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P S Y C H O L O G Y S I X T H
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E D I T I O N
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P S Y C H O L O G Y S I X T H
E D I T I O N
RO B I N KO WA L S K I CLEMSON UNIVERSITY
D R E W W E ST E N EMORY UNIVERSITY
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
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DEDICATION
To my amazing twin boys, Noah and Jordan. I love you more than you could ever know, and I am so proud of both of you. You bring joy to my world, and you make my heart smile. RMK To Laura and Mackenzie. DW Vice President and Executive Publisher Executive Editor Associate Editor Production Manager Senior Production Editor senior Marketing Manager Creative Director Production Management Services Senior Illustration Editor Photo Manager Photo Researcher Editorial Assistant Senior Media Editor Cover Designer Cover Photo Editor Cover Photos:
Jay O’Callaghan Christopher Johnson Eileen McKeever Dorothy Sinclair Valerie A.Vargas Danielle Torio Harry Nolan Ingrao Associates, Inc. Sandra Rigby Hilary Newman Lisa Passmore Mariah Maguire-Fong Lynn Pearlman Maureen Eide Jennifer McMillan © Gandee Vasan/Getty Images, Inc.
This book was set in 10/12 Palatino Light by Prepare and printed and bound by R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Inc. The cover was printed by R.R. Donnelley & Sons, Inc. This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞ Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship. Copyright © 2011, 2009, 2005, 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative. ISBN-13 978-0-470-64644-1 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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P R E F A C E From the moment I enrolled in my first psychology course—a college transfer class in high school—I was hooked. I loved the content of the course, but I also remember two other very specific things about the class. First, the professor, Dr. John Pellew, was a great teacher and thus was instrumental in my becoming the psychologist I am today. Second, the textbook was user-friendly, interesting, and even enjoyable. I still have the book and, suffice it to say, high school was many years ago. Stemming from that early experience, my philosophy of teaching and my philosophy of writing an introductory psychology book are similar. I love interactions with students, either directly in the classroom or indirectly through writing or email contacts. I want my students to enjoy the process of learning, to be exposed to the story of psychology in a way that captures their attention, and to see applications of what they learn in introductory psychology to their everyday lives. As a teacher, I try to accomplish these goals by establishing good relationships with my students, by maintaining my own excitement and energy for the subject matter, and by using many stories and illustrations as I teach them the concepts of psychology. As the lead author of this edition, I have pursued similar goals. I hope that my enthusiasm for psychology is apparent as you proceed through the text. I had so much fun revising the book to create this edition, and, as you will see in the acknowledgments, had the input of many students. Who better to get advice from than students who are taking the class and using a previous edition of the book. I also had help from some of your peers at other schools who contacted me with suggestions for the book. I encourage you to contact me as well (
[email protected]) regarding what it is that you like and dislike, what is immediately clear, and what you find confusing. As a student, you are the primary means of improving this book. The overall vision for Psychology is the journey of psychology. I want to take students on a psychological journey that fills them with excitement and adventure as they uncover things they didn’t know or new ways of thinking about things they did know. The goal is that you as students are drawn into the material in such a way that you begin to ask probing questions about the information and begin to see psychology at work in your everyday lives. The new additions to the sixth edition, particularly Psychology at Work, are designed to broaden students’ perceptions of what the field of psychology encompasses. Introductory psychology is probably the last time most students—and psychologists—get a broad overview of the depth and breadth of our field. In fact, one of the greatest personal benefits for those of us who teach introductory psychology is that we are continually exposed to new information, often in domains far from our own areas of expertise, that stretch and challenge our imaginations. I wrote this edition of Psychology to tell the “story of psychology, to take you on a journey.”As a teacher and writer, I try to make use of one of the most robust findings in psychology: that memory and understanding are enhanced when target information is associated with vivid and personally relevant material. Thus, each chapter begins with an experiment, a case, or an event that lets you know why the topic is important and why anyone might be excited about it. None of the cases is invented; each is a real story. Chapter 2, for example, begins with the case of a young woman who lost her entire family in a car accident and found herself suddenly contracting one minor ailment after another until she finally starting to talk about the event with a psychologist. I then juxtapose this with an experiment by James Pennebaker on the influence of emotional expression on physical health to show how a researcher can take a striking phenomenon or philosophical question (the relation between mind and body) and turn it into a researchable question. v
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PREFACE
Chapter 17 begins with a discussion of the concept of “pay it forward,” on which a popular movie has been based. This discussion leads directly into an examination of people who displayed the “pay it forward” construct by rescuing Jews during the Holocaust, even at personal peril to themselves. Writing a textbook is always a balancing act, with each addition adjusting scales that were tipped a bit too far in one direction in the previous one. Probably the most difficult balance to achieve in writing an introductory text is how to cover what we know (at least for now) and what’s on the cutting edge without creating an encyclopedia, particularly when the field of psychology is moving forward so rapidly. Another balancing act involves helping those of you who might desire more structure to learn the material, without placing roadblocks in the path of students who would find most pedagogical devices contrived and distracting. A final balancing act involves presenting solid research in a manner that is accessible, lively, and thought-provoking. I believe that this edition of Psychology successfully achieves the balance across these different issues.
NEW FEATURES OF THE SIXTH EDITION Research in Depth: A Step Further In the fifth edition, we added a new feature known as Research in Depth, in which a few studies are described in more depth and detail so that students can not only learn more about a particular topic and methodology but also be exposed to some of the classic studies in psychology. For example, in Chapter 16, Zimbardo’s classic “prison study” is described. Information from his book The Lucifer Effect is included that gives details about the study beyond those included in the original article. New to this edition, however, is A Step Further, a series of questions that follow each Research in Depth feature. These questions are intended not only to “test” students’ knowledge of research methodology but also to encourage them to think outside the box as they delve deep into particular research studies. For example, some of the questions may ask them how a particular study could be redesigned to deal with ethical issues. Or students might be asked what hypothesis the researcher(s) was testing. Overall, the questions are intended to develop students’ critical thinking skills.
Profiles in Positive Psychology Recent years have seen an explosion of interest in positive psychology, a focus on mental health rather than mental illness. Among the topics included in recent handbooks of positive psychology are happiness, resilience, wisdom, gratitude, hope, optimism, and forgiveness, to name a few. New to the sixth edition of this book is the feature Profiles in Positive Psychology. Most chapters include a section describing a particular topic in positive psychology along with a real-world example illustrating how this construct is manifest. For example, in Chapter 14, courage is profiled, and its manifestation in Captain Chesley Sullenberger, who landed the US Airways plane on the Hudson River in January 2009, portrayed. In Chapter 4, the resilience of Ben Underwood, colloquially known as the “blind boy who sees” is described. Ben rollerbladed, played video games, and rode his bike just like any other teenager, except he was completely blind. How did he do it? He clicked his tongue to help him locate objects, using echolocation similar to the method used by dolphins. These positive psychology features not only highlight the presence of psychology in the real world but also make students aware of hot topics and new directions within psychology.
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Psychology at Work Because one of my goals with each revision of this textbook is for students to see the relevance of psychology to their daily lives, a new feature, Psychology at Work, was added to this edition. By reading about the application of psychology in the real world, students are exposed to the diversity of areas within psychology—for example, sports psychology, human factors, and industrial/organizational psychology. For example, in Chapter 2, we discuss the use of Pennebaker’s linguistic analyses to examine Al Quaeda texts by Osama Bin Laden. In Chapter 3, the Psychology at Work feature examines the phenomenon of neuromarketing.
General Organization The sixth edition of Psychology has been organized in a way that should be convenient for most instructors and that follows a coherent design. Of course, different instructors organize things differently, but I do not think many will find the organization idiosyncratic. Following an introductory chapter (Chapter 1) and a chapter on the primary research methods used in psychology (Chapter 2), the content moves on to physiological psychology (Chapter 3), sensation and perception (Chapter 4), learning (Chapter 5), memory (Chapter 6), thought and language (Chapter 7), and intelligence (Chapter 8). Following this, attention is given to consciousness (Chapter 9), motivation and emotion (Chapter 10), and health, stress, and coping (Chapter 11). We then discuss topics related to personality (Chapter 12), developmental psychology (Chapter 13), clinical psychology (Chapters 14 and 15), and social psychology (Chapters 16 and 17). Teaching the material in the order presented is probably optimal, for chapters do build on each other. For example, Chapter 9 on consciousness presupposes knowledge of the distinction posed in Chapter 6 between implicit and explicit memory. However, if instructors want to rearrange the order of chapters, they can certainly do so, as material mentioned from a previous chapter is cross-referenced so that students can easily find any information they need.
Research Focus This book is about psychological science. A student should come out of an introductory psychology class not only with a sense of the basic questions and frameworks for answering them but also with an appreciation for how to obtain psychological knowledge. Many textbooks give token attention to research methods, including hundreds of studies within the text itself, without really helping students to understand what is behind the study and what the study’s implications and applications are. As a researcher and as someone who teaches courses on research methodology, I wanted to do much more than pay lip service to research. Thus, Chapter 2 is devoted to research methods, and the style reflects an effort to engage, not intimidate, so that you can see how methods actually make a difference. From start to finish, students will read about specific studies so that they can learn about the logic of scientific investigation. In addition, as mentioned earlier, this edition of Psychology again features Research in Depth. As noted earlier, in each chapter we examine in detail a classic study in psychology so that students get a real sense of research design, methodology, and interpretation. Careful consideration went into selecting studies for inclusion as a Research in Depth study. They needed to be classic studies that were sound in design and theory. But they also had to be intriguing so that students would continue to think about them long after they finished reading about them. New to this edition is A Step Further, the questions that follow each Research in Depth. These questions provide students with a review of their knowledge of research methodology in addition to developing their critical thinking skills.
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MAKING CONNECTIONS The term virtual twins has been used to describe unrelated siblings of the same age who are reared together from infancy (Segal, 2000). Thus, virtual twins have no genetic relationship but share a common rearing environment. In a study of 90 such sibling pairs, the IQ correlation was only 0.26. Although statistically significant (Chapter 2), this relationship is far below the reported correlations for MZ twins (0.86), DZ twins (0.62), and full siblings (0.41). It suggests that, while the environment influences IQ, genetic influences are strong.
HAVE YOU HEARD?
KEY PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES: AN INTEGRATED PACKAGE Decisions about which pedagogical features to retain or not in the sixth edition stemmed in large part from student feedback regarding what they liked or disliked. One such feature was Making Connections, which illustrates and links material from different chapters so that students can see the threads that tie the discipline together. For example, when considering the role that genetics plays in intelligence (Chapter 8), students are reminded of the meaning of statistical significance, discussed in Chapter 2. Students liked having key word definitions placed in the margins as opposed to within the text itself, so, in the sixth edition, key words are boldfaced in the text, and the definitions of those words are placed in the margins near where they appear in the text. Each chapter ends with a list of Key Terms with page numbers so that students can be certain that they understand all the major terms introduced in the chapter. In addition, the Have You Seen? and Have You Heard? features were retained and expanded. It is my experience that students retain information better if they can relate it to something novel (i.e., cool) or to something with which they have direct experience (e.g., movies or books). Thus, the Have You Seen? feature links information covered in the text to popular movies or books. For example, the Have You Seen? feature in Chapter 6 focuses on the movie Fifty First Dates and its link to shortterm memory loss. Chapter 7 on thought and language asks students if they have seen the movie Nell, starring Jodie Foster—and explains the connection. The Have You Heard? feature includes information about hot topics related to psychology that might be seen on CNN or Yahoo but that are grounded in theory and research. For example, students who might have wondered why a pirate wears a patch will find out in Chapter 4. In addition to providing interesting information, this feature will make students much more aware of news stories presented on Internet search engines that are related to psychology.
LEARNING AIDS
Stephen Wiltshire, known as the “human camera,” is an artist. But he’s not your typical artist. Stephen didn’t speak his first words, paper and pencil, until age five, yet he can create stunning artistic renderings of images he has seen only one time (see image). For example, researchers provided him the opportunity to draw Rome after a single 45-minute helicopter ride over the city. After three days, he produced an unbelievably detailed, nearly perfect replica of what he had seen. A video segment taken from the movie Beautiful Minds: A Voyage into the Brain depicting Stephen’s accomplishments can be seen at http://video. stumbleupon.com/#p=0k4lsi1dql.
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Given the breadth of information that is included in an introductory psychology book, students often find it beneficial to have learning aids. The learning aids from the last edition that were most effective in helping students learn were retained in the present edition: Interim Summaries, a feature called One Step Further, and Chapter Summaries. In my survey of students’ perceptions of the fourth edition, the summaries were a big hit in terms of facilitating their learning. Interim Summaries At the end of major sections, Interim Summaries recap the “gist” of what has been presented, not only to help students consolidate their knowledge of what they have read but also to alert them if they failed to “get” something important (see below). The inclusion of these summaries reflects both feedback from students and professors as well as the results of research suggesting that distributing conceptual summaries throughout a chapter and presenting them shortly after students have read the material is likely to optimize learning.
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I N T E R I M
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S U M M A R Y
Myriad reasons exist to account for why people continue to engage in negative health behaviors and why they fail to engage in positive health behaviors. A useful way of compartmentalizing these reasons is to group them into four barriers to health promotion: individual barriers, family barriers, health system barriers, and community barriers. However, as with most things in life, barriers can be overcome, and the barriers to health promotion presented here are no exception.
One Step Further This edition, like the fifth edition, includes a feature called One Step Further. Like the other recurring features in the book, these discussions flow naturally from the text but are highlighted in color. Generally, these are advanced discussions of some aspect of the topic, usually with a strong methodological or conceptual focus. These sections are intended to be assigned by professors who prefer a high-level text or to be read by students who find the topic intriguing and want to learn more about it even if it isn’t assigned. Highlighting these sections gives professors—and students—some choice about what to read or not to read. For example, in Chapter 5, the One Step Further section addresses why reinforcers are reinforcing (see below).
WHY ARE REINFORCERS REINFORCING?
ONE STEP FURTHER
Learning theorists aim to formulate general laws of behavior that link behaviors with events in the environment. Skinner and others who called themselves “radical behaviorists” were less interested in theorizing about the mechanisms that produced these laws, since these mechanisms could not really be observed. Other theorists within and outside behaviorism, however, have asked, “What makes a reinforcer reinforcing or a punisher punishing?” No answer has achieved widespread acceptance, but three are worth considering.
Chapter Summaries Each chapter concludes with a summary of the major points, which are organized under the headings in which they were presented. These summaries provide an outline of the chapter.
SUMMARY HEALTH 1. Health psychology examines the psychological and social influences on how people stay healthy why they become ill and how they respond when they do get ill. 2. Although the field has taken off only in the last two decades, it has a rich heritage in the fields of medicine and philosophy. This history began with the early theorists and the practice of trephination, continued through the humoral theory of illness and the Renaissance, and received one of its major boosts from Freud and the field of psychosomatic medicine. STRESS 10. Stress refers to a challenge to a person’s capacity to adapt to inner and outer demands, which may be physiologically arousing and
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emotionally taxing and call for cognitive and behavioral responses. Stress is a psychobiological process that entails a transaction between a person and her environment. Selye proposed that the body responds to stressful conditions with a general adaptation syndrome consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. 12. Events that often lead to stress are called stressors. Stressors include life events, catastrophes, and daily hassles. COPING 14. The ways people deal with stressful situations are known as strategies for coping; these coping mechanisms are in part culturally patterned. People cope by trying to change the situation directly, changing their perception of it, or changing the emotions it elicits.
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SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS Psychology, Sixth Edition, features a full line of teaching and learning resources developed to help professors create a more dynamic and innovative learning environment. These resources—including print, software, and Web-based materials—are integrated with the text and take an active learning approach to help build students’ ability to think clearly and critically.
For Students STUDY GUIDE MATERIALS Prepared by both Lynda Mae of Arizona State University and Lloyd Pilkington of Midlands Technical College, this online resource offers students a comprehensive way to review materials from the text and test their knowledge. Each chapter of the text has a corresponding section on the student website. Six tools help students master the material: chapter outlines, study tips, additional readings, key terms, related websites, and sample test questions and answers. Kowalski Psychology 6e website at www.wiley.com/college/kowalski. Vocabulary Flash Cards This interactive module gives students the opportunity to test knowledge of vocabulary terms. In addition, students can take self-tests and monitor their progress throughout the semester. Interactive Animations Prepared by Marvin Lee of Shenandoah University and Margaret Olimpieri of Westchester Community College, the interactive modules help students understand concepts featured in the text. Each interactive animation includes a preface and a summary to reinforce students’ understanding of the module.
For Instructors Kowalski Psychology 6e website at www.wiley.com/college/kowalski. Our online resources add a rich, interactive learning experience designed to give professors the tools they need to teach and students the tools and foundations needed to grasp concepts and expand their critical thinking skills. Kowalski Psychology 6e Wiley Resource Kit. The Wiley Resource Kit provides a simple way to integrate the most sought after instructor and student tools for any Learning Management System. With the Resource Kit you will have free access to resources that complement your course; no cartridges, plug-ins, or access fees; and compatibility with any Learning Management System! INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Prepared by Julie Alvarez of Tulane University, this comprehensive resource includes for each text chapter an outline, student learning objectives, outline/lecture organizer, lecture topic extensions, in-class demonstrations and discussion questions, out-of-class student exercises, website resources, suggested Web links, software, videos, and numerous student handouts. POWERPOINT PRESENTATION SLIDES AND LECTURE NOTES Prepared by Jennifer Butler of Case Western Reserve University, these original lecture slides can be sequenced and customized by instructors to fit any lecture. Designed according to the organization of the material in the textbook, this series of electronic transparencies can be used to illustrate concepts visually and graphically. WEB CT, BLACKBOARD COURSES, AND COMPUTERIZED TEST BANK Prepared by Jennifer Butler of Case Western Reserve University, this resource has nearly 2000 test items. Each multiple–choice question has been coded “Factual,” “Applied,” or “Conceptual,”—and referenced to its source in the text.
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INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE CD-ROM This multiplatform CD-ROM is an invaluable resource for in-class lectures and out-of-class preparation. It includes: The entire Instructor’s Manual •n The student Study Guide •n The Computerized Test Bank •n PowerPoints •n
VIDEO LIBRARY Please contact your local Wiley representative for details of this rich resource of videotapes.
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A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S This project began many years ago—in 1987—and several people have played important roles at different points in the endeavor. Jean Stein, a talented writer, helped write the first draft of the first half of the first edition. Several other people also contributed in earlier stages, notably Judy Block, Colleen Coffey, Dr. Alfred Kellam, Dr. Carol Holden, Dr. Lauren Korfine, Dr. Barbara Misle, Dr. Patricia Harney, and Karen Schenkenfeldter. Like Jean, they helped lay the foundations, and their efforts, too, are greatly appreciated. Appreciation also goes to multiple talented research assistants and students, including (but not limited to) Michelle Levine, Samantha Glass, Chad Lakey, Holly Payne, Erin Hunter, Lindsey Sporrer, Ginger Lijewski, Kristy Kelso, Karissa Chorbajian, Natalie Irby, Richard Reams, Kristina Wright, Donovan Jones, Vickie Long, Kelly Simpson, Katie Bigalke, Heather Halbert, Andy Patterson, Kimball Zane, Patrick Napolski, Haley Kimmons, Kemper Talley, Lindsey Hutton, Hillary Rampey, Morgan Hodge, Hillary Taylor, Charis Durden, Tyler Harrison, Kate Wanner, Melinda Cleveland, and Sarah Eisner.
REVIEWERS Over the past 20 years, this book has been shaped by the insightful comments of dozens of colleagues and would look nothing like it does now without their tireless efforts. From prior editions, I would like to thank Walt Lonner of Western Washington University, who gave advice on cross-cultural coverage for many chapters and gave feedback on others, and Paul Watson of the University of Tennessee for his uncanny ability throughout the years to give advice as to the general coverage and prose of the text. Several other professors have provided invaluable feedback on multiple chapters of the new and prior editions.
Reviewers for the Sixth Edition Rachel Gerstein, Temple University Charles Ginn, University of Cincinnati Sean Green, University at Buffalo Steven Howe, University of Cincinnati Margaret Ingate, Rutgers University Farrah Jacquez, University of Cincinnati David T. Smith, University of Cincinnati Bruce Walker, Georgia Institute of Technology Benjamin Wallace, Cleveland State University
Reviewers for Prior Editions Millicent H. Abel, Western Carolina University; George Adler, University College of the Cariboo; Eugene Aidman, University of Ballarat; Gary Allen, University of South Carolina; Gordon Allen, Miami University; Harvard L. Armus, University of Toledo; Gordon Atlas, Al-
fred University; Elaine Baker, Marshall University; Mary Banks Gregerson, George Washington University; Robert Batsell, Southern Methodist University; Carol M. Batt, Sacred Heart University; Col. Johnson Beach, United States Military Academy-West Point; Richard Belter, University of West Florida; John B. Best, Eastern Illinois University; Kathleen Bey, Palm Beach Community College; Victor Bissonnette, Berry College; Paul Bloom, University of Arizona; Toni L. Blum, Stetson University; Joanna Boehnert, University of Guelph; Diane Bogdan, Hunter College of the City University of New York; John D. Bonvillian, University of Virginia; Douglas A. Bors, University of Toronto-Scarborough; Richard Bowen, Loyola University, Chicago; Robin Bowers, College of Charleston; Amy Bradshaw, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; Robert B. Branstrom, United Behavioral Health; Bruce Bridgeman, University of California, Santa Cruz; Nathan Brody, Wesleyan University; John Broida, University of Southern Maine; John P. Broida, University of Southern Maine; Robert Brown, Georgia State University; Adam Butler, University of Northern Iowa; James Butler, James Madison University; Simone Buzwell, Swinburne University of Technology; Mark Byrd, University of Canterbury (New Zealand); James Calhoun, University of Georgia; Susan Calkins, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Barbara K. Canaday, Southwestern College; Tim Cannon, University of Scranton; Kelly B. Cartwright, Christopher Newport University; George A. Cicala, University of Delaware; Toon Cillessen, University of Connecticut; John M. Clark, Macomb Community College; Margaret Cleek, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Dennis Cogan, Texas Tech University; Patricia Colby, Skidmore College; Kevin Corcoran, University of Cincinnati; Ken Cramer, University of Windsor; James Dalziel, University of Sidney; Hank Davis, University of Guelph; Joanne Davis, University of Tulsa; Eric De Vos, Saginaw Valley State University; Robert DeBrae Russell, University of Michigan, Flint; Daniel L. C. DeNeui, Elon College; Peter Ditto, Kent State University; Allen Dobbs, University of Alberta; Mark Dombeck, Idaho State University; William Domhoff, University of California, Santa Cruz; Dale Doty, Monroe Community College; Eugene B. Doughtie, University of Houston; Richard Eglsaer, Sam Houston State University; Thomas Estrella, Lourdes College; Sosimo Fabian, Hunter College; Joseph R. Ferrari, DePaul University; J. Gregor Fetterman, Arizona State University; Oney D. Fitzpatrick, Jr., Lamar University; Jocelyn R. Folk, Kent State University; Sandra P. Frankmann, University of Southern Colorado; Nelson Freedman, Queens University; Jennifer J. Freyd, University of Oregon; Herbert Friedman, College of William and Mary; Perry Fuchs, University of Texas at Arlington; Mauricio Gaborit, S. J., St. Louis University; Ronald Gandleman, Rutgers University; Adrienne Ganz, New York University; Wendi Gardner, Northwestern University; Mark Garrison, Kentucky State University; Nellie Georgiou, Monash University; Marian Gibney, Phoenix College; William E. Gibson, Northern Arizona University; Marvin Goldfried, State University of New York. Stony Brook; Mary Alice Gordon, Southern Methodist University; Charles R. Grah, Austin Peay State University; Leonard Green, Washington University; Joseph Guido, Providence College; Robert Guttentag, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Richard Halgin, University of Massachusetts, Amherst;
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Larry Hawk, University at Buffalo; Thomas Herrman, University of Guelph; Douglas Herrmann, Indiana State University; Doug Hodge, Dyersburg State Comm. College; Julia C. Hoigaard, University of California, Irvine; Linda Hort, Griffith University; Mark Hoyert, Indiana University, Northwest; Joan Ingram, Northwestern University; Julia Jacks, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Timothy Jay, North Adams State College; James Johnson, Illinois State University; Lance K. Johnson, Pasadena City College; Robert Johnston, College of William and Mary; Min Ju, State University of New York, New Paltz; Kevin Kennelly, University of North Texas; Shelia Kennison, Oklahoma State University; Norman E. Kinney, Southeast Missouri State University; Lynne Kiorpes, New York University; Stephen B. Klein, Mississippi State University; Keith Kluender, University of Wisconsin, Madison; James M. Knight, Humboldt State University; James Kopp, University of Texas, Arlington; Emma Kraidman, Franciscan Children’s Hospital, Boston; Philip Langer, University of Colorado, Boulder; Randy J. Larsen, Washington University; Len Lecci, University of North Carolina, Wilmington; Peter Leppmann, University of Guelph; Alice Locicero, Lesley College; Karsten Look, Columbus State Community College; Gretchen Lovas, University of California, Davis; David MacDonald, University of Missouri, Columbia; Stephen Madigan, University of Southern California; Matthew Margres, Saginaw Valley State University; Richard M. Martin, Gustavus Adolphus College; Donald McBurney, University of Pittsburgh; Michael McCall, Ithaca College; Bill McKeachie, University of Michigan; Stephen Meier, University of Idaho; Ann Meriwether, University of Michigan; Eleanor Midkiff, Eastern Illinois University; David Mitchell, Southern Methodist University; Robert F. Mosher, Northern Arizona University; David I. Mostofsky, Boston University; J. L. Mottin, University of Guelph; John Mullennix, Wayne State University; Andrew Neher, Cabrillo College; Todd D. Nelson, California State University, Stanislaus; John B. Nezlek, College of William and Mary; John Ostwald, Hudson Valley Community College; Barbara B. Oswald, University of South Carolina; William H. Overman, University of North Carolina, Wilmington; Katherine Perez-Rivera, Rowan University; Constance Pilkington, College of William and Mary; Lloyd Pilkington, Midlands Technical College; David Pittenger, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga; Dorothy C. Pointkowski, San Francisco State University; Donald J. Polzella, University of Dayton; Felicia Pratto, University of Connecticut; J. Faye Pritchard, La Salle University; David Rabiner, University of North Carolina, Greensboro; Freda Rebelsky, Boston University; Bradley C. Redburn, Johnson County Community College; Lauretta Reeves, University of Texas, Austin; Laura Reichel, Metropolitan State College of Denver; V. Chan Roark, Troy University; Paul Roberts, Murdoch University; Hillary R. Rodman, Emory University; Daniel Roenkert, Western Kentucky University; Lawrence Rosenblum, University of California, Riverside; Alexander Rothman, University of Minnesota; Kenneth W. Rusiniak, Eastern Michigan University; Michael K. Russell, Bucknell University; Ina Samuels, University of Massachusetts, Boston; Philip Schatz, Saint Joseph’s University; Karl E. Scheibe, Wesleyan University; Richard Schiffman, Rutgers University; David A. Schroeder, University of Arkansas; Alan Searlman, St. Lawrence University; Robert Sekuler, Brandeis University; Norm Simonson, University of Massachusetts; Steven Sloman, Brown University; David T. Smith, University of Cincinnati; J. Diedrick Snoek, Smith College; Sheldon Solomon, Skidmore College; Paul Stager, York University; Margo A. Storm, Temple University; Chehalis Strapp, Western Oregon University; Tom Swan, Siena
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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College; Susan Tammaro, Regis College; Angela D. Tigner, Nassau Community College; Perry Timmermans, San Diego City College; Patti A. Tolar, University of Houston; David Uttal, Northwestern University; Anre Venter, Notre Dame; D. Rene Verry, Millikin University; Benjamin Walker, Georgetown University; Malcolm Watson, Brandeis University; Paul J. Watson, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga; Paul Waxer, York University; Russell H. Weigel, Amherst College; Joel Weinberger, Adelphi University; Cheryl Weinstein, Harvard Medical School; Robert W. Weisberg, Temple University; Robert Weiskopf, Indiana University; Cara Wellman, Indiana University; Paul J. Wellman, Texas A&M University; Larry Wichlinski, Carleton College; Macon Williams, Illinois State University; Jeremy M. Wolfe, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Billy Wooten, Brown University; David M. Wulff, Wheaton College; Stephen Wurst, SUNY, State University of New York, Oswego; Todd Zakrajsek, Southern Oregon State College; and Thomas Zentall, University of Kentucky.
STUDENT REVIEWS I have also benefitted considerably from students’ comments in reviews and in focus groups. Thanks to the students who provided their feedback as they used the text and/or evaluated the new pedagogy, as well as to the following faculty members and graduate students who coordinated focus groups and reviews. Adam Butler, University of Northern Iowa William H. Calhoun, University of Tennessee, Knoxville Alexis Collier, Ohio State University Faculty Wendy Domjan, University of Texas, Austin Joseph Ferrari, DePaul University Sandra P. Frankmann, University of Southern Colorado Tody Klinger, Johnson County Community College Gail Peterson, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis Harvey Pines, Canisius College Gordon Pitz, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale Richard Reardon, University of Oklahoma, Norman Robert J. Sutherland, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque In particular, I would like to thank a group of students at Clemson University who invested a considerable amount of time, creativity, and effort into providing input into this sixth edition: Chad Morgan, Jessica Gancar, Rebecca Fulmer, Sarah Louderback, Kelly Gerrity, Stephanie Freeman, Sarah Mauck, Sarah Heidel, and Lauren Ourant. I am so appreciative of all that you did. Without your help, this book would not be what it is today. It’s a privilege to get to work with all of you and to learn from you. For the students in my Introductory Psychology courses who told me what they liked or disliked about the fifth edition, thank you for your input and for letting me put the class photos in the preface. I would also like to thank these students for indulging my constant “idea bouncing” throughout the semester. Special thanks also go to Dr. Sophie Woorons-Johnston, who not only contributed one of the positive psychology boxes (Chapter 9) but also provided invaluable insights into many of the other chapters. Thanks also go to Lea Ann Dobson for her insights on psychology and life. Many fun psychological discussions were had at McAlister’s Deli over fajita potatoes. My parents, Randolph and Frances Kowalski,
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Clemson University Students in Introductory Psychology
as always, provided their endless support. I am so grateful to you. Finally, my amazing children, Noah and Jordan, encourage me every day. How lucky I am to be your mother. Finally, I would like to offer my appreciation to the team at Wiley. Special thanks go to my editor, Chris Johnson, and his assistant, Mariah Maguire-Fong. Thank you for working with me to bring this edition about. Suzanne Ingrao did an exceptional job with production and with handling my many queries when reviewing the page proofs. My thanks also go to Valerie Vargas, the Senior Production Editor. Kevin Murphy supervised the design with great creativity, Lynn Pearl-
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man deserves recognition as the Media Editor, Hilary Newman as the Photo Manager, and Sandra Rigby as the Senior Illustrations Editor. Finally, I am grateful to Danielle Torio, the Senior Marketing Manager, and Eileen McKeever, the Associate Editor. Without the input of all of these individuals, the book could never have been created. I have worked with Wiley for several years now and feel fortunate to be a part of such a great team. Robin Kowalski Clemson University
10/18/10 3:32 PM
C O N T E N T S
I N
B R I E F
CHAPTER 1
PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR 1
CHAPTER 2
RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY 31
CHAPTER 3
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF MENTAL LIFE AND BEHAVIOR 63
CHAPTER 4
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 107
CHAPTER 5
LEARNING 162
CHAPTER 6
MEMORY 195
CHAPTER 7
THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE 232
CHAPTER 8
INTELLIGENCE 269
CHAPTER 9
CONSCIOUSNESS 298
CHAPTER 10
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 330
CHAPTER 11
HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING 383
CHAPTER 12
PERSONALITY 435
CHAPTER 13
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 47 7
CHAPTER 14
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 531
CHAPTER 15
TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 575
CHAPTER 16
SOCIAL COGNITION 611
CHAPTER 17
INTERPERSONAL PROCESSES 653
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C O N T E N T S CHAPTER 1
PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR 1 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: THE BLUE EYES HAVE IT! 2
THE BOUNDARIES AND BORDERS OF PSYCHOLOGY 6 The Boundary with Biology 6 The Boundary with Culture 7 From Philosophy to Psychology 9
PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY 12 The Psychodynamic Perspective 13 The Behaviorist Perspective 15 The Cognitive Perspective 17 The Evolutionary Perspective 20 PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: MENTAL HEALTH, HOPE, AND OPTIMISM 25 COMMENTARY: MAKING SENSE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 26
THE BIG PICTURE QUESTIONS 28
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODS BIOLOGICAL BASES IN PSYCHOLOGY 31 OF MENTAL LIFE AND BEHAVIOR 63 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 33 Theoretical Framework 34 FOCUS ON METHODOLOGY: GETTING RESEARCH IDEAS 35
NEURONS: BASIC UNITS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 65 Anatomy of a Neuron 65 Firing of a Neuron 67 Transmission of Information between Cells 69
Standardized Procedures 36 Generalizability from a Sample 36 Objective Measurement 37
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 73
PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: THE MEANING BEHIND THE MESSAGE 39
The Somatic Nervous System 74 The Autonomic Nervous System 74
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 42
PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: NEUROMARKETING 78
Case Study Methods 42 Naturalistic Observation 43 Survey Research 44 FOCUS ON METHODOLOGY: WHAT TO DO WITH DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 45
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 47 The Logic of Experimentation 47 Steps in Conducting an Experiment 48 Limitations of Experimental Research 51 FOCUS ON METHODOLOGY: TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS—INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 52
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH 53 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: THE SHOCKING RESULTS 56
HOW TO EVALUATE A STUDY CRITICALLY 58
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 79 The Spinal Cord 79 The Hindbrain 81 The Midbrain 82 The Subcortical Forebrain 82 The Cerebral Cortex 85 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: THINKING WITH TWO MINDS? 90 PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: HAPPINESS 94
GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 96 The Influence of Genetics on Psychological Functioning 96 Behavioral Genetics 97 Evolution 99 Evolution of the Central Nervous System 100
THE FUTURE: GENETIC ENGINEERING 103
ONE STEP FURTHER: ETHICAL QUESTIONS COME IN SHADES OF GRAY 60
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CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 107
LEARNING 162
MEMORY 195
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 164
BASIC PRINCIPLES 109
PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY 115
Pavlov’s Model 164 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL RESPONSES AND LITTLE ALBERT 166 Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination 168 Extinction 169 Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning 169 What Do Organisms Learn in Classical Conditioning? 172
MEMORY AND INFORMATION PROCESSING 197
VISION 116
OPERANT CONDITIONING 173
The Nature of Light 116 The Eye 117 Neural Pathways 122
Reinforcement 174 Punishment 176 Extinction 178 Operant Conditioning of Complex Behaviors 178
SENSING THE ENVIRONMENT 111 Transduction 111 Absolute Thresholds 111 Difference Thresholds 112 Sensory Adaptation 114
PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: RESILIENCE 125 Perceiving in Color 126
HEARING 129 The Nature of Sound 129 The Ear 131 Neural Pathways 134
OTHER SENSES Smell 135 Taste 136 Skin Senses 137 Proprioceptive Senses 141
PERCEPTION 142 Organizing Sensory Experience 142 Interpreting Sensory Experience 152 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: CHECKERBOARDS, CLIFFS, BABIES, AND GOATS 153
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CONTENTS
ONE STEP FURTHER: WHY ARE REINFORCERS REINFORCING? 184
COGNITIVE–SOCIAL THEORY 186 Learning and Cognition 187 PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: OUTLIERS 190 Social Learning 191
Mental Representations 197 Information Processing: An Evolving Model 198
WORKING MEMORY 202 Processing Information in Working Memory: The Central Executive 203 Visual and Verbal Storage 203 The Relation between Working Memory and Long-Term Memory 204
VARIETIES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY 206 Declarative and Procedural Memory 206 Explicit and Implicit Memory 207 Everyday Memory 211
ENCODING AND ORGANIZATION OF LONG-TERM MEMORY 212 Encoding 212 Mnemonic Devices 215 Networks of Association 216 Schemas 219
REMEMBERING, MISREMEMBERING, AND FORGETTING 220 How Long Is Long-Term Memory? 221 How Accurate Is Long-Term Memory? 222 PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY 222 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY 224 Why Do People Forget? 226 COMMENTARY: REPRESSED MEMORIES OF SEXUAL ABUSE 228
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 9
THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE 232
INTELLIGENCE 269 DEFINING INTELLIGENCE 271
CONSCIOUSNESS 298
UNITS OF THOUGHT 234
Intelligence Is Multifaceted, Functional, and Culturally Defined 271
THE NATURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 300
RESEARCH IN DEPTH: INTELLIGENCE IN CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE 272
Functions of Consciousness 300 Consciousness and Attention 301
Manipulating Mental Representations 234 Concepts and Categories 235
REASONING, PROBLEM SOLVING, AND DECISION MAKING 240 Reasoning 240 Problem Solving 243 Decision Making 245
INTELLIGENCE TESTING 274
RESEARCH IN DEPTH: MINDLESSNESS 303
Binet’s Scale 274 Intelligence Testing Crosses the Atlantic 275
PERSPECTIVES ON CONSCIOUSNESS 304
IMPLICIT AND EVERYDAY THINKING 247
ONE STEP FURTHER: THE EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE 278
The Psychodynamic Unconscious 305 The Cognitive Unconscious 305
How Rational Are We? 247 Implicit Cognition 249 Emotion, Motivation, and Decision Making 250
PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: WISDOM 280 Validity and Reliability of IQ Tests 283
RESEARCH IN DEPTH: COUNTERFACTUALS AND “IF ONLY . . .” THINKING 251 Connectionism 253
LANGUAGE 258 Language and Thought 258 Transforming Sounds and Symbols into Meaning 259 The Use of Language in Everyday Life 262 PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: TINY TALKERS 263
APPROACHES TO INTELLIGENCE 285 The Psychometric Approach 285 The Information-Processing Approach 287 A Theory of Multiple Intelligences 289
HEREDITY AND INTELLIGENCE 290 Individual Differences in IQ 290 Group Differences: Race and Intelligence 293 COMMENTARY: THE SCIENCE AND POLITICS OF INTELLIGENCE 295
PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: FLOW 309
SLEEP AND DREAMING 313 The Nature and Evolution of Sleep 313 Stages of Sleep 316 Three Views of Dreaming 318
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 321 Meditation 321 Hypnosis 321 ONE STEP FURTHER: IS HYPNOSIS REAL? 322 Drug-Induced States of Consciousness 323
ONE STEP FURTHER: IS LANGUAGE DISTINCTLY HUMAN? 265
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 12
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 330
HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING 383
PERSONALITY 435
PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION 332
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 385
Freud’s Models 437 Object Relations Theories 444
Psychodynamic Perspective 332 Behaviorist Perspective 334 PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY 335 Cognitive Perspective 336 PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: SELF-EFFICACY 337 Evolutionary Perspective 341 Applying the Perspectives on Motivation 344
EATING 346 Homeostasis 347 What Turns Hunger On? 348 What Turns Hunger Off? 350 Obesity 350
SEXUAL MOTIVATION 352
History of Health Psychology 385 Theories of Health Behavior 388 Health-Compromising Behaviors 391 ONE STEP FURTHER: SELF-PRESENTATION AND HEALTH 400 PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: WORK: TEEN TEXTING WHILE DRIVING 409 Barriers to Health Promotion 410
STRESS 416 Stress as a Psychobiological Process 416 Stress as a Transactional Process 417 Sources of Stress 418 Stress and Health 421 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: CHOICE AND RESPONSIBILITY TO HELP YOU AGE 422
The Sexual Response Cycle 352 Sexual Orientation 355
COPING 427
PSYCHOSOCIAL MOTIVES 357
Coping Mechanisms 428 Social Support 430
Needs for Relatedness 358 Achievement and Other Agency Motives 358
THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF HUMAN MOTIVES 361 EMOTION 361 Physiological Components 362 Subjective Experience 363 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: WHAT A LOAD OFF! HEALTH EFFECTS OF EMOTIONAL DISCLOSURE 364 Emotional Expression 367 A Taxonomy of Emotions 370 Emotion Regulation 375 Perspectives on Emotion 376
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THE FUTURE OF HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 431
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES 437
ONE STEP FURTHER: ASSESSING UNCONSCIOUS PATTERNS 445 Contributions and Limitations of Psychodynamic Theories 448
COGNITIVE–SOCIAL THEORIES 449 Encoding and Personal Relevance 450 Expectancies and Competences 451 Self-Regulation 452 Contributions and Limitations of Cognitive–Social Theories 453
TRAIT THEORIES 455 Eysenck’s Theory 455 PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: COMPASSION AND SELF-COMPASSION 456 The Five-Factor Model 459 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: HE’S GOT THE PERSONALITY OF A TURNIP! 461 Is Personality Consistent? 463 Contributions and Limitations of Trait Theories 465
HUMANISTIC THEORIES 466 Rogers’s Person-Centered Approach 467 Existential Approaches to Personality 467 Contributions and Limitations of Humanistic Theories 469
GENETICS AND PERSONALITY 470 PERSONALITY AND CULTURE 472 Linking Personality and Culture 472
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 13
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 477 ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 479 Nature and Nurture 479 The Importance of Early Experience 479 Stages or Continuous Change? 480
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ATTACHMENT 481 Attachment in Infancy 482 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: MOTHERLY LOVE 482 Individual Differences in Attachment Patterns 485 Implications of Attachment for Later Development 485
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 488 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 488 Development from Adolescence through Old Age 491
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES 494 Prenatal Development 494 PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: PROGERIA 495 Infancy 496 Childhood and Adolescence 497 Adulthood and Aging 498
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY, CHILDHOOD, AND ADOLESCENCE 500 Perceptual and Cognitive Development in Infancy 500 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 503 Information-Processing Approach to Cognitive Development 509 Integrative Theories of Cognitive Development 510
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE IN ADULTHOOD 512 Cognitive Changes Associated with Aging 512 Aging and “Senility” 515
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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 516 A Critical Period for Language Development? 516 What Infants Know about Language 517 From Babbling to Bantering 518
MORAL DEVELOPMENT 520 The Role of Cognition 520 The Role of Emotion 524 COMMENTARY: MAKING SENSE OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT 525 The Nature of Development 528
CHAPTER 14
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 531 THE CULTURAL CONTEXT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 533 Culture and Psychopathology 533 Is Mental Illness Nothing but a Cultural Construction? 534 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: A CASE OF MISDIAGNOSIS? 535
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 537 Psychodynamic Perspective 537 Cognitive–Behavioral Perspective 539 Biological Approach 540 Systems Approach 542 Evolutionary Perspective 543
DESCRIPTIVE DIAGNOSIS: DSM-IV AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGICAL SYNDROMES 544 DSM-IV 545 Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence 547 Substance-Related Disorders 548 Schizophrenia 551 Mood Disorders 556 PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: COURAGE 561 Anxiety Disorders 563 Eating Disorders 567 Dissociative Disorders 568 Personality Disorders 569
CHAPTER 15
TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 575 PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES 578 Therapeutic Techniques 578 Varieties of Psychodynamic Therapy 580
COGNITIVE–BEHAVIORAL THERAPIES 582 Basic Principles 582 Classical Conditioning Techniques 582 Operant Conditioning Techniques 585 Modeling and Skills Training 586 Cognitive Therapy 587 PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: PET THERAPY 588
Humanistic, GROUP, AND FAMILY THERAPIES 589 Humanistic Therapies 589 Group Therapies 591 Family Therapies 591 PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: THERAPY’S CONTRIBUTION TO MEANING MAKING AND PURPOSEFUL LIVING 593 ONE STEP FURTHER: PSYCHOTHERAPY INTEGRATION 595
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 597 Antipsychotic Medications 599 Antidepressant and Mood-Stabilizing Medications 600 Antianxiety Medications 601 Electroconvulsive Therapy and Psychosurgery 602
EVALUATING PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 603 Pharmacotherapy 603 Psychotherapy 604 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: SOME THERAPY IS BETTER THAN NO THERAPY 604
ONE STEP FURTHER: ARE MENTAL DISORDERS REALLY DISTINCT? 572
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 16
CHAPTER 17
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GLOSSARY G-1
SOCIAL COGNITION 611
INTERPERSONAL PROCESSES 653
ANSWERS A-1
SOCIAL COGNITION 613
PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: GRATITUDE 654
REFERENCES R-1
RELATIONSHIPS 658
PHOTO CREDITS PC-1
Perceiving Other People 613 Stereotypes and Prejudice 616 PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: RAPID COGNITION 619 RESEARCH IN DEPTH: EAGLES, RATTLERS, AND THE ROBBER’S CAVE 623 Attribution 625
Factors Leading to Interpersonal Attraction 658 Love 661 The Dark Side of Relationships 666 PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK: MAKING RELATIONSHIPS WORK 667
PROFILES IN POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: FORGIVENESS 627 Biases in Social Information Processing 630 Applications 633
ALTRUISM 669
ATTITUDES 633
AGGRESSION 673
The Nature of Attitudes 633 Attitudes and Behavior 637 Persuasion 638 Cognitive Dissonance 641
Violence and Culture 674 Violence and Gender 675 The Roots of Violence 675
THE SELF 644
Obedience 683 Conformity 684 Group Processes 686
Self-Esteem 645 Self-Consistency 647 Self-Presentation 647
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Theories of Altruism 669 Bystander Intervention 671
TEXT AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS TC-1 NAME INDEX NI-1 SUBJECT INDEX SI-1
SOCIAL INFLUENCE 682
RESEARCH IN DEPTH: ZIMBARDO’S PRISON STUDY 687 Everyday Social Influence 692
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A B O U T
T H E
A U T H O R S
ROBIN KOWALSKI is Professor of Psychology in the Department of Psychology at Clemson University. She received her B.A. at Furman University, an M.A. in General Psychology at Wake Forest University, and her Ph.D. in Social Psychology at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Robin spent the first 13 years of her career at Western Carolina University in Cullowhee, North Carolina. While there, she received the Botner Superior Teaching Award and the University TeachingResearch Award. She came to Clemson in 2003, where she has received the College of Business and Behavioral Science Undergraduate Teaching Excellence Award, the Board of Trustee’s Award for Faculty Excellence, the National Scholar’s Mentoring Award, the Phil Prince Award for Innovation in Teaching, the College of Business and Behavioral Science Senior Research Award, and the Bradbury Award for contributions to the Honors College. She is also an active researcher who served on the editorial board for the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. She has written or edited nine books and has published in many professional journals, including Psychological Bulletin and the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. Robin has two primary research interests. The first focuses on aversive interpersonal behaviors, specifically cyber bullying and complaining. Her research on complaining has received international attention, including an appearance on NBC’s Today Show. Her book Complaining, Teasing, and Other Annoying Behaviors was featured on National Public Radio’s All Things Considered and in an article in USA Weekend. Her book on cyber bullying, entitled Cyber Bullying: Bullying in the Digital Age, has an accompanying website: www.cyberbullyhelp.com. Her second research focus is health psychology, with a particular focus on organ donation and transplantation. Robin has ten-year-old twin boys, Noah and Jordan.
DREW WESTEN is Professor in the Department of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Emory University. He received his B.A. at Harvard University, an M.A. in Social and Political Thought at the University of Sussex (England), and his Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology at the University of Michigan, where he subsequently taught for six years. While at the University of Michigan, he was honored two years in a row by the Michigan Daily as the best teaching professor at the university and was the recipient of the first Golden Apple Award for outstanding undergraduate teaching. More recently, he was selected as a G. Stanley Hall Lecturer by the American Psychological Association. Professor Westen is an active researcher who is on the editorial boards of multiple journals, including Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, Psychological Assessment, and the Journal of Personality Disorders. His major areas of research are personality disorders, eating disorders, emotion regulation, implicit processes, psychotherapy effectiveness, and adolescent psychopathology. His series of videotaped lectures on abnormal psychology, called Is Anyone Really Normal?, was published by the Teaching Company, in collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution. He also provides psychological commentaries on political issues for All Things Considered on National Public Radio. His main loves outside of psychology are his wife, Laura, and his daughter, Mackenzie. He also writes comedy music, has performed as a stand-up comic in Boston, and has performed and directed improvisational comedy for the president of the United States.
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C H A P T E R
1
PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR
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A
35-year-old woman named Jenny worked for a manufacturing plant where she was known as an efficient but quiet worker (Feldman & Ford, 1994). Rarely did she form close personal relationships with co-workers, relying instead on her fiancé for affection and companionship. That is, until the day when, for no apparent reason, her fiancé announced that their relationship was over. Forced to leave the apartment they had shared, Jenny moved back home to live with her mother. To occupy the free time she had once devoted to the man she loved, Jenny began sewing costumes for the drama club at the elementary school where her mother worked. However, this task wasn’t enough to allow Jenny to find meaning in life or to feel connected to other people. Jenny felt hurt, betrayed, and alone. After several months of a relatively solitary existence, Jenny reported to her coworkers that she was dying of cancer. Suddenly, this relatively unassuming co-worker became the center of attention as people showered her with friendship and support. Having spent time with a neighbor who was suffering from breast cancer, Jenny was aware of the course of a terminal illness, including treatment regimens, hair loss, and weight loss. To simulate hair loss, Jenny began cutting her hair and leaving hair remnants in the bathroom sink for her mother to find. Eventually, she shaved her head, the hair loss ostensibly the result of the chemotherapy she told everyone she was receiving. She dieted to lose weight, often a side effect of the treatment. She even joined a support group for women with breast cancer to get even more of the attention and support she desperately desired. The students at her mother’s elementary school raised money to help pay for medical treatments. Although a few eyebrows were raised when the months passed and Jenny continued to report to work, few co-workers questioned the status of her illness. However, suspicions began to arise in the breast cancer support group. Needing information about Jenny, the support group leaders tried to contact one of the doctors Jenny claimed was treating her for her illness. Of course, there was no such doctor, so their attempts were futile. Following repeated failed attempts to contact Jenny’s doctors, the support group leaders confronted her with their belief that she was faking the illness. Once confronted, Jenny confessed that the entire illness had been a fabrication! How could Jenny have created such a preposterous ruse? What could have motivated a seemingly normal person to do this? The answer: Munchausen’s syndrome, a psychological illness that falls within the spectrum of factitious illnesses, in which people fabricate or induce illness in themselves. Compared to the lengths to which some people go, enduring repeated hospitalizations and unnecessary surgeries, Jenny’s case was relatively mild. Imagine the woman who stuck pins in her eyes to “blind” herself to the sexual abuse she was experiencing at home. Or the woman who cut her tonsils out with scissors. (For a more complete rendering of these and other stories, refer to Feldman, 2004;
2
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Introduction
Feldman & Ford, 1994). In fact, some people perpetrate Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, in which they fabricate or induce illness in others. Typically a mother does this to her child. [For a look inside the world of Munchausen’s by proxy as told by the victim, read Gregory’s (2003) book Sickened]. Although the cause of Munchausen’s remains unknown, researchers believe it is motivated in part by a desire for attention. In Jenny’s case, an external or environmental event—her fiancé’s calling off their engagement—created a psychological illness that in some individuals can have fatal results. Unlike many perpetrators of Munchausen’s syndrome, Jenny entered therapy and never experienced any problems of this nature again. Perhaps because the true cause remains elusive, many questions are raised by Munchausen’s syndrome or Munchausen’s by proxy. Are these people mentally ill? Are their brains the same as those of other people? Does an environmental stimulus, such as a broken engagement, activate neural pathways in the brain that lead to such behavior? Did the stress of losing her romantic partner affect Jenny’s brain in ways that produced behavioral manifestations of the stress in the form of factitious illness? Is this phenomenon limited to Western cultures or do other cultures display similar types of bizarre behavior? Jenny’s case, as well as those of others who perpetrate factitious illness, illustrates a central issue that has vexed philosophers for over two millennia and psychologists for over a century—the relation between mental and physical events, between meaning and mechanism. In trying to understand why things happen, we must be cautious not to be too quick in looking for a single cause of a behavior or event. Humans are complex creatures whose psychological experience lies at the intersection of biology and culture. To paraphrase one theorist, Erik Erikson (1963), psychologists must practice “triple bookkeeping” to understand an individual at any given time, simultaneously tracking biological events, psychological experience, and the cultural and historical context. Jenny’s actions suggest that, in addition to the specific environmental trigger of a broken engagement, she had some underlying psychological issues and needs that remained unresolved. At the intersection of biology and culture lies psychology, the scientific investigation of mental processes (thinking, remembering, feeling, etc.) and behavior. All psychological processes occur through the interaction of cells in the nervous system, and all human action occurs in the context of cultural beliefs and values that render it meaningful. This chapter begins by exploring the biological and cultural boundaries and borders that frame human psychology. We then examine the theoretical perspectives that have focused, and often divided, the attention of the scientific community for a century. We close the chapter with an examination of three Big Picture Questions, questions on which many, if not most, psychological theory and research are predicated. Where appropriate, these questions will be revisited throughout the remainder of the book. I NT E R I M
3
psychology the scientific investigation of mental processes and behavior
SU M M A R Y
Psychology is the scientific investigation of mental processes (thinking, remembering, feeling, etc.) and behavior. Understanding a person requires attention to the individual’s biology, psychological experience, and cultural context.
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4 Chapter 1
PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR
R ESEA RCH I N DEPTH
Jane Elliott
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THE BLUE EYES HAVE IT! Following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., Jane Elliott, a third-grade teacher in Iowa, knew that simply discussing discrimination was not enough. She wanted to find a way to make her students feel the painful effects of segregation, to teach them life lessons not found in textbooks. She wanted them to know firsthand how it felt to be a minority and to be aware of the sometimes arbitrary factors that precipitate prejudice and discrimination. In 1970, during Brotherhood Week, Mrs. Elliott did a study with her students that would change their lives forever. On Tuesday morning of that week, the first day of a two-day study, she told her class “blue-eyed people are better than brown-eyed people.” When one student disagreed, she told him he was wrong and proceeded to explain the new rules the class would follow. These included giving blue-eyed students five extra minutes at recess, lunch privileges, and unrestricted water fountain use. In addition, brown-eyed students were not to associate with blue-eyed students. The consequences that followed were more dramatic than anyone would have predicted. In the span of one day, a fight broke out between two boys of different eye colors, friendships were strained, and one blue-eyed student suggested that Mrs. Elliott keep the yardstick handy in case any of the “brown-eyes” got out of control. One child hit another child because he had called him a name. When Mrs. Elliott asked him what name he had been called, he replied, “Brown-eyes.” “I watched what had been marvelous, cooperative, wonderful children turn into nasty, vicious, discriminating little third graders in a space of 15 minutes,” Mrs. Elliott recalled. The very next day, Jane Elliott did a role reversal. She explained to the class that now the brown-eyed students were superior. One blue-eyed student in the back of the class became very frustrated and put his head on his desk in anger. When some members of the class disagreed with their teacher, stating that blue-eyed students were not dumber than brown-eyed children, Mrs. Elliott told them “just look at Brian” (the boy in the back with his head down). Interestingly, the brown-eyed children who had already experienced the pain of discrimination did not respond as strongly to the experiment as the blue-eyed children had. Nevertheless, brown-eyed children who, the day before, had been timid and withdrawn, were suddenly outgoing and filled with confidence. Brown-eyed children who, the day before, had taken five and a half minutes to get through a pack of flash cards now only took two and a half minutes. In 1984, the same group of students who had been in Jane Elliott’s third-grade class met with her to watch the video of the original experiment. They talked about the vividness of their memories of that experience so many years before. They talked about how much they had hated her that day when she made them feel inferior. Yet they also talked about the profound impact that the exercise had had on their attitudes. In the second year that Mrs. Elliott conducted the study, she changed the format a bit. She gave a spelling test two weeks before the exercise, each day of the exercise, and two weeks after the exercise. She found that performance on the test went up for students in the superior eye-color group and down for students in the inferior eye-color group. Importantly, after students had been through the exercise, their performance on spelling tests remained consistently higher for the remainder of the school year. Importantly, Jane Elliott has not limited the use of this exercise to the classroom. Indeed, watching the video A Class Divided (http://video.google.com/videoplay?doc id-6189991712636113875) highlights the fact that adults exposed to the exercise actually seem to have a more difficult time than children. In one setting, Jane Elliott met with employees at the Greenhaven Correctional Facility, a maximum security prison in Stormville, New York. The purpose of the exercise with this particular group was to ensure that employees were sufficiently sensitive to minority inmates. The method
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RESEARCH IN DEPTH: THE BLUE EYES HAVE IT!
5
used in the exercise mirrored that used with the third graders. The blue-eyed adults who were made to feel inferior said that it made them feel powerless and hopeless. One blue-eyed participant expressed his frustration at the failure of other blue-eyed individuals to speak out. Another blue-eyed individual said he knew he couldn’t win—if he spoke out, it would confirm the stereotypes Mrs. Elliott had suggested about blue-eyed people. Brown-eyed employees expressed a sense of relief that they didn’t have blue eyes. The “blue-eyed/brown-eyed study” has been criticized on several grounds. Some argue that discrimination was much more blatant and pervasive in society at the time the study was conducted. Therefore, were the study to be conducted today, the results would be less notable. However, Jane Elliott continues to conduct variations of her study with people of all ages and finds that the results are the same. As will be discussed in Chapter 16, discrimination is still alive and well; the lessons those third graders and members of the correctional facility understood so well would be very beneficial to society today. The study has also been criticized on ethical grounds. How ethical was it for Jane Elliott to subject her third-grade students (or college students and employees today) to the emotional consequences associated with feeling and being treated as inferior? Even though she often reverses the exercise, as she did with the third graders, to what degree is that really “undoing” any damage that was done by being made to feel inferior? Have the benefits and lessons learned from Jane Elliott’s exercise outweighed the costs associated with it? What if the students had not been profoundly affected by the exercise? Would those who question the ethics of the study’s design still do so? Does the exercise allow her to achieve her desire “to inoculate people against the virus of bigotry?”(Peters, 1987). In resolving this dilemma, one individual stated, “No doubt about this: for three quarters of the time in this documentation, Jane Elliott is the meanest, the lowest, the most detestable, the most hypocritical human being hell has ever spit back on earth. But she should be an example for all of us” (www.janeelliott. com). Interestingly, Jane Elliott says that she dislikes actually conducting the exercise, that it’s physically and emotionally draining (Eppinga, 2008). Yet she says that implementing the exercise for so many years has changed her as a person. She has realized that, instead of telling people to do unto others as they would have done unto them, they should do unto others as others want done unto them. To accomplish this end, Elliott says, we must first ask other people how they want to be treated and we must listen carefully to what they say (Eppinga, 2008). (For more information about this study, the reader is referred to http://www.janeelliott.com/learningmaterials.htm http://www.smithsonianmagazine.com/issues/2005/september/lesson_lifetime.php?page=1)
R esearch
in
depth :
A
S tep
F urther
Beginning in Chapter 2, after you have had some exposure to research methodology, each of these Research in Depth features will be followed by a series of questions to get you thinking more critically about research. For example, you might be asked what the researcher’s guiding question or hypothesis was. In the case of Jane Elliott’s “blue-eyed/ brown-eyed study,” she asked “To what extent does being made to feel inferior affect the behavior and emotions of individuals in both the “inferior” and the “superior” groups. You might also be asked to evaluate the ethics of a particular study, a point already discussed in relation to this particular study. The purpose of these questions is to ensure that you understand the study you just read about and that you are becoming comfortable with research methodology and design so that you can begin to generate your own research questions and pose your own study designs. In addition, some of the questions are designed to get you to think “outside the box”; in other words, to go beyond the basic information with which you have been provided and speculate on what you think might or could happen under particular situations. Answers to these questions are provided at the end of the book.
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6 Chapter 1
PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR
THE BOUNDARIES AND BORDERS OF PSYCHOLOGY Biology and culture establish both the possibilities of what and the constraints within which people think, feel, and act. On one hand, the structure of the brain sets the parameters, or limits, of human potential. Most 10-year-olds cannot solve algebra problems because the neural circuitry essential for abstract thought has not yet matured. Similarly, the capacity for love has its roots in the innate tendency of infants to develop an emotional attachment to their caretakers. These are biological givens. On the other hand, many adults throughout human history would have found algebra problems as mystifying as do preschooler’s because their culture never provided the groundwork for this kind of reasoning. And though love may be a basic human potential, the way people love depends on the values, beliefs, and practices of their society. In some cultures, people seek and expect romance in their marriages, whereas in others, they do not select a spouse based on affection or attraction at all.
The Boundary with Biology biopsychology the field that examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion, and stress; also called behavioral neuroscience
The biological boundary of psychology is the province of biopsychology (or behavioral neuroscience). Instead of studying thoughts, feelings, or fears, behavioral neuroscientists (some of whom are physicians or biologists rather than psychologists) investigate the electrical and chemical processes in the nervous system that underlie these mental events. The connection between brain and behavior became increasingly clear during the nineteenth century, when doctors began observing patients with severe head injuries. These patients often showed deficits in language and memory or dramatic changes in their personality. One of the most famous cases was Phineas Gage, who worked as a foreman on a railroad construction site. After Gage accidentally set off an explosion on September 13, 1848, the tamping iron he had been using went straight through his head, crushing his jawbone and exiting at the top of his skull behind his eye. As you can see in the photograph, this tamping iron was no small piece of equipment, measuring 3 feet 7 inches long and weighing over 3 pounds. Although Gage survived the accident (and is believed to have never lost consciousness!), the damage to his brain was so severe and the change in his personality so marked that people said he was no longer the same person. He became very irreverent and used profanity regularly. He was rude, uncivil, and incapable of resuming his work responsibilities.
Tamping iron that went through Phineas Gage’s head and the trajectory the iron took.
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7
THE BOUNDARIES AND BORDERS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Such observations led researchers to experiment by producing lesions surgically in different neural regions in animals to observe the effects on behavior. This method is still in use today, for example, in research on emotion (Machado et al., 2009). Since its origins in the nineteenth century, one of the major issues in behavioral neuroscience has been localization of function. In 1836, a physician named Marc Dax presented a paper suggesting that lesions on the left side of the brain were associated with aphasia, or language disorders. The notion that language was localized to the left side of the brain (the left hemisphere) developed momentum with new discoveries linking specific language functions to specific regions of the left hemisphere. Paul Broca (1824–1880) discovered that brain-injured people with lesions in the front section of the left hemisphere were often unable to speak fluently but could comprehend language. Carl Wernicke (1848–1904) showed that damage to an area a few centimeters behind the section Broca had discovered could lead to another kind of aphasia: These individuals can speak fluently and follow rules of grammar, but they cannot understand language, and their words make little sense to others (e.g.,“I saw the bats and cuticles as the dog lifted the hoof, the pauser”) (Figure 1.1). Contemporary neuroscientists no longer believe that complex psychological functions happen exclusively in a single localized part of the brain. Rather, the circuits for psychological events, such as emotions or thoughts, are distributed throughout the brain, with each part contributing to the total experience. A man who sustains lesions to one area may be unable consciously to distinguish his wife’s face from the face of any other woman—a disabling condition indeed—but may react physiologically to her face with a higher heart rate or pulse (Bruyer, 1991; Young, 1994). Technological advances over the last two decades have allowed researchers to pinpoint lesions precisely and even to watch computerized portraits of the brain light up with activity (or fail to light up, in cases of neural damage) as people perform psychological tasks. In large part as a result of these technological advances, psychology has become increasingly biological over the last two decades, as behavioral neuroscience has extended into virtually all areas of psychology.
localization of function the extent to which different parts of the brain control different aspects of functioning
The only known photo of Phineas Gage taken after the accident.
The Boundary with Culture To what extent do cultural differences create psychological differences? What can we make of someone who becomes terrified because he believes that a quarrel with kin has offended the forest and may bring disaster upon his family? Does he share our psychological nature, or does each society produce its own psychology?
Broca’s area
Wernicke’s area
FIGURE 1.1 Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
(a)
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(b)
(a) Broca’s aphasia involves difficulty producing speech, whereas Wernicke’s aphasia typically involves difficulty comprehending language. (b) Positron emission tomography (PET) is a computerized imaging technique that allows researchers to study the functioning of the brain as the person responds to stimuli. The PET scans here show activity in Wernicke’s area (top) and Broca’s area (bottom).
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8 Chapter 1
PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR
Margaret Mead was a leading figure among anthropologists and psychologists trying to understand the relation between personality and culture. Here she is pictured among the Manus of Micronesia in the late 1920s. psychological anthropologists people who study psychological phenomena in other cultures by observing the way the natives behave in their daily lives
cross-cultural psychology the field that attempts to test psychological hypotheses in different cultures
The first theorists to address this issue were psychologically sophisticated anthropologists like Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict, who were interested in the relation between culture and personality (Bock, 2001; LeVine, 1982). They argued that individual psychology is fundamentally shaped by cultural values, ideals, and ways of thinking. As children develop, they learn to behave in ways that conform to cultural standards. The openly competitive, confident, selfinterested style is generally rewarded in North American society, an individualistic society; it is unthinkable in Japan, a collectivist society, where communal sentiments are much stronger. In the middle of the twentieth century, psychological anthropologists (see Shimizu & LeVine, 2001; Suarez-Orozco et al., 1994) began studying the way economic realities shape child-rearing practices, which in turn mold personality (Kardiner, 1945; Whiting & Child, 1953). Then, as now, people in less industrialized cultures were leaving their ancestral homes to seek work in large cities. Working as a laborer in a factory requires attitudes toward time, mobility, and individuality different from those needed for farming or foraging. A laborer must punch a time clock, move where the work is, work for wages, and spend all day away from kin (see Inkeles & Smith, 1974). Many notions we take for granted—such as arriving at work within a prescribed span of minutes—are not “natural” to human beings. Punctuality is necessary for shift-work in a factory or for changing from class to class in a modern school, and we consider it an aspect of character or personality. Yet punctuality was probably not even recognized as a dimension of personality in most cultures before the contemporary era and was certainly not a prime concern of parents in rearing their children. After the 1950s, interest in the relation between culture and psychological attributes waned for decades. Within psychology, however, a small group of researchers developed the field of cross-cultural psychology (Berry et al., 1992, 1997; Lonner & Malpass, 1994a,b; Shweder, 1999; Triandis, 1980, 1994). Interest in cross-cultural psychology blossomed as issues of diversity came to the fore. Psychologists are now pondering the extent to which decades of research on topics such as memory, motivation, psychological disorders, and obedience have yielded results about people generally or about a particular group of people. Do individuals in all cultures experience depression? Do toddlers learn to walk and talk at the same rate cross-culturally? Do people dream in all cultures, and if so, what is the function of dreaming? Is there universality in the expression of emotion? Only cross-cultural comparisons can distinguish between universal and culturally specific psychological processes.
I NT E R I M
S U M M AR Y
Biopsychology (or behavioral neuroscience) examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion, and stress. Although different neural regions perform different functions, the neural circuits that underlie psychological events are distributed throughout the brain and cannot be “found” in one location. At another boundary of psychology, cross-cultural psychology tries to distinguish universal psychological processes from those that are specific to particular cultures.
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9
THE BOUNDARIES AND BORDERS OF PSYCHOLOGY
From Philosophy to Psychology Questions about human nature, such as whether psychological attributes are the same everywhere, were once the province of philosophy. Early in the twentieth century, however, philosophers entered a period of intense self-doubt, wrestling with the limitations of what they could know about topics like morality, justice, and the nature of knowledge. At the same time, psychologists began to apply the methods and technologies of natural science to psychological questions. They reasoned that if physicists could discover the atom and industrialists could mass produce automobiles, then psychological scientists could uncover basic laws of human and animal behavior. FROM PHILOSOPHICAL SPECULATION TO SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION The fact that psychology was born from the womb of philosophy is of no small consequence. Philosophical arguments have set the agenda for many issues confronting psychologists, and in our lifetimes, psychological research may shed light on questions that have seemed unanswerable for 2500 years. The fact that psychology emerged from philosophy, however, has had another monumental influence on the discipline. Philosophers searched for answers to questions about the nature of thought, feeling, and behavior in their minds, using logic and argumentation. By the late nineteenth century, an alternative approach had emerged: If we want to understand the mind and behavior, we should investigate it scientifically, just as physicists study the nature of light or gravity through systematic observation and experimentation. Thus, in 1879, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), often described as the “father of psychology,” founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt’s Scientific Psychology Wundt hoped to use scientific methods to uncover the elementary units of human consciousness that combine to form more complex ideas, much as atoms combine into molecules in chemistry. Foremost among the methods he and his students used was introspection. The kind of introspection Wundt had in mind, however, was nothing like the introspection of philosophers, who speculated freely on their experiences and observations. Instead, Wundt trained observers to verbally report everything that went through their minds when they were presented with a stimulus or task. By varying the objects presented to his observers and recording their responses, he concluded that the basic elements of consciousness are sensations (such as colors) and feelings. These elements can combine into more meaningful perceptions (such as of a face or a cat), which can combine into still more complex ideas if one focuses attention on them and mentally manipulates them. Wundt never believed that experimentation was the only route to psychological knowledge. He considered it essential for studying the basic elements of mind, but other methods—such as the study of myths, religion, and language in various cultures—were essential for understanding higher mental processes. The next generation of experimental psychologists, however, took a different view, motivated by their wish to divorce themselves from philosophical speculation and establish a fully scientific psychology. Structuralism and Functionalism Wundt’s student Edward Titchener (1867–1927) advocated the use of introspection in experiments with the hope of devising a periodic table of the elements of human consciousness, much like the periodic table developed by chemists. Because of his interest in studying the structure of consciousness, the school of thought Titchener initiated was known as structuralism. Unlike Wundt, Titchener believed that experimentation was the only appropriate method for a science of psychology and that concepts such as “attention” implied too much free will to be scientifically useful (see Figure 1.2). As we will see, the generation of experimental psychologists who followed Titchener went even further, viewing the study of consciousness itself as unscientific because the data—sensations and feelings—could not be observed by anyone except the person reporting them.
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Wilhelm Wundt is often called the father of psychology for his pioneering laboratory research. This portrait was painted in Leipzig, where he founded the first psychological laboratory. introspection the method used by Wundt and other structuralists in which trained subjects verbally reported everything that went through their minds when presented with a stimulus or task; more generally, refers to the process of looking inward at one’s own mental contents or process
structuralism an early school of thought in psychology developed by Edward Titchener, which attempted to use introspection as a method for uncovering the basic elements of consciousness and the way they combine with each other into ideas
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10 Chapter 1
PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR
HOW TO FAIL IN LABORATORY SCIENCE ǷǷn Do not accept any general explanation, under any circumstances. Cherish the belief that your mind is different, in its ways of working, from all other minds. ǷǷn See yourself in everything. If the Instructor begins an explanation, interrupt him with a story of your childhood which seems to illustrate the point he is making. ǷǷn Call upon the Instructor at the slightest provocation. If he is busy, stroll about the laboratory until he can attend to you. Do not hesitate to offer advice to other students, who are already at work. ǷǷn Tell the Instructor that the science is very young, and that what holds of one mind does not necessarily hold of another. Support your statement by anecdotes. ǷǷn Work as noisily as possible. Converse with your partner, in the pauses of the experiment, upon current politics or athletic records. ǷǷn Explain when you enter the laboratory, that you have long been interested in experimental psychology…. Describe the telepathic experiences or accounts that have aroused your interest. ǷǷn Make it a rule always to be a quarter of an hour late for the laboratory exercises. In this way you throw the drudgery of preliminary work upon your partner, while you can still take credit to yourself for the regularity of your class attendance. (a)
(b)
FIGURE 1.2 At the time that Titchener (a) came to America, American students were being trained in the essentials of methodology and experimentation in what were referred to as drill courses. To aid instructors of these courses, Titchener wrote a manual titled Experimental Psychology: A Manual of Laboratory Practice. One part of the manual was a guide to students on how to fail in laboratory psychology. Part (b) presents the specific issues that Titchener wanted his students to avoid in order to receive a passing grade in the lab. The advice is still useful today. (Reprinted from Goodwin, 1999, p. 187.) functionalism an early school of thought in psychology influenced by Darwinian theory that looked at explanations of psychological processes in terms of their role, or function, in helping the individual adapt to the environment
William James was one of the founders of functionalism and widely recognized for writing the first textbook in psychology.
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Structuralism was one of two schools of thought that dominated psychology in its earliest years. The other was functionalism. Instead of focusing on the contents of the mind, functionalism emphasized the role—or function—of psychological processes in helping individuals adapt to their environment. A functionalist would not be content to state that the idea of running comes into consciousness in the presence of a bear showing its teeth. From a functionalist perspective, it is no accident that this particular idea enters consciousness when a person sees a bear but not when he sees a flower. One of the founders of functionalism, Harvard psychologist William James (1842–1910), penned the first textbook in psychology in 1890. James believed that knowledge about human psychology could come from many sources, including not only introspection and experimentation but also the study of children, other animals, and people whose minds do not function adequately (such as the mentally ill). James thought the structuralists’ efforts to catalog the elements of consciousness were not only misguided but profoundly boring! Consciousness exists because it serves a function, and the task of the psychologist is to understand that function. James was interested in explaining, not simply describing, the contents of the mind. (As discussed below, James was instrumental in helping women emerge to positions of prominence within the field of psychology.) As we will see, functionalism also bore the imprint of Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory, which a century later has again come to play a central role in psychological thought. Structuralism and functionalism were two early “camps” in psychology that attracted passionate advocates and opponents. But they were not the last.
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THE BOUNDARIES AND BORDERS OF PSYCHOLOGY
11
OUTSTANDING WOMEN AND MINORITIES IN HISTORY When most people think about or discuss the history of psychology, names such as Freud, Wundt, James, Watson, and Skinner immediately come to mind. Many psychologists would be unable to recognize names such as Calkins, Prosser, and Washburn. What is it that distinguishes the recognizable names from those that are less frequently acknowledged? The answer: the sex of the individual. Freud, Wundt, James, Watson, and Skinner were men. Calkins, Prosser, and Washburn were women who made significant contributions to the women’s rights movement and to psychology. Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was refused admission to Harvard’s doctoral program in psychology because she was a woman. William James, however, allowed her to take several of his graduate seminars as independent studies. In 1902, having completed all of the requirements for the doctoral degree and having outscored all of her male peers on the doctoral qualifying exams, Calkins was denied a degree from Harvard. She was, however, offered a doctoral degree from Radcliffe College, an offer that she refused in protest. In 1905, she was selected as the first woman president of the American Psychological Association and, the following year, was listed as the twelfth-leading psychologist in the United States (O’Connell & Russo, 1980; Wentworth, 1999). Inez Prosser (1897–1934) is perhaps most notable for being the first African-American women to receive a doctorate in psychology. She received the degree from the college of education at the University of Cincinnati in 1933. Unfortunately, she was killed in an automobile accident the next year (Benjamin et al., 2005; Guthrie, 1998). Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1931) was the first American woman to receive a doctorate in psychology. The degree was awarded by Cornell in 1894, after which she became a professor at Wells College. In 1921, she became the president of the American Psychological Association. Although she was denied a position at a research institution, Washburn made significant contributions in the area of comparative psychology (Goodman, 1980; O’Connell & Russo, 1980). Francis Cecil Summer (1895–1954) distinguished himself from the women just described not only by being a male but also by being the first African American to earn a PhD in psychology. He received his degree in 1920 from Clark University. Because of this accomplishment and because of his research on prejudice and racism, he is often referred to as the “father of Black psychology.” Additionally, he was influential in establishing the psychology department at Harvard (Guthrie, 2000).
Mary Whiton Calkins
Inez Prosser
Francis Cecil Summer
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Margaret Floy Washburn
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PSYCHOLOGY: THE STUDY OF MENTAL PROCESSES AND BEHAVIOR
I NT E R I M
S U M M AR Y
Although many contemporary psychological questions derive from age-old philosophical questions, by the end of the nineteenth century psychology had emerged as a discipline that aimed to answer questions about human nature through scientific investigation. Two prominent early schools of thought were structuralism and functionalism. Structuralism attempted to uncover the basic elements of consciousness through introspection. Functionalism attempted to explain psychological processes in terms of the role, or function, they serve.
PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY
Thomas Kuhn was a philosopher of science who examined commonalities across disciplines in the way knowledge advances.
paradigm a broad system of theoretical assumptions employed by a scientific community to make sense out of a domain of experience perspectives broad ways of understanding psychological phenomena, including theoretical propositions, shared metaphors, and accepted methods of observation
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Thomas Kuhn, a philosopher of science, studied the history of science and found some remarkable convergences across disciplines in the way schools of thought come and go and knowledge is generated. Kuhn (1970) observed that science does not progress, as many believe, primarily through the accumulation of facts. Rather, scientific progress depends as much or more on the development of better and better paradigms. A paradigm has several components. First, it includes a set of theoretical assertions that provide a model, or abstract picture, of the object of study. Chemists, for example, have models of the way atoms combine to form molecules—something the structuralists hoped to emulate by identifying basic “elements” of consciousness and discovering the ways in which they combine into thoughts and perceptions. Second, a paradigm includes a set of shared metaphors that compare the object under investigation to something else that is readily comprehended (such as “the mind is like a computer”). Metaphors provide mental models for thinking about a phenomenon in a way that makes the unfamiliar seem familiar. Third, a paradigm includes a set of methods that members of the scientific community agree will, if properly executed, produce valid and useful data. Astronomers, for example, agree that telescopic investigation provides a window to events in space. According to Kuhn, the social sciences and psychology differ from the older natural sciences (like physics and biology) in that they lack an accepted paradigm upon which most members of the scientific community agree. Instead, he proposed, these young sciences are still splintered into several schools of thought, or what we will call perspectives. In this chapter and throughout the book, we will examine four perspectives that guide current psychological thinking, offering sometimes competing and sometimes complementary points of view on phenomena ranging from antisocial personality disorder to the way people make decisions when choosing a mate. The four psychological perspectives we consider offer the same kind of broad, orienting approach as a scientific paradigm, and they share its three essential features. Focusing on these particular perspectives does not mean that other less comprehensive approaches have not contributed to psychological knowledge or that nothing can be studied without them. A researcher interested in a specific question, such as whether preschool programs for economically disadvantaged children will improve their functioning later in life (Reynolds et al., 1995; Zigler & Styfco, 2000), does not need to employ a broader outlook. But perspectives generally guide psychological investigations. In the following sections, we examine the psychodynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, and evolutionary perspectives. The order in which the perspectives are presented reflects their chronology rather than their relative importance. In many respects, these perspectives have evolved independently, and at the center of each are phenomena the others tend to ignore.
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PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY
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SU M M A R Y
A paradigm is a broad system of theoretical assumptions employed by a scientific community that includes shared models, metaphors, and methods. Psychology lacks a unified paradigm but has a number of schools of thought, or perspectives, that can be used to understand psychological events.
The Psychodynamic Perspective A friend has been dating a man for five months and has even jokingly tossed around the idea of marriage. Suddenly, her boyfriend tells her he has found someone else. She is shocked and angry and cries uncontrollably but a day later declares that “he didn’t mean that much to me anyway.” When you try to console her about the rejection she must be feeling, she says, “Rejection? Hey, I don’t know why I put up with him as long as I did,” and she jokes that “bad character is a genetic abnormality carried on the Y chromosome.” You know she really cared about him, and you conclude that she is being defensive—that she really feels rejected. You draw these conclusions because you have grown up in a culture influenced by the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud. In the late nineteenth century, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), a Viennese physician, developed a theory of mental life and behavior and an approach to treating psychological disorders known as psychoanalysis. Since then, many psychologists have continued Freud’s emphasis on psychodynamics. The psychodynamic perspective rests on three key premises. First, people’s actions are determined by the way thoughts, feelings, and wishes are connected in their minds. Second, many of these mental events occur outside of conscious awareness. Third, these mental processes may conflict with one another, leading to compromises among competing motives. Thus, people are unlikely to precisely know the chain of psychological events that leads to their conscious thoughts, intentions, feelings, or behaviors. As we will see, Freud and many of his followers failed to take seriously the importance of using scientific methods to test and refine their hypotheses. As a result, many psychodynamic concepts that could have been useful to researchers, such as ideas about unconscious processes, remained outside the mainstream of psychology until brought into the laboratory by contemporary researchers (Bradley & Westen, 2005; Westen, 1998; Westen et al., 2008; Wilson et al., 2000a). In this book, we emphasize those aspects of psychodynamic thinking for which the scientific evidence is strongest.
Sigmund Freud poring over a manuscript in his home office in Vienna around 1930.
psychodynamics a view, analogous to dynamics among physical forces, according to which psychological forces such as wishes, fears, and intentions have a direction and an intensity psychodynamic perspective the perspective initiated by Sigmund Freud that focuses on the dynamic interplay of mental forces
ORIGINS OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH Freud originated his theory in response to patients whose symptoms, although real, were not based on physiological malfunctioning. At the time, scientific thinking had no way to explain patients who were preoccupied with irrational guilt after the death of a parent or were so paralyzed with fear that they could not leave their homes. Freud made a deceptively simple deduction, but one that changed the face of intellectual history: If the symptoms were not consciously created and maintained, and if they had no physical basis, only one possibility remained—their basis must be unconscious. Just as people have conscious motives or wishes, Freud argued, they also have powerful unconscious motives that underlie their conscious intentions. The reader has undoubtedly had the infuriating experience of waiting for half an hour as traffic crawls on the highway, only to find that nothing was blocking the road at all—just an accident in the opposite lane. Why do people slow down and gawk at accidents on the highway? Is it because they are concerned? Perhaps. But Freud would suggest that people derive an unconscious titillation or excitement, or at least satisfy a morbid curiosity, from viewing a gruesome scene, even though they may deny such socially unacceptable feelings.
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Many have likened the relationship between conscious awareness and unconscious mental forces to the visible tip of an iceberg and the vast, submerged hulk that lies out of sight beneath the water. For example, one patient, a graduate student in economics, came to see a psychologist because of a pattern of failing to turn in papers. She would spend hours researching a topic, write two-thirds of the paper, and then suddenly find herself unable to finish. She was perplexed by her own behavior because she consciously wanted to succeed. What did lie beneath the surface? The patient came from a very traditional working-class family, which expected girls to get married, not to pursue a career. She had always outshone her brothers in school but had had to hide her successes because of the discomfort this caused in the family. When she would show her report card to her mother, her mother would glance anxiously around to make sure her brothers did not see it; eventually she learned to keep her grades to herself. Years later, finding herself succeeding in a largely male graduate program put her back in a familiar position, although she did not realize the link. The closer she came to success, the more difficulty she had finishing her papers. She was caught in a conflict between her conscious desire to succeed and her unconscious association of discomfort with success. Research confirms that most psychological processes occur outside awareness and that many of the associations between feelings and behaviors or situations that guide our behavior are expressed implicitly or unconsciously (Bargh, 1997; Westen, 1998; Wilson et al., 2000a). METHODS AND DATA OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE The methods used by psychodynamic psychologists flow from their aims. Psychodynamic understanding seeks to interpret meanings—to infer underlying wishes, fears, and patterns of thought from an individual’s conscious, verbalized thought and behavior. Accordingly, a psychodynamic clinician observes a patient’s dreams, fantasies, posture, and subtle behavior toward the therapist. The psychodynamic perspective thus relies substantially on the case study method, which entails in-depth observation of a small number of people (Chapter 2). The data of psychoanalysis can be thoughts, feelings, and actions that occur anywhere, from a vice president jockeying for power in a corporate boardroom to a young child biting his brother for refusing to vacate a Big Wheels tricycle. The use of any and all forms of information about a person reflects the psychodynamic assumption that people reveal themselves in everything they do. Psychodynamic psychologists have typically relied primarily on clinical data to support their theories. Because clinical observations are open to many interpretations, many psychologists have been skeptical about psychodynamic ideas. However, a number of researchers who are both committed to the scientific method and interested in psychodynamic concepts have been subjecting them to experimental tests and trying to integrate them with the body of scientific knowledge in psychology (see Fisher & Greenberg, 1985, 1996; Shedler et al., 1993; Westen & Gabbard, 1999). For example, several studies have documented that people who avoid conscious awareness of their negative feelings are at increased risk for a range of health problems such as asthma, heart disease, and cancer (Ginzburg et al., 2008; Weinberger, 1990). Similarly, psychodynamic explanations have been offered and tested for their relevance to binge drinking (Blandt, 2002); attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Rafalovich, 2001); creativity (Esquivel, 2003); and deadly acts of aggression, such as the shootings at Columbine High School (Stein, 2000). CRITICISMS OF PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY Although elements of psychodynamic theory pervade our language and our lives, no theory has been criticized more fervently. The criticisms leveled against psychodynamic theory have been so resounding that many theorists and researchers question why any attention is devoted to the theory in textbooks and courses. Indeed, behaviorist John B. Watson referred to
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psychodynamic theory as “voodooism.” The failure of psychodynamic theory to be scientifically grounded, its violation of the falsifiability criterion, and its reliance on retrospective accounts are just a few of the criticisms that have been leveled against it. Psychodynamic theorists argue, however, that the failure to focus on empirical methods is one of the redeeming features of the theory. Rather than investigating specific variables that reflect only a fraction of an individual’s personality or behavior, psychodynamic theorists focus on the entire person (Westen, 1998) and the whole of human experience. In addition, by not relying on empirical methods whose focus is limited to “solvable problems,” psychodynamic theorists study phenomena not amenable to more traditional experimental methods. For example, a psychodynamic theorist might study why certain people are drawn to horror stories and movies (Tavris & Wade, 2001; see also Skal, 1993). I NT E R I M
falsifiability criterion the ability of a theory to be proven wrong as a means of advancing science
SU M M A R Y
The psychodynamic perspective proposes that people’s actions reflect the way thoughts, feelings, and wishes are associated in their minds; that many of these processes are unconscious; and that mental processes can conflict with one another, leading to compromises among competing motives. Although their primary method has been the analysis of case studies, reflecting the goal of interpreting the meanings hypothesized to underlie people’s actions, psychodynamic psychologists are increasingly making use of experimental methods to try to integrate psychodynamic thinking with scientific psychology. This growing use of experimental methods should alleviate some of the criticism that has traditionally been leveled against psychodynamic theorists for being nonempirical, for violating the falsifiability criterion, and for using unreliable measures and approaches.
The Behaviorist Perspective You are enjoying an intimate dinner at a little Italian place on Main Street when your partner springs on you an unexpected piece of news: The relationship is over. Your stomach turns and you leave in tears. One evening a year or two later, your new flame suggests dining at that same restaurant. Just as before, your stomach turns and your appetite disappears. One of the broad perspectives that developed in psychology early in the twentieth century was behaviorism, which argues that the aversion to that quaint Italian café, like many reactions, is the result of learning—in this case, instant, one-trial learning. The behaviorist (or behavioral) perspective, also called behaviorism, focuses on the way objects or events in the environment (stimuli) come to control behavior through learning. Thus, the behaviorist perspective focuses on the relation between external (environmental) events and observable behaviors. Indeed, John Watson (1878–1958), a pioneer of American behaviorism, considered mental events entirely outside the province of a scientific psychology, and B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), who developed behaviorism into a full-fledged perspective years later, stated, “There is no place in a scientific analysis of behavior for a mind or self” (1990, p. 1209).
behaviorist or behavioral perspective the perspective pioneered by John Watston and B. F. Skinner that focuses on the relation between observable behaviors and environmental events or stimuli; also called behaviorism
ORIGINS OF THE BEHAVIORIST APPROACH Early in the twentieth century, Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian physiologist, was conducting experiments on the digestive system of dogs. During the course of his experiments, Pavlov made an important and quite accidental discovery: Once his dogs became accustomed to hearing a particular sound at mealtime, they began to salivate automatically whenever they heard it, much as they would salivate if food were presented (Chapter 5). The process that had shaped this new response was learning. Behaviorists argue that human and animal behaviors—from salivation in Pavlov’s laboratory to losing one’s appetite upon hearing the name of a restaurant associated with rejection—are largely acquired by learning.
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Behaviorists asserted that the behavior of humans, like that of other animals, can be understood entirely without reference to internal states such as thoughts and feelings. They therefore attempted to demonstrate that human conduct follows laws of behavior, just as the law of gravity explains why things fall down instead of up. The task for behaviorists was to discover how environmental events, or stimuli, control behavior. John Locke (1632–1704), a seventeenth-century British philosopher, had contended that at birth the mind is a tabula rasa, or blank slate, upon which experience writes its story. In a similar vein, John Watson later claimed that if he were given 12 healthy infants at birth, he could turn them into whatever he wanted, doctors or thieves, regardless of any innate dispositions or talents, simply by controlling their environments (Watson, 1925).
Ivan Pavlov
THE ENVIRONMENT AND BEHAVIOR The dramatic progress of the natural sciences in the nineteenth century led many psychologists to believe that the time had come to wrest the study of human nature away from philosophers and put it into the hands of scientists. For behaviorists, psychology is the science of behavior, and the proper procedure for conducting psychological research should be the same as for other sciences—rigorous application of the scientific method, particularly experimentation. Scientists can directly observe a rat running a maze, a baby sucking on a plastic nipple to make a mobile turn, and even the increase in a rat’s heart rate at the sound of a bell that has previously preceded a painful electric shock. But no one can directly observe unconscious motives. Science, behaviorists argued, entails making observations on a reliable and calibrated instrument that others can use to make precisely the same observations. According to behaviorists, psychologists cannot even study conscious thoughts in a scientific way because no one has access to them except the person reporting them. Structuralists like Titchener had used introspection to understand the way conscious sensations, feelings, and images fit together. But behaviorists like Watson questioned the scientific value of this research because the observations on which it relied could not be independently verified. They proposed an alternative to introspective methods: Study observable behaviors and environmental events and build a science around the way people and animals behave. Hence the term behaviorism. Today, many behaviorists acknowledge the existence of mental events but do not believe these events play a causal role in human affairs. Rather, from the behaviorist perspective, mental processes are by-products of environmental events. Probably the most systematic behaviorist approach was developed by B. F. Skinner. Building on the work of earlier behaviorists, Skinner observed that the behavior of organisms can be controlled by environmental consequences that either increase (reinforce) or decrease (punish) their likelihood of occurring. Subtle alterations in these conditions, such as the timing of an aversive consequence, can have dramatic effects on behavior. Most dog owners can attest that swatting a dog with a rolled-up newspaper after it grabs a piece of steak from the dinner table can be very useful in suppressing the dog’s unwanted behavior, but not if the punishment comes an hour later. Behaviorist researchers have discovered that this kind of learning by consequences can be used to control some very unlikely behaviors in humans. For example, by giving people feedback on their biological or physiological processes (biofeedback), psychologists can help them learn to control “behaviors” such as headaches, chronic pain, and blood pressure (Carmagnani & Carmagnani, 1999; Masters, 2006; Muller et al., 2009; Nakao et al., 1999; Nanke & Rief, 2004). METAPHORS, METHODS, AND DATA OF BEHAVIORISM A primary metaphor of behaviorism is that humans and other animals are like machines. Just as pushing a button starts the coffeepot, presenting food triggered an automatic, or reflexive, response in Pavlov’s dogs. Similarly, opening this book probably triggered the learned behavior
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of underlining and note taking. Some behaviorists are interested in mental processes that mediate stimulus–response connections but are not convinced that these are accessible to scientific investigation with current technologies. Consequently, they prefer to study what they can observe—the relation between what goes in and what comes out. The primary method of behaviorism is experimental. The experimental method entails framing a hypothesis, or prediction, about the way certain environmental events will affect behavior and then creating a laboratory situation to test that hypothesis (Chapter 2). Consider two rats placed in simple mazes shaped like the letter T. The two mazes are identical in all respects but one: Pellets of food lie at the end of the left arm of the first rat’s maze but not of the second rat’s. After a few trials (efforts at running through the maze), the rat that obtains the reward will be more likely to turn to the left and run the maze faster. The experimenter can now systematically modify the situation, again observing the results over several trials. What happens if the rat is rewarded only every third time? Every fourth time? Will it run faster or slower? Because they can measure these data quantitatively, experimenters can test the accuracy of their predictions and apply them to practical questions, such as how an employer can maximize the rate at which employees produce a product. Behaviorism was the dominant perspective in psychology, particularly in North America, from the 1920s to the 1960s. In its purest forms it has lost favor in the last three decades as psychology has once again become concerned with the study of mental processes. Many psychologists have come to believe that thoughts about the environment are just as important in controlling behavior as the environment itself (Bandura, 1977a,b, 1999; Mischel, 1990; Mischel & Shoda, 1995; Rotter, 1966, 1990). Some contemporary behaviorists even define behavior broadly to include thoughts as private behaviors. Nevertheless, traditional behaviorist theory continues to have widespread applications, from helping people quit smoking or drinking to enhancing children’s learning in school. I NT E R I M
SU M M A R Y
The behaviorist perspective focuses on learning and studies the way in which environmental events control behavior. According to behaviorists, scientific knowledge comes from using experimental methods to study the relationship between environmental events and behavior.
The Cognitive Perspective In the past 40 years, psychology has undergone a “cognitive revolution.” Today the study of cognition, or thought, dominates psychology in the same way that the study of behavior dominated in the middle of the twentieth century. When chairpersons of psychology departments were asked to rank the ten most important contemporary psychologists, eight were cognitive psychologists (see Figure 1.3; Korn et al., 1991). Notably, none of those listed in the top ten were women. Indeed, one could view the history of psychology as a series of shifts: from the “philosophy of the mind” of the Western philosophers, to the “science of the mind” in the work of the structuralists, to the “science of behavior” in the research of the behaviorists, to the “science of behavior and mental processes” in contemporary, cognitively informed psychology. (Importantly, because behaviorism was a distinctly American perspective, even during the heyday of behaviorism, cognitive psychologists were still active in other parts of the world. One of the most notable examples is Jean Piaget, whose ideas had a significant influence on studies of child development; Goodwin, 2004). The cognitive perspective focuses on the way people perceive, process, and retrieve information. Cognitive psychology has its roots in experiments conducted by
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B. F. Skinner offered a comprehensive behaviorist analysis of topics ranging from animal behavior to language development in children. In Walden Two, he even proposed a utopian vision of a society based on behaviorist principles.
Rank
Person
1
Skinner
2
Freud
3
James
4
Piaget
5
Hall
6
Wundt
7
Rogers
8
Watson
9
Pavlov
10
Thorndike
FIGURE 1.3 The ten most important contemporary psychologists as rated by psychology department chairpersons. (Source: Korn et al., 1991.) cognition thought and memory cognitive perspective a psychological perspective that focuses on the way people perceive, process, and retrieve information
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information processing the transformation, storage, and retrieval of environmental inputs through thought and memory
Response time (msec)
875 850 825 800 775
Old pictures
New pictures
F I GURE 1 .4 Response time in naming drawings 48 weeks after initial exposure. This graph shows the length of time participants took to name drawings they saw 48 weeks earlier (“old” drawings) versus similar drawings they were seeing for the first time. Response time was measured in milliseconds (thousandths of a second). At 48 weeks—nearly a year—participants were faster at naming pictures they had previously seen. (Source: Cave, 1997.)
Wundt and others in the late nineteenth century that examined phenomena such as the influence of attention on perception and the ability to remember lists of words. In large measure, though, the cognitive perspective owes its contemporary form to a technological development—the computer. Many cognitive psychologists use the metaphor of the computer to understand and model the way the mind works. From this perspective, thinking is information processing: The environment provides inputs, which are transformed, stored, and retrieved using various mental “programs,” leading to specific response outputs. Just as the computer database of a bookstore codes its inventory according to topic, title, author, and so forth, human memory systems encode information in order to store and retrieve it. The coding systems we use affect how easily we can later access information. Thus, most people would find it hard to name the forty-fourth president of the United States (but easy to name the president linked with health care reform) because they do not typically code presidents numerically. To test hypotheses about memory, researchers need ways of measuring it. One way is simple: Ask a question like “Do you remember seeing this object?” A second method is more indirect: See how quickly people can name an object they saw some time ago. Our memory system evolved to place frequently used and more recent information at the front of our memory “files” so that we can get to it faster. This makes sense, since dusty old information is less likely to tell us about our immediate environment. Thus, response time is a useful measure of memory. For example, one investigator used both direct questions and response time to test memory for objects seen weeks or months earlier (Cave, 1997). In an initial session, she rapidly flashed over 100 drawings on a computer screen and asked participants to name them as quickly as they could. That was the participants’ only exposure to the pictures. In a second session, weeks or months later, she mixed some of the drawings in with other drawings the students had not seen and asked them either to tell her whether they recognized them from the earlier session or to name them. When asked directly, participants were able to distinguish the old pictures from new ones with better-than-chance accuracy as many as 48 weeks later; that is, they correctly identified which drawings they had seen previously more than half the time. Perhaps more striking, as Figure 1.4 shows, almost a year later they were also faster at naming the pictures they had seen previously than those they had not seen. Thus, exposure to a visual image appears to keep it toward the front of our mental files for a very long time. The cognitive perspective is useful not only in examining memory but also in understanding processes such as decision making. When people enter a car showroom, they have a set of attributes in their minds: smooth ride, sleek look, good gas mileage, affordable price, and so forth. At the same time, they must process a great deal of new information (the salesperson’s description of one car as a “real steal,” for instance) and match it with stored linguistic knowledge. They can then comprehend the meaning of the dealer’s speech, such as the connotation of “real steal” (from both his viewpoint and their own). In deciding which car to buy, car shoppers must somehow integrate information about multiple attributes and weigh their importance. As we will see, some of these processes are conscious or explicit, whereas others happen through the silent whirring of our neural “engines.” ORIGINS OF THE COGNITIVE APPROACH The philosophical roots of the cognitive perspective lie in a series of questions about where knowledge comes from that were first raised by the ancient Greek philosophers and then were pondered by British and European philosophers over the last four centuries (see Gardner, 1985). Descartes, like Plato, reflected on the remarkable truths of arithmetic and geometry and noted that the purest and most useful abstractions—such as a circle, a hypotenuse, pi, or a square root—could never be observed by the senses. Rather, this kind of knowledge appeared to be generated by the mind itself. Other philosophers, beginning with Aristotle, emphasized the
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role of experience in generating knowledge. Locke proposed that complex ideas arise from the mental manipulation of simple ideas and that these simple ideas are products of the senses, of observation. The behaviorists roundly rejected Descartes’ view of an active, reasoning mind that can arrive at knowledge independent of experience. Cognitive psychologists, in contrast, are interested in many of the questions raised by Descartes and other rationalist philosophers. For example, cognitive psychologists have studied the way people form abstract concepts or categories. These concepts are derived in part from experience, but they often differ from any particular instance the person has ever perceived—that is, they must be mentally constructed (Medin & Heit, 1999; Wills et al., 2006). Children can recognize that a bulldog is a dog, even if they have never seen one before, because they have formed an abstract concept of “dog” that goes beyond the details of any specific dogs they have seen. METAPHORS, METHODS, AND DATA OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Both the cognitive and behaviorist perspectives view organisms as machines that respond to environmental input with predictable output. Some cognitive theories even propose that a stimulus evokes a series of mini-responses inside the head, much like the responses that behaviorists study outside the head (Anderson, 1983). However, most cognitive psychologists rely on different metaphors than their behaviorist colleagues. Many cognitive psychologists use the brain itself as a metaphor for the mind (e.g., Burgess & Hitch, 1999; McClelland, 1995; Plaut, 2003; Rumelhart et al., 1986). According to this view, an idea is a network of brain cells that are activated together. Thus, whenever a person thinks of the concept “bird,” a certain set of nerve cells becomes active. When he or she is confronted with a stimulus that resembles a bird, part of the network is activated; if enough of the network becomes active, the person concludes that the animal is a bird. A person is likely to recognize a robin as a bird quickly because it resembles most other birds and hence immediately activates most of the “bird” network. Correctly classifying a penguin takes longer because it is less typically “birdlike” and activates less of the network. As with behaviorism, the primary method of the cognitive perspective is experimental—with one important difference: Cognitive psychologists use experimental procedures to infer mental processes at work. For example, when people try to retrieve information from a list (such as the names of states), do they scan all the relevant information in memory until they hit the right item? One way psychologists have explored this question is by presenting participants with a series of word lists of varying lengths to memorize, such as those in Figure 1.5. Then they ask the participants in the study if particular words were on the lists. If participants take longer to recognize that a word was not on a longer list—which they do—they must be scanning the lists sequentially (i.e., item by item), because additional words on the list take additional time to scan (Sternberg, 1975). Cognitive psychologists primarily study processes such as memory and decision making. Some cognitive psychologists, however, have attempted to use cognitive concepts and metaphors to explain a much wider range of phenomena (Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987; Sorrentino & Higgins, 1996). Cognitive research on emotion, for example, documents that the way people think about events plays a substantial role in generating emotions (Caldwell & Burger, 2009; Ferguson, 2000; Lazarus, 1999a,b; Roseman et al., 1995; Chapter 10). I NT E R I M
SU M M A R Y
The cognitive perspective focuses on the way people perceive, process, and retrieve information. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how memory works, how people solve problems and make decisions, and similar questions. The primary metaphor originally underlying the cognitive perspective was the mind as computer. In recent years, many cognitive psychologists have turned to the brain itself as a source of metaphors. The primary method of the cognitive perspective is experimental.
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MAKING CONNECTIONS
How do people recognize this abstract object as a dog, given that it does not look anything like a real dog? According to cognitive psychologists, people categorize an object that resembles a dog by comparing it to examples of dogs, generalized knowledge about dogs, or defining features of dogs stored in memory (Chapter 6).
rationalist philosophers philosophers who emphasize the role of reason in creating knowledge
LIST A
LIST B
NEVADA ARKANSAS TENNESSEE TEXAS NORTH DAKOTA
TEXAS COLORADO MISSOURI SOUTH CAROLINA ALABAMA
NEBRASKA MICHIGAN RHODE ISLAND MASSACHUSETTS IDAHO
CALIFORNIA WASHINGTON IDAHO
NEW YORK PENNSYLVANIA
Figur e 1.5 Two lists of words used in a study of memory scanning. Giving participants in a study two lists of state names provides a test of the memory scanning hypothesis. Iowa is not on either list. If an experimenter asks whether Iowa is on the list, participants take longer to respond to list A than to list B because they have to scan more items in memory
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The Evolutionary Perspective ǷǷn ǷǷn ǷǷn ǷǷn
ǷǷn
ǷǷn
nature–nurture controversy the question of the degree to which inborn biological processes or environmental events determine human behavior
evolutionary perspective the viewpoint, built on Darwin’s principle of natural selection, which argues that human behavioral proclivities must be understood in the context of their evolutionary and adaptive significance natural selection a theory proposed by Darwin which states that natural forces select traits in organisms that help them adapt to their environment adaptive traits a term applied to traits that help organisms adjust to their environment
Charles Darwin
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The impulse to eat in humans has a biological basis. The sexual impulse in humans has a biological basis. Caring for one’s offspring has a biological basis. The fact that most males are interested in sex with females, and vice versa, has a biological basis. The higher incidence of aggressive behavior in males than in females has a biological basis. The tendency to care more for one’s own offspring than for the offspring of other people has a biological basis.
Most people fully agree with the first of these statements, but many have growing doubts as the list proceeds. The degree to which inborn processes determine human behavior is a classic issue in psychology, called the nature–nurture controversy. Advocates of the “nurture” position maintain that behavior is primarily learned, not biologically ordained. Other psychologists, however, point to the similarities in behavior between humans and other animals, from chimpanzees to birds, and argue that some behavioral similarities are so striking that they must reflect shared tendencies rooted in biology. Indeed, anyone who believes the behavior of two male teenagers “duking it out” behind the local high school for the attention of a popular girl is distinctively human should observe the behavior of rams and baboons. As we will see, many, if not most, psychological processes reflect an interaction of nature and nurture. Biological and genetic factors predispose people and other animals to certain physical and psychological experiences. It is the environment, however, that often determines the degree to which these predispositions actually manifest themselves. The evolutionary perspective argues that many behavioral tendencies in humans, from the need to eat to concern for our children, evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and rear healthy offspring. Why, for example, are some children devastated by the absence of their mother during childhood? From an evolutionary perspective, a deep emotional bond between parents and children prevents them from straying too far from each other while children are immature and vulnerable. Breaking this bond leads to tremendous distress. Like the functionalists at the turn of the twentieth century, evolutionary psychologists believe that most enduring human attributes at some time served a function for humans as biological organisms (Buss, 1991, 2000). They argue that this is as true for physical traits—such as the presence of two eyes (rather than one), which allows us to perceive depth and distance—as for cognitive and emotional tendencies, such as a child’s distress over the absence of her caregivers or a child’s development of language. The implication for psychological theory is that understanding human mental processes and behaviors requires insight into their evolution. ORIGINS OF THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE The evolutionary perspective is rooted in the writings of Charles Darwin (1872). Darwin did not invent the concept of evolution, but he was the first to propose a mechanism that could account for it—natural selection. Darwin argued that natural forces select adaptive traits in organisms that help them adjust to and survive in their environment and that are likely to be passed on to their offspring. Selection of organisms occurs “naturally” because organisms that are not endowed with features that help them adapt to their particular environmental circumstances, or niche, are less likely to survive and reproduce. In turn, they have fewer offspring to survive and reproduce. A classic example of natural selection occurred in Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, and other industrial cities in England (Bishop & Cook, 1975). A light-colored variety of peppered moth that was common in rural areas of Britain also populated most cities. But as England industrialized in the nineteenth century, light-colored
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Similar behavior in humans and other animals may suggest common evolutionary roots.
moths became scarce in industrial regions and dark-colored moths predominated. How did this happen? With industrialization, the air became sooty, darkening the bark of the trees on which these moths spent much of their time. Light-colored moths were thus easily noticed and eaten by predators. Before industrialization, moths that had darker coloration were selected against by nature because they were conspicuous on light-colored bark. Now, however, they were better able to blend into the background of the dark tree trunks. As a result, they survived to pass on their coloration to the next generation. Over decades, the moth population changed to reflect the differential selection of light and dark varieties. Since England has been cleaning up its air through more stringent pollution controls in the past 30 years, the trend has begun to reverse. Similar evolutionary adaptations have been observed in rock pocket mice. Normally sandy in color, these mice typically dwell in light-colored outcrops (Yoon, 2003). Lava flows in some areas, however, changed a once-beigecolored landscape into dark-colored rock. Rock pocket mice in these lava-covered areas are black (see Figure 1.6). This mutation allowed the mice to survive in their “darker” environment. The peppered moth and rock pocket mice stories highlight a crucial point about evolution: Because adaptation is always relative to a specific niche, evolution is not synonymous with progress. A trait or behavior that is highly adaptive can suddenly become maladaptive in the face of even a seemingly small change in (a) the environment. A new insect that enters a geographical region can eliminate a flourishing crop, just as the arrival of a warlike tribe (or nation) in a previously peaceful region can render prior attitudes toward war and peace maladaptive. People have used Darwinian ideas to justify racial and class prejudices (“people on welfare must be naturally unfit”), but sophisticated evolutionary arguments contradict the idea that adaptation or fitness can ever be absolute. ETHOLOGY, SOCIOBIOLOGY, AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY If Darwin’s theory of natural selection can be applied to characteristics such as the color of a moth, can it also apply to behaviors? It stands to reason that certain behaviors, such as the tendency of moths to rest on trees in the first place, evolved because they helped members of the species survive. In the middle of the twentieth century the field of ethology (Hinde, 1982) began to apply this sort of evolutionary approach to understanding animal behavior.
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(b)
FIGURE 1.6 The natural selection of rock pocket mice color. As environmental conditions changed in the desert Southwest, so, too did the rock pocket mouse population. In (a), a lightercolored mouse resting on light rock outcrops is better camouflaged than a darker mouse would be. In contrast, (b) shows a blackened rock resulting from ancient lava flows, where the dark mouse is very hard to see and hence better able to evade its predators. (Source: Yoon, 2003, p. 3.)
ethology the field that studies animal behavior from a biological and evolutionary perspective
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sociobiology a field that explores possible evolutionary and biological bases of human social behavior evolutionary psychologists psychologists who apply evolutionary thinking to a wide range of psychological phenomena
behavioral genetics a field that examines the genetic and environmental bases of differences among individuals in psychological traits
reproductive success the capacity to survive and reproduce offspring
It is seldom that I laugh at an animal, and when I do, I usually find out afterwards that it was at myself, at the human being whom the animal has portrayed in a more or less pitiless caricature, that I have laughed. We stand before the monkey house and laugh, but we do not laugh at the sight of a caterpillar or a snail, and when the courtship antics of a lusty greylag gander are so incredibly funny, it is only [because] our human youth behaves in a very similar fashion. (Lorenz, 1979, p. 39)
inclusive fitness the notion that natural selection favors organisms that survive, reproduce, and foster the survival and reproduction of their kin
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For example, several species of birds emit warning cries to alert their flock about approaching predators; some even band together to attack. Konrad Lorenz, an ethologist who befriended a flock of black jackdaws, was once attacked by the flock while carrying a wet black bathing suit. Convinced that the birds were not simply offended by the style, Lorenz hypothesized that jackdaws have an inborn, or innate tendency to become distressed whenever they see a creature dangling a black object resembling a jackdaw, and they respond by attacking (Lorenz, 1979). If scientists can explain animal behaviors by their adaptive advantage, can they apply the same logic to human behavior? Over three decades ago, Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson (1975) named a new and controversial field sociobiology. Sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists propose that genetic transmission is not limited to physical traits such as height, body type, or vulnerability to heart disease. Parents also pass on to their children behavioral and mental tendencies. Some of these are universal, such as the need to eat and sleep or the capacity to perceive certain wavelengths of light. Others differ from individual to individual. Attention to the evolutionary origins of many behaviors is increasing to the point that even behaviors such as grief, which might seem at first blush out of the purview of evolutionary psychology, are now being investigated as adaptive in nature (Archer, 2001). As we will see in later chapters, research in behavioral genetics suggests that heredity is a surprisingly strong determinant of many personality traits and intellectual skills. The tendencies to be outgoing, aggressive, or musically talented, for example, are all partially under genetic control (Bjorklund & Pellegrini, 2001; Loehlin, 1992; Plomin et al., 1997). Perhaps the fundamental concept in all contemporary evolutionary theories is that evolution selects traits that maximize organisms’ reproductive success. Over many generations, organisms with greater reproductive success will have many more descendants because they will survive and reproduce more than other organisms, including other members of their own species. Central to evolutionary psychology is the notion that the human brain, like the eye or the heart, has evolved modules through natural selection to solve certain problems associated with survival and reproduction, such as selecting mates, using language, competing for scarce resources, and cooperating with kin and neighbors who might be helpful in the future (Tooby & Cosmides, 1992). For example, current evolutionary psychologists argue that, through the process of natural selection, a “fear” module has evolved that is automatically activated in the presence of fear-producing stimuli (Oehman & Mineka, 2001). Neuroscientists can then conduct brain mapping, tracing neural paths of activation to see what other areas of the brain are associated with activation of the fear module. As a more personal example, we take for granted that people usually tend to care more about, and do more for, their children, parents, and siblings than for their second cousins or nonrelatives. Most readers have probably received more financial support from their parents in the last five years than from their aunts and uncles. This seems natural—and we rarely wonder about it—but why does it seem so natural? And what are the causes of this behavioral tendency? From an evolutionary perspective, individuals who care for others who share their genes will simply have more of their genes in the gene pool generations later. Thus, evolutionary theorists have expanded the concept of reproductive success to encompass inclusive fitness, which refers not only to an individual’s own reproductive success but also to his or her influence on the reproductive success of genetically related individuals (Anderson, 2005; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Hamilton, 1964). According to the theory of inclusive fitness, natural selection favors animals whose concern for kin is proportional to their degree of biological relatedness. In other words, animals should devote more resources and offer more protection to close relatives than to more distant kin. The reasons for this preference are strictly mathematical. Imagine you are sailing with your brother or sister and with your cousin, and the ship capsizes. Neither your sibling nor your cousin can swim, and you can save only one of them. Whom will you save?
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23
Most readers, after perhaps a brief, gleeful flicker of sibling rivalry, opt for the sibling because first-degree relatives such as siblings share much more genetic material than more distant relatives such as cousins. Siblings share half their genes, whereas cousins share only one-eighth. In crass evolutionary terms, two siblings are worth eight cousins. Evolution selects the neural mechanisms that make this preference feel natural—so natural that psychologists have rarely even thought to explain it. At this point the reader might object that the real reason for saving the sibling over the cousin is that you know the sibling better; you grew up together, and you have more bonds of affection. This poses no problem for evolutionary theorists, since familiarity and bonds of affection are probably the psychological mechanisms selected by nature to help you in your choice. When human genes were evolving, close relatives typically lived together. People who were familiar and loved were more often than not relatives. Humans who protected others based on familiarity and affection would be more prevalent in the gene pool thousands of years later because more of their genes would be available. METAPHORS, METHODS, AND DATA OF THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE Darwin’s theory of natural selection is part of a tradition of Western thought since the Renaissance that emphasizes individual self-interest and competition for scarce resources. Perhaps the major metaphor underlying the evolutionary perspective is borrowed from another member of that tradition, philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, wittingly or unwittingly, we are all runners in a race, competing for survival, sexual access to partners, and resources for our kin and ourselves. Evolutionary methods are frequently deductive; that is, they begin with an observation of something that already exists in nature and try to explain it with logical arguments. For instance, evolutionists might begin with the fact that people care for their kin and will try to deduce an explanation. This method is very different from experimentation, in which investigators create circumstances in the laboratory and test the impact of changing these conditions on behavior. Many psychologists have challenged the deductive methods of evolutionary psychologists. They argue that predicting behavior in the laboratory is much more difficult and convincing than explaining what has already happened. One of the most distinctive features of evolutionary psychology in recent years has been its application of experimental and other procedures that involve prediction of behavior in the laboratory, rather than after-the-fact explanation (Buss et al., 1992). For example, two studies, one from the United States and one from Germany, used evolutionary theory to predict the extent to which grandparents will invest in their grandchildren (DeKay, 1998; Euler & Weitzel, 1996). According to evolutionary theory, one of the major problems facing males in many animal species, including our own, is paternity uncertainty—the lack of certainty that their presumed offspring are really theirs. Female primates (monkeys, apes, and humans) are always certain that their children are their own because they bear them. Males, on the other hand, can never be certain of paternity because their mate could have copulated with another male. (Psychological language is typically precise but not very romantic.) If a male is going to invest time, energy, and resources in a child, he wants to be certain that the child is his own. Not surprisingly, males of many species develop elaborate ways to minimize the possibility of accidentally investing in another male’s offspring, such as guarding their mates during fertile periods and killing any infant born too close to the time at which they began copulating with the infant’s mother. In humans, infidelity (or suspicion of infidelity) is one of the major causes of wife battering and homicide committed by men cross-culturally (Daly & Wilson, 1988).
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Although there are wide variations in the languages spoken throughout the world, Darwin and many current researchers believe that the capacity to learn language is innate in humans. Language is believed to have been adaptive in providing our ancestors a way of communicating succinctly and precisely with one another.
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F I GURE 1 .7 (a) Certainty of genetic
Father's mother
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relatedness. Dashed lines indicate uncertainty of genetic relatedness, whereas solid lines indicate certainty. As can be seen, the father’s father is least certain that his presumed grandchild is his own (dashed lines between both himself and his son and his son and the son’s child), whereas the mother’s mother is most certain. Each of the other two grandparents is sure of one link but unsure of the other. (b) Rankings of grandparental investment. This graph shows the percent of participants in the study who ranked each grandparent the highest of all four grandparents on investment (measured two ways) and on emotional closeness. Students ranked their maternal grandmothers as most invested and close and their paternal grandfathers as least invested and close on all three dimensions. (Source: based on DeKay, 1998.)
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Evolutionary psychologists have used the concept of paternity uncertainty to make some very specific and novel predictions about patterns of grandparental investment in children. As shown in Figure 1.7a, the father’s father is the least certain of all grandparents that his grandchildren are really his own, since he did not bear his son, who did not bear his child. The mother’s mother is the most certain of all grandparents because she is sure that her daughter is hers, and her daughter is equally certain that she is the mother of her children. The other two grandparents (father’s mother and mother’s father) are intermediate in certainty. This analysis leads to a hypothesis about the extent to which grandparents will invest in their grandchildren: The greatest investment should be seen in maternal grandmothers, the least in paternal grandfathers, and intermediate levels in paternal grandmothers and maternal grandfathers. To test this hypothesis, one study asked U.S. college students to rank their grandparents on a number of dimensions, including emotional closeness and the amount of time and resources their grandparents invested in them (DeKay, 1998). On each dimension, the pattern was as predicted: Maternal grandmothers, on the average, were ranked as most invested of all four grandparents and paternal grandfathers as least invested. Figure 1.7b shows the percent of college students who ranked each grandparent a 1—that is, most invested or most emotionally close. A similar pattern emerged in a German study (Euler & Weitzel, 1996). Although a critic could generate alternative explanations, these studies are powerful because the investigators tested hypotheses that were not intuitively obvious or readily predictable from other perspectives.
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I NT E R I M
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SU M M A R Y
The evolutionary perspective argues that many human behavioral tendencies evolved because they helped our ancestors survive and reproduce. Psychological processes have evolved through the natural selection of traits that help organisms adapt to their environment. Evolution selects organisms that maximize their reproductive success, defined as the capacity to survive and reproduce as well as to maximize the reproductive success of genetically related individuals. Although the methods of evolutionary theorists have traditionally been deductive and comparative, evolutionary psychologists are increasingly using experimental methods.
Pr ofiles i n Posi t ive Psy cho logy
Mental Health, Hope, and Optimism
I (RMK) once read about a contest for creative license plates. The winning plate had the following inscription: AXN28D+ (Accentuate the Positive) (Kowalski, 1997). This license tag appropriately summarizes the essence of the positive psychology movement. For much of its history, psychology has focused on the darker side of human nature—mental illness rather than mental health, pathology rather than subjective well-being (Lopez, 2009; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Psychology has tended to view people as deficient rather than as humans possessing remarkable character strengths that allow them to persevere and flourish. The positive psychology movement, as you will see throughout this book, has worked to turn this perspective around by looking at topics such as hope, optimism, creativity, forgiveness, gratitude, wisdom, happiness, self-determination, and resilience—to name a few. As summarized by Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (2000), two of the leaders of the positive psychology movement: The field of positive psychology at the subjective level is about valued subjective experiences: well-being, contentment, and satisfaction (in the past); hope and optimism (for the future); and flow and happiness (in the present). At the individual level, it is about positive individual traits: the capacity for love and vocation, courage, interpersonal skill, aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future mindedness, spirituality, high talent, and wisdom. At the group level, it is about the civic virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward better citizenship: responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic. (p. 5)
Epitomizing these character strengths and virtues of the positive psychology movement was one of its own pioneers, Charles Richard (C. R.) Snyder. Known to his friends and colleagues as Rick, Dr. Snyder received his bachelor’s degree from Southern Methodist University and his master’s and doctoral degrees in clinical psychology from Vanderbilt. Following postdoctoral study, he began his academic career at the University of Kansas, where he stayed until his untimely death in 2006. Well known for his research on topics at the interface of social, clinical, and counseling psychology, Snyder’s research examined, among other things, excuse-making, forgiveness, and hope, topics clearly reflective of his interest in promoting psychological health and well-being. In Snyder’s case, life mirrored research. During his academic career, he published 262 scholarly articles and wrote or edited 26 books, many dealing with topics related to positive psychology, most notably hope. Included among these books were the Handbook of Positive Psychology (Snyder & Lopez, 2002) and the Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (Snyder & Lopez, 2009), as well as the first textbook on positive psychology, Positive Psychology: The Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human Strengths. Dr. Snyder also received 27 teaching awards. He did all of this while also experiencing chronic, often debilitating, pain in his chest and abdomen, the source of which remained unknown (Lopez, 2009). His research on hope stemmed,
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in large part, from his attempts to view his own life experiences in a hopeful, positive manner. At the time of his death from cancer (unrelated to the chronic pain), the chancellor of the University of Kansas said, “Rick Snyder was a living advertisement for his psychology of hope, always engaged and positive.” Another colleague, Shane Lopez, stated that “as my mentor, he taught me how to honor suffering and seek out hope in daily life” (www.news.ku.edu/2006/january/18/statement.html). Rick himself always said, “If you don’t laugh at yourself, you’ve missed the biggest joke of all” (Ritschel, 2005, p. 75). I (RMK) had the pleasure of knowing Rick and working with him as an associate editor when he was the editor of the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, a position he held for 12 years. Rick and I shared a key philosophy of teaching that he summed up this way: “Teachers plant seeds of hope by spending large amounts of time with their students. … I like the idea of spending time as the foundation lesson upon which other lessons are built” (Ritschel, 2005, p. 75). For those of us who knew him, teaching about and conducting research in the area of positive psychology is always a tribute to him, without whom the field of positive psychology would not be what it is today.
CO MME NT ARY
Gestalt psychology a school of psychology which holds that perception is an active experience of imposing order on an overwhelming panorama of details by seeing them as parts of larger wholes (or gestalts)
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MAKING SENSE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES A tale is told of several blind men in India who came upon an elephant. They had no knowledge of what an elephant was, and, eager to understand the beast, they reached out to explore it. One man grabbed its trunk and concluded, “An elephant is like a snake.” Another touched its ear and proclaimed, “An elephant is like a leaf.” A third, examining its leg, disagreed: “An elephant,” he announced, “is like the trunk of a tree.” Psychologists are in some ways like those blind men, struggling with imperfect instruments to try to understand the beast we call human nature and typically touching only part of the animal while trying to grasp the whole. So why don’t we just look at “the facts,” instead of relying on perspectives that lead us to grasp only the trunk or the tail? Because we are cognitively incapable of seeing reality without imposing some kind of order on what otherwise seems like chaos. Consider Figure 1.8. Does it depict a vase? The profiles of two faces? The answer depends on one’s perspective on the whole picture. Were we not to impose some perspective on this figure, we would see nothing but patches of black and white. This picture was used by a German school of psychology in the early twentieth century known as Gestalt psychology. The Gestalt psychologists argued that perception is not a passive experience akin to taking photographic snapshots. Rather, perception is an active experience of imposing order on an overwhelming panorama of details by seeing them as parts of larger wholes (or gestalts). The same premise is true of the complex perceptual and cognitive tasks that constitute scientific investigation. The way psychologists and other scientists understand any phenomenon depends on their interpretation of the whole—on their
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paradigms or perspectives. Perspectives are like imperfect lenses through which we view some aspect of reality. Often they are too convex or too concave, leaving their wearers blind to data on the periphery of their understanding. But without them, we are totally blind. We have seen that what psychologists study, how they study it, and what they observe reflect not only the reality “out there” but also the conceptual lenses they wear. In many cases adherents of one perspective know very little—and may even have stereotypic views or misconceptions—about other perspectives. In fact, the different perspectives often contribute in unique ways, depending on the object being studied. (For a sampling of the different subdisciplines within psychology and the diversity of topics they study, see Table 1.1.) Deciding that one perspective is valid in all situations is like choosing to use a telescope instead of a microscope without knowing whether the objects of study are amoebas or asteroids. Although psychologists disagree on the merits of the different perspectives, each has made distinctive contributions. Consider the behaviorist perspective. Among its contributions are two that we cannot overestimate. The first is its focus on learning and its postulation of a mechanism for many kinds of learning: reward and punishment. Behaviorists offer a fundamental insight into the psychology of humans and other animals that can be summarized in a simple but remarkably important formula: Behavior follows its consequences. The notion that the consequences of our actions shape the way we behave has a long philosophical history, but the behaviorists were the first to develop a sophisticated, scientifically based set of principles that describe the way environmental events shape behavior. The second major contribution of the be-
FIGURE 1.8 An ambiguous figure. The indentation in the middle could be either an indentation in a vase or two noses. In science, as in everyday perception, knowledge involves understanding “facts” in the context of a broader interpretive framework.
TABLE 1.1 MAJOR SUBDISCIPLINES IN PSYCHOLOGY Subdiscipline
Examples of Questions Asked
Biopsychology: investigates the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as thought, emotion, and stress
How are memories stored in the brain? Do hormones influence whether an individual is heterosexual or homosexual?
Developmental psychology: studies the way thought, feeling, and behavior develop through the life span, from infancy to death
Can children remember experiences from their first year of life? Do children in day care tend to be more or less well adjusted than children reared at home?
Social psychology: examines interactions of individual psychology and group phenomena; examines the influence of real or imagined others on the way people behave
When and why do people behave aggressively? Can people behave in ways indicating racial prejudice without knowing it?
Clinical psychology: focuses on the nature and treatment of psychological processes that lead to emotional distress
What causes depression? What impact does childhood sexual abuse have on later functioning?
Cognitive psychology: examines the nature of thought, memory, sensation perception, and language
What causes amnesia, or memory loss? How are people able to drive a car while engrossed in thought about something else?
Personality psychology: examines people’s enduring ways of responding in different kinds of situations and the ways individuals differ in the ways they tend to think, feel, and behave
To what extent does the tendency to be outgoing, anxious, or conscientious reflect genetic and environmental influences?
Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology: examines the behavior of people in organizations and attempts to help solve organizational problems
Are some forms of leadership more effective than others? What motivates workers to do their jobs efficiently?
Educational psychology: examines psychological processes in learning and applies psychological knowledge in educational settings
Why do some children have trouble learning to read? What causes some teenagers to drop out of school?
Health psychology: examines psychological factors involved in health and disease
Are certain personality types more vulnerable to disease? What factors influence people to take risks with their health, such as smoking or not using condoms?
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empiricism the belief that the path to scientific knowledge is systematic observation and, ideally, experimental observation
haviorist approach is its emphasis on empiricism—the belief that the path to scientific knowledge is systematic observation and, ideally, experimental observation. In only four decades since the introduction of the first textbook on cognition (Neisser, 1967), the cognitive perspective has transformed our understanding of thought and memory in a way that 2500 years of philosophical speculation could not approach. Much of what is distinctive about Homo sapiens—and what lent our species its name (sapiens means “knowledge” or “wisdom”)—is our extraordinary capacity for thought and memory. This capacity allows actors to perform a two-hour play without notes, three-year-old children to create grammatical sentences they have never before heard, and scientists to develop vaccines for viruses that they cannot see with the naked eye. Like the behaviorist perspective, the contributions of the cognitive perspective reflect its commitment to empiricism and experimental methods. The evolutionary perspective asks a basic question about psychological processes that directs our attention to phenomena we might easily take for granted: Why do we think, feel, or behave the way we do as opposed to some other way? Although many psychological attributes are likely to have developed as accidental by-products of evolution with little adaptive significance, the evolutionary perspective forces us to examine why we feel jealous when our lovers are unfaithful, why we are so skillful at recognizing others’ emotions just by looking at their faces, and why children are able to learn new words so rapidly in their first six years that if they were to continue at that pace for the rest of their lives, they would scoff at Webster’s Unabridged. In each case, the evolutionary perspective suggests a single and deceptively simple principle: We think, feel, and behave in these ways because they helped our ancestors adapt to their environments and hence to survive and reproduce. Finally, the psychodynamic perspective has made its own unique contributions. Recent research has begun to support some basic psychodynamic hypotheses about the emotional sides of human psychology, such as the view that our attitudes toward ourselves and others are often contradictory and ambivalent and that what we feel and believe consciously and unconsciously often differ substantially (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 1997; Wilson et al., 2000a). Indeed, the most important legacy of the psychodynamic perspective is its emphasis on unconscious processes. As we have seen, the existence of unconscious processes is now widely accepted, as new technologies have allowed the scientific exploration of cognitive, emotional, and motivational processes outside conscious awareness (Bargh, 1997; Schacter, 1999; Westen, 1998).
I NT E R I M
S U M M AR Y
Although the different perspectives offer radically different ways of approaching psychology, each has made distinctive contributions. These perspectives have often developed in mutual isolation, but efforts to integrate aspects of them are likely to continue to be fruitful, particularly in clinical psychology.
THE BIG PICTURE QUESTIONS Earlier in this chapter, we talked about the philosophical origins of psychology, highlighting that many contemporary questions raised by psychologists were debated among early philosophers. However, psychologists do not tackle philosophical issues directly. Rather, classic philosophical questions reverberate through many contemporary psychological discussions.
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Research into the genetics of personality and personality disturbances provides an intriguing, if disquieting, example. People with antisocial personality disorder have minimal conscience and a tendency toward aggressive or criminal behavior. In an initial psychiatric evaluation, one man boasted that he had terrorized his former girlfriend for an hour by brandishing a knife and telling her in exquisite detail the ways he intended to slice her flesh. This man could undoubtedly have exercised his free will to continue or discontinue his behavior at any moment and hence was morally (and legally) responsible for his acts. He knew what he was doing, he was not hearing voices commanding him to behave aggressively, and he thoroughly enjoyed his victim’s terror. A determinist, however, could offer an equally compelling case. Like many violent men, he was the son of violent, alcoholic parents who had beaten him severely as a child. Both physical abuse in childhood and parental alcoholism (which can exert both genetic and environmental influences) render an individual more likely to develop antisocial personality disorder (see Cadoret et al., 1995; Zanarini et al., 1990). In the immediate moment, perhaps, he had free will, but over the long run, he may have had no choice but to be the person he was. Although many classic philosophical questions reverberate throughout psychology, our focus will be on three that predominate. These are the questions on which much, if not most, psychological theory and research are predicated, as will become evident as you read subsequent chapters of this book. Although the list provided below is not all-inclusive, it will give you a sense of the overriding questions guiding psychological research today. As you read these, you might begin to generate your own thoughts and answers. Each of these big picture questions will be represented by an icon to alert you throughout the text when research related to each question is being discussed. QUESTION 1: To what extent is human nature particular versus universal? In other words, to what extent is human nature relatively invariant as opposed to culturally variable? Is logical reasoning universal, for example, or do people use different kinds of “logic” in different cultures? Do children follow similar patterns of language development throughout the world? QUESTION 2: To what extent are psychological processes the same in men and women? For example, to what extent do gender differences in linguistic and spatial problem solving reflect differential evolutionary selection pressures? Why might men and women make different attributions for their own successes and failures? Are men and women similarly affected by a partner’s infidelity? QUESTION 3: What is the relation between nature and nurture in shaping psychological processes? For example, how can we understand that the likelihood of getting killed in an accident is heritable? To what extent is intelligence inherited? How do we account for data showing remarkable similarities between identical twins who have been reared apart? I NT E R I M
SU M M A R Y
Because of its philosophical roots, psychology not surprisingly grapples with some difficult questions, including the extent to which psychological processes are the same in men and women and the nature–nurture controversy. Regardless of the specific psychological topic under investigation, such Big Picture Questions are behind much of the theory and research that you will read about in this text.
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SUMMARY THE BOUNDARIES AND BORDERS OF PSYCHOLOGY 1. Psychology is the scientific investigation of mental processes and behavior. Understanding a person means practicing “triple bookkeeping”—simultaneously examining the person’s biological makeup, psychological experience and functioning, and cultural and historical moment. 2. Biopsychology (or behavioral neuroscience) examines the physical basis of psychological phenomena such as motivation, emotion, and stress. Cross-cultural psychology tests psychological hypotheses in different cultures. Biology and culture form the boundaries, or constraints, within which psychological processes operate. 3. The field of psychology began in the late nineteenth century as experimental psychologists attempted to wrest questions about the mind from philosophers. Most shared a strong belief in the scientific method as a way of avoiding philosophical debates about the way the mind works. Among the earliest schools of thought were structuralism and functionalism. Structuralism, developed by Edward Titchener, attempted to use introspection to uncover the basic elements of consciousness and the way they combine with one another into ideas (that is, the structure of consciousness). Functionalism looked for explanations of psychological processes in their role, or function, in helping the individual adapt to the environment. PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY 4. A paradigm is a broad system of theoretical assumptions employed by a scientific community to make sense of a domain of experience. Psychology lacks a unified paradigm but has a number of schools of thought, or perspectives, which are broad ways of understanding psychological phenomena. A psychological perspective, like a paradigm, includes theoretical propositions, shared metaphors, and accepted methods of observation. 5. The psychodynamic perspective originated with Sigmund Freud. From a psychodynamic perspective, most psychological processes that guide behavior are unconscious. Thus, consciousness is like the tip of an iceberg. Because a primary aim is to interpret the meanings or motives of human behavior, psychodynamic psychologists have relied primarily on case study methods. Although heavily criticized for, among other things, its
violation of the falsifiability criterion, psychodynamic theory is benefiting from ongoing efforts to apply more rigorous methods to psychodynamic concepts. These efforts are likely to prove fruitful in integrating these concepts into scientific psychology. 6. The behaviorist perspective focuses on the relation between environmental events and the responses of the organism. Skinner proposed that all behavior can ultimately be understood as learned responses and that behaviors are selected on the basis of their consequences. A primary metaphor underlying behaviorism is the machine; many behaviorists also consider the “mind” an unknowable black box because its contents cannot be studied scientifically. The primary method of behaviorists is laboratory experimentation. 7. The cognitive perspective focuses on the way people process, store, and retrieve information. Information processing refers to taking input from the environment and transforming it into meaningful output. A metaphor underlying the cognitive perspective is the mind as computer, complete with software. In recent years, however, many cognitive psychologists have used the brain itself as a metaphor for the way mental processes operate. The primary method of the cognitive perspective is experimental. 8. The evolutionary perspective argues that many human behavioral proclivities exist because they helped our ancestors survive and produce offspring that would likely survive. Natural selection is the mechanism by which natural forces select traits in organisms that are adaptive in their environmental niche. The basic notion of evolutionary theory is that evolution selects organisms that maximize their reproductive success, defined as the capacity to survive and reproduce and maximize the reproductive success of genetically related individuals. The primary methods are deductive and comparative, although evolutionary psychologists are increasingly relying on experimental methods. 9. Although the four major perspectives largely developed independently, each has made distinctive contributions. 10. Much theory and research in psychology are predicated on certain critical or Big Picture Questions. Among these questions are the extent to which human nature is particular versus universal and the extent to which psychological processes are the same in men and women.
KEY TERMS adaptive traits 20 behavioral genetics 22 behaviorism 15 behaviorist (behavioral) perspective (behaviorism) 15 biopsychology (behavioral neuroscience) 6 cognition 17
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cognitive perspective 17 cross-cultural psychology 8 empiricism 28 ethology 21 evolutionary perspective 20 evolutionary psychologists 22 falsifiability criterion 15 functionalism 10 Gestalt psychology 26
inclusive fitness 22 information processing 18 introspection 9 localization of function 7 natural selection 20 nature–nurture controversy 20 paradigm 12 perspectives 12 psychodynamic perspective 13
psychodynamics 13 psychological anthropologists 8 psychology 3 rationalist philosophers 19 reproductive success 22 sociobiology 22 structuralism 9
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licia was 19 years old when she received a call that would change her life forever. Her parents and only brother had been killed in a car accident. Initially, Alicia reacted with shock and tremendous grief, but over the course of the next year, she gradually regained her emotional equilibrium. About a year after the accident, though, Alicia noticed that she was constantly ill with one cold, sore throat, or bout with the flu after another. After a few trips to the health service, an astute doctor asked her if anything out of the ordinary had happened in the last year. When she mentioned the death of her family, the doctor recommended she see a psychologist. She did—and was free from physical illness from the day she entered the psychologist’s office until more than a year later. Was it coincidence that Alicia’s health improved just as she began expressing her feelings about the loss of her family? Research by James Pennebaker and his colleagues (1997; 2001) suggests not. In one study, the researchers examined a stressful experience much less calamitous than Alicia’s: the transition to college. For most people, entering college is an exciting event, but it can also be stressful, since it often means leaving home, breaking predictable routines, finding a new group of friends, and having to make many more decisions independently. To assess the impact of emotional expression on health, Pennebaker and his colleagues assigned college freshmen to one of two groups. Students in the first group were instructed to write for 20 minutes on three consecutive days about “your very deepest thoughts and feelings about coming to college, including your emotions and thoughts about leaving your friends or your parents—or even about your feelings of who you are or what you want to become.” Students in the other group were asked to describe in detail “what you have done since you woke up this morning” and were explicitly instructed not to mention their emotions, feelings, or opinions. The results were dramatic (Figure 2.1). Students in the emotional expression group made significantly fewer visits to the health service in the following two to three months than those who simply described what they had done that day. The effect largely wore off by the fourth month, but it was remarkable given how seemingly minor the intervention had been. Philosophers have speculated for centuries about the relation between mind and body. Yet here, psychologists were able to demonstrate empirically—that is, through systematic observation—how a psychological event (in this case, simply expressing feelings about a stressful experience) can affect the body’s ability to protect itself from infection. In this chapter we address the ways psychologists use the scientific method to develop theories and answer practical questions using sound scientific procedures.
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FIGURE 2 .1 Emotional expression and health. The figure
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compares the number of visits to the health service of students writing about either emotionally significant or trivial events. Students who wrote about emotionally significant events had better health for the next four months, after which the effect wore off. (Source: Adapted from Pennebaker et al., 1990, p. 533.)
0.3
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0.1
0
–3
–2 –1 Months prior to writing
0
1
2
3
Months after writing
4
Emotional expression group Control group
We begin by discussing the features of good psychological research. How do researchers take a situation like the sudden improvement in Alicia’s health after seeing a psychologist and turn it into a researchable question? How do they know when the findings apply to the real world? Then we consider three major types of research: descriptive, experimental, and correlational. Finally, we examine how to distinguish a good research study from a bad one.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH The tasks of a psychological researcher trying to understand human nature are in some respects similar to the tasks we all face in our daily lives as we try to predict other people’s behavior. For example, a student named Elizabeth is running behind on a term paper. She wants to ask her professor for an extension but does not want to risk his forming a negative impression of her. Her task, then, is one of prediction: How will he respond? To make her decision, she can rely on her observations of the way her professor normally behaves, or she can “experiment” by saying something and seeing how he responds. Elizabeth has observed her professor on many occasions, and her impression—or theory—about him is that he tends to be rigid. She has noticed that when students arrive late to class he looks angry and that when they ask to meet with him outside the class he often seems inflexible in scheduling appointments. She thus expects—hypothesizes—that he will not give her an extension. Not sure, however, that her observations are accurate, she tests her hypothesis by speaking with him casually after class one day. She mentions a “friend” who is having trouble finishing the term paper on time, and she carefully observes his reaction—his facial expressions, his words, and the length of time he takes to respond. The professor surprises her by smiling and advising her that her “friend” can have an extra week. In this scenario, Elizabeth is doing exactly what psychologists do: observing a psychological phenomenon (her professor’s behavior), constructing a theory, using the theory to develop a hypothesis, measuring psychological responses, and testing the hypothesis.
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F I G U R E 2 . 2 Characteristics of good psychological research. Studies vary tremendously in design, but most good research shares certain attributes.
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE
Systematic way of organizing and explaining observations
Procedure that is the same for all participants except where variation is introduced to test a hypothesis
Hypothesis that flows from the theory or from an important question
GENERALIZABILITY
OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENT
Sample that is representative of the population
Measures that are reliable (that produce consistent results)
Procedure that is sensible and relevant to circumstances outside the laboratory
Measures that are valid (that assess the dimensions they purport to assess)
Psychologists are much more systematic in applying scientific methods, and they have more sophisticated tools, but the logic of investigation is basically the same. Like carpenters, researchers attempting to lay a solid empirical foundation for a theory or hypothesis have a number of tools at their disposal. Just as a carpenter would not use a hammer to turn a screw or loosen a bolt, a researcher would not rely exclusively on any single method to lay a solid empirical foundation for a theory. Nevertheless, most of the methods psychologists use—the tools of their trade—share certain features: a theoretical framework, standardized procedures, generalizability, and objective measurement (Figure 2.2). We examine each of these in turn.
Theoretical Framework
theory a systematic way of organizing and explaining observations
hypothesis a tentative belief or educated guess that purports to predict or explain the relationship between two or more variables variable a phenomenon that changes across circumstances or varies among individuals
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Psychologists study some phenomena because of their practical importance. They may, for example, research the impact of divorce on children (Kalter, 1990; Wallerstein & Corbin, 1999) or the effect of cyberbullying on adolescents’ psychological and physical health (Kowalski et al., 2007). In most cases, however, they firmly ground their research in theory. A theory systematically organizes and explains observations by including a set of propositions, or statements about the relations among various phenomena. For example, a psychologist might theorize that a pessimistic attitude promotes poor physical health for two reasons: Pessimists do not take good care of themselves, and pessimism taxes the body’s defenses against disease by keeping the body in a constant state of alarm. People frequently assume that a theory is simply a fact that has not yet been proven. As suggested in Chapter 1, however, a theory is always a mental construction, an imperfect rendering of reality by a scientist or community of scientists, which can have more or less evidence to support it. The scientist’s thinking is the mortar that holds the bricks of reality in place. Without that mortar, the entire edifice would crumble. In most research, theory provides the framework for the researcher’s specific h ypothesis, or tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables. A variable is any phenomenon that can differ, or vary, from one situation to another or from one person to another; in other words, a variable is a characteristic that can take on different values (such as IQ scores of 115 or 125). For example, a research team interested in the links between optimism and health decided to test the hypothesis that optimism (variable 1) is related to speed of recovery from heart surgery (variable 2). Their theory suggested that optimism should be related to health in general; their specific hypothesis focused on heart disease in particular. In fact, the researchers found that patients undergoing coronary artery bypass operations who are optimistic recover more quickly than patients who are pessimistic (Scheier & Carver, 1993). In this case, optimism and health are variables, because different people are more or less optimistic (they vary as to degree of optimism) and recover more or less quickly
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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
(they vary as to recovery rate). Variables are classified as either a continuous variable, such as the degree of optimism, intelligence, shyness, or rate of recovery, or as a categorical variable, such as gender, species, or whether or not a person has had a heart attack. A categorical variable cannot easily be placed on a continuum; people are either male or female and cannot usually be located on a continuum between the two.
continuous variable a variable that can be placed on a continuum from none or little to much
As you read the chapters of this text, you may wonder where scientists derived the ideas for their research studies. The number of sources for research are as varied as the number of ideas themselves, but a few are prevalent. You can use these sources yourself as tips for getting ideas if you need to design your own research project. [For a list of “hot” topics in psychology, see an interesting article by Zacks and Maley (2007).]
FOCUS ON METHODOLOGY GETTING RESEARCH IDEAS
categorical variable a variable comprised of groupings, classifications, or categories
Read the research literature in an area you find interesting. One of the first lessons of research is that you conduct research in an area that you find interesting. If you find a particular topic interesting, read the literature in that area and you will likely find many unanswered questions that will generate fruitful hypotheses for research. •n Derive hypotheses from an existing theory. Using this traditional way of generating research ideas, researchers read about a particular theory and then derive a series of hypotheses from that theory. Because theories themselves are somewhat abstract, researchers usually cannot test a particular theory. Rather, they test hypotheses that they derive from these theories. •n Imagine what would happen if a particular variable were reduced to zero. What would happen, for example, if people didn’t care about what anyone thought of them? Would they work as hard to maintain their weight or to refrain from engaging in breaches of propriety, such as belching in public? •n Investigate an area that you find personally interesting. Many research studies stem from the personal interest of researchers and may even reflect personal experiences they have had. For example, someone who was raised in foster care may decide to examine the implications of foster care for physical and mental health. Another individual who was sexually abused as a child may decide as an adult to conduct research in the area of sexual abuse. My (RMK) own research on complaining stemmed from my personal curiosity about why people complain as much as they do (and perhaps from the fact that maybe I, too, am a complainer!). •n Apply an old theory to a new phenomenon. A given theory can be used as a source for hypotheses about any number of different topics. Thus, a theory that has traditionally been thought of as being associated with a particular area of study can be applied to a completely new area. •n Observe everyday interactions, and ask yourself questions about why that behavior occurs. Some of the best research ideas happen somewhat accidentally when a person simply observes the behavior of other individuals. A contemporary example is a study whose hypothesis was generated from a song by Mickey Gilley “The Girls Get Pretty at Closing Time” (Pennebaker et al., 1979). Do they? And, if so, why? •n Reverse the direction of causality for a hypothesis. Here, a researcher takes an existing hypothesis and reverses the direction of causality. For example, although most people would say that they blush when they are embarrassed, is it also possible that people are embarrassed because they blush? •n
(Adapted from Leary, 2001)
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Standardized Procedures standardized procedures procedures applied uniformly to participants that minimize unintended variation
In addition to being grounded in theory, good psychological research uses standardized procedures that expose participants in a study to procedures that are as similar as possible. For example, in the study of emotional expression and health that opened this chapter, the experimenters instructed students in both groups to write for 20 minutes a day for three days. If instead they had let the students write for as long as they wanted, students in one group might have written more, and the experimenters would not have been able to tell whether differences in visits to the health service reflected the content of their writing or simply the quantity.
Generalizability from a Sample population a group of people or animals of interest to a researcher from which a sample is drawn representative a sample that reflects characteristics of the population as a whole sample a subgroup of a population likely to be representative of the population as a whole participants the individuals who participate in a study; also called subjects generalizability the applicability of a study’s findings to the entire population of interest internal validity the extent to which a study is methodologically adequate
external validity the extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to situations outside the laboratory
experimenter’s dilemma the trade-off between internal and external validity
Psychological research typically studies the behavior of a subset of people to learn about a larger group to whom the research findings should be applicable, known as the population. The population might be as broad as all humans or as narrow as preschool children with working mothers. A subset of the population that is likely to be representative of the population as a whole is called the sample. The individuals who participate in a study are called participants or subjects. A representative sample contributes to the generalizability of a study’s conclusions. Often researchers intend their findings to be generalizable to people as a whole. At other times, however, they are interested in generalizing to specific subgroups, such as people over 65, married couples, or women. For a study to be generalizable, its procedures must be sound, or valid. To be valid, a study must meet two criteria. First, the design of the study itself must be valid— have internal validity. A study with low internal validity does not allow a researcher to convincingly make any inferences regarding cause and effect. If a study has fatal flaws—such as an unrepresentative sample or nonstandardized aspects of the design that affect the way participants respond—its internal validity is jeopardized. Similarly, if researchers have failed to control for extraneous variables that could account for their findings, the internal validity of the study is called into question. Second, the study must establish external validity, or generalizability. Does expressing feelings on paper for three days in a laboratory simulate what happens when people express feelings in their diary or to a close friend? The problem is that often researchers must strike a balance between internal and external validity, because the more tightly a researcher controls what participants experience, the less the situation may resemble life outside the laboratory. This choice point for researchers is referred to as the experimenter’s dilemma. Whether a researcher opts for more internal than external validity or vice versa depends on his or her research hypothesis. A researcher conducting applied research would place more emphasis on external validity. A researcher focused more on advancing knowledge or increasing our understanding of a particular phenomenon might place more emphasis on internal validity. I N T E R I M
S U M M A R Y
Psychological research is generally guided by a theory—a systematic way of organizing and explaining observations. The theory helps generate a hypothesis, or tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables. Variables are phenomena that differ or change across circumstances or individuals; they can be either continuous or categorical, depending on whether they form a continuum or are comprised of categories. Standardized procedures expose participants in a study to procedures that are as similar as possible. Although psychologists are typically interested in knowing something about a population, to do so they usually study a sample, or subgroup, that is likely to be representative of the population. To be generalizable, a study must have both internal validity (a valid design) and external validity (applicability to situations outside the laboratory). Unfortunately, the researcher typically has to choose whether to place more emphasis on internal or on external validity, a trade-off referred to as the experimenter’s dilemma.
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Objective Measurement As in all scientific endeavors, objectivity is an important ideal in psychological research. Otherwise, the results of a study might simply reflect the experimenter’s subjective impression. Researchers must therefore devise ways to quantify or categorize variables so they can be measured. Consider a study in which the researchers hoped to challenge popular beliefs and theories about children’s popularity (Rodkin et al., 2000). Rather than viewing all popular children as “model citizens,” the researchers theorized that some popular children (in this study, boys) are actually aggressive kids who impress others with their “toughness” more than with their good nature. So how might researchers turn a seemingly subjective variable such as “popularity” in elementary school boys into something that they can measure? One way is through quantifying teachers’ observations. Contrary to many students’ beliefs, teachers often have a keen eye for what is going on in their classrooms, and they tend to know which kids are high or low on the schoolyard totem pole. Thus, in this study, teachers filled out an 18-item questionnaire that asked them to rate each boy in their class on items such as “popular with girls,” “popular with boys,” and “lots of friends.” (Teachers also rated items about the boys’ scholastic achievement, athletic ability, and other variables.) Using statistical techniques that can sort people who are similar to each other and different from others into groups—in this case, sorting boys into groups based on their teachers’ descriptions of them—the researchers discovered two kinds of boys who are popular. One kind was indeed the model citizen type—high in academic achievement, friendly, good-looking, and good at sports. The other kind, however, differed from the first type in one respect: These boys, too, were good-looking and good at sports, but their other most striking quality was that they were aggressive. To study a variable such as popularity, then, a researcher must first devise a technique to measure it. A measure is a way of bringing an often abstract concept down to earth. In this study, the investigators used a rating scale, that is, a measure that assesses a variable on a numerical scale—such as 1–7, where 1 = not true and 7 = very true—to assess popularity. As a general measure of popularity, they actually took the average of each child’s rating on three items (popularity with boys, popularity with girls, and having many friends). In the study of emotional expression and health, the investigators obtained records of visits from the campus health service as a rough measure of illness. This was a better measure than simply asking students how often they got sick, because people may not be able to remember or report illness objectively. For example, one person’s threshold for being “sick” might be much lower than another’s. For some variables, measurement is not a problem. For example, researchers typically have little difficulty distinguishing males from females. However, for some characteristics, such as popularity, health, or optimism, measurement is much more complex. In these cases, researchers need to know two characteristics of a measure: whether it is reliable and whether it is valid. rELIABILITY Reliability refers to a measure’s consistency. Using a measure is like stepping on a scale: The same person should not register 145 pounds one moment and 152 a few minutes later. Similarly, a reliable psychological measure does not fluctuate substantially despite the presence of random factors that may influence results, such as whether the participant had a good night’s sleep or who coded the data. Reliability in this technical sense is not altogether different from reliability in its everyday meaning: A test is unreliable if we cannot count on it to behave consistently, just as a plumber is unreliable if we cannot count on him to show up consistently when he says he will. An unreliable measure may sometimes work, just as an unreliable plumber may sometimes work, but we can never predict when either will perform adequately.
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measure a concrete way of assessing a variable
reliability a measure’s ability to produce consistent results
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Three kinds of reliability are especially important (Figure 2.3). Test–retest reliability refers to a measure’s tendency to yield simiTest–retest—consistency across time Face validity lar scores for the same individual over time. The researchers interConstruct validity ested in boys’ popularity examined the test–retest reliability of their Convergent validity Interitem reliability—consistency across items measure by readministering it three weeks later; they found that Discriminant validity Criterion validity Interrater reliability—consistency across people boys rated as popular or aggressive initially were rated very similarly three weeks later—a confirmation of the measure’s reliability. Another kind of reliability is internal consistency, or interF I G U R E 2 . 3 Psychometric characteristics of good measures. To be valid, studies must contain item reliability. This refers to the consistency of participants’ responses across items measures that are both reliable and valid. The on a scale. A measure is internally consistent if several ways of asking the same quesfigure depicts the different types of reliability and tion yield similar results. Thus, if being high on popularity with boys did not predict validity that researchers must consider. being high on popularity with girls, averaging these two items would not yield an internally consistent measure. test–retest reliability tendency of a test to A third kind of reliability is interrater reliability, or consistency across people. yield relatively similar scores for the same individual Two people rating the same behavior should assign similar scores. In the study of over time popularity, for example, one way to assess interrater reliability would have been to ask two different teachers who knew the same children to rate them and to see if their internal consistency a type of reliability that ratings were similar. Although some variables can be rated quite easily with relatively assesses whether the items in a test measure the same high reliability, others, such as optimism as assessed from people’s diaries, require the construct; also known as interitem reliability development of detailed coding manuals to guarantee that different raters are similarly interrater reliability a measure of the “calibrated,” like two thermometers recording temperature in the same room. similarity with which different raters apply a measure RELIABILITY
validity the extent to which a test measures the construct it attempts to assess or a study adequately addresses the hypothesis it attempts to assess
face validity the degree to which a measure appears to measure what it purports to measure
construct validity the degree to which a measure actually assesses what it claims to measure
criterion validity the degree to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish among groups on the basis of certain behaviors or responses
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VALIDITY
VALIDITY A study can be valid only if the measures it relies on are themselves valid. When the term validity is applied to a psychological measure, it refers to the measure’s ability to assess the variable it is supposed to assess. For example, IQ tests are supposed to measure intelligence. One way psychologists have tried to demonstrate the validity of IQ test scores is to show that they consistently predict other phenomena that require intellectual ability, such as school performance. As we will see in Chapter 8, IQ tests and similar tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) are, in general, highly predictive of school success (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Some of the measures people intuitively use in their daily lives have much less certain validity, as when Elizabeth initially presumed that her professor’s inflexibility in arranging meetings with students was a good index of his general flexibility (rather than, say, a tight schedule). Just as there are different types of reliability, so, too, are there different types of validity (see Figure 2.3). As you will see, some types of validity are more important than others. One type, the least important one, is face validity. Many researchers go out of their way to ensure that their scale does not have face validity. Concerned that participants may alter their responses if they discern the researcher’s purpose, experimenters may try to disguise the true purpose of their measure. More important is construct validity, or the degree to which a measure actually assesses what it claims to measure. Construct validity is determined in one of two ways. Measures that are high in construct validity should correlate with related measures, a type of construct validity referred to as convergent validity. Thus, a measure of social anxiety should correlate with other existing measures of social anxiety or related constructs, such as fear of negative evaluation or public self-consciousness. At the same time, a measure that has construct validity should also have discriminant validity; that is, it should not correlate with unrelated measures. A measure should be distinct from unrelated measures. A third type of validity, criterion validity, refers to the degree to which a measure allows a researcher to distinguish among groups on the basis of certain behaviors or responses. The SAT test mentioned earlier is assessed for its criterion validity or the extent to which, in fact, it distinguishes among students who do versus do not perform well in college approximately a year after they take the test. Similarly, the teacher report measure used to assess children’s popularity, aggressiveness, academic achievement, and other variables predicted children’s functioning as many as eight years later (e.g., rates of dropping out of school and teenage preg-
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nancy). Showing that a measure of children’s achievement, popularity, and adjustment can predict how well they will do socially and academically several years later provides strong evidence for the criterion validity of a measure. MULTIPLE MEASURES One of the best ways to obtain an accurate assessment of a variable is to employ multiple measures of it. Multiple measures or converging operations are important because no psychological measure is perfect. A measure that assesses a variable accurately 80 percent of the time is excellent—but it is also inaccurate 20 percent of the time. In fact, built into every measure is a certain amount of error. For example, IQ is a good predictor of school success most of the time, but for some people it overpredicts or underpredicts their performance. Multiple measures therefore provide a safety net for catching errors. Virtually all good psychological studies share the ingredients of psychological research outlined here: a theoretical framework, standardized procedures, generalizability, and objective measurement. Nevertheless, studies vary considerably in design and goals. The following sections examine three broad types of research (as detailed later in Table 2.2): descriptive, experimental, and correlational. In actuality, the lines separating these types are not hard-and-fast. Many studies categorized as descriptive include experimental components, and correlational questions are often built into experiments. The aim in designing research is scientific rigor and practicality, not purity; the best strategy is to use whatever systematic empirical methods are available to explore the hypothesis and to see if different methods and designs converge on similar findings—that is, to see if the finding is “reliable” with different methods. I NT E R I M
error the part of a participant’s score on a test that is unrelated to the true score
S U M M A R Y
Just as researchers take a sample of a population, they similarly take a “sample” of a variable—that is, they use a measure of the variable, which provides a concrete way of assessing it. A measure is reliable if it produces consistent results—that is, if it does not show too much random fluctuation. A measure is valid if it accurately assesses or “samples” the construct it is intended to measure. Because every measure includes some degree of error, researchers often use multiple measures (in order to assess more than one sample of the relevant behavior).
Psychology at W or k
The Meaning Behind the Message
How important is language? What do words tell us? Do the specific words that people use convey more than their surface meaning? Do different words convey different types of information about a person’s emotions, thoughts, and intentions? Is our use of words affected by the situations that we confront in our lives? Recent research by James Pennebaker and his colleagues suggests that the answers to these questions appears to be “yes.” As described in the story that opened this chapter, for a number of years Pennebaker and his colleagues have examined the physical and psychological benefits of writing about one’s thoughts and feelings. Throughout a series of studies, Pennebaker found that people who disclosed traumatic events, particularly those they had never revealed before, showed improved physical and psychological health for months and, in some cases, years following the disclosure. For example, in a study with 63 unemployed workers, those who wrote about their thoughts and feelings associated with being unemployed found jobs more quickly than those who wrote about unrelated topics (Spera et al., 1994). More recently, he has conducted linguistic analyses of written text with the goal of identifying what people’s word choices actually say about them and how those word choices affect others’ perceptions of them. Viewed this way, our language operates very much like a projective test (Chapter 12), revealing our personality, feelings, and emotional states. Different types of words reveal different aspects of the
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self. For example, function words (e.g., pronouns, prepositions, articles, conjunctions, and auxiliary verbs) convey information about an individual’s emotional state (e.g., depression), biological state (e.g., heart disease proneness), personality (e.g., neuroticism), cognitive styles (e.g., thought complexity), and social relationships (e.g., honesty) (Pennebaker et al., 2003). Exclusive words (e.g., but, without) are indicative of cognitive complexity. Importantly, Pennebaker was not the first to suggest that words are indicative of psychological states. For example, Freud suggested that the mistakes people make in their speech (i.e., Freudian slips) reveal information about their thoughts, motives, and unconscious conflicts (Pennebaker et al., 2003). In one study, Pennebaker and his colleagues (Slatcher et al., 2007) compared the linguistic features of the presidential and vice presidential candidates in the 2004 U.S. presidential election. Using a linguistic program, they analyzed 271 transcripts of televised interviews, press conferences, and campaign debates that had been aired during the 11 months of 2004 leading up to the election. Specifically, they were interested in linguistic markers of cognitive complexity, femininity, age, depression, presidentiality, and honesty. They found differences in linguistic style not only across the four individuals but also across political party. For example, not only was Dick Cheney’s language more presidential than that of any of the other three candidates, but Republications’ language was more presidential than that of Democrats. Cheney’s language was also rated as more honest (e.g., higher number of self-references and fewer words conveying negative emotion) and as more cognitively complex. John Edwards and George W. Bush used language that reflected the least amount of cognitive complexity, while John Kerry’s linguistic choice was the most depressive. The linguistic analysis showed Bush’s to be most reflective of an older individual through its use of fewer first-person references and a great focus on the future (Slatcher et al., 2007). In another intriguing study, Pennebaker and his colleagues (Pennebaker & Chung, 2009) conducted a linguistic analysis of 58 texts provided by the FBI, 36 of which were authored by Osama bin Laden and 17 of which were authored by Ayman al-Zawahiri. The remaining texts were authored by both or it was unknown which of the two created the text. A comparison group of texts from other terrorist leaders was also analyzed. The researchers used a text analysis program known as the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), which searches written text for over 2300 words or word stems that are then grouped into over 70 linguistic categories. Included among these categories are language categories (e.g., prepositions and pronouns), psychological processes (e.g., positive and negative affect; cognitive processes), and content groupings (e.g., home and occupation) (Pennebaker et al., 2003). The researchers found that, compared to the other terrorist group leaders, bin Laden and Zawahiri used words reflecting more emotion, most notably anger. They also showed more cognitive complexity, but bin Laden surpassed Zawahiri on this dimension. Importantly, bin Laden’s use of exclusive words demonstrating cognitive complexity had increased significantly since 1988. In contrast to bin Laden, Zawahiri’s use of firstperson pronouns had increased markedly over the years. Pennebaker and his colleagues interpreted this as indicative of increasing feelings of insecurity and threat. (See Table 2.1 for a summary of all of the results.) The same linguistic program that was used in the previous two studies was also used in a study that examined the online journal entries of individuals over a fourmonth period that spanned the two months prior to and the two months after September 11, 2001. Individuals who were the most preoccupied with the events of September 11 showed the greatest psychological change as reflected in their linguistic style. Not surprisingly, the diaries of these high-frequency journal writers evidenced more negative emotion words immediately after 9/11. After about two weeks, however, the proportion of negative emotion words decreased, but the number of social responses (i.e., words referring to other people), which had shown an increase immediately following 9/11, decreased over the remainder of the four-month observation period, particularly for those preoccupied with 9/11 (Cohn et al., 2004). Words reflecting greater psychological distancing showed a marked increase following 9/11 compared to before, and this increase remained high for the duration of the study.
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TABLE 2 .1 Comparison of Public Statements of Bin Ladin, Zawahiri, and Other Terrorist Groups
Word Count
Bin Ladin (1988 to 2006) N = 28+
Zawahiri (2003 to 2006) N = 15+
Controls N = 17
2511.5++
1996.4
4767.5
+++
P (two-tailed)
Big Words (greater than 6 letters)
21.2a
23.6b
21.1a
.05
Pronouns
9.15ab
9.83b
8.16a
.09
I (e.g., I, me, my)
0.61
0.90
0.83
We (e.g., we, our, us)
1.94
1.79
1.95
You (e.g., you, your, yours)
1.73
1.69
0.87
He/she (e.g., he, hers, they)
1.42
1.42
1.37
They (e.g., they, them)
2.17a
2.29a
1.43b
14.8
14.7
15.0
Articles (e.g., a, an, the)
9.07
8.53
9.19
Exclusive Words (but, exclude)
2.72
2.62
3.17
5.13a
5.12a
3.91b
.01
Positive emotion (happy, joy, love)
2.57a
2.83a
2.03b
.01
Negative emotion (awful, cry, hate)
2.52a
2.28ab
1.87b
.03
Anger words (hate, kill)
1.49a
1.32a
.89b
.01
Cognitive Mechanisms
4.43
4.56
4.86
Time (clock, hour)
2.40b
1.89a
2.69b
.01
Past tense verbs
2.21a
1.63a
2.94b
.01
11.4a
10.7ab
9.29b
.04
Humans (e.g., child, people, selves)
.95ab
.52a
1.12b
.05
Family (mother, father)
.46ab
.52a
.25b
.08
Death (e.g., dead, killing, murder)
.55
.47
.64
Achievement
.94
.89
.81
Money (e.g., buy, economy, wealth)
.34
.38
.58
Religion (e.g., faith, Jew, sacred)
2.41
1.84
1.89
Prepositions
Affect
Social Processes
.03
Content
+
Documents whose source indicates“Both” (n = 3) or “Unknown” (n = 2) were excluded due to their small sample sizes. Numbers are mean percentages of total words per text file and the results of statistical tests (mean square differnces) between bin Laden, al-Zawahiri, and controls. +++ In any row, mean percentages that differed from each other—on a level of significance indicated in the last coloumn—bear unequal subscripts, a or b. A mean that is not different from either a or b is subscripted by ab. Means that are not statistically different from each other bear the same subscripts. ++
Reprinted with permission from Pennebaker, J.W., & Chung, C.K. (2009). Computerized text analysis of Al-Qaeda transcripts. In K. Krippendorff & M.A. Bock (Eds.), A content analysis reader (pp. 453–465). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
All of these studies used the LIWC, (Pennebaker et al., 2001). The program was originally designed to determine which linguistic characteristics best forecast improvements in physical and psychological health following traumatic events (Pennebaker et al., 2003). Clearly, however, based on the studies described above, the usefulness of the methodology has spread far beyond its original design.
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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH descriptive research research methods that cannot unambiguously demonstrate cause and effect, including case studies, naturalistic observation, survey research, and correlational methods
The first major type of research, descriptive research, attempts to describe phenomena as they exist rather than to manipulate variables. Do people in different cultures use similar terms to describe people’s personalities, such as outgoing or responsible (McCrae et al., 1998; Paunonen et al., 1992)? Do members of other primate species compete for status and form coalitions against powerful members of the group whose behavior is becoming oppressive? To answer such questions, psychologists use a variety of descriptive methods, including case studies, naturalistic observation, and survey research. Table 2.2 summarizes the major uses and limitations of these descriptive methods as well as the other methods psychologists use.
Case Study Methods A case study is an in-depth observation of one person or a small group of individuals. Case study methods are useful when trying to learn about complex psychological phenomena that are not yet well understood and require exploration or that are difficult to produce experimentally. For example, one study used the case of a four-year-old girl who had witnessed her mother’s violent death three years earlier as a way of trying to explore the issue of whether, and if so in what ways, children can show effects of traumatic incidents they cannot explicitly recall (Gaensbauer et al., 1995). Single-case designs can also be used in combination with quantitative or experimental procedures (Blampied, 1999; Kazdin & Tuma, 1982). For example, researchers studying patients with severe seizure disorders who have had the connecting tissue between two sides of their brains surgically cut have presented information to one side of the brain to see whether the other side of the brain can figure out what is going on (Chapters 3 and 9).
case study in-depth observation of one subject or a small group of subjects
TABLE 2 .2 COMPARISON OF RESEARCH METHODS Method
Description
Experimental
Manipulation of variables to assess cause and effect
Descriptive Case study
In-depth observation of a small number of cases
Naturalistic observation
In-depth observation of a phenomenon as it occurs in nature
Survey research
Asking people questions about their attitudes, behavior, etc.
Correlational
Examines the extent to which two or more variables are related and can be used to predict one another
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Uses and Advantages Demonstrates causal relationships Replicability: study can be repeated to see if the same findings emerge ■ Maximizes control over relevant variables
Potential Limitations Generalizability outside the laboratory Some complex phenomena cannot be readily tested using pure experimental methods
■
■
■
■
Describes psychological processes as they occur in individual cases ■ Allows study of complex phenomena to be easily reproduced experimentally ■ Provides data that can be useful in framing hypotheses ■
Reveals phenomena as they exist outside the laboratory ■ Allows study of complex phenomena not easily reproduced experimentally ■ Provides data that can be useful in framing hypotheses ■
Reveals attitudes or self-reported behaviors of a large sample of individuals ■ Allows quantification of attitudes or behaviors ■
Reveals relations among variables as they exist outside the laboratory ■ Allows quantification of relations among variables ■
Generalizability to the population Replicability: study may not be repeatable ■ Researcher bias ■ Cannot establish causation ■ ■
Generalizability to the population Replicability ■ Observer effects: the presence of an observer may alter the behavior of the participants ■ Researcher bias ■ Cannot establish causation ■ ■
Self-report bias: people may not be able to report honestly or accurately ■ Cannot establish causation ■
Cannot establish causation
■
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Psychologists who take an interpretive (or hermeneutic) approach to methodology often use case studies; their aim is to examine the complex meanings that may underlie human behavior (Martin & Sugarman, 1999; McKee, 2006; Messer et al., 1988). One person may commit suicide because he feels he is a failure; another may kill herself to get back at a relative or spouse; another may seek escape from intense or chronic psychic pain; and still another may take his life because cultural norms demand it in the face of a wrongdoing or humiliation. From an interpretive point of view, explaining a behavior such as suicide means understanding the subjective meanings behind it. Interpreting meanings of this sort typically requires in-depth interviewing. One major limitation of case study methods is sample size. Because case studies examine only a small group of participants, generalization to a larger population is always uncertain. An investigator who conducts intensive research on one or several young women with anorexia and finds that their self-starvation behavior appears tied to their wishes for control might be tempted to conclude that control issues are central to this disorder (e.g., Bruch, 1973). They may well be, but they may also be idiosyncratic to this particular study. One way to minimize this limitation is to use a multiple-case-study method (Rosenwald, 1988), extensively examining a small sample of people individually and drawing generalizations across them. Another way is to follow up case studies with more systematic studies using other designs. Several studies have now shown, for example, that patients with anorexia do tend to be preoccupied with control, a finding initially discovered through the careful analysis of individual cases (Serpell et al., 1999). A second limitation of case studies is their susceptibility to researcher bias. Investigators tend to see what they expect to see. A psychotherapist who believes that anorexic patients have conflicts about sexuality will undoubtedly see such conflicts in his anorexic patients because they are operative in virtually everyone. In writing up the case, he may select examples that demonstrate these conflicts and miss other issues that might be just as salient to another observer. Because no one else is privy to the data of a case, no other investigator can examine the data directly and draw different conclusions unless the therapy sessions are videotaped; the data are always filtered through the psychologist’s theoretical lens. Case studies are probably most useful at either the beginning or end of a series of studies that employ quantitative methods with larger samples. Exploring individual cases can be crucial in deciding what questions to ask or what hypotheses to test because they allow the researchers to immerse themselves in the phenomenon as it appears in real life. A case study can also flesh out the meaning of quantitative findings by providing a detailed analysis of representative examples.
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MAKING CONNECTIONS PAN WATER
Case studies are often useful when large numbers of participants are not available, either because they do not exist or because obtaining them would be extremely difficult. For example, extensive case studies of patients who have undergone surgery to sever the tissue connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain (in order to control severe epileptic seizures) have yielded important information about the specific functions of the two hemispheres (Chapters 3 and 9).
Naturalistic Observation A second descriptive method, naturalistic observation, is the in-depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting, such as Jane Goodall’s well-known studies of apes in the wilds of Africa. For example, Frans de Waal, like Goodall, has spent years both in the wild and at zoos observing the way groups of apes or monkeys behave. De Waal (1989) describes an incident in which a dominant male chimpanzee in captivity made an aggressive charge at a female. The troop, clearly distressed by the male’s behavior, came to the aid of the female and then settled into an unusual silence. Suddenly, the room echoed with hoots and howls, during which two of the chimps kissed and embraced. To de Waal’s surprise, the two chimps were the same ones who had been involved in the fight that had set off the episode! After several hours of pondering the incident, de Waal suddenly realized that he had observed something he had naively assumed was unique to humans: reconciliation. This observation led him to study the way primates maintain social relationships despite conflicts and acts of aggression. His research led him to conclude that for humans, as for some animal species, “making peace is as natural as making war” (p. 7).
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naturalistic observation the in-depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting
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Naturalistic observation can lead to novel insights, such as the importance of peacemaking in primates.
Psychologists also observe humans “in the wild” using naturalistic methods, as in some classic studies of Genevan schoolchildren by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1926). Piaget and his colleagues relied heavily on experimental methods, but they also conducted naturalistic research in playgrounds and classrooms, taking detailed notes on who spoke to whom, for how long, and on what topics (Chapter 13). Piaget found that young children often speak in “collective monologues,” talking all at once; they may neither notice whether they are being listened to nor address their comments to a particular listener. An advantage of naturalistic observation over experimental methods— to be discussed shortly—is that its findings are clearly applicable outside the laboratory. In fact, however, the awareness of being watched may alter people’s “natural” behavior in real-world settings. Researchers try to minimize this problem in one of two ways. One is simply to be as inconspicuous as possible—“to blend into the woodwork.” The other is to become a participant–observer, interacting naturally with participants in their environment, much as Goodall did once she came to “know” a troop of apes over months or years. Similarly, researchers interested in doomsday groups whose members believe that they know when the world will end often join the groups so that their presence appears natural and unobtrusive. No matter how inconspicuous researchers make themselves to participants, researcher bias can pose limitations because observers’ theoretical biases can influence what they look for and therefore what they see. As with case studies, this limitation can be minimized by observing several groups of participants or by videotaping interactions, so that more than one judge can independently rate the data. Finally, like other descriptive studies, naturalistic observation primarily describes behaviors; it cannot explain why they take place. Based on extensive observation, a psychologist can make a convincing argument about the way one variable influences another, but this method does not afford the luxury of doing something to participants and seeing what they do in response, as in experimental designs.
Survey Research survey research research asking a large sample of participants questions, often about attitudes or behaviors, using questionnaires or interviews
interviews a research tool in which the investigator asks the participant questions questionnaires research tools in which the investigator asks participants to respond to a written list of questions or items random sample a sample of participants selected from the population in a relatively arbitrary manner
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A third type of descriptive research, survey research, involves asking a large sample of people questions, usually about their attitudes or behaviors. For example, a large corporation might call in an organizational psychologist to try to help understand why morale is declining among workers in the factory. The psychologist begins by interviewing a small sample of employees, from executives to workers on the line, and then designs a survey, which is completed by a random sample of workers in randomly selected plants around the country. The survey asks workers to rate a series of statements, such as “My job does not pay well,” “I do not receive enough vacation time,” and “I feel I am not learning anything on the job,” on a 7-point scale (where 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree). The two most frequently used tools of survey researchers are interviews and questionnaires. Selecting the sample is extremely important in survey research. For example, pollsters conducting voter exit interviews must be sure that their sample reflects a large and heterogeneous population if they are to predict election results accurately. Researchers typically want a random sample. The organizational psychologist seeking a random sample of factory workers in a company, for instance, might choose names randomly selected from payroll or personnel records. Random selection, however, does not always guarantee that a sample will accurately reflect the demographic characteristics (qualities such as gender, race, and socioeconomic status) of the population in which the researcher is interested. A survey sent to a random sample of workers in a company may, for example, lead to biased results if unhappy workers are afraid to answer or if workers who are unhappy have higher absentee rates (and hence are not at work when the form arrives). Similarly, a political poll that randomly samples names from the phone book may overrepresent people who happen to be home answering the phone during the day, such as older people, and may underrepresent poor people who do not have a phone.
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Where proportional representation of different subpopulations is important, researchers use a stratified random sample. A stratified random sample specifies the percentage of people to be drawn from each population category (age, race, etc.) and then randomly selects participants from within each category. Researchers often use census data to provide demographic information on the population of interest and then match this information as closely as possible in their sample. The major problem with survey methods is that they rely on participants to report on themselves truthfully and accurately, and even minor wording changes can sometimes dramatically alter their responses (Schwarz, 1999). For example, most people tend to describe their behaviors and attitudes in more flattering terms than others would use to describe them (Campbell & Sedikides, 1999; John & Robins, 1994). How many people are likely to admit their addiction to Friends or Seinfeld reruns? In part, people’s answers may be biased by conscious efforts to present themselves in the best possible light. However, they may also shade the truth without being aware of doing so because they want to feel intelligent or psychologically healthy (Shedler et al., 1993). In addition, participants may honestly misjudge themselves, or their conscious attitudes may differ from attitudes they express in their behavior (Chapter 16). Measuring people’s attitudes toward the disabled by questionnaire typically indicates much more positive attitudes than measuring how far they sit from a disabled person when entering a room (see Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson et al., 2000b). People who sit farther away convey more negative attitudes than do those who sit closer. Finally, some participants may simply not know their own minds (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). In other words, they may not know what they think about particular issues or why they behave in particular ways, yet they will provide a response on a survey when asked to do so. Thus, the answers that they provide will not necessarily reflect actual attitudes or behaviors because the participants are unaware of those attitudes and behaviors or have simply not devoted any attention to thinking about them.
Regardless of the particular type of descriptive research someone decides to use, the researcher is faced with the dilemma of how to summarize the responses that are provided by individuals or groups through observations or in response to surveys or interviews. Perhaps the most important descriptive statistics are measures of central tendency, which provide an index of the way a typical participant responded on a measure. The three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode. The mean, or average, is the most commonly reported measure of central tendency and is the most intuitively descriptive of the average participant. Sometimes, however, the mean may be misleading. For example, consider the table of midterm exam scores presented in Table 2.3. The mean grade is 77. Yet the mean falls below six of the seven scores on the table. In fact, most students’ scores fall somewhere between 81 and 91. Why is the mean so low? It is pulled down by the score of a single student—an outlier—who probably did not study. In this case, the median would be a more useful measure of central tendency, because a mean can be strongly influenced by extreme and unusual scores in a sample. The median is the score that falls in the middle of the distribution of scores, with half scoring below and half above it. Reporting the median allows one to ignore extreme scores on each end of the distribution that would bias a portrait of the typical participant. In fact, the median in this case—85 (which has three scores above and three below it)—makes more intuitive sense, in that it seems to capture the middle of the distribution, which is precisely what a measure of central tendency is supposed to do. In other instances, a useful measure of central tendency is the mode (or modal score), which is the most frequently occurring score observed in the sample. In this
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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
45
stratified random sample a sample selected to represent subpopulations proportionately, randomizing only within groups (such as age or race)
FOCUS ON METHODOLOGY WHAT TO DO WITH DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
mean the statistical average of the scores of all participants on a measure
median the score that falls in the middle of the distribution of scores, with half of the participants scoring below it and half above it
mode the most common or most frequent score or value of a variable observed in a sample; also known as modal score
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variability of scores the extent to which participants tend to vary from each other in their scores on a measure range a measure of variability that represents the difference between the highest and the lowest value on a variable obtained in a sample standard deviation (SD) the amount that the average participant deviates from the mean of the sample on a measure
case, the mode is 91, because two students received a score of 91, whereas all other scores had a frequency of only one. The problem with the mode in this case is that it is also the highest score, which is not a good estimate of central tendency. Another important descriptive statistic is a measure of the variability of scores. Variability influences the choice of measure of central tendency. The simplest measure of variability is the range, which shows the difference between the highest and lowest value observed on the variable. The range can be a biased estimate of variability, however, in much the same way as the mean can be a biased estimate of central tendency. Scores do range considerably in this sample, but for the vast majority of students, variability is minimal (ranging from 81 to 91). Hence, a more useful measure is the standard deviation (SD), or the amount the average participant deviates from the mean of the sample. Table 2.4 shows how to compute a standard deviation, using five students’scores on a midterm exam as an illustration.
TABLE 2 .3 DISTRIBUTION OF TEST SCORES ON A MIDTERM EXAMINATION 91 91
Mean =
Mode
539 (total) = 77 7 (number of students)
87 85 Median 84 81 20 Total 539
TABLE 2 .4 THE STANDARD DEVIATION Score
Deviation from the Mean (D)
D2
91
91 - 87.6 = 3.4
11.56
91
91 - 87.6 = 3.4
11.56
87
87 - 87.6 = -0.6
0.36
85
85 - 87.6 = -2.6
6.76
84
84 - 87.6 = -3.6
12.96
Σ = Sum = 438
43.20
0
Mean =
SD =
Σ = 438/ 5 = 87 . 6 N
ED 2 = N
43 . 2 = 2 . 94 5
Note: Computing a standard deviation (SD) is more intuitive than it might seem. The first step is to calculate the mean score, which in this case is 87.6. The next step is to calculate the difference, or deviation, between each participant’s score and the mean score, as shown in column 2. The standard deviation is meant to capture the average deviation of participants from the mean. The only complication is that taking the average of the deviations would always produce a mean deviation of zero because the sum of deviations is by definition zero (see the total in column 2). Thus, the next step is to square the deviations (column 3). The standard deviation is then computed by taking the square root of the sum (2) of all the squared differences divided by the number of participants (N).
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I N T E R I M
S U M M A R Y
Descriptive research describes phenomena as they already exist rather than manipulating variables. A case study is an in-depth observation of one person or a group of people. Case studies are useful in generating hypotheses, exploring complex phenomena that are not yet well understood or are difficult to examine experimentally, fleshing out the meaning of quantitative findings, and interpreting behaviors with complex meanings. Naturalistic observation is the in-depth observation of a phenomenon in its natural setting. It is useful for describing complex phenomena as they exist outside the laboratory. Survey research involves asking a large sample of people questions, usually about their attitudes or behavior, through interviews or questionnaires. Random and stratified random samples allow psychologists to gather substantial information about the population by examining representative samples. However, descriptive methods cannot unambiguously establish causation. To summarize participants’ responses obtained in descriptive research, researchers often use a measure of central tendency: the mean, median, or mode.
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH In experimental research, investigators manipulate some aspect of a situation and examine the impact on the way participants respond. Experimental methods are important because they can establish cause and effect—causation—directly by proving that manipulating one variable leads to predicted changes in another. The researchers studying the impact of emotional expression on health can be confident that writing emotionally about a stressful experience caused better health because participants who did so were subsequently healthier than those who did not.
experimental research a research design in which investigators manipulate some aspect of a situation and examine the impact of this manipulation on the way participants respond
The Logic of Experimentation The logic of experimentation is much more straightforward and intuitive than many people think. (Elizabeth used it implicitly when she tested her professor’s flexibility, as we all do multiple times a day in one situation after another.) An experimenter manipulates variables, called independent variables. The aim is to assess the impact of these manipulations on the way participants subsequently respond. Because participants’ responses depend on their exposure to the independent variable, these responses are known as dependent variables. The independent variable, then, is the variable the experimenter manipulates; the dependent variable is the response the experimenter measures to see if the experimental manipulation had an effect. To assess cause and effect, experimenters present participants with different possible variations, or conditions, of the independent variable and study the way participants react. In the study of emotional expression and health that opened this chapter, the experimenters used an independent variable (emotional expression) with two conditions (express or do not express). They then tested the impact on health (dependent variable). I N T E R I M
independent variables the variables an experimenter manipulates or whose effects the experimenter assesses dependent variables participants’ responses in a study, hypothesized to depend on the influence of the independent variables
conditions values or versions of the independent variable that vary across experimental groups
S U M M A R Y
In experimental research, psychologists manipulate some aspect of a situation (the independent variables) and examine the impact on the way participants respond (the dependent variables). By comparing results in different experimental conditions, researchers can assess cause and effect.
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Steps in Conducting an Experiment Experiments vary widely in both their designs and their goals, but the steps in conceiving and executing them are roughly the same, from the starting point of framing a hypothesis to the ultimate evaluation of findings (Figure 2.4). Although these steps relate specifically to the experimental method, many also apply to descriptive and correlational methods. STEP 1: FRAMING A HYPOTHESIS Suppose a researcher wants to investigate how mood influences memory. Most of us recognize that when we are sad, we tend to recall sad memories, and when we are happy, we remember good times. Gordon Bower (1981, 1989) and his associates developed a cognitive theory to account for this, based on the idea that having an emotion similar to an emotion one has previously experienced tends to “dredge up” (i.e., activate in memory) ideas previously associated with that feeling (Chapter 6). To conduct an experiment, a researcher must first frame a hypothesis that predicts the relationship between two or more variables. Frequently that hypothesis is derived from a theory. Thus, Bower and his colleagues hypothesized that people who are in a positive mood while learning new information will be more likely to remember positive information. Conversely, people in a negative mood while learning will be more likely to remember negative information. This hypothesis states a relationship between two variables: mood state when learning material (the independent variable) and later ability to recall that material (the dependent variable). operationalizing turning an abstract concept or variable into a concrete form that can be defined by some set of operations or actions
STEP 2: OPERATIONALIZING VARIABLES The second step in experimental research is to operationalize the variables. Operationalizing refers to defining a construct in terms of how it will be measured. Bower (1981) operationalized the independent variable, mood state, by hypnotizing participants to feel either happy or sad (the two conditions of the independent variable). He then had participants read a psychiatric patient’s descriptions of various happy and sad memories. Bower operationalized the dependent variable—the ability to recall either positive or negative information—as the number of positive and negative memories the participant could recall 20 minutes later.
STEP 2: OPERATIONALIZING VARIABLES Converting abstract concepts into testable form
STEP 3: DEVELOPING A STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE Setting up experimental and control conditions; attending to demand characteristics; attending to researcher bias
STEP 1: FRAMING A HYPOTHESIS
STEP 4: SELECTING AND ASSIGNING PARTICIPANTS
Predicting the relations among two or more variables
Randomly assigning participants to different conditions
STEP 6: DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
F I G U R E 2 .4 Conducting an experiment requires systematically going through a series of steps, from the initial framing of a hypothesis to drawing conclusions about the data. The process is circular, as the conclusion of one study is generally the origin of another.
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Evaluating whether or not the data support the hypothesis; suggesting future studies to address limitations and new questions raised by the study
STEP 5: APPLYING STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES Describing the data and determining the likelihood that differences between the conditions reflect causality or chance
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STEP 3: DEVELOPING A STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE The next step in constructing an experiment is to develop a standardized procedure so that the only things that vary from participant to participant are the independent variables and participants’ performance on the dependent variables. Standardized procedures maximize the likelihood that any differences observed in participants’ behavior can be attributed to the experimental manipulation, allowing the investigator to draw inferences about cause and effect. In Bower’s study, the experiment would have been contaminated (i.e., ruined) if different participants had heard different stories or varying numbers of positive and negative memories. These differences might have influenced the number of positive and negative memories participants would later recall. Bower’s method of inducing happy or sad mood states also had to be standardized. If the experimenter induced a negative mood in one participant by hypnotizing him and in another by asking him to try to imagine that his mother was dying, differences in recall could stem from the different ways mood was induced. Control Groups Experimental research typically involves dividing participants into groups who experience different conditions or levels of the independent variable and then comparing the responses of the different groups. In Bower’s experiment, one group consisted of participants who were hypnotized to be in a happy mood and another of participan yama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 729– 738. Phillips, D. P., Ruth, T. E., & Wagner, L. M. (1993). Psychology and survival. Lancet, 342, 1142–1145. Phillips, M. L., Young, A. W., Senior, C., Brammer, M., Andrews, C., Calder, A. J., et al. (1997). A specific neural substrate for perceiving facial expressions of disgust. Nature, 389, 495–498. Piaget, J. (1951). The language and thought of the child. New York: Humanities Press (original work published 1926). Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: Free Press. (original work published 1932). Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget’s theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual of child psychology. New York: Wiley. Piaget, J. (1972). Development and learning. In C. S. Lavatelli & F. Stendler (Eds.), Readings in child behavior and development (3rd ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1956). The child’s conception of space (F.J. Langdon & J. L. Lunzer, Trans.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books. Pickens, R., Svikis, D., McGue, M., Lykken, D., Heston, L., & Clayton, P. (1991). Heterogeneity in the inheritance of alcoholism: A study of male and female twins. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 19–28. Pihl, R., Peterson, J., & Finn, P. (1990). Inherited predisposition to alcoholism:
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Photo Credits Chapter 1 Page x (left): Bettmann/©Corbis; page x (right): Ian Cook/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images, Inc.; page 1: Diana Ong/SuperStock; page 2: Kari Van Tine/Stock Illustration Source/Images.com; page 4: Layne Kennedy; page 6 (left): The Granger Collection; page 6 (center): From H. Damasio, T. Grabowski, R. Frank, A.M. Galaburda & A.R. Damasio (1994) The return of Phineas Gage: clues about the brain from a famous patient, Science, 264, 1102-1105. Dornsife Neuroscience Imaging Center and Brain and Creativity Institute, University of Southern California; page 6 (right): Warren Anatomical Museum, Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine; page 7 (top): Collection of Jack and Beverly Wilgus; page 7 (bottom): Courtesy M. Raichle, Washington University School of Medicine; page 8: Bettmann/©Corbis; page 9: Culver Pictures, Inc; page 10 (top): Photo courtesy of Rand B. Evans; page 10 (bottom): The Granger Collection; page 11 (top): Archives of the History of American Psychology The University of Akron; page 11 (bottom left): Archives of the History of American Psychology The University of Akron; page 11 (bottom center): Special Collections, Vassar College Libraries; page 11 (bottom right): Clark University Archives; page 12: Bill Pierce/Getty Images, Inc.; page 13: Bettmann/Corbis; page 16: Bettmann/©Corbis; page 17: Yvonne Hemsey/Getty Images, Inc.; page 19: Michelle Puleo/SuperStock; page 20: Bettmann/Corbis; page 21 (top left): Jim Stamates/Getty Images, Inc; page 21 (top right): Aflo Foto Agency/Alamy; page 21 (bottom): Hopi Hoekstra, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Ecology, Behavior and Evolution Division of Biological Sciences University of California, San Diego; page 23: Antonio Mo/Getty Images, Inc.; page 25: Courtesy Doug Koch, The University of Kansas, University Relations Photo Department; page 26: The Granger Collection. Chapter 2 Page 31: Dale O Dell/Alamy; page 32: Jack Wyman/Getty Images, Inc.; page 44: C.O. Mercial/Alamy; page 55: Wendy Stone/Corbis; page 56: Frederic Cirou/SUPERSTOCK; page 58: From the film Obedience ©1968 by Stanley Milgram; copyright renewed 1993 by Alexandra Milgram and distributed by Penn State Media Sales. Chapter 3 Page 63: Steven Hunt/Getty Images, Inc.; page 64: ©William Powell Frith/The Bridgeman Art Library/Getty Images; page 66 (top left): ©Dennis Kunkel/Phototake; page 66 (top right): M.Abbey Photo/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 67: Photo by Steve Wood, courtesy of UAB Magazine; page 70: © CNRI Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 72: Courtesy David Eidelberg, North Shore-Long Island Jewish Health System; page 73: Jaime Kowal/Getty
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Images, Inc.; page 76: Mehau Kulyk/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 77 (top): Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 77 (bottom): From Neuropsychologia, 35, 725-730, A functional MRI study of mental image generation, D Esposito, et al, 1997. Reproduced with permission from Elsevier; page 80: David Montgomery/Getty Images, Inc.; page 81: Martin M. Rotker/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 85 (top): Untitled Image of H.M. © 2009 by Suzanne Corkin, reprinted with permission of The Wylie Agency LLC; page 85 (bottom): IFC Films/Photofest; page 86: Mug Shots/©Corbis; page 89: EMEK Studios Inc.; page 88: Digital Vision/Getty Images, Inc.; page 90 (top): Sidney Harris/ScienceCartoonsPlus. com; page 90 (bottom): Sage Center; page 93 (top): Courtesy Shaywitz et al., 1995 NMR Research, Yale Medical School; page 93 (bottom): Courtesy Mark R. Rosenzweig; page 94 (top): Courtesy Mark R. Rosenzweig; page 94 (bottom): Courtesy Robin Kowalski; page 96 (top): SUPERSTOCK; page 97: ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 98: Courtesy Robin Kowalski; page 99: © TK Wanstal/The Image Works; page 102: Carolina Biological Supply/Phototake. Chapter 4 Page 107: Medioimages/Photodisc/Getty Images; page 108: ©Dale O Dell/Corbis Images; page 109: Chris Madden/Alamy; page 110: ©Joseph Van Os/The Image Bank/Getty Images; page 112: ©1976 Jim Unger/Laughing Stock Licensing, Inc.; page 117: ©GJPL/CNRI/Phototake; page 118: Lennart Nilsson, The Incredible Machine/Bonnier Alba; page 119 (top): Lon E. Lauber/Photolibrary; page 119 (bottom): Walter Hodges/Stone/Getty Images; page 120: Richard Osbourne/Blue Pearl Photographic/Alamy; page 124: ©Robert Brenner/PhotoEdit; page 126: Theo Rigby; page 128: ISM/Phototake; page 127: Neitz Laboratory; page 129: Seiya Kawamoto/Getty Images, Inc.; page 131 (top): United Artists/Kobal Collection/The Picture Desk; page 131 (bottom): Topical Press Agency/Stringer/Getty Images; page 132: James King-Holmes/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 137 (left): Omikron/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 140 (top): Craig Lovell/Agstockusa/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; page 140 (bottom): The Morning Call, Cesar L. Laure/AP/Wide World Photos; page 141: Scott Markewitz/ Getty Images, Inc.; page 142: Adapted from Boring, 1930; page 145: © M.C. Escher/ Cordon Art-Baarn, Holland. All Rights Reserved; page 147 (top): © 2010 Magic Eye Inc.; page 146 (bottom): Hilarie Kavanagh/Stone/Getty Images, Inc.; page 146 (top): Julian Beever; page 150: Greg Scott/ Masterfile; page 151 (left): Yann Arthus-Bertrand/Corbis Images; page 151 (right): Robert Cameron/Getty Images, Inc.; page 153: Francis O. Schmitt and Frederic Worden (Eds.), The Neurosciences: Third Study Program, figure from
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Blakemore chapter, © 1974 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, by permission of The MIT Press; page 154: Elizabeth Crews/The Image Works; page 156: Courtesy Stephen Kosslyn, Harvard University; page 158 (top): Courtesy San Francisco Conventions & Visitors Bureau; page 158 (center): Courtesy San Francisco Conventions & Visitors Bureau; page 158 (bottom): Reprinted from Cognitive Psychology, 14, 143-177. Scene perception: Detecting and judging objects undergoing relational violations, Biederman, I., Mezzanotte, R.J., & Rabinowitz, J.C., 1982, with permission from Elsevier. Chapter 5 Page 162: Copyright 2007 by Austin; page 163: James Balog Potography; page 165: ©Corbis; page 166: ©John Chase; page 167: Courtesy Benjamin Harris, University of Wisconsin, Parkside; page 170: ©Gunter Zeisler/ Peter Arnold, Inc.; page 174 (left): Courtesy B.F. Skinner Foundation Reproduced with permission; page 174 (right): B.F. Skinner Foundation. Reproduced with permission; page 175 (bottom left): Tom Cheney ©1993 The New Yorker Collection/The Cartoon Bank. All rights reserved; page 176: Walter Iooss Jr./Sports Illustrated/Getty Images, Inc.; page 180: Richard Cummins/Corbis Images; page 182: Denis Poroy/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 183: Courtesy Ivar Lovaas; page 188: Phil Boorman/Getty Images; page 189: Bart Geerligs/Getty Images, Inc.; page 190: Edouard Berne/ Getty Images; page 192: Courtesy Albert Bandura. Chapter 6 Page 195: Collage of clock faces by Judith Katz (20th century) Private Collection/ © Special Photographers Archive/ The Bridgeman Art Library; page 196: Steve Weinberg/Photonica/Getty Images; page 197: Brick House Pictures/Getty Images; page 198 (top): First Light/Getty Images, Inc.; page 198 (bottom): Joe Baker/Images.com/©Corbis; page 200: Bettmann/©Corbis; page 202: Neurology/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 204: The Kobal Collection, Ltd.; page 207: Courtesy ACLU and De Vito/ Verdi; page 212: Ace Stock Limited/Alamy; page 216: Brad Simmons/ Beateworks/©Corbis; page 220: Courtesy of William Brewer, University of Illinois; page 222: Anderson County Sheriff’s Office/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 223: Burlington Police Department/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 224 (top): Radius Images/Jupiter Images Corp; page 224 (bottom left and bottom right): Bettmann/©Corbis; page 227: Sidney Harris/ScienceCartoonsPlus.com. Chapter 7 Page 232: Lisa Zador/Getty Images, Inc.; page 233: Jiang Jin/SuperStock; page 236 (bottom left): ©Arthur Morris/Corbis; page 236 (bottom right): © Kevin Schafer/Peter Arnold, Inc.; page 240: ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 242: © Mugshots/Corbis; page 244: Andy Washnik; page 245: Andy Washnik; page 250: David H. Wells/©Corbis; page 251: Gray Mortimore /Allsport/Getty Images; page 262: Egg/ Polygram/Lost Pond/Andrew Cooper/The Kobal Collection, Ltd.; page 263 (top): Colin Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; page
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264 (top): Christina Kennedy/Alamy; page 264 (bottom): Jim Unger/Laughingstock Licensing Inc.; page 266: Courtesy Language Research Center - Georgia State University. Chapter 8 Page 269: Images.com/©Corbis; page 270: IMAGINA Photography/Alamy; page 271: Images & Stories/Alamy; page 274 (top): AMBLIN/DREAMWORKS/WB/The Kobal Collection, Ltd.; page 274 (bottom): Bettmann/©Corbis; page 275: Bettmann/©Corbis; page 277: © David YoungWollf/ Stone/Getty; page 279 (top): Lauren Shear/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 279 (bottom): Jeff T./Aldershot News; page 280: Garry Wade/Getty Images, Inc.; page 281 (top): Photofest; page 281 (center): Deborah Feingold/©Corbis; page 281 (bottom): Mark Elias/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 284: Sidney Harris/ScienceCartoonsPlus.com; page 285: Ron Veseley/Stringer/Getty Images; page 290 (top left): Bettmann/©Corbis; page 290 (top right): Ian Cook/ Time Life Pictures/Getty Images, Inc.; page 290 (bottom): PhotoAlto/Media Bakery; page 292: Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; page 293 (center): © Maks Product/The Image Bank/ Getty Images; page 293 (bottom): SW Productions/Alamy. Chapter 9 Page 298: Nanette Hooslag/Digital Vision/Getty Images; page 299: Vladimir Pcholkin/Age Fotostock America, Inc.; page 300: Yves Logghe/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 304: N.A.F./CartoonStock; page 306: Kwame Zikomo/ SUPERSTOCK; page 309: Courtesy Sophie Woorons-Johnston; page 310 (top): Courtesy Sophie Woorons-Johnston; page 310 (bottom): Courtesy Sophie Woorons-Johnston; page 311: iStockphoto; page 314: Reuters/©Corbis; page 315: Thomas Ives/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; page 317: © Ed Young/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 321: Hans Neleman/Getty Images; page 322: Will & Deni McIntyre/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 324: ©Joe Raedle/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 328 (top): ©Michael Nichols/Magnum Photos, Inc.; page 328 (center): ©Greenlar/The Image Works. Chapter 10 Page 330: Ross Kinniard/Reuters/©Corbis; page 331: Digital Vision/Getty Images; page 332: ©Roger Lemayne/Getty Images News and Sport Services; page 333: ©Lew Merrin/Photo Researchers; page 336: Kevork Djansezian/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 344: Erik Rank/Getty Images, Inc.; page 349: Courtesy Neal E. Miller; page 351 (top left): age fotostock/SUPERSTOCK; page 351 (top right): Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works; page 351 (bottom left): Giraudon/Art Resource; page 351 (bottom center): ©Topham/The Image Works; page 351 (bottom right): Baril/Roncen/©Corbis; page 352: Marleen De Waele-De Bock “Sorrow”. Oil on canvas “60x48”; page 354 (bottom): Suzann Julien/iStockphoto; page 354 (center): fStop/SUPERSTOCK; page 358: ©Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit; page 367 (bottom left): Paul Ekman, Ph.D./ Paul Ekman Group, LLC; page 367 (bottom right): Getty Images, Inc.; page 369: Paul Ekman, Ph.D./ Paul Ekman
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Group, LLC; page 371 (bottom): Jacket Cover from WHEN ELEPHANTS WEEP by Jeffrey Masson & Susan McCarthy. Used by permission of Dell Publishing, a division of Random House, Inc.; page 378 (top): Art Wolf/Getty Images, Inc.; page 378 (center): Joseph B. Rife/©Photolibrary; page 378 (bottom): Matthieu Spohn/PhotoAlto/©Corbis; page 377: Courtesy Robin Kowalski. Chapter 11 Page 383: Conrad Represents/Bill Brunning; page 384: ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 385 (top): Courtesy of San Diego Museum of Man; page 385 (bottom): Courtesy San Diego Museum of Man; page 386 (top): Bettmann/© CORBIS; page 386 (bottom): A. Ramey/PhotoEdit; page 387: Bettmann/©Corbis; page 391: Tom Grill/©Corbis; page 393: Photo by Marty Hale-Evans courtesy of Mary McGhee, A Place At The Table Project, SeaFATtle, http:/www. seafattle.org/APATT/apatt.htm; page 396: The Kobal Collection, Ltd./ The Picture Desk; page 397 (top): ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 397 (center): Mark Mainz/Getty Images, Inc.; page 397 (bottom): Michael Shaw/cartoonbank. com. All Rights Reserved; page 400 (top): MichaelNewman/ PhotoEdit; page 400 (bottom): Bettmann/©Corbis; page 402 (center): Corbis Images; page 402 (bottom): ©Phototake; page 403: Peter Kramer/Getty Images; page 404: John Baer/Artisan Pictures/The Kobal Collection, Ltd.; page 405 (top): Courtesy Dr. James W. Hanson, University of Iowa Hospital and Clinics; page 405 (center): Lee Lorenz/cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved; page 407 (top): ©AP/ Wide World Photos; page 407 (bottom): ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 409 (center): Courtesy Peter Watkins-Hughes; page 409 (bottom): ©creatingmore/iStockphoto; page 412 (top): Peter Poulides/Getty Images; page 412 (bottom): © Cheng Yu /Taxi/Getty Images; page 418 (top): ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 418 (bottom): Brooks Kraft/©Corbis; page 419 (top): ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 419 (bottom): Thony Belizaire/AFP/Getty Images, Inc.; page 420: Photodisc/SUPERSTOCK; page 421 (top): Pierre Vauthey/ Corbis Sygma; page 421 (bottom): John S. Zeedick/Getty Images, Inc.; page 427 (top): Tommy Hindley/Professional Spor/The Image Works; page 427 (bottom): Tommy Hindley/ Professional Sport/The Image Works; page 430: Jose Luis Pelaez/©Corbis; page 431: Daniel J. Cox/Getty Images, Inc.; page 432 (top): ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 432 (bottom): NATIONAL JEWISH MEDICAL AND RESE/ EFE/Zuma Press. Chapter 12 Page 435: Kaadaa/Getty Images, Inc.; page 436: ©Lichtfilm; page 438: Cordelia Molloy/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 439: Erik de Castro/AFP/Getty Images, Inc.; page 441: Andy Saks/Getty Images, Inc.; page 442: B.A.E., Inc/ Alamy; page 444: Digital Vision/SUPERSTOCK; page 446: H. Rorschach, 1921; page 452: Spencer Platt/Getty Images, Inc.; page 454: ©Corbis; page 455: Matt Hoover; page 456: Ben Liebenberg/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 461: Henry Horenstein/©Corbis; page 463: Courtesy Walter Mischel;
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page 464 (top): Courtesy Jerome Kagan, Harvard University; page 464 (bottom): © Will Waldron/The Image Works; page 466: AFP/Getty Images, Inc.; page 468: ©Katie Pesce; page 471: Diario El Universo/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 473: Lippo di Dalmasion/The Bridgeman Art Library/ Getty Images, Inc.; page 474: Bettmann/©Corbis. Chapter 13 Page 477: Adam Crowley/Getty Images; page 478: Gail Mooney/©Corbis; page 480 (top): Mary Evans Picture Library; page 480 (bottom): Courtesy David Pelzer; page 481: Don Smetzer/PhotoEdit; page 482: Nina Leen/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images, Inc.; page 483: Peter Morenus/Peter Morenus, University of Connecticut; page 484: Nina Leen/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images, Inc.; page 485 (bottom): Bubbles Photolibrary/Alamy; page 485 (top): Tom Mchugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 491 (top): Andy Berhaut/Photo Researchers; page 491 (center): Alexander KHUDOTEPLY/AFP/Getty Images, Inc.; page 491 (bottom): Adiran Sherratt/Alamy; page 493: James Connelly/©Corbis; page 495 (top left): Derek Berwin/Getty Images; page 495 (top center): Neil Harding/Stone/Getty; page 495 (top right): Petit Format/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 495 (bottom): Paramount Pictures/ Warner Bros. Pictures/The Kobal Collection, Ltd.; page 496: Gerald Herbert/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 498: Cristian Baitg/Getty Images, Inc.; page 499: Tom Raymond/Getty Images, Inc; page 502: From Meltzoff, A. N. & Moore, K. (1977), Imitation of Facial and Manual Gestures by Human Neonates, Science, 198, 75-78. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.; page 504: Bill Anderson/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 505: Thomas Barwick/ Photodisc/Getty Images, Inc.; page 507: Elizabeth Crews; page 510 (top): CoverSpot/Alamy; page 510 (bottom): Frank Micelotta/Getty Images; page 512 (top): UPI/CorbisBettmann; page 512 (bottom): AFP/Getty Images, Inc.; page 516: Brandon Thibodeaux/Redux Pictures; page 517: ©AP/ Wide World Photos; page 519: Laura Dwight/©Corbis; page 523: David Kennerly/ UPI/Corbis. Chapter 14 Page 531: Kobal Collection/The Picture Desk; page 532: Texas Department of Criminal Justice/Getty Images; page 534: Yellow Dog Productions/Getty Images; page 535: Peter Turnley/©Corbis; page 539 (top): Connecticut State Police/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 539 (bottom): Connecticut State Police/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 549: Steve Granitz/WireImage/Getty Images; page 550: Randy Faris/©Corbis; page 551: Dreamworks/Universal/The Kobal Collection, Ltd.; page 553: Courtesy Monte Buschbaum, MD, Mt. Sinai Medical Center. Reproduced with permission; page 554: From Lieberman et al, The American Journal of Psychiatry, 1992, Copyright 1998, The American Psychiatric Association. Reprinted by permission; page 561: Steve Helber/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 562: Mario Tama/Getty Images, Inc.; page 563: ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 564: Warner Bros./The Kobal Collection, Ltd.; page 565 (top): ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 565
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(bottom): ©1993 Jennifer Berman, Humerus Cartoons; page 569: Paramount/The Kobal Collection, Ltd.; page 570: Bart Ah You/©AP/Wide World Photos. Chapter 15 Page 575: ©Coll. Olga Tamayo, Mexico City, D.F., Mexico. Photo Credit: Schalkwijk/Art Resource; page 576: Alamy; page 579: Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; page 585 (top): Courtesy of the Virtual Reality Medical Center; page 585 (center): Courtesy of the Virtual Reality Medical Center; page 588: Jagadeesh NV/epa/©Corbis; page 589: Courtesy Les Greenberg; page 590: Bettmann/©Corbis; page 591: Hank Morgan/Photo Researchers, Inc.; page 592: David Young/PhotoEdit; page 594: The Cover Story/©Corbis; page 596: Photo by Jeff van de Pol, University of California, Davis; page 601: ©Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit; page 602: Will McIntyre/Photo Researchers; page 603 (top): Underwood & Underwood/©Corbis; page 603 (bottom): United Artists/ Fantasy Films/The Kobal Collection, Ltd. Chapter 16 Page 611: Todd Davidson/Images.com; page 612: Corbis Images; page 615: From RABBIT PROOF FENCE by Doris Pilkington. Copyright © 1996 Doris Pilkington. Reprinted by permission of Miramax Books. All rights reserved; page 617 (top): Digital Vision/SUPERSTOCK; page 617 (bottom left): Jim McDonald/©Corbis; page 617 (bottom right): Patrick Robert/Sygma/©Corbis; page 618 (top): Elliott Erwitt/Magnum Photos, Inc.; page 618 (bottom): Mandel Ngan/AFP/Getty Images, Inc.; page 622: Grant Halverson/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 623: ©Reuters NewMedia Inc./©Corbis; page 624 (top): Archives of the History of American Psychology; page 624 (bottom): Ar-
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chives of the History of American Psychology; page 626: Bettmann/©Corbis; page 627: Carmen Taylor/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 628 (left): ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 628 (right): Lou Krasky/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 631: Herb Watson/©Corbis; page 636: Tetra Images/ Media Bakery, LLC; page 641: ©Scott Adams/Dist. by United Feature Syndicate, Inc./Reprinted by permission of United Features Syndicate, Inc.; page 642: Susanne Walstrom/ Getty Images, Inc.; page 644: Courtesy Robin Kowalkski; page 648: David Guttenfelder/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 651: Minnesota Historical Society/©Corbis. Chapter 17 Page 653: Daniel Koebe/©Corbis; page 654: Hulton-Deutsch Collection/©Corbis; page 659: ©2009 The Elephant Sanctuary in Tennessee; page 660: Vincent Mo/©Corbis; page 663: Daniel J. Cox/©Corbis; page 664: ©Callahan/ Levin Represents; page 666: Bettmann/©Corbis; page 667: Gottman Research Institute; page 669: Pascal Le Segretain/Getty Images; page 670: Steve Hamblin/Alamy; page 672: The New York Times Photo Archives/Redux Pictures; page 673: Sun Sentinel/MCT/Landov LLC; page 674: Mike Rimmer/©AP/Wide World Photos; page 676 (top): Virginia Tech Police/epa/©Corbis; page 676 (bottom): Carl S. Sams II/Peter Arnold, Inc.; page 682: dba Mark Parisi/Atlantic Feature Syndicate; page 683: Peter Turnley/©Corbis; page 684 (top right): Ronald S. Haeberle/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; page 684 (top left): Tom Gannam/©AP/ Wide World Photos; page 685: Darren Robb/Getty Images, Inc.; page 687: Philip G. Zimbardo, Inc.; page 688: Philip G. Zimbardo, Inc.; page 689: ©AP/Wide World Photos; page 693: Tavel Ink/Getty Images, Inc.
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T e x t a n d I l l u s t r a ti o n C r e d it s Chapter 1 Figure 1.4: From Cave, C. B. (1997). Long-lasting priming in picture naming. Psychological Science, 8, 322-325. Copyright © 1997. Reprinted with the permission of Blackwell Science, Inc. Figure 1.7: Based on DeKay, T. (1988). An evolutionary-computational approach to social cognition: Grandparental investment as a test case. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan. Chapter 2 Figure 2.1: From Pennebaker, J., Colder, M., & Sharp, L. K. (1990). Accelerating the coping process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 528-537. Copyright © 1990 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 2.5: From Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148. Copyright © 1981 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the author. Table 2.1: Reprinted with permission from Pennebaker, J. W., & Chung, C. K. (2009). Computerized text analysis of Al-Qaeda transcripts. In K. Krippendorff and MA.. Bock (Eds.), A content analysis reader (pp. 453-465). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Table 2.6: Adapted from R. L. Shiner (2000). Linking childhood personality with adaptation: Evidence for continuity and change across time in late adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, p. 316. Copyright © 2000 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the author. Chapter 3 Figure 3.16: From Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology by B. Kolb & I. Q. Whishaw. © 1996 by W. H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission of Worth Publisher. Figure 3.12: From Penfield,W., & Rasmussen,T. (1950). The Cerebral Cortex of Man. Copyright © 1978 by the Gale Group. Reprinted by permission of The Gale Group. Figure 3.13a: From Gazzaniga, M. S. (August 1967). The split brain in man. Scientific American. Illustration by Eric O. Mose. Copyright 1967. Reprinted and adapted by permission of Eric H. Mose. Chapter 4 Figure 4.2c: From Stevens, S. S. (1961). Psychophysics of sensory function. In W. Rosenblith (ed.), Sensory Communication, 1-33. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Used with permission. Figures 4.7, 4.12, and 4.20: From Sekuler, R., & Blake, R. (1994). Perception, 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Copyright © 1994,1990,1985 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 4.25: From Ramachandran,V. S., & Hirstein,W. (1998).The perception of phantom limbs. The D. O. Heff Lecture. Brain 121, 1612. Used with permission of
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the publisher. Figure 4.28e: From Kanisza, G. (April 1976). Subjective contours. Scientific American, 234, 48. Copyright © 1976 by Scientific American, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 4.29: From Biederman, I. (1990). Higher level vision. In D. N. Osherson et al. (eds.), An Invitation to Cognitive Science, Volume 2. Copyright © 1990 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Reprinted with the permission of The MIT Press. Figure 4.30: From Biederman, I. (1987). Recognition by components. Computer Visions, Graphics, and Image Processing, 32, 29-73. Copyright © 1985 by Academic Press, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher and the author. Table 4.1: From Brown, R., Galanter, E., & Hess, E. H. (1962). New Directions in Psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace & Co. Reprinted with the permission of Roger W. Brown, Harvard University. Chapter 5 Figure 5.2: From Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes. New York: Oxford University Press. Copyright 1927. Reprinted with the permission of Oxford University Press, Ltd. Figure 5.6: From Garcia, J. and Koelling, R. (1966). Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4, 123-124. Copyright © 1966. Reprinted with the permission of Psychonomic Society, Inc. Figure 5.11: From Gray, J.A. (1988).“Gray’s Three Behavioral Systems” from The Psychology of Fear and Stress, 2nd Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press. Copyright © 1988. Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press and the author. Figure 5.13: From Rotter, J. (1971, June). External control and internal control: Locus of control. Psychology Today, 42. Copyright © 1971 by Sussex Publisher, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of Psychology Today Magazine. Figure 5.14: From Bandura, A. (1967). In The Young Child: Reviews of Research, W. Hartup and N. Smothergill (eds.).Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Copyright © 1967 by NAEYC. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Chapter 6 Figure 6.4: From Atkinson, R. C, & Shiffrin, R. N. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2). Copyright © 1968 by Academic Press, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 6.5. From Baddeley A. (1986). Working memory. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. Copyright © 1986 Oxford University Press, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 6.6: From Logie, R. (1996). The seven ages of working memory. In J.T. E. Richardson et al., Working Memory and Human Cognition.
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New York: Oxford University Press. Copyright © 1996 Oxford University Press, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 6.9: From Hermann, D. J., Crawford, M., & Holdsworth, M. (1992). Gender-linked differences in everyday memory performance. British Journal of Psychology, 83, 221-231. Copyright © 1992. Reprinted with the permission of the British Psychological Society. Figure 6.11: From Bahrick, et al. (1993). Maintenance of foreign language vocabulary and the spacing effect. Psychological Science, 4, p. 319. Copyright © 1993. Reprinted with the permission of Blackwell Science, Inc. Figure 6.16: Adapted from Bahrick, et al. (1996). Accuracy and distortion in memory for high school grades. Psychological Science, 7, p. 266. Copyright © 1996. Reprinted with the permission of Blackwell Science, Inc. Table 6.1 Reprinted from Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, Vol. 13 Loftus and Palmer. Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory, p. 586 copyright (1974), with permission from Elsevier. Making Connections letter, As seen in DEAR ABBY by Abigal Van Buren a.k.a. Jeanne Phillips and founded by her mother Pauline Phillips © 1980, Universal Press Syndicate. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved. Chapter 7 Figure 7.1: Adapted from Cooper, L. A., & Shepard, R. N. (1973).The manipulation of visual representations. Memory and Cognition, 1, (3), 246-250. Copyright © 1973. Reprinted with the permission of the Psychonomic Society, Inc. Figure 7.3: From Wason, P. C. (1968). Reasoning about a rule. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 20, 273-281. Copyright © 1968. Reprinted with the permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Ltd., Hove, UK, and the author. Figure 7.4: Adapted from Griggs, R. A., & Cox, J. R. (1982). The elusive thematic-materials effect in Watson’s selection task. British Journal of Psychology, 73, 407-420, extract. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the British Psychological Society and the authors. Figure 7.9: Adapted from Rumelhart, D. (1984). Schemata and the cognitive system. In R. S.Wyler & T. K. Strull (eds.), Handbook of social cognition, Vol. 1. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum. Copyright © 1984. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates and the author. Figure 7.12: From Frith & Dolan (1996). The role of the prefrontal cortex in higher cognitive functions. Cognitive Brain Research, 5, 178. Copyright © 1996. Reprinted with the permission of Elsevier Science Limited. Figure 7.13: From Damasio, A. (1994). DescartesÕerror: Emotion, reason and the human brain, p. 210. Copyright © 1994 by Antonio R. Damasio. Reprinted with the permission of the author. Figure 7.16: From Premack, A. J., & Premack, D. (October 1972).Teaching language to an ape. Scientific American, 227, 92-99. Copyright © 1972 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission. Figure 7.18: Adapted from Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. Copyright © 1994 by Stephen Pinker. Reprinted with the permission
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of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. Table 7.1: Adapted from Irwin, M., Schafer, G., & Feiden, C. (1974). Emic and unfamiliar category sorting of Mano farmers and U.S. undergraduates. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5, 407-423. Copyright © 1974 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher. Tables 7.2 and 7.3: Adapted from Edwards, W. (1977). How to use multiattribute utility measurement for social decision making. IEEE Transactions in Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 17, 326-340. Copyright © 1977 by IEEE. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Chapter 8 Figure 8.4: Excerpted and adapted with permission from Duncan, J., Seitz, R., Kolodny, J., Bor, D., Herzog, H, Ahmed, A., Newell, F. N., & Emslie, H. (2000). A neural basis for general intelligence. Science 289, 457-460. Figure 8.5: From J. Horn and J. Noll (1997). Human cognitive capacity: Gf - Gc theory. In D. P. Flanagan, J. L. Gershaft, & P. L. Harrison (eds.), Contemporary Intellectual Assessment. Copyright © 1997. Reprinted with the permission of The Guilford Press. Figure 8.6: From Mumaw, R., & Pellegrino, J. (1984). Individual differences in complex spatial processing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 920-939. Copyright © 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 8.7: From Sameroff, A., Baldwin, A., & Baldwin, C. (1993). Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence: The influence of social and family risk factors. Child Development, 64, 89. Copyright © 1993 by the Society for Research in Child Development. Reprinted and adapted with permission of the Society for Research in Child Development. Table 8.1: Simulated items similar to those in Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Third Edition. Copyright © 1997 by The Psychological Corporation. Reproduced by permission. All rights reserved.“Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale” and “WAIS” are trademarks of the Psychological Corporation registered in the United States of America and/or other jurisdictions. Table 8.4: Adapted from Henderson, N. D. (1982). Correlations in IQ for pairs of people with varying degrees of genetic relatedness and shared environment. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 219-243. Copyright © 1982 by Annual Reviews, Inc. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the author and the publisher. Chapter 9 Figure 9.6: Adapted from Squire, L. R. (1986). Priming effects in amnesia. Science, 232, 1612-1619. Copyright © 1986 by American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher and the author. Figure 9.10: Adapted from Kripke, D. F, Simons, R. N., Garfinkel, L., & Hammond, E. C. (1979). Short and long sleep and sleeping pills: Is increased mortality associated? Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 103-116. Copyright © 1979 by the American Medical Association. Reprinted and adapted with permission. Figure 9.12: From Cartwright, R. D. (1978). A primer on sleep and
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dreaming. Reading: Addison-Wesley Inc. Copyright © 1978 by R. D. Cartwright. Reprinted with the permission of the author. Table 9.2: Adapted from Lavie, P. (1996). In the enchanted world of sleep (pp. 176-177), translated by A. Berris. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Copyright © 1996 by Yale University. Reprinted with the permission of Yale University Press. Chapter 10 Bandura’s Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale: Reprinted with permission. Bandura A. (2006). Self-efficacy to regulate exercise. In F. Pajares & T.C. Urdan (Eds.). Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Figure 10.3: Adapted from Simmons, L.W. (1990). Pheromonal cues for the recognition of kin by female field crickets, Gryllus bimaculutus. Animal Behavior, 40, 194. Copyright © 1990 by Academic Press Inc. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 10.4: Adapted from Lyengar, S., & Lepper, M. (1999). Rethinking the value of choice: A cultural perspective on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 349366. Copyright © 1999 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 10.6: From Thompson, D. A., & Campbell, R. G. (1977). Hunger in humans induced by 2 deoxy-d glucose: Glucoprivic control of taste preference and food intake. Science, 198, 1065-1068. Copyright © 1977 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted with the permission of Science. Figure 10.8: From Masters,W. H, & Johnson,V. E. (1966). Human Sexual Response, p. 5. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Copyright © 1966 by the Masters and Johnson Institute. Reprinted with permission. Figure 10.9: From Butler, CA. (1976). New data about female sexual response. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 10, 42. Copyright © 1976 by Taylor & Francis, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of Taylor & Francis, Inc., http://www. routledge-ny.com, and the author. Figure 10.10: From Gladue, B. A., Green, R., & Hellman, R. E. (1984). Neuroendocrine response to estrogen and sexual orientation. Science, 225, 1496. Copyright © 1984 by American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted with the permission of Science. Figure 10.14: From Myers, D., & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science, 6, no. 1,13. Copyright © 1995. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 10.16: From Ekman, P., et al. (1983). Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes among emotions. Science, 221, 1209. Copyright © 1984 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher and the author. Figure 10.20: Adapted from Tomarken, A., Davidson, R.J., Wheeler, R. E., & Doss, R. C. (1992). Individual difference in interior brain asymmetry and fundamental dimensions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 681. Copyright © 1992 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 10.23: From Buss, D. M., Larsen, R.,Westen, D., &
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Semmelroth, J. (1992). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, Physiology and Psychology. Psychological Science, 3, 251-255. Copyright © 1992. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher and Dr. David M. Buss, Department of Psychology, The University of Michigan. Table 10.1: Adapted from McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J.W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1953). The Achievement Motive, p. 294. New York: Irvington Publisher. Copyright 1953 by Appleton Century Crofts. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of Ardent Media, Inc. Chapter 11 Figure 11.4: From Gortmaker, S. L., et al. (1993). Social and economic consequences of overweight in adolescence and young adulthood. The New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 1008-1012. Copyright © 1993 by The Massachusetts Medical Society. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 11.5: Hebl, M. R., & Mannix, L. M. (2003). The weight of obesity in evaluating others: A mere proximity effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 28-38. Copyright © by Sage Publications. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. 11.7: From Friedman, J. M. Obesity in the new millenium. Nature, vol. 404, pp 632-334. Copyright © 2000 by the Nature Publishing Group. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 11.9: From Tobacco use in the United States, 1900-1998 (Figure 1A). American Cancer Society, Surveillance Research. Copyright by The American Cancer Society. Reprinted with the permission of The American Cancer Society. Figure 11.13: Courtenay W. H., McCreary D. R., & Merighi, J. R. (2002). Gender and ethnic differences in health beliefs and behavior. Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 219-231. Copyright © Sage Publications. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 11.14: From Taylor et al. (1997). Annual Review of Psychiatry, 148, 411-448. Copyright © 1997 by Annual Reviews. Figure 11.15: From Adams, P. R., & Adams, G. R. (1984). Mount Saint Helens’s ashfall: Evidence for a disaster stress reaction. American Psychologist, 39 (3), 257. Copyright © 1984 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 11.16: Adapted from Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. M. (1991). Stress and infectious diseases in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 5. Copyright © 1991 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 11.17: From Brown, J. B. (1991). Staying fit and staying well: Physical fitness as a moderator of life stress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 559. Copyright © 1991 by American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the author. Figure 11.18: From Cohen, S,Ytrrell, P. A. J., & Smith, A. P. (1991). Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold. New England Journal of Medicine, 325, 609-610. Copyright © 1991 by Massachusetts Medical Society. Reprinted with the permission of The New England Journal of Medicine and the authors. Table 11.4: Excerpt from Holmes,T. H., & Rahe, R. E. (1967).
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The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213-218. Copyright © 1967 by Elsevier Science, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Table 11.5: From Martikainen P., & Valkonen, T. (1996). Mortality after the death of a spouse: Rates and causes of death in a large Finnish cohort. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1090. Copyright © 1996. Reprinted with the permission of American Public Health Association. Text: Table 11.6 from E. Langer & J. Rodin. (The effect of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged; A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 191-198, 1976, American Psychological Association, reprinted with permission.) Chapter 12 Hidden Brain Damage Scale: Copyright © (1979) By the American Psychological Association. Reproduced with permission Vallacher, R. R., Gilbert, C., & Wegner, D.M. (1979). The hidden brain damage scale. American Psychologist, 33, 192. No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission from the American Psychological Association. Figure 12.5: From Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory mechanisms and complex decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 411-413. Copyright © 1988 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 12.6: Adapted from Eysenck, H. J. (1953). The Structure of Human Personality, p. 13. London: Methuen & Co. Copyright 1953. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Neff’s Self-Compassion Scale: Neff, K.D. (2003). Development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223-250. Reproduced with permission of Taylor Francis & Informa UK LTD. Journals in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center. Figure 12.7: From Bouchard, T. J., & McGue, M. (1981). Familial studies of intelligence. A review. Science 212,1055-1059. Copyright © 1981 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 12.8: From Jonas, E., et al. (2002). The scrooge effect: Evidence that mortality salience increases prosocial attitudes and behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1342-1353. Copyright © 2002 by Sage Publications. Reprinted with permission of the publisher. Table 12.2: Adapted from McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P.T., Jr. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist 52, 513. Copyright © 1997 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Table 12.3: Adapted from Block, J. M., Gjerde, P., & Block, J. H. (1991). Personality antecedents of depressive tendencies in 18-year-olds: A prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 726-738. Copyright © 1991 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the authors.
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Chapter 13 Figure 13.9: Adapted from Frankenburg,W. K., & Dodds, J B (1967).The Denver Developmental Screening Test. Journal of Pediatrics, 91, 181-191. Copyright © 1991 by Mosby-Year Book, Inc. Reprinted and adapted with permission. Figure 13.10: From Perdue, C., & Gurtman, M. (1990). Evidence for the automaticity of ageism. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology, 26, 12. Copyright © 1990 by Academic Press, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher and the authors. Figure 13.11: From Meltzoff, A. N, & Borton, R.W. (1979). Intermodal matching by human neonates. Nature, 282, 403-404. Copyright © 1979 by Macmillan Magazines Ltd. Reprinted with the permission of Nature and the authors. Figure 13.13: Adapted from Bower,T. G. R. (1971). The object in the world of the infant. Scientific American, 225, 30-38. Illustration by Eric O. Mose. Copyright 1971. Reprinted and adapted with permission of Eric H. Mose. Figure 13.16: Adapted from Fry, A., & Hale, S. (1996). Processing speed, working memory and fluid intelligence: Evidence for a developmental cascade. Psychological Science, 7, 238. Copyright © 1996. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Making Connections drawing, p. 466: Adapted from Cerella, J. (1990). Aging and information processing rate. In J. Birren & K.W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (3rd edition), p. 203. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Copyright © 1990 by Academic Press, Inc. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher and the author. Figure 13.18: From Horn, J., & Hofer, S. (1992). Major abilities and development in the adult period. In R. Sternberg & C. Berg (eds.), Intellectual Development, p. 79. New York: Cambridge University Press. Copyright © 1992. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 13.19: Adapted from Schaie, K.W. (1990). Intellectual development in adulthood. In J. Birren & K.W. Schaie (eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (3rd edition), p. 297. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Copyright © 1990 by Academic Press, Inc. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher and the author. Table 13.3: From Brown, R., & Fraser, C. (1963). The acquisition of syntax. In C. N. Cofer & B. Musgrave (Eds.), Verbal behavior and learning: Problems and processes (pp. 158-201). New York: McGraw-Hill. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 13.5: From Kagan, J. (1983). Stress and coping in early development. In N. Garmezy & M. Rutter (eds)., Stress, Coping and Development in Children, p. 198. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Copyright © 1983 by Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Science. Reprinted with the permission of McGraw-Hill Inc. Figure 13.6: From Rosenblum, G.D., & Lewis, M. (1999).The relations among body image, physical attractiveness, and body mass in adolescence. Child Development, 70, 50-64, p.54. Figure 13.20: Adapted from Darly J., & Schultz, T.R. (1990). Moral rules: Their content and acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 532. Copyright © 1990 by Annual Reviews, Inc. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher. Apply and Discuss, p. 493: From Westen, D., Lohr, N, Silk, K., Gold, L., & Kerber, K. (1991). Object relations
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and social cognition in borderlines, major depressives and normals: A TAT analysis. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2, 355-364. Copyright © 1991 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Table 13.4: Adapted from Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and Sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialization. In D.A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of Socialization and Research, 347380. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Copyright © 1969 by David A. Goslin. Reprinted and adapted with permission. Chapter 14 Figure 14.4: From Kendler, K. S., Gardner, C. O., & Prescott, C. A. (1999). Clinical characteristics of major depression that predict risk of depression in relatives. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 322-327. Copyright © 2000 by American Psychiatric Publishing Inc. Reprinted with permission of American Psychiatric Publishing Inc. and the authors. Figure 14.7: From Mueller, T. I., Leon, A. C, Keller, M. B., Solomon, D. A., Endicott, J., Coryell,W.,Warshaw, M., & Maser, J. D. (1999). Recurrence after recovery from major depressive disorder during 15 years of observational follow-up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1000-1006. Copyright © 1999 American Psychiatric Association. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher and the authors. Figure 14.8: From De La Ronde, C, & Swann, W. B., Jr. (1998). Partner verification: Reporting shattered images of our intimates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 374-382. Copyright © 1998 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 14.10: Adapted from Barlow, D. H. (1988). Current models of panic disorder and a view from emotion theory. In A. J. Frances and R. E. Hales (Eds.), Review of Psychiatry, 7. Copyright © 1988 by the American Psychiatric Assoication. Figure 14.11: From Rapee, R. M., Brown, J. A., Anthony, M., & Barlow, D. H. (1992). Response to hyperventilation and inhalation of 5.5% carbon dioxide-enriched air across the DSMIIIR anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 545. Copyright © 1992 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 14.12: Adapted from Cadoret, R. J.,Yates,W. R.,Troughton, E.,Wood-worth, G., & Stewart, M. A. (1995). Adoption study demonstrating two genetic pathways to drug abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 48. Copyright © 1995 by the American Medical Association. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Table 14.1: Adapted from Compton, W. M., Helzer, J., Hai-Gwo, H., EngKung,Y., McEvoy, L.,Tipp, J., & Spitznagel, E.(1991). New methods in cross-cultural psychiatry: Psychiatric illness in Taiwan and the U.S. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1700-1701. Copyright © 1991 by the American Psychiatric Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher and the authors. Tables 14.2, 14.3, and 14.6: Adapted from American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th edition).Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Copyright © 1994 by
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American Psychiatric Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher. Table 14.5: Adapted from Gottesman, I. (1991). Schizophrenia Genesis, p. 96. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. Copyright © 1991 by Irving I. Gottesman. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of W. H. Freeman and Company. Chapter 15 Figure 15.1: From Strupp, H., & Binder, J. L. (1984). Psychotherapy in a new key: A guide to time-limited dynamic psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books. Copyright © 1984 by Basic Books, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of Basic Books, a member of Perseus Books, L.L.C. Figure 15.4: From Camp, B.W., & Bash, M. A. S. (1981). Think Aloud: Increasing Social and Cognitive SkillsÑA Problem-Solving Program for Children (Primary level), pp. 43-46. Champaign, Illinois: Research Press. Copyright © 1981 by the authors. Reprinted with permission. Figure 15.6: From Herz, M., Lamberti, J. S., Mintz, J., Scott, R., OÕDell, S.P., McCartan, L. & Nix, G (2000). A program for relapse prevention in schizophrenia: A controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, pp. 277-283. Copyright © 2000 by the American Medical Association. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher and authors. Figure 15.7: Adapted from Davis, J. M. (1985). Minor tranquilizers, sedatives and hypnotics. In H. I. Kaplan & B. J. Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry (4th edition). Baltimore, Maryland: Williams & Wilkins. Copyright © 1985 by the Williams & Wilkins Company. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 15.9: From Maj, M.,Veltro, R., Lobrace, S., & Magliano, L. (1992). Pattern of recurrence of illness after recovering from an episode of major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 795-800. Copyright © 1992 by the American Psychiatric Association. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher and the authors. Figure 15.10: Adapted from Smith, M. L., & Glass, G.V. (September 1977). Meta-analysis of psychotherapy outcome studies. American Psychologist, 32, 754. Copyright © 1977 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 15.11: From Seligman, M. E P. (1995).The effectiveness of psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 12, 968. Copyright © 1995 by American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the author. Chapter 16 Figure 16.1: From Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 621. Copyright © 1997 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the author. Figure 16.2: From Luchins, A.S. (1957). Primacy-recency in impression formation. In C. I. Hovland (ed.), The Order of Presentation in Persuasion, pp. 34-35. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Copyright © 1957 by Yale University Press. Reprinted with permission. Figure 16.3: Adapted from Kunda, Z., & Thagard, P. (1996). Forming impressions from stereotypes, traits and behaviors: A parallel-constraint-satisfaction theory.
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Text and illustration credits
Psychology Review, 303, 286. Copyright © 1996 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 16.4: Adapted from Macrae, C. N, Bodenhausen, G.V.,& Milne, A. B. (1998). Saying no to unwanted thoughts: Self-focus and the regulation of mental life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 585. Copyright © 1998 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 16.5: From Woike, B., & Aronoff, J. (1992). Complexity of social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 102. Copyright © 1992 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 16.8: From Heine, S. J.,& Lehman, D. (1997). Culture, dissonance and self-affirmation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 396. Copyright © 1997. Reprinted with the permission of Sage Publications, Inc. and the authors. Figure 16.10: Adapted from Strauman,T. Lemieux, A.,& Coe, C. (1993). Self-discrepancy and natural killer cell activity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 1049. Copyright © 1993 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted and adapted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Chapter 17 Gratitude Questionnaire-6: Copyright © (2002) by the American Psychological Association. Reproduced with permission. McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., & Tsang, J.-A (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 112-127. Doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.112.
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No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission from the American Psychological Association. Figure 17.2: From R. J. Sternberg (1987). The triangle of love: Intimacy, passion, commitment. New York: Basic Books. Copyright © 1987 by Basic Books. Reprinted with the permission of the publisher. Figure 17.3: From Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychology Review, 100(2), 204-232. Copyright © 1993 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 17.5: Adapted from Darley J. M., & Latane, B. (December 1968). When will people help in a crisis? Psychology Today, 7071. Copyright © 1968 by Sussex Publisher, Inc. Reprinted with the permission of Psychology Today Magazine. Figure 17.6: From Cohen, D, Nisbett, R., Bowdle, B., & Schwarz, N. (1996). Insult, aggression, and the Southern culture of honor: An experimental ethnography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 945-960. Copyright © 1996 by the American Psychological Association. reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figure 17.8: From Anderson, C. (1989). Temperature and aggression: Ubiquitous effects of heat on occurrence of human violence. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 74-96. © 1989 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with the permission of the APA and the authors. Figures 17.11 and 17.12: From Asch, S. E. (November 1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193, (6), 193. Copyright © 1955 by the Estate of Sara Love.
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Name index A AARP News Bulletin, 499 Abelson, R. P., 643 Abraham, H. D., 326 Abramov, I., 128 Abrams, D., 623 Abrams, D. B., 324 Abrams, R., 602 Abramson, L. Y., 539, 559 Ackerman, S. J., 445 Acredolo, L., 264, 518 Adamo, M., 302 Adams, B. D., 355 Adams, C., 514 Adams, G. R., 420 Adams, P. R., 420 Adams-Webber, J. R., 635 Adelson, J., 491 Adler, A., 422 Adler, G., 571 Adolphs, R., 88, 110 Adorno, T. W., 617, 683 Aggleton, J. P., 83 Agnoli, F., 258 Agras, W. S., 606 Ainsworth, M. D. S., 481, 484, 485 Ajzen, I., 390, 391, 633, 634, 636, 637 al-Absi, M., 140 Albert, D. J., 678 Albert, M. K., 143 Alberts, A. C., 116 Albery, W. B., 115 Albright, T. D., 148 Alderfer, C., 341 Alderfer, C. P., 341 Alexander, G. M., 355 Alexander, I., 445 Alexander, J. M., 510 Alfasi, Y., 486 Alicke, M. D., 645 Allen, A., 463 Allen, J. J. B., 371 Allen, S. W., 237 Allison, D. B., 393, 394 Alloy, L. B., 539, 559 Allport, G., 455, 465, 613, 616, 633 Alquist, J. L., 452, 453 Altamura, A. C., 73 Alter, A. L., 613 Altshuler, K. Z., 558 Amabile, T. M., 280 Ambady, N., 264 American Cancer Society, 412 American Psychiatric Association, 545, 546, 557, 560, 570 American Psychological Association, 59, 388 Ames, F. R., 326 Anand, B., 348 Anastasi, A., 38, 277, 284, 479 Andersen, S., 580 Andersen, S. M., 580 Anderson, C., 680
Kowalski_N_Index-hr1.indd 1
Anderson, C. A., 673, 674, 679-682 Anderson, J., 19 Anderson, J. E., 407 Anderson, J. R., 211, 213, 227, 240, 244, 245, 258 Anderson, K. G., 22 Andreasen, N. C., 76, 541, 552, 554, 558 Androutsellis-Theotokis, A., 72 Andrzejewski, S. J., 211 Angel, I., 350 Angleitner, A., 663 Anthony, E., 487 Antoch, M. P., 314 Antrobus, J., 318, 319 Antshel, K. M., 586 Aosved, A. C., 220 Aponte, H. J., 592 Appelbaum, P. S., 322 Applezweig, M. M., 685 Archer, J., 22, 678 Arehart-Treichel, J., 556 Arena, J. G., 183 Arendt, J., 314 Arkes, H., 640 Arkowitz, H., 223, 595 Armony, J. L., 373 Armor, D. A., 444 Arnett, J. J., 491 Arnkoff, D., 606 Arnsten, A. F. T., 421 Aron, L., 332, 445 Aronason, E., 643 Aronoff, J., 632 Aronson, E., 615, 642 Aronson, J., 612 Arria, A. M., 405 Arrigo, J. A., 229 Arvey, R. D., 98 Asch, S. E., 614, 684-686 Asendorpf, J., 376 Ashby, F. G., 256 Ashford, J. W., 516 Aspinwall, L. G., 390, 428 Associated Press, 223 Association for Applied Sports Psychology, 336 Atkinson, J. W., 359 Atkinson, R. C., 199, 201 Atkinson, S. D., 52 Augustine, A. A., 426 Avery, D. R., 615 B Baars, B. J., 305, 306 Babor, T., 551 Babor, T. F., 606 Baddeley, A., 203, 204 Baddeley, A. D., 199, 202, 203, 213, 214, 515 Baer, J. S., 550 Baer, L., 603 Bahrick, H. P., 214, 219, 222 Bahrick, L. E., 501 Bai, Y., 600 Bailey, J. M., 357 Baillargeon, R., 505, 508
Bain, L. L., 403 Bair, A. N., 612 Bakan, D., 358 Baker, C., 659 Baker, J., 98, 567 Baker, L., 445, 569 Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., 487 Baldessarini, R. J., 601 Baldwin, M., 615 Bales, R. F., 687 Baltes, P., 514 Baltes, P. B., 478, 499, 514 Banaji, M., 45, 635 Banaji, M. R., 619-621, 644, 645 Bandler, R., 83 Bandura, A., 17, 191, 192, 336, 338, 339, 390, 449, 451453, 522, 586, 680 Banerjee, M., 368 Bank, L., 548 Banks, W. P., 228 Bar, M., 144 Bard, P., 363 Bardwick, J., 353 Bargh, J., 14, 28, 158, 340 Bargh, J. A., 300, 305, 333, 340, 559, 616 Barinaga, M., 148 Barkow, J. H., 472 Barlow, D., 541, 563, 565, 566, 582, 606 Barlow, D. H., 563, 572, 606 Barndollar, K., 305, 340 Baroff, G. S., 278 Baron, C. S., 572 Baron, J., 248 Baron, R., 670 Baron, R. M., 671 Baron, R. S., 422 Baron-Cohen, S., 265 Barraclough, C. A., 92 Barrett, D. H., 571 Barrett, G. V., 284, 690 Barron, F., 280 Barron, J. W., 546 Barry, H., III, 490 Barry, H. M., 685 Barta, P., 555 Bartholomew, J., 212 Bartoshuk, L. M., 135-137 Bash, M. A. S., 586 Basoglu, M., 421, 564 Bassili, J. N., 634 Bastian, B., 666 Bateman, A., 606 Bates, M. S., 140 Batson, C. D., 669-671 Battachi, M. W., 199 Batteau, D. W., 131 Batuev, A. S., 83 Baum, A., 385, 421 Baumeister, R., 470, 593 Baumeister, R. F., 358, 379, 404, 452, 453, 630, 644, 645, 651, 658, 661, 682, 689 Beach, S. R. H., 542 Beall, S. K., 365
Bean, M., 564 Beauchamp, G. K., 135-137 Beaver, J. D., 349 Bechara, A., 210 Beck, A., 378, 559, 587 Beck, A. T., 378, 539, 559, 587, 588 Becker, E., 468 Becker, U., 405 Beckman, H. B., 413 Beckwith, J., 291 Bee, H., 290 Beekhuis, M., 583 Beer, J. S., 631 Beilin, H., 507 Bekesy, G. von, 130, 133 Bell, A. J., 376 Bell, A. P., 356 Bell, M., 570 Bell, R. M., 567 Bell, S. M., 481 Bellack, A. S., 586 Bellack, L., 538 Bellivier, F., 558 Belloc, N., 392 Belsky, J., 372, 492 Bem, D. J., 463, 642 Bemis, C., 421 Bemporad, J. R., 567 Benasich, A. A., 290 Benbow, C., 92 Benbow, C. P., 360 Bendersky, M., 279 Benedict, R., 345, 473 Benet-Martinez, V., 460, 466 Ben-Gallim, P. J., 308 Benjamin, L. T., Jr., 11 Bennet, J. A., 272 Bennett, K. K., 190 Benotsch, E. G., 565 Bensch, S., 380 Benson, P. L., 670 Berg, C., 274 Berg, F. M., 350 Berger, R. J., 315 Bergin, A. E., 577, 606 Berglas, S., 404, 646 Berkman, L. F., 430 Berkowitz, L., 679 Berman, P. W., 492 Bernhardt, P. C., 678 Bernstein, I. L., 166, 170 Berridge, K., 83, 94, 349 Berridge, K. C., 94 Berry, J. W., 8, 55, 147, 152, 272, 420, 685 Berscheid, E., 659-661 Bersoff, D. N., 60 Bertelsen, A., 553 Bertenthal, B. I., 154, 496 Berthoud, H., 394 Bertolino, A., 541 Best, D. L., 288 Bettner, B. L., 177 Beutler, L. E., 546, 572, 607, 608 Beyer, C., 140 Bickel, W. K., 181 Bickman, L., 58
Biddle, J. E., 615, 660 Bidell, T. R., 481, 511 Biederman, I., 144, 158, 548 Bieling, P. J., 560 Bierer, L. M., 516 Bierhoff, H. W., 673 Bieri, J., 635 Bierut, L. J., 550 Biesanz, J., 463 Billings, A. G., 428 Binder, J. L., 580, 581 Binet, A., 274 Birnbaum, D. W., 370 Bishop, J. A., 20 Bizer, G. Y., 634, 635 Bjork, E. L., 227 Bjork, R. A., 227 Bjorklund, A., 73 Bjorklund, D. F., 22 Black, D., 355 Black, D. W., 396 Blair, I. V., 621 Blake, R., 116, 125, 131, 133, 147, 690 Blakemore, C., 153 Blampied, N. M., 42 Blanchard, E. B., 183 Blanchard, K., 690 Blanchard-Fields, F., 513 Blandt, C. W., 14 Blanton, C. K., 283 Blanton, H., 451 Blascovich, J., 418 Blasko, D. G., 262 Blass, T., 57, 684 Blatt, S., 560, 606 Blatt, S. J., 445, 560 Blaustein, A. R., 342 Blitstein, R., 620 Block, J., 55, 326, 454, 466 Block, J. H., 464 Blokland, A., 71, 183 Blonston, G., 314 Bloom, L., 519 Blos, P., 491 Blowers, G. H., 451 Blum, G. S., 158 Blumenthal, A., 422 Blurton-Jones, N., 272 Boake, C., 275 Boccia, M. C., 430 Bock, P. K., 8 Boden, J. M., 379 Bodenhausen, G., 618 Bodenhausen, G. V., 613 Bodenlos, J., 391 Boeree, C. G., 603 Boesch, E. E., 594 Bogdan, R. J., 510 Bogen, J. E., 308 Bolger, N., 431 Bolton, W., 420 Bonanno, G. A., 419 Bond, A., 678 Bond, C. F., 324 Bond, M. H., 460 Bond, R., 685 Bonebakker, A. E., 322
NI-1
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NI-2
Name index
Bonvillian, J. D., 100 Borbély, A., 313 Borden, V. M. H., 665 Boring, E. G., 142, 271 Borkovec, T. D., 587, 608 Bornstein, M. H., 480 Bornstein, R. F., 445 Borod, J., 374 Bors, D. A., 290, 479 Borton, R. W., 501 Bossert, W. H., 342 Bosson, J. K., 439 Bosworth, H. B., 514 Boszormenyi-Nagy, N. J., 542 Bouchard, C., 394 Bouchard, T. J., 98, 291, 460 Bourguignon, E., 318, 328 Bourne, E. J., 472, 650 Boutla, M., 200 Bovasso, G. B., 608 Bovbjerg, D., 166 Bowd, A. D., 61 Bowden, S. C., 325 Bowen, M., 543 Bower, G., 200, 215 Bower, G. H., 48, 50, 214, 378 Bower, T. G. R., 500-502 Bowers, J. S., 208 Bowers, K., 250, 321, 323 Bowlby, J., 332, 347, 444, 481, 484, 487 Boysen, S. T., 188 Bradbury, T. N., 665 Bradley, C. L., 488, 490 Bradley, R., 13 Brainerd, C. J., 503 Bransford, J. D., 262 Brant, A. M., 291 Bratslavsky, E., 661 Braun, A. R., 318 Braun, S., 495 Braungart, J., 470 Bray, G. A., 396 Breland, K., 184 Breland, M., 184 Bremner, J. D., 421, 540, 573 Brendgen, M., 99 Brennan, K. A., 486 Brennan, P. A., 495 Brenner, C., 332, 439 Breslau, N., 564, 565 Breslow, L., 392 Bretherton, I., 486 Breuer, K., 508 Breuer, P., 566 Brewer, J. B., 213 Brewer, M., 349 Brewer, M. B., 622, 623, 625 Brewer, W. F., 220 Brewerton, T. D., 567 Brewin, C. R., 565 Brickman, P., 95 Briere, J., 229 Brislin, R. M., 55 Brislin, R. W., 152 Britt, T. W., 682 Broadbent, D. E., 158, 301 Brobeck, J., 348 Brody, L., 369, 370, 375 Brody, L. R., 369, 370, 375 Brody, N., 283, 287, 293 Bronfenbrenner, U., 52, 211 Broocks, A., 601 Brookoff, D., 326 Brooks, L. R., 237 Brooks-Gunn, J., 290 Brosschot, J. F., 376 Brown, A., 510
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 2
Brown, A. S., 556 Brown, G., 358 Brown, G. W., 430, 558, 565 Brown, J., 647 Brown, J. B., 422 Brown, J. D., 190, 444, 630 Brown, K., 410 Brown, N. O., 468 Brown, P. K., 127 Brown, R., 100, 225, 519 Brown, R. J., 622, 623, 625 Brown, R. W., 112, 208 Brown, S. L., 555 Brown, T. A., 572 Brownell, K. D., 350, 395 Brubaker, R. G., 391 Bruce, D., 214 Bruch, H., 43, 395, 568 Bruder, G., 555 Bruner, J. S., 158 Bruyer, R., 7 Bryant, F. B., 363 Bryant, P. E., 507 Bucci, W., 454 Buchanan, G. M., 627 Buchsbaum, B. R., 199 Buck, R., 324, 379 Buckner, R. L., 207 Bucy, P., 373 Buechler, S., 370 Buhrich, N., 357 Buie, D. H., 571 Burger, J., 57 Burger, J. M., 19 Burgess, N., 19 Burgess, S. L., 379 Burghardt, G. M., 482 Burke, W., 123 Burks, B., 292 Burks, B. S., 292 Burnstein, E., 671 Bushman, B. J., 324, 673, 674, 679, 681, 682 Buss, D., 662 Buss, D. M., 20, 23, 342, 343, 380, 658, 661-663, 677 Bussey, K., 524 Butler, A. B., 101 Butler, C. A., 353 Butler, R. N., 499, 515 Butt, A., 73 Butters, N., 210 Butterworth, A., 500 Butzlaff, R. L., 555 Buunk, B. P., 380 Buzsaki, G., 320 Bybee, J., 524 Bynum, C. W., 567 Byrne, D., 659, 660 Byrne, R. W., 267 C Cacioppo, J., 367, 636, 639 Cacioppo, J. T., 28, 431, 636, 640 Cadoret, R. J., 28, 548, 550, 571 Caggiula, A. R., 173 Cahan, S., 203 Cahill, L., 225 Caldwell, D. F., 19 Calhoun, K. S., 608 Calhoun, L. G., 594 Callahan, M., 370 Cameron, L. D., 425 Camp, B. W., 586 Campbell, D. T., 51, 95, 639 Campbell, J. D., 631 Campbell, R. G., 348
Campbell, S. B., 548 Campbell, W. K., 45, 631 Campfield, L., 348 Campione, J. C., 288 Campos, J. J., 84, 154 Candy, T. R., 501 Cannon, T. D., 553 Cannon, W. B., 363, 416 Cantor, N., 19, 336, 451-453, 632 Cantwell, D. P., 548 Capaldi, E., 349 Capell, B. C., 496 Caplan, D., 205 Caplan, P. J., 92 Caporael, L. R., 671 Caramazza, A., 238 Carbone, P. P., 398 Cardno, A. G., 553, 558 Cardozo, B. L., 564 Carels, R. A., 606 Carey, B., 84, 85 Carey, G., 565 Carey, M. P., 407, 408 Carli, L. L., 686 Carlile, S., 134 Carlsmith, J. M., 641, 680 Carlson, E. A., 485 Carlson, E. B., 564 Carlson, N. R., 348, 678 Carmagnani, A., 16 Carmagnani, E.-F., 16 Carolsfeld, J., 135 Carone, B. J., 551 Carpenter, K. M., 393 Carpenter, P. A., 203, 262 Carpenter, S., 453 Carroll, J. B., 286 Carroll, J. M., 378 Carroll, J. S., 543 Carskadon, M. A., 315 Carter, F. A., 584 Carter-Saltzman, L., 292, 294 Cartwright, R. D., 319 Carver, C., 34 Carver, C. S., 427, 428, 470 Carver, L. J., 484 Cascio, W. F., 514 Case, R., 508, 511 Casey, M. B., 92 Cash, T. F., 660 Cashmore, J. A., 685 Casper, R. C., 568 Caspi, A., 53, 426, 463, 464, 470, 498, 679 Cassell, E. J., 456 Cassidy, J., 358 Castle, D. J., 326 Castonguay, L. G., 608 Cattell, R. B., 286, 455, 514 Cave, C. B., 18, 221 Ceci, S. J., 52, 211, 283, 287, 294 Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 387, 398, 399, 407, 412 Cervantes, C. A., 370 Chaiken, M. L., 640 Chaiken, S., 633, 634, 636, 638640, 648 Chaiken, S. R., 509 Chamberlain, J., 400 Chambless, D. C., 587, 606 Chambless, D. J., 566 Chambless, D. L., 565, 608 Chamove, A. S., 487 Champion, V. L., 390 Chance, P., 177 Chandler, L. S., 327
Chang, C., 491 Charles, E., 421 Chartrand, T. L., 333 Chen, J., 289 Chen, S., 639 Chen, Y., 513 Cherry, E. C., 301 Chess, S., 463 Chethik, L., 501 Cheyette, S. R., 64 Chi, M., 244 Chi, M. T. H., 243, 288, 510 Child, I. L., 8, 378, 675 Choi, I., 627, 630 Chomsky, N., 99, 261 Christenfeld, N., 140, 380 Christensen, A., 593 Christianson, S. A., 225 Chrobak, J. J., 320 Chung, C. K., 41, 365 Chung, K. K. K., 73 Church, A. T., 460, 466, 472 Church, M. A., 360 Cialdini, R. B., 646, 670, 686, 692 Ciana, A. C., 357 Cicchetti, F., 72 Ciraulo, D. A., 405 Clader, R., 386 Clancy, S. A., 228 Clark, A. S., 92 Clark, D. A., 539 Clark, D. M., 582 Clark, L. A., 371 Clark, M. S., 658, 659 Claustrat, B., 314 Clayton, S., 402 Cleare, A., 678 Cleckley, H., 569 Cleghorn, J. M., 377 Clifford, M. M., 660 Clifton, R. K., 496 Cloninger, C. R., 371, 551 Cobb, S., 430 Cody, H., 279 Coffey, C. E., 602 Cohen, D., 525, 674 Cohen, H. L., 120 Cohen, J. D., 305 Cohen, L., 319 Cohen, L. J., 358 Cohen, R. M., 518 Cohen, S., 421, 422, 425, 430, 675 Cohler, B., 487 Cohn, E. G., 680 Colby, A., 522 Colditz, G. A., 394 Cole, A. M., 123 Cole, D. A., 363, 492 Cole, P. M., 375 Cole, S., 580 Coleman, M. J., 446 Coletta, M., 567 Colley, A., 211 Collier, G., 181 Collings, S., 567 Collins, A., 218 Collins, A. M., 218 Collins, B., 177 Collins, R. L., 324 Cologer-Clifford, A., 679 Colombo, G., 588 Columbia University’s Mailman School of Public Health, 541 Colvin, C. R., 190, 463, 465 Compas, B., 491
Compston, A., 82 Compton, W. M., 534 Conger, C., 656 Conklin, H. M., 555 Conte, J. R., 229 Conway, L. G., 636 Conway, M. A., 225 Cook, H., 376 Cook, L. M., 20 Cook-Cottone, C., 396 Cooley, C. H., 647 Cools, R., 72 Coombs, C., 252 Coons, A., 690 Cooper, G. F., 153 Cooper, H. M., 324 Cooper, J., 642, 643 Cooper, L. A., 234 Cooper, M. L., 560 Coopersmith, S., 645 Corbin, S. B., 34 Cork, R. C., 322 Cornblatt, B. A., 552 Corr, P. J., 183 Corrigan, P. W., 534 Corsica, J. A., 393, 397 Coryell, W., 572 Cosemides, L., 543 Cosmides, L., 22, 99, 110, 241, 343, 543 Costa, P., 459, 460 Costa, P. T., 427, 459, 466, 492 Costa, P. T., Jr., 459, 465 Costello, E., 587 Coull, J. T., 516 Coupe, P., 218 Courtenay, W. H., 411 Cousins, S., 650 Cowan, C. P., 492 Cowan, N., 205 Cowan, P. A., 492 Cowdry, R. W., 600 Cowgill, D. O., 493 Cowley, G., 433 Cox, J. R., 241 Coyle, J., 516 Coyne, J. C., 413 Craig, A. D., 139 Craig, J. C., 139 Craighead, W. E., 572 Craik, F., 213, 214 Craik, F. I. M., 302, 512 Crair, M. C., 147 Cramer, P., 351, 443, 617 Crandall, C., 351, 393 Crandall, C. S., 393 Crawford, M., 560 Crews, F. C., 448 Crick, F., 308, 319 Crick, N. R., 450, 523 Crits-Christoph, P., 579, 580, 606 Crocker, J., 615 Crook, T. H., 512 Cross, S., 644 Cross, S. E., 472 Crow, T. J., 552 Crowder, R., 214 Crowder, R. G., 198 Crowell, J. A., 487 Crowley, M., 673 Crowne, D. P., 685 Crum, R. M., 572 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 25, 309, 491, 657 Culos-Reed, S. N., 403 Cummings, J. L., 64 Cummins, R. A., 94
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Cunningham, M., 659, 666 Cunningham, M. R., 660 Curci, A., 225 Curran, J. P., 660 Curtiss, S., 517 D Daley, S. E., 572 Dalgleish, T., 376 Dalla, C., 166 Dalton, K., 679 Daly, M., 22, 23, 380 Damasio, A. R., 65, 88, 94, 256, 257, 374 D’Amico, E. J., 192 Damon, W., 520 Daneman, M., 203 Daniel, M., 431 Danziger, E., 258 Darby, B. W., 628 Darley, J. M., 523, 524, 672 Darlington, R., 86, 102 Darwin, C., 20, 379 Dasen, P., 509 Davanloo, H., 580 Davidson, L. M., 421 Davidson, M., 351 Davidson, R., 76, 92, 186, 219, 371, 374 Davidson, R. J., 186, 368, 374 Davies, I. R. L., 258 Davis, D. L., 355 Davis, H., 245 Davis, J. M., 597 Davis, K. L., 571 Davison, G. C., 582, 587 Davison, K. P., 591 Dawes, R., 247 Dawes, R. M., 604 Day, D. V., 690 Day, N. L., 495 Deacon, T. W., 267 Deater-Deckard, K., 177 de Castro, J., 349 Deci, E. L., 337 DeFries, J., 291 Deglin, V. L., 242 deGonzague, B., 431 DeKay, T., 23, 24 DeLander, G. E., 140 De La Ronde, C., 559 Del Monte, M. M., 228 DeLoache, J. S., 150 DeLongis, A., 421, 426 Dembroski, T. M., 427 Dement, W., 315 Demorest, A. P., 445 Demorest, M. E., 244 Dempster, F. N., 214 DeMulder, E. K., 485 DeNisi, A., 452 De Pascalis, V., 322 DePaulo, B. M., 264 Depinet, R. L., 284 Derntl, B., 373 Derry, P. A., 630 De Smedt, B., 204 D’Esposito, M., 77, 85, 156, 513 de St. Aubin, E., 445, 490 DeSteno, D. A., 380 Deutsch, J. A., 350 DeValois, K., 128 DeValois, R. L., 128 Devine, P., 617, 618 Devine, P. G., 322, 618, 621 Devlin, M. J., 350, 394 DeVos, G., 650 DeVos, J., 505
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 3
Name index
de Waal, F., 43, 677 de Wijk, R. A., 198 Dewis, L. M., 584 De Witte, P., 324 Dews, P. B., 183 Diamond, L. M., 664 Diamond, M. C., 514 Diaz-Guerrero, R., 428 DiBartolo, P. M., 563 Di Blas, L., 466 Di Chiara, G., 324 Dick, D. M., 498 Diener, E., 94, 95, 366, 493 Dies, R., 591 Dietz, W. H., 393 Difede, J., 585 Diforio, D., 552 DiGirolamo, G. J., 301 Dil, N., 264 DiLalla, L. F., 679 Dimsdale, J. E., 140 Dion, K., 615 Dion, K. K., 660, 664, 665 Dion, K. L., 664, 665 Dipboye, R. L., 691 DiPietro, J. A., 494 Dittes, J. E., 685 Dixit, A. R., 572 Dixon, N. F., 158 Dixon, R., 513 Doane, J. A., 555 Dobkin de Rios, M., 326 Dobson, V., 501 Dodd, B., 501 Dodd, V. L., 483 Dodds, J. B., 497 Dodge, K., 177 Dodge, K. A., 450 Doi, T., 664 Dolan, R., 256, 257 Dollard, J., 185, 186 Domhoff, G. W., 318, 319 Donnerstein, E., 681 Doty, R. L., 135 Doucet, S. M., 119 Douvan, E., 491 Dovidio, J., 617, 618 Dovidio, J. F., 618 Downey, G., 595 Downey, K. T., 351, 395 Dozier, M., 486 Draguns, J. G., 536 Drepper, J., 82 Dryer, D. C., 660 Duckitt, J., 616, 622 Dudley, R., 292 Duffy, F. H., 326 Duman, R. S., 598 Dumaret, A., 292 Duncan, C. C., 556 Duncan, G. J., 359 Duncan, J., 286 Duncker, K., 244, 245 Dunifon, R., 359 Dunlap, D., 648 Dunlop, R., 169 Dunn, D. S., 94 Dunn, J., 370 Dunning, D., 631 Durkheim, E., 328 Duval, F., 554 Dweck, C., 359 E Eagly, A., 615, 633, 639, 660, 675 Eagly, A. H., 633, 634, 636, 663, 673, 686
Eaton, S. B., 431 Ebbesen, E., 221 Ebbesen, E. B., 659 Ebbinghaus, H., 214, 221 Eccles, J. S., 336 Eckensbeger, L. H., 526 Edelman, G. M., 305 Eden, S., 242 Edwards, C. P., 523 Edwards, W., 246, 247 Egger, M. D., 677 Ehlers, A., 566 Ehrhardt, A. A., 354, 355 Ehrman, R., 173 Eichen, E. B., 517 Eichenbaum, H., 209 Eimas, P., 518 Eimas, P. D., 518 Einstein, G. O., 212, 513 Eisenberg, N., 375, 428, 524, 525 Eisner, S., 370 Ekman, P., 363, 367-370 Elder, G. H., Jr., 488 Eldridge, L., 84 Elias, M., 515 Elias, M. F., 516 Elkin, I., 607 Elkind, D., 507 Elkis, H., 554 Ellicott, A., 559 Elliot, A. J., 337, 359, 360 Elliott, M., 190 Ellis, A., 539, 587 Ellis, B. J., 498 Ellis, C. E., 516 Ellis, J., 212 Ellis, S., 504, 508 Ellsworth, P., 377 Emmons, R., 438 Emmons, R. A., 593, 594, 656, 657 Endo, Y., 666 Engel, A. K., 301 Engel, S., 124 Enstrom, J. F., 392 Epley, N., 631 Eppinga, J., 5 Epstein, P., 463 Epstein, S., 305, 358, 439, 463, 630, 636, 644 Era, P., 512 Erdelyi, M. H., 158 Erdmann, G., 377 Erdoes, R., 328 Ericsson, K. A., 205 Erikson, E., 3, 440, 474, 488-490 Erlenmeyer, K. L., 572 Escobedo, L. G., 415 Esquivel, G. B., 14 Estes, W. K., 236 Euler, H. A., 23, 24 Evans, G. W., 427 Evans-Pritchard, E. E., 473 Everitt, B. J., 72 Everson, C. A., 315 Eysenck, H., 582 Eysenck, H. J., 183, 280, 378, 455, 456, 466, 548, 556, 582 F Fagan, J. F., 288 Fairburn, C. G., 568 Faith, M. S., 394 Fancher, R. E., 274 Fanselow, M. S., 170 Fantz, R. L., 500
Faraone, S. V., 548, 555 Farber, N. B., 554 Farmer, C. M., 555 Farmer, I. P., 358 Farrimond, S., 211, 513 Fass, P. S., 283 Fast, N. J., 631 Fazio, R., 618, 638 Fazio, R. H., 633, 634, 642 Fearing, D. D., 500 Fears, T. R., 402 Feather, N. T., 667 Fehm-Wolfsdorf, G., 112 Feingold, A., 615, 660 Feit, A., 632 Feldman, D. H., 290 Feldman, M. D., 2, 3 Feldman, S. S., 487 Feng, A. S., 134 Ferguson, E. D., 19 Fernald, A., 519 Ferro, T., 542 Ferster, C. B., 179 Ferster, D., 123 Feshbach, S., 409 Festinger, L., 641, 659 Fiedler, F. E., 691, 692 Field, A. E., 351 Fields, R. D., 66 Fincham, F. D., 542 Fine, I., 153 Fink, M., 602 Finkelhor, D., 675 Finlay, B. L., 86, 102 Finlay-Jones, R., 565 Finn, P. R., 550 Finset, A., 413 Fiore, M. C., 400 Fischer, K. W., 372, 481, 511 Fiset, P., 83, 308 Fishbein, M., 390, 637 Fisher, S., 14, 442 Fishkin, J., 526 Fiske, A. P., 631, 643, 644, 650 Fiske, S., 615, 631, 658 Fiske, S. T., 614-617, 632 Fitzgerald, P., 656 Fitzpatrick, L., 684 Flanagan, J. C., 493 Flavell, J. H., 288, 503, 505, 508-510 Fleming, J. H., 648 Fletcher, G. O., 660 Flor, H., 183 Florian, V., 487 Flynn, J. P., 677 Flynn, J. R., 294 Foa, E. B., 606 Fodor, J., 201 Folkman, S., 428 Fonagy, P., 487, 606 Ford, C. V., 2, 3 Ford, M., 505 Fordyce, M. W., 95 Foreyt, J. P., 350, 396 Forgas, J. P., 378 Forrin, B., 290, 479 Forsyth, D. R., 58, 690 Forzi, M., 466 Foster, G., 345 Foster, M. A., 592 Foulkes, D., 318, 319 Fowles, D. C., 553 Fox, N., 92 Fox, N. A., 371 Fozard, J., 499 Fraiberg, S., 484 Fraley, R. C., 487
NI-3
Frank, E., 558, 603 Frank, J. D., 606 Franke, R. H., 690 Frankel, R. M., 413 Frankenburg, W. K., 497 Franklin, J., 308 Fraser, C., 519 Fraser, L. D., 533 Fraser, S. C., 693 Frazier, P. A., 428 Free, M., 583 Freed, D. E., 181 Freedman, J. L., 693 Freedman, M. A., 498 Freedman, N., 580, 606 Freeman, W., 603 Frensch, P. A., 249 Freud, A., 443 Freud, S., 305, 318, 438, 439, 442, 488, 491, 579 Fried, C. B., 643 Fried, P. A., 327 Friedman, H. S., 264 Friedman, J. M., 394, 395 Friedman, L. S., 402 Friedman, M., 426 Friedman, M. A., 395 Friesen, W. V., 369 Frith, C., 256, 257 Froh, J. J., 656 Fromkin, V., 480 Fromm, E., 345 Fromme, K., 192 Fry, A. F., 509 Funder, D., 465 Fussel, S. R., 262 Fuster, J., 256 Fyer, A. J., 565 G Gabbard, G., 14, 573 Gabbard, G. O., 52 Gabbay, F., 371 Gable, S. L., 665 Gabrieli, J. D., 209, 213 Gadow, K., 681 Gaensbauer, T., 42 Gaertner, S., 617, 618 Gafurov, B. G., 83 Gage, F., 73 Gaillot, M. T., 453 Galinsky, A. D., 621 Gallistel, C. R., 172 Gallo-Lopez, L., 596 Gambetti, E., 253 Gangestad, S. W., 648 Ganley, R., 396 Gannon, P. J., 90 Garb, H. N., 446 Garber, J., 498 Garcia, J., 163, 166, 171, 283 Garcia y Robertson, R., 163 Gardner, B. T., 266 Gardner, C. O., Jr., 572 Gardner, D. L., 600 Gardner, H., 18, 270, 272, 279, 283, 289 Gardner, R. A., 266 Gardner, W. L., 636 Garfield, C., 259 Garfield, S. L., 577 Garfinkel, P. E., 568 Garnefski, N., 430 Garner, D. M., 395, 568 Garrity, M., 682 Garver, D. L., 552 Gaudreau, D., 513 Gauthier, J. G., 183
10/18/10 3:35 PM
NI-4
Name index
Gazzaniga, M., 90, 91 Gazzaniga, M. S., 90, 92 Ge, X., 498 Geary, D. C., 380 Gebhard, P. H., 355 Gee, C., 336 Geen, R. G., 674, 680 Geertz, C., 472, 650 Geldard, G. A., 135 Gelman, R., 508 Gentner, D., 242 George, D., 673 Gerberding, J. C., 399 Gerend, M. A., 389 Gerken, L., 518 Gerrie, M., 223 Gershaw, D. A., 120 Gershon, S., 601 Gerstner, C., 690 Gest, S. D., 463 Getz, K., 442 Gewirtz, J. C., 171 Ghaemi, S. N., 557, 601 Giaquinto, S., 588 Gibbon, J., 172 Gibbs, R. W., Jr., 262 Gibson, E. J., 154, 502 Gibson, H. B., 499 Gibson, J. J., 152 Giesler, R. B., 559 Gigerenzer, C., 248 Gilbert, D., 300, 366 Gilbert, D. T., 626, 627, 630 Gilbert, L., 618 Gilbert, P. L., 600 Gilboa, E., 539 Gilchrist, A. L., 206 Gilhooly, K. J., 243 Gill, M., 579 Gill, T. V., 265 Gillam, B., 152 Gilleard, C. J., 516 Gilligan, C., 526 Gilligan, J., 526, 676 Gillis, M. M., 587, 606 Gilmore, R. O., 503 Ginzburg, K., 14 Giusberti, F., 253 Gladue, B. A., 356 Gladwell, M., 190, 280, 619, 667, 668 Gladwin, T., 272 Glantz, S. A., 399 Glaser, R., 288 Glassman, N., 580 Gleason, J. B., 657 Gleitman, L. R., 519 Glickert, A., 516 Gluck, M. A., 209 Glucklich, A., 674 Godden, D. R., 214 Godin, G., 391 Goff, D. C., 599 Gogate, L. J., 519 Gold, J. M., 552 Goldberg, L., 460 Goldberg, L. R., 459, 460 Golden, R. M., 255 Goldfield, B. A., 519 Goldfried, M. R., 582, 587, 608 Goldman, S. E., 313 Goldman-Rakic, P., 87, 92, 308 Goldner, E. M., 568 Goldsmith, H. H., 571 Goldsmith, L., 290 Goldsmith, S. K., 555 Goldsmith, T. H., 116 Goldstein, A. J., 566
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 4
Goldstein, D. G., 248 Goldstein, E. B., 133 Goldstein, J. M., 555 Goldstein, M. J., 543 Goldstein, S. K., 565 Goldstone, R. L., 235 Goleman, D., 454 Gomez, A., 185 Gomez, R., 185 Gonzalez, M. E., 350 Good, B. J., 561 Goodenough, B., 152 Goodman, E. S., 11 Goodman, L., 675 Goodnow, J. J., 523, 685 Goodrick, G. D., 396 Goodwin, C. J., 10, 17 Goodwin, F. K., 557, 601, 602 Goodwyn, S., 264, 518 Goodwyn, S. W., 264, 519 Gordis, E., 550 Gordon, A. H., 369 Gordon, B., 147 Gordon, J., 128 Gordon, M., 355 Gorman, J. M., 565 Gorn, G. J., 168 Gorski, R. A., 92 Gortmaker, S. L., 393 Gosling, S. D., 461 Gotlib, I. H., 539 Goto, H., 94 Gottesman, I. I., 97, 553 Gottfredson, L., 275 Gottlieb, C., 479 Gottlieb, J. P., 479 Gottman, J., 492, 539, 593, 665 Gottman, J. M., 667, 668 Gould, E., 379 Gould, S. J., 294 Govern, J., 223 Grabe, S., 351 Gracely, R., 108 Graesser, A. C., 262 Graf, P., 207 Graham, K. S., 89 Granastein, J. L., 635 Graugaard, P., 413 Gray, J. A., 185, 186, 371 Graziadei, P. P. C., 137 Green, L., 181 Green, R., 356 Greenberg, J., 468 Greenberg, L. S., 606 Greenberg, M. A., 430 Greenberg, R., 14, 442 Greenberg, R. P., 14, 442 Greeno, C. G., 396 Greeno, J. G., 243 Greenough, W. T., 480 Greenwald, A. G., 45, 618, 619, 630, 635, 659 Gregory, J., 3 Gregory, O. J., 278 Gregory, R., 148, 153 Gregory, R. I., 149, 151 Grencavage, L. M., 606 Greve, F., 316 Grice, H. P., 263 Griffith, E. E., 328 Griffitt, W., 355 Griggs, R. A., 241 Grimshaw, G. M., 93 Grob, C., 326 Grob, G. N., 387 Gross, J. J., 375 Grossman, M. I., 348 Grossman, R. P., 168
Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (GAP) Committee on Alcoholism and the Addictions, 324, 325 Grunbaum, A., 448 Grusec, J. E., 523 Guarnaccia, P. J., 533 Gumperz, J. J., 258 Gunderson, J. G., 600 Gunter, B., 681 Gupta, K., 72 Gur, R. E., 76, 554, 555 Gurevich, E. V., 600 Gurland, S. T., 337 Gurtman, M., 499 Gust, D., 430 Gustavson, C. R., 163 Guthrie, R. V., 11 H Ha, Y., 244 Haaga, D. A. F., 605 Hagan, M. M., 83 Hagger, M. S., 391 Hahlweg, K., 584 Hahn, S. E., 421 Halasz, P., 317 Hale, S., 509, 511 Haley, J., 592 Halford, G., 505, 509 Hall, G. S., 491 Hall, J., 369, 370, 375 Hall, L. K., 222 Hall, P. A., 356 Halmi, K. A., 567 Hamer, D., 357 Hamermesh, D. S., 615, 660 Hamida, B. S., 568 Hamilton, D., 616 Hamilton, W. D., 22, 342 Haney, B., 335 Hanin, B., 602 Hanna, J., 401 Hannigan, S. L., 616 Hansen, W. B., 326 Harackiewicz, J. M., 359 Harari, H., 673 Harbaugh, W. T., 671 Hardeman, W., 391 Harlow, H. F., 482, 483, 487 Harlow, R., 452 Harmon-Jones, E., 371 Harnden-Fischer, J., 568 Harrington, D. M., 280 Harris, B., 444 Harris, C. R., 380 Harris, M. B., 351 Harris, T. O., 430, 558 Harris, Y. H., 665 Harsch, N., 225 Hart, B., 290 Hart, D., 98 Hart, E. A., 403 Harter, S., 645 Hartline, H. K., 120 Hartman, S., 659 Hartmann, H., 443 Hartup, W. W., 676 Haslam, N., 666 Hass, R., 617 Hasselquist, D., 380 Hatfield, E., 661 Haugtvedt, C., 639 Hauser, S. T., 491 Haxby, J. V., 124 Hay, D. F., 527 Hayes, S. C., 186
Hayibor, S., 248 Hazan, C., 662, 664 He, W., 493 Healey, B. J., 445 Healy, A. F., 199 Healy, S. D., 101 Heath, A. C., 399 Heatherton, T. F., 351, 617 Heavey, C. L., 593 Hebl, M. R., 351, 393, 617 Heckers, S., 76 Hedricks, C. A., 355 Heffernan, T. M., 212 Hegarty, J., 551 Hegele, R., 496 Heider, F., 626, 630, 656 Heine, S. J., 643, 644 Heishman, S. J., 400 Heit, E., 19, 240, 242 Heller, D., 478 Helmholtz, H., 133, 150 Helson, R., 493 Helweg-Larson, M., 389 Henderson, N. D., 292 Henninger, P., 569 Herbert, T. B., 430 Herdt, G., 355 Herdt, G. H., 355 Hering, E., 128 Heritch, A., 94 Herman, J., 446 Herman, J. L., 228, 229 Herold, E. S., 401 Heron, A., 509 Herrmann, D., 211 Herrmann, D. J., 211 Herrnstein, R. J., 181 Hersen, M., 586 Hersey, P., 690 Herz, M. I., 551, 595, 596 Herz, R. S., 198 Herzog, D. B., 567 Hester, R. K., 405, 406 Hewstone, M., 623 Hick, K. M., 568 Hicks, R. A., 313 Higgins, E. T., 19, 358, 616, 649 Higgins, R. L., 646 Higley, J., 678 Hilgard, E. R., 321 Hill, A., 138 Hill, K. T., 301, 395 Hiller, J. B., 555 Hiller-Sturmhofel, S., 404 Hillhouse, J. J., 391 Hilliard, R. B., 579 Himes, G. T., 188 Hinde, R., 21 Hingson, R., 405 Hirsch, H. V. B., 147 Hirsch, J., 293, 394 Hirst, W., 85 Hirstein, W., 138, 139 Hirt, E. R., 623 Hitch, G. J., 19 Hittner, J. B., 324 Hobfoll, S. E., 416, 427, 431 Hobson, J. A., 319 Hock, E., 487 Hockbaum, G., 388 Hodges, J., 487 Hodos, W., 101 Hoek, H. W., 567 Hofer, S. M., 513, 514 Hoff-Ginsberg, E., 519 Hoffman, H. G., 432, 585 Hoffman, L., 542, 592 Hoffman, M. A., 492
Hoffman, M. L., 525, 527, 669 Hoffman, P., 73 Hofling, C. K., 683 Hofmann, S., 563 Hogan, R., 436, 691 Hogg, M. A., 623, 637 Hohmann, G. W., 362 Holden, C., 436 Holland, A. J., 516 Holland, C. R., 288 Holland, J., 238, 240 Holland, P. C., 187 Holland, R. W., 637 Hollander, D., 401 Hollis, K. L., 170, 171 Hollon, S., 559 Hollon, S. D., 587, 606, 608 Holmes, D., 228 Holmes, J. G., 666 Holmes, L. D., 493 Holmes, T. H., 418 Holmgren, R. A., 522, 525 Holscher, C., 320 Holt, R., 332 Holt, R. R., 448 Holyoak, K., 242, 256 Holyoak, K. J., 240, 242, 253, 255, 614 Holzman, P. S., 555 Homann, E., 560 Homans, G., 182, 659 Honeybourne, C., 172 Honzik, C. H., 187 Hooks, M. S., 183 Hooley, J., 558 Hooley, J. M., 540, 555, 556 Horn, J., 514 Horn, J. C., 514 Horn, J. L., 286, 287, 513, 514 Horn, J. M., 292 Horner, T. M., 501 Horney, K., 441 Horowitz, L. M., 660 Horowitz, M., 454 Hough, J., 617 House, J. S., 358, 430 Hovland, C., 168, 169 Hovland, C. I., 639 Howard, K. I., 608 Howe, M. L., 207, 228 Howes, C., 486 Howland, J., 405 Hrecznyj, B., 326 Hsieh, K., 492 Hsu, F. L. K., 664 Hsu, L. K. G., 351 Hubel, D. H., 86, 120, 123, 124 Huesmann, L. R., 681 Hulka, B. S., 498 Hull, C. L., 184, 334 Hull, J. G., 324, 404 Hulme, C., 205 Hultsch, D., 513 Humphreys, K., 432 Humphreys, M. S., 614 Hundleby, J. D., 455 Hunt, E., 258 Hunter, J. E., 284 Hupka, R. B., 367 Hurley, S., 525 Hurvich, L. M., 128 Huselid, B. F., 560 Huston, T. L., 660, 665 Hyde, J. S., 92, 351, 526 I Ickes, W., 617 Idle, J. R., 399
10/18/10 3:35 PM
Iemmola, F., 357 Ilardi, S. S., 572 Imbo, I., 202 Inglehart, M. R., 366 Ingram, R. E., 604 Inhelder, B., 503, 505, 508 Inkeles, A., 8 Innis, N. K., 183 Insko, C. A., 638, 639 Irwin, M., 239 Isaacowitz, D. M., 190 Isen, A., 378 Ishai, A., 89 Islam, M. R., 623 Ismail, B., 555 Iyengar, S. S., 345 Izac, S. M., 82 Izard, C., 368 Izard, C. E., 367, 368, 370, 376, 379 Izquierdo, I., 71 J Jablensky, A., 555 Jackendoff, R., 197 Jacklin, C. N., 92 Jackson, J. L., 413 Jacob, P., 525 Jacob, T., 593 Jacobs, T. J., 421 Jacobson, E., 444 Jacobson, J. L., 279 Jacobson, L., 683 Jacobson, N. S., 593 Jacoby, L. L., 307 Jacques, E., 492 Jaffee, S., 526 Jahoda, M., 419 James, S. A., 350 James, W., 300, 327, 362 Jameson, D., 128 Jang, K. L., 470 Jangid, R. K., 321 Jänig, W., 75 Janis, I., 639 Janis, I. L., 409 Janoff-Bulman, R., 469 Janowitz, H. D., 348 Jansen, E., 376 Jarvis, W. B. G., 639 Java, R. I., 512, 515 Jelinek, L., 564 Jemmott, J. B., III, 425 Jencks, C., 283, 293 Jenike, M., 603 Jenike, M. A., 564 Jenkins, J. H., 551, 555 Jenkins, J. M., 375 Jenks, K. M., 204 Jenner, E. A., 391 Jensen, A. R., 284, 293, 294 Jockin, V., 98 John, O., 45, 631 John, O. P., 460, 461 Johnson, A. J., 201 Johnson, J. V., 430 Johnson, K. O., 139 Johnson, M. H., 503 Johnson, R., 499 Johnson, S. L., 559, 593 Johnson, V., 352, 353 Johnson-Laird, P. N., 234, 241, 242 Joiner, T. E., 559 Jolicoeur, P., 238 Jonas, E., 469 Jonas, K., 636 Jones, E. E., 646
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 5
Name index
Jones, J. E., 234 Jones, J. L., 402 Jones, K. L., 495 Josephson, B. R., 379 Julien, R. M., 599, 601 Jungsik, K., 661 Jusczyk, P. W., 517 Just, M. A., 203 K Kaas, J. H., 139 Kafetsios, K., 486, 664 Kagan, J., 358, 463, 480, 484, 489 Kahn, M. J., 564 Kahn, R. L., 493 Kahn, R. S., 554 Kahn, S., 490 Kahneman, D., 248, 250-252 Kail, R., 274, 509 Kalter, N., 34 Kamen, L. P., 427 Kamil, A. C., 234 Kamin, L. J., 170, 291 Kaminer, Y., 326 Kaminski, M., 589 Kampe, K. K. W., 660 Kamphaus, R. W., 279 Kandel, E. R., 98, 573 Kanizsa, G., 143 Kanner, A. D., 421 Kanner, B., 272 Kantor, G. K., 177 Kanwisher, N., 148 Kaplan, J. S., 594 Kapur, S., 213, 553 Kardiner, A., 8 Karney, B. R., 665 Karno, M., 551, 555 Kashima, Y., 614 Kassin, S., 60 Katahn, M., 396 Katayama, Y., 309 Katigbak, M., 460 Kato, P. M., 421, 430 Katz, H., 507 Katz, I., 617 Katz, J., 138 Katzman, D. K., 568 Kaufman, L., 150 Kawakami, K., 618, 621 Kaye, W. H., 567 Kazdin, A. E., 42 Keating, C. F., 152 Keefe, F. J., 431, 432 Keefe, R., 663 Keel, P. K., 568 Kelip, J. G., 552 Keller, H., 131 Kelley, C. M., 307 Kelley, H. H., 615, 626, 665 Kelley, J. E., 364 Kelley, S. A., 489 Kelly, G. A., 450 Kelly, J. A., 408 Keltner, D., 368, 378, 419 Kemeny, M. E., 421 Kenardy, J., 566 Kendall, P. C., 585, 605, 606, 608 Kendler, K. S., 291, 404, 426, 550, 553, 558, 559, 563, 565, 567, 572 Kenealy, P. M., 378 Kennedy, D. P., 313 Kennedy, H., 561 Kenrick, D., 659, 663
Kenrick, D. T., 463, 661, 662, 670 Kernberg, O., 445, 538, 560, 569, 571 Kernberg, O. F., 569 Kersten, A., 235 Kessler, R. C., 419, 420, 549, 563, 564, 603 Ketchum, K., 224 Kety, S. S., 555 Keysers, C., 199, 525 Kiechel, K., 60 Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., 424, 425 Kiewitz, C., 681 Kihlstrom, J. F., 19, 300, 306, 451, 452 Kim, H., 685 Kim, J. M. S., 555 Kim, Y., 615, 660 Kimura, D., 93 King, A. J., 134 King, F. A., 61 King, H. E., 678 King, L., 95 King, L. A., 438 King, M., 567 Kinney, D. K., 555 Kinomura, S., 83, 308 Kinsbourne, M., 242, 517 Kinsey, A. C., 352 Kintsch, W., 205, 243 Kirsch, I., 321, 322 Kisker, E. E., 402 Kitayama, S., 370, 631, 644, 650 Kitzman, K. M., 543 Klaczynski, P., 508 Klaw, E., 432 Klayman, J., 244 Klein, C. T. F., 389 Klein, D. N., 557 Klein, W. M., 389 Kleinke, C. L., 368 Kleinman, A., 533, 572, 594 Kleinman, A. M., 561 Klesges, L. M., 402 Klesges, R. C., 402 Kleven, M., 553 Kling, K. C., 647 Klinger, M. R., 659 Klohnen, E. C., 493 Kluckhohn, F., 428 Kluger, A., 452 Kluver, H., 373 Knafl, K., 351 Knittle, J. L., 394 Knott, R., 196 Knowlton, B. J., 85 Knupfer, G., 495 Kobak, R., 486 Koch, B. C., 314 Koch, C., 308, 309 Kochanska, G., 527 Koelling, R., 171 Koerner, K., 591 Koestner, R., 334, 441 Kohlberg, L., 521, 522 Kohlenberg, R. J., 180 Kohler, W., 188 Kohut, H., 332, 358 Kokko, K., 471 Kolarz, C. M., 493 Kolb, B., 85, 101, 102 Koller, S. A., 279 Koltko-Rivera, M. E., 341 Konner, M., 272, 431 Kopelman, P. G., 392, 393 Kopelowicz, A., 586 Kopp, C. B., 375
Korfine, L., 540 Koriat, A., 211 Korn, J. H., 17 Kornhaber, M. L., 289 Korotkov, D., 426 Korten, A. E., 515 Koss, M., 675 Kosslyn, S. M., 156, 198, 234, 238, 322 Kouri, E., 326 Kourtzi, Z., 148 Kowalski, R. M., 34, 370, 391, 400, 410, 623, 648, 666, 675 Kozin, M., 225 Kraaij, V., 430 Krackow, A., 684 Kramer, E., 264 Kramer, P., 601 Kramer, R., 521 Kraus, R. F., 140 Kraus, S. J., 637 Krause, R. F., 115 Krauss, R. M., 262 Krebs, J. R., 181 Kremen, A., 454 Kring, A. M., 369 Kringelbach, M. L., 94 Kripke, D., 314 Kroenke, K., 413 Kroonenberg, M. J., 485 Krosnick, J., 634 Krosnick, J. A., 634, 635 Krueger, R. F., 470 Kruesi, M., 548 Krystal, A. D., 602 Kuhl, P., 519 Kuhl, P. K., 501 Kuhlmeier, V. A., 188 Kuhn, T. S., 12, 503 Kuiper, N. A., 630, 631 Kuldau, J. M., 351 Kulik, J., 225 Kunda, Z., 255, 439, 614, 620, 621, 631 Kunz, P. R., 692 Kunzendorf, R. G., 321 Kuo-shu, Y., 460 Kupfer, D. J., 603 Kurzban, R., 99 Kushner, M. G., 428 Kvavilashvili, L., 212, 225 Kwan, J., 413 L LaBar, K. S., 84 LaBarre, W., 473 Labouvie-Vief, G., 513 Ladd, G. W., 586 LaFreniere, P. J., 485 Laing, D. G., 137 Lakoff, G., 233, 238, 239, 319 Lalumiere, M. L., 356 Lamb, G. H., 139 Lamb, M. E., 492 Lambert, M. J., 605, 606 Lame Deer, J., 328 Landau, E., 290 Landman, J. T., 604 Landy, D., 615 Lane, C., 431 Lane, R. D., 371 Lang, P., 371, 379 Lange, C. G., 362 Langer, E. J., 303, 422-424 Langlois, J., 660 Langston, J., 72 Lanzetta, J. T., 368
NI-5
Laroi, F., 592 Larose, H., 615 Larsen, R. J., 363 Larson, R., 491 Larzelere, R. E., 178 Lasswell, H. D., 638 Latané, B., 672 Latham, G., 336 Latimer, P. R., 585 Latner, J. D., 351 Laub, J. B., 177 Laudenslager, M. C., 430 Laudenslager, M. L., 421 Laundra, K., 283 Lave, J., 52 Lavie, P., 313, 316 Lavoie, M., 314 Lawrence, C. B., 348 Lawrence, M. A., 620 Lazarus, R., 417 Lazarus, R. S., 19, 377, 417, 428 Leal, S., 264 Leary, M. R., 99, 358, 400-402, 457, 472, 648, 658, 666 Leblond, C. P., 141 Lecky, P., 647 LeDoux, J., 167, 373, 374 LeDoux, J. E., 66, 83, 84, 91, 307, 373 Lee, E., 294 Lee, W. B., 117 LeFevre, J., 202 Lehman, D. R., 419, 643, 644 Lehmann, H. E., 557 Lehner, P. E., 252 Lehrman, D. S., 342 Leichtman, M. D., 526 Leith, L., 336 Lelchuk, I., 655 Lemonick, M. D., 404 Lempers, J. D., 505 Lenneberg, E., 94, 516 Lenzenweger, M. F., 569 Lepore, S. J., 430 Lepper, M. R., 345, 642 Lerman, C., 399 Lerner, J. S., 378 Lerner, R., 480 LeVay, S., 356 Levenson, J. L., 421 Levenson, R., 669 Levenson, R. W., 363 Leventhal, E. A., 140, 425, 426 Leventhal, H., 377, 387, 425, 426 Levi, A., 632 LeVine, B. B., 182, 185 Levine, J., 81 Levine, L. J., 379 LeVine, R., 8, 472, 473, 685 LeVine, R. A., 8, 182, 185 Levine, R. V., 672 Levinger, G., 665 Levinson, D., 492 Levinson, D. J., 492 Levinson, S. C., 258 Levkovitz, Y., 601 Levy-Shiff, R., 492 Lew, A., 177 Lewicki, P., 249 Lewin, K., 690 Lewinsohn, P. M., 558, 572 Lewis, D. A., 541 Lewis, D. O., 569 Lewis, J., 409 Lewis, J. W., 679 Lewis, M., 279, 487, 492 Lewkowicz, D. J., 501
10/18/10 3:35 PM
NI-6
Name index
Li, Z., 554 Liberman, A., 626, 639 Liberman, N., 632 Lickliter, R., 501 Lieberman, M. D., 85, 249, 622, 642 Lierman, L. M., 391 Likliter, R., 501 Lilienfeld, S. O., 223 Limongelli, L., 188 Lin, E. H., 427 Lindberg, M., 510 Lindblom, S. S., 315 Lindemann, C. G., 583 Lindley, R. H., 288 Lindstrom, M., 78 Linehan, M., 363 Linehan, M. M., 539, 569, 591 Ling, J., 212 Lippold, S., 660 Litt, M., 607 Litt, M. D., 606 Little, R. E., 495 Little, T. D., 279 Litwin, G. H., 359 Livingstone, M., 124 Livneh, H., 496 Lloyd, B., 678 Locke, E., 336 Locke, E. A., 336 Lockhart, R., 213 Lockhart, R. S., 213, 214 Loehlin, J., 22, 98 Loehlin, J. C., 292, 293, 470, 479 Loevinger, J., 446 Loftus, E., 223, 224, 228 Loftus, E. F., 218, 224, 225, 229 Logie, R., 201, 203-205 Logie, R. A., 212 Lohman, T. G., 392 Lonner, W., 8 Lonner, W. J., 8, 472 Lopez, A., 239 Lopez, S., 25 Lore, R., 676 Lorenz, K., 22, 480, 484, 677 Lott, A., 659 Lott, B., 659 Louw, F., 595 Lovaas, O. I., 183 Lu, C., 83 Lubart, T. I., 280 Lubinski, D., 360 Luborsky, L., 578, 579, 581, 607 Lubow, R. E., 171 Luchins, A., 614 Ludolph, P. S., 487 Lumer, E. D., 308 Luminet, O., 225 Lundh, L., 539 Lundqvist, G., 591 Luria, A. R., 102 Luthar, S. S., 487 Lutz, A., 321 Lyketsos, C. G., 515 Lykins, M. S., 503 Lykken, D. T., 98, 470 Lynch, O. M., 372 Lynd-Stevenson, R. M., 336 Lynn, S. J., 322 Lyons, A. S., 385, 386 Lyons, M. J., 558, 571 Lyons-Ruth, K., 485-487 Lytton, H., 570 Lyubomirsky, S., 95 M McAdams, D., 333, 445, 466
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 6
McAdams, D. P., 358, 445, 488, 490 McAleer, J., 681 McAndrew, F. T., 670 Macaruso, P., 245 McCarley, R. W., 319 McCaul, K. D., 140 McClelland, D. C., 333, 334, 359-361 McClelland, J. L., 19 McClintock, M. K., 135 McCloskey, M., 225, 245 McClure, J., 626 Maccoby, E. E., 92 McComb, K., 245 McConahay, J., 617 McConkey, K. M., 322 MacCoun, R. J., 639 McCrae, R. R., 42, 459, 460, 465, 466, 470, 492 McCullough, M. E., 628, 629, 656, 658 McCullough, N., 395 McDaniel, M., 212 McDaniel, M. A., 212 McDermott, K. B., 222 MacDonald, A. W., 300, 301 MacDonald, G., 658 McDonald, J. L., 517, 518 McEvoy, G. M., 514 McEwen, B., 678 McEwen, B. S., 354, 421 Macfie, J., 542 McGaugh, J. L., 209 McGlynn, F. D., 583 McGovern, K., 306 McGue, M., 97, 98, 460, 470, 491, 550 McGuire, F. L., 405 McGuire, W., 681 McGuire, W. J., 638, 639 Machado, C. J., 7 McIntosh, B. J., 518 Mack, A., 123 McKee, G. R., 43 McKee, I., 667 McKelvie, S. J., 248 MacKinnon, D. F., 557 Mackintosh, N. J., 274 Macklin, M. L., 565 McKoon, G., 262 MacLean, P. D., 101 Macleod, C., 378 McLoughlin, D. M., 602 McMinn, M., 396 McNally, R., 172 McNamara, D. S., 199 McNaughton, B. L., 320 McNeil, T. F., 556 McNeill, D., 208 Macoby, E. E., 92 Macrae, C. N., 613, 616, 621 MacRae, P., 498, 512 MacWhinney, B., 519 Madden, P. A. F., 399, 572 Maddux, J. E., 338 Magee, W. J., 563, 564 Magnus, P., 279 Magnusson, D., 464 Maguire, E. A., 212 Mahler, M., 484 Mahon, B. Z., 238 Mahoney, D. P., 584 Maier, S. F., 421 Main, M., 358, 485-487 Maj, M., 600, 603, 604 Major, B., 431 Malamuth, N. M., 681
Maley, C. J., 35 Malik, M. L., 546, 572 Malone, P. S., 627, 630 Malott, J. M., 140 Malpass, R., 8 Malpass, R. S., 322 Malt, B., 236 Maltby, N., 584 Mandler, G., 306, 307 Maner, J. K., 669 Manji, H. K., 601 Mann, J. J., 558 Manne, S., 430 Manning, C., 223 Mannix, L. M., 393, 617 Mannuzza, S., 548 Manuck, S. B., 679 Maquet, P., 318 Marcia, J., 488, 490 Marcia, J. E., 488, 490 Marcotte, A., 517 Marengo, J., 551 Margolskee, R., 136 Marian, V., 214 Markman, A. B., 242 Marks, D. F., 388 Marks, I. M., 171 Marks, J. S., 399 Markstrom-Adams, C., 622 Markus, H., 472, 644, 645, 649, 650 Markus, H. R., 370, 650, 685 Marlatt, G. A., 550 Marlowe, D., 685 Marlsen-Wilson, W., 196 Marmorstein, N., 98 Marsh, R. L., 212 Marshall, D. A., 135 Martikainen, P., 419 Martin, D. J., 578, 585 Martin, J., 43 Martin, K. A., 400, 401 Martin, M. A., 216 Marx, B. P., 365 Maslach, C., 377 Masling, J. M., 445 Maslow, A. H., 340, 395 Mason, M. F., 316 Massen, C., 216 Masserman, J. H., 669 Masten, A. S., 126 Masters, K. S., 16 Masters, W., 352, 353 Masterson, J. F., 571 Mathy, R., 356 Matsumoto, D., 369 Matsuoka, S., 321 Matthews, A., 378 Matthews, K. A., 498 Mauro, R., 378 Mavissakalian, M., 602 May, R., 468 Mayberry, R., 517 Mayer, J., 378 Mayer, J. D., 289, 454 Maylor, E. A., 212 Mead, M., 488 Meadows, M. G., 119 Meaney, M., 678 Medin, D. L., 19, 235, 236, 239, 240 Medina, J. H., 71 Medvec, V. H., 251, 252 Meer, J., 514 Meertens, R. W., 623 Meichenbaum, D., 586 Meirik, O., 498 Mellers, B., 247, 250, 252
Meltzoff, A., 501 Meltzoff, A. N., 501, 502 Melzack, R., 138, 140 Menard, M. T., 198 Mendes, W. B., 418 Mendlowicz, M. V., 563 Mendola, J. D., 143 Menon, T., 472 Meredith, M. A., 123 Merikangas, K. R., 550, 564 Merikle, P., 203 Merriam, A. P., 355 Merton, R. K., 683, 686 Mervis, C. B., 238 Mesquita, B., 370 Messacappa, E. S., 377 Messer, S., 43, 595 Messer, S. B., 595 Metcalfe, J., 510 Meyer, D., 250 Mezzich, J. E., 533, 536 Michelson, D., 601 Mickelson, K. D., 486, 487 Mikulincer, M., 469, 486, 487, 664 Milberger, S., 398 Miles, C., 201 Milewski-Hertlein, K. A., 592 Milgram, S., 56, 57 Milinski, M., 669 Millar, K. U., 638 Millar, M. G., 638 Miller, C. T., 351, 352, 395 Miller, D. T., 631 Miller, G. A., 200, 243 Miller, I., 559 Miller, I. J., Jr., 136 Miller, J. G., 272, 526, 659, 666 Miller, J. L., 518 Miller, K. D., 123 Miller, L. K., 289 Miller, L. M., 301 Miller, L. T., 509 Miller, N., 185, 186, 639 Miller, N. E., 61 Miller, P. A., 427, 525 Miller, R. R., 169 Miller, T. W., 115, 140 Miller, W. A., 111 Miller, W. R., 405, 406, 606 Mills, J., 642, 658 Milner, B., 84, 85 Milner, P., 83 Mineka, S., 22, 559, 563, 572 Minsky, M., 219 Minuchin, S., 542, 592 Miranda, A. O., 533 Miranda, M. I., 73 Mirsky, A. F., 556 Mischel, H. N., 522 Mischel, W., 17, 188, 446, 448, 449, 451, 452, 454, 463, 465, 522 Mishra, R. C., 239, 508 Mistry, J., 272, 279 Misumi, J., 690 Mitchell, J. E., 568, 587 Mitchell, K. J., 224 Mitchell, S. A., 332, 445 Mitchison, G., 319 Mize, J., 586 Modestin, J., 569 Modigliani, V., 214 Moeller, G., 685 Moffit, T. E., 464 Mokdad, A. H., 399 Mollon, J., 199 Moloney, D. P., 98
Money, J., 354-356 Monk, T. H., 314 Monroe, S. M., 420 Montaldo, T., 532, 533 Montano, D. E., 391 Monteith, M. J., 621 Montgomery, S., 600, 603 Montgomery, S. A., 600, 603 Moore, M. K., 501 Moos, R. H., 427, 428 Moran, T., 670 Moreland, R. L., 622 Morere, D., 517 Moretti, M. M., 358 Morgan, C. D., 333 Morgan, J., 519 Morgan, M. Y., 405 Morgan, T. A., 180 Mori, D., 648 Morling, B., 439 Morris, J. S., 84 Morris, R. G., 515 Morrison, C., 394 Morrison, K., 607 Morse, J. M., 140 Moskowitz, G. B., 621 Moskowitz, J. T., 428 Most, S. B., 123 Moulton, D. G., 135 Mouradian, V. E., 177 Mouton, J., 690 Mowrer, O. H., 185 Moyer, K. E., 679 Mroczek, D. K., 493 Mudd, K., 223 Mueller, T. I., 557 Muller, J., 16 Mulligan, R., 321 Mumaw, R., 288 Mumford, D. B., 568 Munk, M., 82, 123 Murawski, N. J., 170 Muren, S., 659 Murphy, G. L., 235 Murphy, J. M., 534 Murray, C., 293 Murray, F., 499 Murray, H. H., 333 Murray, S. L., 666 Murrey, G. J., 322 Muth, E. R., 115 Myers, C. E., 209 Myers, D. G., 366, 367 Myers, L. B., 487 N NAAFA, 393 Nadel, L., 196 Nader, K., 196, 209 Nakamura, J., 309 Nakao, M., 16, 183 Nanke, A., 16 Narita, K., 544 Nash, M. R., 321 Nater, U., 213 Nathan, P. E., 545 Nathans, J., 126 National Center for Health Statistics, 414, 415 National Center for Health Statistics Health E-stat, 392 National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (NCADD), 403, 549
10/18/10 3:35 PM
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), 403 National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 406 Naylor, M. R., 432 Neff, K. D., 457, 459 Negandhi, A. R., 690 Neher, A., 341 Neisser, U., 28, 52, 157, 199, 214, 225, 293, 295 Nelson, C. A., 502 Nelson, D. A., 523 Nelson, T. F., 549 Nesbitt, E. B., 584 Nestadt, G., 565 Netsky, M. G., 101 Nettelbeck, T., 288 Neugarten, B. L., 492 Neutra, M., 141 Newcomb, P. A., 398 Newcomb, T. M., 659 Newcombe, N., 502 Newell, A., 243 Newman, E. B., 134 Newman, H. G., 291 Newman, J., 308 Newman, J. R., 246 Newman, L. S., 443 Newport, E. L., 517, 519 Newsome, W. T., 156 Nezlek, J. B., 486, 664 Nickerson, R. S., 244 Niedenthal, P., 649 Nielsen, D. A., 679 Nigg, J. T., 229, 445, 570, 571 Nisbett, R. E., 45, 218, 239, 247248, 674 Nolde, S. F., 208 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., 558 Noll, J., 286, 287 Norcross, J., 595 Norcross, J. C., 606 Norman, D. A., 200 Norman, W. T., 459 Norton, R. N., 405 Nosek, B. A., 618, 619 Novak, C., 81 Novak, M. A., 487 Nowak, R., 400 Nurius, P., 649 Nussbaum, R. L., 516 Nyberg, L., 210 Nyborg, H., 284 O Oakhill, J., 242 Oatley, K., 375, 420 O’Brien, T. B., 426 Ochsner, K. N., 378, 379 O’Connell, A. N., 11 O’Connor, K. P., 451 O’Connor, T. G., 480, 548 Odbert, H., 455 Oden, M. H., 279, 280 Oehman, A., 22 Offer, D., 491 Offer, J., 491 Ogata, N., 446 Ogbu, J., 429 Ohman, A., 171, 563 Okasha, A., 558 Oldenburg, B., 432 Olds, J., 83 O’Leary, A., 421, 422, 424 Oliner, P., 655, 669 Oliner, S., 655, 669
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 7
Name index
Oliner, S. P., 655 Oliver, C., 516 Olson, D., 543 Olson, D. H., 543 Olson, G. B., 484 Olson, J. M., 251, 618, 635, 638 Olweus, D., 678 O’Malley, P. M., 326 Oppenheim, D., 447 Orne, M. T., 322 Ornstein, R. E., 321 Orth, U., 557 Ortony, A., 370, 378 Osborne, J. W., 613 Osinsky, J., 671 Oskamp, S., 637 Osmond, D., 190 Ost, L., 167 Oster, H., 368 Otto, M. W., 606 Ouellette, J. A., 637 Overholser, J. C., 582 Ozgen, E., 258 P Packwood, J., 147 Page, S., 534 Paivio, A., 198, 215 Paivo, S. C., 606 Palfreman, J., 72 Palme, G., 396 Palme, J., 396 Palmer, J. C., 224 Papageorgis, D., 639 Papez, J. W., 373 Parente, A., 115 Parente, R., 115 Pargament, K. I., 428 Park, A., 404 Park, C., 140 Park, C. L., 428 Park, D. C., 512 Park, N., 95, 551 Park, S., 555 Parkin, A. J., 512, 513, 515 Parloff, M. B., 604 Parmley, W. W., 399 Parsons, T., 686 Pascual-Leone, A., 139, 153 Passaro, K. T., 495 Passig, D., 242 Pataki, S., 659 Pattatucci, A., 357 Patterson, D. R., 140, 321 Patterson, G. R., 548 Patterson, K., 199 Paulesu, E., 100, 299 Paunonen, S. V., 42, 460 Pausch, R., 657 Pause, B. M., 112 Pavlov, I. P., 165, 172, 187 Pavot, W., 95 Payne, D. G., 228 Peddicord, J. P., 415 Pedersen, D. M., 152 Pedersen, F. A., 492 Peele, S., 550 Pelham, B. W., 646 Pellegrini, A. D., 22 Pellegrino, J., 288 Pellegrino, J. W., 274 Pelligrini, R., 313 Pelphrey, K., 76 Penfield, W., 87 Peng, D., 239 Penn, D. L., 534 Pennebaker, J., 33
Pennebaker, J. W., 32, 41, 364, 365, 369, 422, 430, 594 Pensky, E., 492 Perdue, C., 499 Perel, J., 602 Peretz, I., 513 Perlman, D. N., 410 Perlmutter, M., 513, 514 Perls, F. S., 590 Perri, M. G., 393, 397 Perris, E. E., 502 Perrone, M., 322 Perruchet, P., 214, 502 Perry, E., 73 Perry, J. C., 570 Perusse, R., 245 Pervin, L. A., 454, 463 Peschanski, M., 72 Peters, D. F., 685 Peters, J. C., 395 Peters, W., 5 Petersen, M. R., 90 Peterson, C., 189, 281, 427, 559, 562, 627, 656, 657 Peterson, C. B., 587 Peterson, G. W., 685 Peterson, K., 335 Peterson, M. F., 690 Petitto, L. A., 266 Petrinovich, L. F., 60 Petrucelli, R. J., III, 385, 386 Petry, N. M., 585 Pettigrew, T., 622 Pettigrew, T. F., 623 Petty, F., 72 Petty, R., 634, 636, 639, 640 Petty, R. E., 633, 636, 638, 639, 647 Pezdek, K., 228, 229 Phelps, E. A., 619 Phillips, D. P., 189 Phillips, M., 293 Phillips, M. L., 110 Phillips, N. H., 315 Piaget, J., 44, 481, 503, 505, 506, 508, 520 Pickens, R., 551 Pihl, R., 548 Piliavin, J. A., 669 Pilkington, C. J., 660 Pillard, R., 357 Pillard, R. C., 357 Pilon, D. A., 334 Pinel, E. C., 647 Pinel, J. P., 350 Pingitore, R., 393 Pinker, S., 259, 261, 262, 267 Piper, W., 337 Piper, W. E., 606 Pi-Sunyer, F. X., 393 Pizer, G., 264 Plaut, D. C., 19 Pliner, P., 648 Plomin, R., 22, 97, 98, 291, 404, 470, 479 Plous, S., 61 Plutchik, R., 370, 379 Poldrack, R. A., 210, 249 Pollen, D. A., 156 Pollex, R., 496 Pollock, V. E., 571 Pomerantz, J. M., 602 Ponds, R., 513 Pope, H. G., 327 Porath, M., 279 Porkka-Heiskanen, T., 315 Posluszny, D. M., 385 Posner, M. I., 301, 302
Posner, R. M., 288 Pospisil, L., 345 Postle, B. R., 85, 198 Power, M. J., 376 Pratkanis, A. R., 376 Premack, A. J., 266 Premack, D., 181, 266, 334 Prentice, D. A., 644, 645 Prescott, C. A., 550 Preti, G., 135 Pribram, K. H., 374 Price, M., 667 Price, R. A., 431 Price-Williams, D., 508, 509 Price-Williams, D. R., 685 Priester, J. R., 636 Ptacek, J. T., 321 Puce, A., 77 Pulh, R. M., 351 Pulkkinen, L., 471 Putnam, F. W., 569 Q Quay, L. C., 284 Quillian, M. R., 218 Quitkin, F. M., 603 R Rachlin, H., 181, 182 Rafal, R. D., 302 Rafalovich, A., 14 Rahe, R. H., 418 Raine, A., 548, 678 Rallison, M., 497 Ralston, D., 691 Ramachandran, V. S., 138, 139 Ramos, A., 183 Ramus, F., 518 Rand, C. S., 351 Randhawa, B., 92 Rao, S. M., 72 Rapee, R., 563 Rapee, R. M., 566 Rashidy-Pour, A., 83 Rasmussen, T., 87 Ratcliff, R., 262 Ratnam, R., 134 Ratner, R. K., 631 Rauscher, F., 601 Rawsthorne, L. J., 337, 359 Raymaekers, R., 525 Rayner, R., 167, 169 Rea, C. P., 214 Read, S. J., 255 Reber, A. S., 247, 249, 300 Recanzone, G. H., 153 Rechtscaffen, A., 315 Reder, L. M., 510 Reed, M. J., 126 Reed, P., 180 Rees, G., 302, 308 Reeves, L. M., 115 Regan, D., 638 Regan, P. C., 355, 660 Regan, T., 61 Reifman, A., 680 Reiman, E. B., 244 Reiman, E. M., 540 Reimann, P., 243, 244 Reinisch, J. M., 678 Reis, H. J., 358 Reis, H. T., 659-661, 665 Reisberg, D., 217, 225, 226 Reisenzein, R., 377 Remer, R., 586 Renner, J. A., 405 Renner, M. J., 94 Rescorla, R. A., 172, 179, 187
NI-7
Rest, J. R., 520 Reuter, M., 84 Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., 513 Reynolds, A. J., 12 Rhodes, M., 240 Rholes, W. S., 487 Richards, B. J., 519 Richards, J. B., 180 Richards, J. M., 375 Richardson, J. T. E., 202, 378 Richardson, S. A., 279 Rickard, T. C., 77 Ricks, M. H., 487 Rieder, R. O., 352 Rief, W., 16 Rieger, G., 356 Riesen, A. H., 153 Riewald, S. T., 335 Riley, A. J., 498 Rinn, W. E., 374 Rinsley, D. B., 571 Rips, L., 242 Rips, L. J., 242 Risley, T., 290 Ritov, I., 248 Ritschel, L., 26 Robben, H. S., 252 Robbins, T. W., 72, 301 Roberts, W., 370 Roberts, W. A., 245 Robertson, D., 236 Robin, N., 256 Robins, R., 45, 631 Robins, R. W., 631 Robinson, D., 551 Robinson, F. P., 216 Robinson, G., 498 Robinson, G. E., 498 Robinson, K. J., 222 Robinson, S. R., 494 Robinson, T. N., 395 Rock, I., 123, 150 Rodin, J., 350, 395, 396, 422424 Rodkin, P., 37 Rodman, H. R., 89, 148 Roediger, H. L., 207, 222 Roediger, H. L., III, 222 Roese, N. J., 251 Rogan, M. T., 373 Rogers, C., 358, 467, 470 Rogers, C. R., 467, 590 Rogers, T. B., 645 Rogler, L. H., 420, 533 Rogoff, B., 52, 272, 279 Rohner, R., 177, 473 Rohner, R. P., 177 Rokke, P. D., 140 Rollman, G. B., 139 Rollnick, S., 606 Ronis, D. L., 390 Rosch, E., 235-238, 258 Roseman, I. J., 19 Rosen, A. B., 508 Rosenberg, D., 356 Rosenberg, M., 645 Rosenberg, R. N., 516 Rosenberg, S. D., 492 Rosenblatt, A., 468 Rosenblatt, B., 444 Rosenblith, W. A., 130 Rosenblum, G. D., 492 Rosenhan, D. L., 535, 633 Rosenheck, R., 603 Rosenman, R. H., 426 Rosenstock, I. M., 388 Rosenthal, D., 552 Rosenthal, R., 54, 264, 683
10/18/10 3:35 PM
NI-8
Name index
Rosenwald, G., 43 Rosenzweig, M. R., 94 Ross, C. A., 569 Ross, L., 247-248, 626, 630 Ross, L. E., 170 Ross, M., 258, 631 Ross, S. M., 170 Rosser-Hogan, R., 564 Rosso, I. M., 556 Rotello, C. M., 240, 242 Roth, A., 584, 608 Roth, M., 515 Rothbaum, B. O., 584 Rothblum, E. D., 351, 560 Rothgerber, H., 622 Rotter, J., 189 Rotter, J. B., 17, 188, 465 Rotton, J., 680 Rovee-Collier, C., 502 Rowe, D. C., 293, 470 Rowe, J. W., 493 Roxanas, M., 87 Roy-Byrne, P., 602 Rozentsveig, V., 140 Rozin, P., 508 Rubin, D. C., 225, 262, 513 Rubino, C., 337 Rudman, L. A., 635, 648 Ruef, A., 669 Ruffman, T., 508 Rumbaugh, D. M., 265, 266 Rumelhart, D., 219, 254 Rumelhart, D. E., 19, 156, 201, 253, 255 Runge, C. F., 394 Runyan, W. M., 445 Rusbult, C. E., 593, 665 Rush, M. C., 359 Rushton, W. A. H., 119 Russell, J. A., 239, 370, 371, 378 Russell, J. D., 87 Russell, M. J., 135 Russo, M. B., 115 Russo, N. F., 11 Russo, R., 513 Rutter, M., 487 Ryan, J. J., 288 Ryan, R. M., 337, 568 Ryff, C. D., 594 Rymer, R., 480, 498 Rypma, B., 513 S Sachs, B. L., 108 Sack, A., 87 Sacks, O., 64, 153 Saegert, S., 141 Saffran, J., 517 Safran, J. D., 606 Safyer, A. W., 491 Sagi, A., 485 Sahakian, B. J., 516 Sahraie, A., 123 Saklofske, D. H., 275 Sakurai, T., 348 Salkovskis, P. M., 582 Sallis, J. F., 396 Salmivalli, C., 615 Salovey, P., 289, 380, 430, 670 Salthouse, T., 513 Salthouse, T. A., 512, 513 Saltzstein, H. D., 527 Sameroff, A., 290, 291 SAMHSA, 404 Sampson, R. J., 177 Samudra, K., 548 Sandler, J., 444 Sanfilipo, M., 555
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 8
Sanford, M. A., 590 Sanger, T. M., 597 Sankis, L. M., 572 Sarafino, E. P., 406 Sarason, B. R., 430 Saraswathi, T., 622 Sarnat, H. B., 101 Sartre, J. P., 468 Sass, C., 392 Satel, S. L., 325 Saucier, G., 460 Saudino, K., 471 Sauerwein, K., 401 Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., 266 Savin-Williams, R. C., 498 Saxe, R., 76 Scarr, S., 292-294 Schab, F. R., 198 Schachter, S., 376 Schacter, D., 196, 209, 210, 224, 513 Schacter, D. L., 28, 207, 208, 220, 222, 378 Schaefer, C. E., 596 Schaefer, J. A., 427 Schaeff, C. M., 356 Schafe, G. E., 166, 170 Schaffer, M. M., 236 Schaie, K. W., 499, 514, 515 Schatzberg, A. F., 600 Schauble, L., 288 Scheff, T. J., 534 Scheier, M., 34 Scheier, M. F., 427, 470 Schell, D. A., 513 Scheper-Hughes, N., 534 Scher, S., 643 Scherer, K., 368, 376 Scherer, K. R., 377 Schiavi, R. C., 354, 499 Schiff, M., 292 Schiffman, H. R., 119, 148, 149 Schlegel, A., 490 Schlenker, B. R., 58, 628 Schlesser, M. A., 558 Schliefer, M., 523 Schmid, R. E., 503 Schmidt, F. L., 284 Schmidt, K., 618 Schmidt, N. B., 566, 582 Schmitt, D. P., 658, 662, 663 Schmorrow, D. D., 115 Schnapf, J., 127 Schneider, M. A., 214 Schneider, M. L., 495 Schnur, J. B., 323 Schnurr, P. P., 585 Schooler, J. W., 305 Schraw, G., 243 Schreiber, F. R., 569 Schreiner, C. E., 134 Schuckit, M., 550 Schuckit, M. A., 550 Schuderer, B., 354 Schultz, L. A., 676 Schultz, T., 523 Schultz, T. R., 523, 524 Schultz, W., 72, 185 Schunn, C. D., 510 Schwab, I. R., 119 Schwanenflugel, P. J., 510 Schwartz, A. C., 584 Schwartz, G. E., 427 Schwarz, J. C., 360 Schwarz, N., 45, 512 Science Channel, 115 Scott, J., 603 Scott, S. K., 373
Scotto, J., 402 Scoville, W. B., 84 Scribner, S., 283 Scroppo, J. C., 569 Scullin, M. K., 212 Seagal, J. D., 365 Searle, J. R., 306 Sears, D. O., 661 Sears, R. R., 493 Seay, B., 483 Sedikides, C., 45, 631 Seelinger, G., 354 Segal, D. L., 365 Segal, M. W., 658 Segal, N. L., 292, 293 Segall, M. H., 151, 152, 675, 678 Seger, C. A., 249 Seiden, L., 553 Seidenberg, M. S., 266 Seidman, S. N., 352 Sekuler, R., 116, 125, 131, 133 Seligman, M. E. P., 25, 171, 189, 190, 281, 427, 559, 562, 607, 608, 627, 656, 657 Selkoe, D. J., 66 Selman, R. L., 505 Selye, H., 416 Serpell, L., 43 Serpell, R., 272 Sewall, L., 126 Seymour, R. B., 326 Shackelford, T. K., 677 Shallice, T., 205 Shankweiler, P. J., 355 Shapley, R., 124 Sharma, D., 126 Shattuck, R., 479 Shaughnessy, J. J., 214 Shaver, P., 358, 370, 662 Shaver, P. R., 358, 487, 664 Shaywitz, B. A., 93 Shaywitz, S., 100 Shea, M., 572 Shea, M. T., 607 Shearman, L. P., 314 Shedler, J., 14, 45, 55, 190, 326, 376, 466, 596 Sheehy, G., 492 Shefler, G., 606 Sheline, Y. I., 601 Shelton, C. M., 656, 657 Shepard, R. N., 234 Sheperis, C. J., 481 Shepherd, B., 67 Shepherd, J., 343 Sher, K. J., 404 Sherif, C. W., 625 Sherif, M., 623, 625 Sherman, J., 616 Sherman, R. L., 429 Sherry, K., 562 Sherwin, B., 498 Shettleworth, S. J., 181 Shevrin, H., 158, 454 Shields, J., 291 Shiffrin, R. N., 199, 201 Shimamura, A. P., 210, 510 Shimizu, H., 8 Shiner, R. L., 53, 55 Shoda, Y., 17, 449, 452, 454, 463, 465 Shors, T. J., 166 Shteynberg, G., 667 Shultz, T. R., 642 Shurkin, J. N., 279 Shweder, R. A., 8, 472, 650 Sicoly, F., 631 Siegel, A., 83
Siegel, P. F., 445 Siegel, S., 173 Siegfried, Z., 567 Siegler, I. C., 431 Siegler, R. S., 250, 504, 508, 510 Siegman, A. W., 427 Siever, L. J., 571 Sifneos, P., 363, 581 Sigall, H., 660 Sillars, A. L., 661 Simmons, L. W., 342, 343 Simmons, R., 675 Simon, D., 253, 614 Simon, H., 248 Simon, H. A., 243, 248 Simon, T., 274 Simonoff, E., 279 Simons, A. D., 420 Simons, H. W., 638 Simonton, D. K., 280, 556 Simonyi, A., 71 Simpson, J., 632 Singer, B., 594 Singer, D. G., 681 Singer, J., 376 Singer, J. L., 376, 681 Singer, M. T., 555 Singer, W., 301 Sitnikova, T., 541 Sjöström, L., 397 Skal, D. J., 15 Skeels, H. L., 292 Skeels, H. M., 480 Skinner, B. F., 15, 163, 174, 175, 177, 179, 182, 304 Skodak, M., 292 Skoog, G., 564 Skoog, I., 564 Skowronski, J. J., 620 Slade, L. A., 359 Sloan, D. M., 365 Sloboda, J. A., 289 Slochower, J., 396 Slutske, W. S., 548 Small, S. A., 498 Smart, S. A., 647 Smith, C., 320 Smith, C. A., 377 Smith, C. S., 421 Smith, D. E., 326 Smith, D. H., 8 Smith, E. E., 235, 236 Smith, E. R., 236, 613, 614 Smith, H., 398 Smith, K., 185, 561 Smith, K. S., 94 Smith, L. B., 496 Smith, M. B., 467 Smith, M. L., 607 Smith, M. W., 512 Smith, P. B., 685 Smith, R. E., 212, 638 Smith, S. L., 681 Smith, S. M., 647 Smith, W. L., 517 Smith, W. R., 288 Smithson, H., 199 Smithson, M., 659 Smolensky, P., 253 Smotherman, W. P., 494 Snow, C. E., 519 Snyder, C. R., 25, 604 Snyder, D. K., 606 Snyder, M., 617, 632, 648, 683 Soares, J. C., 601 Sobal, J., 350 Sobol, R. K., 413 Sohlberg, S., 568
Solomon, D. A., 557 Solomon, J., 485 Solomon, L. Z., 672 Solomon, S., 468 Somer, O., 460 Somerville, J., 588 Sommer, B. A., 295 Sommer, R., 295 Sorensen, P. W., 135 Sorrentino, R. M., 19 Souchay, C., 515 Spain, D., 472 Spanos, N. P., 322 Spark, G. M., 542 Spearman, C., 285 Speicher, B., 524, 527 Spelke, E., 302 Spellman, B. A., 240, 242 Spence, A. P., 498, 499 Spence, S. A., 76 Spencer, M. B., 622 Spencer, S. J., 612 Spera, S. P., 39 Sperling, G., 199 Sperry, R., 90 Spiegel, D., 421, 430 Spillman, L., 120 Spirduso, W., 498, 512 Spiro, M., 444 Spitz, R. A., 487 Spitzer, R., 546 Spitzer, R. L., 536 Sporer, S., 224 Sporer, S. L., 682 Sprafkin, J., 681 Sprecher, S., 660 Springen, K., 561 Squire, L. R., 84, 206, 209, 221, 307 Srinvas, K., 89 Srivastava, A., 355 Srivastava, S., 460 Sroufe, L. A., 485 Staal, W. G., 555 Stacy, A. W., 635 Stadler, M. A., 249 Stajkovic, A., 336 Stallings, M., 466 Stanczak, L., 513 Standing, L., 615 Stanley, J., 92 Stanley, J. C., 51 Stanley, M. A., 606 Stattin, H., 464 Staudinger, U. M., 281 Steele, C., 612 Steele, C. M., 612, 643 Steele, H., 487 Steele, J. R., 612 Steffen, V., 675 Stein, B. E., 123 Stein, H. F., 14 Stein, M. B., 563 Stein, T. S., 413 Steiner, I. D., 689 Steinhausen, H. C., 495 Steinwert, T., 351, 617 Steketee, G., 565 Stephan, W. G., 625 Stephens, D. W., 181 Stephens, R. S., 606 Stepper, S., 368 Stern, K., 135 Sternberg, R. J., 245, 271-273, 280, 281, 283, 287, 289, 290, 509, 661, 662 Sternberg, S., 19 Stevens, A., 218
10/18/10 3:35 PM
Stevens, B., 66 Stevens, C. F., 65 Stevens, S. S., 114, 134 Stewart, D. E., 498 Stewart, W. A., 283 Stickgold, R., 315, 320 Stiles, W. B., 605 Stoff, D. M., 570 Stogdill, R., 690 Stone, J., 646 Stoolmiller, M., 293 Storms, M. D., 630 Stotland, E., 422 Stowell, J. R., 424, 430 Strack, F., 368 Straker, G., 595 Strang, D. J., 685 Straub, R. O., 385, 386, 394, 398, 404, 407, 410, 412 Strauman, T., 649 Straus, A. S., 472 Straus, M. A., 177 Strauss, D. H., 443 Strauss, J., 552, 568 Strayer, D. L., 123 Strayer, J., 370, 525 Streissguth, A., 495 Stricker, G., 445, 595 Striegel-Moore, R. H., 567, 568 Stringfield, D. O., 463 Strober, M., 567, 568 Strodtbeck, F., 428 Stromme, P., 279 Stromswold, K., 518 Stroup, D. F., 399 Strupp, H., 581 Stucke, T. S., 682 Stumpf, H., 460 Stunkard, A., 350 Stunkard, A. J., 394 Stuss, D., 300 Styfco, S. J., 12 Suarez-Orozco, M., 8 Suarez-Orozco, M. M., 650 Sue, D. W., 617 Sue, S., 594 Suedfeld, P., 365, 635 Sugarman, J., 43 Suh, M. E., 493 Sullivan, E., 479 Suls, J., 426 Sundet, J. M., 171 Suomi, S. J., 573, 678 Super, C. M., 497 Susser, E., 556 Sutker, P., 564 Sutton, S. K., 186, 374, 559 Sutton, S. R., 391 Sutton, T., 283 Swain, I., 503 Swain, S. A., 210 Swan, G. E., 398-400 Swann, W., 559, 595, 647 Swann, W. B., 439 Swann, W. B., Jr., 439, 559, 647 Sweet, R. A., 600 Swim, J. K., 617 Swinyard, W. R., 638 Szasz, T., 534 Szesko, P. R., 554 Szymusiak, R., 308 T Tagiuri, R., 631 Tajfel, H., 623 Tamminga, C., 554 Tan, C. C., 314 Tan, L., 201
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 9
Name index
Tanaka, J. W., 238 Tandberg, E., 72 Tandon, R., 553 Tangney, J. P., 372 Tankersley, J., 562 Tanna, V. L., 558 Tanner, J. E., 267 Tarr, M. J., 150 Tartaglia, L. A., 396 Tassinary, L. G., 367 Tavris, C., 15, 97, 99, 462 Taylor, G. J., 363 Taylor, H. L., 363 Taylor, J. G., 300 Taylor, M., 238 Taylor, M. A., 602 Taylor, S., 430, 615 Taylor, S. E., 190, 244, 385-387, 403, 404, 413, 414, 416, 428, 444, 614, 630 Teasdale, J. D., 558 Tedeschi, H. G., 594 Tedeschi, J. T., 643 Tees, R. C., 518 Teitelbaum, P., 348 Tellegen, A., 98, 371, 470, 471 Teller, D. Y., 501 Terman, L. M., 275, 279, 280 Terman, M., 572 Terrace, H. S., 266 Terry, D. J., 637 Tesser, A., 635 Testimony on Tobacco, 398 Tetlock, P., 632 Tetlock, P. E., 635 Thagard, P., 255, 614, 620, 621 Thase, M., 606 Thase, M. E., 603 Thelen, E., 496, 498 Thibaut, J. W., 665 Thigpen, C. H., 569 Thomas, A., 463 Thomas, D. G., 503 Thomas, E., 83 Thomas, J., 669 Thomas, M. L., 115 Thompson, D. A., 348 Thompson, D. M., 213 Thompson, J., 222, 223 Thompson, L. E., 409 Thompson, M. G., 358 Thompson, V. A., 198, 241 Thorndike, E. L., 188 Thurstone, L. L., 286 Thyer, B. A., 584 Tiedens, L. Z., 631 Tienari, P., 555 Till, B. D., 168 Tilvas, R. S., 515 Timberlake, W., 174 Tinbergen, N., 341 Tippens, M., 616 Titone, D. A., 320 Tix, A. P., 428 Tizard, B., 487 Tolman, E. C., 187 Tomarken, A. J., 374, 377 Tomkins, S. S., 367, 370, 379 Tomlinson-Keasey, C., 279 Tonigan, J. S., 591 Tooby, J., 22, 99, 110, 343, 543 Tootell, R. B. H., 123, 148 Toppino, T. C., 214 Torres, F., 153 Torrey, E. F., 595, 599, 602 Tota, M. E., 559 Toufexis, A., 315 Trabasso, T., 507
Traiwick, M., 664 Treffert, D. A., 282 Trentacosta, C. J., 570 Tresniowski, A., 125, 126 Treyens, J. C., 220 Triandis, H., 8, 55, 219, 259, 350, 650, 651 Triesman, A., 144 Triplett, N., 689 Trivers, R. L., 671 Trope, Y., 626, 632 Trost, M. R., 686 Tsai, M., 180 Tsuang, M. T., 550 Tuddenham, R. D., 274, 283 Tulving, E., 207, 208, 213 Tuma, A. H., 42 Turiel, E., 520 Turkheimer, E., 292 Turner, S. M., 539 Turner, T. J., 370 Turner, V., 594 Turner, V. W., 594 Tutton, M., 300 Tversky, A., 236, 248, 250-252 U Udry, J. R., 354 Ullman, S., 144, 150 Ulrich, R. E., 60 Ulrich, R. S., 141 Unger, R., 560 Unger, R. K., 560 Ungerleider, L. G., 124 Urbina, S., 38, 277, 284 U.S. Bureau of the Census, 406, 490, 492 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 71, 398, 399, 414, 549 U.S. News and World Report, 645 Uttl, B., 202 V Vaillant, C., 279, 443, 493 Vaillant, G., 279, 333, 376, 443, 493, 570 Vaillant, G. E., 404, 549 Vaillant, L. M., 443 Valenstein, E. S., 602, 603 Valentini, F., 588 Valkonen, T., 419 Vanable, P. A., 407, 408 Vance, E. B., 353 VandenBos, G., 349 Van der Staay, F. J., 183 VanDeusen, J. M., 592 Van Duijn, C. M., 515 Van Essen, D. C., 124 Van Ijzendoorn, M., 485 Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., 487 Van Lange, P. A. M., 665 Van Lindern, B., 377 Vann, S., 82 Van Overwalle, F., 614 Van Rooy, D., 614 Vansteenkiste, M., 337 Van Thiel, D. H., 405 Varia, I., 601 Varley, C. K., 548 Vartanian, O., 280 Vasquez, K., 487 Vaughan, R. D., 408 Velez-Blasini, C. J., 324 Venables, P. H., 548, 556 Ventis, W. L., 583, 584 Vernon, P. A., 288, 509
Vetere, A., 487 Vierikko, E., 470 Viinamaeki, H., 420 Viken, R. J., 470 Vinogravdov, S., 591 Vinter, A., 502 Vogel, G., 103 Volz, J., 492 Von Senden, M., 153 Vormbrock, J., 664 Vrij, A., 264 Vygotsky, L., 272 W Wachtel, P., 185, 186, 595 Wachtel, P. L., 596 Wadden, T. A., 392-394, 396, 397 Wade, C., 15, 97, 99, 462 Wagner, A. D., 213 Wagner, A. R., 172, 187 Wagner, A. W., 363 Wagner, N. N., 353 Wagstaff, G. F., 322 Wahbeck, K., 597 Wahl, J., 140 Wakeling, A., 568 Wald, G., 127 Waldman, B., 342 Waldron, E. M., 256 Walk, R. D., 154 Walker, C., 613 Walker, E. F., 552 Wall, P. D., 140 Wallace, A. F. C., 323, 469 Wallace, B., 314 Wallace, G. L., 282 Wallace, P., 135 Wallbott, H., 368 Waller, J. G., 466 Waller, N., 98 Waller, N. G., 569 Wallerstein, J. S., 34 Wallerstein, R. S., 448, 606 Walsh, J. K., 315 Walster, E., 660 Walter, H. J., 408 Walters, J. M., 289 Wang, Q., 526 Wang, S., 196 Wanjek, C., 137 Warburton, K., 264 Ward, G., 201 Warner, L. A., 549 Warrington, E. K., 205 Warwick, Z. S., 349 Wasieleski, D. M., 248 Wason, P. C., 241, 244 Wasserman, E. A., 169 Watanabe, T., 308 Waters, E., 485, 486 Waters, G. S., 205 Watkins, L. R., 421 Watkins, P. C., 656, 657 Watson, D., 371 Watson, J., 16, 167, 169, 304 Watson, M. W., 442 Waugh, N. C., 200 Weale, R., 128 Weaver, J. B., III, 681 Wechsler, D., 275, 276, 278 Wedekind, C., 669 Weese, S. E., 288 Wegener, D. T., 638, 639 Wegesin, D. J., 356 Wegner, D., 227, 443 Wegner, D. M., 300, 305
NI-9
Weinberg, R. A., 275, 283, 293, 294 Weinberger, D. A., 14, 375, 376 Weinberger, J., 606 Weiner, B., 359, 617 Weiner, H., 554 Weiner, R. D., 602 Weinhardt, L. S., 405 Weinstein, N. D., 389 Weintraub, S., 657 Weiskrantz, L., 123 Weiss, B., 177, 680 Weiss, G., 548 Weiss, L. H., 360 Weiss, R. S., 358 Weiss, V., 292 Weisse, C. S., 424 Weissler, K., 290 Weissman, M. M., 563 Weitzel, B., 23, 24 Welch, N., 351 Wellman, H. M., 288, 510 Wells, G. L., 224 Wentworth, P. A., 11 Werker, J. F., 518 Werner, H., 272 Wertenbaker, L., 128 Wertheimer, M., 501 Wertsch, J., 272 Wesley, F., 479 West, R. L., 515 West, S. G., 445 Westen, D., 13-15, 28, 185, 305, 333, 375, 376, 445-448, 466, 472, 490, 491, 538, 568, 569, 595, 596, 607, 631, 632, 651 Westly, E., 541 Wetherick, N., 205 Wethington, E., 594 Wheatley, T., 305 Wheeler, J., 152 Wheeler, L., 615, 660 Wheeler, M. A., 207, 210 Wheeler, S. C., 306 Whipple, B., 140 Whishaw, I. Q., 85, 101, 102 Whitam, F., 356 Whitbourne, S. K., 488, 492 White, K. M., 637 White, R. W., 340, 358 Whitfield, K. E., 414, 415 Whiting, B. B., 473, 523 Whiting, J. W. M., 8, 378, 473, 675 Whitten, R. G., 355 WHO, 392, 432 Whorf, B. L., 258 Wickelgren, I., 326 Wicker, A. W., 637 Wickersham, D., 391 Widaman, K. F., 279 Widiger, T. A., 572 Wiechman, B. M., 337 Wiesel, T. N., 86, 120, 123, 153 Wieselquist, J., 665 Wigfield, A., 336 Wilke, M., 401 Wilkins, M. C., 241 Wilkinson, S. C., 283 Wilkinson-Ryan, T., 490 Williams, C., 524 Williams, C. D., 178 Williams, J., 516 Williams, K. B., 666, 667, 689 Williams, L. M., 229 Williams, R. L., 283, 284 Williams, W. M., 283, 294
10/18/10 3:35 PM
NI-10
Name index
Williamson, G. M., 422 Wills, A. J., 19 Wills, T. A., 430, 646 Wilson, C., 288 Wilson, E. O., 22, 342, 671 Wilson, G. T., 324 Wilson, K., 186 Wilson, M., 22, 23, 380 Wilson, M. A., 320 Wilson, R. S., 136 Wilson, S. L., 481 Wilson, T., 250 Wilson, T. D., 13, 14, 45, 218 Wing, R. R., 396 Winkel, G. H., 141 Winkielman, P., 236 Winn, P., 348 Winner, E., 279, 280 Winograd, E., 225 Winokur, G., 558 Winokur, M., 595 Winson, J., 94 Winter, D., 632
Kowalski_N_Index-hr.indd 10
Winter, D. G., 359, 632 Winterbottom, M. R., 360 Winters, R. W., 120 Witelson, S. F., 454 Witherington, D. C., 154 Witvlict, C., 628, 629 Wixom, J., 560 Wixted, J., 221 Woike, B., 358, 632 Wolf, A. M., 394 Wolfe, B. E., 608 Wolfe, J., 564 Wolfe, R., 623 Wolman, R. N., 327 Wolpe, J., 167, 582 Woo, J., 350 Wood, D. P., 584 Wood, J. M., 446 Wood, J. V., 646 Wood, R., 452, 453 Wood, W., 637, 642, 663, 681 Woodruff, S. I., 432 Woods, S. C., 348, 349
Woolcott, M., 692 Wooley, S., 395, 568 Wooten, B. R., 126 Worthington, E. L., Jr., 140 Wright, D., 223 Wright, I. C., 541 Wright, L. B., 429 Wulff, D. M., 473 Wurf, E., 645 Wyatt, G. E., 352 Wyatt, R. J., 556 Wynne, L. C., 555, 592 Y Yadin, E., 83 Yager, J., 394 Yahne, C. E., 606 Yalom, I., 591 Yalom, I. D., 591 Yamamoto, D., 357 Yamamoto, T., 309 Yang, S. H., 496 Yaniv, I., 250
Yasuo, Y., 258 Yates, E., 534 Yoon, C. K., 21 Young, A. J., 184 Young, A. W., 7 Young, D. R., 415 Young, K. S., 407 Younger, B. A., 500 Yu, B., 200 Z Zacks, J. M., 35 Zahn-Waxler, C., 52, 53, 525, 527 Zajonc, R., 83 Zajonc, R. B., 378, 640, 659, 689 Zanarini, M., 28 Zanarini, M. C., 446, 487, 571 Zanjani, F., 514 Zanna, M., 618, 638 Zanna, M. P., 643 Zanni, G., 224 Zaragosta, M., 224
Zarantonello, M., 58 Zatzick, D. F., 140 Zeanah, C. H., 487 Zeanah, P. D., 487 Zechmeister, E. B., 214 Zeki, S., 150 Zentner, M., 480 Zervas, I. M., 443 Zhang, Y., 66 Zhao, L., 137 Ziegarnik, B., 250 Zietlow, P., 661 Zigler, E., 12 Zillman, D., 680 Zimbardo, P. G., 684, 687, 688 Zimmerman, R. R., 482 Zinbarg, R., 606 Zinbarg, R. E., 572 Zipursky, R. B., 554 Zola-Morgan, S., 84, 209 Zornberg, G. L., 556 Zuckerman, M., 253, 334, 463 Zuroff, D., 560
10/18/10 3:35 PM
Subject index A AA, see Alcoholics Anonymous ABA (applied behavioral analysis), 183 ABC theory of psychopathology, 587 Abdulmutallab, Farouk, 674 Absent-mindedness, 221 Absolute thresholds, 111-112 Absorptive phase (of metabolism), 346-347 Abu Ghraib prison, 688 Accommodation (in eye), 118 Accommodation (in Piagetian theory), 503-504 Acculturative stress, 420 Acetylcholine (ACh), 71, 73 Achievement, need for, 358-360 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, see AIDS Action potentials, 68-69 Activational effects, 354-355 Actualizing tendency, 467 Actual self, 649-650 Acupuncture, 73 Adaptive traits, 20, 21 Adderall, 548 Addiction, to nicotine, 399 Additive color mixture, 127 Adenosine, 315 ADHD, see Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder Adjustment disorders, 545 Adolescence: physical development during, 497-498 psychosocial development during, 489-491 Adolescents, texting while driving, 409-411 Adoption studies: of antisocial personality disorder, 571 of IQ, 291-293 Adorno, Theodore, 617 Adult attachment, 485-488, 580 Adulthood, psychosocial development in, 490-494 Aerial perspective, 146, 147 Aerosols, highs from, 327 Affect, 331, 361, 371. See also Emotion(s) Affect regulation, 374, 375 Afferent neurons, 65, 74 Affiliation, 358 Africa, AIDS in, 408 African Americans: coping styles of, 428-429 health disparities in, 414-416 and HIV, 408 IQs of, 295 and IQ tests, 283-284, 293-294 obesity among, 351 in psychology, 11 and racism, 618-622 stereotypes of, 612
Kowalski_S_Index-hr1.indd 1
Afterimages, 128 Ageism, 499 Agency motives, 358 Age regression, 321 Aggregation, principle of, 463 Aggression, 448. See also Violence and alcohol use, 324 as basic drive, 332 biological foundations of, 677-682 defined, 673 hostile vs. instrumental, 673-674 and punishment, 177 Aging: cognitive changes associated with, 512-516 stereotypes of, 492 Agoraphobia, 563-564 Agreeableness, 459 A.I. (film), 273 AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome), 344, 386, 407, 408, 424 Ainsworth, Mary, 485 Alarm stage (general adaptation syndrome), 41 Alaskan Eskimos, 534 Alcohol, 316, 323-324 Alcohol abuse, 403-406 Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), 406, 591 Alcoholism, 404, 549-551 Alcohol use: and memory, 212 and self-presentation, 402 Alderfer, Clayton, 341 Alertness, 301-302 Alexithymia, 363-364 Algorithms, 244 Alleles, 96 Alpha waves, 317 Alprazolam, 601 Altered states of consciousness, 321-328 hypnosis, 321-323 meditation, 321 Altruism, 655, 669-671 Alzheimer’s disease, 73, 136, 210, 313, 498, 516, 588 Ambivalence, 438-439, 636 Ambivalent attachment style, 485 American Psychological Association (APA), 11, 59, 681 Amitriptyline, 598, 600 Amnesia, 307 hyper, 321 infantile, 502-503 Amphetamines, 325 Amplitude, 130 Amygdala, 83-84, 135, 209, 210, 373, 374, 540, 622, 677 Analogical reasoning, 242-243 Anal stage, 440-441 Androgens, 354
Androgen insensitivity syndrome, 354 Anesthesia, 299, 308, 323 “Angel dust,” 326, 554 Angelou, Maya, 280-282 Anger, 177, 363, 368, 371 Animals: aggression in, 676, 677 facial expressions in, 378 language in, 265-267 pet therapy, 588-589 sleep in, 313, 314 social support in, 430, 431 Animal research, ethics of, 60-61 Anorexia nervosa, 567, 568, 576 Antabuse, 406 Anterior cingular cortex, 300 Antianxiety medications, 534, 601-602 Antibodies, 424 Antidepressant medications (antidepressants), 534, 598, 600-601 Antipsychotic medications (antipsychotics), 598-600 Antisocial personality disorder(s), 184, 524, 550, 570-571 Anvil (incus), 131, 132 Anxiety, 534 death, 469 and doctor-patient relationship, 413 GABA and regulation of, 72 medications for treatment of, 601-602 and obesity, 396 separation, 484 Anxiety disorders, 544, 545, 563-566 Anxiolitics, 598 APA, see American Psychological Association APA ethical guidelines, 59 Aphasia, 7 Appetite-suppressing drugs, 396 Applied behavioral analysis (ABA), 183 Aqueous humor, 117 Arbitrary inference, 559 Area MT, 148 Arendt, Hannah, 56, 683 Are You Smarter Than a Fifth Grader (television show), 510 Aristotle, 18, 164, 168, 172, 602, 638 Armstrong, Lance, 310 Army Alpha/Army Beta tests, 275, 278 Asch, Solomon, 684-685 Asians, 644 Asian Americans, 272, 295 Assimilation, 503 Association(s), 217 loosening of, 552
networks of, 216-219, 579, 613 Association areas (of cerebral cortex), 86 Associative learning, 163 Associative thought, dreams as, 319 Athletes: sports psychology, 335-336 stages of training for, 506 in “the zone,” 309-313 Attachment, 481-488 defined, 481 in infancy, 482-484 and later development, 485-488 patterns of, 485 Attachment motivation, 358 Attachment styles, 485 Attention, 301-304 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 14, 398, 547-548, 588 Attitude(s), 391, 392, 633-644 and behavior, 637-638 and cognitive dissonance, 641-644 defined, 633 implicit, 635 nature of, 633-636 and persuasion, 638-640 Attitude accessibility, 634-635 Attitude importance, 634 Attitude inoculation, 639 Attitude strength, 634 Attitudinal ambivalence, 636 Attitudinal coherence, 636 Attribution(s), 376-377, 625627 Attributional style, 627 Atwater, Ann, 622 Audition, 129. See also Hearing Auditory canal, 131 Auditory cortex, 134 Auditory nerve, 131-134 Augmentation, 626 Augmented cognition, 115 Australian aborigines, 326 Authoritarian personality, 616617, 683-684 Autism, 313, 588 Autistic (idiot) savants, 282 Autocratic leadership style, 690 Automatic behaviors/habits, 303 Automatic thoughts, 587 Automatization, 302, 509 Autonomic nervous system, 74-75 Autonomy versus shame and doubt, 489 Availability heuristic, 248, 631 Average (mean), 6, 45 Aversion therapy, 406 Avian flu, 433 Aviator (film), 564 Avoidance learning, 175-176 Avoidant attachment style, 485
Awakenings (film), 64 Axons, 66, 69, 122 B Babbling, 518 Baby sign language, 263-264 Back-translation, 55 Baddeley, Alan, 203 Bainbridge, 561 Bandura, Albert, 191-192, 338340, 449, 451 Barbiturates, 323-324, 599 Bard, Philip, 363 Bargh, Jonathan, 340 Barlow, David, 565-566 Barriers, 389, 390 BAS, see Behavioral approach system Basal ganglia, 85 Basic emotions, 370-371 Basic level (of categorization), 237-239 Basic trust versus mistrust, 489 Basilar membrane, 132, 133 Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing), 646-647 Basongye people, 355 Baudelaire, Charles, 299 Baumeister, Roy, 689 Beall, Sandra, 364-365 A Beautiful Mind (film), 551 Beauty-in-averageness effect, 236 Beck, Aaron T., 559, 587-588 Becker, Ernest, 468 Beever, Julian, 145-146 Behavior, attitudes and, 637-638 Behavioral analysis, 582 Behavioral approach system (BAS), 185, 186 Behavioral economics, 181-182 Behavioral genetics, 22, 97-99, 357 Behavioral inhibition system (BIS), 185, 186 Behavioral neuroscience, see Biopsychology Behaviorist perspective (behavioral perspective, behaviorism), 15-17, 27, 28, 304, 334 Behavior-outcome expectancies, 451 Bekesy, Georg von, 133 Belongingness needs, 341 Benedict, Ruth, 8, 473 Benefits, of terminating negative health behavior, 389, 390 Benoit, Chris, 403 Benzodiazepines, 324, 598, 601 Beta waves, 317 Bias: in case studies, 43 confirmation, 244-245, 632 in memory, 221, 222
SI-1
10/27/10 9:40 AM
SI-2
Subject index
Bias (cont.) in naturalistic observation, 44 optimistic, 389 protecting against, 49-50 in social information processing, 630-633 Biederman, Irving, 144 Big Five, see Five-Factor Model (FFM) The Biggest Loser (television show), 396 Binaural neurons, 134 Binet, Alfred, 274, 275, 283 Binge drinking, 14 Bin Laden, Osama, 40, 41 Binocular cells, 146-147 Binocular cues, 146-147 Biofeedback, 16, 115, 183 Biological approach, to psychopathology, 540-541 Biological perspective, on dreaming, 319-320 Biological treatments, 597-603 ECT and psychosurgery, 602-603 medications, 597-602 Biomedical model, 386, 411 Biopsychology (behavioral neuroscience), 6-8, 27 Biopsychosocial model, 387 Bipolar cells, 118, 122 Bipolar disorder, 557, 558, 601 BIRGing, 646-647 BIS, see Behavioral inhibition system Bitterness, 136, 137 Black Death, 386 Black Intelligence Test of Cultural Homogeneity, 284 Bleaching, 119 Blindside (film), 456-457 Blindsight, 123 Blind spot, 118, 119 Blind studies, 49-50 Blink (Malcolm Gladwell), 619 Blocking, 170 Blood-brain barrier, 72 “Blue-eyed/brown-eyed study,” 4-5 BMI, see Body mass index Body dissatisfaction, 492 Body mass index (BMI), 392, 393, 397 Borderline personality disorder, 569, 570 Borg, Bjorn, 176, 177 Bottom-up processing, 155-156 Bounded rationality, 248-249 Bower, Gordon, 48 Bowlby, John, 484, 485 Bowman, Bob, 335 Boyd, Zachary, 648 Braille, 139, 153 Brain. See also Neuropsychology and aggression, 677-678 and Alzheimer’s disease, 516 and behavior, 6-7 cerebral cortex, 85-93 cognitive view of, 18 and consciousness, 301-302, 308 and daydreaming, 313, 316 and emotion, 372-374 evolution of, 101-103 and hearing, 134
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 2
hindbrain, 81-82 and hunger, 348-349 and hypnosis, 322-323 and intelligence, 282 and long-term memory, 209-210 midbrain, 82 and motion perception, 148-149 positive/negative affect, 371 and schizophrenia, 554-555 and sleep, 314 and stress, 421 studying, 76-78 subcortical forebrain, 82-85 and synesthesia, 299 and thinking, 254, 256-257 and vision, 122-125 and working memory, 204-206 Brave New World (Aldous Huxley), 103 Bravery, 562 Breland, Keller, 184 Breland, Marian, 184 Brewer, Michael, 673 Broca, Paul, 7 Broca’s aphasia, 7, 88 Broca’s area, 7, 87, 88 Brown, Derren, 683 Brown, Georgia, 279 Bruxism, sleep, 315, 316 Bubonic plague, 386 Buffering hypothesis, 430 Bulimia, 567, 568 Bullying, 655 Burn victims, 140 Bush, George H. W., 242 Bush, George W., 40, 418 Buyology (Martin Lindstrom), 78 Bystander intervention, 671-673 C Cacioppo, John, 639 Cade, J. F., 597 Caffeine, 316, 323, 326 Calkins, Mary Whiton, 11 Campos, J. J., 154-155 Cannon, Walter, 363, 416 Cannon-Bard theory, 362-363 Cantor, Nancy, 451 Capsaicin, 140 Carpentered world hypothesis, 151 Cartesian dualism, 386 Case, Robbie, 511 Case study method, 14, 42-43 Castration complex, 441 Catastrophes, 419, 420 Categorical thinking, 303 Categorical variable, 35 Categorization, 235-240 Categories, 235 Cattell, Raymond, 455 Caudate nucleus, 84 Causation, correlation and, 55 CDC, see Centers for Disease Control Cell body (of neuron), 65 Cellular theory of illness, 386 Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 392, 408 Centers for Disease Control Chronic Diseases Awareness, 388 Central executive, 203
Central nervous system (CNS), 73, 74, 79-94 cerebral cortex, 85-93 evolution of, 100-103 hindbrain, 81-82 midbrain, 82 spinal cord, 79-80 subcortical forebrain, 82-85 Central route, 639, 640 Central tendency, measures of, 45 Centration, 507 Cerebellum, 82 Cerebral cortex, 85-93 defined, 86 lateralization of, 89-93 lobes of, 6-89 primary/association areas of, 86 Cerebral hemispheres, 86 Cerebrum, 102 Cerletti, Ugo, 602 Cervical nerves, 80 Chaining, 183 Challenges, as form of stress, 417 Challenger disaster, 225 Change, as stressor, 418 Channel (of persuasion), 638-639 Charcot, Jean Martin, 437 Charitable giving, 669, 671 Chemotherapy, 166 Cheney, Dick, 40 Cheyenne Indians, 472 Childbirth, pain control in, 140 Childhood. See also Adolescence attachment patterns in, 485-486 language development during, 517-520 physical development during, 497 psychological disorders first diagnosed in, 545, 547-548 psychosocial development during, 489 and sexual orientation, 356 Children: and developmental model, 440-442 obesity in, 393 pet therapy with, 588-589 violence in, 675-676 Chinese culture, love in, 664-665 Chlamydia, 407 Chlorpromazine, 597, 598 Chocolate, 316 Chomsky, Noam, 99-100, 261 Chromosomes, 66, 96 Chronic diseases, 388 Chronic pain disorders, 75 Chunking, 205-206 Churchill, Winston, 384 Cialdini, Robert, 692 Cigarette smoking, 398-400, 402 Circadian rhythm, 313-314 Cirrhosis, 405 Clark University, 11 A Class Divided (video), 4 Classical conditioning, 164173, 326 in cognitive-behavioral therapies, 582-585
conditioned responses in, 165-168 defined, 164 extinction in, 169 factors affecting, 169-172 learning by organisms in, 172-173 and Pavlov’s model, 164-166 stimulus generalization/ discrimination in, 168-169 Clemens, Samuel, 131 Client-centered therapy, 590 Clinical psychology, 27 Clinical syndromes, 544-545 Clinton, Bill, 314, 414, 466, 512, 632, 666 Cloning, 103-104 Closure (Gestalt rule), 143 Clouser, Robert, 224 Clozapine, 598 Clozaril, 598 CNS, see Central nervous system Cobain, Kurt, 557 Coca-Cola, 326 Cocaine, 325-326, 550 Cochlea, 131, 132 Cochlear duct, 132 Cochlear implants, 132 Cocktail party phenomenon, 301 Coding manuals, 38 Cognition, 17 augmented, 115 and emotional state, 378-379 explicit, 247 implicit, 249-250 need for, 639 Cognitive and Social Anxiety Questionnaire, 364 Cognitive appraisals, 377-378 Cognitive-behavioral approach: defined, 582 to psychopathology, 539-540 Cognitive-behavioral theory, 186 Cognitive-behavioral therapies, 582-588 basic principles of, 582 classical conditioning techniques in, 582-585 effectiveness of, 606 modeling and skills training in, 586 operant conditioning techniques in, 585 Cognitive biases, 631-632 Cognitive complexity (of attitudes), 635-636 Cognitive development, 500-516 and aging, 512-516 in infancy, 500-503 information-processing approach to, 509-510 integrative theories of, 510-511 and moral development, 520-523 Piaget’s theory of, 503-509 Cognitive dissonance, 641-644 Cognitive distortions, 559, 588 Cognitive maps, 187 Cognitive perspective, 17-19, 28 on depression, 559
on dreaming, 319 on emotion, 376-379 on motivation, 336-341 Cognitive psychology, 27 Cognitive-social learning, 186 Cognitive-social theories, 186-193 of aggression, 680-681 defined, 186 of moral development, 522-523 of personality, 449-454 social learning in, 191-192 Cognitive strategies, 288, 510 Cognitive therapy, 587-588 Cognitive unconscious, 305307 Collateral branches (of neuron), 66 Collective effervescence, 328 Collectivist cultures, 466, 650 The Colony Experiment (television show), 634 Color, perception of, 126-128, 258 Color blindness, 127, 128 Color constancy, 149-150 Columbine High School shootings, 14 Commitment, principle of, 693 Common factors, 285, 606 Communication: between doctors and patients, 413 language and, 263 nonverbal, 264-265 and persuasion, 638-639 pheromonal, 342-343, 353, 354 Compassion, 456-457 Compassionate love, 661 Competences, 452 Competency, feelings of, 358 Complex cells, 124 Complexity (of sounds), 130 Compromise formations, 439 Compulsions, 564 Computerized axial tomography (CT scan), 76 Concepts, 235 Conclusions, drawing, 50-51, 58 Concrete operational stage, 505-508 Conditions, 47 Conditional tolerance, 173 Conditioned response (CR), 165-173, 187 Conditioned stimulus (CS), 165-173, 187, 210 Conditioned taste aversion, 166, 170, 171 Conditioning. See also Classical conditioning; Operant conditioning defined, 164 vicarious, 192 Conditions of worth, 467 Condoms, 344, 401, 402, 407, 408 Conduct disorder, 548 Conduction loss, 133 Cones, 118, 119, 127 Confederates, 60 Confirmation bias, 244-245, 632 Conflict(s), 438-439, 538
10/18/10 3:37 PM
Conflict model (of adolescence), 491 Conformity, 684-686 Confounding variable, 50 Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, 354 Connectionism, 253-255, 620, 621 Conscientiousness, 459 Conscious mental processes, 304-305, 438 Consciousness, 299-329 altered states of, 321-328 and attention, 301-304 defined, 300 and dreaming, 318-319 drug-induced states of, 323-327 functions of, 300-301 and mindlessness, 303-304 neuropsychology of, 307-308 and religious experiences, 327-328 during sleep, 313-318 states of, 299 and unconscious, 305-307 Consensus, 626 Consent, informed, 60 Conservation (in Piagetian theory), 507 Consistency: in attribution theory, 626 internal, 38 Constraint satisfaction, 254255 Construct validity, 38 Consumer decision making, 79 Consumer Reports study, 608 Contact comfort, 482 Contaminated experiments, 49 Contempt, love and, 668 Context: of messages, 639 and operant learning, 181-182 and perception, 157 and retrieval, 214 Contiguity, law of, 164, 172 Continuity model (of adolescence), 491 Continuous reinforcement schedule, 179 Continuous variable, 35 Control, in decision making, 422-424 Control groups, 49 Control processes, 203 Conventional morality, 521 Convergence (binocular cue), 147 Convergent validity, 38 Conversion reactions, 386 Cooperation, 625 Coping (coping mechanisms), 427-430 cultural influences on, 428-429 defined, 428 and social support, 430-431 Cornea, 117 Corneal transplants, 117 Cornell University, 11 Corpus callosum, 86, 90 Corrective mechanisms, 347 Correlate (term), 53 Correlation, positive vs. negative, 53 Correlational coefficient, 53
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 3
Subject index
Correlational research, 42, 53-55 Correlation matrix, 54 Correspondence bias, 630 Corrigan, Billy, 557 Cortex, 102, 373, 374, 677. See also Cerebral cortex Cotton, Ronald, 223 Counterfactual thinking, 251-252 Couples therapy, 592-593 Courage, 561-563 Cousy, Bob, 338 CR, see Conditioned response Cranial nerves, 80 Creativity, 280 Cree Indians, 271-272 Crises, 489 Criterion validity, 38 Critical evaluation, 58-60 Critical periods, 479-481 Criticism, love and, 667-668 Cro-Magnon, 282 Cross-cultural psychology, 8 The Crowd (Gustave Le Bon), 682 Crowe, Russell, 551 Crystallized intelligence, 273, 286, 287, 514 CS, see Conditioned stimulus Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 25 CT scan (computerized axial tomography), 76 Cues: binocular, 146-147 in communication, 263 and eating, 349 monocular, 146, 147 retrieval, 214 Cues to action, 389, 390 Culture, 7-8 and achievement motivation, 360-361 and categorization, 239-240 and cognitive dissonance, 643-644 and conformity, 685 and coping styles, 428-429 and emotional display rules, 369 and Five Factor Model, 460 and happiness, 366 and IQ, 283-284 and leadership styles, 690-691 and love, 664-665 and memory, 219 and mood disorders, 560, 561 and moral behavior, 523 and motivation, 345 and neurological differences, 93-94 and operant learning, 182 and perceptual illusions, 151-152 and personality, 472-474 and psychopathology, 533537, 572 and psychotherapy, 594-595 and schizophrenia, 555-556 and self, 650-651 and sexual behavior, 355 and sexual orientation, 355, 356 and violence, 674 Culture of honor, 674 Culture pattern approach, 473
Cumulative exams, 214-215 The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (film), 495 Cyberbullying, 655, 675 Cycle (sound waves), 129 Cyclical psychodynamics, 595 Cyrus, Billy Ray, 191 Cyrus, Miley, 190-191 D Daily hassles, 421 Damasio, Antonio, 257 Dancing Hands, 263 Dani people, 258 Dark adaptation, 119 Darwin, Charles, 10, 20, 23, 99, 102, 166, 300, 379 Davis, Benjamin, Jr., 666, 667 Davis, Jefferson, 632 Dax, Marc, 7 Daydreaming, 313, 316 dB (decibels), 130 Deafness, and early language acquisition, 519-520 Death. See also Mortality leading causes of, 387 as stressor, 419 Death anxiety, 469 DeBoer, Tracy, 503 DeCaprio, Leonardo, 564 Decay theory, 226-227 Deci, Edward, 337 Decibels (dB), 130 Decision making, 245-247 control in, 422-424 and self-regulation, 452-453 Declarative memory, 206-207 Deductive reasoning, 241-242 Default values, 220 Defense mechanisms, 443-444 Defensiveness, love and, 668 Deficiency needs, 341 Defining features, 235 Degree of relatedness, 97 Deindividuation, 682 Delta sleep, 316 Delta waves, 317 Delusions, 552 Demand characteristics, 49 Dementia, 324-325, 515 Democratic leadership style, 690 Demographic characteristics (of a sample), 44 Demyelinating diseases, 66 Dendrites, 65 Denial, 443 Dependent variables, 47 Depressants, 323-324 Depression, 534, 557-561 and insomnia, 315 and mania, 557 medications for treatment of, 600-601 and obesity, 393 and personality traits, 464 and pessimism, 189 and serotonin, 73 Depth perception, 145-147, 153-155 Descartes, René, 18, 19, 300, 386 Descriptive diagnosis, 544-547 Descriptively unconscious processes, 305 Descriptive research, 42-47 case studies, 42-43 defined, 39
naturalistic observation, 43-44 summarizing responses in, 45-46 survey research, 44-45 Descriptive statistics, 50 Desipramine, 598, 600 Desyrel, 598, 600 Detoxification, 405 Development. See also Cognitive development language, 516-520 moral, 520-528 physical, 494-500 social, 481-494 Developmental model (Freud), 439-442 Developmental psychology, 27, 478-481 defined, 478 issues in, 479-481 Developmental tasks, 488 De Waal, Frans, 43 Diagnosis, multiaxial system of, 546, 572 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), 314, 535, 545547, 570 Diallo, Amidou, 240 Diathesis-stress model, 541, 552 Diazepam, 601 Dichotic listening, 302 Dickson, Nathan, 222 Dieting, 396 Difference thresholds, 112-114 Diffusion of responsibility, 672 Digit span, 200 Direct perception, 152-155 Discounting, 626 Discourse, 262-263 Discriminant validity, 38 Discrimination, 4-5, 169, 616 Discriminative stimuli, 180-181 Disease model (of psychopathology), 546 Disgust, 368 Disney, Walt, 338 Disorganized attachment style, 485 Display rules, 369 Dispositional variables, 655 Dissection, 386 Dissociation, 568 Dissociative amnesia, 222 Dissociative disorders, 306, 545, 568-569 Dissociative identity disorder, 568 Distance perception, 145-147, 153-155 Distinctiveness, 626 Distributed rehearsal, 214 Divergent thinking, 280 Divided attention, 302 Divorce, 492 Dizygotic (DZ, fraternal) twins, 98, 291, 293, 470 DLPFC, see Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex DNA evidence, 223 Doctors, 411-413 Dogs, personality in, 461-462 Dollard, John, 679 Dolly (cloned sheep), 103
SI-3
Door-in-the-face technique, 692 L-Dopa, 64, 72 Dopamine, 71, 72, 400, 404 Dopamine hypothesis, 553-554 Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), 78, 256, 300 Double-blind studies, 49, 600 Down syndrome, 279, 516 Downward social comparison, 646 Dread, existential, 468 Dreams and dreaming, 317320 daydreaming, 313, 316 and sleep disorders, 314 Drive(s), 184, 332, 439 Drive model, 439 Drive-reduction theory, 184185, 334 Driving, texting while, 409-411 Driving Mr. Albert (Paterniti), 454 Drug-induced states of consciousness, 323-327 Drug use, self-presentation and, 402 DSM-IV, see Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition Dugard, Jaycee, 627-628, 684 Dumbledore, Albus (fictional), 280-281 Durkheim, Émile, 328 Dynamically unconscious processes, 305 Dyslexia, 100 Dysthymic disorder (dysthymia), 557 DZ twins, see Dizygotic twins E Ear, the, 131-134 Eardrum, 131 Earthworm, nervous system of, 102 East Asians, 630, 685 Eastern cultures, 239-240 Eating, 346-352 and homeostasis, 347 and hunger, 348-350 and metabolism, 346-347 and obesity, 350-352 Eating disorders, 545, 567-568 Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 200, 221 Ebola, 433 Echoic storage, 199 Echolocation, 125-126 Eclectic psychotherapy, 595597 Ecological theorists, 502 Ecstasy (drug), 327 ECT, see Electroconvulsive therapy Educational psychology, 27 Edwards, John, 40 EEG, see Electroencephalogram Efe people, 55 Effectiveness studies, 607 Efferent neurons, 65, 74 Efficacy studies, 607 Effort justification process, 642 Ego, 442-443 Egocentric (term), 505 Ego functioning, 538-539
10/18/10 3:37 PM
SI-4
Subject index
Egotism: implicit, 646 threatened, 682 Einstein, Albert, 282, 454 Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), 639-640 Elaborative rehearsal, 200 Elavil, 535, 598, 600 Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 242, 602 Electroencephalogram (EEG), 76, 316-317, 322, 326, 356, 368, 371, 500-501 Electromagnetic spectrum, 116-117 Elevation (monocular cue), 146, 147 Elliott, Jane, 4-5 Ellis, Albert, 587 Ellis, Claiborne Paul (C. P.), 622 ELM (Elaboration Likelihood Model), 639-640 Embryonic period, 494 Emmons, Robert, 593 Emotion(s), 361-380 basic, 370-371 cognitive view of, 376-379 defined, 331, 361 evolutionary views of, 379-380 expression of, 367-370 hierarchy of, 371-372 and homeostasis, 347 and moral development, 524-528 and motivation, 379 neuropsychology of, 372-374 physiological components of, 362-363 and positive/negative affect, 371 psychodynamic view of, 376 and reason, 250 regulation of, 375 and subjective experience, 363-367 Emotional arousal, memory and, 225-226 Emotional expression, 32-33, 367-370 Emotional forecasting, 417 Emotional intelligence, 454 Emotion-focused strategies, 428 Emotion regulation (affect regulation), 374, 375 Empathic distress, 525, 669 Empathic hurt feelings, 525 Empathy, 467, 525 Empirically supported therapies (ESTs), 608 Empiricism, 28 Empty-chair technique, 590 Encephalitis lethargica, 64 Encoding, 212-215 and personal relevance, 450-451 and schemas, 219 Encoding specificity principle, 213 Endocrine system, 416, 678 Endorphins, 71, 73 Enkephalins, 71 Environment: and behavior, 16 and depression, 558-559 and intelligence, 293, 295 and schizophrenia, 555, 556
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 4
Environmental psychologists, 141 Environmental spoiling, 659 Epictetus, 671 Epinephrine, 71 Episodic memory, 207 Epstein, Fred, 562-563 Epstein, Seymour, 463 Equilibration, 504 Erdos, Paul, 282 ERG theory, 341 Erikson, Erik, 444, 474, 488-493 Erogenous zones, 439 Error(s), 39 Escape learning, 175 Escher, M. C., 145 ESTs (empirically supported therapies), 608 Esteem needs, 341 Estrogen(s), 354, 679 Ethical hedonism, 669-670 Ethical issues, in psychological research, 59-61 Ethology, 21 Etiology, 538 Eustachian tube, 131 Everyday memory, 211-212, 513-514 Evolution, 99-103 of central nervous system, 100-103 of consciousness, 300-301 defined, 99 and preparedness to learn, 171-172 Evolutionary perspective, 20-25, 28 on aggression, 676-677 on altruism, 670-671 on emotion, 379-380 on love, 661-663 on motivation, 341-344 on psychopathology, 543544 Evolutionary psychologists, 22 Evolutionary theory, 10, 99 Exams, cumulative, 214-215 Excitatory neurotransmitters, 71 Excitement phase (sexual response cycle), 353 Exemplars, 236 Exercise, 390, 403 Exercise Self-Efficacy Scale, 339-340 Exhaustion stage (general adaptation syndrome), 417 Existential dread, 468 Existentialism, 467-469 Expectancies, 188-189, 336, 452 Expectancy-value theory, 336 Expectations: about alcohol, 324 and perception, 157-158 Expected utility, 246, 247 Experimental research, 42, 47-52 in behaviorism, 16, 17 defined, 47 limitations of, 51-52 logic of, 47 steps in, 48-51 Experimentation, Wundt’s view of, 9 Experimenter’s dilemma, 36 Explanatory style, 189
Explicit cognition, 247, 305, 502-503 Explicit memory, 207-208, 305, 502-503 Exposure techniques, 584-585 Expressed emotion, 555 External attribution, 626 External locus of control, 188-189 External validity, 36 Extinction: in classical conditioning, 169 in operant conditioning, 178 Extrastriate cortex, 123 Extraversion, 456, 459 Eye, the, 117-121 Eyeshine, 119 Eyewitness testimony, 222-225 Eysenck, Hans, 455-456 F Face validity, 38 Facial expressions, emotion and, 367-368, 378 Factors, 285-287 Factor analysis, 285-287 False memories, 228-229 False self, 467 Falsifiability criterion, 15 Familiar size, 146, 147 Family, and health habits, 411 Family alliances, 543 Family boundaries, 543 Family homoeostatic mechanisms, 542 Family roles, 542 Family systems model, 542-543 Family therapy(-ies), 591-592 Farnesyltransferase inhibitors (FTIs), 496 Farsightedness, 116 FAS, see Fetal alcohol syndrome Fasting phase (of metabolism), 347 Fatal Attraction (film), 569 Fat cells, 346, 347, 394, 395 Fear(s), 170, 333, 363. See also Phobias and amygdala, 84 and empathy, 527 and facial expression, 367-368 and punishment, 177 systematic desensitization for elimination of, 583-584 Feature detectors, 123, 124 Fechner, Gustav, 114 Fechner’s law, 113, 114 Feedback mechanisms, 347 Feelings. See also Emotion(s) of happiness, 366-367 hurt, 370 and reinforcement, 185-186 Feldman, David, 289 Feminine beauty, ideals of, 351 Festinger, Leon, 641 Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 405, 495 Fetal period, 494 FFM, see Five-Factor Model FFS (fight-flight system), 185-186 Fiedler, F. E., 691 50 First Dates (film), 204 Fight-flight system (FFS), 185-186
Fight-or-flight response, 416 Figure-ground perception, 143 Fijians, 140 Findlay, Tom, 628 First impressions, 614-615 FI (fixed-interval) schedules, 179-180 Fitness centers, 414 Five-Factor Model (FFM), 459460, 464-466, 470 Fixations, 440 Fixation time, 500 Fixed-interval (FI) schedules, 179-180 Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules, 179 Fixx, Jim, 384 Flashbulb memories, 225 Flooding, 584 Flow, 309-313 Fluid intelligence, 273, 286, 287, 514 Fluoxetine, 598, 600-601 Flying, fear of, 563 fMRI, see Functional magnetic resonance imaging Follini, Stefania, 315 Follow the Rabbit-Proof Fence (Doris Pilkington), 615 Food and Drug Administration, 327, 602 Foot-in-the-door technique, 693 Forebrain, 82-85, 102 Foreman, George, 512 Fore tribe (New Guinea), 369 Forgetting, 221, 226-229 Forgiveness, 627-629 Formal operational stage, 505, 508 Form perception, 142-145 Foulkes, David, 319 Fovea, 118, 120 Frankel, Victor, 593 Franklin, Peter, 270, 277, 283, 289 Fraternal twins, see Dizygotic (DZ) twins Free association, 578 Freeman, Walter, 602, 603 Free nerve endings, 140 Free-recall tasks, 201 Frequency (of sound waves), 129-130 Frequency theory, 133 Freud, Anna, 488 Freud, Sigmund, 13, 17, 102, 305, 318-320, 332, 386-387, 437-445, 448, 472-473, 489, 514, 527, 578, 579 Fromm, Erich, 345 Frontal lobes, 87-88, 205, 209, 210, 540, 541, 554, 678 FR (fixed-ratio) schedules, 179 Fruit flies, homosexuality in, 357 Frustration-aggression hypothesis, 679 FTIs (farnesyltransferase inhibitors), 496 Functional fixedness, 244 Functionalism, 9, 10 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 77, 82 Fundamental attribution error, 630
G GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), 71, 72, 324, 550 Gage, Phineas, 6, 7, 256, 257 Galen, 385-386, 470 Galton, Sir Francis, 272, 274 Galvanic skin response (GSR), 169, 363 GAM (general aggression model), 681-682 Gandhi, 341, 474, 526 Ganglion cells, 118, 122 Gardner, Howard, 270, 289 Garland, Olivia, 655 Garrido, Nancy, 628 Garrido, Phillip, 628, 629 Gastric bypass, 396, 397 Gastroplasty, 396-397 Gates, Bill, 190-191, 296 Gates, Robert, 648 Gazzaniga, Michael, 90 Gender: and bystander intervention, 673 and conformity, 685-686 and depression, 464 and emotional expression, 369-370 and emotion regulation, 375 and everyday memory, 211 and homosexuality, 356-357 and jealousy, 380 and lateralization, 92-93 and mate selection, 544 and mood disorders, 560 and moral development, 526 and pheromones, 135 and preventive health behaviors, 410-411 and self-esteem maintenance, 647 and self-presentation, 648 and sexual response cycle, 353 and violence, 675 and weight concerns, 351 Gender roles, 662 Gene(s), 96, 137 General adaptation syndrome, 416-417 General aggression model (GAM), 681-682 Generalizability, 36 Generalized anxiety disorder, 563 Generalized expectancies, 188 Generative grammar, 261 Generativity, 490-491 Generativity versus stagnation, 490 Generic memory, 207 Gene therapy, 103 Genetics, 96-99. See also Heritability and aggression, 679 behavioral, 22, 97-99 and personality, 470-471 and psychological functioning, 96-97 and psychpathology, 544 Genetic engineering, 103-104 Genie, 480, 517 Genital herpes, 407 Genital stage, 442 Genital warts, 407 Genograms, 592 Genovese, Kitty, 671, 672
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Geons, 144, 150 Germinal period, 494 Geronimus, Arlike, 620 Gerontologists, 499 Gestalt principles, 142-143 Gestalt psychology, 26 Gestalt therapy, 589-590 Gestation period (prenatal period), 494 g-factor, 285, 286 Gf-Gc theory, 286-287 Gibson, Eleanor, 154 Gibson, James, 152-153 Gifted, 279-280 Gilligan, Carol, 526 Gilligan, James, 676 Girl Interrupted (film), 367 Gladwell, Malcolm, 190-191, 280, 619 Glass, G. V., 604-605 Glial cells, 66 Glucose, 346-348 Glutamate, 71, 554 Glycogen, 346 Goals, 336 and achievement motivation, 359-360 sub-, 243 superordinate, 625 Goal-setting theories, 336-337 God: cultural conceptions of, 473-474 development of ideas about, 478, 479 Gonorrhea, 407 Goodall, Jane, 43, 44 Good continuation (Gestalt rule), 143 Gore, Al, 636 Gosling, Samuel, 461, 462 Gottman, John, 667-668 Graded exposure, 584 Graded potentials, 67-69 Graff, Steffi, 310 Graham, Samuel, 393 Grammar, 261 Grandparents, time invested in grandchildren by, 23, 24 Gratitude, 656-658 Gratitude Questionnaire-6 (GQ-6), 657-658 Gray matter, 66, 80 Greenberg, Les, 589 Greenhaven Correctional Facility, 4-5 Greenpeace, 637, 643 Group(s), 686-687 Group intelligence tests, 275 Group processes, 591, 686-691 Group therapy(-ies), 591. See also Family therapy(-ies) Growth needs, 341 GSR, see Galvanic skin response Gulf War, 565 Gusii people, 182 Gustation (taste), 136-137 Gyri, 85 H Habituation, 163, 500 Hair cells (in ear), 132, 133 Hall, Stanley, 17 Hallucinations, 552 Hallucinogens, 326 Halo effect, 615 Hammer (malleus), 131, 132
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 5
Subject index
Happiness, 94-96, 366-367 Harlow, Harry, 482-483 Harm, as stressor, 417 Harper, Bob, 396 Harry Potter series, 281 Harvard University, 11 Harvey, Thomas, 454 Hassles, daily, 421 Hayes, Steven, 539 Head, Brian, 393 Health: and alcohol abuse, 403-406 barriers to promotion of, 410-416 behaviors detrimental to, 391-410 biopsychosocial model of, 387 and emotional expression, 32-33 and obesity, 350, 392-397 protection motivation theory of, 390 and self-efficacy, 338 and self-presentation, 400-403 and sexually transmitted infections, 406-408 and smoking, 398-400 and stress, 421-427 theories of, 388-391 and views of the self, 649650 Health belief model, 388-390 Health insurance, 412 Health psychologists, 408 Health psychology, 27, 385-388 defined, 385 future of, 431-433 Healthy People 2010, 414, 415, 432 Healthy People 2020, 414 Hearing (audition), 129-134 and the ear, 131-134 and nature of sound, 129131 and neural pathways, 134 Hearing loss, 132-133 Heidegger, Martin, 526 Helmholtz, Hermann von, 133, 150 Helplessness, learned, 189 Henderson, Tony, 658 Hering, Ewald, 128 Heritability, 98, 99 of alcoholism, 404 defined, 470 of depression, 558 of homosexuality, 357 of intelligence, 290-295, 460 of obesity, 394 of psychopathologies, 538 Heritability coefficient, 98 Hermann grids, 120, 121 Hermeneutic approach, 43 Heroin, 72, 550 Heroism, 562 Herpes, genital, 407 Hertz (Hz), 129 Heterozygous (term), 96 Heuristics, 247-248, 251 HGPS (Hutchinson-Guilford progeria syndrome), 495-496 Hidden Brain Damage Scale, 447-448 Hierarchical information storage, 218-219
Hierarchy of needs, 340-341 Highway hypnosis, 303 Hindbrain, 81-82, 101 Hippocampus, 83-85, 209-212, 320, 373, 540, 573, 601 Hippocrates, 385, 386 Hispanics, IQs of, 295 Hitch, Graham, 203 Hitler, Adolf, 242, 454, 474, 617, 690 HIV, see Human immunodeficiency virus H.M., see Molaison, Henry Gustav Hobbes, Thomas, 23 Holmes-Rahe scale, 418 Holocaust and Holocaust survivors, 364, 654-655, 669 Homeostasis, 347 Homo sapiens, 28 Homosexuality, 355-357 Homozygous, 96 Hopelessness theory, 559 Hormone replacement therapy (HRT), 498 Hornbeck, Shawn, 684 Hostile aggression, 673 Houben, Rom, 300 HRT (hormone replacement therapy), 498 Hue, 126, 127 Hughes, Howard, 564 Hull, Clark, 184, 334 Human Genome Project, 97 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 344, 386, 406408, 424 Humanistic approaches (to personality), 466-470 Humanistic therapies, 589-590 Human Sexual Response (William Masters and Virginia Johnson), 352 Hume, David, 52 Humoral theory of illness, 385 Humor desensitization, 583 Hunger, 348-350 Huntington’s disease, 72, 210 Hurt feelings, 370 Hussein, Saddam, 242, 439 Hutchinson-Guilford progeria syndrome (HGPS), 495-496 Hyde, Catherine Ryan, 654 Hyper amnesia, 321 Hypercomplex cells, 124 Hypnosis, 140, 321-323 Hypnotic analgesia, 321 Hypnotic susceptibility, 321, 322 Hypomanic episodes, 557 Hypothalamus, 83, 348-349, 373, 374, 573, 677 Hypothesis(-es), 34, 48 Hz (Hertz), 129 I IAT (Implicit Associations Test), 619-620 Ice-pick lobotomy, 602, 603 Iconic storage, 199 Id, 442 Ideal self, 467, 649-650 Identical twins, see Monozygotic (MZ) twins Identification, 441 Identified patient, 542
Identity: defined, 489 negative, 490 Identity confusion, 489-490 Identity versus identity confusion, 489-490 Idiot savants, 282, 289 If I Get to Five (Fred Epstein), 563 IgA (immunoglobulin A), 425 Ill-defined problems, 243 Illness: cellular theory of, 386 humoral theory of, 385 Illusions, perceptual, 145, 151-152 Illusory contour, 143 Immune system, 424-425 Immunoglobulin A (IgA), 425 Implicit Associations Test (IAT), 619-620 Implicit attitudes, 635 Implicit cognition, 249-250, 305, 502 Implicit egotism, 646 Implicit memory, 207-209, 305, 502 Implicit motives, 340 Impression management, 400, 648 Imprinting, 484 Incentives, 334 Inclusive fitness, 22, 342-343 Incomplete dominance, 97 Incus (anvil), 131, 132 Independent variables, 47 Indians, pain and, 140 Indian culture, love in, 372, 664 Individual differences, 436 Inductive reasoning, 240-242 Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology, 27, 690 Industrial Revolution, 651 Industry versus inferiority, 489 Infancy: attachment in, 482-484 cognitive development in, 500-503 language development during, 517-520 physical development during, 496-497 psychological disorders first diagnosed in, 545, 547-548 Infants, violence in, 675-676 Infantile amnesia, 502-503 Inferences, 626 Inferential statistics, 50 Inferior colliculus, 134 Inferior temporal cortex, 124 Infidelity, 23 Influence (Robert Cialdini), 692 Information processing, 18 Information-processing approach: to cognitive development, 509-510 to intelligence, 287-288 to moral development, 523-524 Information-processing model of memory, 197-202 evolution of, 201-202 long-term memory in, 201 mental representations in, 197-198 sensory registers in, 199
SI-5
short-term memory in, 199-200 Informed consent, 60 Ingroups, 622-623 Inheritance, see Genetics; Heritability Inhibition, latent, 171 Inhibition to the unfamiliar, 463-464 Inhibitory neurotransmitters, 71 Initiation rites, 490 Initiative versus guilt, 489 Inner ear, 131-133 Innocence Project, 223 Insight, 188, 578 Insomnia, 315, 316 Instincts, 341-342 Instinct model, 439 Instinctual perspective, on violence, 675-676 Instrumental aggression, 674 Instrumental leaders, 687 Integrative psychotherapy, 595-597 Integrity versus despair, 490 Intelligence(s), 270-296 and the brain, 282 and culture, 272-273 defined, 271-272 emotional, 454 extremes of, 278-280 and heredity, 290-294, 460 information-processing approach to, 287-288 measuring, 274-278, 283-284 multiple, 289-290, 296 psychometric approach to, 285-287 science and politics of, 295 Intelligence quotient (IQ), 274-279 and environment, 293, 295 group differences in, 293294 individual differences in, 290-293 and PTSD, 565 and use of baby sign language, 264 Intelligence (IQ) tests, 183, 274-278, 292 and multiple intelligences, 289-290 validity and reliability of, 283-284 validity of, 38 Interaction accessibility, 659 Interactionist approaches, 473-474 Interest, facial expression of, 368 Interference, 227 Interitem reliability, 38 Intermittent (partial) reinforcement schedule, 179 Intermodal processing, 501 Internal attribution, 626 Internal consistency, 38 Internal decapitation, 308 Internal locus of control, 188 Internal validity, 36 Internet: addiction to, 407
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SI-6
Subject index
and interaction accessibility, 659 and self-presentational fears, 432 Interneurons, 65 Interpersonal attraction, 658-661 Interposition (monocular cue), 146, 147 Interpretation, 578-579 Interpretive approach, 43 Interrater reliability, 38 Interstimulus interval, 169-170 Interval schedules, 179 Interviews, 44 Intimacy, 358, 492, 661 Intimacy versus isolation, 490 Intonation, 263 Intrinsic motivation, 337 Introspection, 9, 16 Introversion, 456 Intuitive scientists, 626 Ion channels, 70 I/O psychology, see Industrial/ organizational psychology IQ, see Intelligence quotient IQ tests, see Intelligence (IQ) tests Iris, 117 Itard, Jean-Marie, 479 J James, William, 10, 11, 17, 216, 300, 304, 306, 327, 328, 362, 367 James-Lange theory, 362, 363 Japanese culture, 8 collectivism in, 466 emotional expression in, 369 love in, 664 Jealousy, 379-380 Jensen, Arthur, 293-294 Jesus, 526 jnd, see Just noticeable difference John Henryism, 429, 620 Johnson, Jimmy, 338 Johnson, Virginia, 352 Johnston, Andy, 310 Joiner, Thomas, 561 Jonestown tragedy, 683 Jordan, Michael, 338 Joyce, James, 451 Just noticeable difference (jnd), 112, 114 K Kamikaze pilots, 674 Kandinsky, Wassily, 299 “Kangaroo care,” 483 Kant, Immanuel, 152 Kanzi (bonobo), 266 Kapauka Papuans, 345 K-complexes, 316 Keillor, Garrison, 645 Keller, Helen, 131 Kelly, George, 450, 451 Kennedy, John F., 512, 603 Kennedy, Rosemary, 603 Kenyan children, tacit knowledge of, 272 Kibbutzim, 343, 485 Kihlstrom, John, 306, 451 Kinesthesia, 141 King, Keith, 309-310 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 341, 526 King, Rodney, 618, 683
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 6
Kinsey, Alfred, 352 Kipsigi people, 497 Klee, Paul, 299 Knowledge, tacit, 273 Knowledge base, 288, 509-510 Kohlberg, Lawrence, 520-522, 526 Komisarjevsky, Joshua, 539 Korsakoff’s syndrome, 196, 307, 325 Krause’s end-bulb, 138 Kuhn, Thomas, 12, 503 !Kung tribe, 272 L Labeling theory, 534, 535 LAD (language acquisition device), 100 Laissez-faire leadership style, 690 Lamaze method, 140 Lame Deer, John, 328 Lana (chimpanzee), 265 Landry, Tom, 338 Lange, Carl, 362 Langer, Ellen, 303-304, 422424 Language(s), 258-267 adults’ acquisition of, 481, 516-517 defined, 258 elements of, 259-260 everyday use of, 262-265 foreign, knowledge of, 272 in nonhuman primates, 265-267 and syntax, 260-262 and thought, 258-259 Language acquisition device (LAD), 100 Language development, 516-520 The Last Lecture (Randy Pausch), 657 Latency stage, 442 Latent content (of dreams), 319 Latent inhibition, 171 Latent learning, 171, 187 Lateral geniculate nucleus, 122 Lateral hypothalamus, 348 Lateral inhibition, 120 Lateralization, 89-93 Latino Americans, 272 Laureys, Steven, 300 Laws of association, 164 Law of effect, 173, 185 Law of prediction, 172 Lazarus, Richard, 417 L-cones, 127, 128 Leaders, 687, 690 Leadership, 690-691 Learned helplessness, 189-190 Learned helplessness theory, 559 Learning, 163-194 in behaviorist perspective, 15 via classical conditioning, 164-173 cognitive-social theory of, 186-193 defined, 163 implicit, 249 latent, 171, 187 observational, 191-192 via operant conditioning, 173-186 prepared, 171-172
role of sleep and dreams in, 320 social, 191-192 theories of, 163 Learning history, 170 Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale, 691 Le Bon, Gustave, 682 Lederer, Esther (Ann Landers), 280-282 Leeuwenhock, Antonie van, 386 Lens (of eye), 118 Leonardo Da Vinci, 313 Leptin, 394, 395 Levels of processing, 213-214 Lewin, Kurt, 690 Libido, 439 The Li Chi, 370 Life history methods, 445-447 Life tasks, 451 Light, 116-117 Light adaptation, 119 Lightness, 126 Liking, principle of, 693 Limbic system, 83-85, 373 Lincoln, Abraham, 632 Lindstrom, Martin, 78 Linear perspective, 146, 147 Linguists, 260 Linguistic analysis, 39-41 Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), 40, 41 Linkage studies, 97 Listening: and automatization, 302 dichotic, 302 Liszt, Franz, 299 Lithium, 597-599, 601 Lithonate, 598 Little Albert, 166-168 Liver, 405 LIWC, see Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count Lobotomy, 88, 602, 603 Localization, sound, 134 Localization of function, 7 Locke, John, 16, 19 Locus of control of reinforcement, 188 Loftus, Elizabeth, 223 Lohan, Lindsay, 549 Loneliness, 431 Longitudinal studies, 291 Long-term memory (LTM), 201, 206-220 accuracy of, 222-226 and aging, 513 declarative memory, 206-207 duration of, 221-222 and encoding, 212-215 everyday memory, 211-212 explicit/implicit memory, 207-210 mnemonic devices, 215-216 and networks of association, 216-219 neuropsychology of, 209-210 procedural memory, 207 and schemas, 219-220 and working memory, 204-206 Looking glass self, 647 Looming-object studies, 502 Loosening of associations, 552 Lopez, Shane, 26 Lorenz, Konrad, 22, 484, 676, 677
Loss, as stressor, 417, 419 Loudness, 130 Lou Gehrig’s disease, 66, 67 Lovaas, Ivar, 183 Love, 372, 661-665 as attachment, 664 cultural influences on, 664-665 evolutionary view of, 661-663 making romantic relationships work, 667-668 as motive, 343 passionate vs. compassionate, 661 Low-balling, 693 Low-effort syndrome, 428-429 LPC (Least Preferred CoWorker) Scale, 691 LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), 326 LTM, see Long-term memory The Lucifer Effect (Philip Zimbardo), 684, 688 Lumbar nerves, 80 Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 326 M MA, see Mental age McClelland, David, 333, 359, 360 McEnroe, John, 177 Maersk Alabama, 561 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 76 Magnification, 559 Maintenance rehearsal, 200 Major depressive disorder, 557 Male menopause, 499 Malleus (hammer), 131, 132 Malloy, Shannon, 308 Malpractice insurance, 413 Mania, 557 Manic, 556 Manifest content (of dreams), 319 Manu people, 239 MAO inhibitors, 598, 600 Maori, 561 Marijuana, 72, 326-327, 550 Marital conflict, 492 Marital subsystem, 543 Marital therapy, 592-593 Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, 364 Martinez, Hector, 482, 483 Marx, Karl, 622 Maslow, Abraham, 340-341 Mason, Malia, 316 Massed rehearsal, 214 Masters, William, 352 Mastery goals, 360 Masturbation, 499 Matching hypothesis, 660 Maturation, 479, 497-498 M-cones, 127, 128 MCS (minimally conscious state), 309 Mead, Margaret, 8 Mean (average), 6, 45 Meaning making, 593-594 Measure(s): adequacy of, 59 of central tendency, 45 defined, 37 multiple, 39
reliability of, 37-38 validity of, 38-39 Measurement, objective, see Objective measurement Medial geniculate nucleus, 134 Medial temporal lobes, 209 Median, 6, 45 Meditation, 321 Medulla oblongata (medulla), 81, 308 Meissner’s corpuscle, 138 Melatonin, 314, 315 Memento (film), 85 Memory(-ies), 196-230 and aging, 513-514 and alcohol use, 212 biological bases of, 73, 77, 84 and emotional arousal, 225-226 false, 228-229 and hypnosis, 322-323 in infants, 502-503 information-processing model of, 197-202 long-term, 206-220 meta-, 510 repressed, 228-229 role of sleep and dreams in, 320 short-term, 199-201 and stress, 213 testing hypotheses about, 18, 19 working, 202-206, 302, 305 Men, midlife changes in, 499 Menarche, 497 Mendel, Gregor, 99 Menopause, 498 Menstruation, 497 Mental age (MA), 274-275, 277, 278 Mental illness. See also Psychopathology (psychological disorders) and culture, 533-537 myth of, 536-537 and pet therapy, 588 stigma of, 535 Mental images, 234 Mental models, 234-235 “Mental quickness,” 288 Mental representations, 197-198 Mental retardation, 278-279 Mental stimulation, 244 Mere exposure effect, 378 Merkel’s disk, 138 Meta-analysis, 526, 604-605 Metabolism, 346-347 Metacognition, 510 Metamemory, 510 Method of loci, 215-216 Michaels, Jillian, 396 Midbrain, 82, 302, 676 Middle Ages, 386 Midlife crisis, 492 Milgram, Stanley, 56-58 Milgram obedience studies, 56-58 Military training, 115 Miller, Neal, 679 Milner, Brenda, 84 Milwaukee Project, 295 Mindlessness, 303-304 Minimally conscious state (MCS), 309 Minimization, 559 Misattribution, 221
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Mischel, Walter, 463, 536 Mnemonic devices, 215-216 Mode (modal score), 45, 46 Modeling, 192, 586 Modulatory neurotransmitters, 71 Modules, 22, 201 Molaison, Henry Gustav (H.M.), 84-85, 209 Money, John, 356 Monkeys: altruism in, 669 attachment in, 482-483 emotional processes in, 379 limbic system in, 373 Monocular cues, 146, 147 Monozygotic (MZ, identical) twins, 98, 291, 293, 470 Monroe, Marilyn, 351 Mood(s), 374, 375, 379 Mood disorders, 545, 556-561 Mood stabilizers, 598 Moon illusion, 150 Moral bravery, 562 Moral development, 520-528 cognitive theories of, 520523, 525-527 and emotion, 524-528 information-processing theories of, 523-524 Morality of constraint, 520-521 Morality of cooperation, 521 Morgagni, Giovanni Battista, 386 Morphemes, 259-260 Mortality: and alcohol use, 404 and heart disease, 414 and obesity, 350 and sleep duration, 314 and smoking, 399 and social support, 430 and stressors, 419 Motherese, 519 Motion detectors, 148 Motion parallax, 147 Motion perception, 148-149 Motivated forgetting, 228 Motivation(s), 331-361 applying perspectives on, 344 behaviorist view of, 334 and cognition, 631-632 cognitive view of, 336-341 cultural influences on, 345-346 defined, 331 and eating, 346-352 and emotion, 379 evolutionary view of, 341344 and homeostasis, 347 intrinsic, 337 and perception, 158-159 psychodynamic view of, 332-334 psychosocial, 357-361 sexual, 352-357 unconscious, 305, 333-334 Motivational biases, 631-632 Motives, 538 Motor cortex, 87, 88 Motoric representations, 198 Motor neurons, 65 Mount St. Helens, eruption of, 420 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 289, 556
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 7
Subject index
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 76 Müller-Lyer illusion, 151-152 Multiaxial system of diagnosis, 546, 572 Multiple-case-study methods, 43 Multiple intelligences, 289-290, 296 Multiple measures, 39 Multiple personality disorder, 568 Multiple sclerosis, 66 Munchausen’s syndrome, 2-3 Munchausen’s syndrome by proxy, 3 Mushrooms, hallucinogenic, 326 Myelin sheath, 66 My Lai massacre, 684 The Myth of Mental Illness (Thomas Szasz), 534 MZ twins, see Monozygotic twins N Nabokov, Valdimir, 200 Narcissism, 524, 682 Narcissistic personality disorder, 569 Narcolepsy, 316 Nardil, 598 Nash, John Forbes, Jr., 551 National Center for Health Statistics, 392 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA), 404 National Institutes of Mental Health (NIMH), 607 National pride, 623 Native Americans: achievement themes of, 360-361 peyote use by, 323 vision quests, 328 Naturalistic observation, 42-44 Natural selection, 20-25, 343 Nature-nurture controversy, 20, 152, 153, 479 Ndembu people, 594-595 Neanderthal, 282 “Near miss” phenomenon, 251-252 Nearsightedness, 116 Necker cube, 308 Needs: hierarchy of, 340-341 self-actualization, 341 Need for achievement, 358-360 Need for cognition, 639 Need to belong, 658 Neff, Kristen, 457 Negative affect, 371 Negative correlation, 53 Negative identity, 490 Negative punishment, 176 Negative reciprocity, 593, 665 Negative reinforcement, 175176, 182 Negative reinforcers, 175 Negative symptoms (schizophrenia), 552 Negative triad, 559 Nell (film), 262 Neo-Piagetian theorists, 511 Nervous system, 74. See also Central nervous system
defined, 65 evolution of, 102-103 peripheral, 73-76 sensory receptors in, 111 Netherlands, 319 Networks of association, 216219, 579, 613 Neural circuits, 540-541 Neural networks, conscious/ unconscious processes and, 306-307 Neural pathways: of consciousness, 308 and hearing, 134 and vision, 122-125 Neural systems, aggression and, 677-678 Neuroimaging techniques, 76-78, 237, 238. See also specific techniques, e.g.: Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Neuromarketing, 78-79 Neuromodulators, 71 Neuron(s), 65-73 anatomy of, 65-66 defined, 65 firing of, 67-69 in primary areas, 86 transmission of information between, 69-73 types of, 65 Neuropeptide Y, 348, 349 Neuropsychology. See also Brain of consciousness, 307-308 of emotion, 372-374 of long-term memory, 209-210 of thinking, 256-257 of working memory, 204-206 Neuroses, 537-538 Neuroticism, 456, 459 Neurotransmitter(s), 70-73, 541 defined, 70 and depression, 558 effects of, 71 and psychotropic medications, 597-598 types of, 71-73 New Look, 158-159 Newton, Sir Isaac, 126, 127 NHSDA (National Household Survey on Drug Abuse), 404 Nicotine, 326, 399, 400 Nicotine patch, 326 Night terrors, 316 Nim Chimpsky (chimpanzee), 266 NIMH (National Institutes of Mental Health), 607 Nodes (in network of association), 217, 219 Nodes of Ranvier, 66 Noise, 112, 133 Noll, Chuck, 338 Non-REM (NREM) sleep, 317-318 Nonverbal communication, 264-265 Norepinephrine, 71, 558 Norms, 391, 686 Norpramin, 598, 600 North Americans, object categorization by, 239-240 North American culture:
emotional expression in, 369 obesity in, 351 NREM (non-REM) sleep, 317-318 Nuer people, 473 Numbers, solving problems with, 245 O Obama, Barack, 618 Obedience, 56-58, 683-684 Obesity, 350-352, 392-397 consequences of, 392-394 contributors to, 394-396 defined, 392 and lithium, 599 and prejudice, 617 prevalence of, 392 treatment of, 396-397 ob gene, 395 Object identification, 144 Objective measurement, 37 with multiple measures, 39 and reliability, 37-38 and validity, 38-39 Object permanence, 504, 505 Object relations, 444-445, 539 Observation, naturalistic, 43-44 Observational learning, 191192 Obsessions, 564 Obsessive-compulsive disorder, 564, 565 Occipital cortex, 209 Occipital lobes, 86-87, 123, 205 Oedipus complex, 441, 442 Oher, Michael, 456-457, 658 Old age, psychosocial development in, 492-493 Olfaction (smell), 135-136 Olfactory bulb, 135, 136 Olfactory epithelium, 135 Olfactory nerve, 135, 136 Oliner, Samuel, 654-655, 669 Olympic Games, 251-252 Omotome, 472 One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest (film), 88, 603 O’Neill, Eugene, 468 On the Origin of Species (Charles Darwin), 99 Open field test, 482 Openness, 459 Operants, 173 Operant conditioning, 173-186 in cognitive-behavioral therapies, 585 of complex behaviors, 178-184 defined, 173 extinction in, 178 punishment in, 176-178 reinforcement in, 174-176, 184-186 Operations (in Piagetian theory), 506 Operationalizing, 48 Opponent-process theory, 128 Optic chiasm, 122 Optic disk, 118 Optic nerve, 118, 122 Optic tracts, 122 Optimism, 427 Optimists, 190 Optimistic bias, 389 Oral stage, 440 Organizational effects, 354 Organ of Corti, 132
SI-7
Orgasm phase (sexual response cycle), 353 Orienting (as function of consciousness), 302 Orienting reflex, 500 Ossicles, 131, 132 Osteoporosis, 498 Ostracism, 666-667 Ought self, 649-650 Outer ear, 131 Outgroups, 622-623 Outliers, 45, 190-191 Outliers (Malcolm Gladwell), 190-191, 280 Oval window, 131-133 Overgeneralization, 559 Overweight, 392, 415 OxyContin, 324 P Pacinian corpuscle, 138 Pagano, Father Bernard, 224 Pain: hypnosis for controlling, 321-323 phantom limb, 138-139 sensing of, 139, 140 Painful neuropathy, 108 PANDAS (pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders), 541 Panic attacks, 582 Panic disorder, 563, 566 Paradigms, 12 Paradoxical conditioning, 173 Parallax, motion, 147 Parallel distributed processing (PDP), 253-255 Paranoia, from cocaine use, 325-326 Parasympathetic nervous system, 74, 75 Parenting, and achievement motivation, 360 Parietal cortex, 209 Parietal lobes, 87, 122, 205, 302 Park, Denise, 516 Parkinson’s disease, 72 Paroxetine, 598 Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule, 179 Participants, 36, 50 Participatory modeling, 586 Passionate love, 661 Passive aggression, 444 Passive smoking, 399 Paternity, 23-24 Pausch, Randy, 657 Pavlov, Ivan, 15-17, 164-166, 172, 173, 187 Paxil, 598, 601 Pay It Forward (film), 654 PCP, 326, 554 PDP (parallel distributed processing), 253-255 Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders (PANDAS), 541 Pelzer, Dave, 480 Penaherrera, Andrea, 471 Penis envy, 441 Pennebaker, James, 32, 39-41, 364-365 Perceived seriousness/severity, 389, 390 Perceived stress, 418
10/18/10 3:37 PM
SI-8
Subject index
Perceived susceptibility, 389 Percepts, 142 Perception(s), 142-159 as active process, 110 adaptive nature of, 110 of color, 126-128 conscious attention and changes in, 308 cultural influences on, 151-152 defined, 108 depth, 145-147, 153-155 direct, 152-155 and expectations, 157-158 form, 142-145 motion, 148-149 and motivation, 158-159 of other people, 614-616 sensation vs., 108 Perceptual constancy, 149-151 Perceptual illusions, 145, 151-152 Perceptual interpretation, 152-159 and bottom-up/top-down processing, 155-156 defined, 152 and expectations, 157-158 and experience, 152-153 and motivation, 158-159 Perceptual organization, 142 Performance-approach goals, 359 Performance-avoidance goals, 359 Performance goals, 359 Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 73-76 autonomic nervous system, 74-75 defined, 73 somatic nervous system, 74 Peripheral route, 638-639 Peripheral theory of emotion, 362 Persistence (of memories), 221 Personal constructs, 450 Personal gratitude, 656 Personality, 436-475 and alcohol abuse, 404 in animals, 461-462 brain injury and change in, 6-7 cognitive-social theories of, 449-454 consistency of, 463-465 and culture, 472-474 defined, 436 and eating disorders, 568 and genetics, 470-471 humanistic theories of, 466-470 psychodynamic theories of, 437-449 and stress, 426-427 structure of, 436 trait theories of, 455-466 Personality disorders, 537-538, 545, 569-571 Personality psychology, 27 Personalization, 559 Personal value, 451 Person-by-situation interactions, 465, 681 Person-centered approach, 467 Person swaps, 683
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 8
Perspective(s), 12, 281, 303. See also specific perspectives, e.g.: Cognitive perspective Persuasion, 638-640 Pessimism, 427, 559 Pessimists, 189-190 Pessimistic explanatory style, 189-190 PET, see Positron emission tomography Peterson, Scott, 570 Petit, William, Jr., 539 Pet therapy, 588-589 Petty, Richard, 639 Peyote, 323 Phallic stage, 441 Phantom limbs, 138-139 Pharmacotherapy, benefits and drawbacks of, 603-604 Phelps, Michael, 310, 335 Phenelzine, 598 Phenomenal experience, 467 Phenylketonuria (PKU), 279 Pheromones, 135, 342-343, 353, 354 Phillips, Jeanne, 221 Phillips, Richard, 561, 562 Philosophy, 9 Phobias, 167, 170, 171, 563 Phonemes, 259, 260 Phone numbers, remembering, 215 Phonological store, 204 Phonology, 204 Phrases, 260 Physical attractiveness: and altruism, 670 and interpersonal attraction, 660 Physical bravery, 562 Physical development, 494-500 during adulthood, 498-499 during childhood and adolescence, 497-498 during infancy, 496-497 prenatal, 494-495 Physicians, 411-413 Physiological needs, 341 Piaget, Jean, 17, 18, 44, 503509, 514, 520 Picasso, Pablo, 514 Pilkington, Doris, 615 Pima Indians, 394 Pinker, Steven, 266 Pinna, 131 Pitch, 129, 133 Pitt, Brad, 495 Pittman, Roger, 564 Pituitary gland, 573 PKU (phenylketonuria), 279 Placebo effect, 49, 599 Place theory, 133 Planned behavior, theory of, 391 Plateau phase (sexual response cycle), 353 Plato, 18 Play therapy, 596 Plomin, R., 291 PMS (premenstrual syndrome), 679 PNS, see Peripheral nervous system Polysensory areas, 86-87 Pons, 308 Ponzo illusion, 152 Poole, Bobby, 223 Population(s), 36
Positive affect, 371 Positive correlation, 53 Positive psychology, 25-26 compassion and selfcompassion, 456-459 courage, 561-563 flow, 309-313 forgiveness, 627-629 gratitude, 656-658 happiness, 94-96 meaning making and purposeful living, 593-594 outliers, 190-191 resilience, 125-126 self-efficacy, 337-340 wisdom, 280-282 Positive punishment, 176 Positive reinforcement, 174-175 Positive reinforcers, 175 Positive symptoms (schizophrenia), 552 Positron emission tomography (PET), 7, 76, 77, 82, 156, 210, 234, 286, 308 Possession trance, 327-328 Postconventional morality, 522 Postdecision dissonance reduction, 642 Postdecision regret, 642 Postsynaptic neuron, 69, 70 Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 419, 564, 565, 585 Power, 343 Pragmatics, 262 Preconscious cognitive processes, 306 Preconscious mental processes, 305, 438 Preconventional morality, 521 Prefrontal cortex, 204-206, 209, 210, 256-257, 308, 421, 555 Prefrontal lobotomy, 88 Prejudice, 615-625 Premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 679 Prenatal development, 494-495 Prenatal period (gestation period), 494 Preoperational stage, 505-506 Prepared learning, 171-172 Presbycusis, 499 Pressure, sensing of, 139 Presynaptic neuron, 69, 70 Prevalence rates, 533-534 Preventive health screenings, 410-411 Primary appraisal, 417 Primary areas (of cerebral cortex), 86-88 Primary drives, 334 Primary process thinking, 442 Primary reinforcers, 185 Primary visual cortex, 123-124 Priming effects, 208-209, 307 Principle of aggregation, 463 Principle of commitment, 693 Principle of liking, 693 Principle of reciprocity, 692693 Proactive interference, 227 Probability (of an outcome), 246 Probability value (p-value), 52 Problem drinkers, 404 Problem-focused strategies, 428
Problem solving, 243-245 implicit, 249-250 and self-regulation, 452-453 Problem-solving strategies, 244 Procedural memory, 207 Processing speed, 509 Processing streams, 124 Prodigies, 290 Progeria, 495-496 Progesterone, 679 Progressive relaxation techniques, 335 Projection, 443 Projective tests, 446 Propranolol, 226 Proprioceptive senses, 141-142 Prosocial behavior, 522 Prospective memory, 212 Prospect theory, 252-253 Prosser, Inez, 11 Protection motivation theory of health, 390 Protestant work ethic, 618 Prototypes, 235-236 Proximity: Gestalt rule of, 142, 143 and interpersonal attraction, 658-659 Prozac, 598, 600-601 Psychoactive substances, 323, 324 Psychoanalysis, 13, 580 Psychodynamics, 13, 437, 595 Psychodynamic approach, to psychopathology, 537-539 Psychodynamic formulation, 538 Psychodynamic perspective, 12-14, 28 on dreaming, 318-319 on emotion, 376 on motivation, 332-334 Psychodynamic psychotherapy, 580-581 Psychodynamic theories: of depression, 559-560 of moral development, 524 of personality, 437-449 Psychodynamic therapies, 578581, 606 Psycholinguists, 260 Psychological anthropologists, 8 Psychological bravery, 562 Psychological disorders, see Psychopathology; Treatment(s) of psychological disorders Psychological research, see Research, psychological Psychology: behaviorist perspective in, 15-17 and biology, 6-7 cognitive perspective in, 17-19 cross-cultural, 8 and culture, 7-8 defined, 3 evolutionary perspective in, 20-25 major subdisciplines in, 27-28 minorities in, 11 perspectives in, 12-27 and philosophy, 9 positive, 25-26
psychodynamic perspective in, 13-15 scientific, 9-10 women in, 11 Psychometric approach, 285-287 Psychometric instruments, 274 Psychomotor slowing, 512-513 Psychoneuroimmunology, 424 Psychopathology (psychological disorders), 532-573 anxiety disorders, 563-566 associated with infancy or childhood, 547-548 biological approach to, 540-541 categorizations within, 572-573 cognitive-behavioral approach to, 539-540 and culture, 533-537 defined, 533 descriptive diagnosis of, 544-547 dissociative disorders, 568-569 eating disorders, 567-568 evolutionary perspective on, 543-544 mood disorders, 556-561 personality disorders, 569-571 psychodynamic approach to, 537-539 schizophrenia, 551-556 substance-related, 548-551 systems approach to, 542543 treatment of, see Treatment(s) of psychological disorders Psychophysics, 109 Psychoses, 537-538 Psychosexual stages, 439 Psychosocial development, 488-494 Psychosocial needs, 357-361 Psychosocial stages, 488 Psychosomatic medicine, 387 Psychosurgery, 602-603 Psychotherapy, effectiveness of, 604-608 Psychotherapy integration, 595-597 Psychotic disorders, 545 Psychoticism, 456 Psychotropic medications, 597-599 antianxiety, 601-602 antidepressant, 600-601 antipsychotic, 599-600 defined, 597 PTSD, see Post-traumatic stress disorder Puberty, 497 Public speaking phobias, 563 Punctuality, 8 Punishment, 16, 176-178 Pupil, 117, 119 Purposeful living, 593-594 Putamen, 84 p-value (probability value), 52 Q Quasi-experimental designs, 51 Questionnaires, 44
10/18/10 3:37 PM
R Rabbit-Proof Fence (film), 615 Racial differences, in intelligence, 295 Racism, 617-622 Radcliffe College, 11 Rainman (film), 282 Random samples, 44 Range, 46 Rape, 675 Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 316-319 Rational-emotive behavior therapy, 587 Rationalist philosophers, 19 Rationality, bounded, 248-249 Rationalization, 444 Ratio schedules, 179 Rayner, Rosalie, 167 Reaction formation, 443 Reasoned action, theory of, 390-391 Reasoning, 240-243 Recall, 208 Receptive fields, 119-121 Receptors, 70 Reciprocal altruism, 671 Reciprocity, principle of, 692-693 Recognition, 208 Recognition-by-components, 144 Reconciliation, in animals, 43 Reeve, Christopher, 80 Reference groups, 686 Reflex(es), 101 defined, 163 unconditioned, 164 Regression, 441 Rehearsal, 200, 214-215 Reinforcement, 16, 174-176, 184-186 defined, 174 negative, 182 positive, 174-175 schedules of, 179-180 Reinforcers, 174, 175, 185 Relatedness, 357-358 Relational theories, 445 Relationships, 658-668 and interpersonal attraction, 658-661 and love, 661-666 negative aspects of, 666-667 Relationship orientation, 690 Relative size, 146, 147 Reliability, 37-38, 283 Religious experiences, 327-328 REM (rapid eye movement) sleep, 316-319 Renaissance, 386 Repertory grid technique, 451 Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), 602 Replication, 51 Representative (term), 36 Representativeness heuristic, 248 Repressed memories, of sexual abuse, 228-229 Repression, 305, 443 Reproductive success, 22 Requiem for a Dream (film), 404 Research, psychological, 32-61 characteristics of good, 33-34
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 9
Subject index
comparison of methods, 42 correlational, 53-55 critical evaluation of, 58-60 descriptive, 42-47 ethical issues in, 60-61 experimental, 47-52 generalizability of, 36 getting ideas for, 35 objective measurement in, 37-39 standardized procedures in, 36 theoretical framework for, 34-35 Resistance, 579 Resistance stage (general adaptation syndrome), 417 Resolution phase (sexual response cycle), 353 Response contingencies, 180 Response prevention, 585 Responsibility, diffusion of, 672 Resting potential, 67 Restless leg syndrome (RLS), 316 Reticular formation, 82, 308 Retina, 118, 119, 122, 127, 128 Retinal disparity, 146, 147 Retrieval, 201, 219-220 Retrieval cues, 214 Retroactive interference, 227 Retrospective memory, 212 Rewards, interpersonal, 659 Rey, Neos Edgar, 482, 483 Risk, assessing, 252-253 Risk taking: and self-presentation, 403 and stress, 426 Ritualized altered states, 328 RLS (restless leg syndrome), 316 Robber’s Cave Study, 623-625 Rock pocket mice, 21 Rods, 118, 119 Rodin, Judith, 422-424 Rodman, Dennis, 645 Rogers, Carl, 17, 467, 472, 589 Rohypnol, 327 Roker, Al, 397 Roles, 686 Role reversal, 542 Role schemas, 687 Romantic love, 664 “Roofies,” 327 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 341, 514 Rooting reflex, 496 Rorschach, Hermann, 446 Rorschach inkblot tests, 446, 447 Rosenhan, David, 535, 536 Rosenthal, Robert, 683 Round window, 131, 132 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 467, 670 Rowling, J. K., 338 rTMS (repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation), 602 Rubens, Peter Paul, 351 S Sacral nerves, 80 SAD, see Seasonal affective disorder Sadness, 368 Safety needs, 341 Sample(s), 36, 59
Sarah (chimpanzee), 266 SARS, 431-432 Sarte, Jean-Paul, 468 SAT, see Scholastic Aptitude Test Satiety mechanisms, 349, 350 Satisfaction with Life Scale, 95-96 Satisficing, 248 Saturation (color), 126 Savants, 282, 289 Scatterplot graphs, 53 Schachter, Daniel, 220-221 Schachter, Stanley, 376, 377 Schachter-Singer theory, 377 Schedules of reinforcement, 179-180 Schemas, 157, 158, 219-220, 503, 613, 615-616 Schiavo, Teri, 309 Schizoaffective disorder, 572 Schizophrenia, 72, 88, 535, 536, 541, 544, 545, 551-556 biology of, 553-556 defined, 551 eclectic treatment of, 596 symptoms of, 552 theories of, 552-553 Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 38, 275, 612 Schultz, Charles, 338 S-cones, 127, 128 SD, see Standard deviation Seasonal affective disorder (SAD), 314, 572 Seattle Longitudinal Study, 514-515 Secondary appraisal, 417 Secondary drives, 334 Secondary process thinking, 442 Secondary reinforcers, 185 Secondhand smoke, 398, 399 Secure attachment style, 485 Selection (attention), 301 Selective inattention, 301 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 73, 598, 600-601 Self, 644-651 consciousness of, 306 and culture, 650-651 defined, 645 physical health and views of, 649-650 Self-actualization needs, 341 Self-compassion, 456-459 Self-concept, 467, 645 Self-consistency, 647 Self-determination theory, 337 Self-efficacy, 337-340, 390 Self-efficacy expectancies, 451, 452, 586 Self-esteem, 358, 395-396, 645-647 Self-fulfilling prophecies, 188, 683 Self-handicapping, 404, 646 Self-help groups, 591 Self-monitoring, 648 Self-perception theory, 642643 Self-presentation, 400-403, 432, 647-648 Self-presentational predicaments, 648 Self-preservation, 332 Self-regulation, 452-453
Self-schemas, 649 Self-serving bias, 630-631 Seligman, Martin, 25, 189, 608 Selye, Hans, 416 Semantics, 261 Semantic memory, 207 Semicircular canals, 131 Senility, aging and, 515-516 Sensation, 108-142 and absolute thresholds, 111-112 as active process, 109 adaptive nature of, 110 defined, 108 and difference thresholds, 112-114 hearing (audition), 129-134 in infants, 501 perception vs., 108 proprioceptive senses, 141-142 skin senses, 137-141 smell (olfaction), 135-136 taste (gustation), 136-137 and transduction, 111 vision, 116-128 Sensitive periods, 480 Sensorimotor stage, 504 Sensorineural loss, 133 Sensory adaptation, 114-115 Sensory enrichment/ deprivation, 94 Sensory modalities, 109 Sensory neurons, 65 Sensory receptors, 111 Sensory registers, 199 Sensory representations, 198 Sentences, 260 Separation anxiety, 484 September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 40, 433, 584-585, 623, 627, 670 Serial position effect, 201 Serial processing model, 201 Seriousness, perceived, 389, 390 Serotonin, 71, 73, 558, 678 Sertraline, 598 SES (socioeconomic status), 415, 416 Set point(s), 347, 394 Sex, as basic drive, 332 Sex differences, see Gender Sexism, 617, 620 Sexual abuse, repressed memories of, 228-229 Sexual activity, and aging, 499 Sexual aggression and violence, 675 Sexual and gender identity disorders, 545 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 401, 406-408 Sexual motivation, 344, 352357 biology of, 354-355 cultural influences on, 355 Sexual orientation, 355-357 Sexual response cycle, 352-355 Sexual strategies, 662-663 S-factors, 285-286 Shading (monocular cue), 146, 147 Shadowing, 302 Shakespeare, William, 493, 680 Shame, 368, 676 Shape constancy, 150 Shaping, 182-183
SI-9
Sheba (chimpanzee), 188 Shepherd, Roger, 145 Sherif, Muzafer, 623-625 Short-term memory (STM), 199-201. See also Working memory Shriver, Eunice Kennedy, 603 Sickle-cell anemia, 544 SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome), 497 Sign language, 263-264, 517, 519-520 Similarity: Gestalt rule of, 143 and interpersonal attraction, 659-660 law of, 164 Simon, Theodore, 274 Simple cells, 123-124 Simplicity (Gestalt rule), 142, 143 Simulation heuristic, 251 Singer, Jerome, 376, 377 Single-blind studies, 49 Single-cell recording, 120 Situational variables, 463, 655 Size constancy, 150 Skills training, 586 Skin cancer, suntanning and, 402 Skinner. B. F., 15-17, 102, 173-175, 445, 449, 514 Skin senses, 137-141 Sleep, 313-318. See also Dreams and dreaming nature and evolution of, 313-316 stages of, 316-318 Sleep apnea, 315, 316 Sleep bruxism, 315, 316 Sleep deprivation, 314, 315 Sleep disorders, 315 Sleeping pills, 315 Smell (olfaction), 135-136 Smiles, 369 Smith, Adam, 670, 671 Smith, David, 528 Smith, M. L., 604-605 Smith, Michael, 628 Smith, Stan, 338 Smith, Susan, 528, 629 Smith, Tyler, 628 Smoking, 398-400, 402 Snyder, Charles Richard (C. R.), 25-26 Snyder, Mark, 683 Social cognition, 616-636 applications of, 633 and attribution, 625-627 bias in, 630-633 defined, 613 and perception of others, 614-616 and stereotypes/prejudice, 616-625 Social comparison, 646 Social development, 481-494 and attachment, 481-488 defined, 481 Erikson’s theory of, 488-494 Social exchange theories, 659 Social facilitation, 689 Social identity theory, 623 Social influence, 682-693 and conformity, 684-686 in everyday life, 692-693 group processes affecting, 686-691
10/18/10 3:37 PM
SI-10
Subject index
and obedience, 683-684 Social learning, 191-192 Social loafing, 689 Social phobia, 563, 585 Social psychologists, 464 Social psychology, 613 Social skills training, 586 Social support, 430-431 Society of Personality Assessment, 447 Sociobiology, 22 Socioeconomic status (SES), 415, 416 Socio-emotional leaders, 687 Somatic nervous system, 74, 75 Somatoform disorders, 545 Somatosensory cortex, 87, 88 Somnambulism, 315, 316 Sound(s), 129-130, 259-260 Sound localization, 134 Sound waves, 129 Spaced rehearsal, 214-215 Spacing effect, 214 Speaker, Andrew, 432 Spearman, Charles, 285-286 Species, operant conditioning and, 184 Specific factors, 285-286 Sperry, Roger, 90 Spinal cord, 79-80, 101, 102 Spinal nerves, 80 Spinal tracts, 80 Split brain, 90-92, 307 Splitting, 569 Spontaneous recovery, 169 Spontaneous remission, 405 Sports psychologists, 336 Sports psychology, 335-336 Spouse battering/homicide, 23 Spreading activation theory, 218 SQ3R method, 216 S-R association, 172 S-S association, 172 SSRIs, see Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Stages, 481 Stagnation, 490 Standard deviation (SD), 6, 46 Standardized procedures, 36, 49-50 Stanford-Binet scale, 275, 278, 292 Stapes (stirrup), 131, 132 State-dependent memory, 214 States of consciousness: altered, 321-328 defined, 299 drug-induced, 323-327 and religious experiences, 327-328 Statistics, descriptive vs. inferential, 50 Statistical significance, 53 Steele, Claude, 612-613 Stereotypes, 220, 616-625, 649-650 Sternberg, Robert, 273 Stevens’s power law, 113, 114 STIs, see Sexually transmitted infections Stigma, of obesity, 393 Stigma by association, 617 Stimulants, 325-326 Stimulus: defined, 163 discriminative, 180-181 Stimulus discrimination, 169
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 10
Stimulus generalization, 168 Stimulus-response (S-R) association, 172 Stimulus-stimulus (S-S) association, 172 Stirrup (stapes), 131, 132 STM (short-term memory), 199-201. See also Working memory Stockholm syndrome, 684 Stohr, Oskar, 436 Stonewalling, love and, 668 Stratified random samples, 45 Straw, Iana, 407 Straw, Michael, 407 Strep throat, 541 Stress, 416-427. See also Coping (coping mechanisms) acculturative, 420 African Americans and, 415-416 defined, 416 and depression, 558 and health, 421-427 and memory, 213 as psychobiological process, 416-417 sources of, 418-421 as transactional process, 417 Striate cortex, 123 Stroop color-naming test, 300 Structuralism, 9 Structural model, 442-443 Structure of personality, 436 Structure of thought, 504 Styron, William, 557 Subcortical forebrain, 82-85 Subcortical neural pathways, 167 Subgoals, 243 Subjective experience, 363-367 Subjective norms, 391 Subjective well-being (SWB), 94-95 Sublimation, 443-444 Subordinate level (of categorization), 237, 238 Substance P, 140 Substance-related disorders, 545, 548-551 Subtractive color mixture, 127 Sucking reflex, 496 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 497 Suggestibility, 221 Suicide: and depression/anxiety disorders, 561 and obesity, 393 Suicide bombers, 674 Sulci, 85, 86 Sullenberger, Chelsey B., III, 562 Sullivan, Anne Mansfield, 131 Summer, Francis Cecil, 11 Suntanning, skin cancer and, 402 Superego, 442 Superior colliculus, 123, 134 Superordinate goals, 625 Superordinate level (of categorization), 237, 238 Superstitious behavior, 175 Surprise, 368 Survey research, 42, 44-45 Susceptibility, perceived, 389
Susceptible gene hypothesis, 394 Swaggart, Jimmy, 443 SWB (subjective well-being), 94-95 Switzerland, 319 Syllogisms, 241 Sympathetic nervous system, 74-75, 416 Symptom bearer, 542 Synapse(s), 66, 67 Synapse-Actively Engaging the Aging Mind, 516 Synesthesia, 299 Syntax, 260-262 Syphilis, 407 System(s), 542 Systems approach, 542-543 Systematic desensitization, 583-584 Szasz, Thomas, 534 T Tabula rasa, 16 Tacit knowledge, 273 Tahitian language, 371 Tardive dyskinesia, 599-600 Task leaders, 687 Task orientation, 690 Taste (gustation), 136-137 Taste aversion, conditioned, 166, 170, 171 Taste buds, 136-137 TAT, see Thematic Apperception Test Technology: and concept of self, 651 and health psychology, 432 Tectorial membrane, 133 Tectum, 82 Tegmentum, 82 Telegraphic speech, 518 Television, violence on, 681 Temperament, 463 Temperature, sensing of, 139 Temporal cortex, 209, 555 Temporal lobes, 88-89, 122, 124, 205, 541 Teratogens, 495 Teresa, Mother, 645 Terman, Lewis, 275, 279, 280 Terminal buttons, 7, 66, 70 Testosterone, 354-355, 499, 678 Test-retest reliability, 38 Texas Adoption Project, 292293 Texting, while driving, 409-411 Texture gradient (monocular cue), 146, 147 Thalamus, 83, 87, 122, 134, 135, 302, 308, 314, 373, 678 Thanatos, 675 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 333, 446, 676-677 Theory(-ies), 34 Theory of multiple intelligences, 289-290 Theory of planned behavior, 391 Theory of reasoned action, 390-391 Therapeutic alliance, 578 Therapies, see Treatment(s) of psychological disorders Therapy Dogs, Inc., 589 Theta waves, 317 Thinking, 234-257
and concepts/categories, 235-239 cultural influences on, 239-240 and decision making, 245-247 defined, 234 divergent, 280 implicit, 247-255 and language, 258-259 and mental representations, 234-235 neuropsychology of, 256-257 and problem solving, 243245 and reasoning, 240-243 Thomas, Brian, 318 Thompson, Jennifer, 222-223 Thoracic nerves, 80 Thorazine, 535, 597, 598 Thorndike, Edward, 18, 173, 185 Threats, as form of stress, 417 Threatened egotism, 682 3-D Magic Eye, 147 Three-Mile Island nuclear plant, 421 Three-mountain task, 505 Thurstone, L. L., 286 Timbre, 130 Tiny Talkers, 263 Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, 208 Titchener, Edward, 9, 10, 16 Tobacco, 392 Tolman, Edward, 187 “Tongue map,” 137 Top-down processing, 155-156 Topographic model, 438 Torture, psychological effects of, 420, 421 Tower of London problem, 256, 257 Traits, 455-456 adaptive, 20, 21 defined, 455 Trait theories of personality, 455-466 Trance, possession, 327-328 Tranquilizers, 324 Transactional model (of stress), 417 Transduction, 111, 135, 136 Transference, 579-580 Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations Scale, 629 Transience (of memory), 221 Transitivity, 507 Transpersonal gratitude, 656 Trazodone, 598, 600 Treatment(s) of psychological disorders, 576-610 biological treatments, 597-603 cognitive-behavioral therapies, 582-588 culture and, 594-595 evaluation of, 603-609 group and family therapies, 591-593 humanistic therapies, 589-590 integrative approaches, 595-597 psychodynamic therapies, 578-581 summary of (table), 577
Trephination, 385, 602 Triangular theory of love, 661, 662 Trichromatic (YoungHelmholtz) theory of color, 127, 128 Tricyclic antidepressants, 598, 600 Triggers, for aggression, 676-677 “Triple bookkeeping,” 3 True self, 467 Truk Islanders, 271 Tuohy family, 456-457, 658 Turning points, 594 Tutelage, 192 Twenge, Jean, 534 Twins, 97-99 dizygotic vs. monozygotic, 98, 291, 293, 470 virtual, 293 Twin studies: of alcoholism, 404 of anxiety disorders, 565 of IQ, 291, 293 of personality, 470-471 Two-chair technique, 590 Two-factor theory of intelligence, 285 Tympanic canal, 132 Tympanic membrane, 131 Type A behavior pattern, 426-427 Type B behavior pattern, 426, 427 U UCR, see Unconditioned response UCS, see Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned positive regard, 590 Unconditioned reflex, 164 Unconditioned response (UCR), 164, 166, 168, 172-173 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS), 164-166, 168-173, 187, 210 Unconscious cognitive processes, 306 Unconscious inference, 150 Unconscious mental processes, 305, 438 Unconscious motivation, 305, 333-334 Underwood, Benjamin, 125126, 338 Unemployment, as stressor, 419, 420 Unipolar depression, 557, 601 United States, 319 alcohol abuse in, 324, 405, 549 cigarette smoking in, 398 ethnic pride in, 626 health insurance in, 412 obesity in, 350 view of wealth in, 345 University of Cincinnati, 11 University of Kansas, 25 University of Michigan, 674 Utility (of an outcome), 246247 Utku, 239
10/18/10 3:37 PM
V Validity: external, 36 internal, 36 of IQ tests, 284 Valium, 324, 598, 601 Value, personal, 451 Van Buren, Abigail, 221 Vanderbilt, 25 Variability of scores, 46 Variable(s), 34-35 categorical, 35 confounding, 50 continuous, 35 dependent, 47 independent, 47 situational, 463 Variable-interval (VI) schedules, 180 Variable-ratio (VR) schedules, 179 The Varieties of Religious Experience (William James), 327 Vegetative states (VS), 300, 309 Ventricles, 554, 555 Ventromedial hypothalamus, 348.349 Ventromedial prefrontal cortex, 256, 257 Verbal representations, 198 Verbal store, 203-204 Vertebrates, evolution of, 101-102 Vesalius, Andreas, 386 Vestibular canal, 132 Vestibular sacs, 131 Vestibular sense, 141 Vicarious conditioning, 192 Video games, 115
Kowalski_S_Index-hr.indd 11
Subject index
Vietnam War, 523, 526, 565, 684 Vincent, Colleen, 356 Violence: and culture, 674 and gender, 675 origins of, 675-677 Virginia Tech Transportation Institute, 409 Virtual reality exposure therapy, 584, 585 Virtual reality therapy, 432 Virtual twins, 293 VI (variable-interval) schedules, 180 Vision, 116-128 and the eye, 117-121 and nature of light, 116-117 and neural pathways, 122-125 and perception of color, 126-128 restoration of, 153 Vision quests, 328 Visual association cortex, 86 Visual cliff, 154 Visual cortex, 123-125 Visual store, 203-204 Visuospatial sketchpad, 204 Voluntary nervous system, 74 VR (variable-ratio) schedules, 179 VS, see Vegetative states W Wachtel, Paul, 595, 596 WAIS-III, see Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Third Edition
Waking dreams, 315 Walk, Richard, 154 Walsh, Bill, 338 War veterans, 564, 565, 585 Washburn, Margaret Floy, 11 Watson, John, 14-17, 167 Wavelength, 116 Weak correlation, 54 Wealth, accumulation of, 345 Weber, Ernst, 112 Weber, Max, 618 Weber fraction, 112, 113 Weber’s law, 112, 113 Wechsler, David, 275 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Third Edition (WAIS-III), 275-278, 283 Wechsler-Bellevue tests, 274 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV), 275, 278 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Third Edition (WPPSI-III), 276, 278 Weight, 351 Weighted utility value, 246 Well-being, gratitude and, 656 Well-defined concepts, 235 Well-defined problems, 243 Wells College, 11 Wernicke, Carl, 7 Wernicke’s aphasia, 7, 89 Wernicke’s area, 7, 87, 89, 90 “Westernization,” health and, 431 “What” pathway, 124, 201 “Where” pathway, 124-125, 201 White, Robert, 340 White matter, 66
WHO, see World Health Organization Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 258, 259 Whorfian hypothesis of linguistic relativity, 258259 Wild Boy of Aveyron, 479-480 Williams, Robert L., 283-284 Williams, Robin, 338 Wilson, E. O., 22 Wiltshire, Stephen, 290 Winfrey, Oprah, 645 WISC-IV, see Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition Wisdom, 280-282 Wishes, 332-333 Within-subjects experimental design, 77 Women: conformity by, 686 midlife changes in, 498 obesity in, 395 and violence, 675 Women psychologists, outstanding, 11 Woods, Tiger, 646 Woorons-Johnston, Sophie, 309-313 Word choice, memory and, 224-225 Working memory, 202-206 and aging, 513 and consciousness, 302, 305 in infants, 503 information processing in, 203 and long-term memory, 204-206
SI-11
visual and verbal storage in, 203-204 World Health Organization (WHO), 386, 392, 432 Worth, conditions of, 467 WPPSI-III, see Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Third Edition Wundt, Wilhelm, 9, 18 X Xanax, 324, 598, 601 Xhosa tribe, 491 Y Yates, Andrea, 532-533 Yerkes-Dodson law, 213 Yerkish, 265 Young-Helmholtz (trichromatic) theory of color, 127, 128 Yufe, Jack, 436 Z Zajonc, Robert, 378 Zawahiri, Ayman al-, 40, 41 Zimbardo, Philip, 684, 687-688 Zoloft, 598, 601 The zone, 309-313
10/18/10 3:37 PM
1859
1879
1882
1890
CHARLES DARWIN
Wilhelm Wundt
G. STANLEY HALL
WILLIAM JAMES
Publishes On the Origin of Species, in which he outlines his highly influential theory of evolution through natural selection.
Creates the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany, publishes the first psychology text, Principles of Physiological Psychology, and is considered the founder of experimental psychology.
Receives first American Ph.D. in psychology, establishes what some consider the first American Psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University, and later founds the American Psychological Association in 1892.
Writes The Principles of Psychology,in which he promotes his psychological ideas that are later grouped together under the term functionalism.
1900
1905
1906
1913
SIGMUND FREUD
ALFRED BINET
IVAN PAVLOV
JOHN WATSON
Publishes Interpretation of Dreams and presents his ideas on psychoanalysis, which later become a very influential form of psychotherapy and theory of personality.
Develops the first intelligence test in France. Lewis Terman later published the StanfordBinet Intelligence Scale, which becomes the world’s foremost intelligence test.
Publishes his learning research on the salivation response in dogs, which later became known as classical conditioning.
Publishes his article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It,”in which he describes the science of behaviorism.
1937
1938
1939
1942
GORDON ALLPORT
B. F. SKINNER
DAVID WECHSLER
CARL ROGERS
Publishes Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, and is considered the father of modern personality theory.
Publishes Behavior of Organisms, helps found behaviorism, and later becomes one of the most prominent psychologists of the 20th century.
Publishes the WechslerBellevue Intelligence Test.
Publishes Counseling and Psychotherapy, and later becomes an important figure in modern clinical and humanistic psychology.
1961
1963
1963
1964
JOHN BERRY
ALBERT BANDURA
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
ROGER SPERRY
Presents his ideas on the importance of cross-cultural research in psychology.
Along with Richard Walters,writes Social Learning and Personality Development, in which he describes the effects of observational learning on personality development.
Demonstrates the sequence of moral development.
Publishes his splitbrain research. Later receives the Nobel Prize for his work.
1980
1988
1991
1992
DAVID HUBEL & TORSTEN WIESEL
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAl SOCIETY FOUNDED
MARTIN SELIGMAN
ELEANOR GIBSON
Win the Nobel Prize for their work identifying cortical cells that respond to specific events in the visual field.
Becomes the Association of Psychological Science in 2006.
Publishes Learned Optimism, began work in positive psychology movement.
Awarded the National Medal of Science for her lifetime of research on topics such as depth perception and basic processes involved with reading.
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1891
1892
1894
1898
MARY WHITON CALKINS
EDWARD TITCHENER
MARGARET FLOY WASHBURN
EDWARD THORNDIKE
Establishes a psychology laboratory at Wellesley and later becomes the first woman president of the American Psychological Association in 1905.
Earns his doctorate and moves to the United States where he continues his work with structuralist techniques of introspective analysis at Cornell.
First woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology and later writes several important textbooks on comparative psychology.
One of the pioneers in animal learning who develops the“Law of Effect”as a result of research on trial and errorlearning with animals using his puzzle box.
1914
1916
1929
1932
CARL JUNG
LETA STETTER-HOLLINGSWORTH
EDWIN G. BORING
JEAN PIAGET
Splits with Freud and forms an offshoot of psychoanalysis called analytical psychology.
Receives her Ph.D.and goes on to publish the first works on the psychology of women.
Publishes influential A History of Experimental Psychology.
Publishes The Moral Judgment of the Child and later becomes a very important figure in child development and cognitive psychology.
1946
1950
1954
1957
SOLOMON ASCH
ERIK ERIKSON
ABRAHAM MASLOW
LEON FESTINGER
Demonstrates crucial factors in impression formation and later studies the effects of group pressure on independence and conformity.
Publishes Childhood and Society which revises Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and extends it across the lifespan.
Helps found the school of humanistic psychology and later develops an influential theory of motivation.
Develops what many consider the most important and comprehensive theory in social psychology—the theory of cognitive dissonance.
1965
1966
1967
1970
STANLEY MILGRAM
ANIMAL WELFARE ACT
ULRIC NEISSER
MARY AINSWORTH
Conducts highly controversial study of obedience and disobedience to authority, which many consider the most famous single study in psychology.
First federal legislation designed to protect animal subjects.
Publishes Cognitive Psychology.
Demonstrates the importance of attachment in the social development of children.
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