetáneo strictly speaking means “of the same age” but is now more commonly used as a synonym of contemporáneo, “of the same time”.
The Four Seasons—Las cuatro estaciones Beginning with spring, the four Latin seasons were ver (pl. vera), aestas, autumnus, and hiems, the latter having an associated adjective hibernus and sharing a common root with Sanskrit Hima-laya (“abode of snow”). In the major Romance languages, “spring” was replaced by expressions relating to first or prime spring (Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian primavera) or season (French printemps ). Spanish primavera initially conserved the meaning of “beginning” of spring, with verano referring to the end of spring—beginning of summer. When primavera became the general term for “spring”, verano moved to “summer”. The original Latin for “summer” survives in estío and estival, although verano and de verano are far more common. statio(n)
.
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estación estación de tren
season, station train station
From primum tempus.
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prima vera (tempus) veranum autumnus (tempus) hibernum vernalis
primavera verano
spring, primrose summer
otoño invierno
autumn winter
vernal de verano veraniego veranear
vernal summer (adj.)
veraneante
(tempus) aestivum autumnalis hibernalis hibernare
veraneo estío estival otoñal retoño invernal invernar invernadero efecto invernadero hibernar hibernación
[primavera]
(to) summer (spend the summer) (summer) vacationer, summer resident summer vacation summer (n.) summer (adj.), estival autumnal, autumn (adj.) sprout, shoot, child (fam.) hibernal, winter (adj.) (to) winter (in a particular place) greenhouse greenhouse effect (to) hibernate hibernation
Year annus annualis
annuitas
año año bisiesto anual anualmente anales (pl.) anualidad anuario
year leap year, bissextile (year) annual, yearly (adj.) annually, yearly (adv.) annals annuity (annual payment or receipt) annual (yearbook)
. In the Roman calendar, a leap year was an annus bi(s)sextus (or bi[s]sextilis), since the sixth (sextus) day before March (what we call February ) occurred twice (bis).
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biennium
bienio
biennalis centenarius
bienal (adj. & n.f.) centenario
millenarius
milenario
perennis anniversarius
milenio perenne aniversario cumpleaños
decada decennium saeculum
década decenio siglo Siglo de Oro
(unrelated)
por los siglos de los siglos sigla
saecularis
secular
seglar
biennium (period of two years) biennial (every two years) centennial, centenary, centenarian millennial, millenary, millenarian millennium perennial anniversary birthday (lit. one completes a year) decade decennium, decade century, Age (distinctive period) Golden Age (esp. Spain c. –) eternally, for ever and ever acronym (e.g., EE.UU. U.S.A.) secular, (worldly; not bound by monastic restrictions; centenary) secular (worldly; lay; layperson)
El temor al fi n del mundo es un sentimiento secular. The fear of the end of the world occurs [at the end of] every century.
A saeculum was initially a “generation” or the duration of a generation, later becoming an “age” or “epoch”, “a period of one hundred years”. In Church Latin, it came to refer to life “in and of the century”, i.e., in the secular world as opposed to that of monastic seclusion; secular clergy were those who had not taken monastic vows. Modern English secular continues to maintain the (alternative) definition of “occurring once in an age or century”, and in scientific use, terms like secular acceleration and secular variation refer to changes occurring over a long period. saeculum was also used in the Latin Bible (the Vulgate) to express the notion of “man-inhabited world”, as opposed to “earth” (terra S Spanish tierra)
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and “universe” (mundus S Spanish mundo). English world was very likely created as a direct loan translation of saeculum used in this sense: Old English weor-old or wor-old was formed from two separate components: the first is “man” (cf. wer-wolf ); the second is “age” (old). The literal meaning of world is thus “age of man”.
Month mensis mensualis
semestris
januarius februarius martius aprilis maius junius
mes mensual mensualidad bimensual bimestral menstrual menstruación semestre semestral
enero febrero marzo abril mayo junio
month, menses monthly monthly salary, monthly payment twice a month every two months, bimonthly menstrual menstruation period of six months, semester semiannual, lasting a semester julius augustus september october november december
julio agosto septiembre octubre noviembre diciembre
Week septimana
semana semanal
week ( septem seven) weekly (adj.), weeklong
. The expression novus ordo seclorum found below the pyramid on the back of the U.S. one-dollar bill literally means “New Order of the Ages” (seclum, and hence the genitive plural seclorum, was an alternative form of saeculum going back to Classical Latin times). In view of the direct correspondence between saeculum and world, it can also be translated as “New World Order”. . English bimonthly is ambiguous: either every two months, or twice a month. . Shortened from the original sex-menstris (“of six months”).
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semanalmente semanario por semana por semanas rental) fin de semana la semana pasada la semana que viene la semana siguiente
weekly (adv.) weekly (publication) per week by the week (e.g., weekend last week next week ( la semana próxima / entrante) the next week
The words relating to week are derived from Latin septem (seven).
Day dies
meridianus
día (m.) día festivo día laborable día de trabajo día hábil día lectivo ocho días quince días quincena quincenal al (el) día siguiente
day holiday workday, weekday weekday, workday weekday, workday school day a week a fortnight (fourteen days) fortnightly (on) the next day
al otro día el otro día mediodía (m.) meridiano
(on) the next day the other day midday, noon, south meridian (adj. & n.), bright or dazzling southern, meridional
meridional
[lesson day]
.
Technically, un día hábil is a day on which public offices and courts are open. In Latin, the original form for midday, medi-dies, was changed to meridies (hence the adjective meridianus), presumably to avoid the two d’s in succession. Spanish mediodía is a reformulation of the original concept. The meaning “south” arose from the fact that at midday in the Northern Hemisphere the sun is directly to the south (which is why the south of France is called the Midi). .
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diarium
diario (adj. & n.)
quotidianus dies mali diurnus
cotidiano [sombrío, lúgubre] diurno jornada
diurnalis
jornal
matutinus
jornalero [periodismo] matutino matinal
vespera
víspera en vísperas de vespertino
daily, diary, journal, daily (newspaper) daily, quotidian dismal diurnal, daytime (adj.) (day’s) journey, (working) day day’s wages, day’s work day laborer journalism morning (adj.), matutinal morning (adj.), matinal eve, Vespers (pl.) on the eve of evening (adj.), vespertine
(lit. “evil days”)
[journal]
( Fr.)
The constructions ocho días and quince días strike many as illogical: first, because one normally thinks of a week as having a length of seven days, and second, because two weeks are usually twice as long as one week. In fact, such expressions are found in many of the Romance languages, and their origin can be traced back to the manner in which days were counted in Classical Latin times: today is given the number , tomorrow is thus day number , etc., so that in one week the number will be , and in two weeks it will be . In the Roman calendar, there were no weeks as such and no individual names for the days, both of these being “Eastern” inventions that arrived in the Roman Empire only in the early years of the modern era. The seven-day week was not established as part of the official Roman calendar until AD under the emperor Constantine, who designated the first day of the week to be dedicated to the Sun, followed by the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn. English Saturday maintains the original Latin nomenclature, Monday and Sunday represent direct translations from Latin into (Old) English, while the English names for the remaining four days were obtained by replacing the Latin gods with their Germanic “equivalents” (e.g., the Norse god of thunder Thor for Jupiter). sol
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Sol, sol solar
Sun, sun solar
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insolación
luna
mars (acc. martem)
mercurius jupiter (acc. jovem) venus saturnus
luna de miel luna creciente luna llena luna menguante luna nueva media luna lunático Marte
insolation (sunstroke, solar radiation) parasol, sunshade (auto) Moon, moon, plate glass lunar, mole, blemish, polka dots (pl.) honeymoon crescent (waxing) moon full moon waning moon new moon half-moon lunatic Mars
marcial artes marciales marciano Mercurio, mercurio Júpiter
martial martial arts Martian Mercury, mercury Jupiter
jovial Venus Saturno
jovial Venus Saturn
Urano uranio Neptuno Plutón plutonio plutocracia
Uranus uranium Neptune Pluto plutonium plutocracy
parasol Luna, luna lunar (adj. & n.)
Also: uranus neptunus pluto(n)
The early Church did not approve of such pagan names and did its best to eliminate them, as suggested in the following extract from a sermon of St. Cesarius (c. –), bishop of Arles in southern France:
Some fall into this error, of observing attentively which day they are going to begin their journey, honoring the sun, or the moon, or Mars, or Mercury, or Jupiter, or Venus, or Saturn . . . Above all, my brothers, flee from these
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sacrileges, avoid them like fatal poisons of the devil . . . Because Mercury was a miserable man, avaricious, cruel, impious, and haughty; as for Venus, she was the most shameless harlot . . . For us, my brothers . . . let us disdain these most repugnant of names and let us never say “day of Mars”, “day of Mercury”, “day of Jupiter”; but let us say them as they are written, first, second, or third feria [i.e., weekday].
Such sentiments carried the day in Portuguese, and in the other major Romance languages led to the replacement of Saturn and the sun by more dignified names—Sabbath day and master / lord’s day.
Mon. Tue. Wed. Thu. Fri. Sat. Sun.
lunae (dies) martis (dies) mercurii (dies) jovis (dies) veneris (dies) sabbatum dominicus (dies)
Spanish
French
Italian
Portuguese
lunes martes miércoles
lundi mardi mercredi
lunedì martedì mercoledì
segunda-feira terça-feira quarta-feira
jueves viernes sábado domingo
jeudi vendredi samedi dimanche
giovedì venerdì sabato domenica
quinta-feira sexta-feira sábado domingo
The Latin names took the form day of, with the name of the appropriate immortal preceding in the genitive (possessive) case. Spanish martes, jueves, and viernes come directly from the corresponding Latin genitives, while lunes and miércoles have adopted by analogy the -es ending. In contrast to Spanish, both French and Italian have maintained “day” as an explicit part of the name. Lunes to viernes have invariable plurals (los lunes, etc.), reflecting their origin as genitives: just as in English one says “Mondays” rather than “Monsday”, in Spanish the plural affected only the portion that has disappeared (dies), while the part that remains is invariable. Sábado and domingo have regular plurals (los sábados, los domingos). The Spanish week generally commences on Monday, not Sunday.
. Latin text from D. Germani Morin, Sancti Caesarii Arelatensis Sermones, Pars Altera (Turnholti: Typographi Brepols Editores Pontificii, ), . . The only European languages that appear to have preserved the original seven “pagan” names are English, Welsh, and Breton (the Celtic language spoken in Brittany in France, which, however, is of British, not continental, origin).
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Hour hora
horarius horologium
horoscopus in hora bona
hora hora punta, hora pico horario (adj. & n.) reloj reloj de sol horóscopo enhorabuena
hour rush hour, peak hour hourly, timetable or schedule clock, watch, horologe sundial horoscope congratulations
[horary]
(lit. “in good time”)
The unusual ending of reloj reflects the fact that it was taken from Catalan.
Minute minutus
minuto
(via Fr.) minutia
menudo a menudo menú minucia minucioso minuciosamente diminuto diminutivo disminuir disminución disminuido (p.p.) menguar
minute (time, geometry) minute (small, insignificant) often, frequently menu minutia (small or trivial detail), trifle meticulous, minute (detailed) minutely (with attention to small details) minute (tiny), diminutive diminutive (gram.) (to) diminish, (to) reduce diminution, reduction handicapped, handicapped person (to) diminish, (to) wane (e.g., Moon)
. The respective plurals are horas punta and horas pico, reflecting the fact that punta and pico are nouns, not adjectives. The second expression is widespread in the Americas, with the notable exception of Chile, where “la palabra pico es tabú lingüístico por designar el órgano sexual masculino” (RAE, Diccionario panhispánico de dudas).
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menguante desmenuzar
diminishing, waning (to) crumble, (to) mince, (to) examine minutely
Menú comes from French, where, in addition to “minute (tiny)”, it came to mean “detailed list of courses of a meal”.
Second By origin, second has nothing to do with the number two. Rather, it is “the one that follows”, secundus originally being a participle of the verb sequi (“to follow”). The second division of the hour, after the minute, is a second. secundus secundum secundarius sequere (CL sequi)
sequentem (acc.) sequentia con seguir consequentia consequentem (acc.)
segundo (adj. & n.) según secundario seguir
second (in order), second (of time) according to secondary (to) follow, (to) continue
[segue]
enseguida / en seguida seguidor exequias siguiente
at once, immediately
[ensue]
follower obsequies, funeral rites following, next, sequent
[suitor]
séquito secuencia conseguir consecuencia consecutivo consecuente consiguiente
inconsequentem (acc.)
por consiguiente en consecuencia inconsecuente
retinue, entourage sequence (to) obtain, (to ) succeed in consequence consecutive consequent, consistent (conduct) consequent (following, resulting) consequently, therefore consequently, accordingly inconsistent (adj. & n.)
Esto no sólo es inconsecuente con los estándares de derechos humanos . . . This is not only inconsistent with human rights standards . . .
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Juan es un inconsecuente: dice que es vegetariano y come pollo. Juan is (an) inconsistent: he says he is vegetarian yet he eats chicken. obsequium
pro seguir
obsequio obsequiar perseguir perseguidor persecución proseguir
sequela sequax secta
prosecución secuela secuaz secta
per seguir
gift, present (to) make a present of, (to) regale (to) pursue, (to) persecute pursuer, persecutor persecution, pursuit (to) prosecute (carry on, pursue) prosecution (nonjudicial senses) sequel, sequela follower, henchman sect
[obsequious]
[sequacious]
Moment momentum raptus
rapidus
momento momentáneo rato a ratos rapto raptar rápido rapidez
moment, momentum (physics) momentaneous brief period of time, while (n.) at times, occasionally kidnapping, ravishment, fit, rapture (to) abduct, (to) kidnap rapid rapidity, swift ness
[rapt]
The initial meaning of rato was “instant” or “moment”—a meaning still preserved in much of the Americas—before undergoing an evolution in meaning similar to that of ahora (i.e., from “now” to “some point in the not-too-distant future”).
Adverbs of Time hac hora (at this hour) ad noctem (at night) ante ante annus (before year) adhuc (until this point) heri ante heri (before yesterday)
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ahora anoche antes antaño aún ayer anteayer
now last night before in the old days, long ago yet, still yesterday the day before yesterday
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de ex post (from from after) in tunc (in then) hodie ( hoc die, “on this day”) jam (now, already) jam magis (ya más “now more”) (in) locus (place) (cras) maneana (tomorrow morning) nunquam primarius promptus recente(m) mente semper tarde (slowly, tardily) temporaneus (timely) tota via (all way)
después
after
entonces hoy ya jamás luego mañana
then today already never next, right away tomorrow
pasado mañana nunca primero pronto recientemente siempre tarde temprano todavía
the day after tomorrow never first, to begin with soon, quickly, promptly recently always late early still
Notes: () As an adverb, mañana means “tomorrow”. El mañana is a masculine noun meaning “morrow” or “future”, hence pasado mañana (“the day after tomorrow”). La mañana is a feminine noun meaning “morning”, so that mañana por la mañana is “tomorrow morning”. () Mañana is known as an expression associated with a lack of urgency. Ahora is similar, essentially meaning some point in the future starting from now. To express a more immediate “now”, various strengthened expressions are employed, with different nuances in different regions: ahora mismo, ahorita, ahorita mismo, etc. (mismo in this context means “exactly” or “right”, as in “right now”). () Tarde is also a feminine noun meaning “afternoon”. So muy tarde por la tarde means “very late in the afternoon”. buenos días buenas tardes buenas noches
good day, good morning good afternoon good evening, good night
. English morrow formerly had a similar double employ: “morning” (now archaic) and “the next day”; both senses are still preserved in German morgen (“tomorrow”) / Morgen (“morning”).
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() As for jamás (see Section .), in certain constructions the translation of nunca can be “ever” rather than “never”. La situación es más grave que nunca.
The situation is more serious than ever.
() Aún (with written accent) is to be distinguished from aun (without), the latter meaning “even” (adverb). Theoretically, there is a difference in pronunciation as well as spelling: aún aun
a•un aun
syllables, a and u are separate vowels syllable, a and u form a diphthong
A simple aid for keeping them straight: still . . . has the longer pronunciation. In practice, though, particularly in the Americas, the two are often pronounced the same, and the RAE has given up and no longer insists that the words be distinguished orally.
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S E C T I O N .
Ser and Estar
Distinguishing between the uses of ser and estar is one of the greatest challenges facing the student of Spanish. The Latin origins of these verbs can provide some assistance in understanding their different uses: (a) Ser represents a merger of the Latin verbs “to be” (ESSE) and “to be seated” (SEDERE). ESSE is the ultimate origin of English essence and essential; SEDERE, that of sedentary and residence. (b) Estar comes from the Latin verb “to stand” (STARE), the origin of English state and status and, via Old French, the verb stay.
Thus one can think of ser as applying to the essence of an object, a characteristic that is seated or innate, as opposed to the less permanent state (or status) of an object represented by estar. In this section we will introduce some of the very large number of Spanish (and English) words etymologically related to ser and estar.
. Ser As noted above, Spanish ser represents an amalgam of Latin esse and sedere, each of which individually contributed numerous words to Spanish and English.
A. ESSE Like its English counterpart to be, esse was itself a hybrid composed of elements from different Indo-European roots: most of the forms came from the root *es-, which produced English is, while others—including the future participle futurus—came from the root *bheu-, origin of be. futurus
futuro ( porvenir )
future
An initial Indo-European *bh- corresponds to b- in the Germanic languages, but to f- in Latin, hence the correspondence futurus—be; other such Germanic-Latin correspondences are bloom—flower, brother—fraternal, break—fracture, brew—ferment. Literally “that which is to come” (por venir).
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In early Classical Latin, esse had no present participle, although -sens (acc. -sentem) served as a present participle for several of the composite verbs formed from esse (e.g., absens). A later form, ens (acc. entem), is attributed by some to Caesar and is the basis for entem entitat-em (acc.)
ente entidad
being, public entity (esp. TV) entity (being, corporation or association)
Not to be outdone by his contemporary (and political rival), Cicero “invented” another “pseudo” present participle (essens—essentem) and used it to create the noun essentia, in analogy with the manner in which patientia (“patience”) had been constructed from the present participle patiens of the verb pati (“to suffer”). A new word for “essence” was necessary because the existing one (natura, “nature”) was thought to be too general and imprecise. essentia
patientia
esencia esencial esencialmente paciencia paciente pacientemente impaciencia impaciente impacientemente
essence essential essentially patience patient (adj. & n.) patiently impatience impatient impatiently
In medieval times, the term fifth element was coined to refer to the ethereal element that, along with the four basic ones (air, earth, fire, water), permeated all things. quinta essentia
quintaesencia
quintessence
esse joined forces with several prepositions to produce compound verbs, which then served as the basis for various other forms: ab ⴙ esse absentia absentem (acc.)
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abesse ausencia ausente ausentar(se) absentismo [distraído]
to be away from: be absent absence absent, absentee (to) absent oneself, (to) leave absenteeism absentminded
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inter ⴙ esse
interesse
interesse
interés interesar interesante interesado (p.p.) desinterés desinteresado
prae ⴙ esse
praeesse
praesentia
presencia presenciar presente [regalo] [regalar] presentar presentación presentador presentable impresentable
praesentem (acc.)
representar
re-
representación
pro ⴙ esse
representativo representante (m./f.) prodesse
to be or lie between: be of importance (or interest) interest (to) interest, (to) be interesting interesting interested, selfish disinterest (impartiality; lack of interest) disinterested (impartial; uninterested) to be before: preside, be present presence (to) be present at, (to) witness present, present tense present (gift) (to) give a present, (to) regale (to) present presentation presenter (TV, radio, etc.) presentable unpresentable (not fit to be presented) (to) represent, (to) perform (play) representation, performance (theater) representative (adj.) representative (person) to be at hand: be useful or profitable
The associated adjective prode is the source of English pride, proud, prude, prowess, and improve (which has no etymological connection with prove). With the exception of proeza, Spanish has drawn these words from other sources: proeza orgullo orgulloso
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heroic deed ( hazaña) pride proud
[prowess] [† orgueil]
Spanish presente can also mean “present (gift)”, but regalo is far more common.
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mojigato mejorar mejora inmejorable
prude (to) improve, (to) ameliorate improvement, melioration ( mejoría, mejoramiento) unbeatable (can’t be bettered)
(lit. “kitty cat”)
esse also mated with the adjective potis to form the verb posse, which in Vulgar Latin became potere. potis initially had the meaning “master of” or “possessor” before acquiring the more abstract sense of “being capable”. Its Greek equivalent is found in the -pot element of despot (lit. “master of the house”). potere is the source of English power, via Anglo-Norman French poër (French pouvoir). potis ⴙ esse
posse
potere
poder poder (n.) poderoso todopoderoso potencia impotencia superpotencia potencial potenciar potente impotente omnipotente omnipotencia potentado potestad apoderar apoderado (p.p.) posible posiblemente posibilidad posibilitar
potentia
potentem (acc.)
possibilis
to be master (of a situation): be able, can can, (to) be able power, authority, control powerful all-powerful, almighty potency, power impotency superpower potential (adj. & n.) (to) strengthen, (to) potentiate potent, powerful impotent omnipotent, almighty omnipotence potentate authority, power (to) empower, (to) seize representative, agent possible possibly possibility (to) make possible
In Medieval Latin, the verb posse could also be used as a noun with the sense of “power”, “force”. In British Medieval Latin the expression posse comitatus arose, literally “force of the county”, referring to a body of men whom the sheriff could call upon to maintain public order (i.e., a posse).
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imposible imposibilitar déspota despótico despotismo
( Gk.)
impossible (to) make impossible, (to) prevent despot despotic despotism
B. SEDERE sedere corresponds directly to English to sit, as both come from the IndoEuropean root *sed-. Like sit, it refers to the state of being seated and is distinguished from the active sense of sitting down (“to seat oneself”), which is represented by the related verb sidere. With regard to a person, sedere implies a notion of resting without movement; to an object, that of stability or of having been deposited (like a sediment on a river bed). Words derived directly from sedere include: sedentario sedimento sedimentación sedimentar sede (f.) la Santa Sede
sedentarius sedimentum
sedes
sedentary sediment sedimentation (to) deposit (as sediment), (to) settle seat (of power), headquarters the Holy See
English seance comes from the present participle of the French verb seoir, derived from sedere, so that it literally means a “sitting”. The letter combination dl regularly became ll in Latin, so that the related noun for chair, *sedla—the etymological counterpart of English settle —became sella: sella
silla sillón
seat, chair armchair
The past participle of sedere was sessus, hence the related noun sessio(n)
sesión
session
The *sed- root is found in both Latin nidus (from *nisdus) and English (via Germanic) nest, where the first element, ni—ne, is the same as in nether
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“A long wooden bench with a high back, often including storage space beneath the seat.” See Section . for an explanation of the change in consonant d (sedere) to ss (sessus).
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(“lower”, “down”, Netherlands) and beneath; hence a nest is literally a place for birds to “sit down”. nidus
nido anidar
nest (to) nest, (to) reside
Apart from sedere and sidere, there was an associated causative verb sedare, literally “to make someone sit down”, e.g., to calm or sedate them. In an analogous fashion, the English verb sit has an associated causative verb set. sedare
sedar sedación sedante
(to) calm, (to) sedate sedation sedative (adj. & n.)
In Vulgar Latin, a new verb form sedentare was created, corresponding to the act of being seated, leading to: sedentare
sentar
(to) seat, (to) sit (transitive), (to) sit well with
sentada dar por sentado asentar asentamiento asiento el asiento delantero / trasero
sit-in, protest (to) take for granted (to) set, (to) establish settlement seat front / back seat
sedere and its active counterpart sidere combined with a range of prepositions to form compound verbs, in which those corresponding to sedere had more passive meanings, and those to sidere, more active ones. While in most cases the two compound forms looked alike, they were in fact distinguished in pronunciation by the nature (i.e., length) of their vowels, e.g., for the combinations with the preposition AD: ad sede¯re sdere
S S
asside¯re assdere
to be seated near: attend upon or assist to sit toward: sit down
The change of stem vowel (e S i) reflects the regular “vowel weakening” of interior Latin short vowels, discussed in Section .. Apart from the difference in vowel pronunciation, the word accent was on different syllables: as•si•de¯•re versus as•sĪ•de•re.
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where the line (macron) over the vowel indicates that it was a long vowel. assessor
asesor asesoramiento asesorar asesoría
assiduus
asiduo
de ⴙ sedere ⴙ sidere
asiduidad desidere desidere
desidia
desidia
adviser, consultant advice (esp. legal or professional) (to) advise, (to) consult (with) consultancy, consultant’s office assiduous, frequent (e.g., contributor) assiduity to be seated away from: sit idle to sit away from: sink, deteriorate apathy, laziness, carelessness
[assessor]
[† desidiose]
The Vulgar Latins created a neuter form desidium and, evidently inspired by the cautionary proverbs An idle mind is the devil’s workshop. Satan finds some mischief still, for idle hands to do.
came up with an altogether new meaning, that of “erotic desire”. This then gave rise to: desidium
deseo deseoso desear deseable indeseable
desire, wish desirous (to) desire desirable undesirable (person)
The similarity in form with English desire is (essentially) coincidental: desire comes from desiderare, “to long for”, which originally meant “waiting for what the sidereal bodies [i.e., stars] will bring” (or “pining for what they have taken away”). dis ⴙ sedere ⴙ sidere
dissidere dissidere
to be seated away from: disagree to sit away from
A Spanish equivalent: La ociosidad es la madre de todos los vicios (“Idleness is the mother of all vices”). Similarly, considerare (“to consider”) literally meant “to be with (i.e., examine attentively) the stars”.
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in ⴙ sedere
disidir disidencia disidente insidere
ⴙ sidere
insidere
insidiae insidiosus
insidia insidioso insidiosamente
(to) dissent dissidence dissident (adj. & n.) to be seated in or on: be in occupation to sit in or on: occupy, be rooted in deceit, trap or snare (pl.) insidious, deceitful insidiously
An insidious person is thus literally one who lies or sits in wait, seeking to entrap. obs ⴙ sedere ⴙ sidere obsessio(n)
obsidere obsidere obsesión obsesivo obsesionar
obseso
to be seated in front of: occupy to sit in front of: besiege obsession obsessive (to) obsess, or become obsessed obsessive
The original Latin sense of obsession related to a military siege of a fortress, and this was the sense with which it entered English. Thus in his History of King Richard III (), Sir Thomas More could write They which were in the castell . . . sent also to the Earle of Richemonde to advertise [advise] hym of their sodeine [sudden] obsession.
Only in the seventeenth century did the (English) meaning shift to a siege of the mind (e.g., by the devil or an evil spirit), a meaning that had developed in Medieval (Ecclesiastical) Latin at a relatively early stage. In the original sense, obsess and obsession have been replaced in both languages by other constructions derived from sedere:
prae ⴙ sedere
asediar asedio praesidere
(to) besiege siege to be seated in front: preside over, guard
(† assiege)
Dissent is etymologically unrelated, coming instead from dis-sentire (lit. “to feel apart”). “To dissent” in Spanish is expressed far more commonly by disentir.
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praesidentem (acc.)
presidir presidente (m./f.)
(to) preside (over) president
presidencia presidencial presidio presidiario
presidency presidential prison, penitentiary convict
(also presidenta—f.)
[presidio]
praesidentem is the present participle, so that presidente—president literally means “presiding” (one). re ⴙ sedere ⴙ sidere residentem (acc.)
residuum
residere residere residir residente residencia residencial residuo residual
to remain sitting: reside to sink or settle back (or down) (to) reside resident (adj. & n.) residence residential residue, remainder residual
A resident is thus one who remains sitting. sub ⴙ sidere
subsidere
to sink under: subside
This verb has been replaced in Spanish by hundir (from fundere, “to pour”, source of English fusion and fondue). [hundir] [hundimiento]
(to) subside, (to) sink subsidence, sinking, collapse
The similar-sounding subsidy comes from the (otherwise unattested) composition of sub with sedere and hence has the more passive meaning of “aid or support”, i.e., something that is sitting underneath as opposed to something that actively sinks down. Its primary use in Latin was to refer to soldiers held in reserve (“behind the lines”).
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subsidium
subsidio subsidiario subsidiar
super ⴙ sedere
supersedere
ⴙ sidere
supersidere
subsidy ( subvención) subsidiary (to) subsidize ( subvencionar) to sit above: refrain from, omit to sit down on top of
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sobreseer sobreseimiento sobreseimiento definitivo
(to) stay a judicial case stay of proceedings dismissal (of a case)
[supersede] [surcease]
The two verbs also combined with the adjective potis to form verbs of possession: potis ⴙ sedere ⴙ sidere
possessio(n)
possidere possidere poseer poseído (p.p.) posesión poseedor posesivo desposeer
to be in possession of: possess to take possession of (to) possess possessed (haunted or crazed) possession possessor possessive (to) dispossess, (to) renounce (rights)
. Estar Unlike ser, estar has a sole parent, Latin stare (“to stand”). Etymologically it corresponds to English stay, which was derived from the Old French equivalent of estar. stare comes from the same Indo-European root *sta- as English stand. Other English words derived from this root and arriving via Germanic, rather than Latin, include: stud steed stool standard stead steady
place for breeding horses; male animal used for breeding horse (esp. a spirited one) small chair or footrest a flag or banner; normal, familiar, or usual the place occupied by another firm in position or place
Standard comes from Old French estandart (Modern French étendard), and the most widely held view is that it represents the Germanic stand hard. In those days of frequent pitched battles, each side would place its flag or banner, mounted on a pole, in the ground, which then became an immovable object to be seen by all and to be defended, i.e., it “stood hard”. A contemporary account from the twelft h century suggests alternatively that the banner may have taken its name from the surrounding soldiers themselves who were “standing hard”,
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for “it was there that valour took its stand to conquer or die”. A minority see the origin as relating instead to the extending of the banner, i.e., derived from Latin extendere. Whatever its precise origin, the initial use of standard was purely as a flag, banner, or ensign, and it is with this meaning that it passed from AngloNorman French to English in the twelft h century. Only several centuries later did it develop its other, now more common, meaning of “being of a specified norm or standard”. This sense probably arose from the association of the royal standard (flag) with the (royal) source from which standards of weights and measurement were issued. Today both meanings continue in English: thus to raise the standard of liberty in our battle for justice and equality
employs standard in its initial sense, whereas “to raise the standard of living” is more likely to be interpreted with its “normative” sense. estándar ( Eng.) estandarte ( Fr.) estandarizar estandarización
standard (norm) standard (flag or banner) (to) standardize standardization
The large majority of *sta- words have arrived in English via the Latin route. From the basic verb stare and Latin root sta- came a whole host, including: stare
status
statio(n)
estar bienestar estado de bienestar estado (p.p.) malestar [declarar, decir] estatal statu quo estatus / status estante estantería estación estacional
(to) be well-being, welfare welfare state status, state discomfort, malaise (to) state state (adj.) status quo status (economic, social) shelf, bookcase shelves, bookcase station, season seasonal
[stay]
( Eng.)
Note that it is statu, not status. Statu is pronounced as if it were spelled estatu and similarly for status; the latter is not recognized by the RAE but is nonetheless common.
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estacionario [papelería] [artículos de papelería]
stationary stationery store stationery
English stationery initially referred to a shopkeeper—typically a bookseller— whose premises were stationary, as opposed to those of a peddler.
statura statua stabilis
stabulum
estacionar estacionamiento estatura estatua estable estabilidad inestable inestabilidad estabilizar desestabilizar estabilización estabilizador (adj. & n.) establecer establecimiento restablecer establo
(to) station, (to) park parking, parking lot stature, height statue stable (adj.) stability unstable instability (to) stabilize (to) destabilize stabilization stabilizing, stabilizer (to) establish establishment (to) reestablish (health, contact, etc.) stable (for animals, not only horses)
Modern Latin developed the word statisticus in the seventeenth century from the Italian statista (“statesman”) with the meaning of “relative to the state”. In the mid-eighteenth century, its definition was expanded in Germany to the scientific measurement of social facts (German Statistik). Statistics arrived in English at the end of the eighteenth century, supplanting the previously used term political arithmetic. estadista estadística estadístico
statesman, stateswoman statistic, statistics statistical
Medieval Latin stantia produced stanza in Italian (“standing or stopping place”), one of whose early meanings was “group of verses constituting the metric unity” of a poem or song. Stanza was introduced into English by Shakespeare in (Love’s Labour’s Lost) with its current English poetic sense. It had earlier been taken into French as stance and entered English in this form
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as well—initially as “standing place”, subsequently as “golf stance”, and only in the mid-twentieth century in the sense of “posture or attitude”. stantia
[stropha
estancia [postura, posición] estrofa]
stay (sojourn), room, ranch, estancia stance stanza, strophe
Numerous Latin verbs were formed by prefi xing prepositions to stare, leading to many additional nouns and adjectives. circum ⴙ stare
contra ⴙ stare
cum ⴙ stare constantia constantem (acc.)
( Fr.)
circumstare circunstancia circunstancial contrastare contrastar contraste constare constar constancia constante constantemente constatar constatación
to stand around: be present, surround circumstance circumstantial to stand against: dispute, contrast (to) contrast contrast to stand with: stand firm, be constant (to) consist of, (to) be evident constancy constant (adj. & n.f.) constantly (to) confirm, (to) verify confirmation, verification
Cost also comes from constare, with the reduction ns S s frequent in “popular” words (Section ., no. ), the notion being that a price was “firmly fi xed”. costar costoso costo, coste, costa costas del juicio a costa de
(to) cost costly cost, expense costs (judicial) at the expense of (gen. nonmonetary)
In terms of monetary cost, costo is the most common, costa the least (more commonly being found with the unrelated meaning of “coast”, from costa, “rib”). dis ⴙ stare distantia distantem (acc.)
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distare distar distancia distante distanciar
to stand away from: be at a distance (to) be [e.g., km] distant from distance distant (to) place at a distance, to separate
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ex ⴙ stare exstantem (acc.) in ⴙ stare
to stand out: appear, exist extant (still in existence) to stand in or on: urge, press upon
exstare [existente ] instare
bellum instat War is imminent. (Cicero) instantia
instantem (acc.)
instar instancia a instancia de en primera instancia en última instancia [caso, ejemplo] instante instantáneo instantáneamente
(to) urge, (to) insist application (request), instance (law) at the instance (request) of in the first instance as a last resort instance instant instantaneous instantaneously, instantly
Spanish instar preserves the original sense of Latin instare, as do the expressions a instancia de—at the instance of. Instant arrived in English as an adjective with the meaning of “pressing or urgent”, a definition still found in many dictionaries. ob ⴙ stare
obstare
obstar
non obstante
[echar, expulsar] obstáculo no obstante
obstaculizar
to stand in front of or against: hinder, obstruct (to) stand in the way, (to) hinder (to) oust obstacle non obstante (notwithstanding ), nevertheless (to) hinder, (to) place obstacles in the way
( OldFr. oster)
From ex sistere (see below). Thus, in the King James Version of the Bible: “And they were instant with loud voices, requiring that he might be crucified” (Luke :). Modern versions generally replace “instant” with “urgent” or “insistent”. Note that the with- in withstand maintains the archaic (original) defi nition of “against” (also found in withhold and withdraw), and hence notwithstanding is an “exact” translation of non obstante. Th is is no coincidence: notwithstanding was “coined” by the English theologian John Wycliffe (c. –) as a direct loan translation of the Latin expression.
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obstetrix, Latin for “midwife”, also comes from this verb, i.e., she who “stands in front of the woman in childbirth to receive the baby”. obstetrica
prae ⴙ stare
obstetricia obstetrics obstétrico obstetric obstetra (m./f.) obstetrician praestare to stand in front: stand out, excel
Latin praestare also incorporated meanings derived from the adverb praesto (“at hand”, “ready”), whose relation, if any, to the verb stare is not clear. Hence other meanings of praestare included “to place at the disposition of”, “to furnish”, “to vouch for or guarantee”, and (in Medieval Latin) “to lend”. English formerly had a number of derived words—prest, prestable, prestation, etc.—but these are now found only in unabridged (or historical) dictionaries. prestar prestación préstamo prestamista prestatario presto presteza
(to) lend service(s) offered loan lender, moneylender borrower prompt, promptly, presto (right away, music) rapidity, promptness
(Fr. prêter)
Spanish has no single verb corresponding to the reciprocal operation, i.e., to borrow.
re ⴙ stare
pedir prestado tomar prestado
(to) borrow
restare
to stand back: rest (remain)
Spanish has taken the idea of “that which remains” to reformulate restar as “to subtract”, i.e., one of the four basic arithmetic operations. English rest has (at least) three different meanings, each with its own origin: (a) cessation of work and period of relaxation; (b) remainder (corresponding to Spanish); and (c) a support for a lance. The first comes from Germanic, the second and third from Latin. restar resta resto
(to) subtract, (to) take away, (to) remain subtraction ( sustracción) rest, remainder, leftovers or remains (pl.)
In the sense of “being left”: fi fteen days remain before the deadline expires; it (only) remains to say; etc..
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ad restare sub ⴙ stare substantia
restos mortales [descanso] [descansar] arrestar arresto substare sustancia sustancial sustancioso sustantivo sustancialmente
mortal remains rest (relax) (to) rest (relax) (to) arrest arrest to stand under: be present, stand firm substance substantial (important, essential) substantial (incl. “nourishing”) substantive (incl. “noun”) substantially
These words can be spelled with or without the letter b, i.e., substancia or sustancia, although the latter is more common (and preferred by the RAE). super ⴙ stare superstitio(n)
superstare supérstite superstición supersticioso
to stand above or over surviving (e.g., spouse—legal term) superstition superstitious
Superstitious is thus related to the idea of “standing over”, though the exact sense is not clear—perhaps it had to do with “standing over in awe and amazement”. Just as the passive sedere had a counterpart sidere to express the action of sitting, sistere is the active counterpart to stare, expressing “to cause to stand”, “to place”, “to stand still or firm”. sistere was the basis of numerous compound verbs, including: ad ⴙ sistere
assistere
asistir asistente (m./f.) asistenta asistencia
to take a stand near: attend, assist (to) attend, (to) assist assistant, attendee cleaning lady attendance, assistance, assist (sports)
superstitio(n) was formed as a combination of super and statio(n); the latter’s a was a short vowel and hence became i in the compound word (Section .).
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Asistir—assist is frequently cited as an example of falsos amigos, as students are taught that they should translate English “assist” by ayudar, never by asistir. In reality: () asistir can be, and not infrequently is, used in the sense of “ayudar”; while () assist can be, but rarely is, used in the sense of “to attend”. The Spanish and English definitions are thus virtually identical, the only difference being that English has essentially chosen to ignore one of them. cum ⴙ sistere
de ⴙ sistere ex ⴙ sistere
consistere consistir consistente consistencia inconsistente inconsistencia desistere desistir exsistere
to stand with: stand firmly, halt, exist (to) consist (of, in) solid, firm, consistent consistency, solidity weak, flimsy, unsubstantial flimsiness, inconsistency to stand away from: stop, desist (to) desist to step out from: emerge, become
ex luxuria exsistit avaritia (Cicero) From luxury is born avarice.
in ⴙ sistere
inter ⴙ sistere interstitium
existir existencia existente existencial existencialismo existencialista coexistir coexistencia preexistir preexistente insistere insistir insistente insistencia intersistere intersticio
(to) exist existence, stock or supply (pl.) existent, extant existential existentialism existentialist (to) coexist coexistence (to) preexist preexisting to stand in or on: persist, insist (to) insist insistent insistence to stop in between: pause interstice (gap)
For example: Marion P. Holt and Julianne Dueber, Pitfalls in Spanish, rd ed. (New York: Barron’s Educational Series, ), . Th is was not always the case: in the nineteenth century, the English novelist William Makepeace Thackeray could write: “The dinner at which we have just assisted” (i.e., attended).
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per ⴙ sistere
persistere
persistir persistencia persistente resistere resistir resistencia resistente resistor resistible irresistible
re ⴙ sistere
sub ⴙ sistere
subsistere
subsistir subsistencia
to stand for (steadfastly): persist, remain (to) persist persistence persistent to stand back: oppose, resist (to) resist, (to) withstand resistance, endurance resistant, strong, resisting resistor (electrical) resistible irresistible (also: unbearable [!]) to stand under: stand firm, exist, subsist (to) subsist (remain, live) subsistence
( Eng.)
Another verb derived from stare was statuere—“to place or set up”, “to establish”, “to decree”—whose past participle became English statute: statuere statutum
estatuir estatutario estatuto
(to) enact, (to) establish statutory statute
statuere joined with various prepositions to form other verbs and associated nouns. Reflecting the normal weakening of interior (short) vowels, in these composites a became i: -stituere. con ⴙ statuere
constituere constituir constitución constitucional constitutivo constituyente (adj.) [elector] [distrito electoral]
to set up with: establish, constitute (to) constitute constitution constitutional constitutive (essential) constituent ( voter) constituent (voter) constituency (voting district)
As discussed in Section .. The compound verbs with stare (e.g., constare) avoided this fate, since the stem vowel of stre was long.
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de ⴙ statuere
in ⴙ statuere
destituere destituir destitución [desprovisto] instituere
pro ⴙ statuere
instituir institución institucional institucionalizar instituto institutriz prostituere
re ⴙ statuere
prostituir prostitución prostituta prostíbulo restituere
sub ⴙ statuere
restituir restitución substituere sustituir sustitución sustituto
to set far away: forsake, abandon (to) dismiss or remove (office, job) dismissal, removal from office destitute to set up in: establish, institute, instruct (to) institute institution institutional (to) institutionalize institute governess to place in front of: offer publicly, expose (to) prostitute prostitution prostitute brothel to put back (in its original place or state): restore, restitute (to) restitute restitution to put or place under: substitute (to) substitute, (to) replace substitution, replacement (act) substitute, replacement (person)
These words can also be spelled with b—substituir, etc. Finally, a standing still or stoppage ( -stitium ) of the sun (sol) was a solstitium
solsticio
solstice
while a much later (fourteenth century) use in connection with arma (“weapons”) provided armistitium
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armisticio
armistice
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S E C T I O N .
Food and Animals
We treat these two topics together because animals frequently wind up being food, in which case they often (but not always) are given different names. In English, for example, fish is fish, whether dead or alive, whereas Spanish distinguishes between pez and pescado. Conversely, in English one does not generally eat calf but rather veal, while in Spanish ternera functions for both. We begin with (vegetarian) food.
Food and Drink Alimento
Food, nourishment, aliment
—alimentar —alimentación comer —comida —comedor —comestible —comensal —comezón (f.)
—(to) feed, (to) nourish, (to) aliment —feeding, nourishment, alimentation (to) eat —food, meal —dining room, (heavy) eater —comestible (edible), comestibles (foodstuffs—pl.) —table companion, commensal —itch, itching
hambre (f.) —tengo hambre —hambriento sed —tengo sed —sediento
hunger, famine —I am hungry —hungry, starved, famished thirst —I am thirsty —thirsty
desayuno
breakfast
[comedo]
[dinner]
Comensal is unrelated to comer, as it comes from cum mensa, the latter the source of Spanish mesa (“table”). The biological defi nition, shared with English commensal, is that of an organism participating in “a symbiotic relationship between two organisms in which one derives some benefit while the other is unaffected”.
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—desayunar —ayuno —ayunar —yeyuno almuerzo —almorzar cena —cenar ´ ltima Cena —la U
—(to) breakfast —fast, fasting —(to) fast —jejunum (second section of small intestine) lunch —(to) lunch dinner, supper —(to) have dinner or supper —the Last Supper
[dine] [jejune]
[morsel] [cenacle]
Desayuno—almuerzo—cena is the most common series of names for the three principal meals. For some, however, almuerzo is “breakfast”, while for others comida can be either “lunch” or “dinner”. Desayunar means literally to “break the fast”. Students who know French often have trouble with desayuno, since French déjeuner now corresponds to “lunch”, having been replaced in its original sense by petit déjeuner. French also formed a second word from the same source, dîner—originally meaning “to take the morning meal”—which gave rise to English dinner. plato —primer plato —plato fuerte —platillo —platillo volador (volante) —plata —platero entremés —entrometer entremeter —intermitente manjar —manjar blanco
plate, dish (container or contents), course (meal) —starter (first course) —main course —saucer, small dish, cymbal ( címbalo) —flying saucer —silver, money (Amer.) —silversmith hors d’oeuvre, entremets (side dish), short farce —(to) insert, (to) place between, (to) meddle —intermittent, blinker (auto) food, dish, delicacy —blancmange (sweetened milk pudding)
[intermission] [intromit, intermit]
[manger, mangy]
I.e., the “fasting” intestine, so called because when dissections are performed, it is invariably found to be empty.
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FOOD AND ANIMALS
cuchillo cuchara —cucharada —cucharilla —cucharadita —cucharón tenedor colador —colar escurridor —escurrir —escurreplatos —escurridizo servilleta
knife spoon —spoonful —teaspoon —teaspoonful —ladle fork strainer, colander —(to) strain, (to) slip or sneak in colander —(to) drain off, (to) slip away dish rack slippery (eel, soap, floor, idea, person) napkin, serviette
Bebida
Beverage, drink
beber —biberón tomar —toma
(to) drink, (to) imbibe —baby bottle (to) take, (to) drink (esp. Amer.) —taking, capture, dose, intake, outlet (elec.) —awareness, realization
—toma de conciencia —toma de posesión agua —agua dulce —agua salada —aguafiestas —aguardiente —acuático —acuario —acueducto —acuarela —paraguas
[cutlery] [cochlea]
( verb tener) [percolate] [ex corridor] [excursion]
[bibulous, beer] [bib]
—inauguration (taking office)
water —fresh water —salt water —killjoy, wet blanket, spoilsport —spirit, firewater —aquatic —aquarium, Aquarius (constellation) —aqueduct —water color, aquarelle —umbrella (for rain)
[aqua]
[ardent water]
(parar aguas)
The fi rst component—para from parar (“to ward off or parry”)—is found also in parasol (English/Spanish) and parachute (Spanish paracaídas).
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aperitivo cacao café —café con leche —cafeína —(café) descafeinado —cafetera —cafetería —cafetero cerveza —cervecería chocolate jerez (m.) ron ( Eng.) sidra té —tetera vid —viticultura vino —vino tinto —vino blanco —vino rosado —viña viñedo —viñeta —vendimia —vinagre —vinagreta jugo zumo —enjugar néctar
aperitif, appetizer cacao, cocoa coffee (beverage, plant), café —coffee with milk —caffeine —decaf, decaffeinated (coffee) —coffeepot, coffeemaker —coffee shop, snack bar —coffee (adj.), coffee grower or seller (m./f.) beer —bar, alehouse, brewery chocolate sherry rum cider (alcoholic) tea (beverage, plant) —teapot, teakettle vine, grapevine —viticulture (cultivation of grapes) wine —red wine —white wine —rosé (wine) —vineyard —vignette, individual drawing in a comic strip, cartoon (political) —grape harvest, vintage —vinegar vinaigrette juice —(to) wipe off (tears, dishes, debt, etc.) nectar
[cafeteria]
[vise]
[tinted]
[acrid wine]
Initially a decorative design in the form of vine tendrils. In the limited sense of “the harvesting of a grape crop”. Literally “to remove the juice” ( ex-sucus).
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FOOD AND ANIMALS
botella —botellero —embotellar —embotellamiento copa —copo —copete taza vaso —vasija —envasar —envase
bottle —bottle or wine rack —(to) bottle, (to) bottle up, (to) cause a bottleneck —bottleneck, traffic jam, gridlock cup, glass (generally having stem and foot) —flake (snow, dust, etc.) —tuft or forelock, crest (bird, mountain), topping cup (with handle), toilet bowl glass, vessel (anatomical) —vessel (container for liquids) —(to) bottle, (to) put in a container —container (package, bottle, can, sack)
Miscelánea
Miscellanea
batería de cocina cacerola cacharro
—popurrí paella sartén (f.)
pots and pans casserole, saucepan ( cazuela) earthenware pot or jar; crockery (pl.), rattletrap (vehicle) marmite, pot pot —pressure cooker —olla podrida (seasoned stew of meat and vegetables) —potpourri shallow pan, paella frying pan
chupar dieta ()
(to) suck, (to) to soak up or absorb diet
marmita olla —olla a/de presión —olla podrida
[butler]
[demitasse] [vase]
[olla, olio]
[patella]
Olla podrida and potpourri are equivalent expressions, both literally meaning “rotten (putrid) pot”. The original idea seems to have been Spanish, which the French then took and simply translated before exporting it to English (and back to Spanish). In all three languages, “potpourri” now refers not to culinary conconctions but to various mixtures of diverse items.
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—dieta () —la dieta de Worms —una dieta de gusanos —dietética —dietético —dietista —dietario digestión —digerir —digesto —indigestión ebrio —ebriedad —embriagar —embriagador, embriagante —embriaguez sobrio —sobriedad
—per diem allowance (gen. pl.), diet (legislative body) —the Diet of Worms () —a diet of worms —dietetics (study of nutrition as it relates to health) —dietetic, dietary —dietitian —family account book digestion —(to) digest —digest (esp. legal) —indigestion drunk, inebriated —drunkenness, inebriation, inebriety —(to) inebriate, (to) intoxicate —inebriating, intoxicating —drunkenness, inebriation sober, temperate, moderate —sobriety, moderation
The words that come under Spanish ebrio are all ultimately derived from Latin ebrius (“drunk”), the root of English inebriate. In Latin, the opposing state was sobrius (literally “not ebrius”). Also popular in this context are borracho and emborrachar, arising from the perceived similarity in nature between the fluid contents of a borracha (leather wine bottle) and those of a borracho. borracho (adj. & n.)
drunk, rum-soaked (e.g., cake), drunkard
Dieta () comes from Latin diaeta (“mode of living”, “diet”), itself from Greek. In Medieval Latin, ae became e, and hence diaeta became dieta, whereby it came to assume various meanings more appropriate to the unrelated word dies (“day”): day’s march, day’s work, daily liturgy, etc. The notion of a legislative assembly arose from the idea of a “day’s” sitting. The German equivalent is found in Reichstag and Bundestag, where Tag is German for “day”.
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FOOD AND ANIMALS
—emborrachar —borrachera
—(to) make drunk, (to) get drunk —drunkenness, spree
lamer masticar —mascar —papel maché —mascullar
(to) lick, (to) lap (tongue, waves) (to) chew, (to) masticate —(to) chew, (to) mumble —papier-mâché ( cartón piedra) —(to) mumble, (to) mutter
[lambent]
caldo
broth, bouillon, juices (pl.)—incl. wine, olive oil —hot (climate), warm (temperature, reception, color) —boiler, cauldron (caldron), caldera —kettle ( caldera pequeña) —(to) heat up (room, spirits—not food) —(to) scald (incl. “heat liquid almost to boiling”) gazpacho (cold soup) ( Sp.) ice cream milk —pasteurized milk
[chowder]
—cálido —caldera —caldero —caldear —escaldar gazpacho helado leche (f.) —leche pasteurizada —productos lácteos —láctico —lactar —lactancia —lechuga manteca —mantequilla mayonesa mermelada mostaza nata
(Fr. chaud)
(Lat. ex-caldare)
[jelly]
—dairy products —lactic —(to) suckle, (to) nurse —lactation —lettuce fat, lard —butter mayonnaise marmalade, jam mustard cream, scum (fi lmy surface layer)
[lactate]
(“honey apple”) [mat]
The name arose from the milky juice associated with the lettuce plant. Cream represents the mat or “scum” on top of the milk: scum and skim are etymologically the same word—one skims something by removing the scum.
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—natillas (pl.) —desnatar —leche desnatada pan —panadero —panadería —panera —empanar —empanada —pan tostado tostada —tostar —tostador, tostadora puré queso —quesadilla
[panini] [pantry] [pannier]
—(to) toast, (to) roast (coffee) —toaster purée cheese
sopa yogur
—quesadilla (cheese-fi lled tortilla) soup yogurt
Condimento
Condiment, seasoning
condimentar sazonar —sazón (f.) —a la sazón —desazón anís
(to) season, (to) flavor (to) season (with time, spices) —ripeness or maturity, seasoning —at that time, then —discomfort, anxiety, uneasiness anise (herb), anise seed, anisette (liqueur) saff ron cinnamon cardamom coriander, cilantro clove, nail cumin cayenne pepper, red pepper ginger
azafrán canela cardamomo cilantro, culantro clavo comino guindilla jengibre
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—custard —(to) cream, (to) skim ( descremar) —skim (skimmed) milk ( leche descremada) bread —baker —bakery —breadbasket, breadbox —(to) bread —turnover, pasty, empanada —toast
(both Lat. caseus)
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FOOD AND ANIMALS
nuez moscada
nutmeg
páprika picante pimiento —pimiento verde (rojo) —pimienta
paprika ( pimentón) hot, spicy, piquant pepper, pimento/pimiento (plant) —green (red) pepper
—pimienta negra (blanca) —pimentón —pimentero sal (f.) —salar —salado —salino —salina —salsa —ensalada —salchicha —salchichón
—salpicadura —salpicadero tomillo vainilla
thyme vanilla
—insulso —salario —salarial —aumento salarial —salpicar
[nut smelling like musk]
[pigment]
—pepper, pimento/pimiento (condiment) —black (white) pepper —ground red pepper, paprika —pepper shaker salt —(to) salt —salted, salty, witty —saline —salt mine, salt works (pl.) —sauce, gravy, salsa (music) —salad —sausage —salami (spiced and salted sausage) —salt shaker —lacking in salt, without taste, insipid —insipid or dull (meal, person) —salary (n.), wage —salary or wage (adj.) —salary or wage increase —(to) sprinkle, (to) splash, (to) spatter —splash(ing), splatter(ing) —dashboard
—salero —soso
[salad]
[so-so ]
(sal picar)
(lit. “sprinkled” with instruments)
The identity in form with English so-so is coincidental; Spanish soso comes from Latin insulsus (“unsalted”), as does insulso. From salarium, the allowance paid to Roman soldiers for purchasing salt (sal), hence salary.
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Verdura
Vegetable, greens
[verdure]
hortaliza legumbre alcachofa berenjena brócoli / brécol / bróculi cebolla col (f.) —ensalada de col —coles de Bruselas coliflor (f.) espárrago espinaca estofar —estofado (p.p.) —estufa garbanzo guisante guisar —guisado (p.p.) guiso
vegetable legume, vegetable artichoke eggplant broccoli
[horticulture]
onion cabbage, cole, kale —coleslaw —Brussels sprouts cauliflower asparagus spinach (to) stew —stew —stove (for heating), heater garbanzo (chick pea) pea (to) cook, (to) stew, (to) cook up —stew
[chive]
haba
fava bean (also called: broad bean, horse bean) —bean bean, frijol(e)
—habichuela frijol / fríjol / frejol / fréjol judía
[slaw salad]
[guise, disguise]
[bot. Phaseolus vulgaris]
bean
Frijol (and variants), judía, habichuela, and alubia are all words for various types of beans from the plant known as Phaseolus vulgaris (“common bean”). Frijol is more common in the Americas. Numerous other regional names exist, including poroto, caraota, chaucha, ejote, and vainita. English names for Phaseolus vulgaris include: kidney bean, string bean, green bean, snap bean, pinto bean, and haricot. Judía also means “Jewish” (female adjective or noun), and there have been numerous and varied explanations as to how it came to be used in this context. To cite just one: “quizá porque al cocerlas salen en seguida del agua (a diferencia de los garbanzos, que permanecen en el fondo), tal como el judío no se deja bautizar . . .” (Corominas and Pascual, :): “perhaps because when the beans are cooked they immediately leave the water [presumably meaning that they float on the surface] (as compared to chickpeas, which remain at the bottom), similar to the Jew who does not permit himself to be baptized.” Others have attempted to explain judía (bean) as having evolved from a completely different (Arabic or Latin) word.
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FOOD AND ANIMALS
alubia lenteja nabo patata —patatas fritas —papa () —papas fritas —papa ()
perejil puerro
bean lentil turnip potato —French fries —potato —French fries —pap (bland object; semiliquid food—pl.) —not a bit, nothing (used with saber, entender) —pap, mush —double chin —(to) soak, (to) soak up —Pope, papa (father), dad —papa, poppa, dad cucumber —gherkin pip (fruit seed, bird disease) (bird disease) parsley leek
rábano
radish
—rebanar —rebanada zanahoria
—(to) slice —slice (esp. of bread) carrot
Cereal
Cereal
arroz avena cebada —cebar
rice oats barley —(to) fatten, (to) bait (fishhook, trap), (to) prime —feed, bait, lure
—ni papa —papilla —papada —empapar —papa () (m.) —papá (m.) pepino —pepinillo pepita
—cebo
[napiform] ( Amer.)
( too much pap !) (Gk. pappas) ( Fr.) [pepino]
[bot. Allium porrum] [bot. Raphanus sativus]
[bot. Avena sativa]
(Lat. cibus, “food”)
Originally rabanar (as it still is in Portuguese), apparently from the manner in which radishes are sliced.
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centeno
rye
maíz —maizal malta ( Eng.) mijo / millo sorgo trigo
maize, corn cornfield malt millet, mealie (corn) sorghum wheat
Hongo
Fungus, mushroom
champiñón seta trufa
edible mushroom, champignon mushroom (with “hat”) truffle (edible fungi; chocolate)
Fruta
Fruit (edible)
—fruta prohibida —fruto
—forbidden fruit —fruit (botanical, result, offspring) —nuts, almonds, peanuts, etc. —fruit (adj.), fruit tree —(to) enjoy, (to) have the benefit of, (to) make use of —enjoyment, benefit —fruitful, fruit-bearing, fructuous ( fructuoso) —fruitless, unfruitful, infructuous —usufruct (legal) avocado, alligator pear, aguacate
—frutos secos (pl.) —frutal —disfrutar —disfrute —fructífero —infructuoso —usufructo aguacate
[cent; see Section .]
[triticale, trite]
(Lat. fructus)
The name of the fruit of the tropical American tree Persea americana has undergone a series of “folkloric” deformations, going all the way back to preSpanish times in Central America. aguacate (Del náhuatl ahuacatl ‘aguacate; testículo’, de ahuatl ‘encino, roble’, o de ahuacacuahuitl, literalmente ‘arbol de los testículos’, debido a que se usaba como afrodisíaco.)
From the Diccionario breve de mexicanismos (by Guido Gómez de Silva), available on the website of the Academia Mexicana de la Lengua.
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FOOD AND ANIMALS
aguacate (From Nahuatl [Aztec] ahuacatl “aguacate; testicle”, from ahuatl “holm oak”, “oak”, or from ahuacacuahuitl, literally “tree of the testicles”, due to its frequent use as an aphrodisiac.)
Ahuacatl became Spanish aguacate, with a likely influence of agua. A (presumably humorous) competing version arose, abogado—pronounced, as today, [avogado]—i.e., “lawyer”. Before dying out in Spanish, this form propagated itself to a number of European languages, including French (where to this day avocat means both “lawyer” and “avocado”) and English (initially avogato). The avocado pear, as it is sometimes still called, was subsequently transformed into the alligator pear, from a belief that the fruit was cultivated in alligatorinfested regions. cacahuete maní calabaza —calabacín cereza —cerezo coca —cocaína coco fresa kiwi limón —limonada mandarina —mandarín —clementina manzana —manzano —manzanilla
peanut squash, pumpkin, gourd, calabash —zucchini cherry (fruit), cerise (color) —cherry (tree and wood) coca (plant, leaves), cocaine —cocaine coconut, coconut tree strawberry (fruit, plant, color) kiwi (bird and fruit) lemon, lemon tree ( limonero) —lemonade tangerine, mandarin orange —mandarin (high public official or bureaucrat, Chinese language) —clementine (seedless, deeperred mandarin orange) apple, city block —apple tree —camomile, camomile tea, manzanilla (pale dry sherry)
[Coca-Cola]
[manzanita]
Plural: maníes or manises. English cherry should be cherris but the “s” was mistaken as a sign of a plural, hence the present form. A similar explanation accounts for the disappearance of the fi nal “s” in sherry, earlier sherris (Spanish jerez). From a variety of apple known as mala mat(t)iana, whose name apparently goes back to Gaius Matius, a fi rst-century BC writer on gastronomy, renowned for his apples.
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melocotón —melocotonero —durazno —duraznero melón mora () —moral () —morado —mora () —moral () (adj. & n.f.) —moraleja —moralidad —moralista (adj. & n.) —moralizar naranja
peach —peach tree —peach —peach tree melon mulberry (fruit), blackberry —black mulberry (tree) —violet or mulberry (color) —delay (esp. in payment), mora (poetry) moral (adj.), ethics, morals, morale —moral (of a story) —morality —moralistic, moralist —(to) moralize orange (fruit), orange (color—m.)
—naranjo nuez —nogal —núcleo —nuclear pera —peral piña —piña colada
—orange tree nut, walnut, Adam’s apple —walnut (color, tree, wood) —nucleus —nuclear pear —pear tree pineapple, pine cone —piña colada
—piñata —apiñado
—piñata —crammed or packed together (like a pine cone) —pine (tree, wood) —pine grove or forest plantain (), banana —banana
—pino —pinar plátano () —banana
[melon quince] ( duro, “hard”)
(Lat. mora)
(unrelated) (unrelated)
(see appendix to Section .) [nux vomica]
[“strained pineapple”]
(Eng. < Sp.)
The mul in English mulberry comes from Latin morum (“mulberry”), the source as well for Spanish mora. In Old English, it was morberie. Nut is a Germanic cognate of Latin nux (acc. nucem), the origin of Spanish nuez. The diminutive nucleus (originally nuculeus) was a small nut, hence “kernel”.
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—plátano () —llantén
sandía
—plane tree —plantain ()—small plant (often weed) grapefruit (fruit, tree), pomelo ( toronja) watermelon
tomate uva —úvula
tomato grape —uvula
(“small grape”)
El postre
Dessert
[post-meal]
a la postre repostería —repostero caramelo chicle dulce (adj. & n.)
tarta torta —tortilla
in the end pastry shop, pastry making —pastry cook, confectioner caramel, candy chewing gum, chicle sweet, mild, dulcet, candy or sweet, dolce (adv.) —gentleness, sweetness —(to) sweeten, (to) dulcify ( edulcorar, dulcificar) flan, (caramel) custard cookie, biscuit honey —molasses cake, pie, pastry, pastel (adj. & n.) —pastry shop, pastries —paste, pasta, pastry dough —toothpaste ( dentífrico, pasta dental) tart (pastry), cake cake, torte —omelet, tortilla
Caloría
Calorie
—calor —caluroso
—heat, warmth —hot, warm (temperature, or reception)
pomelo
—dulzura —endulzar flan galleta miel (f.) —melaza pastel —pastelería —pasta —pasta de dientes
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[genus Platanus] [genus Plantago]
[Sind; see Section .]
[repository]
[Chiclet s®]
[douceur]
(Fr. galette) [mellifluous]
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—escalofrío
—shiver, shudder (gen. pl.)
grasa hidrato de carbono proteína
fat carbohydrate protein
( ex calor frío) [foie gras]
Animals Several animals—turkeys, peacocks, parrots, donkeys—are considered separately in the appendix to this section. Gatos y perros
Cats and Dogs
perro —perrera —perrito —perrito caliente —ladrar —ladrido lobo zorro —zorra
dog —kennel, dog pound —puppy ( cachorro), small dog —hot dog —(to) bark —bark, barking wolf fox —vixen (female fox), harlot
gato —a gatas —gato montés —miau maullido —maullar —felino jaguar león / leona —leonera leopardo
cat —on all fours —wildcat —meow
[Zorro]
[mountain cat]
—(to) meow —feline jaguar lion / lioness —lion’s cage, untidy room leopard, pard
The initial meaning of zorro / zorra was apparently that of a lazy or disreputable person (of either sex), before being applied to the animal whose name was a “taboo” (in a somewhat analogous fashion, in French the name for fox is renard, from the cunning lead character in the medieval stories of Reynard the Fox). The leopard was initially thought to be a hybrid of a lion (leo) and a panther (pardus), hence leopardus. In Spanish, pardo came to be interpreted as an adjective referring to the color of the animal.
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—pardo pantera tigre —tigresa
—brown, dark gray panther tiger, jaguar (Amer.) —tigress, seductive woman
Caballos y vacas
Horses and Cows
caballo —caballero
horse —cavalier, knight, gentleman, chevalier, caballero —knight-errant
—caballero andante —caballeroso —caballerosidad —caballería —caballeresco —caballeriza —cabalgadura —cabalgar —cabalgata —caballa —caballete poni ( Eng.) —potro —potra yegua —ecuestre —equitación
buey —bovino —bistec / bife
—chivalrous, gentlemanly —chivalry, gentlemanliness —cavalry, chivalry (system of knighthood; medieval cavalry) —chivalric, knightly, chivalrous —stable ( cuadra) —riding animal, mount ( montura) —(to) ride (on horseback) —cavalcade, procession —mackerel —easel, trestle pony —colt, horse (gymnastics), rack (torture) —fi lly mare —equestrian —equitation (art and practice of horseback riding) ox, steer, bullock —bovine —steak, beefsteak
[rare chivalresque]
[puerile]
[beef] ( Eng.)
Initially applied to “flying fish”, then (due to a perceived similarity in appearance) to the mackerel. In an analogous manner, the source of English easel is Dutch ezel, the Dutch word coming from Latin asellus (“little donkey”).
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—rosbif fi lete res (f.) —carne de res toro vaca —carne de vaca —vacunación —vacuna —vacunar —vacuno —vaquero —mugir —mugido (p.p.) —ubre (f.) —exuberante —exuberancia ternero —ternera hamburguesa —hamburguesa con queso
—roast beef fillet head (a single animal), esp. of cattle —meat (generally bovine) bull cow —beef —vaccination —vaccine, vaccinia (cowpox) —(to) vaccinate —bovine ( bovino) —cowboy/cowgirl (f.), blue jeans (pl. tejanos) —(to) moo (or bellow, for a toro) —moo, bellow —udder —lush, abundant, exuberant (plentiful) —abundance, exuberance calf ( becerro) —veal, female calf hamburger, female resident of Hamburg —cheeseburger
Ovejas y cabras
Sheep and Goats
oveja —ovino cordero
sheep, ewe (female sheep) —ovine (relating to sheep) lamb (animal and meat; also carne de cordero) wool —lanolin
lana —lanolina
( Eng.)
[Taurus]
(Lat. uber)
[tenderloin]
[wool oil]
Res refers to any four-footed domesticated animal and comes from Latin res (“thing”, “property”)—source of English re and rebus, and from which the adjective real was derived. The semantic evolution “property” S “movable possession” S “livestock” parallels that of capital (“wealth or property”) S chattel (“movable personal property”) S cattle. Exuberante and exuberant literally mean “from the breast (or udder)”, udder being the Germanic cognate of Latin uber (source of Spanish ubre).
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—lanudo lanoso pastor —pastor alemán —pastoral —pastoril —pacer —pasto borrego —borra —borroso —borrón —borrón y cuenta nueva —borrar —borrador cabra —cabra montés —cabrito —cabrón —cabrero —cabrear —cabriola —Capricornio chivo —chivo expiatorio gamuza ( camuza)
—woolly, fleecy, lanose shepherd, pastor (minister) —German shepherd (dog) —pastoral (of pastors, shepherds, or rural life), pastorale —pastoral (of shepherds or rural life) —(to) pasture, (to) graze —pasture (grass, herbs, field), pasturage, fodder yearling lamb, “sheep” (timid, weak, submissive person) —coarse wool, fluff, dregs —blurred, fuzzy (indistinct) —inkblot, blemish, rough sketch —“clean slate”, “let bygones be bygones” —(to) erase, (to) rub out, (to) delete (computer) —eraser, rough draft goat —mountain goat —kid (suckling goat) —billy goat ( macho cabrío), cuckold ( other fig. senses) —goatherd —(to) annoy, (to) make angry —capriole, leap, caper —Capricorn kid (weaned), goat (not yet mature) —scapegoat (biblical and figurative) chamois (agile goat, soft leather), shammy
[repast]
[cabretta]
(“goat horn”) [expiatory goat]
Hence the antipasto—before the pasto, i.e., “appetizer”—found in Italian restaurants, which thus has nothing to do with pasta (cognate with paste).
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Cerdos y lechones
Pigs and Piglets
cerdo —cerda —(carne de) cerdo chuleta jamón puerco —puerco espín —porcino —porquería —tuerca —porcelana lechón (-ona) cochino —cochinillo
pig, hog —sow (female pig), bristle, horsehair —pork cutlet, chop ham pig —porcupine —porcine (relating to pigs) —dirt, fi lth, junk food —nut (as in nuts and bolts) —porcelain, china piglet, suckling pig pig —piglet, suckling pig
Otros mamíferos grandes
Other Large Mammals
camello chimpancé ciervo, cierva —venado (m. only) dromedario cebra / zebra elefante foca gorila (m.) hipopótamo —hípico (adj.) —club hípico —hípica (n.)
camel (two humps) chimpanzee deer, stag, doe —deer, stag, venison dromedary (one hump) zebra elephant seal gorilla hippopotamus —pertaining to (racing) horses —riding club —horse racing, horse riding (sport)
[gammon] [pork] [spiny pork]
(OldSp. puerca) (from leche) (Fr. cochon)
[cervine]
[genus Phoca] (“river horse” )
Old Spanish puerca was derived from Latin porca (“female pig”) and subsequently became tuerca through the influence of tornillo (“screw”); in Portuguese, “nut” is still porca. The explanation for this rather surprising origin—as well as that of the related word porcelana (English porcelain)—is actually quite vulgar, in the “modern” sense of the word. (For the “adult” version of porcelain’s origin, see Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary; for a more “family-oriented” one, see American Heritage College Dictionary.) Cf. Mesopotamia, “land between the two rivers”.
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—hipódromo jirafa llama mono (n.) —mono (adj.) oso —oso polar, oso blanco —oso hormiguero —Osa Mayor
panda () (m.) —panda () reno rinoceronte
—anteater —Ursa Major, Great Bear, Big Dipper —Ursa Minor, Little Bear, Little Dipper panda —gang ( pandilla) reindeer rhinoceros
Roedores
Rodents
ardilla castor rata —ratón (-ona) —ratonera
squirrel beaver rat —mouse (animal, computer) —mousetrap
Otros mamíferos pequeños
Other Small Mammals
—Osa Menor
conejo —conejera —conejito —conejillo de Indias erizo —erizo de mar —erizar —rizo —rizar
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—hippodrome, racetrack (horses, bikes, etc.) giraffe llama monkey, overalls (work clothes) —pretty, cute, charming bear —polar bear
rabbit, coney (or cony) —rabbit hutch, warren —bunny —guinea pig ( cobaya)
[ursine]
(unrelated)
[castor (oil)]
[Coney Island]
hedgehog —sea urchin —(to) make stand on end (e.g., hair) —curl, ringlet, loop (airplane) —(to) curl, (to) ripple (waves), (to) loop
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—rizar el rizo liebre (f.) —leporino —labio leporino mapache murciélago —musaraña topo
—loop-the-loop (airplane) hare —leporine (relating to hares) —harelip raccoon bat —shrew (animal) mole (animal, spy)
Aves y aves de corral
Birds and Poultry
ave (f.) —ave rapaz ave de rapiña —rara avis —avicultura —avión (m.) —avión de caza —aviación —aviador pájaro —pájaro carpintero —matar dos pájaros de un tiro ala —ala delta —alado —aleta —aletear
bird (all types) —bird of prey, predatory bird —rara avis (“a rare or unique person or thing”) —poultry farming —airplane —fighter —aviation —aviator bird (gen. smaller bird) —woodpecker
( Amer.) [murine] [“spider mouse” ] [taupe—color]
[avian] [rapacious, rapine]
[aviculture] [avionics]
[passerine] [carpenter bird]
—“kill two birds with one throw (stone)”
wing, brim (hat), ala —hang glider —winged, alate —fin, flipper (gen. pl.) —(to) flutter or flap the wings or fins
[aisle ]
Originally murciego, then murciégalo (still exists, but rare), and fi nally (with interchange of g and l) murciélago. The literal meaning is thus “blind mouse”: mur (obsolete for “mouse” < Latin mus/murem) ciego (“blind”). Germanic mouse and Latin mus are Indo-European cognates. Because of a folk belief that the shrew’s bite was venomous. English aisle owes its -is- to the influence of the unrelated word isle (which, as we have seen in Section ., no. , also accounts for the “unetymological” s in island). The sense of “passageway” arose from a confusion with the unrelated word alley.
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—aleteo pico —picar —picadura —picadillo —picante —pique —ir(se) a pique —piquete —pica —picador —pícaro, pícara —picaresco —picardía pluma —plumaje —plumazo —de un plumazo —desplumar águila —aguileño avestruz (las Islas) Canarias
—flapping of wings or fins, heart palpitation beak, peak, pick(ax), spout (teapot, etc.) —(to) peck, (to) sting, (to) mince, (to) pique —sting or bite (insect, snake, etc.) —minced meat, hash, picadillo —piquant, hot or spicy —pique, resentment —(to) sink, (to) fall through —picket (small military detachment labor strike) —pike (spear), picador’s lance, spades (cards—pl.) —picador, horse trainer, miner (using pick) —rogue, rascal, picaro, picara —roguish, picaresque —roguishness, prank, dirty trick feather, pen, plume —plumage —pen stroke —“at a stroke”, “with one stroke of the pen” —(to) deplume (pluck), (to) fleece eagle —aquiline ostrich Canary Islands
From Latin avis struthio, literally “ostrich bird”, where struthio was taken from the Greek for “ostrich” and also appears in English struthious (“of or relating to ostriches”). From Latin canariae insulae—lit. “dog (canine) islands”—the name given to them by the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (who died in the volcanic eruption at Vesuvius in AD ) because of the large number of wild dogs reported to be native there. The name of the bird (sixteenth c.) thus comes from that of the islands.
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—canario ()
—canario () cigüeña —cigüeñal cisne —canto del cisne —El lago de los cisnes cóndor cuervo —cormorán
condor ( Sp.) raven, crow —cormorant
faisán gaviota golondrina gorrión mirlo paloma —paloma mensajera —palomitas (de maíz) pl. —palomar —pichón ( It.) pelícano perdiz (f.) pingüino ruiseñor tórtola
pheasant sea gull swallow sparrow merle (blackbird) pigeon, dove —carrier or homing pigeon
búho —buhardilla lechuza mochuelo
owl —attic (barn) owl owl (little owl)
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—pertaining to the Canary Islands, resident of Canary Islands, variety of Spanish spoken in Canary Islands (m.) —canary (bird) stork —crankshaft swan —swan song —Swan Lake
[genus Ciconia] [cygnet, Cygnus]
[corvine] (lit. “marine crow”)
[palomino] [messenger pigeon]
—popcorn —pigeon house, dovecote —young pigeon pelican partridge penguin nightingale turtledove
[Mount Palomar]
(unrelated) (from leche )
See Section ., no. , for an explanation.
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gallo
rooster, cock
—gallina —gallinero pollo —pollito polluelo —empollar
—hen, chicken —hen house, chicken coop young chicken, chicken (food) —chick
—a cuatro patas —meter la pata —mala pata —patada —patear —patín —patinar —patinador —patinaje
—(to) brood, (to) incubate (eggs or ideas) —(young) donkey, jackass goose, gander —(to) play the fool duck —foot and leg (animal), leg/foot (furniture) —on all fours ( a gatas) —to put one’s foot in one’s mouth —bad luck —kick —(to) kick, (to) stamp or stomp —skate (ice or roller) —(to) skate, (to) skid, (to) slip —skater —skating
Peces y mariscos
Fish and Seafood
pez () (m.) —pescado (p.p.) —pesquero —pescador, -ora —pescadero —pescadería —pescar
fish (in water) —fish (for eating) —fishing (adj.), fishing boat —fisher, fisherman (-woman) —fishmonger —fish market —(to) fish
—pollino ganso —hacer el ganso pato —pata
[gallinaceous, Gallic ]
[pullet, poultry]
(gansa is rare) [gonzo ?]
[patten]
Latin gallus meant both “rooster” and “resident of Gallia (France)”, although the relationship, if any, between the two is unclear. Latin pullus initially meant simply “young animal”, before becoming specialized in “poultry”. Spanish pollino and French poulain (“young horse of either sex”) represent applications to other species.
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—piscina
—Piscis —pez () marisco —marisquería —marisma
—swimming pool (originally “fishpond”) —pisciculture (breeding and rearing of fish) —Pisces —pitch, tar shellfish, seafood (pl.) —seafood restaurant —salt marsh
anchoa atún bacalao salmón sardina tiburón trucha
anchovy tuna cod salmon sardine shark trout
ballena delfín
whale, baleen whale dolphin
almeja calamar camarón
clam squid, calamari shrimp, prawn
—gamba cangrejo —cangrejo de río —cáncer —canceroso —cancerígeno langosta
—(Mediterranean) prawn crab —crayfish (crawfish) —cancer —cancerous —carcinogenic lobster, locust
—langostino
—(large) prawn
—piscicultura
[piscine, piscina]
(unrelated)
(mamífero) (mamífero)
[genus Gammarus] [Cancer]
[langouste (spiny lobster)] [langoustine]
English crayfish (crawfish) is, of course, not a fish. Its ultimate (Germanic) origin is the same as crab, and it entered English in the fi fteenth century (from French), spelled variously crevesse, crevys, krevys, etc. Th is was subsequently deformed to crayfish, a deformation made all the more easy by the fact that in those days in much of the south of England fish was pronounced [vish]. Latin locusta meant both “lobster” and “grasshopper”, presumably due to similarities in their forms. A locust is a specific type of grasshopper, known particularly for traveling in swarms. locusta as applied to the marine animal underwent various transformations to arrive at Spanish langosta and, apparently, English lobster (though the origin of the English word is disputed).
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ostra —perla pulpo —pólipo —tentáculo —pulpa sepia
oyster —pearl octopus —polyp (animal, growth) —tentacle —pulp cuttlefish, sepia (color)
Insectos y artrópodos
Insects and Arthropods
insecto —insecticida bestia —bicho —bestial
insect —insecticide beast —insect, vermin —bestial, beastly
abeja —abeja reina —apicultura —apicultor avispa colmena enjambre zumbar
bee —queen bee —beekeeping, apiculture —beekeeper, apiculturist, apiarist wasp beehive swarm of bees, crowd, multitude (to) buzz or hum (insect, machine), (to) ring (ears) —buzzing, humming, ringing
—zumbido araña —arácnido —telaraña, tela de araña caracol
(polypod)
(unrelated)
spider, chandelier —arachnid —spider web, cobweb snail, snail shell, cochlea (ear)
[caracole]
In Latin, “octopus” was polypus, from Greek and literally meaning “many feet” (poly pous). Th is became Spanish pulpo. English octopus (octo pous) is a “modern” development, fi rst recorded in . Prior to this, poulp, polyp, and polypus had been employed, and they continued in use (alongside octopus) until the late nineteenth century; polyp continues to refer to a small invertebrate marine animal. The medical sense of polyp (“nonmalignant growth or tumor”) goes back to Latin and arose presumably because a (nasal) polyp appeared to be attached by many “feet”. From Latin vespa (with which English wasp shares a common Indo-European root), with the initial a added through the influence of abeja.
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—escalera de caracol cucaracha escarabajo gusano —gusano de seda hormiga libélula mariposa mosca —mosquito —mosquete —mosquetero —mosquitero (or -tera) —moscardón
—spiral staircase cockroach, roach beetle, scarab worm, worm-like creature (grub, caterpillar, maggot) —silkworm ant dragonfly butterfly fly —mosquito ( Sp.) —musket —musketeer —mosquito net
termes / termita
—botfly, horsefly, bluebottle ( moscón) termite
Reptiles y anfibios
Reptiles and Amphibians
reptil —reptar serpiente (f.) —serpiente de cascabel —cascabel —ponerle el cascabel al gato boa culebra —cobra
reptile —(to) slither, (to) crawl serpent, snake —rattlesnake —small bell, jinglebell, rattle —“to bell the cat”: to perform a daring act boa snake ( serpiente) —cobra
[formic acid] [genus Libellula] [mariposa lily] [muscid]
[genus Termes]
[reptant]
[cascabel]
[colubrid]
The word (perhaps the insect as well !) was brought back to England by Captain John Smith of Pocahontas fame. Initial cacarootch, by folk etymology it subsequently became cockroach, from cock and roach (the freshwater fish). The Portuguese equivalent of culebra is cobra (“snake”)—this development is typical in Portuguese, where an l between vowels normally disappears (hence cor for color). When the Portuguese came across the cobra in India, they named it cobra de capello (now cobra-capelo), meaning “hooded (or caped) snake”. Cobra de capello entered English in the seventeenth century, and only in the nineteenth century was it shortened to cobra. A similar process has occurred in Spanish, French, Italian, and German.
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víbora veneno —venenoso —envenenar
viper venom, poison —venomous, poisonous —(to) envenom, (to) poison
caimán cocodrilo rana —ranúnculo —renacuajo sapo tortuga
caiman / cayman crocodile frog —ranunculus, buttercup ( botón de oro), crowfoot —tadpole toad tortoise, turtle
Marsupiales
Marsupials
canguro koala (m.)
kangaroo, babysitter koala
Carne (f.)
Meat, flesh
—carnicero —carnicería —carnívoro (adj. & n.) —carnero —carnal —carnaval
—butcher —butcher shop, butchery —carnivorous, carnivore
—carroña —encarnar —encarnación —reencarnación
[ranula]
[carnal]
—ram (male sheep), mutton —carnal —Carnival (feast before Lent), carnival, Mardi Gras —carrion (dead and decaying flesh) —(to) incarnate, (to) personify, (to) embody —incarnation, embodiment —reincarnation
A class of flowers that includes buttercups and crowfoots (sic). The application to flowers apparently arose from the use of ranunculus (“little frog”) to refer humorously to a resident of a swampy region, and subsequently to a particular class of flowers found in such regions. Initially agnus carnarius (“sheep for meat”), but the fi rst part disappeared (analogous to hermano, from frater germanus, and to cobra—see above). From Italian carnevale, formed from carne levare (S carnelevale S carnevale), where levare (cognate with Spanish llevar) means “to take off or remove”; i.e., following Carnival, meat is “removed” from the daily menu.
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Granja
Farm
[grange]
—granjero —granjear —grano
—farmer —(to) gain, (to) earn —grain, (coffee) bean, (small) seed (e.g., mustard), pimple —granary, barn —grenade, pomegranate (fruit) —Granada (Andalusia), Grenada (Caribbean) —grenadier —granite —hail, hailstone —(to) hail —(to) shell (peas, beans, corn), (to) separate out
[granger] [garner]
—granero —granada () —Granada () —granadero —granito —granizo —granizar —desgranar
[“seedy apple”]
Appendix . Turkeys and Peacocks pavo —pavo real
turkey —peacock
[pavonine]
The Romance languages (and English) generally had little problem adopting words for New World concepts like hurricane, canoe, hammock, tobacco, etc. For some reason, however, the turkey proved to be an almost insuperable challenge. At an early stage, it was confused with the African guinea fowl, which for centuries had been known in Europe as an “Indian” chicken, due to an apparent confusion between Ethiopia and India. Hence in France the turkey was given the name coq d’Inde, shortened in Modern French to dinde. The turkey was likewise known for some time in England as a cock of Ind or Indian cock. At the same time, the English name of the African guinea fowl was Turkey-cock— apparently because it was imported into England from, or through, Turkish-controlled territories. The universal confusion between the guinea fowl and the American turkey led to the latter taking over the name turkey-cock, subsequently shortened to turkey. In Spain, the imported turkey usurped the name of the “old world” peacock: pavo, cognate with the pea- in English peacock. The denuded peacock was then forced to add
It was not only in England that “Turkey” came to be associated with exotic American products: in Italian, granturco or granoturco (“Turkish grain”) is commonly used to refer to maize (corn).
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the adjective real to distinguish itself from the North American usurper. Contrary to what the overwhelming majority of native Spanish speakers seem to believe, pavo real means “real peacock”—to distinguish it from the turkey masquerading as a peacock— and not “royal turkey”. Shown below are the solutions for turkey in several other languages: Catalan French Italian Portuguese Dutch Turkish
gall dindi dinde (f.), dindon (m.) tacchino peru kalkoen hindi
“rooster from India” “from India” (onomatopoeic: tak tak) “Peru” “from Calicut (in India)” “from India”
The scientific name is Meleagris gallopavo: genus species
Meleagris gallopavo
“guinea fowl” “rooster-peacock”
. Parrots and Periwigs loro papagayo perico —periquito peluca
parrot, chatterbox parakeet —parakeet, budgerigar (Australian) peruke, periwig, wig
[popinjay Sp.]
Birds have not infrequently been given the names of people (e.g., robin and magpie, where the “mag” comes from Margaret) or of personages (e.g., cardinal, because of the similarity in appearance to the religious figure). Parrots and parakeets owe their names to Peter and its Romance equivalents. The process seems to have started in France, where Pierrot (or Perrot) was a diminutive form of Pierre, the French version of Peter. At some stage the name became associated with parrots—known in Europe since Roman times—and a further diminutive, perroquet, was formed to refer specifically to the bird. In the sixteenth century, during the course of which New World parakeets arrived in England, English took from French both the personal name Perrot and the diminutive form perroquet, thus giving parrot and parakeet. When parrot arrived in English, it rapidly displaced popinjay, which had been used for several centuries for “parrot” and had come from Spanish papagayo (via Occitan and French). Popinjay was forced to look for a new meaning and subsequently became specialized in the sense of “a vain and overly talkative person”. In Spanish a similar process took place, except that papagayo was able to maintain its position as “parrot”, forcing diminutives periquito (corresponding to English para-
A “royal peacock” is thus (at least theoretically) un real pavo real—which could also be interpreted as a “real peacock”, a “real royal turkey”, or a “real turkey royale” (culinary concoction).
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keet) and perico to compete for the sense of “parakeet”. The situation in the three languages is summarized below, with the earliest attested dates in parentheses. Spanish
French
English
Pedro (Pero)—Perico
Pierre—Perrot / Pierrot perrot (?) “parrot” perroquet () “parrot”
Peter parrot () parakeet ()
periquito () “parakeet” perico () “parakeet”
S
perruche () “parakeet” pierrot () “sparrow”
from Arabic: papagayo () “parrot”
papegai (, now rare)
popinjay ()
Where do loro and papagayo (and hence popinjay) come from? Loro comes from a Caribbean language, while the generally accepted view is that papagayo comes from Arabic. By folk etymology, it seems to have been modified to appear to represent a combination of two distinct words, the first being papa (i.e., religious father) and the second variously jay (the bird, as in English and Spanish), gay (Occitan papagai, also Spanish ), or gallo—“rooster” (Italian pappagallo). The story does not end here, as it is likely that English wig and Spanish peluca (originally perruca) both took their names from the parrot: peluca comes from French perruque, which in turn was Probablemente extraída del francés antiguo perruquet, siglo XV, voz con la cual se apodaba a los funcionarios de justicia, caracterizados por sus grandes pelucas. Perruquet significaba propiamente “loro”, con el cual se comparó al juez provisto de peluca, por la locuacidad de esta ave y las plumas de su copete y cabeza. Probably extracted from Old French perruquet [Modern French perroquet] in the fifteenth century, a nickname given to judicial officers, who were noted for their large wigs. Perroquet meant “parrot”, the comparison thus being to a wigged judge, in respect to the parrot’s loquacity and the feathers on its crest and head.
In the sixteenth century, French perruque arrived in English with two different forms: peruke and a more popular variant perwyke (“modern” periwig). The latter subsequently gave rise to a shortened form, wig. In Spanish, perruca became peluca
The use of the French name Pierrot / Perrot to refer to a bird is fi rst attested only at a relatively late stage, in the Fables of La Fontaine, by which time it had evidently come to refer to a “sparrow”. In Spanish, gayo initially was two separate words representing both “gay” and “jay”, although the latter word is now largely obsolete. Corominas (), .
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through the influence of pelo (“hair”). Spanish perico (“parakeet”) at an early stage also acquired the meaning of “ornamental wig”, although this usage is no longer common.
. Asses and Donkeys asno —asnal —desasnar burro —burrito (Amer.) —borrico mulo —mulero —mulato —muleta culo, trasero, nalgas (pl.) —culata —recular
ass () ( burro), jackass (foolish or stupid person) —asinine (of or like an ass []) —(to) educate, (to) polish, (to) civilize burro, donkey, ass (); as adj.—stupid, dumb, stubborn —burrito (Mex. food) —donkey, ass (), jackass mule, hinny —muleteer (mule driver) —mulatto ( Sp.) —crutch, muleta (matador’s red flag) ass (), arse, bottom, behind, backside, butt, buttocks —butt or breach (weapon), cylinder head (auto) —(to) recoil (spring/shrink/fall back)
[“de-ass”]
(“small burro”)
[culotte]
English ass () in the (“vulgar slang”) sense of “rear end” has nothing whatsoever to do with animal ass (), nor (at least in theory) with the expression “don’t be an ass!” Ass () comes ultimately from Latin asinus, source also of Spanish asno; ass () is an Americanized version of arse, a native English word that stems from an Indo-European root meaning “buttocks” or “backside”. The “simplification” of rs to s was a regional American development that also produced bust, cuss, hoss, passel from burst, curse, horse, parcel. The confusion between ass () and ass () is thus primarily a North American problem.
In English, the defi nition of a mule is restricted (at least technically) to the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse, while the reverse combination (male horse and female donkey) produces a hinny. Spanish mulo applies to both combinations. Along with a multitude of others, including donde la espalda pierde su honesto nombre (“where the back loses its decent name”). I.e., “don’t be ‘a vain, silly, or aggressively stupid person’ ”, one of the defi nitions of ass (). On the other hand, the “Vulgar Slang” asshole (“a thoroughly contemptible, detestable person”) comes from ass (). In “proper” UK English, the r in arse is no longer pronounced, but ass and arse are still distinguished by their vowels, as arse is pronounced with the vowel of father, ass with that of cat.
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S E C T I O N .
Religion
The early universal language of the Christians was Greek. A Greek translation of the Old Testament (from the original Hebrew) had existed for several hundred years, and the New Testament itself was initially composed in Greek. Scattered Latin translations began to appear by the mid-second century—the first ones in North Africa—and by the latter fourth century there were, as St. Jerome himself observed, nearly as many different versions as there were manuscripts. In , Jerome was commissioned by the reigning pope (Damasus) to make an “official” Latin translation of the Bible. This he did in very short order, before deciding that the Greek version of the Old Testament (Septuagint) he had used was not satisfactory. He therefore set himself the task of mastering Hebrew, and by around he had completed his translation of the Old Testament from the “original” Hebrew. Jerome’s translation forms the basis of the Vulgate, the official Roman Catholic version of the Bible. Some elements of the Christian vocabulary entered the languages of Western Europe directly from Greek, without passing through Latin—English church being a prominent example. The major part, however, passed through Latin, and in this regard the Vulgate played an important role. Although much of the Romance (and English) religious vocabulary remains very little changed from that in the Vulgate, several frequently used words have undergone substantial remodeling, as illustrated by the following comparison: Latin
Spanish
Portuguese French
Italian
English
ecclesia episcopus archi eleemosyna
iglesia obispo arzobispo limosna
igreja bispo arcebispo esmola
chiesa vescovo arcivescovo limosina
church bishop archbishop alms
église évêque archevêque aumône
In the examples above, Greek Christian terms were taken virtually unchanged into Latin. In many other cases, however, Greek terms were replaced by Latin ones: either by direct “translation”, whereby an existing Latin word was given a new (religious) sense, or via the creation of an altogether new Latin
The Septuagint—from the Latin for “seventy” (tradition held that it had been translated by seventy-two Jewish scholars). Limosina has now largely been supplanted by the “learned” form elemosina.
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RELIGION
word. The first process is illustrated by praedicare (“to proclaim in public”), which was given the religious sense of “to preach the Gospel” (Spanish predicar); the second, by salvator, which was created from the adjective salvus (“safe”) to translate the Greek word corresponding to “savior” (Spanish salvador). Examples of both types are to be found in the list below. abadía —abad (m.) —abadesa agnóstico —agnosticismo altar amén —amén de ángel —ángel de la guarda —angelical angélico —angélica —arcángel apóstol —apostólico ateo (adj. & n.) —ateísmo bautismo —bautismo de fuego —bautizo —bautizar —(San) Juan Bautista belén bendición —bendecir —bendito
abbey —abbot —abbess agnostic —agnosticism altar amen —in addition to, besides angel —guardian angel ( ángel custodio) —angelic, angelical —angelica (plant) —archangel apostle —apostolic atheistic, atheist —atheism baptism (sacrament), christening —baptism of fire —baptism (ceremony), christening —(to) baptize, (to) christen —(Saint) John the Baptist Bethelem (cap.), nativity scene, bedlam benediction, blessing —(to) bless —blessed
(old p.p.)
English bedlam comes from a “popular” form of the name of the Hospital of St. Mary of Bethlehem in London, an institution for the mentally ill. Spanish sources explain the sense of “great confusion” as arising from the fact that this was “characteristic” of popular nativity scenes. However, given that this sense does not seem to have been present in Spanish before the nineteenth century, it is not unlikely that it comes from English.
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SELEC TED TOPICS
—agua bendita
Biblia —bíblico blasfemia —blasfemo (adj. & n.) —blasfemar —lastimar —lástima —(es una) lástima que . . . capilla —capellán —capa —escapar —escapada —escaparate cardenal () —cardinal —punto cardinal —virtud cardinal
—cardenal ()
—holy water (but: agua bendecida por el sacerdote) Bible —biblical blasphemy —blasphemous, blasphemer —(to) blaspheme, (to) curse —(to) hurt, (to) injure, (to) offend —pity, shame —it’s a shame/pity that . . . chapel —chaplain, priest —cape, cloak, coat (layer) —(to) escape —escape, escapade —shop window cardinal (religious figure, bird) —cardinal (paramount), cardinal number —cardinal point (direction: north, south, east, west) —cardinal virtue (prudencia, justicia, fortaleza, templanza) —black-and-blue mark, bruise
[blame]
(unrelated)
In Medieval Latin, cap(p)ella (literally “little cape”) was used to refer to the shrine in which the Frankish kings preserved part of the cloak of St. Martin of Tours, who upon encountering a beggar in the road at the height of winter had cut his cloak into two parts and given one to the beggar. The meaning was then extended to that of a private shrine within a royal palace, and over time was further enlarged to its “modern” sense. English chapel reflects the “central” French form of the word in which initial ca- became ch- : e.g., château, compared to English castle ( Latin and northern French) and Spanish castillo. Escapar and escape come from Latin ex cappa, literally “to get out of one’s cape (and leave the pursuers behind)”. Escaparate is an import from Dutch and is ultimately related to the -scape in English landscape. Contrary to what many (if not most) native Spanish speakers seem to believe, the word for a black-and-blue mark has nothing to do with the color of the cardinal’s cassock. It comes instead from Latin carduus (source of English cardoon and chard), a type of wild thistle with purple flowers.
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RELIGION
—cárdeno catedral (f.) —cátedra —ex cáthedra
—catedrático católico —catolicismo claustro —claustro materno —clausurar —clausura —claustrofobia clérigo —clerical —clero comunión —común —comuna —comunal —comunidad —comunicar
—comunicado (p.p.) —comunicado de prensa —incomunicado
—comunicación —comunicativo —comunista —comunismo
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—purple, violet cathedral —university chair, head of department (position) —ex cathedra (lit. “from the chair”, i.e., “with the authority derived from one’s office or position”) —university (full) professor Catholic, catholic (religious sense; also “universal”) —Catholicism cloister, faculty (academic), faculty meeting —womb ( útero) —(to) close (officially or by order) —closure, closing ceremony —claustrophobia clergyman, cleric —clerical (relating to the clergy) —clergy communion —common —commune —communal —community —(to) communicate (incl. “be connected”, e.g., rooms) —communiqué, notice in the press —press release
[maternal cloister]
[clerk, Clark]
—isolated, in solitary confinement, incommunicado ( Sp.) —communication —communicative —communist —communism
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SELEC TED TOPICS
—comulgar
—excomulgar —excomunión Cristo —cristiano —cristiandad —cristianismo —cretino
—cretinismo
cruz (f.) —cruz gamada —cruce —cruzar —cruzada (n.) —cruzado (p.p.) —crucero —crucificar —crucifi xión —crucifijo —crucigrama (m.) —crucial
—(to) receive Communion, (to) share the same thought or feeling —(to) excommunicate —excommunication Christ —Christian —Christianity, Christendom —Christianity —stupid, cretinous, cretin (one afflicted with cretinism), moron —cretinism (condition caused by thyroid hormone deficiency) cross, reverse side of a coin —swastika ( esvástica), gammadion —crossing, intersection, cross (hybrid) —(to) cross (various senses), (to) cruise —crusade, Crusade (cap.) —crusader —cruise, cruiser, transept (church) —(to) crucify —crucifi xion —crucifi x —crossword puzzle —crucial
[crux] [gamma cross ]
Comunicar and comulgar are doublets, both from Latin communicare. The word cretin was a “popular” evolution of christianus (“Christian”) in certain Alpine dialects in Switzerland. The term was initially applied as a “compassionate euphemism” to those suffering from cretinism, a medical condition (dwarfed stature, mental retardation) frequently caused by iodine deficiency—a problem endemic to the Alps, as it is to other mountain regions throughout the world not having ready access to iodized salt. Only much later did cretin acquire its “modern” pejorative sense. Another example of “compassionate euphemism” is French benêt ( benedictus, “blessed”) for “half-wit” or “simple-minded”. Because a cruz gramada can be constructed from four Greek gammas ( ).
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RELIGION
—encrucijada
cura () (m.) —cura () —curable / incurable —curativo —curar —curación —curador (adj. & n.) —curandero
—incuria —sinecura demonio —demoníaco, demoniaco diablo —diabólico diácono diócesis dios, Dios —diosa —adiós —pordiosero —deidad discípulo —disciplina —disciplinar —disciplinario —indisciplinado —interdisciplinario
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—crossroads (intersection, crucial point), difficult situation priest, curate —cure, treatment —curable / incurable —curative —(to) cure, (to) treat —cure, curing, healing —curing, healing, caretaker or curator —healer (via natural methods or magic), quack —carelessness —sinecure (job with pay, no real work) demon, devil —demonic, demoniac devil —diabolic, diabolical, devilish deacon diocese god, God —goddess —adios, adieu, farewell, goodbye —beggar ( mendigo) —deity, divinity ( divinidad) disciple, pupil —discipline (incl. branch of knowledge or teaching) —(to) teach, (to) discipline —disciplinary —undisciplined —interdisciplinary (also: interdisciplinar)
(sin cura [])
[deus ex machina]
(¡ por Dios !)
Initially “an ecclesiastical benefice (church office) without cure (care) of souls”.
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SELEC TED TOPICS
divino —divinidad —diva —adivinar —adivinación —adivino —adivinanza eclesiástico (adj. & n.) —Eclesiastés eucaristía evangélico —evangelio —evangelista (m.)
—evangelizar éxodo exorcismo —exorcista —exorcizar feligrés (-esa) herético —herejía —hereje ídolo —idolatría —idolatrar letanía limosna —limosnero (adj. & n.)
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divine —divinity, deity —diva, distinguished performer (m. divo) —(to) divine, (to) guess —prediction, divination —diviner, soothsayer —riddle ecclesiastical, ecclesiastic (minister or priest, cleric) —Ecclesiastes (book of the Bible) Eucharist evangelical, evangelic, Protestant —Gospel, evangel —Evangelist (author of one of the four New Testament gospels) —(to) evangelize exodus exorcism —exorcist —(to) exorcise parishioner, (faithful) customer, habitué heretical —heresy —heretic (m./f.) idol (figure or image, adored person) —idolatry —(to) idolize litany (liturgical prayer, repetitive enumeration) alms —charitable, almoner, beggar (Amer.)
[eleemosynary]
From filius ecclesia, literally “son of the Church”, with the second l then changing to r.
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RELIGION
liturgia —litúrgico maldición —maldecir —maldito mártir —martirio —martirizar misericordia misionero (adj. & n.) —misión —misa —misal —misiva —misil monasterio —monje —monja —monacal —monástico —monaguillo Navidad —¡Feliz Navidad! —Navidades (pl.) —navideño —Natividad oración —oración fúnebre —orar —orador —oráculo ordenación —orden (f.)
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liturgy —liturgical malediction, curse —(to) curse, (to) speak ill of —accursed, damned martyr —martyrdom —(to) martyr or martyrize, (to) torment mercy, pity missionary —mission (religious or other) —Mass —missal —missive (written message, letter) —missile monastery —monk —nun —monkish, monastic —monastic —acolyte, altar boy Christmas, Nativity —Merry Christmas! —Christmas time, Yuletide —Christmas (adj.) —Nativity orison (prayer), clause or sentence (gram.) —funeral oration —(to) pray —orator, speaker —oracle arrangement or ordering, ordination —order (command), religious order
[† maledict] (old p.p.)
(see Section .)
[mess]
[Westminster]
[orate]
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SELEC TED TOPICS
—orden (m.) —ordenar —ordenado (p.p.) —ordenador (Spain) —ordenanza —ordinario —ordeñar —desorden —desordenar —desordenado (p.p.) pagano —paganismo —paisano (adj. & n.) —de paisano —país —paisaje papa (m.) paraíso —paraíso fiscal parroquia —parroquial —párroco —parroquiano Pascua —cordero pascual pecar —pecado —pecador
—order (arrangement, sequence, etc.) —(to) order (command, arrange), (to) ordain —orderly, methodical —computer ( computador, computadora) —ordinance or regulation (gen. pl.), orderly (m./f.) —ordinary, mediocre —(to) milk (a cow) —disorder —(to) disorder, (to) mess up —disordered, disorderly pagan, heathen —paganism —paisano (compatriot ), peasant —in plain (civilian) clothes (e.g., police) —country —landscape (scenery or painting) pope paradise, heaven ( cielo) —tax haven parish, parish church —parochial (of or relating to a parish) —parish priest, parson —parishioner, habitué Easter, Passover, Yuletide (/–/—pl.) —Paschal Lamb (to) sin —sin —sinner
(g S ø; see Section .)
( Gk. pappas)
[peccavi] [peccadillo ]
Frequently in a “narrow” sense, i.e., from the same locality or region. While English peccadillo (“small sin”)—fi rst attested in the late sixteenth century—comes from Spanish pecadillo, the latter has not appeared in the RAE’s dictionary since ; it remains in use in at least some regions, however.
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RELIGION
—pecaminoso —impecable penitente (adj. & n.) —penitencia —penitenciaría —arrepentir(se) —arrepentimiento —de repente —repentino perdón —perdonar —perdonable —imperdonable peregrinación peregrinaje —peregrinar —peregrino (adj. & n.)
piedad —pío () —piadoso —pitanza —despiadado —impío —expiar —expiación —pío () —no decir ni pío —piar plegaria predicar —prédica
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—sinful —impeccable, faultless penitent (religious), Penitente —penance, penitence —penitentiary, prison —(to) repent, (to) regret —repentance, regret —suddenly ( repentinamente) —sudden pardon, forgiveness —(to) pardon, (to) forgive —pardonable, forgivable —unpardonable, unforgivable pilgrimage, peregrination —(to) make a pilgrimage, (to) peregrinate —wandering, migratory, peregrine (e.g., falcon), pilgrim piety, pity, Pietà —pious, devout —compassionate, merciful, pious —daily food ration (given to the poor) —merciless, pitiless, ruthless —impious, ungodly —(to) expiate, (to) atone for —expiation, atonement —peep, chirp (chicks, young birds) —not to say a word, not to make a peep —(to) peep, (to) chirp prayer, supplication (to) preach —sermon ( sermón)
(unrelated)
[pittance]
(onomatopoeic)
[predicate]
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SELEC TED TOPICS
—predicación —predicador —predicado (p.p.) —predicamento
—[aprieto, apuro] providencia
—providencial —prudente —prudencia —imprudente —imprudencia purgatorio —purgar —expurgar resurrección rezar —rezo rito —ritual (adj. & n.) romero () —romería
—Roma —romano —románico (adj.) —romance (n.)
—romanticismo
—preaching —preacher —predicate (grammar, logic) —esteem, influence, predicament (only: Aristotelian category) —predicament providence, Providence (cap.), precaution, ruling (legal) —providential, fortunate —prudent, cautious —prudence, good sense —imprudent, careless —imprudence, careless act purgatory —(to) purge (organization, radiator, bowels, soul) —(to) expurgate, (to) purify resurrection (to) pray, (to) say or recite (prayer, mass) —prayer rite, ritual —ritual pilgrim —pilgrimage, saint’s day festival (at hermitage or sanctuary) —Rome —Roman —Romance (languages), Romanesque (style) —Romance (languages), romance (love; medieval narrative) —romanticism
[Rome, Romeo]
Latin prudentia was a shortened form of providentia (“foresight”), which came to specialize in “prudence”.
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RELIGION
—romántico —romero () sacrilegio —sacrílego sacro —sacerdote —sacerdotal —sacramento —sacramental —sacristán —sacrosanto —sagrado —consagrar —consagración salvador —salvación —salvar
—sálvese quien pueda —salvado (p.p.) —salvaguardar —salvaguarda, salvaguardia —salvamento —salvo (adj.) —salvo (prep. & conj.) —salva (n.)
—romantic —rosemary (plant) sacrilege —sacrilegious sacred ( sagrado), sacrum (bone at base of spine) —priest —sacerdotal (priestly) —sacrament —sacramental —sexton, sacristan —sacrosanct —sacred, holy —(to) consecrate (incl. “devote”) —consecration savior, Savior (cap.) —salvation —(to) save (but not “accumulate” or “economize”) —everyone for himself! —bran —(to) safeguard —safeguard, protection
[Sacramento]
[El Salvador]
—rescue, salvage —safe (unhurt) —except, save —salvo
Rosemary originally had nothing to do with either rose or Mary. It comes instead from Latin ros marinus (literally “sea dew”) and in Middle English was rosmarine, a form that was subsequently “corrupted” to rosemary. Romero () comes from ros maris, another name for the plant (“dew of the sea”). Romero () comes from the city of Rome, the site of the fi rst pilgrimages (the name Romeo also means “pilgrim”). Sacrum comes from Latin os sacrum (“sacred bone”), which was in turn a direct translation from Greek. There are a number of competing explanations for why this bone was considered “sacred”, e.g., that the sacrum was used as a vessel to support the intestines in rites of animal sacrifice. The explanation for this sense is not entirely clear (and much contested): perhaps because the bran (the outer layers of a cereal grain) is removed (“saved”) during the course of milling; or because it is “saved” by the sieve in the course of sift ing.
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SELEC TED TOPICS
santo (adj. & n.) —San Pablo —Santo Domingo —Santa María —en un santiamén —santidad —santificar —santiguar —santuario —sanción —sancionar sermón —sermonear sotana —sótano templo —templar —temple islam —islámico —musulmán
saintly, holy, saint —Saint Paul —Santo Domingo —Saint Mary —in an instant, in no time at all —holiness, saintliness, sanctity —(to) sanctify —(to) make the sign of the cross —sanctuary —sanction (both senses: approval; penalty) —(to) sanction (authorize; penalize) sermon —(to) sermonize, (to) lecture (admonish) cassock, soutane —basement, cellar temple —(to) temper, (to) warm up, (to) tune (guitar, etc.) —temper, mood, courage, tuning (music), tempera Islam ( islamismo, mahometismo) —Islamic —Muslim / Moslem ( islamita, mahometano)
(Lat. sanctus)
( sub, “under”)
The shortened form San is used in front of all masculine saints’ names, apart from Tomás / Tomé, Toribio, and Domingo. From the rapid manner in which Latin prayers were enunciated—beginning and ending with the sign of the cross: in nomine patris et filii et spiritus sancti. amen. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen. The origin is thus analogous to that of English patter (Section ., appendix). Templar and temple are unrelated to templo, being cognate instead with temper (see Section ., no. ).
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RELIGION
—Corán —mezquita judío (adj. & n.) —judaísmo —judaico —rabino —sinagoga —Tora
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—Koran —mosque Jewish, Jew —Judaism —Judaic, Jewish —rabbi —synagogue —Torah
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S E C T I O N .
The Family
In Latin, a famulus was a male servant or slave, and the collection of slaves of a house was known as the familia. This subsequently expanded to include people living under the same roof—wife, children, and slaves—all under the governance of the pater familias. familiar-is was the associated adjective “pertaining to the family” (initially only to household slaves). In common speech, familia gradually came to be a synonym for gens, the traditional term for a group of people descended from a common (male) ancestor, but gens remained the legal term. When family entered English around , it reverted to its original Latin definition: “the servants of a house or establishment”. Though it was gradually supplanted by other definitions, the original meaning did not altogether disappear until around . The semantic development of family paralleled that of the Latin word two thousand years before, first expanding to “a group of people living as one household, including parents and their children, boarders, servants, etc.”, and then developing into the more limited notion of modern times. English familiar still maintains the definition “one who performs domestic service in the household of a high official”, and Spanish familiar preserves a number of similar definitions.
familia familiaris
gens (acc. gentem) gentilis
familia familiar
familiarizar familiaridad gente (f.) gentil gentileza gentilicio
pater
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padre
family familial, family (adj.), familiar, family member (n.m.) (to) familiarize familiarity people, folks gentile (pagan), genteel grace, charm, courtesy, gentilesse gentile (gram.)—expressing national or local origins: New Yorker, Danish father
[gents] [gentle]
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T H E FA M I LY
patres
mater
padres paternal paterno paternidad madre (f.) maternal —amor maternal materno —lengua materna
parent-em (acc.)
maternidad pariente parentesco parentela emparentar parir partera parto posparto / postparto parturienta (adj. & n.) puerperio
adultus adolescent-em (acc.)
parents, fathers paternal (fatherly) paternal (of the father) paternity, fatherhood mother maternal —motherly love (or amor materno) maternal —mother tongue (not lengua maternal) maternity, motherhood relative (n.), relation
[parent]
relationship (family or things) relatives, kinfolk (to) be or become related (to) give birth midwife ( comadrona) childbirth, labor, parturition postpartum, postpartum period parturient (woman in labor)
adulto adolescente
puerperium (postpartum period) adult adolescent
adolescencia
adolescence
Los padres (“the fathers”) is used to refer to parents, just as los reyes means the “king and queen”. Mis parientes means “my relatives”, not “my parents”. A number of additional Spanish words related to padre and madre are provided in the appendix to this section. In Latin, there was a very interesting relation among the infinitive, present participle, and past participle for the verbs adolescere and parere:
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Infinitive
Present Participle
Past Participle
adolescere to grow up
adolescent-em growing up S adolescent
adult-us grown up S adult
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SELEC TED TOPICS
parere to give birth
par(i)ent-em giving birth S parent
part-us birthed S act of delivery Sp. parto
External appearance notwithstanding, adultery has nothing to do with adult. The notion of unfavorably altering (offspring, document, substance, etc.) comes instead from the verb alterare (“to alter”): ad alterare
S adulterare adulterar adulterio adúltero (adj. & n.) adúltera (n.) adulterino
filius filia
ad filiare [expressive origin]
(to) adulterate, (to) falsify adultery adulterous, adulterer adulteress adulterine (born of adultery; spurious)
hijo hija —mis hijos hijastro hijastra ahijar prohijar ahijado (p.p.) ahijada fi lial (adj. & n.f.) afi liar afi liado (p.p.) niño
son daughter —my children, my sons stepson, stepchild stepdaughter (to) adopt ( adoptar) godson, godchild goddaughter fi lial, branch (office), subsidiary (to) affi liate affi liate, member child, boy
niña
girl
niña (del ojo)
pupil (eye)
[El Niño— warming] [La Niña— cooling]
See Section . for an explanation of the change of the initial a of alterare to u in adulterare. The use of “little girl” to represent “pupil”, arising from the tiny image of oneself (like a child or a pupil) that can be seen reflected in the pupil of another’s eye, is found in numerous languages, including Hebrew, Arabic, Greek, and Latin (whence English pupil, literally “little girl or puppet”).
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T H E FA M I LY
niña de mis ojos niñez niñera infante infanta infancia infantil
infant-em
(Eng. S Fr. S Sp.)
—libros infantiles infantería bebé
“apple of my eye” childhood, infancy nursemaid, nanny infant, infante infantryman (female) infant infancy, childhood childish, child-like, infantile children’s books infantry baby
An infant by origin is “one incapable of speaking”, as it is the composition of in- (negative sense) plus fantem, the present participle of the same verb (fari, “to speak”) that is the root of fama (“talk”, “rumor”, i.e., fame) and ultimately Spanish hablar (originally, “telling fables”). The extension to infantry is an Italian innovation, due apparently to the fact that foot soldiers came to be seen as servants of those on horseback. maritus divortium
marido marital divorcio divorciar divorciado (adj. & n.) divorciada (n.)
husband marital divorce (to) divorce divorced, divorcé divorcée
maritus is the past participle of the verb maritare (which, via French, produced the English verb marry), so that marido literally means “married”. A divorce is etymologically a “turning away from”, formed in pre-Classical Latin from dis- plus vortere (Classical Latin vertere). So a divorce is literally a diversion, if also frequently a vortex.
An infante is a son of a Spanish (or, formerly, Portuguese) king other than the heir to the throne, who in Spain is called the Príncipe de Asturias (analogous to the British Prince of Wales). Infanta refers to a daughter of a Spanish (or, formerly, Portuguese) king. Spanish infancia extends to puberty, whereas a child is an infante only until age seven. English infant and infancy in a legal sense both apply to a person under the legal age (in the United States, eighteen years).
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sponsa mulier
esposa esposo mujer (f.)
wife, spouse husband, spouse woman, wife
Latin uxor for wife was abandoned by Spanish in favor of sponsa, which in Latin had meant “fiancée”. sponsa was the feminine past participle of the verb spondere, “to make a solemn engagement”, “to sponsor”, the source as well for English respond and response. A spouse was thus literally “the promised one”, “the engaged one” (provided by the sponsor). desponsare
sponsare sponsales
desposar desposorio(s) esposas (pl.) esposar esposado esponsales (pl.)
(to) espouse (marry) spousal(s) (marriage) handcuffs (to) handcuff handcuffed espousal (betrothal)
To betroth or affiance in Latin could take several forms, all related to the idea of making a “solemn promise”: despondere, sponsare, desponsare. The first acquired the (related ?) meaning “to abandon hope”, “to give up”, subsequently reflected in English despond and despondent. Spanish used desponsare to form desposar (“to marry”); this is restricted primarily to literary use, casar being by far the more “popular” term. As a metaphorical allusion to the inseparable nature of marriage, esposar (from sponsare) and esposas came to acquire their present meanings. Dicen que las esposas hacen mucho daño. They say that handcuffs [wives] cause a lot of damage. Los hombres que tienen esposas no son hombres libres. Men with wives [handcuffs] are not free men.
The English verb espouse originates from sponsare (via French épouser). novus S novius
novio novia noviazgo
fiancé, boyfriend, groom, newlywed fiancée, girlfriend, bride, newlywed courtship, engagement (period)
Novio—novia was derived from Latin novus (“new”), hence its original meaning of “newlywed”. It is now used much more commonly for “boyfriend”—
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“girlfriend and fiancé”—“fiancée”. While being a fiancé(e) has something new about it, to marry is far more domestic, as one is “setting up house” or establishing a relationship of bondage with it (origin of husband ). For Spanish speakers outside of Spain (and some within), casar (“to marry”) is pronounced identically to cazar (“to hunt”). casa
casa casar casado casamiento la Casa Blanca Casablanca casino casero (adj. & n.) caserío caseta casilla
matrimonium
matrimonio
house, home (to) marry married, married person marriage, wedding the White House Casablanca (city in Morocco) casino homemade, informal, landlord hamlet, country house cottage, cabana, stall or booth pigeonhole, square (chessboard), little box, mailbox (esp. digital) matrimony, marriage, married couple
[chez]
Apart from various euphemisms, there are three basic words to express pregnancy: embarazada, encinta, and preñada. embarazada (adj. & n.) —embarazar —embarazo —embarazoso
pregnant, pregnant woman
[embarrassed]
—(to) make pregnant, (to) encumber, (to) hinder —pregnancy, difficulty, embarrassment —awkward, embarrassing
[embarrass]
In Old English, “house” was hus, while the second element in hus-bonda initially meant “occupier and tiller” of the soil, only later acquring the meaning of “one in bondage”, “serf ”. A husbonda was thus the master of a house, a husbonde the mistress of a house. It was not until nearly that the first use of husband is recorded in the sense of a man joined to a woman in marriage. The original sense did not die out, however, and is still found in many dictionaries: “a manager or steward . . . a thrift y manager”. Hence animal husbandry and husbandman, and the much rarer but apparently still existing ship’s husband (“an agent representing the owners of a ship, who manages its expenses and receipts while in port”).
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—desembarazar encinta preñada —preñez —preñar —impregnar
—(to) disembarrass (free from encumbrance or bother) pregnant, enceinte (adj.) pregnant —pregnancy —(to) impregnate (make pregnant) —(to) impregnate (saturate, permeate, imbue)
By far the most frequently used in conversation is embarazada, corresponding etymologically to English embarrassed. Viewed from the perspective of the English word, the Spanish might seem somewhat inappropriate; however, this is not a valid comparison, since historically the Spanish word preceded the English one. The initial meaning referred in fact to a physical, not emotional, restriction, and the derivation went Portuguese S Spanish S French S English. Encinta by popular etymology is explained by the combination en (“in”) cinta (“band” or “belt”)—thus, “circled by a belt”. It is very likely, however, that the original source was Latin incientem (“pregnant”), source of the English adjective enceinte. The original meaning of impregnate was “to make pregnant”; the secondary definition of “saturation” is a later development. In literary use there has been a marked shift in usage in the Modern Spanish period, as illustrated by the comparison below of three versions of the Bible: Reina Valera Antigua (), Reina Valera (), and La Biblia de las Américas ():
RV Antigua RV () Américas
preñada
encinta
embarazada
Thus in the “old” Reina Valera—written at approximately the same time as the King James Bible —by far the most commonly employed term was preñada, which by the twentieth century had completely disappeared, replaced by encinta. For many native Spanish speakers, preñada is now restricted to animals. Both Latin and Old English had separate words for paternal and maternal aunts and uncles. While Modern English has unified the paternal and mater-
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In which the word pregnant does not appear. In Old English: uncles—fædera, eam; aunts—faðe, modrige.
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nal elements, Spanish has gone even further by combining all aunts and uncles into a single noun, tío, with masculine and feminine forms: tío uncle tía aunt mis tíos “my aunt and uncle” or “my uncles” or “my aunts and uncles” tiovivo merry-go-round ( carrusel) (“live uncle”)
Modern English uncle and aunt are derived via French from the Latin for “maternal uncle” and “paternal aunt”. Spanish has taken its forms from late Latin thius—thia, which in turn come from Greek. In Spanish, tío can also be used in a general sense to mean “fellow”, “guy”. [frater] [soror]
hermano hermana —mis hermanos hermandad
fraternus
fraterno fraternal fraternidad fraternizar confraternidad cofradía
cum frater
cofrade
brother sister —my brothers and sisters, my brothers brotherhood (relation, group, fellowship), sisterhood fraternal, brotherly fraternal, brotherly fraternity, brotherhood (fellowship) fraternize ( confraternizar) fraternity, fellowship confraternity (religious brotherhood; association) member of a confraternity
[germane]
frater germanus meant “true” or “full” brother as opposed to one’s half or stepbrother. This has a parallel in English civil law: brother-german uterine brother consanguine brother
brother sharing two parents brother sharing only same mother brother sharing only same father
The frater element got lost along the way, so that Spanish brother reflects only the “full” part. Like aunt, sister is simply a feminized form of the masculine. The disappearance of the initial g from germanus (the h in hermano being purely “cosmetic”) was not unusual: this occurred in a number of “popular” words in which ge or gi was in an unstressed syllable (cf. gelare S Spanish helar, English gel).
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More traditionally derived Latin forms are used for religious brothers and sisters: fraile —Fray Juan Sor María
friar, monk —Brother John, Friar John Sister Maria
The original Latin g from germanus survives in one word with a rather peculiar modern meaning, presumably originating from the “brotherhood” of criminals: germanía
slang or jargon, particularly that used by thieves
To understand the derivations of the Spanish terms for cousin, nephew—niece, and grandchildren, it is helpful to start with the corresponding Latin terms: sobrinus consobrinus
cousin cousin (generally first)
sobrinus (from soror-inus) was initially an adjective meaning “of the sister”, so that consobrini (the plural of consobrinus) referred to “children of two sisters”. Over time, the definition was extended to encompass “children of brothers and sisters”, i.e., first cousins. sobrini (the plural of sobrinus) were in Roman law the children of consobrini, i.e., second cousins. nepos (acc. nepotem) neptis (fem.)
descendant other than son, chiefly grandson analogous to nepos, chiefly granddaughter
fratris filius sororis filius fratris filia sororis filia
nephew (brother’s son) nephew (sister’s son) niece (brother’s daughter) niece (sister’s daughter)
The derivation of Spanish for cousin is similar to that which occurred for brother. Over time, people started using consobrinus as a general term for cousins (of whatever order), so consobrinus primus (“first cousin”) was used to reinforce the original definition. In Spanish, the first part of the expression dropped out, leaving primo for “cousin”. primo, prima primo hermano, prima hermana
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cousin first cousin, cousin-german
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English cousin comes (via French) from consobrinus. The ambiguous definitions of nepos and neptis were not an invention of the Romans, reflecting instead the meaning of the Indo-European root *nepot(“descendant other than the son”). The plural nepotes was used to refer to “posterity” or “descendants”, or to the “offspring” of plants and animals. Similarly, Old English nefa, from the same root, could mean “nephew”, “stepson”, “grandson”, “second cousin”. English nephew and niece come from French, and both French and English initially maintained the broader definitions. Thus, throughout much of its history, English nephew had the following accepted (additional) meanings: (a) a grandson (until late seventeenth century) (b) a descendant of a remote or unspecified degree of descent; a successor (until late seventeenth century) (c) niece (until early seventeenth century)
Hence: (a) “The grandmothers also . . . love their nephews better than their own immediate children.” () (b) “All the ancient Sages, with their Sons, and Nephews to the latest Posterity.” () (c) “The Athenians were wont to marry the brother with the sister, but not the Uncle with the nephew.” ()
Similarly, the English definition of niece was originally a “granddaughter or more remote female descendant”. Until the early seventeenth century, niece was also occasionally used to refer to a “male relative, especially a nephew”. nepotismo
nepotism
The word nepotism was taken in the seventeenth century from Italian, where the meaning was “excessive favors granted by certain popes or church dignitaries to their nepoti”. It was the original English meaning as well, before developing into the modern sense of “favoritism shown or patronage granted to relatives”. Italian nepote (now nipote) has conserved to modern times the three separate meanings of “nephew—niece”, “grandchildren”, and “posterity”.
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Usage quotations from Oxford English Dictionary.
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The feminine NEPTIS was converted in Vulgar Latin to a more femininelooking form—NEPTA—and this then followed a normal phonetic evolution to become nieta, “granddaughter”; nieto, “grandson”, was then defined by analogy. Great-grandchildren were obtained by adding the prefi x bis-, “twice”: nepta bis nepta transtrans-
nieta nieto bisnieta / bizbisnieto / biztataranieta tataranieto
granddaughter grandson, grandchild great-granddaughter great-grandson, great-grandchild great-great-granddaughter ( trastrás “after after”) great-great-grandson, great-great-grandchild
Having defined nieto and nieta unambiguously to be “grandchildren”, Spanish needed to find new words for “nephew” and “niece”. sobrinus (formerly “[second] cousin”) was available and was drafted for this purpose: ( Fr. neveu nepos) ( Fr. nièce neptis)
sobrinus sobrina
sobrino sobrina
nephew niece
avus avia
abuelo abuela bisabuelo
grandfather grandmother great-grandfather, greatgrandparent great-grandmother great-great-grandfather, great-great-grandparent great-great-grandmother
bisabuela tatarabuelo tatarabuela
Spanish used the Vulgar Latin diminutive forms aviolus (of avus) and aviola (of avia) to form abuelo and abuela. avus survives in English only through its Classical Latin diminutive avunculus, the source of uncle and avuncular.
In-laws familia política parientes políticos
in-laws (extended sense) in-laws (extended sense)
The same prefi x (from Latin bis) that appears in Spanish bizcocho and English biscuit (literally “twice cooked”).
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suegros suegra suegro consuegro, consuegra
socrus socer
parents-in-law mother-in-law father-in-law father/mother in-law of one’s child
Mis padres son consuegros de los padres de mi esposa. “My parents are consuegros of the parents of my wife.”
If one is referring only to one’s parents-in-law (as in “my in-laws are visiting this weekend”), one would normally use los suegros, whereas the overall family of in-laws is the “political” family. It is not entirely clear whether the “politics” involved refers to its “tactful” and “diplomatic” side or to its “scheming, craft y, cunning” element. It perhaps has to do with the common desire to impress the in-laws, which might also explain the French custom of calling their inlaws “beautiful” and “handsome” (les beaux-parents, la belle-famille). Individual members of the “political family” can be referred to in the same way, as in padre político (“father-in-law”), hijo político (“son-in-law”), etc., but this usage is relatively rare. socrus was one of the rare feminine Latin nouns ending in -us and would have been expected to evolve into suegro, which is also where socer (acc. socerum) was heading. Instead, it was “feminized” to suegra. The son’s wife, or daughter-in-law, being a member of the husband’s family has a common Indo-European root, while son-in-law does not. Latin nurus (later nora) corresponds to Old English snoru and is the source of Spanish nuera. Latin for son-in-law is literally a “generic” term: nurus (nora) gener-um
nuera yerno
daughter-in-law son-in-law
(nr S rn)
The Latin terms for “brother-” and “sister-in-law” (levir and glos) were used very infrequently and were replaced in Spanish by the equivalent of cognate, i.e., “related by blood”, “having a common ancestor”, which is of course somewhat inaccurate, since in-laws are not blood relations. The principal use of
Indo-European languages generally have common roots for relationships within the husband’s family, while those for the family of the wife were left to the discretion of the individual languages. Latin gener is from the same family as genus (genitive generis), one of whose derivatives is generic. Cuñado initially was used to refer to members of the “familia política” in general, before coming to specialize in “siblings-in-law”.
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cognate is “a word related to one in another language” (e.g., English father and Spanish padre are cognates). cognatus cognata
cuñado cuñada
brother-in-law sister-in-law
[cognate]
Spanish has replaced the Latin terms for “step” relations with ones derived from those relations themselves, with the addition of the “pejorative” suffi x astro / -astra: padrastro madrastra hijastro hijastra hermanastro hermanastra
stepfather stepmother stepson, stepchild stepdaughter stepbrother stepsister
Guests—Hosts While “guests” have not always been looked upon as exactly “family”: Fish and visitors smell after three days. (Benjamin Franklin) El pescado y los huéspedes huelen después de tres días.
they have played an important role in the evolution of English and the Romance languages. Anyone who has studied French has probably been confused by the fact that French hôte, from which English host is derived, signifies both “host” and “guest”. Thus l’hôte est arrivé can mean either “the guest has arrived” or “the host has arrived”. This confusing treatment did not originate with the French: while the distinction between host and guest seems a rather clear one to us, to the original Indo-Europeans the essential element was “someone with whom one has reciprocal duties of hospitality”. The Indo-European root *ghos-ti could thus mean “guest”, “stranger”, “host”. Latin has several words that originated from this root, and that by their varied definitions recall the fundamental ambiguity of the original concept: hostis hospes (genit. hospitis) hostire
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stranger, enemy host, guest, sojourner, stranger return like for like, requite, make equal
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What seems to have happened is that hostis arrived in Latin with the primary meaning of “guest”. hospitis was then formed by combining hostis with the adjective potis —“master of”—to mean “master of the guest”, i.e., host. For a time at least, there would have been a clear distinction between guest (hostis) and host (hospitis), but history repeated itself and hospitis wound up acquiring the meaning “guest” as well. Having lost its meaning of “guest”, hostis then became “stranger” and, eventually, “enemy”, hence hostile: hostilis hostilitas
hostil hostilidad
hostile hostility
How did hospitis, which was clearly intended to refer to “host”, wind up meaning “guest”? This is not too hard to imagine if one thinks of the sort of language that is typically exchanged between host and guest: “treat my home as if it were your own”, “honored guest”, etc. Indeed, a somewhat similar process has occurred in Russian, where gost’ is the word for “guest” and gospodin—like hospitis—was created by adding the Indo-European adjective for “master”, thus producing “lord” or “master”. By courtesy, gospodin has come to be used as a polite form of address (“Mr.”), particularly to foreign “guests”—as in “Gospodin Clinton, welcome to the Kremlin”, whereas it is the guests who should, in theory, be addressing their hosts as “gospodin”. huésped (m.) —huéspeda anfitrión (m.) —anfitriona
guest, host (biological) —female guest, host (biological) host —hostess
(Fr. hôte) (Fr. hôte)
Old French hoste (Modern French hôte) was derived from hospitis and maintained the dual meanings of “host” and “guest”. Old English already had a Germanic word for guest—but no word specifically for “host”—so in the thirteenth century English borrowed hoste from French for this purpose, thus giving English an unambiguous distinction between guest and host. Etymologically, of course, this distinction doesn’t exist, since both host and guest are derived from the Indo-European root *ghos-ti, meaning, as we have seen, “guest” and “host”. At a relatively early stage, Spanish formed huésped from hospitis and used it for both “guest” and “host”, though it has wound up specializing in the for-
The same potis that is represented in Spanish poder and English power (see Section .). The use of the separate feminine form is rare: la huésped is far more common than la huéspeda.
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mer—in contrast to English. Huésped maintains a certain degree of schizophrenia, however, since not only does the “host” definition still exist (although it is poco usada according to the RAE) but an animal that is host to a parasite is called a “guest” (huésped)! Moreover, the associated verb hospedar means “to host”. With the increasing specialization of huésped as “guest”, for “host” Spanish experimented with hoste, imported from the Italian oste, as well as hospedador. These seem not to have been a great success (although both are still found in the dictionary), perhaps because those who remembered their Latin realized that all of these words essentially meant the same thing. The key to resolving the problem was the discovery of anfitrión. The Diccionario of the RAE sheds relatively little light on its origin: De Anfitrión, rey de Tebas, espléndido en sus banquetes. From Amphitryon, king of Thebes, splendid in his banquets.
This is, to put it mildly, somewhat misleading. Amphitryon was a mythological character who fled to Thebes from his native land after accidentally killing the father of his fiancée Alcmene. While seeming not to hold this against him, she nonetheless refused to allow their relationship to be consummated until he had avenged the deaths of her brothers (avenging that of her father presumably being out of the question). While Amphitryon was off redeeming himself, Zeus appeared in human guise in the form of Amphitryon and seduced Alcmene, for this purpose arranging with the sun that the night would last for the length of three days. From this union Hercules was born—simultaneous with his twin brother, Iphicles, fathered by Amphitryon when, upon his return from battle the following day, he belatedly claimed his marital rights. The story of Amphitryon was recounted by numerous Greek and Roman writers and continues to be a popular theme to the present day. As far as Spanish is concerned, the seminal event was Molière’s Amphitryon, first performed in . In the play there is a scene in which Amphitryon returns to his house to confront Zeus, still present in human guise as Amphitryon. It is Zeus, not Amphitryon, who has invited a number of guests to a banquet (to celebrate Amphitryon’s victories, of course), and Amphitryon’s servant is understandably confused to see two Amphitryons, each claiming to be the real one. The false Amphitryon (i.e., Zeus) declares that the matter will be sorted out in due course, and that in the meantime all should repair to the table to eat the meal
A twentieth-century French play was entitled Amphitryon , the author ostensibly having counted the prior accounts of the story.
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that has been prepared, at which point the totally bewildered servant utters the meaningless but memorable statement: Je ne me trompais pas. Messieurs, ce mot termine toute l’irrésolution: le véritable Amphitryon est l’Amphitryon où l’on dîne. I was not mistaken. Messieurs, this last word removes all doubt. The real Amphitryon is the Amphitryon where one dines.
Amphitryon subsequently entered French with the meaning of “one who gives dinners”, i.e., “host”, but it has never enjoyed wide usage outside of literary circles. It is also an English word, at least according to the Oxford English Dictionary, but one can safely say that its usage in English remains even more limited. The situation in Spanish was altogether different, however, and was probably affected by the fact that in Louis XIV’s grandson became King Philip V of Spain and, with him, the Bourbons the royal family of Spain. It was not until , however, that anfitrión first appeared in the RAE’s Diccionario, and then only with the definition “he who has guests at his table and regales them in a magnificent manner”. The more general definition of “someone who receives visitors in his home or country” first appeared in the RAE’s dictionary in . Other words derived from hospitis include: hospitalis
hostal, hostería hostelero hostelería hotel ( Fr.) hotelero hospital hospitalizar hospitalidad hospicio
hospitalario
hostel, small hotel, inn innkeeper hotel business or trade hotel hotel (adj.), hotelier (manager or owner) hospital (to) hospitalize hospitality hospice (shelter or lodging for travelers, pilgrims, foundlings, destitute), poorhouse hospitable, hospital (adj.), Hospitaller (religious order to care for pilgrims & needy)
The surprising tardiness of this entry—when all evidence suggests that anfitrión had been in widespread use as “host” for quite some time—apparently reflected the RAE’s reluctance to give up the “native” word hospedador in favor of the Gallic usurper. Moreover, only in did the RAE modify the defi nition of hospedador (theretofore simply “host”) to include the only sense in which it seems to have been used in recent times, i.e., as a biological “host” rather than a social one.
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hospedar hospedar(se) hospedaje hospedería
(to) lodge, (to) put up, (to) host (to) lodge or stay at, (to) be a guest lodging, (cost of) room and board hostel, inn, lodging in a convent
The earliest meaning of Old French hospital (Modern French hôpital) was a religious establishment caring for the poor. It then broadened in meaning to include secular establishments, but it was not until much later (sixteenth century, in English) that it acquired its current medical specialization. Hospitality initially meant the provision of free accommodation, as well as the charitable attitude that corresponded to caring for both the indigent and travelers. Old French hostel (Modern French hôtel) was formed in the eleventh century from hospital and initially meant “residence”, “dwelling”; later it came to mean “hostelry”. From this came English and Spanish hostel—hostal, and hotel. The English meaning of hospice as a facility caring for the terminally ill is a latenineteenth-century development and is not shared (at least not yet) by Spanish hospicio. Taking someone hostage is certainly a rather peculiar way of showing hospitality, but it turns out that this word has a similar origin. Hostage arose in Old French from hoste by adding the typical French noun ending -age, in the same manner that esclavage (“slavery”) was formed from esclave (“slave”). It developed the meaning, attested in English as well as in French, of pledge or security given to enemies or allies for the fulfillment of any undertaking by the handing over of one or more persons into their power.
Hostage was used with particular reference to treaties in which one party guaranteed its good conduct by sending a person of importance (in some cases, a child of the sovereign) to live in the residence of the other. It subsequently evolved from referring to the condition of this guarantee to the person who represented the guarantee, i.e., what we now call the hostage. The Spanish for hostage is taken from Arabic: rehén
hostage
In addition to the “one who gives dinners”, there are, of course, two other completely different meanings of host in English: . an armed company or multitude of men, an army; hence a great number, a multitude; . the consecrated bread of the Eucharist.
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One of the definitions of hostis was “enemy”, and in Medieval Latin this came to be taken in a collective sense, i.e., “enemy army” and later simply “army”. In English, the meaning evolved from “army” to the generic sense of “great number”; the disapperance of final e in English has led to a confusion in form between host (counterpart to guest, formerly hoste) and host (multitude). In Spanish, hostis became hueste (“army”, “body of followers”) but without developing the English sense of “great number”. hostis
hueste (f.)
host, army, followers or partisans (pl.)
hostia was the expiatory “victim” offered to the gods to mollify their wrath, in contrast to the victima offered as gratitude for favors received. It is likely that this word, too, is derived from the same Indo-European root, the key element being “compensation” (a form of reciprocity). The early Christians gave hostia (“sacrifice” or “offering”) its religious meaning of “consecrated bread”, and it subsequently arrived into English, via French, as yet another form of host (Modern French hostie). In Spain, hostia has acquired a multitude of pejorative meanings, but this usage does not seem to be as widespread in American Spanish. hostia
hostia
victima
víctima
host (consecrated bread or wafer) (Spain: smack, punch, bloody hell !, etc.) victim (sacrificial or otherwise)
Appendix Among the numerous additional words derived from father and mother are: cum padre
compadre
patronus
patrón, -ona patrono padrón patronal patrocinar patrocinador patrocinio patronato
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godfather with respect to parents or godmother, father with respect to godparents, compadre (close friend, companion) boss, patron, pattern, patron saint register of people in a town employers’ (adj.), employers’ association (f.) (to) patronize (support, sponsor) patron, sponsor patronage (support), sponsorship patronage, foundation, council or board
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patrinus
—patronato de turismo padrino padrinazgo padrazo patrimonio
patria
patria —madre patria patriota compatriota patriótico patriotismo expatriar
patricius pater noster pater (noster)
expatriado (p.p.) patricio padrenuestro ——— ———
—tourism office or board godfather, second (at a duel) godfathership, support or protection doting father patrimony (inheritance, heritage), wealth fatherland —motherland patriot compatriot patriotic patriotism (to) expatriate (exile; leave one’s homeland) expatriate patrician paternoster (Lord’s Prayer) patter (vb.): mumble prayers mechanically, chatter glibly patter (n.): meaningless talk, rapid speech, jargon
(“mother fatherland”)
[Patrick]
Patter comes from the “pattering” manner—rapid and mechanical—in which Latin prayers were often repeated by non-Latin speakers. perpetrare impetrare
perpetrar perpetrador impetrar
(to) perpetrate perpetrator (to) beseech, (to) implore
patrare meant “to accomplish”, “to effect”, literally “to father” something. Combined with the preposition per—and with the normal weakening of interior a to e in closed syllables (see Section .)—perpetrare was “to carry through”, “to bring to pass”, to perpetrate. impetrare was initally “to carry out to completion”, then “to obtain”. jupiter jovialis jovis
Júpiter jovial jueves [¡ por Dios !]
Jupiter, Jove jovial Thursday by Jove!
jupiter comes from *dyew pater, literally “Father Sky”, where the first element is the Indo-European root (“to shine”) found in Greek Zeus and in Latin dies (“day”) and
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diurnus (“diurnal”). In the other grammatical cases (genitive, accusative, etc.), the “Father” element dropped out and, following a “normal” phonetic pattern, what was “left” became jov-, hence jovis (“of Jupiter”). patricidium patricida parricidium parricida
parricidio parricida (m./f.)
patricide—act of murdering one’s father patricide—murderer of one’s father parricide—murder of father, mother, relative parricide—one who commits a parricide
While frequently linked, patricidium and parricidium were theoretically distinct: the former was limited specifically to murdering the father, while the latter could refer as well to the murder of citizens or to high treason. This more general meaning is preserved in English parricide, while Spanish parricidio limits the crime to murders of close family members, principally the parents. Spanish patricidio and patricida exist but are rarely used. matrona cum mater
cum matrona matrina alma mater matricidium matricida
matrona comadre (f.)
comadreja comadrona madrina madraza alma máter matricidio matricida (m./f.)
matron, midwife godmother with respect to parents or godfather, mother with respect to godparents, midwife, a gossip weasel midwife godmother doting mother university, alma mater matricide (act) matricide (person)
The concept of “mother” could be applied to plant and animal life as well. materia initially meant “the substance within the trunk of a tree of which branches and leaves were the offspring”. The definition was then extended to the “hard” part of the trunk, as opposed to its outer “shell”, or cortex (source of Spanish corteza, “bark”, and possibly English cork). matrix initially referred to a pregnant animal or one kept for breeding, before developing both the more specific meaning of “womb” and the more general one
The basic “rule” was that -ew- became [u] before a consonant (jupiter) but [ow] before a vowel (jovis). English gossip has an entirely analogous origin to comadre and compadre: it was originally godsib, i.e., “god sibling”, specifically a godfather or godmother. Apart from its “gossipy” side, gossip maintains the defi nition of “close friend or companion”, e.g., a compadre. I.e., “little midwife”. In various other European languages the weasel was given similar names, e.g. “daughter-in-law”, “sister-in-law”, “young lady” (Portuguese doninha, Italian donnola), “young beauty” (French belette). Th is apparently was due to a common folk superstition that the weasel—feared as a demon—had mysterious forces, and the affectionate names were thus intended to placate it (Rohlfs, –).
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of “source” or “origin”. Its diminutive matricula took on the meaning of a “register” or “list” (of names). materia
matrix matricula cortex
materia madera material matriz matrícula matricular corteza descortezar corcho descorchar sacacorchos alcornoque
matter wood material uterus ( útero), womb, matrix license (plate), registration (to) register, (to) enroll, (to) matriculate bark, crust, peel, skin, cortex decorticate (remove outer layer) cork (material, stopper, float) (to) uncork, (to) bark (a cork tree) corkscrew ( descorchador) cork tree, blockhead
patriarcha (“chief or head of a family”) was adopted by Latin from Greek. Its female counterpart was a seventeenth-century innovation. patriarcha
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patriarca (m.) patriarcal patriarcado matriarca matriarcal matriarcado
patriarch patriarchal patriarchy, patriarchate matriarch matriarchal matriarchy, matriarchate
From Arabic, the ultimate source being Latin quernus (“of oak”).
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S E C T I O N .
Body, Spirit, and Mind
For the Romans, there was an essential series of contrasts or oppositions between body, spirit, and mind. The first portion of the presentation will consider these contrasts, following which there will be a detailed inventory of the physical parts of the body, public and private.
Body The neuter noun corpus (genit. corporis) referred not only to the living organism but also to the inanimate body (i.e., corpse). It could also be used to designate any material object, e.g., the trunk of a tree. As the body is composed of “parts”, corpus was often applied to other entities made up of parts, as in corpus juris (“body of law”). corpus
corporalis corporeus corpulentus corpusculum
cuerpo cuerpo diplomático cuerpo a cuerpo cuerpo legal cuerpo de leyes cuerpo extraño cuerpo de bomberos tomar cuerpo corporal incorporal corpóreo incorpóreo corpulento corpulencia corpúsculo corsé
body, corps, corpse, corpus diplomatic corps hand-to-hand (combat) corpus juris (body of law) foreign body (medical, e.g., in the eye) fire brigade (or department) (to) take shape, (to) grow corporal (adj.), body or bodily (adj.) incorporeal, intangible corporeal (of a material nature; tangible) incorporeal (having no material body) corpulent corpulence corpuscle corset
corpusculum was the Latin diminutive of corpus and was thus “small body” or “small particle”. Corset comes from French, formed as a diminutive of corps (Old French cors).
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corporatio(n) incorporare
corporación incorporación incorporar
corporation (gen. of public nature) incorporation (into), joining a group (to) incorporate (unite, embody), (to) join, (to) raise to a sitting position
corporare was “to give a body to”, “to take form”, while incorporare implied uniting something with something else already in existence to give them a single “corporate” form. The notion of a corporation as a “body of people given a legal existence distinct from the individuals who compose it” is a fifteenthcentury English innovation, imported by Spanish in the nineteenth century. A money-making corporation is generally a sociedad anónima rather than a corporación, and “to incorporate (a company)” is conveyed by various expressions, including constituir una sociedad anónima.
Spirit Latin had two closely related words representing the spirit of life as opposed to its physical manifestation in a body: animus anima
thinking element, reason, mind, spirit breath, air (and by extension), soul, spirit
animus was the superior principle to which anima was subordinated; not surprisingly, animus was masculine and anima feminine. An effort was generally made to distinguish the two words, but over time the subordinated element, anima, encroached on the domain of animus and came to be used frequently in its place. anima is the origin of the Romance soul: anima
alma ánima desalmado
soul soul (esp. one in purgatory) soulless, cruel, inhuman
(It. anima, Fr. âme)
while animus survives in English and Spanish as the “actuating feeling” or “animating spirit”: animus
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ánimo
animus (disposition), spirit(s), energy
Given the mentality of the times.
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In English, animus has acquired the negative connotation of “animosity shown in speech or action”, as a result of contamination by animosity. This in turn initially had the positive meaning of “spiritedness”, “ardor” (i.e., possessing lots of animus), before acquiring the definition (notably in the Vulgate Bible) of “bitter hostility or open enmity”. Both definitions passed into English and Spanish, though only the negative definition is employed today. animosidad
animositas
animosity
Jungian psychology restored the masculine-feminine distinction between English animus and anima: animus anima
the masculine inner personality, as present in women the feminine inner personality, as present in men
The verb animare was associated with both anima and animus and meant “to give life to”, to animate. An animal was a living thing that had been given anima, the “breath of life”. animare animatus inanimatus animatio(n) dis animus dis animare animal animalia (“animals”)
animar animado (p.p.) inanimado animación desánimo desanimar desanimado (p.p.) animal alimaña
(to) animate, (to) cheer up animate, lively inanimate animation discouragement, downheartedness (to) dishearten, (to) discourage discouraged, dispirited animal beast, vermin
Spanish took the plural of animal, animalia, and converted it into a feminine singular meaning animal “pest”, with an interchange of the n and l. El zorro es una alimaña que mata gallinas.
The fox is a pest that kills chickens.
Animism, meaning either the attribution of a living soul (anima) to animals— somewhat tautologically, since it is their very definition—and other objects or
The fi rst defi nition can still be found in many Spanish dictionaries, including that of the RAE.
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the belief that an immaterial force animates the universe, is a relatively modern innovation (eighteenth–nineteenth century). animismo animista
animism animist
animus formed compounds with a number of other words: (a) AEQUUS (“equal”, “even”) S AEQUANIMITAS, “evenness of mind or temper” (b) MAGNUS (“large”, “great”) S MAGNANIMUS, “noble-minded”, “generous” (c) PUSILLUS (“tiny”) S PUSILLANIMIS, PUSILLANIMUS, “faint-hearted” (d) UNUS (“one”) S UNANIMIS, UNANIMUS, “of one mind” (e) advertere (“to turn toward”) S animadvertere, “to give attention to”, “to notice”, “to censure”, “to punish” aequanimitas magnanimus pusillanimis / -mus unanimis / -mus
animadversio(n)
ecuanimidad ecuánime magnánimo magnanimidad pusilánime pusilanimidad unánime unanimidad por unanimidad animadversión
equanimity, impartiality even-tempered, impartial magnanimous magnanimity pusillanimous pusillanimity unanimous unanimity unanimously animosity
Spanish animadversión theoretically can be used with the English meaning of “strong criticism”, but this sense is desusado. Having already seen its role reduced by the increasing prominence of anima, from the time of the Emperor Augustus, animus was threatened by competition from spiritus as well. spiritus was derived from the verb spirare, “to breathe”, “to blow”, “to exhale an odor”. Over time, spirare came to acquire more figurative, or spiritual, meanings—“to be alive”, “to be inspired”—and spiritus similarly expanded its meaning from “breathing” or “breath” to “the breath of life”, “spirit”, “energy”. The religious sense of spirital-is (later, spiritual-is) arose during early Christian times; before then, it had simply meant “pertaining to the act of breathing”. spiritus
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espíritu (m.) Espíritu Santo
spirit Holy Ghost
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spiritualis
espiritual espiritualidad espiritualismo espiritismo
spiritual spirituality spiritualism spiritism (belief in spirits)
Espíritu is one of the very few Spanish words of Latin origin ending in -u, reflecting its constant use in a religious (hence “learned”) context (a similar example is tribu). The verb spirare was productively combined with a number of prefi xes (perhaps too many, as we shall see): (i)
AD (“to”, “toward”) S ASPIRARE, “to breathe (or blow) upon”, “to exhale”, “to
(ii)
CUM (“with”) S CONSPIRARE, literally “to breathe (or blow) together”, used in
strive for” the figurative senses “to be in agreement”, “to plot against” EX (“from”) S EXSPIRARE, “to breathe out”, “to exhale”, “to breathe one’s last” IN (“in”, “into”) S INSPIRARE, “to blow upon”, “to breathe or blow into”, “to instill”, “to excite” (v) PER (“through”, “thoroughly”) S PERSPIRARE, “to blow constantly”, “to breathe everywhere” (VENTI PERSPIRANTES meant “persistent winds”) (vi) RE (“again”) S RESPIRARE, “to blow or breathe back”, “to breathe out”, “to exhale”, “to catch one’s breath” (vii) SUB (“under”, “beneath”) S SUSPIRARE, “to draw a deep breath”, “to sigh”, “to exhale”, “to long for” (iii) (iv)
Medieval Latin created yet another form, using the prefi x trans (“across”, “through”), to give transpirare (literally “to breathe through”). The first thing to note is that aspirare, exspirare, inspirare, and respirare all referred to an outward flow of air. A person’s aspirations were defined by what he breathed or blew upon; similarly, a person was inspired by having “inspiration” blown onto him or her. So how did the Romans refer to an inward flow of air into the lungs? It wasn’t by inhalation, since the verb inhalare also meant “to breathe upon”. Inhalation was in fact described by expressions of the form “to draw, or conduct, the breath [into the lungs]”, while the two-way act of breathing (what we would call respiration) was a “reciprocal movement” of the breath: spiritum trahere / ducere animam trahere / ducere animam reciprocare
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to draw or conduct the spirit to draw or conduct the anima to move the anima back and forth
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In both English and Spanish, the definitions of aspiration—aspiración have evolved to include both inward and outward movements: . . . .
the act of breathing in; inhalation expulsion of breath in speech; “aspirated” h the process of removing fluids or gases with a suction device desire for high achievement
aspirare
aspirar aspiración aspiradora, aspirador aspirante
conspirare
conspirar conspiración conspirador
(to) aspire, (to) aspirate (incl. “inhale”) aspiration vacuum cleaner aspirant (for position, honors) (to) conspire conspiracy conspirator
[aspirator]
English expirar has definitions overlapping with Spanish espirar (from spirare) and expirar (from exspirare), separate verbs that many Spanish speakers pronounce identically. Until they were actually spelled the same (espirar), at which point the RAE tried to establish some etymological order. Espirar means to exhale, either air from the lungs or, rarely, an odor from the body, as well as to infuse with a spirit, divine or otherwise. Expirar has nothing to do (directly) with “air” but rather with the “end” of something. spirare exspirare
espirar espiración expirar expiración
(to) expire (breathe out) expiration (breathing out), exhalation (to) expire (terminate), (to) breathe one’s last expiration (termination)
Spanish inspirar and English inspire maintain the figurative meanings from Latin inspirare—“to animate”, “to infuse with spirit”, etc. With regard to physical airflow, both languages have reversed the direction: to breathe in (“inhale”) rather than upon. inspirare respirare
inspirar inspiración respirar respiración
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(to) inspire, (to) inhale inspiration, inhalation (to) respire, (to) breathe, (to) take a breather, (to) exude respiration, breathing, ventilation
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suspirare
respiratorio respiro suspirar suspiro —último suspiro
respiratory breath (pause), breather, respite (to) sigh, (to) long for, (to) suspire sigh, type of meringue —last sigh (end; death)
The outward airflow represented by Latin inhalare has also been reversed, so that inhalar—inhale represent the “logical” opposites to exhalar—exhale. inhalare
exhalare
halitus
inhalar inhalación inhalador exhalar exhalación —como una exhalación hálito halitosis
(to) inhale inhalation inhaler or inhalator (med.) (to) exhale, (to) heave (a sigh) exhalation —rapidly, in a flash breath, gentle breeze (“breath of fresh air”) halitosis, bad breath
In Latin, “to sweat” was sudare and “sweat” was sudor. From these, French derived suer and sueur. In addition to their direct physical meanings, French employed the two words in a large number of metaphorical senses, analogous to English “sweating blood”, “to make them sweat”, “to sweat over the results of an exam”, etc. In the sixteenth century, a need arose for a more scientific, or elegant, way to refer to the physical act of evaporation through the skin, and French responded by coming up with not one, but two: (a) transpirer, from Medieval Latin transpirare; and (b) perspirer, from Classical Latin perspirare. Perspirer and perspiration never really caught on in French but did survive long enough to serve as the basis (in the seventeenth century) for English perspire and perspiration. These entered English with meanings very similar to transpire and transpiration, which had arrived from French sometime earlier. Perspiration subsequently specialized as a form of human transpiration, i.e., “sweat”. To transpire can also mean “to happen or come to pass”, although many style manuals frown on this usage. It transpires that this sense goes back at least to the eighteenth century and can be found, with no adverse comment, in Noah Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language (). Perspiration never made it to Spanish, but transpiración did, and it, along with the
Abigail to John Adams in a letter: “there is nothing new transpired since I wrote you last”.
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more traditional sudar, are the two ways of referring in Spanish to the act of sweating. The resemblance in form between English sweat and Latin sudare is no coincidence, as both ultimately come from the Indo-European root *sweid. While sudare and sudor were not able to displace the already well-entrenched (noun and verb) sweat, they did leave their mark in English in various forms, including sudatorium (“a sweating room”), sudorific, and the verb exude (literally “to sweat from”). sudare
exsudare transpirare
sudar sudor sudoroso sudadera sudorífico sudario exudar transpirar transpiración
(to) sweat sweat sweaty sweatshirt sudorific: sweat-inducing (medication) (burial) shroud (to) exude, (to) ooze out (to) perspire, (to) transpire (liquid or vapor) perspiration, transpiration
Mind Whereas animus represented the spirit and cors (the heart) the seat of desire and of passions, Latin mens was the mind, “intelligence”, “intellectual faculty”. It also came to represent “spirit, boldness, courage”. Again, the similarity with English mind is not a random happenstance but a reflection of their common derivation from the Indo-European root *men-, “to think”. mental-is did not exist in Classical Latin but was formed in Medieval Latin in analogy with spirital-is. mens (acc. mentem) mentalis
mentio(n)
mente captus
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mente (f.) mental mentalidad mentalizar mención mencionar mentar mentecato
mind mental mentality (to) make aware (of situation, problem) mention (to) mention (to) mention silly, foolish, fool (m./f.)
Literally “captured by the mind”.
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A demented person, or one who suffers dementia, has lost his mind: dementia
demencia demente (adj. & n.)
dementia (incl. “insanity”) demented, a demented person
A person who has lost his mind in the sense of not being able to remember anything is an amnesiac and suffers from amnesia, from Greek. amnesia amnésico (adj. & n.)
amnesia amnesic, amnestic, amnesiac
mens was the source of a number of verbs having to do with the mind. monere meant to “bring to mind”, i.e., “to warn or advise”, one form of this being a monumentum. The bearer of the warning was a monitor. A divine portent or warning was a monstrum, which served very clearly to monstrare, or demonstrate, something. meminisse was “to remember”, and its future imperative form (remember!) was memento. minisci, a rarely used verb (“to think”, “to remember”), combined with cum (“with”) to form comminisci (“to invent”, “to contrive”), whose neuter past participle was commentum, literally an “invention or contrivance” rather than a comment. commentari meant to have in mind, i.e., “to meditate”, “to reflect”, and mentiri, “to invent in the mind”, “to tell an untruth”. monstrare
monstrum
demonstrare
re monstrare monumentum monitor
mostrar muestra mostrador monstruo monstruoso monstruosidad demostrar demostración demostrable demostrativo [protestar] monumento monumental monitor
(to) show, (to) display sample, sign or token counter (flat surface) monster monstrous monstrosity (to) demonstrate demonstration demonstrable demonstrative (to) remonstrate monument monumental monitor, adviser
[muster]
With a variation in stem vowel, from e to o, which is characteristic in Indo-European languages to mark a change in grammatical function—technically a form of ablaut or vowel gradation, another example being the vowel changes in “irregular” English verbs (e.g., sing—sang—sung).
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monitorizar admonestare (vl)
amonestar amonestación admonición memento
memento commentum commentari
mentiri
(“you [vosotros] lie”)
comento [very rare] comentar comentario comentarista mentir mentira mentiroso (adj. & n.) mentís (m.) desmentir
(to) monitor (gen. using instrument) (to) admonish, (to) publish banns admonishment, warning, banns (pl.) admonition, reprimand memento (religious sense only) comment, commentary, falsehood (to) comment commentary, comment commentator (to) lie lie, falsehood lying, deceptive, liar categorical denial, refutation (to) deny, (to) contradict, (to) give the lie to
minisci also combined with re to form reminisci (“to recall to mind”), the source of English reminisce, which has no counterpart in Spanish, although the accompanying noun is common to the two languages: reminiscentia
reminiscencia
reminiscence
mens has also given rise, by a process that is described in the appendix to this section, to the largest class of Romance adverbs. One’s power of reasoning comes from the ability to think or reckon. This was expressed in Latin by the verb reri, whose descendants in Spanish and English are drawn from its past participle rata (feminine) and related verbal noun ratio(n), the latter accounting for three separate words in English, plus a naturalized French term: reason, ratio, ration, and raison d’être. ratio(n)
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razón (f.) —razón directa (inversa) —tener razón
reason, ratio —direct (inverse) proportion —(to) be right (lit. “to have reason”)
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—razón de ser razonable irrazonable razonamiento razonar ración
pro rata (parte)
racional racionalidad racionalizar racionamiento irracional irracionalidad prorrata —a prorrata prorrateo prorratear
—raison d’être reasonable unreasonable reasoning, argument (course of reasoning) (to) reason ration (fi xed portion, esp. of food) rational, reasonable rationality, reasonableness (to) rationalize rationing irrational irrationality a proportional share —pro rata, in proportion a pro rata division, apportionment (to) prorate, (to) distribute proportionally
[rate]
A portion is essentially a ration: at an early stage in Latin the expression pro ratione was shortened to portione. portio(n)
porción
portion, part
To ratify something is literally to confirm that it is reasonable: ratificar ratificación
(to) ratify, (to) confirm (e.g., testimony) ratification, confirmation
In Latin, ratiocinari literally meant “to sing with reason”, hence “to calculate”, “to “deliberate”. ratiocinari
raciocinar raciocinio
(to) ratiocinate, (to) reason reason (faculty), reasoning, ratiocination
The second part of the word comes from the root can- found in cantare / cantar (“to sing”), with the regular interior vowel change (a S i) discussed in Section ..
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Parts of the Body We will proceed in a generally north-to-south (top-to-bottom) sense. Not surprisingly, caput figures at the head of the list in terms of the number of words bequeathed to English and the Romance languages. caput became cabo in Spanish, which basically means “extremity” or “end” and in geographical terms is equivalent to English cape, itself derived from Occitan (via French) cap. The Spanish for “head” comes from a diminutive form, capitia, which became popular in the Hispanic part of the Roman Empire. The plural of caput was capita, so that per capita literally means “by heads”. caput capitia per capita
cabo cabeza per cápita
cape, extremity, corporal, cable (nautical) head per capita, per head
Cabo is used in a figurative sense in a number of expressions, including: al fin y al cabo al cabo de un mes de cabo a rabo llevar a cabo cabo suelto atar cabos
after all is said and done in a month, after a month from beginning to end (literally “from head to tail”) (to) carry out (to completion) loose end (to) put two and two together
Cabeza has been used to form a number of words and expressions, a small fraction of which are shown below: cabeza de chorlito
scatterbrain
cabeza de puente cabeza de playa perder la cabeza romper(se) la cabeza rompecabezas cabeza(s) de ganado cabeza de ajo(s) cabezazo
bridgehead beachhead (to) lose one’s head (to) rack one’s brains (jigsaw) puzzle head of cattle bulb of garlic blow with the head, butt, header (soccer) bigheaded, pigheaded [or such person] large head, stubborn person
cabezón cabezota
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(“head of a golden plover”)
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cabecera cabecear descabezar descabezado (p.p.) encabezar encabezamiento
headboard, headwaters, header (e.g., e-mail) (to) nod or nod off, (to) head (soccer) (to) decapitate headless, reckless, absentminded (to) put a heading on, (to) head heading (letter, text, etc.)
French formed the noun cabotage (“trade or navigation in coastal waters”), whose origin is disputed but very likely comes from Spanish cabo. The meaning was subsequently expanded to include air traffic rights for foreign airlines within another country. cabotaje capataz
cabotage foreman, overseer ( mayoral)
caput became chief in Old French, with the characteristic Central French palatization of ca-. For a time French chief meant “head”, but it was eventually supplanted by tête, with chief maintaining its meaning as “head of”. In Modern French, it has become chef, which developed its culinary sense in the eighteenth century. A chef-d’oeuvre is a “masterpiece” in English (and French) but not in Spanish. jefe, jefa —jefe de cocina jefatura [obra maestra]
chief, boss, leader —chef ( cocinero) headquarters, leadership (position) chef-d’oeuvre, masterpiece, masterwork
Apart from producing “chief”, caput is responsible for two military ranks, captain and corporal, the latter having only an indirect connection with the “corporal” in corporal punishment. Captain and capitán come from Late Latin capitaneus (“principal”, “chief”), while corporal has a more complicated his-
For this reason, English cha- words frequently correspond to Spanish ca- ones: chart–carta, chamber–cámara, chase–cazar, chaste–casto, chapel–capilla, etc. As in kerchief ( French couvre-chef ), which literally means “head cover”; handkerchief is thus etymologically a “hand head cover”. Earlier xefe, pronounced like English chef with an initial [sh]; as noted in Section ., no. , the [sh] sound subsequently shifted to [h*], and the spelling was accordingly modified to jefe.
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tory. First attested in Italian (caporale) in the fourteenth century, it entered Medieval Latin as caporalis (“chief of a band of soldiers”). There it suffered an apparent contamination with the unrelated word corpus, giving rise to a competing form corporalis, presumably because a caporalis was in charge of a corpus of soldiers. The two competing forms entered French in the sixteenth century, as caporal and corporal: the second died out, but not before giving rise to English corporal. The initial meaning in both French and Italian was similar to “captain” before being demoted to the “officer having the lowest rank”, which is how it entered English. Italian caporale was also exported directly to Spanish, where as caporal it maintains various primarily nonmilitary meanings of “chief”. A Spanish “corporal” is a cabo. capitán —capitanear cabo caporal
captain —(to) captain, (to) command corporal chief, leader, cattle boss
Things concerning the head were capitalis, and often carried the connotation of “mortal” or “fatal”, as in: poena capitalis capitali periculo capitalis inimicus peccatum capitale
pena capital en peligro de muerte enemigo mortal pecado mortal
capital punishment at risk (peril) of death mortal enemy mortal sin
The associated noun capital meant a capital offense, one subject to the punishment of removing the caput. capital entered the Romance languages and English with both the connotation of “involving loss of the head or life” and that of “important, principal”. A capital city dates from the early fifteenth century in French and somewhat later in English and Spanish. Another practical application in English was to capital letters (Spanish mayúscula). The financial sense of capital came from Italian capitale, the “principal” part of a debt as opposed to payments of interest. capital (adj.& n.) capital (f.) capitalismo capitalista (adj. & n.) capitalizar [escribir en mayúsculas] capitalización
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capital (vital, extremely serious), capital (wealth) capital (city) capitalism capitalist (to) capitalize (financial senses; turn to one’s advantage) (to) capitalize (use capital letters) capitalization (fi nancial)
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To decapitate is “to remove the head”, “to behead”. Perhaps somewhat surprisingly, the word was not used by the Romans, though the practice itself was not unknown. decapitare was a Medieval Latin invention that the French took as décapiter before passing it on to English (seventeenth century) and Spanish (nineteenth century). decapitar decapitación
(to) decapitate decapitation
biceps—with the normal modification (see Section .) of the vowel a from caput—referred to something having two heads; triceps and quadriceps similarly referred to things having three and four heads, respectively. In the mid-sixteenth century, French gave biceps and triceps the anatomical meanings of any muscle having two (or three) points of attachment at its upper end. It was not until sometime later that they became specialized by referring to specific muscles. In the medical sense, quadriceps was an English innovation and was never a generic term, referring from its origin to a specific muscle in the thigh having four heads. bíceps tríceps cuádriceps
biceps triceps quadriceps
Like many Latin diminutives, capitulum, literally “little head”, has been a fertile source for new words. In Roman times, it was used for a variety of purposes, including “onion” (head-shaped) as well as a division of a text or law. This latter presumably arose from the heading at the beginning of each section, or chapter. In Medieval Latin, capitulum also came to represent the convocation of canons of a religious order for the purpose of reading a chapter of the Scriptures, as well as the actual text itself. In Old French, capitulum became chapitle and, with a substitution of r for l, chapitre. The competing forms both passed into English, the l form dying out in the fifteenth century, the r form becoming simplified to chapter. Spanish has three forms directly derived from capitulum (the third from the plural capitula): capítulo cabildo capítula
chapter (incl. assembly of church canons) chapter (canons of a cathedral), town council chapter (scriptural passage read after the psalms)
(dl S ld)
capitulum also was the source of Medieval Latin capitulare, “to draw up under distinct headings”, “to make a report point by point”, a meaning
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maintained in English recapitulate and recap (as in “to recap today’s top story . . .”). In the late sixteenth century, capitulate took on the meaning (first attested in Shakespeare) “to draw up articles of agreement”, and a century later, “to surrender on agreed terms”. capitular () capitulación recapitular recapitulación capitular ()
(to) capitulate capitulation (to) recapitulate, (to) recap recapitulation, recap capitular, capitulary (member of a chapter)
A diminutive itself, capitulum had its own diminutive, capitellum, which was used to refer to the “small head” at the top of a pillar or column. This latter word is responsible for the two principal English words that refer to this element, chapiter and capital. The first comes from Old French chapitel (Modern French chapiteau), with the l changed to r, as in chapter. The second is from capitel, an Anglo-Norman form of the same word without the palatization of initial Latin ca-; the change in final vowel from e to a is an English innovation reflecting its confusion with capital (from capital): capitel
capital or chapiter (of a pillar or column)
Another derivation of capitellum provided the title of “supreme leader” assumed by Franco in in imitation of Mussolini (Duce) and Hitler (Führer). It seems unlikely that he was aware of its etymological sense—“little little head”. caudillo
chief, military leader
Rome was built on seven hills, one of which was the capitolium (known as mons capitolinus, hence Capitoline Hill). It owes its name, at least according to Roman historians, to the fact that when digging the foundations for the giant Temple of Jupiter on the hill, workmen found a human skull (caput) with its face intact—this was taken as a portent that Rome would become the “citadel of the empire” and the “head of the world”. Other cities took to giving their most magnificent citadels or temples the same name. Capitol has thus come to mean “a citadel on top of a hill”, or more specifically in the United States, the buildings occupied by the Congress and a number of state legislatures. capitolio
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elevated and majestic edifice, capitol
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To finish something is, by definition, to “arrive at the end of” it. Both Spanish and French used “head” to refer to an extreme point (or “end”) and created corresponding verbs and nouns: a cabo
S
acabar (Sp.) acabamiento (Sp.)
(to) finish, (to) complete completion
a chief
S
achever (Fr.) achèvement (Fr.)
(to) finish, (to) complete completion
French achever and achèvement became English achieve and achievement, initially with the meaning of “completing” a task. Subsequently, they changed in nuance from the act of “finishing” to that of “accomplishing”. Spanish achievement is expressed by: conseguir, lograr, llevar a cabo logro, hazaña
(to) achieve achievement, success
Combined with menos (“less”), the result was menoscabar; menoscabar menoscabo
(to) lessen, (to) impair, (to) detract from lessening, impairment, detriment
[mischief]
Spanish cabo also produced cabal, meaning “exact” or “faultless”. English cabal (“conspiratorial group”, “intrigue”) has an entirely different origin, coming instead (via Medieval Latin) from Hebrew. cabal —estar en sus cabales —cabalmente cábala
exact, complete, upright (honorable) —(to) be in one’s right mind (gen. used negatively: no estar . . .) —exactly, completely kabbalah (cabala), divination by numbers, guess or supposition (gen. pl.), cabal (secret scheme or plot)
Latin combined prae (“before”, “in front”) with caput to form praeceps, which literally meant “head first”. This was used with a variety of figurative
Kabbalah refers to Jewish mysticism as it developed in the twelft h and following centuries, much of it based in Spain. To the “outside” world, it was best known as an arcane system for decoding sacred texts based on numbers, letters, syllables, etc. The sense of “secret scheme or plot” (i.e., cabal) seems to have fi rst developed in France.
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meanings, such as “he was thrown headfirst out of the tavern” and “headfirst (or steep) terrain”. Both praeceps and the derived praecipitium came to mean a “high cliff ”, “a dangerous situation”, a precipice. praecipitare was “to throw from a great height, “to fall from”, to precipitate, while praecipitatio(n) was the “action of casting down” or “a headlong rush”, which in Medieval Latin developed the sense of “ruin”, “destruction”. As early as the fifteenth century, English precipitate was used to refer to the process of separating a substance from a solution as a solid, and in the nineteenth century, it was applied to droplets of water falling headfirst from the heights during periods of inclement weather. precipicio precipitar precipitación precipitadamente precipitado (p.p.) precipitoso [rare]
precipice (to) precipitate (various senses) precipitation (various senses) precipitately, hastily precipitate (hasty, headlong), precipitate (n.) precipitous (steep) ( escarpado)
To end this section on a more capricious note, Latin ericius, “hedgehog”, became Italian riccio. In the fourteenth century, this combined with capo (“head” from caput) to produce caporiccio and then (apparently) capriccio: the initial meaning was “shudder of horror”, presumably from the fact that when one is scared, one’s hair tends to resemble that of a hedgehog. Over time, this meaning evolved to “a sudden and unaccountable change of mind”, “a whim”, probably due to influence from capra (“goat”). The word entered French (as caprice) and Spanish with this meaning in the sixteenth century, and arrived in English the following century. capricho caprichoso caprichosamente
caprice, whim, capriccio (music) capricious, whimsical capriciously
We now move on to the internal and external elements of the cabeza: cerebrum
cranium calvaria
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cerebro cerebral cerebelo cráneo calavera
brain, cerebrum cerebral (pert. to the brain, intellectual) cerebellum cranium, skull skull, death’s head, calvarium
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calvario sinn (Germ.) pilus
capillus
sien (f.) pelo terciopelo aterciopelado cabello
Calvary, Golgotha, calvary (ordeal) temple hair (human or animal) velvet velvety hair (human)
[(Lat.) sense] [pile carpet] (third hair) [capillary]
Theoretically, pelo is one hair and cabello the collection of a person’s hair—a distinction dating back to their Latin origins—but in practice the two words seem to be used almost interchangeably. Animals, however, do not have cabello but pelo (or pelaje). English pilosity, “covered with fine soft hair”, comes from pilus. peludo pelusa peluche peluca peluquín pelaje peletería peluquería peluquero pelagatos pelirrojo (adj. & n.) en pelotas, en pelota espeluznante
hairy, furry, shaggy fuzz (fruits, face), fluff, lint plush (fabric), stuffed toy animal peruke, wig toupee, hairpiece pelage (animal coat or fur) fur shop, furriery hairdressers, barbershop barber, hairdresser penniless person, a nobody red-haired, redhead stark naked horrifying, hair-raising
[pilose]
[hair cats]
The Aramaic name of the hill outside Jerusalem on which Jesus was crucified was Gulgalta, which meant “skull”—there are competing explanations for the origin of the name. Th is appears in the Latin Bible (Vulgate) as golgotha, and is also directly translated as calvaria: in locum qui dicitur golgotha, quod est calvariae locus (Matthew :); “in (the) place that is called Golgotha, that is, place of (the) skull”. Old Spanish sen meant “common sense” or “intelligence” and came to be used in the form sien as a term for “temple”, thought to be the site of such activities. The diphthong (ie) is probably due to the influence of the verb sentir (yo siento, etc.). Sentir in turn comes from Latin sentire (“to perceive”), which is very likely an Indo-European cognate of the Germanic sinn from which sien derives. For the origins of peluca and peruke, see Section . appendix, no. . There are competing explanations for the origin of this term: some (e.g., RAE, Moliner) see it as referring to someone covered only by their long hair (à la Lady Godiva); others (e.g., Corominas, Bénaben) see a somewhat less salubrious connection to pelota (“ball”).
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pelar pelear pelea depilar depilación horripilante [oruga]
(to) pluck (hair, feathers), (to) peel (fruit) (to) fight, (to) quarrel fight, quarrel (to) depilate (remove body hair) depilation horrifying, hair-raising caterpillar
[pilose (“hairy”) cat]
cabellera descabellado
head of hair, tail (of a comet) preposterous, absurd
[disheveled ]
(pull s.o.’s hair out)
capillaris meant “pertaining to the hair, hair-like” and entered French (capillaire) and English (capillar, then capillary) with this definition. In the seventeenth century, capillary began to acquire its current medical meaning of “minute blood vessel”, although it still maintains the more general meaning “relating to or resembling a hair; fine and slender”. capilar (adj. & n.) pertaining to the hair, capillary Esta loción capilar evita que se caiga el cabello. This hair lotion prevents hair loss. Los capilares unen las venas con las arterias. The capillaries connect the veins to the arteries.
In Latin, one who lacked hair on his head was calvus, presumably because his calvaria was showing. calvus
calvo (adj.) calva (n.) calvicie calvinismo calvinista chovinismo / chauvinismo chovinista / chauvinista
bald bald spot (head, fur, velvet, lawn, woods) baldness Calvinism Calvinist chauvinism chauvinist
calvus was also used as a Roman surname, as is Calvo in Spanish. A derived Roman surname was calvinus. In northwestern France, this became Calvin (or Cauvin); in central France, Chauvin. Nicolas Chauvin was a French soldier
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Literal meaning: “one’s hair is out of place”.
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from the Napoleonic wars whose patriotism and loyalty were at first celebrated, then ridiculed. New students of Spanish sometimes confuse pelo with piel, “skin”, particularly since: () both are translations of English “fur” (depending upon whether the animal is alive or dead, respectively); and () the Spanish verb for “peel” (pelar) comes from the family of pelo, while the Spanish noun corresponding to “peel” (fruit skin) is piel. pellis pellicula
(unrelated) cutis
piel (f.) película pellejo despellejar pellizcar cutis (m.) cutáneo subcutáneo cutícula
skin, hide, pelt, skin or peel (fruit) fi lm (incl. camera, cinema), pellicle hide, pelt, wineskin (to) skin, (to) flay (to) pinch, (to) nip skin (face), complexion ( tez) cutaneous, skin (adj.) subcutaneous cuticle
Both Latin pellis and English film come from the Indo-European root *pel (“skin”, “hide”), while cutis and hide (the animal skin as well as the verb) come from an Indo-European root meaning “to cover”, “to conceal”. porus frontem (acc.)
cara
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poro poroso frente () (f.) frente () frente a frente hacer frente a frontal enfrente (adv.) enfrentar afrenta afrentar afrontar confrontar confrontación frontera fronterizo (adj.) cara careta descaro
pore porous forehead front, battlefront face to face ( cara a cara) (to) face or confront frontal (adj. & bone), head-on opposite, facing, in front (to) confront, (to) oppose aff ront, dishonor (to) aff ront (to) confront (enemy, problem) (to) compare, (to) confront (bring face to face) confrontation frontier, border, boundary frontier, border face, heads (coin) mask ( máscara, antifaz) eff rontery, impudence
[cheer]
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facialis facies
(unrelated) rostrum
descarado facial facies (f.) faz (f.) haz (f.) antifaz superficie superficial prefacio rostro
impudent, brazen, shameless facial facies, external aspect face (earth, planet, capitalism, etc.) right side of fabric, upper side of leaf mask surface, area, superficies superficial preface face, beak or rostrum (bird, ship)
[face]
Latin cara was taken from Greek kara, “head”, and, via French, gave rise to English cheer, which initially meant “face”; it has no relation to caro (“expensive”). facies is the origin of English face and facies (“general aspect or outward appearance”). Spanish faz also means “face” but is generally restricted to literary (especially biblical) use—faz de la tierra, faz del planeta; haz was formerly used in this sense as well. Latin rostrum comes from the verb rodere (“to gnaw”), source of rodent. It initially referred to the beak of an animal, then to the curved beak-like prow of a Roman ship, and finally (as a plural, rostra) to the speaker’s platform in the Roman Forum, which was adorned with the beaks of ships captured at the Battle of Antium (modern Anzio) in BC. This last meaning is preserved in English rostrum but not in Spanish rostro (the nearest equivalent would be tribuna). oculus
ojo mirar de reojo anteojo antojo a su antojo a tu antojo
eye (to) look out of the corner of one’s eye, (to) look askance spyglass; binoculars, glasses (pl.) whim, craving, birthmark (cf. “mother’s mark”) in one’s own way, as one pleases as you like [also with mi, nuestro, vuestro]
[monocle]
Preface and prefacio come from Latin praefatio (“saying before”), hence the related adjective prefatory. Even as late as Shakespeare: “All fancy-sick she is and pale of cheer . . .” (A Midsummer Night’s Dream).
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ojal ojete ojera ocularis
pupilla cilium cilia (pl.)
ocular (adj. & n.) oculista inocular inoculación pupila cilio ceja entrecejo
supercilium
superciliar
palpebra
——— párpado parpadear
(pre-Roman)
parpadeo pestaña pestañear —sin pestañear
buttonhole eyelet, grommet ring or bag under the eyes (gen. pl.) ocular, eyepiece oculist ( oftalmólogo) inoculate inoculation pupil (eye) cilium (biol.; “eyelash”) eyebrow space between the eyebrows, frown superciliary (“above the eyebrow”) supercilious eyelid, palpebra (to) blink, (to) fl icker (light, screen) blink, blinking eyelash (to) blink —. with great attention; . serenely (“without batting an eyelash [or eye or eyelid]”)
(eyelet oilet)
[cilia pl. cilium]
[palpitate]
cilium was “eyelid” (technically only the upper and lower borders), while the plural cilia was used for both “eyelids” and “eyelashes”; supercilium (“above the eyelid”) was “eyebrow” and by extension came to mean “ridge or summit”, “pride”, “arrogance”, hence the English adjective supercilious. palpebra, a more popular form for “eyelid” that reflected its palpitating nature, is continued by Spanish párpado. Spanish moved cilia upward to the eyebrow, and then reverted to an old (pre-Roman) term, pestaña, for “eyelash”. nares nasalis
nariz (f.) nasal
nose nasal
The more likely explanation may be that pre-Roman pestaña—common to Spanish, Portuguese, and Catalan, as well as to Gascon in southern France—never gave up its role among the “common” people for eyelash, thus allowing supercilia (pl.) to be shortened to cilia (which then evolved to ceja) for eyebrow, without any danger of confusion.
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Latin naris was “nostril”, and its plural, nares, came to be used colloquially for “nose” (Classical nasus). Having used “nostrils” for “nose”, in Spanish one says things like ventana de la nariz (“nose window”) or fosa nasal (“nasal cavity”) for nostril. These constructions recall the similar origin of English nostril, which literally means “nose hole”. The plural narices is used in many and varied colloquial expressions, including: dar con la puerta en las narices en sus (propias) narices estar hasta las narices meter las narices (en algo) bucca
boca boca abajo boca arriba boquiabierto bocadillo bucal desembocadura desembocar
bucle
buccula (dim.) oralis
oral
ora
orilla
(to) shut the door in someone’s face (to reject) right under his nose (to) be fed up (to) poke one’s nose into something mouth face-down face-up open-mouthed, flabbergasted sandwich ( sándwich) buccal (pert. to the mouth or cheeks) river mouth, debouchure (to) flow out, (to) disembogue, (to) debouch, (to) lead to (road, etc.) curl, ringlet, loop
(Fr. bouche)
[buckle]
oral (spoken, or pert. to the mouth) edge, (river)bank, shore
os (genit. oris), Classical Latin for “mouth”, was supplanted in popular expression by bucca, which originally meant “cheek”. ora probably meant “river mouth” at first, before settling for “border”, “edge”; Spanish orilla is a diminutive form. gingiva dentem (acc.)
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encía gingivitis diente dental dentista dentadura
gum, gingiva gingivitis tooth dental dentist set of teeth
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caries lingua
—dentadura postiza dentífrico diente de león caries (f.) lengua lenguaje —lengua extranjera —lenguaje de programación lenguado deslenguado lengüeta
saliva labium mentum barba
lingüista lingüístico lingüística bilingüe saliva labio labial mentón ——— barba barbudo barbilla barbero barbería
—set of false teeth, dentures dentifrice, toothpaste dandelion caries, tooth decay, cavity tongue, language language, speech ( habla) —foreign language [not lenguaje] —programming language [not lengua] sole (fish) impudent, insolent, foulmouthed tongue (shoe), reed (in music instrument) linguist linguistic linguistics bilingual saliva lip labial (pert. to the lips) chin mental (pert. to the chin) beard heavily bearded point of the chin barber barbershop
[lion’s tooth]
[Germ. mouth] [barber]
Barbilla is a diminutive of barba and has come to mean the place where the beard grows (i.e., the chin). mandibula maxilla auricula
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mandíbula mejilla maxilar (adj. & n.) oreja auricular (adj. & n.)
jaw, mandible cheek maxillary, jawbone(s) ear (external part) auricular, earpiece, headphones (pl.)
[maxilla] [auricle]
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auris was Latin for ear; auricula, a diminutive. thyrsus
torso
collum decollare
cuello degollar
gula
gola gula goloso golosina gol ( Eng.) garganta gárgola hacer gárgaras brazo brazalete braza
(unrelated) garggarg- gula brachium
abrazo abrazar
torso (trunk, statue without head or limbs) neck, collar (shirt, suit, etc.) (to) decollate (sever at the neck), (to) cut the throat throat, gullet gluttony ( glotonería) sweet-toothed, appetizing sweet (n.) goal throat, gorge (ravine) gargoyle (to) gargle arm bracelet fathom ( feet), breaststroke embrace, hug (to) embrace, (to) hug
[gully]
(onomatopoeia)
[brace, brachium]
A number of other English words come from brachium and its derivatives, including brassiere and pretzel (via German Brezel). It is also worth noting that arma exists in Spanish but only with the sense of “weapon”. English arm has two sources, both ultimately coming from the Indo-European root *ar-: (a) from Germanic, referring to the part of the body; and (b) from Latin (via French), referring to weapons or tools (giving also army, armor, armada, armature). Alarm (Spanish alarma) came from the Italian cry all’arme! (“to [the] arms!”) summoning soldiers to the defense. arma
arma armar
armamento armada —la Armada Invencible armadillo
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arm (weapon) (to) arm, (to) fit out (a ship), (to) assemble armament armada, navy, fleet —the Spanish Armada armadillo
[army Fr.] [invincible]
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armario armadura armazón (m./f.) armería alarma alarmar alarmante alarmista desarmar
in (neg.) arma humerus cubitus
desarme inerme hombro húmero codo codazo
(unrelated)
cúbito cubito (de hielo)
wardrobe, [armory] cabinet, armoire armor, armature framework, frame (“armor” of a building) armory, gun shop alarm (to) alarm alarming alarmist (to) disarm, (to) dismantle disarmament unarmed, defenseless shoulder humerus (bone) elbow, cubit (unit of measure) blow (or nudge) with the elbow ulna (bone) ice cube (diminutive of cubo)
In Latin, cubitus was “elbow” and ulna, “forearm”; the latter is cognate with Old English eln (“forearm”), which gave rise to elbow (Old English eln-boga). Cubit remains in English as an “ancient unit of measure”, equal to the distance from the tip of the middle finger to the elbow. The cúbito—ulna is one of the two bones extending from the elbow to the wrist, the other being the radio—radius. (pre-Roman) manus manualis a manu (“by hand”) mancus
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muñeca muñeco mano (f.) manual (adj.) manual (n.) amanuense manco
wrist, girl doll boy doll hand, forefoot (of quadriped), manus manual (by hand) manual, handbook amanuensis (secretary, scribe) missing a hand or arm (or with disabled use)
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mansuetudo
mansedumbre manso
mansuetude (meekness, tameness) meek, gentle, tame
mansuetudo literally meant “being accustomed to eat from the hand” (hence, “tame”). As with English hand, manus had a number of symbolic meanings beyond that of simply being “the distal part of the forelimb of a vertebrate” (definition of English manus). In particular, it symbolized power and control of the pater familias over wife, children, and slaves. For those women electing marriage cum manu, the expression in manum convenire literally meant to “pass into the legal control” of the husband, while those opting for marriage sine manu remained under the legal control of the father (being only “loaned” to the husband).
manuaria mania (VL)
maniculus
manica
manada manera maña amañar artimaña manojo de antemano manecilla manija manilla manga manguera ———
manicus (unrelated)
mango () mango ()
flock, herd, handful manner skill, dexterity, trick (to) rig, (to) fake trick, stratagem, snare handful, bunch beforehand clock hand handle (door, window, etc.) handle, bracelet sleeve, (water) hose, windsock, beam (ship’s width) watering hose manicotti (pasta in large-sized tubes) handle (hammer, pot, etc.) mango (fruit, tree)
[manacle]
Both in Classical and later Latin, manus joined with various verbs to indicate an action done by hand: (a) OPERARI (“to operate”), hence “to work with the hands”—the meaning was extended at the end of the seventeenth century in French to naval maneuvers, and subsequently to military maneuvers in general
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Unrelated to the mania (from Greek) that gave rise to English mania and Spanish manía.
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(b) FACERE (“to make”), hence to manufacture (c) SCRIPTUS (p.p. of SCRIBERE, “to write”), hence “written by hand”, or manuscript (d) MITTERE (“to let go”, “to send off ”), hence “to free” or “to set at liberty” a slave or a child, to manumit (e) TENERE (“to have”, “to hold”), hence “to hold in the hand”, later “to protect”, to maintain (f) CURARE (“to care for”), hence “to care for the hands”, to manicure (g) DARE (“to give”), hence “to hand over”, “to entrust”, to give a mandate to, later “to order” operari
facere scriptus mittere tenere
curare dare
maniobrar maniobra maniobrabilidad mano de obra manufacturar manufactura manuscrito (adj. & n.) manumitir manumisión mantener mantenimiento manutención manicura mandar mandato mandatario [obligatorio] mando
(to) maneuver maneuver maneuverability labor (versus capital), manpower (to) manufacture manufactured good, factory handwritten, manuscript (to) manumit (free from slavery) manumission (to) maintain, (to) sustain maintenance, upkeep maintenance, support manicure (to) order, (to) command, (to) send mandate, order, term of office agent, mandatary mandatory command (power), control (e.g., TV)
Manumission is, of course, very similar in meaning to emancipation. In Roman times both terms were used, manumission with regard to releasing slaves from the authority of their master, and emancipation with regard to the freeing of children (and wives) from the authority of the paterfamilias. A manceps— from manus and the verb capere (“to take”)—was a person who took possession of something by hand, a “purchaser”, an “owner”. mancipium referred both to the act of acquiring property and to the property itself; it could also mean “slave”. The verb emancipare was then formed by the addition of the
English emancipate maintains the legal defi nition “to release (a child) from the control of parents or a guardian”.
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prefi x ex (“from”). The use of emancipation with regard to the manumission of slaves is an eighteenth-century innovation. emancipare mancipium
emancipar emancipación mancebo
(to) emancipate emancipation youth, pharmacist’s assistant
mandare (“to entrust”, later “to order”) joined forces with the prepositions cum and de to form the verbs commendare and demandare. The different treatment of the interior vowel a in the composite verbs shows that demandare is a more recent formation. commendare—“to entrust”, “to commit for protection”—entered English in two separate ways: (a) to commend, from Classical (and Church) Latin, with the original meaning of “to entrust” subsequently expanded to that of “to present something (commendable) as worthy”; and (b) to command, from French commander—formed from Vulgar Latin commandare (which had taken on the later meaning of mandare, “to order”, “to command”). French commander maintained for some time the distinct meanings of “to command” and “to commend/recommend” before the second meaning was transferred to recommander. English took this verb as well—in its Medieval Latin form recommendare—giving it two similar verbs (commend and recommend). Spanish replaced the “classical” comendar with encomendar and also has recomendar, the two having approximately the same relationship as English commend (“entrust”)—recommend. [alabar, elogiar] [alabanza, elogio] encomendar encomienda recomendar recomendable recomendación comandar comandante comando mandamiento —los diez mandamientos
(to) commend (praise) commendation (praise) (to) commend (entrust, commit to the care of another) charge, commission, postal parcel (Amer.) (to) recommend recommendable, commendable (praiseworthy) recommendation (to) command commander, commandant, major (rank above captain) command (military authority, computer instruction), commando order, commandment —the Ten Commandments
demandare was initially not very clearly differentiated, meaning “to entrust”, “to commit”. In Medieval Latin, it developed a wide range of meanings, includ-
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ing “to order”, “to lay claim (to something)”, “to ask for urgently”, “to summon to court”, “to request (something)”, and “to ask (a question)”. English has focused primarily on the first few definitions, French on the last two, while Spanish demandar maintains a wide range of meanings: demanda demandar demandante demandado (p.p.) [exigente]
demand, request, inquiry, complaint (legal) (to) demand, (to) request, (to) ask for, (to) sue claimant, plaintiff defendant (gen. in civil case) demanding
English remand also comes from mandare. The sense of “to send back” is absent from the rarely encountered Spanish remandar (“mandar una cosa varias veces”); Spanish uses instead various other formulations, depending on the context. A manipulus was literally a “handful” and seems to have originated from the handful of stalks that an agricultural worker grasped in one hand (normally the left) before cutting with the other. It subsequently came to represent a military unit consisting of two centuries (initially one hundred men each, later sixty), representing one-thirtieth of a Roman legion. A maniple (the English form of the word) was thus far more than a handful of soldiers; the term was initially given to the flag (or “standard”) of the unit and over time came to represent the unit itself. The explanations for its origin are legion, the most common being that the standard originally consisted of a pole with a handful of hay at the top. In Medieval Latin, a manipulus came to apply to an “ornamental silk band hung as an ecclesiastical vestment on the left arm”—possibly bearing a relation to the agricultural origin of the term—and this meaning is also found in English maniple. In fifteenth-century French, manipule came to be used in a pharmaceutical sense to designate a handful of grains from plants used to concoct a remedy. Three centuries later the French verb manipuler arose in connection with the experimental process of seeking to improve the formulas. It was not until the nineteenth century that manipulate developed its current meaning of “to influence or to manage shrewdly or deviously”. manipular manipulación manipulador manípulo
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(to) manipulate, (to) handle manipulation, handling (food, merchandise) manipulator, handler maniple (/th legion, eccl. vestment)
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Italian maneggiare (“to work with the hands”) yielded English manage and Spanish manejar: manejar manejo manejable [gerencia, dirección] [gerente, director]
(to) manage, (to) drive (a car—Amer.) handling, manège (horsemanship) manageable, easy to use management manager
The initial meaning of manifestus was “grasped by the hand”. This was then applied to criminals “caught in the act”, whose guilt was therefore manifest. English manifesto came from the Italian, where it initially was used only as an adjective (“manifest”) before developing the nominative sense of “a written declaration of principles (cultural, artistic, or political)”. In the nineteenth century, “to manifest” in both Spanish and French acquired the additional meaning “to demonstrate publicly” (one’s views). manifiesto (adj. & n.)
—poner de manifiesto manifestar manifestación manifestante digitus
manifest (obvious), manifesto, manifest (of a ship) —(to) make evident, (to) show plainly (to) manifest, (to) demonstrate manifestation, public demonstration demonstrator, manifestant dedo dedal
digit (human finger or toe) thimble
(thimble thumb)
Dedo represents the “popular” evolution of digitus. Spanish has preserved a number of “learned” forms of the word, including: digital (adj.) digital (f.) dedalera dígito digitalizar digitación
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digital digitalis, foxglove digit (, , , , , , , , , ) (to) digitalize fingering (music)
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digitado digitígrado
digitate (having fingers or finger-like projections) digitigrade (bearing weight on the toes—e.g., dog, horse)
Latin digitus and Spanish dedo refer to both fingers and toes. A digitus was also a unit of measure, being defined as one-sixteenth of a Roman “foot”, or approximately . cm (a Roman foot being . cm, as opposed to the “modern” English foot of . cm). Spanish has maintained dedo as an unofficial unit of measure, now defined as the duodécima parte del palmo (twelft h part of the palm). Each finger in Latin had its separate name or names, often of popular origin, a tradition maintained in Spanish: #
Latin Names
Spanish Names
(thumb)
pollex index, salutaris, demonstrativus medius, impudicus, infamis anularis, medicinalis minimus, auricularis
pulgar, gordo (also: big toe) índice medio, (del) corazón, cordial anular, médico meñique, pequeño, auricular
Pulgar is an interesting example of the force of analogy at work: it comes from Latin pollicaris (“measure of a thumb”), and according to the “normal” rules, it should have evolved to *polgar. But as the Spanish word for flea is pulga, and as one of the primary roles of the thumb was (and presumably still is) the squashing of fleas, the u from pulga became implanted in *polgar, thus giving pulgar. The measure of a thumb, una pulgada, is an “inch”. Dedo auricular is a “literary” name for the little finger and comes straight from Latin, relating to its usefulness for ear cleaning. The various Latin names for index finger related to its common use for signalling: index was a person or object that indicated or “revealed” something.
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index (acc. indicem)
índice
indicare
indicio El humo es indicio del fuego. indicar indicación indicador indicativo
index, table of contents, Index (proscribed books) index (indication, sign) Smoke is a sign of fire. (to) indicate indication indicator, pointer, gauge indicative (adj.), indicative (verb mood)
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index and indicare (“to indicate”) are intrinsically related to dicere (“to say”), both from the Indo-European root *deik/deig—“to show”, “to pronounce solemnly”—also found in English (Germanic) teach. digitus itself comes from the same root, i.e., the finger was initially thought of as a “pointer”. palma palmus
ungula pugnus
palma palmo palmada palmera uña puño puñado puñetazo puñal puñalada
palm (of hand; tree or leaf) palm (measure: thumb–little finger in.) pat or slap (with open palm), clapping (pl.) palm tree fingernail fist, cuff (shirt), hilt fistful, handful blow with the fist, cuff (slap) dagger, poniard stab, stab wound
[ungulate]
The fist, as a convenient weapon, has served as a basis for a wide range of words expressing combativeness in one form or another. The pug- is the same as in pugilist. pugna
pugna pugnar impugnar empuñar empuñadura pugnacidad pugnaz púgil pugilista pugilato propugnar repugnar
spatula
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repugnancia repugnante espalda
fight, strife (to) fight, (to) strive (to) impugn (attack as false or questionable) (to) grasp (by the hilt) hilt, grip (racket) pugnacity pugnacious pugilist, boxer pugilism, boxing (to) defend, (to) advocate (to) view with repugnance, (to) disgust repugnance repugnant back (also used in pl.)
[† propugn]
[spatula: dl S ld]
Originally cuchillo puñal (“fist knife”), and then the fi rst element disappeared.
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respaldo
costa vertebra
thorax pectus
pectoralis
respaldar costilla vértebra vertebral vertebrado invertebrado tórax pecho peto petirrojo parapeto pectoral
seatback, backing (support) (to) back, (to) endorse rib vertebra vertebral vertebrate invertebrate thorax, chest chest, breast, bosom breastplate, overalls, pinafore robin (redbreast) parapet, breastwork pectoral
[coast, cutlet]
( It. petto)
(para- from parasol)
From the derived verb appectorare (ad pectorare), Spanish formed apretar (with a shift in position of the first r): apretar
interanea
apretado (p.p.) apretón apretón de manos aprieto abdomen abdominal entraña (freq. pl.)
expectorare
entrañar entrañable expectorar
sinus
[escupir] seno
abdomen
(to) squeeze, (to) tighten, (to) compress tight, difficult sudden squeeze, pressure handshake tight spot, predicament abdomen abdominal internal organ, guts (innards, entrails, core or essence) (to) involve, (to) entail most affectionate, intimate (to) expectorate (cough up and spit out) (to) spit bosom, breast, womb, lap, sinus, sine
[cuspidor]
In Roman times, “to expectorate” was literally “to get something off one’s chest”, hence “to expel or banish from the mind” (e.g., fear). The medical sense “to clear out the chest by coughing” developed only in the seventeenth century; and the modern meaning of “to spit” (in English, not Spanish), only in
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the nineteenth century. sinus initially referred to the “concave or semicircular fold of clothing in which a mother could carry her child” before taking on the more general meaning, preserved in Modern English, of “a depression or cavity formed by a bending or curving”. Spanish seno has retained (or acquired) multiple senses: for a woman, her breasts or womb; for a person of either sex, his sinuses; in a nautical sense, a gulf or bay; the sine function in mathematics, etc. To insinuate oneself is to “introduce oneself sinuously or by devious methods”—to worm oneself in—or “to convey a notion by indirect suggestion”. insinuare
sinuosus mamma
mamma ferre mammare
insinuar insinuación sinusitis sinuoso mama mamá amamantar mamífero mamar dar de mamar mamario
(to) insinuate, (to) imply insinuation sinusitis sinuous mamma (breast) mama, mom, mommy (to) breast-feed, (to) nurse mammal (to) suck (milk, from breast or bottle) (to) breast-feed mammary, breast (adj.)
( Fr. maman)
Latin mamma was both “breast” (human or animal) and “mother”, the latter restricted to the language of children. It comes from the near-universal maused by children (at least Indo-European ones) for their mothers, found also in mater (madre). In the eighteenth century, when the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus created the modern (Latin) system for classifying plants and animals, he coined the name mammalia to refer to the class of animals (animalia) characterized by the possession of mamma(s). This subsequently became English mammal. Spanish mamífero is a separate creation, an amalgam of mamma with the verb ferre (“to bring”), thus literally “bearer of milk”. mamma itself has arrived in two separate forms in Spanish: mama as a normal phonetic evolution from Latin, and mamá from French maman. A Hispanic Latin variation of mamma was amma; ama initially referred to the mother giving milk to her own child, and later came to refer to a wet nurse. amma
ama
ama de casa
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lady of the house, owner, landlady, wet nurse housewife
And in Germanic mother, which comes from the same root (*ma¯).
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ama de llaves amo (Germanic)
cinctura
teta dar la teta destetar destete cintura cinturón cinturón de seguridad cinto cinta precinto precintar recinto ceñir
cathedra (“chair”)
ceñido (p.p.) cadera
housekeeper master (of a house), owner, landlord breast, teat (to) nurse (to) wean weaning waist belt safety belt, seat belt belt ribbon, band, tape (adhesive or recording) strap (for packing), (safety) seal (to) seal, (to) seal off area, enclosure, enceinte (fortification) (to) encircle, (to) fit tightly, (to) limit oneself tight-fitting, clinging hip
[“de-teat”] [cincture]
[precinct]
[cinch] [chair, cathedral]
Each Spanish speaker thus starts off life with two built-in chairs. A cathedral (Spanish catedral) is a church that contains a bishop’s chair, while a cátedra is a “chaired professorship” at a university. pelvis inguen perna (“ham”)
rotula
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pelvis (f.) ingle (f.) inguinal pierna pernera pernil rótula rodilla arrodillar(se) rodillo rótulo rotulador
pelvis groin inguinal leg trouser leg haunch (animal), ham, trouser leg kneecap, patella knee (to) kneel rolling pin, roller sign, label, heading, title felt-tipped pen, highlighter
[roll]
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pes (acc. pedem)
pie (m.) dedo del pie ciempiés traspié peatón peaje pezuña pedestal pedestre pedicura pedal pedalear
foot toe centipede stumble, trip pedestrian (n.) toll, tollbooth hoof ( casco) pedestal pedestrian (adj.) pedicure pedal, treadle (to) pedal
[sesquipedalian ] (cien pies) (tras pie) (Fr. péage) (“uña of the foot”)
perna was “leg of ham” and replaced the less expressive Classical crus; rodilla was formed as a diminutive of rotula (“little wheel”), so that it literally means “little little wheel”. We have already seen that dedo refers to toes as well as fingers, so that when one wants to be specific, one says dedo del pie. While peaje looks as if it might have something to do with “pay”, it in fact refers to the “right to put one’s foot beyond a certain point”. tubellum talo(n)
(unrelated) (unrelated) planta
tobillo talón talón de Aquiles talonario talar () talar () tacón planta () planta () planta baja plantar plantación plantear
ankle heel Achilles heel checkbook, receipt book (etc.) full-length, reaching to the ankles (to) cut a tree (at the base), (to) devastate heel (of a shoe) sole, floor or story, (floor) plan plant (vegetable), plant (factory) ground floor ( piso bajo) (to) plant planting (action), plantation (to) state (a problem), (to) raise (a question), (to) plan or outline
[tuber] [talon]
[talaria]
[plantar]
“Given to the use of long words”, literally “something a foot and a half long”. For example, a cassock or a toga. Talar () comes from Germanic and is related to the verbs tajar and tallar (see Section ., no. ).
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planteamiento plantilla trasplantar trasplante implantar implantación implante suplantar
statement (of a problem), planning, approach insole, roster (office staff or athletic team) (to) transplant transplant, transplantation (to) implant implantation implant, implantation (to) supplant
planta, the sole of the foot, comes from the same Indo-European root as English flat. The related verb plantare referred to the action of driving in the seed for a plant (also planta) with the planta of one’s foot. The application to a factory or equipment is first attested in the late eighteenth century. ossum (CL os)
hueso óseo
tendo(n) ligamentum musculus
estar nervioso tendón ligamento músculo
bone, pit or stone (fruit), os osseous, bony (consisting of bone) bony (having prominent bones) ossuary (to) ossify (to) bone (meat), (to) stone or pit (fruit) articulation (joint; vocal expression) articular (relating to a joint) (to) articulate (various senses) nerve nervous (to) be of a nervous state (in general) (to) be nervous (worried) tendon ligament muscle
lacertus
muslo muscular lagarto
thigh muscular lizard, long muscle in arm
huesudo osario osificar deshuesar
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articulatio(n)
articulación
nerv(i)us
articular () articular () nervio nervioso ser nervioso
(Lat. mus, “mouse”)
[alligator]
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A muscle is literally a “little mouse”—presumably a reference to the appearance created by flexing one’s biceps. Similarly, the long muscle in the arm (brachialis, from shoulder to elbow) can be viewed as a “lizard”, although this use is rare. organum
cor (genit. cordis)
cardiacus ( Gk.)
órgano orgánico organismo organista organizar organización corazón cuerdo cordura cardíaco
organ (bodily, musical, etc.) organic organism, organization organist (to) organize organization heart (Fr. coeur) sane, sensible (or such a person) common sense, soundness of mind cardiac
cor and heart share a common Indo-European origin. In Spanish, an augmented ending was added to the classical Latin form, giving rise to corazón. misericordia
misericordia misericordioso [despiadado] miseria miserable
mercy, pity merciful merciless misery, miserliness miserable, wretched, miserly
misericordia was “to open one’s heart to the miserable”. English mercy is unrelated etymologically, coming instead from merces (“wages”, “reward”), ironically the root as well of mercenary. Misericord remains in English with a number of very specific meanings, including that of a narrow dagger used in medieval times to deliver the “coup de grace” to the seriously wounded. To be in agreement or disagreement with someone, or something, was expressed by the position of one’s heart: concordia
concordia concorde
concord, agreement, harmony in accord, in agreement
musculus also meant mussel (bivalve mollusk). The identical metaphors were present in Classical Greek, where mus (genit. muo-s) meant “mouse”, “muscle”, and “mussel”. English myoand Spanish mio-, “muscle”—as in myocardium and miocardio—come from Greek muo-s (Classical Greek u corresponding to English y). Indo-European k and d shifted uniformly in the Germanic languages to h and t, part of a much larger transformation known as Grimm’s Law (named for Jacob Grimm, a renowned linguist as well as one of the Grimm brothers of fairy-tale fame). The wages or reward that one “earns” for an act of mercy is received only at a later stage (i.e., in heaven).
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discordia
accordare
recordare
concordante concordancia concordar discordia discordante discordar discordancia acordar ¿Te acuerdas? acuerdo ¡de acuerdo! de acuerdo con desacuerdo acorde (adj. & n.) acordeón recordar recuerdo récord ( Eng.) recordatorio
concordant concordance (to) agree, (to) make agree discord discordant (opinion or sound) (to) disagree, (to) clash (sounds) discordance, disagreement (to) agree, (to) remember Do you remember? accord, agreement agreed! in agreement or accordance with disaccord, disagreement in harmony, chord (music) accordion (to) remember, (to) recall, (to) remind memory (of past event), souvenir record (e.g., Olympic) reminder
A musical chord is thus something in accord with the heart. Its initial form in English was accord, later shortened to cord, and only in the seventeenth century did it adopt the h from the unrelated word chord (from Greek, previously used for the “strings” of an instrument), which, to make matters even more confusing, was itself a sixteenth-century “puristic” reformulation of the original English form cord (which itself refused to die). English vocal cords (literally a “string-like” structure) can also be—and frequently are—called vocal chords, using chord in its “archaic” sense of “string”, a sense also found in the expression “to strike a responsive chord [with someone]”, literally “to strike the right (heart)string”. Likewise, harpsichord and clavichord maintain the use of chord in the sense of “cord”. The situation can be depicted as follows, where the words in bold are the “modern” uses: Greek khorde (“catgut”) S CHORDA S corde (French) S cord (string, line, vocal) S chord (string, line, vocal)
Similarly, for both spinal and umbilical, it can be either cord or chord, though the cord forms are far more common. The continuing popularity of vocal chord undoubtedly reflects a perceived (albeit erroneous) connection with the musical chord.
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CORS (“HEART ”) S accord (French) S accord (English) S cord S chord
(music) chorda
cuerda cuerdas vocales cuarteto de cuerda(s) cordón cordón umbilical cordillera clavicordio
cord, rope, string, chord (line), watch spring vocal cords (or vocal chords) string quartet shoelace, cord (as belt), electric cord, cordon umbilical cord mountain range, cordillera clavichord, harpsichord
Other derivatives of the heart include: cordialis
cordial coraje [valiente] El rojo emblema del valor [animar, alentar] [desanimar, desalentar]
cordial (incl. “serving to invigorate”) anger, fury, mettle, courage courageous The Red Badge of Courage (to) encourage (to) discourage
Traté de pasar por alto sus mentiras, pero el coraje no me lo permitió y tuve que replicar. I tried to ignore his lies, but my anger didn’t permit me to do it and I had to reply.
Spanish courage is commonly expressed by valor. Courage initially was a general adjective referring to the heart, without any specific connotation of bravery or valor. In English it has passed through a wide variety of meanings, including: (a) the heart as the seat of feeling; (b) purpose, desire, or inclination; (c) vital force or energy; (d) anger, wrath; (e) haughtiness, pride; and (f) sexual vigor or lust. Chaucer’s Merchant’s Tale uses corage (Middle English spelling), where the modern translation substitutes rage or urge: Modern Text Now when this knight had passed his sixtieth year —Whether for holiness, or from a surge Of dotage, who can say?—he felt an urge So violent to be a wedded man
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Original Text
. . . but swich [such] a greet [great] corage Hadde this knyght to been a wedded man . . .
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That day and night his eager fancies ran On where and how to spy himself a bride, Praying the Lord he might not be denied Once to have knowledge of that blissful life There is between a husband and his wife . . . sanguis
sangre (f.)
blood
(acc. sanguinem)
English sanguine means “blood red” or “ruddy”, as well as “cheerfully confident or optimistic”, the latter meaning not found in Spanish sanguíneo. sanguinare
sangrar sangrante sangría
sangriento sanguíneo —grupo sanguíneo sanguinario sanguinolento ensangrentar consanguineus
consanguíneo
consanguinidad sanguisuga arteria vena
sanguijuela arteria vena venero
(to) bleed bleeding (adj.) bleeding (n.), sangria (wine/fruit juice concoction) bloody, bloodstained sanguine (pert. to blood, blood-red) —blood group (O, A, B, AB) sanguinary, bloodthirsty bloodstained, sanguinolent (to) stain or cover with blood consanguineous (having a common ancestor; of the same father) consanguinity (blood relationship) leech, bloodsucker artery vein vein (of ore), source (of water, ideas, etc.)
The Canterbury Tales—translated into Modern English by Nevill Coghill (London: Penguin Books, ), .
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pulsus (venarum)
pulso pulsar
púlsar pulsador pulsación pulsera
bronchium
pulmo(n) umbilicus stomachus venter
pantex ficatum ficus
reloj de pulsera bronquio bronquial bronquitis pulmón pulmonar ombligo umbilical estómago vientre ventral ventrílocuo panza hígado higo
pulse (to) press or push (button, key), (to) sound out (“take the pulse of”) pulsar (astron.) push button, buzzer pulsation, beat, keystroke bracelet ( brazalete), watch strap wristwatch bronchus, bronchial tube bronchial bronchitis lung pulmonary, lung (adj.) navel umbilical stomach (incl. belly) abdomen, belly, venter ventral ventriloquist paunch, belly, rumen [panzer] liver (Fr. foie gras) fig
Liver in Classical Latin was jecur, while jecur ficatum was figged liver, i.e., “goose liver fattened with figs”, the Mediterranean equivalent of French foie gras. Through a similar process by which frater germanus became hermano, in most of the Romance languages, people today essentially have figs for livers.
renalis
bazo bayo (adj. & n.) [potro castaño] renal
pancreas appendix
adrenalina riñón páncreas apéndice
badius
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spleen buckskin (horse) bay colt renal (pertaining to the kidneys) adrenaline kidney pancreas appendix (of body or book), appendage
[baize] (grayish-yellow) (reddish-brown)
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intestinus
intestino (adj. & n.) —guerra intestina
uterus urina (VL aurina) urinari
aurum
intestinal útero uterino orina orinar urinario (adj. & n.) oro de oro áureo aureola aurífero
deaurare
dorar dorado (p.p.) dorada (n.)
El Dorado
intestine (internal, civil), intestine (organ) —intestine (civil) war intestinal uterus uterine urine (to) urinate urinary, urinal gold (n.) gold (adj.) golden (of gold; also fig.) halo, aureole auriferous (gold-bearing) (to) gild, “to sugarcoat” golden (color; also fig.), gilding gilthead seabream (fish)
[oriole]
[biol. Sparus aurata]
El Dorado
The Vulgar Latin form aurina arose from an association with the color “gold” (aurum). In Roman times, the verb urinari had referred to a human-fluid interaction of an altogether different nature from that represented by its Romance successors: it meant “to plunge into water” or “to dive”, and a urinator was a “diver”, suggesting that the original meaning of urina was probably “water” or “puddle”. Only at a relatively late stage—the time of Caesar—did urina come to be used as a “polite” or technical term for what had theretofore been known as lotium (lit. “lotion” ), very likely due to the influence of the Greek word ouron for “urine” (cf. urethra and diuretic). The two most common verbs among the Romans for the act of micturition were mingere and meiere (or meiare), both cognates of English (Germanic)
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Due to its efficacy as a cleaning agent for laundry.
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mist and mistletoe. The second verb was the more “popular” form, no doubt explaining why it has left a much greater mark on the Romance languages, including Spanish. Its direct descendant is the “colloquial” verb mear, used in a number of equally colloquial expressions, notably mear(se) de risa: Cada vez que pienso en ello me meo de risa. meiare mictus
mear meada micción
Every time I think of it I die of laughter.
(to) pee pee, urine stain micturition
(p.p. of mingere)
Private Parts Not surprisingly, a wide variety of euphemisms has been applied to this area of the body, including las partes pudendas, las partes vergonzosas, las vergüenzas las partes naturales las partes nobles las partes íntimas
The first three all mean “the shameful parts” and have a parallel in English pudenda (“the human external genitalia, esp. of a woman”), from the Latin verb pudere (“to cause shame”), whose literal meaning is “those things of which one ought to be ashamed”. pudor
verecundia
pudor pudoroso púdico impudor impudicia impúdico impudente [rare] vergüenza vergonzoso avergonzar desvergonzado desvergüenza
modesty, decency, pudency modest, bashful impudicity (immodesty, shamelessness) immodest, shameless shameless, impudent shame, modesty, disgrace, embarrassment shameful, bashful (to) shame, (to) be ashamed shameless, impudent shamelessness, impudence
Mistletoe owes its name to the fact that its seeds are propagated via the droppings (German Mist) of birds, notably the missel thrush, which consume its fruit.
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sinvergüenza shameless, brazen, scoundrel (m./f.) Es un verdadero sinvergüenza capaz de hacer cualquier cosa por dinero. He is a real scoundrel capable of doing anything for money.
verecundia comes from the verb vereri, “to fear respectfully”, whose compounded form revereri is the source of English revere: reverentia
reverencia reverendo reverente reverenciar reverencial
irreverentia penis penicillus
coda (VL cola)
cola () colilla coda caudal ()
(via Catalan) ( capitalis)
cohete caudal ()
(Gk. kolla)
cola () colágeno collage protocolo
(glued st page) (West African) rapum (“turnip”)
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irreverencia irreverente pene pincel [lápiz] pincelada penicilina ———
cola () rabo taparrabo(s)
reverence, curtsy, bow Reverend (title), worthy of reverence reverent (to) revere or venerate reverential (reverent; inspiring reverence) irreverence irreverent penis (artist’s) paintbrush pencil brushstroke penicillin penicillate (having a tuft of fine hairs) tail stub, butt (of cigarette) coda (music) caudal (pertaining to the tail or fin) fireworks, rocket flow (river), wealth or fortune glue ( pegamento) collagen collage protocol (code of conduct, various types of documents) cola or kola (plant, nut) tail, stem (flower, leaf, fruit) loincloth
[pencil]
[queue]
(< Fr.)
[rapeseed] (lit. “tail cover”)
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con el rabo entre las piernas)
with the tail between the legs (dejected, humiliated)
Latin penis had at an early stage in the history of the language meant “tail” of an animal. By the time of Cicero—who labeled the word as “obscene”—the meaning had definitively shifted to its “modern” sense. Such use of tail as a humorous metaphor (or euphemism) for the male sexual organ is not rare—other examples include Classical Greek, French, German, and Spanish. Before its identity change, penis spawned a diminutive, penicillus, to refer to a “brush” or “sponge” made from, or resembling, the curly hairs of an animal’s tail. This is the source of Spanish and Old French pincel, as well as English pencil (originally an artist’s paintbrush). Penicillin (genus Penicillium) owes its name to the resemblance, under a microscope, of the penicillin cells to small brushes. coda (or cauda), which replaced penis as “tail”, is the source of Spanish cola (cola presumably being a dialectal variant ), the musical coda (“tail” part of a piece), and the English queue in which one waits in line. Rabo comes from the Latin for “turnip”, which has a “tail-like” appendage: it is used only for terrestrial animals, not for fish or birds. testiculus
testículo
testicle
testis (from tri-stis, then ter-stis) was Latin for “witness”, -stis coming from the root found in the verb stare, so that the literal meaning would have been “standing as a third party” in a dispute. By metaphor, testis (and its diminutive, testiculus) came to refer to the testicles, witnesses to a man’s virility. This metaphor also has parallels in Classical Greek and Old French. testis is the origin of a large number of words relating to the act of being a witness, “to declare as a witness” (protest), “to execrate while calling God to witness” (detest), “to take or call to witness” (contest), etc. testificari
testimonium
atestiguar testificar testigo testimonio
(to) testify, (to) attest witness, baton (relay) testimony
French queue—from coda—has various meanings, including “tail”, “line of people”, and membre viril; German Schwanz likewise means both “tail” and “male sexual organ”. In Spanish, both cola and rabo are “vulgar” synonyms of pene. Another theory is that the l is due to the influence of the “related” word culo (Section . appendix, no. ).
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B O DY, S P I R I T, A N D M I N D
testamentum protestari
detestari attestari contestari
intestatus testari testum
testimonial testimoniar testamento protestar protesta protestante protestantismo detestar detestable atestar atestación contestar contestador (automático) [concurso] contestación contestatario incontestable intestado testar () test ( Eng.) testar ()
testimonial (serving as evidence) (to) attest, (to) testify testament, will (to) protest protest, protestation Protestant, protestant Protestantism (to) detest detestable (to) attest attestation (to) answer, (to) reply answering machine contest answer, reply ( respuesta) antiestablishment (& such person) incontestable intestate (with no legal will) (to) make a will test (to) test
While a contest is frequently a test of wills, etymologically the two have nothing in common: test comes from Latin testum, an “earthenware pot”. It was taken into English with the meaning of cupel, i.e., a porous cup in which precious metals were heated in order to separate out base elements (such as lead). The same porous cup could also be used for testing the quality of the metals, and from this arose the more general sense of test. The feminine form, testa (“earthenware”, “shard” [piece of broken pottery]), took on the meanings of “container used for drinking” and, with a humorous twist, “skull”—in French and Italian, this became the primary word for “head” (tête, testa), while in Spanish it is generally used only informally or jocularly. testum testa
tiesto testa testarudo testarudez
flowerpot ( maceta), potsherd head (lit. and fig., e.g., “head for business”) stubborn, pigheaded stubbornness, pigheadedness
German kopf (“head”)—hence English dummkopf—has an analogous origin: Latin cuppa ( English cup).
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vagina
vaginella
vagina vaginal invaginación vaina envainar desenvainar vainilla
vagina vaginal invagination sheath, scabbard, pod (to) sheathe (to) unsheathe vanilla
Many will be surprised to learn that etymologically vanilla means “little vagina”. When in the late sixteenth century it became necessary to find a medical term for a heretofore unnamed part of the female anatomy, a certain “classical” sense of humor seems to have prevailed, and vagina was chosen. vagina had been the sheath of a Roman sword and had no connection to the female anatomy. To refer to the region in question, the Romans employed a range of terms, including sinus muliebris (“woman’s curve or cavity”)—as we have seen above, in Spanish sinus has come to mean both “breast” and “womb” (seno). Ironically, while one “off-color” reference has survived concerning the suitability of the vagina as a parking place for a soldier’s machaera (“sword”), the reference was actually to a part of the male, rather than female, anatomy. A diminutive form, vaginula, was applied in Roman times to the husk or pod of plants because of their sheath-like appearance, and it was with this sense that Spanish vainilla is first recorded in the mid-sixteenth century—the “small pod of a legume”—before its more long-lasting application the following century to “an aromatic American plant having a pod similar to that of a kidney bean”.
Appendix “State of Mind” Adverbs Many adverbs of manner are constructed from the corresponding adjective by adding -mente to the feminine singular. CLASS I ADJECTIVES: DISTINCT MASCULINE AND FEMININE
devoto, devota lento, lenta
devotamente lentamente
devotedly, devoutly slowly
[lentitude]
The person generally given credit for this is the Italian anatomist Gabriello Fallopio (– ), for whom fallopian tubes were named. Among his other vocabulary contributions is placenta, which in Classical Latin (and in the Vulgate as well) had been “(flat) cake”.
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lógico, lógica rápido, rápida
lógicamente rápidamente
logically rapidly
CLASS II ADJECTIVES: UNISEX
constante feliz hábil igual
constantemente felizmente hábilmente igualmente
constantly happily, felicitously ably, adroitly equally
mente was the ablative case form of the Latin noun mens (“mind”), the initial idea being that the action was carried out in a certain “state of mind”: devota mente S devotamente
in a devout state of mind
Over time, this formulation was extended to include adjectives having less direct connection to the “mind”: rapida mente S rápidamente
in a rapid manner
Since mens was a feminine noun, the accompanying adjective was as well. This origin explains two additional characteristics of Spanish -mente adverbs: a) Although written as one word, the adjective and -mente are pronounced as though independent, each with its own stress: ló•gi•ca•men•te
b) Since -mente initially had an independent existence (and a person has only one mind!), it is capable of applying to more than one adjective at a time. Hence in a sequence of such adverbs only the last one uses mente: habla claramente habla clara y enfáticamente contesta humildemente contesta humilde y cortésmente
he speaks clearly he speaks clearly and emphatically he answers humbly he answers humbly and courteously
This usage parallels English with respect to adverbs using manner: he speaks in a clear and emphatic manner
The -mente construction is possible with most but not all adjectives. Unfortunately, a Spanish-Spanish dictionary will often not be of much assistance, since -mente adverbs tend to be excluded, on the basis that their formation is so obvious. Many SpanishEnglish dictionaries also follow suit. This, of course, makes very little sense: In En-
The RAE’s Diccionario is a partial exception. A substantially more complete coverage of -mente adverbs is found in Moliner’s Diccionario de uso del español.
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glish, how could one possibly confirm that the correct adverbial form is contentedly and not *contently if dictionaries excluded all -ly adverbs? In Spanish, both contento and feliz mean “happy”, but while one can say felizmente (“happily”), one cannot say *contentamente. One can use -mente to say “firstly”—primeramente—but not “secondly”, “thirdly”, etc. en segundo lugar en tercer lugar
secondly, in the second place thirdly, in the third place
Similarly, -mente adverbs do not exist for the common adjectives otro, tal, and ninguno: de otra manera de tal manera de ninguna manera
de otro modo de tal modo de ningún modo
in another manner in such a way in no way, nowise
Otramente and talmente—as well as segundamente and terceramente—technically exist (they are found in DRAE), but are rarely used.
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S E C T I O N .
Romance (Languages) and Politics
The standard family tree of Indo-European languages shows English to be far more closely related to, say, Swedish or Icelandic than it is to any of the Romance languages, including Spanish: PROTOINDOEUROPEAN PIE
Germanic
Italic
N. Germanic
W. Germanic E. Germanic
Latin
Icelandic Faeroese Norwegian Swedish Danish
English Frisian Dutch German Yiddish
Portuguese Spanish Catalan Occitan French Italian RhaetoRomance Romanian
Gothic (extinct)
OscoUmbrian [extinct]
English is in the Germanic family, its closest “living” relative being the West Germanic Frisian language, spoken in coastal parts of Netherlands and Denmark. Nonetheless, one can easily argue that Latin (and its Romance descendants) share at least equal paternity. Their influence on English extends far beyond the typical back-and-forth borrowing that characterizes the development of many languages: . For several centuries following the Norman invasion of England in , French was the “legal” language of England, spoken by the nobility as
Occitan is the “modern” name for the langue d’oc of southern France, as opposed to the langue d’oïl of central and northern France—the two names arose from the contrasting manner in which the word “yes” was spoken. Oïl subsequently evolved into Modern French oui. Occitan is frequently known (especially outside of France) as Provençal. The term Rhaeto-Romance refers to a group of dialects spoken in southern Switzerland and northern Italy, of which one—Romansh—is an “official” language of Switzerland (along with German, French, and Italian).
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their native language and used (along with Latin) for legal, religious, and commercial purposes. English continued to be spoken by the “common” people, however, and during (and immediately following) this period, the contribution of French to English vocabulary was enormous, adding to the existing vocabulary and in very many cases replacing previous words of Old English origin. In addition, definitions and uses of many native English words were influenced by those of their French counterparts. . When English eventually supplanted Latin as the language of scholarship, it took directly from Latin (or its Romance descendants) the overwhelming majority of its academic, scientific, and technical vocabulary. Indeed, it is not easy to find words in these fields that are “native” English ones. . In the legal system, despite several earlier attempts (in the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries), it was not until that it was finally decreed that all court proceedings and statutes “shall be in the English tongue and language only, and not in Latin or French”. This has left its mark not only on quaint courtroom customs—“Oyez, oyez, oyez! The court is now in session!”—but on the overwhelming majority of legal vocabulary. Moreover, apart from the obvious legal words (appeal, assault, battery, judge, jury, plaintiff, plea, etc.), many everyday English words have their origins in “law French”: asset, attach, cheat, entail, fee, gauge, hodgepodge, mere, misnomer, oust, puny, remainder, seize, several, size, suit, surmise, treasure trove, try, etc.
If further convincing is required, one need only compare two versions of the Preamble to the U.S. Constitution, the first from a Romance language (Spanish), the second from a Germanic one (German). I. Nosotros, el pueblo de los Estados Unidos, a fin de formar una unión más perfecta, establecer la justicia, asegurar la tranquilidad interior, proveer la defensa común, promover el bienestar general y asegurar para nosotros y para nuestra posteridad los beneficios de la libertad, sancionamos y establecemos esta Constitución para los Estados Unidos de América. II. Wir, das Volk der Vereinigten Staaten, von der Absicht geleitet, unseren Bund zu vervollkommnen, die Gerechtigkeit zu verwirklichen, die Ruhe im
“Law French” refers to a specific form of Anglo-French (or Anglo-Norman) used in England in judicial proceedings, pleadings, and lawbooks until at least the late seventeenth century. For a modern guide, see J. H. Baker, Manual of Law French, nd ed. (Aldershot, UK: Scholar Press, ).
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Innern zu sichern, für die Landesverteidigung zu sorgen, das allgemeine Wohl zu fördern und das Glück der Freiheit uns selbst und unseren Nachkommen zu bewahren, setzen und begründen diese Verfassung für die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika.
According to the normal classification of languages, a monolingual English speaker will find the second version far easier to understand than the first. Does this seem likely to you? Let us look now at the English text, where words with Latin-Romance origin are highlighted in bold. We the people of the united states, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
A very clear pattern emerges: the large majority of articles, pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions—what linguists would call grammatical words—are Germanic, while the vast majority of the verbs, nouns, and adjectives—lexical words—have Latin or Romance origin. Although one could easily find examples with a less pronounced Latin/Romance influence, the general conclusion remains unaltered: Although the “highways” of English (i.e., grammatical words) have remained (almost entirely) Germanic, the “merchandise” transported on these highways is predominantly of Latin and Romance origin.
Without perhaps consciously being aware of it, English speakers thus have a natural foundation on which to build a deeper knowledge of Latin and the Romance languages. In the remainder of this section, we will look at some of the highlights (and lowlights) of the U.S. Constitution, followed by Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address”.
In the selections from the Constitution, spelling (“choose” for “chuse”) and capitalization have been modernized (in the original text, common nouns were uniformly capitalized, as is still the case in German). America is of mixed origin: it comes from the name of the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci, in its Latinized form Americus. Amerigo itself is of Germanic origin—from the Ostrogothic form of “Henry”. Most adverbs, of which the present example has none, are lexical.
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Our final text will be a brief selection from the post-Franco Spanish Constitution of and will help to answer two important questions: () What is the official language of Spain? and () What percentage of the Spanish flag is red?
La Constitución de los Estados Unidos ARTÍCULO UNO Primera Sección Todos los poderes legislativos otorgados en la presente Constitución corresponderán a un Congreso de los Estados Unidos, que se compondrá de un Senado y una Cámara de Representantes.
a)
otorgar otorgado (p.p.) El que calla, otorga.
(to) grant, (to) award granted He who keeps silent, consents. (“Silence gives consent.”)
The verb otorgar comes from Classical Latin auctorare (via Vulgar Latin auctoricare). The original meaning was “to guarantee” or “to rent or sell one’s services”; the second sense was often used in connection with gladiators. auctorare was formed from the noun auctor—“creator”, “promoter”, “guarantor”—literally “one who augments confidence”. This in turn came from the verb augere (past participle auctus), “to augment”, “to increase”. The earliest English forms of auctor were autor and auctor; the h was introduced as a spelling variant in the sixteenth century, presumably from a mistaken belief that the word was of Greek origin. auctor
auctio(n)
autor (m.), autora (f.) autoridad autorizar autorización autoritario [subasta] [subastar]
author authority (to) authorize authorization authoritarian auction (to) auction
The Spanish translation comes (with minor adaptations) from the “Political Database of the Americas”, Georgetown University (available online). In an example of what is known as spelling pronunciation, the pronunciation of author, authority, etc., eventually came to reflect the spelling.
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[asta]
augmentare
flagpole, antler or horn, shaft at half-mast (to) augment, (to) increase augmentation, increase
[a media asta] aumentar aumento
[hastate]
auctio(n) took its name from the fact that with each bid the price augmented. A Roman auction was also known as a sale sub hasta (“under the spear”), from the tradition of planting a spear (hasta) on property to be auctioned to pay its owner’s debts to the state. The derived verb subhastare became popular in Medieval Latin and gave rise to Spanish subastar and subasta. Also derived from augere was the noun augur, a member of a college of priests charged with making predictions of the future (augurium) based on celestial signals (thunder and lightning), the flight pattern of birds, etc. augurium
agüero agorero (adj. & n.) augurio augurar
augury, (ill) omen, sign (of bad luck) of ill omen, prophet (of doom), augur augury, omen (to) augur, (to) predict
The first two are “popular” (or evolved) forms; the latter two, “learned”. The popular forms are more commonly associated with predictions based on superstition and coincidences—and tend in the vast majority of cases to be negative—whereas the more learned forms are simple predictions of the future, for better or for worse. ave (pájaro) de mal agüero No es un buen augurio.
bird of ill omen It doesn’t bode well.
The adjective augustus referred to an object worthy of veneration because it had been blessed by the gods with favorable omens. It was the title accorded by the Roman Senate in BC to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Julius Caesar’s adopted son), and subsequently the month sextilis was changed to augustus in his honor. augustus
agosto augusto
August (eighth month) august (venerable)
It was called sextilis because August had been the sixth month in the ancient Roman calendar, in which the year began in March. Similarly, before being renamed for Julius Caesar, July had been called quintilis.
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Before installing someone in high office, suitable auguries had to be observed, following which the inauguratio(n) could take place: inauguratio(n)
inauguración inaugurar
inauguration (to) inaugurate
auxilium was literally “reinforcement”, i.e., an augmentation of forces. auxilium
b)
auxilio —primeros auxilios auxiliar (adj. & n.) auxiliar (vb.)
componer componente descomponer poner poner al día ponente (m./f.) ponencia deponer disponer disponible [desechable] disponibilidad exponer exponencial exponente imponer imponente interponer indisponer oponer oponente posponer presuponer
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help (also: Help!!!) —first aid auxiliary, assistant (to) help, (to) aid
(to) put together, (to) compose component (to) decompose, (to) put out of order (to) put, (to) place, (to) lay (eggs, the table) (to) update speaker (at conference) report or paper (presented by a ponente) (to) depose, (to) depone (to) dispose (incl. “arrange”) disposable (free for use), available disposable (to be used once and thrown away) availability (to) expose, (to) exhibit, (to) expound exponential exponent (person, mathematical power) (to) impose imposing (to) interpose (to) set one person against another, (to) indispose (to) oppose, (to) offer (resistance) opponent (to) postpone (delay; place after) (to) presuppose, (to) budget
[compound]
[impound]
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proponer proponente reponer sobreponer superponer suponer transponer / transponer yuxtaponer
(to) propose, (to) propound proponent (to) reposit (put back, replace) (to) superpose, (to) superimpose (to) suppose (to) transpose (to) juxtapose
The -poner verbs correspond to English -pose verbs (apart from posponer— postpone ) and have associated nouns ending in -posición, e.g., composición, imposición. Their irregular past participles are of the form -puesto; a number of these were presented in Section ., no. . c)
cámara música de cámara
chamber, camera chamber music
Latin camera (or camara) meant “vault” or “arch” and was taken by the Romans from Greek (where it had three a’s). In Spanish, the word means “chamber” in the formal sense of a house of Congress or the Chamber of Commerce (la Camára de Comercio) and also refers to the principal room of a house (“parlor”), but this latter usage is primarily formal. antecámara camarero camarera camarote recámara camarada (m./f.) camaradería chambelán
antechamber waiter waitress, chambermaid cabin, stateroom (on ship) dressing room, bedroom (Amer.) comrade camaraderie chamberlain
At an early stage in the Romance languages, the verb ponere (“to put”), whose past participle stem was pos-, became mixed up with posare (formerly pausare), which initially meant “to stop or pause”—presumably because when one reposed (i.e., “repaused”), one put something (or oneself) down. In French (and hence English), the compond verbs from -ponere all shifted to -pose(r) without changing their meanings. English postpone and depone were taken directly from Latin, while the English -pound verbs come from the Old French forms of the -ponere verbs, before they had become “corrupted” by pose(r).
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Camarada initially referred to “soldiers eating and sleeping in the same cámara (room)”. It passed into English via French, its Spanish origin revealed by the middle a of camaraderie. Chamberlain is another early forerunner of globalization: It was based on a Greek word adopted by Latin; taken into Germanic and given the suffi x -ling; then passed into French, where the initial ca was palatized to ch; and from there was incorporated into English and Spanish. bicameral unicameral
bicameral unicameral
Now we can try our hand at a reverse translation of Article I, Section , from Spanish into English: All the legislative powers granted in the present Constitution will correspond [belong] to a Congress of the United States, which will be composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives.
Not as elegant or concise as the original: All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
but nevertheless a serviceable translation. Segunda Sección . La Cámara de Representantes estará formada por miembros elegidos cada dos años por los habitantes de los diversos Estados, y los electores deberán poseer en cada Estado las condiciones requeridas para los electores de la rama más numerosa de la legislatura local.
Section (original text ) . The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature.
a)
elegir elegido (p.p.) elegible elegibilidad
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(to) elect, (to) choose elected eligible eligibility
(Lat. eligere)
Where not specifically identified as “Literal”, English versions are “original”.
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The past participle of eligere was electus, from which English has constructed the verb elect. In Spanish, electus became electo; initially the past participle for the verb elegir, electo has been supplanted in this role by the regular form elegido and remains only as an adjective. elección electo —presidente electo electorado electoral elector electivo
election, choice elected, elect (adj.) —president-elect electorate electoral elector, voter elective
b)
inhabitant
habitante
(old p.p.)
The origin of habitante—inhabitant is ultimately Latin habere (“to have”), through its frequentative form habitare (“to have something repeatedly”, i.e., to inhabit). habitus, the past participle of habere, came to mean “manner of being, exterior aspect, clothes”; other derived forms were the adjective habilis, “easily managed, able”, and the noun habilitas, “ability”. habere
habitare
haber haber (n.) haberes (pl.) habitar habitación hábitat hábito habitual habituar
cohabitare habilis habilitas rehabilitare
cohabitar cohabitación hábil habilidad rehabilitar rehabilitación
(to) have credit (asset) assets, property (to) inhabit habitation, room, dwelling habitat habit (custom, religious clothing, addiction) habitual, customary (to) habituate, (to) get used to (to) cohabit cohabitation able, skillful ability, skill (to) rehabilitate, (to) rehab rehabilitation
[habeas corpus]
Habitat comes directly from the third person singular verb form (habitat) and thus literally means “it inhabits”.
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c)
deber deber (noun) deberes (pl.)
(to) owe, should, must duty, obligation, debt, devoir homework, obligations
[endeavor]
debere was a contraction of de and habere, literally to “have from someone”, i.e., to owe. Its neuter past participle was debitum (plural debita). debita debitor debitum
d)
deuda deudo deudor débito debido (p.p.) indebido debe debidamente adeudar adeudo endeudar(se) endeudado (p.p.)
requerir
requerido (p.p.) requerimiento
debt relative (esp. bereaved one) debtor debt, debit (charge) due, fitting, proper improper, unlawful, undue debit (side of accounts) duly (to) owe (money) debt, customs duty (to) fall into debt indebted (owing money)
(lit. “he owes”) [due -ly]
(to) require, (to) request officially (hence, to require) required, requisite requirement, request (formal), summons (legal)
Requerir comes from requirere, “to search for or inquire after”, “to be in need of”—re quaerere (“search”, “seek”, “desire”), the root of Spanish querer. Another form of seeking an answer was inquirere, whose related noun inquisitio(n) acquired a certain notoriety in Spanish history. [solicitud] [solicitar]
requisitus
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[solícito] requisito —requisito previo requisar
request, application (to) request, (to) apply for, (to) solicit obliging, solicitous requisite, requirement —prerequisite (to) requisition, (to) confiscate
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inquirere
acquirere (adq-) perquisita quaerere
requisición inquirir inquisición encuesta adquirir
requisition (to) inquire into, (to) investigate inquisition, Inquisition opinion poll, survey (to) acquire
adquisición pesquisa
acquisition inquiry, investigation
querer querido (p.p.)
(to) want, (to) love dear, beloved, lover (m./f.) at least, although, even though not even anywhere, wherever [to] anywhere, [to] wherever, whithersoever whatever, whichever, any, anyone who(m)ever question (issue, matter) questionable, debatable unquestionable (to) [call into] question questionnaire (to) conquer, (to) win over conquest conqueror, conquistador
siquiera (adv. & conj.) ni siquiera dondequiera adondequiera
cualquiera
quaestio(n)
conquistare
e)
quienquiera cuestión cuestionable incuestionable cuestionar cuestionario conquistar conquista conquistador rama ramo
branch (of a tree, organization, etc.) branch, bouquet (of flowers)
[inquest]
[perquisite, perk] [query]
(si quiera )
[ramus]
Latin RAMUS has been taken directly into English (ramus) with very specific meanings in anatomy and biology, including “a bony process extending like a
Th ird person singular present subjunctive. For example: “It’s a question for the mayor to decide”. A question one asks is normally a pregunta, although in an exam or a poll it can be a cuestión.
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branch from a larger bone”. Spanish ramo and rama are an example of a couplet in which the feminine rama is the “superior” concept (see appendix to Annex A), with ramo being defined as: Rama de segundo orden o que sale de la rama madre. Second-order branch or that projects from the mother branch.
They share the definition: Cada una de las partes en que se considera dividida una ciencia, arte, industria, etc. Each of the parts in which a science, art, industry, etc., is considered to be divided. ramosus ramificare
ramoso ramificar(se) ramificación ramera
ramose (having many branches) (to) branch out, (to) ramify ramification prostitute, whore, harlot
Ramera is a “popular” form of prostituta. Initially it referred to those plying their trade clandestinely and signaling their availability by placing a small branch on their door, analogous to the English red light (district). de ramus
derramar derrame derrame cerebral
(to) spill, (to) shed, (to) scatter spillage, bleeding cerebral hemorrhage
Initially meaning “to divide into branches”, the notion of “spilling” arose from the similarity in shape between a spilled liquid (on a flat surface) and the branches of a tree. . No será representante ninguna persona que no haya cumplido años de edad y que no haya sido ciudadana de los Estados Unidos durante siete años, y que no sea habitante del Estado en el cual se le designe, al tiempo de la elección. . No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and A not very politically correct way to refer to the zone of such activities, at least in Spain, is el barrio chino.
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who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.
a)
cumplir —cumplir con cumplido (p.p.) —misión cumplida incumplir
(to) accomplish, (to) fulfi ll —(to) comply with complete (consummate), courteous, courtesy (act), compliment —mission accomplished (to) fail to fulfi ll or comply
Cumplir comes from complere (“to fi ll up”, “to complete”), whose past participle was completus (“fi lled up”, “complete”, “completed”). While English complete normally means “to finish”, it has also maintained the original Latin sense in the secondary definition “to make whole, with all necessary elements or parts”. English complement and compliment, not infrequently confused, both come from complementum (“that which completes”, in the sense of “filling up”). Complement comes straight from Latin and at one time in English also meant “ceremonies of civility or politeness” before being displaced in this role in the late seventeenth century by compliment, which took the more circular path of Latin S Spanish (cumplimiento) S Italian S French S English. Spanish cumplimiento had the meanings of both “compliment” and “accomplishment”, though it was only the former that was exported to Italian (and hence to English). Since that time, cumplimiento has largely given up the meaning of “compliment”, having been replaced in this sense by cumplido. Whether expressed by cumplido or cumplimiento, the “acts of courtesy” are generally acts of graciousness or thoughtfulness rather than mere words. [acabar, terminar] cumplidamente cumplimiento incumplimiento cumplimentar cumplidor cumpleaños
(to) complete (i.e., to fi nish) completely (fulfi lling an obligation) fulfi llment, accomplishment, compliance noncompliance, breach (of contract, promise) (to) pay one’s respects (or compliments) to, (to) complete (task, form) reliable, dependable birthday
Complimentary can be expressed in various manners, depending on whether the meaning is “free” (gratuito, gratis, de regalo) or “laudatory” (elogioso, lisonjero).
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Spanish also has “learned” forms derived from complere that are distinguished by their vowels: (o, e) rather than (u, i). completar completo completamente complemento complementar complementario
(to) complete, (to) complement complete (finished, entire, consummate) completely complement (incl. grammatical) (to) complement complementary, additional
b)
citizen
ciudadano
civitas, a collection of “citizens” (civis), initially was an abstract concept, with urbs representing the physical entity of a city, but over time, the two words became largely synonymous. Two adjectives referring to a citizen or group of citizens were civicus and civilis, while civilitas represented the quality of a citizen, notably sociability and courtesy (civility). civitas
civilis civicus civilitas
urbs urbanus urbanitas
ciudad ciudadanía ciudadela civil cívico civismo civilidad civilización civilizar urbe (f.) suburbio urbano urbanidad urbanización urbanizar
city citizenship citadel civil, civilian (m./f.) civic civic-mindedness civility civilization (to) civilize (big) city suburb (often “slum”) urban, urbane urbanity (refinement and elegance of manner) urbanization (to) urbanize, (to) develop
In the following section, the text in brackets is no longer operative, having been modified by the Fourteenth and Sixteenth Amendments. . [Los representantes y los impuestos directos se prorratearán entre los distintos Estados que formen parte de esta Unión, de acuerdo con su población respectiva, la cual se determinará sumando al número total de personas libres,
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inclusive las obligadas a prestar servicios durante cierto término de años y, excluyendo a los indios no sujetos al pago de contribuciones, las tres quintas partes de todas las personas restantes.] El recuento deberá hacerse efectivamente dentro de los tres años siguientes a la primera sesión del Congreso de los Estados Unidos y en lo sucesivo cada años, en la forma que dicho cuerpo disponga por medio de una ley. El número de representantes no excederá de uno por cada mil habitantes con tal que cada Estado cuente con un representante cuando menos; y hasta que se efectúe dicho recuento, el Estado de Nueva Hampshire tendrá derecho a elegir tres; Massachusetts, ocho; Rhode Island y las Plantaciones de Providence, uno; Connecticut, cinco; Nueva York, seis; Nueva Jersey, cuatro; Pennsylvania, ocho; Delaware, uno; Maryland, seis; Virginia, diez; Carolina del Norte, cinco; Carolina del Sur, cinco y Georgia, tres. . [Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fift hs of all other persons.] The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three.
a)
impuesto (p.p. of imponer)
tax
From Latin imponere, to impose; a tax is thus an imposition. Also commonly expressed as contribuciones (pl.) contribución contribuir contribuyente b)
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población
taxes contribution, tax (to) contribute, (to) pay as a tax taxpayer population, town
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During the long period of the Roman Republic (up to the time of Caesar), the populus and the senatus were the two essential elements of the Roman state. It was only during the period of Imperial Rome that populus extended its scope to include the plebs (“common people”). Corresponding adjectives were publicus, “concerning the people (or state)”, and popularis, “from (or for) the people”, “liked by the people”. Matters of the people (public affairs) were referred to as res publica—res meaning “thing”, “matter”—one of whose grammatical forms (ablative) was re publica. populus
pueblo
popularis
popular popularidad poblar
publicus publicare
re publica plebs
poblado (p.p.) poblador populoso despoblar despoblación público publicar publicación [editorial (f.), editor] publicidad publicitar república republicano plebe (f.) plebeyo plebiscito
village, small town, populace, people popular (incl. “of the people”) popularity (to) populate (incl. “inhabit”), (to) people town, settlement settler, inhabitant populous depopulate depopulation public (to) publish, (to) make public publication publisher (firm, individual) publicity, advertising (to) publicize, (to) advertise republic republican plebs (common people, populace) plebeian plebiscite
[pueblo]
[plebe]
The original meaning of publicare was “to make (property) public”, while publicatio(n) referred to “confiscation or expropriation for the benefit of the state”. c)
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sumar sumando (pres. part.)
(to) add, (to) sum up adding; addend
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d)
libre librar —líbranos del mal . . . liberar liberación liberal liberalizar libertad libertador (adj. & n.) libertar libertario libertino deliberar deliberado (p.p.) deliberadamente
free (but not gratis!), vacant (to) free, (to) wage, (to) issue (judgment, etc.) —deliver us from evil . . . (Matthew :) (to) liberate, (to) free liberation liberal (incl. “tolerant”) (to) liberalize liberty liberating, liberator (to) free or liberate (a person) anarchist(ic), libertarian libertine (to) deliberate deliberate deliberately
e)
obligar obligado (p.p.) obligación obligatorio
(to) oblige, (to) obligate obligated obligation, bond, debenture obligatory
f)
término terminal (adj.) terminal (n.f.) terminal (n.m.) terminación terminar terminante terminología
term, terminus (end), boundary, limit terminal (fi nal) terminal (bus, airport, port) terminal (computer, electrical) termination, ending (to) terminate (fi nish; bring to an end) definitive, final, categorical terminology
Término is a useful word for illustrating the importance of mastering the correct placement of stress (and written) accent in Spanish: término tér•mi•no [as above] termino ter•mi•no “I finish” terminó ter•mi•nó “he/she/it finished” [stressed syllable highlighted in bold]
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g)
recuento
count, recount
h)
ley (f.)
law
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Ley is from Latin lex (acc. legem). Related adjectives were legalis, “relative to the laws”, and legitimus, “established by law”. latus was the (highly irregular) past participle of ferre (“to bear”, “to carry”), hence legis lator (“bearer of law”). legalis
legitimus
legitimare legis lator
i)
legal ilegal legalidad ilegalidad legalizar legítimo legitimidad ilegítimo ilegitimidad legitimar legislador legislatura legislativo legislación legislar
cuando menos cuando —cuando menos lo esperes
legal, lawful illegal, unlawful legality, lawfulness illegality, unlawfulness (to) legalize, (to) certify (document) legitimate legitimacy illegitimate illegitimacy (to) legitimate, (to) legitimize legislator legislature, session of legislature legislative legislation (to) legislate at (the) least ( al menos) when —when you least expect it
. Cuando ocurran vacantes en la representación de cualquier Estado, la autoridad ejecutiva del mismo expedirá un decreto en que se convocará a elecciones con el objeto de llenarlas. Literal Translation: When vacancies occur in the representation of any State, the executive authority of the same [State] will issue a decree in which elections will be convoked with the object of fi lling them [the vacancies]. Actual Text: When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fi ll such vacancies.
a)
expedir
(to) send, (to) issue (decree, document)
[expedite]
Additional words related to expedir are presented in the discussion of impeachment in Clause .
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b)
decreto decretar
decree (to) decree
c)
llenar llenarlas
(to) fi ll (to) fi ll them
(infinitive direct object las)
Latin plenus, “full”, was derived from plere, a rarely used verb found almost exclusively in compounds (notably complere, discussed above). Other related words were plenitudo, plenipotens (“all-powerful”), and plenitas (“fullness”). plenus plenitudo plenitas
pleno (adj. & n.) lleno plenitud ——— plenario plenipotenciario luna llena plenilunio rellenar relleno (adj. & n.) repleto
full, plenum, plenary session full plenitude, fullness plenty plenary plenipotentiary (invested with full power) full moon (to) fi ll (out), (to) refill (replenish), (to) stuff fi lled, stuffed, stuffing, fi ller replete, full, jam-packed
. La Cámara de Representantes elegirá su presidente y demás funcionarios y será la única facultada para declarar que hay lugar a proceder en los casos de responsabilidades oficiales. Literal Translation: The House of Representatives will elect its president and other officials and will be uniquely empowered to decide whether there are grounds for proceeding [judicially] in cases of official responsibilities. Actual Text: The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.
a)
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facultar facultado facultad facultativo (adj. & n.) facilidad
(to) empower, (to) authorize empowered, authorized faculty (various definitions) optional, facultative, medical, physician facility (ease)
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fácil facilitar difícil dificultad dificultoso dificultar
easy, facile (to) facilitate, (to) supply or furnish difficult, hard difficulty difficult (to) make difficult, (to) impede
Facultad comes from Latin facultas, which was essentially the same word as facilitas (source of facility and facilidad) by virtue of a phonetic “law” in Latin that dictated that lt be preceded by u and li by i. The common root was the verb facere (“to do”, Spanish hacer), and the two nouns came to specialize in the respective meanings of capacity of doing and ease of doing, which are essentially their Spanish and English definitions. The two languages also share the more specialized academic meaning for the former, e.g., la Facultad de Leyes—the Faculty of Law. The optional nature of facultativo—facultative comes from having the faculty to do something but not the obligation. A difficulty is literally a dis-faculty. b) Despite impeachment’s Latin pedigree, it is apparent from the awkward translation that it does not have a direct Spanish equivalent. Impeach and impeachment come from French empêcher (initially “to impede”, later “to prevent”) and empêchement (“obstacle”, “snag”), which were derived in turn from Latin impedicare, “to entangle”, literally “to shackle the feet (pes/pedem) with a pedica (fetter)”. impedicare was a later, more colorful form of the basic verb impedire (in pede-), which simply meant “to restrict the feet” (hence, “to impede”), without specifying the nature of the impedimentum. The related verb interpedire came to specialize in the entanglement of one’s own feet, i.e., “to trip or stumble”; a Vulgar Latin form (interpediare) later gave rise to Old Spanish entropezar and Modern Spanish tropezar. French empêcher and empêchement arrived in English with their original meanings intact. At an early stage, however, they were apparently thought to have been derived from the (unrelated) Latin verb impetere. They were therefore used to translate the Medieval Latin legal terms impetere and impetitio(n), which referred to the act of bringing a charge or accusation against someone— this remains the basic definition of impeach: impeach a: to bring an accusation against b: to charge with a crime or misdemeanor; specifically: to charge (a public official) before a competent tribunal with misconduct in office . . . (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary)
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impetere—in Classical Latin “to attack or assail”—was itself related to impetus (“attack or assault”, “violent impulse”), the source of English impetus and impetuous. The medieval legal use was a natural extension, literally “to attack in justice”. In the late fourteenth century, empêcher arrived to Spanish via Occitan (the so-called langue d’oc spoken in the south of France) in the form of empachar. While sharing the common “classical” definition with the learned impedir, empachar and its associated noun empacho have come to specialize in a very specific impediment, namely “indigestion”. impedimenta, the neuter plural of impedimentum, had been used in Caesar’s time in the sense of vehicles and baggage that impede the movement of an army. Around , English “borrowed” impedimenta, with the rather more general meaning of “objects, such as provisions, that impede or encumber”; Spanish impedimenta has preserved the military connotation. In the nineteenth century, impedance was coined in English as a measure of the overall opposition to electric current, and the term then spread to a number of other languages, including Spanish. If impedire meant to restrict the feet, what did one say for the opposite situation, i.e., removing one’s feet from the obstruction? The Latin answer was expedire, source of a number of English (and Spanish) words, including expedite and expedition. The French answer was dépêcher, formed by replacing the em- of empêcher with dé-. This then became Spanish despachar, which is very likely the source of English dispatch. impedire impedicare
impedimentum
impetus interpediare
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impedir empachar empacho —ningún empacho [ ??? ] impedimento impedimenta impedancia ímpetu impetuoso tropezar tropiezo tropezón —a tropezones
(to) impede, (to) hinder (to) impede, (to) give indigestion impediment, indigestion, surfeit —no qualms (uneasy feeling that impedes) (to) impeach impediment, hindrance impedimenta (esp. military) impedance (electrical) impetus, momentum impetuous (to) stumble, (to) trip stumbling block, stumble (fig.) stumble —in fits and starts
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expedire
expedir expedición expedidor expediente expedito expeditivo despachar despacho
(to) expedite (issue officially, dispatch) expedition, shipment shipper, sender dossier, fi le or record, court proceedings free from encumbrance, expeditious (manner) expeditious (person) (to) dispatch (send off, transact, put to death) office, dispatch
Spanish words derived from expedire are typically used more in the sense of “to send” or “to dispatch” than in English, where the primary meaning is “to speed up the progress of, to facilitate”. English expedite, however, still preserves the definition “to issue officially, to send out”. A Spanish office is a despacho because it is where business is dispatched. Sexta Sección . Los senadores y representantes recibirán por sus servicios una remuneración que será fijada por la ley y pagada por el tesoro de los EE.UU. En todos los casos, exceptuando los de traición, delito grave y perturbación del orden público, gozarán del privilegio de no ser arrestados durante el tiempo que asistan a las sesiones de sus respectivas Cámaras, así como al ir a ellas o regresar de las mismas, y no podrán ser objeto en ningún otro sitio de inquisición alguna con motivo de cualquier discusión o debate en una de las Cámaras.
Section . The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place.
a) b)
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senador senado EE.UU.
senator senate “Estados Unidos”
U.S.A
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According to the RAE, the rule for abbreviations of plurals is as follows: En abreviaturas formadas por una sola letra, el plural se expresa duplicando esta: ss. por siguientes, EE. UU. por Estados Unidos. In abbreviations formed by a single letter, the plural is expressed by duplicating this (letter): ss. for siguientes, EE. UU. for Estados Unidos.
Theoretically, there is a space between EE. and UU., though in practice this is usually omitted; the periods are also frequently omitted. Other common examples are: CC.OO. (Comisiones Obreras), FF.AA. (Fuerzas Armadas), JJ.OO. (Juegos Olímpicos), CC.AA. (Comunidades Autónomas). c)
delito flagrante delito
cuerpo del delito delictivo delincuente delincuencia delinquir reliquia relicario
crime, offense, delict flagrante delicto (red-handed, in the very act) corpus delicti criminal (adj.) delinquent delinquency (to) break the law (commit a delito) relic reliquary (shrine), locket
(Lat. delictum) (or delito flagrante)
linquere was “to leave”, and relinquere (p.p. relictus) was “to leave behind”, hence relinquish—leaving behind a relic or reliquia—while delinquere was to “leave” one’s obligations, to be delinquent. The neuter past participle delictum (“crime”) is the source of Spanish delito as well as the English legal expression in flagrante delicto (“[caught] while the crime is blazing”). A Spanish “delight” (deleite) has nothing to do with a delito, coming instead (like the English) from delectare, “to allure”. deleite deleitar delicioso delicia
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delight, pleasure (to) delight, (to) please delicious, delightful delight
RAE, Diccionario panhispánico de dudas, .
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ARTÍCULO DOS Primera Sección . Se deposita el poder ejecutivo en un Presidente de los Estados Unidos. Desempeñará su encargo durante un término de cuatro años y, juntamente con el Vicepresidente designado para el mismo período, será elegido como sigue:
ARTICLE II Section . The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows:
a)
desempeñar empeñar empeño —casa de empeño(s) empeñado (p.p.) prenda
(to) carry out (role, function), (to) redeem or free from debt (to) pledge, (to) pawn, (to) insist (on) pledge, insistence, determination —pawnshop determined, resolved security, pledge, pawn, article of clothing
[rare impignorate]
(< pignora)
Latin pignus was “a pledge or guarantee”, and the associated verb was pignorare. English pignorate (“to give or take as a pledge”) and impignorate (“to pawn”) can be found in unabridged dictionaries, but are rarely if ever used in modern times. Spanish desempeñar has extended its original meaning of “to acquit oneself of a debt” to that of “discharging a duty”. In addition to “pawn or pledge”, empeñar means “to compel”, “to insist”; the noun empeño means both “pledge” and “insistence or determination”. Se empeñó en comprar un piso en el centro de Madrid. He insisted on (“was bent on”) buying an apartment in the center of Madrid.
The plural of pignus was pignora, and this evolved (via péñora) to prenda (“pledge” or “pawn”); the sense of “clothing” presumably developed from expressions similar to English “I’d give (pledge) the shirt off my back [for something]”. b)
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vicepresidente viceversa
vice president vice versa
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vicisitud vicario virrey, virreina vez (pl. veces) —a veces algunas veces —dos veces —a la vez —cada vez —cada vez más (menos) —de una vez —de vez en cuando —en vez de —otra vez —rara vez —tal vez —una vez más
vicissitude vicar viceroy, vicereine time, turn, occasion —at times, occasionally
[vicarious]
—twice —at the same time, simultaneously —each time, every time —more and more (less and less) —in one go, once and for all —from time to time —instead of —again, once more —rarely —perhaps, maybe —once again ( de nuevo, otra vez)
Latin vicis was “change”, “turn”, and this developed into Spanish vez. Initially applied to all earthly representatives of God, English vicar came to specialize as a name for a person acting as a cleric in place of a parson or rector. These words are to be distinguished from a different type of vice, from an altogether different root (vitium): vicio vicioso viciar
vice, bad habit vicious, given to vice (to) vitiate, (to) debase
El Discurso de Gettysburg ( de noviembre de ) Hace años nuestros padres fundaron en este continente una nueva nación, concebida en la libertad y dedicada al principio de que todos los hombres son creados iguales. Ahora nos hallamos empeñados en una gran guerra civil, que está poniendo a prueba si esta nación, o cualquier nación igualmente concebida y consagrada, puede perdurar. Estamos reunidos en un gran campo de batalla de esa guerra. Hemos venido a dedicar parte de ese campo como lugar de eterno reposo para aquellos que aquí dieron sus vidas para que esa nación pudiera vivir. Es perfectamente justo y apropiado que así lo hagamos.
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Pero en un sentido más grande, no podemos dedicar—no podemos consagrar—no podemos santificar—esta tierra. Los valientes que aquí combatieron, los que murieron y los que sobrevivieron, lo han consagrado mucho más allá de la capacidad de nuestras pobres fuerzas para sumar o restar algo a su obra. El mundo advertirá poco y no recordará mucho lo que aquí digamos nosotros, pero nunca podrá olvidar lo que ellos hicieron aquí. A nosotros que aún vivimos nos toca más bien dedicarnos ahora a la obra inacabada que aquellos que lucharon aquí, tan noblemente han adelantado. Nos toca más bien dedicarnos a la gran tarea que nos queda por delante: que, por deber con estos gloriosos muertos, nos consagremos con mayor devoción a la causa por la cual dieron la última prueba de su devoción—que aquí resolvamos que su sacrificio no ha sido en vano—que esta nación, por la gracia de Dios, tendrá un nuevo nacimiento de libertad—y que el gobierno del pueblo, por el pueblo, y para el pueblo no desaparecerá de la faz de la tierra.
The Gettysburg Address (November , ) Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate—we cannot consecrate—we cannot hallow—this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth.
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a)
discurso
speech, discourse, address
b)
principio principal príncipe princesa principado principiar principiante
beginning, origin, principle principal prince princess principality, princedom (to) begin ( empezar, comenzar) beginner
The principal distinction between English principle and principal corresponds, at least in principle, to that between Spanish principio and principal, the roots in each case being Latin principium and principalis. These in turn came from princeps (acc. principem), “the one who occupies the first place”, i.e, the prince or príncipe. The associated noun and adjective were respectively principium—“beginning, origin, foundation”—and principalis—“first, original, chief, princely”. principalis, and its descendants in Spanish and English, also came to function as a noun, thereby leading to significant overlapping with principium (and its descendants). The English use of principle to specifically mean “beginning” is now obsolete, but in Spanish principio, it remains the principal but not the only meaning. Al principio or a principios de means “in the beginning (of)”—al principio del año, a principios de junio—while en principio means “in principle”. The verb principiar means unambiguously “to start”, e.g., La Biblia principia con las palabras: “En el principio creó Dios los cielos y la tierra.” The Bible begins with the words: “In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.” c)
hallar hallazgo fallar () fallo ()
(to) find, (to) discover discovery, find (to) render judgment, (to) pass sentence decision, judgment, verdict
(to “find” judicially) (judicial “finding”)
English principle comes from French principe ( principium); when it entered English in the late fourteenth century, the ending was changed to the more familiar English -le. At the time, this caused no confl ict with principal (imported the previous century), as the more “careful” pronunciation in those days distinguished the two words.
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fallar () falla fallo () falaz falacia falible infalible fallecer desfallecer fallecimiento fallido falta faltar —Nos falta tiempo. falso falsear falsedad falsete falsificación falsificar
(to) fail, (to) be deficient or wanting defect, flaw, fault (in material, geological, etc.) mistake, error, failure (soft ware, etc.) deceptive, fallacious deception, deceitfulness, fallacy fallible infallible (to) die, (to) pass away (to) weaken, (to) debilitate death unsuccessful, ineffectual fault, mistake, lack, foul (sports) (to) be lacking or wanting, (to) fail —We don’t have (the) time.
[fail]
false, counterfeit (to) counterfeit, (to) falsify, (to) weaken ( flaquear) falseness, falsity, falsehood falsetto falsification, forgery (to) falsify, (to) counterfeit, (to) forge
Hallar comes from Latin adflare, “to blow or breathe on”, literally “to pick up the scent”. Applied to the judicial system—in the sense of “finding the facts”— it has produced fallar, “to render judgment”. By an unfortunate phonetic accident, Latin fallere (root of false and fallible) came to the same result, so that Spanish fallar also means “to fail”. d)
probar prueba probeta probidad probación probador probable improbable aprobar aprobado (p.p.)
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(to) prove, (to) sample, (to) try, (to) taste proof, test, trial, sample, ordeal test tube probity trial, test ( prueba), probation (within a religious order) tester, fitting room probable, provable improbable, unprovable (to) approve, (to) pass (law, exam) passing (mark)
[probe]
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R O M A N C E L A N G UA G E S A N D P O L I T I C S
aprobación comprobar comprobante desaprobar —desaprobación reprobar réprobo (adj. & n.)
approval, approbation (to) verify, (to) check receipt, written proof (of something) (to) disapprove —disapproval (to) reprove, (to) reprobate (disapprove of, condemn) reprobate (morally corrupt; preordained to damnation)
Latin probare was “to test something as to its goodness”, literally “to establish its probity”. It is in this sense of a “trial” that the seemingly anomalous English expression the exception proves the rule can be understood, i.e., if a rule is sufficiently strong that it can survive the test of the (occasional) exception, then it isn’t such a bad rule after all. e)
campo campamento campesino (adj. & n.) campestre camposanto campus ( Eng.) campeón campeonato campaña champán / champaña (m.) campana campanilla campanada
field, country(side), camp (enemy, military, etc.) encampment, camp ( camping Eng.) rural, campesino (farmer, farm worker) campestral (relating to fields or open country), rural cemetery (also campo santo) campus (university)
(Lat. campus)
champion championship (title; competition) flat countryside, campaign (military, political, etc.) champagne bell, bell-shaped object small bell, hand bell, uvula, bellflower (genus Campanula) peal or ring (of a bell)
From Campania, a region in Italy known for its bronze (originally, vasa campana, “bronze vase”).
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f)
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—dar la campanada campanario
—(to) cause a stir or scandal
reposo reposar posar () pose postura posar ()
repose, rest (to) repose, (to) rest (to) pose (for camera, painter, etc.) pose posture (to) place (hand, etc.), (to) alight (bird, insect) inn, lodge
posada g)
vivir vivido (p.p.) vívido vivo viviente vivienda vivificar vivaz
reavivar avivar sobrevivir
(to) live personally experienced, firsthand vivid alive, living, vivid, intense living dwelling, housing (to) vivify (animate, enliven) vivacious, lively, perennial (plant) ( perenne) vivacity, vivaciousness liveliness, vivacity food, provisions, victuals (vittles) tree nursery, fish hatchery (to) live together living together, coexistence (to) revive (come back to life), (to) relive (memories, etc.) (to) revive (bring back to life) (to) enliven, (to) intensify (to) survive, (to) outlive
sobreviviente
surviving, survivor (m./f.)
supervivencia
survival
mundo —todo el mundo
world —everybody
vivacidad viveza víveres (pl.) vivero convivir convivencia revivir
h)
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belfry, bell tower, campanile
( Fr. poser)
(Lat. pausare) [posada]
[vivarium] [convivial]
(supervivir is rare) (also superviviente)
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R O M A N C E L A N G UA G E S A N D P O L I T I C S
—Tercer Mundo mundano mundial mondo mondar mondadientes inmundo
mundane, worldly world (adj.), worldwide clean, neat, bald (to) clean, (to) peel, (to) pare, (to) prune toothpick(s) fi lthy, impure
inmundicia
fi lth, fi lthiness (incl. moral)
—Third World, developing countries
[rare immund]
Latin mundus as an adjective meant “clean” or “elegant”. As a noun it had two very different senses: (a) a woman’s “toiletries” (including chamber pot) or “finery”; and (b) “world” or “universe”. The second definition arose from a conscious imitation of Greek cosmos, which itself had the dual meanings of: (a) “adornment”, “decoration”, or “embellishment” (hence cosmetics and cosmetology); and (b) “order”, “world”, or “universe” (cosmos, cosmology). i)
advertir inadvertido inadvertidamente advertencia
(to) notice, (to) warn unnoticed, unseen inadvertently admonition, warning, advice
[advert] [inadvertent]
j)
adelante adelantar
ahead, forward (to) advance, (to) move forward, (to) overtake advanced, precocious, fast (clock) —in advance (payment) advance, progress before, in the presence of before, in the past in front (of), ahead (of),
(a delante)
adelantado (p.p.) —por adelantado adelanto ante (prep.) antes (adv.) delante (de)
delantero (adj. & n.) delantal
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(OldSp. denante )
in the presence (of) front, forward (basketball, soccer, hockey) apron
Ultimately from Latin de in ante.
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La Constitución Española de ARTÍCULO . El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. Todos los españoles tienen el deber de conocerla y el derecho a usarla. . Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas de acuerdo con sus Estatutos. . La riqueza de las distintas modalidades lingüísticas de España es un patrimonio cultural que será objeto de especial respeto y protección.
ARTÍCULO . La bandera de España está formada por tres franjas horizontales, roja, amarilla y roja, siendo la amarilla de doble anchura que cada una de las rojas. . Los estatutos podrán reconocer banderas y enseñas propias de las Comunidades Autónomas. Estas se utilizarán junto a la bandera de España en sus edificios públicos y en sus actos oficiales.
ARTÍCULO La capital del Estado es la villa de Madrid.
The Spanish Constitution of ARTICLE . Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State. All Spaniards have the duty to know it and the right to use it. . The other Spanish languages shall also be official in the respective Selfgoverning Communities in accordance with their Statutes. . The richness of the different linguistic modalities of Spain is a cultural heritage that shall be specially respected and protected.
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From the Spanish Constitution’s “official” website: www.constitucion.es; italics added.
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R O M A N C E L A N G UA G E S A N D P O L I T I C S
ARTICLE . The flag of Spain consists of three horizontal stripes: red, yellow, and red, the yellow stripe being twice as wide as each red stripe. . The Statutes may recognize flags and ensigns of the Self-governing Communities. These shall be used together with the flag of Spain on their public buildings and in their official ceremonies.
ARTICLE The capital of the State is the city of Madrid.
a)
franja
stripe, strip (of land), fringe
b)
amarillo amarillento amargo amargar amargura
yellow yellowish bitter (to) taste bitter, (to) embitter (flavor or feelings) bitterness, sorrow
The color yellow is “naturally” associated with bitterness: it is the color of both bile—one of the four “humors” traditionally thought to determine an individual’s temperament—and jaundice, a disease essentially caused by an excess of bile. The English colors yellow (Old English geolu) and gold come from the same Indo-European root (meaning “to shine”) found in gall (another name for “bile”); jaundice comes from French jaune (“yellow”). Spanish amarillo likewise arose from an association with “bitterness”, most likely as a descriptive term for those suffering from jaundice. The issue of whether the national language of Spain is español or castellano has historically been controversial, though more so in Spain than in Spanish(or Castilian-) speaking America. If Spanish is the national language of Spain, then that might be interpreted to mean that the regional languages (principally Basque and Catalan) are secondary in nature, whereas calling it castellano puts them on a more equal footing. In the Americas, after independence many countries chose to call their language castellano to emphasize their break with Spain, but over time español has become increasingly common, and those who continue to refer to castellano seem to do so more from habit than due to any political sensibilities. Beginning with the fi fteenth edition (), the title of the RAE’s dictionary changed from Diccionario de la lengua castellana to Diccionario de la lengua española.
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ANNEXES
ADDITIONAL WORDS
In the annexes that follow, some words presented earlier in the text are repeated, but generally only to the extent that these are elements of larger groups, whose other members are “new”. For convenience, the basic rule governing the explict marking of noun gender (masculine/feminine) is repeated below:
Simplified Gender Rule . Nouns having one of the following endings are assumed to be feminine: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
-a -ión -d -umbre -ie -ez -triz -sis / -tis (Greek words)
. Nouns ending in -ista are assumed to be both masculine and feminine. . All other nouns are assumed to be masculine. ONLY NOUNS WHOSE GENDER IS “UNPREDICTABLE” WILL BE EXPLICITLY MARKED.
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ANNEX A
Principal Exceptions to the “Simplified Gender Rule”
Spanish nouns essentially fall into three groups of almost equal size, according to whether they end in: -a, -o, or “something else”. Dividing this last group into () those with one of the seven “feminine” endings other than -a in the “Simplified General Rule”, and () all others, the gender structure of Spanish nouns can be summarized as follows:
-a -o “Something Else” () -ión, -d, -umbre, -ie, -ez, -triz, -sis / -tis () All Others
Masculine (%)
Feminine (%)
– .
– .
The lower limit for nouns ending in -a (%) is the overall “gross” figure. However, if one excludes nouns of Greek origin (see Section .) and those found essentially only in dictionaries, the “true” percentage of feminines with this ending is at least percent.
I. Nouns That “Should Be” FEMININE but Are Actually MASCULINE a. -a The principal exceptions are el día and most “Greek” nouns ending in -a. el día —el mediodía
day —noon, south
“Greek” nouns ending in -a: . -ema or -oma (see Section ., no. ) . -eta el cometa —la cometa el delta —la delta
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comet —kite delta (river) —delta (Greek letter)
Excluding “bisexual” -ista nouns.
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ANNEX A
el planeta el poeta / la poeta el atleta / la atleta
planet poet athlete
. ama el drama el panorama
drama panorama
-grama el diagrama el programa
diagram program
. Other el clima el cólera —la cólera el enigma el mapa el margarita —la margarita el papa el papá el policía —la policía el trauma
climate, clime cholera (disease) —anger, rage, choler enigma map margarita (cocktail) —daisy, marguerite Pope papa, poppa, dad policeman —police (force), policewoman trauma
Latin mappa (“tablecloth”, origin of English napkin and apron) was not a Greek word but was perhaps mistaken for one in the combination mappa mundi (“tablecloth of the world”), hence el mapa (“map”). El papa (“pope”) and el papá come from Greek (pappas, “father”, shortened in Church Latin to papa) and French, respectively. El sofá and el Canadá are also exceptions, the stressed final -a betraying their non-Latin origin.
b. -ión The most common exceptions are probably: el anfitrión —la anfitriona el avión —el hidroavión el camión
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host —hostess airplane —seaplane, hydroplane truck, camion
( Gk.) ( Fr.) ( Fr.)
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P R I N C I PA L E X C E P T I O N S T O T H E “ S I M P L I F I E D G E N D E R R U L E ”
el embrión el escorpión el guion, el guión
embryo scorpion notes (for speech), script, hyphen
( Gk.) ( Gk.) [guide]
Other exceptions include: el aluvión el bastión el centurión el colodión el envión el esturión el gorrión el histrión el ion, el ión —el anión —el catión el limpión el notición el prion, el prión el sarampión el talión el turbión
alluvium (sediment), alluvion (flood) bastion centurion collodion push, shove sturgeon sparrow theatrical actor ion —anion (negative) —cation (positive) light cleaning sensational news prion measles talion, retaliation squall, heavy shower
( Germ.) ( Gk.) ( enviar, “to send”) ( Germ.) [histrionics] ( Gk.)
[limpid] [notice]
[turbulent]
c. -d Principal exceptions are: el abad el alud el ardid el áspid el ataúd el césped el huésped el laúd el quid el talud
abbot avalanche stratagem, trick asp coffi n lawn, grass guest lute gist, crux slope
( Gk.) (pre-Roman) ( Germ., related to hardy) ( Gk.) ( Arabic) [cespitose] [host] ( Arabic) [quid pro quo] [talus]
In addition, a number of English words ending in -d have become Spanish masculine nouns, including: el apartheid el lord el raid
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apartheid lord (used with respect to English lords only) raid
( Afrikaans)
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ANNEX A
el récord el round el stand el weekend
record (athletic) round (sports competition) stand (for sale or exhibition of products) weekend
(not in DRAE)
d. -umbre The only exception of any practical importance is el alumbre
alum
e. -ie The only (real) exception is el pie
foot
Also (foreign imports): el walkie-talkie el curie
f. -ez
walkie-talkie curie (unit of radiation)
The principal exceptions are: el ajedrez el diez el doblez el jerez el juez el pez
chess ten (number) fold, crease sherry judge fish
[double]
[Pisces]
g. -triz No exceptions!
h. -sis / -tis (Greek words) There are seven common exceptions from Greek -sis words—see Section ., no. — plus the non-Greek -sis / -tis words listed below:
The large majority of -ez nouns are feminine “abstracts” with the sense of “-ness” that have been formed from adjectives: estúpido—estupidez (“stupidity”), líquido—liquidez (“liquidity”), etc.
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P R I N C I PA L E X C E P T I O N S T O T H E “ S I M P L I F I E D G E N D E R R U L E ”
el chasis
chassis
el cutis el frontis el frotis el mutis
skin frontispiece (arch. only), facade smear (medical) (theatrical) exit (of an actor)
[cuticle] (vb. frotar) [mutate]
as well as the differently stressed el mentís
flat denial
(vb. mentir)
II. Nouns That “Should Be” MASCULINE but Are Actually FEMININE . -o la mano la libido la foto la loto la moto la polio la radio
hand libido photo lottery motorcycle polio radio
[manual]
Apart from mano and libido—which were feminine in Latin—the other principal exceptions are shortened forms of longer feminine nouns: fotografía, lotería, motocicleta, poliomielitis, radiodifusión.
. “All Other” Endings While “all other” endings are overwhelmingly masculine, there are nonetheless a significant number of common feminines with no easy rule (or “trick”) for distinguishing these from the masculines. This is particularly the case for nouns ending in -e: el aire el vinagre el monte el porte el frente
vs. vs. vs. vs. vs.
la torre la sangre la fuente la parte la frente
air vinegar mountain deportment front, battlefront
tower blood fountain part forehead
el hospital el corazón el barniz
vs. vs. vs.
la diagonal la razón la raíz
hospital heart varnish
diagonal reason root
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El loto is the lotus plant. El radio is “radium” and “radius”.
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ANNEX A
Three endings are almost exclusively masculine: (a) -aje These correspond to English -age nouns (see Section ., no. ). There is only one exception, reflecting a different (Greek) origin: la paralaje
parallax
(b) -ón (“bare”) That is, -ón words not ending in -ión (feminine) or -zón (% masculine). There are no exceptions. (c) -r Among the relatively few exceptions are: la coliflor la flor la labor la mujer la sor la bajamar la pleamar / la plenamar
cauliflower flower labor woman, wife sister (religious: Sor María) low tide high tide
[sorority]
Appendix Gender and Size For a number of objects, Spanish has developed a distinction based on gender where the feminine noun is either larger than the masculine one and/or represents a “collection” of objects. Common examples include: Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
banco batidor bolso brazo caldero canasto charco cubo cuenco
banca batidora bolsa braza caldera canasta charca cuba cuenca
bank whisk purse arm kettle basket puddle bucket earthen bowl
banking system electric mixer stock exchange fathom ( feet) cauldron, boiler large round basket pond cask, barrel river basin
Maratón (“marathon”) can be either masculine or feminine, although in a number of dictionaries it is shown as masculine (only).
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P R I N C I PA L E X C E P T I O N S T O T H E “ S I M P L I F I E D G E N D E R R U L E ”
farol hoyo huerto
farola hoya huerta
huevo jarro leño mazo río secador velo
hueva jarra leña maza ría secadora vela
lantern, streetlamp hole, pit orchard, vegetable garden egg jar log mallet river dryer veil
large streetlamp pit, valley large vegetable garden, irrigated region roe (fish eggs) jar, jug firewood hammer of pile driver estuary, firth (larger) dryer sail
This distinction initially arose due to a peculiarity in Latin: neuter nouns that ended in -um had plurals ending in -a (e.g., datum S data), which happened also to be the most common ending of feminine singular nouns (e.g., rosa). When the neuter was subsequently eliminated, the singular forms ending in -um became masculine Spanish nouns ending in -o, while the corresponding neuter plurals frequently became feminine singular nouns ending in -a (often with a collective sense). This o/a distinction was subsequently extended to various other nouns that were not “old” Latin neuters—e.g., the “naturally” feminine cuba was given a “little brother” cubo. Among the exceptions to the “rule” are:
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Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
barco cesto escuadrón
barca cesta escuadra
ship, boat hamper squadron
boat, small boat basket squad, squadron (see Section .)
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ANNEX B
Not-So-Easy Words
There is nothing inherently difficult about the words presented in this section. However, in contrast to the large majority of other words presented in the text (and in Annexes C and D), they are not easily associated with English words having similar, or at least related, meanings. The words generally fall into one of the following categories: (a) Words of pre-Latin origin—Iberian, Celtic, or Basque, e.g., izquierda (b) Words of Latin origin that () did not make it to English, e.g., calle (Latin callis); () made it to English, but have since died out or are only very rarely used, e.g., dirempt, indagate, propine (Spanish dirimir,indagar, propina); () made it to English and are still in common use, but whose form and/or meaning (in English and/or Spanish) has been transformed in such a way that the relationship is no longer obvious, e.g., acera—facade, arrojar—roll, pozo—pit, andar—amble. abanico —abanicar abrigo —abrigar acaparar acera acero —acero inoxidable acosar —acoso acudir afán —afanar agachar alabar —alabanza alambre —alambrada —inalámbrico alboroto —alborotar
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fan, range (of possibilities—i.e., “fan” of choices) —(to) fan overcoat, shelter, protection —(to) shelter or protect, (to) harbor (idea, fear) (to) hoard, (to) monopolize sidewalk, side of a street steel —stainless steel (to) harass —harassment (to) go or come to, (to) go to the aid of zeal, eagerness, effort —(to) strive, (to) toil (to) lower, (to) bend down (to) praise —praise wire —(barbed) wire fence —wireless (phone, etc.) disturbance, uproar —(to) arouse, (to) agitate
(Fr. abri) [† apricate]
[facade (f S h S ø)] (Fr. acier) [coarse] [rescue] [fanatic ?] [cache ?]
[aeneus]
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N O T S O E A S Y W O R D S
alcance —de largo (corto) alcance —alcanzar aliento —alentar —alentador —desalentar —desaliento —anhelar alrededor (adv.) —alrededores (pl.) —derredor amparar —amparo —desamparo —desamparar andar —andamio —andamiaje —andante —andanza —desandar andén anuencia —anuente —renuente —renuencia anzuelo añorar —añoranza apodo —apodar apoyo —apoyar
reach, scope, importance —long-range (short-range) —(to) reach, (to) catch up to, (to) attain breath, encouragement —(to) encourage —encouraging —(to) discourage, (to) dishearten —discouragement —(to) long or yearn (for) around, about (on all sides) —surrounding area, environs, outskirts —circle (area around something) (to) protect —protection, shelter —abandonment, lack of protection —(to) abandon, (to) leave helpless or unprotected (to) walk, (to) move, (to) work (machine) —scaffold —scaffolding —andante (music: moderately slow tempo) —adventure, esp. during voyage (gen. pl. andanzas) —(to) retrace (one’s steps) station platform (railway, metro) consent, approbation —consenting —reluctant, unwilling —reluctance, unwillingness fishhook, trap (fig.) (to) pine for (absent person or thing) —pining, nostalgia nickname —(to) nickname support, backing —(to) support, (to) lean (something on), (to) back
[caulk, calque] († anhelation) (“to blow on”)
(“pant for”) ( al derredor) [de-retro, derrière] [prepare]
[amble]
[nutation] [annuit coeptis ] [innuendo] [hamulus] [ignore: without news] [ignorance] [putative] [impute] [podium, pew]
Anhelar comes directly from Latin anhelare (“to exhale”, “to pant”). In the “popular” language, the n and l were reversed, giving rise to alentar and related forms. The Latin expression on the back of the U.S. one-dollar bill, above the eye that forms the upper part of the pyramid. The literal meaning is “He nods (or has nodded) assent to things just started”; presumably, “God has favored our undertakings”.
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ANNEX B
arrancar —arranque arrojar —arrojo arrullo —arrullar asar —asado (p.p.) asco —asqueroso aseo —asear asequible asestar asomo —ni por asomo —asomar astilla —“de tal palo, —tal astilla” —astillar —astillero —estallar —estallido atar —atadura —desatar —reata atasco —atascar —tasca atisbar —atisbo atizar —tizón —tizne (m./f.) —tiznar atracar
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(to) uproot, (to) pull out (an object; “to start moving” [e.g., bus]) —start, outburst, starter (motor) (to) throw, (to) fl ing —daring, courage coo, cooing, lullaby —(to) coo, (to) lull or sing to sleep (to) roast —roast repugnance, disgust —fi lthy, revolting, disgusting restroom, cleanliness —(to) clean, (to) tidy up accessible, attainable, affordable (to) deal (a blow to) sign, inkling —by no means, not by a long shot —(to) [begin to] appear, (to) show [oneself] splinter, chip (of wood) —from such a stick, such a chip —(“chip off the old block”) —(to) splinter, (to) chip —shipyard, dockyard —(to) explode, (to) burst (out) —explosion, report (firearm), outbreak (to) tie, (to) fasten, (to) bind —tying, rope, bond or knot (often restrictive) —(to) untie, (to) unleash —rope to tie animals, riata (or reata), lariat ( la reata) traffic jam, obstruction, blockage —(to) clog, (to) obstruct —tavern, bar-restaurant (to) observe, (to) distinguish or make out (image, solution) —sign (e.g., of improvement), inkling (to) stoke or stir up (fire, passions) —partially burned piece of wood —soot —(to) blacken (with soot), (to) tarnish (a reputation) (to) hold up (rob), (to) moor
[roll]
[† assation] [ardent] [scar] [assiduous] [assess] [ensue] [assess, siege] [sum, summit]
[atelier] ( astellar) [apt]
[entice]
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N O T S O E A S Y W O R D S
—atraco atrever(se) —atrevido (p.p.) —atrevimiento aturdir —aturdimiento aula aval —avalar baraja —barajar barato —abaratar —desbaratar barro basura —basurero —barrer baúl beca —becar —becario beso —besar bisagra bostezo —bostezar bóveda —bóveda celeste brujo —bruja —brujería —embrujar —embrujo brújula bufanda bulto
—holdup, robbery (to) dare, (to) venture —daring (adj.), bold, risqué —daring (n.), audacity, impudence (to) stun, (to) bewilder —bewilderment, giddiness classroom, lecture hall guarantee (commercial), endorsement —(to) guarantee (a transaction), (to) endorse pack or deck of cards —(to) shuffle (cards) inexpensive, cheap —(to) reduce the price of ( rebajar) —(to) ruin, (to) wreck mud, clay (pottery) rubbish, trash, garbage —garbage collector, garbage dump —(to) sweep trunk grant, scholarship —(to) award a grant or scholarship —grant or scholarship holder kiss —(to) kiss hinge yawn —(to) yawn vault (arched roof) —vault of heaven, firmament sorcerer, wizard —witch, sorceress —witchcraft, sorcery —(to) bewitch —spell, charm compass scarf, muffler bulk, lump, package, shadowy object
[attribute]
[sturdy ] (aula, “courtyard”) [rare aval] (a valer ?) (see Appendix A) [barratry] [barter]
(Fr. baise)
[boca oscillate]
[box] [bouffant, buffoon ]
Sturdy comes from the French verb étourdir (“to stun”, “to daze”) and can still be used as a synonym for gid: “A disease of herbivores, especially sheep . . . resulting in a staggering gait.” From Italian bussola, literally meaning “little box”. It is possible that the -r in the Spanish word is due to the influence of bruja (a compass being a sort of “magic” box). All these words originate from the idea of “swelling” or “puffi ng up”.
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ANNEX B
—abultar buscar —busca —buscador —búsqueda —rebuscar —rebuscado (p.p.) butaca buzo —bucear —buceador —buceo —bocina buzón callar —callado (p.p.) —acallar —calar calle (f.) —callejero —callejón —callejón sin salida —pasacalle cama cambiar —cambio —caja de cambios —intercambiar —intercambio —recambio —canjear ( It.) —canje caminar —camino —caminata —caminante (m./f.) —encaminar cansar —cansado (p.p.)
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—(to) enlarge, (to) be bulky, (to) exaggerate (to) search for, (to) seek —search —(gold) prospector, Internet search engine —search (gen. more specific than busca) —(to) search thoroughly, (to) glean (the fields) —stilted, recherché (manner of speaking, etc.) armchair, orchestra seat (theater) diver, overalls (regionally: jersey) —(to) dive, (to) swim underwater —diver ( buzo) —diving, dive —horn, megaphone letterbox, mailbox (to) be silent, (to) become silent —quiet, silent —(to) silence —(to) soak, (to) penetrate, (to) size up street, road —street (adj.), street directory or plan —lane, alley —blind alley, cul-de-sac, dead end —lively march (music), passacaglia bed (to) change, (to) exchange —change (alteration; money), exchange —transmission (auto) —(to) exchange, (to) swap, (to) interchange —exchange, interchange —spare part, replacement (part) —(to) exchange (prisoners, diplomatic notes) —exchange (to) walk, (to) travel —path, way, course, journey —hike, long walk —walker —(to) guide, (to) show the way, (to) direct (to) tire, (to) fatigue, (to) weary —tired, tiring or tiresome
[busk]
( Amer.)
[bugle] [calando]
(pasar calle) [cambium]
(Fr. chemin)
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N O T S O E A S Y W O R D S
—cansancio —descansar —Descanse en paz. —descanso —incansable cántaro —llover a cántaros caucho cazar —caza —caza de brujas —cacería —cazador —rechazar ( Fr.) —rechazo cencerro cepo —cepa —de pura cepa —cepillo —cepillo de dientes —cepillar chabola chaleco —chaleco antibalas —chaleco salvavidas charco —charca chico —chica —chiquito —chiquillo chillar —chillido —chillón (-ona) chirriar —chirrido chisme —chinche (f.)
—tiredness, weariness, fatigue —(to) rest —Rest in peace. —rest, break —tireless, indefatigable pitcher, jug —(to) rain cats and dogs rubber, caoutchouc (to) hunt —hunting, hunt, game (animals), fighter plane —witch hunt —hunt, animals killed in a hunt —hunter, chasseur (hunter, light cavalry) —(to) reject, (to) repulse (drive back) —rejection, rebuff cowbell trap, pillory, stocks, (wheel) clamp —stump (underground), vine, stock (lineage) —of pure stock (genuine, authentic) —brush, carpenter’s plane —toothbrush —(to) brush, (to) plane (make smooth or level) shack, shanty vest —bulletproof vest —life jacket puddle —pond boy, lad, kid (also as adjective: small) —girl —very small, tiny —youngster, kid (to) shout, (to) scream, (to) shriek —scream, shriek, squeal —loud, shrill, garish or gaudy (color) (to) squeak, (to) creak, (to) screech —shrill sound gossip (rumor), knickknack, “thing” —bedbug, nuisance or pest (person)
[chanterelle]
[chase, catch]
[† rechase]
[rare cippus] [cèpe]
[cage, jail] (Fr. gilet)
[Chiquita®] [fester, fistula]
[genus Cimex]
There are two competing theories concerning the origin of chisme: (a) from schisma (Spanish cisma), since gossip tends to cause friction and division; and (b) from cimex, “bedbug” or “stinkbug” (Spanish chinche), perhaps from the disagreeable odor it makes when crushed.
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ANNEX B
—chincheta chispa —chispeante chiste —chiste verde —chistoso —chistar rechistar —sin chistar sin rechistar choza chupar —chupete cieno —ciénaga cima —encima coartada —coartar codicia —codiciar —codicioso coger —cogida —acoger —acogedor —acogida —encoger —escoger —recoger —recogida —cosecha
—thumbtack spark, small particle or amount, wit —sparkling, witty joke —dirty joke —funny, humorous —(to) speak up, (to) start to say something —without protest(ing) hut, shack (to) suck, (to) soak up —pacifier (for babies) mud, silt —muddy place, marsh peak or summit, cyme (bot.) —over, above alibi —(to) restrict, (to) limit cupidity, greed —(to) covet —covetous, greedy (to) take, (to) seize, (to) catch —goring (by a bull) —(to) receive, (to) take in, (to) shelter —welcoming, hospitable, cozy —reception, welcome —(to) shrink, (to) contract, (to) draw in (e.g., legs) —(to) choose, (to) select —(to) pick up, (to) gather, (to) harvest —collection or pickup (garbage, mail, etc.) —harvest, crop
(onom.)
[cyma—arch.]
[coarctate]
[cull, coil, collect]
[recollect]
[collect]
Caution When Using Coger! Coger is an absolutely normal and very common word in the majority of Spanishspeaking countries for such mundane expressions as “to catch the bus” (coger el auto-
Coger comes from Latin colligere (“to gather together”), whose past tense collectus gave rise to English collect. Formerly cogecha (a form, along with collecha, still found in some areas of Spain).
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bús). In some countries, however, it is extremely vulgar, essentially being the equivalent of the English f-word. The overall situation can be summarized as follows: En el sentido sexual coger es ya antiguo y fué (sic) corriente aun en España . . . ; pero en América, donde esta acepción se ha afirmado más, ello ha sido causa, por razones de pudor, de la decadencia de coger en las demás acepciones, hasta el extremo de que en el Río de la Plata (también en otras zonas, como en Méjico, pero menos intensamente . . .) se evita el uso de coger de manera sistemática, reemplazándolo por agarrar o tomar, y ocasionalmente levantar, alzar y atrapar; esta decadencia o desaparición total afecta asimismo a los derivados acoger, recoger, escoger, encoger, y aun al adjectivo independiente cojo. The use of coger in a sexual sense is very old and was (previously) common even in Spain . . . However in the Americas, where this meaning has become more pronounced, it has been the cause, for reasons of decency, of the decadence of the other meanings of coger, to such an extent that in the Río de la Plata region [Argentina and Uruguay] (and to a lesser extent in other areas, notably Mexico . . .) the use of coger is systematically avoided, being replaced by agarrar or tomar, and occasionally levantar, alzar, and atrapar; this decadence or total disappearance affects in an equal manner the derived verbs acoger, recoger, escoger, encoger, and even the unrelated adjective cojo [“lame”]. cojo () —cojear —cojo () colmo —colmar comprar —compra —comprador cosquillas (pl.) —cosquilleo cremallera crujir —crujido (p.p.) cuna —acunar —incunable curtir delatar —delator derretir
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lame, wobbly (e.g., table), lame person (m./f.) —(to) limp, (to) hobble, (to) wobble —st person singular present of verb coger topping, height (esp. epitome), limit —(to) fi ll to overflowing, (to) fulfi ll (to) buy, (to) purchase —purchase, shopping (goods purchased) —buyer, purchaser tickling, ticklishness —tickling sensation zipper (to) creak, (to) crackle, (to) gnash (teeth) —creak, crackle, gnashing cradle, crib —(to) rock, (to) cradle —incunable—book printed before (to) tan (leather), (to) suntan, (to) inure (to) denounce, (to) inform against —denouncer, informer (to) melt, (to) squander (fortune)
[cumulus: m 4 l] [cumulate]
[comprador]
[cremaster muscle] [crush]
[rare delate] [rare delator]
Corominas and Pascual, :–.
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ANNEX B
deslizar —desliz —deslizamiento despejar —despejado (p.p.) despertar —despierto —despertador dibujo —dibujos animados —dibujar —dibujante (m./f.) dirimir disfraz —disfrazar dote (f.) —dotar —dotación embudo embuste —embustero enagua enano (adj. & n.) enchufe —enchufar engañar —engaño —desengaño —regañar —regaño —a regañadientes engranaje engreído esbozo —esbozar —boceto escaño
(to) slide, (to) skid, (to) slip in (or away) —slip (mistake, indiscretion), false step —sliding, skidding (to) clear, (to) clear up —clear, cloudless, bright (clever) (to) wake (up), (to) rouse —awake, alert —alarm clock drawing, pattern —cartoons (animated) —(to) draw, (to) sketch, (to) depict —drawer, draftsman/woman (to) dissolve (relationship), (to) settle (dispute) disguise, costume —(to) disguise dowry, talent or gift (gen. pl.) —(to) provide with, (to) endow —resources, endowment, personnel (ship, military unit) funnel lie, falsehood —liar, deceiver petticoat (gen. pl.) dwarf(ish), midget electric plug, socket, connection (personal) —(to) plug in, (to) connect (to) deceive, (to) mislead, (to) cheat —deception, fraud, mistake —disappointment, disillusion(ment) —(to) scold, (to) tell off, (to) quarrel —scolding, rebuke —reluctantly, grudgingly gear (machine), gearing conceited sketch, outline, rough draft —(to) sketch, (to) outline —sketch (painting), rough model (sculpture) seat (parliamentary or legislative)
[dispatch] [† expergefaction] (old p.p.) [de- bush]
[† dirempt]
[imbue] [impostor ?] ( Amer.) [nanosecond]
(It. ingannare)
(regaña dientes) [ingrain, engrain] (en creído) [emboss] [boss “knob”] [shambles]
From Bench to General Disorder The pair escaño—shambles provides a good example of how words having a common origin can wind up with meanings that seem totally unrelated. Escaño comes directly from Latin scamnum (“stool”, “bench”), and its evolution to “parliamentary seat” is
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easily understandable. The diminutive of scamnum was scamellum (“little bench”), and this was taken directly from Latin to become Old English scamol, which was used to refer both to (a) a footstool and (b) a bench or table on which merchandise was displayed or money counted. The subsequent sense development of the word can be traced as follows (with the date of first recorded use in parentheses): . a table on which meat was displayed () . used in the plural, a place where meat was sold ()—by this point, the [sc] sound of Old English (scamol) had become [sh] (cf. scip S ship, fisc S fish) . a slaughterhouse ()—by this point, the b had been added, yielding the modern form shambles . a place of carnage or wholesale slaughter () . a scene or condition of complete disorder or ruin; a total mess () escombros (pl.) —escombrera escueto esmero —esmerar —mero () —mero () esparadrapo
rubble, debris —dump plain, unadorned, concise (great) care —(to) polish, (to) take (great) care —pure, mere (of little importance) —grouper (fish), jewfish adhesive tape or bandage
estafa —estafar —estafador estrenar —estreno estrépito —estrepitoso estribo
swindle, fraud —(to) swindle, (to) defraud —swindler, con man/woman (to) premiere, (to) use for the first time —premiere, first use din, racket —noisy, deafening, spectacular (failure) stirrup, step or running board (vehicle), buttress (arch.) —(to) be based on, (to) rest on, (to) lie in —refrain, chorus (the refrain serves as a “base”) starboard
—estribar —estribillo estribor
[encumbrance] [Scots ?]
(unrelated) [drape, † sparadrap] [staff, step]
[obstreperous]
Latin merus meant “undiluted” or “pure”, particularly with respect to wine. At one stage, English mere was used similarly (e.g., “Our wine is here mingled with water and with myrrhe, there it is mere and unmixt”), but this sense is now obsolete. Starboard and its cognate estribor have nothing to do with the stars. Rather, they both ultimately come from steer-board (Old English steorbord): early Germanic boats were steered by a rudder or steering paddle on the right side of the ship. The left side of the ship—to which the helmsman had his back—was known as the back-board, hence Old English bæcbord (replaced by larboard, then by port) and Spanish babor.
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ANNEX B
—babor estropear estuche etapa fracaso —fracasar frotar gancho —enganchar gemir —gemido (p.p.) gordo —gordura —engordar gorro gorra gremio grieta
—port (left side), larboard (to) damage, (to) ruin case (glasses, pencils), étui stage, phase, field ration (mil.) failure —(to) fail, (to) come to nought (to) rub hook, hanger or hairpin (Amer.) —(to) hook (to) moan, (to) groan —moan, groan fat, thick, fatso (affectionate) —fatness —(to) put on weight, (to) get fat, (to) fatten cap, (baby) bonnet guild, profession (members collectively) crack, crevice, cleft, chap (skin)
—agrietar grúa —grulla guapo guata —bata guijarro hiedra
—(to) crack, (to) chap crane (construction), tow truck —crane (bird) handsome, well-dressed, valiant (Amer.) (cotton) padding, wad (padding material) —white coat (doctor’s), dressing gown (rounded) pebble ivy
hocico hollar —huella —huella digital hueco (adj. & n.) —ahuecar
snout ( morro) (to) tread on, (to) step on —footprint, track, trace —fingerprint ( huella dactilar) hollow, spongy, hole, free time, empty space —(to) hollow out, (to) deepen (voice), to plump up (pillow) —cavity, hollow
—oquedad
[backboard] [tweezers] [staple] [fracas] [frottage]
[gregarious] [decrepit, crepitate] [pedigree] [vapid]
[bot. Hedera helix] [to full (cloth)]
[† occation]
English pedigree comes from Old French pié de grue, literally “crane’s foot”, the idea being that the branching lines in a genealogical tree resemble the three splayed-out toes of a crane. Guapo comes from Latin vappa (“flat, vapid wine”) and underwent the following semantic development: insipid drink S useless person S rascal S scoundrel S ruffian S handsome/ bold/dandy. At the “ruffian” stage, it was exported to the regions of Italy under Spanish control, and as Italian guappo it acquired the meaning of “thug” or “(Neapolitan) mafioso”; guappo is the source of the English vulgarism wop, a disparaging term for a person of Italian birth or descent. Spanish guapo in some regions can mean “bully”.
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huso
spindle
—huso horario idóneo —idoneidad ileso indagar —indagación índole (f.) indumentaria
—time zone apt, fit, suitable —fitness, suitability, aptitude unhurt, unscathed (to) investigate —investigation innate quality or character clothing, clothes ( ropa, vestido)
izquierda (n.) —a la izquierda —izquierdo (adj.) —zurdo jactar(se) —jactancia jaula ( Fr.) lacra lata —hojalata látigo —latigazo latir —latido (p.p.) lejía lienzo —lencería —lona liso —lisa y llanamente lisonja —lisonjear —lisonjero lodo —lodazal losa —baldosa loza —lozano malvado (adj. & n.) mancha —manchar —manchado (p.p.)
left, left hand —on the left —left, left-hand —left-handed (to) brag, (to) boast —boasting, bragging cage scar, blemish, defect or vice (tin) can —tinplate, tin whip —(whip)lash, crack of a whip (to) beat (heart), (to) throb —beat (heart, artery) bleach, lye canvas (painting), painting, linen cloth —lingerie, linens —canvas (fabric) smooth, even, plain (unadorned) —purely and simply flattery —(to) flatter —flattering, complimentary mud —muddy place, bog flagstone, gravestone —floor tile china, porcelain, crockery —luxuriant, vigorous, full of life evil, wicked, wicked person stain, spot —(to) stain, (to) maculate —stained, soiled, spotted (animal)
[fuse, fusee, fuselage] [† idoneous] [† idoneity] [“no lesion”] [† indagate] [† indoles] [rare indumentum]
[jactitation] [jail / gaol] [lack ?] [lath]
[lixiviate] [lint] (unrelated)
[laudatory]
[luting, pollute]
(unrelated) [lavish ?] (Fr. mauvais) [macula]
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ANNEX B
—inmaculado maraña —enmarañar —desenmarañar marchitar —marchito —marcescente martillo
—immaculate tangle, dense growth, complexity —(to) entangle, (to) confuse —(to) disentangle, (to) unravel (to) wither, (to) wilt, (to) fade —withered, wilted, faded, shriveled —marcescent (“withering but not falling off, as a blossom”) hammer, malleus (bone in ear)
—martillar martillear —martillazo —martilleo matiz —matizar mecenas (m./f.) meta
—(to) hammer —hammer blow —hammering shade (color, meaning), nuance —(to) blend, (to) harmonize, (to) nuance patron (of art or literature) goal, fi nish line, objective, aim
—guardameta metralleta ametralladora —metralla mientras miga mimar —mimo () —mimo () —mímica —mimetismo —pantomima mismo —el mismo rey —el rey mismo —ellas mismas —asimismo mochila moho
—goalkeeper, goalie ( portero, arquero) machine gun —grapeshot, shrapnel while, meanwhile crumb, soft part of bread (to) pet, (to) fondle, (to) spoil, (to) pamper —caress, pampering, extreme care —mime (actor, play) —mimicry —mimicry (biol.), mimesis —pantomime same, self —the same king —the king himself —they (f.) themselves —likewise, also ( así mismo) knapsack, backpack ( morral) mold, mildew, rust
[† marcor]
[Charles Martel ]
[Maecenas] [metes and bounds]
[rare mitraille] [interim] [mica]
(unrelated)
(Fr. même)
Charles Martel (c. –), or Charles the Hammer, was the ruler of the Franks who halted the Muslim invasion of Europe at Poitiers (France) in . In modern French the word has evolved to marteau. Spanish meta comes from Latin meta (“cone” or “pyramid” used, among other things, for marking the two turning points on race courses such as the circus maximus) and bears no relation to the Greek meta (“with”, “after”) found in numerous English words (metaphor, metamorphosis, etc.). English mete (n.) means “boundary or limit”.
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—enmohecer morcilla morro
pantalla —salvapantalla pantano —pantanoso paulatino —paulatinamente pavor
—(to) make or become moldy blood sausage (blood pudding) snout, nose (auto, airplane), knoll (serving as landmark from sea) —nosebag (feedbag), backpack, knapsack young (person), unmarried, waiter, mozo —youth (time of life), “wild oats” boy, young person —girl fi lth, greasy dirt (e.g., kitchen) —fi lthy, greasy (dirty) —mucus, (melted) candle wax withered or faded (plant), sad, dejected pocketknife, (barber’s) razor lever (device, “pull”) —phalanx, phalange (bone of finger or toe) —Falangist (member of political ruling party under Franco) screen (TV, cinema, smoke, etc.), lampshade —screen saver swamp, marsh, reservoir ( embalse) —marshy, swampy, full of obstacles slow, gradual —slowly, gradually terror, dread
—pavoroso —impávido —despavorido —espantar —espanto —espantoso —espantapájaros pegar —pegamento —pegatina —pegadizo —pegajoso —apegar(se) —apego —desapego
—dreadful, awful —fearless, unafraid —terrified —(to) scare, (to) frighten away —terror, fright —frightful, dreadful —scarecrow (to) stick, (to) glue, (to) beat (hit) —glue ( cola) —sticker ( adhesivo, autoadhesivo) —sticky, contagious, catchy (e.g., tune) —sticky, contagious, clingy (person) —(to) become attached or devoted (to) —attachment, affection ( cariño) —lack of affection, indifference
—morral mozo (adj. & n.) —mocedad muchacho —muchacha mugre (f.) —mugriento —moco mustio navaja palanca —falange (f.) —falangista
[genus Mucor]
[musty ?] [novaculite] [phalanx]
[Paul] [med. pavor nocturnus] [pavid] (ex-paventare)
[pitch, pay]
Pegar comes from Latin pix (acc. picem), the source of English pitch (sticky substance) and pay (“to coat or cover with waterproof material”) and of Spanish pez (“pitch”).
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ANNEX B
—despegar —despegue peine —peinar —peinado (p.p.) —despeinar —piñón () —piñón () peldaño pendencia —pendenciero (adj. & n.) percance pereza —perezoso (adj. & n.) pesebre
mishap, unfortunate accident laziness, sloth —lazy, sloth (animal) manger, crèche (Nativity scene)
pinacoteca
art gallery
pinchar —pinchazo —pincho
pito —pitar —pitido pizarra
(to) prick, (to) puncture —prick, puncture (e.g., flat tire) —prickle, thorn, skewer, skewered meat (kebab) —clothespin, tongs, tweezers (pl.), pincers (pl.) whistle —(to) whistle —whistle (sound) blackboard, slate (mineral)
plazo
term, period of time
—a corto plazo —a largo plazo —aplazar —aplazamiento —inaplazable —emplazar porra
—short-term (adj.) —long-term (adj.) —(to) postpone, (to) adjourn [plead] —postponement, adjournment, deferment —urgent (can’t be delayed or postponed) —(to) summon (to appear at a specified time) truncheon, bludgeon ( puerro, “leek” ?) —truncheon blow, blow or thump (general)
—pinza
—porrazo
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—(to) unglue, (to) detach, (to) take off (airplane) —takeoff (airplane, economy, etc.) comb —(to) comb —hairdo, coiff ure —(to) dishevel, (to) ruffle (the hair) —pinion (small cogwheel) —pine nut step (of stairs, of ladder) quarrel, brawl —quarrelsome, wrangler, brawler
[pecten]
[piñon/pinyon] [pedal ?] [penitence]
[purchase] [† pigritia] [Praesepe— constellation] [rare pinacotheca] [pinch ?]
(onom.)
[Francisco Pizarro] [at your pleasure]
An unrelated emplazar means “to emplace” (see Annex D).
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N O T S O E A S Y W O R D S
pozo —pozo sin fondo —pozo ciego, pozo negro preconizar —pregonar —pregón —pregonero pregunta —preguntar propina —propinar racimo ráfaga ranura rasgar —rasgo reacio recio —arreciar red —redada —reticular —enredar —enredadera regatear —regateo reja () —entre rejas reja () remo —remar —remero —birreme remolque —remolcar
T4311.indb 487
well, shaft, pit —bottomless pit —cesspit, cesspool
( puteus)
(to) recommend publicly —(to) proclaim, (to) announce, (to) hawk (merchandise) —proclamation, opening address or speech —town crier, one who gives the pregón question
[rare preconize]
—(to) ask, (to) inquire tip (e.g., %), gratuity —(to) give something disagreeable (medicine, blow) bunch or cluster (grapes, flowers), raceme gust (wind), burst (gunfire), flash (light) slot (e.g., for coins), groove (to) tear up, (to) rip —stroke (of pen), trait, features (pl.) reluctant, unwilling sturdy, stout, strong —(to) strengthen, (to) intensify (storm, anger) net, network —casting of a net, dragnet (for criminal suspects) —reticular (net-like) —(to) net, (to) entangle —climbing plant or vine, creeper (to) haggle, (to) bargain —haggling, bargaining iron bars (in window or door), grating —“behind bars” (in prison) plowshare (ploughshare) oar, paddle, rowing (sport) —(to) row, (to) paddle —rower, paddler —bireme (ancient galley with two banks of oars) trailer, towing (n.), tow rope —(to) tow
[rare percontation] [rare propine]
[raisin] [runcinate] [resect] [reactionary ?] [rigid ?]
[rete, reseau]
[royal gate] [rail, ruler] [remex]
Remar and row have a common Indo-European root, also found in rudder.
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ANNEX B
—remolcador (adj. & n.) reñir —riña reo resarcir —resarcimiento —zurcir resbalar —resbalón —resbaladizo respingo reto —retar reventar rocío —rociar rozar —roce ruido —ruidoso —rugir —rugido (p.p.) sacudir —sacudida saldo —saldar sastre —sastrería sendero senda —senderismo sesgo —sesgado sollozo —sollozar soltar —soltura —suelto (adj. & n.) sosiego —sosegar soslayar —de soslayo súbdito
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—towing (adj.), tugboat (to) quarrel, (to) fight, (to) scold —quarrel, scolding culprit (to) compensate, (to) indemnify —compensation, indemnification —(to) darn, (to) mend (to) slip, (to) slide —slip (fall), slip-up —slippery start (startled reaction or movement), wince challenge ( desafío) —(to) challenge (to) burst (out), (to) explode, (to) ruin dew —(to) sprinkle, (to) spray, (to) dew (to) touch lightly, (to) graze, (to) rub —rubbing, friction, light touch noise —noisy —(to) roar —roar (to) shake, (to) shake off (dust, dirt) —shake, jolt, jerk account balance, sale (discount), liquidation —(to) settle (account), (to) liquidate tailor —tailor’s shop path, footpath —hiking slant, bias —slanted, biased sob —(to) sob (to) unfasten, (to) loosen, (to) let go (of) —agility, fluency —loose (free), loose-fitting, loose change (coins) calm, quiet, tranquillity —(to) calm, (to) soothe (to) elude, (to) evade, (to) place at an angle —obliquely, sideways, in passing subject (of lord, king, state), citizen
[rictus]
[sartorial]
[reputation]
[rosemary] [rupture] [animal rut] [bruit] [succussion] [solid] [consolidate] [sartorial]
[med. singultus] [solution]
[sedative] [lax] [† subdit]
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N O T S O E A S Y W O R D S
subir —subida —súbito —súbitamente sumir surco —surcar surtir —surtir efecto —surtido (p.p.) —surtidor susto —asustar susurro —susurrar tacaño (adj. & n.) tacha —tachar —tachismo —intachable taco —tacón taladro —taladrar tallo tarro tebeo tecla —teclado —teclear tela —telar —telón —telón de acero
(to) go up, (to) climb, (to) raise —ascent, rise, climb —sudden —suddenly (to) sink or plunge (transitive) furrow, groove, rut, wrinkle —(to) furrow, (to) plow (incl. “cut through water”) (to) supply, (to) spurt or spring (water) —(to) take effect, (to) have the desired effect —assorted, assortment —jet (of water), gas pump fright, scare —(to) frighten, (to) scare whisper, murmur, susurrus —(to) whisper, (to) murmur, (to) rustle (leaves) stingy, miserly, miser, scrooge flaw, defect —(to) cross out, (to) find fault with —tachisme (style of abstract painting) —faultless, irreproachable plug, wad, taco, spike or cleat, billiard cue, swear word —heel (of a shoe) drill, drill hole —(to) drill stem, stalk, shoot, sprout jar, can (children’s) comics, comic book key (piano, typewriter) —keyboard (for typing or music) —(to) type cloth, fabric, membrane, canvas (art), toile —loom —(theater) curtain —“Iron Curtain” (lit. “Steel Curtain”)
( sub ir ) [subito—music] [consume] [sulcus]
[surge]
[token, tetchy]
[thallus] ( tierra ?)
[toilet]
Before coming to specialize in “under”, Latin sub referred to an upward motion, from bottom to top; the converse motion was provided by de. Hence subire (Spanish subir) meant “to approach from underneath”, i.e., to climb, while the past participle subitus (Spanish súbito) meant something that had arisen without notice, i.e., sudden (the English word comes, via French, from the related adjective subitaneus). From the name of the children’s comic magazine TBO, which began publication in Barcelona in .
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ANNEX B
—telón de fondo —en tela de juicio terco —terquedad tergiversar —tergiversación —postergar tertulia tez —[complexión] tijeras (pl.), tijera timón tino —atinar —atinado (p.p.) —desatino tirar —tirante (adj. & n.) —tiro —tiro al blanco —tiro con arco —animales de tiro —tirón —tira —tirachinas —tirada —tirador —tiroteo —tirita —tiritar (unrelated) —estirar títere tiza tonto (adj. & n.) —tontería —atontar
—backdrop —(to) be in doubt (with estar), (to) put in doubt (with poner) stubborn, obstinate —stubbornness, obstinacy (to) distort, (to) misrepresent —twisting, distortion, misrepresentation —(to) delay, (to) pass over (promotion, etc.) (literary or social) gathering complexion ( cutis) —constitution, temperament scissors, shears rudder, helm aim (marksmanship), good sense, tact —(to) fi nd (e.g., street), (to) hit the mark —sensible, appropriate —lack of “tino”: blunder, error, nonsense (to) throw, (to) pull, (to) shoot, (to) draw —tight, taut, tense, suspenders (pl.) —shot, throw, chimney draft —target shooting, target practice —archery —draft animals —pull, tug, yank —strip (of fabric, paper, comics, etc.) —slingshot —throw (dice, ball, etc.), print run —shooter, marksman, knob (furniture), bell pull —shooting (series of shots) —Band-Aid —(to) shiver —(to) stretch (out), (to) smooth out puppet chalk (for blackboard, pool cue) foolish, silly, stupid, fool, idiot, dolt —silliness, foolishness, nonsense —(to) stun, (to) bewilder, (to) make “tonto”
[tergiversate] [post tergum] [Tertullian] [apt] [complexion obs. def.] [tonsure] [rare timoneer] [destine]
[tier] [tirade]
( Amer.)
The tela in tela de juicio has nothing to do with tela (fabric), coming instead from Latin telum (“spear”, “javelin”). Tirar corresponds to -tire in English attire and retire; the latter corresponds to Spanish retirar (Annex D).
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N O T S O E A S Y W O R D S
traba
hindrance, fetter
—sin trabas
—without restriction(s), in an unimpeded manner —(to) make difficult, (to) impede —tongue twister —(to) bind or join together, (to) thicken (food) —(to) strike up a friendship gulp, swallow —a few (alcoholic) drinks —(to) swallow, (to) devour —skylight ( claraboya) —slot machine ( tragamonedas)
—poner trabas —trabalenguas —trabar —trabar amistad trago —unos tragos —tragar —tragaluz —(máquina) tragaperras —atragantar(se) trama —tramar —entramado trámite —tramitar trasto —trastos (pl.) —trastero —trastear —traste trenza
—(to) choke (on something) weft, tram (used in weft), structure, plot (novel, criminal) —(to) weave, (to) plot or scheme —framework (lit. & fig.) (administrative) step or procedure —(to) process (administratively) old item (furniture, etc.), piece of junk —tools of the trade (e.g., fishing tackle) —storage room, junk room —(to) move things around —fret (guitar) braid, plait
trepar —trepador trillar —trilla —trilladora truco umbral vara —varilla —varita mágica vástago vereda viga vínculo
(to) climb (person, or plant) —climbing (plant) (to) thresh —threshing, thrashing —threshing machine trick, stratagem threshold rod, stick, vara (in Castile: . cm in.) —thin metal rod (e.g., umbrella rib) —magic wand shoot (plant), offspring, piston rod path, trail, sidewalk (Amer.) beam, joist, girder link, tie, bond, vinculum
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[trave, architrave]
[dragon] [rankle]
[transom]
[trestle] [tress archaic def.] [trip] [tribulation]
(Fr. truc) [limen]
[baton] [palfrey]
For the change of initial dr- to -tr, see the note under trapo in Annex D.
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ANNEX B
—vincular —brinco
—(to) bind, (to) link or connect —hop, skip, jump
—brincar volcar —vuelco yunque zambullir(se) —zambullida zapato —zapata —zapatero —zapatería
—(to) hop, (to) skip, (to) jump (to) tip or knock over —overturning, upset, turnaround anvil, incus (anvil-shaped bone in ear) (to) dive or plunge (into water or an activity) —dive, plunge shoe —brake shoe (auto) —shoemaker, cobbler —shoe shop, cobbler’s shop, shoemaker’s trade —slipper, light (tennis) shoe —follower of Emiliano Zapata (Mexican revolutionary) —zapateado (dance with rhythmic tapping of heels) blackberry (shrub), bramble —blackberry patch, brambles —blackberry (shrub or fruit) —sarsaparilla ( Sp.)
—zapatilla —zapatista —zapateado zarza —zarzal —zarzamora —zarzaparrilla —parra —parrilla (dim.)
(doublet of vínculo) [vault] [revolve] [incuse] [sepulchre] [sabot, sabotage]
(zarza parrilla)
—(large) grapevine ( vid) —grill (utensil, place for eating), gridiron
Appendix A Spanish Playing Cards An individual playing card is a naipe (or carta), a word of disputed origin. There are two types of card decks in Spain: the “native” variety (la baraja española), which has forty-eight cards ( two jokers), and the “English” deck of fift y-two cards ( jokers), which is generally known as la baraja francesa. In both sets of cards there are four suits (palos), but the names differ: Baraja española oros copas
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Baraja francesa “(gold) coins” “cups”
diamantes corazones
“diamonds” “hearts”
vinculum S vinclo S blinco S brinco. Brinco and vínculo are thus doublets.
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N O T S O E A S Y W O R D S
espadas bastos
“swords” “batons”
picas tréboles
“pikes” “trefoils”, “clovers”
When the “English” playing deck was imported from France, the symbols for the four suits were left unchanged. The English names, however, represent a mixture of French and Spanish/Italian ones: diamonds and hearts from the French, spades and clubs corresponding to Spanish espadas and bastos. The fact that an English spade bears at least a superficial resemblance to a pike (a weapon with a long wooden shaft and a pointed head of iron or steel) may have played a role as well. In the Spanish deck, all the cards are numbered, as compared to the English deck, where the three “face” cards (jack, queen, king) have no numbers. There are twelve cards in each suit (there is no queen), and numbers ten through twelve go by the following names:
sota caballo rey
Sota comes from Latin subtus (“under”) and refers to an underling of the king. The picture is of a paje (“page”), equivalent to the English jack (or knave). The caballo has a picture of a horse along with a horseman (or knight). Jokers in a Spanish deck are known as comodines (sing.: comodín) because they are “handy” cards (providing a certain commodity). In the French (English) deck, the jokers are called simply jokers (sing.: joker).
Appendix B “Old” Trees A number of Spanish tree names are recognizable only with difficulty, frequently having undergone a “popular” evolution. These include: abedul abeto arce caoba chopo () —chopera —chopo () ( It.)
birch (tree and wood) fir (tree and wood) maple (tree) mahogany (tree, wood, color) (black) poplar —poplar grove —gun, musket
[genus Betula] [genus Abies] [genus Acer] ( Amer.) (populus) (unrelated)
The English digging instrument and the Spanish sword are in fact related, although it is unlikely that this played any role: spade comes from the same Indo-European root (meaning “long, flat piece of wood”) as Greek spathe, the latter being the ultimate source (via Latin spatha) of Spanish espada. The evolution seems to have been: populus S ploppus S chopo, with the initial chbetraying likely Portuguese influence or origin.
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ANNEX B
—escopeta —escopetazo encina fresno haya sauce —sauce llorón —salicina —ácido acetilsalicílico
—shotgun —gunshot, gunshot wound, (unpleasant) surprise evergreen oak, holm oak ash (tree) beech (tree and wood) willow, sallow (tree) —weeping willow —salicin —acetylsalicyclic acid, aspirin
[bot. Quercus ilex] [genus Fraxinus, Fresno] [bot. Fagus sylvatica] [genus Salix]
Sallow comes from the Germanic equivalent of Latin salix. The name of the tree comes from its sallow color (the original root of sallow meaning “dirty” or “gray”).
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ANNEX C
Verbs Ending in -cer and Related Words
In Spanish there is a large class of verbs that end in -cer. A number of these are descendants of Latin “inceptive” verbs, in which the ending -scere was added to “normal” verbs to indicate the beginning of an action or process, e.g., florere florescere
(to) bloom or flower (to) begin to bloom or flower
Over time, many such verbs were created referring to the process itself, not necessarily only to its beginning. Eventually, they were created from adjectives and nouns as well (e.g., noble S ennoblecer). In the other Romance languages, the inceptive class of verbs also experienced exponential growth, and a large number of existing verbs were replaced by inceptive ones. This process was so widespread that it became, via Old French, the basis for the -ish endings of English verbs, e.g., abolish, accomplish, blemish, brandish, cherish, demolish, embellish, establish, finish, flourish (from FLORESCERE), furbish, furnish, garnish, impoverish, languish, nourish, perish, polish, ravish, relinquish, replenish, tarnish, vanish, etc.
The -ish ending in English became so popular that it was applied to a number of verbs that had not been inceptive in either Latin or French, e.g., admonish, diminish, distinguish, famish, publish, vanquish. Spanish -cer verbs are generally part of a “family” of related words, and this section will introduce a number of such families. abastecer —bastante —bastar aborrecer —aborrecible —aburrir —Es aburrido. —Está aburrido. —aburrimiento
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(to) supply, (to) provide —enough, sufficient —(to) suffice, (to) be enough (to) abhor —abhorrent, detestable —(to) bore, (to) be bored —He is boring (tiresome). —He is bored. —boredom, tedium
Their more formal name is inchoative verbs.
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ANNEX C
acontecer —acontecimiento adolecer —dolor —doler —dolorido —doloroso —Dolores —duelo () —duelo () —condolencia —condoler(se) adormecer —adormecimiento —dormir —dormilón —dormitar —dormitorio agradecer —desagradecer —agradecimiento —agradecido (p.p.) —desagradecido (p.p.) —de buen grado —de mal grado —agrado —agradable —agradar —desagradable —desagradar —grato —ingrato (adj. & n.) —persona non grata amanecer —amanecer (n.) —mañana (adv. & n.)
(to) happen, (to) occur —event, happening, occurrence (to) be ill, (to) suffer from —pain, ache, sorrow, dolor —(to) ache, (to) hurt —painful (feeling pain), aching, sore —painful (causing pain), distressing, dolorous —Dolores (from María de los Dolores) —grief, sorrow, mourning —duel —condolence —(to) sympathize with, (to) feel sorry for (to) make sleepy, (to) lull, (to) fall asleep —drowsiness, sleepiness, numbness (e.g., leg) —(to) sleep —sleepyhead —(to) nap, (to) doze —bedroom, dormitory (to) be grateful for —(to) be ungrateful for —gratitude, thankfulness —grateful, thankful —ungrateful —willingly, with pleasure —unwillingly —liking, pleasure, amiableness —agreeable, pleasant —(to) please, (to) be agreeable to —disagreeable, unpleasant —(to) displease, (to) be unpleasant to —pleasant, agreeable ( agradable) —thankless, ungrateful, ingrate (ungrateful person) —persona non grata ( persona no grata) (to) dawn, (to) begin to get light —dawn, daybreak —tomorrow, morning (f.), morrow (m.), mañana
[contact] [contingency]
(unrelated) [condole]
The basic root is Latin gratus (“pleasing”, “grateful”), the root as well of gracia (“grace”), gracias (“thanks”), desgracia (“misfortune”), desgraciadamente (“unfortunately”), etc. An unrelated grado refers to “degree”, “grade”, “rank”—see Annex D. Apart from “tomorrow”, English mañana has the defi nition of “an indefi nite time in the future”.
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V E R B S E N D I N G I N C E R A N D R E L AT E D W O R D S
anochecer —anochecer (n.) —noche (f.) aparecer —parecer —comparecer —desaparecer —reaparecer —apariencia —aparición —aparente —aparentemente —aparentar —desaparición apetecer —apetencia —apetito —apetitoso —apetecible atardecer —tarde (adv. & n.f.) —tardar —tardanza —tardío —tardo —retardar carecer —carencia —cariño —cariñoso —encariñar(se) conocer —desconocer —reconocer —conocimiento —reconocimiento —conocido (p.p.)
(to) grow dark, (to) arrive at nightfall —nightfall —night (to) appear (become visible) —(to) appear (seem or look to be) —(to) appear (in court, etc.) —(to) disappear —(to) reappear —appearance (aspect) —appearance (act), apparition —apparent, seeming, suitable —apparently, seemingly —(to) appear (gen. falsely): feign indifference, look a certain age, etc. —disappearance (to) desire, (to) have an appetite for —desire, appetite, appetence —appetite, hunger —appetizing (tasty) —appetizing (tempting, inviting), desirable (to) grow dark —late, afternoon (until nightfall) —(to) be slow, long, or late —delay, tardiness —tardy, late —slow, sluggish —(to) retard, (to) delay (to) lack —lack, deficiency —affection, fondness, tenderness —affectionate, loving —(to) grow fond of, (to) become attached to (to) know, (to) be acquainted with —(to) not know, (to) fail to recognize, (to) disown —(to) recognize, (to) reconnoiter or examine, (to) acknowledge —knowledge, understanding, cognizance, cognition —recognition, gratitude, inspection, reconnaissance —well-known, acquaintaince (m./f.)
[nocturnal]
[caret ]
The caret (^) is a proofreading symbol used to indicate where something is to be inserted; caret is the third person singular of the Latin verb carere (“to be without”, “to lack”) and hence means literally “it lacks”.
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ANNEX C
—desconocido (p.p.) —reconocible —irreconocible convalecer —convalecencia —convaleciente convencer —convencimiento —convicto —convicción —convincente crecer —crecimiento —creciente —crescendo —acrecentar decrecer —decrecimiento —decreciente embellecer —belleza —bello emblanquecer —blanco (adj. & n.) —en blanco —blanquear —blanqueo de dinero —blancura embrutecer —bruto (adj. & n.) —diamante en bruto —brutal —brutalidad empequeñecer —pequeño empobrecer —pobre (adj. & n.m./f.) —pobreza —empobrecimiento enaltecer —alto ()
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—unknown, unrecognizable (changed), stranger (m./f.) —recognizable —unrecognizable (to) convalesce —convalescence —convalescent (to) convince —conviction (not legal): belief, certainty —convicted, convict —conviction (not legal), convictions (pl.) —convincing (to) grow, (to) increase —growth, increase —growing, increasing, crescent (moon) —crescendo —(to) increase (to) decrease —decrease —decreasing (to) embellish, (to) beautify —beauty —beautiful (to) whiten, (to) bleach, (to) blanch —white, target —blank (page, check, document, mind, etc.) (to) whiten, (to) bleach, (to) whitewash —money laundering ( blanqueo de capitales) —whiteness (to) make brutish or dull —brutish, rough, gross (w/out deduction), brute —uncut diamond —brutal —brutality, brutishness (to) make smaller, (to) diminish, (to) belittle —small, little (to) impoverish —poor, pauper —poverty —impoverishment (to) exalt (raise in status; praise) —high, tall
(old p.p.)
( It.) [accrue]
[enhance] [alto]
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V E R B S E N D I N G I N C E R A N D R E L AT E D W O R D S
—contralto —altura —altitud —altímetro —altiplanicie altiplano —Alteza —Su Alteza Real el Príncipe —altivo —alzar —alzamiento —exaltar —ensalzar —realzar —realce —alto () enardecer —arder —ardiente —ardor encallecer —callo encanecer —cano canoso —cana encarecer —caro —caricia —acariciar —caridad —caritativo endurecer —duro —dureza —durar
—contralto, alto —height, elevation —altitude —altimeter —high plateau, high plains, altiplano —Highness —His Royal Highness the Prince —haughty —(to) raise, (to) lift, (to) erect —uprising —(to) exalt, (to) get excited —(to) exalt ( enaltecer, exaltar) —(to) heighten, (to) enhance, (to) highlight —embossment, enhancement —halt, stop (both interjection and noun) (to) inflame —(to) burn, (to) blaze —ardent, burning —ardor, heat (to) make or become calloused —callus, corn (on toe), tripe (pl.) (to) become white- or gray-haired —white- or gray-haired (also beard, mustache), hoary —white or gray hair (gen. pl.) (to) raise the price of, (to) praise highly —dear (expensive, cherished) —caress —(to) caress, (to) fondle, (to) cherish (hopes, etc.) —charity, charitableness —charitable (to) harden, (to) indurate —hard, solid, durum wheat —hardness, harshness —(to) last, (to) endure (continue)
(unrelated)
[canescent]
[dour] [duress]
In Latin, the verbs corresponding to “harden” and “endure” by chance had identical form (durare), while derived words (notably the compound verb indurare “to make hard”) tended to become intermingled, a process aided by the fact that something that was “hard” was also likely to “endure”. Th is “mixing” continued in English, where endure (from indurare) initially meant both “to harden” (i.e., to indurate) and “to last” before coming to specialize in the second sense.
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ANNEX C
—durabilidad —duradero durable —duración —durante —perdurar enflaquecer —flaco —flácido / fláccido —flacidez / flaccidez —flaqueza —flaquear enfurecer —furioso —furibundo —furia —furor engrandecer —grande (adj. & n.) —grandeza —grandioso —grandilocuente —agrandar ennegrecer —negro —denigrar ennoblecer —noble —nobleza —innoble enrarecer
—furious, enraged —fury —furor, fury (to) enlarge, (to) aggrandize, (to) exalt —big, large, great, grand, grandee (nobleman) —grandeur, greatness, grandees (as a group) —grandiose —highly eloquent, grandiloquent —(to) enlarge, (to) aggrandize (to) blacken, (to) darken —black
—rareza ensombrecer —sombra
—(to) denigrate (to) ennoble —noble, nobleman, noblewoman —nobility —ignoble (to) deteriorate (air, climate), (to) rarefy, (to) make rare —rare (scarce, uncommon, exceptional, odd) —rarity, rareness (to) darken, (to) cloud, (to) overshadow —shade, shadow, umbra
—sombrío —sombrear —sombrero
—somber (dark, gloomy, dismal) —(to) shade (esp. picture, text) —hat, sombrero
—raro
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—durability —durable —duration —during —(to) perdure (last or endure for a long time) (to) make thin or lean, (to) weaken —skinny, lean —flaccid, flabby —flaccidity, flabbiness —thinness, leanness, frailty —(to) weaken, (to) give way (to) enrage, (to) infuriate —furious
[furioso— music]
[Negro Sp.]
[sub umbra]
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V E R B S E N D I N G I N C E R A N D R E L AT E D W O R D S
—sombrilla —asombrar —asombro —asombroso —penumbra ensordecer —sordo —sordera —sordomudo —absurdo (adj. & n.) entorpecer —torpe —torpeza entristecer —triste —tristeza entumecer —tumor envanecer —desvanecer —evanescente —vano —en vano —vanidoso —vanidad —vanagloria —vanagloriar(se) —devaneo —desván envilecer —vil —en vilo —vileza esclarecer
—(sun) umbrella [in some countries: rain umbrella] —(to) amaze, (to) astonish —amazement, astonishment —amazing, astonishing —penumbra (to) make deaf —deaf, silent, muffled (sound), surd (linguistics) —deafness —deaf and dumb, deaf-mute —absurd, absurdity ( absurdidad) (to) dull or blunt (mind, muscles), (to) obstruct —awkward, clumsy, slow (in thinking) —awkwardness, clumsiness, stupidity, blunder (to) sadden, (to) make sad —sad, triste, tristful —sadness (to) make numb, (to) swell (river, sea) —tumor (to) make (or become) vain or conceited —(to) dissipate, (to) evanesce, (to) vanish —evanescent, vanishing, fleeting —vain (empty, useless, conceited) —in vain —vain, conceited —vanity, conceit —vainglory (unwarranted pride, vain display) —(to) boast, (to) be vainglorious —delirium, idle pursuit, flirtation —attic, loft, garret (to) vilify, (to) debase, (to) degrade —vile (despicable, second-rate) —“up in the air”, “in suspense”, “on tenterhooks” —vileness, vile act (to) clear up, (to) clarify (elucidate)
[turpitude]
[intumesce]
Absurd comes from ab surdus and meant something that was insufferable to the ear, i.e., “ill-sounding”, “incongruous”, or “absurd”. Desván literally means “empty space between the roof and top floor”.
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ANNEX C
—claro (adj. & n.) —clara —aclarar —claridad —clarificar —clarificación favorecer —desfavorecer —favor —por favor —favorable —favorito —favoritismo —desfavorable florecer —flor (f.) —flora —floral —florear —florero —florista —floristería —floresta —florido —aflorar —desflorar humedecer —húmedo —humedad languidecer —lánguido —languidez merecer —desmerecer —inmerecido —mérito —meritorio nacer —renacer
T4311.indb 502
—clear, bright, clearing —white (of an egg) —(to) clear, (to) clear up, (to) clarify, (to) rinse —clarity, clearness, brightness —(to) clarify (a point or a liquid) —clarification (to) favor —(to) disfavor —favor —please, if you please —favorable —favorite —favoritism —unfavorable (to) flower, (to) bloom, (to) flourish —flower —flora —floral —(to) decorate with flowers —flower pot or vase —florist —flower shop —pleasant woods or grove, forest —flowery, florid —(to) come to the surface, (to) emerge —(to) deflower (to) humidify, (to) moisten —humid, moist, damp, wet —humidity, moisture, dampness (to) languish —languid (weak, listless, slow) —languidness, languor (to) merit, (to) deserve —(to) be unworthy of, (to) be inferior to —unmerited, undeserved —merit —meritorious (to) be born —(to) be reborn, (to) spring up anew
[Florida]
Floresta comes from Old French forest (“forest”), with the l due to the influence of flor.
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V E R B S E N D I N G I N C E R A N D R E L AT E D W O R D S
—nacimiento —naciente —renacimiento —renacentista —natal —natalidad —natalicio (adj. & n.) —nato (old p.p.) —innato —nativo —naíf, naif obedecer —desobedecer —obediente —obediencia —desobediente —desobediencia ofrecer —oferta —oferta y demanda oscurecer / obscurecer —oscuro / obscuro —oscuridad / obscuridad padecer —compadecer —padecimiento palidecer —pálido —palidez perecer —perecedero —imperecedero permanecer —permanente —permanencia pertenecer —pertinente —pertinencia placer —placer (n.)
T4311.indb 503
—nascence, birth, source or origin (e.g., river) —nascent, incipient, rising (sun) —rebirth, renascence, renaissance —Renaissance (adj.), scholar of the Renaissance —natal, native —natality (birthrate) —birthday —born (adj.), natural (e.g., leader) —innate, inborn —native —naive or naif (esp. style of art) (to) obey —(to) disobey —obedient —obedience —disobedient —disobedience (to) offer —offer, bid, supply (economics) —supply and demand (to) darken, (to) obscure —dark, obscure, uncertain —darkness, obscurity (to) suffer —(to) pity, (to) feel compassion for —suffering (to) pale —pallid, pale —paleness, pallor (to) perish, (to) die —perishable, not lasting —imperishable, undying (to) stay, (to) remain —permanent (adj.), permanent (hair wave—f.) —permanence, stay, sojourn (to) belong, (to) pertain —pertinent, relevant —pertinence, relevance (to) please (oneself) —pleasure
[Noël]
[née]
( nativus)
[patience] [passion]
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ANNEX C
—complacer —complacencia —complaciente prevalecer —valer —vale () —vale () (interjection) —valiente —valentía —valencia —Valencia —valenciano —valeroso —válido —valido (p.p.) —validar —validez —inválido (adj. & n.) —invalidar —invalidez —valía —valor —valorar —valoración —valioso —plusvalía —minusvalía —minusválido —devaluar desvalorizar —devaluación desvalorización —evaluar —evaluación —polivalente reblandecer —reblandecimiento —blando
T4311.indb 504
—(to) please (oneself, or another) —pleasure, complacency, complaisance —complaisant (cheerfully obliging), complacent (to) prevail, (to) take root —(to) cost (be valued at), (to) be worth, (to) be valid —voucher, promissory note —okay, agreed ( de acuerdo) —valiant, brave, courageous —bravery, courage, valiance —valence (chem.) —Valencia (Sp. city & region) —Valencian (resident of Valencia, dialect of Catalan) —valorous, brave, courageous ( valiente) —valid —court favorite, prime minister (of king or ruler) —(to) validate —validity —invalid (void; disabled), invalid (person) —(to) invalidate —invalidity, disability (physical) —value or worth (of a person) —value or worth (of an item), valor, courage —(to) appraise, (to) value —valuation, evaluation —valuable —capital gain, appreciation (in value), surplus value —physical or mental incapacity, capital loss —handicapped, handicapped person —(to) devalue —devaluation —(to) evaluate, (to) assess —evaluation —multipurpose, all-purpose, polyvalent (chem.) (to) soften —softening —soft
[blandish] [bland]
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V E R B S E N D I N G I N C E R A N D R E L AT E D W O R D S
—blandura —ablandar recrudecer —recrudecimiento —crudo —crudeza —cruel —crueldad resplandecer —resplandor —esplendor —espléndido reverdecer —verde —verdor —verdura —vergel —verdugo robustecer —robusto —robustez —roble
—soft ness, mildness —(to) soften, (to) mollify (to) recrudesce, (to) worsen —recrudescence, worsening —raw, uncooked, harsh, ecru (color), crude —harshness, severity —cruel —cruelty (to) shine brightly, (to) be resplendent —resplendence, radiance —splendor —splendid, generous (to) turn green again, (to) renew —green, verdant, unripe, off-color —greenness, verdancy —greens, vegetable, verdure —flower and fruit garden —executioner (to) strengthen (“make robust”) —robust —robustness —oak (tree and wood), roble (Californian oak)
[vert]
All of the -cer verbs presented above have the characteristic that their first person singular ends in -zco rather than the “expected” -co (conozco, florezco, ofrezco, prevalezco). A far smaller number of -cer verbs are not inceptive in origin and therefore do not have the -zco ending: cocer —recocer —escocer —escozor —cocido (p.p.) coercer —coerción —coercitivo
(to) cook —(to) recook, (to) overcook —(to) smart, (to) cause a burning sensation —burning pain or sensation, irritation —“Spanish” stew (boiled meat and vegetables) (to) coerce —coercion —coercive
Initially a verdugo was a rod (branch cut while still green) used as a whip, then the person wielding the whip, and finally an executioner. The fi rst person singular of these verbs in fact ends in -zo—a “regular” orthographic change to preserve the pronunciation of the “soft” c when followed by an -a, -o, or -u (see Section ., no. ).
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ANNEX C
ejercer —ejercicio —ejercitar —ejército mecer —mecedora torcer —destorcer —retorcer vencer —vencedor —vencimiento —fecha de vencimiento —invencible
T4311.indb 506
(to) exercise (apart from physical training) —exercise, practice, drill —(to) exercise (all senses), (to) train —army (to) rock, (to) swing —rocking chair (to) twist —(to) untwist —(to) twist, (to) distort (words) (to) vanquish, (to) defeat, (to) expire —victor, winner, vanquisher —expiration, maturity —expiration date, due date, maturity date —invincible
[mix] [torsion] [retort]
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ANNEX D
, Relatively Easy Words
The large majority of these words—either collectively or as members of a group—have easily remembered etymological correspondences in English. (Such correspondences are italicized only in cases where they might not be immediately obvious or to call attention to the relationship). abandonar —abandono abatir —abatido (p.p.) abominable —abominar —abominación aborto —abortar —abortivo abrupto absceso absoluto —en absoluto —absolutamente absorbente —absorber —absorto —sorber —sorbo —sorbete abundancia —abundante —abundar abuso —abusar —abusivo académico (adj. & n.) —academia ácido (adj. & n.) —acidez
T4311.indb 507
(to) abandon —abandon, abandonment (to) bring down (sails, enemy aircraft, spirits) —dejected, downcast abominable —(to) abominate —abomination abortion, miscarriage —(to) abort, (to) miscarry —abortive steep, craggy, abrupt abscess absolute —absolutely not —absolutely (negative sense also possible) absorbent —(to) absorb —absorbed or engrossed (in) —(to) suck, (to) sip, (to) soak up —sip, gulp —sherbet abundance —abundant, plentiful —(to) abound abuse —(to) abuse —abusive, excessive (price) academic, academician
[abate]
(old p.p.)
( Arabic)
—academy, private school acidic, sour, acid —acidity, sourness
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ANNEX D
acrimonia —acre () —acritud —acerbo —exacerbar —agrio —agriar —acre () ( Eng.) acróbata (m./f.) —acrobacia —acrobático actual —actualidad —actualizar —actualización adecuado (p.p.) —adecuar —inadecuado aderezar —aderezo —enderezar adornar —adorno —ornamento adverso —adversidad —adversario adyacente —yacer —yacimiento afable afecto (adj.) —afecto (n.) —afectuoso —afectivo —afectar () —afectar () —afectado ()
acrimony, bitterness —acrid, tart, acrimonious acridity, acrimony acerbic (sour or bitter tasting; biting) —(to) exacerbate —sour, acid, citrus fruits (pl.) —(to) sour, (to) embitter —acre acrobat —acrobatics —acrobatic present, current, actual —present (time), current situation —(to) update ( poner al día) —updating appropriate, suitable —(to) adapt, (to) make suitable —unsuitable, inadequate (to) season (cooking), (to) dress (salad, appearance) —seasoning, (salad) dressing —(to) straighten, (to) straighten out (to) adorn —adornment —ornament adverse —adversity —adversary adjacent —(to) lie (at rest) —(mineral) deposit, (fossil) bed affable affected (with illness), attached (partial to) —affection, fondness, affect (feeling or emotion) —affectionate —affective (emotional) —(to) affect (influence, act on the emotions) —(to) affect (simulate, take the nature of) —affected (acted upon, emotionally stirred, afflicted)
[eager] [† acritude] (ex acerb-)
[actuality] [actualize] [actualization] [adequate]
[direct, dress]
(“lying near”) [joist, gite]
In English, affect is generally considered to be two distinct verbs, reflecting their derivations from separate (albeit related) Latin verbs. By contrast, Spanish afectar is generally considered to be a single verb.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—afectado () —afectación —afección —afición —aficionado afi nidad —afín —afi nar afl icción —afl igir afluente —afluencia África —africano agilidad —ágil agitación —agitar —agitador agrario —agro —agronomía —agrónomo agravación —agravar —agravante (adj. & n.) —agraviar —agravio —agravio comparativo agregar —agregado (p.p.) —agregación agricultura —agricultor —agrícola ajustar
—affected (feigned or simulated) —affectation —affection (“disease”; less freq. “fondness”, “emotion”) —fondness, inclination, hobby, enthusiasts or fans —aficionado, amateur affi nity (incl. “relationship by marriage”) —kindred, related, affined —(to) refine (argument, mineral), (to) tune affliction, grief, sorrow —(to) afflict, (to) distress, (to) grieve affluent (stream or river that flows into a larger one), tributary —influx, affluence (great quantity, abundance) Africa —African agility —agile agitation, turmoil —(to) agitate, (to) shake —agitator (person or apparatus) agrarian —(cultivated) land, agricultural sector —agronomy —agronomist aggravation —(to) aggravate —aggravating, aggravating factor or circumstance —(to) offend, (to) insult —offense, insult, injury (legal) —injustice, (unfair) discrimination (to) add, (to) attach (person to an office) —aggregate, attaché (military, etc.) —aggregation agriculture, farming —agricultur(al)ist, farmer —agricultural (to) adjust, (to) fit (transitive)
[acre ]
[aggrieve] [grievance]
[aggregate]
Latin ager (source of Spanish agro) and Germanic acre come from the same Indo-European root.
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ANNEX D
—ajustado (p.p.) —ajuste —ajuste de cuentas álamo —alameda albino —albo (“poetic”) —alba —alborada —alborear albores (pl.) álbum aleatorio alergia —alérgico alerta —alertar alfabeto —alfabetizar —analfabeto —analfabetismo alga, algas (pl.) alianza —aliar —aliado (p.p.) aliviar —alivio almendra alternancia —alternar —alternativo (adj.) —alternativa (n.) —alterno —corriente alterna (CA) —alternador altruismo —altruista (adj. & n.) alucinar —alucinación alumno
T4311.indb 510
—just (fair), tight, close-fitting —adjustment, fit, agreement —settling of accounts, vengeance poplar tree, alamo —poplar grove, alameda (tree-shaded promenade) albino —white —dawn, alb (ecclesiastical vestment) —dawn, reveille, aubade —(to) dawn ( amanecer) dawn (fig.), beginning album aleatory (dependent on chance or luck)
(Lat. alea, “a die”)
allergy —allergic alert, on the alert (adv.) —(to) alert alphabet —(to) alphabetize, (to) teach literacy —illiterate, analphabetic —illiteracy alga, algae, seaweed alliance, wedding ring —(to) ally, (to) become allied —ally (to) alleviate, (to) lighten (burden) —alleviation, relief almond alternation —(to) alternate, (to) mix (socially) —alternative, alternate —alternative —alternating, alternate —alternating current (AC) —alternator altruism —altruistic, altruist (to) hallucinate, (to) delude —hallucination pupil, student
[alumnus]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—alumnado amable —amabilidad —amistad —amistoso —amor —amoroso —amar —amante —enamorar —enamorado, enamorada amarrar —amarra —desamarrar ambiente (adj. & n.) —el medio ambiente —ámbito ambiguo —ambigüedad ambulancia —ambulante —ambulatorio (adj. & n.) amenaza —amenazar —conminar ameno —amenidad —amenizar América —americano —centroamericano —norteamericano —sudamericano amnistía —amnistiar ampolla análisis (m.) —analista () —analista () —analizar —analítico
T4311.indb 511
—student body amiable, kind —amiability, kindness —friendship, amity —friendly, amicable —love —amorous, loving —(to) love —loving, lover (m./f.) —(to) enamor —in love, enamored, lover, inamorato, inamorata (to) moor, (to) tie, (to) fasten —mooring (rope, cable), “connections” (gen. pl.) —(to) untie, (to) unmoor ambient, ambiance, environment or surroundings —environment (nature) —ambit (external boundary, scope) ambiguous —ambiguity ambulance —itinerant, traveling (e.g., circus, salesman) —ambulatory, outpatient, outpatient department menace, threat —(to) menace, (to) threaten —(to) warn or order (in a menacing manner) pleasant, agreeable —amenity, pleasantness —(to) make pleasant, (to) add a pleasant touch America —American (of or relating to the Americas) —Central American —North American (freq. estadounidense) —South American ( suramericano) amnesty (general pardon) —(to) amnesty blister, flask, ampoule (for injections) analysis —analyst —annalist (writer of anales annals), chronicler —(to) analyze —analytic, analytical
[paramour]
[ambulant]
[commination]
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ANNEX D
anarquía —anarquismo —anarquista (adj. & n) anatomía —anatómico anca —ancas de rana anciano (adj. & n.) —ancianidad anécdota —anecdótico angina anguila angustia —angustiar —angosto —angostura —congoja —acongojar aniquilar —aniquilación ansiedad —ansioso —ansia —ansiar antena anterior —con anterioridad anticipación
anarchy —anarchism —anarchistic, anarchist anatomy, dissection —anatomical haunch —frogs’ legs aged, old (persons, not things), old man or woman —old age anecdote —anecdotal angina eel anguish ( ansiedad) —(to) anguish, (to) distress —narrow —narrowness, narrow passage —anguish —(to) distress, (to) anguish (to) annihilate —annihilation anxiety ( angustia) —anxious (incl. “eagerly or earnestly desirous” ) —anxiety (incl. “eager desire”) —(to) be anxious for (desire eagerly), (to) hanker after antenna, aerial preceding, former, anterior —previously, beforehand anticipation
[ancient]
[Anguilla ]
The Caribbean island of Anguilla, sighted by Columbus in , presumably owes its name to its eel-like shape; anguilla was the “old” form of anguila and is still current in Honduras, and perhaps elsewhere. Latin angustus meant “narrow”, “constricted”, and angustia, “narrow or constricted place”, before the latter came to be applied to the particular constriction felt in one’s chest when one is anguished or anxious. Congoja comes from Catalan congoixa, where it had been formed from con-gustia, a contraction of co-angustia. English anguish comes from French angoisse ( angustia). The usage of anxious in the sense of “eager “ is generally frowned upon by language purists. Such anxiety seems a bit misplaced, however, since this meaning is found not only in Spanish ansioso (dating back, as for English anxious, at least to the eighteenth century) but also in French anxieux, Italian ansioso, and Portuguese ansioso.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—con anticipación —anticipar —anticipo antiguo —antigüedad —anticuario —anticuado antorcha anular () —anulación —nulo anular () —anillo anunciar —anuncio —nuncio aparato —aparatoso apelar —apelativo —apellido aplacar apogeo apreciación —apreciar —apreciable —inapreciable —aprecio —depreciar —depreciación aprehender —aprehensión —aprensión —aprensivo —aprender —aprendiz —aprendizaje aproximación —aproximar
T4311.indb 513
—in advance, beforehand ( con antelación) —(to) anticipate (incl. “cause to happen earlier”; “prepay a debt”) —advance payment ancient, old (things; people—old friends, old hands, etc.) —antiquity, seniority, antiques (pl.) —antiquarian, antique dealer or collector —antiquated, outdated, obsolete torch (to) annul, (to) nullify —annulment, nullification —null and void, null, incompetent annular (ring-shaped), ring fi nger —ring (to) announce, (to) advertise —announcement, notice, advertisement —nuncio (papal ambassador or representative) apparatus —ostentatious, showy, spectacular (accident) (to) appeal (primarily in legal sense) —appellative (gram.), name or descriptive epithet —family name, surname, last name (to) placate, (to) calm down apogee appraisal, appreciation (of a currency) —(to) appreciate (various senses), (to) appraise —appreciable, estimable (worthy of appreciation) —inappreciable (negative!), inestimable (positive!), priceless —appreciation (apart from “rise in value”) —(to) depreciate —depreciation (to) apprehend, (to) seize (contraband) —apprehension (arrest, understanding), seizure —apprehension (esp. fear or dread— of infection, etc.) —apprehensive (fearful) —(to) learn —apprentice —apprenticeship approximation —(to) bring near, (to) approach, (to) approximate
[apprise]
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ANNEX D
—aproximado (p.p.) —aproximadamente arable —arar —arado (p.p.) arca —arca de Noé —arcano (adj. & n.) —arco —arco iris —arquero —arcada —arcángel —arquidiócesis, archi—archiduque —archipiélago —arquitecto —arquitectura —arquetipo —arzobispo archivo —archivador —archivar —archivero arcilla arduo argumento —argüir —argumentar —argumentación
—approximate —approximately arable —(to) plow —plow, plowing ark, chest, strongbox, coffers (pl.) —Noah’s Ark —arcane (mysterious, obscure), arcanum, arcana (pl.) —arch, arc, bow —rainbow —archer, goalkeeper ( portero) —arcade (series of arches), retching (freq. pl.) —archangel —archdiocese —archduke —archipelago —architect —architecture —archetype —archbishop archives, fi les, fi le ( fichero) —fi ling cabinet ( fichero), letter fi le ( carpeta) —(to) fi le, (to) archive —archivist clay, argil arduous argument (reason, reasoning, abstract or summary) —(to) argue (show by reasoning, indicate), (to) deduce —(to) argue (one’s case), (to) dispute —argumentation (reasoning, presentation of argumentos)
Latin arcus was used for both arch and arc (something shaped like an arch, notably a rainbow and an archer’s bow, as well as a segment of a circle), which is why in Spanish both have the form arco. French separated the two concepts into different words (arche and arc), which is how they arrived in English. Latin arca was a completely separate word meaning “chest” or “coffer”, which came into English directly from Latin as ark, with fi nal k to distinguish it orthographically from arc. (In French, just to confuse matters: English ark is arche, the arch of a bridge is an arche, but a triumphal arch is an arc). The arch- and archi- in archangel, archbishop, and architect have yet another origin: Greek arkhi-, meaning “chief ”. Because the retching person (involuntarily) assumes the shape of an arch.
T4311.indb 514
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
árido —aridez armonía —armonioso —armónica —armonizar arrogante —arrogancia arroyo arruga —arrugar —rugoso —verruga arte (m. or f.) —artista —artístico —artesano (adj. & n.) —artesanal —artesanía artificial —artífice —artificio —fuegos de artificio —artificiero —artefacto as asalto —asaltar —asaltante (m./f.) asamblea asentir —asentimiento Asia —asiático asignar —asignación —asignatura asilo aspereza
T4311.indb 515
arid, dry —aridity, dryness harmony —harmonious —harmonica —(to) harmonize arrogant —arrogance brook, stream, arroyo wrinkle (fabric or skin) —(to) wrinkle, (to) crumple, (to) rumple —wrinkled, rugose —wart, verruca art, arts (pl.) —artist, artiste (performing artist) —artistic —artisanal, artisan, craftsman —artisanal —handicraft, craftsmanship artificial —artificer (craftsman; architect [creator]) —device, contrivance, artifice —fireworks ( fuegos artificiales) —specialist in munitions or fireworks —device (gen. large or explosive) ace (card, die; talented performer) assault, round (boxing) —(to) assault, (to) assail —assailant assembly (to) assent, (to) agree —assent, consent Asia —Asian, Asiatic (to) assign —assignation (but not romantic!), allotment (money) —academic subject asylum, refuge asperity, roughness
[ruga] [corrugated] (unrelated)
[artifact]
Normally masculine in the singular, feminine in the plural.
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ANNEX D
—áspero aspirina astuto —astucia ataque —atacar atención —atento —ser atento —estar atento —desatento atenuar —atenuante (adj. & n.f.) —extenuado atlas atómico —átomo atraer —atracción —atractivo —contraer —contracción —detraer —distraer —distraído (p.p.) —distracción —extraer —extracto —extracción —retraer —retracción —retractar —retractación —sustraer / substraer —sustracción / subsatributo —atribuir —atribución
T4311.indb 516
—rough, harsh, gruff aspirin astute, cunning, sly —astuteness, cunning, trick attack —(to) attack attention —attentive (observant, courteous, polite) —(to) be attentive (courteous, polite) —(to) be attentive (observant, watchful) —inattentive, discourteous (to) attenuate, (to) extenuate —extenuating, extenuating circumstance —debilitated, exhausted atlas atomic —atom (to) attract —attraction —attractive —(to) contract —contraction —(to) detract (take away; archaic “speak ill of”) —(to) distract, (to) amuse —distracted, absent-minded —distraction, amusement —(to) extract —extract, abstract (summary) —extraction —(to) retract (draw back or in), (to) dissuade, (to) retreat —retraction (act of drawing in, e.g., of landing gear) —(to) retract (disavow) —retraction (disavowal) —(to) subtract, (to) steal
[extenuated]
—subtraction, theft attribute —(to) attribute (incl. obs. “grant or assign” [authority, prize]) —attribution, authority or power (“attributed” to someone)
8/31/07 6:45:09 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
atrocidad —atroz audiencia —audible —audición —auditivo —auditoría —auditor —auditorio aullar —aullido —ulular austeridad —austero Australia —australiano autonomía —autónomo avalancha avance —avanzar avaricia —avaricioso —avaro (adj. & n.) aventajar —ventaja —ventajoso —desventaja —desventajoso aventura —aventurar —aventurero (adj. & n.) —ventura —buenaventura —venturoso —desventura ávido —avidez avisar —aviso
T4311.indb 517
atrocity, atrociousness —atrocious audience, judicial hearing, tribunal, court (building) —audible —audition (incl. “sense of hearing”), concert, recital —auditive (relating to hearing) —audit, court of auditors —auditor —auditorium, audience (to) howl —howl —(to) ululate, (to) screech (owl) austerity —austere Australia —Australian autonomy —autonomous avalanche ( alud) advance —(to) advance avarice —avaricious —avaricious, miser (to) surpass or be in the lead (take the advantage) —advantage —advantageous —disadvantage —disadvantageous adventure (incl. “enterprise of a hazardous nature”) —(to) venture, (to) adventure —adventurous, adventurer —happiness, luck or fortune (good or bad) —good luck, fortune (as told by fortune-teller) —happy, fortunate (bringing buenaventura) —misfortune avid —avidity (to) advise, (to) warn, (to) inform —notice, warning, admonishment
8/31/07 6:45:10 AM
ANNEX D
ayuda —ayudar —ayudante (m./f.) bachiller —bachillerato bacteria bagatela bahía balada balance —balanceo —balancear —balanza —balanza comercial —abalanzar(se) balbucir balbucear —balbuceo balcón —palco balística —ballesta —ballestero ballet —baile —bailar —bailarín (-ina) —bailador balón —baloncesto —balonmano —béisbol —bala —embalar —embalaje balsa () balsa () —embalse bálsamo bambú
aid, assistance, help —(to) aid, (to) help —aid (assistant or helper), aide, adjutant high school graduate —high school diploma, high school studies bacteria bagatelle (trifle) bay ballad balance (but not scale), balance sheet —rocking, rolling (motion) —(to) balance (incl. “sway or waver”), (to) rock —balance (weighing device), scale —balance of trade —(to) throw or fling oneself at (on, into) (to) babble, (to) stammer —babbling, stammering balcony —box (theater, stadium) ballistics —arbalest (crossbow), suspension spring (auto) —crossbowman ballet —dance, ball —(to) dance, (to) spin (e.g., a top) —dancer, ballet dancer, ballerina —dancer (esp. of Andalusian dances) ball (gen. large, inflated) —basketball —team handball —baseball —bullet, bale —(to) pack, (to) bale —packing, packaging balsa (raft, tree, wood) pond, pool —reservoir, artificial lake balsam, balm bamboo
[bachelor] [baccalaureate]
[balloon]
( Sp.)
Balcón and palco come from Italian, where balco and palco were dialectical variants of a Germanic word for “wooden beam”. English balk (one of whose defi nitions is “a wooden beam or rafter”) comes from the same Germanic root.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
banal —banalidad barbacoa barbarie —bárbaro (adj. & n.) —barbarismo barra —barrera —bar () ( Eng.) —bar () barraca barricada —barrica —barriga barril barroco báscula base (f.) —basa —básico —basar —rebasar
banal banality barbecue ( Sp.) barbarism, barbarousness, barbarity —barbaric, barbarous, barbarian —barbarism (barbaric act; impurity of language) bar, rod —barrier —bar (establishment) —bar (unit of atmospheric pressure) cabin, hut, storage shed (Amer.) barricade —barrel, cask —belly barrel, cask baroque scale (for weighing), bascule (drawbridge) base, basis —base (of column or statue) —basic —(to) base, (to) be based —(to) exceed, (to) go beyond
—rebosar
—(to) overflow, (to) abound
basílica bastardo (adj. & n.) —bastardear bastón batalla —batallar —batallón —batir
—batida —batidor —batidora —bate ( Eng.) —bateador —batuta
basilica bastard (illegitimate, spurious) —(to) bastardize (debase, adulterate) cane, walking stick, baton, rod (part of retina) battle —(to) battle —battalion —(to) batter, (to) beat (eggs, wings, the bushes, record, opponent, metal) —whipped (cream, etc.); batter, shake (milk or fruit) —search (“beat the bushes”), battue —whisk (wire kitchen utensil for beating) —electric mixer —baseball bat —batter (baseball) —baton (music)
—rebatir
—(to) rebut (refute; drive or beat back)
—batido (p.p.)
T4311.indb 519
[Barbara]
(unrelated) [barrack]
( balsa (), i.e., overflow) ( reverso: v S b, rs S s)
(“baton” is unrelated) [rebate]
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ANNEX D
bayoneta beatificar —beatitud —beato (adj. & n.) beligerante (adj. & n.m./f.) —bélico —belicoso beneficiario —beneficiar —beneficencia —beneficio —beneficioso —benéfico —benefactor benigno bicicleta billete —billetero (-ra) bizarro bloque —bloc —bloquear —bloqueo blusa bobo (adj. & n.) —bobada bofetada bofetón boicot ( Eng.) —boicotear bola —bolo —bolera —bolero —bolígrafo bomba () —bombero —bombear bomba () —bombardear —bombardeo —bombardero —bombazo
T4311.indb 520
bayonet (to) beatify —beatitude, blessedness —devout, sanctimonious, Blessed (beatified) belligerent (engaged in war or of war-like disposition) —of war, war-like —bellicose beneficiary —(to) benefit —beneficence, (public) charity —benefit, advantage, profit, benefice (eccl.) —beneficial —beneficent, charitable —benefactor benign, benignant bicycle ticket, bill, banknote —billfold, wallet brave, gallant block, bloc (coalition) —writing pad or tablet —(to) block, (to) blockade —blockade, blockage blouse silly, foolish, fool, booby ( Sp.), boob —nonsense, foolishness, idiocy slap in the face, buffet (blow or cuff ) boycott —(to) boycott ball, marble —bowling pin, bowling (pl.) —bowling alley —bolero (music or dance, short jacket open in the front), liar —ballpoint pen pump —fireman —(to) pump bomb, bombshell (sensational news) —(to) bombard, (to) bomb —bombardment, bombing —bomber (airplane) —(bomb) explosion, bomb damage
[billet-doux] [bizarre]
[rebuff ]
[bola Sp.]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—bombilla —bombo —a bombo y platillo bonete —boina bordar
—light bulb —bass drum, revolving lottery box, ballyhoo —with much fanfare biretta (square cap worn by clerics) —beret (to) broider, (to) embroider
—bordado (p.p.) —bordadura borde —bordear —bordo —a bordo —abordar
—embroidery (act, piece) —embroidery (piece) border, edge, rim, brink —(to) border, (to) go around, (to) skirt —board (side of a ship) —on board, aboard —(to) board (ship, plane, train), (to) tackle (a problem) —boarding of a ship (e.g., by pirates) —(to) overflow boreal, northern —aurora borealis, northern lights —storm, squall forest, woods —wooded, forested, bosky —grove, bosquet —sketch, outline —(to) sketch, (to) outline —ambush, ambuscade —(to) ambush wineskin, butt (cask, liquid measure) —bottle —(to) stuff (animal intestine, suitcase, etc.) —sausage boot —ankle boot —booty, plunder (to) fl ing, (to) bounce, (to) launch a boat —bounce, jump, bound —(to) rebound, (to) ricochet —rebound, bounce (of a ball), ricochet pot, jar, can —pot, jar
—abordaje —desbordar boreal —aurora boreal —borrasca bosque —boscoso —bosquete —bosquejo —bosquejar —emboscada —emboscar bota () —botella —embutir —embutido (p.p.) bota () —botín () —botín () botar —bote () —rebotar —rebote bote () —pote
[bonnet] (OldSp. brordar)
[bush, boscage] [bouquet]
(unrelated) [butt vb.] [rebut] ( pote)
Literally a “small bomb”, a description that made more sense in the early days when bombs were spherical.
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ANNEX D
—potaje bote () ( Eng.) —bote salvavidas botón —botones (sing.) —abotonar botulismo boxeo —boxear —boxeador —bóxer ( Eng.) boya —boyante braga
—pottage, soup, hodge-podge (row) boat —life boat button, bud, knob —bellboy, bellhop —(to) button ( abrochar) botulism boxing —(to) box —boxer —boxer (dog) buoy —buoyant panties, knickers (usually pl.)
—bragueta brasero —brasa —abrasar brecha brevedad —breve —breviario bricolaje brida brigada —general de brigada brillante —brillar —brillo brío brisa —parabrisas brocha broche —abrochar —desabrochar bruma bruñir brusco bucólico bufé —bufete bulevar
—fly (of trousers) brazier (brasier) —red-hot coal, ember —(to) scorch, (to) burn breach (esp. in fortress wall), head injury brevity —brief, short —breviary bricolage, do-it-yourself, DIY bridle, clamp brigade, staff sergeant (m.) —brigadier general brilliant, shining —(to) shine, (to) glitter —brilliance, shine, luster brio (vigor, verve, vivacity) breeze (prob. Sp.) —windshield (stubby) brush (painting, shaving) brooch, clasp —(to) button (up) ( abotonar) —(to) unbutton, (to) unfasten brume (mist, fog) (to) burnish, (to) polish (metal, stone) brusque, abrupt bucolic buffet (meal) —lawyer’s office, desk boulevard
[breeches, britches] [bracket]
[braise]
®
[Brillo ]
(parar brisa)
[brown]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—baluarte burdel burguesía —burgués (-esa) —burgomaestre burla —burlar —burlesco —burlón (-ona) buró —burocracia —burócrata —burocrático cable cactus, cacto cal (f.) —cal viva —a cal y canto —(piedra) caliza —calcio —calcificar —calcinar —calzada calabozo cálculo () —cálculo () —calcular —calculación —calculador —calculadora —incalculable cáliz —cauce —encauzar calma —calmar —calmante
—bulwark, bastion, defense bordello, brothel bourgeoisie, middle class —bourgeois, middle class (person), burgher —burgomaster (mayor) mockery, joke, trick —(to) mock, (to) deceive —comical, burlesque —mocking, mocker, joker desk, bureau (writing desk) —bureaucracy —bureaucrat —bureaucratic cable cactus lime —quicklime —completely (referring to a shut door, or figuratively) —limestone —calcium —(to) calcify —(to) burn, (to) reduce to ashes, (to) calcine —causeway, paved part of road dungeon, jail cell, calaboose ( Sp.) calculation, computation, calculus —stone (e.g., kidney), calculus (med.) —(to) calculate —calculation —calculating —calculator (machine) —incalculable chalice, calyx (“flower cup”) —riverbed, channel
[burg, borough] [burgess]
[calx, chalk]
(doublet of cáliz)
—(to) channel, (to) guide calm, calmness, composure —(to) calm, (to) calm down —calmative or sedative (e.g., herbal tea), analgesic
Latin calculus was a “small stone”. The mathematical sense arose from the use of stones in counting and in making calculations (as with an abacus).
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ANNEX D
calzar —calzado (p.p.) —calzón —calzo —calzoncillo —calcetín ( media) —calcáneo —calcar —calco —recalcar —descalzar —descalzo —recalcitrante camión (m.) —camionero —camioneta camisa —camiseta —camisón camuflaje —camuflar canal —canalizar canapé canasta —canasto cancelar —cancela —canciller —cancillería
(to) put on shoes, (to) wear or take (a certain size) —shod, footwear —pants, trousers —chock, wedge —underpants, drawers —sock, stocking —calcaneus (heel bone) —(to) trace, (to) copy —exact copy, calque (loan translation) —(to) stress (by speaking clearly or slowly, or by repeating) —(to) take off (shoes, socks), (to) remove chocks —barefoot, shoeless, discalced —stubborn, recalcitrant truck, camion —truck driver —small truck or bus shirt, chemise —T-shirt, undershirt, camisole —nightshirt, nightgown, nightie camouflage —(to) camouflage canal, channel (physical or broadcast), duct —(to) canalize, (to) channel sofa, canapé (cracker or bread spread) large round basket, basketball hoop, canasta (card game) —basket (with narrow mouth) (to) cancel —grating, grille, iron gate —chancellor —chancellery
[Chaucer] [calceolate] [calzone]
[caulk, calk]
[camise]
[canopy]
[chancel]
These words come from Latin calx (genit. calcis) meaning “heel” and gradually came to apply to footwear in general, and eventually to trousers. A Middle English chaucer was a maker of leather breeches, boots, etc. calcare was to trace something with the heel, hence Spanish calcar and, taking the idea of squeezing something together, English caulk. To inculcate arose from the notion of stamping in with the heel, while recalcitrant was literally “to dig in one’s heels”. calx had an unrelated homonym that meant “limestone” or “pebble”, and this is the source of the words listed under cal and calculus (a little stone). Latin cancellus was a grating or lattice. If one wished to cross out or cancel something written, one did so by drawing lines across it in the form of a lattice, hence the verb cancellare (“to cancel”). A chancellor (Latin cancellarius) was essentially the doorkeeper who guarded the grating separating the public from the judges.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
candidato —candidatura —cándido —candor —candela —incandescente caníbal —canibalismo canoa canon —canónico —canonizar —canónigo cantar —canción —canto () —cantor
candidate —candidacy, candidature —(snow) white, candid —candor, sincerity, (pure) whiteness —candle ( vela), fire, candela (unit of luminous intensity) —incandescent cannibal ( Sp.) —cannibalism canoe canon (ecclesiastical or secular law; precept) —canonical —(to) canonize —canon (person) (to) sing —song, chanson —singing, chant, song, canto (poem) —singer
—cantante —cantata —chantaje ( Fr.) —chantajear
—singing, singer (m./f.) —cantata —blackmail —(to) blackmail
—chantajista —encantar —encanto —encantador (adj. & n.) —encantadora cantidad —cuantitativo —cuanto —¿cuánto? ¿cuántos? —en cuanto —en cuanto a —cuanto antes —unos cuantos
—blackmailer —(to) enchant, (to) charm —enchantment —enchanting, charming, charmer, enchanter
[chant]
[cantor, chanter]
(to make s.o. sing)
—enchantress quantity —quantitative —as much as, as many as —how much? how many? —as soon as —as for, regarding —as soon as possible —a few
The root cand- meant “shining”, hence “white”. A Roman candidatus was so-called because he wore a white toga (toga candida). The form cuantidad is also possible but far rarer.
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ANNEX D
—cuanto (n.) cantina —cantimplora canto () —cantón —acantonar —acantilado —decantar canto () —canto rodado —cantera —cantero capacidad —capaz —capacitar —incapacidad —incapaz —incapacitar caravana carbono —carbón —papel carbón —carbón vegetal —carbonato —carboncillo —carbónico —carburador —carburante caricatura —caricaturista —caricaturizar carpa () carpeta —carpa () carpintero —carpintería carro —carrera
—quantum (physics) mess hall, canteen (eating place) —canteen (water bottle) corner (table, building), edge —canton, region, corner —(to) quarter (troops) —cliff, bluff —(to) decant, (to) lean toward or choose (“tilt the balance”) (rounded) stone —boulder —quarry —stonecutter capacity, ability —capable, able, capacious (spacious or roomy) —(to) train, (to) capacitate —incapacity —incapable, unable —(to) incapacitate caravan, motor home carbon —coal —carbon paper —charcoal ( carbón de leña) —carbonate —charcoal pencil —carbonic —carburetor —fuel caricature, cartoon —caricaturist, cartoonist —(to) caricature carp (fish) letter fi le, folder, writing-table cover or pad —(circus) tent carpenter —carpentry, carpenter’s shop car (Amer.), cart, wagon, chariot —run, race, career (incl. “path or course”)
[cant]
[canted]
[carpet] ( carpeta ?)
Cantimplora has no relation to cantina but instead comes, via Catalan, from canta i plora (“sings and cries”), the verb plorar being the Catalan equivalent to Spanish llorar. Explanation: “por el ruido que hace la cantimplora al gotear” (Corominas and Pascual, :): “for the noise that the cantimplora makes when [its contents] drip out”.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—carreta —carrete —carretera —carretero —carretilla —carrocería —carruaje —carril —ferrocarril —acarrear carta —carta blanca —carta de crédito —carta magna —cartel () —cartel (), cártel —cartera —cartero —cartón —cartucho —pancarta casco —casco azul —casco urbano —cascos (pl.) —cáscara —cascarón —cascar —cascanueces casi —cuasi caso —acaso —por si acaso castidad —casto —castizo
T4311.indb 527
—long, low cart drawn by animals (e.g., oxcart) —spool, reel, roll (of fi lm) —road, highway —cart driver (carter), cart maker —wheelbarrow, handcart —body (of a car or train) —carriage —lane (of a road), rail ( raíl, riel) for trains —railroad —(to) carry, (to) cart, (to) entail (carry [negative] consequence) letter, charter, chart, map, playing card, restaurant menu —carte blanche (unconditional authority) —letter of credit ( credit card!) —constitution of a country, Magna Carta (cap.) —poster, placard —cartel —wallet, briefcase, purse (Amer.) —postman, mailman —cardboard, carton, cartoon (preparatory drawing for fresco, etc.) —cartridge —placard helmet, casque, bottle, fragment, hull, segment (fruit), cask, hoof —United Nations soldier (“blue helmet”) —city center or urban agglomeration —headphones ( auriculares) —rind, peel, shell, husk —eggshell (esp. one from which chick has emerged) —(to) crack or break (egg, voice, etc.) —nutcracker almost, nearly, quasi —quasi case, event —perhaps, maybe —just in case (e.g., bring the umbrella, just in case it rains) chastity —chaste, pure —typical of region (language, customs), authentic
[cartouche]
[cascara]
8/31/07 6:45:12 AM
ANNEX D
castigar —castigo casual —casualidad catapulta —catapultar catarata catarro categoría —categórico causa —a causa de —causal —causalidad —causar cautivo —cautivar —cautividad cautiverio —cautivador ceder —cesión —cesar —cese —incesante cedro cédula —cédula de identidad celo —celos (pl.) —celoso —celador —recelar —recelo —receloso célula —celular —celulitis —celuloide
(to) castigate, (to) chastise, (to) chasten —chastisement, castigation, punishment casual (in sense of “occurring by chance”) —chance, hazard, coincidence catapult —(to) catapult cataract (waterfall, eye disorder) common cold, catarrh category, rank, class —categorical cause, lawsuit, legal case —because of, on account of —causal —causality —(to) cause, (to) give rise to captive —(to) captivate (incl. archaic “take prisoner”) —captivity —captivating (to) cede, (to) yield, (to) slacken —cession (of rights, territory, etc.) —(to) cease, (to) stop —cessation, stoppage —incessant, unceasing cedar (tree and wood) certificate, permit, document —identity card zeal, ardor, heat (animals) —jealousy —zealous, jealous —monitor, guard, watchman —(to) distrust, (to) suspect —suspicion, distrust —distrustful, mistrustful cell (biological or small group) —cellular —cellulitis —celluloid
[casualty ]
[caitiff ]
[schedule]
(unrelated)
English casualty originally meant “chance”, “accident”. Thus, Samuel Johnson could write (in ) with reference to Alexander Pope: “Those performances, which strike with wonder, are combinations of skilful genius with happy casualty.”
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—celulosa —celda —celdilla censura —censor —censurar centinela (m./f.) cera
—cellulose —cell (jail, convent, of a beehive, of a statistical table, etc.) —cell (beehive) censorship, censure, criticism —censor —(to) censor, (to) censure sentinel, sentry wax, cere (waxy bird membrane)
—cerumen —cerilla —cirio —encerar —ciruela —ciruela pasa
—cerumen (earwax) —(wax) taper, match, earwax —long, thick candle (as in churches) —(to) wax —plum —prune
—ciruelo cerámico —cerámica ceremonial —ceremonia cesta —cesto
—plum tree ceramic (adj.) —ceramics ceremonial —ceremony, formality basket (freq. low and wide) —basket (DRAE: “large cesta, higher than it is wide”) shawl shampoo jacket —coat chattering, chatterbox, gossip, charlatan —(to) chatter, (to) chat —chat, informal talk (lecture) chimney, smokestack, fireplace chauffeur
chal champú chaqueta —chaquetón charlatán (-ana) —charlar —charla chimenea chófer, chofer (Amer.) choque —chocar —chocante cicatriz —cicatrizar —cicatrización
T4311.indb 529
[cerated, cerecloth]
[cereus cactus] [vb. cere] (“raisin”-like plum)
[chest]
shock, collision, clash —(to) collide, (to) clash, (to) shock (surprise) —surprising, strange, shocking scar, cicatrix —(to) cicatrize, (to) heal (wound) —cicatrization (formation of a scar)
From cereola pruna, “wax-colored plum (or prune)”.
8/31/07 6:45:13 AM
ANNEX D
cigarro —cigarrillo —cigarra ciprés circunferencia —circundar —circundante circunscribir —circunscripción cisterna citar —cita —citación clandestino —clandestinidad clarividencia —clarividente cláusula claxon clemencia —clemente —inclemente cliente (m./f.) —clientela clima (m.) —climático —climatológico —climatización clímax clínica —clínico cloaca coalición cobarde (adj. & n.) —cobardía cocina —cocinero —cocinar —cocer —culinario coche
T4311.indb 530
cigar, cigarette —cigarette —cicada cypress (tree and wood) circumference —(to) surround, (to) encircle —surrounding (to) circumscribe (encircle, limit, restrict) —circumscription, (electoral) district, territory cistern, water tank (to) make an appointment with, (to) cite (quote, summon) —appointment, rendezvous, citation (quotation) —citation (legal), summons clandestine —secrecy, clandestinity clairvoyance —clairvoyant clause (legal or linguistic) klaxon, auto horn clemency, mercy —clement, merciful —inclement (attitude, weather) client, customer —clientele, customers climate, clime —climatic —climatological —air conditioning, heating of swimming pool, etc. climax clinic —clinical sewer ( alcantarilla), cloaca coalition cowardly, coward —cowardice kitchen, kitchen stove, cuisine —cook —(to) cook —(to) cook, (to) boil —culinary car (auto or railway), coach
(unrelated)
(also clienta-f.)
[Kocs, Hungary]
8/31/07 6:45:13 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—cochera código —código penal —código civil —código postal —código de barras —codificar —descodificar, decodificar —códice
—garage code —criminal law, penal code —civil law, civil code —postal code —bar code —(to) codify, (to) encode —(to) decode
cofre coincidir —coincidencia colapso —colapsar
coffer, trunk (to) coincide, (to) meet by chance —coincidence collapse —(to) bring to a standstill, (to) collapse (e.g., business) bedspread, quilt —mattress —light mattress, exercise or gymastics mat —mattress store cholera (disease) anger, rage, choler —choleric (angry, hot-tempered) —(to) become enraged colon (intenstine) —colic colon ( dos puntos) or semicolon ( punto y coma) colón (currency of Costa Rica & El Salvador) —Christopher Columbus colloquial —colloquy, conversation, colloquium color —colored, red or reddish (esp. face) —(to) blush, (to) redden
colcha —colchón —colchoneta —colchonería cólera () (m.) cólera () —colérico —encolerizar colon () —cólico colon () colón —Cristóbal Colón coloquial —coloquio color —colorado —poner(se) colorado —colorear —colorante —colorete —colorido —descolorido —incoloro
T4311.indb 531
—codex (old manuscript)
[Eng. pl. codices] [coffin]
[Colorado]
—(to) color, (to) dye, (to) become red (e.g., tomatoes, sun) —coloring (agent), colorant —rouge (cosmetic) —coloring or coloration (clothes, painting, etc.) —pale, faded, decolorized —colorless
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ANNEX D
colosal columna —columna vertebral —columnista —colmillo combate —combatir —combatiente —combativo combustión —combustible comenzar —comienzo comercial —comercio —comerciante (m./f.) —comercializar —comercialización —comerciar cometer —cometido (p.p.) —acometer —acometida cómic —cómico (adj. & n.) —comedia —comediante (m./f.) cómodo —cómoda —comodidad —comodín —incómodo —incomodidad —incomodar compacto comparable —comparativo —comparación —comparar
T4311.indb 532
colossal column (numerous senses) —spine, spinal column —columnist —fang, canine tooth, tusk combat, battle —(to) combat, (to) fight, (to) oppose —combatant —combative combustion —combustible (adj. & n.), fuel (to) commence —commencement, beginning, start commercial (adj.) —commerce, trade —merchant —(to) commercialize, (to) market —commercialization, marketing —(to) trade, (to) do business (to) commit —commission, charge, duty —(to) attack, (to) undertake —attack, connection or intake (electricity, gas, etc.) comic (book, magazine) ( tebeo) —comic, comical, comedian —theatrical play, comedy, farce —actor, actress, comedian (-enne) comfortable, convenient —commode (chest of drawers; toilet or chamber pot!) —comfort, convenience —joker or wildcard —incommodious (inconvenient, uncomfortable) —inconvenience, discomfort —(to) incommode (inconvenience, disturb) compact comparable —comparative —comparison —(to) compare
[columella]
(also comedianta—f.) [commodious]
[commodity]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—incomparable compás compatible —compatibilidad compendio competente —competer competición —competidor (adj. & n.) —competitivo —competitividad —competir —competencia compilar —compilación —recopilar [w/out m] —recopilación cómplice (m./f.) —complicidad complot comportar —comportamiento compromiso —sin compromiso —comprometer concernir —en lo que concierne a conciso concreto () —concretar —concreto () (Amer.) concubina
—incomparable compass (geom., maritime), beat/measure/ bar (music) compatible —compatibility compendium (summary, abstract) competent —(to) be incumbent on, (to) behoove competition —competing, competitor —competitive —competitiveness —(to) compete, (to) vie —competition, competence (ability, legal) (to) compile —compilation —(to) compile, (to) gather together —compilation, compendium accomplice —complicity plot, conspiracy, intrigue, complot (archaic—Shakespeare) (to) entail or involve, (to) comport (oneself) —behavior, demeanor, comportment commitment, engagement, difficult situation —without obligation —(to) compromise (jeopardize; obs. “bind by mutual agreement”) (to) concern, (to) be pertinent to
[compromise]
(used only in rd person)
—concerning, as regards concise concrete (opposed to abstract), real —(to) specify, (to) limit, (to) express concretely —concrete (for construction hormigón)
( Eng.)
concubine
Competir and competer were originally the same verb, and competencia retains meanings from both.
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ANNEX D
condenación —condenar —condena condición —condicional —condicionar —acondicionar —acondicionador —acondicionador de aire —aire acondicionado conducta —conducto —conductor —conducir conexión —conectar —desconectar —nexo confi nar —confín —confi namiento confl icto conformidad —conformar —conforme (adj.) —conforme a —conformista —inconforme disconforme —inconformista confortable —confort —confortar confusión —confundir —confuso congestión —congestionar
T4311.indb 534
condemnation, damnation —(to) condemn, (to) sentence, (to) damn —sentence (e.g., ten years), condemnation (censure) condition —conditional —(to) condition (make conditional) —(to) condition (render fit for work or use), (to) air-condition —conditioner (hair, etc.) —air conditioner —air conditioning conduct, behavior —conduit, duct —conductor, driver ( chófer) —(to) conduct, (to) drive (vehicle), (to) conduce connection —(to) connect, (to) plug in —(to) disconnect, (to) unplug —nexus, link (to) confine —limit, boundary, confine —confinement confl ict conformity, agreement —(to) adapt, (to) conform, (to) content oneself (with) —in agreement or conformity, resigned (accepting) —in accordance with, in conformity with —conformist —not in agreement, dissatisfied —nonconformist comfortable —comfort ( comodidad) —(to) comfort confusion —(to) mix up, (to) confuse, (to) confound —confused, confusing, confounded congestion —(to) congest
(old p.p.)
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—descongestionar congratular(se) congreso —congresista cónico —cono conjetura —conjeturar conjunción —conjunto (adj. & n.) —coyuntura conjurar —conjuración conjura —conjuro conmoción —conmoción cerebral —conmover —conmovedor consignar —consigna consonante consternación —consternar cónsul —consulado consultar —consulta —consultorio consumir —consumidor —consunción —consumo —bienes de consumo —consumición
—(to) decongest (nose, traffic) (to) be gratified or pleased congress, assembly —congressman or -woman conical, conic —cone conjecture, guess —(to) conjecture, (to) guess conjunction —conjoint, whole, ensemble (music, clothing, etc.) —situation, opportunity, joint (articulation) (to) ward off, (to) conjure, (to) conspire —plot, conspiracy
[congratulate]
[conjuncture] [conjuration archaic def.]
—conjuration (magical spell or incantation) commotion, disturbance, shock —concussion —(to) shake, (to) move (stir the emotions) —moving, touching (to) state (in writing), (to) consign —luggage room (station), orders or instructions, slogan consonant (adj.), rhyming, consonant (f.) consternation, dismay —(to) consternate, (to) dismay consul —consulate (to) consult (incl. “look up”, e.g., in dictionary) —consultation, doctor’s office —doctor’s office, clinic, advice column (newspaper) (to) consume (incl. “destroy”; “waste”) —consumer —consumption (illness) —consumption (act of consuming) —consumer goods —food and drink consumed (e.g., in a bar), consumption
While congratulaciones (“congratulations”) exists, far more common are felicitaciones and enhorabuena.
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ANNEX D
—consumar —consumado (p.p.) —hecho consumado —consumación —consumación de los siglos —consomé ( Fr.) contacto —contactar contagioso —contagio —contagiar contener —contenido (p.p.) contento —contentar —descontento —descontentar contexto continente —continental —incontinencia —incontinente continuo —continuar —continuación —continuidad —sin solución de continuidad contrario (adj. & n.) —al contrario —contrariedad —contrariar —contra —contra—contradanza
—(to) consummate, (to) fi nish —consummate, accomplished —fait accompli —consummation (incl. “ultimate end, finish”) —end of the world (biblical) —consommé contact —(to) contact, (to) get in touch with contagious —contagion (spreading of disease; contagious disease) —(to) infect with, (to) communicate (disease, ideas) (to) contain —content, contents contented, happy, pleased, content, contentment —(to) content, (to) please, (to) satisfy —discontented, displeased, discontent, discontentment —(to) discontent, (to) displease context continent (adj. & n.) —continental —incontinence (medical and moral) —incontinent continuous, continual —(to) continue —continuation —continuity —without break in continuity, uninterrupted contrary, opponent —on the contrary ( por el contrario) —contrariety, vexation, setback —(to) oppose, (to) vex, (to) annoy —against, opposite, contra, con —counter- (counterattack, counteroffensive, etc.) —country-dance, contra dance, contredanse
It all began with English country-dance, which was exported in the seventeenth century to France, initially as contrée (“country”) danse, then becoming contre-danse (“counter dance”). Th is was then reexported to become Spanish contradanza and English contredanse (as well as contra dance and contredance). While these different forms arose by “mistake”, they are nonetheless etymologically related: a country is literally the region lying counter (opposite) to one’s position.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
control —controlar conveniente —conveniencia —inconveniente (adj. & n.) —inconveniencia —convenir —convención —convencional —convenio —convento —venir —venida —venidero —avenida —bienvenida (n.) —bienvenido (adj.) —sobrevenir convergencia —convergente —converger, convergir convocar —convocatoria copia —copiar —copioso —acopiar —acopio copla —cópula —copular —acoplar —acoplamiento coqueto, coqueta —coquetería —coquetear corona —coronar —coronación
T4311.indb 537
control, checkpoint —(to) control, (to) check, (to) monitor convenient, suitable —convenience, suitability —inconvenient, unsuitable, inconvenience (drawback) —inconvenience (trouble, discomfort), unsuitability —(to) agree, (to) be convenient or suitable —convention, agreement —conventional —covenant, agreement, pact —convent —(to) come —coming (n.), coming back —coming (adj.), “to come” (e.g., the world to come) —avenue —welcome —welcome —(to) supervene (occur unexpectedly; ensue) convergence (objects, opinions) —convergent, converging —(to) converge (to) convoke, (to) summon, (to) convene —summons, letter of convocation copy —(to) copy —copious, abundant —(to) gather, (to) store, (to) stock —stock, supply short poem for singing, verse, couplet —copulation, copula —(to) copulate —(to) couple, (to) connect —coupling, connection vain, coquettish, fl irt (m./f.), coquette (f.) —coquetry, fl irtatiousness —(to) fl irt, (to) coquet crown, corona, krone (currency) —(to) crown —coronation
[convene]
[Covent Garden] [venue]
(lit. “having many copies”)
[couple]
[“little cock”]
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ANNEX D
—coronario corral —acorralar correcto —incorrecto —corrector —correctivo (adj. & n.) —corrección —incorrección —corregir —corregible —incorregible —corregidor correspondiente —corresponder —correspondencia —corresponsal cortesía —cortés —corte (f.) —Las Cortes —descortés —descortesía cosmopolita (adj. & n.m./f.) cota () cota () —acotar () —acotación —cotejar —cotizar ( Fr.) —cotización —cuota coto —acotar () cráter creación —crear —creador —creativo —creatividad
T4311.indb 538
—coronary farmyard, barnyard, corral ( Sp.) —(to) corral, (to) corner (thief, opponent) correct (incl. “proper”, e.g., behavior) —incorrect, improper (conduct, act, etc.) —corrector, proofreader —corrective, correction (punishment) —correction (rectification), correctness —incorrectness, mistake, discourtesy —(to) correct —corrigible —incorrigible —Spanish royal magistrate (of town or region) corresponding —(to) correspond, (to) belong, (to) reciprocate —correspondence, connection (air, rail) —correspondent (journalist) courtesy, politeness —courteous, polite —court (royal, law) —Spanish Parliament —discourteous, impolite —discourtesy cosmopolitan, cosmopolite coat of arms, coat of mail height above sea level —(to) mark elevations on a map, (to) annotate (text) —marginal note, stage direction, elevation mark (on map) —(to) compare (e.g., fingerprints) —(to) pay or collect dues, (to) quote (a price) —dues, membership fees, quotation (price) —fees, dues, share (e.g., of market) reserve (e.g., hunting), preserve, boundary —(to) delimit, (to) set limits on crater creation —(to) create —creator, Creator (cap.) —creative —creativity
(old p.p.)
[Corregidor]
[curtsey]
[quota]
[quota] [caution]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—criar —criado (p.p.) —criada —cría —criadero —criador —crianza —criatura —criollo —procrear —procreación crédito —descrédito —desacreditar —acreditar crepúsculo cresta criminal —crimen —criminalidad —incriminar criterio criticar —crítico —crítica —criticismo croata —corbata Cuba —cubalibre cubata culpable (adj. & n.) —culpa —mea culpa
—(to) raise, (to) rear, (to) breed —servant, valet —maid, female servant —animal rearing, newborn animal, litter, brood —breeding place, nursery —breeder, raiser, Creator (cap.), winegrower —breeding, raising, upbringing, aging (wine) —creature (being created by God), baby, infant —Creole (person), creole (language) —(to) procreate —procreation credit (moral, fi nancial, etc.) —discredit —(to) discredit —(to) accredit, (to) bring fame or credit crepuscule (twilight) crest, comb (of a bird) criminal —crime, felony —criminality —(to) incriminate criterion, point of view, discernment (to) criticize, (to) critique —critical (multiple senses), critic (m.) —critique, criticism, critic (f.) —[philosophical system, esp. of Kant Eng. criticism !] Croatian, Croat, Croatian language (m.) —cravat, tie Cuba —popular drink (mixture of cola and rum with lemon) guilty, culpable, culprit —guilt, blame, fault —mea culpa (lit. “through my fault”, i.e., the fault is mine)
Croatian mercenaries in the employ of Louis XIII of France in the early seventeenth century were known for the linen scarves they wore—decorated with lace and wrapped twice around the neck. At that stage, the French word for “Croat” was cravate. The modern cravat (tie) emerged gradually, taking its current form only in the early twentieth century. The origin of cubalibre (“Free Cuba”) goes back to the time of the Cuban War of Independence (–). There are various, perhaps somewhat romanticized, legends about how the mixture arose. Somewhat less romantically, the fi rst English-language reference (Harper’s Weekly, August ) refers to a concoction of “water and brown sugar”.
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ANNEX D
—culpar —culpabilidad —disculpa —disculpar —exculpar —inculpar cultivar —cultivable —cultivo cultural —cultura —culto (adj. & n.) cupón —cupo
—(to) blame, (to) accuse —culpability —apology, excuse —(to) excuse, (to) apologize —(to) exculpate, (to) exonerate —(to) accuse, (to) charge (with crime), (to) inculpate (to) cultivate —cultivable —cultivation, farming, culture (biol.) cultural —culture —cultured, learned, cult, worship, cultus coupon —quota (e.g., import)
curiosidad —curioso —curiosear curso —cursillo —cursor —(letra) cursiva curva (n.) —curvo (adj.) —curvatura —curvar —encorvar custodia —custodiar daga danzar —danza dar —dar a conocer —dado (p.p.) —dato —posdata (P.D.)
curiosity (desire to know; object of curiosity) —curious (having curiosity; on the rare side) —(to) snoop, (to) pry, (to) browse (in a shop) course (school, river, of events) —short course —cursor —italics ( itálica) curve, bend —curved —curvature —(to) curve, (to) bend —(to) bend, (to) curve custody, safekeeping —(to) watch over, (to) guard dagger (to) dance ( bailar) —dancing, dance (to) give —(to) make known —die (one of two dice) —datum, fact, data (pl.) —postscript (PS)
(unrelated: caber )
(also postdata)
Cupo is the past tense (third person singular). The notion of “quota” arose from a now archaic defi nition of caber—“to be received as one’s lot or share”; from its use in expressions like lo que cupo a cada uno (“that which is received by each one”), cupo transformed itself into a noun with the sense of “quota”.
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T4311.indb 541
—datar —dativo —dádiva —dadivoso debate —debatir debilidad —débil —debilitar —endeble decano, decana
—(to) date, (to) date from —dative (indirect object) —gift, grant —generous debate —(to) debate, (to) discuss, (to) struggle debility, weakness —weak, feeble —(to) debilitate, (to) weaken —feeble, frail dean, doyen, doyenne (f.)
decencia —decente —indecencia —indecente decepción —decepcionar decisivo —indeciso decomisar —decomiso decoración —decorar —decorativo —decorador —decoro —decoroso —indecoroso deducción —deducir —deducible —deductivo defecto —defectuoso —defectivo —defección deferencia deficiencia —deficiente —déficit —deficitario delirio
decency —decent —indecency —indecent disappointment, disillusionment, deception —(to) disappoint, (to) disillusion decisive —indecisive, undecided (to) confiscate, (to) seize —confiscation, seizure ( comiso) decoration, decor —(to) decorate, (to) adorn —decorative —(interior) decorator —decorum, dignity —decorous, dignified —indecorous, unbecoming, undignified deduction (logical; subtraction) —(to) deduce, (to) infer, (to) deduct —deducible, deductible —deductive defect —defective —defective (rare, apart from defective verb) —defection deference, courtesy deficiency —deficient —deficit, shortage —with a deficit, in deficit delirium
(decanus chief of ten)
[decommission]
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ANNEX D
—delirios de grandeza —delirar denotar denunciar —denuncia depender —dependencia —dependiente
—(to) be delirious, (to) rave (to) denote, (to) indicate (to) denounce (incl. “inform against, accuse”) —denunciation, formal complaint (to) depend —dependency, dependence —dependent, salesclerk (m./f.)
—independiente —independencia deportar —deporte
—independent —independence (to) deport ( desterrar) —sport
—deportista —deportivo —(coche) deportivo depósito —depósito de cadáveres —depositar depredación —depredar —depredador (adj. & n.) derivación —derivar
—sportsman, sportswoman —sporting, sport (adj.), sportive —sports car deposit, warehouse, tank (water, gasoline, etc.) —morgue ( morgue)
—deriva —(ir) a la deriva —deriva continental —derivativo —derivada —derivado (p.p.) desastre —desastroso descartar
—delusions of grandeur
(also dependienta—f.)
(sport disport)
—(to) deposit depredation, plundering —(to) depredate (plunder) —predatory, predator derivation, bypass (electrical, medical), shunt —(to) derive, (to) shunt or divert (waters, boat, conversation) —drift, drift ing (of a boat) —(to) drift (boats or people), (to) be adrift —continental drift —derivative (rare: gen. only linguistics) —derivative (math.) —derivative (esp. chem., financial) disaster —disastrous (to) discard (reject; remove playing card), (to) rule out
According to both DRAE and Moliner, it is delirio de grandezas (lit. “delusion of grandeurs”), but this is rarely found. Latin derivare was formed from de (“from”) and rivus (“small stream”) and initially meant “to draw off or divert water”.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
descripción —describir —descriptivo descender —descendente —descendiente (m./f.) —descendencia —descenso —ascender —ascendente —ascendiente —ascendencia —ascenso —ascensión —ascensor —condescender —condescendiente desequilibrio —desequilibrar desesperación —desesperar —desesperado (p.p.) —desesperanza —esperar —inesperado —esperanza —espera —lista de espera —sala de espera —esperanto desmayar —desmayo desodorante —inodoro (adj. & n.) —olor
T4311.indb 543
description —(to) describe (incl. “describe a circle with a compass”) —descriptive (to) descend —descendent (or descendant), descending —descendant (offspring) —descendants, lineage —descent, fall (temperature, prices) —(to) ascend, (to) rise, (to) promote —ascending, ascendant (adj.), ascendant (astrology) —ascending, ancestor (m./f.), ascendancy (m.) —ancestry, origin, ascendancy —ascent, rise, promotion —ascent, ascension, Ascension (cap.), accession (to throne, power) —elevator —(to) accede or yield (out of kindness) —agreeable, obliging disequilibrium, imbalance —(to) disequilibrate, (to) throw off balance desperation, despair, hopelessness —(to) despair, (to) exasperate —desperate, hopeless, desperate person (m./f.) —despair —(to) hope, (to) hope for, (to) expect, (to) wait for —unexpected —hope, hopefulness —wait, waiting —waiting list —waiting room —Esperanto (to) faint, (to) lose heart, (to) dismay —fainting, fainting spell, discouragement, dismay deodorant —inodorous, odorless, toilet (!) —odor
[condescend] [condescending]
[desperado]
l was a dialectical variant for Latin d, so that in Roman times both odor and olor existed.
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ANNEX D
—oloroso —olfato —olfatorio —olfatear despilfarrar —despilfarro desplazar —desplazamiento despreciar —desprecio —menospreciar
—odorous, fragrant —sense of smell —olfactory —(to) smell, (to) sniff, (to) scent (to) squander, (to) waste —waste, squandering (to) displace —displacement (to) disprize (archaic: disdain, scorn) —disdain, contempt —(to) underestimate, (to) underrate, (to) scorn
—menosprecio destacar —destacado (p.p.) —destacamento destilar destino —destinación
—indestructible —destrozar —destrozo —trozo desviación —desviar —extraviar —extraviado (p.p.)
—undervaluation, scorn, contempt (to) emphasize, (to) stand out, (to) detach (mil.) —outstanding, distinguished —detachment (mil.) (to) distill (incl. “drip”) destiny, destination (esp. place) —destination (esp. purpose for which something is destined) —(to) destine (incl. “assign for a specific use or purpose”) —addressee, consignee destruction —(to) destroy —destructive —destructive, destroyer (m./f.), naval destroyer (m.) —indestructible —(to) destroy, (to) shatter —destruction, havoc —piece, chunk, fragment deviation, detour ( desvío) —(to) deviate, (to) divert —(to) lead astray, (to) mislay —lost, missing, out-of-the-way
—extravío detalle
—going astray, loss (passport, etc.) detail, detailed account, gesture (courtesy)
—destinar —destinatario destrucción —destruir —destructivo —destructor
[pilfer]
[depreciate] [minus praise]
(des vía) (extra vía) (lit. “beyond the road”)
The origins of destrozar and trozo are disputed: according to one theory, destrozar is another form of destruir, in which case trozo would be what was left afterward; according to another, trozo is an independent word (coming from Catalan), and destrozar was formed to represent the action of “breaking into trozos (pieces)”.
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—al detalle —detallar —detallista detener —detención —detenimiento —detenido (p.p.) detergente (adj. & n.) —terso deteriorar —deterioro detrimento diagonal (adj. & n.f.) diamante —diamantino adamantino —imán () —imán () dialecto diatriba dictador —dictadura —dictatorial —dictar —dictamen diferencia —diferenciar —diferente —diferencial (adj. & n.) —diferir dignidad —dignatario —digno —dignar(se) dilapidar
—in detail ( en detalle), retail ( al por menor) —(to) detail —“specialist in details” (painter, etc.), retailer (to) detain, (to) stop, (to) arrest —detention, arrest, thoroughness —care, thoroughness —careful, minute, detainee (prisoner) detergent —smooth, clear, terse (style) (to) deteriorate —deterioration detriment diagonal diamond —adamantine, diamond-like or -hard —magnet, lodestone —imam dialect diatribe dictator —dictatorship —dictatorial —(to) dictate (various senses) —ruling, (expert’s) report, dictum difference —(to) differentiate, (to) distinguish between —different —differential —(to) defer (put off, postpone), (to) differ dignity (worthy of respect; high office or rank) —dignitary —worthy, deserving, dignified —(to) deign, (to) condescend (to) squander
[detersive] (lit. “cleansed”)
[adamant]
(unrelated)
[dilapidate obs. def.]
Diamond and adamant (a hard stone, hence “stubbornness”) were initially identical, as both come from Latin adamantem (“the hardest metal”), itself from Greek. In medieval times this was “rearranged” as diamantem, probably due to influence from the Greek prefi x dia- of diaphanous and diadem. diamantem gave rise to both diamante and diamond; the “original” adamantem became English adamant and French aimant, the latter in turn the source of Spanish imán (). Imán () comes from Arabic; the spelling imam can also be used, with no difference in pronunciation.
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ANNEX D
—dilapidación
—squandering
dilatar () —dilatado (p.p.) —dilatación dilatar () —dilatorio —dilación —sin dilación diligente —diligencia
(to) dilate, (to) expand, (to) prolong —extensive, vast —dilatation, dilation (to) delay, (to) defer —dilatory, delaying —delay —without delay, immediately diligent —diligence (efficiency, stagecoach), administrative task/procedure (to) dilute, (to) dissolve —deluge (heavy downpour, flood) —antediluvian (occurring before the Flood, old and antiquated) dynamic —dynamics —dynamism dynamite —(to) dynamite money, currency —wealthy —denarius (Roman coin) dinosaur deputy, representative, delegate —deputation, provincial assembly dike —dry dock direction, address, management —director, manager, conductor (music) —directive, guidelines (pl.), directrix (geom.) —directive, board of directors —directive (adj.), director (member of board—m./f.) —direct, straight ( derecho) —(to) direct, (to) manage —leader —dirigible (to) discern, (to) distinguish
diluir —diluvio —antediluviano dinámico (adj.) —dinámica (n.) —dinamismo dinamita —dinamitar dinero —adinerado —denario dinosaurio diputado —diputación dique ( Dutch) —dique (seco) dirección —director —directriz —directiva —directivo —directo —dirigir —dirigente (m./f.) —dirigible discernir
[dilapidation obs. def.]
[dinar, denier]
Defer (in the sense of “postpone”) comes from Latin differre, whose irregular past participle dilatus produced Spanish dilatar () and English dilatory. Dilatar () and English dilate are related to latitude (originally “width”).
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
disco —disco compacto —disco duro —discoteca
disolver —disolución —disoluto —disolvente disparar —disparo disparidad —dispar
disk (incl. phonograph record), discus —compact disk —hard disk (computer) —discotheque, record holder (furniture), record collection discretion (being discreet), prudence —at (one’s) discretion —discretionary —discreet, discrete —indiscretion —indiscreet discrepancy —(to) differ, (to) disagree —discrepant (to) dissertate (discourse formally), (to) expound (upon) —exposition, discourse, dissertation (to) hide, (to) dissimulate, (to) dissemble —dissimulation, slyness —simulation (fire drill, mock battle, etc.), simulacrum (to) dissolve —dissolution, solution (in solvent) —dissolute —dissolvent, solvent (to) shoot, (to) fire, (to) discharge —shot disparity —unlike, unequal, disparate
—disparatado
—absurd, preposterous
—disparate dispensar —dispensa —dispensario —dispendio —indispensable disputar —disputa —disputado (p.p.) disturbio
—absurdity, nonsense, blunder (to) dispense (incl. “exempt”) —dispensation —dispensary, clinic —waste, wasteful expenditure —indispensable (to) dispute (incl. “contend or compete for”) —dispute —hard-fought, close (decided by narrow margin) disturbance
discreción —a (su) discreción —discrecional —discreto —indiscreción —indiscreto discrepancia —discrepar —discrepante disertar —disertación disimular —disimulo —simulacro
(i.e., not of a pair) (not directly related)
In the old days, users of crossbows and other such devices fi rst had to “charge” (preparar) their weapons—a rather long process—before they were able to “discharge” (disparar) them.
T4311.indb 547
8/31/07 6:45:18 AM
ANNEX D
—disturbar —estorbar —estorbo divergir —divergente —divergencia dividendo doctor —doctorar —doctorado (p.p.) —doctoral —[adulterar, amañar] —docto —docente (adj. & n.m./f.) doctrina dólar domicilio —domicilio social —domiciliar dossier dramatización —dramatizar —dramaturgo droga —drogar —drogadicción —drogadicto —droguería duda —poner en duda —sin duda —sin duda alguna, sin ninguna duda —dudar —dudoso —indudable —indudablemente duna duque —duquesa
T4311.indb 548
(to) disturb (to) hinder, (to) obstruct hindrance, nuisance (to) diverge (objects, opinions) —divergent —divergence dividend doctor (academic or medical) —(to) confer (or obtain) doctorate —doctorate —doctoral —(to) doctor (falsify) —learned, well-educated —educational, teaching, educator doctrine dollar domicile (home, legal residence) —head office, corporate headquarters —(to) domicile, (to) take up residence, (to) pay by direct debit dossier, fi le dramatization —(to) dramatize —dramaturge (playwright), dramatist drug —(to) drug —drug addiction —drug addict —drug store, pharmacy doubt —(to) put in doubt, (to) question —no doubt or doubtless: “probably” —no doubt or doubtless: “unquestionably”
( Fr.)
—(to) doubt —dubious, doubtful —indubitable, undoubted —indubitably, undoubtedly dune duke —duchess
8/31/07 6:45:19 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—ducado ébano —ebanista eclipse —eclipsar economía —económico —economista —economizar —econometría ecuador, Ecuador —ecuatorial editor —editar —editorial —edición edredón efecto —efectivo —efectuar eficiente —eficiencia —eficacia —eficaz efigie ego —egocéntrico —egoísta (adj. & n.) —egoísmo elaborar —elaborado (p.p.) —elaboración electricidad —eléctrico —electrificar —electrizar —electrizante —electricista —electrocardiograma (m.) —electrocutar —electrodo —electrón
T4311.indb 549
—duchy, dukedom, ducat ebony (tree, wood) —cabinetmaker eclipse —(to) eclipse economy, economics, savings (pl.) —economic, economical, cheap, thrift y —economist —(to) economize, (to) save —econometrics equator, Ecuador —equatorial publisher, editor (esp. computer program) —(to) publish, (to) edit (esp. on computer) —publishing house (f.), editorial (m.) —publication, edition duvet, eiderdown effect —effective, cash, effectives (troops—pl.) —(to) effect, (to) effectuate efficient —efficiency —efficacy, effectiveness —efficacious, effective effigy ego —egocentric —selfish, egoistic, egoist —egoism, selfishness (to) elaborate (incl. “create or produce”) —elaborate, manufactured —elaboration, preparation, manufacture electricity —electric, electrical —(to) electrify (provide with electric power) —(to) electrify (charge with electricity; excite or enthuse) —electrifying —electrician —electrocardiogram —(to) electrocute —electrode —electron
8/31/07 6:45:19 AM
ANNEX D
—electrónica (n.) —electrónico (adj.) elegante —elegancia elegía —elogio —elogiar elemento —elemental elipse (f.) —elíptico —elipsis elocuente —elocuencia eludir —ineludible emanar —manar —manantial embarcación —embarcar —embarcadero —embarque embarco —desembarcar —desembarque -barco —barco —barca embargo —embargar —sin embargo embrollo —embrollar emergencia —emerger —emergente
—electronics —electronic elegant —elegance elegy (melancholic/sorrowful poem or music) —praise, eulogy —(to) praise, (to) eulogize element, component, rudiments of a subject (pl.) —elemental, elementary ellipse —elliptic or elliptical (of an ellipse, manner of speaking) —ellipsis (omission of words, “ . . . ”) eloquent —eloquence (to) avoid, (to) evade, (to) elude —unavoidable, inescapable (to) emanate —(to) spring or flow (from) —spring, source boat, ship, vessel, embarkation, voyage —(to) embark (on boat, train, plane, venture), (to) load —pier, wharf ( muelle), embarcadero —embarkation, loading
[rare eloge]
—(to) disembark, (to) unload, (to) debark —disembarkation, unloading, debarkation —boat, ship, vessel —small boat, launch embargo ( Sp.), seizure, attachment (legal) —(to) seize or block (goods, movement, activity) —nevertheless ( no obstante) imbroglio, muddle —(to) muddle, (to) confuse, (to) embroil emergence, emergency —(to) emerge —emergent, emerging
[bark (barque)] [barge]
Latin elogium (“inscription on a tombstone”) was formed in Roman times as a mixture of Greek elegeia (“elegy”) with the Latin verb eloqui (“to speak out”, as in eloquent). In post-Roman times, elogium seems to have become confused with Greek eulogia (“praise”, lit. “fi ne words”): elogium and eulogium were both used in the sense of “praise for the dead”, i.e., eulogy. Spanish elogio (and English eloge) comes from elogium, English eulogy from eulogium.
T4311.indb 550
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
eminente —eminencia —Su Eminencia emoción —emocional —emotivo —emocionante —emocionar empírico emplasto —aplastar —aplastante emplazar —emplazamiento emplear —empleado (p.p.) —empleo —desempleado —desempleo empresa —emprender —empresario emular enclave —enclavar —clavar —clavado (p.p.) —clavo —dar en el clavo —clavel —clave (f.)
eminent —eminence —His/Your Eminence (title & form of address for cardinal) emotion —emotional (esp. “of the emotions”—e.g., estado emocional) —emotional, emotive —moving, touching, thrilling —(to) move, (to) touch, (to) thrill empirical plaster (med.), poultice, unsatisfactory solution —(to) flatten, (to) crush —crushing, overwhelming (e.g., victory) (to) emplace, (to) locate —emplacement, location (to) employ —employee —employ, employment —unemployed —unemployment company, enterprise —(to) undertake, (to) embark on —entrepreneur, impresario (to) emulate enclave —(to) locate or site (lit. “to become an enclave”) —(to) nail, (to) drive in, (to) rivet or fi x (eyes, etc.) —stuck fast, “on the dot”, “spitting image” —nail, clove (spice) —(to) hit the nail on the head —carnation —key (to puzzle, decisive element), clef
[emprise]
Of uncertain origin; possibly it arose in an analogous manner to the informal sense of English plaster: “to infl ict heavy damage or injury on”. An unrelated emplazar means “to summon” (see Annex B). Latin clavis (“key”) and clavus (“nail”) shared a common root—both referring to a way to make something secure. In derived words, there are often elements of both, i.e., an enclave can be something that is either “locked away” or “nailed down”. Spanish clavo and English clove owe their names to the nail- or spike-like form of the flower from which they are extracted. Spanish clavel takes its name from its clove-like smell. The identical process has occurred in German, where Nelke (cognate with English nail) means both “clove” and “carnation”.
T4311.indb 551
8/31/07 6:45:20 AM
ANNEX D
—llave (f.) enfermo (adj. & n.) —enfermedad —enfermería —enfermero —enfermar —enfermizo engendrar —engendro enorme —enormemente —enormidad ensayo —ensayo general —ensayar —ensayista entretener —entretenido (p.p.) —entretenimiento enviar —enviado (p.p.) —envío envidia —envidiar —envidioso épico (adj.) —épica (n.) —epopeya epidemia —epidémico —pandemia —pandémico episodio —episódico equidistante equilibrio —equilibrar equinoccio equipar —equipaje —equipo equiparar equivalente (adj. & n.)
T4311.indb 552
—key (for door), faucet sick, ill, sick person —illness, disease, sickness —infirmary, sickbay —nurse —(to) fall ill, (to) make ill —sickly, unhealthy, infirm (to) engender, (to) beget —deformed offspring, freak, monstrosity enormous, huge —enormously —enormity essay (composition; attempt or trial), assay (of metals) —dress rehearsal —(to) rehearse, (to) essay, (to) assay —essayist (to) entertain, (to) amuse —entertaining, amusing —entertainment, pastime, amusement (to) send, (to) ship —envoy —shipment, consignment envy —(to) envy —envious epic —epic poetry —epic poem, epic poetry, epic (n.), epopee epidemic (n.) —epidemic (adj.) —pandemic (epidemic over wide area) —pandemic (adj.) episode —episodic equidistant equilibrium —(to) equilibrate, (to) balance equinox (to) equip —baggage, luggage —team, equipment (to) compare, (to) put on the same level equivalent
[infirm] [infirmity]
(en vía)
[invidious]
[skipper] [equipage] [ship] [equal -pare]
8/31/07 6:45:20 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—equivalencia —equivaler equívoco (adj. & n.) —equivocar —equivocación erecto —erección —erigir —erguir esconder —a escondidas —escondite —recóndito esmeralda esotérico espasmo —espasmódico —pasmo —pasmado estima —estimar —estimación —inestimable estuario —estero etcétera, etc. etiqueta Europa —europeo evento —eventual —eventualidad exacto —inexacto examinar —examinador —examen excavación —excavar —excavadora —cavar
T4311.indb 553
—equivalency —(to) be equivalent (to) equivocal, equivocation, equivoque —(to) mistake or confuse (e.g., date, route—often by inattention) —error, mistake erect —erection —(to) erect (build; establish; obs. “elevate in status”) —(to) erect (raise to an upright position) (to) conceal, (to) hide —secretly —hiding place ( escondrijo), hide-and-seek —hidden, remote, recondite emerald esoteric spasm —spasmodic —chill, astonishment, lockjaw (tetanus) —astonished, dumbfounded esteem, respect, dead reckoning (by sea) —(to) esteem, (to) estimate —estimation (opinion or judgment, favorable regard) —inestimable, invaluable estuary —tideland, swamp or marsh (Amer.) et cetera, etc. label, etiquette Europe —European event —temporary (contract, employee), eventual —eventuality, contingency exact —inexact (to) examine —examiner —examination, exam excavation —(to) excavate —excavator (machine), bulldozer —(to) dig, (to) excavate
[abscond]
[ticket]
8/31/07 6:45:20 AM
ANNEX D
—caverna —cavernoso —cavernícola —cavidad —socavar exceder —exceso —excesivo excelente —excelencia —por excelencia excitar —excitante —excitación excremento excusar —excusa —excusado () —excusado (), escusado —inexcusable exhaustivo —exhausto exigente (adj. & n.) —exigencia —exigir —exiguo exilio —exiliar / exilar —exiliado / exilado (p.p.) éxito —exitoso exonerar
—cavern, cave —cavernous —cavernicolous, cave-dwelling, cave dweller, caveman (m./f.) —cavity (within body; dental cavity is caries) —(to) dig under, (to) undermine (to) exceed, (to) surpass —excess, surplus —excessive excellent —excellence, Excellency (title) —par excellence (to) excite —exciting, excitant (adj. & n.) —excitation, excitement excrement (to) excuse, (to) excuse from (exempt) —excuse —excused —restroom, toilet
(so sub)
[absconded]
—inexcusable exhaustive, thorough —exhausted exigent, exacting, demanding (person) —demand, requirement, exigencies (pl.) —(to) demand, (to) exact —exiguous (scanty, meager) exile —(to) exile, (to) go into exile —exile (person) success, successful issue (fi nal result) —successful (to) exonerate (free from obligation or responsibility)
[exit]
The etymologically “correct”, though far rarer, form is escusado. The ultimate origin is Latin abscondere (“to hide”), which also produced Spanish esconder and English abscond. A cuarto escusado was thus a room “hidden away” where one did things a escondidas (“secretly”). Exonerate literally means to remove a weight (“ex” “onerous”), so that the initial sense in both English and Spanish was “to free from a burden”. In English, the burden has become increasingly specialized in “blame”; this sense is not found, at least officially, in Spanish exonerar. Through “contamination” with the unrelated honor, in some areas (notably Chile), exonerar has developed the somewhat confl icting defi nition of “to dismiss or remove from office” (i.e., “ex” “honor”).
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—exoneración expensas (pl.) —a expensas de experiencia experimento —experimental —experimentar —experimentación explanada experto (adj. & n.) —inexperto —perito (adj. & n.) —pericia exquisito exterior (adj. & n.) —Asuntos Exteriores —externo (adj. & n.) extra —horas extras extraordinario fabricar —fábrica —fabricación —fabricante (m./f.) fachada factoría
T4311.indb 555
—exoneration (lift ing of burden) expenses, costs —at the expense of experience, experiment experiment —experimental —(to) experiment, (to) test, (to) experience —experimentation esplanade expert —inexperienced, inexpert —expert, technical school graduate (electrician, agronomist, etc.) —skill, expertise, expertness exquisite exterior —Foreign Affairs
—factor —factible —factura —facturar —facturación famoso —fama —infame —infamia fango
—external, extern (day pupil) extra (additional, superior), fi lm extra (m./f.) —overtime ( horas extraordinarias) extraordinary (to) manufacture, (to) fabricate —factory —manufacture, fabrication —manufacturer facade factory (incl. “trading station in foreign country”) —factor —feasible —invoice, facture (workmanship) —(to) invoice, (to) bill —invoicing, billing famous, renowned —fame, renown, reputation —infamous, infamous person (m./f.) —infamy mud, mire ( barro, lodo)
farsa —farsante (m./f.) fatiga —fatigar —infatigable
farce —farceur, faker, impostor fatigue —(to) fatigue, (to) tire, (to) weary —indefatigable, tireless
[forge]
[feature]
[fen, Fenway Park]
8/31/07 6:45:21 AM
ANNEX D
fauna fecundo —fecundar —infecundo feliz —infeliz —felicidad feria —día feriado fértil —fertilidad —fertilizar —fertilizante —feraz fetiche ficha —ficha técnica —fichero —afiche (Amer.) fieltro fi la —fi la india —fi lamento —fi lo —afi lar —afi lado (p.p.) —desfi lar —desfi le —desfi ladero fi ltro () —fi ltrar —fi ltración —infi ltrar —infi ltración fi ltro () fi nal (adj. & n.) —fi n —al fi n —por fin —a fi n de que —al fi n y al cabo
T4311.indb 556
fauna fecund ( fértil) —(to) fecundate, (to) fertilize (egg) —infertile, barren happy, fortunate, felicitous —unhappy, unfortunate, infelicitous —felicity, happiness, good fortune fair, market, feria (eccl.) —holiday fertile —fertility —(to) fertilize (soil) —fertilizer —fertile ( fértil) fetish chip (cards), token, index card —technical specs/details (also for movie, TV programs) —fi le (incl. computer), fi ling cabinet —poster, placard ( cartel) felt file (line of people or objects), row —single fi le, Indian file —fi lament —(sharp) edge (e.g., knife), dividing line —(to) sharpen —sharp —(to) defile (march in fi le), (to) parade (military) —parade, defile (marching past of troops, in fi les) —defile (narrow mountain pass or gorge) fi lter —(to) fi lter, (to) fi ltrate, (to) leak (information) —fi ltration, leak (information) —(to) infi ltrate (liquid, enemy) —infi ltration philter (love potion) final, end, fi nale, fi nals (competition—f.) —end, finish —at last, fi nally —fi nally, at last —in order that, so that —when all is said and done
[Felix]
[rare feracious] [microfiche]
( Germ.)
( Gk. philo-)
8/31/07 6:45:21 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—a fi nes de —sinfín —fi nalista —fi nalizar —[ultimar] —semifinal (f.) —fenecer fi nanciar —fi nanciación —fi nanciero (adj. & n.) —fi nanzas (pl.) fi nito —infi nito (adj. & n.) —infi nidad —infi nitud —infi nitesimal —infi nitivo fi no (adj. & n.)
flamenco () flanco flauta —flautista flecha
—finances, fi nance fi nite —infinite, infi nity (math.) —infi nity —infi nitude —infi nitesimal —infi nitive fine (thin, acute, delicate, refi ned), fino (sherry) —fineness, politeness, finesse firm (n.), company, signature —(to) sign —signer, signatory —firm (adj.) —firmness —firmament (sky or heavens) Flemish, flamenco (dance), Fleming (native of Flanders) flamingo flank, side flute —flautist, flutist arrow
—flechazo flexible —flexibilidad —flexión flotar
—arrow shot (or wound), love at first sight flexible —flexibility —flexion, bending, inflection (gram.) (to) float
—fi nura fi neza firma —firmar —firmante (m./f.) —firme —firmeza —firmamento flamenco ()
T4311.indb 557
—at the end of (month, century, etc.) —endless number, no end (of) —finalist —(to) end, (to) finish, (to) conclude —(to) fi nalize, (to) fi nish off —semifi nal(s) —(to) come to an end (life, term of office, etc.) (to) fi nance —fi nancing —financial, financier
(sin fi n) [finalize]
[finish]
[farm]
[ flame ?]
[fletcher, fléchette, flèche]
English defile (“to pollute”) is unrelated.
8/31/07 6:45:21 AM
ANNEX D
—flotador —flota —flotilla —flotante —a flote fluir —fluido (p.p.) —fluido eléctrico —fluidez —fluvial —confluir —confluencia flúor folclore, folclor, folklor(e) —folclórico, folkfomentar —fomento —Ministerio de Fomento forestal —deforestación / des—reforestación formal —formalidad —formalizar —informal —informalidad formato —formatear formidable fórmula —formular —formulario forro —forrar fortuna —afortunado —afortunadamente —desafortunado
T4311.indb 558
—float —fleet (boats, airplanes, trucks, etc.) —flotilla (small fleet) —floating —afloat (esp. “free or out of difficulty”) (to) flow —fluid (adj. & n.), fluent —electric current, power —fluidity, fluency —fluvial (of or pertaining to a river) —(to) flow together, (to) converge —confluence fluorine, fluoride ( fluoruro) folklore —folkloric (to) promote, (to) foster, (to) foment —promotion, development, fomentation (poultice) Ministry of Development, Ministry of Public Works forestal (pert. to forests), forestry (adj.) —deforestation —reforestation formal, serious-minded, reliable —formality, seriousness, reliability —(to) formalize —informal, unreliable —informality, lack of seriousness, unreliability format —(to) format formidable formula (incl. “recipe”, esp. of medicine) —(to) formulate —form (to be fi lled out), formulary (book) lining (clothes), protective cover (book) —(to) line, (to) cover, (to) get rich fortune (luck, good luck, fate, wealth) —lucky, fortunate, happy —fortunately, luckily —unlucky, unfortunate
( Sp.)
(unrelated)
(Sp. Eng.)
[fur] [foray]
Cf. English “to line (one’s) pockets”.
8/31/07 6:45:21 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—desafortunadamente fósil —fosilizar(se) —fosa —fosa nasal —fosa séptica —foso frac fractura —fracturar —fragmento —fragmentario —fragmentar fragata frecuente —frecuentemente —frecuencia frugal —frugalidad fulgurante —fulgor —refulgente fundir —fundición —refundir funeral —funerario (adj.) —funeraria (n.) —funesto —fúnebre —pompas fúnebres (pl.)
—unfortunately ( desgraciadamente) fossil —(to) fossilize —grave, pit, cavity, fossa —nostril —septic tank —pit (for musicians, long jumpers, car mechanics), moat, fosse full dress, tails fracture —(to) fracture —fragment —fragmentary —(to) fragment frigate frequent —frequently —frequency frugal —frugality fulgurant (flashing, dazzling) —brilliance, glow, eff ulgence —refulgent, fulgent, eff ulgent (to) fuse (melt, coalesce), (to) found (cast metal) —founding (melting, casting), foundry, font (printing) —(to) recast (metal, ideas), (to) revise or adapt funeral (n.) —funerary (pert. to a funeral or burial) —funeral parlor —baneful, fatal, lamentable —funeral (adj.), funereal —funeral, funeral parlor
[frock]
[refund]
[rare funest]
Despite being in widespread use, the adverb desafortunadamente is absent from the vast majority of dictionaries and is apparently considered to be an anglicismo. Why it should be more of an anglicismo than afortunadamente (which was officially “consecrated” by the RAE in ) is a mystery, however. In practice, in the sense of “printing font”, fuente is found far more commonly than fundición. Th is apparently represents a mistranslation of English font, of which there are two types, with different origins—font (basin, e.g., for baptisms) from fons/fontem and corresponding to Spanish fuente, and font (printing type) from the verb fundere, corresponding to Spanish fundir and fundición.
T4311.indb 559
8/31/07 6:45:22 AM
ANNEX D
—pompa () —pomposo —pompa () —pompa de jabón —burbuja funicular furgón —furgón de cola —furgoneta fusible fusil —fusilero —fusilar fútbol —fútbol americano —futbolista fútil —futilidad gafas (pl.) gala —galán —galante —galantería galaxia —galáctico galería —galera —galeón galimatías galope —galopar —galopante garrote gas —gaseoso (adj.) —gaseosa (n.) —gasolina —gasolinera gástrico —gastritis —gastronómico —gastronomía
T4311.indb 560
—pomp —pompous —(air) bubble —soap bubble —bubble funicular (cable railway) van, boxcar, freight car, fourgon —caboose —van, station wagon fuse (electric) rifle, gun, fusil —fusilier —(to) execute by shooting soccer, football (UK) —football —soccer player futile (esp. “trifl ing and frivolous”) —futility (esp. “triviality”) spectacles, glasses full dress, gala (festive occasion) —gallant (fashionable young man), leading man (actor) —gallant (attentive to women) —gallantry (marked courtesy, esp. to a woman) galaxy —galactic gallery —galley (boat, printing) —galleon (three- or four-masted sailing ship with square rig) galimatias (nonsense, gibberish) gallop —(to) gallop —galloping club, cudgel, garrote (method of execution) gas —gaseous, gassy —carbonated drink, soft drink —gasoline, petrol (UK) —gas station gastric —gastritis —gastronomic —gastronomy
( bomba []) [burble]
[fusillade]
[gaff, gaffe]
8/31/07 6:45:22 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—gastrónomo gemelo —torres gemelas —Géminis —mellizo general —en general, por lo general —generalidad —generalidades (pl.) —generalizar —género —genérico generoso —generosidad genético —código genético —genética —gen / gene genio —genial genocidio genuino gerundio gestación —gestar —gestión —gestionar gesto —gesticular —gesta gigante glaciar —glacial global
T4311.indb 561
—gastronome, gourmet twin (sibling), calf muscle, cuff link, binoculars (pl.) —twin towers —Gemini (constellation) —twin (esp. fraternal)
(gemelw/out ge-)
general (adj.), general (mil.) —in general, generally —generality (incl. “the greater portion or number”) —essential elements (general principles) of a subject —(to) generalize, (to) spread (i.e., become general) —sort, kind, genre, genus, gender (gram.) —generic generous —generosity genetic —genetic code —genetics —gene temperament, disposition, genius, genie —genial (incl. rare “displaying or marked by genius”) genocide genuine, authentic (mixture of Eng. pres. part. & gerund, e.g., amando) gestation —(to) gestate —effort or step (toward a goal), management —(to) arrange or deal with (administrative matter, etc.) gesture, expression —(to) gesticulate —geste (heroic exploits, frequently told in verse) gigantic, giant glacier —glacial global
[jest]
8/31/07 6:45:22 AM
ANNEX D
—globo —glóbulo —englobar gloria —glorioso —glorieta —glorificar glosario —desglosar golf ( Eng.) —minigolf —golfista golfo () —Golfo de México golfo (), golfa gracia —gracias a . . . —dar (las) gracias —desgracia —desgraciado (adj. & n.) —desgraciadamente —gracioso grada () grado —gradual —graduación —graduar —gradación —grada () gratis —gratuito —gratitud grava grave —gravedad —gravitación
—globe (incl. sphere, planet, glass lampshade), balloon —globule, corpuscle, blood cell (red, white) —(to) include, (to) lump together glory, eternal bliss, delight —glorious —traffic circle (freq. with small plaza in middle) —(to) glorify glossary —(to) decompose (separate into key elements) golf —miniature golf —golfer gulf —Gulf of Mexico loafer, vagabond, ragamuffi n, prostitute (f.) grace, witticism, thanks (pl.) —thanks to . . . —(to) thank, (to) give thanks —misfortune, mishap, disgrace —unfortunate, unlucky, wretched person —unfortunately ( por desgracia) —funny, gracious, graceful, gracioso (“buffoon”—m./f.) harrow degree (temperature, geometric), grade, rank —gradual —graduation, rank (military), strength (alcohol, in %) —(to) regulate, (to) graduate (incl. “arrange in gradations”) —gradation —step (of stairs), gradin, bleachers (pl.) gratis (free) —gratuitous (free; unwarranted) —gratitude gravel grave (serious, low-pitched, accent mark) —gravity —gravitation
[ dolphin !]
[grate (bars)]
(prob. Celtic)
There is also a completely separate grado referring to “willingness” (see Annex C under agradecer).
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—gravitar —ingravidez —gravar —gravamen gregario —grey (f.) grifo grotesco —gruta gruñir —gruñido (p.p.) —gruñón grupo —agrupar —reagrupar gueto / ghetto guitarra —guitarrista gusto —con (mucho) gusto —gustar —Me gusta tu idea. —degustar —degustación —disgustar —disgusto gutural hamaca harén, harem helicóptero —hélice (f.) hereditario —heredero, heredera —heredar —herencia héroe
—(to) gravitate, (to) hang over (menace, threat) —weightlessness —(to) tax —tax, burden gregarious, following servilely (“herd instinct”) —flock (animals or people, esp. religious) faucet, griffin grotesque —grotto (cave or cavern) (to) grunt, (to) grumble, (to) growl —grunt, grumble, growl —grumpy, grouchy group —(to) group —(to) regroup ghetto guitar —guitarist taste, liking, pleasure —with (great) pleasure —(to) taste, (to) please —I like your idea. —(to) sample, (to) taste, (to) degust —sampling, tasting, degustation —(to) displease, (to) annoy —displeasure, annoyance guttural hammock ( Sp.) harem helicopter —propeller, helix hereditary —heir, heiress, inheritor
[gravamen] [biol. grex] [hippogriff ] [crypt] (onom.)
( It.)
[gusto]
[disgust]
—(to) inherit —inheritance, heritage, heredity hero
Griffins and hippogriffs are fabulous creatures with the head and wings of an eagle, and the body of a lion or horse, respectively. The sense of faucet arose from the custom of adorning fountains with the heads of such fantastic animals, through the mouths of which water emerged. Herencia literally means “adhering things”—it belongs to the family of adherencia and adhesivo—and acquired its “modern” meaning through “contamination” with the hered-ity words.
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ANNEX D
—heroína () —heroína () —heroico —heroísmo hilaridad —hilarante himno —himno nacional hipertensión —hipotensión hipócrita (adj. & n.m./f.) —hipocresía historia —histórico —historiador —historial —historieta homogéneo honor —palabra de honor —honra —honras fúnebres —honrar —honrado (p.p.) —ser honrado —estar honrado —honradez —honroso —honorable —honorario —honorífico —mención honorífica —pundonor
—heroine —heroin —heroic —heroism hilarity —hilarious hymn —national anthem hypertension (high blood pressure) —hypotension (low blood pressure) hypocritical, hypocrite —hypocrisy history, story —historical (relating to history), historic (of great import) —historian —case history, record —comic strip, anecdote homogeneous honor (integrity, high respect, glory, credit) —word of honor —honor (self-respect, reputation, good name) —funeral —(to) honor —honest, upright, honorable (characterized by integrity) —(to) be honest (or honorable) —(to) be honored —honesty, integrity —honorable (consistent with honor or good name), decent —honorable (worthy of honor), reputable —honorary, honorarium (professional fee—gen. pl.) —honorific, honorary —honorable mention —honor, dignity, self-respect
[point of honor]
Heroin was the registered trademark of a potent drug launched by Bayer in Germany in . German sources seem unanimous that the name was created from Greek heros to reflect the “heroic” nature of the drug, though some English etymological dictionaries do not accept this explanation.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—honesto —honestidad —deshonor —deshonra —deshonrar —deshonroso —deshonesto —deshonestidad —denostar horizontal (adj. & n.f.) —horizonte horror —horrorizar —horroroso —horrible —horrendo humano —ser humano —humanitario —humanidad —humanizar —inhumano —inhumanidad humor —humorístico —humorista huracán idea —ideal —idealismo —idealista (adj. & n.) —idear idiota (adj. & n.m./f.) —idiotez ignominia —ignominioso ignorante (adj. & n.m./f.) —ignorancia
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—decent, honest (esp. “upright”) —decency, honesty (esp. “integrity”) —dishonor, disgrace —dishonor, disgrace, shame (esp. with respect to a woman) —(to) dishonor, (to) disgrace —dishonorable, disgraceful —improper, dishonest —dishonesty —(to) insult, (to) revile horizontal
[† dehonestate]
—horizon horror —(to) horrify —horrifying, horrid —horrible —horrendous humane, human (adj. & n.) —human being —humanitarian —humanity, mankind, humaneness, humanities (pl.) —(to) humanize —inhuman, inhumane —inhumanity humor (mood or disposition; funniness) —humorous, humoristic —humorist hurricane ( Sp.) idea —ideal —idealismo —idealistic, idealist —(to) think up, (to) invent, (to) ideate idiotic, idiot —idiocy ignominy —ignominious ignorant, ignoramus —ignorance
Deshonorar also exists but is extremely rare.
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ANNEX D
—ignorar imbécil (adj. & n.m./f.) —imbecilidad imbuir imitación —imitar —remedar —remedo impacto —impactar imparcial —imparcialidad impartir imperial —imperialismo —imperialista —imperio —imperioso —imperar —imperativo —emperador —emperatriz impermeable (adj. & n.) —permeable implacable importante —importancia impunidad —impune inanición —inane incentivo —incentivar incidente —incidental —incidencia
—(to) be ignorant of, (to) ignore imbecilic, imbecile —imbecility (to) imbue imitation —(to) imitate —(to) imitate, (to) mimic, (to) ape —imitation, (poor) copy impact —(to) impact (strike forcefully; have an impact on ) impartial, unbiased —impartiality (to) give (lesson, course), (to) impart imperial —imperialism —imperialist —empire —imperious (incl. “urgent, pressing”) —(to) reign, (to) hold sway —imperative —emperor —empress impermeable, waterproof, raincoat
( re imitar)
—permeable implacable important —importance impunity —unpunished inanition (exhaustion, gen. from starvation) —inane incentive —(to) incentivize (offer incentives, motivate) incident —incidental —incidence, incident
Th is use of impact is frowned upon by language mavens (% of the “Usage Panel” for the AHCD); nonetheless, it is common with Spanish impactar. Ironically, impactar is a relatively new word in Spanish (only since in the DRAE), and it is very likely that the word—along with the “incorrect” defi nition—was imported from English.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—incidir incinerador, -ora —incinerar —incineración —ceniza —cenicero incipiente incremento —incrementar inculcar incumbencia —incumbir indiferente —indiferencia indígena (adj. & n.m./f.) indigente (adj. & n.m./f.) —indigencia individual —individuo —individualidad —individualista (adj. & n.) indolente indomable —indómito —domar —domador inducir —inductor —inductivo —inducción indulgencia —indulgente —indulto —indultar inevitable —evitar inexorable ínfi mo influencia
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—(to) fall upon (light), (to) fall into (error), (to) influence incinerator —(to) incinerate, (to) cremate —incineration, cremation —ash, ashes (of a fire, or mortal remains—pl.) —ashtray incipient increment, increase —(to) increase (to) inculcate incumbency (duty or obligation, but not political) —(to) be incumbent upon, (to) be the duty of indifferent —indifference indigenous, indigen
[cinereous]
indigent, needy —indigence individual (adj.), single (room, bed) —individual (n.) —individuality —individualistic, individualist indolent untamable, indomitable —untamed, indomitable —(to) tame, (to) subdue —tamer (lion, horse, etc.) (to) induce —inducer, instigator, inductor (electrical) —inductive —induction indulgence —indulgent —judicial pardon —(to) pardon (judicially) inevitable, unavoidable —(to) avoid inexorable lowest or least (quantity, quality, importance) influence
[daunt]
[indult]
[† evite] [inferior]
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ANNEX D
—influir influenciar —influyente —influenza gripe información —informar —informante (m./f.) —informativo (adj. & n.) —informática —informatizar —informe () —informe () infringir —infracción —infractor ingenio —ingenio azucarero —ingenioso —ingeniero ingenuo, ingenua —ingenuidad ingrediente —ingreso —ingresos (pl.) —ingresar inherente injuria —injuriar —injurioso inocente (adj. & n.m./f.) —inocentada —el día de los Inocentes —inocencia insaciable inscripción
T4311.indb 568
—(to) influence, (to) exert influence on —influential —influenza, flu, grippe information —(to) inform —informant —informative, news program —computer science, data processing, informatics —(to) computerize —report (generally written) —shapeless, formless, unformed (to) infringe, (to) violate —infraction, infringement —transgressor, infractor ingenuity (incl. “ingenious device or contrivance”) —sugar mill ( ingenio de azúcar) —ingenious —engineer ingenuous, naïve, ingenuous person, ingenue —ingenuousness, naiveté
(in- “into”) (in- “not”)
[engine]
[ingenuity obs. def.]
ingredient —ingress (entrance, entry), revenue —income, revenues, receipts —(to) enter, (to) pay in (deposit), (to) take in (money) inherent insult or offense, injury (legal, not physical) —(to) offend or insult, (to) injure (“do an injustice to”) —insulting, offensive, injurious (abusive, defamatory) innocent —practical joke —“Day of the Innocents” (Dec. ) ( April Fools’ Day) —innocence insatiable inscription, registration, enrollment
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—inscribir instrumento —instrumental —instrumentista insuflar —soplar —soplo —soplido —soplete insulto —insultar intacto intelectual —intelectualidad —intelecto inteligente —inteligencia —inteligible intensivo —intenso —intensidad —intensificar intercalar interceptar —interceptación, -cepción interior Internet (f.) interno (adj. & n.) —internar —internado (p.p.) —internista interpolación —interpolar —tripular —tripulación —tripulante (m./f.) —no tripulado
—(to) inscribe, (to) register, (to) enroll instrument (music or other) —instrumental —instrumentalist (to) insufflate (blow or breathe in) —(to) blow, (to) blow out (a flame) —blow, breath, instant, murmur (heart) —breath, puff —blowpipe, (blow)torch insult —(to) insult intact intellectual —intellectuals (group), intelligentsia, intellectuality —intellect intelligent —intelligence —intelligible intensive —intense —intensity —(to) intensify (to) intercalate (insert or interpose) (to) intercept (incl. obs. “obstruct, hinder”) —interception
[soufflé]
interior (adj. & n.) Internet internal, intern —(to) intern (confine), (to) hospitalize —boarding school, internship, internee —internist (med.) interpolation —(to) interpolate —(to) man or crew (ship, aircraft) —crew (ship, aircraft) —crew member —unmanned (aircraft, spaceship) ( sin tripulación)
The evolution was interpolare S intrepolar S entripular S tripular. The application to crews arose from the recruiting and placement (interpolation) of new seamen among the old hands (veterans).
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ANNEX D
interviú (f.) ( Eng.) —entrevista —entrevistar —entrever intimar —íntimo —íntimamente —intimidad intransigente —transigir intrépido —intrepidez intriga —intrigar —intrigante (adj. & n.m./f.) intrínseco —extrínseco introvertido —extrovertido, extra- inventor —invento invención —inventar —inventivo (adj.) —inventiva (n.) —inventario investir —investidura —embestir ira —iracundo irascible ironía —irónico —ironizar irrigar
interview (journalistic) —interview (journalistic or job), meeting —(to) interview, (to) have a meeting (with determined agenda) —(to) glimpse, (to) catch sight of, (to) surmise (to) intimate, (to) become intimate —intimate —intimately —intimacy, private life intransigent, uncompromising —(to) compromise, (to) make concessions intrepid —intrepidity (fearlessness, courage) intrigue, plot (real or theatrical), intense curiosity —(to) intrigue (plot or scheme; arouse curiosity) —intriguing, intriguer
[† intimity] [transact]
intrinsic —extrinsic introverted, introvert (m./f.) —extroverted, extrovert (m./f.) inventor —invention —(to) invent —inventive —inventiveness, creativity —inventory (to) invest (with authority), (to) vest —investiture (ceremonial installation in office) —(to) assail, (to) attack, (to) charge
[invest besiege]
ire —irascible irony, sarcasm —ironic, ironical, sarcastic —(to) ironize (use irony) (to) irrigate (incl. medical)
In both Spanish and English, the original extra- has largely been replaced by extro- due to the influence of introvertido—introvert.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—irrigación —regar —riego —regadío (adj. & n.) —regadera irrupción —irrumpir itinerario —itinerante (adj.) jerarquía —jerárquico —jerarca (m./f.) jerga jersey ( Eng.) jubilación —jubilar —jubilado (p.p.) —júbilo jubileo judicial —judicatura —juez, jueza —juzgar —juzgado (p.p.) —juicio —juicio de Dios —juicioso —enjuiciar junta (n.) —junta directiva —junta militar —juntar —junto (adj.) —juntura —ayuntamiento jurar —jurado (p.p.) —jura (de bandera) —juramento —bajo juramento
—irrigation (land, colon) —(to) water (plants), (to) hose down, (to) irrigate —watering, irrigation —irrigable (land), irrigation —watering can, shower (Amer.) irruption (bursting in, invasion) —(to) irrupt (burst or break in) itinerary (route) —itinerant hierarchy —hierarchical —hierarch jargon, slang jersey, sweater retirement, pension —(to) retire, (to) pension off —retired, retiree, pensioner —jubilation, joy jubilee judicial —judicature, judiciary —judge —(to) judge —court, tribunal, jurisdiction (territory) —trial (legal), judgment (good sense) —trial by ordeal —judicious —(to) judge, (to) institute legal proceedings against meeting, assembly, joint, seam —board of directors —(military) junta —(to) join, (to) unite —joined, close, together (i.e., jointly) —juncture, junction, joint —municipal government, city hall, intercourse (to) swear (a legal oath or profanely) —jury, juror —oath (of allegiance) —oath, swearword —under oath
[jubilation !]
[hoosegow ]
(old p.p.)
U.S. hoosegow (“jail”) comes from the local Spanish pronunciation of juzgado as *juzgao (see Section . on the disappearance of interior d in many regions).
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ANNEX D
—jurisdicción —jurisprudencia —jurídico —persona jurídica justo —justicia —justificar —justificante (adj. & n.) —justificable —justificación —injusto —injusticia —injustificable labor (f.) —laborioso —laboratorio —laborable —laboral —laborar —labrar —labrador —labranza lacayo laminar —lámina lámpara —relámpago lamprea lanzar —lanza —lanzamiento —lancha lapidar —lápida —lapidario —lápiz —lapislázuli
—jurisdiction —jurisprudence, case law —juridical —juridical person, legal person (corporation, etc.) just, fair —justice —(to) justify —justifying, written proof (receipt, etc.) —justifiable —justification —unjust, unfair —injustice —unjustifiable labor, needlework (gen. pl.) —laborious (requiring much labor; hard-working) —laboratory —working (day), arable —labor (adj.), work (adj.) —(to) work, (to) labor —(to) work (land, wood, stone) —farmer, peasant, Labrador (retriever) —tillage, farming lackey (footman, servile follower) laminar (adj); (to) laminate —lamina (sheet, thin plate, layer), print (engraving) lamp —lightning (flash) lamprey (to) hurl, (to) throw, (to) launch —lance, spear —throwing (e.g., discus), launch, launching —launch (small boat) (to) stone ( apedrear) —gravestone, memorial stone —lapidary (engraved in stone, concise) —pencil —lapis lazuli (blue gemstone)
[† lapidate]
(lápiz azul)
Lancha—launch are unrelated to lanzar—launch. The latter are from Latin, the former apparently from Malayan (S Portuguese S Spanish S English).
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
lapso —un lapso de tres años —lapsus lastre —lastrar latente lateral —lado —al lado (de) —ladear —ladera laurel —laurear —laureado (p.p.) lava lavatorio —lavabo —lavar —lavable —lavadero —lavadora —lavamanos —lavandería —lavanda —lavaplatos —lavavajillas —letrina lazo —enlazar —enlace —enlace químico —desenlazar —desenlace —entrelazar lección —lectura
lapse (period of time; careless error) —a lapse (period) of three years —lapse (careless error) ballast, dead weight, hindrance —(to) ballast, (to) weigh down or burden latent lateral, side (adj.) —side (n.) —next to, beside —(to) tilt or incline, (to) turn sideways —hillside, slope laurel (tree), laurels (honor—pl.) —(to) laurel (crown with laurel, honor) —laureate lava wash, washing, lotion, lavatory (sink; restroom—Amer.) —lavabo (sink), restroom —(to) wash, (to) lave —washable —washing place (often communal) —washing machine —sink (esp. in Amer.) —laundry (establishment) —lavender —dishwasher (machine, person) —dishwasher (machine), washing-up liquid —latrine bow, knot, bond, lasso —(to) tie, (to) lace, (to) link, (to) lasso —link, liaison, wedding (“tying the knot”), hyperlink —chemical bond —(to) untie, (to) unravel (plot of novel, film, play) —outcome, denouement —(to) interlace, (to) interweave lesson —reading
[ballast bare (?) last]
(Lat. latus)
(Lat. la[va]trina)
[lecture]
Lavanda literally means “that which serves for washing”, referring to lavender’s use to perfume the water in which clothes (or people) were washed.
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ANNEX D
—lector legua —Veinte mil leguas de viaje submarino leotardo lepra —leproso (adj. & n.) lesión —lesionar letal letargo letra —letrero —letrado (adj. & n.) —iletrado levitación —levitar —levedad —leve —levar —llevar —conllevar
—sobrellevar —levantar —levantamiento —levante —levantino —levadura —sublevar —sublevación —liviano —ligero ( Fr.) —a la ligera —ligereza —aligerar leyenda libro
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—reader, lector league (unit of measure miles) —Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea leotard leprosy —leprous, leper injury, wound, lesion —(to) injure, (to) wound, (to) damage lethal lethargy letter —poster, sign —lettered (highly educated), lawyer —illiterate, unlettered, uneducated levitation —(to) levitate —lightness, levity (lightness, inconstancy) —light ( ligero), slight, of little importance —(to) weigh anchor, (to) set sail —(to) carry, (to) wear, (to) take —(to) entail or lead to
—(to) put up with, (to) endure —(to) raise, (to) lift, (to) get up (from bed, etc.) —raising, lift ing, uprising —East, levanter (east wind), Mediterranean Spain, Levant —Levantine (of the East—esp.Valencia and Murcia in Spain) —yeast, leaven, leavening —(to) incite (to rebellion or anger), (to) rise up (in revolt) —revolt, uprising —light, slight, frivolous —light (incl. “nimble”) —lightly (without sufficient care or consideration) —lightness, levity (inconstancy, frivolity) —(to) lighten, (to) alleviate, (to) hasten legend book
[levy] [lever] (“bring with”, as consequence)
[levity] [legerdemain] [legerity]
From the verb leer (Latin legere), the literal meaning is “things to be read”.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—librería —librero —libreta —libreto —libelo licencia —licenciar —licenciado (p.p.) —licenciatura —licencioso líder ( Eng.) —liderazgo liderato límite —limitación —limitar —ilimitado —delimitar —linde (m./f.) —lindar —colindar —colindante —deslindar —deslinde lindo —de lo lindo —lindeza línea —linaje —lineal —alinear —alineamiento —alineación —aliñar
—bookstore —bookseller, bookshelf (Amer.) —small book or notebook (address book, bank book) —libretto (opera text) —libel license (permission, permit) —(to) discharge or dismiss, (to) confer (or obtain) a degree —licentiate (degree holder; licensed to practice professionally) —university degree (generally bachelor’s, but varies) —licentious leader —leadership limit, boundary, border —limitation —(to) limit, (to) border with or be bounded on (north, etc.) —unlimited, boundless —(to) delimit (establish the limits of) —limit (boundary) —(to) border, (to) adjoin —(to) be adjacent, (to) adjoin —adjacent, adjoining —(to) fi x the boundaries or limits ( delimitar) —fi xing of limits, delimitation ( delimitación) pretty, nice, fine, lovely —greatly, a great deal ( mucho) —prettiness, loveliness, insults (pl.) line (multiple senses) —lineage —linear —(to) align, (to) line up (select members of a team) —alignment —alignment, lineup (sports) —(to) season (meal), (to) tidy or pretty up (appearance)
[library]
(“little book”)
(Lat. limitem)
[Linda]
[lineal]
Lindo comes via a tortuous path from Latin legitimus S leídemo S lídemo S lidmo S limdo S lindo. Its meaning has likewise evolved from legitimate S authentic S pure S good S pretty. There are alternative explanations for the origin of the English name Linda (perhaps a shortening of Belinda?), but the Spanish deriviation is as likely as any.
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ANNEX D
—desaliñado lingote linterna lista —pasar lista —lista negra —listar —listado (p.p.) —ardilla listada
—untidy, unkempt, slovenly ingot (of gold, etc.) lantern, flashlight list, stripe —(to) call the roll —blacklist —(to) list —striped, listing, printout —chipmunk
—alistar —alistamiento —listo litera literal literatura —literario —literato litigar —litigio —litigante (adj. & n.m./f.) litoral (adj. & n.) locomotora (n.) —locomotor (adj.) —locomoción locuaz —locución —locutor —interlocutor logia —alojar —alojamiento lubricante —lubricar —lubricación lúcido —lucidez
—(to) list (enter on a list), (to) enlist, (to) enroll —enlistment —ready (with estar), clever (with ser) bunk bed, berth (train or boat), litter (vehicle) literal literature —literary —writer (to) litigate —lawsuit, litigation —litigant, litigator coastal, littoral, seaboard, coast locomotive (engine) —locomotive (f. locomotora or locomotriz) —locomotion loquacious, talkative —locution, phrase —TV/radio announcer —interlocutor lodge (e.g., Masonic), loggia —(to) lodge —lodging, lodgings lubricant —(to) lubricate, (to) oil, (to) grease —lubrication lucid, brilliant (intelligent) —lucidity
[dis aligned]
(“striped squirrel”)
(unrelated) [wagon-lit]
[literati]
[Lido]
From lanterna (which still exists, although rare), influenced by (luz) interna. English list also includes the defi nition “a stripe or band of color”—this is generally treated as an altogether different word, although the ultimate etymological origin is the same. The words in this group have the alternate (much rarer) forms lubrificante, lubrificar, and lubrificación.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—luz (f.) —dar a luz —lucir —lucido (p.p.) —lucero —lucero de la mañana —lucero de la tarde —luciérnaga —Lucifer —dilucidar —relucir —reluciente —traslucir / trans—translúcido / traslúgubre —luto lumbago —lumbar —lomo —loma —lonja () loncha —solomillo —lonja () mágico —magia —mago —los Reyes Magos —El mago de Oz magistrado —magistratura —magistral —magisterio magnífico —magnificencia magno —Alejandro Magno
—light —(to) give birth ( alumbrar, parir) —(to) shine, (to) display, (to) plaster (walls) —brilliant (splendid, magnificent) —bright star, star (white spot on animal forehead) —morning star, Venus (also called lucero del alba) —evening star, Venus —glowworm, firefly —Lucifer (archangel, planet Venus) —(to) elucidate —(to) shine or reflect —relucent (reflecting light; shining) —(to) reveal, (to) show, (to) make translucent —translucent lugubrious —mourning lumbago (backache) —lumbar —back (of animal), loin (meat), spine (book) —small hill, slope —slice (meat, cheese) —sirloin —exchange, market magic (adj.), magical —magic (n.) —wizard, magician, magus —the Three Wise Men, Magi —The Wizard of Oz magistrate, judge —magistracy, magistrature —magistral, magisterial, masterful —teaching (profession; something taught) magnificent —magnificence great —Alexander the Great
[lux] (“give to light”)
(“light bringer”)
( luctus)
[lodge]
[magisterium]
[magnum opus]
Spanish solomillo ( solomo) means “under the loin”, so being Old Spanish for “under” ( Latin sub). English sirloin comes from French surloigne (Modern French surlonge), where sur ( Latin super) means “over”, so that the meaning is “over the loin”. Sirloin was thus initially surloyn. Said to have been knighted (by Henry VIII, James I, Charles II, and perhaps others), surloyn subsequently became “Sir Loin”, hence sirloin. Lonja () is of Germanic origin and unrelated to lonja ().
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ANNEX D
mal (adv.) —mal (n.) —malo (adj.) —de mala fe —maligno —malignidad —malicia —malicioso —maléfico —maleficio —malévolo —maleza —malaria mala —maleta —maletín —maletero manía —maníaco, maniaco (adj. & n.) —maniático (adj. & n.) —manicomio maniquí mantener —mantenimiento manto —manta —mantel —mantelería —mantilla —mantillo —mantón —desmantelar —salvamanteles maqueta máquina —maquinaria
badly —evil, harm —bad, wicked, evil —mala fide (in bad faith) —malign, malignant —malignancy, malignity —malice, cunning —malicious, evil-minded —malefic, maleficent —evil spell or curse —malevolent —undergrowth, weeds —malaria ( paludismo) mail, mailbag —suitcase —valise —porter, trunk (auto), storage room (house) mania (mental disorder, craze), aversion —manic, maniacal, maniac (suffering from a mania) —maniacal, maniac (excessive enthusiasm, frantic)
[mal de mer]
[rare malefice] [malice] (“bad air”)
—mental hospital, madhouse (place of great disorder) mannequin (dummy; model—m./f.) (to) maintain, (to) keep —maintenance, sustenance mantle (cloak, cover, geol., biol.), mantel —blanket —tablecloth —table linen —mantilla, infant’s frock —humus ( humus), manure —shawl ( chal) —(to) dismantle —coaster (placed under drinks, bowls, etc., to “save” tablecloth) maquette (small model) machine —machinery, mechanism (e.g., watch)
Mala comes from French malle (“valise”, “trunk”), the source of English mail; mala is used only (and then only rarely) in reference to England or France, e.g., La Mala Real Inglesa (the Royal English Mail). The normal word for mail is correo.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—maquinar —maquinación —maquinista mar (m./f.) —la mar de —mar gruesa —alta mar —bajamar (f.) —pleamar (f.)
—(to) machinate (scheme), (to) machine (metal) —machination (plot, scheme) —machinist, engineer (train) sea —a lot of, no end of, “a sea of” —rough or heavy seas —high seas —low tide ( marea baja) —high tide ( marea alta)
—Almirante de la Mar Océana —marea —mareo
—“Admiral of the Ocean Sea” (title accorded to Columbus) —tide (sea; of people or things) —mal de mer (seasickness), nausea, dizziness, annoyance —(to) navigate, (to) become nauseated or seasick, (to) annoy —maritime —navy, marine (fleet, seascape) —marine (of the sea), sailor —of the sea, seaworthy, seaman, mariner
—marear —marítimo —marina —marino (adj. & n.) —marinero (adj. & n.) —marinar —submarino maravilla —maravilloso —maravillar marginal —margen (m./f.) marrón —marrón rojizo masa —masivo —macizo (adj. & n.) —oro macizo masacre (f.) —masacrar masaje
—(to) marinate —underwater, submarine (adj. & n.) marvel, wonder —marvelous, wonderful, wondrous —(to) astonish, (to) marvel marginal —(river)bank (gen. f.), margin (various senses—m.) brown —maroon mass (n.), dough —massive, mass (adj.) —massive (solid), massif (mountain mass), flower bed —solid gold massacre —(to) massacre massage
( plenamar [f.])
[marina] [marinara]
[marron]
Though mar is normally masculine, in various expressions (of both sailors and literati) and in some regions it is feminine ( Latin mare, which was neuter).
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ANNEX D
—masajista máscara —mascarada —[rímel]
—masseur, masseuse mask, disguise, masquerader (m./f.) —masquerade —mascara
masculino
másculine
—masculinidad —macho
—masculinity —male (animal, plant, “male” plug), macho
—machismo —machista (adj. & n.) masoquismo —masoquista (adj. & n.) mástil mata —mata de pelo —matorral mausoleo mayor —mayor de edad —mayoral —mayorazgo —mayoría —mayorista —mayúsculo (adj.) —mayúscula (n.) maza —mazo
—machismo —macho, male chauvinist masochism —masochistic, masochist
—machacar —machete —maceta —macetero —remachar —remache mecha —mechero medalla —medallón mediocre
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mast (boat, TV station, etc.), neck (guitar) shrub, bush —mop (or head) of hair —scrubland, thicket, brush, bush (area, plant) mausoleum bigger, older, biggest, oldest, major —of (legal) age —foreman, head shepherd —primogeniture, (entailed) family estate —majority —wholesaler —larger than normal, capital or uppercase (letter) —capital or uppercase letter mace (staff, club), hammer of a pile driver —maul, mallet, gavel, bundle or bunch (banknotes, flowers) —(to) crush, (to) pound, (to) mash —machete ( Sp.) —flowerpot, hammer (for breaking stone or brick) —flowerpot stand —(to) rivet, (to) hammer home (insist) —rivet, act of riveting wick, fuse, match (“easily ignited cord or wick”) —(bunsen) burner, cigarette lighter medal —medallion, locket mediocre
[mascara] [Rimmel London] (Lat. masculinus) (Lat. masculus)
[mat]
[mayor]
From Germanic mast (via French), with influence of árbol (“tree”). The semantic development seems to have been mat (i.e., cover) of trees or bushes S bush.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—mediocridad melodía —melódico —melodioso melodrama menaje meningitis menopausia mercado —supermercado —hipermercado —mercader (n.) —El mercader de Venecia —mercadería —mercancía —mercante (adj.) —mercantil —derecho mercantil —mercantilismo —mercenario —mercería —merced —vuestra merced (S usted) merodear —merodeador metabolismo metal —metálico —en metálico —metalurgia meteorito —meteoro
—mediocrity melody —melodic —melodious melodrama household goods meningitis menopause market, mart —supermarket —hypermarket (supermarket dept. store) —merchant —The Merchant of Venice —merchandise —merchandise —merchant (ship, fleet) —mercantile, commercial —commercial law —mercantilism —mercenary —notions store (U.S.), haberdashery (UK) —grace, mercy, favor —“your lord” (S you [formal]) (to) maraud, (to) prowl —marauder, prowler metabolism metal, brass (music) —metallic —in cash ( en efectivo) —metallurgy meteorite, meteoroid —atmospheric phenomenon, meteor (“shooting star”)
[ménage à trois]
[mercer] (see Section .)
Mercader and mercadería tend to be used more in a historical (often literary) sense, comerciante and mercancía in a more “modern” one. That is, a store selling fabrics, threads, needles, buttons, etc. An American haberdashery specializes in men’s clothing and accessories. Contrary to what many (if not most) English speakers might think, a meteor is not a solid body moving through space that becomes a meteorite when it impacts the earth: this is in fact the defi nition of a meteoroid. An English meteor, exactly like its Spanish counterpart, is the “shooting star” that one sees as the meteoroid flashes through the sky. Spanish does not distinguish between meteoroid and meteorite, using meteorito for both. Technically, both meteor and meteoro apply to all atmospheric phenomena—wind, rain, thunder, rainbows, etc.—but this broad sense is rarely encountered in either language.
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ANNEX D
—meteorología
—meteorology
—meteorólogo —meteorismo microbio microscopio —microscópico militar () (adj. & n.) —militar ()
—meteorologist —meteorism (flatulence) microbe microscope —microscopic military, soldier —(to) serve in the army or in a political party, (to) militate —militant, activist
—militante (adj. & n.m./f.) —militarista (adj. & n.) —milicia milla (náutica)
—militia (incl. obs. “arts of war”) (nautical) mile
mina —minar —mineral —minería —minero ministro —ministerio —ministerial —menester —ser menester —menestra ( It.) —suministrar —suministro mitin ( Eng.) mixtura —mixto —miscelánea —misceláneo —mezclar —mezcla —mezcolanza —entremezclar —mestizo —inmiscuir(se) —promiscuo —promiscuidad modelo (adj. & n.)
mine (extractive, explosive), lead (pencil) —(to) mine, (to) undermine —mineral —mining (n.), mining industry —mining (adj.), miner minister —ministry (governmental) —ministerial —need, chore, occupation —(to) be necessary —vegetable stew —(to) supply —supply, provision (political) meeting, rally mixture —mixed —miscellany, miscellanea —miscellaneous —(to) mix —mixture, mix, mixing —medley (mixture, hodgepodge) —(to) intermix, (to) intermingle —métis, mestizo (person of mixed racial ancestry) —(to) meddle, (to) interfere —promiscuous (incl. “composed of all sorts”) —promiscuity (incl. “unruly mixture or mixing”) model
(study of “meteors”)
—militaristic, militarist
(Lat. mille: , paces)
[métier] [minestrone] [† subminister]
[melee]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—modelar —modalidad —modal modo —de todos modos —de ningún modo —de otro modo —módico modular () —modular () —módulo molde —moldear —amoldar molestar —molestia —molesto momia —momificar monopolio —monopolizar —monopolista —monopolístico monte —monte alto —monte bajo —montaña —montaña rusa —montañero —montañés (-esa) —montañismo —montañoso —montar —desmontar —monto —montaje —montículo —montón —montura moratoria
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—(to) model, (to) mold or fashion —modality, mode (method, form), category (e.g., “men’s singles”) —modal, manners (good, bad—pl.) mode (manner, way), mood (gram.) —anyhow, at any rate —by no means, under no circumstances —otherwise —moderate, reasonable (esp. price) modular (adj.) —(to) modulate —module, modulus mold, cast —(to) mold, (to) cast —(to) mold, (to) fashion, (to) adapt oneself (to) bother, (to) disturb, (to) molest —bother, nuisance, discomfort —annoying, uncomfortable, annoyed mummy —(to) mummify monopoly —(to) monopolize —monopolist —monopolistic mount, mountain, woodland, monte (card game) —(high) forest, woodland (with tall trees) —lower part of mountain ( scrubland, thicket, maquis) —mountain, mountains (collectively, as singular) —roller coaster —mountaineer, mountain climber ( alpinista) —highland (adj.), mountain (adj.), highlander —mountaineering, alpinism ( alpinismo, andinismo) —mountainous —(to) mount, (to) assemble, (to) edit (fi lm) —(to) dismount, (to) demount (disassemble) —amount, sum, total —assembly or mounting, fi lm editing, montage —mound, hillock —mountain (“large heap”, “huge quantity”) —mount (animal, jewel), saddle, frame (glasses) moratorium (esp. of debt payments)
[modicum]
(Lat. modulus) (Lat. modulus)
[molestation] [molested]
[Montana] [Russian mountain]
[monticule]
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ANNEX D
—morar —morada —mora —demorar —demora —moroso —morosidad —rémora morboso —morbo —mórbido mortero mosaico motín —amotinar —amotinado (p.p.) motivación —motivar —motivación —motivo motor (n.) —motor (adj.) —fuerza motriz (motora) —motorista —motocicleta, moto (f.) —automovilista mover —movible —movimiento —cantidad de movimiento —móvil —movilidad —movilizar —movilización —inmóvil —inmovilidad
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—(to) dwell, (to) reside —dwelling, abode —delay (esp. in payment), mora (poetry) —(to) delay, (to) linger —delay —slow, tardy, delinquent (in payment) —slowness, tardiness, delinquency or arrears (payment) —remora (suckerfish; hindrance, drag) morbid (diseased, gloomy, gruesome) —disease, morbid interest or taste
[demur] [demurrage]
(cholera morbus)
—morbid (med.) mortar (for pounding, artillery) mosaic mutiny, riot, uprising —(to) incite to mutiny, (to) mutiny —mutinous, mutineer motivation —(to) motivate, (to) justify —motivation —motive, reason, motif motor, engine —motor (f. motora or motriz) —driving or motive force, motive power —motorcyclist, motorist (very rare) —motorcycle —motorist, automobilist (to) move —movable —movement —momentum (physics) ( ímpetu, momento) —mobile, motive, mobile phone —mobility —(to) mobilize —mobilization —immobile, motionless —immobility
An unrelated mora means “mulberry” (see Section .). English morose comes from a completely different root (that of moral and morale).
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—inmovilizar —inmovilización multa —multar municipal (adj. & n.m./f.) —municipio mural —muralista —muro —intramuros —extramuros —muralla —amurallar —muladar museo —musa música —músico —musical mutuo mutual —mutualidad natural —naturaleza natura —por naturaleza —naturaleza humana —naturaleza muerta —contra natura —naturalizar —naturalista (adj. & n.) —naturista —sobrenatural naval —nave (f.)
—(to) immobilize —immobilization fi ne, penalty, traffic ticket, mulct —(to) fi ne or penalize, (to) mulct municipal, city policeman —municipality (town or city; town or city council) mural —muralist (painter of murals) —wall (esp. exterior) —intramural (within walls [limits] of city or institution) —extramural (occurring or situated outside walls or limits) —rampart, wall —(to) wall (defend with walls, surround with ramparts) —trash heap, garbage dump museum —Muse, muse (inspiration) music —musician —musical (adj. & n.) mutual, reciprocal —mutuality, mutual insurance company, friendly society (UK) natural, native (e.g., of New York) —nature (natura tends to refer more to “Nature”)
[immure]
—by nature, naturally —human nature —still life (painting) —against nature, unnatural —(to) naturalize ( nacionalizar) —naturalistic, naturalist —naturist (nudist) —supernatural naval —ship, vessel, nave (of a church)
Th is was initially muradal (which still exists), with the not-uncharacteristic inversion of r and l (see Section ., no. )—a trash dump was often located near the external walls of the city.
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ANNEX D
—nave espacial —quemar las naves —naufragio
—spaceship —“to burn one’s boats” “to burn one’s bridges” —shipwreck (incl. “total loss or ruin”)
—náufrago necesario —necesidad —necesitar —innecesario negligente —negligencia negociación —negociar
—shipwrecked, castaway necessary —necessity —(to) necessitate, (to) need —unnecessary negligent —negligence negotiation (incl. obs. “business transaction”) —(to) negotiate (incl. obs. “do business, engage in commerce”) —negotiable (open to discussion; transferable) —negotiator —business (trade, affair, deal, commercial enterprise) —trader, broker, merchant, businessman (-woman) —leisure, idleness —idle, pointless, otiose —idleness, otiosity pneumonia neutral (not taking sides) —neutral (other senses), neuter (gram. & biol.) —neutrality —(to) neutralize —neutralization —neutron snowy, snow-covered, snow-capped —snowfall —mountain covered with perpetual snow (Amer.) —icebox, refrigerator —(to) snow —snow —snow-white (poetic), niveous niche nicotine
—negociable —negociador —negocio —negociante (m./f.) —ocio —ocioso —ociosidad neumonía neutral —neutro —neutralidad —neutralizar —neutralización —neutrón nevado (adj.) —nevada (n.) —nevado (n.) —nevera —nevar —nieve (f.) —níveo nicho nicotina
[lit. naval fracture]
[negotiant] (Lat. otium)
[Sierra Nevada]
[névé, nival] [Nivea ]
®
There is an interesting parallel between negocio and business: negocio comes from Latin negotium (“business”), formed from neg- (“not”, as in negate) otium (“leisure”), so that the literal meaning was “lack of leisure” or busy-ness. (In Roman times, business was not a highly valued activity, as those of independent means preferred not to give up their “leisure”.)
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níquel nítido —nitidez —neto —beneficio neto nocivo nocturno (adj. & n.) —noctámbulo —[sonámbulo] —pernoctar
nickel clear, sharp (esp. photo) —clarity, sharpness —net (weight, income, etc.) —net profit, net benefit noxious, harmful nocturnal, night (adj.), nocturne (music) —night owl —noctambulist, somnambulist, sleepwalker —(to) pass the night (in a hotel, tent, etc.)
nómada (adj. & n.m./f.) nostalgia —nostálgico nota —notable
nomadic, nomad
—notación —notar —notario —notaría —noticia —las noticias notificación —notificar notorio —notoriedad núbil —nupcias (pl.) —nupcial —nube (f.) —nublar —nublado (p.p.) —nuboso —nubosidad nudismo
nostalgia —nostalgic note (various senses), grade, mark —notable, noteworthy, exam grade (higher than aprobado, lower than sobresaliente) —notation —(to) note, (to) notice —notary —notary’s office —news, information —news (radio, TV) notification (esp. official letter or notice) —(to) notify (incl. “make known, announce”) well-known, notorious (w/out negative connotation) —fame, renown, notoriety (objective, not negative) nubile —nuptials (wedding ceremony) —nuptial —cloud —(to) cloud, (to) darken or dim —cloudy, overcast, storm cloud —cloudy, overcast —cloudiness, clouds nudism
[net, neat]
[night ambler] [rare pernoctate]
[rare nubilous]
The Latin verb “to marry” (for a woman) was nubere. Th is literally meant “to cover” or “to veil”, and seems to have been derived from nubes (cloud). The most important element of the marriage ceremony was the woman’s taking of the veil, “which symbolized the loss of liberty for the wife and (her) reclusion [imprisonment?] within the residence of the husband” (Ernout and Meillet, ).
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ANNEX D
—nudista —desnudar —desnudo —desnudez nudo —nodo —nódulo —nudillo —anudar —desanudar —reanudar obelisco obeso —obesidad oblicuo oboe obsceno —obscenidad obsoleto obtener obtuso obvio —obviar océano —oceanografía —oceanográfico —oceanógrafo oclusión —ocluir —oclusivo odio —odiar —odioso —enojo —enojar —enojado (p.p.) ofender —ofensivo (adj.) —ofensiva (n.)
—nudist —(to) undress, (to) strip, (to) denude —nude, naked —nudity, nakedness knot (numerous senses ), node (bot.), nodus —node (astron., physics) —nodule —knuckle —(to) knot, (to) unite —(to) untie, (to) unknot, (to) disentangle —(to) renew, (to) resume obelisk obese —obesity oblique oboe obscene —obscenity obsolete (to) obtain obtuse obvious —(to) obviate, (to) disregard ( pasar por alto) ocean —oceanography —oceanographic —oceanographer occlusion —(to) occlude —occlusive odium, hate, hatred —(to) hate, (to) loathe —odious, hateful —annoyance, anger —(to) annoy, (to) anger —annoyed, angry (to) offend, (to) take offense —offensive —offensive
[denouement]
[in- odium]
The knot that one ties, a unifying bond, a hard place or lump (esp. on a tree), a complex problem, a division of a log line used to measure the speed of a ship, a measure of nautical speed, etc. Nudo, which comes from Latin nodus, has nothing to do with the words relating to nudity.
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—ofensor (adj. & n.) oficial (adj. & n.m./f.) —oficiar —oficio —oficioso —oficina —oficinista ogro omnisciente opaco —opacidad opinión —opinar opio oportunidad —oportuno —inoportuno —oportunista (adj. & n.) optimismo —optimista (adj. & n.) —óptimo —optimizar opulencia —opulento órbita —orbital —orbe —desorbitado —precio desorbitado —con los ojos desorbitados —exorbitante orificio origen —original —originalidad —originar —originario —aborigen (adj. & n.m./f.) orquídea
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—offending, offender official, officer —(to) celebrate or officiate (eccl.), (to) inform officially —office (profession, role [eccl.]), official letter —officious (unofficial; meddling; obs. “obliging”) —office (workplace) —office clerk ogre omniscient, all-knowing opaque (not transparent) —opacity opinion —(to) opine, (to) be of the opinion that opium opportunity, opportuneness —opportune, timely —inopportune, untimely, inconvenient —opportunistic, opportunist optimism —optimistic, optimist —optimal, optimum ( buenísimo) —(to) optimize opulence —opulent orbit (incl. “eye socket”) —orbital —orb —“out of orbit” (excessive, extreme) —“sky high” or exorbitant price —wide-eyed, pop-eyed (astonished) —exorbitant orifice, opening origin —original —originality —(to) originate, (arise from; give rise to) —original (initial), originating, native —aboriginal, Aboriginal, aborigine, Aborigine (in Australia) orchid
[deorbited]
[ex orbit]
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ANNEX D
ósmosis, osmosis ostentación —ostentoso —ostentar —ostensible ostracismo oxígeno —óxido ozono —capa de ozono pabellón paciente —paciencia —impaciente —impaciencia —impacientar pacífico —(océano) Pacífico —pacificar —pacificación —pacificador —pacifismo —pacifista pacto —pactar —empate ( It.) —empatar —desempate —desempatar —pauta —pautar —papel pautado pala —paleta palacio —palaciego
osmosis ostentation —ostentatious —(to) flaunt, (to) display, (to) occupy (office or position) —ostensible (incl. obs. “conspicuous”) ostracism oxygen —oxide ozone —ozone layer pavilion (ornate tent, structure, obs. “flag or ensign”) patient (adj & n.m./f.) —patience —impatient —impatience —to make (s.o.) lose patience pacific, peaceful —Pacific Ocean —(to) pacify —pacification —pacifier (person), peacemaker —pacifism —pacifist pact —(to) agree to, (to) make a pact —tie (game or vote), draw —(to) tie, (to) draw —play-off, tiebreaker —(to) break a tie (sports or vote) —guideline or rule (line on paper or model to be followed) —(to) rule (paper), (to) gives rules or guidelines —ruled paper, music paper shovel, spade, blade (propeller, etc.), baker’s peel —palette, trowel, paddle palace —pertaining to the royal palace
[in- pact]
The initial idea was “to make a pact”, “to make peace”. Pauta (from Latin pacta, “pacts”) has undergone a “semi-learned” phonetic evolution analogous to that of auto (“judicial act”); see Section ..
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palestra paliativo —paliar palo
arena, palestra palliative (adj. & n.) —(to) palliate pale, stick, blow with a stick, suit (cards)
—apalear —palillo —paliza —empalar —Vlad el Empalador
—(to) beat, (to) cane, (to) thrash —small stick, toothpick, drumstick, chopsticks (pl.) —beating, drubbing —(to) impale —Vlad the Impaler (Wallachian prince, –; model for Dracula) —palisade, stockade pampa (treeless grassland area, esp. in Argentina) panacea panel, noticeboard —cloth (material, piece) [pane] —dishcloth —dressed only in underwear —one who sympathizes and consoles —handkerchief, shawl —diaper —(to) diaper, (to) blur or fog up, (to) tarnish pamphlet, leaflet panic panorama —panoramic pants, trousers, pantaloons
—empalizada pampa panacea panel —paño —paño de cocina —en paños menores —paño de lágrimas —pañuelo —pañal —empañar panfleto pánico panorama (m.) —panorámico pantalón or pantalones (pl.) —pantalón corto —pantorrilla paquete —paquebote —empaquetar —desempaquetar —empacar —empaque —desempacar parada —parar —parado (p.p.) —salir bien (mal) parado —paro —parador
T4311.indb 591
[beyond the pale]
—short pants (also: pantalones cortos) —calf (of the leg) (unrelated) package, pack, packet —packet (boat), steamer —(to) package, (to) pack —(to) unpack —(to) pack, (to) package —packing, packaging (also fig.—presence, bearing) —(to) unpack parade (mil.), stop (bus), pause, parry —(to) stop, (to) parry (e.g., fencing) —unemployed —(to) come out well (poorly) —(work) stoppage, strike, unemployment —inn (“stop off ”), parador (govt.-run hotel in Spain)
8/31/07 6:45:30 AM
ANNEX D
—paradero —paraje —deparar paradigma (m.) páramo parangón —sin parangón paranoia —paranoico (adj. & n.) parcela parche —parchear parchar pared —parietal —emparedar —emparedado (p.p.) parlamento —parlamentario (adj. & n.) —parlamentar parque —parque industrial —parque de atracciones —parque zoológico —parque automovilístico —parque móvil —aparcar —aparcamiento párrafo / parágrafo parte () (f.) —en todas partes —por todas partes —en ninguna parte —parte () —parcial (adj. & n.) —partir —partido (p.p.) —partida
T4311.indb 592
—whereabouts, stopping place —place, spot —(to) offer or furnish (opportunity, surprise, etc.) paradigm barren land, paramo (treeless alpine plateau in S. Amer.) comparison, parallel [paragon] —matchless, incomparable paranoia —paranoic (paranoiac), paranoid parcel (plot of land, tiny portion) patch (band-aid, repair, soft ware), drumhead —(to) patch wall, paries (wall of a body part) —parietal (bone) —(to) wall in, (to) immure (in mure Sp. muro) —sandwich parliament, parley, long speech (actor) —parliamentary, parliamentarian (member of a parliament) —(to) parley (confer, discuss terms) park —industrial park —amusement park
(unrelated)
(“walled in”)
—zoo —total of cars (in a city, or country) —aggregate of vehicles belonging to a public entity —(to) park (incl. “put aside for a while”) —parking, parking lot paragraph part, party (“concerned parties”) —everywhere (“in all parts”) —everywhere (“on all sides”) —nowhere (“in no part”) —dispatch, report (weather, medical) —partial (incomplete, biased), midterm (exam) —(to) divide or separate into parts, (to) depart —party (political), game or match (soccer, tennis) —departure, consignment, game or match (chess), party (hunting, of bandits), certificate
8/31/07 6:45:30 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—partida de nacimiento —partidario —partición —repartición —repartir —reparto —compartir —compartimento, -miento —aparte (adv., adj., n.) —un mundo aparte —apartar —apartado (p.p.) —apartamento —departamento particular (adj.) —particular (n.) —clases particulares —particularidad pasar —pasado (p.p.) —la semana pasada —paso —pasa —pasarela —pasatiempo —paseo —pasear —pasillo —pasaporte —marcapasos —repasar —sobrepasar —traspasar —traspaso
—birth certificate —partisan, supporter, follower —partition (division) —repartition (division, apportionment) —(to) distribute, (to) divide up —distribution, sharing out, cast (of a play) —(to) divide up, (to) share, (to) partake of ( part-take) —compartment —apart, aside, separately; separate, apart; aside (comment) —“a world apart” —(to) move or set apart, (to) separate —distant, remote, PO Box, paragraph or section (law, contract) —apartment —department, apartment (Amer.) particular (incl. obs. “peculiar, private [property, lesson]”) —private individual, particular (item, detail) —private lessons —particularity, peculiarity (distinctive feature) (to) pass —past (time gone by; past tense) —last week (“the past week”) —step, pace, pass —raisin —gangway, footbridge, catwalk —pastime, hobby —walk, stroll, promenade —(to) go for a walk (or ride), (to) pace —passageway, corridor, aisle —passport —pacemaker (med.) —(to) review, (to) look over, (to) mend —(to) surpass —(to) pass over (or through or beyond) —transfer, sale
[repartee]
[El Paso]
[pace marker]
[trespass]
From uva pasa, literally “spread-out grape”, since raisins were made by spreading grapes out for drying in the sun: Latin passus served both as the past participle of the verb pandere (“to spread out”, “to expand”) and as a separate (related) noun meaning “step”, “pace”.
T4311.indb 593
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ANNEX D
—antepasado pasivo —pasividad —impasible —impasibilidad patente (adj. & n.f.) —patentar patio patrulla —patrullar paz (f.) —hacer las paces —apacible —apaciguar peculiar —peculiaridad pecuniario pelota —pelota vasca —pelotón —bellota ( Arab.) pena —pena de muerte —a duras penas —apenas —valer (merecer) la pena —penar —penado (p.p.) —penoso —penal (adj. & n.) —penalidad —penalti / penalty —penalizar —apenar pendiente (adj.)
—ancestor passive, liability or liabilities (fi nancial) —passivity, passiveness —impassive, impassible —impassiveness, impassibility patent (obvious), patent (invention, license) —(to) patent patio, courtyard, orchestra section (theater) patrol —(to) patrol peace —(to) make peace, (to) reconcile —peaceable, peaceful, gentle —(to) pacify, (to) appease, (to) calm particular (proper or characteristic of a person or thing) —peculiarity (a distinguishing characteristic) pecuniary ball ( balón), ball game —jai alai, pelota —platoon (mil.), pack (e.g., racers) —acorn penalty, punishment, pain (mental suffering, exertions) —death penalty ( pena capital) —(just) barely, with great difficulty —hardly, scarcely, as soon as —(to) be worthwhile, (to) be worth the trouble
[ante- passed]
[Pax Romana]
[pellet]
[at pains]
—(to) punish, (to) suffer pain, (to) pine for —convict —painful (situation, effort), distressing —penal, prison, penalty shot (Amer.) —penalty (legal), hardship —penalty shot (soccer) —(to) penalize —(to) pain, (to) sadden pending, pendent (hanging), attentive (e.g., “hanging on her every word”)
Th is is also a defi nition of English peculiar, though not the principal one (“strange or odd”), which in fact is peculiar to Modern English (cf. the nineteenth-century euphemism for “slavery” used by its defenders—the “peculiar institution”, i.e., one that was particular to the South). Unlike English, Spanish peculiar and particular remain common synonyms.
T4311.indb 594
8/31/07 6:45:31 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—pendiente (m.) —pendiente (f.) péndulo percha —perchero —pértiga —perca perdición —perder —perdido (p.p.) —pérdida —desperdiciar —desperdicio perentorio perfi l —perfi lar perfume período, periodo —periódico (adj. & n.) —periodista periscopio perjurio —perjurar —perjuro permiso —permitir —permisible —permisivo pernicioso perpendicular (adj. & n.f.) perseverar —perseverante —perseverancia persiana persona —personal (adj. & n.) —impersonal —personalidad
—earring, pendant —slope, incline, gradient, pitch (roof) pendulum hanger, hat or clothes rack, perch (for birds) —stand for hats, clothes, umbrellas —pole (for vaulting) —perch (fish) perdition —(to) lose —lost, stray, dissolute person (“lost soul”—m./f.) —loss, leakage, waste —(to) waste, (to) squander —waste urgent, pressing, peremptory (legal sense) profile —(to) profi le (outline), (to) take shape perfume period (time, geological, menstrual) —periodic, periodical, newspaper ( diario)
(unrelated)
[perdu]
—journalist periscope perjury —(to) commit perjury —perjurer permission, permit —(to) permit, (to) allow —permissible —permissive pernicious perpendicular (to) persevere —persevering —perseverance window blind, Venetian blind person, people (pl.) —personal, personnel, personal foul (f.) —impersonal —personality
[Persian]
A time period or date absolutely fi xed, without possibility of delay—e.g., for payment of a fi ne or for a court hearing.
T4311.indb 595
8/31/07 6:45:31 AM
ANNEX D
—personaje perspectiva —perspicaz —perspicacia pesimismo —pesimista (adj. & n.) —pésimo peste (f.) —peste bubónica —pestilente —pestilencia —pesticida (m.) —apestar pétalo petardo —pedo petróleo —petrolero —petroquímico peyorativo —peor —empeorar —empeoramiento piano —pianista pieza —empezar —pedazo —despedazar pijama (m.) pila () —pila bautismal —nombre de pila pilar —pila () píldora piloto —pilotar pintar
—personage (character in a literary work, celebrity) perspective, outlook or prospects (freq. pl.) —perspicacious, sharp —perspicacity pessimism —pessimistic, pessimist —extremely bad ( malísimo) pest (deadly epidemic, nuisance), stench —bubonic plague —foul (smelling), pestilent —stench, pestilence —pesticide —(to) infect (with the plague), (to) stink petal petard, firecracker —“wind from the anus” petroleum —petroleum (adj.), oil (adj.), oil tanker —petrochemical pejorative —worse (comparative of malo) —(to) worsen —worsening piano —pianist piece, part (e.g, spare), room (of a house) —(to) begin, (to) start, (to) commence —piece, fragment, bit —(to) tear to pieces pajama, pajamas sink —baptismal font —first name pillar —pile, stack, battery (flashlight) pill pilot, pilot light —(to) pilot (to) paint
( Fr.)
[impair]
(unrelated) ( Eng.) [pile driver]
VOX New College Spanish and English Dictionary. A more concise, albeit less elegant, English translation may occur to some readers. Literally “to start by cutting off a little piece”.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—pintor —pintura —pintoresco —pictórico pipa () —pipeta pipa () piragua pirata —piratería —piratear pirueta pistola —pistolero pistón —pista —pista de aterrizaje —pista de tenis —pista de hielo / de patinaje —pisto —autopista —despistar —despiste —pisar —pisada —pisapapeles —pisotear —pisotón —piso placa —plaqueta plácido —placidez plagiario
—painter —paint, painting —picturesque —pictorial pipe (for smoking) —pipette pip ( pepita), seed (melon, sunflower, etc.) pirogue (or piragua) pirated, pirate (m./f.) —piracy —(to) pirate pirouette pistol, spray gun —gunman, gangster (armed with pistol) piston —trail (path, trace or scent), track, piste —runway —tennis court —ice-skating rink / skating rink —ratatouille —autoroute, turnpike —(to) mislead, (to) sidetrack, (to) go off track —a “going off track” (mind, cyclist, airplane) —(to) step on, (to) tread on —stepping on the foot, footprint, footstep —paperweight —(to) trample (tread harshly; treat harshly) —(heavy) stepping on the foot —apartment, floor (surface, story or level) plaque, panel (e.g., solar), badge, plate (geol., license) —(blood) platelet placid —placidity plagiarist, kidnapper (Amer.)
[pesto]
English piston, piste, and pesto ultimately come from Latin pistus, the past participle of pinsere (“to pound or beat”). The original idea of pista—piste was thus a path beaten out in the wilderness, analogous to the English expression beaten path (and to route, from via rupta, literally “a road broken open by force”). Spanish pisar comes from the related verb pinsare (ns S n, Section ., no. ). Somewhat surprisingly, this defi nition is a natural extension of the original Latin defi nition of plagiarius—one who steals the slaves of another or sells into slavery a free person. While the application to literary works is fi rst recorded in the fi rst century AD, the “original” sense seems to have predominated throughout the Middle Ages, presumably reflecting the greater abundance of slaves compared to books.
T4311.indb 597
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ANNEX D
—plagiar —plagio plan —planear () —planear () —planeador —planificar —planificación —planificación familiar plancha —a la plancha —planchar —planchado (p.p.) planeta (m.) —planetario (adj. & n.) plataforma —plataforma continental —plataforma de lanzamiento playa —playero —explayar(se) plaza —plaza de toros pleito —pleitear poema (m.) —poeta (m./f.), poetisa —poesía —poético polar —polo () —Polo Norte —Polo Sur —polea —polo () ( Eng.) polémica (n.) —polémico (adj.) político (adj. & n.)
T4311.indb 598
—(to) plagiarize, (to) kidnap (Amer.) —plagiarism, kidnapping (Amer.) plan —(to) plan —(to) plane (soar or glide) —glider —(to) plan —planning ( planeamiento) —family planning sheet (metal), iron, ironing, gangplank —grilled (food) —(to) iron, (to) press —ironing, pressing planet —planetary, planetarium platform (stage, political) —continental shelf —launch pad beach, plage ( Fr.) —beach (adj.) —(to) speak at length; (to) unburden oneself plaza, place (space; job or post), marketplace —bullring litigation, lawsuit, dispute —(to) litigate, (to) take to court
[playa, plagio-]
[plea] [plead obs. def.]
poem —poet, poetess —poetry, poem —poetic polar —pole —North Pole —South Pole —pulley —polo (game), polo shirt polemic, controversy, polemics —polemical, controversial political, politic, politician, politico
(unrelated)
8/31/07 6:45:32 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—padre político —política —politizar póliza polución pomada —pomo —pómulo ponche ( Eng.) poncho ponzoña —ponzoñoso —emponzoñar portar —portaviones / portaaviones —portador —portaequipajes —portafolio, -folios —portátil —porte póstumo potable práctico (adj. & n.) —práctica —practicar —practicante (adj. & n.) pradera —prado —Museo del Prado precaución —caución
—father-in-law (see Section .) —politics, policy —(to) politicize (insurance) policy, tax stamp pollution ointment, pomade —pommel (sword), knob, pome (bot.) —cheekbone punch (drink) poncho poison, venom —poisonous, venomous —(to) poison, (to) envenom, (to) empoison (to) carry, (to) comport (oneself) —aircraft carrier —bearer, carrier —trunk (auto), luggage rack —portfolio (briefcase) —portable —portage (transport; charges), bearing or appearance posthumous potable (fit to drink) practical, harbor pilot —practice, training (with skilled supervision— gen. pl.) —(to) practice —practicing, practitioner, medical assistant
(“little apple”)
[porter]
prairie, meadow, meadowland —meadow —(in Madrid, one of the great art museums of the world) precaution —security or pledge (legal)
Both Spanish polución and English pollution initially meant “efusión del semen”; as late as this was the only defi nition to be found in the RAE’s Diccionario. Polución is now often used in the (modern) English sense, though contaminación is far more common. Spanish póstumo is a direct continuation of Latin postumus, literally meaning “the last” or “coming after” (son or daughter). posthumus—from which the English derives—was a later “innovation”, reflecting a presumed (but false) etymological connection with the words humus (“soil”, “humus”) and humare (“inhume”), so that posthumus would literally mean “post-burial”.
T4311.indb 599
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ANNEX D
—cautela —cauto cauteloso —incauto —precaver —precavido (p.p.) preceder —precedente (adj. & n.) —precedencia —precesión precepto —preceptor precio —precioso —preciosidad —preciar(se) —preciado (p.p.) precoz —precocidad predecesor —antecesor —ancestral —anteceder —antecedente preferencia —preferir —preferente —preferible prejuicio —prejuzgar —prejudicial —perjuicio —perjudicar —perjudicial —perjudicial para la salud preliminar premio
—caution —cautious, wary —incautious, unwary —(to) take precautions (against) —cautious, prudent (to) precede —preceding, precedent —precedence —precession (e.g., of the equinoxes) precept —preceptor, tutor (private teacher) price —precious, beautiful, lovely —preciousness, beauty —(to) boast of or take pride in (lit. “to praise oneself for”) —precious, prized precocious —precocity predecessor (incl. archaic “ancestor”) —predecessor, ancestor (freq. pl.) —ancestral —(to) antecede ( precede) —antecedent preference —(to) prefer —preferential —preferable prejudice (bias, prejudgment) —(to) prejudge —pre-judicial (to be decided before the case) —prejudice (injury or damage) —(to) prejudice (cause injury or damage) —prejudicial (injurious, damaging) —prejudicial to health
(Lat. cautus) (prae-cavere) [caveat]
[prize, praise ]
[ prejudicial !]
preliminary prize, reward, premium
The past participle of the Latin verb cavere (“to beware”) was cautus. Price, prize, and praise all come from Latin pretium (“price”, “value”, “reward”). Price and prize were initially alternate spellings of the same English word before becoming specialized in sense.
T4311.indb 600
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—premiar —apremiar —apremiante premisa premonición prender —desprender —desprendimiento —desprendimiento de retina preponderante —preponderancia —ponderar —imponderable prerrogativa presagio —presagiar prescripción —prescribir prestigio —prestigioso —prestigiar —desprestigio —desprestigiar pretexto prevenir
—prevención —preventivo —prevenido (p.p.) —desprevenido previsión —previsible —prever —imprevisible —imprevisto
—(to) reward, (to) give an award to —(to) press, (to) compel —urgent, pressing premise premonition (to) set or catch on fire, (to) turn on —(to) detach, (to) give off —detachment (separation, indifference), landslide —detached retina preponderant, predominant —preponderance —(to) ponder, (to) give weight to, (to) (over)praise —imponderable, inestimable prerogative (incl. “privilege”) presage, omen —(to) presage, (to) portend prescription —(to) prescribe (incl. “become invalid or unenforceable”) prestige, renown —prestigious, renowned —(to) lend prestige to —discredit, loss of prestige —(to) discredit, (to) disparage, (to) lose prestige pretext (to) warn, (to) prevent (incl. obs. “provide beforehand”, “anticipate or counter in advance”, “prejudice”) —prevention (esp. anticipatory measures; also obs. “bias, prejudice”) —preventive —prepared, forewarned, prudent —unprepared, off-guard prevision (foresight, forecast) —foreseeable, predictable —(to) foresee, (to) anticipate, (to) previse —unforeseeable, unpredictable —unforeseen, unexpected
[apprehend]
[preview]
Frequently considered “falsos amigos”, prevenir and prevent share a range of common definitions; the Spanish meanings tend to focus on the notion of anticipating or acting beforehand, the English ones on that of impeding or frustrating. Elements of both notions are found in the shared expression “más vale prevenir que curar” / “prevention is better than cure”.
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ANNEX D
primitivo primordial prior, priora —a priori —prioridad —prioritario —priorizar prisa —tener prisa —deprisa aprisa prisión —prisionero —preso —aprisionar prisma (m.) —prismáticos (pl.) privilegio —privilegiar proa proceder —proceder (n.) —procedente —improcedente —procedencia —procedimiento —proceso —procesión —procesar proclividad —proclive —declive procurar —procurador prodigioso —prodigio pródigo —hijo pródigo —prodigar profundo —profundidad —profundizar progenie —progenitor
T4311.indb 602
primitive primordial, essential, fundamental prior (n.), prioress —a priori —priority —priority (adjectival—e.g., “priority project”) —(to) give priority to haste, urgency —(to) be in a hurry, (to) be pressed for time —rapidly (also: de prisa, a prisa) prison —prisoner (of war, kidnappers, etc.) —prisoner (in jail) —(to) imprison prism —binoculars ( gemelos) privilege —(to) privilege, (to) favor prow (bow of a ship) (to) proceed —behavior, conduct —proceeding (from), appropriate, admissible (e.g., evidence) —inappropriate, inadmissible —origin, source —procedure, proceedings (legal) —process (incl. legal: summons, writs, trial, etc.) —procession —(to) process (incl. “prosecute”) proclivity ( propensión) —prone (to), inclined —declivity (downward slope or inclination) (to) procure (incl. obs. “endeavor “) —attorney, procurator prodigious (enormous, marvelous) —prodigy (marvel, person of exceptional talents) prodigal —prodigal son —(to) lavish, (to) waste, (to) appear in public deep, profound —depth, profundity —(to) deepen, (to) study in depth progeny (offspring; obs. “lineage”) —progenitor (esp. father/mother)
[press] [pressing]
[† proclive] [† declive] [proctor]
8/31/07 6:45:33 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
programa (m.) —programar —programador —programación proletariado —proletario —prole (f.) promesa —prometer —prometedor —prometido (p.p.) —prometida pronosticar —pronóstico pronunciación —pronunciar —pronunciamiento —impronunciable propender —propenso —propensión propicio —propiciar prosa prospecto —prospección prosperidad —prosperar —próspero protagonista —protagonizar protección —protector (adj. & n.) —proteccionismo —proteccionista —protectorado —proteger —protegido, -ida protón provenir —proveniente
T4311.indb 603
program —(to) program —programmer —programming (computer, TV/radio), planning (economic) proletariat —proletarian —offspring, progeny promise —(to) promise —promising —betrothed, fiancé —betrothed, fiancée (to) prognosticate, (to) forecast —forecast, prognosis pronunciation —(to) pronounce —pronouncement (judicial), (military) rebellion —unpronounceable (to) tend, (to) have a propensity for —inclined or prone (to) —propensity, tendency propitious —(to) favor (facilitate), (to) propitiate prose prospectus, (information) leaflet —prospecting, market survey/research prosperity —(to) prosper —prosperous protagonist (main character) —(to) play the lead in, (to) star in protection —protective, protector —protectionism —protectionist —protectorate —(to) protect —protected, protégé, protégée proton (to) come or originate (from) —coming or originating (from)
[prole]
[pronunciamento Sp.]
[† propense]
[provenance]
8/31/07 6:45:33 AM
ANNEX D
provincia —provincial —provinciano (adj. & n.) proximidad —próximo pueril —puericultura pulcritud —pulcro púlpito punitivo puro (adj. & n.) —pureza —puré —purificar —purificación —purificador —purista —puritano (adj. & n.) —puritanismo —apuro —apurar —depurar —depuración —depuradora —impuro —impureza querella quieto —quietud —quedo (adj.) —quedo (adv.) —quedar —quedar(se) con —inquieto —inquietud —inquietar —inquietante —réquiem quiosco, kiosco quitar —quitamanchas
T4311.indb 604
province —provincial (relating to a province) —provincial (resident of a province; lacking urban “refinement”) proximity —proximate (near in time or space; next) puerile (juvenile, childish) —puericulture (science of child-rearing) neatness, tidiness —neat, tidy, meticulous pulpit punitive pure, cigar —purity —purée —(to) purify —purification —purifier (air, household water) —purist —puritanical, puritan, Puritan —puritanism, Puritanism —tight spot, predicament, hardship —(to) fi nish off (drink, etc.), (to) press (urge on) —(to) depurate (cleanse or purify), (to) purge (organization) —depuration (cleansing or purification), purge —water treatment plant, depurator —impure —impurity complaint (legal or other), quarrel, lament quiet (still, calm) —quietude, quiet, stillness —quiet (silent, hushed) —quietly, in a hushed voice —(to) remain (stay, be left) —(to) keep (to) retain —uneasy, worried, restless —inquietude (uneasiness, restlessness), disquiet —(to) disquiet (disturb, alarm) —disquieting —requiem kiosk (stand, booth, pavilion) (to) remove —spot remover
[pulchritude]
[quit, quiet]
8/31/07 6:45:33 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—quitanieves —quitasol —desquitar —desquite racial —racismo —raza radiación —radiactivo —radiactividad —radiar —radiante —radiador radial radián radio () (f.) —radio () —radio () —radiografía —radar ( Eng.)
—snowplow —parasol, sunshade —(to) requite (repay, get even with) —requital (return or recompense, revenge) racial —racism —race radiation —radioactive —radioactivity —(to) radiate, (to) broadcast —radiant —radiator radial radian radio —radius (geom., bone), spoke (wheel) —radium (element) —X-ray, radiography —radar
raíl ( Eng.) —riel rampa rancho raqueta raso (adj.)
rail (for trains) —rail (for trains, curtains, etc.) ramp ranch, communal meal (e.g., for soldiers), rancho racquet, paddle (table tennis), snowshoe flat, level, cloudless
—soldado raso —al raso —raso (n.) —arrasar —arrastrar —arrastre —rascar —rascacielos —rastrillo —rastro —rastrear
—common soldier (private) —(out) in the open, “under the stars” —satin —(to) raze (demolish), (to) make level —(to) drag —dragging, trawling —(to) scratch, (to) scrape —skyscraper —rake —trace, trail ( huella, pista) —(to) track, (to) trail, (to) comb (search systematically) —tracking (person, package) (to) scrape, (to) rasp ray (fish)
—rastreo raspar raya ()
T4311.indb 605
(radio detecting and ranging)
[“razor smooth”] [rascal]
[rash—n.] (rasca cielos) [raster]
8/31/07 6:45:33 AM
ANNEX D
rayo —raya () —rayar —subrayar real () —realidad —realismo () —realista () —realización —realizar —realizador —[dar(se) cuenta de] —irreal —irrealidad real () —realeza —realismo () —realista () rebelión —rebelde (adj. & n.) —rebeldía —rebelar(se) recesión recíproco —reciprocidad reclamación —reclamar reclusión —recluir —recluso redactar —redactor —redacción redundante —redundancia —redundar reemplazar —reemplazo referencia —referir —referente
T4311.indb 606
ray, beam, lightning (bolt), spoke —thin line, stripe, dash (—), boundary, part (hair), crease (trousers) —(to) draw lines on, (to) scratch (e.g., disk) —(to) underline (draw a line under; stress) real —reality —realism —realistic, realist —realization (act of carrying out) —(to) realize (carry out), (to) direct (fi lm) —(fi lm) director, (TV) producer —(to) realize (become aware) —unreal —unreality royal —royalty —royalism —royalist rebellion (organized resistance) —rebellious, stubborn, rebel —rebelliousness, rebellion (act or show of defiance) —(to) rebel, (to) revolt recession reciprocal —reciprocity complaint, claim (demand), reclamation —(to) complain, (to) demand, (to) protest seclusion, confi nement, imprisonment, reclusion —(to) confi ne, (to) imprison, (to) seclude —prisoner, inmate ( preso) (to) redact (put in writing; edit) —redactor, writer, editor —redaction, wording, editorial staff redundant —redundancy —(to) redound (have an effect, for good or ill) (to) replace —replacement reference —(to) refer, (to) relate —referent, reference (standard of comparison)
(Lat. radius)
(Lat. realis)
(Lat. regalis)
[reclaim]
(old p.p.)
8/31/07 6:45:34 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—referente a —referendo / referéndum —refrendar refi nería —refi nar reflexión —reflexionar —reflejar —reflexivo —reflejo (adj.) —reflejo (n.) —reflector reformar —reforma, Reforma —reformista —reformatorio refugio —refugiar refrán regata regimiento —régimen (pl. regímenes) región —regional registro —registrar —registrador (adj. & n.) —caja registradora regresión —regresar —regreso regular (adj.) —por lo regular —regular (vb.) —regulación —regulador (adj. & n.) —regularidad
T4311.indb 607
—referring to, relating to —referendum —(to) ratify, (to) confirm refi nery —(to) refi ne act of reflection (light, mental, in words) —(to) reflect (mental), (to) ponder —(to) reflect (physical; make apparent or show) —reflective (reflecting; thoughtful), reflexive (gram.) —reflected, reflex, reflexive —reflex, reflection (image) —reflector, spotlight, searchlight (to) reform, (to) modify —reform, modification, Reformation —reformist —reformatory refuge, shelter —(to) give refuge, (to) take refuge proverb, saying regatta (boat race) regiment —regime, regimen region —regional register, search, registry (office) —(to) register, (to) search —registering, register (device), registrar (esp. of property) —cash register regression, retrogression —(to) return
( referendar)
[refrain]
[regress obs. def.]
—return, coming back regular, ordinary —as a rule, ordinarily —(to) regulate —regulation (incl. control, as in temperature regulation) —regulatory, regulator (e.g., knob, throttle) —regularity
8/31/07 6:45:34 AM
ANNEX D
—irregular —irregularidad —regla —reglamentación —reglamento —reglamentar —renglón —a renglón seguido —arreglar —arreglo relación —relacionar —relato —relatar relativo —relatividad relevante —[pertinente] —irrelevante relevar —relevo —relieve —poner de relieve —alto relieve, bajo relieve remanente remedio —remediar remisión —remiso —remitir —remitente (m./f.) —remesa remoto rencor —rencoroso rendir —rendición —rendimiento —renta —renta vitalicia —rentable
T4311.indb 608
—irregular —irregularity —rule, regulation, ruler (straightedge), (menstrual) period —rule(s), regulation(s) —collection of rules, regulations —(to) set rules or regulations for —line (written or printed) —immediately afterward
(Lat. regula)
(“on the next line”)
—(to) arrange, (to) adjust, (to) fi x —arrangement, repair relation (incl. “account”), relationship —(to) relate (connect) —account, narrative, story —(to) relate (narrate or tell) relative —relativity prominent, outstanding, relevant (important) —relevant (pertinent) —unimportant, irrelevant (to) relieve (of duty, position, burden) —relief (replacement), relay —relief (prominence; geol.; art), relievo —(to) emphasize (“put in relief ”) —alto-relievo, basso-relievo (bas-relief) remnant, remainder (merchandise) remedy —(to) remedy remission (debt, sin, disease), sending —reluctant, remiss —(to) remit (incl. “postpone”; “abate”), (to) send —sender —remittance, shipment remote rancor, grudge, animosity —rancorous, spiteful (to) surrender, (to) force to surrender, (to) render —rendition (“surrender”) —yield, output, performance —rent, income —(life) annuity —income-generating, profitable
[rent]
[rentable]
8/31/07 6:45:34 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—rentabilidad —arrendar —arrendamiento renunciar —renuncia —renunciación renunciamiento repertorio replicar —réplica reporte —reportaje —reportero —reportar reprender —reprensión —reprensible represalia reproche —reprochar —irreprochable repudiar —repudio rescindir —escindir —escisión —prescindir —imprescindible reserva —reservación (Amer.) —reservar —reservado (p.p.) respecto —al respecto —(con) respecto a —respectivo —respectivamente —respeto —respetar —respetable (adj. & n.) —respetuoso
T4311.indb 609
—profitability, cost-effectiveness —(to) rent (from or to) —renting, rent (payment) (to) renounce (resign, give up) —resignation (act or letter), renunciation —renunciation repertoire, repertory (to) reply, (to) retort —reply, retort, rejoinder, replica report (esp. news) —(press) report, reportage —reporter —(to) bring (benefit, profit), (to) report (Amer.) (to) reprehend, (to) scold —reprehension, scolding —reprehensible reprisal reproach —(to) reproach —irreproachable (to) repudiate —repudiation (to) rescind —(to) divide, (to) split —scission (division, split) —(to) do without, (to) dispense with —indispensable, essential reserve, reservation (hotel, doubt, tract of land) —reservation (hotel, theater, etc.)
[prescind]
—(to) reserve (incl. “hold in reserve”) —reserved (timid), confidential, private compartment (m.) respect (feature or detail) —in this respect, in this regard —with respect to, with regard to —respective —respectively —respect (esteem) —(to) respect —respectable (incl. “considerable”) —respectful
8/31/07 6:45:34 AM
ANNEX D
—irrespetuoso —despectivo responder —respuesta responsable —responsabilidad —irresponsable —irresponsabilidad restaurante —restaurar —restauración —instaurar —instauración resultado (p.p.) —resultar —resultante resumen —resumir —reasumir retener —retención retirar —retiro —retirado (p.p.) —retirada retorno —retornar —tornar —tornasol —torneo —torno —en torno a —entorno —torniquete —tornillo —atornillar —destornillar —destornillador —contorno —trastorno —trastornar retroceder —retroceso
T4311.indb 610
—disrespectful —disparaging, pejorative (to) respond, (to) reply —response, reply responsible, liable —responsibility, liability —irresponsible —irresponsibility restaurant —(to) restore —restoration —(to) establish or found —instauration (founding, establishment) result, outcome —(to) result (from), (to) turn out to be —resulting, resultant (adj. & n.f.) résumé (summary) —(to) summarize, (to) sum up —(to) resume, (to) reassume (control, power) (to) retain, (to) withhold —retention, withholding (to) retire, (to) withdraw, (to) remove —retirement, retreat (place), pension —remote, secluded, retiree —retreat (mil.), withdrawal return ( vuelta) —(to) return —(to) return, (to) turn into (become) —sunflower ( girasol), litmus —tourney, tournament —lathe —around, about —environment, surroundings —tourniquet, turnstile —screw —(to) screw (in) —(to) unscrew ( desatornillar) —screwdriver ( atornillador, desatornillador) —contour, outline, surroundings (gen. pl.) —upset, disturbance, derangement —(to) “turn upside down”, (to) derange (to) retrocede (go backwards, recede) —receding (e.g., of glaciers), relapse, recoil (of weapon)
[riposte]
[† instore]
[resume]
[turner] [entourage]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
reunión —reunir revelación —revelar —revelado (p.p.) —revelador (adj. & n.) reverso —reversible —reversibilidad —revertir —revés
meeting, reunion —(to) meet, (to) gather, (to) reunite revelation —(to) reveal, (to) develop (photo) —photo developing —revealing, developer (liquid, for photos)
—al revés revisión —revisar —revista rienda —dar rienda suelta riesgo —arriesgar —arriesgado (p.p.) rigor —riguroso rival —rivalidad —rivalizar —río —ría roca —derrocar
—backwards, inside out checkup, review, revision —(to) check, (to) review, (to) revise —review, magazine, revue rein —(to) give free rein risk —(to) risk —risky, daring rigor, severity —rigorous, severe rival —rivalry —(to) rival, (to) compete —river —estuary, firth, ria rock —(to) demolish, (to) overthrow
—derrochar ( Fr.) —derroche —rococó rollo —rol —enrollar —enrolar
—(to) waste, (to) squander —waste, squandering —rococo roll (something rolled up) —role ( papel), roll (list of names) —(to) enroll (roll or wrap up) —(to) enroll (register), (to) enlist
reverse —reversible —reversibility —(to) revert —other side, reverse, backhand
(Lat. reversus)
[Rio Grande]
(“throw from a rock”)
From Latin rivus (“stream”), rivalis referred to those using the same stream, hence rivals. English river is unrelated. “Funnel-shaped estuary that occurs at a river mouth and is formed by the submergence of the lower portion of the river valley” (Encyclopaedia Britannica).
T4311.indb 611
8/31/07 6:45:35 AM
ANNEX D
—arrollar —desarrollar —desarrollo —ruleta ronco —ronquera —roncar —ronquido rosa —rosado rubí —rubio, rubia
—(to) roll up, (to) roll over (run over; win easily) —(to) develop, (to) unroll —development —roulette hoarse, raucous (voice, sound) —hoarseness —(to) snore —snore, snoring rose —pink, rose (color), rosy, rosé (wine) ruby —blond, blonde, fair-haired
—rubor —ruborizar(se) —rubeola, rubéola —[sarampión (m.)] rúbrica —rubricar rudo —rudeza —rudimento —rudimentario ruina —ruin —ruinoso —arruinar rumor sabana —sábana saciar —saciedad —insaciable saco —saco de dormir —saco amniótico —sacar
—blush (from embarrassment or shame) —(to) blush, (to) turn red —rubella (German measles) —rubeola (measles) signature (flourish), rubric —(to) sign (and seal), (to) initial (approve) rude (rough, crude, coarse, etc.) —rudeness (incl. “roughness”) —rudiment (freq. pl.) —rudimentary ruin —vile, stingy —ruinous (falling to ruin; apt to cause ruin) —(to) ruin rumor, rumbling noise, murmur (e.g., ocean) savanna (treeless plain) —(bed) sheet (to) satiate, (to) sate, (to) satisfy (hunger, etc.) —satiety, satiation —insatiable sack (bag), jacket (Amer.) —sleeping bag —amniotic sac —(to) remove, (to) obtain, (to) bring out (record), (to) serve (tennis) —(to) stick out the tongue
—sacar la lengua
[rhonchus]
(Lat. rubeus, “reddish”)
Ronco was initially roco (the “natural” result from Latin raucus) and subsequently took its n from the unrelated roncar. These two words are unrelated and pronounced differently: sabana (sa•ba•na) has a Caribbean origin, while sábana (sá•ba•na) comes from Greek (via Latin).
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
T4311.indb 613
—sacacorchos —saque —saque de esquina —saqueo —saquear —saqueador —resaca sadismo —sádico (adj. & n.) sagaz —sagacidad saliente —presidente saliente —salida —salida del sol —salir —sobresalir —sobresaliente
—corkscrew —kickoff, serve (tennis, volleyball, etc.) —corner kick ( córner) —sack (pillage, looting), sacking —(to) sack (plunder, loot) —looter —undertow, hangover sadism —sadistic, sadist sagacious (astute) —sagacity outgoing (retiring), salient (adj. & n.m./f.) —outgoing president —exit (way out, departure) —sunrise —(to) go out, (to) leave, (to) sally (forth) —(to) project, (to) stand out, (to) excel —standing out, outstanding, highest exam grade
salto —salto de agua
jump, leap —sault, waterfall
—salto mortal —saltar —saltamontes
—somersault —(to) jump, (to) leap —grasshopper
—saltador (adj. & n.) —saltear —salteado (p.p.) —resaltar salubre —insalubre sandalia sándwich ( Eng.) sano —sano y salvo —[cuerdo] —sanidad —sanatorio —sanitario (adj.) —sanitarios (pl.) —sanar —sanear
—jumping, leaping, jumper, leaper —(to) sauté, (to) assault (“highway robbery”) —sautéed —(to) jut out, (to) stand out, (to) highlight salubrious, healthful —insalubrious, unhealthy sandal sandwich healthy, wholesome, sound —safe and sound —sane, sensible (or such a person) —(public) health (system) —sanatorium, hospital —sanitary (relating to health), health (adj.) —bathroom fi xtures (toilet, sink, etc.) —(to) heal, (to) recover (from sickness) —(to) clean up, (to) drain (lands), (to) reorganize (business)
[sally]
[somersault] [super salient] [Sault Sainte Marie] [rare saltate] (“mountain jumper”)
[result]
[sane]
[sanity]
8/31/07 6:45:35 AM
ANNEX D
—saneamiento —subsanar sarcasmo —sarcástico sargento satélite sátira —satírico —satirizar —sátiro sauna secesión —secesionista secreto —secretar —secreción —secretario —secretaría secuestrar —secuestro —secuestrador seducción —seducir —seductor (adj. & n.) seísmo, sismo (Amer.) —sísmico selva —selva amazónica —selvático
—seismic forest, jungle, selva —Amazon Rain Forest —forest (adj.), sylvan, wild, sylvatic
—salvaje
—wild, savage (adj. & n.m./f.)
—silvestre
—wild, uncultivated
—Pensilvania sensible —sensibilidad
—Pennsylvania sensible (perceptible by the senses), sensitive —sensibility (ability to feel or perceive), feeling, sensitivity —sensible, judicious, wise —good sense, wisdom —senseless, insensate (foolish) —senselessness, foolishness, folly
—sensato —sensatez —insensato —insensatez
T4311.indb 614
—cleaning up, improvement (e.g., land), sanitation —(to) remedy, (to) rectify sarcasm —sarcastic sergeant satellite satire —satiric —(to) satirize —satyr sauna secession —secessionist secret, secrecy —(to) secrete (give off a secretion) —secretion —secretary —job of secretary, secretariat (to) kidnap, (to) hijack, (to) sequester (confiscate) —kidnapping, highjacking, sequestration (seizure of property) —kidnapper, highjacker seduction —(to) seduce —seductive, seducer earthquake, seism
(unrelated)
(Lat. silva) (Lat. silvaticus) (Lat. silvaticus) [Sylvester, Silvester] [Penn’s forest]
[sensate]
8/31/07 6:45:36 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—sensual sentencia —sentenciar sepultura —sepultar —sepulturero —sepulcro —sepulcral —sepelio sereno () —serenidad —sereno () —serenata serie —serial serio —seriamente —en serio —seriedad servir —sirviente, sirvienta —siervo severo —severidad —aseverar —aseveración sexo —sexual —sexy, sexi —sexista sibilante (adj. & n.f.) —silbar —silbato —silbido
—sensual, sensuous sentence (judgment), proverb or maxim —(to) sentence, (to) pass judgment on sepulture (burial, tomb), grave —(to) bury, (to) entomb —gravedigger —sepulchre (burial vault, receptacle for sacred relics) —sepulchral —burial, interment serene (calm, cloudless) —serenity —night watchman, night dew —serenade, serenata series —serial (adj. & n.) serious —seriously (to a serious extent; in a serious manner) —seriously (in a serious manner) —seriousness (situation; manner) (to) serve —servant —serf, slave, servant (e.g., “of God”, “humble”) severe —severity —(to) asseverate (affirm solemnly, assert emphatically) —asseveration, assertion sex —sexual —sexy —sexist sibilant (hissing sound) —(to) whistle, (to) hiss (a performance) —whistle (device) —whistle (sound), whistling
[sibilate]
Th is is an “archaic” defi nition of English sentence as well: “Who fears a sentence or an old man’s saw, Shall by a painted cloth be kept in awe” (Shakespeare, The Rape of Lucrece). Via the following transformations: sibilare S siblar S silbar. In chiflar, the f preserves a dialetical variant going back to Latin times, while the inital consonant was changed to ch to make it more “expressive”.
T4311.indb 615
8/31/07 6:45:36 AM
ANNEX D
—chiflar —chiflado (p.p.) —rechifla SIDA (m.) significar —significado (p.p.) —significación —significativo —significante silencio —silencioso —silenciar —silenciador silo silueta simple —simplicidad —simplificar —simplificación —simplemente —simpleza simultáneo —simultáneamente —simultaneidad sincero —sinceridad singular —singularidad —sencillo —sencillez —sencillamente siniestro (adj.) —siniestro (n.) —siniestra (n.) sirena sitio () —sito —situación
T4311.indb 616
—(to) whistle, (to) be crazy for (someone or something) —round the bend ( loco), “nutty” or “nuts”, smitten —hissing, derision AIDS (síndrome de inmunodeficiencia adquirida) (to) signify —significance (meaning) —signification, significance (importance) —significative, significant (important) —signifiant (linguistics) silence —silent —(to) silence, (to) keep silent about —silencer, muffler (auto) silo ( Sp.) silhouette simple, single (e.g., room) —simplicity —(to) simplify —simplification —simply —simplicity (foolishness, naiveté), simplemindedness simultaneous —simultaneously ( al mismo tiempo) —simultaneity sincere —sincerity singular —singularity —simple, plain, single (record—esp. rpm)
( Monsieur de Silhouette)
(Lat. singellus)
—simplicity, plainness —simply sinister (left [adj.], evil, baneful) —disaster (fire, shipwreck, etc.) —left hand siren (device, sea nymph), mermaid site, place, location —situated (e.g., “a house situated at no. Main Street”) —situation
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—situar —sitiar —sitio () social —sociable —socialismo —socialista —socializar —socialización —sociedad —sociedad anónima —socio sofisticación —sofisticado solemne —solemnidad solo —solamente sólo —soledad —solitario (adj. & n.) —soltero (adj. & n.m./f.) solución —solucionar solvente (adj. & n.) —solventar —solvencia —insolvente —insolvencia sonata sondear sondar —sonda —sonda espacial —sondeo soneto sonido —son —sonoro —sonar ()
T4311.indb 617
—(to) situate (place, locate), (to) site —(to) besiege, (to) surround —siege ( asedio) social —sociable —socialism —socialist —(to) socialize (nationalize, carry out social policy, make sociable) —nationalization, socialization (integration into society) —society —limited-liability company, corporation —partner, member, associate sophistication —sophisticated solemn —solemnity sole (lone, one, only, alone), solo (adj. & n.) —only (adv.), solo (adv.), solely —solitude, loneliness —solitary, solitaire —unmarried, bachelor
[Soledad, CA] (doublet of solitario)
solution (to a mystery, and as a liquid) —(to) solve ( resolver) solvent (financially; chemistry) —(to) pay a debt, (to) resolve a problem —solvency, reliability —insolvent —insolvency sonata (to) sound (measure or probe) —sounding line, probe, sound (med.), catheter —space probe —sounding, fathoming, probing, poll sonnet sound —sound (pleasant, esp. music) —sonorous, voiced (consonant—linguistics) —(to) sound, (to) strike or ring (clock), (to) blow (nose)
Sitiar seems to represent a mixing of the verbs situar and asediar (“to besiege”).
8/31/07 6:45:36 AM
ANNEX D
—sonar () ( Eng.) —resonar —resonancia soporífero —sopor —somnífero sórdido —sordidez sorpresa —sorprender —sorprendente sostener —sostenimiento —sostenido (p.p.) —fa sostenido —sostenible —sostén —sustentar —sustento —sustentación —sustentable suave —suavidad —suavizante (adj. & n.) —suavizar subordinación —subordinar —subordinado (p.p.) —insubordinación subterfugio sucumbir suficiente —suficiencia —insuficiente —insuficiencia sufragio —sufragar sufrir —sufrimiento
—sonar (naval) —(to) resound, (to) resonate, (to) echo —resonance, echo soporific (sleep-inducing; sleeping pill) —drowsiness, sopor —somniferous, soporific (adj. & n.) sordid —sordidness surprise —(to) surprise —surprising (to) sustain —sustenance, support —sharp (music) —F sharp —sustainable —support, brassiere —(to) sustain —sustenance, support —sustentation, (aerodynamic) lift —sustainable soft, smooth, mild, gentle —soft ness, smoothness, mildness —softening, fabric softener —(to) soften, (to) make smooth subordination —(to) subordinate —subordinate (adj. & n.) —insubordination subterfuge (to) succumb (yield, give up, die) sufficient —sufficiency (esp. archaic “ability or competence”) —insufficient —insufficiency (esp. medical) suff rage (incl. obs. “help, assistance”) —(to) defray (costs), (to) vote (Amer.) (to) suffer (incl. “bear, undergo”) —suffering, sufferance
[suave]
[assuage]
The coincidence between sonar () and sonar () is largely coincidental: English sonar is an acronym for sound navigation and ranging, and was patterned after radar (radio detecting and ranging).
T4311.indb 618
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—insufrible suicidio —suicida (adj. & n.m./f.) —suicidar(se) sumergir superior —inferior —posterior —ulterior —ulteriormente superlativo suplemento —suplementario —suplir —suplente (adj. & n.m./f.) —supletorio suplicante (adj. & n.m./f.) —suplicar —suplicio surgir —resurgir —resurgimiento —insurgente suscripción —suscribir —suscriptor sutil —sutileza tabaco tabla —tabla de planchar —tablero —tableta —entablar tabú taburete taciturno tacto
T4311.indb 619
—insufferable suicide —suicidal, suicide (person) —(to) commit suicide (to) submerge, (to) immerse superior, upper —inferior, lower —posterior (“after”, in time or order), rear or back (adj.) —ulterior (esp. “further”, “subsequent”) —subsequently superlative supplement —supplementary, supplemental ( suplemental) —(to) supplement, (to) substitute —substitute
[supply]
—additional, supplementary (esp. telephone) supplicant, suppliant, humble petitioner —(to) supplicate (ask for humbly, beseech) —torture, torment [supple] (to) arise, (to) spring forth, (to) surge —(to) resurge, (to) revive —resurgence —insurgent subscription —(to) subscribe —subscriber subtle (incl. obs. “thin, fi ne”) —subtlety tobacco table (list, math.), board —ironing board —board (chess, checkers, drawing), panel —tablet (pill), chocolate bar —(to) board (up), (to) start (conversation, negotiation, etc.) taboo stool, taboret (or tabouret) taciturn tact (incl. archaic “sense of touch”), touch
Suscripción and the following words can also be written subs-.
8/31/07 6:45:37 AM
ANNEX D
—táctil talento —talentoso tallar —talla —talle —tajar —tajante —tajada —sacar tajada (de) —tajo —atajar —atajo —destajo taller tambor —tamboril tamborín —[pandereta] tangible —tangente (adj. & n.f.) —tañer —atañer —por lo que atañe a
T4311.indb 620
—tactile (perceptible to the touch, relating to sense of touch) talent —talented (to) cut, (to) carve —carving, height, stature, size (clothes) —waist, clothes measurement —(to) cut or slice (e.g., melon) —sharp, categorical (i.e., other possibilities lit. “cut off ”) —cut, slice —(to) benefit from (“get a slice of the pie”, “take one’s cut”) —cut, incision —(to) put a stop to (“cut off ”), (to) take a short cut —shortcut —piecework (paid by output rather than time) workshop, studio, atelier drum, eardrum, tambour —tabor (small drum), tambourin —tambourine tangible —tangent
tapiz —tapizar —tapicería tapón —taponar —tapa —tapadera —tapar —taparrabo(s)
—(to) play a musical instrument ( tocar) —(to) concern (lit. “touch”) —as far as [something] is concerned ( en cuanto a) tapestry —(to) hang tapestries, (to) upholster —tapestry (art), upholstery, upholstery shop stopper, plug, cork —(to) plug, (to) stop up, (to) tampon —lid, cover, cap, top, tapa (appetizer) —lid, cover —(to) cover, (to) plug, (to) stop up —loincloth (“tail cover”)
—tampón —destapar —destape tarjeta —tarjeta de crédito
—tampon, stamp (ink) pad —(to) uncover, (to) remove the lid from —uncovering, nudity (cinema, theater) card —credit card
[tailor] [intaglio] [tally] [tagliatelle]
[detail]
[pandore]
[attain]
[tap, tampion]
(tapa rabo “tail”)
[target]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—tarjeta de identidad —tarjeta de embarque —tarjeta postal tatuaje —tatuar tedioso —tedio telescopio —telescópico temeridad —temerario temperamento —temperamental temperatura tenacidad —tenaz —tenaza —atenazar —pertinaz —pertinacia tenis —tenista tenor —a tenor de —tener —abstener —atener(se)
—tenencia —teniente (m./f.) —lugarteniente tentar —tentación —tentador (-ora) —tentativo (adj.) —tentativa (n.) —atentar —atentado (p.p.)
T4311.indb 621
—identity card —boarding card (plane or ship) —postcard ( postal—f.) tatoo, tatooing —(to) tatoo tedious, boring —tedium, boredom telescope —telescopic temerity, rashness —temerarious (“rashly or presumptuously daring”) temperament —temperamental temperature tenacity —tenacious —pincers, tongs (sing. or pl.) —(to) hold with tongs, (to) grip tightly (esp. with fear) —pertinacious —pertinacity tennis —tennis player tenor (general sense; musical voice or singer) —in accordance with —(to) have —(to) abstain, (to) refrain —(to) abide by, (to) conform to (rule, norm) (see also: con-, de-, entre-, man-, ob-, re-, sos- plus tener) —possession (control or occupancy) —lieutenant (mil.), deputy (e.g., mayor) —deputy, substitute, lieutenant (to) tempt —temptation —tempting, tempter (temptress) —tentative —attempt —(to) attempt or commit (a crime) —attempt (attack or assault)
[tenaculum]
(e S i : Section .)
[tenancy]
8/31/07 6:45:37 AM
ANNEX D
—intento —intentar —intención —intencional —bien intencionado tenue terror —aterrorizar —terrible —terrorífico —terrorismo —terrorista tifus
—intent, attempt (effort or try) —(to) attempt (make an effort) —intention —intentional, deliberate ( intencionado) —well-intentioned tenuous (long and thin, weak), faint (light, etc.) terror —(to) terrorize —terrible —terrifying, terrific (“causing terror or great fear”) —terrorism —terrorist typhus, typhoid
—fiebre tifoidea —tufo timbre —tímpano típico —tipo —tipo de interés —tipo de cambio —prototipo —arquetipo —tipográfico toalla —toallero toca —tocado () tocar —tocado () (p.p.)
—typhoid fever —fume, disagreeable smell (lit. and fig.) (door) bell, (tax) stamp or seal, timbre —tympanum (ear drum, arch.), drum typical —type (kind, sort, printing), person (“guy”) —interest rate —exchange rate —prototype —archetype —typographical towel —towel rack toque (hat), wimple (nun’s) —headdress, hairstyle, coiff ure (to) touch, (to) play (an instrument) —touched (unbalanced), bruised (fruit, athlete or team) —touch (tap or “personal”), taps (musical signal) —curfew —dressing table (with mirror), player (of musical instrument) —record player —toccata (keyboard composition) —(to) retouch, (to) put the final touches on tolerant —tolerance, toleration —(to) tolerate —tolerable —intolerant
—toque —toque de queda —tocador —tocadiscos —tocata —retocar tolerante —tolerancia —tolerar —tolerable —intolerante
T4311.indb 622
(Gk. tuphos, “smoke”)
[touch of quiet]
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—intolerancia —intolerable tono —sin ton ni son
—intolerance —intolerable tono —“without rhyme or reason”
—tonada —tonalidad —tónico (adj. & n.) —entonar —entonación tópico
—tune, song —tonality —tonic —(to) sing (in tune), (to) intone, (to) tone up —intonation topical or local (med.), platitude, topic (esp. Amer.) tornado torpedo torrent (incl. “flood”—of people, words, etc.) —bloodstream ( torrente circulatorio) —torrential torrid cough, tussis —pertussis (whooping cough)
tornado torpedo torrente —torrente sanguíneo —torrencial tórrido tos (f.) —tos ferina —toser tóxico (adj. & n.) —toxicomanía —toxicómano —toxina —intoxicar —intoxicación —desintoxicación tractor —tracción —traer —traje
—(to) cough toxic, toxic substance —drug addiction —drug addict —toxin —(to) poison, (to) intoxicate —intoxication (poisoning by drug or toxic substance) —detoxification, detox tractor —traction —(to) bring, (to) wear —dress, suit, costume
—traje de baño traducir —traducción —traductor tráfico
—swimsuit, bathing suit (to) translate (into) —translation (of a text or speech) —translator traffic (vehicles, merchandise)
[without tone or sound]
[ferine “untamed”]
[train of a gown] [transduce]
The shortened form ton of tono is found only in this expression. According to the RAE, this sense “should be avoided”, as it is a calco inacceptable (“unacceptable loan translation”) of English topic.
T4311.indb 623
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ANNEX D
—traficar —traficante (adj. & n.m./f.) —narcotráfico —narcotraficante (m./f.) tragedia —trágico traidor traicionero —traición —traicionar trampa —hacer trampa(s) —tramposo (adj. & n.) —entrampar —atrapar ( Fr.) trampolín tranquilo —tranquilidad —tranquilizar —tranquilizante (adj. & n.) —tranquilizador transeúnte —trance —en trance de transferir —transferencia —trasladar —traslado —traslación / transtransistor transparente / tras—transparencia / trastransportar / tras—transporte / tras-
—(to) traffic (esp. carry on trade in illegal goods) —trafficker (trader, dealer) —(large-scale) drug traffic —drug dealer tragedy —tragic traitorous, treacherous, traitor —treason —(to) betray trap, trapdoor, deceit (act) —(to) cheat —deceitful, cheating, trickster, cheater
[tradition]
—(to) entrap, (to) trap —(to) catch (person, ball), (to) trap trampoline, springboard tranquil —tranquillity —(to) tranquilize (calm, relax) —tranquilizing (sedative), tranquilizer —tranquilizing (reassuring) transient (person), passerby —critical moment or juncture, trance —at the point of (death, extinction, etc.) (to) transfer —transfer (of position, bank transfer, etc.), transference —(to) transfer, (to) translate (esp. math.) —transfer (esp. of employee or residence) —uniform movement (e.g., Earth around Sun), transfer, translation transistor transparent —transparency
[ Fr.]
(to) transport, (to) transpose (music) —transport, transportation
In Latin, the past participle of the verb ferre (“to carry”) was latus; hence the English pairs refer—relate and transfer—translate. Spanish trasladar and traslación can refer to language translation, but this is far more commonly expressed by traducir and traducción.
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—transportador / trastrapo —a todo trapo —trapos sucios trascender / trans—trascendental / transtratar —¿De qué se trata? —Se trata de . . . —trato —trata —tratable —tratado (p.p.) —tratamiento —tratante (m./f.) —contratar —contrato —maltratar —maltrato —retratar —retrato —retrete trazo —trazar —trazado (p.p.) —traza tremendo tren —tren de aterrizaje —tren de vida —entrenar —entrenador —entrenamiento —trajín —trineo tribulación
—transporting, transporter, protractor (instrument) rag —“at full sail”, “at full (or high) speed” —“dirty linen/laundry” (secrets) (to) transcend, (to) become known —far-reaching, transcendent, transcendental ( trascendente) (to) treat, (to) deal with —What’s it about? What does it have to do with? —It’s about . . . It concerns . . . —treatment (manner), dealings —(slave) trade —treatable, tractable —treaty, treatise —treatment, form of address (tú, usted, excelencia, etc.) —trader, dealer —(to) contract for, (to) hire —contract, agreement —(to) maltreat, (to) mistreat —maltreatment, mistreatment —(to) portray —portrait —toilet, rest room line (drawn), stroke (pen, pencil) —(to) trace (draw, sketch, delineate) —trace or (proposed) route (highway, rail, etc.) —design, appearance, trace (mark or vestige; geom.) tremendous (incl. “terrible”) train (railroad, linked mechanical parts) —landing gear (aircraft) —way of life, life-style —(to) train, (to) coach —trainer, coach —training, coaching —bustle, activity —sled, sleigh tribulation
[drape]
[trait]
[retrace] [retreat] [trace]
[rare traineau]
Trapo comes from Latin drappus (“piece of cloth”). The initial tr is probably due to the fact that in Spanish initial dr is very rare: there are nearly twenty times as many words beginning with tr compared to dr, and most of the latter are either “learned” (drama) or imported (droga).
T4311.indb 625
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ANNEX D
tribunal —Tribunal Supremo —tribuna —tribuno —tribu (f.) tributo —tributario —tributar trinchera —atrincherar tripa triturar —trituración triunfo —triunfar —triunfal —triunfante trompeta —trompetista —trompa —trompa de Falopio tropa —tropel —atropellar —atropello trotar —trote trovador —trova truhan, truhán tubo —tubo de ensayo —tubo de escape —tubería —tubular tulipán tumba —túmulo —tumbo —tumbar
T4311.indb 626
tribunal —Supreme Court —tribune (raised platform or dais), grandstand —tribune (Roman official) —tribe tribute (monetary or respect) —tributary (paying tribute or tax; river joining larger one) —(to) pay tribute (tax, respect) trench —(to) entrench (oneself), (to) dig in intestine, belly, tripe, innards (pl.) (to) triturate (crush, grind, pulverize) —trituration (crushing, grinding) triumph, trump (card) —(to) triumph —triumphal —triumphant trumpet —trumpeter —horn, trunk (elephant), proboscis (insect), tube —Fallopian tube troop, troops —mob, disorderly heap (of things) —(to) run over, (to) ride roughshod over —running over (of person or animal), outrage, abuse (to) trot (incl. “proceed briskly”) —trot troubadour, trouvère —verse, (love) song rogue, rascal (also as adjective) tube, pipe —test tube —exhaust pipe —pipes, piping —tubular tulip tomb —tumulus (burial mound), tomb —jolt, stagger, tumble —(to) knock down, (to) lie down
[troupe]
[truant]
Tumbo, tumbar, and retumbar are unrelated to tumba.
8/31/07 6:45:39 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—retumbar tumulto —tumultuoso túnica turba () turba () —turbar —turbación —turbio —turbulento —turbulencia —torbellino turbante turbina turismo —turista turno ( Fr.) —de turno —turnar tutor —tutela tutoría ubicuidad —ubicuo —ubicar —ubicación úlcera ultimátum —último —ultimar —últimamente —penúltimo ultra—ultramar —ultraje —ultrajante —ultrajar —a ultranza unción
—(to) resound, (to) echo, (to) rumble tumult —tumultuous tunic turf (peat) mob, crowd —(to) disturb —disturbance, perturbation —turbid —turbulent —turbulence —whirlwind ( remolino) turban turbine tourism —tourist turn, shift —on duty, (designated to be) open (e.g., farmacia de turno) —(to) take turns tutor, guardian (legal) —tutelage ubiquity —ubiquitous —(to) situate (place), (to) be situated (located) —location, position ulcer ultimatum —last, final, ultimate —(to) finalize (negotiations, etc.), (to) kill (Amer.) —lately, recently —penultimate (next to last) ultra—land beyond the seas (overseas) —outrage (freq. criminal ones) —outrageous, offensive —(to) outrage —“to the death”, resolute(ly), “at all costs” unction, anointing
[turbary]
[ultramarine]
See also the numerous related “native” Spanish words listed under retorno. Outrage thus has nothing to do with either out or rage—it is simply the typical French -age ending added to outre ( ultra, “beyond”). The literal sense is thus something that is “out of bounds” or “beyond the pale”.
T4311.indb 627
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ANNEX D
—untuoso —ungir —ungüento —untar único —únicamente uniforme (adj. & n.) —uniformidad —uniformar urgente —urgentemente —urgencia —urgir urna uso —usar —usado (p.p.) —usuario —usual —inusual —inusitado —desuso usura —usurero utensilio utopía —utópico —utopista vacío (adj. & n.) —vaciar —vaciado (p.p.) —vacuo —vacante (adj. & n.f.) —vacaciones (pl.) —vago () —vaguear () vagar () vademécum —vadear —vado —vaivén
—unctuous (greasy, oily), sticky —(to) anoint —ointment —(to) spread, (to) smear, (to) bribe unique, sole —only, solely, uniquely uniform —uniformity —(to) uniform (make uniform; provide with uniforms) urgent —urgently —urgency, emergency —(to) be urgent, (to) urge urn (incl. for voting), ballot box use, usage —(to) use —used (second-hand) —user —usual —unusual —unusual —disuse usury —usurer utensil utopia —utopian (adj.) —utopian (n.) empty, vacant, void (empty space), vacuum —(to) empty, (to) hollow out, (to) cast (form in a mold) —cast (mold), excavation —vacuous (empty, devoid of substance) —vacant, vacancy —vacation, holidays —lazy ( holgazán, perezoso) —(to) be idle, (to) lie around vade mecum (handbook, manual) —(to) wade, (to) ford —ford, modified curb for vehicle entry —to-and-fro motion, ups and downs (pl.)
[† inusitate]
(Lat. vacuus)
(Lat. vacuus)
(“go with me”) [wade]
Literally meaning “goes and comes”, vaivén probably comes from Catalan (the “native” Castilian form would be *va y viene).
T4311.indb 628
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, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
vago () —vagar () vaguear () —vaguedad —vagabundo (adj. & n.) —vagabundear —divagar —extravagante —extravagancia vagón —vagoneta valija —valija diplomática —desvalijar vals valva —válvula —válvula de escape vampiro variación —variable (adj. & n.f.) —vario —variedad —variar —variado (p.p.) —variante (adj. & n.f.) —variable (adj. & n.f.) —invariable —desvarío —desvariar varicela —viruela vasallo —vasallaje vaticinar —vaticinio vatio, kilovatio
T4311.indb 629
vague —(to) wander aimlessly, (to) roam
(Lat. vagus) [vagary]
—vagueness —vagabond, vagrant —(to) vagabond (wander, roam about) —(to) divagate (ramble, digress) —odd, outlandish —oddness, outlandishness railroad car or wagon —small wagon, open railroad wagon valise, mailbag —diplomatic pouch —(to) rob, (to) burgle waltz valve (biol., bot.) —valve (mechanical, electrical, anatomical) —escape valve (physical, emotional) vampire, vampire bat variation —variable
[extravagant obs. def.] [extravagance]
[dis valise]
—varied, several (pl.), various (pl.) —variety, variety show (pl.) —(to) vary, (to) change —varied (diverse; of different colors) —variant, bypass (road) —variable —invariable —delirium, raving, nonsense —(to) talk nonsense, (to) rave varicella (chicken pox) —variola (smallpox) vassal —vassalage (to) vaticinate (predict, prophesy) —vaticination (prediction, prophecy) watt, kilowatt
Literally “wandering beyond or outside (the limits)”.
8/31/07 6:45:40 AM
T4311.indb 630
ANNEX D
—voltio —voltaje vehículo
—volt —voltage vehicle
—vector —invectiva vela () —en vela —velar () —velada —velatorio —desvelar () —desvelo velo —velo del paladar —velar () (adj. & n.f.) —velar () —vela () —velero —veleta —develar —desvelar () velocidad —veloz vender —vendedor —venta —en venta —servicio posventa / post—revender —revendedor venganza —vengar —vengador (adj. & n.) —vengativo —vendetta —revancha ( Fr.) —devengar verbo —verbal —verborrea
—vector (carrier; math.) —invective, diatribe vigil, candle —awake, sleepless —(to) keep vigil (watch), (to) hold a wake over —social evening, soiree —wake, vigil over the deceased —(to) keep awake, (to) lose sleep —sleeplessness, watchfulness or care veil —velum or soft palate (roof of mouth) —velar, velar consonant (e.g., k) —(to) veil, (to) fog or blur (photo) —sail —sailing ship, sailboat —weathervane, weathercock (incl. “fickle person”) —(to) unveil, (to) reveal —(to) reveal velocity, speed —fast, swift (to) sell, (to) vend —vendor, seller —sale, selling —for sale —after-sales service
(Lat. vehere, “carry”) (vectus p.p.) (Lat. vigilia)
(Lat. velum)
(Lat. vela)
—(to) resell, (to) retail —retailer, reseller vengeance, revenge —(to) avenge, (to) revenge —avenging, avenger —vengeful, vindictive —vendetta —revenge —(to) earn (wages), (to) accrue (interest) verb verbal —verbal diarrhea (extreme verbosity)
[ It.]
8/31/07 6:45:40 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—adverbio —proverbio verga —envergadura vernáculo verosimilitud —verosímil —inverosimilitud —inverosímil versátil —versatilidad verso —versar (sobre) —malversar —malversación vertical (adj. & n.f.) vértice —verter —vertiente (f.) —vertedero vértigo —vertiginoso vestíbulo vestir —vestido (p.p.) —vestidura vestimenta —vestuario —desvestir —revestir —revestimiento —travesti, travestí (m./f.) veterinario (adj. & n.) —veterinaria (n.) vía (n.) —vías respiratorias —vía(s) de comunicación —vía (prep.) —vía satélite
T4311.indb 631
—adverb —proverb yard or spar (nautical), verge (rod, penis) —wingspan, breadth, scope vernacular verisimilitude (appearance of being true or real) —verisimilar (appearing to be true or real) —lack of verisimilitude (unlikelihood) —not verisimilar (unlikely, implausible) versatile (incl. “variable, changeable”) —versatility (incl. “changeability, inconstancy”) verse —(to) be about, (to) deal with —(to) embezzle (public funds) —embezzlement, malversation vertical vertex —(to) pour, (to) spill —slope (mountain, roof), side or aspect (of an issue) —(garbage or rubbish) dump vertigo (dizziness) —vertiginous vestibule, hall, lobby (to) clothe, (to) dress —dress, clothes, clothing —clothing, vesture, vestment (gen. pl.) —wardrobe, dressing room, locker room, vestry —(to) undress, (to) divest (of clothes) —(to) cover or coat (e.g., wall) —(protective or decorative) covering or coating —transvestite (m./f.)
[very similar]
[divert]
[vest] [vested]
[revet, revest] [revetment] [travesty]
veterinary, veterinarian —veterinary medicine way, road, track —respiratory tract —means of communication —via —via satellite
Germanic way and Latin via come from the same Indo-European root.
8/31/07 6:45:40 AM
ANNEX D
—viaducto —tranvía (m.) —viaje —viajero (adj. & n.) —viajar —viajante —Muerte de un viajante —trivio —trivial —trivialidad viable
—viaduct —tramway, streetcar —voyage, journey, trip —traveling, voyager, traveler, passenger —(to) travel, (to) voyage —traveling salesman (-woman) —Death of a Salesman (by Arthur Miller)
—viabilidad —inviable victoria —victorioso vigilancia —vigilante (adj. & n.m./f.) —vigilar —vigilia
—viability —nonviable, inviable victory —victorious vigilance, surveillance —vigilant, watchman, guard
vigor —entrar en vigor —vigoroso —vigorizar —vigente —vigencia villa —villano (adj. & n.)
vigor (incl. “legal effectiveness or validity”) —(to) go into effect —vigorous, strong —(to) invigorate, (to) strengthen —in force or in effect (law, custom, etc.) —state of being in force (law, etc.), validity villa (country house) —villainous (incl. archaic “boorish”), villain (incl. archaic “ boor”), villein —Christmas carol (to) avenge, (to) vindicate
—villancico vindicar —reivindicar —reivindicación violación —violar violento —violencia violeta violín
T4311.indb 632
—junction of three roads, trivium —trivial —triviality viable
—(to) watch (over), (to) surveil —vigil (watch; eve of religious festival)
—(to) assert or claim a right, (to) claim responsibility for —claim, demand violation, rape, desecration —(to) violate, (to) rape, (to) desecrate violent —violence violet (color—adj. & n.m.), violet (flower—f.) violin
( Eng.)
( Lat. vita, “life”)
[vigilante]
(doublet of vela [])
(doublet of vengar) [rare revendicate]
8/31/07 6:45:40 AM
, R E L AT I V E LY E A S Y W O R D S
—violinista —violón —violonchelo, -celo, chelo —viola virar —viraje virgen (adj. & n.) —virginal —virginidad viril —virilidad virtual —realidad virtual virus —virulento —virulencia visado, visa (Amer.) visión —visible —visibilidad —invisible —invisibilidad —visionario —vista —punto de vista —vistazo —vistoso —visera —divisar —divisa visita —visitar —visitante (adj. & n.m./f.) visual —visualizar
—violinist —double bass —violoncello, cello —viola (to) veer, (to) tone (photo—“veer” the colors) —turn (veering), toning (photo) virgin —virginal —virginity virile —virility virtual —virtual reality virus —virulent —virulence visa vision —visible —visibility —invisible —invisibility —visionary —sight (eyesight, view), vista —point of view, standpoint —glance, look —eye-catching, colorful —visor —(to) make out (in the distance), (to) espy —foreign currency or exchange , emblem or motto visit —(to) visit —visiting, visitor visual, line of sight —(to) visualize (form a mental image; make visible)
Divisar and divisa are etymologically unrelated to visión, as they are instead cognates of divide—division. In the case of divisar, the notion was to “discern things in the distance”, i.e., to divide them from the “rest”, while a divisa (initially a medieval badge or emblem) was a device allowing one to divide the “home team” from the others.
T4311.indb 633
8/31/07 6:45:41 AM
ANNEX D
—visualización vocabulario —vocablo vocal (adj. & n.f.) —vocal (m./f.) —vocalista —vocalizar volcán —volcánico voluntario (adj. & n.) —involuntario vómito —vomitar —vomitivo —vomitorio voraz —voracidad —devorar —vorágine (f.) voz (f.) —altavoz —portavoz vulnerable —vulnerabilidad —invulnerable —vulnerar whisky, whiskey, güisqui yate ( Eng.) yodo / iodo yoga (m.) yugo —yugular (adj. & n.f.) —sojuzgar —subyugar zafiro zodíaco, zodiaco zona —zona(s) verde(s)
T4311.indb 634
—visualization vocabulary —vocable (word as letters, w/out regard to meaning) vocal, vowel —board or committee member (having a “voice”) —vocalist —(to) vocalize volcano —volcanic voluntary, volunteer —involuntary vomit —(to) vomit —vomitive, emetic (vomit inducing) —vomitory (stadium passageway leading to seats) voracious (also applied to destructive fi res) —voracity, voraciousness —(to) devour —whirlpool, vortex voice —loudspeaker —spokesperson vulnerable —vulnerability —invulnerable —(to) infringe or violate (law), (to) damage or harm whiskey yacht iodine yoga yoke —jugular —(to) subjugate —(to) subjugate
(z from juzgar) (“learned” form)
sapphire zodiac zone —“green zone” (part of city reserved for parks & gardens)
8/31/07 6:45:41 AM
Selected References
Spanish Dictionaries Enciclopedia Universal Multimedia. . Madrid: Micronet. Apart from the encyclopedia, there is a Spanish-Spanish dictionary with English correspondences for most words. Moliner, María. . Diccionario de uso del español. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Also available on CD-ROM. Ramondino, Salvatore, ed. . The New World Spanish/English English/Spanish Dictionary. New York: Signet. Real Academia Española. . Diccionario de la lengua española. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. Also available at: www.rae.es ———. . Diccionario panhispánico de dudas. Madrid: Santillana. Also available at: www.rae.es VOX Diccionario avanzado: Lengua española. . Barcelona: Bibliograf. VOX Diccionario para la enseñanza de la lengua española: Español para extranjeros. . Barcelona: Bibliograf. VOX New College Spanish and English Dictionary. . Lincolnwood: NTC Publishing Group.
English Dictionaries The American Heritage College Dictionary. . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford English Dictionary. . CD-Rom version. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. . CD-Rom version. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster.
Etymological Dictionaries Barnhart, Robert K., ed. . Chambers Dictionary of Etymology. Edinburgh: Chambers. Bénaben, Michel. . Dictionnaire étymologique de l’espagnol. Paris: Ellipses. Buck, Carl Darling. . A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal IndoEuropean Languages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Celdrán, Pancracio. . Diccionario de topónimos españoles y sus gentilicios. Madrid: Espasa Calpe.
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Corominas, Joan. . Breve diccionario etimológico de la lengua castellana. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Corominas, Joan, and José A. Pascual. – ( volumes). Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Cortelazzo, Manlio, and Paolo Zolli. . Il nuovo etimologico: DELI—Dizionario Etimologico della Lingua Italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli. Ernout, Alfred, and Alfred Meillet. . Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine. Paris: Klincksieck. Faure Sabater, Roberto. . Diccionario de nombres geográficos y étnicos del mundo. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. ———. . Diccionario de nombres propios. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. Hoad, T. F. . The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Martin, F. . Les mots latins, groupés par familles étymologiques. Paris: Hachette. Partridge, Eric. . Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Greenwich House. Pfeifer, Wolfgang (under the direction of). . Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen. Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. Rey, Alain (under the direction of). . Dictionnaire historique de la langue française. Paris: Dictionnaires Le Robert. Roberts, Edward A., and Bárbara Pastor. . Diccionario etimológico indoeuropeo de la lengua española. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. Watkins, Calvert, ed. . The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Other References Bonnassie, Pierre, Pierre Guichard, and Marie-Claude Gerbet. . Las Españas medievales. Barcelona: Editorial Crítica. Translated from original French. Boyd-Bowman, Peter. . From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts. Washington: Georgetown University Press. Brodsky, David. . Spanish Verbs Made Simple(r). Austin: University of Texas Press. Cano Aguilar, Rafael. . El español a través de los tiempos. Madrid: Arco/Libros. Encyclopaedia Britannica . Ultimate Reference Suite DVD. Entwistle, William J. . The Spanish Language, Together with Portuguese, Catalan and Basque. London: Faber & Faber. Also available in Spanish translation. Fradejas Rueda, José Manuel. . Fonología histórica del español. Madrid: Visor Libros. Lapesa, Rafael. . Historia de la lengua española. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Lathrop, Thomas A. . The Evolution of Spanish. University of Delaware: Juan de la Cuesta. Also available in Spanish translation. Menéndez Pidal, Ramón. . Manual de gramática histórica española. Madrid: Espasa Calpe.
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———. . Orígenes del español: Estado lingüístico de la península ibérica hasta el siglo XI. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. Penny, Ralph. . A History of the Spanish Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Also available in Spanish translation. Rohlfs, Gerhard. . Estudios sobre el léxico románico. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Turner, Howard R. . Science in Medieval Islam. Austin: University of Texas Press. Williams, Mark. . The Story of Spain. Málaga, Spain: Santana Books.
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